Stadia: The Populous Design and Development Guide 0415522714, 9780415522717

Citation preview

STADIA

In this fully updated and redesigned edition of the essential and long-established Stadia, the authors offer their unrivalled expertise to all professionals who commission, plan, design, and manage high-quality sports venues. Ideas about the design and use of stadiums continue to evolve and this fifth edition includes the latest developments in the field. With updated chapters on sustainability, masterplanning and services, a new chapter on branding activation, and new global case studies, Stadia 5th edition is the ultimate guide to all aspects of stadium design, from local club buildings to international showpieces. In addition to a wide array of international case studies, the authors draw on the experience of the design firm Populous who in recent years delivered the 2010 Yankees Stadium in New York, the 2010 Aviva stadium, Dublin, the 2004 Benfica stadium, Lisbon, the 2010 Soccer City FNB Stadium, Johannesburg, the 2012 Marlins Park, Miami, and the 2012 new Olympic Stadium, London.

GerAInT John

RIBA Dip Arch (UCL) CISRM MILAM FRSA Honorary Life President of the UIA (International Union of Architects) Sports and Leisure Programme Former Chief Architect at GB Sports Council

roD SheArD

Dip Arch (QUT) RIBA ARAIA FRSA Stadium designer and Senior Principal of Populous Author of The Stadium: Architecture for the New Global Culture

Ben VICKerY

RIBA BA Dip Arch FRSA Senior Principal of Populous and co-author of the SGSA guide on concourses

The authors: Ben Vickery, Geraint John and Rod Sheard

STADIA: THE POPULOUS DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT GUIDE FiFth edition Geraint John, Rod Sheard and Ben Vickery

Fifth edition published 2013 By Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2013 Geraint John, Rod Sheard and Ben Vickery The right of Geraint John, Rod Sheard and Ben Vickery to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. First edition published by Elsevier Limited 1994 Second edition published by Elsevier Limited 1997 Third edition published by Elsevier Limited 2000 Fourth edition published by Elsevier Limited 2007 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data John, Geraint. Stadia : the design and development guide / Geraint John, Rod Sheard and Ben Vickery. -- Fifth edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Stadiums--Design and construction. 2. Stadiums--Management. I. Sheard, Rod. II. Vickery, Ben. III. Title. GV413.J64 2013 796.06’8--dc23 2012034158 ISBN: 978-0-415-52271-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-52270-0 (pbk) Typeset in Gotham by Commercial Campaigns commercialcampaigns.co.uk Cover and page design by Deep www.deep.co.uk Publication project management by Alma Media International www.almamedia.co.uk Publisher’s note This book has been prepared from camera-ready copy provided by the authors.

CONTENTS Foreword by Jacques Rogge, President of the IOC

ix

6.6

Activity area 7.1 Playing surfaces 7.2 Pitch dimensions, layout and boundaries

8.

Sports and multi-purpose use 8.1 Introduction 8.2 National sports traditions 8.3 Financial viability 8.4 Catering for different sports 8.5 Catering for non-sports performances

99 99 100 100 103 106

21 21 23 24 24

9.

Crowd control 9.1 General 9.2 Perimeter fences 9.3 Moats 9.4 Changes of level

109 109 110 112 114

27

10.

Providing for disabled people 10.1 Equal treatment 10.2 Sources of information 10.3 Design process

119 119 120 121

x

Picture credits

xi

1.

the stadium as a building type 1.1 A venue for watching sport 1.2 History 1.3 Current requirements

01 01 02 15

2.

the future 2.1 The importance of the stadium as a building type 2.2 Economics of stadia 2.3 Stadium technology 2.4 Ergonomics and the environment 2.5 What is the future for the stadium?

21

Masterplanning 3.1 The need for a masterplan at all sports grounds 3.2 Orientation of play 3.3 Zoning of the venue 3.4 Event overlay – what needs to be added to hold the event 3.5 Security against terrorism 3.6 Stadia in the city

74

7.

Preface and acknowledgements

3.

Conclusion

27 29 30 32 34 34

4.

external planning 4.1 Location 4.2 Transportation 4.3 Provision of parking 4.4 Stadium landscaping

37 37 39 40 45

5.

Form and structure 5.1 The stadium as architecture 5.2 Structure and form 5.3 Materials 5.4 The playing surface 5.5 Foundations 5.6 Seating tiers 5.7 Concourses, stairs and ramps 5.8 Roof

49 49 50 53 55 56 56 57 58

6.

Security and anti-terrorism measures 6.1 Introduction 6.2 The threats from terrorism 6.3 Authorities 6.4 Implications for management and operation 6.5 Responses by the design team

71 71 71 72 72 72

77 77 83

v

STADIA

contents

11.

Spectator viewing 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Ground capacity 11.3 Viewing distances 11.4 Viewing angles and sightlines 11.5 Obstructions to viewing

12.

Spectator seating 12.1 Basic decisions 12.2 Seat types 12.3 Seat materials, finishes and colours 12.4 Choice 12.5 Dimensions 12.6 Seat fixings 12.7 Seating for spectators with disabilities

145 145 146 151 152 152 154 155

Private viewing facilities 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Trends 13.3 Design 13.4 Multi-use

157 157 159 160 164

Circulation 14.1 Basic principles 14.2 Stadium layout 14.3 Access between Zone 5 and Zone 4 14.4 Access between Zone 4 and Zone 3 14.5 Overall design for inward movement 14.6 Overall design for outward movement 14.7 Elements 14.8 Facilities for people with disabilities

167 167 168 168 170 171 175 176 180

Food and beverage catering 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Automatic vending machines 15.3 Concessions 15.4 Bars 15.5 Self-service cafeterias, food courts and restaurants 15.6 Luxury restaurants toilet provision 16.1 Toilet provision generally 16.2 Toilets for spectators 16.3 Scales of provision for spectator toilets 16.4 Location of spectator toilets 16.5 Detailed design

183 183 186 188 189 190 192 195 195 196 196 200 200

Retail sales and exhibitions 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Advance ticket sales 17.3 Programme sales 17.4 Gift and souvenir shops 17.5 Museums, visitor centres and stadium tours

203 203 203 204 204 205

13.

vi

14.

15.

16.

17.

127 127 127 132 137 143

18.

the media 18.1 Basic planning 18.2 Outside facilities 18.3 Press facilities 18.4 Radio broadcast facilities 18.5 Television broadcast facilities 18.6 Reception, conference and interview rooms 18.7 Provision for disabled people

207 207 209 209 210 210 211 213

19.

Administrative operations 19.1 Basic planning 19.2 Facilities for permanent management 19.3 Facilities for temporary events management 19.4 Facilities for visitors 19.5 Provision for stewards 19.6 Facilities for police and security officials 19.7 Toilets 19.8 First-aid facilities for staff and spectators 19.9 Provision for disabled people

215 215 216 218 218 218 219 221 221 222

20.

Facilities for players and officials 20.1 Basic planning 20.2 Players’ facilities 20.3 Team management facilities 20.4 Officials’ facilities 20.5 Medical examination facilities 20.6 Ancillary facilities 20.7 Provision for disabled people Services 21.1 Lighting systems 21.2 Closed-circuit television systems 21.3 Sound systems 21.4 Heating and cooling systems 21.5 Fire detection and fighting systems 21.6 Power supply and event continuation 21.7 Water supply and drainage services 21.8 Information technology

225 225 226 229 229 230 230 231 233 233 240 242 246 246 247 248 249

22.

Maintenance 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Pitch maintenance 22.3 Stand maintenance

255 255 255 257

23.

operation and funding 23.1 Stadium finances 23.2 Capital costs 23.3 Operating costs 23.4 Income generation 23.5 Controlling costs and revenues 23.6 Conclusion

261 261 261 268 269 271 272

24.

Sustainable design 24.1 What is sustainable design? 24.2 Re-use 24.3 Reduce 24.4 Recycle

275 275 277 278 282

21.

contents

25.

24.5 Planting and green roofs 24.6 Certification 24.7 Future technologies

283 283 283

Brand activation 25.1 Maximising revenue 25.2 Time, not space 25.3 Brand activation through integration: The fan experience 25.4 Marrying team brand with commercial identities 25.5 The process

287 287 287

STADIA

288 288 288

Appendix 1: Stadia briefing guide

291

Appendix 2: video screens and electronic scoreboards

297

Appendix 3: Case studies 01. Allianz Arena, Munich, Germany 02. Amsterdam Arena, Amsterdam, Netherlands 03. ANZ Stadium, Sydney, Australia 04. Arizona Cardinals Stadium, Phoenix, USA 05. Ascot Racecourse, Ascot, UK 06. Astana Stadium, Astana, Kazakhstan 07. AT&T Park, San Francisco, USA 08. Aviva Stadium, Dublin, Ireland 09. Braga Municipal Stadium, Braga, Portugal 10. Cowboys Stadium, Dallas, USA 11. Donbass Arena, Donetsk, Ukraine 12. Emirates Stadium, London, UK 13. Forsyth-Barr Stadium, Dunedin, New Zealand 14. Greenpoint Stadium, Cape Town, South Africa 15. Heinz Field, Pittsburgh, USA 16. Marlins Park, Miami, USA 17. Melbourne Cricket Ground, Melbourne, Australia 18. Telstra Dome, Melbourne, Australia 19. Nanjing Sports Park, Nanjing, China 20. Oita Stadium, Oita, Japan 21. Olympic Stadium, London, UK 22. The Oval, London, UK 23. Reliant Stadium, Houston, USA 24. Salzburg Stadium, Salzburg, Austria 25. Soccer City, Johannesburg, South Africa 26. Soldier Field, Chicago, USA 27. Stade De France, Paris, France 28. Stattegg Sports And Leisure Facility, Graz, Austria 29. Wembley Stadium, London, UK 30. Westpac Stadium, Wellington, New Zealand 31. Wimbledon AELTC: Centre Court, London, UK

301

Bibliography

334

Index

336

vii

FOrEwOrD

Foreword by the President of the International Olympic Committee, Jacques Rogge Fifth Edition of theThe “Stadia: A Design & and Development Guide” ForFor thethe Fifth Edition of Stadia: Populous Design Development Guide

_________________________________________________________________ Stadia are the homes of sport. Each one is designed to effectively respond to the special requirements of its use; be it sport specific, multi-sport, or multi-purpose. They can also be highly symbolic, reflecting the mindset of the times and the culture of the team, city or event with which they are associated. For the Olympic Games, stadia are the visual icons and the backdrop to the memorable images of the competitions. The concept, the design, and the choice of materials, must guarantee the best conditions for the athletes. In the spirit of the Olympic Games, the Stadia should embody culture and art as well as sport. Stadia design is continually developing to keep pace with changing technology and with the social, economic and environmental standards of society. It is clear that neither stadia, nor sport, can live in isolation: they have to be part of everyone`s life and society. The Stadia should be integrated into an urban development plan that respects the city’s post-Games requirements in order to ensure a responsible and positive legacy. Their design and construction must reflect the increasing importance of sustainability. Designing and developing sports stadia, both new and the upgrading of existing, is a demanding task for architects and their design teams. I am grateful to the authors for their valuable contribution to this endeavour, by creating a new fifth edition of this established reference book.

Château de Vidy, 1007 Lausanne, Switzerland | Tel +41 21 621 6111 | Fax +41 21 621 6216 | www.olympic.org

ix

PrEFACE This is the fifth edition of our guide to the commissioning,

Populous’ most recent work has concerned

planning, design and management of high-quality sports

the London 2012 Olympic Games. As well as designing the

venues. First published in 1994, the book has been through

main stadium itself and masterplanning the Olympic Park,

regular revisions to reflect the changing technical knowledge

the agency was appointed official Architectural and Overlay

and ideas about the viewing of sport.

Design Services Provider to the London 2012 Olympic and

The content is borne of the many years’

Paralympic Games. Ben Vickery, Senior Principal and co-

experience embedded in Populous as a global design

author of this book, was a lead on this team. He has also

agency. Populous has been involved in the design of some

worked on the rebuilding of Wembley Stadium, in London,

of the world’s most significant sports venues. These include

and the Aviva Stadium, in Dublin.

the Forsyth Barr Stadium, in Dunedin, New Zealand, which is

Geraint John, visiting professor at various

the only stadium in the world to feature a natural grass pitch

universities, and Honorary Life President of the International

under a fully fixed roof; the Nanjing Sports Park, in China,

Union of Architects Sports and Leisure Programme, is

not only an integrated sports destination but a catalyst for

another of the book’s co-authors.

urban development; the UK’s most successful entertainment

The book aims to share Populous’ hard-won

venue, the O2 Arena, in London; and New York’s Yankee

expertise for the benefit of all who love sport, participate

Stadium, a design that acknowledges and reflects years of

in sport and produce sporting events. Like its preceding

American sporting history.

volumes, it is intended to be a comprehensive, authoritative

The authors themselves have between them

and practical guide that will help designers, managers,

over 60 years’ experience in designing, procuring and

owners, investors, users and other interested parties to

reviewing sports stadia around the world. Populous Senior

understand one of the most exciting and rewarding types

Principal Rod Sheard played a leading role in modernising

of building today. We hope that this book will inspire the

and creating a new grandstand for Ascot Racecourse, in the

creation of venues that are practical, elegant and a real asset

UK. He was also the key member of the Populous team that

to their communities.

x

upgraded the All England Lawn Tennis Club, at Wimbledon, in London.

ACKNOwLEDGEMENTS The contents of this book represent the combined experience

of the Football Licensing Authority on Chapters 10, 11, 12 and

and views of the three authors, but they owe a great debt of

15. Ed Raigan and his colleagues at ME Engineers reviewed

gratitude to the many experts without whose help this work

and re-wrote Chapter 21, Barry Winterton and Peter Gray

would have been much the poorer.

of Franklin and Andrews reviewed Chapter 23, and Henrik

The International Association of Auditorium

Henson of Daktroniks provided information for Appendix

Managers (IAAM), the Sports and Play Consortium

2. The architects of the projects in the case studies have

Association (SAPCA) and the International Association

contributed information about their designs.

for Sports and Leisure Facilities (IAKS), in the person of Johannes Buhlbecker, are among the organisations which gave valuable assistance.

Within Populous there were contributions from Michele Fleming, Philip Johnson and Damon Lavelle. Finally the authors wish to acknowledge the

Andrew Szieradzki of Buro Happold provided

major contribution made by Tony Richardson and his

information for Chapter 6, and Jeff Perris of STRI for Chapter

colleagues at Alma Media for picture research, editing and

7. Michael Abbott Associates on behalf of SAPCA gave

graphic design.

major assistance on Chapters 7 and 22, as did Jim Froggatt

PICTUrE CrEDITS Cover

Getty Images – Ben Stansall

309

Peter Barrow

309

Donal Murphy

ii

Pierre Sheard

309

Donal Murphy

viii

Getty Images – David Eulitt

310

Luis Ferreira Alves

311

HKS

viii

Ed Massery

311

HKS

4

Bannister Fletcher

312

Corbis – Photomig

20

Populous

313

Hufton + Crow

26

Olympic Development Authority

313

Getty Images – Michael Regan

33

Populous

314

Chris Sullivan

36

Patrick Bingham-Hall

315

GMP

48

Getty Images – German Images

315

GMP

67

AELTC

316

Ed Massery

70

Getty Images – Stuart Franklin

317

Rod Mar

76

Chris Gascoigne

318

Getty Images – Allan Baxter

98

Getty Images – Neil Lupin

319

Patrick Bingham-Hall

108

G4S Group 4 Securicor

319

Patrick Bingham-Hall

118

PA Photos

320

Xu Xing, Nanjing Sports Park

126

Populous

321

Kisho Kurokawa architect & associates

144

Donal Murphy

321

Kisho Kurokawa architect & associates

156

Hufton + Crow

322

Populous

166

Fisher Hart

323

Populous

182

James Pearson-Howes

324

Hufton + Crow

194

Populous

324

Hufton + Crow

202

Getty Images – Andy Kropa

325

Ed Massery

206

Getty Images – Thomas B. Shea

326

Red Bull Photofiles

214

Getty Images – Lali Masriera

327

Pete Boer

224

Getty Images – Victor Decolongon

327

Chris Gascoigne

232

Getty Images – Lars Baron

328

[email protected]

254

Arsenal FC – Stuart MacFarlane

329

Getty Images – Stephane de Sakutin

260

Donal Murphy

329

Getty Images – Joel Saget

274

Getty Images – Jamie McDonald

330

Hohensinn Architektur

286

Simon Warren

331

Nigel Young, Foster+Partners

290

Getty Images – Mark Cunningham

332

Patrick Bingham-Hall

296

Getty Images

333

Getty Images – Julian Finney

300

Christy Radecic

302

Duccio Malagamba

302

Getty Images – Altrendo Travel

303

Sander van Stiphout

304

Patrick Bingham-Hall

305

Populous

305

Populous

306

Corbis – Leo Mason

307

Sembol Insaat

307

Sembol Insaat

308

Hawkeye Aerial/Joel Avila

xi

01

The STadium aS a Building Type

1.1

a venue for watching sport

1.2

history

1.3

current requirements

1.1

a venue for watching sport

1.1.1

architectural quality

A sports stadium can be seen as a huge theatre for the exhibition of heroic feats. It is this combination of dramatic function and monumental scale that leads to powerful civic architecture. The first great prototype, the Colosseum of Ancient Rome, did indeed achieve this ideal, but unfortunately very few stadia since then have succeeded as well. The worst are rather brutal, uncomfortable places, casting a spell of depression on their surroundings for the long periods when they stand empty and unused, in sharp contrast to the short periods of extreme congestion on event days. However the best are comfortable, safe and inspiring; they offer their patrons an enjoyable afternoon’s or evening’s entertainment. Few, however, achieve a level of architectural excellence. Blending the tiers of seating, the ramps or stairs, and the immense roof structures into a single harmonious and engaging architectural ideal is a challenge that sometimes seems almost beyond solution. The result is that sports stadia tend to be lumpy agglomerations of elements that are out of scale with their surroundings and in conflict with each other, and often harshly detailed and finished. This book cannot show the reader how to create great architecture. But by clarifying the technical requirements as much as possible, and by showing how these problems have been solved in particular cases, it hopes at least to help designers with difficult briefs to create fine buildings. If this process is done well, the rewards are great. 1.1.2

financial viability

In the 1950s, when watching live sport was already a major pastime for millions, sports grounds around the Western world were filled to bursting point at every match. But Heinz Field in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, home of the Pittsburgh Steelers NFL team. Architects: Populous

in the decades following this post-World War II boom, those same venues struggled to attract large audiences and many were fighting for financial survival. Fortunately, owners and managers have been creative in finding solutions. There are now clear

1

STadia

CHAPTeR 1

The STadium aS a Building Type

signs at the beginning of the 21st century that audiences are

Just as there are no hard and fast rules for producing great

returning to traditional sports, and new events are helping to

architecture, there are no magic formulae to guarantee

fill stadia beyond their previous event schedule.

profitable stadia. Teams of experts must analyse the costs

The reality is that, for a sports stadium to be

and potential revenues for each individual case and find a

financially viable, some form of subsidy is still often required,

viable solution; or, at least, leave a gap that can be bridged

whether open or covert. With this in mind, there are usually

by private sponsors or public support. This book identifies the factors that need to be

three factors at play:

considered. But before getting into such technical details, • Other revenue streams for the stadium should ensure the subsidy is not impossibly large. • The project should be sufficiently attractive to justify investment from the public purse. • It should be sufficiently attractive to private sponsors.

we should make the most important point of all: sports and entertainment venues are one of the great historic building types, representing some of the very earliest works of architecture (Ancient Greek stadia), some of the most pivotal (Roman amphitheatres and thermae), and some of the most beautiful (from the Colosseum in Ancient Rome to

2

Some may feel that the above statements are too pessimistic.

the Olympic Park in Munich 20 centuries later). Therefore we

Consider the North American experience, however. The USA

will start with a brief historic survey.

and Canada have highly affluent populations, totalling around 350 million. They are keen on sport and have energetic leisure

1.2

history

entrepreneurs and managers very skilled at extracting the

1.2.1

ancient greece

customer’s dollar. Of all the world’s countries, the USA and

The ancestral prototypes for modern sports facilities of all

Canada should be able to make their stadia pay. They have

kinds are the stadia and hippodromes of Ancient Greece.

seemingly explored every avenue – huge seating capacities,

Here, Olympic and other sporting contests were staged,

multi-use functions, adaptable seating configurations, total

starting – as far as we can tell – in the eighth century bc.

enclosure to ensure comfort, retractable roofing to protect from the elements – and yet they still struggle to make a

stadia

profit, particularly when the huge initial costs of development

Greek stadia (foot racecourses) were laid out in a U-shape,

are taken into account.

with the straight end forming the starting line. These stadia

Figure 1.1 The U-shaped sunken stadium at Athens, first built in 331 bc for the staging of foot races, was restored and used for the first modern Olympics in 1896.

The STadium aS a Building Type

CHAPTeR 1

varied somewhat in length, the one at Delphi just under 183m

Adjacent to the stadium at Olympia was a much longer

long, the one at Olympia about 192m. Such stadia were built

hippodrome for horse and chariot races, and in these

in all cities where games were played. Some, following the

twin facilities one clearly discerns the embryonic forms of

pattern of Greek theatres, were cut out of a hillside so that

modern athletic stadia and racing circuits. The stadium has

banks of seats with good sightlines could be formed naturally,

been excavated and restored and can be studied, but the

while others were constructed on flat ground. In the latter

hippodrome has not survived.

case the performance area was sometimes slightly excavated

While modern, large-capacity, roofed stadia

to allow for the formation of shallow seating tiers along

can seldom have the simple forms used in Ancient Greece,

the sides.

there are occasions when the quiet repose of these beautiful Stadia built on the flat existed at ephesus,

antecedents can be emulated by modern architects.

Athens and Delphi. The latter – almost 183m long and 28m

Unobtrusive form is important, as is the use of natural

wide – had a shallow bank of seats along one side and around

materials which blend closely with the surroundings so that it

the curved end. The judges’ seats were at the midpoint of

is difficult to say where landscape ends and building begins.

the long side, very much like a modern facility. The stadium at Athens was first built in 331

bc,

reconstructed in

ad

160

STadia

3 hippodromes

and reconstructed again in 1896 for the first modern Olympic

These courses for horse and chariot races were between

Games. In its latest form it can still be seen accommodating

198m and 228m long, and 37m wide. They were also laid

up to 50,000 people in 46 rows (Figure 1.1).

out in a U-shape. Like Ancient Greek theatres, hippodromes

Hillside stadia existed at Olympia, Thebes and

were usually made on the slope of a hill to give rising

epidauros, and their similarity to Ancient Greek theatres is

tiers of seating. From them developed the later Roman

unmistakable: these are essentially elongated theatres for

circuses, although these were more elongated and much

the staging of spectacular physical feats. From them runs

narrower.

a direct line of development, firstly to the multi-tiered Roman amphitheatres, and ultimately to modern-day

1.2.2

sports stadia.

The militaristic Romans were more interested in public

roman amphitheatres

The civic importance of such sporting facilities

displays of mortal combat than in races and athletic events,

in Ancient Greek life is demonstrated particularly well at

and to accommodate this spectacle they developed a new

Olympia, on the island of Peloponnesus. The site housed

amphitheatrical form: an elliptical arena surrounded on all

a great complex of temples and altars to various deities

sides by high-rising tiers of seats enabling the maximum

and, at the height of its development, was a rendezvous

number of spectators to have a clear view of the terrible

for many across Ancient Greece. There was a sports field

events staged before them. The word arena is derived

situated adjacent to an enclosed training gymnasium, and

from the Latin word for sand, or sandy land, referring to the

along the edge of the field, a colonnade with stone steps to

layer of sand that was spread on the activity area to absorb

accommodate the spectators. As the track became more

spilled blood.

popular, two stands were constructed, facing each other

The overall form was, in effect, two Ancient

on opposite sides of the activity area. The fully developed

Greek theatres joined together to form a complete ellipse.

stadium consisted of a track 192m long and 32m wide with

But the size of the later Roman amphitheatres ruled out any

rising tiers of seats on massive sloping earth banks along the

reliance on natural ground slopes to provide the necessary

sides. These seats ultimately accommodated up to 45,000

seating profile. Therefore the Romans began to construct

spectators. The stadium had two entrances, the Pompic and

artificial slopes around the central arena – first in timber

the Secret, the latter used only by the judges.

(these obviously have not survived) and, starting in the first

‘A History of Architecture’, by Sir Banister Fletcher, published by elsevier Press

4

Figure 1.2 The Colosseum of Rome (ad 82) was built for gladiatorial combat and not for races. It therefore took the form of a theatre in which rising tiers of seats, forming an artificial hillside, completely surrounded an area. The great stone and concrete drum fused engineering, theatre and art more successfully than most modern stadia.



the stadium as a building type

chapter 1

century ad, in stone and an early form of concrete. Magnificent

base. The internal aisles and access passages formed by

examples of the latter may still be seen in Arles and Nimes

the structural arcades were so well-planned that the entire

(stone), and in Rome, Verona and Pula (stone and a form of

amphitheatre could, it is thought, have been evacuated in

concrete). The amphitheatre at Arles, constructed in around

a matter of minutes.

46

bc,

stadia

accommodated 21,000 spectators in three storeys.

Despite considerable damage in the intervening centuries

The arena was used for gladiatorial contests and other

– the third storey which held the posts supporting a tented

entertainments. It could be flooded with water for naval

roof has gone – it has been used recently for bullfighting.

and aquatic displays. Beneath the arena was a warren of

The Nimes amphitheatre, dating from the second century ad,

chambers and passageways to accommodate performers,

is smaller but in excellent condition and also in regular use.

gladiators and animals. The spectator tiers could be covered

The great amphitheatre in Verona, built in about 100

by stretching canvas awnings across the open top using a

ad,

is

world famous as a venue for opera performances. Originally

system of ropes and pulleys.

it measured 152m by 123m overall, but very little remains of

All these diverse functions were smoothly

the outer aisle. It currently seats about 22,000 people and

assimilated into a great drum shape that stands magnificently

measures 73m by 44m.

above the townscape. It is functional in layout, rational in

The Flavian Amphitheatre, in Rome (Figure 1.2),

appearance, yet rich and expressive in its surface modelling.

better known as the Colosseum from the eighth century

Present-day designers could do worse than to spend some

onwards, is the greatest exemplar of this building type and

time contemplating the achievements of the Colosseum

has seldom been surpassed to this day as a rational fusion

before tackling their own complex briefs. It is interesting

of engineering, theatre and art. Construction began in

to compare the footprint of this ancient building with the

ad

70 and finished 12 years later. The structure formed a giant

London Olympic Stadium.

ellipse of 189m by 155m and rose to a height of four storeys, accommodating 48,000 people. It was a stadium capacity

circuses

that would not be exceeded until the 20th century. Spectators

As the theatres of Ancient Greece led to the Roman

had good sightlines to the arena below, the latter being an

amphitheatres, so their hippodromes led to the Roman

ellipse of roughly 88m by 55m, bounded by a 4.6m-high wall.

circuses.

There were 80 arched openings to each of the lower three

racecourses with the straight end forming the entrance

storeys, with engaged columns and encircling entablatures

and accommodating the stalls for horses and chariots. The

applied to the outer wall surface as ornamentation. The

starting and return courses were separated by a spina – a low

openings at ground level gave entrance to the tiers of seats.

wall decorated with carvings and statues. Seats rose in tiers

The structural cross-section (Figure 1.2B), broadening from

along the straight sides of the U and round the curved end,

the top down to the base, solved three problems at one stroke:

the lower seats in stone and reserved for members of the

These

circuses

were

U-shaped

equestrian

upper classes, the upper seats made of wood. • It formed an artificial hillside, giving spectators a theatrical view of the action.

A notable early example was the Circus Maximus, in Rome (fourth century

bc),

followed in 46

bc

by

• It formed a stable structure. The tiers of seats were

a successor of the same name. This was possibly the largest

supported on a complex series of barrel-vaults and arches

stadium ever built. It was about 660m long and 210m wide,

which distributed the immense loads via an ever-widening

and offered all-seating accommodation for spectators in

structure down to foundation level.

three tiers parallel to the track.

• The volume of internal space suited the numbers of people circulating at each level – fewest at the top, most at the

Other Roman examples include the Circus Flaminius (third century

bc)

and the Circus Maxentius

5

STADIA

The STADIum AS A buIlDIng Type

chapter 1

(fourth century

ad),

the latter being the only Roman circus

still surviving today. Outside Rome were the Byzantium

structural technologies to facilitate the construction of stadia or enclosed halls.

Hippodrome of the second century ad (based on the Circus

A particularly important impetus came from the

Maximus) and the Pessimus Hippodrome which was unique

revival of the Olympic tradition at the end of the 19th century.

at the time since it featured a Greek theatre and a Roman

At the instigation of Baron Pierre de Coubertin, a congress

hippodrome linked at the centre of the hippodrome via the

met in 1894, leading to the first modern Olympic Games

theatre stage. Two events could be staged separately in

being staged at Athens in 1896. For this purpose, the ancient

theatre and hippodrome, or the whole structure could be

stadium of 331

used in combination for a single grand event. This building

by a German architect and archaeologist called ernst Ziller,

was an obvious ancestor of the modern, multi-purpose

was rebuilt to the traditional Greek elongated U-pattern, its

stadium complex.

marble terraces accommodating about 50,000 spectators

bc,

which had been excavated and studied

(Figure 1.1). Thereafter, Olympic Games were held every 1.2.3

6

medieval and after

four years, except when interrupted by war. Those which

As Christianity swept through europe, religion became

produced notable changes or advances in stadium design

more important, and architectural effort was turned to the

are noted below.

building of churches rather than places of recreation and entertainment. No major new sports stadia or amphitheatres

1.2.5

would be built for the next 15 centuries.

In 1908 the Games were held in London. The White City

20th-century olympic stadia

Sports buildings inherited from the Roman

Stadium, designed by James Fulton, was built for the

era became neglected. Some were converted to new

purpose. It was a functional building, with a steel frame,

uses as markets or tenement dwellings. The amphitheatre

accommodating over 80,000 spectators – the first purpose-

at Arles, for instance, was transformed into a citadel with

designed modern Olympic stadium. The arena was gigantic

about 200 houses and a church inside it, built partly with

by the standards of today (Figure 1.3), accommodating a

stone from the amphitheatre structure. Many others were

multitude of individual sports and surrounded by a cycle

simply demolished.

track. It was subsequently decided to reduce the number of

During the Renaissance and after, competitions

Olympic sports, partly to give a smaller arena. In later years

on foot or horseback were held in open fields or town

White City Stadium became increasingly neglected and was

squares, sometimes with temporary stages and covered

finally demolished in the 1980s.

areas for important spectators, rather along the lines of the

World War I meant the 1916 games did not take

first Greek hippodromes. But no permanent edifices were

place, but a stadium with a capacity of 60,000 had been built

built, even though deep interest was taken in classicism

in 1913 in Berlin in anticipation of these games. Its interest lies

and in the architecture of stadia and amphitheatres. The

in its pleasantly natural form. Like the theatres and stadia of

Colosseum was particularly closely studied, but only for its

Ancient Greece, it is shaped out of the earth, blending quietly

lessons in façade composition and modelling, which were

into the surrounding landscape and making no monumental

then transferred to other building types.

gestures. The architect was Otto March, and this stadium formed a prototype for the numerous sport parks built in

1.2.4

the 19th century

Germany in the 1920s.

The stadium as a building type saw a revival after the

In 1936 the city of Berlin did finally host the

industrial revolution. There was a growing demand for mass

Olympic games. The Nazis had recently assumed power and

spectator events from the public; there were entrepreneurs

used the occasion to extend the stadium of 1913 to a great

who wished to cater for this demand; and there were new

oval structure accommodating 110,000 spectators, 35,000



the stadium as a building type

chapter 1

stadia

Figure 1.3 White City Stadium in London (1908) was the first modern Olympic stadium and accommodated over 80,000 spectators. Its athletics field was encircled by a cycle racing track which made the arena larger than later examples.

7

Figure 1.4 The Berlin Olympic stadium of 1936 accommodated over 100,000 people in a rationally planned elliptical layout.

of them standing in 71 rows (Figure 1.4). The monumental

The 1948 Olympics returned to London, where the 24-year-

stone-clad stadium was, unfortunately, used not only for

old Wembley Stadium was renovated by its original designer

sporting functions but also for mass political demonstrations.

Sir Owen Williams.

In spite of these unpleasant associations, the Berlin stadium,

The 1960 Olympiad in Rome marked a new

with its rational planning and powerful, columned façade, is

departure. Instead of staging all events on a single site, as

a highly impressive design, renovated and a roof added for

before, a decentralised plan was decided upon, with the

the 2006 FIFA World Cup. The architect was Werner March.

athletics stadium in one part of the city and other facilities

STADIA

The STADIum AS A buIlDIng Type

chapter 1

Figure 1.5 The Rome Olympic stadium of 1960, also a colonnaded oval bowl, bears a family resemblance to that of Berlin.

8

some distance away on the urban outskirts. This was to

building was justifiably called ‘a cathedral for swimming’ by

remain the preferred approach for decades to come. The

Avery Brundage, the International Olympic Committee (IOC)

main stadium, by architect Annibale Vitellozzi, was an

president. Here, 4,000 spectators could sit under one of the

uncovered three-storey structure (Figure 1.5) which bore

most dramatic roof structures ever devised: steel cables

some similarities to the Berlin stadium. It has an orderly

were draped from a single tall mast on the perimeter of

and handsome limestone-clad façade wrapped around

the circular plan, and concrete panels hung from the cables

its oval shape, to which a roof was added in 1990 when

to form a semi-rigid roof structure. The roof forms of the

Rome hosted  the FIFA World Cup competition. Two

two gymnasia may look natural and inevitable, but both

of the fully enclosed smaller halls dating from 1960 are

were the result of very extensive testing and tuning on large-

architecturally significant: the 16,000-capacity Palazzo

scale models, not merely for structural efficiency but also for

dello Sport (designed by Marcello Piacentini and P.L. Nervi)

visual composition.

and the 5,000-capacity Palazzetto dello Sport (designed

In 1968, Mexico City was the Olympic host

by Annibale Vitellozzi and P.L. Nervi, Figure 1.6). Both are

and rose to the occasion with several notable stadia. The

circular, column-free halls which combine great visual

University Stadium, built in 1953 for a capacity of 70,000

elegance with functional efficiency. Pier Luigi Nervi was the

spectators, was enlarged in 1968 to become the main Olympic

structural engineer on both.

stadium with 87,000 seats (Figure 1.8). Its low, graceful form

In 1964 the Olympics were held in Tokyo. The

is notable. Like the 1913 stadium in Berlin, it is what might be

Jingu National Stadium, first built in 1958, was extended

called an ‘earth stadium’ because it barely rises above the

for the occasion (Figure 1.7) but, as in Rome, two smaller

natural landscape, it uses hardly any reinforced concrete,

fully-enclosed halls caught international attention. These

and it blends smoothly into its surroundings. It also uses

were Kenzo Tange’s Swimming Arena and Sports Arena,

splendid sculptural decoration to enhance its exterior form.

seating 4,000 and 15,000 respectively. The Swimming Arena

More impressive in scale is the Aztec Stadium (architect



the stadium as a building type

chapter 1

stadia

Figure 1.6 A smaller enclosed stadium with column-free interior and of exceptional architectural merit: the Palazzetto dello Sport for the Rome Olympics of 1960. It has a concrete shell roof resting on 36 pre-cast perimeter supports.

9

Figure 1.7 The Tokyo Olympic Stadium of 1964.

STADIA

chapter 1

The STADIum AS A buIlDIng Type

Figure 1.8 The Mexico City Olympic Stadium of 1968 seated spectators in a low, graceful shape sunk into the landscape.

10

Figure 1.9 The Munich Olympic Stadium of 1972 brought the series of architecturally outstanding stadia of the preceding decades to a climax.



the stadium as a building type

chapter 1

Pedro Ramirez Vasquez), accommodating 107,000 seated

events above. Outside the old gate to the stadium is a new

spectators. Most viewers are under cover, and while some are

piazza, from which access is gained to four other facilities:

a very long way from the pitch, it is a wonderful experience

the 17,000-seat Palau Sant Jordi gymnasium (architect Arata

to see this number of cheering fans gathered under one roof.

Isozaki), the Picornell swimming complex, the University for

This is said to be the largest covered stadium in the world.

Sport, and the International Media centre. The site is very

Finally, as at Rome in 1960 and Tokyo in 1964, there was a

compact compared to most other recent Olympic games. Following

fully enclosed indoor arena also worthy of note.

concerns

about

the

stadia

long-term

In 1972 the Olympics returned to Germany. The

viability of huge stadia built just for Olympic athletic events

site, formerly an expanse of nondescript land near Munich,

– most notably in the case of the Montreal stadium built for

was converted with exemplary skill into a delightful landscape

the games in 1976 – later host cities have constructed

of green hills, hollows, meadows and watercourses. Perhaps

stadia with their post-Olympic life in mind. The stadium at

in a conscious attempt to erase memories of the heavy

Atlanta for the 1996 Games was designed to be converted

monumentality of the 1936 Berlin stadium, a very expensive

afterwards into a baseball stadium, and that for the Sydney

but delightfully elegant lightweight roof was thrown over one

Olympics in 2000, by Populous, was designed with 30,000

side of the stadium (Figure 1.9 and the frontispiece to Chapter

temporary seats that were removed after the Games so the

5) and extended to several other facilities, creating an airy

building could be reduced in size to host a mixed programme

structure that still holds its age well many years later. The

of sports.

arena is embedded in an artificially created hollow so that

The best of the above structures rise to the

the roof, which consists of transparent acrylic panels on a

level of great architecture. Very interesting and innovative

steel net hung from a series of tapered masts, seems to float

stadia were also built for the Games of 1976 (Montreal),

above the parkland, its gentle undulations mirroring those

1980 (Moscow), 1988 (Seoul). In Athens in 2004, the existing

of the landscape below. It must be said that environmental

Stadium was modernised by the engineer Calatrava.

problems have been experienced under the pool section

This tradition of innovation in Olympic stadia has

of this plexiglass canopy and that a PVC-coated polyester

continued. The Beijing Olympics, in 2008, had a spectacular

parasol was suspended under the arena section to shade

design by architects Herzog and DeMueron. For the 2012

the area below from the sun. Nevertheless, the roof, which

London Olympics a design by sports architects Populous

is further described in Section 5.8, remains an outstanding

and structural engineers Buro Happold created a light and

achievement. As well as being beautiful, it is the largest to

elegant composition designed to be reconfigured after the

date, covering 8.5 hectares. The stadium designers were

Games to accommodate other events. Organisers have now

architects Günter Behnisch and Partners, and engineers Frei

recognised that the legacy of Olympic buildings has become

Otto and Fritz Leonardt.

as important as their use during the actual Games.

In 1992, the Olympics went to Barcelona where the Montjuic stadium for the 1929 Barcelona International

1.2.6

exposition was extensively remodelled by architect Vittorio

As the above Olympic stadia were being created, increasingly

Gregotti. To cater for the majority of track, field and pitch

ambitious facilities were also evolving for specific sports such

sports, only the Romanesque façades were left intact.

as soccer, rugby, American football, baseball, tennis and cricket.

20th-century single-sport stadia

everything inside the perimeter walls of the stadium was removed, the playing area was lowered to allow twice the

soccer

previous seating capacity, and a new tunnel system was

Soccer stadia predominate in europe and much of South

installed around the nine-lane running track so that members

America, owing to the popularity of the sport in these

of the press could circulate freely without interfering with the

countries. But different traditions in these different regions

11

STADIA

chapter 1

The STADIum AS A buIlDIng Type

have led to a variety of architectural types. In the UK, the

of whom 77,000 can be seated. It contains one of the first

typical pattern is for each stadium to be owned by a particular

examples of the modern dry moat separating spectators

soccer club, and to be used only by that club. This dedication

from the field of play. This moat is 2.1m wide and about

to a single sport, combined with very limited income, has

1.5m deep. This is rather small by current standards (see

helped create a feeling of community between fans. There

Section 9.3), but it did establish a trend in player-spectator

are two reasons for this.

separation which has been used around the world including,

There is a tradition in the UK of standing

for instance, in the 100,000-capacity Seoul Olympic stadium

terraces where fans stand closely together. This is no

of 1988. The stadia built for the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy,

longer acceptable at top division clubs on safety grounds,

and the 2002 FIFA World Cup in Japan and Korea, set very

and all standing terraces in the Premier and First Divisions

high design standards.

have been converted to seats. (See Chapters 11 and 12.) British soccer stadia have long been designed 12

rugby

to accommodate spectators very close to the pitch. This

One of the most important British examples is Twickenham

allows intimate contact with the game but makes it difficult

Rugby Football Ground, in London, dating back to 1907. The

to incorporate an athletics track around the perimeter of the

10-acre site has undergone considerable development since

pitch. This intimate social atmosphere is a much admired

then. The east, North, West and South stands are linked by a

aspect of the British soccer stadium, and one which most

single, 39m-deep, cantilevered roof sweeping round all four

clubs would wish to retain.

sides of the field. Total ground capacity is 82,000, all seated

In mainland european soccer there is a very

and all under cover. Because the stands shade the natural

different pattern: stadia are typically owned by the local

grass turf for part of the day, they have translucent roofs

municipality and used by a large number of sports clubs. The

to allow some transmission of sunlight, including ultraviolet

soccer clubs run their own lotteries, ploughing the profits back

radiation, to the pitch.

into the sport; many stadia are also used for other sports,

Other British rugby stadia worth studying are the

particularly athletics. For all these reasons, european stadia

Millennium Stadium at Cardiff Arms Park, in Wales (designed

have in the past tended to be better funded than British

by Populous, and successfully used for international rugby

examples and somewhat better designed and built – examples

and soccer), and the Murrayfield Stadium in edinburgh.

are Düsseldorf, Cologne or the FIFA World Cup venue at Turin.

Other leading rugby stadia include the Sydney Football

But an athletics track encircling the pitch pushes spectators

Stadium, in Australia, the Stade de France, in Paris, and ellis

away from the playing area. This loss of intimacy must be

Park, in Johannesburg. The most spectacular rugby venue is

weighed against the advantage of better community use.

Aviva Stadium in Dublin which has been rebuilt on the site

The most notable British soccer stadia are those

of Lansdowne Road and is used by both the Irish Rugby

of the Premier League clubs. elsewhere there is, sad to say,

Football Union and the Irish Football Association. Designed

a depressing tendency for clubs to settle for the cheapest

by Populous, it is a spectacular, curvaceous, transparent shell

and quickest solution, with little or none of the vision one

which accommodates 52,000 spectators (see Case studies).

occasionally finds on the Continent. exceptions in the UK

Rugby has moved increasingly towards stadia shared with

are  Huddersfield, Bolton, and the Arsenal emirates stadium

football. examples in the UK include Watford, Huddersfield,

in London.

and Queens Park Rangers. Greater attention has to be paid Soccer is very popular in South America, where

to the grass pitch to permit joint use.

there is a liking for very large stadia. The largest in the world is the Maracana Municipal stadium in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

american football and baseball

which has a normal ground capacity of 103,000 spectators,

After World War I, the USA broke new ground with a series



the stadium as a building type

Figure 1.10 In the Harry S Truman complex in Kansas, the Kauffman (originally called the Royals) Stadium is designed specifically for baseball. Architects: Howard Needles Tammen & Bergendoff (HNTB).

chapter 1

stadia

of pioneering stadia built particularly for the two burgeoning national sports: American football and baseball. To cater for the growing popularity of American football there evolved a new type of single-tier elliptical bowl of vast capacity surrounding a rectangular football pitch. The first was the Yale Bowl at New Haven (1914, capacity 64,000). It was followed by the Rose Bowl at Pasadena, California (capacity 92,000), the Orange Bowl, in Miami (1937, capacity 72,000), Ann Arbor stadium, in Michigan (capacity 107,000) and others. Stands in the largest of these were up to 90 rows deep, the more distant spectators being so far from the pitch that they could not see the ball clearly. Baseball became the second great popular sport. Because it requires a pitch and seating configuration very different to football, a series of specialised baseball stadia were built, including the famous Yankee Stadium, in New York (1924, capacity 57,000). Typically, the stadia for these two sports were urban, built in the midst of the populations they served, and normally open or only partly roofed. After World War II there was a new wave of stadium building, but the typology

Figure 1.11 The Arrowhead Stadium for American football is a separate entity, in recognition of the very different seating geometries required for good viewing of the two games. Architects: Charles Deaton, Golden in Association with Kivett & Myers.

shifted gradually towards multi-purpose facilities, often fully roofed, and often situated out of town, surrounded by acres of car parking. Between 1960 and 1977, over 30 such major stadia were built, the most impressive being the Oakland Coliseum, Shea Stadium, in New York (1964, baseball and football, demolished 2009), and the Busch Stadium, in St Louis (baseball). More recent examples are the Comiskey Park Baseball Stadium, in Chicago (1991), seating 43,000 spectators on five levels, and the Minute Maid stadium, in Houston, seating 41,000 spectators, and with a closing roof. The Louisiana Superdome, in New Orleans, opened in 1975, and is the largest of this generation of stadia. It has an area of over five hectares, is covered by one of the world’s longest roof-spans with a diameter of 207m, is 83m tall and has a maximum capacity of 72,000 for football. One of its most interesting features is a gondola suspended from the centre of the roof, comprising six huge television screens, showing a range of information including instant action replays. Many of these great stadia catered for both American football and baseball (and usually other types of

13

STADIA

chapter 1

The STADIum AS A buIlDIng Type

activity) in an attempt to maximise revenue. However, as

now attracts about 45,000 people each day. The tournament

already mentioned, the shapes of football and baseball pitches

facilities comprise 18 grass courts, five red shale courts, three

are so different that it is difficult to provide ideal seating

clay courts, one artificial grass court and five indoor courts. In

configurations for both, even with movable seating systems,

addition to these tournament facilities there are also 14 grass

as in the John Shea dual-purpose stadium of 1964. The Harry

practice courts in the adjacent Aorangi Park.

S Truman Sports Complex, in Kansas, of 1972 therefore

To many people, Wimbledon means the Centre

separated the two sports: the Royals Stadium overlooks a

Court. The stadium surrounding this famous patch of grass

baseball pitch (Figure 1.10), and its sister Arrowhead Stadium

was built in 1922 and has been gradually upgraded and

a football field (Figure 1.11), each of them being shaped to suit

renewed ever since. The stadium does in many ways give

its particular sport. each stadium has its own facilities for its

the most satisfying tennis experience in the world: the tight

particular group of patrons.

clustering of spectators round the grass court, under a low roof which reflects the buzz of sound and applause from the

14

tennis

fans beneath, creates an intimate theatrical atmosphere and

The world’s most famous tennis venue is the All england Lawn

an intensity of concentration which are missing from most

Tennis and Croquet Club, at Wimbledon, in London, home

other venues. To prepare the club for the future, a master plan

since 1922 to The Championships. The two-week tournament

for the site was prepared and implemented. It includes a new No.1 Court designed to replicate the intimate Centre Court

Figure 1.12 Plan of the Rod Laver Arena, which seats 15,000 spectators. Cox Architects & Planners.

atmosphere. Recently Wimbledon has had its most innovative addition, a moving fabric roof over the Centre Court (see Case studies). Designed by Populous, it can retract during fine weather and stack at one end of the court to minimise shade on the precious grass. During inclement weather the roof can expand to cover the entire playing surface and adjoining spectators so that play may continue. There are three other Grand Slam tennis venues, all comparable in scale and complexity to Wimbledon: Flushing Meadows, in the USA, Flinders Park, in Australia, and Roland Garros, in France. They all vary greatly in terms of atmosphere and tradition. Flushing Meadows is home to the US Open Championship where the spectators’ attitude to viewing is much more casual than at Wimbledon. This is reflected in the design of the principal court, Arthur Ashe Stadium, where the spectators sit out in the open under a busy airport flight path, with the outermost seats too distant to offer good viewing. The sense of detachment seen here is quite characteristic of US stadia which tend to be very large and to be patronised by spectators not averse to wandering around for refreshments while a game is in progress. Australia’s National Tennis Centre, in Melbourne Park (formerly Flinders Park), was constructed on derelict



the stadium as a building type

chapter 1

land between 1986 and 1987. It can seat a total of around

centre of world cricket. The five-acre site accommodates

29,000 spectators on 15 courts which include the Rod Laver

spectators in a variety of open and roofed stands which

Arena (Figure 1.12). In addition to these there are five indoor

have gradually grown up round the playing field. The site

practice courts.

development policy is to deliberately build on this pattern of

The front rows of the Rod Laver Arena, also

individual buildings surrounding a green, instead of unified

known as the Centre Court, are at a greater distance from

stadia built to a single architectural style. The policy is clearly

the court than at Wimbledon or even Flushing Meadows,

reflected in the 1987 Mound Stand which replaced an earlier

on the theory that a ball travelling at over 100mph cannot

stand on the same spot; and the 1991 Compton and edrich

be seen properly by viewers who are too close to it. It is a

Stands. The Mount Stand designed by Hopkins Architects

theory contested by some who insist that spectators want

seats 5,400 spectators in two main tiers – 4,500 at terrace

to be close to the action, even if that means the ball is

(lower) level and 900 at promenade (upper) level, the upper

occasionally a blur. The 15,000 seats are fed by 20 entrances,

seating level being sheltered by a translucent tented roof.

and the stadium has a sliding roof which takes 20 minutes

The most recent addition to the grounds was on the North

to close. Unlike Wimbledon, the court has a Rebound Ace,

Side, designed by Grimshaw & Partners.

hard acrylic surface which has the advantage of allowing

The Oval ground in south London, home of the

intensive, multi-purpose year-round use for other sports and

Surrey County Cricket Club, is as well known as Lord’s and

concerts. Around 120 events are staged per annum. However,

the site has been masterplanned for the future by Populous.

it is thought by some to be visually dead compared to the

Also in Britain, a new cricket ground has been built for County

Wimbledon grass courts.

Durham by architect Bill Ainsworth. In Australia, the leading

Since completion of the Melbourne Park venue, there has been an increased demand, not foreseen at the

venue is Melbourne Cricket Stadium (see Case studies) which has recently been rebuilt.

time, on the hospitality, catering and press facilities. An expansion plan is therefore being undertaken which would

1.3

current requirements

double the site area and include a number of new facilities, a

1.3.1

the spectator

merchandising centre, a sports medical centre and more car

For all of these sports, stand design begins and ends with the

parking. There would also be an additional moving roof over

spectator. At the outset of a project the first questions to be

the Margaret Court Arena, making a total of three moving

asked, and answered, must be: who are the spectators? What

roofs on site.

are they looking for in the facility? How can their numbers In France, the French Open venue is the

be maximised? Only when these questions are answered

Roland Garros stadium, in Paris’s Bois de Boulogne. It was

is it possible to examine the technical solutions and do the

established in 1928 and has been gradually upgraded ever

necessary calculations. This simple methodology should be

since. The 15-acre site contains 16 championship courts, all

used for all sports projects.

clay-surfaced. In atmosphere, the Centre Court is closer to

It must be understood that different people

Flushing Meadows than Wimbledon, being open to the sky

have different motives, and that any crowd will contain a

and with greater viewing distances than the tight clustering

variety of sub-groups with different reasons for attending.

found at Wimbledon. As at Wimbledon and Flinders Park, an

Some have a primarily sporting interest; some a social reason

expansion plan is underway.

for attending; some combine the two.

cricKet

the stands and on the terraces for every game. For them,

Lord’s Cricket Ground, in London, has been the home of the

live sport at its highest level has an almost spiritual quality,

Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) since 1814 and is the symbolic

an attitude aptly expressed in a statement once made by

The sporting-interest spectators are found in

stadia

15

STadia

CHAPTeR 1

The STadium aS a Building Type

the great Liverpool soccer manager Bill Shankly: ‘Football

It should be noted that under the UK’s Disability Discrimination

is not a matter of life and death; it is more important

Act, around a fifth of the people in each of the above groups

than that.’

may come within the legal definition of disabled people. These fans are knowledgeable. They respond

This definition is surprisingly wide, and goes far beyond

instantly to every nuance of the action, they offer advice to

the traditional concept of people in wheelchairs. By law, all

the players, and they recognise the form, fitness and style

such people must be fully catered for in both the design and

of individual players, and the effectiveness of strategies and

management of the venue, as outlined in Chapter 10.

tactics. Such issues form the basic topics of conversation

16

before, during and after the game in the car, the pub or

1.3.2

the train. The motivation and the behaviour of this group

After the spectator the next most important person in the

sometimes attracts negative comment, but you could say

stadium is the player or athlete: without these people there is

this of any group of people sharing some passionate interest

no game or event. Players’ and athletes’ needs are covered in

– evangelical churchgoers, for instance.

Chapters 7 and 20. The UK’s Disability Discrimination Act (and

the player or athlete

The social-interest spectators are found in the

similar acts in other countries) requires full provision to be

clubhouse, dining rooms and private boxes, entertaining

made for disabled players in events such as the Paralympics.

or being entertained. The game is interesting to them, but

One matter must be mentioned at this

interrupts the personal or business conversations and only

stage because it will influence the proposed stadium in a

briefly becomes the topic of interest. At the end of a game,

fundamental way. Sometimes players require a natural grass

a short post-mortem takes place so that all parties can hint

pitch, but other design requirements (such as the need for

at the depth of their sporting knowledge before resuming

a multi-use surface, or for a roofed stadium) make a grass

the business conversation. This group is usually well dressed

surface unviable. In this case very difficult choices must be

because its members will be interacting with other people to

made about design priorities.

whom they must present themselves appropriately, whereas

For some sports a natural grass surface is

the sporting-interest spectators dress casually because their

obligatory – for instance rugby and cricket. For others it may

interaction is with the event.

not be obligatory, but is still very much the preferred option

A third group contains elements of the previous

for players. In all these cases it is not merely the provision

two and tends to be fickle: these are the casual supporters

of the grass pitch that is important, but also its condition at

who can be persuaded to attend if the conditions are right,

time of play. The playing surface is a small ecosystem which

but equally easily deterred. When england hosted soccer’s

actively responds to changes in the environment: it fluctuates

World Cup, in 1966, attendances in the UK reached about 29

in rebound resilience, stiffness and rolling resistance, and can

million per annum, declining to around 20 million over the

alter the trajectory of a bounce or roll so that players talk of

following years. Clubs lose supporters when the team plays

the ball ‘skidding through’ or ‘standing up’. All of these minute

poorly, as some spectators attend only when standards of

but critical variations can occur in a relatively short space of

play are perceived to be high or when star names are playing.

time, even during a game. Such uncertainties tend to widen

These fans are also deterred by discomfort, a perceived risk

the players’ range of skills, both technically and tactically,

of violence or lack of safety. Studies carried out well before

because they must be sufficiently inventive and responsive to

the disaster at the Hillsborough Stadium, in Sheffield (see

cope with changing conditions. In this way, a natural surface

below), found that soccer fans in the UK perceived violence

may well raise the standard of play, and allow for the display of

from other fans, and the risk of being crushed by crowds or

individual talent. But it may be almost impossible to provide a

mounted police as serious threats. All these perceptions have

natural grass surface if the brief requires a fully roofed stadium,

their effect on attendances.

or if the facility requires a multi-use pitch. The Forsyth Barr

The STadium aS a Building Type

CHAPTeR 1

Stadium, in the New Zealand city of Dunedin, may point the

characteristics, a guaranteed number of event days, and a

way forward since it is the world’s first permanently-roofed,

guaranteed cash flow from these sources. To this end:

STadia

grass-pitch rugby stadium. It was designed by Populous for the New Zealand Rugby World Cup in 2011 (see Case studies).

• An analysis of the market must be made as outlined in

Such problems are more pressing in europe

Section 1.3.1. It must be established who the stadium is

than in North America, partly because the traditional

catering for, how many of them there are, how much they

european games of soccer, rugby and cricket are based

will pay, how often they will attend, what factors will attract

on a vigorous interaction between the ball and the playing

them, and what factors will deter them.

surface, so that the latter becomes critical. In American

• Gate revenue can be enhanced by various forms of

football and baseball, however, the ball is kept off the ground

premium pricing, for instance sale or rental of private

at the critical stages of play, thus allowing a more tolerant

boxes at high prices.

choice of playing surface. American players tend also to be

• It must be decided which sports types the stadium will

well padded and less likely to suffer injury when falling on a

cater for. This requires a careful balancing of factors.

relatively hard surface, whereas lightly clad european players

A facility catering for, say, both soccer and athletics will

are more vulnerable and have a preference for natural grass.

offer the possibility of more event days than one catering

But it is interesting that a preference for natural grass pitches

for a single sport. But, by trying to accommodate other

seems to be returning in American football.

functions, the facility may be less suitable for its major use,

For athletics, a synthetic rubber track has become the normal surface, with the centre field in grass.

as discussed in Section 1.2.6 above and in Chapter 8. This is partly because different sports require different pitch sizes, surfaces and layouts; partly because they require different

1.3.3

the owner

seating configurations for good sightlines.

Assuming players and spectators can be brought together, it falls to the stadium owner to ensure that the physical venue

non-gate income

continues to be financially viable. As stated in Section 1.1.2,

Options for increasing non-gate income include sale or rental

very few stadia produce profits for their owners simply on

of hospitality boxes, catering concessions, merchandising

their sporting functions. In most cases it will be necessary for

concessions, advertising and event sponsorship, media

the planning team to devise a development that will enable

studio rentals and parking rentals. While these can make a

owners to:

vital financial contribution, the planners must not lose their sense of priorities: such forms of income must always be

• Come as close as possible to profitability simply on sporting functions (i.e. gate income). • Narrow the shortfall by exploiting non-sporting market income (non-gate income). • Close any remaining gap through public funding or other forms of direct subsidy or grant.

supportive, never primary. Increasingly, such supportive factors will have a direct influence on stadium design because, for instance, a game watched by 15,000 people from the stands may be watched by 15 million on television – with great cost implications for a sponsor – and these millions must be satisfied. But, at the same time, the stadium must not lose its attraction to its primary patrons – those entering

gate income

by the gate.

It will seldom be possible to recoup all costs from gate revenue, but this has traditionally been the most important

subsidy

single source of income and needs to be maximised. Investors

After all the above methods of revenue maximisation have

will require a guaranteed target market of known size and

been built into the project, there may still be a funding

17

STadia

CHAPTeR 1

The STadium aS a Building Type

shortfall. A final element of support will probably be

1991:

One person died and 20 were taken to hospital

required from the local municipality, a national grant scheme

after a stampede when 15,000 fans were allowed

or elsewhere.

into the grounds without tickets just after kick off at Nairobi National Stadium, in Kenya.

getting it all together

40 people died and 50 were injured after a

The key to a successful outcome is clarity of understanding

referee allowed an own goal at a friendly soccer

between all concerned. Stadium developers must have a

match in Johannesburg, in South Africa.

clear understanding of the spectators and players they are

18

1991:

1989:

95 people died and many were injured during

aiming for, and how to attract them. The stadium users must

a crowd surge into a restraining fence after

be clear about the uses to which the stadium might be put

kickoff at Sheffield’s Hillsborough Stadium, in

and their compatibility with the stadium design. Public or

the UK. The Lord Justice Taylor Report followed,

private investors must share the same view of the purpose

with a subsequent new edition of the Safety

of the stadium and how it will benefit the local community.

at Sports Grounds Act 1990 and additional

If any of these matters are fudged or left unresolved, or if

tightening of the certification system under the

priorities are put in the wrong order, the stadium is likely

Football Supporters Act 1989 which established

to have a very clouded future. Chapters 8 and 23 deal with

the Football Licensing Authority. The soccer

some of the above aspects in more detail.

administrators also reacted by setting up the Football Stadia Advisory Design Council in 1991.

1.3.4 stadium safety

1985:

riot at the Heysel Stadium, in Belgium.

Safety is such a crucial aspect of the successful stadium that a few paragraphs must be devoted to this subject. Wherever

38 people died and 100 were injured in a crowd

1985:

10 people died and 70 were injured in a crush

crowds gather, particularly in a context of intense emotion,

when crowds tried to enter after kickoff through

as is the case with sport, mishaps are possible. The wooden

a tunnel which was locked at Mexico University Stadium, in Mexico.

stands of the Constantinople Stadium, home to Roman chariot races, were burnt down by spectators in 491 ad, 498

1985:

56 people died and many were badly burnt in

507 ad and finally in 532 ad, when Justinian the Great lost

a fire at Valley Parade Stadium, in Bradford,

his patience and called in the army to restore order, leading

UK. The Popplewell Inquiry followed, with

to an estimated 30,000 deaths.

a subsequent increase in powers under the

ad,

existing Safety at Sports Grounds Act. A partial list of recent disasters includes the following:

1982:

340 people were reported to have died in a crush at Lenin Stadium, in Russia.

1996:

83 people were killed and between 127 and 180

1979:

Stadium, Cincinnati, USA.

City when soccer fans stampeded before a FIFA World Cup qualifying match. Angry fans kicked

1992:

11 people died and many were injured after a surge into a tunnel at a pop concert at Riverfront

people were injured in a stadium in Guatemala 1971:

66 people died after a soccer match at Ibrox Park

down an entrance door, causing spectators

Stadium, in Glasgow, UK. The Wheatley Report

inside to cascade down onto the lower levels.

followed, with the subsequent Safety at Sports

17 people were killed in Corsica when a temporary grandstand collapsed in a French Cup semi-final match between Bastia and Marseille.

Grounds Act 1975 based upon its findings. 1964:

340 people died and 500 were injured after a referee disallowed a goal by the home team in a soccer match in Lima, Peru.

02

The fuTure

2.1

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STADIUM AS A BUILDING TYPE

2.2

ECONOMICS OF STADIA

2.3

STADIUM TECHNOLOGY

2.4

ERGONOMICS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

2.5

WHAT IS THE FUTURE FOR THE STADIUM?

2.1

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STADIUM AS A BUILDING TYPE

Stadia are amazing buildings. They can shape our towns and cities more than almost any other building type in history, and at the same time place a community on the map. They have become an essential ingredient of the urban matrix that binds our cities together. They are arguably the most viewed building type in history thanks to the Olympics and other global sporting events. They can change people’s lives and often represent a nation’s aspirations. They can be very expensive buildings, but equally they can generate substantial revenues. In the 21st century, the global financial power of sport in general is increasing as sport becomes the world’s first truly global cultural activity. Stadia, the buildings that accommodate sport, are becoming among the most important buildings any city of the future can build, partly because of their power as an urban planning tool. In the last 150 years, sport has been codified and professionalised. At the same time there has been a dramatic process of urbanisation, with populations moving from the country to the city. With this social shift there has been an equally dramatic rise in the popularity of sport, perhaps as a consequence of this new urban society. Stadia are also a key ingredient in the marketing of cities and even nations. Look at the tourist impact on Athens for the 2004 Olympic Games, for example. It was reported there were as many as 1.9 million overnight stays during the event. Stadia have evolved into a building type with all the elements needed to The village stadium concept from Populous reinterprets the typical cityscape of hot dry countries to include a stadium as a cultural hub. Combining modern technology and traditional ideas it creates a low-energy arena that responds to the climate, culture and evolving city. Architects: Populous

sustain independent city life, including residential, commercial, retail and leisure. These all work together with the other services and transport infrastructure required to make these stadium cities thrive. 2.2

ECONOMICS OF STADIA

Despite their huge public profile, stadia are not without their problems. Owners and operators are very aware of the shortcomings of past generations of stadia: how they have sometimes been difficult to manage without a huge and expensive workforce,

21

STADIA

The fuTure

chapter 2

Playing area

Support facilities

Additional facilities

Primary

Secondary

Primary

Secondary

Primary

Secondary

Soccer

Concerts

Restaurant

Banquets

Health club

Offices

Tennis

Conventions

Bar

Parties

Other sports

Retail

Rugby

Exhibitions

Private box

Meetings

Hotel

Cinemas

Cricket

Other sports

Lounges

Conventions

Sports retail

Residential

Note: The above are only broad indications of options to be investigated. For actual design it will be necessary to undertake detailed studies using specialist advisers. Table 2.1

Possible multi-purpose uses of sports stadia

22

and how they have been limited in their flexibility. More

It is possible that clubs wishing to improve

recently, many of these issues have been resolved. There

their grounds might act more aggressively as developers.

are now few major stadia under development which don’t

They may finance new facilities by selling surplus land or

include experienced people in their design teams.

by becoming more commercial, as Arsenal Football Club,

To spread the construction and maintenance

in London, did when they developed Emirates Stadium

costs across more than one sport or club some stadia

(see Case studies). Recently, some sports clubs have joined

have  dual owners or tenants. Ownership issues resulting

forces with non-sports tenants so that sport becomes just

from  this co-habitation have been addressed – sometimes

one element in a mix of activities. Good management of

very successfully. In the UK town of Huddersfield, for

these mixed venues can increase revenue by exploiting each

example, soccer and rugby combine happily in the Galpharm

part of the facility for more than one purpose, a strategy

Stadium. Even London’s new Wembley Stadium (see Case

sometimes referred to as multi-use. Table 2.1 shows some

studies) has been designed for soccer, rugby and athletics,

possible combinations of sports and commercial uses.

as well as  music concerts. The facilities in huge stadia like

The key to all these approaches, if they are to be

Wembley, with its extensive private suites, corporate boxes

successful in the long term, is creative management. Stadia

and large restaurants, allow financially lucrative events to

management is becoming recognised as a specialist field all

be  staged. More recently, Aviva Stadium, in Dublin, was

over the world, and sporting venues are now beginning to

made possible when rugby and soccer agreed to jointly

attract the very best employees. New ideas are emerging such

use the venue.

as added-value tickets which encourage the whole family

In the USA, the idea of multi-purpose, rather

to attend by including meals, bus rides to the stadium, and

than sport-specific stadia is not very popular, mainly because

signed programmes. Family enclosures, which have gained

the principal sports – American football and baseball – are so

popularity in the UK, are also a relatively new but important

different in pitch form and layout. There are also economic

trend. Child-minding facilities, baby-changing rooms, family

factors at play. Sponsorship and naming rights revenues

cinemas, museums, cafés, restaurants and children’s play

are so high in the USA that it makes business sense to

areas are also finding their way into the modern stadium.

have different stadia for different sports. How else could a

The bottom line is that any facility which

developer justify building a stadium for American football

attracts a wider cross-section of spectator, and keeps them

that features as few as eight home games per season?

entertained for longer, should eventually reap financial

The fuTure

chapter 2

rewards. It is through a policy of inclusion that the spectators

better information to spectators is essential to maintain

of tomorrow will be created.

attendance at live events. Ticket prices are increasing, and

STADIA

there is more competition for our leisure time. It is possible 2.3

to sit at home and watch sports events on TV, often free

STADIUM TECHNOLOGY

In the global village, sport is becoming a common social

of charge. The old argument that only the major events

currency that everyone, everywhere can trade in and

are televised is no longer true; cable and satellite television

understand. Technology is helping to revolutionise this global

have changed that theory forever as more and more sport

village, particularly sport. We expect races to be timed to

is televised. Sport is still comparatively cheap to produce for

hundredths of a second, blood samples to be analysed down

TV and almost always finds an audience. It is now possible

to particles per million, instant video play-backs, optional

to broadcast channels dedicated to one sports club. Digital

camera positions on television, and computer-generated

streaming over the internet is also having an impact. Live sport needs to compete with TV on equal

images to determine if a ball is in or out. However, what we have seen so far is just

terms. As well as offering facilities at the stadium that are

the tip of the technological iceberg. Sport is benefiting

as comfortable, convenient and safe as those in spectators’

from improved, faster, and safer construction techniques,

homes, it must also offer information equal in range and quality

allowing lightweight opening roofs, moving seating tiers and

to that provided by professional broadcasters. Replays and

playing fields, and replaceable grass cricket wickets. The

information about athletes and previous matches should be

dividing line between natural grass and synthetic playing

automatic, but so should highlights of other events, match

surfaces is becoming blurred. A hybrid of both types is now

statistics, expert commentary, and perhaps even revenue-

possible thanks to plastic-mesh root reinforcement, plastic

generating advertisements. Called narrowcasting, this

turf support, and plastic granular growing surfaces with

information can be broadcast via the stadium’s closed-circuit

computer-controlled nutrient injection. New hybrid grass

television (CCTV) network, not just to large video screens,

types require less light, grow faster, and are far more robust.

but also individually to each spectator. It was once thought

The quality of synthetic grass is now so high that it has been

these receivers would become part of the stadium fabric by

accepted under certain conditions for top-class soccer.

being built into seat-backs, but now many people can receive

These advances allow a greater number of different types

the same broadcasting through their smart phones. Press the

of events to take place on the same pitch, making the venue

button marked ‘statistics’, and key in your favourite player’s

more financially viable and able to justify greater capital cost.

name; press ‘action’, type in the date of the match, and see

Sightlines, crowd flows and environmental

the highlights of his match-winning performance two years

comfort for the 21st-century stadium are all calculated and

ago. The horse-racing industry already uses this technology,

designed on computer, and the creation of three-dimensional

possibly because of the large betting revenues at stake.

virtual models of these buildings is critical. The latter are now

Interactive websites are also developing quickly. Wimbledon

an indispensable tool allowing design teams to communicate

has worked closely with IBM to establish one of the most

effectively with owners and future spectators, showing them

sophisticated websites in sport, including interactive apps for

the exact view they will enjoy from certain seats.

spectators that guide them around the club grounds.

Advances

in

technology

allow

officials

Technology

is

also

revolutionising

the

to measure results extremely accurately, but also to

management of stadia. Conventional turnstiles are evolving

communicate these results to the stadium spectators just

into more user-friendly control systems, but still have

as quickly as if they were watching on TV at home. There is

some way to go before they are likely to be considered

no guarantee that future generations will find live sport as

welcoming. The ideal would be an entrance linked to the

attractive as the present generation, and the move to provide

stadium computer system, looking more like an airport X-ray

23

STADIA

24

The fuTure

chapter 2

machine. Details on the spectators’ tickets would be scanned,

Tomorrow’s stadia will be places of entertainment

giving them access to different areas of the grounds and

for the family where sport is the focus, but not the complete

entitling them to other benefits. Monitors would then scan

picture. It will be possible for five members of a family to

the ticket at each access or sales point. If the pass was invalid

arrive and leave together, but to experience five different

for any reason, a warning would sound and the ticket-holder

activities in the intervening period. While the parents watch

would be advised where to go to seek help. Automatic

the live game, their children might experience it in the virtual-

barriers would close if the unauthorised spectator attempted

reality studio where images from pitch-side cameras provide

to proceed any further. The stadium’s computer would also

immediate action. One concept under development is a

store key information on the spectators attending, including

flexible village stadium where the traditional town square,

age, sex, address and event preferences. From this database

with all its cafés, restaurants and shops, can be converted

of information, the stadium management could then form a

into a stadium using retractable, folding seating tiers. These

precise profile of who attends which events, allowing them

would be moved out of the way for most of the year, and

to target exact socio-economic groups for future events. This

only brought out for event use, allowing the stadium and the

demographic information is essential for future marketing

heart of a town centre to share the same space (Chapter

and critical for the economic survival of the venue.

frontispiece).

2.4

2.5

ERGONOMICS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

WHAT IS THE FUTURE FOR THE STADIUM?

Technology is being used to improve spectators’ comfort

Will the stadium be the ideal forum for sport in the future?

levels when they are at the stadium, controlling aspects

Or will new sports emerge that are better suited to other

of the environment such as temperature, humidity and air

building forms? In recent years a number of sporting events

movement more accurately. The increasing use of retractable

have evolved that do not require a stadium at all; extreme

roofs (see Section 5.8) forms part of this trend.

sports, for example, that require outdoor spaces and which

The design of the seats themselves is also more focused on the ergonomics of spectators. Padded seats

are ideal for TV broadcast. Completely new sports have emerged such as the Ironman triathlon.

and arm-rests are becoming more common. The size of

However, for all the popularity of events that do

the average spectator is also increasing. Seat spacing and

not require a stadium, there is no indication that the public

access to seating rows must cater for this. There are now

is losing its appetite for attending live sport. The majority

extra facilities for all the family to enjoy as well as other

of professional sports are continuing to grow, leading to a

entertainment areas for those not committed to the game.

continued growth in investment in new venues of increasing

Stadia will eventually include every type of facility from

comfort and sophistication.

business centres to bowling alleys, similar to the facilities found in international airports or shopping malls. Attractions will be designed to encourage spectators to arrive early and stay on after the match has finished – perhaps even sleeping overnight in the stadium hotel.

03

masterplanning

3.1

THE NEED FOR A MASTERPLAN AT ALL SPORTS GROUNDS

3.2

ORIENTATION OF PLAY

3.3

ZONING OF THE VENUE

3.4

EVENT OVERLAY – WHAT NEEDS TO BE ADDED TO HOLD THE EVENT

3.5

SECURITY AGAINST TERRORISM

3.6

STADIA IN THE CITY

3.1

THE NEED FOR A MASTERPLAN AT ALL SPORTS GROUNDS

3.1.1

BASIC PRINCIPLES

Sports complexes are often constructed over a period of years (or even decades) for reasons of finance, natural growth or land availability. To ensure that the ultimate development is consistent both aesthetically and functionally, and to avoid abortive work, a comprehensive plan for the entire development should be completed at the very outset. This allows successive phases of the development to be carried out by different committees or boards over a period of time in the safe knowledge that their particular phase will be consistent with the whole. Figure 3.1 shows a plan of the masterplan for the London Olympics as it was during the 2012 Games, which can be compared to the frontispiece showing the proposed reconfiguration after the Games are over. These diagrams show how important it is to think ahead and plan for the legacy of all venues. The art of planning large stadium sites hinges on the correct zoning of the available land and the various facilities that have to be accommodated within the site boundaries. These facilities include not only the direct sporting functions, but also very substantial parking areas, pedestrian and vehicle routes, etc. 3.1.2

SEQUENCE OF DECISIONS

All design decisions on the site layout should be set out using the following determining factors. The London Olympic Park as it will look after the Games. Much of the installation for the Games is temporary and after the event this will be replaced by permanent housing. Masterplan designed by Populous, EDAW, Allies and Morrison, Foreign Office Architects, Hargreaves, LDA design.

PITCH, PLAYING AREA, CENTRAL ZONE

The starting point of design is the central playing field – the performance area. Its shape, dimensions and orientation must enable it to fulfill all the functions required of it. Surprisingly, not all established sports have clearly defined dimensions to work to (see Chapter 7).

27

28

Figure 3.1 The masterplan for the London Olympics as it was during the 2012 Games. Masterplan designed by Populous, EDAW, Allies and Morrison, Foreign Office Architects, Hargreaves, LDA design.



masterplanning

chapter 3

SEATING CAPACITY

Stadia that are completely roofed or with large closing roofs

Next comes the seating capacity. If the pitch is to be of

can obviously be more flexible in their orientation.

staDia

variable size in order to cater for very different activities, then the design capacity should be stated as two figures: the

3.2.2

number of seats around the maximum pitch size (perhaps

In Europe, soccer and rugby are played during the autumn

soccer or athletics) and the maximum capacity around

and winter months, usually in the early afternoon. This means

the smallest space user (perhaps the performers in a pop

the sun is low in the sky and moving from south-south-west

concert, or a boxing ring). The stadium owners will have very

to west. An ideal orientation for the playing area is to have its

strong views on seating capacities as these form the basis of

longitudinal axis running north–south, or perhaps northwest–

their profitability calculations.

southeast. In this way, the sun will be at the side of the stadium

SOCCER AND RUGBY

during play, and the early morning sun will fall on the greatest ORIENTATION OF PLAY

area of the pitch, thus helping thaw any frost in the ground

Pitch orientation must be suitable for the events to be staged

before play commences. Figure 3.2 summarises the situation.

(see Section 3.2), and the masterplan must be structured

The sun should be at the side of the pitch

around this. Whilst there are established norms for the

during play. This suits the players, the spectators and the TV

orientation of playing areas, there are many exceptions to

camera-men, none of whom wish to look directly into a low,

the rule, so exploring a number of options is always worth

setting sun.

the effort. 3.2.3

ATHLETICS

ZONING

In Europe, track and field sports take place mostly during

Finally, all the elements of the stadium – from the pitch at the

the summer and autumn months. Runners and hurdlers

centre, to the parking spaces outside – must be planned with

approaching the finishing line should not have the sun in their

safety zoning in mind, as explained in Section 3.3. This helps

eyes; nor, ideally, should spectators. The ideal orientation

define activities in what will eventually become a complex

in the northern hemisphere is for the longitudinal axis of

layout of buildings and functions.

the track to run 15 degrees west of north (Figure 3.2). The same applies to the stadium which should be situated on the

3.2

ORIENTATION OF PLAY

3.2.1

DESIGN FACTORS

same side as the home straight, and as close to the finish line

as possible. Sometimes it is difficult to achieve the above

The orientation of the playing field will depend on the sports hosted there. The following factors need to be considered:

track orientations while also conforming with the requirements for wind direction. Where possible, alternative directions

• The hemisphere in which the stadium is located.

should therefore be provided for running, jumping and

• The period of the year in which the designated sports will

throwing events. If world records are to be considered,

be played.

shielding from winds may be a necessity.

• The times of day these events will be played. • Specific local environmental conditions such as wind

3.2.4

TENNIS

direction as well as the amount of enclosure surrounding

The longitudinal axis of the court should run in a north–south

the playing field.

direction. A divergence of up to 22 degrees in either direction is acceptable; 45 degrees is the absolute limit. If matches are

All the advice below applies to open stadia in temperate

to be played in early morning or late evening, the orientation

zones in the northern hemisphere, and readers should make

becomes more critical.

the necessary adjustments for stadia in other situations.

29

STADIA

mASTerplAnnIng

chapter 3

Zone 1:

Figure 3.2 Recommended pitch orientations in northern Europe for principal sports. The underlying principle is that runners in athletics and sportsmen in ball games should never have late afternoon sun in their eyes.

N

The activity area: the central area and/or pitch on which the sport takes place.

Zone 2

The spectator terraces.

Zone 3:

The concourses surrounding the activity area.

Zone 4:

The circulation area surrounding the stadium structure and separating it from the outer security line.

Zone 5:

The open space outside the outer security line, separating it from the car parks.

The purpose of such zoning is to allow spectators to escape from their seats in an emergency to a series of intermediate 15

-20

45

30 30

0

safety zones, leading ultimately to a place of permanent safety outside. It provides a clear and helpful framework for design, not only for new stadia, but also for the refurbishment of existing facilities.

75

A tragic example is provided by the fire which took 56 lives at the Valley Parade Stadium in Bradford, UK, in 1985. The stand was an old one, built of timber framing and steps. On May 11th, 1985, a fire started in the accumulated litter under the steps and spread rapidly through the structure. Most spectators fled from the stands (Zone 2) to the open pitch (Zone 1), and were safe. However, many made their way back through the stand towards the gates by which they had entered. Because there was no Zone 3 or 4 in the stadium, these gates formed the perimeter between the stadium and the outside world. Management had taken the view that

Best common axis of operation for many sports

these gates needed to be secure – therefore the escaping

Range acceptable for football and rugby

spectators found them locked. Many people were trapped

Best range of track and field pitch games

here, killed by the fire and smoke. Two lessons came out of this experience, one for managers and one for designers: • Managers must ensure that gates offering escape from

3.3

ZONING OF THE VENUE

the spectator terraces to places of safety are manned at

3.3.1

PLANNING FOR SAFETY

all times when the stadium is in use, and easily opened to

The next priority is to plan the position of the stadium on the

allow spectators to escape in an emergency.

site, and to start thinking about the relationship between its

• The stadium needs to be designed on the assumption

main areas. This is best done by identifying the five zones

that management is not foolproof. There should, where

which make up the safety plan (Figure 3.3). The size and

possible, be a Zone 4 within the outer perimeter to which

location of these zones are critical to the performance of the

spectators can escape and where they will be safe even if

stadium in an emergency.

the perimeter gates are locked.

Zone two: The spectator seating and standing areas

Internal concourse Seating

Zone three: The internal concourses, restaurants, bars and other social areas

Field of play Zone One



masterplanning

Zone Four: The circulation area between the stadium structure and the perimeter fence

Zone Two

Zone five: The open space outside the perimeter fence chapter 3 staDia

Zone Three

Zone Four

Zone Five

Careful preparations are needed for disabled spectators – particularly those in wheelchairs – in case of emergency. They are by far the most onerous user group in these

Figure 3.3 Zoning diagram showing the five safety zones which form the basis for a safe stadium.

circumstances. See Chapter 10. More detailed design notes follow below. 3.3.2

ZONE 5

Internal concourse Seating

The stadium will often be surrounded to a certain degree by car parking, bus parking and access to public transport. The car parks (well-designed, to avoid bleakness and confusing layout) should ideally be evenly distributed around the

Field of play Zone One

stadium so that spectators can park their cars on the same side of the stadium as their seats. Between this ring of transport areas and the

Zone Two Zone Three

stadium security perimeter there should be a vehicle-free

Zone Four

zone, usually described as Zone 5, which can serve several useful purposes:

Zone Five

• This area is deemed to be a permanent safety zone to which spectators can escape from inside the venue via Zones 3 and 4. They can safely remain there until the emergency has been dealt with. It should be possible to accommodate most of the stadium population here at a density of around four to six people per square metre. Surrounding roads can also be used as part of this calculation, provided direct and easy access is possible. • From the point of view of everyday circulation, Zones 4 or 5 provide a belt of space in which spectators can

Zone one: The playing field Zone two: The spectator seating and standing areas Zone three: The internal concourses, restaurants, bars and other social areas Zone Four: The circulation area between the stadium structure and the perimeter fence Zone five: The open space outside the perimeter fence

circumnavigate the stadium to get from one entrance gate to another, assuming their first choice of gate was wrong

To serve this social function, and to maximise the revenue

(see Section 14.3.1). Every effort should be made to ensure

generation, the surface and its fittings (kiosks, information

that people are directed from their cars (or other points of

boards etc) should be pleasantly designed. Clients now

arrival) to the appropriate gate for their particular seat, but

recognise how important it is to welcome their spectators

mistakes will always be made and there should be an easy

with appropriate facilities.

route round the stadium to allow for this. Modern stadium

·• Zone 5 can also serve as a pleasantly landscaped buffer

management tends to allow spectators into any gate at

zone between the event and the outside world. Stadium

the venue. More circulation inside the stadium minimises

performances – whether they are sport, music or general

the need for external circulation.

entertainment – are essentially escapist. Their enjoyment

• Retail points, meeting points and information boards can also very usefully be located in this zone of open space.

can be heightened by visually disconnecting the audience from the outside world.

31 31

STADIA

mASTerplAnnIng

chapter 3

3.3.3

ZONE 4

prevent people entering the field of play, but this barrier

The stadium perimeter forms a security line across which

must not impede people needing to flee from a fire or other

no one can pass without a valid ticket. Between this line of

emergency. This must be designed with both crowd control

control and the actual stadium structure is Zone 4, which may

and free movement in mind.

have two functions: 3.3.6

ZONE 1

• It is a place of temporary safety to which spectators can

The pitch or event space forms the very centre of the stadium.

escape directly from the stadium, and from which they can

Along with Zone 4 it can serve the additional purpose of being

then proceed to permanent safety in Zone 5. It is therefore

a place of temporary safety, under the following conditions:

a form of reservoir between Zones 3 and 5. If the pitch

32

(Zone 1) is not designated as a temporary safety zone, then

• The escape routes from the seating areas to the pitch

Zone 4 should be large enough to accommodate most

must be suitably designed. For example, escape will not

of the stadium population at a density of four people per

be an easy matter if there is a barrier separating pitch and

square metre. But if Zone 1 is a temporary safety zone, Zone

seating terraces (see Chapter 9).

4 may be reduced appropriately. In all cases, the number

• The surface material of the pitch must be taken into

of exit gates, and their dimensions, need to allow fast, easy

account. The heat in the Valley Parade Stadium fire

access from one zone to another (see Section 14.6).

(mentioned above) was so intense that the clothing of

• When it comes to everyday circulation, Zone 4 is the main

police and spectators standing on the grass pitch ignited.

circumnavigation route for people inside the stadium perimeter

Had the pitch been covered with a synthetic material, that

– those who have had their tickets checked at control points.

too might have ignited. These matters must be discussed

Urban stadia that sit within the tight constraints of a city

with the fire authorities at design stage. It is crucial that

grid will sometimes need to consider special management

management do not change the pitch surface years later

techniques when this zone is not of the ideal size.

without being aware of the safety implications.

3.3.4

ZONE 3

3.3.7

BARRIERS BETWEEN ZONES

This comprises the stadium’s internal concourses and social

In all cases, the number of exit gates, and their dimensions,

areas (restaurants, bars etc.) and is situated between Zones

must allow quick and easy access from one zone to another.

2 and 4. Spectators must pass through this zone in order to

Fortunately, the advent of digital wireless technology now allows

reach a final place of safety (Zones 4 or 5). For this reason,

control points within a venue to be automated where they are

this zone, or the circulation areas within it, are often designed

left permanently open unless a valid ticket is not received. The

with a good level of fire safety so that large numbers of

principles of gate design are discussed in a later section.

people can move through them without risk. 3.3.5

ZONE 2

3.4

EVENT OVERLAY – WHAT NEEDS TO BE



ADDED TO HOLD THE EVENT

This comprises the viewing terraces around the performance

At stadia there is normally a regular schedule of events

area. In many cases the greatest danger comes from the

throughout the year. Sometimes, in addition to these,

building behind the terraces, so the seating terraces are seen

infrequent but larger events are hosted. For example, a club

as a place where spectators can stay in relative safety.

soccer ground will stage its annual league matches, but it

There may be a ticket check between Zones

might also bid to hold an international cup final that comes to

2 and 3, where stewards guide people to their seat. There

the stadium once every few years. Such a match will attract

will often be a barrier at the edge of the arena (Zone 1) to

more spectators, more media and more sponsors for whom



masterplanning

chapter 3

it is not worth constructing permanent accommodation.

• Additional security. High-profile events often require

Temporary arrangements need to be made; this is called an

greater security measures, and more space to search

overlay (see Section 5.2.2).

spectators, for example.

In order for the overlay to be accounted for in

• Temporary media areas with space for TV broadcast

the masterplan, designers need some idea of the events to be

vehicles, journalists, associated dining, electrical generators

hosted. In general, an infrequent event at a stadium is likely

etc. TV satellite vehicles require a view of the sky where the

to require more space, certainly outside the building and

satellite is located.

possibly also inside. Some of the temporary areas that might be needed are:

staDia

• Additional back-of-house areas. The need for facilities such as extra offices, waste rooms, storage and ticketing should not be forgotten.

• Additional space for larger crowds to arrive at the stadium. This might be more car parking, wider access routes, more

These areas will require space around the stadium. The

bus drop-off areas and increased ticket checking, possibly

best method is to keep the areas partly flexible and

including bag searching.

non-specific so that they do not constrain the layout of

• Sponsors’ advertising, additional catering, sales areas

temporary accommodation. Every major event has different

and visitor attractions. Some major events even feature

requirements, and the overlay for each event is likely to

activities for visitors who come along but do not actually

change over time.

watch the main event.

Figure 3.4 An aerial view of the proposed masterplan of the Youth Olympics in Nanjing, China.

33

STADIA

mASTerplAnnIng

chapter 3

SECURITY AGAINST TERRORISM

and the cities they occupy. It has been suggested that many

Unfortunately, in recent years it has become necessary to

cities are interested in new stadia and arena developments

consider that high-profile sports activities might become the

as catalysts for urban regeneration and the development of

target of terrorists. The actual likelihood of a terrorist attack,

entertainment districts. The mass popularity of sports, and

and the possible methods employed, are best known by

the close relationship between civic identity and local teams,

the police who should be consulted at an early stage. The

makes the construction of sports facilities an important tool

security arrangements of the building should be tailored

for promoting public and private spending.

3.5

around their advice. In general, lines for security cordons can be

3.6.2

STADIA AND TOURISM

drawn around the sports building, firstly for vehicles further

Stadia developments have been proven to stimulate economic

away from the stadium, and secondly for spectators as they

regeneration in cities such as the Lobo area of Denver when

have their tickets checked. The cordons will require space for

Coors Field was built, and in the docklands area of Melbourne

searching of spectators and their belongings.

when the Telstra Dome (see Case studies) was constructed. Sports stadia are now accepted as a key component of

34

For more detail on these matters, see Chapter 6.

the leisure industry in general. Local, regional and national governments are increasingly realising that stadia can play a

3.6

STADIA IN THE CITY

vital role in the economic and social wealth of the community

3.6.1

PLANNING A CITY AROUND SPORT

in which they are located.

At an early stage, as well as the stadium layout, it is important

An essential feature of a city’s ability to host a

to consider the place the venue occupies in its town or city.

major league sports team, or indeed a primary sporting event

Stadia can create a vibrant image for their host towns. At

or festival, is the provision of modern stadia. There has been

their best they can even be used as part of the tourism

considerable development in such facilities throughout the

infrastructure and appeal.

USA, with the public sector recognising the economic value

The actual events in the stadium attract visitors,

of stadia.

but these landmark buildings also act as magnets, drawing

A good example of a new stadium being

people to them. For example, visitor attractions, sport

integrated into the wider urban planning of a city was in

museums and halls of fame can increase a stadium’s market

Baltimore, USA, where Oriole Park, designed by Populous,

appeal. The success of the Populous-designed Galpharm

was used to anchor the south side of the city’s waterfront

Stadium, in the UK town of Huddersfield, with its blue roof

regeneration scheme. This turned the derelict Camden Yards

and exciting shapes, had a major impact on the city itself, as

docklands into an extension of a thriving entertainment and

did the Toronto Skydome in a much larger way in Canada.

tourist district, creating a landmark in destination marketing.

Images of these venues appear in tourist brochures. TV

The high-rise buildings of downtown Baltimore can be seen

coverage of major events such as the FIFA World Cup and

towering over the stadium, giving spectators a view of the

the Olympic Games have brought images of dramatic and

city’s commercial and economic centre. Around 1.6 million

often aesthetically memorable stadia into the living rooms

fans (nearly half of all fans) hail from out of town, often staying

of millions of people. In fact, many people who will never

overnight in the Baltimore area. Nearly a quarter of them

visit a city might form an impression of the place based on

come from outside of the Washington DC area altogether.

the stadium. Beijing’s Olympic Stadium, the Bird’s Nest, is a good example.

This ability to generate secondary spending in and around the stadium is a critical factor. Spending on

Research has been carried out on stadia tourism

merchandise inside the facility, together with spending in

in North America, reviewing the relationships between stadia

hotels, restaurants, petrol stations and local shops outside



masterplanning

chapter 3

the facility, has a marked effect on operating profits, but also

should be considered at the masterplanning stage to ensure

boosts the local economy, typically multiplying the original

the venue is easily accessible and welcoming.

staDia

level of spending by five or six times. In the case of Baltimore, more than 40 per cent of all fans going to games combine

3.6.4

THE WIDER POTENTIAL

their trip with business or other leisure pursuits. As a result,



OF THE SPORTS MASTERPLAN

spending exceeded predictions by as much as 300 per cent,

In the USA, there is great earning potential for stadia because

with increases in hotel, restaurant and other trades. Moreover,

Americans have a narrow range of sporting interests

when compared with the previous Memorial Stadium, 80 per

compared to Europeans, with a large cross-section of people

cent of fans indicated that they were more likely to spend

following and participating in fewer sports. Consequently, the

time in the stadium area before and after games. Stadia

economic rewards of major sporting activities have stimulated

are important features in the overall image of a city. Their

considerable development of new facilities over the past 20

locations need to be carefully considered.

years. The public sector has recognised that investment in





stadia helps the local community, and it accepts that stadia 3.6.3

THE STADIUM AS AN ATTRACTION

can rarely be expected to make a profit. There is also an

The commercial and cultural potential of a successful stadium

increasing recognition in municipal and state governments

has been likened to a sleeping giant, capable of making a

that new facility development – or refurbishment of existing

significant contribution to its neighbourhood, city or region

facilities – is essential in attracting and retaining major league

as an all-year-round attraction.

sport, and that the political risk involved in not investing in

The Welsh capital, Cardiff, has the 72,000-

facilities is outweighed by economic gains to the community.

capacity Millennium Stadium. Since its opening in 1999 to host

However, if contemporary stadia are to realise

the Rugby World Cup, it has become a recognised driver of

their potential, their management becomes as critical as their

visits to the city. The stadium hosts international team sports,

planning. Their economic survival relies on stadia designers

world championship speedway, rock concerts, and was even

and operators understanding user demands, and optimising

the venue for a major rally racing competition in 2005. In

revenue. This is reflected in a shift towards the privatisation

addition, following the closure of London’s Wembley Stadium

of the management of facilities. Management interests are

for its rebuild, Millennium Stadium hosted FA Cup Finals, as

now involved in the conceptual and masterplanning process

well as soccer league play-offs. These matches earned more

– essential if the stadium’s capital and real estate assets are

than £25 million for the city’s economy and attracted over

to be realised. Stadia are regarded as a microcosm of the

half a million visitors a year.

hospitality industry, reflecting trends in the social and cultural

The stadium as a venue for non-sporting events

leisure environment.

is a logical step, making use of the extensive infrastructure in

Whether they are locations for great sporting

their masterplanning. The site needs to be in an appropriate

events, host venues for other attractions, or simply cathedrals

setting and, over the years, it will become steeped in the

with architectural appeal, stadia are an important part of our

history of the events that have played there. The potential of

towns and cities. Just like great heritage buildings, stadia are

a stadium as an attractive venue for other events will depend

becoming defining images of a place or a moment in time.

on its location, its catchment area and the nature of the sport played there. For stadium owners who wish to generate additional revenue from corporate entertaining, product launches, meetings and conferences, it is important they involve the local community and business groups in events as much as possible. This type of external communication

35

04

ExtErnal planning

4.1

Location

4.2

transportation

4.3

provision of parking

4.4

stadium Landscaping

4.1

Location

4.1.1

past and current trends

Traditionally the sports stadium was a modest facility with a capacity of perhaps a few hundred, serving a small local community and forming part of the social fabric along with the churches, town halls and drinking houses. As communities grew larger and more mobile, with ordinary people able and willing to travel great distances to follow their favourite sports, stadia became larger. Much of the new capacity was needed specifically for visiting spectators. The multitudes of away team supporters created problems in crowd control for which local communities, their police forces and stadium managers were not adequately prepared. We tend to think of this as a recent problem, but it goes back many decades. Evidence can be found in any book of social history, or in an account such as this which describes events at an aircraft show in France, in 1933, and was written by the famous architectural visionary Le Corbusier:

along the track . . . were returning coaches. We conscientiously demolished them with stones. We had broken everything breakable in our own train. The trains that followed, hastily pressed into service and waiting behind us in a straggling queue, were inspired by our methods. We also demolished the signals. Towards four o’clock the massed officials of the suburbs mobilised the firemen to intimidate us . . . the mob, one knows, generally becomes inspired when it is necessary to take action. As our train did not leave and other trains arrived in the night, filled with would-be spectators The ANZ Stadium Sydney from the boulevard of the Olympic Park during the 2000 games. Architects: Populous with Bligh Voller Nield.

. . . we set to work to demolish the station. The station at Juvisy was a big one. The waiting rooms went first, then the station-master’s office . . . Even allowing for the habitual hyperbole of the author, it shows that the destructive impulse which may arise in crowds of otherwise civilised sporting fans is, alas, nothing new.

37

STADIA

chapter 4

ExTErnAl PlAnnIng

Crowd control proceeded on a trial-and-error basis, and

to show a profit. Recovering their vast development costs

many mistakes were made. But nowadays we have a more

would have been problematical anyway, but there were two

systematic understanding which can be applied to both

aggravating factors. First, TV coverage had improved to the

the design of stadia and their management. The lessons for

point where people could stay at home and follow the action

stadium design are incorporated in the various chapters of

very satisfactorily in their living rooms; and second, the stadia

this book; but an additional response has been a locational

of the late 1970s and early 1980s were all too often barren

one – to move major stadia away from town centres to open

places with little by way of spectator comforts. There was also a growing number of violent

land on town peripheries.

incidents in various parts of the world (resulting from crowd Large out-of-town stadia

misbehaviour, fire or structural collapse) which probably

A major trend of the 1960s and 1970s was the building of large

reinforced people’s growing preference to watch from the

stadia on out-of-town locations where crowds – whether

comfort and safety of their living rooms.

well or badly behaved – would create less disturbance to the 38

everyday lives of people not attending events. Such locations

Large in-town stadia

would also reduce land costs and increase ease of access

The next significant step in the development of the stadium

by private car. The largest developments of this kind

occurred in 1989 with the opening of the Toronto Skydome

are to be seen in Germany, where advantage was taken

in Ontario, Canada. The public authorities in Toronto had

of post-war reconstruction opportunities, and in the USA,

recognised the problems of out-of-town sites and decided

where high personal mobility and the availability of open land

to take a brave step by building their new stadium in the very

made it easier to locate stadia away from the communities

centre of their lake-side city.

they were meant to serve and provide the amount of car

The stadium is within walking distance of most

parking required. Leading examples of a cross-section of

of the city centre and uses much of the transport and social

types include:

infrastructure of Toronto. Managers had learned the lesson of poorly serviced facilities so they incorporated many spectator

• The Astrodome at Houston (1964), a dome stadium

services designed to enhance comfort and security.

designed for both American football and baseball.

But in spite of all these efforts, and an ingenious

• The Arrowhead and Royals Stadia at Kansas City (see

funding arrangement, Skydome’s financial viability has

Case studies) (1973), a complex which provides separate

unfortunately proved no better than previous attempts. (See

dedicated facilities for the two sports – the Arrowhead

Section 1.1.2.)

Stadium for baseball, and the Royals Stadium for American football.

current trends

• The Allianz Arena in Munich, Germany (2005), a later

In Britain, following an inquiry by Lord Justice Taylor into

example, but also used by two local teams – both soccer

the disaster at the Hillsborough Stadium, in Sheffield (where

(see Case studies).

95 people died in a crowd surge), there was a formal report recommending major changes to sports stadia to improve

These stadia tended to cater for a variety of activities to

their safety. This document has caused many British clubs

make them financially viable. They had huge spectator

to question whether it is better to redevelop their existing,

capacities, and were surrounded by acres of car parking.

mostly in-town grounds rather than relocating to new sites

They were built in a period when spectator sports were

out of town with all the transport and planning problems

attracting markedly increased followings, probably owing

entailed. Existing in-town sites have the advantages of being

to the influence of television. Even so, they found it difficult

steeped in tradition and being situated in the communities on



ExtErnal Planning

chapter 4

whose support they depend, but the disadvantage of being

Land use reguLations

so physically hemmed in that it may be difficult or impossible

Local or regional planning legislation must be checked to

to provide the necessary safety, comfort and facilities. There

ensure that the proposed development will be allowed in

are proving to be numerous town-planning difficulties in

that area.

StaDia

finding new sites. The situation elsewhere in the world is equally

4.1.3

the future

ambiguous. Everywhere there is a preoccupation with

Given these factors, wholly independent, stand-alone stadia

financial viability. Everywhere there is pressure for greater

may increasingly have to share their sites with commercial

comfort and safety. And everywhere the refurbishment of

and retail complexes. Examples of such developments

old stadia is gaining ground. But these vague generalisations

include:

are the few trends that can currently be identified. • In the USA, the Hoosier Dome, in Indianapolis (1972). •

In Canada, the Skydome, in Toronto (1989).

Today it is technically feasible to build a safe, comfortable

•

In the Netherlands, the Galgenwaard Stadium, in Utrecht.

and functionally efficient stadium in any location (town

•

In Norway, the Ulleval Stadium (1991).

centre, open countryside, or anywhere in between) provided

•

In the UK, the Galpharm (formerly the Sir Alfred

4.1.2

LocationaL factors

there is sufficient land and the stadium’s use is compatible

McAlpine) Stadium, in Huddersfield. This state-of-the-art

with the surrounding environment. The deciding factors are

24,500-seat stadium caters for both soccer and rugby

itemised in the following paragraphs.

and shares its site with a hotel, a banqueting hall, a golf driving range and dry ski slope, and numerous shopping and eating facilities.

cLient base

Any stadium must be easily accessible to its client base – the people whose attendance will generate the projected revenues.

4.2

transportation

This is usually the primary motive for looking at a particular site.

4.2.1

spectator requirements

To test feasibility, a careful analysis must be made of who the

If the journeys involved in getting to a sporting event

projected customers are, how many there are, where they live,

seem excessively difficult or time-consuming, the potential

and how they are to get to the stadium. All these criteria must

spectator may well decide not to bother – particularly if

be satisfied by the proposed stadium location.

alternative attractions are available. There may be a sequence of journeys involved, not necessarily just the journey from

Land avaiLabiLity

home on the morning of the match. Sometimes the following

A new stadium can require around 15 acres of reasonably

details need to be planned for:

flat land just for the stadium and ancillary facilities, plus car parking space at 25 square metres per car (see Section

•

Will I be travelling with a friend, family or on my own?

4.3.1). It may be difficult to find this amount of space.

•

Will I be travelling by car, bus or train?

•

Where will the transport leave from, and when?

Land cost

•

How do I get to and from the transport?

Land costs must be kept to a minimum and this is why

•

What are the things which can go wrong with the above

sports facilities are frequently built on low-grade land

arrangements, and what alternatives do I have?

such as refuse tips or reclaimed land that is too poor for residential or industrial use (but which may then lead to

The transport infrastructure of a major stadium should

additional structural costs as noted in Section 5.5.1).

offer ways of getting to (and away from) an event which

39

STADIA

chapter 4

ExTErnAl PlAnnIng

are relatively quick, simple and trouble-free, otherwise

impaired hearing, or impaired understanding – with information

attendance and revenues will undoubtedly suffer.

in formats that they can easily understand. This obligation

Pages 72 and 73 of Accessible Stadia (see Bibliography) give a useful checklist of matters that should

applies to all types of information including print, online and telephone messages, both before and during the match.

be considered at this stage to ensure that all prospective

On the day of a major event every effort should

spectators – able-bodied and disabled alike – can properly

be made to ensure an orderly traffic flow. Local radio and

plan their visit to a sporting event.

newspapers can be used to illustrate preferred routes and potential problem areas. Dedicated road signs, whether

4.2.2

40

pubLic transport

permanent or temporary, should start some distance away

Any large stadium should be close to a well-served railway or

from the stadium and become increasingly frequent and

metro station or both, preferably with paved and clearly defined

detailed as the visitor approaches the venue. Near to the

access all the way to the stadium gate. If the stadium cannot

stadium, information and directions should be particularly

be located near an existing station, it may be possible to come

plentiful and clear, indicating whether car parks are full, and

to a financial arrangement with the transportation authorities

identifying meeting points, and train and bus stations. The

whereby they open a dedicated station for the stadium. In the

same amount of effort should be made to ensure a smooth

UK, this is the case with the existing Watford and Arsenal soccer

flow of people and cars away from the stadium after the

stadia. In Australia, a new railway station was constructed to

event. It cannot be assumed that people will find their own

serve the Olympic site at Homebush, in Sydney.

way out.

The entire route, from the alighting point on the station platform to the seat in the stadium, should be easily usable

4.3

provision of parking

by disabled people, including those in wheelchairs. It should be

4.3.1

types of provision

kept free of kerbs or steps that obstruct wheelchair users.

Parking is most convenient in the area immediately surrounding the stadium, and at the same level as the exits

4.2.3

the road system

and entrances. But this tends to be an inefficient use of land

The road system must allow easy access into, around and out

which is both scarce and expensive in urban areas. The

of a major stadium complex. There must also be adequate

vast expanses of tarmac have a deadening effect on the

electronic monitoring and control systems to ensure that any

surrounding environment unless extremely skilfully handled.

build-up of traffic congestion in the approach roads can be

Four alternative solutions follow.

identified well in advance and dealt with by police and traffic authorities.

muLti-LeveL car parking

Building the stadium over a covered car park, as in the Louis 4.2.4

information systems

IV Stadium, in Monte-Carlo, reduces the amount of land

Before major events, advice can be mailed to spectators

required and avoids barren expanses of car parks. But such

with their tickets and car parking passes; some information

a solution is very expensive and its viability may depend on

can be printed on the tickets themselves. In the run-up to

the next option.

the event, information giving the choice of routes and the most convenient methods of transport should be thoroughly

shared parking with other faciLities

publicised via local, regional or national media.

A stadium may share parking space with adjacent offices

In the UK, the Disability Discrimination Act

or industrial buildings as at Utrecht, or even (as is the case

places a legal obligation upon event managers to supply

with Aston Villa Football Club, in Birmingham, UK) with

disabled persons – which includes people with impaired vision,

superstores or shopping complexes. But problems arise if



ExtErnal Planning

chapter 4

both facilities need the parking space at the same time. This

of use. For instance, visitors can be enticed to stay longer

is quite likely in the case of shops and supermarkets which

and leave more gradually – thus reducing traffic congestion

stay open in the evenings and at weekends. In the case of

– if restaurants and other social facilities are provided, and if

Aston Villa there is a condition in the agreement that the store

entertainment programmes are shown on the video screens

cannot open during first team home matches. Therefore

after the event (see Chapters 13 and 15 and Section 21.2.2).

StaDia

Parking spaces, and the routes feeding them,

careful planning is required.

must not encroach on areas required for emergency on-street parking

evacuation of the stadium, or for fire engines, ambulances,

This is not encouraged by the authorities. However, stadium

police vehicles etc.

sites in green parkland can allow parking to be distributed over a large area.

4.3.3

spectator parking

Vehicular parking can account for more than half the total park and ride

site, and the quantity and quality of parking provided will

This term refers to car parking provided at a distance from the

depend on the types of spectators attending. Here is data

venue, with some kind of shuttle service ferrying spectators

on a variety of existing stadia. It is not intended as a strict

between the parking area and the stadium. It is mainly used

guideline, but purely to give a feel of what may be required.

on the European continent, especially in Germany. In the UK,

In the USA, where the shift from public

Silverstone motor racing circuit and Cheltenham racecourse

transportation to travel by private car has gone furthest,

have helicopter park-and-ride services, both of which are

the trend has been towards stadia located out of town, not

usually fully booked.

served by any significant public transportation network but surrounded by huge expanses of parking spaces.

provision for disabLed peopLe

In Europe, by contrast, most stadia are well

In the UK, pages 26 to 28 of Accessible Stadia and Section

served by public transport. Land is not easily available for

4 of BS 8300 (see Bibliography) give authoritative guidance

large parking lots, and it is quite common in European cities,

on car parking provision for disabled people.

where the majority of stadia are still located, for only a

For the USA, see Section 502 of ADA and ABA

handful of parking spaces to be provided for officials and for

Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities (see

there to be no on-site parking for fans. A rural facility, such as

Bibliography).

the UK’s Silverstone Circuit for motor racing, which caters for 98,000 spectators and provides parking for 50,000 cars, is

4.3.2

access roads

definitely the exception.

It is essential to provide the right number of parking spaces

When designing a new stadium, parking

and to ensure they are efficiently accessed, because nothing

requirements for spectators should be estimated from an

is more likely to deter visitors from returning than lengthy

analysis of the following considerations.

traffic jams before or after an event. There must be a clear system of routes all the way from the public highways via

stadium seating capacity

feeder roads into the parking area, and an equally clear way

It would be wasteful to provide car parking for every seat

out. Arrivals will probably be fairly leisurely, possibly spread

in the stadium, as the maximum seating capacity is only

over a period of two hours or more before start time, whereas

rarely achieved. A design capacity should be calculated by

most spectators will try to get away as quickly as possible

assessing a typical programme of events over a season, and

after the event. Such traffic patterns must be anticipated and

estimating a typical attendance for each event.

planned for. It may also be possible to change these patterns

41

STADIA

chapter 4

ExTErnAl PlAnnIng

programme and types of events

An area of about 25 square metres per car (including

Each event type generates its own particular pattern of

circulation space) may be assumed in the UK and the rest

demand for parking. Some spectators will come by public

of Europe. Exact dimensions will depend on national codes

transport, some by private car and some by specially hired

of practice.

fleets of coaches. The ratios between them will vary from one type of event to another. In the UK, for instance, national

cars: private parking

soccer club finals are likely to draw a higher proportion of

Private box-holders and their guests, VIPs and similar private

coach travellers. The amount of parking space required will

visitors should have clearly identified parking areas, separate

therefore be based upon:

from the mass parking, and close to the entrances to private hospitality suites (see Chapter 13).

•

The ratios between the various categories.

•

The occupancy rate of coaches and cars. It may be

buses and coaches

estimated, for example, that an average car carries 2.5

FIFA suggests one bus space per 120 spectators, but this is

people, and an average coach 50 or more.

quite an onerous standard and will in any case depend on

The amount of parking space needed per car or coach.

other factors – for example, the number of cars expected

As described in more detail below, car parking may

and access to public transportation. We suggest that one

require about one hectare per 50 cars, and coach parking

bus per 240 spectators may be quite reasonable for

perhaps one hectare per 10 coaches.

estimation purposes.

42

•

An area of 60 square metres per bus (including rivaL demands for parking space

circulation space) may be assumed in the UK and the

Some of the available parking spaces may occasionally be

rest of Europe.

taken out for other uses, for television service vehicles, for example, which must be parked immediately adjacent to the

motorcycLes and bicycLes

stadium (see Section 18.2.1). As many as ten vehicles, needing

Provision will depend very much on national and local

standing spaces of up to 12m by 4m each, plus working space,

characteristics and must be determined as part of the brief.

may be needed for several days at a stretch. This will greatly

The demand for bicycle parking is likely to be greatest in

reduce the planned car parking capacity near the stadium.

Asian countries, very much less in the UK and the rest of Europe, and least in North America and Australasia.

cars: pubLic parking

For estimation purposes, and subject to the computations

spectators with disabiLities

suggested above, the following formulae may be helpful:

In the UK, page 27 of Accessible Stadia and para 4.1.2.3 of

•

A minimum of one parking space to every 10 to 15

cent, but possibly more, of the total car parking capacity

spectators.

should be allocated to disabled people. In other countries,

If FIFA recommendations are to be followed, one space

local codes should be checked. In the absence of more

to every six spectators.

specific requirements, one per cent of car parking spaces

If recent German recommendations are to be followed,

may be an acceptable ratio. In all cases these should be the

one space to every four spectators. It must be said that

spaces closest to the stadium entrance gates, with easy

this will very seldom be possible in European urban

access to ramped pedestrian routes.

BS 8300 (see Bibliography) recommend that at least six per

• •

situations.



4.3.4

ExtErnal Planning

other parking

chapter 4

StaDia

service and deLiveries

pLayers

A modern stadium complex requires heavy goods access to

Parking space for team buses should be provided for each

many delivery and service points (catering, cleaning, etc.),

team of players. Usually between two and six bus spaces

and these must be identified in the brief so that direct and

may be required, but FIFA recommends at least two bus

unobstructed access can be built into the scheme at the

spaces plus ten car spaces. The specific figure will depend on

earliest stages.

the sport involved and should be researched. These spaces should always be secure and separate from other parking

4.3.5

areas and from each other, and give direct access to the

dimensions

players’ changing areas without allowing contact with the

Dimensions of parking bays should meet national standards,

public (see Section 20.2).

but for preliminary planning a bay length of 4.8m, and a bay

parking Layout and services

width of 2.4m is reasonable. In the case of parking spaces for officiaLs

disabled people, bay length should be 6.0m rather than 4.8m,

Directors, sponsors and stadium staff should have parking

and each pair of bays should be separated by an access

in separate, clearly identified and secure areas, under close

zone of 1.2m so that two bays have an aggregate width of

supervision and control, including closed circuit television

6.0m rather than 4.8m, as shown on figure 2 of BS 8300 –

(see Section 21.2.1). Sometimes this area is inside the perimeter

see Bibliography.

fence of the grounds, which is acceptable if the zone inside the fence is large enough and out of reach of the circulation

Zoning

routes used by the public. Often this is not possible, in which

All user groups should have independent and easily

case it is recommended that all official vehicles (except for

identifiable zones in the parking area, which should be divided

emergency and essential service vehicles) should be kept

into blocks of roughly 500 to 1,000 cars. These blocks should

outside the main perimeter fence.

be instantly recognisable by signs, by numbering systems – devices such as colour-coded tickets coordinating with

the media

colour-coded signs – and by attractive landmark elements

Extensive areas must be provided for the increasing numbers

which can be seen and easily recognised from a distance.

of television and broadcast vehicles. As many as ten may

Varying surface treatments can also assist in partitioning the

be required for a single event, and factors to be taken into

car park into separate zones.

account are not merely their standings, but also the widths of

It is important to bear in mind that spectators

access roads and the sizes of turning circles required by these

normally arrive during daylight hours but often leave after

large vehicles. Their parking spaces may be incorporated

dark when everything looks very different. Evening games

into the general parking areas, provided they are adjacent

under floodlights mean both arrival and departure in

to the cable access points provided (see Section 18.2) and

darkness, requiring good lighting of all parking areas.

strong enough to bear the weight of the heavy support trucks. Provision must be made for catering, toilet and similar

pedestrian routes

support vehicles adjacent to the technical vehicles, as media

On leaving their cars, spectators should be able to proceed

crews may spend long periods at the stadium before and

directly to a safe pedestrian passage feeding through the

after events. These areas must be fenced or protected.

car park to the stadium entrance gates. This distance should

Provisionally, a space of 24m by 4m should be

preferably be no more than 500m, or an absolute maximum

allowed per vehicle, and a level surface capable of supporting

of 1,500m. If distances become too great there should be an

up to 15 tonnes.

internal transport system of regular pick-up and drop-off

43

STADIA

chapter 4

ExTErnAl PlAnnIng

buses, in which case waiting areas must be provided, and (as

purpose, provided it is aesthetically acceptable and does not

above) very clear signs provided so that spectators do not

cause annoying overspill into adjacent residential areas. Separate pedestrian walkways, designed into

get confused.

the parking layout to provide clear walking routes between signage

stadium gates and distant parking spaces, should be well lit,

The importance of signs has been raised in the preceding

probably with low-level local luminaires.

paragraphs and a summary of the main points might be useful.

teLephones

At each entry point to the parking area there

There should be a good provision of public telephones

should be signs guiding visitors to their individual parking

along the outer periphery of the car park in case of vehicular

positions. When they have parked and left their cars or

breakdown.

coaches there should be further boards telling them where 44

they are, and guiding them towards their viewing positions.

overspiLL

The correct perimeter access point must be clearly identified.

If the site is unable to accommodate the total number of cars

Similar provision should be made for spectators leaving the

required, or if certain individual events demand a greater

stadium to guide them back to their vehicles quickly.

number of spaces, additional parking facilities should be identified in the locality. These can include fields, parks and

pubLic transport waiting areas

play areas. The effects of cars parked on these surfaces

An efficient internal transport system around the car

should be considered, particularly in open-field conditions

parks reduces overcrowding of the spaces close to the

during the winter or in wet weather.

stadium, and allows visitors to leave the parking area more easily and quickly. There should be highly visible waiting

4.3.6

areas, with shelters, information boards and good lighting.

Unless great care is taken, car parks can be barren-looking

If possible, communication links with the transport control

places, making their surroundings bleak, and detracting from

centre should be installed.

the spectators’ enjoyment. A comprehensive landscaping

parking Landscape

plan must be devised to reduce the visual impact of these kiosks

great expanses and to give them some humanity. At the

The routes followed by visitors as they walk from their cars

same time, a well thought out scheme can help to define the

towards the stadium should be well provided with kiosks

parking zones and the vehicular and pedestrian routes which

where food, beverages, programmes and perhaps even

intersect them.

tickets may be bought well before the entrance gates are

The key to success is mental attitude. The car

reached. Such decentralised sales points in the car parking

park must not be seen as a piece of ground to be covered

area help reduce congestion at the entrance gates. They

in asphalt, but rather as a great outdoor floor that must be

should be of an eye-catching design to ensure they are

planned and designed as carefully as the stadium itself. The

noticed. This will add to the leisure atmosphere and even

following suggestions may help achieve this:

help people memorise where their cars are parked. •

The paved surface could be subdivided into areas that

Lighting

would form a neat and attractive pattern seen from above

All parking areas should be uniformly lit, with no dark

– perhaps a radial configuration centred on the stadium.

patches, to allow easy entrance and exit, and to create a safe

One element in such a pattern could be a geometric

environment. High mast lighting is likely to be chosen for this

layout of paved driveways and walkways set into and



ExtErnal Planning

chapter 4

contrasting with the main surface – bricks or interlocking

casting lightweight, air-entrained concrete in situ around

pavings set into asphalt, for example. Another might be

polystyrene formers which are then burnt away, leaving

the planting of regular rows of dense, car-height shrubs

apertures for the grass to grow through. These surfaces

or trees between adjacent blocks of car parking spaces

are usually best where use is occasional (for example

to soften the space when observed from eye-height.

access roads) rather than continuous, because motor oil

A third might be rows of tall, slender trees lining the

drips down and heavy use may kill the grass.

StaDia

main radial access roads and marking their positions

•

for drivers. Where climate allows, grass surfaces can be

4.4

stadium Landscaping

incorporated into such a surface pattern.

4.4.1

the stadium in its surroundings

Each of the paved areas formed by such subdivision

Stadia are major developments which can either enhance

should be flat and true, separated (if the site has

the surrounding environment or blight it. Attitudes to such

different  levels) by neat ramps and low retaining walls.

environmental impact vary around the world, with the most

It should not be a great undulating expanse of tarmac,

protective approach found in Europe – partly no doubt

untidily following the natural ground contours, as is all

because of its limited amount of green space.

too often seen. •

•

• •

Most

countries

now

have

45

environmental

For rainwater run-off, each paved area should be laid so

protection legislation for both town and country. They also

that it falls to gulleys or drainage channels. The ridges

have increasingly aware and assertive communities who

and valleys should express the pattern established by the

will vociferously object to bulky-looking new buildings

first suggestion above, instead of zigzagging across the

(particularly if these are likely to generate traffic and noise),

site along the lines of least resistance.

sometimes preventing their construction, or at least forcing

Changes of level should be designed to pedestrian

expensive design modifications. Therefore, not only must

rather than vehicle standards, and there should be no

very careful attention be given to the form of the stadium

risk of tripping over uneven surfaces or sudden changes

and the way it is blended into the landscape, but additionally,

of level, particularly at danger points such as drainage

officials and community representatives should be consulted

gulleys and channels. Routes used by disabled people

and involved from an early design stage, and carried along as

must avoid steps.

the design develops. Problems and the preferred solutions

Details at edges and verges should be particularly

should be explained to them in jargon-free language. To do

carefully designed, and formed in good quality materials.

otherwise is to risk a refusal of planning permission, entailing

The materials and construction methods should be

a heavy loss of time and money.

selected to minimise maintenance, offer a good walking surface, and look attractive. Tarmac is commonly used

4.4.2

and is cheap, but it will not give an acceptable result

There are stadia, particularly in the USA, which have virtually

unless carefully subdivided, articulated and trimmed

no planting as a conscious part of the overall site philosophy.

at the edges. Bricks and interlocking pavings offer a

Pontiac Silverdome, in Michigan, is one.

superior but more expensive finish. However, even they •

pLanting

On the other hand, planting can greatly reduce

will not give an attractive result without careful design.

the problems of scale and unfriendly-looking finishes

Part-concrete, part-grass surfaces for vehicles combine

sometimes associated with sports stadia, and can make

the visual benefits of grass with the load-bearing

almost any stadium look better. The 35,000-capacity

strength of a road. One type uses pre-cast concrete units

Cologne Stadium, in Germany (now demolished), provided

– laid like ordinary pavings – with large openings through

a particularly good example, being set inside a large sports

which the grass grows. A second type is formed by

park and surrounded by foliage so thick that it was possible

StaDia

CHAPTER 4

ExtErnal planning

to be right next to the building without seeing it. As a more

The following are particularly effective locations for plants.

recent example, the stadium for the 2000 Olympics, in Sydney, is partly surrounded by an urban forest of eucalyptus

site boundary pLanting

trees. Such measures can have a softening, and very pleasing

Site boundary planting can soften the visual impact of a

effect on what are often very large concrete buildings. The

large stadium development on its environment, making the

Hong Kong Stadium is fortunate enough to be located in a

buildings seem smaller and perhaps less gaunt. Such planting

lush green setting.

can also help protect the stadium from the neighbours, and

However, planting is expensive both in initial

the neighbours from the stadium. It forms the transition

cost and in maintenance, particularly in places where

between the outside world and the stadium precinct while

vandalistic behaviour may occur from time to time. Few

highlighting the positions of the entrances.

stadia can afford large maintenance bills just for the care of plants. Possible precautions include:

car park pLanting

As drivers approach the car park, tall slender trees lining the 46

• Planting mature trees and shrubs and protecting them for as long as possible with frames.

main radial access routes can help them find their way in. Once they are inside and walking towards the stadium, tall

• Establishing a plant nursery on the site (assuming there

rows of trees can similarly help them locate the pedestrian

is enough space) which is inaccessible to the public and

routes. Lower, denser rows of planting can be used to

where plants may grow unhindered until they are strong

separate adjoining blocks of parked cars from each other,

enough to risk the attention of the crowds.

softening the view as one looks across the acres of hard,

• Concentrating the planting in those areas where it will be most effective, as discussed below. Above all, landscaping and planting should not be left as an

bare landscape. These configurations of tall and low planting should add up to a functional and pleasing overall design. buffer Zone pLanting

afterthought in the final stages of a project, as happens all

The principal buffer zone is the transition between the

too often. They should be part of the masterplan, planned

stadium building and the car parking area – Zone 4, as

and adequately budgeted for from the very beginning. The

described in Section 3.3.3. At least part of it should be hard

ideal is a landscaping masterplan in which trees taking several

paved or grassed to act as an assembly area if required, but

years to grow to maturity are planted immediately, protected

the remainder can be trees, shrubs or even flowering plants,

during their vulnerable years, and are fully effective when the

the latter particularly near the main entrances.

stadium comes into use. Mature trees can also be purchased from nurseries, transported to the site and planted, but this

concourse pLanting

is expensive.

Concourse planting is used inside the stadium perimeter In summary, it is difficult to have too many trees

to help define circulation patterns and to help screen the

on a stadium site, but we very frequently see too few. In

structure. Because these areas will be crowded with people,

some cases the planting becomes the focus of our attention.

we recommend planting that is hardy, with no foliage lower

Who would think of the Championships at Wimbledon,

than about 2m. In addition to being less prone to damage,

for example, without a mental image of the green Virginia

trees or shrubs with foliage only at higher levels do not

creepers covering the main elevations of the buildings? They

obstruct vision, which is an advantage in circulation areas.

are as much a part of Wimbledon as the singles finals, and the venue’s development plan very consciously retains and builds on this image.

05

form and structure

5.1

The sTadium as archiTecTure

5.2

sTrucTure and form

5.3

maTerials

5.4

The playing surface

5.5

foundaTions

5.6

seaTing Tiers

5.7

concourses, sTairs and ramps

5.8

roof

5.1

The sTadium as archiTecTure

5.1.1

The ideal

As suggested in the introduction, sports stadia are essentially large theatres of entertainment which ought to be as pleasant to visit as a cinema, opera house or theatre, whilst also being social and architectural landmarks in their towns and cities. The designers of pre-modern stadia rose to this challenge with admirable skill. The Colosseum and the circuses of Rome, the amphitheatre in Verona, and similar buildings throughout the Roman Empire played central roles in the civic lives of their communities. Based on the circle and the oval, they were also wonderfully successful in translating functional requirements and the known building technologies of the time into noble architectural forms. The profile of the Colosseum (Figure 1.2) solves at a stroke the challenges of clear viewing, structural stability and efficient circulation, the latter allowing the building to be cleared of thousands of spectators in a matter of minutes. Meanwhile the outer façade is related to the human scale by its colonnaded arcades. So powerful and inventive was this unprecedented façade that, 14 centuries later, it became a primary source of inspiration for the architects of the Renaissance. Whilst the basic form of the modern stadium remains very similar to that of antiquity (stepped tiers of seats facing a central arena), brick and stone have largely been replaced by concrete and steel. It must also be said that architectural standards have fallen: all too many current stadia are banal at best, anti-human at worst. Design excellence is achieved in stadia when structure, enclosure and The Olympistadion Munich built for the 1972 Olympics. The innovative design of a cable-supported transparent roof above landscaped venues has never been repeated. Architect: Gunter Behnisch Engineer: Frei Otto

finishes express a single concept which functions well, is rich and expressive, and avoids jarring conflicts. This must happen at all scales – from overall form right down to the smallest detail. There are current examples of excellence, such as the Bari Stadium, in Italy, by the architect Renzo Piano, but complete success is rare. The first step towards higher architectural standards must be to identify particular problems which nowadays make it so difficult to achieve functional and beautiful stadium design.

49 49

stadIa

form and structure

chapter 5

5.1.2

The problems

that weather, uncaring crowds and deliberate vandalism

Because sports stadia are so closely geared to onerous

can do to them. All too easily, the requirement of resilience

functional requirements (clear sightlines, efficient high-

tends to translate into finishes which are tough, brutal

volume circulation etc.), this is a building type where form

and anti-human.

follows fairly directly from function; unfortunately, delight is more elusive – for the reasons which follow.

periods of disuse

Stadia tend to stand empty and unoccupied for weeks at inward-looking form

a time, casting a spell of bleakness and lifelessness on their

Stadia naturally look inward towards the action, turning their

surroundings. Then, for short periods, they are so intensively

backs on their surroundings. The elevation facing the street or

used as to overwhelm their environment. This pattern of

surrounding landscape must avoid becoming unwelcoming,

use, almost unique among building types, inflicts upon the

often made even more forbidding by security fences and

stadium and its surroundings the worst effects of both

other crowd-control measures.

under-use and over-use.

car parking

5.2

sTrucTure and form

Stadia must often be surrounded by acres of car and bus

5.2.1

inTroducTion

parking which are not only unattractive in themselves but

It is impossible to lay down a neat set of design rules which will

tend to cut them off from their surroundings.

guarantee good stadium architecture, but three suggestions

50

may be helpful regarding architectural form: giganTic scale

Whilst the huge physical scale of a major stadium may not

• First, designers should think very hard about each of the

create problems in an out-of-town environment, it is more

matters identified above, which are the key architectural

difficult to fit happily into a town setting. Reconciling the

problems.

scales of stadia with those of their surroundings is a difficult challenge.

• Second, they should look at existing stadia in which these (or other) problems have been solved with conspicuous success, and try to identify precedents relevant to their

inflexible elemenTs

own case. There are very few entirely original building

A stadium is composed of elements (seating tiers, stairs and

concepts in the history of architecture: much good design

ramps, entrances and roof forms) which are inflexible and

is an intelligent modification of an existing model that has

sometimes difficult to assimilate into a traditional façade

been shown to work, and there is no shame in learning

or compositional scheme. And even if traditional rules of

from the past.

composition are abandoned and innovatory architectural

• Third, the approaches outlined below may prove helpful. They

forms sought, these stiff elements resist being bent or

are not intended as prescriptive rules, rather suggestions,

smoothed or tucked away to achieve the grace, harmony

prompting designers to clarify their own thoughts.

and apparent effortlessness that makes good architecture. They tend to obstinately assert themselves, and the resultant

5.2.2

form often simply does not look right.

Although this book is primarily about permanent stadia, the

permanenT or Temporary

designer should consider whether constructing the building Tough finishes

from temporary construction might be a better option. There

Stadia must have tough and highly resilient surfaces able

are two types of temporary construction – impermanent

to stand up, without much maintenance effort, to the worst

temporary

and

event

temporary.

By

impermanent



form and structure

chapter 5

temporary we mean permanent-type construction that is

assertive roof. If one of these elements is dominant, with the

intended to have a short life. By event temporary we mean

other subdued or completely invisible, the composition may

rented seating or buildings brought in for a single event.

immediately become easier to handle.

stadIa

An example of impermanent temporary are the north and south upper tiers of the ANZ Stadium, in Sydney (see Case

domInant rooF

studies), which were constructed for the 2000 Olympic

A successful example of a dominant-roof design is Gunter

Games, then removed afterwards to reduce the capacity

Behnisch’s complex of sports buildings in the Olympiapark,

of the stadium from 110,000 to 80,000. These tiers were

in Munich, designed by Behnisch and Frei Otto. In these

constructed of steel and concrete, with a short design life.

buildings, the wall has been virtually eliminated and the stadia

An example of event temporary is the 16,000-seat stadium

reduced visually to a series of graceful roof forms hovering

for beach volleyball, constructed on Horse Guards Parade, in

over green landscape (see frontispiece to this chapter). The

London, for the 2012 Games, which was only in place for the

playing surfaces are recessed below ground level.

few weeks of the event. Temporary installations are often considered for one-off events larger than the regular programme of

Where the walls cannot be eliminated altogether, it helps to reduce them to submissive, horizontal elements of built landscape over which floats a separate graceful roof.

the stadium, where building them on a permanent basis would not be justified economically or for other reasons. If

domInant Façade

the requirements of the event are not known at the time of

A successful example of the dominant façade approach

initial construction, it is important to allow plenty of space

is the Mound Stand at Lord’s Cricket Ground, in London,

for the short-term installation. The design of temporary

by Michael Hopkins & Partners. This stadium façade can

accommodation and seating has rules somewhat different

genuinely be called successful. It maintains an urban scale,

from permanent construction that should be reviewed

follows the street line, and contains variety and grace. There

before the start of the design phase.

is a satisfying progression from the heavy, earthbound base course to the light pavilion-like tent roof at the top.

5.2.3

Low proFILe

Many stadia would look best with a profile kept as low

domInant structure

as possible. Two techniques which help achieve this are

In large stadia there could be a third approach: to make the

dropping the pitch below ground level and raising the

structure dominant. For instance, both façade and roof could

surrounding landscape by means of planted mounds.

be visually contained behind a dominant cage of vertical

There are, in fact, great financial benefits in

structural ribs. Examples include the Chamsil Olympic Main

lowering the pitch below existing ground level, so that a

Stadium, in Seoul, and the Parc des Princes, in Paris. This may

proportion of the terracing can be constructed as ground-

work best on large, open sites where the building is mostly

bearing. This results not only in less steelwork, but also in

seen from a distance.

a reduced and less costly vertical circulation element. (See Chapter 23.)

Kenzo Tange’s twin gymnasia for the 1964 Tokyo Olympics provide supreme examples of structural expressionism of a different kind. Both have organically-

5.2.4

rooF and Façade

shaped roofs suspended from cables which, in turn, are

In roofed stadia, which are becoming more common

anchored to massive concrete buttresses. The horizontal

(particularly in Europe), the most important step towards

sweep of the seating tiers and the upward-curving spirals

a satisfying and harmonious architectural solution is to

of the suspended roofs obey few of the traditional canons

avoid having an assertive façade competing with an equally

of architectural composition. Yet they look magnificent.

51

STADIA

chapter 5

form AnD STrucTure

But it has to be said that few designers could handle such

5.2.5

unorthodox forms so successfully.

When stands are placed on three or four sides of a pitch,

Turning The corner

An excellent recent example is provided by

the problem of gracefully turning the corner where they join

Santiago Calatrava’s 2004 Olympic Stadium roof, in Athens.

has defeated many designers, particularly with roofed stadia. Each individual seating terrace may be elegant in itself and

52 52

appropriaTe choice: open siTes

be fitted with an equally elegant roof – but how to bend

Stadia situated in open parkland can make a positive

these stiff forms round the corners?

contribution to the environment if the form rising above the

Some stadia, such as the one at Dortmund, in

landscape is genuinely attractive and well-composed. If these

Germany, or Ibrox Park, in the UK, simply dodge the problem:

qualities cannot be achieved, for whatever reason, then there is

four rectangular sheds are placed on the four sides of the

no shame in hiding the stadium completely behind landscaping.

pitch, and the corners are left as gaps. This saves money and

Achieving a form that blends with the surroundings

helps avoid awkward structural and planning problems; and

is usually not too difficult in the case of an open stadium.

in the case of natural grass pitches, the ventilation provided

Roofed stadia present a greater challenge. Sinking the

by the open corners is very helpful. Nevertheless, the effect

playing field below ground level and/or surrounding the

is visually unhappy and the geometry sacrifices potentially

stadium with planted mounds to reduce the apparent height

revenue-earning corner seating, as pointed out in Section

are useful devices, and could enable the stadium almost to

11.3.4. One solution is to infill the corners with towers, with the

melt away into the landscape.

side and end stands spanning between them. The stadium in Genoa (architect: Vittorio Gregotti), which is in tight urban

appropriaTe choice: urban siTes

surroundings, is an example of this approach. Such towers

If a stadium is situated in a town or city, the façades will

could accommodate offices or other functions.

probably be dominant, partly to allow the site to be exploited

Satisfying results have also been obtained by

right up to its perimeter at all levels, and partly to maintain

designs in which both the stands and roofs are swept round

rather than disrupt the rows of façades which form the

the pitch in some form. Examples include the Stadium of the

streetscape on either side of the stadium. It may then be

Alps, in Turin. This approach may be difficult on tight urban

desirable to subdue the huge stair ramps, and the backs of

plots, partly because of insufficient space, partly because it

the seating tiers with their horizontal or sloping geometry,

may be desirable for the stadium façades to follow the street

to blend with a surrounding streetscape of closely-spaced,

line, and partly because swept forms may look wrong in some

vertically-accented building façades.

contexts. But there is Philip Cox’s elegant Sydney Football

One approach, exemplified by the Mound

Stadium to prove it can be done. As in so many successful

Stand, in London, is to adopt a structural pattern for the

designs, the playing area is submerged below ground (about

stadium that enables the rhythm, scale, materials and details

5m in this case), usefully lowering the stadium profile. The

to harmonise with the surroundings, and to ensure also that

original design had the fluidly-shaped roof floating free above

the façade smoothly follows the street line.

the seating structure. It soared high along the sides of the

The other, exemplified by the Louis IV stadium,

pitch, where most people want to sit and where the depth of

in Monte Carlo, is to place a row of shops, restaurants, a hotel

seating extends back furthest and highest; it swooped down

or some other orthodox building type between stadium and

close to ground level at the pitch ends, where there are fewer

street as part of a multi-purpose development. In addition

and shallower seating tiers. This dip towards ground level also

to its architectural merits, such a solution would help bring

reduced the apparent scale where the stadium approached a

life to the street and could have economic benefits for the

residential area. But the gap between the roof and the rear of

stadium, as explained in Section 23.4.

the spectator tiers proved too great and offered insufficient

form and structure

chapter 5

weather protection, a problem which had later to be rectified

If massive concrete forms are to be used, they ought possibly

by a multi-million dollar contract to fill in the gaps.

to be softened by heavy planting, consisting of trees, shrubs

The Manchester Commonwealth Games Stadium

stadIa

or smaller plants positioned around or on the building.

(now the Manchester City FC ground), designed by Arup Associates, with Populous, is a further example of the same

5.3

maTerials

design theme.

5.3.1

Visual aspecTs

finishes 5.2.6

assimilaTing circulaTion ramps

Unfinished concrete has many functional virtues and is widely

Ramps are sometimes more effective than stairs as the

used in stadium design. But it is disliked by the general public,

preferred means of escape for the valid reasons given in

tends to weather unattractively, and when used for façades

Section 14.7.3. But their enormous scale (a circular ramp will

should be specified with caution.

probably have an internal diameter of around 12m) makes them difficult to handle with elegance. Relatively successful

The following suggestions may be helpful. 53 53

examples include the San Siro stadium, in Milan, and the Sun Life stadium, formerly the Joe Robbie stadium, in Miami, USA.

•

Exposed concrete finishes are best avoided in rainy climates, particularly in urban or industrial locations where

5.2.7

the rainwater becomes contaminated by pollutants

assimilaTing The sTrucTure

laTTice-like sTrucTures

which then stain the concrete as the water runs down the

Massive columns, beams and cantilevers are often difficult

surface. In theory, the staining can be avoided by surface

to assimilate into a coherent design concept. A very useful

treatment, by well-designed drip mouldings and the like.

trend in recent years has been the increasing use of more

But, in practice, these measures are seldom completely

delicate lattice or tension structures to replace (wholly or in

effective. Also, in theory, the staining of concrete can be

part) these assertive structural elements.

positively exploited by carefully planning and guiding the

These concepts do not automatically solve all

patterns of water-flow to produce a pre-designed effect.

problems or guarantee aesthetic success, but they do help

But it is difficult to think of any examples where attractive results have been achieved.

achieve shapely and graceful structures which are related to the human scale. Good examples include:

•

If exposed concrete must be used in these situations, then expert advice should be sought and the greatest

•

The roof of the Prater Stadium, in Vienna.

care taken (in both design and workmanship) to avoid

•

The ANZ (Sydney Olympic) Stadium, by Populous and

surface staining. Aggregates, sand and cement should

Bligh Voller Nield (see Case studies).

all be very carefully specified and be of high quality. The increasing use of pre-cast concrete, which can be manufactured under more controlled conditions than in

massiVe sTrucTures

situ, helps achieve higher-quality finishes.

The alternative brutalist approach of powerfully expressed large-scale structural elements fascinates architects but,

•

Painting the concrete can also help, and several existing

alas, for every masterpiece of sculptural concrete there are

stadia (including the Seoul Olympic stadium) have been

a dozen cruder examples, deeply disliked by the public. The

treated in this way. But it requires enormous maintenance.

sheer scale of a modern stadium is part of the problem. As an indication, the 110m-long girder spanning the North Stand

The above problems are reduced in locations with unpolluted

at Ibrox Park stadium is large enough to hold four double-

air (where the rainwater is therefore cleaner and less liable

decker buses.

to soil the concrete), and in dry climates with low or very

STADIA

54

chapter 5

form AnD STrucTure

intermittent rainfalls. An example of success is Renzo Piano’s

steel in some countries, but it has the disadvantage of being

Bari Stadium, in Italy.

unpopular if left unfinished (which is usually the case). By

Finally, concrete surfaces that are close to

and large, it is the only practical material for constructing the

people should, if possible, be clad with brickwork, timber or

seating profiles of the stadium. Concrete may be either cast

some other friendly material. This will be expensive, but will

in situ or applied as pre-cast units. Both types are frequently

make stadia more popular with spectators.

used together.

colours

in siTu concreTe

Designers sometimes fall into the trap of producing gaudily

The plastic properties of in situ concrete have been exploited

coloured stadia. They are tempted by the enormous range

to produce some very dramatic stadia, for instance the shell

of colours now available for stadium seats, claddings and

canopies of the Grandstand at Zarzuela racetrack, near

synthetic pitch surfaces, and they are trying to overcome the

Madrid (Eduardo Torroja, 1935); in Rome, the Palazzetto dello

bleakness of the average stadium, particularly when it is half-

Sport (Annibale Vitellozzi and Pier Luigi Nervi, 1957) and the

empty, without crowds of people to give colour variety to

Palazzo dello Sport (Pier Luigi Nervi and Marcello Piacentini,

the terraces. Imagination controlled by the strictest discipline

1960); and in the composite structures of the Hockey Rink at

may give the best results.

Yale University, Connecticut (Eero Saarinen, 1958), and the National Olympic Gymnasia, in Tokyo. Recently, such use has

5.3.2

Technical aspecTs

diminished in favour of more lightweight structures.

Stadia have been built of every conceivable material. The ancient Romans built theirs in brick and stone, and modern

pre-casT concreTe

Romans refurbished their existing Olympic stadium in

Pre-cast concrete, like steel, has the advantage over in situ

concrete, steel, aluminium and plastic fabric roofing for the

concrete that structural members can be prefabricated

1990 FIFA World Cup.

away from the site well in advance of site possession, thus

Cost is a major factor because structure, as

greatly reducing construction time. This is important when

discussed in Chapter 23, is a larger proportion of total cost

construction must be planned to minimise disruptions to the

in the case of stadia than in most other building types. Cost

season’s fixtures. Such is often the case with sports stadia

comparisons between all the alternative structural materials

in the UK, which must be constructed in phases during

are therefore vital, with particular attention to the roof (as

the few months between one season and the next. This

discussed in Section 5.8, below).

practice is not yet common in the USA where stadia tend

Other performance characteristics such as

to be constructed in one operation, but even here, stadia

durability and fire resistance must be just as thoroughly

owners  are beginning to experience the difficulties Europe

investigated. They must then be balanced against user-

has had for decades. Clubs do not want to move from the

friendliness, grace and beauty. Stadia can prosper only if

stadium while necessary redevelopment or upgrading work

they attract spectators, and increasingly people will stay

takes place.

away if the facility is rough or sordid-looking – no matter how technically correct the specifications.

pre-sTressed and posT-Tensioned concreTe

Pre-cast concrete is widely used for the tread and riser 5.3.3

concreTe

units which form the seating platform. These step units

Reinforced concrete competes with steel as the most

are often pre-stressed so that they can be thin and light,

commonly-used structural material for stadia. It has the great

but their jointing can cause problems. Choice of materials

advantage of being naturally fireproof and cheaper than

and detailing of junctions is as important here as in roof



form and structure

chapter 5

construction, particularly if the spaces below are to be usable

• Ensuring that people can escape from the stadium within

rooms. Waterproofing, especially, will be very important.

a defined time, as discussed in Section 14.6.2, and reach

When using pre-cast framing, thought should

safety well before structural failure commences. This

also be given to the future uses of the stadium. If stadia

should not be a major problem because the main danger

are used for pop music concerts, the spectators can set up

with fire in stadia is not that of structural collapse but of

rhythms in time to the music which may affect the structure.

smoke suffocation. The Valley Parade Stadium, in Bradford,

It should be specifically designed to cater for this.

where 56 people died and many were badly injured in a fire

Both pre-stressing and post-tensioning are useful techniques in stadium construction – pre-stressing for

in 1985, had an old pitched roof which effectively contained the smoke and flames.

reasons of lightness, and post-tensioning so as to reduce the

• Installing a sprinkler system. New UK fire regulations do

number of movement joints throughout the structure. This

allow unprotected steelwork if sprinklers are installed,

is an important advantage because many stadia are 100m

a concession that may in some cases tip the economic

or more in extent, and normally such a length of concrete

balance from concrete to steel. On the other hand, the

structure should be built as two independent units with a

effects of a sprinkler downpour on an already panicking

clear expansion gap between. In a post-tensioned structure

crowd have yet to be seen.

the thermal movement still occurs but is greatly reduced by the enormous tension placed on the reinforcing rods. The

5.3.5

entire structure is held together like a string of beads pulled

In a large stadium, brickwork is more likely to be used as

together by a thread – the threads in this case being steel

cladding rather than as a structural material in itself. Its use is

rods stressed to a hundred tonnes or more.

particularly apt at human height level throughout the stadium

brickwork

so as to humanise otherwise brutal surfaces, or at street level 5.3.4

sTeel

to help the stadium blend in with the surrounding townscape.

Steel is cheaper in some parts of the world than concrete and it allows prefabrication off-site, which can be a great

5.4

The playing surface

advantage for the reasons given above.

5.4.1

leVel

It is, of course, lighter than concrete, both

The level of the playing surface is often sunk below the

physically and aesthetically. This offers functional advantages,

ground line so that part of the front seating tier can be rested

such as cheaper footings on bad soil, and the possibility of

directly on the natural ground (Figure 5.1). This can save in

slender, graceful structures. Steel is an obvious choice for

construction costs and has the aesthetic benefit of reducing

roof structures, two excellent examples being the Olympic

the apparent height of the building. But constructing

Stadium, in Rome, and the Prater Stadium, in Vienna, both

viewing terraces directly on the ground is not always as

of which were given new steel roofs over the existing stadia.

straightforward as it may sound: poor soil conditions (see

Fire regulations will probably require steel members

Section 5.5.1 below) could create problems which cancel out

below the roof to be fireproofed with encasing, with mineral-

the envisaged savings.

fibre or vermiculite-cement spray, or with thin-film intumescent coating. The latter detracts least from the appearance of steel

5.4.2

profiles. This could cause steel to lose its cost advantage

Chapter 7 deals in detail with playing surfaces: here we

over concrete. But fire-safety regulations are changing as the

merely wish to point out that certain stadium forms will

emphasis shifts towards fire-engineered solutions. Unprotected

rule out (or at least have an adverse effect upon) certain

steel seems likely to become more widely acceptable provided

playing surfaces.

certain additional measures are taken. These include:

stadIa

surface

55

STADIA

form AnD STrucTure

chapter 5

naTural grass

stadium, in Dunedin, New Zealand (see Case studies) has a

Natural grass is the preferred surface for many sports, but the

translucent roof. Vents at pitch level allow a through flow

feasibility of installing it will depend on the degree to which

of air so that natural grass can grow in situ.

the stadium is enclosed. The current situation is as follows. Completely open stadia: these will accept any playing surface, including grass.

synTheTic surfaces

The chosen stadium form is unlikely to have any adverse

Partly roofed stadia: these may have natural

effect on synthetic playing surfaces. Table 7.1 should be

grass playing surfaces, but a combination of shading from

followed with regard to choice, and the advice in Sections

sunlight and reduced airflow at pitch level could damage

7.1.4 and 7.1.5 with regard to installation.

the grass. Expert guidance must be sought, computer modelling must be used to determine the shadow effects of

56

5.5

foundaTions

the structure, and wind effects must be studied via models

5.5.1

poor soil

and wind tunnels. There are, as yet, no reliable mathematical

The only foundation design factor applying specifically

formulae for predicting wind conditions.

to stadia is that sports facilities are often sited on soil too

Totally permanently enclosed stadia: keeping a

poor to be used for any other kind of development:

natural grass pitch alive will be more difficult than in an open

reclaimed land from disused refuse tips, old mine workings,

stadium, and the use of synthetic turfs must be investigated,

drained marshland etc. Much of the construction budget

as discussed in Chapter 7.

in these cases goes on ground improvement operations

There are various methods used around the world

such as vibro-compaction, anti-methane treatment and

to allow a natural grass pitch inside a fully-enclosed stadium.

garbage removal.

• Maintaining the grass surface in the open air outside, and

always carry the risk of expensive foundations, a full geo-

then sliding it into the stadium when needed. Examples

technical report should be commissioned in all suspect cases

of this are The Veltins arena at Gelsenkirchen and the

before the final construction budget is agreed.

As soils of low or variable bearing capacity

Cardinals Stadium (see Case studies). This system requires plenty of land and is expensive in both initial construction

5.6

seaTing Tiers

and operational costs. However, when the grass pitch is

5.6.1

geomeTry

outside the stadium, there is the advantage that it leaves

This is covered in detail in later sections. Here we merely wish

a hard surface inside the stadium which can be used for

to give the designer a clear picture of the key influences on

other events.

overall stadium form and structure.

• Using an opening roof structure to provide sufficient light – see Section 5.8.4. • Supplementing natural light with artificial light. This system

• Spectators should preferably not look into the sun while following a match: see Section 3.2 regarding orientation.

is increasingly used for larger stadia in cooler climates

• Spectators should be close enough to the pitch to see the

where the seating stands and roofs shade the pitch so

movement of the ball. For large-capacity stands this may

that a good-quality pitch cannot survive. It is also used

be difficult or impossible, particularly if the ball is small and

to improve the quality of grass growth where a heavy

fast-moving (as in tennis), in which case compromises

programme of matches or concerts does not allow the grass to recover between events.

must be made. See Section 11.3. • All spectators should be given a clear view of the pitch over the

• Designing the stadium to allow in sufficient light and air

heads in front of them, which means that seating terraces must

movement for good grass growth. The Forsyth-Barr

be designed at carefully calculated angles. See Section 11.4.2.



form and structure

chapter 5

• At the same time, the stands must not be so steep that

gangways gives better space usage, and easier exit in

they are dangerous or induce vertigo. About 34 degrees is

panic conditions. A balanced solution should be aimed for.

stadIa

normally the maximum. See Section 11.4.3. • There must be no obstructions such as columns or

5.7.2

surface finishes

excessively low roof edges that interfere with spectators’

Stadia likely to be patronised by well-behaved crowds who

views of the pitch. See Section 11.5.

will not abuse the building can be finished in the same way as any other public building. This is the trend in recent UK and

5.6.2

consTrucTion

North American stadia, where the areas for patrons paying

As stated in Section 5.3.3, seating tiers are most commonly

more money may have polished marble concourse floors,

constructed in pre-cast concrete. Steel is cheaper in some

hotel-standard toilets and luxurious social areas.

countries, but not necessarily after the members have been

In Britain, a recent example of a stadium finished durably but elegantly is Richard Horden’s 5,000-capacity

fire-proofed.

Queen’s Stand at Epsom Downs racecourse, in Surrey. This 5.7

concourses, sTairs and ramps

building, opened in 1992, is not so much a stand as a private-

5.7.1

geomeTry

box viewing area. It may be exceptional, but it shows what

As with seating tiers, this is covered in detail in later sections.

can be achieved. Another example in the UK is the mid tier at

We wish here only to give the designer a picture of the key

Arsenal Football Club, in London, completed in 2006 (see Case

influences on overall stadium form and structure.

studies). All seats are padded and with arms; and circulation, toilets and amenity features are finished to cinema standard.

• The pattern of concourses, stairs and ramps must allow

But where crowds have a record of being

for smooth spectator access, without people losing their

boisterous and ill-behaved, and where large parts of the

way or getting confused, as outlined in Section 14.5. There

building are exposed to wind and weather, finishes must

should be similarly smooth exits after the end of matches,

be tough enough to stand up to intense wear and tear,

as outlined in Section 14.6.1.

regular abrasive cleaning, and the effects of sun, rain and

• Most critically, the layout must allow for fast, safe emptying of the stadium in panic conditions. See Section 14.6.3.

temperature change. Concrete surfaces are widely used and relatively

• Planning must also facilitate easy access to toilets (as

inexpensive. They can be very durable if treated with

discussed in Chapter 16), and catering facilities (as discussed

additives and sealants, but have a rough image that modern,

in Chapter 15). As a general rule, no seat should be more

customer-winning stadia want to avoid. They are also harder

than 60m from a toilet, preferably on the same level.

to clean than smoother surfaces. More positively, the colour

• The circulation routes will probably be planned in a way that subdivides the total seating capacity of the stadium

and stain additives used at places such as Disneyland Paris are likely to become popular in the future.

into sectors of about 2,500 or 3,000 spectators each. This

Natural concrete block surfaces with anti-

allows for easier crowd control and a more even distribution

graffiti coatings are serviceable, but for the public they have

of toilets, bars and restaurants. See Section 14.2.2.

the same utilitarian image as unfinished concrete. Polished

• In each individual seating area, the circulation routes will consist of vomitories fed by lateral gangways (running parallel with the side of the pitch), and radial gangways

concrete blocks can be considered. Natural brick walls promote a better image than concrete, and can be treated with anti-graffiti coatings.

(which will be stepped). A pattern of few vomitories

Wall and floor tiles or mosaics in ceramics and

served by long gangways usually leaves less space for

terra cotta are initially expensive but are hard-wearing and, if

seats, while a larger number of vomitories fed by shorter

properly used, pleasing in feel and appearance.

57

STADIA

form AnD STrucTure

chapter 5

Coated steel claddings have improved greatly

5.8

roof

in recent years and are now very durable. They are easily

5.8.1

degree of enclosure

cleaned, with wide choices of colour and patterns. They

Open or partially covered stands are still common in less

provide handsome yet practical concourse wall surfaces.

wealthy regions such as Central and South America, and

Studded rubber floor tiles and sheeting are

Africa. They are even found in countries with relatively

available in improved forms and, although relatively expensive

robust climates such as Canada and Russia. But spectators

initially, they are hard-wearing and available in attractive colours.

are increasingly demanding some form of protective cover.

They have been successfully used in many stadia in Europe.

In colder climates, especially northern Europe, North America

Liquid-applied coatings include finishes such as

and Japan, where sporting events take place in winter, roofs

epoxy with grit in the top surface. They offer a tough, colourful,

are becoming a standard requirement. The trend towards

non-slip flooring. Many such coatings are now available.

enclosure has gone furthest in the USA and Japan, where many new stadia are entirely covered. Designers should

5.7.3

58

deTails

In all cases, correct detailing is as important as correct choice

note that this decision, as pointed out in Section 5.4.2, has a dramatic effect on the playing surface.

of materials: shading from The sun

• Careful positioning of doors and openings reduces confusion and aids circulation. • The use of rails along walls can protect the wall face from abuse by keeping people at a safe distance.

For afternoon matches, which are the majority, the main stand should face east with a minimum of spectators having to look into the sun from a west-facing stand. In all cases, the efficacy of a roof designed to

• Balustrades set back from the edges of landings and

shade spectators from the sun, and the extent of shadow it

concourses help reduce the danger of objects being

casts upon the pitch at different times of the day and year,

accidentally dropped on people below. Similarly, floor

must be studied with careful computer modelling. Wind

edges in these positions should be upturned to prevent

tunnel testing should be carried out, too, especially if the

objects rolling over the edge.

playing surface is natural grass. As Britain’s Football Stadia

• Upper surfaces of rails and balustrades should be sloped to

Advisory Design Council states: ‘It is now generally accepted

make it difficult for fans to stand on them, and to prevent

that a combination of shading from sunlight and reduced

objects which could fall onto people below being placed

airflow at pitch level has an adverse effect on the durability

there.

and quality of grass.’

• Corners can be protected from damage by catering trolleys and other service vehicles by fixing metal guards,

shelTer from wind and rain

or by having rounded profiles.

As far as plan shape is concerned, designers should note

• High ceilings help to create an open, airy atmosphere and are beyond reach of deliberate damage. • Toilets should have surfaces and edge details which allow the complete washing down of walls and floors. • All dangerous projections and sharp edges should be avoided.

Rudolf Bergermann’s advice that continuous roofs arranged in a circle or ellipse, as opposed to separate roofs with gaps between, normally have a calming effect on the air inside the stadium. This creates more comfortable conditions for spectators and performers. Experience at the Don Valley Stadium, in the UK, actually suggests that such improved conditions can measurably enhance the performance of athletes. One disadvantage is that too little airflow in wet climates may not adequately dry a grass pitch after rain.



form and structure

chapter 5

In this case, open corners between the stands may be

ObstructiOn tO viewing

favourable. A balance must be struck.

The roof edge must be high enough that the majority

As far as cross-sectional shape is concerned,

of spectators can see the ball when it rises high in the air.

very approximate rules of thumb are given in Figure 5.1.

Spectators’ views of the pitch should not be obstructed by

These simple parameters are only a starting point for design,

roof-support columns.

stadIa

and detailed studies should be made using scale models and wind tunnels. Factors to be included in the investigations are:

5.8.2  

Design life

Different elements will have different design lives. The load• Prevailing wind directions and velocities.

bearing structure (columns, beams and trusses) will always

• Prevailing air temperatures, and whether winds at match

have the longest replacement cycle, usually 50 years. Roof

times are likely to contain rain or snow.

coverings may last 15 to 20 years. Finishes have the shortest

• Local patterns of air turbulence caused by surrounding

cycle, the actual length depending on the type and quality of

buildings and, of course, by the proposed stadium design

finish and standard of maintenance. These periods must be

itself.

discussed and decided with the cost consultants at briefing

• Conflict between the needs of spectators who want

stage as part of the whole-life costing of the stadium.

protection from wind and sun, and the desire for a natural

Elements which have shorter life cycles than the

grass pitch.

load-bearing structure, such as claddings, must be designed

Figure 5.1 A simple model of the degree of protection offered by a stadium canopy. For actual design more detailed studies are needed taking into account factors such as orientation, prevailing wind direction and local patterns of turbulence.

Elevated si ghtline

Front edge of roof

30º

30º n ctio rote dp Goo tion tec pro rate e d Mo

tline sigh Main tion tec pro tial Par d ose Exp

59

STADIA

chapter 5

form AnD STrucTure

for reasonably easy replacement; and a definite maintenance

i

cycle for the roof must be decided on and spelt out in an

This structural system comprises a row of columns parallel

owners’ manual, as discussed in Section 22.1.1.

to the pitch, supporting a series of beams or trusses which in

posT and beam sTrucTures

turn carry the roof. 5.8.3

designing for wind uplifT

When considering alternative roof structures it must be

adVanTages

remembered that holding the roof up is not the only structural

The post and beam system is cheap and simple. However,

problem. Wind pressure under the roof may at times create a

these attributes tend to be overrated. Currently, the cost of

much more serious problem of holding the roof down – and it

a column-free roof in a new stand is likely to increase total

is worth noting that more grandstand roofs have failed from

stadium costs by only two to four per cent compared to the

destructive uplift than from collapse. This uplift condition

costs of a roof with columns.

is often transitory and may cause further complications by 60

setting up an oscillation in the roof beams which must be

disadVanTages

dampened by the structure.

The row of columns along the pitch obstructs spectator

The problem is particularly bad in lightweight

viewing to an unacceptable degree. We believe there

structures with insufficient mass to naturally dampen the

are no circumstances in which this outdated form of roof

bounce. Although these conditions apply only occasionally, it

construction can now be recommended.

is possible to increase the weight of the structure specifically

If cases do arise where a post and beam roof

to resist conditions of uplift. But this is an expensive solution.

is the only feasible option – perhaps because of space

An alternative approach is to stiffen the lightweight structure,

constraints or the nature of the existing structure – then it is

partly with special braces and partly by deliberately enhancing

worth noting that the further back the columns are placed,

the elements which are normally non-load-bearing (cladding

the less obstruction they cause. Seats behind the columns

panels, fascia panels and the like), so that they help transfer

may have to be left unused or sold at reduced prices.

loads to the more massive elements, and control vibration. The use of wind tunnel testing is recommended

ii

goal posT sTrucTures

in these cases, even though this can be expensive, time-

This is like a post and beam roof with posts only at the

consuming (two to three months) and may require

two ends, and none between. The entire length of the roof

sophisticated modelling. To get maximum value for money,

is spanned by a single girder. A girder depth of about one

testing for structural stability can be combined with testing

twelfth of the length is normally economical (i.e. a beam

for environmental impact (for example, the effects of wind on

that spans 120m will be 10m deep). Regular inspection and

a grass pitch, or the creation of unpleasant gusting conditions

maintenance is especially important for this system because

in surrounding properties). In any case, environmental impact

the entire roof structure depends upon a single girder.

testing is becoming a standard requirement.

A variant of this is to combine the post and beams into an arch along the front of the roof, examples of

5.8.4

roof Types

We summarise below nine principal structural forms which

which include the Hong Kong stadium and the Galpharm Stadium, in Huddersfield, both designed by Populous.

can be used to resolve the many forces acting upon a stadium roof. Some work best as complete bowls, others as individual

adVanTages

stands, as noted below. The list is not comprehensive; there

• Unobstructed viewing, particularly if the two uprights are

are other forms, and many variations and combinations of

situated at the ends of the playing field, with the entire

the basic options.

length of the pitch left clear of columns. • Moderate cost.



form and structure

chapter 5

disadVanTages

Twickenham Rugby Football Ground, in London; the new

• The system works best when little or no corner seating

north and south stands at Murrayfield Rugby Stadium,

is required, which affects seating layout, as discussed in

in Edinburgh, which have a clear depth of 43m; and the

Section 10.3. • Aesthetically, the goal post system tends to create a boxy shed that cannot be coaxed round a curve or corner with any degree of grace. It is difficult to link smoothly with adjacent stands.

stadIa

Husky Stadium, in Seattle, with a clear depth of 48m. • Cantilever roofs can be very dramatic since the structure appears to have no means of support. • The cantilever is as suitable for continuous bowl-shaped roofs as for isolated stands. In bowl stadia the individual frames can be arranged as a closely-spaced series of

This system is therefore most appropriate where separate

vertical elements fluidly following a circular or elliptical

stands are required on the sides of a playing pitch, with no

plan form, as in the Parc des Princes, in Paris.

intention of extending the roof other than in a straight line. disadVanTages

• Where the rear seating rows must be very distant from the

examples

The goal post system is widely used in the UK, for example at

playing field, the cantilever becomes markedly expensive.

Ibrox Park, in Glasgow.

It is possible that a roof of the goal post type, for instance, can be built more cheaply. Whether the cost factor will

iii

canTileVer sTrucTures

A cantilevered roof is held down by weight or otherwise

be enough to outweigh other considerations (such as aesthetics) is a matter for careful evaluation.

securely fixed at one end while its other end, facing the

• The reversal of forces caused by wind uplift can be

playing field, hangs free and unsupported. A variation of the

particularly destructive in the case of a cantilevered roof

above is the propped cantilever.

(though less so if it is a bowl stadium, where the curved plan provides a stiffening effect). If slender holding-down

adVanTages

stays were envisaged at the back of the cantilever, to

• Such a structure can provide completely unobstructed

create a light and graceful structure, these may need to

viewing for virtually any length of stand while spanning

be more massive to cope with the compression forces set

depths of 45m or even more. The limiting factor is cost

up when the roof is lifted, thus creating a heavy structure

rather than technology. Examples include the stands at

where the desire was for a light one.

Figure 5.2 Three common forms of roof for stadia 1 Post and beam: Roof spanning between columns at the front and rear of the stand. This system was used in the early 20th century but is no longer favoured as the front columns obstruct spectators’ view 2 Cantilever: Roof cantilevered from the rear of the stand 3 Goal post structure: Roof spanning between the rear of the stand and a long-span beam at the front

61

STADIA

form AnD STrucTure

chapter 5

• A cantilever roof can rise to its highest point at the back of

Such innovative forms require very thorough testing of

the stand – the street side, as it were – and may therefore

architectural character, using both computer modelling

appear taller and more intimidating to passers-by than

and physical scale models.

alternative forms of structure enclosing a similar seating

• If carefully detailed, shells can be self-finished both

capacity. The East Stand at Stamford Bridge football

underneath and on the upper surface. The latter requires

stadium, in London, while being an admirably heroic and

sufficiently steep drainage falls to ensure rapid and

exciting design, also demonstrates the colossal visual

complete disposal of rainwater.

impact that a large cantilevered structure may have. Not every site can absorb such a dramatic intrusion, particularly

disadVanTages

on the street side, where the stadium must relate to the

• Specialist designers must be used, as the mathematics

scale of much more ordinary buildings.

62

involved are advanced.

• A cantilevered roof thrusting boldly out into space

• If in situ concrete is used, the formwork costs will be

without any visible means of support provides not only an

very high since a birdcage or similar type of scaffold

aesthetic opportunity but also a risk. Great care and some

will be required. A pre-cast concrete solution should

self-restraint is required if an obtrusive, out-of-scale result

be considered, or a combination of pre-cast and in situ

is to be avoided.

concrete.

examples

examples

The East Stand at Stamford Bridge football stadium, in

The grandstand at Zarzuela racecourse, near Madrid (1935),

London, is not without problems. Its construction costs were

by Eduardo Torroja; the Palazzetto dello Sport, in Rome

high; the upper seats seem a long way from the pitch; the

(1957), by Annibale Vitellozzi and Pier Luigi Nervi; the Palazzo

lower seats are uncomfortably exposed to wind and rain;

dello Sport, in Rome (1960), by Marcello Piacentini and Pier

there are difficulties with cleaning. Nevertheless, its design

Luigi Nervi.

has presence and architectural power. Other examples include the Bari Stadium, in Italy, Twickenham Rugby

V

Football Ground, in London, and Seoul Olympic Stadium, in

These roofs consist of an inner tension ring and an outer

South Korea.

compression ring, the two being connected by radial

compression/Tension ring

members which maintain the geometry of the overall iV

concreTe shell sTrucTures

doughnut-shaped structure and carry the roof covering.

Shells are thin surface structures which are curved in one or two directions, deriving their strength from the geometric

adVanTages

shape rather than the thickness or firmness of the material.

• Very deep stands can be spanned with comparative

(Just as a flimsy sheet of paper may become capable of

ease. The new roof to the Vienna Prater Stadium spans a

carrying a load if correctly curved.) They include cylindrical,

distance of 48m between the inner and outer rings. The

domed, conoid and hyperbolic shapes, and allow for very

recently added roof on the Olympic Stadium, in Rome,

elegant roof forms. A shell as thin as 75mm or 100mm may easily span 100m.

spans a distance of 52m. • As can be seen from the above examples, this roof type lends itself both technically and aesthetically to the problem

adVanTages

• Shell structures have the potential of great visual elegance. This does not, however, come automatically.

of retro-fitting a new roof to an existing bowl stadium. • The inner perimeter is completely column-free, so there are no obstructions whatever between spectators and pitch.



form and structure

• The roof has a light, weightless appearance, as seen from

chapter 5

Vi

stadIa

Tension sTrucTures

the stadium interior, and is unobtrusive or even invisible

These are roofs in which all the primary forces are taken by

when seen from the outside. The latter can be a particular

members acting in tension alone, such as cables. They are

advantage in many situations, as discussed in Section 5.2.3.

always more economical in material (though not necessarily

• Both the overall roof form and the structural details have

in costs) than other forms of structure, but must be very

inherent qualities of harmony and grace, and do not resist

carefully stabilised and restrained against any deformation

the designer’s attempts to produce beautiful architecture.

which could cause parts of the system to go into compression.

This contrasts with some other structural types which are

There are three principal forms – catenary cable, cable net

technically efficient but aesthetically difficult to handle.

and membrane.

• Transparent or translucent roof coverings are possible, as in the Olympic Stadium, in Rome. • Some types permit the addition of a permanent or temporary roof cover over the playing field.

caTenary cable sTrucTures

These consist of a compression arch (or arches) supporting one or more cables hanging in catenary shape, which in turn support a roof structure.

disadVanTages

• This structural system can be used only with bowl stadia.

The beautifully shaped roof of Eero Saarinen’s hockey rink at Yale University, in New Haven (1958), is formed by cables suspended from a rigid arched keel. In Tokyo, seven

examples

years later, Kenzo Tange roofed the twin gymnasia for the

The Prater Stadium, in Vienna, was built between 1928 and 1931,

1964 Olympic Games with concrete slabs hung from massive

and extended in 1956. The new roof was retro-fitted in 1986

steel cables to create two of the most dramatic architectural

with no need for any additional reinforcement to the existing

forms of the century.

concrete structures. The pitch itself has been left open, while the surrounding 63,000-capacity stands are entirely covered

These are very heavy forms of tension structure compared with the types below.

by a continuous oval roof, the outer perimeter forming an ellipse of 270m by 215m. The roof covering consists of

cable neT sTrucTures

galvanised and plastic-coated corrugated steel sheets, while

As above, the supporting structure is separated from the

the structure comprises an inner tension ring and an external

roof covering. The structure consists of a three-dimensional

compression ring (both of these being box girders) with

net of steel cables, and the covering normally of plastics

a connecting framework of steel tubes. The latter have a

(acrylic, PVC or polycarbonate). Glass-reinforced plastic has

structural function and also support the steel covering plates.

been used but it tends to become brittle and less translucent

Special ties hold down the lightweight structure against wind

with age. Suitable plastics for coverings are listed in Table 5.1,

uplift. Roof depth, front to back, is 48m, and the overall roof

published by kind permission of the Football Stadia Advisory

area over 32,000m2. Floodlights are mounted on the inner

Design Council and the Sports Council.

ring and TV camera stands, while public address systems and other services are integrated into the roof.

An excellent example of a cable net roof is the Olympic Stadium complex, in Munich (see frontispiece to this

A more recent and even larger example is the

chapter), where a covering of transparent acrylic panels is

open stadium in Rome which was used for the 1960 Olympic

supported by a web of steel cables. Because the covering

Games and then retro-fitted with a roof for the 1990 FIFA

in this case was designed to be relatively rigid, deformation

World Cup. In this case, roof depth is 52m from front to back,

in the cable system had to be minimised by very powerful

and the roof covering consists of translucent Teflon, allowing

pre-tensioning, leading to high costs for the masts and other

some light to penetrate to the seats below.

anchoring members.

63

STADIA

form AnD STrucTure

chapter 5

Profiled metal sheeting Steel Aluminium

Relative cost factor

Concrete

PVC Single glazed

Double glazed

Acrylic

GRP

Polycarbonate Single Double glazed glazed

Fabric PVC-s coated

PTFEcoated

ETFE inflated pillows

1.2

4 to 8

2.5 to 4

3 to 5

2.5 to 4

1 to 2.5

3 to 7

6 to 8

3 to 5

5 to 8

10 to 15

Good

Good

Medium

Medium

Medium

Medium

Good

Good

Medium

Good

Medium

Incombustible

Self-extinguishing

Class 1

Class 1

Self-extinguishing

Approx.

Class 0 Low

(supply and fix) as at 2012 in the UK Durability

Good

Flame retardancy

Incombustible

Transparency

Opaque

64

Opaque

(when edges

class 1

are protected)

equivalent Translucent.

flammability

Transparent:

Translucent

Opaque or

Transparent: 80% to 90%

70% to 80% light

or transparent:

translucent

visible light transmission,

Transparent: 95% of visible

transmission, which

50% to 70%

which lessens slightly

light transmission

lessens markedly

possible light

with time

with time

transmission which lessens moderately with time

The above relative cost factor compares the cost of the roof covering only. It should be noted that some of the listed materials have differing structural properties which can impact upon the weight of the primary and secondary structure, and may lead to cost differentials for this element. This is, however, a complex equation linked to type of structure and complexity of roof erection methodology.

Table 5.1

Comparative properties of roof covering materials

membrane sTrucTures

But as fire is not normally a hazard in a stadium roof, the

Unlike the preceding two types, the roof covering material

material ought to be acceptable in this context. Use of an

forms both the structure and the enclosure. Suitable fabrics

expert designer is essential, together with a fire engineering

include:

approach.

• PVC-coated polyester fabric. This is cheaper initially than

The Faro Stadium, in Portugal, and Oita Stadium, in Japan,

the next type (below), and easy to handle. But it has a

(see Case studies) provide elegant examples. Examples in

life of only about 15 years. Also, the fabric tends to sag

the UK include the Mound Stand at Lord’s Cricket Ground,

with time, and the surface becomes sticky with age and

in London (1987), with a translucent PVC-coated woven

requires frequent cleaning.

polyester fabric with PVDF top coat; the Sussex Stand, at

• Teflon-coated glass fibre fabric (also known as PTFE-

Goodwood Racecourse (1990); and the Don Valley Stadium,

coated glass fibre fabric). This is an expensive roof, by any

in Sheffield (1991). The Riyadh Stadium, in Saudi Arabia, is an

standards, but it has a longer life than the type listed above

example of a complete stadium roofed in fabric.

and, being Teflon, it is to some degree self-cleaning. Use of this material is limited or banned by some authorities because of a tendency to produce toxic fumes in a fire.



form and structure

chapter 5

adVanTages

examples

• Cable net or fabric roofs can be designed to lend an airy,

The leading air-supported roofs are mostly in North America.

festive appearance to a stadium, especially when seen

Those in the USA are the RCA Dome, formerly the Hoosier

from a distance. Given the aesthetic difficulties discussed

Dome, in Indianapolis (1972), with a seating capacity of

in Sections 5.1 and 5.2, this can be a valuable attribute.

61,000 and the Silverdome, in Pontiac (1973), with a seating

• If a translucent membrane is used, the spectator spaces

capacity of 80,000. The leading Canadian example is BC

underneath may have a lighter, more open feel than with

Place, in Vancouver (1983), with a seating capacity of 60,000.

opaque roofs. It may also reduce the shading of the pitch

All these roofs are of fibreglass. The best-known Japanese

which causes problems for grass growth, as discussed in

example is the so-called ‘Big Egg’ in Tokyo.

stadIa

Section 5.4.2, and for television coverage, as discussed in Section 18.1.3. • Tension structures can be adapted to many stadium layouts, and do not dictate a particular plan form.

Viii

space frames

A space frame is a grid of structural members which is threedimensional in shape and also stable in three dimensions, unlike, for instance, a roof truss, which is stable only in its own

disadVanTages

plane. Such frames can be constructed of any material but

• Very sophisticated design is needed for all tension

are commonly of steel.

structures, and it is best to use structural engineers with a track record of successful designs. • More systematic and intensive maintenance is required than with other structural forms.

adVanTages

• Capable of spanning large distances. • Suitable for all-over roofs with only perimeter support.

• Fabric roofs require very careful detailing of rainwater guttering.

disadVanTages

• A space frame is efficient and sensible only if spanning Vii

air-supporTed roofs

in two directions. Plan proportions should therefore be

An air-supported roof consists of a plastic membrane which

roughly square, and preferably not have a length-to-

forms an enclosure – either on its own or in combination

width ratio greater than 1.5 to 1. This structural form will

with a wall structure – and is supported by positive internal

therefore not be appropriate for normal stand roofs unless

pressure provided by electric fans. These membranes are

the sections of roof between structural supports can be of

commonly formed in PVC polyester, sometimes with cable

these proportions.

reinforcement in the case of larger roofs.

• Space frames tend to be expensive.

adVanTages

examples

Air-supported roofs are relatively low in capital cost.

The San Siro Stadium, in Milan, is roofed over by an aluminium deck supported from steel lattice beams. The roof covering is

disadVanTages

translucent polycarbonate sheeting. It must be said that this

• Full enclosures are vulnerable to damage.

was a very expensive solution which has not functioned as well

• Design life is relatively short.

as expected. The main failure is that the grass on the pitch is

• The system needs to be continually pumped to keep the

struggling to survive, probably as a result of excessive shading.

interior adequately pressurised. • They are not regarded as being environmentally friendly nor sustainable.

However, this is not indicative of space frame roofs in general.

65

STADIA

form AnD STrucTure

chapter 5

ix

opening roofs

in 1996 and seats up to 51,000 spectators. It is primarily

that can open and close, giving protection from the weather

a soccer stadium but is also extensively used for pop

and thus enabling indoor events of all kinds to take place. See Chapter 8. The geometry and mechanism of a moving

concerts and other entertainments. • The 63,000-seat Arizona Cardinals football stadium – (see Case studies).

roof can take many forms. An early ambitious example

• The Miller Park (Brewer) baseball stadium, in Milwaukee,

was the design for the Montreal Olympic Stadium (1976)

which has a seven-panel roof that opens and closes like a

which proposed a gigantic fabric roof over the central area,

66

• The Amsterdam Arena (see Case studies) which opened

Increasing numbers of stadia are being designed with roofs

fan, and is claimed to close in about 10 minutes.

supported by cables from a high reinforced concrete tower.

• The Reliant football stadium, in Houston (see Case studies).

This would be pulled up and lowered, rather like an umbrella.

• The Rod Laver Arena, in Melbourne.

Unfortunately, the proposal proved to be too ambitious and

• The 47,000-seat Safeco Field baseball stadium, in Seattle.

the roof was fixed in a permanent form.

• The Telstra Dome, in Melbourne (see Case studies).

Since then the technology of retractable roofs has greatly improved.

• The Toronto Skydome. • The Centre Court at the All England Lawn Tennis and

A highly elegant example is the Oita Stadium,

Croquet Club, Wimbledon, now fitted with a new sliding

in Japan (see Case studies), designed by the KT Group,

roof (see Case studies). The closing has to be accompanied

Takenaka Corporation. The venue has a maximum capacity

by sophisticated air conditioning to ensure that the

of 43,000 spectators and was completed in 2001 for the

atmosphere of the interior and the natural grass surface

2002 FIFA World Cup. The stationary part of the roof is clad

perform.

in titanium, while the movable panels are lightweight Teflon membranes. These panels are retracted by a wire traction

5.8.5

system and slide over the main beam arch, meeting exactly

Materials used for roof covering need to be lightweight,

above the centre of the field. The action resembles an eyelid

tough, water-tight, incombustible, aesthetically acceptable,

closing, hence the stadium’s popular name ‘the Big Eye’.

cost-effective and durable enough to withstand the effects

roof coVerings

The Millennium Stadium, in Cardiff, designed

of outdoor weathering, including ultraviolet light. They

by Populous and WS Atkins, provides a particularly large-

should also be strong and stiff enough to span between

scale example. The venue seats up to 74,500 spectators and

primary and secondary elements, supporting snow and other

opened in 1999 to host the Rugby World Cup. The roof has

superimposed loads, including wind forces. Over the facility

a total fixed area of approximately 27,000m2 around the

areas such as private boxes, kitchens, restaurants and toilets,

perimeter, and a moving area in the centre of 9,500m2. The

the roof construction may require additional thermal and/or

latter comprises two panels above the playing field which

acoustic insulation.

slide apart to create an opening of 105m by 80m. It takes 20 minutes to winch the closing sections into place along rails

opaque coVerings

which rest on the massive 220m-long primary trusses. Its form

Profiled metal sheeting is cheap, easy to fix, and very

and operation are simple and uncomplicated – a factor to be

commonly used. Steel sheets generally come in galvanised,

taken into account when looking at lifelong maintenance.

plastic-coated or painted form. Aluminium sheets are lighter

Further selected examples of moving roofs include the following:

and inherently resistant to atmospheric attack, but have less impact resistance and will suffer electrolytic corrosion when in  contact with other metals or with concrete, and chemical  attack when in contact with wood that may get wet.



form and structure

chapter 5

In both cases, separating membranes must be used at all

to be excessive weight (which may be reduced by using

contact points.

lightweight aggregates) and the unattractive weathering

Concrete is so heavy that it will seldom be

that is associated with concrete surfaces. Silicone treatments

used as a roof covering. But where the roof structure is

may help reduce the latter, but if the stadium is built in a

also the covering (for example, a shell or slab) the chosen

climate that is both rainy and polluted, the concrete should

material may well be concrete. The problems are then likely

preferably be given a finish such as tiling.

stadIa

Figure 5.3 The Centre Court at Wimbledon, now fitted with a sliding roof.

67

stadIa

68

chapter 5

form and structure

TranslucenT coVerings

5.8.6

Rigid plastics include acrylic (of which Perspex is one

Stadia with permanent roofs over the playing area are found in

variant), PVC and polycarbonate sheeting. These materials

the USA, in particular, where they are known as domed stadia.

are waterproof and strong, can withstand reasonably large

Examples include the Louisiana Superdome, in New Orleans;

deformations without damage, and have reasonable impact

the Silverdome, in Pontiac; the Astrodome, in Houston; the

resistance. Examples of rigid translucent roofs include the

Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome, in Minneapolis; and the

1972 Olympic Games stadium in Munich which uses acrylic

RCS Dome formerly the Hoosier Dome, in Indianapolis.

compleTely enclosed sTadia

panels; the stadium at Split, in Croatia, which uses a tinted

Many of these structures use translucent

sheeting called Lexan; and the 2000 Olympic Games

coverings. These give a welcome effect of visual lightness

stadium, in Sydney (see Case studies), which has triple-wall

and a pleasant open ambience, and they assist television

polycarbonate varying in tint to be more translucent at the

broadcasting by reducing contrast between sunlit and

front edge.

shadowed areas. Non-rigid plastics include PVC-coated polyester

But only certain translucent roofs will permit

and PTFE-coated glass fibre. Examples are those already

grass to grow on the playing field below. If this is not important

mentioned: the Mound Stand at Lord’s Cricket Ground,

(as tends to be the case in the USA, where the great national

the Sussex Stand at Goodwood Racecourse, and the Don

sports do not require a natural grass surface, and where

Valley stadium in Sheffield. ETFE has the advantage of being

intensive multi-use favours hard-wearing synthetic surfaces),

very translucent to sunlight, thus assisting pitch growth.

the decision between an open or enclosed stadium becomes

It  is, however, thin and flexible so it is commonly installed

a relatively straightforward matter of balancing the relative

as  pillows that need permanent pumping of air to keep

costs and revenues of the two options. But in the UK and

them inflated.

the rest of Europe, where both soccer and rugby currently

Table 5.1 gives guidance to both rigid and nonrigid types of translucent roofing.

require natural grass pitches for games at the most senior level, expert opinion should be sought before considering a fully-enclosed stadium.

06

security and anti-terrorism measures

6.1

IntroductIon

6.2

the threats from terrorIsm

6.3

authorItIes

6.4

ImplIcatIons for management and operatIon

6.5

responses by the desIgn team

6.6

conclusIon

6.1

IntroductIon

In this context, security means the protection of a building or its occupants from external threats that might cause danger to the people in the building, or interfere with its normal operation. These threats could, for example, be crime, terrorism, natural disasters or human error. The actions to counter them will range from design elements of the building to operational procedures by the management or outside agencies. In  recent years, the threat from terrorism has become a factor that must be taken into account when staging major sporting competitions. This chapter concentrates on that threat. There can be no absolute answers in countering such threats, and this chapter only gives an outline of some of the major issues. It should be read in conjunction with the guidance on emergency exit in the event of fire in Section 14.6.2. The authors stress that anti-terrorist measures are a highly specialised subject, and expert advice is essential. The level of threat is judged by the police, who should be consulted on this aspect throughout the design process. 6.2

the threats from terrorIsm

The following is a summary of some of the methods that terrorists might use to attack high-profile events, extrapolated from the experience of past terrorist incidents. The aim of terrorists might be to harm people, to take them hostage or to cause alarm. explosIve devIces

These may be delivered by a number of means including parked vehicles, large vehicles driven by a suicide bomber, devices carried by an individual, or explosives delivered by a missile. They could include devices with radioactive ingredients. In the past, they have been delivered to the building on the day of the attack, or set up in advance and detonated at a significant moment.

71

STADIA

chapter 6

SecurITy AnD AnTI-TerrorISm meASureS

fIrearms

The response to terrorism, and all other serious threats,

These might be brought into the sports venue or, in the case

should be a team effort, normally led by the management

of sniping, used from a long distance.

of the venue, except in some high-profile situations where it might be led by government security agencies.

chemIcal, bIologIcal or radIologIcal agents

These include various agents that can act on the body in

6.5

different ways and can be delivered as powders, liquids or gas.

The design of the facility can influence the way in which

responses by the desIgn team

managers and security authorities are able to handle the IncendIary devIces

emergency, and the way in which a crowd will behave. The

These could cause the greatest hazard in the concourses and

following notes summarise some of the key matters, and

interior spaces of the stadium.

should be read in conjunction with Figure 3.4, showing the zoning of stadium planning. Firstly, the terrorist threat is constantly changing,

electronIc devIces

72

Modern buildings rely on a plethora of computer systems

and the ideas on how to counter it are evolving too, so a

from building management systems and ticketing systems

building with space to allow some flexibility of activity within

to different types of communication systems. Some of these

it will be more useful.

can be disturbed by hacking via the internet. All can be disturbed by interfering with the power supply.

6.5.1

vehIcular parkIng and access

• Parked vehicles must be kept away from the perimeter of 6.3

the stadium.

authorItIes

As mentioned in the introduction, it is important to contact

• Vehicles that enter the building before the event or on the

public bodies which can assess the perceived likelihood

event days – even VIP or service vehicles – must not pose

of terrorist attacks. They may already have planned out

any threat.

their response. Authorities that may deal with terrorist

• Emergency vehicles must have unhindered access to the

threats include the police, local authorities, national security

stadium throughout any kind of terrorist incident. It may

organisations, and emergency services. Proposed stadia

be difficult to reconcile such ready access with planned

designs should be discussed with these agencies, since they

security measures. Communication between the security

have valuable specialist knowledge to contribute.

advisers and local authority should resolve this.

Measures designed to protect buildings from vehicular

6.4

ImplIcatIons for management



and operatIon

attack, such as bollards and other forms of barriers, can often

6.4.1

management responses

conflict with crowd flow, emergency vehicle access, and

Risk assessment is a formal method of setting out what is

the urban design of the surroundings. A careful balance is

known about potential attacks, and then analysing what

required to provide security without the stadium ending up

can be done both to foil such attacks, and to ensure the

resembling a prison.

safety of the building occupants should they happen. The management of a sports venue should prepare contingency

6.5.2

access Into stadIum for spectators

plans setting out how they would act in the event of the



and staff through the perImeter

possible incidents. Different events, even in the same venue,

This is an early line of defence to prevent potential criminals

will have different levels of threat associated with them and

from entering the facility. In locations where there is thought

will be vulnerable in different ways.

to be a threat, significant changes in practice will be needed.

security and anti-terrorism measures

chapter 6

For example, the use of airport-style search equipment.

6.5.6

Space to allow searching to take place should be allowed,

It is vital that all control rooms (which are described in more

normally outside the main ticket check line, but sometimes

detail in Section 19.2.4) continue to operate throughout

inside it.

any kind of emergency. The following measures can be

stadia

control rooms

incorporated in their design. 6.5.3

cIrculatIon InsIde the stadIum

At overall planning stage, the design team should as far as

• The control room should be designed to remain intact

possible avoid potential places of concealment by ensuring

and functioning in the event of explosions or other serious

the stadium has clear, simple spaces with no hidden nooks

security problems in the stadium. For increased security,

and crannies.

it may also be located where it is safe from attack, for

At detail design stage it will be similarly helpful

example an off-site location. A secondary back-up control

to avoid high-up places where threatening packages could

room is often incorporated in case the main one becomes

be placed out of sight. The use of sloping upper surfaces on all high-level window sills is one sensible precaution.

unusable. • Electrical supply must be maintained throughout any emergency.

6.5.4

structural collapse

• Provision can be made for command and communications

The aim is to delay the collapse of the building, in the event of

facilities (CCTV, PA, BMS etc.) to be remotely controlled off-

an explosion, long enough for people to escape.

site, or integrated with national security services systems.

Key factors include robustness of the building; ductility – i.e. the ability of joints and connections to stretch,

6.5.7

bend, and deform rather than break; and redundancy – i.e.

As a top priority, effective measures should be taken to

the ability of a structure to transfer loads from one set of

eliminate the horrific injuries that could result from flying

members to another, thus allowing the structure to survive

glass. Typically, this is the cause of around 95 per cent of

even if a column is destroyed. Steel or in-situ concrete frames

all injuries in an explosion. Glass, especially in large sheets,

are best. Load-bearing masonry is not sturdy. Neither are

should never be untreated annealed glass. It can be made

pre-cast concrete frames unless the connections between

safe by one of three methods:

glass

components have been designed with very great care. Design strategies may also include progressive

• Using laminated safety glass. This consists of layers of

collapse and sacrificial façades etc. However, an engineered

annealed glass (which for added safety may be toughened,

solution is not always adequate. Sometimes other mitigation

see below) glued to intervening layers of extremely tough

methods need to be explored.

plastic, thus producing a sandwich of material that offers

Again, these are highly specialised matters and reputable experts must be consulted.

a high degree of resistance to explosions and also bullets. If the glass does break, the composite sheet still hangs together, rather like a curtain, and does not disintegrate

6.5.5

aIr Intakes

into lethal flying shards. This is the most expensive method.

All ventilation intakes for artificial or natural ventilation

• Using toughened safety glass. This is up to five times

must be placed where they cannot be interfered with, and

stronger than conventional annealed glass, and if the glass

where it is impossible to introduce noxious gases into the

does break it disintegrates into crumb-like fragments

facility. In addition, consideration should be given to control

which are neither large enough nor sharp enough to cause

systems that can seal off external air intakes in the event of

serious injury. The typical cost is about a fifth less than that

an emergency.

of laminated safety glass.

73

stadia

CHAPTER 6

security and anti-terrorism measures

• Applying transparent safety film to ordinary annealed

6.6

conclusIon

glass. Though they are paper-thin, such films will hold the

No conceivable range of security measures can provide 100

glass together if broken, and counteract the formation of

per cent security to a building or its occupants. The aim is to

flying shards. The typical cost is a third or a quarter of the

mitigate threats. Venue managers must find the right balance

cost of laminated safety glass.

between the perceived security threat, and the range of

• More sophisticated blast-absorbing and wire-catch systems are also available. • New developments in plastic should be considered.

counter-terror measures in the design and management of the stadium. At the same time they do not want to unduly disturb the operation of the building or inconvenience the spectators. All the systems must be integrated to work

74

Frames and blast-resistant glazing should be designed

smoothly together: the building structure and materials, the

to resist blast loads together. The frames may need to be

information technology, and the management strategies.

reinforced to take the strain, and the glass securely seated

Consultation with the agencies mentioned in this

in deep rebates.

will be essential.

Resisting blast loads does not mean that the outside of the building should be strengthened to the point that blast loads cannot escape. Some façades are now designed to resist the effect of an external blast on the structure without proper consideration of the likely effect of an internal blast on this blast-resistant envelope. In these cases, designers must consider where the pressure wave of the blast is going to go.

section

07

activity area

7.1

Playing surfaces

7.2

Pitch dimensions, layout and boundaries

7.1

Playing surfaces

7.1.1

history

Informal sport has been played on grass fields, city squares or open ground for hundreds of years but it was not until the middle of the 19th century that sports became organised with conditions under which they could be played fairly. These early, rather loose conditions later became codified rules, and eventually the laws of sport were born. A notable exception is tennis which had its origins as an indoor sport and only later took to the outdoors. The surface to be played upon was often specified in these rules, as it was recognised that the nature of a game differed when surfaces changed. The established rule of ball sports being played on natural surfaces was unchallenged until 1966 when the Houston Astrodome opened. This was the world’s first completely covered stadium and was designed, using the best technology at the time, with a transparent roof and natural turf playing surface. Unfortunately, the grass did not grow below the transparent roof for a number of reasons, one of which was that the steel structure holding up the solid roof prevented natural light from reaching the playing surface. To avoid this showcase stadium turning into a disaster, a manufactured synthetic grass was woven using green plastic, and then laid over the existing ground. The product was called Astroturf, after its host venue, the Astrodome. Variants of this original synthetic grass have covered many other sports surfaces around the world. Synthetic sports surfaces have since been used in more sophisticated constructions, all with the enormous advantage that stadia can host different events on the same playing surface, one after another. Although players and team coaches tended to prefer a natural grass surface for its playability, artificial surfaces were Wembley Stadium London designed for football, rugby, concerts and other events. Architects: Populous with Foster + Partners

approved for American football and spread quickly through the USA. They are now officially accepted by FIFA for soccer matches and are beginning to be installed by soccer clubs around the world, though they have not yet been accepted by national federations for major matches.

77

StaDia

activity area

CHAPTER 7

7.1.2

• If irrigated, it is a relatively cool surface in hot climates.

current requirements

Table 7.1 shows the playing characteristics of tennis court

• It will continually self-repair and regenerate.

surfaces, reproduced with the permission of the Lawn Tennis Association.

disadvantages

The major limitation of grass surfaces is that they cannot be 7.1.3

used in roofed stadia, and are difficult to keep healthy even

natural grass surfaces

advantages

under partial cover. The reason is that grass needs ample

Natural grass remains the most user-friendly of surfaces, and

light for really healthy growth; air movement, humidity and

the only permissible choice for some sports. The advantages

temperature levels also need to be kept within fairly strict

of natural grass are:

parameters. Only recently have roof materials and stadium design advanced so that a natural grass pitch can be grown under cover.

• It is aesthetically attractive.

Even in a partly roofed stadium, the size of the

• It gives a speed of rebound and a degree of rolling 78

resistance that is just about right for most ball sports. • It provides reasonable – though variable – purchase for

and other such factors may lead to disappointing results. One example of failure is the San Siro Stadium, in Milan, which was

players’ feet when dry or wet. • It gives a surface that is neither excessively hard nor

redeveloped to accommodate 80,000 spectators for the FIFA World Cup in 1990. Only the spectator seating areas are

excessively soft for comfortable running. • It is less injurious to players who fall than most alternative

roofed, with a central opening over the playing area; but even though this aperture is approximately the size of the football

finishes.

Surfaces

roof aperture, the shadow effects of the surrounding structure

Ball–surface interaction

Spin

Player–surface interaction

Speed of court

Height of bounce

Trueness of bounce

Topspin

Slice

Sliding/ firm footing

Traction (slip or non-slip)

Resilience (hardness)

Grass

Fast

Low

Variable

Little

Yes

Firm footing with partial slide

Slip

Soft

Synthetic turf

Fast to slow

Medium

Variable

Little

Yes

Firm footing but partial slide on sand filled

Mainly non-slip

Medium to soft

Impervious acrylic

Medium

Medium

Uniform

Yes

Yes

Firm footing

Non-slip

Hard to medium

Porous macadam

Slow

High

Almost uniform

Yes

Little

Firm footing

Non-slip

Hard

Shale

Medium

Medium

Variable

Yes

Yes

Sliding

Slip

Medium to soft

Continental clay

Slow

Medium

Almost uniform

Yes

Yes

Sliding

Non-slip

Medium to soft

Source: Tennis Courts, published by the LTA Court Advisory Service. Reproduced by kind permission of Christopher Trickey. Table 7.1

Playing characteristics of tennis court surfaces.

activity area

CHAPTER 7

pitch below, the grass is struggling to survive. The lesson to

the natural grass in place and constructing above it a new

designers must be one of caution.

platform supported on remote-controlled hydraulic legs.

Supplementary artificial lighting is increasingly

In the UK, Odsal Stadium, in Bradford, has used a simple

used to improve the growth of the grass, though this system

system of restoring the corners of a soccer pitch which had

has an operational energy cost. When combined with vents

been cut off by a speedway track around the pitch: grass

to encourage air movement across the grass surface, a good-

was grown on wooden pallets with a reinforced plastic mesh

quality pitch can be grown without much natural light. Careful

sub-base, and these were moved away to storage by forklift

management of the pitch is needed in these circumstances.

truck before speedway events. Further notes on this topic

A second limitation is that grass cannot survive the

StaDia

are provided in Section 5.4.2.

same intensity and frequency of use as most artificial surfaces. This relative fragility conflicts with the stadium’s need to

installation

maximise the number of event days per annum for profitability.

Planting and maintaining a grass pitch is a task for specialists. All the advice given below is for general background

the Pitch rePlacement concePt

understanding only. A specialist consultant should be

One response to the problems outlined above is the concept

retained from the outset to give advice, draw up a detailed

of pitch replacement on a systematic basis. The principle

specification, invite tenders and supervise the work.

is to remove the grass when it is not needed, and to allow

Figure 7.1 shows the elements of a typical grass-

other events to take place on an artificial surface underneath.

turfed surface, and should be studied in conjunction with the

There are many removal techniques: (i) a Canadian method

following notes.

of growing the turf in large boxes which can then be moved

For bowling greens and croquet, the upper

out of the stadium on rails; (ii) a German method of growing

grass surface must be smooth, true and absolutely level,

the turf on pallets of 4m2 which are then moved on the

with very good subsoil drainage. For other sports the grass

hovercraft principle; and (iii) a Dutch concept of leaving

surface can be less exacting but should be smooth and free

Figure 7.1 Elements of a typical natural grass playing surface.

Grass 250mm sand soil mix 50mm blinding 150mm stone carpet Minimum 300mm deep pipe drain Earth

79

STADIA

80 80

chapter 7

AcTIvITy AreA

from surface unevenness, and possibly laid to a slight fall

drainage

for water disposal. Maximum permissible gradients must be

Adequate drainage is a necessity, and the above methods

checked before design with the relevant governing bodies,

may need to be supplemented to avoid standing pools of

because such rules are constantly being upgraded, and the

surface water after heavy rainfall, and to minimise expensive

main fall should ideally be from the centre to both sides of

down time in wet weather. There are basically two methods

the pitch, and not in the direction of play.

of drainage – passive and active.

The species of turf grass must be carefully chosen

The passive approach relies on gravity to drain

for the correct playing characteristics. It should be resistant to

away the water. One method of enhancing the basic system

wear and disease, and suitable for the local climate and the

described above would be to cut deep slit drains into the

season of play. An appropriate cultivar or mix of cultivars will be

subsoil with a special machine, before filling them with sand

specified by the consultant and supplied by specialist growers.

or fine gravel to help surface water flow down quickly into

Fescues and bents are commonly chosen species. The famous

the land drains. This is quite expensive and needs to be

grass surface of Wimbledon’s Centre Court is resown every

carefully costed before a decision is taken.

year with 66 per cent Troubadour perennial rye grass, 17 per

The active approach uses pumps, usually

cent Bingo chewings fescue, and 17 per cent Regent creeping

activated by water-sensing electronic devices in the field, to

red fescue. This is the best mix for the specific soil, drainage

suck the water off the pitch and into underground storage

and other conditions found at Wimbledon, but other situations

chambers, thus clearing the surface very quickly and making

will demand different specifications.

the pitch available for other uses. Special drainage pipes may

Immediately beneath the grass surface is a layer

be laid for this purpose, or alternatively cellular technology

of topsoil, often consisting largely of sand, with a depth of

may use the same underground network of pipes for both

not less than 100mm and usually averaging about 150mm.

irrigation and drainage simply by reversing the direction of

This layer must contain no stones or injurious material,

flow by computer control.

must be permeable enough for water drainage, and must be uncontaminated and well fertilised for healthy growth.

irrigation

Using local soil is not good enough. The material will almost

Traditionally, grass pitches have been watered by sprinklers –

certainly be obtained from specialist suppliers to the precise

usually of the pop-up kind – but these are being challenged by

specification of the consultant, and will probably contain a

underground water delivery systems. These use special porous

large quantity of graded sand.

low-pressure water-supply pipes, or possibly the underground

Beneath the topsoil is a blinding layer of fine

drainage system with the direction of flow reversed by

material (ash, crushed stone or the like) which fills the voids in

computer control, as suggested above. They allow a uniform

the surface below and provides a smooth base for the topsoil.

weep rate along the whole length of the pipe, so that a steady

Beneath the blinding layer is a zone of graded

supply of water – possibly mixed with fertiliser and weed-

stone that ensures all excess water can drain away freely to

control additives – seeps directly to the grass-root zone. The

pipes laid in trenches below. There may be sheets of tough

advantages that are claimed for sub-surface irrigation include:

water-permeable membrane laid between the foundation layer and the formation surface to prevent soil from being

• A lusher, tougher growth of turf grass than one achieves

forced up into the foundation layer and obstructing the free

with overhead watering, which tends to create a stressful

flow of water. Whether this is included all depends on subsoil

cycle of drought and flood conditions.

conditions, as does the depth of the graded stone layer,

• A deep root system rather than a shallow one.

and the layout and fall of the drains. A specialist should be

• Less tendency for the soil to compact, which is a major

consulted.

problem with intensively used pitches.

activity area

• Probably less water loss by evaporation than with surface irrigation.

CHAPTER 7

StaDia

Nevertheless, it must be said that synthetic turfs have great advantages in that they endure intensive use in

• Similarly, less need for fertilisers, insecticides and herbicides.

virtually all weathers. There are three basic categories of permanent surfacing.

Underground irrigation pipes are normally laid between 150mm and 350mm below the surface, spaced from 450mm

non-filled turf

to 900mm apart; but specialist advice must be sought.

This is made of nylon, polypropylene or polyethylene, and is available in water-permeable or impermeable types. It

heating

comes in the form of a turf-carpet with an underlying shock-

Many major stadia in cold climates use some form of under-

absorbing layer, the latter available in various densities and

pitch heating, the most common type based on a system of

thicknesses. The turf and the shock-pad can be supplied

hot-water pipes operated by gas boilers and thermostatic

already bonded, or separate, in which case it is bonded on

sensor controls.

site. Turf and shock-pad are laid by specialists on a smooth

Electrical heating on the principle of an electric

asphalt substrate which, in turn, rests on a base of broken stone, sand and gravel designed to suit the particular

blanket is an alternative commonly used method. The most important aspect of this type of

situation. Various pile types and pile lengths (typically 10mm

installation is the laying of the pipes or cables, which must

to 13mm) are available to suit individual sports and conditions.

be high enough to heat the pitch but low enough not be

This type of surface has been the preferred option for field

damaged by pitch aeration and other surface works. A free-

hockey at the highest level since 1972. In the past it was said that artificial turf caused

draining pitch is essential if heating is to be considered.

more skin-burn than natural grass in sports such as rugby, maintenance

but manufacturers claim this is no longer true. For choice of

Day-to-day maintenance operations are discussed in Section

turf, design of substrate and general installation, up-to-date

22.2.1.

specialist advice must be sought.

7.1.4

artificial grass (synthetic turf)



surfaces



sand-filled turf

This is a variant of the previous type, consisting in most cases

In completely enclosed stadia, artificial grass will almost

of polypropylene or polyethylene with an upright pile that

certainly be chosen in preference to natural grass for the

is longer and more open than the non-filled type. This pile

reasons given in Section 7.1.3 above.

is backfilled with sand up to 2mm or 3mm from the surface.

For other situations, while synthetic grasses

As described here, it has become a very popular surface

have great virtues and will undoubtedly become more widely

for club tennis courts because the playing characteristics

used, they must not be seen as an everlasting, maintenance-

are not dissimilar to natural grass, but the court remains

free answer to all problems. Capital outlay is high, which

usable throughout the year. The sand infill takes two to three

means such pitches need to be fairly intensively used to

months to settle in, and needs brushing two or three times

justify the initial cost. The surface is not everlasting – six to

a week, plus regular top-dressing, to maintain its condition.

eight years is a typical life expectancy. It may need to be

This type of artificial turf is specifically suited to outdoor use

watered before play to keep dust down and keep it cool in

and usually carries a five-year guarantee, though the life may

summer. Sand-filled turfs need periodic re-sanding. Markings,

exceed 10 years with good maintenance.

if painted, need replacing two to four times a year. Regular cleaning and repair are essential.

As is the case with the non-filled systems described above, sand-filled turf is normally laid on a shock-

81

STADIA

chapter 7

AcTIvITy AreA

pad to increase player comfort and reduce ball bounce

decisions as to whether these systems are to be classified as

and roll.

natural or artificial. Because of climatic difficulties, the Ulleval Sand-filled turf has had a reputation for causing

stadium, in Norway, has used such a system for many years.

injuries when players fall, but when properly designed, with an appropriate pile height and shock-pad thickness, this need

temPorary synthetic turf surfaces

not be the case. If in doubt, the advice of the relevant sports

Some experimental work has been done on providing

governing bodies should be sought. Occasional watering

demountable synthetic turf systems that can be laid over the

after a prolonged period of dry weather will help reduce the

permanent natural turf for short periods then removed to an

risk of friction burn.

adjacent storage point. This would allow, for instance, field hockey to be played in a rugby stadium. The same principle

turf with mixed fills

has been used to install a top-class cricket wicket into a

Neither sand-filled nor non-filled surfaces are suitable for all

soccer or rugby field in a stadium.

types of footwear. Soccer and rugby studs are unsuitable 82

because of both discomfort to the player and the potential

7.1.5

damage to the surface. This problem has led to the

Synthetic surfaces are expensive to lay but offer the

development of synthetic turf surfaces that are particularly

possibility of all-weather high-intensity use, and much less

suited to soccer and rugby.

maintenance. They have therefore become very popular for

synthetic non-turf surfaces

The technology features an extra-long pile of

athletics tracks. The material used for this type of surface is

50mm to 70mm which is filled with a combination of silica

called a polymeric system. There are two primary categories

sand and rubber granules. The benefits of this surface are:

– impervious and porous.

the player can use a normal boot; the rubber infill acts as a further cushion; and the ball bounce and roll are reduced so

imPervious surfaces

that it plays like natural grass.

These surfaces may be laid as cast in-situ polymerics. They

In 2005 FIFA announced that synthetic turf

are wet-poured in successive layers and finished with a

pitches built to their Two Star standard could be used at the

granulate surface to provide the wearing layer. The surface

highest levels of the game in FIFA competitions.

may also be created in one piece by installing a prefabricated factory-produced sheeting manufactured in lane widths

combined natural and synthetic turf

and adhered to the structural base. This form of polymeric

Natural and artificial surfaces have begun to merge, and

surface is the most popular for indoor tracks. The base

systems are now available in which plastics are used to

for impervious surfaces is normally an asphalt laid to fine

reinforce the root structure of grass. One features a plastic

tolerances over a standard road-construction crushed-stone

webbing through which natural grass grows. Another

sub-base. To shed surface water, impervious athletics tracks

stitches tufts of synthetic fibre into the natural grass sward.

must slope to the inside lane, and the gradient should not be

These give stadium managers the best of both worlds thanks

steeper than 1:120. The surface water is normally collected

to the user-friendliness of a natural grass surface combined

by a drainage channel inside the running kerb, leading to

with the superior durability of artificial turf.

an appropriate surface-water outfall. Polymeric athletics

As practical experience of these combined

surfaces are normally designed to a finished thickness of

systems increases, and the technicalities are perfected, they

13mm to cope with spiked running shoes, though thicker

may well become the compromise of the future, offering a

sections are normally provided at the take-off and landing

cost-effective, multi-use natural playing surface. In which case

areas for field events.

sporting authorities will soon have to face some interesting



activity area

chapter 7

Porous surfaces

with a stiff hard-wearing rubber layer above. These

This type of polymeric surface is again wet-poured in

materials were stored in large rolls outside the stadium and

successive layers, but the construction uses a rubber

transported to the ground in special vehicles. More recently,

granulate base layer with no fines, bonded by polyurethane

Wembley Stadium has helped develop a new system which

binder. The wearing surface is spray-applied and consists

consists of translucent tile squares (1m by 1m boxes about

of coloured rubber granules in a polymeric binding agent.

50mm deep) which lock together to provide a good even

Since the system needs to be porous, the base construction

surface for concert usage, but allow the grass below to grow

will be an open-textured bituminous macadam on a porous

and survive.

StaDia

sub-base construction. Although, when new, this system is porous, tracks are normally constructed with a cross-fall, as

7.2

Pitch dimensions, layout and

above, to allow for eventual sealing due to pollution.



boundaries

7.2.1

dimensions and layout

7.1.6

markings



Figures 7.2 to 7.13 set out the basic dimensions of the playing

In the case of natural grass, the line markings may consist

areas plus surrounding safety zones for the major sports.

of a temporary powder containing lime. In the case of

Some of these are simplified versions of more complex

synthetic turf, markings are normally cut into the surface

official requirements too detailed to fully reproduce here,

when the pitch is being laid, using coloured strips of the same

and many may become out of date within the lifetime of this

turf. Markings can also be painted on to the synthetic turf

book. Therefore these diagrams must be checked with the

surface but this is by no means permanent, and the lines will

relevant governing bodies before final design.

require regular re-painting. In the case of non-turf surfaces,

The following summaries of advice for specific

the markings are normally painted on to the surface using

sports are taken with due acknowledgement from Volume 1

a specially formulated polymeric paint with fillers to reduce

of the Handbook of Sports and Recreational Building Design

slip. Though this paint is very durable, re-painting may be

(see Bibliography).

required during the life of the track. Governing bodies will give guidance on correct line widths and colours, and whether the width of the line includes or excludes the playing area – a crucial matter. 7.1.7

Protective coverings

If the surface cannot be removed and is vulnerable to damage, there are protective covers which will preserve it when the stadium is used for concerts or other activities which make use of the playing area. Natural grass especially needs protection, but covers can usually be left down for only about two days before the grass beneath starts to suffer damage. There are cases where grass pitches have been covered for up to two weeks and have survived, suffering only discolouration, but a natural grass pitch would not be ready for immediate sporting use after such an experience. For grass protection, Wembley Stadium, in London, has in the past used a resilient underlay covered

83

STADIA

AcTIvITy AreA

chapter 7

soccer

Pitch dimensions for Association Football (more commonly

the touchlines by at least 3m and 2m respectively. A natural

known as football or soccer) are shown in Figure 7.2. Safety

turf pitch is recommended by the governing bodies and is

margins should be 6m wide behind the goal line and 3m along

the only surface allowed for some competitions, but the use

the side touchlines. The grass surface should extend beyond

of artificial surfaces may become more widely accepted.

Figure 7.2

5.5 m

Pitch size and layout for soccer.

an de nd ma rgi ns

goal area

5.5 m

16. 5m

84

9.15m radius

tou ch line

va ria ble len gth

halfway line

9.15m radius penalty spot goal line

7.32m 10m

18.32m

variable width and side margins

Dimensions from UK football association Note: Field size for FIFA / UEFA matches is 105 x 68m



activity area

chapter 7

Pitch dimensions are shown in Figure 7.3. There should be

the only accepted surface. Markings are in white, 76mm wide,

a margin of at least 6m at each end of the pitch and at least

and are not included in the playing area.

StaDia

rugby union football

2m, but preferably 6m, at each side. Natural grass is currently

Figure 7.3 Pitch size and layout for rugby union football.

dead ball line

85

in-goal area touch-in goal line

22 metre line

ma x

10m

10 metre line

22 m

100 m

10m

half way line

3m

ap pro x

5.6m

5m 10m 5m min

70m max

22 m 10m ma mi x n

5m

0.4m min 3m

STADIA

AcTIvITy AreA

chapter 7

rugby league football

Pitch dimensions are shown in Figure 7.4, and there must be

crumb or synthetic turf is acceptable for training. Markings

no obstruction such as fencing within 5m of the touchline.

are in white, 76mm wide, and are not included in the

Natural grass is currently the only accepted surface. Rubber-

playing area.

Figure 7.4 Pitch size and layout for rugby league football.

86 dead ball line touch-in goal area goal line

ma x

20 metre line

10m

100 m

halfway line

10m

20 m

20 metre line

tou ch line

10m

16m

3m 5.5m

68m

6-11m



activity area

chapter 7

Pitch dimensions are shown in Figure 7.5, and there must be

acceptable. Markings are in white (or, failing that, yellow),

a safety margin of at least 1.83m, but preferably twice that,

100mm wide, and the playing area excludes the sidelines but

all round the field. Both natural grass and synthetic turf are

includes the end lines.

StaDia

american football

Figure 7.5

3m 9.1m min

Pitch size and layout for American football.

lim it l ine

end zone

87

1.8 -3. 7m

5 yard lines

5y ard ma rke rs

on ey ard ma rks

saf ety ma rgi n

inb ou nd

line s

tea m 8-3.7m

48.8m

109 .7m

50 yard line

an dc oa ch ’s b ox

sid el ine

5.6m

STADIA

AcTIvITy AreA

chapter 7

australian rules football

Pitch dimensions are shown in Figure 7.6, and a surrounding

Markings are in white, 100mm wide, and are included in the

gap of 3m is generally recommended between spectators

playing area.

and the oval boundary line. The game is played on grass only.

Figure 7.6 Pitch size and layout for Australian Rules football.

6.4m

88

6.4m 6.4m goal post up to 15m high behind post up to 9m high

6.4m boundary line

50 m

1.5m radius

50m

m 50 R=

110-155m

135 -18 5m

3m



activity area

chapter 7

Pitch dimensions are shown in Figure 7.7, and a margin of

synthetic turf (sand-filled) or shale. Markings are in white,

1.5m is required on all four sides. Pitch surface may be grass,

50mm wide, and are included in the playing area.

StaDia

gaelic football

Figure 7.7 Pitch size and layout for Gaelic football.

6.5m

25 m

free kick line

13m

7m

R=13m

1.5m min

80-90m

14m

130 -14 5m

sid el ine

20 m

2.5m

goal area

mi n

89

1.5 m

goal line

0.5m 2.5m 4.5m

STADIA

AcTIvITy AreA

chapter 7

field hockey

Pitch dimensions are shown in Figure 7.8. The surface may

a synthetic pitch there should be a minimum of 5m between

be grass or synthetic. Markings are in white or yellow, 75mm

the end line and any obstruction, with the synthetic grass

wide, and are included in the playing area.

extending at least 3m all round the pitch. All these regulations

For a grass pitch it is currently recommended

are subject to change and advice must be sought.

that there should be margins of at least 3m along both sides

If sand-filled synthetic turf is used, there must

and 4.57m at both ends, but preferably more, so that the

be two large-capacity water hydrants near the pitch to allow

pitch can be shifted from time to time to minimise wear. For

for watering.

Figure 7.8 Pitch size and layout for hockey.

90 goal line

2.14m 6.4m

3.66m

sid el ine

14.63m radius

91. 4m

centre line

3m (grass) 3-2 (synthetic turf) (4m FIH)

shooting circle

55m

4.5 5m 7m ( tur (FIH gras f) an s) ds yn the tic

22 .86 m

25 yard line



activity area

chapter 7

Pitch dimensions are shown in Figure 7.9. Margins of 4.57m

each side. Markings are in white, 50mm wide, and are

are required at each end, and margins of at least 3m along

included in the playing area.

StaDia

hurling

Figure 7.9 Pitch size and layout for hurling.

91

6.4m 2.44m 2.44m 4.5m

end line

sid el ine

13.7m

4.5 7m

13m

7m

128 -14 6m

8m

8m

free stroke line

3m min

77-91m

STADIA

AcTIvITy AreA

chapter 7

baseball

Pitch dimensions are shown in Figure 7.10, and the surface may be grass or synthetic turf. A batting cage is strongly recommended. Markings are in white, 127mm wide, and are included in the playing area.

Figure 7.10 Pitch size and layout for baseball.

92 flagpole

scoreboard 114.3m

121.9m from home base

ng ni ar w

m 57 4.

outfield

k ac tr

foul post

foul post

1m 2. 10 e lin ul fo

e lin ul fo

grass line

5m 3.0 diamond 6m .9 28

fungo circle

ut go du m .2 12 next batter’s box

18.3m radius

backstop

us di ra

coach’s box 18.3m to stand

ut go du



activity area

chapter 7

StaDia

cricket

Pitch dimensions are shown in Figure 7.11, and the surface may be natural turf or any of several synthetic finishes as recommended by the governing body.

Figure 7.11 Pitch size and layout for cricket.

9m

93 senior football

pit ch 20 .12 m

3.05m

2.5m min

len gth

27 .44 m

popping crease bowling crease return crease

radius 46m min (senior) 37m min (junior)

cricket table width A

boundary

width 2 width 1

6m

StaDia

activity area

CHAPTER 7

athletics track and field

must have a natural grass surface because this is obligatory

Figure 7.12 gives guidance on layout, but different

for field throwing On thebecause other hand, running must have a naturalevents. grass surface this isthe obligatory

arrangements are possible to suit different circumstances.

tracks may be surfaced with of synthetic for field throwing events. Ona variety the other hand, thematerials. running

Table 7.2 gives a guide to lane provision, and in the UK a

On this and other aspects of athletic track and pitch tracks may beall surfaced with a variety of synthetic materials.

common choice is a six-lane, 400m track together with

design, be consulted On this the andgoverning all other bodies aspectsmust of athletic track for andprecise pitch

indoor training facilities. Lanes are always 1.22m wide to the

and up-to-date information. design, the governing bodies must be consulted for precise

centre of markings. Whatever the layout, the central area

and up-to-date information.

Figure 7.12 Pitch size and layout for athletics track and field.

94 94

Standard of use

Number of lanes* recommended Synthetic all-weather surface

Hard porous (waterbound) surface

Minimum standard international competitions; British Athletic Federation Area and Regional competitions and below

6 lanes

7 lanes

International competitions

8 lanes with 8-lane straight(s)

8 lanes

Full standard international competitions

8 lanes with 8-lane straight(s)

7 lanes with 9-lane straight(s)

Major international competitions

8 lanes with 10-lane straight(s)

* All lanes are 1.22m wide to the centre of markings. Table 7.2

Recommended lane provision in athletics tracks

activity area

StaDia

CHAPTER 7

Figure 7.12 Pitch size and layout for athletics track and field.

36.5m

84.39m

36.5m

9.76m

9.76m

9.76m

13

12

2

10

95

11

14

73m

9

8

1

12.2m

7

6

5

4

53m 3m

10m

1. High jump area 2. Javelin 3. Double width long/triple jump 4. Double pole vault landing area 5. Double width long/triple jump Note: The locations of field events can change

3 53m

100m

6. 8-lane sprint, can be 10 lanes 7. Shot put 8. Steeplechase water jump (internal) 9. Throwing cage (preferred UK location) 10. Javelin

11. Disabled access to cage 12. Shot put 13. 8 lane circuit 14. Steeplechase water jump (external alternative)

STADIA

chapter 7

AcTIvITy AreA

lawn tennis

7.2.2

Pitch dimensions are shown on Figure 7.13 and in Table 7.3,

The detailed design of the zone surrounding the playing

and the characteristics of alternative surfaces summarised

area must be verified with the governing bodies and safety

in Table 7.1. All markings are in white and between 25mm

authorities. Such requirements cannot safely be given here

and 50mm in width except the centre service line which

since they vary from sport to sport and from country to

must be 50mm and the baseline which may be up to 100mm

country, and are subject to change. Purely as an example of

wide. On these and all other matters the International Tennis

the provisions that might be required, the following criteria

Federation (ITF) should be consulted for precise and up-to-

are laid down by FIFA and UEFA for football pitches:

the Playing area surround

date information.

Figure 7.13

2.7m

Pitch size and layout for lawn tennis.

end margin 1.37m base line

23 .77 m

0.91m line

net

mi nim um ) 6 (5. 49 .4m m LT A

sid el ine s

service line

rec om me nd ed

0.91m

ce ntr es erv ice

1.07m

6.4 m

centre mark

sid em arg in

96

3.66m 10.97m (3.05m LTA recommended minimum)



Marked out playing area

activity area

chapter 7

International and National Championships

Club and County

Minimum recreational standard

m

ft

m

ft

m

ft

Court length

23.77

78

23.77

78

23.77

78

Court width

10.97

36

10.97

36

10.97

36

Length of net (doubles)

12.80

42

12.80

42

12.80

42

Runback at each end

6.40 (1)

21 (1)

6.40

21

5.49

18

Side run out, each side

3.66 (1)

12 (1)

3.66

12

3.05

10

Side run between aligned courts without separate enclosure

ND

ND

4.27

14

3.66

12

Length

36.58 (1)

120 (1)

36.58

120

34.75

114

Width for one enclosed court

18.29 (1)

60 (1)

18.29

60

17.07

56

Width for 2 courts in a single enclosure

33.53

110

31.70

104

Width added for each additional court

15.24

50

14.63

48

StaDia

Overall size of enclosure(s)

Note (1): May need increased overall dimensions for court officials, furniture and sponsorship boards. Table 7.3

Tennis space requirements

• There should be two units of seating, accommodating 10

7.2.3

Perimeter walls and barriers

people each, on the two sides of the centre line. They must

All sports require some kind of barrier between the pitch and

be at ground level and protected from the weather.

the spectators, and the requirements for these are laid down

• Advertising boards must never obstruct spectators’ sight

not only by the governing bodies for the sports concerned,

lines, must under no circumstances be located where they

but also by local safety authorities and police. Detailed advice

could endanger players, and must not be constructed

is given in Chapter 9.

in any fashion or of any material which could endanger players. They must not be higher than 900mm and must be located at least 6m behind the goal, at least 5m behind the sidelines and at least 3m behind the corner flags.

97

08

sports and multi-purpose use

8.1

IntroductIon

8.2

natIonal sports tradItIons

8.3

FInancIal vIabIlIty

8.4

caterIng For dIFFerent sports

8.5

caterIng For non-sports perFormances

8.1

IntroductIon

As stated at the beginning of this book, stadium economics make it difficult – though not impossible – for a stadium to earn a profit for its owners. One of the key ways of closing the gap between costs and revenues is by reducing to an absolute minimum the number of days per year when the stadium is unused and earning no money – i.e. maximising the number of event days. For covered stadia the aim should be 200 or even 250 event days per annum. To make this feasible, the physical design of the venue should allow a wide range of different activities to be accommodated, both sporting and non-sporting. Unfortunately not all activities are readily compatible. In the case of sports, compatibility depends on factors such as: • The size and shape of the playing field. • The playing field surface. • The preferred relationship between spectators and performers. • Whether the stadium is roofed or open to the weather. • National sporting traditions. This book deals only with stadia (i.e. buildings that accommodate the larger format sports, whether in the open or under cover) and not with arenas (indoor venues, usually smaller than stadia). But it is worth noting that the latter are often multi-purpose buildings for sports plus concerts, exhibitions and the like. If a stadium is designed for concerts and has a roof that covers the pitch, either permanently or by shutting for a particular occasion, it could perhaps be defined as a large arena. The above factors are discussed in more detail below.

U2 playing at Croke Park Stadium in Dublin.

99

stadia

sports and multi-purpose use

CHAPTER 8

8.2

8.3

FInancIal vIabIlIty

In continental Europe there has been a tradition for a city

natIonal sports tradItIons

8.3.1

types oF sharIng

to build a municipal stadium in which its citizens can play

Multi-purpose use of a stadium does not necessarily have

and watch a wide range of sports. The facility is often initially

to be based on two sports, as clubs are sometimes able to

funded by the city authority and supported by a soccer

find a compatible partner within the same sport. There are

club, which may run its own lottery and plough the profits

many examples around the world of sports clubs sharing

back into the stadium. Often the stadium accommodates an

facilities. Indeed, in Australia ground-sharing is supported by

athletics track around the pitch and thereby provides a multi-

the administrators of Australian Rules football.

purpose facility, although one which is heavily weighted towards soccer financially.

100

More commercial developments of the leisure industry can also be compatible. The undercroft of a stand

In the UK, a typical club soccer ground is

in Bristol, in the UK, successfully houses an indoor bowling

designed for soccer only and may never host any other

rink. Extensions to the stadia at Sheffield Wednesday has

sports events apart from its full timetable of matches for the

accommodated a training hall that doubles up as a function

club’s season. This is largely because separating spectators

room. Other ideas include television studios, cinemas, health

from the playing field with a running track – effectively

centres, squash courts, swimming pools, hairdressing salons

pushing everyone away from the action by 10m or 12m – has

and children’s activity spaces.

never gained acceptance among British fans. British soccer

By its very nature, a stadium is inflexible, with

clubs pride themselves on providing a close, concentrated

substantial supports at regular points around its perimeter.

atmosphere to watch the game and consequently forego

This makes combined facilities difficult to cater for. It is

the possibility of sharing their grounds with an athletics club.

sometimes difficult to insert large spaces into this structure

It is possible that by using movable seating tiers and other

which means their inclusion must be planned from the

devices, the close football atmosphere and athletics can be

beginning. One alternative is to add these facilities on to the

made to work together, but there is as yet no strong trend

stadium as a separate but connected structure. This has been

in this direction. The improvements in pitch construction

done successfully in a number of places in both Europe and

and technology mean ground-sharing between football and

the USA. Utrecht Stadium, in Holland, has a substantial office

rugby clubs is now viable.

building grafted to its side, while the RCA Dome, formerly

In the USA, several different approaches have

the Hoosier Dome, in Indianapolis and a number of others in

evolved which combine functions on the same site. The two

the USA have enormous exhibition and convention centres

major stadium sports in the USA of American football and

directly attached to the main stadium.

baseball do not coexist easily in a stadium unless the basic plan configuration can change. Solutions include dual-use

8.3.2

venues with movable seating, double venues where two

There are very few sports which can make a substantial

separate stadia cohabit the same site, or an attached arena

subsidy to a stadium. If idle stadia are to become well used

for basketball and ice hockey.

and profitable it seems that additional accommodation should

Because American venues try to host so many

sharIng support areas

be for entertainment and commerce rather than sports.

different types of events, the annual timetable may comprise

For instance, if a stadium has restaurants,

very few matches of the primary sport for which the stadium

lounges, boxes or other hospitality rooms, these can be let out

was designed. For example, some American football stadia

on non-match days. Uses that could be accommodated are:

have a programme of only 12 games in a season. Rather than leave an expensive asset empty for much of the year, these owners prefer to use the building for other events outside the main sport.

sports and multi-purpose use

CHAPTER 8

Room

Secondary use

elements during a live event, but when the financial viability

• Restaurant or lounge

Conferences, dinners,

of the development relies on a guarantee of good weather,

dances, weddings

covered or domed stadia are a valid solution. Most major

• Bar

Parties

outdoor events these days are insured against inclement

• Concourse or hall

Exhibitions

weather, but the premiums paid come out of profits from

• Private box

Meetings

the event.

stadia

The requirements for each of these uses are different, and specialist advice should be sought when designing for them. 8.3.3

complementary FacIlItIes

Where there is local demand, areas for other uses can be constructed as part of the stadium. Often these are complementary to the sports usage. Such complementary facilities include: Additional use

Comment

•

Spectators can be residents on

Hotel

match days. •

Retail

These can be for sports-related

•

Health clubs or

Can be complementary to

sports halls

team changing areas.

•

Offices

For related companies or

•

Cinemas

shops.

institutions. Can be used for conferences or stadium tours. 8.3.4

maxImIsIng event days

Event days must be maximised while still maintaining the core function of the venue. This multi-use should be designed at an early stage as every event requires different equipment and support services, some more than others. If these facilities are not designed into the fabric of the building from the start they can be an expensive later addition, and may not justify the staging of an extra event. These specialist extras include electric power required for music concerts or the support rings in the roof for a circus. The multi-purpose use of a stadium is the primary reason for considering covering the entire grounds. For many years sports fans have been prepared to risk the

101

STADIA

SporTS AnD mulTI-purpoSe uSe

chapter 8

Type of event

Number of days per year

Major soccer matches

  

Minor soccer matches

102

6-12 14

Celebrity events

 

2

Concerts

 

6

American football

 

6

Motor sport

 

4

Sports festival

 

2

Hockey

 

1

Schools events

 

2

Charity events

 

2

Equestrian dressage and jumping

and training areas can become health clubs during the week, while restaurants and lounges can become convention or conference centres. At the very beginning of a project the list of possible uses for the stadium must be prepared and selected on a rational order of priorities: 1

How often will the event occur? (frequency)

2

Amount and cost of specialised equipment required for the event. (establishment cost)

3

How much money will they generate? (revenue)

4

Are they compatible with preceding or forthcoming events? (compatibility)

5

2   

How long will it take to prepare for and clear up afterwards? (set-up and knock-down time)

4

Baseball Boxing

be converted into a hotel bedroom. Players’ changing rooms

6

Will the event recur on a regular basis? (repetition)

2

To help understand how versatile stadia can be, and the

Conventions and meetings

4

number of events possible, Table 8.1 lists a typical schedule

Exhibitions

10

of events for a modern stadium in the UK. While it should be every stadium manager’s

Athletics

 

 2

aim to have as many event days as possible, following the

Mass dinners

  

2

example of the Toronto Skydome which has achieved over

Special events

  

3

Circus

  

6

Table 8.1

Typical stadium events table

200 a year, this is not always achievable. It took the Skydome four years to achieve this level of use with 107 events days in 1989, 165 in 1990 and 188 in 1991. Before its redevelopment, Wembley Stadium, in London, was a financially successful stadium, with a seating capacity of 80,000 spectators and one of the most advanced ticket booking systems in the world. But it was

The USA has led the way in maximising the number of events

limited to around 35 event days a year by the local authority

a stadium may accommodate in one year. New covered

because of perceived disruption to the surrounding area. This

venues in Europe are aiming for up to 250 event days per

is surprising as Wembley has been functioning as a stadium

year where only 5 to 10 per cent of these events are soccer,

for over 60 years. The stadium was, and is again, part of a

usually the primary use of European stadia.

larger conference, arena and exhibition complex which adds

The use of facilities for more than one purpose

to its viability (see Case Studies).

is not limited to the pitch, but should include all the support

Being part of such a larger complex is another

amenities contained inside the structure. Private or hospitality

method by which more functions are found for stadia. For

boxes can be opened up to be used as banqueting rooms or,

this to be done successfully, a covered stadium, such as the

with the addition of a small shower and a folding bed, could

RCA Dome complex, in Indianapolis, is ideal. It was built on



sports and multi-purpose use

chapter 8

a city-centre site next to an existing 12,000m2 convention

For certain other sports the playing areas are so different

centre with the stadium’s 8,000m2 surface area planned as

that they cannot easily be accommodated in the same

an extension to this centre. It used the existing car parking

building. Examples include American football and baseball.

and transport infrastructure, and relied on public funding as

Figures 1.10 and 1.11 show the Truman Sports Complex, in the

well as major private sponsorship for its construction.

USA, where it was decided to provide separate venues for

With Europe’s regular inclement weather and

stadia

the two sports.

the catchment population of many large cities, it is not

But the problem can be overcome, as

surprising that a number of these multi-purpose covered

demonstrated by the Sun Life stadium, in Miami (formerly

stadia are being considered.

the Pro-Player stadium) which, despite the difficulties, accommodates both. In such situations one sport has to be

8.4

caterIng For dIFFerent sports

the primary game for which the building is designed, and

The following factors must be taken into account when

the secondary sport has to accept arrangements that are,

considering the multi-use of a stadium by more than

to whatever degree, a compromise. Thus, in the Sun Life

one sport.

stadium, the seating tiers are a normal rectangular layout for American football. When a baseball game is played, one side

8.4.1

playIng FIelds

Certain combinations of sports can be easy to accommodate

of the lower tier retracts to create a large enough field for the baseball triangle. For more detail on the sizes and shapes of

in the same building as the requirements for playing and watching are similar. Examples include soccer and rugby,

playing fields, see Chapter 7.

which are played on grass fields of similar width but different lengths. Some principal examples of sports that

8.4.2

are commonly played on the same field are shown in the

Each sport (or other type of performance) has its own

list below:

preferred viewing positions, as set out in Chapter 11. The

vIewIng posItIons

seating layouts for some sports are so different that they Sports

Comment

•

Fields are of similar size and

•

Soccer and rugby Soccer and athletics

may be difficult to accommodate in the same building. In striving for true multi-use, various ways of

shape.

altering the viewing geometry of a stadium on a temporary

The soccer pitch fits inside

basis have been attempted. Moving pitches have been tried,

a standard 400m running

but the most common and most successful are movable, or

track, but the track

at least retractable, seats. More detail on these is given below.

separates the spectators

• •

from the edge of the

8.4.3

soccer field which is

This idea evolved in the 1960s from the attempt to house

unpopular with fans in

American football (played on a rectangular pitch) and

some countries.

baseball (played on a diamond-shaped pitch) in the same

Australian rules

Fields are of similar size and

building. It was only partially successful. Many believe it was

football and cricket

shape.

an unacceptable compromise for both sports, even though a

Australian rules

The spectators for rugby

high standard of venue could be achieved and problems of

football and rugby

are further away from the

access could be solved.

touch line than is desirable.

movable and retractable seats

A reaction against this compromise came in 1972 when the dual stadia complex of Kansas City, Missouri,

103

STADIA

chapter 8

SporTS AnD mulTI-purpoSe uSe

Figure 8.1 Floor plans of the Etihad Stadium showing the lower tiers retracted around the larger Australian football field, and extended to be closer to the smaller rugby pitch.

104



sports and multi-purpose use

chapter 8

was opened. This included two stadia, one with a 78,000-

In the case of stadia used for both soccer and

seat capacity for American football, the other with a 42,000-

athletics, continental European spectators do not seem

seat capacity for baseball. See Figures 1.10 and 1.11.

to mind the great distance between spectator and pitch

Nevertheless, there have been many subsequent

created by the intervening athletics track, whereas in Britain

attempts to design stadia which can be reconfigured for the

there is a tradition of close viewing which most interested

maximum variety of events, particularly in North America.

parties wish to preserve. The answer to this conundrum may

The most ambitious example is the Toronto Skydome which

lie in movable or retractable stands which can be located

opened in 1989 and can be adapted, by movable seating,

close to the soccer pitch for the winter season, covering the

to the following uses. It should be noted that the seating

athletics track, and then moved back for athletics events in

numbers given below are the original ones, and may since

the summer. The Stade de France, in Paris, is one example

have altered.

of a venue which was designed to allow the seating to move

stadia

back over the athletics track. However, such solutions are expensive, and a

• Auditorium configurations to allow 10,000 to 30,000 seats as desired. • A hockey or basketball configuration of 30,000 seats.

degree of public funding is usually required to make them viable – either directly or indirectly.

• A baseball configuration of up to 50,000 seats. • A football configuration of up to 54,000 seats.

8.4.4

• Various configurations allowing up to 68,000 spectators

Movable seating can be supplied in any numbers, from a

for rock concerts or other entertainments.

movable seat types

few hundred to several thousand, to suit the types of events anticipated and the configurations required. Generally

The Toronto Skydome is exceptional, and in view of the costs

speaking, the greater the variety of events a stadium

involved, very few stadia could ever provide the degree of

is required to host, the larger the number of movable

flexibility outlined above. But at more modest levels there is

or retractable seats needed. The most usual types are

widespread use of movable seating tiers all over the world.

the following:

One example is the Sun Life stadium, in Miami, which accommodates football as the primary sport, and

•

Rigid seating tiers mounted on steel tracks.

baseball as a secondary use, as noted in Section 8.4.1 above.

•

Rigid seating tiers with large retractable wheels.

Another is the Etihad Stadium, in Melbourne,

•

Rigid banks of seats moved about on air or water cushions.

Australia, which accommodates 50,000 spectators for

•

Retractable seats on folding or telescopic frames.

rugby (rectangular pitch), cricket (oval pitch) and Australian

•

Demountable seats that can be taken down and rebuilt.

rules football (oval pitch). The pre-cast concrete upper tiers are fixed in an oval shape, but the steel lower tiers, slightly

The first three types are pushed manually or mechanically

curved in plan, can move forward on wheels over the cricket

from one pre-planned position to another to suit the current

pitch to be closer to the rugby touchline. This stadium also

event, while the retractable type is compactly stacked or

has a closing roof to allow sports to be played in any weather

folded into a wall when not in use, and concertinaed out

conditions and to host a wider range of non-sports events.

into position when needed. In all cases, the ideal is to have

See Figure 8.1, and Case studies.

prepared storage spaces, usually under the tier above, where temporary seats can be stored out of the way and quickly rolled or folded out into the correct position when required.

105

stadia

sports and multi-purpose use

CHAPTER 8

8.4.5

possIble Future developments

The possibilities for movable seating tiers are entering a new era, with better and more easily maintained systems being developed. Sports stadia of the 21st century may consist of flat concourses at different levels above the playing surface, with retractable seats pulled out as necessary and the remaining levels used for a variety of catering functions. If such ideas are applied, it will be necessary to calculate very carefully their effect upon viewing sightlines for the remaining viewing areas.

106

8.5

caterIng For non-sports



perFormances





Concerts have particular requirements in terms of seating layout, and many larger and smaller sports venues are able to host these when the weather is right. The earliest groups playing in stadia put up with the buildings that were available to them and installed all temporary stages and accommodation, but as the concert circuit has become more established, stadia have been specifically designed for concert use. The elements that can be incorporated to reduce the temporary set-up include: •

Stage positions with a flat slab, suitable headroom and foundations.

•

Power connection points.

•

Changing rooms and other areas for performers.

•

Manoeuvring and unloading space for delivery lorries.

•

Tiers designed to allow crowd dancing.

With temporary installations, other events of all types have been held in stadia. Examples include equestrian events, car racing, car racing on snow, motorcycle racing, car shows, boxing matches, religious conventions and political rallies.

09

crowd control

9.1

General

9.2

Perimeter fences

9.3

moats

9.4

chanGes of level

9.1

General

Controlling crowds and separating spectators from participants has been a problem for stadium authorities since Roman times. A group of people coming together to enjoy a stadium event must be carefully managed from the moment they enter the stadium’s zone of influence. Sometimes very little encouragement is needed for that crowd to become a mob, and that mob to become a riot (a list of disasters is given in Section 1.3.4). To minimise this, crowd management must be considered from the very beginning of a stadium project. The majority of people place great importance on the way they are treated by staff at a venue. In a US survey, 92 per cent indicated that customer service should be the top priority of management. It is this customer service, together with the architecture of the venue, which maintains the goodwill of the spectators. If members of the public misbehave, the management of the venue needs to intervene quickly to ensure a small incident does not get out of control. It helps if the building itself does not provide opportunities for misbehaviour, and perhaps even encourages people to behave well. Closed-circuit television is crucial, too, so that stewards have enough space to see problems arising, and enough time to get there and deal with the situation. It is the authors’ experience that in some instances where stadia have been designed to a good quality, fans have respected the building. Whereas when spaces have been constructed with the expectation they will be vandalised, there is more likelihood they will be. One of the primary problems in the past has been spectators entering the field of play when not wanted. The design of the barrier at the front of the seating tiers can have an influence on this. The Colosseum and similar Roman amphitheatres developed their own type of separation in the form of a surrounding wall – possibly designed more to protect the spectators from the activities taking place in the arena than the other way round. Bullrings in Spain and southern France developed along similar lines, with a change

109

STADIA

chapter 9

CrowD ConTrol

in height between the first row of seating and the bullring

9.2.2

– essential to ensure the safety of the audience. In the latter

Most fences are an obstruction to proper viewing of the

part of the 20th century the roles have been reversed, with

game, and are usually unsightly.

the boundary serving to protect the activity area from the spectators.

disadvantaGes

There is also the question of safety. In cases of mass panic on the stands or escape from fire, the playing field

There are three commonly used design

is an obvious zone of safety (see Section 3.3.6). An intervening

techniques for separating the activity area from the

fence which prevents people from reaching it can create a

spectators: perimeter fences, moats and changes of level.

death trap. Two recent experiences in Britain demonstrate this. The first, more fully described in Section 3.3.1, was at

110

9.2

Perimeter fences

Valley Parade Stadium, in Bradford, where an even greater

9.2.1

advantaGes

disaster was prevented when some spectators were able to

There are two good reasons for having a robust fence (Figure

escape on to the playing field. The second was at Hillsborough

9.1) between spectators and pitch. The first is to protect

Stadium, in Sheffield, where the perimeter fence between the

players and officials from hostile spectators. The second is to

standing terrace and the pitch was a contributing factor to

protect a natural grass pitch surface from compaction of the

the death of 95 people in a crowd surge.

subsoil by spectators’ feet.

Figure 9.1 Perimeter fences protect the pitch from crowd invasion but they obstruct viewing, are often unsightly and may hinder emergency escape.

Sightlines through perimeter fence

1.2m

Pedestrian access

3m



9.2.3   

crowd control

chapter 9

StAdIA

Association, where Gaelic football and hurling have their

ChoiCe

In each case, the pros and cons of a fence must be carefully

roots. It has a custom of allowing the crowd on to the pitch

balanced, and the case discussed with the sports governing

to carry off the winning captain on their shoulders. It also

body, local police and safety authorities, whose views will

allows parents to lift small children over the turnstiles to sit

carry great weight. The following factors should be taken

on their laps in the stands. These practices are under threat

into consideration:

from the new wave of safety consciousness but are not inherently dangerous if properly controlled. Twickenham,

• The need for a fence is most likely in the case of soccer,

in London, had a tradition of spectators coming on to the

particularly in countries or individual grounds with a history

pitch after rugby matches, but this is no longer allowed.

of violent crowd behaviour.

Customs such as these contribute to the special character

• The most problematical cases are those where highly

of individual stadia and should not be thoughtlessly

valued traditional customs conflict with the latest safety

destroyed by blanket insistence on universally applied

trends – for instance, sports grounds with a tradition

safety rules. There should be some modification to

of allowing crowds on to the pitch at certain matches.

take account of individual circumstances. For instance,

Croke Park, in Dublin, is the home of the Gaelic Athletic

Wembley Stadium, in London (see Case studies), and

Figure 9.2 The cat’s cradle fence at Wembley Stadium, in London.

80cm

Sightlines through perimeter fence

1.6m

Perimeter ‘cats’s cradle’

111

STADIA

CrowD ConTrol

chapter 9

Croke Park have used a modified fence called a cat’s

particularly in France. If opening or collapsible fences are

cradle. This is a wire cage the height of a low fence which

to be incorporated into a stadium they must be of a design

does not obstruct vision but is difficult to climb across.

capable of withstanding the significant loads of crowd pressure when in use. Under these conditions, the opening

Most football grounds in the UK have now removed perimeter fences altogether.

mechanisms must remain reliable and fail-safe. • In a multi-purpose stadium the fences should be removable so that they are only used on those occasions when some

9.2.4

112

desiGn criteria

form of separation is necessary, such as for high-risk

• The 2012 version of the UEFA guide to stadia recommends

soccer matches but not for a pop concert. It may be that,

there should not be a fence between the spectators and

in the future, this type of separation will be required on

the pitch.

other sporting occasions.

• A key reference in the UK is the Guide to Safety at Sports

• Whatever means of access to the field is designed, it should

Grounds (see Bibliography), also known as the Green

be under permanent supervision by stewards during

Guide. Paragraph 12.6 recommends that pitch perimeter

an event.

fences should not be used in sports grounds except to protect spectators from the field of play, for example in

9.3

moats

hockey. In stadia where such fences are in place there

9.3.1

advantaGes

should be gates in them for evacuation onto the field of

It is relatively easy to design the pitch side of a moat to be

play in an emergency.

difficult to climb; and to police a moat with security staff so

• The fence must be robust and, if there is not a crash barrier

that crowd invasion is easily controlled. The moat may also

incorporated into the design, then it should be capable

provide a circulation route around the stadium for three

of withstanding crowd pressures equal to those normally

groups of people:

expected of a crowd barrier at a height of 1.1m above the nosing. • The fence must be as difficult to climb as possible. • The design should allow the fence to be unobtrusive and permit the best vision possible through to the playing area. The use of transparent materials such as glass

• Officials and security staff needing to gain quick and easy access to some part of the viewing stands. • Ambulances and emergency vehicles. • The media. The Olympic Stadium in Barcelona was modified partly to meet this aim, as mentioned in Section 1.2.5.

and polycarbonate are possible but the effect of dirt, weather, unwanted reflections and wear and tear must be

The major advantage of the moat is that crowd control and

considered.

other functions listed above can be achieved inconspicuously

• There must be adequate provision for escape through

and without impeding the view of spectators. Its aesthetic

the fence, in the form of either gates, opening panels or

qualities are therefore far superior to those of a perimeter

collapsible sections. Whichever method is used for escape,

fence.

it should be recognised that this is a critical element of the design and it should be as foolproof as possible. The

9.3.2

openings should be sized in accordance with the total

Use of a moat will increase the distance between the playing

number of spectators required to gain access on to the

field and the spectators. For this reason, moats may be more

playing area in an emergency. These openings should

appropriate to larger stadia, where an additional 2.5m or 3m

be clearly identified. In recent years, several versions of

will be a relatively modest fraction of the overall dimensions

an opening or collapsible fence have been developed,

involved.

disadvantaGes



9.3.3

crowd control

chapter 9

StAdIA

the moat on to the playing area. Therefore a method of

desiGn criteria

The most precise recommendations are those laid down

bridging the gap should be incorporated, on either a

for soccer stadia by FIFA and UEFA: a minimum width of

permanent or temporary basis.

2.5m and a minimum depth of 3.0m; sufficiently high barriers

• Direct access to the pitch for service vehicles should be

on both sides to prevent people falling into the moat; and

provided, via either a bridge, a ramp or an adjustable

the provision of safety escape routes across the moat in

platform. In some situations heavy vehicles may be

those stadia where the playing area is a means of escape

necessary, particularly where the stadium is used as a

in an emergency. Moats should not contain water but be

concert venue and large quantities of stage building

constructed in such a way that unlawful intrusion on to the pitch is prevented – for example by placing climbing

materials are used. • Access into the moat can also be provided for spectators if it is to be used for public circulation. In these circumstances,

obstructions inside them (Figure 9.3). For stadia, the following general criteria apply: • It may be important in emergencies to allow access across

correctly designed stairways must be provided at regular intervals around the circumference of the moat. These can 113

Figure 9.3 An inaccessible moat.

Sightlines above perimeter walls

Vehicle access 2.5m

STADIA

CrowD ConTrol

chapter 9

be either underneath the tiers of seating or at the corners

• Access for players, performers and police on to the pitch should be provided by way of tunnels or covered crossing

(Figure 9.4). • The moat should be large enough to prevent spectators jumping across from the front row of the terrace, and to

points. These might lead directly into team dugouts, for example.

provide a wide enough escape route if it is an emergency

• Refreshment kiosks can be provided in the moat under

exit. If it is to be used for vehicular access around the

the terrace so that spectators descend into the moat via

stadium by police, ambulance and other service vehicles,

staircases during the interval.

it should have a minimum of 2.5m clearance. • The moat may be used to help clean the spectator terraces.

9.4

chanGes of level

Debris and refuse can be air-blown or swept forward into

The combination of a depression (shallower than the moats

rubbish skips in the moat. The front balustrade should have

described above) and a barrier (lower than the fences

openings or be designed at the base to accommodate this.

described in Section 9.2) gives quite an effective deterrent to

114

Figure 9.4 A typical accessible moat. Note that the stair handrail will intrude into spectators’ views.

Sightlines above perimeter walls

Access

Escape stair

Vehicle access Varies

2.5m



crowd control

chapter 9

StAdIA

Figure 9.5 A half-moat or combination of low fence and shallow moat. Note that the stair handrail will intrude into spectators’ views.

Sightlines above perimeter walls

Escape stair

Varies

115

Pedestrian access Varies

1.5m

Figure 9.6 The bullring solution, or level change, is widely used in baseball and American football stadia in the USA. Note that the stair handrail will intrude into spectators’ views. Sightlines above perimeter advertising

Varies

Escape stair

Varies

1.5m

3m

StAdIA

116

CHAPTER 9

crowd control

crowd invasion of the pitch while still providing good access

motivated invaders. They are therefore most suitable where

around the perimeter of the pitch for official use (Figure 9.5).

crowds are known to be well behaved, or where good

Alternatively, the first row of seats can be lifted sufficiently

stewarding is provided.

high above the playing area (Figure 9.6) to make pitch

Lifting the height of the first row of seats, as in

invasion difficult, though not impossible. This is the so-called

the bullring method, hampers the design of good sightlines

bullring method often used in the USA.

from the seating tier behind, particularly in large stadia.

9.4.1

9.4.3

advantaGes

desiGn criteria

The bullring method can accommodate a large number of

Typical dimensions of the moat-plus-barrier method are

players, officials and others at the side of the pitch without

a 1.5m deep moat, plus a 1m high fence on the pitch side.

obstructing the view from spectator seats, hence its

Typical dimensions of the bullring method are to raise the

popularity in the USA.

first row of seating 1.5m or 2m above pitch level.

9.4.2

disadvantaGes

Both of the methods described above are only moderately effective barriers to pitch invasion, deterring only the less

10

providing for disabled people

10.1

Equal trEatmEnt

10.2

SourcES of information

10.3

DESign procESS

10.1

Equal trEatmEnt

10.1.1

BaSic principlES

It is now accepted in most developed countries that disabled people should be able to participate in sports events, have reasonable opportunities to be employed as officials or referees, and be able to attend as spectators without being disadvantaged. In planning for spectators this means that disabled people should be able to find out about forthcoming events; plan their visit; make the journey; and buy their tickets just as easily as everyone else. They should have a good choice of seating positions; enjoy the same sightlines from their seats as other spectators; have equal access to refreshment and retail facilities; and have equal access to suitable toilets. The reasons for greater inclusiveness are, to some degree, social and commercial, but increasingly equal treatment is being demanded by law. As examples: • The USA led the way with the Americans with Disabilities Act 1990. For an overview visit www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/adahom1.htm • Australia followed soon after with its Disability Discrimination Act 1992. For an overview visit www.hreoc.gov.au/disability_rights/ • The UK passed its own Disability Discrimination Act in 1995, and has since enacted several amendments. For an overview visit www.disability.gov.uk/ Except where otherwise stated, all guidance in this chapter is based on UK legislation. To state the position in the UK briefly: the Disability Discrimination Act prohibits service providers (a term that includes the organisers of sporting events) from providing a worse service to disabled persons than to the rest of the population. This legal requirement affects both the physical design of the stadium, which must be as easily usable by disabled people as by able-bodied people, and the organisational Wembley Stadium London includes wheelchair viewing spaces in all seating areas. Architects: Populous with Foster + Partners

aspects of the event.

119

STADIA

chapter 10

provIDIng for DISAbleD people

Examples include: if the lettering on a booking form is too

• Impaired mobility. People with impaired mobility include

small to be read by a person with impaired vision; if a person

wheelchair users who cannot leave their wheelchairs;

who is hard of hearing cannot hear the assistant at the ticket

wheelchair users who arrive at the ground in a wheelchair

office; if a wheelchair user does not have a reasonable choice

and then transfer to a seat; and ambulant disabled people

of good seats in various parts of the stadium, cannot readily

who do not need a wheelchair but move with difficulty and

reach such a seat, or has worse sightlines than able-bodied

may use a stick or walking frame.

spectators once in that seat; or if a disabled person does not

• Impaired vision. These are people with eyesight problems

have ready access to a suitable toilet. In all these cases, the

which cannot be corrected simply by wearing spectacles.

event organisers may be in breach of the law and liable to

They may have difficulty in reading booking forms, tickets,

legal action on the basis of discrimination.

programmes or wayfinding and other signs. • Impaired hearing. These are people who are hard of

10.1.2

thE mEaning of DiSaBility

The legal meaning of the term ‘disabled’ is now very wide 120

hearing or deaf. They may find it difficult or impossible to communicate with assistants in ticket offices, to hear

and goes far beyond wheelchair users. However, people in

stadium announcements, or to follow spoken commentaries.

wheelchairs are, in terms of physical building design, perhaps

• Impaired understanding. These are people with learning

the most difficult category to cater for and therefore a

difficulties or mental disabilities. They are even more reliant

crucially important user group.

on simple, clear building layouts, clear signposting, and

Pages 14 to 19 of Accessible Stadia (see

helpful and kindly staff than the rest of the population. In

Bibliography) summarise the physical and mental conditions

fact, these features are helpful to virtually all stadium users,

that are recognised as disabilities under the UK’s Disability

and should be a high priority for event organisers.

Discrimination Act. They include the following: It is officially estimated that, in 2006, a fifth or more of the whole British population may be covered by the Disability

Figure 10.1 Width of a sporting wheelchair. Standard wheelchair width, for comparison, is normally taken as 700mm.

Discrimination Act. There are proposals to widen the definition even further. In the UK, full and equal provision must be made for all such people whether they are present at the stadium as spectators, players, athletes (at events such as the Paralympics), officials, or venue employees. Similar trends are at work in the USA, Australia and other developed countries. 10.2

SourcES of information

10.2.1

guiDancE on SatiSfying

uKrEgulationS

Accessible Stadia, produced and published by the Football Stadia Improvement Fund and the Football Licensing Authority, is the most authoritative guide to the design of accessible stadia in the UK. Designing for Accessibility, published by the Centre for Accessible Environments, is an equally authoritative guide to the design of public buildings in general. It is 991mm

much simpler than the official documents listed below,



providing for disabled people

chapter 10

and will greatly help designers in getting the basic design

emergency exit; excellent signposting; generous spaces;

decisions right.

good acoustics and excellent sightlines so that everyone

Approved Document M of the Building Regulations has

– including those who move with difficulty, don’t see well,

the force of law. Its provisions must be heeded in England

don’t hear well, or are slow in understanding – will find it a

and Wales. Northern Ireland and Scotland have their own

safe and easy environment.

regulations, but these are fundamentally quite similar to AD M.

• Then use the journey-sequence approach to imagine the

British Standard BS 8300 is considerably more detailed than

entire sequence of events for each type of spectator (or

AD M, and is the leading UK standard on the inclusive design

player, or official) as he or she looks up information about

of buildings in general. It is advisory and does not have the

a forthcoming event; plans the visit; makes the journey

force of law, but conformity with its recommendations will

to the venue; moves from the bus, coach, or car to the

help demonstrate that the requirements of the Disability

main entrance; buys the ticket; gets to the seat; views the

Discrimination Act have been met.

match; visits the toilets; has a drink or a meal; and leaves

Inclusive Mobility: a Guide to Best Practice on Access

the venue. Within reason, no one, regardless of physical or

to Pedestrian and Transport Infrastructure is the most

mental fitness, should encounter any difficulty at any point

authoritative UK reference on the design of footways and

along such a journey sequence.

other pedestrian areas; car parking, bus stops and taxi ranks; the correct use of tactile paving surfaces; and the correct use

For the UK, pages 25 to 66 of Accessible Stadia give

of signage and other information systems in public buildings.

authoritative guidance, starting with disabled spectators’

The Bibliography gives more detail on all the

arrival at the stadium entrance, continuing through most of

above publications.

the stages noted above, and ending with the provisions that must be made for emergency exit. The sections below follow

10.2.2   

Guidance on satisfyinG usa   

 

reGulations

 

a similar sequence.

ADA and ABA: Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and

10.3.2   

Facilities is the official USA guide on designing for disabled

Disabled people are even more reliant than able-bodied

people. The whole document should be consulted, but

spectators on good information about a forthcoming event

Section 802 is particularly relevant to stadium design. The

– good in the sense of both (a) what information is provided,

Bibliography gives more detail.

and (b) the form in which it is made available.

10.3   

desiGn process

mobility (most importantly, but not only, wheelchair users)

10.3.1   

simplifyinG strateGies

must be confident that their journey to the venue, and the

advance information

As an example of (a): people with impaired

Accessibility regulations can be dauntingly complex, as a

venue itself, will be obstacle-free, and that they will have

glance at some of the above documents will demonstrate,

ready access to a toilet when necessary. If they cannot be

but the following suggestions may help designers get a grip

sure of these things, then they dare not risk setting out on

on the overall process:

the journey.

• Do not start by planning a stadium for general users,

is so poor that they cannot read small or normal-sized print

As an example of (b): people whose eyesight and then check references such as Accessible Stadia at

sTadia

may need their information in large print or in audio form.

a later point to add special features for disabled users.

For stadia in the UK, the checklist on pages

Instead, set out from the very outset to design a venue

72 and 73 of Accessible Stadia (see Bibliography) will help

that has maximally clear routes for both entrance and

event organisers deal with the above matters.

121

STADIA

chapter 10

provIDIng for DISAbleD people

For stadia in the USA, there is no readily available nationally

spectators in both directions, and 1.5m (with 1.8m-wide

recognised guidance on these particular matters.

passing places at intervals) if routes are less busy. Surfaces should be as noted above.

10.3.3

Walkway gradients steeper than 1:20 should be

arriving at thE StaDium

The routes from rail stations, bus stops, and coach drop-off

designed as ramps, with handrails, kerbs and level landings

points to the stadium entrance should have firm and smooth

at regular intervals as resting places. If the overall rise of the

(but anti-slip) surfaces such as asphalt, concrete, evenly laid

ramp is greater than 300mm then steps should be provided

pavings, or resin-bound gravel. Loose gravel or earth is not

in addition. There should be excellent signage all the way

acceptable. Kerbs at road crossings should be flush with the carriageway so that wheelchair users are not obstructed. For stadia in the UK, modified coaches

122

from the stadium gate to each individual seat – see Section 10.3.11 below.

carrying disabled spectators should be able to drop off their

For stadia in the UK, paragraphs 2.1–2.3 and

passengers less than 50m from the stadium entrance. The

the checklist on page 73 of Accessible Stadia should be

route from drop-off point to entrance should preferably be

consulted on all the above matters. For stadia in the USA, Chapter 4 of ADA and

under cover. For stadia in the USA, Chapter 4 of ADA and

ABA: Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities (see

ABA: Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities (see

Bibliography) provides guidelines on accessible routes; and

Bibliography) provides guidelines on accessible routes, and

Chapter 7 deals with signs.

Chapter 5 deals with parking spaces and related matters. 10.3.4

Buying a ticKEt

car parKing

The ticket office should have an induction loop for people

For stadia in the UK, paragraph 4.1.2.3 of British Standard

who are hard of hearing, and a section of the counter should

BS 8300 (see Bibliography) states that, in addition to a

be lowered to 760mm for wheelchair users. This section

designated space for each employee who is a disabled car

should have a knee space beneath that is at least 500mm

driver, six per cent of total car parking capacity at recreation

deep and 1,500mm wide, with a clear height of at least

and leisure facilities should be allocated to disabled people.

700mm to the underside of the counter. For stadia in the UK, Section 11.1 of British

But it adds that this number may need to be increased in sports stadia that ‘specialise in accommodating groups of

Standard BS 8300 gives detailed design recommendations

disabled people’. At all stadia, the parking bays designated

on the design of counters and reception desks in general.

for disabled people should be provided as close as is feasible

For stadia in the USA, Chapter 9 of ADA and

to the principal entrance, and the routes from car park to

ABA: Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities (see

stadium entrance should conform with the criteria for safe

Bibliography) provides guidelines on the design of counters,

and easy usage noted above.

and Chapter 7 deals with assistive listening systems.

For stadia in the USA, Chapter 5 of ADA and

ABA: Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities (see

10.3.5

Bibliography) deals with parking spaces, passenger loading

Disabled spectators should not enter the stadium via the main

zones, and related matters.

turnstiles, but should have separate entry gates specially

paSSing through thE turnStilES

designed and managed for their use. Preferably, these should accESS routES

be manned by a specially trained steward. One reason for

In Britain, access routes to and around stadia should have

providing special entrances for disabled people, apart from

a clear width of at least 1.8m if there is intensive use by

the fact that they themselves appear to prefer such an



providing for disabled people

chapter 10

arrangement, is that this enables managers to accurately

stadium. They should have comfortable seats (as explained

count in the wheelchair users. In the UK, this is a safety

in Section 12.7) and enjoy good sightlines (as explained in

requirement, as explained in more detail in paragraphs 7.1–7.3

Section 11.4). Gone are the days when disabled spectators

of Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds (see Bibliography).

could be herded into ghetto-like enclosures, separated from

In England and Wales, Table 2 of Approved

Document M of the Building Regulations gives the minimum

their friends and the rest of the crowd, and unable to see over the heads of spectators who stood at exciting moments. These matters are covered in greater detail in

clear width of entrance doors to buildings used by the general public as 1,000mm.

Chapter 11 and 12.

For stadia in the UK, paragraphs 2.4–2.7 and the

For stadia in the UK, paragraphs 2.13–2.25 and

checklist on page 73 of Accessible Stadia should be consulted.

the checklist on pages 73–74 of Accessible Stadia should

See also Section 6 of Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds.

be consulted. See also Sections 12–14 of Guide to Safety at

For stadia in the USA, Chapter 4 of ADA and

Sports Grounds.

ABA: Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities (see

For stadia in the USA, Chapter 8 of ADA and

Bibliography) provides guidelines on doors, doorways, and gates.

ABA: Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities (see Bibliography) provides guidelines on wheelchair spaces, and

10.3.6

circulating within thE StaDium

gives detailed advice on sightlines for spectators in wheelchairs.

For stadia in the UK, horizontal routes for wheelchair users, such as concourses and corridors, should have a clear width of

10.3.8

at least 1.8m. If intrusions by columns or ducts are unavoidable,

Disabled people should find it just as easy as other spectators

these should always leave a clear corridor width of at least

to enjoy the use of bars and restaurants, either alone or with

1.0m. In England and Wales, Section 3 of Approved Document

their friends. Suitable facilities should be located as close as

M of the Building Regulations governs all aspects of horizontal

possible to viewing areas. Because disabled spectators may

movement, and Section 8 of Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds

not be able to get to both toilets and refreshment facilities

makes specific recommendations for sports facilities.

in the short breaks during matches, when circulation areas

uSing thE rEfrEShmEnt facilitiES

Where there are stairway entrances, these

tend to be very crowded, it may be wise for clubs to provide

should always have accompanying passenger lifts and/or

them with a dedicated refreshment order service, performed

ramps for spectators who cannot negotiate stairs. Design

by trained stewards or volunteers.

criteria for all of these will be set by national codes and

Bars and service counters (including self-service

building regulations. In England and Wales, Section 3 of

counters) should have one section lowered to a level of not

Approved Document M of the Building Regulations governs

more than 850mm above the floor for the use of wheelchair

all aspects of vertical movement, and Chapter 8 of Guide to

users. Such sections should have a knee space beneath

Safety at Sports Grounds makes specific recommendations

with a clear height of at least 700mm to the underside of

for stairs and ramps in sports facilities.

the counter.

For stadia in the USA, Chapter 4 of ADA and

ABA: Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities provides guidelines on accessible routes, including ramps and lifts; and Chapter 5 deals with stairways and handrails.

For stadia in the UK, paragraphs 2.30–2.31 of

Accessible Stadia should be consulted. For stadia in the USA, Chapter 9 of ADA and

ABA: Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities (see Bibliography) provides guidelines on dining surfaces

10.3.7

viEwing thE EvEnt

All spectators, disabled and able-bodied alike, should have a good choice of viewing locations in various parts of the

sTadia

and counters.

123

sTadia

providing for disabled people

CHAPTER 10

10.3.9

uSing thE toilEtS

10.3.11

SignS

Disabled people should be able to access toilets as easily as

Disabled people are even more dependent than others upon

the able-bodied. Suitable toilets should be dispersed around

good signage. A well-coordinated, consistent signage system

the stadium, and no wheelchair user should need to travel a

should be used throughout the stadium, accompanied by

horizontal distance of more than 40m from his or her seat to

audio information and tactile signs (such as raised lettering,

the nearest suitable toilet.

numerals and symbols) to help those with poor eyesight.

Scales of provision and design details vary, and must be ascertained for the particular country in question.

thE uK

For details of toilet provision for disabled people in the UK

Section 10 of Inclusive Mobility (see Bibliography) gives

and USA, see Chapter 16.

comprehensive and detailed guidance on the size of letters and symbols, typefaces, colour contrast and positioning of

10.3.10

visual signs. It also gives brief guidance on tactile signs and

lEaving thE StaDium

Because spectators tend to arrive at sports venues in small 124

on audible information in public places.

groups over a period of time, but leave simultaneously, designing and managing for safe exit requires much greater

thE uSa

care than designing for safe entry. This applies particularly

Chapter 7 of ADA and ABA: Accessibility Guidelines for

to emergency exit, when tens of thousands of panic-stricken

Buildings and Facilities (see Bibliography) provides guidelines

people may be rushing for the exits in disorderly fashion.

on signs and other information systems.

Disabled

spectators,

particularly

those

in

wheelchairs, should be able to enter and leave as easily as others, and they are particularly vulnerable in the above conditions. This topic is too specialised to treat in depth here. However, seating areas designated for disabled spectators might have their own entry and exit routes in order to minimise conflict between disabled and able-bodied people during an emergency. For stadia in the UK, paragraphs 2.35–2.44 of

Accessible Stadia should be consulted. See also Sections 9 and 15 of the Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds. For stadia in the USA, Chapter 4 of ADA and

ABA: Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities (see Bibliography) provides guidelines on accessible routes.

11

spectator viewing

11.1

IntroductIon

11.2

Ground capacIty

11.3

VIewInG dIstances

11.4

VIewInG anGles and sIGhtlInes

11.5

obstructIons to VIewInG

11.1

IntroductIon

11.1.1

desIGn aIms

The design team’s task is to provide seats or standing places for the number of spectators required by the brief, and to do so in such a way that the spectators (including wheelchair users and other disabled people) have a clear view of the event, and are comfortable and safe. This chapter outlines all the viewing design factors. 11.1.2

sequence of decIsIons

The starting point for design is the size and orientation of the playing field. Both of these are dictated by the sports played there. See Chapter 3 for pitch orientation and Chapter 7 for pitch dimensions. Next, a notional envelope can be drawn for the spectator areas surrounding the pitch. The inner edge will be as close to the pitch as possible, allowing for a safety barrier as described in Chapter 9, while the outer edges will be determined by: • The required spectator capacity (Section 11.2). • The maximum acceptable distance from the pitch to the furthest seats (Section 11.3.1), and the preferred viewing locations for that particular sport (Section 11.3.3). Finally, this schematic plan must be converted to a fully developed three-dimensional stadium design which provides good viewing angles and sightlines (Section 11.4.2), has safety limits on the steepness of rake (Section 11.4.3), and features no unacceptable barriers such as roof supports that interfere with the view (Section 11.5). ANZ Stadium Sydney (formerly Stadium Australia) during the 2000 Olympic Games. Architects Populous with Bligh Voller Nield

11.2

Ground capacIty

11.2.1

the need for realIsm

The most important decision in planning a new stadium, or expanding an existing one, is the number of spectators to be accommodated.

127

STADIA

SpecTATor vIewIng

chapter 11

When developing a building brief, the design team and client organisation often over-estimate this figure. Natural optimism plays a part in this. Sporting clubs always

• The quality of view and distance from the action. • The type of roof possible, and therefore the extent of shelter.

believe their attendance is about to increase dramatically,

• The internal and external aesthetics of the stadium.

even though statistical evidence may show that it has been

• The cost of the structure and support facilities, and the

stable for years or is even dropping. Stadium owners like to believe that if only they had a bigger venue, then more people would attend, even though many seats in their existing smaller stadium remain unfilled. And consultants may find it

running costs. • Safety management and staffing on event and non-event days. • The extent and range of viable support facilities.

more exciting to get involved in big plans than small ones, which tends to encourage expansive thinking.

128

11.2.2

offIcIal requIrements

There are circumstances in which an attractive,

A minimum seating capacity, including a more detailed

well-planned new facility may attract more spectators. For

breakdown into the following categories, may be set by the

instance, the club may be able to increase its gate through

types of events to be held at the venue.

an organised recruitment campaign or, in the case of European soccer, if it gains promotion in the league system.

• A minimum overall capacity.

Also, the fact that a new stadium is comfortable, safe and

• The proportion of viewing spaces allocated to officials,

well designed may in itself attract more spectators. But experience shows that, after the novelty of a new stadium has worn off, attendance tends to revert to earlier figures, unless the new crowd can be enticed to stay through marketing or

VIPs and directors. • The proportion of viewing spaces allocated to (a) wheelchair users and (b) ambulant disabled spectators. • The proportion of standing places to seats.

the team’s improved performance. It is therefore a golden rule never to increase

In some cases the governing bodies will lay down standards

stadium capacity beyond that which is known to be

in one or more of the above categories. These must be met if

necessary, and which is affordable in both capital cost and

certain types of matches are to be played there.

running cost. The factors in a preliminary estimation of ground capacity are the following:

proVIsIon for General spectators, offIcIals, VIps and dIrectors

• The sport(s) and other activities to be accommodated.

The recommended seating capacities for various types of

• The size of the catchment area surrounding the

sports are constantly being revised, and designers should

development.

contact the relevant governing bodies for latest information.

• The aspirations of sponsors, public institutions and owners.

The allowable proportion of standing places should particularly

• The past history of the site or sports club.

be checked since most of these are being phased out.

• Practical site limitations. proVIsIon for wheelchaIr users

This decision on capacity can only be provisional. It may not

In the UK, Table 4 of the Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds

be possible to provide the desired number of seats while

and paragraph 2.13 of Accessible Stadia (see Bibliography)

maintaining view quality, sheltering spectators, or fitting the

recommend that spaces should be provided for the numbers

stadium successfully onto its site and into its surroundings.

of wheelchair users shown below; and Table 3 of Approved

The implications of seating numbers must be carefully

Document M of the Building Regulations (see Bibliography)

checked against considerations such as:

recommends a small number of additional removable seats.



spectator viewing

chapter 11

These very general figures should be tested by consultation

proVIsIon for ambulant dIsabled spectators

with local disabled groups.

There will normally be many more ambulant disabled

staDia

spectators than ones in wheelchairs but, as of 2006, there Total seated capacity

Number of wheelchair spaces

Under 10,000

At least 6, or 1 in 100 of seated

spaces to be provided. Paragraph 2.16 of Accessible Stadia

capacity, whichever is greater.

states vaguely that the above table of recommendations for

100 plus 5 per 1,000

wheelchair users ‘should be used to determine the minimum

above 10,000

proportion of seated accommodation for ambulant disabled

150 plus 3 per 1,000

spectators in the whole stadium’ but gives no indication of

above 20,000

the ratio that might be applied. Again, the scale of provision

210 plus 2 per 1,000

should be tested by consulting with local disabled groups.

10,000 to 20,000 20,000 to 40,000 40,000 or more

above 40,000

are in the UK no specific recommendations on the number of

As regards location, paragraph 2.16 makes the following recommendations:

As regards location, the reference Accessible Stadia (see Bibliography) makes several recommendations which

129

• Seats intended for ambulant disabled people should be dispersed throughout the stadium, and should be

include the following.

specifically identified by management. • Areas for disabled spectators should, where possible, be

• Because ambulant disabled people move with difficulty,

dispersed throughout the stadium to provide a range

such identified seats might best be located at the ends of

of locations at various levels and various prices. We

rows, and close to exits.

would, however, emphasise that for practical and safety

• Some of these seats should be situated where there are

management reasons it will normally be necessary to

few steps to negotiate, and where the seating rake is not

retain some grouping of wheelchair-using spectators.

more than 20 degrees.

• Viewing areas should be accessible to disabled spectators

• In some cases, an entire row of seats, appropriately located, could be designed to a higher standard of comfort

with the minimum of assistance. • Designated viewing areas should be provided for both home

for disabled spectators, as suggested in Section 12.7.

and away supporters. Many supporters with disabilities are

• In all of the above, bear in mind that ambulant disabled

isolated and intimidated when situated among, or close to,

spectators may prefer not to sit in areas primarily intended

able-bodied supporters of the opposing team.

for wheelchair users and their helpers.

• Spectators who use wheelchairs should not feel cut off from spectators in the main body of the stand.

standInG accommodatIon Versus seats

• Access should be available to different areas of a seating

The question of seating versus standing accommodation has

deck for semi-ambulant and ambulant disabled people.

been so hotly debated, particularly for soccer matches in the

• Smaller

groups

of

disabled

spectators

dispersed

throughout a stand are a more manageable proposition for safe evacuation than larger groups.

UK, that a few comments are needed. In theory, it is possible to accommodate around two spectators per square metre seated compared to around four per square metre standing. Or, if the minimum

Paragraph 2.15 of Accessible Stadia recommends that

dimensions for seating given in the Guide to Safety at Sports

each designated wheelchair space should measure at least

Grounds (see Bibliography) is followed, about 3.1 spectators

1.4m x 1.4m, so as to allow a helper to sit alongside the

per square metre seated, versus a maximum of 4.7 standing,

wheelchair user.

giving a ratio of approximately 2:3.

STADIA

130 130

SpecTATor vIewIng

chapter 11

These figures make standing room seem

One way out of this dilemma is to have a certain

economically attractive. In fact, this advantage is diminishing,

proportion of convertible areas. In Germany, for instance, it is

because many amenities must be substantially increased for

quite common for stadia to be temporarily converted to all-

standing spectators. Once the additional numbers of toilets

seating for certain matches. While it is technically feasible to

and catering outlets, and the increased circulation, escape

design convertible stands, it increases the capital cost.

and safety barrier space are taken into account, the cost per

One event where standing spectators are still

person may actually be greater for standing accommodation

being tolerated on a large scale is at concerts given in stadia,

than for seated.

where the actual playing area is often used for spectators

Leaving economics aside, the decision will

to sit or stand. Fans find their own way and decide where

be influenced by two main factors: customer expectation

to stand, many believing that this spontaneity is essential to

and legal requirements. In some sports, spectators prefer

the atmosphere of such events. This system is called festival

to stand. Many sports fans are convinced that standing

seating in the USA, but it is regarded by the authorities as

together on the terraces is essential to the spirit of watching

unacceptable and dangerous because of the lack of control

the game. In horse racing, it is traditional for over two-thirds

the organisers have over the positioning of the crowd.

of spectators to stand, and wander around, rather than sit

European practice is beginning to change and several

on tiered seats. Establishing what kind of spectator will

countries now require the playing area to have securely fixed

patronise a given stadium (in terms of socio-economic group

seats in place for a pop concert. The covering of the pitch in

and other relevant characteristics) is crucial to getting the

these circumstances is discussed in Chapter 7.

whole philosophy of comfort, shelter and seat price right

In conclusion, the authors believe that instances

for that stadium. No design should go forward until these

remain where well-designed standing terraces are acceptable

matters have been fully clarified.

– especially in horse racing and British soccer – but they accept

As regards the law, most authorities believe that the greater the proportion of seated spectators, the less

that trends worldwide are undeniably towards all-seater stadia, mainly because spectators expect greater comfort.

likely there will be crowd problems, hence the trend for more

If standing areas are provided, then equality

seated stadia. British soccer authorities decreed that existing

laws such as the UK’s Disability Discrimination Act 1995

soccer stadia in the Premier League and the Championship

may well insist that disabled spectators are entitled to gain

should be converted to all-seater stadia over a specified

access to those areas. In the UK, this principle is accepted,

period during the 1990s, and that no standing terraces should

but as of 2006 there are no specific recommendations on

be provided in new stadia for these senior divisions. FIFA and

the provision that should be made. For such guidance as

UEFA regulations allow for no standing places in new stadia

does exist, refer to paragraph 2.23 of Accessible Stadia (see

for national or international matches.

Bibliography).

If standing accommodation is designed for, there’s a risk that it may later need to be converted to

11.2.3

catchment area and past hIstory

seating, should a soccer team secure promotion to a higher



of the sIte

division, for instance, or when governing bodies demand all-

In addition to the theoretical numbers laid down by

seating stadia. In Britain, the Football Licensing Authority

regulation, as in Table 11.1, it is essential to look at the reality

believes seating accommodation is an inherently safer

of the site itself. While FIFA might require a capacity of,

option than standing, and recommends that new standing

say, 30,000 for certain soccer matches, an analysis of the

accommodation should always be constructed so that it’s

potential catchment area and past attendances may show

easily converted to seating.

this is highly unlikely. Realism must prevail.



spectator viewing

Cost Category

Stadium Capacity

Typical Seating configuration

Low

Up to 10,000

10 to 15 rows in a single tier

chapter 11

staDia

Typical forms of structure, modes of access, etc. Structure possibly ground bearing. Access direct from front of seating tier or from short stairs/ramp at rear. Support facilities beneath. Roof cantilever only about 10m, using light steel or concrete sections.

Medium

10,000 to 20,000

15 to 20 rows in a single tier

High

20,000 to 50,000

Up to 50 rows total, disposed in 2 tiers

Very High

30,000 to 50,000

Over 50 rows in total, in 3 or 4 tiers. 3rd or 4th tiers are usually introduced to overcome site restrictions, or to accommodate a plethora of VIP boxes and similar facilities, and not for increased capacity.

Table 11.1

131 131

Typical cost categories in stadium construction

11.2.4

cost cateGorIes of stadIum



constructIon



11.2.5

staGed expansIon

Once a minimum and a maximum number of seats for a

Stadium capacity may be limited by the required cost of

particular stadium have been established, the client may opt

construction. The relationship between construction costs

for a modest initial facility which can grow with the club.

and seating capacities tends to fall into definite categories.

In the case of an open stadium, staged expansion

If capacity can be kept below the next threshold, and an

is relatively simple. It becomes very difficult if the final stadium

additional tier and/or structural complication avoided, it may

is to be entirely roofed (or domed, in American terminology).

be possible to avoid a disproportionate leap in costs. Table

The problem is not the design or construction of the final

11.1 notionally summarises four major categories of this kind

phase, but the fact that if the initial stages are too modest,

(see also Chapter 23).

the cost of future additions may be prohibitive.

There are exceptions to this classification of

British roofed stadia which have been constructed

seating capacities and costs. For instance, the Aztec stadium,

in a phased manner include Twickenham Rugby Football

in Mexico, accommodates over 100,000 spectators on a

Ground, in west London, Murrayfield rugby stadium, in

single tier of seats surrounding the pitch; and the McMahon

Edinburgh, and the Galpharm stadium, in Huddersfield.

stadium at the University of Calgary, in Alberta, in Canada, accommodates over 38,000 people in two single-tier stands

11.2.6

situated only on the sides of the pitch. Because they avoid

Roofing is expensive and has a significant impact on the

second or third tiers, both of these stadia undoubtedly

aesthetic impact of a stadium, but a percentage of roofed

have lower relative costs than one would expect, but at the

area is essential for spectator comfort in most climates. In

expense of long viewing distances.

some localities the roof must provide shelter against the sun,

extent of roof

in others against rain, snow and perhaps wind.

STADIA

SpecTATor vIewIng

chapter 11

For each stadium, a careful investigation must

Firstly, it must be admitted that some sports

be made into the sports to be played, the seasons and

(such as field hockey and cricket) are played with a small-

time of day they may be staged, and the local climate. See

diameter ball on a field so large that the size of the field

Sections 3.2 and 5.8. There may also be official regulations

makes it impossible to locate spectators within the theoretical

requiring a certain proportion of seats under cover. The latest

viewing distance. In these cases one must face the fact that

rules should be checked with the relevant governing bodies.

viewers will have to watch the players rather than the ball.

In practice, the seating sections of all new stadia

Secondly, in a large stadium the spectators are

currently being built in Britain and northern Europe are

not sitting at ground level but are raised above the ground

roofed, while the standing terraces are occasionally left open.

by as much as 20m or 30m. In big stadia the effect of this

It is only in mild climates, such as parts of Australia and the

elevation must be taken into account by calculating the

USA, that new stadia are being built with uncovered seats.

direct distances from the elevated spectators to the centre of the field.

132

11.3

VIewInG dIstances

11.3.1

optImum VIewInG dIstance

Thirdly, spectators have preferred viewing locations for each particular sport, so that seats in some areas

Calculation of maximum viewing distance is based on the

of the optimum viewing circle would be less satisfactory than

fact that the human eye finds it difficult to perceive anything

others at the same distance from the game. This is discussed

clearly that subtends an angle of less than about 0.4 degrees

in the next section.

– particularly if the object is moving rapidly. In the case of a rugby ball, which is approximately 250mm in diameter,

11.3.3

or a soccer ball, the calculation sets the preferred viewing

It is not always self-evident where viewers like to sit for

distance at no more than 150m between the extreme corner

particular sports. In the case of soccer, conventional wisdom

of the field and spectator’s eye, with an absolute maximum

holds that the best seats are on the long sides of the field which

of 190m. In the case of a tennis ball, which is only 75mm in

give a good view of the ebb and flow of the game between

diameter, the preferred maximum distance reduces to around

the two opposing goalposts. But there is also a tradition for

30m. Some guidance on viewing distances for various sports

highly motivated team supporters to view the game from the

is given in BS EN 13200 2003 Spectator facilities – Part 1:

short ends, behind the goal posts, where they get a good

Layout criteria for spectator viewing area – specification (see

view of the side movements and line openings which present

the Bibliography).

themselves to the opposing teams. To designers who do

preferred VIewInG locatIons

Setting out these distances from the extreme

not understand these traditions it may seem ludicrous that a

viewing positions, such as the diagonally opposed corners of

soccer supporter insists on watching from behind the netting

a playing field, gives a preferred viewing zone. Their average

of the goalposts in crowded conditions when there is ample

configuration suggests a circle struck from the centre spot

space available on the long sides. But such preferences exist,

on the field, generally referred to as the optimum viewing

and the design team must identify them for the stadium

circle. This circle, in the case of soccer and rugby, would have

under consideration, and suitably modify the optimum

a radius of 90m. See Figure 11.1 for other sports.

viewing circle to locate the maximum density of spectators in their preferred positions.

11.3.2

practIcal lImItatIons

Figure 11.2 shows preferred viewing positions

The simple circular plan areas developed above are only a

for various sports; and Figures 11.3 to 11.9 analyse some well-

starting point for laying out the viewing terraces and must be

known existing stadia.

modified in several ways.



spectator viewing

chapter 11

staDia

Figure 11.1 Relationship between playing field, optimum and maximum viewing distances and a deduced optimum viewing circle. (a) For soccer and rugby, the optimum viewing circle would have a radius of 90m from the centre spot. (b) Dimensions for lawn tennis viewing. (c) Separate stands – leaving the potential seating space at the corners unexploited – have traditionally been common. (d) This arrangement brings more spectators within the optimum viewing circle and offers the possibility of a more attractive stadium design (see Section 5.2.5 of this book). (e) A variation of (c) with the seating areas extending to the limit of the optimum viewing circle, but not beyond it. This type of layout gives an excellent spectator/ player relationship. (f) A variation of (d) with only the seating area to the west of the playing field extended back to the limit of the optimum viewing circle. With this layout, the majority of spectators have their backs to the sun during an afternoon game.

Maximum viewing distance 190m Optimum viewing distance 150m Assumed optimum viewing distance 90m

c

d

e

f

a

Maximum viewing distance 41m from centre

Optimum viewing distance 30m from centre

b

11.3.4

exploItInG the corners

Leaving the corners open is cheaper in construction costs and

A decision must be made whether to place four rectangular

may in some cases benefit a natural grass pitch by promoting

stands on the four sides of the field with open corners (Figure

better circulation of air and quicker drying of the grass. But

11.1c) or whether to surround the pitch with a continuous bowl

it also sacrifices valuable viewing space, and the trend is

stadium (Figure 11.1d).

towards fully exploiting the area within the maximum viewing

133

STADIA

SpecTATor vIewIng

chapter 11

Figure 11.2 Preferred viewing positions for some major sports. (a) Soccer; (b) American football; (c) rugby league; (d) lawn tennis; (e) baseball; (f) Australian Rules football.

a

134

d

b

c

e

f

Figure 11.3 Wembley Stadium, London (see Case studies). The new stadium with 90,000 capacity for soccer or rugby, and the ability to include an athletics track, has a few seats outside the maximum viewing distance line.



spectator viewing

chapter 11

Figure 11.4

Figure 11.6

Aztec Stadium, Mexico City, built in 1966 exclusively for soccer. The layout is of the type shown in Figure 11.1d but far too large for satisfactory viewing since most of the 105,000 seats on the single-tier terrace are outside the optimum viewing circle and very many are beyond the maximum viewing distance.

The Olympic Stadium built for the 1972 Olympics, in Munich, and designed primarily for athletic events. The seating geometry is closer to a circle than those above, and is asymmetrical to accommodate most of the 80,000 spectators to the south of the playing field. The arena is so large that virtually all spectators are pushed beyond the optimum viewing circle, but the outer perimeter of the seating areas is kept mostly within the maximum viewing distance. The depth of seating is at a maximum along the sprint lines and finish line.

staDia

135

Figure 11.5

Figure 11.7

The Millennium Stadium, Cardiff. With three tiers and a capacity for rugby of approximately 72,000, all spectators are inside the maximum viewing distance line.

A completely circular stadium in the District of Columbia, USA, for American football and baseball. Spectator distances for football are acceptable but those for baseball too great, demonstrating the difficulty of providing for both sports in the same facility.

STADIA

chapter 11

SpecTATor vIewIng

Figure 11.8

Figure 11.10

Emirates soccer stadium, in London, UK (see Case studies).

The term ‘sightline’ refers to a spectator’s ability to see a critical point on the playing field over the head of the spectator below, and is measured by the C value.

View to play area

C value

136

Figure 11.9 The Galpharm soccer and rugby stadium in Huddersfield, UK, has a capacity of 25,000 in four stands, allowing excellent sightlines and accommodating everyone within the optimum viewing circle.

distance as shown in Figure 11.1e. A continuous bowl stadium may offer more comfortable conditions for spectators and players than an open-corner layout, as mentioned in Section 5.8, and may look better than four separate stands meeting awkwardly at the corners (see Section 5.2.4). Corners can also offer a good view for some disabled supporters as some wheelchair users cannot lean forwards or sideways in their seats or turn their heads like able-bodied supporters. 11.3.5

desIGnInG for multI-use stadIa

Multi-use stadia make sense financially, but they do not necessarily offer spectators the quality of viewing they want. Each particular sport has its own ideal viewing distances and seat positions. While it may be possible to satisfy these in a stadium dedicated to one sport, it becomes much more difficult in a facility that must accommodate different sports with different characteristics. Examples of compatibility and incompatibility include the following:



spectator viewing

chapter 11

• Soccer and rugby are broadly compatible. The playing

The next step is to convert these diagrammatic plans into

fields are somewhat different in size but both are

three-dimensional stand designs with satisfactory sightlines. The term ‘sightline’ does not refer to the

rectangular and, while preferred spectator locations are not identical (Figure 11.2), the differences are quite small.

distance between spectator and pitch, though non-technical

• Soccer and athletics are much less compatible. Even

commentators may loosely use it in this way. It actually refers

though these sports are frequently accommodated in the

to the spectator’s ability to see comfortably the nearest point

same stadium, especially on the European continent, this is

of interest on the playing field (the point of focus) over the

at great cost to viewing quality. Placing an athletics track

heads of the people in front. In other words, it refers to a

around the perimeter of a soccer field has the effect of

height (Figure 11.10), not a distance. A worked example showing the calculation of N,

pushing soccer fans so far away from the pitch that they lose their involvement with the game.

staDia

the riser height, is given below:

• American football and baseball (the two great national (R+C) x (D+T)

spectator sports in the USA) are not happily compatible. For reasons of cost they have sometimes been accommodated

N=

137

-R D

in the same stadium, but the shapes of the football rectangle and the baseball diamond are so different that viewing conditions for many spectators must be disappointing.

where: N = riser height;

R = height between eye on point of focus These matters are more fully discussed in Chapter 8.

on the playing field;

D = distance from eye to point of focus on 11.3.6

the playing field;

conclusIon

It must be clearly decided at briefing stage which sports are

C = C value;1

to be accommodated, at what seating capacities, and the

T = depth of seating row.

precise degree to which optimum viewing standards may be compromised in pursuit of these aims. Failure to settle these

If we analyse a spectator position where R = 6.5m,

issues at an early stage could lead to a very unsatisfactory

D = 18m, T = 0.8m and we want a C value of 120mm,

stadium.

then the height of the riser must be:

11.4

(6.5 + 0.12) x (18.0 + 0.8)

VIewInG anGles and sIGhtlInes

We have now evolved a schematic diagram of the proposed

N=

viewing areas which hopefully satisfies three criteria:

-6.5 18

N = 6.8014 – 6.5 • The spectator areas are large enough to accommodate the

N = 0.3014m.

required number of viewers. • All spectators are as close to the action as possible,

In principle, the calculation method is simple, but in real

and maximum viewing distances have been kept within

design it becomes cumbersome because the angle must

defined limits.

be calculated many times over for each individual row in a

• Most spectators (including those who are disabled) are

stadium (Figure 11.11). This is because the optimum viewing

located in their preferred viewing positions in relation to

angle varies with both the height of the spectator’s eye

the playing field.

above pitch level and its distance from the pitch. And every

STADIA

chapter 11

SpecTATor vIewIng

Figure 11.11

time either of these factors changes for a particular row of

Viewing angle. D = distance to focus, C = C value, T = tread width, N = riser height and R = riser height from focus.

seats, the computation described above must be repeated. c Values for wheelchaIr users

In the UK, paragraph 2.17 of Accessible Stadia (see Bibliography) recommends that wheelchair users should be

D

able to enjoy the same C value as other spectators – say, 90mm – even when the spectators sitting immediately in

C

front of them rise to their feet, as tends to happen at exciting moments. This provision, which results from the requirement of paragraph 19 of the UK’s Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (visit www.opsi.gov.uk/acts.htm and www.drc-gb.org/)

N R

that says disabled spectators should not be treated less favourably than others, can be met by the use of a super riser,

138

as shown in Figure 11.12.

T

In the USA, paragraph 802 of ADA and

ABA Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities (visit www.access-board.gov/ada-aba/final.htm) makes a Figure 11.12 Use of a super riser to ensure that spectators in wheelchairs can see over the heads of spectators in front of them, even when the latter rise to their feet.

broadly similar point, but it is somewhat less demanding and is regarded by some as clearer and more logical than the UK provision above. In other countries, less stringent criteria may apply, a matter that should be checked with local rulemaking bodies. 11.4.1

C

use of computer calculatIons

Possibly because the calculations are so complex, or because some designers are reluctant to have the clean geometry of their architectural concepts degraded by real-life considerations, several recently built stadia have failed in this respect. One of the Italian venues for the FIFA

Increased height riser or ‘Super riser’

World Cup in 1990 was found after construction to have such inadequate sightlines that remedial action had to be undertaken immediately, with only partial success. The designers of a stand in the British city of Bristol were once sued by the sports club because of inadequate sightlines for the new facility. Given the vital importance of getting these sightlines right, it is strongly recommended that computer analysis, using tried and tested programs, is carried out.



spectator viewing

chapter 11

staDia

Figure 11.13 Quality of vision is improved by increasing the heights of seats above pitch level, and by bringing the seats closer to the pitch (point of focus).

C=120

6m

9m

um xim a M

C=120

ke ra of e gl an

C=120 C=120 C=90

9.2m

7.3m

C=60

Point of focus

Professional practices specialising in sports stadium design

2  Decide a suitable C value.

have generally developed their own computer programs

C value is the assumed distance between the sightline to

which not only carry out all the necessary calculations, but

the playing area (or activity area), and the centre of the

also generate drawings of the result. Many design options can

eye of the spectator below (Figure 11.10). In general, 150mm

be tried out, with precise stand profiles produced in seconds.

would be an excellent design value, 120mm very good, and 90mm reasonable. 60mm is generally regarded as an

11.4.2

calculatIon method

absolute minimum for most situations, with spectators able

The method for carrying out such a calculation is described

to see mostly between the heads of the people in front or by

in Section 11.4; the vital steps in the decision process are set

craning their necks. For new design, a C value of 90mm is an

out below:

ideal minimum.

1  Decide the point of focus on the playing field.

factors. When it is too small for good viewing, spectators can

In deciding the point of focus, choose the part of the playing

improve their line of sight over the heads of those in front

field actually in use by the players that is closest to the

simply by tilting their heads back, thus raising their eye level.

spectators, as this will be the most onerous condition for

If this needs to be done only occasionally, spectators may

the design.

be happy. But they would resist having to do it all the time,

But the suitable C value is affected by several

139

STADIA

SpecTATor vIewIng

chapter 11

Figure 11.14 The closer the first row of seats is to the point of focus, the steeper the rake will be, and the higher the back of the stand for a given C value will be.

C=120

6m

9m C=120

9.2m 7.3m

140

Point of focus

especially for events of long duration (see Table 12.1), and

Choosing the C value is therefore a matter of judgement

especially in the more expensive seats.

rather than incontrovertible fact, and judging it right is

Choosing low C values such as 90mm or even

absolutely vital to the success of the stadium. Some guidance

60mm makes for easier stand design (Figure 11.13). In the case

on recommended C values for various sports is given in BS

of large stadia, these may be the maximum feasible values if

EN 13200-2003 Spectator facilities – Part 1: Layout criteria

an excessively steep seating angle is to be avoided. But in the

for spectator viewing area – specification (see Bibliography).

case of sports where the action moves widely across the field,

This document generally recommends 120mm as a good

or where the spectators in front are regularly expected to

value and 90mm as an acceptable value.

wear hats, such values would make for unsatisfactory viewing.

Whatever value is chosen, it is imperative that

Conversely, choosing a high value such as

spectators have a clear view of the whole of the playing area

120mm would give excellent viewing, but it would make for

(or activity area) and are not encouraged to stand because

steeply raked stands and create great design difficulties in

of low C values or inadequate sightlines.

large-capacity or multi-tier stadia, particularly in the more distant rows.



spectator viewing

chapter 11

staDia

Figure 11.15 The higher the first row of seats above pitch level, the better viewing standards will be, but also the higher the back of the stand will be. This may cause problems of building cost and of appearance, and may obstruct access of sunlight to a grass pitch.

34

s ee gr de

C=120

13m

C=120

11m

C=120

9.2m

141

Point of focus

3  Decide the distance between the front row of seats and

recommended that eye height above the pitch should not

the point of focus.

be less than 800mm, with 700mm as an absolute minimum.

The greater this distance, the shallower the rake of the stand, and the lower the back rows, all of which are advantageous

11.4.3

factors (Figure 11.14). However, site restrictions may well

By juggling all the above factors (Figures 11.16 and 11.17), and

dictate a tight spacing, in which case a steeply raked stadium

taking into account site constraints and construction costs,

becomes inevitable.

a theoretical stadium geometry will emerge. Some tests

fInal desIGn

that must be carried out on the hypothetical profile are the 4  Decide the level of the front row of seats relative to the

following:

playing field. The higher these seats are raised above playing field level,

anGle of rake

the better viewing standards will be, but the steeper the rake

Choosing a stadium profile that minimises the distance

will be (Figure 11.15). The chosen method of separating the

between spectators and playing field may give a rake that is

crowd from the playing field (fence, moat or change of level,

too steep for comfort or safety. It is generally accepted that

as discussed in Chapter 9) will influence this decision. It is

an angle of rake steeper than 34 degrees (approximately

STADIA

chapter 11

SpecTATor vIewIng

Figure 11.16 One example of the varying results obtained by juggling the factors identified in the foregoing figure.

C=120 45 degrees C=90 39 degrees C=60 33 degrees

142

Point of focus

Higher than acceptable

Figure 11.17 The effect of changing C values on the angle of rake.

C=120 C=90 C=60

Point of focus

8.2m 7.0m 5.9m



spectator viewing

chapter 11

the angle of a stair) is uncomfortable and induces a sense

changes in stepping heights could be as little as 10mm to

of vertigo in some people as they descend the gangways,

15mm. In regions with less sophisticated technologies it

even if regulations in some countries do allow steeper

would be wise to increase the stepping differences to

angles. In Britain the Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds (see

20mm or 25mm.

Bibliography), also known as the Green Guide, recommends

When varied seating tier heights cause stair

a maximum angle of 34 degrees. In Italy, up to 41 degrees

risers also to vary, there might be conflict with local building

is allowed, but this extremely steep rake is usually found

regulations. These should be checked. In England and Wales,

only towards the backs of the upper tiers. Handrails are

the most recent regulations take note of the situation, and

then provided in front of each row of seats for safety and to

waivers are usually obtainable. When the general design has been completed,

counteract the sense of vertigo. Not all countries have specific regulations, but

the view from each seat can be checked by creating a

in all cases the local codes of practice and legislation must

computer image of the playing field from the eye position.

be checked. Where no specific regulations exist, the angle

If tickets are being sold in advance, such images can also

of rake will normally be determined by staircase regulations.

be used to inform potential purchasers of what they will see from any given seat.

VaryInG rIser heIGhts

The calculated rake for a deep stadium will not be a constant

11.5

angle, but a curve (Figure 11.18), with each successive riser

This factor is more critical for some sports than others. In motor

one or two mm greater than the one in front. The building

or horse racing, a few columns in front of the spectators may

process tends to favour standardisation, and constructing a

be acceptable because the cars or horses are large objects

stand in this way could be more expensive than straight tiers.

whose movement past the columns is easily tracked. In tennis,

Therefore it is customary to divide tiers into facets which

by contrast, the repeated invisibility of a small-diameter ball

provide optimum viewing angles while reducing the variety of

as it speeds to and fro behind an obstructive column would

riser heights. In Europe and North America, where precision

be intolerable. The structural aspects of column-free roof

in pre-cast concrete work is relatively easily obtained, the

design are discussed in Section 5.8.

obstructIons to VIewInG

Figure 11.18 The riser heights required to maintain a specified C value in each row of a tier will not be constant, but will vary from each row to the next. In practice, such a curved profile will be built as a series of facets which strike a balance between optimum viewing angles and standardisation of construction.

Consistent viewing standard produces a curved tier

Footnote: 1

Point of focus

staDia

C-value=150mm for spectators with hats, 120mm good viewing standard, 90mm head tilted backwards, 60mm between heads in front.

143

12

spectator seating

12.1

Basic decisions

12.2

seat types

12.3

seat materials, finishes and colours

12.4

choice

12.5

dimensions

12.6

seat fixings

12.7

seating for spectators with disaBilities

12.1

Basic decisions

The next design task is the seats themselves. Seating design is a matter of reconciling four major factors: comfort, safety, robustness and economy. 12.1.1

comfort

The degree of comfort required depends partly on the seating time for that particular sport, as shown in Table 12.1. The longer the spectator must sit in one position, the more comfortable the seats must be. Comfort costs money, but it also helps attract the customers without whose support the stadium cannot succeed. No easy rules can be given for the trade-off between comfort and cost, except to say that the worldwide trend is towards higher comfort rather than lower cost. 12.1.2

safety

From the viewpoint of crowd behaviour, there are opposing arguments concerning the safety of seating types. The common view is that tip-up seats make for greatest safety because they provide a wider passage (Figure 12.3) than other types, thus making it easier for the public, police, stewards or first-aid personnel to pass along the rows during an emergency. Against this, some critics argue that bench (i.e. backless) seats are safer because spectators can step over them during an emergency, but this argument seems lost. Seats with backs provide greater comfort and are generally the norm in modern stadia. But in view of the preceding comments, design teams should investigate carefully the kinds of events and the types of crowds involved before finally deciding on seat types. Aviva Stadium Dublin designed for rugby, football and concerts. Architects: Populous and Scott Tallon Walker

For fire safety (i.e. the combustibility of the seat material), see Section 12.3.3 overleaf.

145

STADIA

SpecTATor SeATIng

chapter 12

Event

Seating time

American football

3 to 4 hours

Athletics

3 to 5 hours; sometimes all day (e.g. Olympic events)

length of time, this primitive arrangement will probably be unacceptable to regulators.

146

Australian Rules football

1.5 to 2 hours

Baseball

3 to 4 hours

Cricket

8 hours a day, perhaps for several days in a row

So the cheapest realistic option will be moulded metal or plastic multiple seats fixed directly onto the concrete terraces. The most expensive will be upholstered tip-up seats with arm-rests. 12.2

seat types

The following examination starts at the cheapest end of the market and describes the various types of seat in rising order of cost and comfort.

Football

1.5 to 2 hours

Gaelic football

2 hours

Lawn tennis

2 to 3 hours

Pop concerts

3 hours or more

Rugby

1.5 to 2 hours

up less space than any other kind. (The minimum seating row

Rugby 7-a-side

8 hours

depth recommended by the British Association of Spectator

Table 12.1

Seating times for various types of events

12.2.1

Bench seats

Modern bench seats consist of lengths of moulded metal or plastic with individual seat indents, and are usually fixed to the concrete terrace by means of a metal under-frame to give the correct height. They are cheap and robust and take

Equipment Suppliers (BASES) is 700mm, but see also Table 12.2.) However, these seats are not comfortable and should be used only in the cheapest admission areas, if at all. If they are used, corrosion and decay prevention must be very

12.1.3

roBustness

carefully considered.

BS EN 13200-2003 Spectator facilities – Part 1:

Two principal questions will help decide how robust seats

Layout criteria for spectator viewing area – specification (see

need to be:

Bibliography) suggests a minimum seating row depth of • Are the spectators in the particular stadium likely to behave

700mm and a recommended seating row depth of 800mm.

destructively? For example, will they stand on seats, climb on them, or rest their feet against them? • Will the seats be under cover and protected from sun and rain? Will they be regularly maintained and cleaned?

12.2.2

one-piece seats without Backs

These are much like the type above, but supplied as individual seats. They are also known as tractor seats.

A careful evaluation of these factors will influence choice of

12.2.3

seat, frame and fixings, as described later in this chapter.

These are generally similar to tractor seats, sharing the

Bucket seats with Backs

advantages of low cost and easy cleaning, but they are 12.1.4

economy

more comfortable. However, they have the disadvantage of

The very cheapest seating type, usually wood or aluminium

requiring much more space than any other seat type except

slats on a concrete plinth, will seldom be acceptable in major

for fixed seats with backs. Minimum seating row depth

new stadia (Figure 12.1). Apart from the fact that spectators

is recommended by BASES at 900mm, compared with

are unwilling to sit on such an uncomfortable surface for any

700mm for bench or backless seats, and 760mm for tip-



spectator seating

chapter 12

staDia

Figure 12.1 There are many seating variations but the plastic tip-up type, either riser-fixed or tread-fixed, is the most common.

Tread fixed

Riser fixed

Nose fixed

Typical seat

147

With arms

Bench seat Tractor seat

up seats. (These figures should be read in conjunction with

It is recommended that the seat should be counterweighted

Table 12.2.)

(or perhaps sprung) to tip up automatically when not in use; and that moving parts should not have metal-to-

12.2.4

tip-up seats

These cost more than any of the above types, and are less

metal contact, so that the pivoting action is not degraded by corrosion.

robust, but they are rapidly becoming the most widely-used

Minimum seat width in paragraph 11.11 of the

seating type in stadia. They are comfortable, and even if

Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds (see Bibliography), also

non-upholstered when first installed, they can be upgraded

known as the Green Guide, is 460mm without arms, or

later. Tipping up the seat allows easy passage for spectators,

500mm with arms. However, for comfort and accessibility,

police, stewards or first-aid assistants, making for greater

the guide recommends a minimum width of 500mm for

safety. It is also easier to clean around and beneath the seat.

all seats. The present authors believe that 465mm is a

STADIA

SpecTATor SeATIng

chapter 12

Figure 12.2 Typical pre-cast concrete steppings..

L shaped U shaped

148 148

T shaped

T shaped with nose

Water stop

Pre stressing zone

Rounded nosing Minimum fall (5mm)

Water drip



Country

spectator seating

Seats Maximum number of seats per row

chapter 12

Minimum seat dimensions Width (mm) Depth (mm)

England*

28 seats

460 500 with armrests 500 recommended

700 minimum 800 recommended

USA

22 seats

450

762 (with back)

450

559 (seat only)

Seating areas People per m2 (maximum)

Standing areas People per m2 (maximum)

3

4.7 (current standard)

Germany

72 seats

500

800

2.5

5

Austria

30m bench length

450

750

3

5

Italy

40 seats

450

600

3.7

Switzerland

40 seats

450

750

3

5

Norway/Sweden

40 seats

500

800

2.5

5

Netherlands

15m bench length

500

800

Note: The above figures must be verified before use as standards are constantly being revised. *  Data from Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds (see Bibliography). Table 12.2

Dimensional standards for seats and standing areas

reasonable minimum seat width without arms, and 500mm

recommended minimum seating row depth of 800mm.

an acceptable minimum with arms. Minimum seating row

The latter also suggests a minimum width of 450mm with a

depth is recommended by BASES at 760mm. (See also

recommended minimum of 500mm.

Table 12.2.) The authors endorse this 760mm as a minimum, with a recommended 800mm.

12.2.5

retractaBle and movaBle seats

The Guide to Safety at Sport Grounds states that

Retractable or temporary demountable seats are quite

for new construction the minimum seating row depth should

widely used in North America to allow stadia to be adapted

be 700mm. For comfort and accessibility, it recommends at

to a variety of purposes. Details are given in Chapter 8 of this

least 800mm. BS EN 13200-2003 Spectator facilities – Part

book, but it should be noted here that if such seats are used

1: Layout criteria for spectator viewing area – specification

they should not interfere with the sightlines or otherwise

suggests a minimum seating row depth of 700mm, and a

reduce the viewing standards of the fixed seating tiers.

staDia

149 149

STADIA

150

SpecTATor SeATIng

chapter 12

UV Polypropylene

UV/Fire Retardation Polypropylene

UV High Density Polyethylene

Polyamide (Nylon)

PVC Compound

G.R.P.

Raw material cost factor

1.0

1.4

1.2

3.2

1.8

Approx 7.0

Availability

Readily available

Limited

Readily available

Limited available

Limited

Limited

Colour range

Very good

Good

Very good

Limited

Limited

Very good

Volume manufacture

Very good

Good

Very good

Good

Good

Very poor

Flame retardation to BS 5852

Ignition Source 0

Ignition Source 7

Ignition Source 0

Selfextinguishes

Selfextinguishes

Selfextinguishes

Reaction to low temperatures (–5°C)

Brittle

Brittle

Very good

Very good

Very good

Very good

Reaction to high temperatures (+50°C)

Very good

Very good

Good

Very good

Very good

Very good

Reclamation and recycling

Easy

Moderate

Easy

Moderate

Specialised

None

Weather resistance

Good

Good

Good

Very good

Very good

Very good

Deformation

Recovers

Recovers

Poor

N/A

N/A

N/A

Minimum number of years in production

27

04

20+

19

01

25+

Note: The raw-material cost factor does not necessarily reflect the unit cost to the buyer and is given only as background information. This table is published with permission of the Football Stadia Advisory Council. Table 12.3

12.2.6

Properties of the major plastics used for seat manufacture

new trends in seat design

binoculars. Seats are now available that emulate airline seat

As well as being more comfortable, seats in more expensive

design by incorporating electronic communications in a

areas of sports grounds now tend to incorporate holders for

handset which allows spectators to order refreshments,

items such as drinks cups, match programmes and rentable

place a bet, or even watch an event on a screen.



spectator seating

chapter 12

12.3

seat materials, finishes and colours

fire retardation is in any case controversial because, when the

12.3.1

materials

material ultimately does burn, it may produce toxic fumes.

Seating materials must be weather-resistant, robust and

Some authorities argue that the design of the

comfortable. They may include aluminium and certain

seat is as important in fire safety as the material, and that

timbers, but the most popular materials nowadays are

factors such as the use of double-skin forms which avoid thin,

plastics: polypropylene (the most widely used), polyethylene,

easily ignitable edges should be taken into account when

nylon, PVC or glass-reinforced plastic. These are easily

specifying seats.

staDia

mouldable to comfortable shapes, and many colours are available (Table 12.3).

12.3.4

colours

Support framing is usually metal (fabricated

Colours are important and can assist the management of the

mild steel or, at a higher price, cast aluminium), but moulded

stadium to build colour-coded blocks into the seating pattern

plastic frames are beginning to appear, as well as combined

and match that pattern to the ticketing system. The colour of

all-plastic seats and frames. It is too early to comment on the

the seat is also a major factor in the ambience of the stadium

performance of the latter.

when it is partially empty. An alternative approach is to use a varied pattern of colours, giving the effect of a number of

12.3.2

finishes

seated people. Examples of this can be seen at the Aveiro

The plastic seats themselves are self-finished, but their metal

Municipal Stadium in Aveiro, Portugal, and the Copper Box,

frames must receive an applied finish to give adequate life

the handball arena for the London 2012 Olympics.

expectancy. We believe that the useful life expectancy of

This helps to reduce the feeling of emptiness

a seat assembly should be approximately 20 years in most

when there are only a few spectators. Some colours perform

cases, though some forms will last longer than others.

better by reducing the effects of brittleness caused by

As to specific types of finish, an electrostatically-

ultraviolet rays and other environmental pollution, such as

coated nylon-powder finish is acceptable only where seats

acid rain. This can be significant over the expected life of a

are sheltered from the elements. Hot-dip galvanising (in

seat of around 20 years. Additives to plastics can affect this

the UK to British Standard 729) is suitable for seat frames

colour quality as well as the actual colour pigment used in

exposed to the weather. The best protection of all is probably

manufacture. These additives will also reduce static electricity

given by electrostatically-coated nylon-powder on grit-

which can be uncomfortable for spectators.

blasted hot-dip galvanising. This is more expensive than the

Colour-fastness is measured in the UK according

other types mentioned but, provided it is applied effectively,

to the British Standard 1006:BO1C Blue Wool Standard. It is

the nylon coating gives added protection against acid rain,

recommended that this, or a similar standard, should be used

salt and heavy impact.

when specifying the colour of seats. Exposure to the elements dictates how long the seats selected will look good and hold

12.3.3

flammaBility

their colour, but this is difficult to define as it will vary even

Fire retardation is a vital factor in stadium safety, and the

within the stadium bowl itself. UV stabilisers and absorbers

latest regulations must be consulted before specifying seats.

will help to retain the seat’s appearance. The general rule is

In the UK, the minimum standard of fire

that intense colours such as black, blue, red and green are

retardation at time of writing is Ignition Source 0 of British

more light-fast than softer pastel colours such as sky blues

Standard 5852 Part 1. Seats are available to the higher

and pinks. Although different seating manufacturers tend to

standard of Ignition Source 5, of Part 2, but currently in

have their own colour ranges, this selection is only relevant if

fewer colours, and at a higher price than the less resistant

the order is for a small number of seats. If sufficient quantities

materials. The use of additives in the plastic to give greater

are required, almost any colour is possible, depending only on the product chosen.

151

STADIA

SpecTATor SeATIng

chapter 12

12.3.5

There is also a growing requirement for seats to

cleanaBility

The seat must be designed to drain easily and not hold water.

accept drinks holders, normally fixed to the seat frames for

On a fixed seat, this is often achieved by having a drain hole

stability. These can be fitted where a tread width of not less

in the centre of the base. It should have a seat number, be

than 700mm is used.

easy to clean and deter vandalism. Users will give it more respect if it is clean and well maintained. Cleaning around

12.4

and under the seat should also be easy, and fixing should be

In most stadia, and certainly in larger ones, the above

designed with this in mind. In general, the fewer the floor or

considerations might mean a variety of seating types, at a

tread fixings, the easier it is to clean the stadium. Riser fixings

variety of prices, for different types of customer.

are therefore preferable.

choice

Areas of cheaper, less comfortable seating may be provided in the form of benches or backless seats. These

12.3.6

152

fixings

allow closer spacing between seats, accommodating more

The seat frame should be bolted to the concrete steps with

spectators in a given area, as well as being cheaper to install.

rustproof fixings – preferably stainless steel which does not

But they have the disadvantages described in Sections 12.2.1

add much to the overall cost of seating, but greatly enhances

and 12.2.2.

appearance and durability. Fixings must be very robust since

The majority of seating will almost certainly be

spectators will occasionally stand on seats, or rest their

individual seats with backs – very probably the tip-up kind.

feet on the seats from behind, exerting considerable force.

They are the most comfortable type, giving the greatest

Designers tend to under-estimate the extent of wear and

width of passageway (see next section), thus providing

tear received by stadium seats, but one useful standard test

greater convenience and safety than backless seats. In the

is the Furniture Industry Research Association (FIRA) test in

case of soccer stadia, FIFA is clear in its recommendation

the UK. This test is based on British Standard 4875, Part 1,

that in major stadia all seats should have backs. In VIP and other special areas which are protected

rating 5. The alternative forms of fixing from which the designer must choose are given in Section 12.6 below.

from the weather and not exposed to crowd misbehaviour, comfortably proportioned and upholstered seats with backs and arms are required. The whole subject of private viewing

12.3.7

refurBishment of existing stadia

areas is covered in more detail in Chapter 13.

When refurbishing or upgrading existing terraces, the construction of the steps dictates what kind of fixings are

12.5

feasible, particularly in older facilities. This can be an important

Seating dimensions must allow enough space at the sides, in

factor when installing a large number of seats, simply because

front and behind. They must allow easy passage for police or

of the number of fixing points required. Complete units of

other personnel during emergencies.

dimensions

several seats, perhaps even including floors, can be superimposed over an existing construction. The construction

12.5.1

materials for such units can include steel, aluminium, pre-cast

The absolutely essential requirement is to maintain a clear

concrete or even glass-reinforced plastic.

passageway so that spectators can move along the seat

safety

row (Figure 12.3). The minimum recommended dimension 12.3.8

other factors

is 400mm. Paragraph 11.12 of the Guide to Safety at Sports

Riser types of fixing tend to be preferable to tread types.

Grounds (see Bibliography) states that this may be reduced

(See Section 12.6 below.) Each seat should be designed to

to 305mm where there are only seven seats in a row served

take a seat number, and perhaps a sponsor or a name plate.

by a gangway on one side, or 14 seats where there is a



spectator seating

chapter 12

staDia

Figure 12.3 Minimum seat dimensions.

Tread width

780–800

400

Tip-up seats*

400

Seats with arms*

400

Fixed seats*

153

* Clear walkway measured to furthest protruding point of the seat.

STADIA

chapter 12

SpecTATor SeATIng

gangway on both sides. The bigger the passageway, the

12.6

seat fixings

better. There are many factors to be considered before

12.6.1

fixing types

coming to a decision. These include:

There are three basic types of fixing, as shown in Figure 12.1. They are:

• The maximum numbers of seats in a row allowed by national regulations. In the UK the maximum is 28. • Police and stewards may be required to physically remove

Tread fixing The frame rests on, and is bolted to, the terrace floor.

a spectator. If there is likely to be unruliness in the crowd, wide passageways are more important. • First-aid personnel may be required to carry out a spectator who is unwell. • During winter, spectators wear large over-coats. Stadia likely to be in use during very cold weather may therefore 154

Nose fixing The frame or seat rests on, and is bolted to, the front edge of the terrace tread. This may be an easy modification to an existing terrace where spectators used to sit directly on the concrete.

need larger passageways than those in warm climates. • Cleaners may have to move along the rows, often with large garbage sacks. • Wider passageways allow spectators to get out and buy

Riser fixing The frame is bolted to the front face of the terrace riser, leaving the tread clear.

from the concessions more easily. Another variant is: Combined tread and riser fixing 12.5.2

comfort

A minimum width of 450mm is widely accepted around the

This may be used where the risers are very shallow – say, less than 200mm.

world. But, given the fact that around 95 per cent of men and women are within 480mm across the shoulders (not

12.6.2

including the thickness of clothing, which will be bulky for

Choice of seat and choice of fixing method are related.

winter sports), it seems inadequate. 500mm would give

Matters to be considered include:

fixing choice

spectators more scope for adjusting their position without disturbing their neighbours. The authors would recommend

• Seats can be fixed either on lengths of linked framing, or on

a reasonable minimum of 465mm without arms, and a

individual frames. The former is cheaper but a combination

minimum width of 500mm with arms.

of linked frames and individual frames may be needed to cope with stadium geometry.

12.5.3

recommendations

• If an existing stadium is being upgraded, a frame type

Table 12.2 and Figure 12.3 give recommended seat dimensions,

which requires the least modification to the existing

taking into account the above factors. These dimensions

supporting terraces will save money. In this connection,

must be checked against any relevant local or national codes, though the latter rarely exist and are often inadequate. Seat height also affects comfort, and a range of between 430mm and 450mm is recommended.

see Section 12.3.7. • Frames resting on the tread tend to gather litter around the fixings, and make cleaning more difficult. • Frames resting on the tread or floor are more likely to rust or corrode in rainy climates.



spectator seating

• Frames fixed to the vertical surface and clear of the floor

chapter 12

12.7

seating for spectators with

or tread are easier to clean around, and less prone to



disaBilities

corrosion, but they need a minimum riser height of around

Wheelchair users will generally watch the event from their

200mm for concrete risers which may not always be

wheelchairs, parked in spaces as described in Sections 11.2.2

available.

and 11.4. However, some may wish to transfer from their

staDia



wheelchairs to seats once they have arrived. In summary, we can say that riser fixing is generally the

Ambulant disabled spectators will generally

preference, particularly for tip-up seats. It is easier to clean

watch the event from seats, the number and location of

and less likely to corrode but it is subject to the riser-height

which were described in Section 11.2.2. As regards design,

limitation mentioned above.

paragraph 2.16 of Accessible Stadia (see Bibliography) recommends that seats designated for disabled spectators

12.6.3

frame finishes

The three principal types of finish for steel frames –

should have extra width and extra legroom, and if the seats are fitted with arms, the latter should be removable. Although

electrostatically-coated nylon powder, hot-dip galvanising,

paragraph 12.13 of the Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds

or a combination of the two – were discussed in Section

(see Bibliography) recommends a seat width of 500mm and

12.3.2 above.

row depth of 800mm, these dimensions may need to be increased for ambulant disabled people. For example, they may need to accommodate spectators who have difficulty bending their legs.

155

13

private viewing facilities

13.1

IntroductIon

13.2

trends

13.3

desIgn

13.4

MultI-use

13.1

IntroductIon

Whether private viewing facilities are required, and on what scale, is an aspect of the brief that must be carefully thought out for each stadium. These areas often subsidise the seat prices elsewhere in the stadium. The underlying principle is to offer different facilities and prices in order to cater for as many market segments as possible, as explained below. 13.1.1

range of seatIng standards

Demand for superior standards of comfort and refreshment facilities, and the willingness or ability to pay for these benefits, varies from person to person. A successful stadium will positively exploit these differences by providing the widest feasible range of seating quality (in terms of viewing position and seat comfort), an equally wide range of catering and other support facilities, and a choice of prices geared to what individual customers are prepared to pay. Table 13.1 lists ten basic categories of seating and standing accommodation in descending order of luxury and price. These are not the only possibilities; other variations such as upper and lower tier, or front and rear positioning, are also possible. The third column of the table indicates the approximate percentage of spectators who may be expected to fall into each category, the basis on which tickets are likely to be sold, and the probable space standards. All of this data is indicative only. 13.1.2 The club level at the Emirates stadium London. The dining rooms offer high-quality dining for club spectators on match days and are used for conferences, dinners and other events on non-match days. Architects: Populous

PrIvate facIlItIes

If Andy Warhol was right in suggesting that everyone nowadays is famous for 15 minutes, then it follows that we will all require VIP facilities at some stage in our lives. However, for an increasing number of people, these high standards of facilities will become a normal expectation. Whatever the validity of this theory, private viewing accommodation will be needed in virtually all future stadium developments which need to be financially self-supporting. As sporting events must compete more intensively

157

STADIA

PrIvATe vIewIng AnD fAcIlITIeS

chapter 13

1

Private boxes

Self-contained private dining and bar facilities

10 to 20 person boxes 1–2% spectators 3 year contract Tread 850mm padded and arms

2

Executive suites

Group private dining and shared bar

4–20 person suites 1–2% spectators 1–3 year contract Tread 850mm padded and arms

3

Club seating and dining

Group seating and group with shared bar and lounge

Tables of 2–6 in restaurant dining 1–2% spectators 1–3 year contract Tread 800mm padded and arms

4

Club seating

Group seating with shared bar and lounge facilities

Lounge self-contained 2–4% spectators 1–3 year contract Tread 800mm padded and arms

5

Members’ seating and dining

Group seating with shared dining bar facilities

Dining and bar self-contained 1–2% spectators season ticket plus dining Tread 760mm with arm rests

6

Members’ seating

Group seating with shared bar facilities

Bar part of 5 above 2–5% spectators season ticket plus Tread 760mm with arm rests

7

Public seating (several standards)

Seating with public bars and concession areas

Wide range of concessions 50% spectators match or season ticket Tread 760mm with backs

8

General seating

Bench seating with public bars and concession areas

Range of concessions 5–15% spectators match or season ticket Tread 700mm no backs

9

Tennis boxes

Groups of seats (say 8–12) in self-contained areas

Used in the Telstra Stadium Equipped with cool box and refreshments delivered

Standing areas with public facilities (more stewarding might be needed)

Range of facilities 5–15% spectators match or season ticket Tread 380mm

158

10 Standing terrace (some stadia)

Table 13.1

Range of viewing standards that might be provided in a stadium



private viewing and facilities

chapter 13

with the many alternative leisure pursuits available, the

are encouraged to arrive well before the event and to use

provision of comfort instead of spartan simplicity becomes

the stadium facilities for meals before or after matches, for

essential for a growing sector of the market, although it must

entertaining business colleagues, and for doing business

also be said that stadium facilities and corporate standards

transactions by means of telephones, internet and computer

are being enjoyed by a wider section of those attending. Also,

facilities provided in a business centre in the VIP area. In the

these exclusive seats make a large contribution to stadium

more advanced stadia, customers may spend most of the

profitability. Individuals attending private boxes may pay

day enjoying themselves (and possibly doing some business)

many times the price of an average seat. They, or their hosts,

in the VIP area on match days, instead of merely attending

are usually committed to spending handsomely on food and

for a few hours. The Cowboys Stadium near Dallas, Texas, is

drink bought on stadium premises.

a good example of this (see Case studies).

stadia

The income generated from such services is normally quite disproportionate to the cost of provision.

13.2.2

Many new developments could not viably proceed without

Stadium management in the UK is generally not as

these more exclusive facilities. For some clubs they are

commercialised as in the USA, but all the trends outlined

essential to financial success. Many of the older stadia are

above are at work. The new Wembley Stadium, in London

therefore being retro-fitted to capture new markets and

(see Case studies), is a leading example, as is Arsenal Football

maximise revenues in this way.

Club’s Emirates Stadium (also in London) and the Galpharm

Because private and club facilities can be exploited for a variety of social and other functions, a

the uK

soccer and rugby stadium in Huddersfield, in Yorkshire (designed by Populous). Here are some key features:

stadium containing such facilities is generally better suited to multi-purpose uses than a stadium without. To allow for

Galpharm Stadium, Huddersfield

this, these facilities should always be designed for flexible use

• 25,000 spectator seats in total.

and adaptation.

• 50 executive boxes.

In these areas, quality and the appearance

• 400-seat banqueting hall.

of quality will be important. Dimmable lighting and well-

• Bars, restaurants, shops and offices.

designed furniture are good examples. Branding by

• 30-bay floodlit golf driving-range, and a dry ski-slope.

corporate clients may be needed. Allowing guests to roam

• Pop concert venue.

between various boxes, suites and club enclosures can be

• 800 car parking spaces.

desirable, but this is a management decision. Security and

• Soccer and rugby museums.

control must be taken into account.

• Crèche. • Concessions.

13.2

trends

13.2.1

north aMerIca

• Indoor swimming pool, dance studio and gymnasium.

In the USA, stadium managers work hard at maximising the

Wembley Stadium, London

number of VIP seats. They try equally hard to maximise the

• 90,000 spectator seats in total.

number of revenue-generating facilities added to these areas,

• Mid-tier seating for 14,400 club spectators.

thus enticing customers to spend as much time as possible

• 160 boxes accommodating 1,918 people.

on the premises before, during and after sporting events. In

• Two pitch-view restaurants seating 154 people each.

this way, managers hope to extract the maximum amount of

• Hall that can seat 2,000 for dinners or conferences.

money from their captive patrons.

• Bobby Moore Club in the lower tier, with its own restaurant,

Patrons with exclusive accommodation rights

seating 1,900.

159

STADIA

chapter 13

PrIvATe vIewIng AnD fAcIlITIeS

• Three other main restaurants with different food offers.

locate private enclosures or boxes with seats in the well of

• Club concourse with cafés, food outlets, bars and kiosks.

the stadium, outside the building enclosure, and to locate the hospitality and other facilities behind these, shielded by

Emirates Stadium, London

glass (Figure 13.1b). However, climatic and security aspects

• 60,000 spectator seats.

have to be taken into account, depending on the location. A

• 150 executive boxes, backed up by three network bars

compromise solution is noted in Figure 13.1c.

each accommodating 70 to 100 people. • 6,800 club seats.

13.3.2

• Four large bar/restaurants overlooking the pitch.

As indicated in Table 13.1, these are the most exclusive and

• Four quadrant bars.

highest-priced facilities. Each box (Figure 13.2) commonly

• Directors’ restaurant overlooking the pitch and seating 110.

accommodates 10 to 20 people, but there is no hard and fast

• Diamond Club restaurant overlooking the pitch and seating

rule. The determining factor may simply be the number of

200. 160

PrIvate boxes and executIve suItes

seats that can be fitted in without compromising comfort or

• Concourses with food outlets, bars and kiosks.

viewing standards. Each box is usually provided with its own food service station, bar and perhaps toilet (or, if this is too

13.2.3

other countrIes

expensive, access to group toilets).

Trends in private facilities vary throughout the world. Generally, stadium managers in Japan are following roughly

KItchens and food servIce

the same course as those in the USA. In France and Spain they

These should be at the back of the box, possibly with

are taking an increasingly commercial approach. However,

separate access from the box users so that catering staff can

in Germany, they tend to oppose anything that smacks of

come and go without disturbing customers. Depending on

privilege, preferring to provide customers throughout the

the standard of catering provided, the food service can be

stadium with seats that are of similar quality. In the Middle

as simple as a single straight bench without drainage, or as

East and the Far East, stadia are mostly large, utilitarian

luxurious as a well-fitted U-shaped bench with integral bar,

bowls, with no frills, where most spectators come for the

ice-making machine, coffee maker, and water supply and

single purpose of watching sport. The main exceptions to this

drainage facilities for washing-up.

rule are racecourses, which are most elaborate in Asia.

If the boxes are planned as pairs, their utility services can be combined in one duct, and one door may

13.3

desIgn

13.3.1

degree of detachMent froM the PItch

give access to both service stations.

An important early decision with private viewing facilities

toIlets

of all kinds is whether the people in these areas should see

Each box could have its own private toilet, but this is

the match from behind a fixed glass wall, as seen in Figure

expensive. A more usual solution is for toilets to serve a

13.1a. This is quite common practice in the USA, but less so

group  of boxes. Toilets should have private and secure

in the UK. British examples include the London soccer clubs

access and be to four-star hotel standards.

Tottenham Hotspur and Queens Park Rangers. Choice must be left with the stadium owner, but the authors believe that an atmosphere of full involvement with the game is vital, and that the piping of crowd noise into a sound-proof enclosure behind a fixed glass wall is not an adequate substitute. The preferred solution is to

If toilets are provided in groups, there should be a higher proportion of female toilets than for the rest of the stadium.



private viewing and facilities

chapter 13

stadia

Figure 13.1 Three possible arrangements for private viewing: Type A behind glass; Type B in the well of the stadium, with the private box immediately behind; and Type C in the well of the stadium with an access corridor immediately behind. Each option has its advantages and disadvantages, as noted. Climatic and security aspects may also have to be taken into account when choosing which type is to be used. For type A, the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) has compromised by allowing upward-opening windows, enabling the interior to be opened up to the stadium bowl.

Private box Type A Advantages: Complete privacy and comfort Disadvantages: Separation from the atmosphere of the ground

Kitchen

Access

Viewing

161

Private box Type B Advantages: Privacy maintained but users see event as spectators Disadvantages: Separation between viewing and dining

Access

Viewing

Access Type C Advantages: Flexibility of use Disadvantages: Users remote from event when using facility

Kitchen

Kitchen

Private box or luncheon room

Viewing

PrIvate box lounge

13.3.3

This is a common lounge where box-holders can meet other

These suites are similar in principle to club enclosures (see

executIve suItes

holders for socialising or business. It should have a food

below), but they provide higher standards of comfort and

service station, bar and access to private toilets.

style, and probably a higher degree of privacy to cater for

STADIA

PrIvATe vIewIng AnD fAcIlITIeS

chapter 13

Figure 13.2 Typical private viewing box layouts.

wc

wc

servery lobby

lobby bar counter

coats lobby

servery bar counter

servery

bar counter

coats

lobby

bar counter

162

lounge / dining area lounge

lounge / dining area

lounge

Wheelchair position

Wheelchair position

more demanding customers willing to pay higher prices.

are willing to pay a premium for superior facilities but not

There are examples in the USA which offer patrons a prime

prepared to commit themselves to 10 or 20 individual places

view of the playing field from theatre-type seats in an air-

as expected of a private box-holder. They are likely to be

conditioned club room with a range of superior catering

found mainly in larger stadia.

services available exclusively to members.

Since the use of such facilities will vary from one match to another, these areas should be designed so they

13.3.4

club enclosures

Club enclosures are exclusive sections or levels of the general

can fulfil other functions on non-event days, or when they are not being used for a particular event.

stadium with their own restaurants, bars and toilets, and

Each club area will have its own bar and perhaps

very comfortable seating, catering for affluent patrons who

kitchen facilities, depending on the catering organisation of



private viewing and facilities

chapter 13

stadia

Figure 13.3 Example of a private viewing box that can be converted into a hotel room.

Wardrobe Store

163 Bed

Store Wardrobe

the particular stadium. It may have its own individual toilets

of the host club and preferably have direct access to the

which should not be combined or shared with other users.

directors’ viewing area. It need not overlook the pitch.

Accommodation may be needed for three types of users. The areas vary greatly from venue to venue, but good spatial

vIsItors’ rooM

allowances should be made – around 1.5 to 2m per person.

This area is for use by the directors and guests of the visiting

2

club. Again, the room area should be about 60 to 100m2 and be directly linked to the directors’ facilities of the host club

guest rooM or dIrectors’ lounge

This is used for entertaining invited guests of the host club,

with direct access to the directors’ viewing area. It also need

and the area of the room is usually around 60 to 100m . The

not overlook the pitch.

2

space needs to be directly linked to the directors’ facilities

staDia

CHAPTER 13

private viewing anD facilities

sPonsors’ lounge

opened up into a larger dining room at times when the boxes

This is a space used by the sponsors of the club or individual

are not in use, or turned into a public restaurant on non-event

event to entertain their invited guests. It can consist of one

days. However, movable walls are expensive in capital and

or more private hospitality boxes (see above) or it can

management costs. An alternative is to provide a permanent

be provided as a completely independent space which,

but varied range of uses.

when not being used by the sponsor, is let out for general

Private boxes are quite similar in size to hotel

entertainment purposes. The approximate area might be 50

bedrooms and, in theory, they could, for a modest price

to 150m2, and it need not overlook the pitch.

increase, include a full bathroom (Figure 13.3). The Skydome, in Toronto, was a pioneering stadium in this context, and

13.3.5

164

MeMbers’ enclosures

the more recent Galpharm stadium, in Huddersfield, is an

These are similar in nature to the club enclosures above, but

example of a stadium incorporating private boxes that can

less luxurious, as suggested by the provisions in Table 13.1.

be converted into hotel rooms.

13.4

MultI-use

If carefully designed, private facilities such as club enclosures or boxes can serve many purposes other than being used for the actual event. (See Chapter 8.) The use of movable walls between boxes, for example, would allow the area to be

14

circulation

14.1

Basic principles

14.2

stadium layout

14.3

access Between Zone 5 and Zone 4

14.4

access Between Zone 4 and Zone 3

14.5

overall design for inward movement

14.6

overall design for outward movement

14.7

elements

14.8

facilities for people with disaBilities

14.1

Basic principles

When it comes to circulation planning in stadium design, the two main objectives are the comfort and safety of occupants. comfort

Spectators should be able to find their way easily to their seats (or to toilets, refreshments or exits), without getting lost or confused. They should be able to move about leisurely. They shouldn’t get jostled in overcrowded spaces, or have to climb excessively steep stairs, or risk losing their footing as they negotiate the inevitable changes of level in large stadia. safety

All the above are particularly important in panic conditions. For example, when hundreds (perhaps thousands) of spectators flee a fire, an outbreak of violence in the crowd, or some other real or imagined danger. Preventive measures should minimise the risk of such situations arising in the first place. Skilful stadium design will encourage people to go where they ought to go instead of forcing them to go there. In the following sections we show how these requirements can be catered for in practical terms. • Firstly, in Section 14.2, we examine the implications of circulation requirements upon stadium layout as a whole. • Then, in Sections 14.3 and 14.4, we give planning guidelines for the circulation routes themselves. Wembley Stadium London has escalators for general admission spectators to reach the upper tier. Architects: Populous with Foster + Partners

• Finally, in Sections 14.5 to 14.7, we augment the above planning principles with detailed design data: dimensions, types of equipment etc.

167

STADIA

cIrculATIon

chapter 14

14.2

stadium layout

toilets, bars and restaurants. Each of these sectors should

Circulation planning has two major influences on the overall

have independent circulation routes as well as a share of

stadium layout: zoning the stadium for safe escape from fire,

ancillary facilities. Spectators should be divided into different

and subdividing the stadium for crowd management.

categories. For example:

14.2.1

• Seated and standing areas should be separate. • Fans from opposing clubs should be segregated.

Zoning

As already described in Section 3.3, the modern stadium is designed as five concentric zones:

The division between areas can sometimes be achieved

168

• Zone 1 is the playing field or activity area, and central area of the stadium.

simply through barriers or level changes.

• Zone 2 comprises the spectator viewing areas consisting of standing terraces, seating tiers, hospitality boxes and

sector should be completely independent. This may require

associated gangways and exits. • Zone 3 is the internal circulation area: the concourses with food and drink kiosks, toilets and other facilities, all leading via gates or stairs to... • Zone 4, which is the external circulation area surrounding the stadium building but within the perimeter fence. • Zone 5 is the area outside the perimeter fence. It will contain the car parks and the bus and coach off-loading areas.

In the case of separating rival fans, each protected routes leading all the way from the transport services to the turnstiles (secured by police), and from the turnstiles to the seating areas. Segregation will have an effect on circulation route plans, therefore management must be consulted at an early stage on how the seating areas in the stadium are to be split up. In single-tier stands the division lines may run from top to bottom, with policed sterile zones separating the two blocks of home and away fans. This pattern is more

The purpose of the zones is to enable spectators to escape

flexible since the sterile zone can easily be shifted from side

in case of emergency – first from Zone 2 to either Zones 1,

to side to allow for a greater or smaller number of fans in

3 or 4 (the temporary safety zones); and from there to the

a particular area. However, the sterile zones mean a loss of

permanent safety zones (Zone 4 or 5) and off the stadium

revenue, and the problem of ensuring access to exits, toilets

property altogether. Such escape must be possible in

and catering facilities needs careful planning. In two-tier stands the top-to-bottom division is

specified times. These determine the distances and widths of the relevant escape routes. See Section 14.6.2.

again a possibility. Alternatively, one group of fans can be put

In stadia accommodating more than 15,000 or

in the upper tier and the other in the lower tier. If the away

20,000 spectators, all five of the zones can be present. In

fans are in the upper tier there is no risk of pitch invasion, but

smaller stadia, where spectators exit directly to the exterior

there is a real possibility of missiles being hurled on to the

from the spectator viewing and internal circulation areas,

home fans below; and any kind of trouble is difficult to deal

Zones 3 and 4 can be combined. Small stadia will not justify a

with because of the relative inaccessibility of the upper levels.

perimeter fence but, to compensate for that, they will require

If the away fans are put in the lower tier, trouble is easier to

particularly diligent stewarding at the exits.

deal with, but there is a risk of pitch invasion. More intensive policing and stewarding will be needed.

14.2.2

suBdivision

Subdividing the total ground capacity into smaller units

14.3

or sectors of about 2,500 to 3,000 spectators allows for

Ideally, and if space allows, a modern stadium should be

easier crowd control and for a more even distribution of

surrounded by an outer circulation zone 20m or more in

access Between Zone 5 and Zone 4



circulation

chapter 14

width to allow spectators to walk around the outside to reach

should be sized and positioned so as to avoid congestion and

their seating area. The security control line where tickets are

allow a free flow of spectators when the gates or turnstiles

checked can be either at the face of the building, between

are opened. See also the notes on crowd control barriers

Zones 3 and 4, or at the outside of the external circulation,

under Section 14.7.1.

StaDia

between Zones 4 and 5. Where the control line is at the outside of the external circulation area (Zone 4), a perimeter

other safety measures

wall or fence some distance from the stadium will be required.

In all cases, public entry doors should be used only for the

Such a perimeter barrier should be at least 20m

purposes of entry, and all public exit doors only for the

from the stadium, ideally strong enough to withstand crowd

purposes of exit. The simultaneous use of any gateway for

pressures, and high enough to prevent people climbing over.

both entry and exit can create risk. If two-directional gates

It should include several types of entrance and exit gates:

are used, they must be additional to the exit gates required for emergency outflow as calculated in Section 14.6.2 (timed

• Public entrances leading to the main seating terraces. • Private entrances giving players, concession holders and VIP ticket holders separate access to their particular areas.

exit analysis). Amenities such as ticket offices, toilets, bars or restaurants should always be located a safe distance away

• Emergency service access for ambulances etc. • Flood exits for emergency emptying of the grounds.

from the nearest entrance or exit so there is no risk of a

14.3.1

numBer of gates

puBlic entrances

spectator crush.

In some stadia, checking of tickets on entry is made at this

There are several ways to allow spectators into the stadium,

perimeter point. In others it is made at the stadium entrances

but most fall into the two broad categories of gates and

between Zones 4 and 3. Some stadia combine the two.

turnstiles. Gates are cheap, and an open gate of a metre’s width can allow approximately 4,000 spectators through

circumnavigation Between gates

every hour. Turnstiles are expensive and will permit only

If ticket control is exercised at the perimeter of the building, and

500 to 750 spectators every hour. Detailed design notes are

if each entrance gives access only to some parts of the stadium

given in Section 14.7.1.

(either by physical design, or by subsequent management policy), then circulation routes should be provided in Zone 4,

location of gates

outside the perimeter barrier. People who have come to the

The location of entrance gates in the perimeter barrier will

wrong entrance gate should be able to circumnavigate to the

depend on three factors which may conflict with each other:

correct one while still remaining in the same zone. Conversely, if there is no control on seating positions at the perimeter then there is no need for such circulation routes since spectators can enter the stadium via any turnstile. These matters should be clarified with management at briefing stage if faulty design is to be avoided.

• To avoid congestion, entrances should be spaced at regular intervals around the circumference. • If mutually hostile fans need to be kept apart, it is again desirable for entrances to be widely separated. • But management may want entrances to be grouped closely together for convenience of staffing and security.

congregation space outside gates

Outside all perimeter access points in Zone 5 or 4 there should

Any conflicts between the above requirements must

be sufficient space for spectators to congregate before

be resolved with stadium management before design

entering through gates or turnstiles. This congregation space

commences.

169

STADIA

chapter 14

cIrculATIon

segregation of fans

secure route all the way to the seat. Quality of design and

It is important to consider whether certain groups of spectators

finishes must be markedly superior to the rest of the stadium.

should be segregated before they enter the stadium. Where spectators are known to be peaceful,

14.3.3

emergency service access

and game-orientated rather that team-orientated, there is

Provision should be made in the perimeter barrier for

no need for special provisions. Spectators at tennis, rugby

emergency service access between Zones 5 and 4. These

or athletic events tend to fall into this class. So, perhaps for

access points must be stewarded constantly and should

different reasons, do American football and baseball crowds.

be opened only in exceptional circumstances. They should

Since distances between competing clubs in the USA are so

connect directly between the stadium interior (Zone 1) and

great, there are seldom large numbers of away fans present

the public road network (Zone 5) so that emergency vehicles

at matches.

can enter and exit quickly. Widths and gradients must allow The case is generally different with soccer

for this.

crowds in South America, Britain and the rest of Europe 170 170

(principally the Netherlands, Italy and Germany). These fans

14.3.4

tend to be strongly partisan and attend matches primarily

Apart from the gates and turnstiles described under Public

to support their home teams. Supporters of competing sides

Entrances, above, there must be separate and additional

may be hostile and aggressive, in which case they cannot be

flood exits, allowing a stadium that may have taken three

allowed to mix freely and must be separated all the way from

hours to fill, to empty within a matter of minutes.

their arrival in Zone 5 to their seats.

flood exits

These exits should be located at regular

Provision must then be made for systems of

intervals around the perimeter so that every seat is within a

barriers (preferably movable) in Zone 5, funnelling groups of

reasonable distance from an escape. Preferably, they should

spectators to widely separated entrances which, in turn, lead

be in a direct line with the exits and staircases in Zone 2 and

to separate parts of the stadium. This causes two problems

3 to allow spectators a clear and direct exit route from the

for designers:

building. (Though this is not always possible.) The gates must open outwards and have a sufficiently clear width to allow

• Separate turnstiles, and horizontal and vertical circulation spaces (perhaps with separate toilets etc.), can lead to

the prescribed number of people to pass through safely. A minimum width of 1200mm is recommended in the UK.

expensive duplication of facilities. • It is necessary to visualise at this stage how the stadium may be divided between seating areas for home and away

14.4

access Between Zone 4 and Zone 3

14.4.1

stand entrances

supporters; and how the entrances and routes must be

Ticket checks and, if necessary, body searches will probably

designed to have rigid separation at some matches, and

have been made at the outer entrances (see Section

freedom of movement at others.

14.3.1 above). Second ticket checks are made at the stand entrances which can be either gates or turnstiles. Secondary

14.3.2

private entrances

checks are more informal than those at the main entrances

These entrances are for players, VIPs, directors, sponsors

or turnstiles; more of a customer service than a stringently

and the media. They should be close to a special VIP parking

applied safety measure. Further ticket checks may also be

area, with a sheltered connecting route, and should be well

made at other points on the way to the seats if different

separated from the public entrances.

groups of spectators need to be separated.

Access should be by open gate rather than

The same basic rules apply on the outer

turnstile, with a higher level of security staff present, and a

entrances. There must be enough space to avoid all risk of



circulation

StaDia

chapter 14

a crush developing. Public facilities such as ticket offices,

4 Am I in the blue or red section?

toilets (except those for people queuing to get in), bars and

5 Is my seat in rows 1 to 10, or 11 to 20?

restaurants must be located a safe distance away.

6 Where is my seat in the row?

14.5

overall design for inward movement

The flow diagram (Figure 14.1) shows in schematic form a

14.5.1

clarity of routes

typical circulation pattern where choices have been reduced

People enter the stadium from the area outside (Zone 5)

to yes or no decisions, on both entering and leaving the

and must then thread their way through a succession of

stadium. In this example there are several main entrances,

turnstiles, corridors, circulation passages and doorways

each giving access to a different part of the stadium, thus

to the individual seating or standing position (Zone 2). But

making it possible for management to segregate home and

a large multi-level stadium can be a very confusing place.

away fans before they have even entered the stadium.

Spectators may become exasperated if they cannot quickly find their way from the entrance gate to their specific seat. There are four methods for minimising this

The

above

straightforward

principles

are

complicated by two practical requirements. Firstly, there may be a need (already mentioned in Section 14.3.1) to separate

problem:

the entrances used by home and away supporters.

• Keep choices simple so that people are never faced with complex decisions.

should lead spectators in the correct direction (as described

Secondly, while the primary circulation route

• Ensure a clear visibility of the whole stadium so that people always know where they are in relation to exits.

above), there should also be a secondary route allowing

• Have clear signs. • Ensure good stewarding.

their way back. This secondary correcting route is almost as

Good stewarding is a matter for management rather than

clear visiBility

design, and will not be pursued here.

Sports stadia are not places for clever architectural games.

spectators who have ended up in the wrong place to find important as the primary circulation routes.

Tight, disorienting passageways opening into great public simple choices

spaces to create a sense of spatial drama do not work. Clarity

As far as possible, the visitor should never be faced with an

is the first priority at every stage of entering or leaving the

interchange where many routes are possible, but only one

stadium, and designers should try to make the stadium as

is correct. It is easy to make a mistake at the best of times.

open as possible so that crowds are visually aware at all times

Moving quickly in a crowd makes things even more difficult.

of where they are, and the possible means of escape.

The ideal is to provide spectators with a series

Ideally spectators should be able to see from

of simple Y or T junctions as they move from the entrance

one exit stair to another and be aware that there is an

gates to their seats. They should be confronted with one

alternative route. This helps prevent them panicking.

(and only one) decision at a time. Six typical decisions are:

The need for maximum visibility is especially important when there are sudden changes in direction,

1 Am I a home or away supporter? At stadia where supporter

brightness, corridor widths or surface levels. Such abrupt

conflict is possible (e.g. soccer), these two groups should

changes can be dangerous and should in general be avoided.

be segregated before they have even entered the stadium

But if that is impossible then stadium users should see them

(see Section 14.3.1).

clearly in advance.

2 Am I a seated or standing ticket holder? 3 Am I seated in the upper or lower tier?

An awareness of the layout of the stadium can be enhanced by carefully judged changes in level. For

171 171

STADIA

cIrculATIon

chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Spectator flow from gate to seat. Movement will be smoothest and safest if the spectator is faced with a sequence of simple choices, as shown.

ZONE 5

ZONE 4

ZONE 3

ZONE 2

ZONE 1

Outside the stadium boundary

Main circulation area around the stadium

Concourse

Seating tiers

Playing field

Seating gangway Vomitory entrance Seating gangway

172 Seating gangway Stand entrance

Vomitory entrance Seating gangway

Seating gangway Vomitory entrance Seating gangway Main Stadium entrance Seating gangway Vomitory entrance Seating gangway

Seating gangway Stand entrance

Vomitory entrance Seating gangway

Seating gangway Vomitory entrance Seating gangway



circulation

chapter 14

StaDia

Figure 14.2 Changes of level can be beneficial if carefully designed. The short stair helps slow down incoming spectators, and enables those leaving to see over the heads of the people in front. Provision for people in wheelchairs has to be handled separately.

173

Landing

Unit Exit

instance, spectators can be made aware that they are about

Figure 14.2 shows a change of level of this kind through a

to enter a different area, and must adjust their pace, thanks to

vomitory passageway. Entering the seating tier via a ramp or

a short upward ramp. Their orientation can be improved by

a short flight of stairs serves two purposes: on entry, forward

enabling them to see over the heads of those in front, thanks

pushing by the spectators into the relatively narrow seating

to downward ramps or stairs.

areas is reduced by the preceding rise in level; and on leaving,

STADIA

chapter 14

cIrculATIon

spectators can see over the heads of those in front of them

The alternative combined sign shown below would be much

and are therefore much more aware of what is ahead. This

more difficult to grasp, leading to dangerous hesitations and

awareness is important since it is the unknown which creates

contra-flows in the traffic:

anxiety in a crowd and can lead to panic. Note, however, that access for wheelchair users to their viewing positions (see

SEATING BLOCK 6 to 12, SECTIONS 6 to 10,

Chapter 10) will need to be along a flat, or gently ramped

ROWS 1 to 36

access way. In addition to signs, large clear maps, above head level, are clear systems of signs

vital at all key points, particularly to help people who have

Clarity of stadium layout should be reinforced by an equally

difficulty with the local language. They should be oriented

logical system of signs if spectators are to find their way

so that ‘up’ on the map points in the same direction as the

about easily, dependably and safely.

reader’s view of the stadium. Each map should have a ‘You

A comprehensive sequence of signs should 174

are here’ arrow.

begin off the site, directing traffic and pedestrians first to the correct part of the ground, then to their particular entrance,

14.5.2

and then stage by stage to every individual part of the

Clarity and simplicity of circulation routes will do much to

building. The direction signs leading people along their route

promote safe, comfortable spectator movement. However,

must be supplemented at regular intervals by information

on entering or leaving an area, some people will inevitably

signs showing the location of different seating areas, catering

change their minds and decide to head in the opposite

outlets, toilets and other amenities. All signs should be easily

direction instead. Perhaps they have left clothing behind, or

read, placed high enough to be seen over people’s heads and

they want to meet friends. Such changes of direction can

located in a consistent way so that people know where to look

have a disrupting effect on the natural flow of the crowd.

safe areas

as they hurry through the building. It’s important that signs

We recommend that indecision of this kind

remain compatible with the overall design of the stadium

should be planned for. Quiet or safe areas should be provided

and its landscaping. The needs of people in wheelchairs must

to the sides of the circulation routes, much as lay-bys are

constantly be considered.

provided beside motorways. These lay-bys enable people

To make things easy for the customer, signs

to stop and take stock of the situation without obstructing

should be colour-coordinated with the areas to which they

others, and then head off in the opposite direction if they wish.

lead, and with the tickets for those areas. They should provide

Lay-by areas of this kind can be used to widen

information in easy stages. For example, a spectator heading

the circulation routes as they approach the exits (Figure

for seat K27 in block 12, section 7 would find the following

14.3), helping with crowd flow.

sequence of staged signs easy to understand and follow: SEATING BLOCKS 6 to 12

14.5.3

distance of facilities from



circulation routes



Many ancillary facilities must be provided in a stadium if followed by:

spectators are to fully enjoy an event: programme kiosks,

SEATING BLOCK 12, SECTIONS 6 to 10

bars, cafés, childcare centres etc. These should be eyecatching and pleasant, but off the main circulation routes so

followed by:

that queues of people do not disrupt the primary circulation

SEATING SECTION 7 ROWS 13 to 27

flow. Such facilities should always be located at least 6m away from entrances or exits.

Direction of spectator flow to safety zone 3



Unit exit width

circulation

chapter 14

StaDia

The above examples are illustrative only. Each

Figure 14.3 Lay-by areas on the main circulation routes allow people to stop and think without blocking the traffic flow.

country will have its own national or local regulations, and all regulations change over time, therefore the current situation should always be checked with the local fire and safety

Lay-by area

authorities before design commences. In many cases, such rules will specify how many minutes it should take for stadium evacuation. This is

Direction of spectator flow to safety zone 3

Unit exit width

not, however, a completely adequate yardstick for safety. The true requirement is that spectators must be able to move from their seats to a temporary safety zone, and from there to the permanent safety zone (see Section 14.2) in a specified time. From this, designers can calculate both the maximum allowable distances from spectator seats to



intermediate places of safety, and eventually the exits, as well

14.6

overall design for outward



movement

as the minimum allowable widths of all the passageways and

14.6.1

normal exit from stadium

doorways along those routes. This calculation is known as

This layout should follow the same pattern as the branching

timed exit analysis (TEA).

of a tree. Tracing the route back from the individual seat to the exit gate, the individual twigs lead to small branches, then

timed exit analysis

to larger branches, and ultimately to the trunk which is the

This is a step-by-step computation of the time it takes

public road. The twigs or smaller branches should never be

spectators to move from their nearest vomitory exit

connected directly to the trunk as this may cause the flow

(the journey from seat to vomitory being ignored for the

of spectators to hesitate, causing congestion and, in an

purposes of this calculation) to a place of permanent safety.

emergency, serious risk.

It proceeds as follows:

Signs and maps should work both ways – for both incoming and exiting spectators. Exit signs must be

1 Take the worst-case scenario in each subdivision of the

clearly visible, possibly illuminated, and will be governed

stadium. This will be the vomitory exit furthest from the

by safety legislation in most countries which means that

exit in the section under review, or the one serving the

the design team should check with the local fire and safety authorities.

greatest number of spectators. 2 Calculate the distance in metres from that vomitory exit to the temporary safety zone (see Section 14.2.2), and from

14.6.2

emergency exit from stadium

In the UK the Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds (see

there to the permanent safety zone. Level areas and ramps must be measured separately from staircases.

Bibliography) recommends that the escape time from any

3 Assume that spectators move along the level floors and

seat, in all new stadia constructed of concrete and steel, must

ramps at 150m per minute, and down stairways at 30m

be no more than eight minutes. This is the time for all the

per minute. Further assume that 40 people per minute can

spectators to leave the seating tier and enter the exit system.

pass through one exit width (600mm for corridors and

The requirement in Italy is that it must be

also for doorways, gates etc.).

possible to clear the seating areas of all spectators in five

4 Add up the walking times for the worst-case spectator

minutes, and then to clear the entire building structure of

selected above, all the way from his or her vomitory exit to

spectators in a further five minutes.

Zone 4.

175

STADIA

cIrculATIon

chapter 14

5 Subtract this time from the escape period required by regulation. If in doubt, assume this is eight minutes. 6 Calculate widths of all passages and doorways or gateways along these routes in units of 600mm. A passage that

However, this should be discouraged as it leads to problems of security and financial control. Ticket purchase on the day should be handled in separate ticket sales areas at least 10m away from the turnstiles (see Section 17.2.1).

is 600mm wide is one exit unit width, while one that is 1200mm wide is two exit unit widths. Now check that

Turnstiles also have disadvantages:

the total number of spectators seated or standing in a particular section can actually exit in the time calculated above. If they cannot then widths must be increased. 7 Repeat the above distance and width calculations for each subdivision of the stadium so that no spectator seating or standing area has been missed out. Revise the stadium layout if necessary until the entire stadium complies with 176

safety requirements.

• Although some machines can be folded back into the open position – to allow exit and entry through the same opening – they are not usually a good method for clearing the grounds. • High-volume, reliable and sophisticated systems such as those seen in metro stations currently cost more than stadium owners are willing to spend. Affordable systems may not be good enough or secure enough.

An example is given in Figure 14.4. Turnstiles are gradually being improved so that they are 14.7

elements

compatible with computer technology. This will revolutionise

14.7.1

entrances and exits

customer throughput at stadium entrances.

gates and turnstiles

Gates are cheap, and an open gate of a metre’s width can

scales of provision

allow through around 4,000 spectators an hour. But gates

Reversible turnstiles, and space for ticket takers, should be

are relatively unsophisticated. Turnstiles are expensive and

provided on a basis of one turnstile for every 500 to 750

will allow only 500 to 750 spectators an hour to pass, but

spectators, depending on the type of event (see below).

they have several advantages:

In addition to these, one exit turnstile or gate should be provided for each group of turnstiles to allow for the ejection

• They automatically count the number of spectators. • They check tickets more precisely and more reliably than

of spectators when required. Subject to local safety regulations (which must

a human attendant can do, and they can automatically

always be checked), the following data offer useful guidance.

exclude ticket-holders from certain areas.

These figures should be verified in case of subsequent

• Computer ticketing technology means tickets can be individually coded and named. They can then be swiped

amendment after publication of this book.

steward can be alerted to a problem with the ticket or the

• In the UK, the Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds (see Bibliography) recommends a maximum entry rate of 660

customer; or the gate can refuse to open; or the customer

people an hour passing through each gate or turnstile. This

can be sent to an administration office. This technology

allows an easy calculation to be made. If the brief states

is being used more and more since it offers stadium

that a particular section of the stadium must be filled in one

management a detailed record of event attendance, a

hour, then one entry turnstile must be provided for every

record of individual customer characteristics, and the

660 spectators. If a section must be filled in 45 minutes,

possibility of more targeted marketing.

then one entry turnstile must be provided for every 495

internally or externally by a ticket reader. This means a

• Turnstiles can be used to take payment from spectators.

spectators; and so on.



circulation

chapter 14

StaDia

Figure 14.4 The use of timed exit analysis to design escape routes that will allow spectators to move from their seat to a place of safety within a specified time. Average unobstructed velocity be laid down by law as societies become more safety conscious. Minimum evacuation times walking will increasingly is 150m per minute. A person exits every second or every 2.5 metres. (9km/h) Average unobstructed walking velocity is 150m per minute. A person exits every Average unobstructed walking velocity Average unobstructed walking velocity One line exit width allows 60 people second or 2.5 A metres. (9km/h) is 150m perevery minute. person exits every is 150m per minute. A person exits every to pass through it in 1 minute. second or every 2.5 2.5 metres. (9km/h) second or every metres. (9km/h) 2.5m

One line exit width allows 60 people to pass it inallows 1 minute. One linethrough exitexit width 60 60 people One line width allows people to pass through it init1 in minute. to pass through 1 minute.

2.5m

Level or up to 6.8 degree incline 2.5m 2.5m 60sec. 150m

Level or up to 6.8 degree incline Level or up degree incline Level or to up6.8 to 6.8 degree incline

60sec. 150m 60sec. 150m 60sec. 150m

177 Average unobstructed walking on staircase 30m per minute (1.8km/h). Spacing between Average walking peopleunobstructed is 0.75m. on staircase 30m per minute Average unobstructed walking Average unobstructed walking (1.8km/h). Spacing between on staircase 30m per minute on staircase 30m per minute people is 0.75m. (1.8km/h). Spacing between (1.8km/h). Spacing between people is 0.75m. people is 0.75m. 60sec. 30m

60sec. 30m 60sec. 30m30m 60sec.

Timed exit analysis Safe exit time is regulation period minus exit time to place of safety. Timed exit analysis Safe exit time is regulation period minus exit Timed exit analysis Timed exit analysis time exit to place of safety. Safe time is regulation period minus exitexit Safe exit time is regulation period minus time to place of time to placesafety. of safety.

EXAMPLE EXAMPLE EXAMPLE EXAMPLE A

A A

B A B

8sec. 20m

40sec. 20m

8sec. 20m

40sec. 20m

8sec. 20m20m 8sec.

40sec. 20m20m 40sec.

24sec. 60m

Therefore to walk from A to B would take a spectator 8+40+24=72 seconds. 24sec. 60m 24sec. 60m Therefore to walk from A to B would taketoa walk spectator Therefore from A to Therefore to walk from ABto B 8+40+24=72 seconds. would take a spectator would take a spectator 8+40+24=72 seconds. 8+40+24=72 seconds.

24sec. 60m

B

B

STADIA

cIrculATIon

chapter 14

pedestrian pipeline that will feed through consistently all the • For soccer grounds in Scotland, the Scottish League requires at least one automatic revolving entrance turnstile

way between individual seats and the perimeter gate without risk of congestion at any point. An evaluation must be made of each stage of

per 500 spectators, with a total minimum in all cases of 10 turnstiles, not including entrances for season-ticket holders

the journey:

or special passes. • For soccer grounds in England and Wales, the relevant governing bodies should be contacted for latest guidelines.

1 Entrances.  For convenience, the number of people passing through the gates or turnstiles should be limited to avoid problems of dispersal and bottlenecks. Scales of provision

As noted in Section 10.3.5, disabled spectators should not enter the stadium via the main turnstiles, but through separate entry gates specially designed and managed for their use.

were given in Section 14.7.1, above. 2 Exits.  Outward-opening flood exit gates must be provided to allow the high-volume flows of people described in step 6 of Section 14.6.2. Their clear widths must be based on

178

ancillary spaces and equipment

40 to 60 people per minute passing through one unit exit

There should be fixed crowd control barriers and the

width of 600mm.

possibility of additional temporary barriers in front of turnstiles

3 Concourses, corridors and other passageways.  Minimum

to control queues. For long queues, these should be arranged

widths will be set by the TEA calculation outlined in step 6

in a serpentine pattern. Such barriers, especially temporary

of section 14.6.2.

movable ones, are likely to develop a messy appearance after

4 Areas of particular congestion.  There must be generous

the stadium is no longer under the designers’ control. The

additional space to the minimum calculated widths at all

design team should specify a system which can be adapted

entrances to (or exits from) toilets, eating and drinking

by managers for many years to come without degrading the

facilities and ticket windows. The latter must be spaced at

stadium image. It may be necessary, for example, to design

least 10m away from entrances and exits. It is particularly

a special area in advance of the gates or turnstiles where

important to allow ample circulation space at the head and

spectators can be searched for prohibited items.

foot of each stair flight or ramp where people slow down

Storage space should in all cases be provided

because of the change in gradient. These points may, in

at each entrance gate or turnstile to store items confiscated

effect, become funnels, with a mass of fast-moving people

during entry. A cashier’s or controller’s booth can also

behind pushing against those in front who have slowed

be provided adjacent to each entrance gate or turnstile.

down. If there is not enough space for the pressure to be

Requirements will depend on how management intends to

dispersed, very dangerous situations can develop.

handle spectator checks and take payment. In severe climates, heating or cooling may be needed at the entrance area.

14.7.3

vertical circulation elements

There are limited ways to provide vertical circulation which will link the various levels of the stadium and give access to

14.7.2

horiZontal circulation elements

the concourses.

dimensions

Spectators should be able to move from the entrances to

stairs

their seats fast enough to allow the stadium to be filled in

Stairs have the advantage of being the most compact

a reasonable period (say, two hours). On exit, they must be

vertical circulation method, and consequently the easiest

allowed to escape much more quickly in case of emergency.

to design into a scheme. But they have the disadvantage of

For exit, great care must be taken to design a

being arguably more dangerous than ramps in an emergency



circulation

situation. If at all possible, they should be planned in pairs, the

chapter 14

landings to help disabled spectators.

two stairs preferably sharing a common landing so that there

For all the above reasons, ramps are a safe, convenient and

is always an alternative route available.

increasingly popular way of moving large numbers of people

Maximum gradients will depend on local building regulations, but are normally around 33 degrees. Within the

to different levels of the stadium. Circular ramps are the most common form.

prescribed limits, a steep angle is actually an advantage as

The disadvantage of ramps is their size. Since the

it allows a fast descent and rapid emptying of the stadium.

maximum gradient is 1:12, their internal circumference works

Clear widths will be determined by the emergency exit

out at no less than 35m to 45m. This makes a ramp a very

requirements outlined in Section 14.6.2.

awkward element to absorb into the site area, and difficult

Finishes, provision of handrails and lighting design may be influenced by the local building regulations.

StaDia

to handle elegantly from an architectural point of view. The corners of the stadium are the most usual position for ramp. Visually successful examples include the circular ramps in the

ramps

Sun Life stadium, formerly the Joe Robbie Stadium in the

Ramps have become popular recently and are used

USA, and the San Siro Stadium, in Milan. Maximum gradient is determined by local

extensively in Italy and the USA. They are used at the ANZ Stadium in Sydney (see Case studies).

building regulations but should, in the authors’ view, not exceed 1:12. Minimum width will be determined by the

They have several advantages:

calculation described in Section 14.6.2, subject to local building regulations.

• Spectators are less likely to lose their footing on a ramp than on a stair, and if they do stumble or fall the consequences

Finishes, provision of handrails and lighting design may be influenced by local building regulations.

will be less serious than on a stair. • Ramps are an ideal method of allowing service vehicles to move from level to level. This helps with large-scale stock,

escalators

Relatively few escalators have been installed in sports stadia

catering or retailing provision, and with refuse removal.

because of their high capital cost and because capacity

Ramps also allow easy passage for wheelchairs, and for

cannot usually be taken into account when calculating

transporting sick or injured spectators to the exits during

the exit widths required. However, the Amsterdam ArenA

events.

provides a spectacular example (see Case studies). Other exceptions are in racecourse stadia where

Circular ramps have particular advantages:

escalators have been used in many different countries. Here they give fast access to the higher viewing levels and can,

• Because the slope down a circular ramp will vary according to the line of descent taken, pedestrians are given a certain

of course, be reversed, operating upwards before the race

amount of freedom to select either a steeper, faster route

not allow them to be used for emergency exit and, in some

near the centre, or a shallower, easier route near the

circumstances, where there may be crowd pressure, they

perimeter.

may not be suitable for normal exit.

• The view walking along a circular ramp is less forbidding than a long straight ramp. • While a straight ramp must have landings at intervals, a circular ramp normally doesn’t need to, depending on local regulations. Circular ramps sometimes require mid-

and downwards afterwards. However, local regulations may

Examples of use include the Arrowhead and Royals stadia, in Kansas City, Missouri, Wembley Stadium in London (see frontispiece to this chapter and Case studies), the Selangor Turf Club, in Kuala Lumpur, and Twickenham, in London.

179

StaDia

CHAPTER 14

circulation

elevators

• Disabled and wheelchair users. Elevators can provide otherwise impossible access to upper levels for people in

refuse at a time when VIPs are likely to be using them. Elevators, or lifts, are too small and too slow to move any significant number of people. Their most appropriate role

wheelchairs (see below).

in sports stadia is to transport relatively small numbers of people to the upper levels of the stadium with speed and

14.8

comfort.

See chapter 10 for a description of the particular entry and

facilities for people with disaBilities

exit requirements of disabled people. Such users may include: • VIPs and media. Private hospitality boxes and media rooms tend to be at the upper levels of stadia. Elevators can be used for both entrance and exit. 180

• Staff and service operations. Providing special elevators for service staff is expensive, therefore it’s best to locate a small number of elevators in such a way that many staff can use them. Management must then ensure that there are no clashes of use, for example elevators conveying

15

food and beverage catering

15.1

IntroductIon

15.2

AutomAtIc vendIng mAchInes

15.3

concessIons

15.4

BArs

15.5

self-servIce cAfeterIAs, food courts And restAurAnts

15.6

luxury restAurAnts

15.1

IntroductIon

Attractive and efficient catering facilities will increase customer satisfaction and can also make a vital contribution to stadium profitability and spectator safety. Spectators now expect to buy a reasonable quality and range of food and drink on the premises. The challenge to stadium owners and managers is to provide the widest possible range of eating and drinking facilities, from quick-serve outlets at one extreme to luxurious private dining rooms at the other. If they can coordinate the scale of provision, the locations, the quality of service and the price levels for all their customer types, then they stand to earn valuable additional revenue. In general, the spend per head on food and beverage at an event is higher in the USA than elsewhere, partly, no doubt, because US spectators have more money to spend, but also because American stadia catering is higher in scale, quality and attractiveness. Other countries, including the UK, are beginning to follow the North American example. A balance must be struck between the capital and running costs of extensive kitchen and serving facilities, and the return they generate in terms of direct sales. 15.1.1

mAxImIsIng revenues

An obvious way to improve the revenue-to-cost ratio is to use catering facilities to the maximum once they have been installed. Wherever possible, these should be designed to cater not only for regular stadium spectators but also for receptions, banquets, dinners and other functions throughout the year. Restaurants ought to be open not only on match days, but on as many other occasions as customers can be encouraged on to the premises. Private box-holders should be encouraged to use their facilities not only during matches, but also for general social relaxation or corporate entertainment A bar at the O2 arena London. This bar is sponsored by the telecoms company O2. Architects: Populous

on event days and at other times, as discussed in Chapter 13. If spectators are encouraged to make full use of restaurants and catering concessions, other aspects of stadium design and management need to be addressed.

183

STADIA

chapter 15

fooD AnD beverAge cATerIng

Spectators should be encouraged to arrive at the stadium

carrier bags, trays and frames for carrying several drinks also

early and stay late – a use pattern which would also ease the

help increase sales. Long-established habits will change only if

problems of crowd circulation and traffic movement.

184

In the UK and Australia, part of the problem

people learn to expect a good standard of product and

lies in changing spectator traditions. Before a sports event,

service, with an enticing range of food and beverage

particularly soccer and rugby, spectators often visit a local pub.

available. There should, within reason, be something for

This results in late arrival at the stadium and an unnecessary

everyone: the customer who wants to enjoy a leisurely sit-

crush, creating crowd control problems. (Indeed, pre-match

down meal in prestige surroundings; the customer with less

drinking was one of the suggested contributory factors in the

to spend who will be satisfied with a self-service cafeteria;

1989 Hillsborough disaster, in Sheffield, in the UK.) In addition,

and the customer in a hurry who wants a variety of fast-food

having fans spend their money off the premises does nothing

or take-away outlets to choose from in a nearby concourse. It

for stadium profitability.

is important to realise that these categories no longer reflect

Marketing and management can increase

the stratifications of society. The take-away kiosk may be

customer time at the stadium. For example, it’s possible to

patronised by high-price ticket holders who happen to be

stage warm-up events before the match, or show match

in a hurry; the sit-down restaurant by a less affluent family

highlights on a video screen afterwards.

giving themselves a treat. All facilities should be available to

But design, too, must play its part. There must

everyone (Figure 15.1).

be adequate circulation routes to seats, and treads of sufficient width to make spectators feel comfortable about

15.1.2

carrying food and drink back to their seats without disturbing

It is now common for the stadium owner to enlist the support

others. Accessories such as drinks holders in the seats, and

of an established catering organisation, thus sharing the

shArIng cApItAl costs

Figure 15.1 The trend in stadium design is away from fixed relationships between customer class and service type, towards freedom of choice between a wide range of services. The diagram shows the rich network of potential cross-connections that is desirable.

VIEWING

CATERING

SUPPORT

ENTERTAINMENT

Private hospitality

Silver service

Customer care

Museum

VIP

Club dining

First aid

Video arcade

Club

Stepped restaurant

Hire shop

Betting shop

Executive

Food court

Retail outlet

Theatre

Member service

Fast food

Programme sales

TV screens

General seating

Snack bar

Child care

Interactive displays

Public seating

Drinks bar

Ticket sales

Tours

Bench seating

Confectionery stall

Telephones

Other sports

Perch seating

Mobile stall

Toilets

Lounges

Standing

Hawkers

Business centre

Picnic area



food and beverage catering

chapter 15

burden of capital costs, and bringing in extra marketing

separate department to the one running the grounds. They

and managerial expertise. In turn, catering firms are starting

can, in theory, include the same wide range of operations

to appreciate the opportunities at sporting venues where

as specialist contractors but, in practice, are often limited

tens of thousands of people come to spend their day in an

to the large fixed catering facilities such as restaurants, bars

atmosphere of relaxed leisure. This is precisely the mood

and private boxes, leaving the fast-food sales to concession

in which the public parts with its hard-earned money, and

holders.

catering specialists know how to capitalise on this mood.

The advantage of a stadium operating its own

The viability of using a catering firm is directly

catering organisation is that it may then have better control

related to the number of events held per annum. The fewer

of revenue and customer service, with more power to vary

the events, the greater the attraction of using outside

the catering mix.

catering. (Once-a-year events, as described in Section 15.1.4

Rangers Football Club, in Glasgow, whose home

below, are an extreme example.) Conversely, the greater

is the Ibrox Stadium, is a British example of stadium owners

the number of events, the greater the opportunity for the

managing all aspects of the catering operation themselves.

stadium to set up its own internal catering operation using permanently employed staff.

185 15.1.4

temporAry cAterIng fAcIlItIes

There are many examples of enormous catering operations leAsed concessIons

undertaken with very little in the way of permanent

It is now common for a named franchise such as McDonald’s

infrastructure. Although this mobile method of catering is

or Burger King to take a concession space for the sale

used throughout the world, the British seem to be particularly

of its products. In larger stadia there may well be several

adept at it, probably because so few major sporting events in

independent franchise outlets in a single concourse.

the UK possess adequate permanent facilities.

Leased concessions can operate in several

At the Silverstone Grand Prix, the total

different ways. One arrangement is for the catering firm

permanent catering facility consists of restaurants serving

to finance the construction of certain catering outlets in a

only 4,000 people, plus associated kitchens. On the day of

stadium in return for a period of exclusive sales at that venue.

the Grand Prix, however, thousands of hot meals are sold

The stadium will usually take a percentage of the sales in this

to the 185,000 spectators who attend over the three days.

situation. Such a partnership needs careful control. From a

Around 95,000 people attend on the day of the final, with

design point of view, the caterer will understandably want

more than 12,000 hot sit-down meals served in the one and a

to dictate much of the planning and layout of the stadium

half hours before the race. Around 95 per cent of these meals

catering facilities as it affects their income. They will have

are served under canvas from temporary kitchens and dining

essential knowledge on the provision of cabled and piped

areas set up inside tents and other temporary buildings.

services to feed these areas. The stadium owners and

Even more impressive are the figures for

management must heed these views, especially as the

the Wimbledon Championships. Because of its two-week

caterer might well invest millions as part of the arrangement.

duration, it is the largest sporting catering organisation in the

Yet it is essential the stadium owner remains in overall control

world. In addition to snacks and drinks, 1,500 catering staff

of functional and aesthetic design matters, so as to keep the

serve 100,000 lunches in private marquees erected on the

stadium looking consistent.

grounds. The amount of food and drink consumed during this brief period each year includes 12 tons of smoked salmon,

15.1.3

self-mAnAged operAtIons

Stadia

23 tons of strawberries, 190,000 sandwiches, 110,000 ice

Self-managed operations are owned and managed by

creams, 285,000 teas and coffees, 150,000 scones and buns,

the stadium administration, though usually operated by a

12,500 bottles of Champagne and 90,000 pints of beer.

STADIA

186 186

chapter 15

fooD AnD beverAge cATerIng

The help of temporary caterers is regularly enlisted at the

Each particular case must be analysed on its merits. Such

Henley Regatta and at virtually every British racecourse which

strategic analysis, and the design of the kitchens themselves

holds a major meeting, most notably Cheltenham, the home

(which must have adequate storage, preparation and delivery

of national hunt racing. In March each year, around 55,000

spaces) are highly specialised matters which cannot be

spectators in 11,000 cars and 360 coaches converge on

adequately covered in a book dealing primarily with stadium

Cheltenham Racecourse for the three days of the Gold Cup.

design. Before commencing detailed design, all decisions

During that period, 8,000 sit-down meals are served every

should be checked with experts in the field. Technology and

day in temporary accommodation, 6,000 of them in a vast

practice constantly advance, and even the best published

tented village erected specially for the occasion and taken

information sources quickly become outdated.

down immediately after the event is finished. In addition to

Good communication and distribution between

this temporary catering, there are also temporary private

the various kitchen and serving areas is critical. An

boxes, betting outlets, bars and an entire precinct of shops.

independent service elevator (preferably about 2.4m by

A major disadvantage of this form of catering

3.0m) and internal telephone system are essential between

is that it relies on temporary staff enlisted only for the

different levels of operation. If carefully planned, the service

duration of the event. Such irregular employment tends to

elevator can also be used to service the concession area

suit housewives and retired men and women who are flexible

and other functions such as rubbish removal, equipment

with their time and income, but are not in the highest skill

transportation and general maintenance operations. In

category for the job. The large operators employ a core

smaller venues it may be possible to use the service elevator

group of permanent and well-trained supervisors, taking on

for passengers as well, but then the elevator is only available

casual serving staff under their direction, particularly for the

for catering use before the spectators arrive and after they

larger events.

leave. This would place constraints on catering operations.

Environmental health requirements are becoming more stringent and may have an effect on temporary catering

15.1.6

layouts, costs and efficiency. The maximum temperature at

The size and number of eating and drinking facilities in a

which refrigerated food must be kept is being lowered. (In

stadium will depend on market conditions, the needs of users

Britain, it is 5 degrees rather than 8 degrees Celsius.) There

and the needs of management. It would be rare for a sit-

are also increasingly strict standards for floor surfaces. The

down restaurant of, say, one cover per 100 spectators not to

latest requirements should be checked with local health

be viable on an event day at any stadium. However, it’s not

authorities.

certain this could be maintained and operated on non-event

scAle of provIsIon

days. The trend now is to use the restaurant for conference 15.1.5

desIgn of cAterIng fAcIlItIes

or other functions on days with no sporting events. Areas provided for dining should, wherever

In stadium design, a choice must be made between three broad patterns of catering operation:

possible, be linked with movable walls so that a range of spaces can be created to serve one large group, or a series of

• A central kitchen serving all eating areas.

smaller groups. This flexibility is crucial since nobody knows

• Dispersed kitchens serving individual eating areas.

what tomorrow’s demands might be, and how the building

• A central kitchen with smaller satellite kitchens, each

will be expected to cope.

covering a group of private boxes or one large function area. It is typical, for example, for a central kitchen to have

15.2

a satellite kitchen on each of the upper decks of a multi-

Vending machines are the simplest and fastest form of

tiered stand, serving the outlets on that level.

catering service, requiring no personnel and very little

AutomAtIc vendIng mAchInes



food and beverage catering

chapter 15

space. Units are available for dispensing cold drinks, hot

15.2.2 shell And servIce requIrements

drinks, confectionery, various types of snacks and even

Though the vending machines may be owned and installed

mini-meals. The simple fare offered means they cannot

by concession holders, the stadium management will have

replace conventional catering methods. But they do have

to make adequate provision to receive them. Most machines

advantages:

will require some or all of the following services, with isolating

Stadia

switches and valves, depending on the types of product they • They help cope with peak demand when the restaurants

dispense:

and concessions are over-loaded. • They offer faster service, as little as 5 seconds for a snack

• An electrical supply (probably single-phase) for illumination,

and 12 seconds for a cup of tea or coffee. • They can be located throughout the stadium, thus allowing

power, beverage making, microwave heating and chilling. • Mains water supply, possibly to a specified pressure, for

customers from all seating areas to get a quick snack or drink without going far from their seats.

beverage making. • Nearby hot water supply for cleaning. 187 187

• They can offer a service 24 hours a day.

• Drainage outlet for overflow and cleaning.

Their disadvantages are the cost of provision, their

To cope with spillages and deliberate vandalism, all surfaces

vulnerability to vandalism and the need for maintenance.

surrounding food and beverage machines must be durable

Perhaps it is for these reasons that vending machines are not

and impervious, and detailed for easy cleaning. Lighting must

particularly widely used in sports stadia.

be excellent to attract customers, to allow instructions to be easily read and to deter vandalism.

15.2.1

Management should provide disposal bins with

types And dImensIons

Automatic vending machines are available as floor-standing

self-closing flaps and leak-proof inner linings adjacent to all

or wall-mounted types. Freestanding or surface-fixed

machines. These are to receive discarded wrappings and

units are easiest to install and remove. But they are more

waste food.

vulnerable to vandalism than recessed types, and more likely to create untidy, cluttered public areas. Management must

15.2.3

exercise constant vigilance if tidy stadium concourses are

Automatic vending machines are usually provided in areas

not to degenerate into a mess.

where space does not allow for a concession kiosk. The

locAtIons And scAles of provIsIon

The larger machines are floor-mounted (up to

latter will always be more popular than machines where

2m high, 0.9m deep and 1.2m wide), and may come with or

there is a free choice. The number of machines installed

without legs. Refrigerated models must be mounted about

may be calculated from the number of snacks to be served

0.2m from the wall for adequate ventilation. Service access

in a given period. Specialist contractors will be able to give

for most models is from the front. The smaller machines are

expert advice.

wall-mounted (up to 0.9m high, 0.6m deep and 0.7m wide), and should be positioned at approximately chest height so that users can operate them without having to bend over.

15.2.4

ownershIp And leAsIng



ArrAngements





All the following comments and dimensions

Automatic vending machines may be purchased by the

are for preliminary space estimation only. Precise data must

stadium owner, or installed by a vending company who will

be obtained from manufacturers, suppliers or proposed

then provide services such as regular re-stocking, cleaning

concession holders.

and maintenance under contract. If a contract arrangement is envisaged, the information given above must be checked

STADIA

fooD AnD beverAge cATerIng

chapter 15

with proposed contractors to ensure that the stadium design allows for their requirements. 15.3

Figure 15.2 Schematic layout of a typical snack-bar kiosk, where food preparation is not required.

concessIons

These are the next simplest form of catering. Like automatic

SERVING MODULE 2600MM

vending machines, they are economical on space, but service and are less likely to be immobilised by mechanical breakdown. There are three basic types of concession kiosk, each dependent on food type.

Equipment

since they are staffed, they offer a more people-friendly Food

Food

Bev.

confectIonery kIosks

All the products are wrapped and non-perishable, therefore no equipment is required and the stand is very simple. Its essential components are storage, display space and a servery, often amounting to little more than a counter. Choice of the stadium selling its own-brand products. Gifts and memorabilia may also be sold at these outlets. snAck-BAr kIosks

Till service

of food is necessarily limited but there is the possibility

Till

Till

These sell heated food (such as pies and rolls) and hot drinks, and therefore need some basic equipment such as hot or cold cupboards. The kiosk normally consists of a front servery counter and a back storage and preparation counter (Figure 15.2), with the staff acting as both servers and

Queue zone

188

collectors. fAst-food kIosks

Cooking and preparation takes place in these kiosks which sell items such as burgers, steaks, chicken or chips. The kiosk therefore has a complete island feed-through bench with

Single exit

separate counter staff (who serve) and support staff (who cook the food and load the shelves). When there are multiple kiosks throughout the stadium, it is important to decide whether they should be

that pre-cooking can be done at the most effective times; and that cooking can be combined with restaurant cooking.

serviced from a central cooking kitchen, or do their own cooking.

The advantages of kiosk cooking are that output

The advantages of a central kitchen are that

and demand can be more closely matched; that the cooked

more food varieties can be made available; that equipment

food may be fresher than if brought in from a distant kitchen;

duplication is minimised; that food storage conditions are

that attractive food smells attract customers; and that kiosk

better controlled; that kiosk staff do not need to be as skilled;

staff are offered more responsibility and opportunities.



15.3.1

food and beverage catering

lAyout And dImensIons

Subject to the comments above on various kiosk types, the

chapter 15

Stadia

• Mechanical ventilation, and an extracting system above the cooking and food preparation apparatus.

essential elements of any take-away stand are a serving

• General space heating or cooling for staff comfort,

counter, storage space and preparation space. The basic

depending on the extremes of temperature likely to be

principles are to design the counter so that the person serving

encountered.

needs only to turn to the right or left to reach the majority of items on sale, and to avoid cross-overs with other staff. The

15.4

counter may need a security screen to the concourse, and

Even if it is decided that alcohol will not be served during

this must be designed to be aesthetically compatible with the

certain sporting events, the provision of bar facilities may

stadium as a whole.

still be necessary because the stadium will be used for other

Precise layout and dimensions will vary with the

BArs

events. Bars of various types may have to be provided.

type of food and beverage on sale and the scale of operation. If there are multiple kiosks in the stadium, their design should

• At one extreme, there are intensively used crush bars in

be standardised throughout. This will mean economies of scale

public concourses, where large numbers of customers

when it comes to equipment, and little need for staff retraining.

must be quickly served during half-time. These will be

If people are likely to congregate near the stand

highly functional in design, with multiple serving points,

to consume their purchases, the area they will take up may

and designed for a high proportion of standing customers.

be estimated at 0.5m2 to 0.6m2 per person. There should be

• At the other extreme, there are intimate bars in club

plenty of wall-shelves and freestanding shelf units for the use

lounges or luxury dining facilities, where the emphasis will

of people with food and drinks.

be on a luxurious setting and high-quality service, with comfortable seating for customers who are in no hurry.

15.3.2

locAtIons And scAles of provIsIon

The primary locations for concession kiosks are as close as

There may well be several intermediate grades of bar facility,

possible to the access routes and concourses, planned so

and portable bars may be necessary for some functions.

that queues do not obstruct circulation. A total allowance of 1.5m of counter length per 300 spectators is a figure used in

15.4.1

some soccer stadia, but it may need to be increased where

It is advisable to allow a customer area of roughly 0.5m2 per

intervals are shorter and the crush for service is greater. The

person if everyone stands, or 1.1m2 plus per person if half

principal factors involved are match quality, weather and

are seated.

how easy it is to get service, all of which have an impact on spectator demand.

lAyouts And dImensIons

The standard bar layout consists of a counter, backed by a serving space, and behind that a shelf for drinks display and preparation, with drinks and glasses storage

15.3.3

shell And servIce requIrements

below or above the counter. If it is compatible with the

Except for the most basic stands, selling only packets of

stadium policy on concessions, part of the counter (perhaps

confectionery and the like, the preparation space should be

3m to 5m in length) may be devoted to serving snacks

provided with the following services (incorporating isolating

heated in a microwave oven, and hot drinks.

switches and valves):

It makes for economy and efficiency if a central serving area is accessible to several bars, saloons or lounges,

• Hot and cold water supply and drainage outlet.

with bar tenders able to go to the counter where they are

• Electrical supply and lighting, with three-phase outlets for

needed. The servery should always have direct access to the

cooking.

storage area and possibly a small kitchen.

189

STADIA

fooD AnD beverAge cATerIng

chapter 15

15.4.2

locAtIons And scAles of provIsIon

• The Offices Shops and Railway Premises Act, for employee facilities.

There are no particular rules regarding location, and bars should be located where space is available. At any one time, 1m of counter length could

It is most economical if toilets, which are very costly, are

accommodate between three and five customers. For

located to serve a variety of nearby facilities. The whole

customers seated on stools, counter length is 0.6m per person.

stadium should be planned with this in mind (see Chapter 16).

15.4.3

15.5

self-servIce cAfeterIAs, food courts

The bar area should be set back from the circulation route

shell And servIce requIrements



And restAurAnts

to reduce congestion, and must be fitted with a roll-down

Self-service eateries require fewer staff than restaurants

grille or shutter to provide security when not in use. The grille

with table service (see Section 15.6) and are designed and

arrangement should be aesthetically compatible with the

managed for a faster rate of customer flow. This is a vital

stadium design.

factor in sports stadia, with their concentrated demand peaks.

If the provision of bar services is contracted

The arrangement is familiar to all: food is

out to specialists who will fit out the spaces to their own

displayed in a line of refrigerated or heated glass cabinets,

specifications, the shell should be provided with the following

and customers move past with trays, helping themselves to

services (incorporating isolating switches and valves):

what they want and paying at the end. Part of the counter

190

may be devoted to a carvery or hot meal servery where • Hot and cold water supply and drainage outlet.

staff assist the customers by carving the meat for them, and

• Electrical supply and lighting, possibly with three-phase

serving them with dishes from heated containers. The food court is an elaboration of the above

outlets for cooking. • Mechanical ventilation, and an extract system above the cooking and food preparation apparatus. • General space heating or cooling for staff comfort, depending on the extremes of temperature likely to be

principle, with several serveries devoted to a variety of food types and price ranges, all surrounding a single seating area. Customers collect their food and drink from their chosen counter, and then find a table in the central area.

encountered. 15.5.1 15.4.4

AncIllAry AccommodAtIon

lAyout And dImensIons

Because of the specialised nature of such operations,

There must be storage facilities for drinks (and, in large

restaurants will probably be leased to specialist operators

premises, perhaps also for kitchen supplies).

who will design and fit out the space themselves. Layout and

Toilets and washbasins must be provided adjacent to bars, and such facilities should be easily accessible

dimensions should be discussed with such firms before the stadium design is finalised.

and clearly signposted. The provision of toilets is covered in Chapter 16. In most countries, this matter is governed by

15.5.2

law, and the scales of provision must be checked with the

Self-service restaurants or cafeterias are usually located at

authorities in each case. In the UK, the relevant statutes are:

the lower levels of the stadium, near the main kitchens and

locAtIons And scAles of provIsIon

service roads. They require large spaces. • The Licensing Acts, for all premises where alcohol is served.

There are no reliable figures on scales of

• The Public Health Act of 1936, Section 89, and the Food

provision, but a ratio of one seat to 50 or a 100 spectators

Hygiene [General] Regulations, for all refreshment houses

may be used as a starting range. The precise ratio will depend

where food and drink are sold.

on the nature of the stadium, the character of its clientele,



food and beverage catering

chapter 15

Stadia

Figure 15.3 Schematic section through a typical food kiosk located on the inside of a concourse under a seating tier.

191

Public

Serving

and the degree to which its catering facilities might also be used for non-sports events.

Cooking

Storage

• Heating or cooling for staff and customer comfort, depending on the extremes of temperature likely to be encountered.

15.5.3   

Shell and Service requirementS

The stadium management may be required only to provide

• Security screens between the restaurant and the concourse.

a simple serviced shell ready to be fitted out by a specialist tenant, in which case the latter should state their requirements.

It is possible that additional fitting out would be appropriate,

They will almost certainly include the following:

depending on the leasing arrangement. This might include:

• Hot and cold water supply with isolating valves.

• Cooking equipment such as cookers and fryers.

• Drainage outlet.

• Warmers, beverage storage, cold storage and freezers.

• Electrical supply and lighting, including three-phase supply for cooking, with isolating switches.

(These should be large enough for a full day’s use.) • Sinks and dishwashers.

• Mechanical ventilation and an effective extraction system for the cooking and food preparation equipment. (In

15.5.4   

case of mechanical breakdown or malfunction, natural

There should be direct entry for service access and bulk

ventilation should also be available.)

deliveries, and easy exit for waste disposal. Restaurants

ancillary accommodation

Stadia

food and beverage catering

CHAPTER 15

Ready access will be required for bulk deliveries

generate a great quantity of refuse which can quickly upset spectators if it is not removed. Toilets and washbasins must be provided

and waste removal. 15.6.2

locAtIons And scAles of provIsIon

adjacent to restaurants, and such facilities should be easily

Prestige restaurants are usually located near to the club

accessible and clearly signposted. (See also the notes under

areas and private boxes.

Bars, Section 15.4.4.)

No generalised guidance can be given on the scale of provision, which will depend on the nature of

15.6

luxury restAurAnts

the stadium, the character of its clientele, and the degree

High-class restaurants will attract customers willing to spend

to which its catering facilities might also be used for non-

more money in return for better food and service in more

sporting events.

spacious surroundings. They will probably take more time over their meal. Because of the mark-up, such facilities can

15.6.3

shell And servIce requIrements And

be particularly lucrative for the stadium management.



AncIllAry AccommodAtIon

The same notes apply as under Sections 15.5.3 and 15.5.4,

192 15.6.1

lAyouts And dImensIons

These matters are too specialised to be covered in detail in this book. Layout should be discussed with specialist firms before the stadium design is finalised.

above.

16

toilet provision

16.1

ToileT provision generally

16.2

ToileTs for specTaTors

16.3

scale of provision for specTaTor ToileTs

16.4

locaTion of specTaTor ToileTs

16.5

DeTaileD Design

16.1

ToileT provision generally

Toilets and washing facilities may be needed for individual groups of stadium users as well as general spectators. These individual groups include: • Private box-holders and other VIPs. See Chapter 13. • Television crews, press reporters and radio commentators. See Sections 18.2.2 and 18.6.2. • Management and staff. See Section 19.7. • Match stewards and police. See Section 19.7. • Players and referees. See Section 20.2. • Medical examination teams. See Section 20.6. These facilities should be considered in conjunction with spectator toilets so as to minimise the number of sanitary appliances and drainage stacks in the stadium. In smaller stadia it would be uneconomical and quite unnecessary to provide separate toilets for all the groups listed above. Common facilities can serve several categories of user provided everyone is within easy reach of a usable and suitable toilet. In the largest stadia it may be necessary to provide completely separate facilities. For each particular case the design team must find the right balance between: • The cost advantages of having only a few centralised drainage stacks in a stadium. (These are particularly costly in the upper levels of multi-tiered stands.) • The convenience of having toilets dispersed throughout the stadium, with short distances (preferably no more than 60m) and few level changes between users and the nearest facility.

195

STADIA

ToIleT provISIon

chapter 16

Urinals

WCs

Wash basins

Male

Minimum of 2 for up to 50, plus 1 for every other 50 males or part thereof

Minimum of 2 for up to 250, plus 1 for every other 250 males or part thereof

1 per WC and 1 per 5 urinals or part thereof

Female

No recommendations

Minimum of 2 for up to 20, plus 1 for every 20 or part thereof up to 500 females, then 1 per 25 or part thereof

Minimum of 1, plus 1 per 2 WCs

Note: There are no official UK recommendations specifically for sports stadia, and the above figures for places of entertainment are the closest approximation. If applied to sports stadia, the balance of provision is unlikely to be right. But if the stadium is to be used also for non-sporting events, then toilet and washbasin provision should satisfy the above formula rather than the lower figures in Table 16.2. Table 16.1

BS6465, Part 1. Minimum provision of sanitary appliances for assembly buildings where most toilet use is during intervals

16.2

ToileTs for specTaTors

196

• The authoritative Good Loo Design Guide, published in

The bulk of these will of course be inside the stadium but

2004, quotes approvingly the British Toilet Association’s

there should also be toilets outside the perimeter fence

recommendation that the required number of female

(Zone 5, as defined in Section 3.3) for those queuing.

cubicles should be double the number of male cubicles and male urinals. Thus, if there are three male cubicles and

16.3

scales of provision for



specTaTor ToileTs





four male urinals, the BTA recommends 14 female cubicles. • British Standard BS6465, Part 1, 2006 Code of practice

Good toilet provision is intrinsic to a venue’s image.

for the design of sanitary facilities and scales of provision

Inadequate provision, uneven distribution and poor quality

of sanitary and associated appliances, published in 2006,

cause complaints from spectators. With large crowds,

gives a set of minimum recommendations that are

insufficient toilets or urinals can lead to the misuse of the

summarised here in Table 16.1.

facilities, offending and driving away potential visitors and club members, thus reducing stadium revenue. There are three separate design problems to be  addressed:

For stadia in particular, there are no official UK recommendations, but the UK Sport Council published in 1993 a useful guidance on behalf of the Football Stadia Advisory Council. That guidance is discontinued but its

• Providing an appropriate ratio of male to female toilets.

principal recommendations are summarised here in Table

• Providing for the intensive use of toilets in very short

16.2. It is anticipated that a future edition of the SGSG Series of

periods of time. • Providing an appropriate proportion of toilets for disabled spectators.

Sport Grounds and Stadia Guides will update this otherwise excellent guidance. Within the framework set by the above documents, specific figures must be decided for each

raTio of male To female ToileTs

stadium after a thorough analysis. Every type of event, or

For public buildings in general, the most recent UK

club membership, will have its own ratio of male to female

recommendations are the following:

spectators. For instance:



toilet provision

chapter 16

Urinals

WCs

Wash basins

Male

1 per 70 males

1 for every 600 males, but not fewer than 2 per toilet area, however small

1 for every 300 males, but not fewer than 2 per toilet area, however small

Female

No recommendations

1 for every 35 females, but not fewer than 2 per toilet area, however small

1 for every 70 females, but not fewer than 2 per toilet area, however small

stADiA

Note: Slab or trough-type urinals should be calculated on the basis of not less than 600mm per person. All suitable wall areas not needed for other purposes should be exploited for additional urinal provision over and above the minimum recommendations. Table 16.2

The UK Football Stadia Design Advisory Council’s minimum recommendations for newly constructed or refurbished sports stadia and stands. These figures apply to each individual accessible area.

197

• If a stadium is designed for multi-purpose use, including

a male unit, based on an 80:20 male to female ratio which

concerts, then the male to female ratio will approach 1:1.

would be suitable for many current stadia, and which could

• Tennis or athletics events will have higher proportions of

be distributed evenly throughout the building. The male

women attending than soccer or rugby events. • Clubs with high family memberships will usually have above average proportions of females. • Higher status clubs, and clubs in pleasant parts of town, will tend to have a higher proportion of women than those with a less sophisticated image or environment.

unit incorporates a unisex cubicle for wheelchair users (see below), opening off the corridor so that both men and women have access to it. The diagram should not be taken to imply that this is the only suitable location for such a facility, though it should be near the main toilets. In view of the variation of the male to female ratio from event to event, some flexibility should be built into

At a particular event there may also be different gender

toilet provision. It’s possible to have movable partitions, or

mixes in different parts of the stadium. For instance:

defined sections which can be labelled either ‘male’ or ‘female’ for a particular event. The problems of inadequate provision

• There will be a higher proportion of women in the private

and customer dissatisfaction are so great in stadium design

or family enclosures of British soccer stadia than in the

that all possible solutions must be considered in the interests

standing terraces.

of attracting more spectators.

• There will be a higher proportion of women among the home supporters at a European soccer match than among the away supporters.

numbers of appliances

Stadium toilet usage peaks during certain periods and can barely cope with the number of users. However, most of

On the basis of the above data, the gender mix should be

the time, the toilets are completely unused. This creates a

reflected in the proportions of toilets provided for that event.

serious problem for the design team. The cost of providing

Organised clubs keep a record of the male to female split

enough toilets and urinals to avoid all queuing would be

for particular occasions, and such club records are the only

extravagant, while the problems caused by saving money

reliable source of briefing information for a new stadium

and not providing enough facilities affronts customers.

design. Figure 16.1a shows a female unit, and Figure 16.1b

STADIA

ToIleT provISIon

chapter 16

Figures 16.1a & 16.1b It’s preferable to have moderately sized toilet units (such as the two illustrated) evenly distributed throughout the stand rather than centralised toilets. The correct male to female ratio should be researched for each individual case but the 80:20 ratio shown here is a widely recognised club standard. Note the plan layout for fast throughput. Toilets for spectators who are disabled are kept separate (see Section 16.3).

198 198 hd cleaners store

hd void

hd

hd void

general store

a

hd

hd hwc

hd

hd void

b



toilet provision

chapter 16

stADiA

Figures 16.2a & 16.2b (a) A 2200mm x 1500mm unisex toilet cubicle suitable for wheelchair users. If it is the only toilet facility in the building, then the width should be increased from 1500mm to 2000mm, and the compartment should include a standing height washbasin in addition to the finger-rinse basin. (b) An 800mm-wide toilet cubicle suitable for ambulant disabled people.

199 199

1500 x 1500 wheelchair turning space

Finger rinse basin Clothes hooks Drop-down rail

Vertical grab rails Alarm pull cord Wall mounted grab rail

750 activity space clear of door swing Clothes hook set at 1400 above floor level

Sanitary disposal unit

a

b

In the absence of more specific guidance from the client or

suggest designers cater for normal anticipated use of the

from local regulatory bodies, the recommendations of British

stadium. Portable toilets can be temporarily installed for

Standard BS6465, Part 1, 2006 Code of practice for the

special events such as pop concerts which attract greater

design of sanitary facilities and scales of provision of sanitary

numbers of spectators, or continue for longer periods.

and associated appliances, published in 2006, should be used

Preferred locations for such additional facilities need to be

(see Table 16.1). These figures should, if possible, be improved

planned in advance so that they can be easily installed and

upon, particularly in stadia where spectators will be exposed

serviced.

to winter weather (which causes more frequent use of toilets), or where events have long stretches of time between

ProPortion of toilets for disabled PeoPle

intervals, or where large amounts of beer may be consumed.

A certain proportion of the toilets provided should be suitable for use by disabled people, in terms of both their location

temPorary facilities

and their design. This percentage may be laid down by local

Owing to the high cost of providing permanent toilets, we

regulations which should always be consulted.

STADIA

ToIleT provISIon

chapter 16

For the USA, Chapter 6 of ADA and ABA

Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities (see

possible to the seats for disabled spectators, with a maximum horizontal travel distance of 40m.

Bibliography) provides detailed guidance on accessible toilets.

Toilets should lead off concourse areas. They

For the UK, the situation is summarised in the

should be easily and safely accessible, and on the same level

following paragraphs.

as the concourse. They must never lead directly off stairs. If

Two types of toilet compartment should be

a change of level is essential at that point, it should include

considered: special cubicles for people in wheelchairs, as

a ramp. The location should allow for plenty of circulation

shown in Figure 16.2a; and enlarged versions of a standard

space around the entrance and exit areas, with wide entrance

toilet cubicle, fitted with special handrails, for the use of

and exit doors. Spectators should be able to enter by one

ambulant disabled people, as shown in Figure 16.2b. These

door and leave by another, with single-direction flow. Stadium toilets should, wherever the overall

simplified diagrams are based on Diagrams 21 and 18 from

200

Approved Document M of the Building Regulations for

stadium layout allows, be located against an outer wall to

England and Wales. More extensive and detailed guidance

allow for natural light and natural ventilation. Mechanical

is given in the three documents listed in Section 16.5. In the

lighting and ventilation systems are expensive and prone to

latter, where more than one toilet compartment is provided,

malfunction, but they will be needed where opening windows

both left- and right-handed transfer layouts should be included.

are not feasible. Finally, as already mentioned, there should

With respect to the numbers of each type of toilet required:

also be toilets outside the perimeter fence (Zone 5) for the benefit of those queuing for an event. If temporary toilets are

• For ambulant disabled people, Accessible Stadia (see Bibliography) states that there are currently no UK recommendations on toilet provision. • For wheelchair users, Accessible Stadia supports the UK National Association of Disabled Supporters’ (NADS)

to be used for infrequent events then their locations must be designed into the complex at the beginning so as to allow for easy installation and servicing. 16.5

DeTaileD Design

recommendation for the provision of one accessible toilet

All surfaces should be hard wearing, impervious and easily

per 15 wheelchair spectator spaces.

cleaned, with coved corners and angles. They should be capable of being hosed down, with a trapped outlet to drain

16.4

locaTion of specTaTor ToileTs

The aim should always be to have many smaller toilets (such

away water. Installing urinals flush with the finished floor helps in this regard.

as the units shown in Figure 16.1) dispersed throughout the

Sanitary appliances should be chosen from

stadium rather than a small number of large toilets. However,

vandal-resistant ranges, with cisterns and pipe-work

this must be balanced against the cost advantages of a

concealed in independently accessible ducts. In the case

centralised drainage system. A reasonable compromise must

of urinals, flushing troughs should be used rather than

be struck between cost and convenience. Such units should

independent cisterns, as the former require less maintenance

be distributed as evenly as possible, including on all levels

and are quickly recharged.

of a multi-tiered stand, with no seat more than 60m from a usable toilet, and preferably on the same level. In the case of toilets for disabled people, paragraph 5.10 of Approved Document M of the Building Regulations,

Hot and cold water should be provided from impact taps which turn themselves off automatically after a specified period. There should also be hand dryers. In climates where frost may occur, even when

which applies to England and Wales, recommends that

the stadium is not in use, it is essential to provide reliable

wheelchair-accessible toilets should be located as close as

trace heating to the pipe-work and cisterns, or reliable



toilet provision

chapter 16

background heating to the toilet space. If this is not done, the

• Section 5 of Approved Document M of the Building Regulations, which applies to England and Wales.

system must be drained down after each match in winter to avoid the danger of burst pipe-work. For the USA, comprehensive details of accessible toilets are given in Chapter 6 of ADA and ABA Accessibility

Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities (see Bibliography). For the UK, comprehensive details of accessible toilets are given in the following four UK information sources,

stADiA

• Section 12.4 of British Standard BS 8300: 2009 – Design of buildings and their approaches to meet the needs of

disabled people – Code of practice. • The Good Loo Design Guide, published by the Centre for Accessible Environments. • Accessible Stadia.

publication details of which are given in the Bibliography.

201

17

retail sales and exhibitions

17.1

IntroductIon

17.2

AdvAnce tIcket sAles

17.3

ProgrAmme sAles

17.4

gIft And souvenIr shoPs

17.5

museums, vIsItor centres And stAdIum tours

17.1

IntroductIon

People attending a stadium event are a captive market. They have come to enjoy themselves, they are in a leisurely (sometimes euphoric) state of mind, and they may well want to take away some memento of the occasion. As every unit of currency spent within the stadium perimeter will contribute to the financial viability of the stadium as a whole, it is in the interest of management to exploit this profit-making opportunity to the full. An enticing variety of retail outlets in and around the stadium should be a vital part of every design or management brief. Some owners and managers have been very energetic in exploiting these opportunities. In the UK, for instance, Wembley Stadium has aggressively pursued several different uses of its facilities (sport, entertainment, exhibitions and conferences), and has, in each case, exploited the merchandising opportunities offered by the huge captive markets. The results are impressive, with retail sales at its pop concerts measured in hundreds of thousands of pounds per annum. To take a very different example, at the Cheltenham Gold Cup, in the UK, a whole village of shops is set up around the racecourse for two or three days every year, successfully selling everything from key-rings to Rolls-Royce cars. 17.2

AdvAnce tIcket sAles

Spectators who have enjoyed their day are in an ideal frame of mind to buy tickets for future events, and they must be given every opportunity to do so. Advance tickets should therefore be sold before, during and after each sporting event from booths strategically located for maximum sales.

The sale of clothes and souvenirs by teams, clubs and venues has become, for some, an important source of revenue.

17.2.1

locAtIons And scAles of ProvIsIon

In addition to the main ticket offices in the central ticket sales area, at least four advanceticket booths should be provided between Zone 4 and Zone 5 (see Section 3.3), with a number of windows accessible from Zone 5, and one window accessible from Zone

203

STADIA

chapter 17

reTAIl SAleS AnD exhIbITIonS

4 (i.e. inside the perimeter fence) or Zone 3 (on the stadium

vendor or hawker sales should be considered in the ratio of

internal concourse), depending on stadium size.

one per 500 spectators.

The total number of windows should be one window per 1,000 spectators serving Zone 5, plus one

17.3.2

window per 5,000 spectators serving Zone 4. On this basis,

Each kiosk should have between two and eight serving

a 20,000-seat stadium would have four advance-ticket

positions, depending on the type of sales and the number

booths, each with five serving windows facing Zone 5 and

of spectators served. It should be fitted with a roller shutter,

one window facing Zone 4.

pinboards for a display of current events, and light and power

desIgn

The booths should be evenly distributed

points. Each kiosk should have direct access to a secure

around the grounds, but in such a way that the windows

storeroom of about 6m2, and a storage area for restocking of

serving Zone 4 are clearly seen by the crowds leaving the

about 15m2 to 20m2, both fitted with shelves.

stadium after a match. The windows should be at least 10m 204

away from  the turnstiles so that normal circulation is not

17.4

obstructed by queues of ticket-buyers congregating around

An enterprising stadium may have the following range of gift

the ticket booths.

shops and related facilities:

17.2.2

PermAnent souvenIr shoP

desIgn

Each kiosk should be provided with the following fittings:

gIft And souvenIr shoPs

This is a gift shop selling stadium or club-related sports equipment, books, compact discs and other souvenirs. It may

• Counters fitted with money trays.

be combined with the following facility.

• Lockable cash drawers. • Signs with interchangeable panels for seat prices.

stAdIum museum or exhIbItIon sPAce

• Heating or cooling as required.

This is a showcase for the history of the grounds (and the

• General power outlets and lighting.

sports played there), displaying equipment, trophies and

• Queuing rails for crowd control.

films. The latest ideas in interactive video displays are ideal for this location and have been used extensively at theme

The booths should be designed to be eye-catching, in terms

parks around the world. A good example is the Noucamp

of both their form and their signage. The latter could include

Stadium, in Barcelona.

imaginative neon signs – as used, for instance, in the Toronto Skydome, in Canada.

detAched shoP

This could be located away from the stadium; in the town 17.3

ProgrAmme sAles

centre, for example, if the sports facility is on the outskirts.

The sale of programmes is vital to any stadium, and there should be plentiful selling points in all spectator areas.

17.4.1

locAtIons And scAles of ProvIsIon

The souvenir shop should be located so that it can be 17.3.1

locAtIons And scAles of ProvIsIon

approached from both inside the grounds (Zone 3 and

Programme kiosks must be provided in all subdivisions of

Zone 4) and outside (Zone 5). Accessibility from Zone 5

the spectator area, both inside the perimeter (Zone 3 and

is important, allowing the shop to operate even when the

Zone 4) and outside (Zone 5). Serving positions should be

stadium is not in use. Since parking would assist such off-

provided at a ratio of one position for every 2,000 to 3,000

period sales, a nearby short-stay parking area should be

spectators in the surrounding zone. Additionally, mobile

provided.



retail sales and exhibitions

chapter 17

An ideal location for the souvenir shop would be

trophy cases, models of the stadium and moving-image

adjoining the administration offices and central ticket sales

displays. Outside, there is a popular shop selling clothing,

office. This allows for ease of operation and staffing, plus dual

souvenirs and memorabilia, together with parking for a large

use of a small parking area by both administrative staff and

number of coaches, and refreshment facilities.

stadia

Similar successes include Wembley Stadium, in

shop customers. The same applies to the stadium museum

London, which runs visitor tours of the stadium with crowd

and the exhibition space.

sound effects, and Manchester United’s stadium which also 17.4.2

has an impressive museum. England’s national 82,000-seat

desIgn

Retail sales outlets in stadia are usually provided to

rugby stadium at Twickenham, in London, has a very large

concessionaires as serviced shells, possibly fitted out by

shop and a rugby museum with interactive displays and

the stadium management. There must be adequate storage

memorabilia, as well as an audio-visual theatre showing

space, either a room of about 10m near each individual

footage and matches from over the years. Visitors are invited

concession, or a centralised area of perhaps 200m2. These

to explore behind the scenes, the changing areas and the

must be securely lockable. Each shell should be provided

players’ tunnel.

2

with the following services: 17.5.1

locAtIon And scAle of ProvIsIon

• Heating or cooling as required.

The museum and visitor centre are primarily for use on non-

• General power outlets and lighting.

match days. Therefore they should be entered from outside

• Security grille.

the stadium. If they are also to be used on match days,

• Pinboards for posters.

consideration must be given as to whether they should be

• Audio and video system.

accessible to ticket-holders inside the security line. A visitor

• Display cases and shelving. Clothes are the biggest-selling

centre is only likely to attract the public if it is of sufficient

items, so suitable racks must be provided.

size to keep them interested. A stadium tour will only operate on non-match days and should be combined with other

17.5

museums, vIsItor centres



And stAdIum tours





visitor areas.

Museums and visitor centres can be very important

17.5.2

additions, ensuring a large number of visitors to the stadium.

The design of successful attractions is an area where

The Barcelona Noucamp Stadium, for example, repeatedly

knowledge of the latest ideas and technology are important,

has more visitors per annum to the museum than spectators

so specialist designers should be consulted. A typical stadium

to see matches in the stadium itself. It is possibly the most

tour might visit the pitch, changing rooms, VIP areas and

attractive museum in the city, rivalled only by the Picasso

control room, and should finish in the stadium shop. If the

Museum, and is obviously a major source of income. The

stadium is expecting to be a tourist attraction, it will need to

museum is fitted with extensive photographic displays,

provide toilets and an attractive café for visitors.

desIgn

205

18

the media

18.1

Basic planning

18.2

Outside facilities

18.3

press facilities

18.4

radiO BrOadcast facilities

18.5

televisiOn BrOadcast facilities

18.6

receptiOn, cOnference and interview rOOms

18.7

prOvisiOn fOr disaBled peOple

18.1

Basic planning

18.1.1

general

Facilities for the media are an integral part of stadium design, not least because of the  large sums of money that are nowadays earned from the media rights for sporting events. These facilities involve the three main categories of public information and entertainment services: the press (including newspapers and magazines), radio and television. Clubs may also have their own media requirements for club TV stations and websites. In the case of major new stadia, the support facilities described below will be needed in full. In smaller venues, some may be scaled down or omitted, subject to advice from the client or from the media themselves. Because of the importance of these services, we recommend consultation with press and broadcast media at the earliest design stages. 18.1.2

lOcating media facilities in the stadium layOut

Detailed advice for specific facilities is given in the sections below, but we start with four basic planning considerations which will influence the stadium layout as a whole. • Firstly, all media facilities should be grouped together on the same side of the stand as the team dressing rooms. It is extremely inconvenient for media representatives to have to cross to the other side of the stadium to attend interviews. • Secondly, this cluster of facilities should be close to, and easily accessible from, the parking zone for television and radio broadcast vehicles (and perhaps for outside catering and toilet vehicles, as described in Sections 18.2.1 and 18.2.2 below). • Thirdly, these facilities should also be relatively close to the media parking area. The televising of sport and other events are central to stadia.

• One section of ordinary spectator seating should be adjacent to the press area, and accessible from it, so that it may be converted to press usage when demand requires, as will happen when major sports events take place. Provision for such dual use, while

207

STADIA

The meDIA

chapter 18

Figure 18.1 Press and radio area.

208

Written press desks Radio desks

DEDICATED ACCESS FROM PRESS WORKROOM

conforming with the specific requirements given in Section 18.3.1, will need careful planning.

• Press seats for the use of newspaper and magazine reporters. The seats must have an excellent view of the pitch and the central area of the stadium. See Section 18.3 below.

18.1.3

types Of media facilities required

• Cabins for radio commentators, again with an excellent

The following paragraphs offer suggestions. However, it is

view of the pitch and central area. See Section 18.4 below.

essential in all cases to consult media representatives before

• Seats for TV commentators, obviously with an excellent view

taking any firm decisions. Up to three separate types of media activity take place in a stadium and each one must be catered for.

of the pitch and central area. These seats can be enclosed or in the open. Commentators are most likely to want to be near the main TV platform. See section 18.5 below. • Platforms for TV cameras. See Section 18.5 below.

direct cOverage Of the event

This activity happens while the match is in progress and

Figure 18.1 indicates in schematic form a typical press and

requires:

radio area.



the media

chapter 18

interviews with players and Others

Figure 18.2

This activity happens inside the stadium before and after

Press and radio area.

Stadia

the match, most often away from the pitch, and requires interview rooms and support facilities inside the stadium, preferably but not necessarily overlooking the pitch and

Seataway must be minimum 305mm

central area. See Section 18.6 below, for large stadia.

Free standing shelf

preparatiOn and transmissiOn Of cOpy

This activity requires a press working area and associated

Integrated shelf

telecommunications, with no need at all to overlook the pitch. See Sections 18.6 and 18.7 below. 18.2

Outside facilities

Increasing numbers of technical and staff support vehicles

209

are being brought on to site for radio or TV broadcasts. Parking space must be provided for these fairly near to the media entrance. These vehicles may require the use of satellites for transmitting the signal, therefore careful location of dishes or antennae could be critical. This area should be fenced in and secure, with controlled access during events. It should be provided with electrical and water supplies, telecommunications and drainage services. 18.2.1

parking area fOr technical



suppOrt vehicles



Radio and TV technical support vehicles will require heavy

18.2.3

media parking

There should be a reserved parking area fairly near the media entrance for the cars of visiting media personnel.

cabling runs into the stadium for each event. If the cables are not permanently installed, it makes sense to provide

18.3

permanent cable ducts from the parking zone to the relevant

The following paragraphs offer suggestions on reasonable

parts of the stadium. There should be early consultation

provision, but it is essential in all cases to consult media

with the relevant radio and TV companies to determine the

representatives before taking any firm decisions.

press facilities

required duct routes and dimensions. 18.3.1

lOcatiOn and design

18.2.2

parking area fOr tempOrary catering

Newspapers and magazines are the oldest form of news



and tOilet vehicles

and entertainment dissemination. They remain of great

Mobile canteens and toilets for media personnel may be

importance and must be properly catered for.

required for matches attracting particularly heavy radio or TV

The press seating area must be located along

attention. Special parking areas should be set aside for these,

one side of the stadium (a side not facing the sun during

clearly designated, and provided with drainage, water and

daytime matches), with excellent views over the pitch area.

electrical services. The canteens and toilets should be separated.

This side should be the same side as the dressing rooms. It

The canteen should be located away from diesel fumes.

must be under cover and separated from the public seating

STADIA

chapter 18

The meDIA

area by a well-defined barrier. Access should be via a

and opening windows to allow the noise of the crowd in if

separate protected entrance that is well supervised, linking

required. They should be located so as not to face the sun.

back to other press facilities within the stadium. This entry

All commentators must be able to comfortably see all parts

route could be combined with VIP access. See Section 14.3.2.

of the central area and pitch, and preferably also the players’

The press seats themselves should have either a

210

entrance to the field.

folding or fixed desk top (Figure 18.2). Seat width should be

Cabins should open onto a secure and protected

at least 500mm, allowing comfortable working conditions.

lobby area. Each cabin must have a continuous worktop

There should be ample space between seats. Each desk

against the window overlooking the pitch, comfortable

top should be provided with a data and telephone point and

movable seats and monitor screens set into the worktop.

lighting, to allow coverage of nighttime events. A popular

All should be designed under advice from the relevant

seating configuration is the twin-desk arrangement with two

radio stations. Normally there will be three commentators

seats sharing a central data and power console, as shown in

per cabin, sitting at least 1.5m to 1.8m apart at individually

Figure 18.1. This provides more private working space. Figure

serviced positions, separated by transparent soundproof

18.2 shows two press-box seating options.

screens. The total area required for such a three-person cabin

As already mentioned, it may be necessary on

will be approximately 15m2.

occasion to re-allocate some of the public seats to the press.

Other fittings and finishes should be decided

One section of public seating must be located and designed

after expert advice, but in all cases there must be a quiet

so as to allow this. This section must have an excellent view

floor (carpet or rubberised finish to eliminate impact noise),

of the field, and must be under cover. These seats need to be

acoustically absorbent walls and ceilings, and sound-resistant

directly accessible from the main media working area, and

doors with acoustic sealing round the edges. Partitions

separated from the rest of the spectator area by temporary

between cabins must be sound-resistant.

barriers. The seating design should allow for writing surfaces

Services to individual commentator’s positions

to be fitted. There must be provision for telephone and data

will include microphone, electrical, telephone and data

outlets to virtually every position.

outlets, plus ducting for future services.

The required depth of the press desks can often be greater than the depth of the tier on which they are

18.5

located. This may cause sightline restrictions to the adjacent

As before, the following paragraphs offer suggestions on

spectator seating which need to be carefully managed.

reasonable provision, but it is essential in all cases to consult

televisiOn BrOadcast facilities

media representatives before taking any firm decisions. 18.4

radiO BrOadcast facilities

Facilities are needed not just for national or international

18.5.1

broadcasting, but also for local broadcasting which includes

These can be similar to those for radio commentators. TV

transmissions to local community areas and hospitals. These

commentators may prefer to sit out in the open at a desk

services are increasing in popularity.

similar to that for the written media, as described in Section

The following paragraphs offer suggestions on

cOmmentatOrs’ caBins

18.3.1.

reasonable provision, but it is essential in all cases to consult media representatives before taking any firm decisions.

18.5.2

camera platfOrms

Provision must be made for camera platforms with a surface 18.4.1

cOmmentatOrs’ caBins

area of at least 2m by 2m, placed in positions agreed with

Commentators’ cabins should be provided in a central

the relevant TV companies. Even in small sports grounds,

location to the side of the pitch, with excellent viewing,

TV camera positions should be considered since they can



the media

chapter 18

be used by the clubs for video recording for training or for

before the various routes diverge. A good quality eating and

historic records, or to cater for the sale of match footage to

drinking area is required, pleasant and attractive but also

supporters. (Arsenal Football Club, in London, sells about

robust. The room can be fitted out with a variety of dining

30,000 of its match recordings.) There is also the possibility

tables and stackable chairs, standing wall shelves and free-

of local TV broadcasting, including closed circuit broadcasts

standing units.

to hospitals and other community outlets.

In case the above facilities are not adequate

Temporary platforms may be required for

for certain occasions, provision may have to be made in the

large-scale events. It is helpful if these can be converted to

parking area close to the media entrance for mobile catering.

spectator seating when not in use.

See Section 18.2.2.

18.6

receptiOn, cOnference and



interview rOOms



18.6.4

press wOrking area

This is the area where media representatives are briefed,

Again, the following paragraphs offer suggestions on

where they gather information packs and press handouts,

reasonable provision, but it is essential in all cases to consult

where they relax and exchange gossip, and where they carry

media representatives before taking any firm decisions.

out their work. It should comprise a cluster of rooms leading directly from the common media entrance zone. All of the

18.6.1

media receptiOn desk

following functions must be catered for. In larger stadia they

This is the focus of enquiries and the control point where

should have separate rooms. In more modest stadia, some

all media visitors report on arrival before proceeding to the

rooms can be combined.

various facilities described below. This area should therefore give access to all other media facilities, and ensure that such

infOrmatiOn rOOm

access is completely secure.

Not far beyond the reception desk, in a location passed by all

The media reception desk should be equipped

incoming visitors, there should be a room with pinboards for

with telephone and data points, monitoring screens and

press notices, and a mounted work bench where information

electrical power outlets.

packs and brochures can be laid out. The bench top should be at a height suitable for comfortable writing in a standing

18.6.2

tOilets and washrOOms

These will normally be provided immediately after the

position. No windows are needed in this information room, but good artificial ventilation must be provided.

reception desk, before the routes to the various media facilities diverge. They should be to superior standard, and

press lOunge

hygienic with easily cleaned wall and floor surfaces. Facilities

This must be a comfortable room in the same general area as

for cleaning and washing down should be provided, with a

the facilities listed above, fitted with movable chairs and low

trapped waste outlet in the floor. Ample natural ventilation

tables. The decoration and lighting should be attractive and

through opening windows should be provided, rather

conducive to relaxation. The floor should be carpeted, and

than mechanical ventilation systems which are prone to

the room should have acoustically absorbent materials fitted

malfunction. For some occasions, additional temporary

to walls and ceiling.

toilets may be required outside. See Section 18.2.2. press cOnference rOOm 18.6.3

Stadia

canteen, Bar and refreshments

This is a multi-purpose room, normally the last in the

Refreshment facilities should preferably be located in the

sequence of rooms clustered around the media entrance

common entrance area, where all visitors will pass them

area, intended primarily for press conferences but suitable

211

STADIA

chapter 18

The meDIA

also for other meetings. A movable dais should be provided

18.6.6

where those addressing the meeting can be seen clearly by

Beyond the reception and conference facilities described

all in the room. The decoration scheme should be pleasant

above, and closer to the playing field, will be a room or group

but not distracting, allowing space on the wall behind the

of rooms used by newspapers, radio or TV commentators

dais, and on the dais front, for information panels. TV and

and photographers for interviewing players and others. The

recording facilities are often required, and a control room at

reason for locating this section near the playing field is to

the rear of the space is useful.

allow easy access for players before and after play. A view of

interview faCilities

the pitch is a desirable but not essential feature. Central press work room

212

For the most efficient use of space, this may be a temporary

interview studio(s)

rather than dedicated area, used at other times for meetings

This room (or rooms) should be pleasant, and fitted with

and exhibitions. Extensive tables and chairs must be provided.

comfortable movable chairs and low tables. The decoration

The latter must be stackable, with adjacent storage rooms

scheme should include simple wall surfaces, possibly covered

(see below) accommodating them when not needed. There

with plain curtains as a backdrop to televised interviews. While

should be a movable dais (also stored elsewhere when not

windows are not essential, it is an advantage to have good

needed) and extensive pinboards on the walls for notices,

views over the playing fields. The rooms must be artificially

instructions and general information for the press. A raised

ventilated so that windows can be kept shut to exclude

floor, allowing services to be run underneath, is ideal. There

outside noise. Studios must have good sound insulation, and

must be generous provision of telephone, data and video

all mechanical systems must be silent in operation.

terminals. mixed zone 18.6.5

Some competitions, such as the UEFA Champions League,

administrative faCilities

This is the working area of the public relations personnel

require open access to players by the media after an event. In

who are responsible for briefing, meeting and cultivating the

this case, a mixed zone, located between players’ and media

media representatives. It must therefore be adjacent to, and

areas, can be used by both parties.

have direct access to, the facilities mentioned above. television studio stadium press offiCers’ room

A studio with panoramic views of the stadium is often

The press officers’ room will be a standard office of about

required by TV broadcasters for hosting transmission of

150m2 with desks and chairs, space for filing cabinets, office

an event. A large window, with unobstructed views of the

equipment and cupboards, and preferably a large wall-

stadium, is preferred. This can be remote from the other

mounted pinboard. Telephone and data points must be

media facilities, and need not be accessible to the players.

provided.

Introductions and summaries are often carried out here. The fit-out of the space can be basic since host broadcasters generally bring their own staging, lighting and set dressing.

seCretariat

A standard secretarial office of about 100m should be 2

provided close to the press officers’ room. It will need to

television Control area

accommodate one or more desks for computer work, filing

TV companies will want a control room adjacent to the

cabinets and cupboards. It must be provided with generous

interview studio. Requirements should be checked directly

electrical and telephone and data points.

with them.



the media

chapter 18

PhotograPhers’ working area

toilets

Press photographers may need one or more darkrooms,

If the facilities described above are far from the toilets and

though facilities for chemical development are rapidly

washrooms itemised in Section 18.6.2, it may be necessary to

becoming obsolete owing to the use of digital cameras. If

provide an additional toilet in this area.

Stadia

needed, dark rooms should be planned without windows, with light-sealed doors and artificial ventilation or air conditioning

18.7

(the latter also light sealed) to get rid of chemical fumes.

Laws such as the Disability Discrimination Act, in the UK, and

Sinks and bench-tops must be provided, plus an illuminated

its counterparts in other countries including Australia and

‘room occupied’ sign to prevent interruption.

the USA, now require all facilities in stadia – including those

Provision for disabled PeoPle

for the media – to be fully accessible to disabled people. For 18.6.7

telecommunications area

guidance, see Chapter 10.

Somewhere between, or adjacent to, the press working area and the interview facilities there may be the following group of service rooms. telePhone room

This room must have excellent ventilation, either natural or artificial. It must be acoustically quiet, and fitted with a number of separate telephone positions, each with an acoustic hood for privacy, and a shelf for writing. Windows are not necessary.

213

19

administrative operations

19.1

Basic planning

19.2

Facilities For permanent management

19.3

Facilities For temporary events management

19.4

Facilities For visitors

19.5

provision For stewards

19.6

Facilities For police and security oFFicials

19.7

toilets

19.8

First aid Facilities For staFF and spectators

19.9

provision For disaBled people

19.1

Basic planning

19.1.1

user types

The majority of administrative personnel to be accommodated are those employees responsible for the day-to-day running of the stadium, and for administration of the resident sports club (if there is one). Their numbers will increase from time to time due to temporary staff working on a one-off basis. A suite of offices and associated accommodation must be provided for both these groups, as described in Sections 19.2 and 19.3, below. All of these officials will need hospitality facilities to entertain players and distinguished visitors. These are described in Section 19.4. A third group of people to be catered for are the stewards brought in on match days for crowd control. Their requirements are set out in Section 19.5. Finally, provision must be made for the police and security staff. Their needs are described in Section 19.6. All user groups need good access (Figure 19.1). 19.1.2

locations

Administrative facilities (except for police and security offices) should generally be close to the following areas, with reasonably easy access to them: • VIP facilities, especially the directors’ and VIP hospitality rooms and viewing boxes (see Chapter 13). • Media facilities, especially the press working area and the stadium press officer’s room (see Section 18.6). • Team managers’, officials’ and referees’ facilities (see Chapter 20). The administration entrance will normally be in the centre of the main side of the stadium. Car parking for officials and their guests must be provided nearby.

215

STADIA

chapter 19

ADmInISTrATIve operATIonS

Figure 19.1

• Staff responsible for maintenance and security, and for emergency operations.

Access to the stadium by the seven main user groups.

• Staff responsible for catering. Subject to detailed discussion with the client, the rooms Management servicing

discussed in the following seven sections will be needed in

Event Organisation

most cases. 19.2.1

oFFices

In a large stadium there should be offices for the director Media

Spectators

(20m2), secretariat (12m2), other staff members (12m2 per person), public relations and marketing (12m2 per person) and event organisation (12m2 per person). In smaller stadia

Stadium

some of the above could be combined for economy. These

216

rooms should be designed with finishes, equipment and lighting to good office standards. VIP’s Sponsors

Officials Referees

Players Athletes

19.2.2

Boardroom

Fittings and furnishings should be of a standard befitting this VIP space. They should include a suitable boardroom table and comfortable chairs, drinks and refreshment cupboard, refrigerator, and perhaps a small bar if the room is to be used for hospitality. A display of photographs and a secure cupboard for trophies and mementoes should be considered, the latter to

19.1.3

scales oF provision

be extremely secure in view of the value of the contents.

General guidance is given in the sections below, but specific

The area of this room would typically be

accommodation requirements can only be determined after

between 30m2 and 50m2. Depending on the size of the

discussion with the client and police authorities. Figures

stadium and its operation, the boardroom may be used for

given here must be carefully checked as the brief is compiled.

hospitality or other purposes.

19.2

19.2.3

Facilities For permanent management

Offices and ancillary accommodation should be provided for:

appeals room

A room should be available for hearing appeals, but this is usually not a dedicated room.

• Staff responsible for marketing, promotion, advertising and ticketing of events.

19.2.4

stadium control room

• Staff responsible for administration and finance. Their

This is the nerve centre from which the entire venue is

needs will include secure facilities for cash receipts and

controlled, both in normal times and in emergencies. Its

credit card checking.

location, design and fitting out are of great importance.

• Staff responsible for building services, energy control,

Comprehensive advice for soccer stadia is given in Control

lighting, mechanical and electrical equipment and sound

Rooms (see Bibliography), and the following brief notes are

equipment.

no substitute for the full data given in this essential reference.



administrative operations

chapter 19

According to paragraph 2.5 of Control Rooms, any police

The room must be equipped with the following: TV monitors;

officers who may need to be present during a match will work

telephone links both inside and outside the stadium;

within the stadium control room. However, if a dedicated police

microphones for internal sound broadcasting and public

control room is thought necessary, see Section 19.6 below.

address purposes; control panels for stadium lighting;

For notes on the protection of the control room against attack by terrorists or others, see Section 6.5.6.

stadia

and other technical features. All room finishes must be acoustically absorbent, and the door must be soundproof. Although the windows overlooking the pitch

location

may be opened, they will usually be kept shut for noise

Firstly, the location should give the clearest possible view

exclusion. Therefore artificial ventilation is vital.

over the playing field, unobstructed by spectators. It should

A bench-top placed against this window will

also give a view over the circulation areas (see Chapter 14),

be the main working surface. Personnel should be provided

and spectator accommodation (see Chapter 11) by means

with comfortable chairs, and should be able to see the pitch,

of closed circuit TV cameras. The cross sections shown

the central area and the electronic screens from a seated

in diagrams 4 and 5 in Control Rooms illustrate some of

position at this bench.

217

these points. For soccer grounds in the UK, diagrams 2 and

19.2.5

video and electronic screen

3 in Control Rooms show a range of options. In order not



control room



to look into the sun, the ideal location will be on the north,

This room must be linked with the stadium control room

northwest, south, south-west or west stand. For a clear view,

above, and similarly designed and furnished, with space for

a position at the very back (i.e. the highest point) of the

two or three seats. These must have excellent views of the

chosen stand will in many cases be best. For other sports

screens described below and of the spectator area.

and other countries, the precise location may be different, but the basic principles outlined in Control Rooms will still

video and electronic screens

be relevant.

Any major stadium today must be equipped with one or Secondly, the control room ought ideally to be

two electronic or video screens which may be used for

adjacent to the police control room, and possibly combined

announcements, advertisements, safety instructions etc.

with it, so that an integrated response to an emergency

They may sometimes be used for replays, either to entertain

is possible.

the spectators or (more rarely) to assist officials and judges. Thirdly, the control room should be easily

Screen size and characteristics will depend

accessible to everyone who needs it, and as near as possible

on the type of stadium, the kinds of events staged and

to the pre-event briefing area.

the distance to spectators. Large screens are increasingly

Diagram 6 in Control Rooms shows the spatial relationships of the control room and surrounding facilities. This diagram applies specifically to soccer stadia, but it will be generally helpful for other situations.

becoming available, and the technology is improving rapidly (see also Appendix 2). Screens should be at the ends of the pitch where they can be seen by the maximum number of spectators. In some cases it may be desirable to have two screens, one at

design

each end of the playing area. It is important the sun does not

No particular room size can be recommended as circumstances

fall directly on the screen face, as this can severely detract

vary so much, but the plans of four worked examples, shown

from the quality of the image.

on pages 37 to 40 of Control Rooms, will help designers with room dimensions and layout.

All these matters, especially the position of the screens, should be carefully checked with the sports bodies

STADIA

chapter 19

ADmInISTrATIve operATIonS

concerned. Screens must on no account distract participants,

such as circuses, pop concerts or religious gatherings. These

particularly in the case of athletics.

requirements will depend so much on the particular case that no advice can be given here except to stress that the matter

19.2.6

must be discussed with the client.

computer equipment room

Computer equipment rooms should be designed in line with the best current practice. Lighting should be even and to

19.4

a high standard, and ventilation excellent. The floor can be

These should include:

raised with under-floor services and easily cleaned finishes.

• VIP hospitality rooms.

Vibration and noise from other parts of the building must be

• Players’ bar.

minimised.

• Facilities for match-day stewards.

Facilities For visitors

As computers become smaller and less

218 218

dependent on special environments, the above requirements

19.5

provision For stewards

are becoming less stringent. Requirements should be

19.5.1

the Functions oF stewards

checked at briefing stage.

Accommodation is needed for the stewards and security staff employed on match days as part of customer service. Their

19.2.7

Building maintenance and



services rooms



roles include helping spectators find their seats, generally assisting with information, and keeping order in a low-key

Accommodation will be needed for building maintenance

manner. (More difficult situations are the responsibility of

staff and equipment, the number of facilities depending on

security personnel or police.) The duties performed by stewards vary from

management policy. Some

stadia

are

operated

by

specialist

contractors who bring in not only their own staff but much of

country to country, between sports and even within a single national sport.

their own equipment, too. In these cases, only basic

In Britain, stewards often used to be voluntary

accommodation need be provided, comprising at least the

and unpaid, with older men chosen because of their loyalty

following:

to the club, and their desire to watch matches. Frequently they were responsible not only for normal customer service

• Groundsmen’s rooms.

duties but also for crowd control, a task for which they had

• An equipment room.

usually not been properly trained. This pattern is changing, with younger men and women increasingly being recruited

In other cases, stadia are operated by their own permanent

on a paid basis. This is partly due to stadium economics, since

staff and equipment, with additional accommodation needed.

it reduces the very expensive police presence demanded

All equipment rooms must be finished with

at many matches by local authorities, and partly a move

hard-wearing, low-maintenance surfaces. Floors may be

towards better customer care. Training in safety control is

smooth concrete or some other impervious, hard finish. The

therefore essential, and in the UK is now being provided to

maintenance of service connections and equipment should

nationally recognised standards. A very different pattern is seen in the USA where

be easily carried out.

stewards tend to be more professional and are supported by 19.3

Facilities For temporary events



management



what is known as peer security (i.e. stewards drawn from the same socio-economic group as those attending the event).

As stated in Section 19.1.1, additional personnel will be

Such stewards are sometimes also referred to as tee-shirt

brought in from time to time to manage particular events

security because of the brightly coloured shirts they wear.



administrative operations

In the future, stewarding is likely to be more

chapter 19

19.6

Facilities For police and

interactive, with stewards going out of their way to chat to



security oFFicials



spectators and make them feel welcome.

Police and related security systems are vital considerations in

stadia



modern stadia, but it is not possible to generalise about the 19.5.2

numBers oF stewards

number of police who will attend an event. On any typical

Because patterns of stewarding vary so much, it is impossible

winter weekend in the UK, when soccer is being played,

to give simple accommodation advice. Every management

around 5,000 police will be on duty around the country.

will have its own methods, and these should be clarified at

Individual events can have as few as 10 to 50 on site while

briefing stage. The following notes offer a starting point.

major soccer matches can have as many as 300 to 400.

Based on normal British practice, a stadium with

This will be a decision taken by the police themselves in

an attendance of 10,000 to 20,000 spectators may require

consultation with the stadium management and the club

20 to 60 stewards, while one with an attendance of 20,000

concerned. The decision will have to take into account the

to 40,000 spectators may require 60 to 100 stewards. In

following factors: 219 219

situations where peer security is included, the acceptable ratios may range from roughly one steward to 75 spectators

• Expected attendance.

in small stadia, up to one steward per 200 spectators in

• Club’s past record of crowd behaviour.

larger stadia. This number will be made up of the following

• Number and type of visiting supporters.

broad categories:

• Nature and location of the ground. • Experience of stewards.

• Turnstile stewards. • Door stewards.

As a guide to the number of police inside a ground for soccer

• Security stewards (these include peer security) who may

matches in the UK, we have listed the numbers suggested

comprise about half of the total number. • Sector supervisor stewards.

in the 1990 Home Office publication Policing Football

Hooliganism.

• Crowd assessors. • Crowd safety stewards.

Category 1: For smaller clubs (e.g. lower divisions), as few as

• Fire-fighting stewards.

30 to 40 officers may be needed. Category 2: For larger clubs (e.g. premier division), some

Ideally, the following spaces should be provided to

300 officers may be required on a normal match day.

accommodate the above people, but it may be possible for some of these areas to be shared with other staff:

Policing was once provided free of charge but now it is usually charged at a high rate to the stadium management.

• Briefing room (based on 1.5m2 per steward) for issuing instructions to stewards on the day.

In Europe there is a tendency to try to reduce the police presence required, perhaps because the numbers used in the

• Stewards’ cloakroom.

USA and Canada tend to be less. As an example, the number

• Storage room provided by the stadium management for

of police used at events in the Toronto Skydome are set out

official clothing. • Small kitchen facility for making hot drinks and refreshments. • Stewards’ refreshment area to encourage their early arrival at the grounds.

in Table 19.1. In comparing this level of policing, it must be remembered that most stadia in the USA and Canada also employ their own security staff. They are generally well trained and, in the case of the Skydome, are taught at their

STADIA

chapter 19

ADmInISTrATIve operATIonS

own Skydome University, in Toronto. The selection process

of, say, 20,000 or more, it may be necessary to provide

is quite stringent, with only one in six applicants accepted.

these security facilities in each sector. Video coverage and

They then receive between 15 and 40 hours of training before

monitoring will be needed for stadia with capacity of more

they are deployed. Numbers of security staff employed at

than 30,000. For small stadia of, say, 20,000 or fewer

the Skydome are given in Table 19.2.

spectators, there will only be a need for a single police control

In order for police and security officials to

room. In Holland, court rooms have been provided on the

operate effectively, we have suggested the following

stadium site to enable justice to be swiftly administered.

schedule of accommodation which should be considered at

This needs to be discussed with local police authorities, and

the design stage of a large stadium.

is quite a rare practice. All the accommodation should be linked, with controlled, secure access.

• Control room with glass screen overlooking the sports

220

pitch, with video screen consoles in the room (see Section

police control room

19.2.4 above).

If the police have their own dedicated control room (see

• Detention rooms of, say, two cells with toilets.

Section 19.2.4 above), this area should be fitted with a bench

• Refreshment and toilet facilities for police.

in front of the window, with TV and video monitors, and

• Waiting and information room.

with service connections and telephone links to both inside

• Mass arrest facilities with two compounds large enough to

and outside the stadium. It should be located adjacent to, or

accommodate, say, 30 spectators.

integrated with, the stadium control facilities mentioned in Section 19.2.4. There should be movable, comfortable chairs

These different types of accommodation are described in

for the police in attendance. The public address announcer

later paragraphs. In a major venue where there are separate

should be to one side, preferably in a corner to reduce

parts of the grounds dividing the spectators into groups

background noise during microphone use. An auxiliary audio control panel could be located in this room which copies the main panel in the management control room. All CCTV screens should be grouped together in an organised way, and monitored by police and other

Family events

0.5 per 1,000 spectators

Sporting events

1.0 per 1,000 spectators

Concerts

1.6 per 1,000 spectators

High-risk events

3.0 per 1,000 spectators

Table 19.1

Police presence at the Skydome, Toronto, Canada

security officials in the police control room. It is from this police control room that all security operations should be monitored, all decisions taken and all instructions given through telephone, wireless and public radio broadcasts. It is also important that camera orientation can be controlled from this room. While many of the cameras used in a full surveillance can be static, it is useful, when covering the area of spectator viewing around the pitch, if the camera is able to move. It should be able to traverse sideways and elevate

Security managers

2

Full-time security officers

18

crowd, perhaps identifying individual spectators. Along

Peer security

110

with this monitoring exercise, a method of taking hard copy

Event security

80

Table 19.2

Security personnel at the Skydome, Toronto, Canada

up and down, as well as zooming in to specific areas of the

printouts of particular images should be available, as well as recording any image from any of the cameras being used in surveillance.



administrative operations

chapter 19

All the administrative facilities described in the above

Community Directive 89/654 covers health requirements in

sections must have access to toilets for both sexes. Some

the workplace and directs in Clause 19 that ‘one or more first

groups will be able to share toilets, but when distances

aid rooms must be provided where the size of premises, type

become too great, separate provision must be made. In all

of activity being carried out and frequency of accidents so

cases, hot and cold running water, soap and drying facilities

dictates’. This may lead to a more precise definition of the

must be provided. Space must also be allowed for vending

requirements for a first-aid room than those embodied in the

machines, incinerators and waste bins.

UK regulations.

19.7

stadia

In the European Community, European Economic

toilets

In estimating overall space, the planning consultants DEGW suggest the following floor areas:

19.8.2

FiFa and ueFa requirements

In the case of soccer stadia, FIFA and UEFA’s recommendations • For men, allow 1m2 per three people for toilet, urinal and

for new stadia state that ‘every stadium should be equipped

hand-washing space combined. For women, allow 1m2 per

with a first aid room or rooms to care for spectators in

three people for combined toilet and hand-washing space.

need  of medical assistance. The number, size and location of

1.83m by 0.9m is the recommended size of a toilet cubicle.

these rooms should be agreed in consultation with the local

• For overall space planning, allow 1.68m2 per toilet, 0.93m2

health authority’. Where FIFA and UEFA rules apply, first-aid

per urinal and 0.75m2 per washbasin. These areas do not include the outer walls forming the toilet area, nor the

rooms should, in general:

entrance lobbies, but they do include cubicle partitions and • Be positioned to allow easy access to spectators and

the standing space at urinals and basins.

emergency vehicles from both inside and outside the The above notes should be read in conjunction with Chapters

stadium. • Have doors and passageways wide enough to allow a

10 and 16.

stretcher or wheelchair.

• Have bright lighting, good ventilation, heating, electrical

19.8

First-aid Facilities For staFF



and spectators

outlets, hot and cold water (suitable for drinking) and

19.8.1

introduction

toilets for males and females.

In addition to the medical and first-aid facilities for players mentioned in Chapter 20, provision must also be made for staff and spectators. This is a legal requirement in most European and North American localities. The specific requirements must be discussed with the local health authority. Relevant UK regulations include:

• Have walls and non-slip floors finished in smooth, easily cleanable materials. • Have storage space for stretchers, blankets, pillows and first-aid materials. • Have a telephone(s) allowing internal and external communication. • Be clearly signposted throughout the inside and outside of

• The Health and Safety (First Aid) 1981 Regulations and The

the stadium.

Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999. • The Fire Safety and Safety of Places of Sport Act 1987.

19.8.3

the taylor report

The Taylor Report (which arose from the Hillsborough Stadium disaster of 15 April 1989, in Sheffield, UK) recommended that

All UK Acts of Parliament may be downloaded from www.

in British stadia ‘there should be at each designated sports

opsi.gov.uk/acts.htm

ground one or more first aid rooms, which should be in addition to the club’s own medical rooms for players’.

221

stadia

administrative operations

CHAPTER 19

Following this, a medical working party of

Room facilities should include:

England’s Football League made a number of specific recommendations. These are in no sense obligatory but are quoted here as useful guidelines. They state that first-aid

• Provision to treat three patients simultaneously, with reasonable privacy.

posts should be sited around the stadium so that no spectator

• Stainless steel sink, work surface, wash basin, drainage, hot

is too far from one. They should be very clearly signposted

and cold water supply (including drinking water), soap and

and preferably pointed out in the match programme. The

hand-drying facilities.

room(s) should:

• Surfaces which are all hard, impervious and easy to clean. (We would add the need for a floor drain, as blood cannot

• Be at least 28m2 and of regular shape. As an interesting

• At least six 13-amp electrical outlets.

(see Bibliography) recommends at least 15m2, or 25m2 if

• Adequate waste disposal facilities, with provision for

stadium capacity is above 15,000 spectators. 222

easily be wiped from the floor without risk of infection.)

comparison, the UK Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds

• Be readily available at all times during an event, and be used only for purposes of first aid. • Be easily accessible from all parts of the stadium, and be

clinical and sharp waste. • Effective means of communication to and from a central control point and the emergency services. A telephone link with an exclusive external line would be the best such means.

located near a point of access for transport to hospital. • Be near to a toilet (which should be accessible to wheelchair

19.8.4

dimensions

users) and to a private waiting room with chairs, where

Recommended room dimensions have been given above.

patients and relatives can wait.

Stretchers are commonly 1.9m by 0.56m, and minimum

• Have doorways of sufficient width to allow easy passage of a stretcher plus attendants. • Have good ventilation, heating and lighting, and be

dimensions to accommodate stretchers and wheelchairs are 0.9m for door sets and 1.2m for corridor widths. An ambulance access road should be at least 6m wide.

designated a no-smoking area. • Have sufficient storage space for equipment.

19.9

provision For disaBled people

Laws such as the Disability Discrimination Act, in the UK, and its counterparts in other countries including Australia and the USA, now require all facilities in stadia – including those for the administrative personnel – to be fully accessible to disabled people. For guidance, see Chapter 10.

20

facilities for players and officials

20.1

Basic planning

20.2

players’ facilities

20.3

team management facilities

20.4

Officials’ facilities

20.5

medical examinatiOn facilities

20.6

ancillary facilities

20.7

prOvisiOn fOr disaBled peOple

20.1

Basic planning

20.1.1

general

Every stadium, however small, must provide facilities for those taking part in the events. However, the type of accommodation needed varies enormously. A soccer or rugby match may need facilities for only two teams plus officials, whereas a major international athletics event may attract hundreds of participants. It is almost impossible to provide accommodation on this scale on a permanent basis, in which case temporary accommodation will be needed for largescale events. The guidance below suggests a reasonable provision of facilities. If there is a home team, most of the accommodation will concentrate on their requirements as they will be using the facilities on a regular basis for training. If the stadium is home to more than one team then it must be decided whether the teams can share facilities or whether separate facilities must be provided for each. The latter is usually the case where major sports clubs are involved, although some sharing of training equipment may be possible. Team changing facilities for the resident team are a very special area. It is their home, a place to which few people can gain entry. The resident organisation should be closely consulted on design, layout and character. If the stadium is also used for concerts and other events, this must be taken into account. 20.1.2

lOcatiOn Of facilities in the stadium layOut

access tO Outside

There must be direct access between players’ changing facilities and the service road outside. This road will be used by coaches conveying teams to and from the stadium, and also by ambulances. The service road should give access to the team entrance, and also to the playing area so that injured players can be reached quickly and easily by ambulances.

225

STADIA

fAcIlITIeS for plAyerS AnD offIcIAlS

chapter 20

Access to the pitch

LocAtion

There must also be direct, protected access between

Whenever possible, players’ and officials’ accommodation

players’  changing rooms and the pitch. At events where

should be situated at pitch level to allow easy and direct

players and referees may be subject to attack (such as the

access to the playing area.

hurling of missiles) by the crowd, safety requirements are stringent. Soccer matches in countries with strong traditions

20.1.3

of team loyalty fall into this category. Recommendations are

Requirements must be determined by discussions with

outlined below.

clients and the relevant governing bodies.

scALes of provision

In the case of new stadia for World Cup and European Championship finals, FIFA and UEFA recommend:

226

20.2

pLAyers’ fAciLities

20.2.1

introduction

Ideally, each of the teams’ dressing rooms and the referees’

The facilities described below should be directly linked with

dressing room should have its own corridor for access to

the media area (see Section 18.1), the team administrative

the pitch. These corridors may join up near the exit to the

offices (see Section 19.1) and, if possible, the team directors’

playing area.

suite or chairman’s box (see Section 13.1). If these facilities cannot be at ground level, as recommended above, they

The point where the players and the referees enter the

should be served by an elevator.

playing area, which ideally should be at the centreline

Corridor and door widths should be generous,

and on the same side as the VIP box, press stand and

because these are busy areas on a match day: 1.2m is a

administrative offices, must be protected by means of

minimum width, and 1.5m preferable. Good ventilation is

a fireproof telescopic tunnel extending into the playing

essential to prevent condensation, as well as a heating and

area far enough to prevent the risk of injury to the match

cooling system in the changing areas, depending on local

participants caused by missiles thrown by spectators.

climate and seasons of play.

Such telescopic tunnels should be capable of being

unauthorised entry. It should be inaccessible to the public

extended or closed quickly so that they may be used

and the media, and have direct, protected access to the

during the match when a player is leaving or entering the

pitch, as outlined in Section 20.1.2.

The whole area should be secure against

field, without causing unduly lengthy viewing obstruction.

Finishes must be robust and easily cleanable. Recent forms of non-slip plastic matting and hard-wearing

Alternatively, the entrance to the playing area may be by

carpets are ideal for the changing rooms themselves.

means of an underground tunnel, the mouth of which is situated a similarly safe distance away from spectators.

20.2.2

chAnging rooms for sports

A changing room or locker room should be provided for each There should be no possibility of public or media interference

home team and at least one visiting team. Two such rooms

at any point within these corridors or security tunnels.

should be provided for visiting teams if matches are held

In the case of European Club competitions, the UEFA recommendations simply state:

between two visiting teams; unless the home team allows use of its facilities (unlikely) or the visiting teams are willing to share (more likely). Some stadia start the day’s events

In order to guarantee the safety of players and match

with a curtain-raiser, often a match between teams in a lower

officials, participating clubs shall provide for an access to

league or junior teams, or even an event from a different

the field ensuring safe entry and exit.

sport. These teams also require changing facilities.



facilities for players and officials

chapter 20

stadia

Figure 20.1 Schematic relationship between facilities for players and officials, the pitch, and facilities for media.

Pitch PRESS DESKS (WITHIN BOWL)

Team staff

PLAYERS TUNNEL

Officials

Home changing room

Flash TV/Radio Interviews

Away changing room

Press conference room

Press workroom

227 Manager’s office

Players’ lounge

Players

Mixed zone

Press office

Press lounge

PLAYERS + OFFICIALS’ ENTRANCE

Media

Each changing room should contain lockers,

Press reception

PRESS ENTRANCE

20.2.3

massage rOOms

bench seats and hanging space for each individual player

At least one massage table or bench is required in each

(including reserves). Space for each player should be between

changing area. Two are needed for major stadia.

600mm and 900mm wide, and at least 1200mm deep. In the case of soccer, FIFA requires 20 of these positions. The

20.2.4

requirements for rugby are similar. The benches should be

Washing facilities should be directly accessible from the

designed so that clothes can be kept dry and in good order.

changing area, without going through the toilets. As a general

American football teams often prefer individual cabinets or

guide, there should be one shower for every 1.5 to 2 players,

open hanging units with side panels, rather than the open

allowing 1.5m2 per player. However, specific requirements must

benching that is common for soccer and rugby.

be discussed with clients and the relevant governing bodies.

Washing and tOilet facilities

In the case of new football stadia catering for

For male teams, toilet facilities fitted with

major matches, FIFA and UEFA recommend four separate

both toilets and urinals should be provided at a ratio of one

team dressing rooms.

position per three players, or as required by clients and the

STADIA

fAcIlITIeS for plAyerS AnD offIcIAlS

chapter 20

Players’ Parking

Reception Control VIP Route

Doping Control

Medical Examination Doctor X-Ray

Press Interview Room

Toilets Showers

Changing Room

Players’ Bar & Refreshment

Toilets Showers

Changing Room

Boot Room

Toilets Showers

Referees’ Changing

Kit Room

Gymnasium Warm Up

Laundry

228

Physio Massage

Match delegates (FIFA & UEFA)

Participants’ First Aid

Protected Route

Figure 20.2 Schematic relation between various players’ and referees’ facilities.

PLAY AREA



facilities for players and officials

chapter 20

relevant governing bodies. Both washing and toilet areas

20.3.2

should be well served by natural ventilation. All surfaces

The rooms will depend largely on the size of the sports club

should be durable, impervious and designed so they can be

involved, but will probably comprise the following:

stadia

facilities

thoroughly washed down. Provision should be made for disabled people. For guidance, see Chapters 10 and 16.

• Reception area of approximately 12m2 to 15m2. • General office and secretarial area. • Executive offices with private entrance.

20.2.5

ancillary accOmmOdatiOn

The following accommodation should be provided as part of the changing areas described above:

• Board or meeting room of approximately 25m2 to 30m2, with bar facilities. • Team manager’s office of approximately 18m2. • Assistant team manager’s office of approximately 12m2.

• A large training room used for preliminary warm-up exercises.

• Team coach’s office of 12m2 to 18m2. • Possibly an office for an assistant team coach.

• A players’ first-aid room near the pitch, en route to the

• A chairman’s suite connected to the executive offices.

changing areas. 20.4

Officials’ facilities

Additional facilities which may be included or shared between

For every event taking place on the field there will be officials,

teams (depending on the teams’ importance):

judges, umpires, linesmen and referees who require separate changing and toilet accommodation. They will also need

• A general meeting room for the team with projector and

administrative space which, in the case of smaller stadia, may

screen. (This room could also be used for other purposes

be shared. Provision will depend on the sport played and the

such as press interviews.)

number of games staged in one day.

• A players’ bar and games area where players can relax after a game or training session. (It should be equipped

20.4.1

with a light refreshment kitchen.)

The rooms described below should be close to the players’

• A gym, weights and exercise area.

dressing rooms, but without direct access. They must be

• A sauna and hydrotherapy area.

inaccessible to the public and the media, but with direct

• A waiting room with its own toilet for players’ relatives.

protected access to the playing area, as described in Section

• An equipment storage area with shelves and cupboards.

20.1.2.

lOcatiOn

• A laundry and clothes drying area. • A boot-cleaning and storage room.

20.4.2

facilities and scales Of prOvisiOn

changing rOOms team management facilities

As a general guide, referee and linesmen’s changing

This area is not to be confused with the stadium management

accommodation should comprise four spaces, allowing 2.5m2

facilities described in Chapter 19; unless the stadium managers

per official, with associated lockers, toilets and showers.

20.3

and team managers are the same.

A separate area within the room should be provided with a table and chair for writing reports.

20.3.1

lOcatiOn

The most precise guidance that is available on

These facilities are usually on the main side of the stadium,

scales of provision are the FIFA/UEFA recommendations for

close to the administration area (see Chapter 19) but probably

new football stadia for major matches. While these cannot be

at a lower level.

directly applied to all stadia, they give a useful starting point.

229

STADIA

chapter 20

fAcIlITIeS for plAyerS AnD offIcIAlS

appeals rOOm

• Two portable stretchers, kept alongside the pitch during

Every sport is based on a firm set of rules. Players who

games.

transgress those rules will have action taken against them by

• One washbasin.

the officials of the sport. To allow this judicial process to take

• One glass cabinet for medications.

place, an appeals room or court must be provided. The room

• One treatment table.

must accommodate a jury of five or six people, plus two

• One oxygen bottle with mask.

or three other officials. It does not need to be a dedicated

• One blood-pressure gauge.

space but be one of the other areas in the stadium if suitably

• One heating apparatus (such as a hotplate) for instruments.

located and planned (see Section 19.2.3).

• Possibly some physiotherapy equipment.

match delegates’ rOOm

See also Section 19.8 which deals with medical facilities for

FIFA and UEFA’s recommendations for new stadia for major

spectators.

football matches require a special room for the competition 230

officials who sit on the centre bench of the pitch. This room

resident dOctOr’s rOOm

should be close to the general dressing room area and be at

In larger stadia, the team doctor should have his or her own

least 16m in size. Equipment should include:

room of 100m2 adjacent to the medical examination room,

2

and linked to it internally. • One desk. • Three chairs.

x-ray rOOm

• One clothes locker.

Where justified, an X-ray room of about 20m2 may be

• One telephone.

provided close to the medical examination room for examination of injuries.

20.5

medical examinatiOn facilities

20.5.1

lOcatiOn

dOpe-testing facilities

The accommodation described below should be close to

Stadia used for major competitions will probably require a

the players’ dressing rooms, with easy access to the outside

room of at least 16m2, equipped with the following:

entrance and to the playing area, as described in Section 20.1.2.

• One desk. • Two chairs.

20.5.2

facilities and scales Of prOvisiOn

The specific requirements of local safety authorities and

• One basin. • One telephone.

the relevant medical teams will take priority, and must be established as part of the brief. Subject to that, the following

Adjacent to this room, with direct private access to it, should

advice is given by FIFA and UEFA for new football stadia for

be a toilet facility comprising toilet, washbasin and shower.

major events.

Near the dope-testing room there should be a waiting area with seating for eight people, clothes hanging facilities or

medical examinatiOn rOOm

lockers for four people, and a refrigerator.

There should be a room of at least 25m2, equipped with: 20.6 ancillary facilities

• One examination table 600mm wide, accessible from three sides.

Depending on the size of the stadium, other facilities can be included which will assist in its operation.



facilities for players and officials

chapter 20

stadia

• Media interview room: this should be adjacent to the team room, and be supplied with electrical and lighting equipment suitable for TV broadcasting. • Players’ warm-up area and gym for use before the game. • A field toilet and drinking fountain close to the access route to the pitch. • Enclosures, or dug-outs, which are covered and have direct access to the appropriate team’s changing areas. 20.7

prOvisiOn fOr disaBled peOple

Laws such as the Disability Discrimination Act in the UK, and its counterparts in other countries including Australia and the USA, now require all facilities in stadia – including those for players and officials – to be fully accessible to disabled people. For guidance, see Chapter 10.

231

21

SERVICES

21.1

Lighting systems

21.2

CLosed-CirCuit teLevision systems

21.3

sound systems

21.4

heating and CooLing systems

21.5

Fire deteCtion and Fighting systems

21.6

Power suPPLy and event Continuation

21.7

water suPPLy and drainage serviCes

21.8

inFormation teChnoLogy

21.1

Lighting systems

21.1.1

introduCtion

If a stadium is to achieve its full potential use and be operated at night or late afternoon a comprehensive lighting system is essential. Two main types of illumination are needed: • Lighting of passageways and escape routes so that spectators can enter and leave the stadium safely. • Lighting the play area so that players and spectators can see the action clearly and without strain. It may be necessary also to illuminate the venue for television cameras, in which case the requirements become more stringent. Both safety and pitch lighting are required together, since one without the other would be redundant; the only exceptions being: • Night-time concerts using their own stage lighting systems fed from a power supply on the grounds (which is common practice); or • Sporting events which finish while there is daylight, but darkness falls before all the spectators have left the grounds (this is most unlikely for major stadia). In these cases the stadium would need only to supply emergency lighting for spectators. 21.1.2

emergenCy Lighting For sPeCtators

requirements

Emergency lighting must fulfil several functions, primarily to: • Illuminate escape routes and exits clearly, so that spectators are in no doubt about the correct direction of movement in an emergency, and can move along safely The Beijing Olympic Stadium at night during the 2008 Games.

without risk of stumbling and falling even when hurrying and in a panic.

233

STADIA

chapter 21

ServIceS

• Illuminate alarm call points and fire-fighting equipment so

Canada, is a striking example of the exploitation of neon

that they may be easily located.

advertising signs to create a bright and cheerful atmosphere under an otherwise dark grey structure, and to highlight

Luminaires should be provided along each passageway and

certain locations.

escape route so that there are no dark areas, especially on stairs and landings and at emergency doors. In the UK, an

stand-by Power

illumination level of at least 1 Lux should be provided along the

Secondary sources of power will be needed in the case of a

centre line of general-use escape routes. In open areas larger

power failure to keep emergency systems running or to keep

than 60m2, an illumination level of 0.5 Lux anywhere in the

the whole event running, see Section 21.6.

core area is the minimum; and for permanently unobstructed routes, 0.2 Lux minimum on the centre line. All such emergency lighting must continue 234

21.1.3

PitCh Lighting For PLayers



and viewers



to operate even if the main power system fails, coming on

iLLuminanCe requirements

within five seconds of mains failure.

If play is to take place at night the sports area should be illuminated to allow players, officials, and those watching

instaLLation design

both at the grounds and at home on television to see the

It is difficult to give recommendations for the spacing of

action clearly. This means that the level of brightness,

luminaires along the general runs of routes, and an inspection

contrast and glare must be correctly designed over the entire

of existing buildings may be the most practical guide. For

playing area. The most demanding of these requirements is

illumination at critical locations we suggest that luminaires

that of colour television transmission, and this specialist area

be situated within 2m of all exits and at all points where it is

will be discussed later. The reason we can see any object is because

necessary to emphasize the location of potential hazards and safety equipment. Such locations include:

it contrasts with what is behind it in colour or brightness or perhaps both. Colour contrast of a ball and a pitch or an

• Along each stair flight to illuminate the nosings.

athlete and a running track is largely controlled by the sports

• At all stair intersections, to illuminate the nosings.

governing bodies and therefore is usually out of the control

• Near each change of level.

of the designer. An interesting exception to this was the

• In front of each exit door.

yellow balls and bright clothing introduced by Kerry Packer

• In front of each fire door.

in Australia some years ago for his night-time cricket World

• At each exit or safety sign required for safe egress from the stadium. • Near each fire alarm call-point and each item of firefighting equipment.

Series. This was a deliberate attempt to make the traditionally white attire and dark red ball more visible to the spectator and hopefully more popular to the public since they would be able to follow the game more easily. It was also essential for the players to see the ball when it was hit high into the

It may sometimes be difficult to achieve the recommended

night sky. Cricket is traditionally played during the day when

emergency illumination level of 1 Lux in the large spaces

the dark ball contrasts against a blue, or at least grey, sky but

found under stadium structures. Wall-mounted luminaires

it would be impossible to see at night. Brightness and glare

help overcome this problem, and illuminated signs can make

are therefore the only real controls we have over the visibility

an excellent contribution. Until now such signs (particularly

of a sport.

neon signs) have been infrequently used in sports stadia

Levels of illumination for a sport played at night

owing to their cost. However the Skydome in Toronto,

will generally be lower than those for the same sport played



services

chapter 21

indoors. This is because of better contrast and adaptation

Glare control requirements

when scenes are viewed against a dark night sky. Illumination

Player glare for sport is the disabling condition that occurs

levels will depend on the particular sport because of the

when an event player views sporting lighting in their primary

different speeds of action, viewing distances, playing object

view angle while participating in the sporting event.  When

size, and colour contrasts involved – the faster the object

this viewing of the sports lighting exceeds 40 Glare Rating

moves the higher the illumination required; and the higher the

Value it is generally understood that the event player

standards of play the higher the level of illumination required.

experiences excessive glare and may be unable to perform

Lighting levels will also depend on the size of

at their highest level of competition. 

the venue since those sitting furthest from the action require

Player glare is light density to the viewer eyes

the greatest level of illumination for them to see to the same

and is calculated using the Threshold Increment Program

standard. The last consideration which may be relevant to

that calculates the glare condition on a scale from 0-100;

a stadium is that our standard of vision deteriorates with

with 0 being not noticeable to the viewer and 100 as disabling

age and we require more light to achieve the same level of

to the viewer.

visibility when we are older. This deterioration can be quite

For overhead aerial sporting events such as

significant, with the illumination levels required by a 60-year-

tennis, cricket and American baseball a lower rating of 30 is

old person possibly four times that for a 20-year-old, simply

advisable. Additionally special care needs to be taken during

to achieve the same standard of visibility.

the design to avoid to direct line-of-site from the event player

Table 21.1 summarises typical lighting levels, and

to the sports lights from any playing position on the field.

degree of uniformity, for a variety of sporting types. It is meant only as a general guide; specific up-to-date requirements

liGht spill

should always be obtained from recognised International

Spill light is the amount of illumination that falls outside the

Lighting Standards (in Europe this is BS EN 12193),

boundary lines of the sports field or pitch and beyond the

published Sports Lighting Guides, and recommendations

boundary lines of the stadium and stadium property line.  It

of the particular sporting associations concerned, before

is desirable to have illumination beyond the boundary lines

commencing design.

of the pitch or field; however, it is not desirable to have

All illuminance levels stated are minimum

illumination outside the boundary lines of the stadium or

Maintained Average Illuminance (Em). The ‘maintained

property. Spill illumination is measured by holding a light

average illuminance’ level is the specification level and is

meter and aiming the sensor directly at the brightest spot of

inclusive of all depreciation factors that may apply over the

the stadium. This value is the maximum vertical illumination

periods that occur between planned maintenance. To achieve

value being spilled to the environment.  

this a ‘maintenance factor’ is included in all design calculations.

For this discussion we will focus on the

This takes into account light loss from the luminaire due to

illumination outside the stadium; excessive spill illumination

the accumulation of dirt on light-emitting surfaces, and lamp

to the environment and the surrounding properties is

lumen output deterioration with hours of use.

unacceptable. Local government environment regulation

The cleaning characteristics of the luminaire

may have standards that need to be complied with, though

will have a significant effect on its performance and cleaning

in the absence of these LEED (Leadership in Energy and

interval. Floodlights for stadia systems require a high degree

Environmental Design) guidelines limit the illumination spill

of ingress protection against dust and water (IP65 to IP66)

light to 6 Lux at the property boundary line. 

to ensure maximum performance over long maintenance periods between cleaning and re-lamping.

sTADiA

235

STADIA

ServIceS

chapter 21

indoor sPorts Lighting reCommendations Sports

236

Class

Horizontal

True Vertical

Main Camera Vertical

Uniformity

Basketball

I II III

2500 1500 750

1300 900 -

1500 1000 -

.8 .7 -

Bowling

I II III

2500 1500 750

1300 900 -

1500 1000 -

.8 .7 -

Boxing/Wresting

I II III

4000 2500 1000

1800 1500 -

2000 1600 -

.8 .8 -

Curling

I II III

2500 1500 750

1300 900 -

1500 1000 -

.8 .7 -

Gymnastics

I II III

2500 1500 750

1400 1000 -

1800 1500 -

.8 .8 -

Ice Hockey

I II III

2500 1500 750

1300 900 -

1500 1000 -

.8 .7 -

Indoor Soccer/Football

I II III

2500 1500 750

1300 900 -

1500 1000 -

.8 .7 -

Tennis/Volleyball

I II III

4000 2500 750

1800 1500 -

2000 1600 -

.8 .8 -

Table Tennis

I II III

2000 1200 500

900 500 -

1700 900 -

.7 .7 -

236

Notes: 1. All calculations and measured values at 1 metre (36” AFF) with .75 maintenance factor. 2. Classes: I National or international broadcasting. II National or club broadcasting. III Recreational training. Table 21.1



services

chapter 21

sTADiA

outdoor sPorts Lighting reCommendations Sports

Class

Horizontal

True Vertical

Main Camera Vertical

Uniformity

Baseball

I II III

2500 1500 750

1200 900 -

1500 1000 -

.7 .65 -

Field Hockey

I II III

2500 1500 750

1200 900 -

1500 1000 -

.7 .65 -

Football

I II III

2500 1500 750

1200 900 -

1500 1000 -

.8 .7 -

Soccer

I II III

4000 2500 750

1800 1200 -

2000 1500 -

.8 .7 -

Lacrosse

I II III

2000 1000 750

1000 700 -

1200 800 -

.8 .7 -

Rugby

I II III

2500 1500 750

1200 900 -

1500 1000 -

.8 .7 -

Tennis

I II III

3500 3000 1500

1400 1200 -

1800 1500 -

.8 .8 -

Track & Field

I II III

2000 1200 500

900 500 -

1200 600 -

.7 .65 -

Volleyball

I II III

2000 1000 750

1000 700 -

1200 800 -

.8 .7 -

Notes: 1. All calculations and measured values at 1 metre (36” AFF) with .75 maintenance factor. 2. Classes: I National or international broadcasting. II National or club broadcasting. III Recreational training. Table 21.1

237 237

STADIA

ServIceS

chapter 21

InstallatIon desIgn

The correct design sequence is to decide the performance

In very large stadia the lighting system will be governed partly by the design of the stadium structure:

levels that are required (see above) together with cost and other limits, then to get competitive quotations for meeting

• Open stadia will probably use the system described above

these requirements, and only at that stage to decide the

of four corner masts, about 35m minimum height, possibly

number and type of lamps, their mounting heights and their

supplemented by additional masts around the perimeter

spacings. It is a mistake to approach the matter the other

if justified by the stadium size. It must be noted that these

way round (as is sometimes done) and to decide at an early

tall masts can present a major structural and aesthetic

design stage the number and the heights of lighting towers,

design problem, although current floodlight technology

and perhaps even the number and placement of individual

has resulted in greatly reduced floodlight quantities which

luminaires, and then to seek quotations. Alternative lamp

in turn has reduced structural sizes. Where aesthetics are

types and floodlights will require different spacings and

a prime planning consideration, telescopic or retractable

locations to give the same result, and until the luminaires 238

are known the spacings cannot be decided. Subject to that proviso the following general notes may be helpful.

masts may offer a solution in difficult circumstances. • Roofed stadia may have side-lighting in the form of continuous strips mounted along the leading edges of

Small stadia are usually lit by a side-lighting

the roofs. These fittings should be mounted at least 30m

system consisting of three or four floodlights located on one

above the playing surface to reduce the risk of glare,

side of the pitch mounted at a height of not less than 12m.

which may be an insurmountable problem because light

The angle between the fitting and the pitch centre should

reaches the spectators at angles near to the horizontal. On

be between 20 and 30 degrees to reduce glare, and the

the positive side, the increased illumination of the vertical

angle between the fitting and the side line between 45 and

plane associated with roof-edge lighting may be beneficial

75 degrees to ensure adequate lighting on players at the

to television broadcasting. A hybrid solution using both

touchlines.

masts and roof-edge side-lighting may offer a solution in Larger stadia may use corner columns or masts,

some circumstances.

with perhaps a number of fittings along the side(s) so that an optimum illumination can be chosen for any particular type of

For larger schemes two or three switching levels may be

event. Corner masts are probably the most common system

provided to allow different illumination levels for different

in use. They may be expensive but have the advantage of not

kinds of event, ranging from training to a full-scale televised

obstructing any views to the pitch.

match. It may also be necessary for the floodlights to be

They should be offset at least 5 degrees from the

rotatable by remote control to illuminate different areas of

side, and 15 degrees from the end of the field of play, taken

the arena for different types of events. These matters must

from the centre of the respective side or end to ensure that

be clarified with the client at an early stage.

they are outside the principal viewing directions of spectators

With regard to the structural design of towers,

and players. Typically, mast height should be at least 0.4

lattice towers are now rarely used. Static masts are cheaper,

times the distance on plan between the mast and the centre

easier to maintain, and visually less intrusive. Hinged or ‘raise

of the field, and mounting angles should be as in the previous

and lower’ masts facilitate regular cleaning re-lamping and

paragraph to restrict glare. However, in the final evaluation

maintenance, all of which are vital if lamp performance is

mast height will be greatly influenced by requirements to

to be maintained. Telescopic (retractable) masts may be

achieve recommended Glare Rating limits over the playing

suitable where permanent mast structures are prevented by

surface. Corner masts are not regarded as the best lighting

planning regulations, but they are an extremely expensive

arrangement as they create strong shadows on the pitch.

solution. Where mast floodlight quantities are excessive, and



services

chapter 21

mast heights greater than 45m, internal access structures

white colours become whiter and small details on the event

may be considered.

participants are lost, similarly darker colours become darker

sTADiA

and details are lost. Digital video creates images that focus Floodlighting off grandstand roofs is an alternative to the

on the contrast in the panning image and capturing the

provision of mast-based systems, and offers the opportunity

passion of the sport conflict in faces of the participants and

for a continuous-roof stadium design. However floodlight

the patrons is extremely critical to the overall success of the

systems produce a very large roof-edge loading which must

broadcast. The goal of the sports lighting is to limit these

be considered at the very outset of the stadium design.

contrasting conditions, improve uniformities and reduce

Where a stadium roof significantly overhangs spectator areas,

shadows on the event participants and the pitch around the

extending almost to the pitch edge, it may also be necessary

event players. 

to set-back some of the floodlights beneath the roof edge

Pitch

vertical

and

main

camera

vertical

so as to provide enough vertical illuminance on to players at

illumination is the actual illumination the cameras receive

touchlines for both spectators and camera viewing purposes.

during their panning and still-shot positions. It is common

Access to the floodlights for maintenance purposes should

for pitch vertical illumination to provide 1,400 Lux with

also be considered, with nosed systems requiring substantial

panning uniformity of 10% for all camera positions on the

catwalks either above or below the roof edge.

pitch.  Additionally it is common to provide 1,800 Lux to

Floodlights are generally located along both

the main camera with 20% uniformity. Some events require

main side grandstands, with a limited number permitted

much more illumination and uniformities whilst other events

along end rooflines so as to restrict glare in the principal

require less illumination and uniformity.  Picking the correct

playing directions. No floodlighting is permitted within an

amount of illumination and correct amount of uniformities,

approximately 15m zone on either side of a line projected

and providing the design that complies with international

along goal axes, to prevent direct glare to goalkeepers in

guidelines, is key to the success of a sports stadium. During the design, super-slow-motion video

some ball sports, including football and hockey.

needs to be included in the process.  Slow-motion and super21.1.4   

slow-motion are becoming more important to the broadcast

Pitch lighting for television

Pitch high Definition television (hDtv)

industry due to the demand by the public and the revenue

Due to the constant evolution of camera technology and

opportunities to broadcast industry.  In general European

the desire to produce better quality high definition digital

outdoor sports, requirements provide illumination that

video the sports lighting systems are changing to meet these

supports camera frame speed of 600-1000 frames per second

new demands. Key changes in this evolution are illumination

(fps). American outdoor and American indoor sport request

uniformities on the pitch, ’shadow control’, pitch vertical

a frame speed of 600–800 camera fps. The future broadcast

and main camera vertical illumination requirements, super-

industry will be asking for fps up to 1000–1500 fps  for the

slow-motion video technology, flicker fee environments, and

major international events; these new requirements will force

LED lighting.

new solutions and innovation on the industry. variance

Flicker free sports broadcast  lighting is now

across the panning ranges of broadcast cameras. With older

the standard request due to super-slow-motion digital video

analogue camera technology these uniformities could vary

for international world events. Light flicker occurs when the

40% inside the camera panning ranges without significant

broadcast fps is faster than the line electrical frequency of

degrading of the video quality; however, with the high quality

the ballast that are a part of the High Intensity Discharge

digital video 10% variances are noticeable.  Additionally

(HID) sport lighting fixtures. This flickering condition creates a

player shadowing on the players and pitch is noticeable;

strobing effect on the event participants creating poor quality

Uniformities

are

the

illumination

239

STADIA

chapter 21

ServIceS

digital video. This flickering or strobing condition occurs at

sports will be from one side of the stadium only, otherwise

camera frame speeds of 500 frames per second. There are

cutting backwards and forwards between camera positions

several solutions for these issues and the designer needs to

will confuse the viewers. The requirements of secondary,

be aware of new technologies and new design techniques

roving, and rail cameras should also be evaluated as

that avoid flickering during super-slow-motion requirements.  

broadcasters look to incorporate new camera shots to

LED (Light Emitting Diodes) are being developed

240

enhance the TV experience.

for sports lighting applications.  The big difference with LED

Floodlights are increasing in efficiency, making

lighting compared to HID sports lighting are the ballast,

it both cheaper and easier to provide the quantity and quality

lamps, energy consumption, control and colour rating. The

of light that is required by colour television cameras. This

LED technologies will solve many of the problems found with

has been made possible by technological advances in High

the current sport fixture technology. LED technology is being

Intensity Discharge (HID) lamp design. Light sources have

tested now in both outdoor and indoor applications. This

evolved from enormous tubular and elliptical lamps fitted

technology appears promising; however, it is still a few years

with large screw threads and poor alignment, into small

away from being readily available and cost competitive for

unjacketed double-ended lamps designed for long life and

sport facilities. The biggest advantage of the LED products

high performance within sophisticated, compact, and stable

will be the reduction in energy required to produce the

optical systems.

lumens needed to illuminate the pitch.  We are anticipating

Most old lighting towers have therefore been

a saving of between 30 and 50 per cent of net energy with

replaced with new lightweight mast structures using only 60

LED products.

per cent new floodlights, compared with the number in the

The sports lighting systems for future stadia will have many new opportunities and challenges for innovation,

old installation, but achieving improved lighting levels and greater visual quality.

energy sustainability, and production of new video products for the new digital sports fans and media consumers. The

21.2

sports lighting systems will not merely provide enough

Closed-circuit television systems (CCTV) may be used for

illumination for the event; much more will be required. The

two purposes in a stadium – for security and crowd control

sports lighting system will be required to enhance the conflict

(where its use is becoming ubiquitous), and for informing and

and celebrate the battle in unique ways that will elevate the

entertaining spectators, where its huge potential is not yet

event to bigger audiences and create more revenue for all

fully exploited.

CLosed-CirCuit teLevision systems

parties. The future pitch will be a stage for the most exciting events and conflicts on the planet played out to billions of

21.2.1

viewers every week world wide.

The need for better control of crowd movement has led

CCtv For seCurity

to virtually all major stadia now having CCTV installations instaLLation design

allowing management to monitor crowd densities, movement

Designing a lighting system that will achieve the above

patterns and potential trouble spots before, during and

standards requires a great deal of expert knowledge, and

after  events.

the use of extensive computer calculations via sophisticated

Cameras have become smaller and less

software. It is strongly recommended that design and

obtrusive, so that it is possible to monitor spectators without

installation of sports lighting for colour television (CTV) be

the latter being aware of the fact and feeling intimidated;

carried out with specialist assistance.

picture quality has improved to the point where individual

Positioning of the lighting system should take

spectators can later be identified from a video recording,

into account the fact that television coverage of directional

particularly if computerised enhancement techniques are



services

chapter 21

applied. A striking example of the degree of miniaturisation

of the entire sequence of events for future reference. All the

already available is a 150mm by 25mm camera fitting into a

correct actions can be taken and a reliable record kept with

hollow wicket for close-up action shots of cricket matches –

minimal risk of human error. Ideally all the services described above should

and no doubt even smaller cameras will be available by the time this is published.

come from a single interconnected source, and it is essential

Returning to the security aspect: it would be too

to take expert advice to avoid incompatibilities between

expensive to place a camera in every corner of the stadium,

sub-systems which ought to be working together to give

but a general overview of all areas, plus targeted coverage

maximum benefit to the stadium management. For the

of all potential trouble-spots must now be regarded as an

same reason the information given here should be read in

essential feature of any new stadium design.

conjunction with other sections of this book such as sound

In the first instance control personnel should be given a clear view of all spectator approaches to the stadium

sTADiA

systems (Section 21.3), fire alarm systems (Section 21.5) and so forth.

so that they can identify a potentially troublesome build-up well in advance. As an example the control room of London’s

stand-by Power

Wembley Stadium is linked to cameras at a traffic junction

A stand-by power system is essential for security services.

241

some five miles away where many cars heading for the stadium turn off a major motorway. The police are thus able

21.2.2

CCtv For inFormation and

to identify supporters’ coaches and take early precautionary



entertainment

measures if necessary.

CCTV offers spectators the possibility of a running

Subsequently, they should be able to monitor



commentary on the game, replays and information about the

crowd build-up and behaviour at all areas of dense

players on the field, highlights from other games, and other

congregation as spectators move to their seats – for instance

possibilities as yet unthought of – all ‘narrowcasted’ on small

entrances to turnstiles and vomitories, concourses, staircases

personal TV receivers or on huge screens mounted above

and the like.

the pitch.

systems integration

element in management’s array of techniques to win back

The monitoring facilities described above should not be

spectators from the comfortable alternative of watching

These are not just gimmicks but an essential

seen in isolation, but in the context of an entire electronic

sports events free of charge, with close-up shots, action

communication system embracing the telephone, public

replays and the like in the comfort of their living rooms. The

address, crowd surveillance and recording, perimeter access

proportion of events being televised increases all the time,

control, general security, fire monitoring and fire alarm, and

enhanced by the spread of cable and satellite television, and

emergency evacuation systems. Additional aspects such

stadia must struggle hard to retain their markets.

as time and attendance records, parking control, elevator control and the like can also be integrated into the system.

Some clubs and stadiums now send text, imagery and commentary to mobile phones and devices live

As an example of how such integration may

during matches as well as afterwards through their websites.

currently operate, an attempted illicit entry into a secure area

As the sophistication of the devices improves the quality and

can be detected by an electronic surveillance system which

range of the content delivered to spectators in this way will

then activates a recording camera, auto-dials a message to

only increase.

stadium security officers and suggests what steps must be taken, issues a pre-recorded warning to the intruder, sets off an alarm, and makes a video record and computer printout

There are two technologies available for delivering information by fixed screens within a stadium.

STADIA

ServIceS

chapter 21

Very large screens are also particularly apt for

sCoreboards

The provision of simple numerical or text displays above

rock concerts and festivals; they can be made up of smaller

the pitch is now commonplace. They display scores, the

elements making a larger screen of almost any size. At the

real time, the elapsed and remaining time for games, the

time of writing the largest screens are the two 1,000 square

names and data of players and teams and the like; and

metre screens hung above the pitch at the Cowboys Stadium

even small stadia or sports halls will have scoreboards of

in Dallas, Texas (see Case studies). These are controlled from

this type. Guidance must be obtained from the governing

a console which allows the screen area to be used for one

body for the sporting type concerned, from manufacturing

giant single image, or a mosaic of smaller images, giving

and installation companies, and possibly from independent

great scope for exciting and entertaining effects.

consultants, to ensure correct location, positioning, size and

Choice, positioning and operation of these very

specification. If this aspect is not considered at a sufficiently

expensive facilities are critical matters which must be got

early stage it may prove impossible to install a completely

right. Some requirements are obvious – for example:

satisfactory system. • Screens must be easily visible to all members of the

242 CoLour video disPLays

These are a completely different technology from the above, much more expensive but also much more dramatic. Colour

audience. • Screens must not obstruct a direct view of the pitch or play in any way.

video displays are like giant television sets which can screen

• Sunlight should generally not fall directly on to video screen

action replays, highlights from past games or from

surfaces, unless the screens are specifically designed to be

simultaneous events at other venues, and of course

visible in sunlight.

commercials which are a useful source of stadium revenue. They are increasingly becoming a standard requirement for a

However, other aspects are too technical, and too fast-

major stadium.

changing, to describe here. Designers must get the best

In addition to attracting and pleasing audiences,

expert advice both from independent consultants and from

thus increasing gate revenue, pre-programmed entertainment

companies in the field before taking decisions (see also

sequences on big video screens can also usefully slow down

Appendix 2, Video screens and electronic scoreboards).

the rate at which people enter and leave the stadium. Keeping a proportion of the audience in their seats after the final

21.3

whistle, instead of rushing for the exits, makes for a safer

Badly designed or inappropriate sound systems can harm

stadium. It can also make for a more profitable one if people

the performance of the stadium, therefore audio design must

are persuaded by entertaining video programmes to arrive

be taken seriously. There are well-documented cases in the

sound systems

earlier than they otherwise would do, and to stay longer,

USA where participants had to wear earplugs to allow them

using stadium restaurants and other facilities before and after

to concentrate on the game, and there are many instances of

the game.

spectators being irritated by announcement systems which Video screens may be either permanent fixtures,

or temporary ones erected in as little as six hours for a

are too loud for comfort, too quiet to be heard above the background noise, or hard to decipher.

particular occasion. As these screens are very expensive to install, maintain and operate (with a capital cost of several

21.3.1

million for the largest sizes) the ‘rent by event’ approach may

The first step in designing such a system is to define as clearly

be the only feasible one for some stadia.

as possible the results the system must achieve when in use.

requirements

Matters to be considered include the following.



services

chapter 21

Managements require sound systems in sports stadia for as

the sound distribution in the stadium, since it would be of

many as four different functions:

no use for spectators in one area to hear clearly while others

sTADiA

The next step is to determine the evenness of

sPeCiFiC FunCtions

could not hear at all. The degree of evenness should, as a • To communicate with the spectators in the stands (general

rough guide, be in the order of 16 dB and 23 dB for at least

announcements, commentary on the events being staged,

95 per cent of the spectator area, but perhaps for only 75 per

etc.).

cent or 80 per cent of less important areas such as entrance

• To give information and instructions in emergencies.

concourses and turnstiles. The amplifier must be of suitable design

• To provide entertainment (music, light amusement, etc.). • Advertising.

and power capacity to maintain the above performance regardless of varying levels of background noise level, and

At times some of the above functions may be in conflict with

modern systems are able to do this, adjusting automatically

each other, and to prepare for this eventuality a clear set of

to the background noise level.

priorities must be decided at briefing stage and built into the

243

system. A typical sequence of priorities, with the first item

inteLLigibiLity

overriding all others, and so on down the line, might be as

Having enough sound volume does not necessarily ensure

follows:

intelligibility (as anyone who has neighbours with a powerful hi-fi will know) and it is necessary to measure, specify and

1 2

Police announcements from the police control room (see

calculate sound levels in the 4 kHz octave band. Emergency

Section 19.6).

messages often need to be complex and must not be

Management announcements from the events control

misunderstood, therefore any testing of a sound system

room (see Section 19.2.4). 3 General announcements and match commentary.

should replicate real use and not be confined to a simple reading out of ‘one, two, three, testing …’

4 Pre-match events information. 5

Musical and other entertainment.

reProduCtion oF musiC

6

Advertising.

If a stadium is intended for multi-purpose use (which is now common) it must be suitable for hosting musical events, and

audibiLity

music sets the most demanding criteria for sound quality.

To be effective a sound system must be heard over the

Designing the permanent sound installation to these criteria

background noise of the crowd by a significant margin.

will be expensive – probably too expensive if the stadium is

The designers must therefore establish what the level of

not often used for musical events. In that case temporary

background noise actually is, either by measurement (in the

systems may have to be brought in for such events, but

case of an existing stadium) or by calculation (in the case of

then very careful thought must be given as to how these

a new stadium).

temporary systems will be installed, how the stadium will

Crowd noise is generally specified as an L

perform acoustically when they are in use, and what the

value, which is the sound level that is exceeded for only 10

relationship between the permanent and temporary systems

per cent of the time, and it is important to take into account

will be. Many acoustic problems arise from lack of forethought

the peak levels (for example, when goals are scored) when

about these matters.

determining this value. As a guide, the sound system should be in the order of 6 dB louder than the crowd noise level as specified above.



STADIA

chapter 21

ServIceS

Provision For PeoPLe who are bLind or hard

are broken up by mouldings or irregularity probably create

oF hearing

fewer problems than smooth flat ones; and that the careful

An ‘induction loop’ system can be installed for certain areas

location of acoustically absorbent materials is essential for

so that blind and deaf people can listen to the commentary.

reverberation control and the avoidance of echoes.

See also Chapter 10.

The above notes are of course only generalisations, and expert help should be sought.

21.3.2

244

design

stadium shaPe and materiaLs

PLaCement oF sPeakers

Acoustic design begins not with the audio system, but with

Designing a system that will meet the performance criteria

the shape and materials of the stadium itself. In completely

noted in Section 21.3.1 above is a matter for specialists and

open stadia the influence of shape and materials will be

detailed advice would be out of place in this book. In the UK

small, but in fully or extensively roofed stadia, to which the

the Sports Council has published an excellent guide by the

following notes are principally addressed, the effects of

Football Stadia Advisory Design Council, which should be

sound reflection and of noise build-up could be severe. As

studied. But one aspect with which stadium designers will

an obvious example, hard surfaces that are parallel to each

get directly involved is the pattern of sound distribution.

other (such as an acoustically reflective roof over a hard

There are three layouts: centralised speakers,

floor; or two parallel walls facing each other) may generate

partial distribution of speakers, and a completely distributed

echoes and excessive reverberation which reduce or destroy

system of speakers.

intelligibility.

A centralised system collects all the speakers This is not to suggest that reflected sounds

together in one location, which makes it the cheapest of the

from the crowd must be totally eliminated. In Wimbledon’s

three options. The disadvantage of this configuration is that

Centre Court the buzz of crowd excitement that is reflected

there is less control over sound distribution if all the sound

back at key moments by the metal roof above contributes

comes from one point, so that the sound may be too loud for

greatly to the sensation of a closely shared experience; and in

those close to the speakers or too soft for those far away. A

roofed football stadia the reflected aural ambience may add

usual location in open stadia is at the end of the bowl, often

similarly to the excitement.

adjoining or as part of a video display. In covered stadia a

But these aspects must be kept under control.

usual location is centrally above the pitch, suspended under

Particularly problematic acoustic areas are the corners of

the roof, and this may well be the most appropriate use of the

the stadium ‘bowl’, the seats below overhanging upper tiers

centralised system – though such a central placement may

(where sound intensities can build up even in open stadia)

exacerbate problems of reverberation time.

and the area under the roof of a fully covered stadium. If such

A partially distributed system has several

a roof is domed the problem may be even worse because

clusters of speakers placed around the bowl at regularly

of the focusing effect of the curved surface. Generally, the

spaced intervals – for instance, mounted on floodlighting

underside of enclosed stadium roofs must always have

masts. It is also called a ‘satellite system’ and is popular in

acoustically absorbent surfaces, perhaps (if the roof is solid)

covered stadia in the USA.

as panels fixed to the soffit or suspended some distance

The fully distributed system, which is more popular

below it, or (if it is a double-layer fabric roof) by inserting an

in Europe, has an even distribution of speakers dispersed

absorptive material between the two layers.

throughout the spectator areas. It is the most expensive of the

When planning fully enclosed stadia it is helpful to

three options because of the extensive cabling that is required.

note that irregularly shaped plans may create fewer acoustic

It may not provide good sound projection on to the playing

problems than rectangular or curved ones; that surfaces which

area, so that an additional temporary system may be needed



services

if this zone is used by the public, for example during concerts.

chapter 21

sTADiA

General public areas: a) Frequency response pre-equalisation. Total system

But those disadvantages apart, this system does provide the

100 Hz26 kHz 16-3 dB (essentially smooth).

best general sound quality of the three options and the best control. Speakers can be located on each tier of the bowl,

b) Frequency response post-equalisation. Total system

and can separately serve each section of seating area. Good

100  Hz26  kHz63  dB. Concourses, turnstiles and entrances.

synchronisation with video displays can be achieved, by fractional time delay, if necessary.

c) Frequency response pre-equalisation. Total system

21.3.3

d) Frequency response post-equalisation. Total system

speech only 200 Hz26 kHz 1623 dB (essentially smooth). ControL room

speech only 200 Hz26 kHz 63 dB.

Whichever approach is adopted the public address system must be controlled from the stadium control room, which

5

occupancy noise.

should overlook the pitch and have a secondary control from the police control room not far away. Other announcers using

The intelligibility rating should be stated with a given

6 Sound pressure levels and coverage should be quantified,

the system might be located in various parts of the ground

such as the following example:

and provision should be made for a microphone to be plugged

a) Sound pressure level 6  dBA L10 for 95 per cent of public.

in at pitch level for player interviews and crowd entertainment by a professional ‘showman’, although a radio microphone

b) Coverage to be within 62 dB for 95 per cent of public

could be used for this purpose. Other control considerations

areas where L10 is sound pressure level which is

are generally based around who should get what messages

exceeded 10 per cent of the time.

and what type of musical input is used, CD players now being

7 Different zones should be identified and the system

in common use. Advertising would generally break through

should allow access to the different areas identified

background music unless the advertising is coordinated with

independently or as a group of areas. A typical range of

the video board which may make this a little difficult.

zones is given below for guidance: • north side stand

21.3.4

tyPiCaL design Criteria For



a sound system

• north concourses



• north turnstiles

The specification for a sound system for a sports stadium

• south side stand

may typically contain the following criteria.

• south concourses • south turnstiles

1

2

The statement should set down the basis upon which the

• east side stand

design is undertaken and on which its performance will

• east concourses

be judged when installed.

• east turnstiles

It should state the standards and codes of practice upon

• west side stand

which the design should be undertaken.

• west concourses • west turnstiles

3 The system’s function should be stated as: a) to communicate emergency messages

• executive suites

b) to provide public address messages

• car parks • restaurants.

c) to be used for other specific messages. 4

The frequency response should be stated. The following is an example.

8

A priority system should be indicated, with the police and security services given the highest priority. A typical order of priority might be as follows:

245

STADIA

ServIceS

chapter 21

• Police announcer in police control room.

issues are not compromised. These strategies must include an

• Management announcer in event control room.

integrated approach that addresses planning, design,

• General announcer and commentator.

construction and operation, so that these energy and resource

• Pre-match events commentator.

intense facilities can minimise their impact on the environment. Incorporating

• Musical entertainment and disc-jockey.

technological

advances

in

computer simulation techniques such as 3-D BIM and

• Advertising.

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) calculations to

9 Any additional requirements should be stated.

graphically represent air movement and model temperature

246

An equipment room to accommodate the sound system

stratification within the seating bowl is necessary and vital to

must be included. This can be surprisingly large and should be

a successful project. There have been significant advances

as close to the control room as possible. Generally the system

in recent years with photovoltaic (PV) solar panels, non-

will be housed in racks about 800mm by 600mm in plan and

mechanical cooling, natural ventilation, geothermal heat

standing up to 2m high. In addition approximately 1.5m

pumps and displacement air distribution techniques. These

should be allowed on all sides of the equipment to give easy

techniques use efficient technology to reduce energy and

access for servicing. A network of cable trays and trunking

lower life cycle costs while maintaining comfort conditions

will commence at the equipment room and spread to all

within the seating bowl and concourses. Heating and cooling of large stadia in extreme

parts of the stadium. Their route through the stadium and its protection should be taken into account at an early stage.

weather climates present other challenges because the size, coordination efforts and costs can be a significant portion of

21.4

the overall cost due to the open structure and the constantly

heating and CooLing systems

Traditionally, since many sports are watched in the open

changing cooling or heating loads. Design considerations

air, the enclosed areas of sports grounds have also not

must include integrating the cooling and heating systems

been heated or cooled, and people have remained in their

with life safety issues and event system operations. The

outdoor clothes whilst buying food or drink in the intervals

key elements of heating and cooling these unique buildings

of the event. Some areas of a stadium will however require

is to make them functional, cost effective, sustainable and

the normal heating or air conditioning used in other building

enjoyable for the fans coming to see the event by controlling

types. These might be restaurants or boxes where spectators

temperature, humidity and ventilation.

will be sitting indoors for longer periods, or club areas, or the

New and original thinking on finding

stadium administration offices, or operational areas. Where

environmentally sustainable solutions for sports stadia in

the stadium is fully enclosed there is the option to heat or cool

extreme climates has led to the first fully roofed stadium in

the playing arena as well as the spectator accommodation

Dunedin New Zealand for the Rugby World Cup (see Case

around it.

studies) whilst Qatar’s innovative proposal to use renewable Heating

and

cooling

of

sports

facilities,

particularly the seating bowl, require specialised knowledge

energy in its designs for the FIFA World Cup is commendable particularly in light of their extensive natural gas reserves.

to provide environmentally sustainable systems while maintaining patron comfort. Domed, enclosed and retractable roof stadia are

21.5

Fire deteCtion and Fighting systems

21.5.1

stadium Layout and ConstruCtion

energy and resource intense facilities that impact our natural

Designing for fire safety begins not with the installed

environment. Environmentally sustainable sports venues in

systems, which are a second line of defence, but with the

both hot and cold climates can be achieved using strategies

physical layout and method of construction of the stadium.

that transcend extreme environments and ensure sustainable

Unfortunately, building codes and regulations seldom give



services

chapter 21

specific requirements for stadia, and applying those which

materials of construction must be undertaken and discussed

apply to apparently similar building types will often be

with the relevant authorities and with expert consultants as

inappropriate, therefore we recommend early discussion

part of the briefing process.

sTADiA

with local fire and safety authorities. The current method of design of stadia to

21.6

Power suPPLy and event Continuation

respond to fire in many countries is to achieve a balance

For Class I stadia holding major events the delay or

between the risks of outbreak, the risks of spread, the

cancellation of events due to the loss of electrical power is

detection and control systems and the spectator exit system

unacceptable. For Class II and Class III stadia electrical design

design. These different aspects of the fire safety design of the

is more forgiving and local code and design standards may

stadium are collected together in a ‘risk assessment’ to achieve

be considered; however, for Class II and III we recommend

the overall level of safety that is judged to be appropriate.

normal power is sized for all the electrical loads with

Subject to the above it may be said that the

emergency generation and Uninterrupted Power Supply

method of fire compartmentation is a key issue when the

(UPS) for the critical life safety loads such as fire alarm, public

stadium layout is being evolved. Appropriate methods of

address system, elevators, fire pumps and egress lighting for

compartmentation will vary depending on the location, size

safe exiting of the stadium as a minimum.

and layout of the stadium, but it has become accepted practice

For Class I stadia there should be sufficient

to separate high-risk spaces (for example concessions where

on-site power generation to allow the event to continue if

cooking is done) from other areas by means of fusible-link

there is a power failure from the local supply. The design

fire-shutter doors. This allows public concourses and stairs

must consider the reliability for the utility source and the

to avoid the multitude of fire doors which would otherwise

size and capacity of the back-up equipment. Some issues to

be necessary, inhibiting the flow of spectators and thereby

be considered are: overhead services versus underground

causing an escape risk.

services; outage history over the last 10 years, multiple services, dedicated radial circuits versus shared radial circuits,

21.5.2

instaLLed systems

Fire detection devices, fire alarms, and fire-fighting services

etc. At a minimum the incoming network capacity must be sized for ‘N+1’.

will be necessary in high-risk zones such as cooking areas,

Electrical service distribution within the building

and in the case of roofed stadia possibly throughout the

must consider fully redundant sources of power with manual

building. The latter will certainly be true of a totally enclosed

or automatic tie switches. On loss of service mains, on-site

stadium where the arena may be used for trade exhibitions,

power must start immediately but there may be a time lag

or other events using combustible materials. The detection and alarm systems will probably

before the secondary power comes on-stream. Consequently the back-up must include ride-through capacity while the on-

be linked in with other electronic services as described in

site sources start-up. With field lighting, which are typically

Section 21.2 above, and the water-borne fire-fighting systems

high-intensity lamps, if they extinguish they will then require

might include:

several minutes to restart.  This ride-through capability can be satisfied with generators or UPS. The event must continue

• Automatic sprinkler systems.

and the reserve power system must be able to carry the

• Stand-pipes and fire-hose cabinets.

entire load with a full ride-through back-up of the event

• Fire protection water mains with connection points.

essential systems for the full length of the event. We typically assume three hours minimum for event duration.

A thorough analysis of the stadium, its possible functions and

The measure of reliability can be expressed as

patterns of use, its means of escape (see Chapter 14), and its

a percentage of what is available with 100% as the ideal. For

247

STADIA

chapter 21

ServIceS

high-profile sporting occasions there must be no risk the

The extent of water storage which can be accommodated

power will be lost. This will require uninterruptible power

in the building and therefore allow gravity feed to the

on some of the electrical equipment; some equipment can

outlets will be influenced by the building’s design. Most local

tolerate some start-up time and on-site generators may be

authorities require a minimum water storage to be on site and

the best solution in those cases. The engineer must classify

a percentage of that total to be sufficiently high to allow the

their loads and determine the amount of redundancy

outlets to be gravity fed. Another common requirement by

capacity and size of UPS and generator systems. Common

local health authorities is that the outlets which are providing

classifications include life safety, event and life safety, event

drinking water must be served directly off the mains to avoid

essential and event critical loads, etc.

the possibility of contamination while the water is in the

A thorough analysis of the incoming utility

storage tank. This can sometimes be a problem when the top

services and the redundant distributions design within the

level of the stadium is 20 to 30m above the ground and the

facility and the required uptime is necessary to provide the

local water pressure is not sufficient to reach. This can be

power system to assure a successful event.

a problem when the rest of the facility is drawing off water

21.7

water suPPLy and drainage serviCes

stadia, for example Curitiba, have incorporated water towers

21.7.1

requirements

into the general stadium and lighting installation design.

from the same mains at its peak rate. Some South American

248

When thousands of people collect in one place for most

Whatever the methods used to provide

of a day, particularly in summer, an enormous amount of

sufficient water during an event the system will remain

liquid will be consumed and eventually recycled. We have

unused for much of the time. Depending on how long this is

already set out the requirements for toilet facilities but those

systems may require draining down between events. Drain

appliances must have sufficient water to operate. Depending

down outlets must be provided to each storage tank and to

on the duration and type of the event water consumption in

each run of pipework if it does not drain directly to a storage

the order of 5 to 10 litres per person must be planned for if

tank. This requirement can usually be accommodated by the

the taps are not to run dry. Equally important is the speed of

use of one drain down point per section of stadium provided

distribution around the stadium to ensure an even pressure

it is placed at the lowest point of the system and free draining

to all levels of the facility. If the stadium is planned as an

can take place. As well as being drained down between

integral part of the urban or rural infrastructure then it is likely

events, during the winter months in cold climates the storage

that the established water mains will be sufficient to provide

tanks and pipes holding water must be protected from frost

for this demand. It is important to be sure of this at an early

damage. This is usually done by the use of ‘trace’ heating to

stage however since water authorities are often not aware

the pipework and tanks combined with the use of insulation

of the quantity of water required in a stadium. If the water

to all exposed surfaces. If the system is inside a heated space

mains is not large enough to provide sufficient pressure

trace heating will not be needed as long as the heating is

water storage must therefore be accommodated on site and

operating on at least a minimum background setting which

pumped to its destination.

will stop temperatures dropping below freezing. After all this water has been allowed for and distributed to the correct

21.7.2

instaLLation design

areas of the stadium – including the pitch itself – a drainage

There are a number of ways in which this water storage can

system is required to take most of it away again. If the

be planned: large underground storage tanks with a fully

stadium is sited in an area where it can form part of a large

pumped circulation system or smaller storage tanks in each

urban infrastructure this is not likely to be a problem.

of the individual areas they service or a combination of both.



services

chapter 21

Stadia offer unique and complex challenges for planning,

created new opportunities to interface public users including

implementing, and supporting information technologies.

smartphones using wireless (Wi-Fi and Cellular) and

21.8

sTADiA

Recent advances in technology have also

inFormation teChnoLogy

These venues have multiple user groups including business,

networked video and digital signage (IPTV). While this can

team, league, facility operations, event operations, media,

enhance the overall fan experience it also creates revenue

press, food service, and ticketing. Additionally, multitudes of

and sponsorship opportunities for venue operators.

systems are employed by these users to support events as

Developing a technology briefing document is

well as regular business operations during non-event times.

the starting point for evaluating and defining technology

All of this must be accommodated while integrating the

requirements. This is similar in concept to the architectural

supporting infrastructure into physically vast areas.

brief development when establishing project and area

Figure 21.1 Schematic diagram of the typical communication systems in a stadium.

249

Command Center (IP)

Mech/HVAC Control

Computers (IP)

Mobile Computers

Security Gate Scanner (IP)

Temperature Control

Print/Copy I(P)

Wireless POS

Security Card Readers (IP)

Lighting Control

ATM

In–Seat Service POS

Kiosk (IP)

Wireless Ticket Scanner

Wireless/WIFI (IP)

Smart Phones

Security Cameras (IP)

Way Finding Signage (IPTV)

Tablets

Scoreboard/Video

A/V System Control

TV Camera

Mobile TV Production

Menu Boards (IPTV)

Ad Panels (IPTV)

TV & Video (IPTV)

Telephone (VoIP)

Point of Sale (IP)

Sound Systems

STADIA

chapter 21

ServIceS

requirements. This process should include an experienced

devices, and users. IP is the common standard for typical

technology consultant that can educate and outlay trends

applications including telephone (VoIP) and data (LAN) and

along with typical system capabilities, function, use, and

but also internet, wireless LAN (Wi-Fi), television (IPTV),

options. This planning exercise should not be just technical

point-of-sale systems, and security cameras. IP is also

but also focus on business and operational objectives. Briefing

commonly used for various system backbones such as

sessions must involve key decision makers within the

sound, security, and building management. It should be

organisation such as business, operations, and technical directors

expected that all technology will eventually evolve around IP

as well as the project manager, architect, and contractors.

communications.  Planning phases should use present day

It is also important to understand that most technology systems are converging to a common network

technical and industry standards to support current technology and anticipate future standards.

platform known as Internet Protocol (IP).  This creates the

250

technical and physical constraints that need to be considered

21.8.1

during planning and design phases. IP is the de facto data

Provided below are critical elements to define during design

standard that uses Ethernet connectivity to link systems,

phases.

Figure 21.2 Schematic axonometric of the main data network of a stadium.

Florida Marlins Overview – Comm Systems Data Centre Main Comm Room Cable Trays Riser Core (TYP) Comm Room (TYP) Riser Conduits

design eLements



21.8.2

services

chapter 21

sTADiA

Since technology is converging to IP everything must follow

CommuniCation rooms

The foundation for supporting current and future technology

‘data’ standards. These communication room locations are

starts with communication room planning. Understanding

critical to ensure total cable lengths to any outlet device do

there will be large dedicated equipment rooms including

not exceed 90 metres. Any cable segments exceeding this

utility intake and demarcation rooms, main communication

length will not function correctly and certainly not support

room, and a data centre are important for supporting servers,

future technologies. All communication rooms utilise sensitive

core switches, and other head-end equipment. Perhaps the

electronic equipment and cabling so they should be

most important part of communication room planning is the

dedicated and separate from electrical rooms. Communication

multiple Intermediate (or Distribution) Communication Rooms.

rooms should align vertically to form risers to ease installation

Figure 21.3 Diagram of the elements of a communication system.

251

COMMUNICATIONS OVERALL TOPOLOGY

Wireless POS WLAN / WI-FI Computer

Ticket Scanner

In–Seat POS

Comm Room IP Telephone Computer

Computers

1. IP Telephone

2. 3.

Tablets POS Copy Machine

4.

Smart Phones

5. Time Clocks 6. Main Comm Room 1. Horizontal Data Cross-connect (HC) (Cat. 6 Patch Panel)

Printers

2. Patch Cords (CAT. 6)

IPTV

3. Access Layer Network Switch (IP / Ethernet)

Fibre Optic Main Cross–Connect (MC) Video

Video Surveillance

4. Patch Cords (Fibre Optics)

Access Control

5. Intermediate Cross-connect (Ic) (Fibre Optics)

Lighting Control

6. Fibre Optic Backbone

Hvac Controls Network Uplinks (Redundant)

Network Uplinks

Core Switch Core Switch (Redundant) Servers

STADIA

CHAPTER 21

ServIceS

of cable throughout the facility. Consideration to co-locate or

21.8.6

share rooms with other communications and low voltage

Wi-Fi is a wireless technology used worldwide in notebook

systems is recommended. Sizes of all communications rooms

computers, smartphones, tablets, and other electronics. It

will be dependent on type of room, systems supported,

provides high bandwidth and is already commonly used in

distribution densities, and owner requirements.

stadia to support business and operational functions such

Wireless lAN (Wi-Fi)

as ticket scanning, office areas, and press and media work structureD cAbliNg system

areas. In general, Wi-Fi uses electronic access points (APs)

Communications infrastructure should use an industry

located at the area being covered. They typically have

standard structured cabling system. A structured cabling

built-in or auxiliary antennas for directing signals in certain

system uses a star topology where fibre-optic cables

coverage patterns. These APs are connected to the data

connect the main communications room directly with each

network (LAN).

21.8.3

intermediate room. A separate redundant backbone using 252

diverse routing should be considered to help preserve uptime

21.8.7

since revenue, event operations, and customer satisfaction

A DAS groups wireless signals from multiple mobile carriers

are dependent on network operations.

into a single system. This allows coordination of antennas

DistributeD ANteNNA systems (DAs)

and distribution from a single system rather than each mobile 21.8.4

coNvergeD DAtA NetWork

carrier providing their own system. The same DAS can also

An enterprise grade, converged data network should be used

potentially be used to support radio communications for

to provide data connectivity for all IP enabled systems on to

emergency responder (police, fire, ambulance, government)

the same backbone rather than providing separate networks.

and facility operations. Space requirements for this system

These systems can be electronically segmented and secured

include a central wireless equipment room to accommodate

using virtual local area networks. Backbone uplinks will need

the DAS head-end and mobile carrier equipment.

substantial bandwidth to ensure adequate carrying capacity.

Implementing a DAS is important because

Redundant core switches and network uplinks should be

existing local coverage associated with mobile networks is

considered to ensure uptime.

usually not strong enough to fully cover the venue or meet the capacity needed for the high venue occupancy.

21.8.5

Wireless overvieW

Inadequate coverage and capacity will lead to dead zones,

The massive explosion of smartphones and tablets in the

dropped calls and slow bandwidth, and reduce battery life of

market has changed the way we conduct business and

devices. A DAS provides even coverage throughout the

our personal lives, affecting our social interaction, decision

venue and seating bowl.

making and behaviours. People want to be continuously connected to information: social networking and media

21.8.8

sharing in real time have joined traditional voice, text

Redundancy is important to information technology

messages, and email services. Wireless systems must have

at various elements to ensure uptime of the system.

enough ‘coverage’ throughout the venue to reach devices

Considerations for redundancy should including all the core

and have the ‘capacity’ to connect everyone. Adding to

and network elements of the system.

the complexity, smartphone and tablet devices use two different wireless technologies; generally Wi-Fi and mobile connections that can even vary by mobile carrier. Both needs can be accommodated using Distributed Antenna Systems (DAS) and Wi-Fi LAN Networks.

reDuNDANcy

22

maintenance

22.1

IntroductIon

22.2

PItch maIntenance

22.3

Stand maIntenance

22.1

IntroductIon

22.1.1

a maIntenance PolIcy

Just as a motor car needs to be regularly maintained, so stadium planners should develop a clear maintenance cycle for their building and pitch which can be passed on to the owners in the form of a maintenance manual. To do this successfully, stadium managers require: • Well-trained personnel. • Suitable equipment for these people to operate. • Supplies of the correct quantity and quality of materials to be used. • Adequate space in the stadium grounds for storage and workshops. 22.2

PItch maIntenance

22.2.1

maIntenance of natural graSS

In theory, and given proper maintenance, a natural grass pitch will last almost indefinitely. Synthetic surfaces usually need to be replaced every five to 10 years. But in practice, grass pitches can suffer irreparable damage if maltreated. The actual lifetime will depend on factors such as: • Intensity of wear. This varies enormously. In northern Europe play is limited to a couple of months in summer, giving around 50 hours of use per annum, whilst in southern Europe play is possible all year round, giving 500 or more hours of play per annum. • Type of usage. The harder the pitch, the more use it can take. It is essential to follow the procedures briefly outlined below. More detailed guidance will be given by the consultant and specialist suppliers who specified the pitch in the first instance, as discussed in Section 7.1.3.

255

STADIA

chapter 22

mAInTenAnce

mowIng

be removed by aeration, perforation or slotting and sanding;

This is an important activity and should take place at the

and hard areas must be softened by the use of slots and holes

correct growth period for the particular sport involved. At

to loosen the earth. Lawn aerators, perforators and sweepers

the latest, grass should be cut when it reaches a height of

should be used particularly where a spectator invasion of the

40mm for field hockey, and 60mm for soccer. It should then

pitch has occurred. The problem with this practice is that

be mown back to a length of 20mm for field hockey, 40mm

spectators’ feet compact the earth and prevent good grass

for soccer, and somewhat higher for rugby.

growth in the area affected.

fertIlISatIon

cleanIng

Nutrients should be added periodically, subject to an analysis

Both grass and synthetic pitches should be cleaned on a

of the residual substances in the grass. It is important to get

regular basis. See the section on cleaning (below), much of

the timing and quantity of application right, and these factors

which applies equally to natural grass.

are influenced by the sport concerned. A fertiliser and seed 256

spreader should be used to ensure an accurate rate and

ProtectIon

distribution of seed.

Frost damage to grass must be avoided. Underground heating is a useful method of protection against frost and

IrrIgatIon

an aid to faster snow removal. This is gaining popularity in

Depending on the local climate, normal rainfall should be

colder climates. In Scandinavian countries, metal foil sheeting

supplemented by a centrally controlled automatic sprinkler

is often used to protect pitches against frost.

system. Irrigation usually takes place at night as this is when the least amount of water will be lost to evaporation, and

22.2.2

maIntenance of artIfIcIal

when the risk of what’s known as ‘burning the grass’ is



graSS SurfaceS

eliminated. An alternative and preferable irrigation method,

Artificial grass surfaces used for field hockey are

if it can be afforded, is to install a network of porous pipes

predominantly non-filled, and are irrigated from a pitch-

beneath the surface which feed water and a mixture of

side system that complies with the requirements of the



nutrients and pesticides to the roots from below, as described

International Hockey Federation (FIH). This type of surface

in Section 7.1.3.

should be kept free of dirt, leaves and other wind-blown

Many stadia are now recycling irrigation water

detritus by regular sweeping, perhaps with a vacuum cleaner.

from rainfall, using artificial pumping systems. 80 per cent

The presence of large quantities of water in the pile may, in

of the irrigation water used at Manchester United Football

certain climates, encourage the growth of moss and algae

Club’s Old Trafford stadium is recycled.

that can be removed only by a combination of chemical treatment and water-assisted suction.

draInage

Artificial grass (or synthetic turf) for sports such

A drainage system – either a passive or active type – must

as soccer and rugby is normally filled with a combination of

be installed to ensure that excess water is rapidly removed

silica sand and rubber granulate. This infill material should be

from the pitch during irrigation or precipitation. Systems are

evenly distributed to maintain playing characteristics. This is

described in Section 7.1.3.

best achieved by brushing or dragging with mats. Scarification may be necessary from time to time to relieve compaction.

rePaIr and maIntenance

This type of surface should also be cleaned regularly.

Bald patches damaged by play must be sown with new seed

White line markings on artificial grass surfaces

or repaired by the laying of pre-grown grass. Thatch needs to

may be either cut into or painted onto the surface. Painted



maintenance

chapter 22

lines are not permanent and will need to be re-painted on a

ProtectIon

regular basis.

It is advisable to protect the surface when it is used for

StaDia

activities other than sport, particularly when heavy vehicles 22.2.3

maIntenance of PolymerIc SurfaceS



for athletIcS trackS

are used to set up events.

While synthetic surfaces require less maintenance than natural

22.3

Stand maIntenance

grass, it is wrong to assume that they can be laid and then

22.3.1

deSIgn factorS

forgotten about. Synthetic surfaces are not maintenance-free.

The stand should be designed to have unobstructed floor

It may be necessary to limit their use in

surfaces without fixings or nooks and crannies in which

accordance with manufacturers’ recommendations. It’s

rubbish can collect, and where cleaning machines cannot

critical that the length of shoe spikes is limited for athletic

easily reach. For this reason, riser-fixed seats (which leave the

events. Regular repair, maintenance and cleaning is essential,

floor surface unobstructed) are far preferable to seats with

as described below.

tread or nose fixings (see Section 12.6.2). And bearing in mind that the seats themselves will also need periodic cleaning, and perhaps snow-removal, it is best to specify the tip-up variety.

rePaIr

When maintenance is carried out, the original properties of

Passageways should be wide enough for

the surface must not be changed. For example, if the surface

cleaning machines to move about easily and quickly. Expert

is meant to be porous, then the repair material must also

advice should be obtained at an early design stage about the

be porous. Repairs of polymeric surfaces should only be

minimum widths needed for rubbish-collecting vehicles. Finally, there should be a generous provision of

undertaken by experts. Track markings, if properly painted onto the

service points such as compressed-air outlets, water-supply

surface at the time of construction, will normally last for ten

outlets, drainage outlets and rubbish-disposal chutes. Expert

years before re-painting is required, depending on how much

advice from cleaning specialists must be obtained at an early

the track is used.

design stage to ensure that cleaning contractors can work efficiently in the completed stadium. The following checklist includes the most

cleanIng

Dirt and harmful materials are produced in surprisingly large

important points to be considered from the outset of design:

quantities. They include oil and fuel dropped by vehicles, chewing gum and paper from the athletes, plus sand, mown

1

grass, leaves, dirt from shoes, moss, algae and air pollution

2 Width of seats to allow easy access.

Fixing of seats to steps.

from the environment. All of these must be cleaned from

3 Width of seats in front of first row to allow vehicular collection of rubbish.

the surface regularly. Manual cleaning can include rinsing with water jets, sweeping, applying cleaning agents, moss

4

and weed-killers and pulling up weeds. Freezing agents for

5 Water points at convenient points on each tier.

Rubbish disposal chutes near gangways.

chewing gum, and high-pressure water equipment are more

6 Integral compressed-air system with outlets on each tier.

specialised techniques.

7 Rubbish compactors at ground level with access for heavy vehicles.

General cleaning and house-keeping should be carried out either daily or weekly. These operations should

8 Rubbish containers on each level of the stadium.

be supplemented with a major clean on an annual basis using

9

high-pressure suction. An adequate water supply for this is

10 Opening panels in balustrades to allow rubbish to be

required adjacent to the track.

Drains for the water used to clean the stands. pushed through.

257

StaDia

22.3.2

258

maintenance

CHAPTER 22

cleanIng methodS

The amount of time it takes to clean a stadium

In addition to the work required to the pitch, the stands also

will depend on its design, but an approximate guide is 30

need to be maintained. The most important part of this

to 40 man-hours to clean every 10,000 seats. Methods used

process is the cleaning of the stands after every event. There

for cleaning will depend on the equipment available and to

is sometimes a tendency to leave the cleaning until the period

some extent the type of rubbish to be removed. Stadia in

immediately before the next event. However, if the events are

the Far East require more use of water since less paper is

some time apart, the stands, and particularly the seats, will

used for packaging and the fast food eaten at the grounds

need cleaning again. It also means that during the time

is usually more fluid. Sweeping the rubbish together along

between events the stadium will appear untidy which is bad

rows and then down the tier into a single pile can be done

for the image of the venue. Secondly, it is usually much

with manual brooms or mechanical blowers which are faster.

easier  to clean a stand immediately after an event when

It can then be transferred to sacks and taken down the

spilt drinks and food have not yet stained the steps. This is

stand by hand, perhaps using a service lift if one is available.

not a consideration if the stadium is holding events regularly,

More sophisticated methods are also possible, such as

but at a majority of venues there might be some weeks

compressed-air suction systems which allow large diameter

between events.

hoses to be connected at key points on each tier. The

The process of cleaning can be very demanding

rubbish is then sucked into the hose and collected in large

in both personnel and equipment, and it is wise to think about

compactors before being loaded onto trucks and removed.

this at the early planning stage. The careful design of steps

At the Utrecht Stadium, in Holland, rubbish is blown and

and details at the front of the tier are important if the cleaning

swept into the moat between the seating and the pitch

process is to be made as easy as possible. The inclusion of

where it is then gathered and cleared.

opening panels in the front balustrade of a tier are very useful, particularly if a rubbish container can be positioned in front or below this opening.

23

operation and funding

23.1

Stadium financeS

23.2

capital coStS

23.3

operating coStS

23.4

income generation

23.5

controlling coStS and revenueS

23.6

concluSion

23.1

Stadium financeS

23.1.1

introduction

Stadium economics are such that it is difficult – though not impossible – for a stadium on its own to earn a profit for its owners. With the introduction of the FIFA Fair Play Regulations for soccer clubs, it is now more important than ever that the stadium element of their business maximise the profit-generating opportunities that exist. The starting point for a viable development is a comprehensive feasibility study comprising both the construction of the stadium and its financial operations. This feasibility study will then influence the design, form and content of the final project. It will need to address the following factors: • Initial capital cost of the project. • Anticipated operating costs of the stadium. • Expected income generation. The notes below deal with each of these in turn, and the advice given is very general. There is so much difference between individual countries, between various types and sizes of stadia, and costs change so much in the space of a few years that specific data in a book such as this would be misleading. We therefore concentrate on principles rather than specifics. In a real project, cost consultants and other specialists would give precise guidance. 23.2

capital coStS

23.2.1

coSt per element



Key driverS behind capital coStS

When planning a new stadium, it is very important to understand the key drivers Aviva Stadium Dublin. Architects: Populous and Scott Tallon Walker

behind the capital cost. Stadia are widely appraised on an internationally recognised cost-per-seat basis, benchmarking one facility against another. However, this data

261

STADIA

chapter 23

operATIon AnD funDIng

can be misleading as it gives little indication of the success

The development of a new stadium will involve many

of the development, with large variances occurring between

costs additional to the construction costs – land purchase,

facilities of similar capacity, often driven by the business

arrangement of loans, local authority fees and consultancy

needs. For example, a stadium that has been developed with

fees, for example. These will need to be accounted for in the

extensive commercial facilities will carry a far greater cost

overall financing. The capital investment cost is a complex

per seat than one that hasn’t. But it may deliver a far greater

equation. It is necessary to have an understanding of what

return on investment.

Figure 23.1 Relationship between stadium capacity and cost per seat.

Stadia – Benchmark Cost/Seat

262

6,000

5,000

Cost (£)/Seat

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0 10,000 Seater

20,000 Seater

40,000 Seater Stadium Capacity

60,000 Seater

80,000 Seater



operation and funding

chapter 23

the key cost drivers are for any facility. While site-specific

In the following section the sports business team at Franklin

issues such as demolitions, power, water and other services

and Andrews, a market leader in stadia cost consultancy,

connections, external works and contract conditions account

provide an in-depth review of the key influences on the cost

for some of the large variances in capital cost between

of these primary component parts.

Stadia

facilities, they do not tell the whole story. For any project, especially at early feasibility

event area

stage, it is important to consider the primary component

The event area cost will be influenced by a number of factors,

parts, each of which will influence the capital cost:

including the local climate conditions and the proposed event calendar. Local climate will determine the heating and

a) Event area.

irrigation requirements, but more importantly, the proposed

b) Bowl, terracing.

event calendar will dictate how the arena floor is constructed.

c) Main roof.

A stadium designed for sports events and other activities,

d) Accommodation (circulation, hospitality, toilet facilities

such as the Veltins Arena, in Germany, has a pitch which can

etc.).

slide out of the stadium. and therefore, there is not only the

e) Vertical circulation.

cost of the pitch, but also of a box and moving gear to enable

f) External envelope.

the pitch to slide in and out, and a solid arena floor beneath.

Figure 23.2 Comparison of the cost per seat of the accommodation related to different offers to spectators.

25,500 Car Parking Vertical Circulation Roof Terracing Additional Accommodation Base Accommodation Pitch

20,000

25,500

Cost per Seat

15,000

Cost per Seat

20,000

15,000

10,000

10,000

5,000

5,000

0 0

Basic Sports Venue

Basic Sports Venue

Box

Box

Club Seat

Banqueting

Club Seat

Banqueting

263

Car Pa Vertica Roof Terraci Additio Base A Pitch

STADIA

operATIon AnD funDIng

chapter 23

As a result of all these variables, the cost of the

Whilst this improves the stadium functionality, it means valuable development space is lost since an area outside the

event area can range between £500,000 and £10 million.

facility needs to be set aside for the pitch to be parked when it is not being used.

bowl/terracing

Other factors to consider are athletics tracks, artificial turf and the growing requirements of natural turf, all

The bowl/terracing area is the spectator viewing area and there are two main criteria to consider.

of which influence the overall design and cost, and can have

Firstly, spectator comfort and viewing quality

a knock-on impact on the design and cost of other parts of

through seat width, row depth and C value will all influence

the stadium.

the plan area and overall height of the bowl. An example of

Figure 23.3 Breakdown of the costs of stadia by building element for different stadium sizes.

264

(a) Stadia (a) Stadia – Elemental – Elemental Breakdown Breakdown 20,000 Seater 20,000 Seater 69% 05% 08% 14% 04%

Accommodation 69% Accommodation Vertical 05%Transportation Vertical Transportation Roof 08% Roof Bowl Terracing 14% Bowl Terracing Event Area 04% Event Area

60,000 Seater 60,000 Seater 64% 09% 12% 14% 01%

Accommodation 64% Accommodation Vertical 09%Transportation Vertical Transportation Roof 12% Roof Bowl 14% Terracing Bowl Terracing Event 01% Area Event Area

Figure 23a: Figure pie charts 23a: pie presenting charts presenting a typical breakdown a typical breakdown in percentage in percentage values of the values elements of the of elements stadia construction of stadia construction projects. projects.

40,000 Seater 40,000 Seater 66% 07% 10% 15% 02%

Accommodation 66% Accommodation Vertical 07%Transportation Vertical Transportation Roof 10% Roof Bowl 15% Terracing Bowl Terracing Event 02% Area Event Area

80,000 Seater 80,000 Seater 58% 09% 17% 15% 01%

Accommodation 58% Accommodation Vertical 09%Transportation Vertical Transportation Roof 17% Roof Bowl 15% Terracing Bowl Terracing Event 01% Area Event Area



operation and funding

chapter 23

this are the seating tiers at the new Wembley Stadium, in

the roof will need to cover the event area, either permanently

London, which only increases capacity from approximately

or temporarily, for certain events. Spectator viewing and

80,000 to 90,000 seats, but which has a seating bowl plan

main roof costs explain why we see large differences in

area one and a half times larger than the old stadium. Such

cost per seat between stadia of different capacities. In fact,

comfort costs considerably more to build; however, this

a study carried out for these two elements shows that the

can encourage spectators to stay at the stadium for longer

relationship between capacity and cost per seat does not

which, in turn, means they are likely to spend more money

follow a straight line but is actually exponential (see Figure

there. In addition, the extra area afforded to each spectator

23.1)

Stadia

will mean the viewing areas will be better suited for events that run longer than the traditional 90 minutes of a soccer

accommodation

match, such as all-day concerts or festivals.

Typically, sports-only facilities will include accommodation

The second influence is capacity. More seats

behind the bowl that equates to less than 1m2 for every

cost more money, but also, the larger the bowl gets, the

spectator. However, this varies considerably from facility

greater the average construction costs will be. This is due to

to facility, and is probably the single largest variable in cost

additional cranes, additional support structure and increased

comparisons for stadia of equal capacity. For instance, the

complexity of construction.

Stade de France provides a total accommodation area

Other influences on the cost include disabled

equal to just under 1m2 per person, but Wembley Stadium

viewing requirements (see Chapter 10); quality of seats (see

– because of the additional revenue-generating facilities –

Chapter 12); cleaning requirements; and the extent to which

affords an area equal to nearly 2m2 per person.

the upper terracing is cantilevered to bring the spectators

The accommodation areas can be broken down

closer to the action.

into five broad categories:

main roof

• Spectator facilities. • Hospitality facilities.

Roofs on larger-capacity venues can cost considerable distances and cover greater areas. The roof cost is related to

• Operational facilities. • Participant facilities.

the spectator viewing area for obvious reasons. The greater

• Non-core facilities.

sums of money as the structure is required to span longer

the spectator viewing area, the greater the area of roof to cover it, and hence the greater the cost. Therefore the roof

Spectator facilities include the areas that the general paying

cost is influenced by some of the same factors influencing

public use such as concourse, toilets and concessions. Again,

the cost of the seating bowl such as seat width, row depth

spatial provision varies between sports grounds, depending

etc. But more importantly, the greater roof spans require

on the quality of experience provided. However, it is clear that

proportionally greater levels of steelwork to support the roof

providing more concourses, bars and restaurants encourages

cladding. In some instances, doubling the span can require

spectators to stay longer and allows easier access to food

four times more steel and therefore cost approximately four

and drink, all of which results in an increased spend per head.

times as much to build.

Hospitality areas consist of corporate boxes,

When it comes to the roof, other issues to

banqueting suites, club concourses and the like. These spaces

consider include local environmental conditions (e.g. Will

usually have the greatest cost per square metre, but also

it need to take snow loading?); the proposed material

generate the greatest revenue per square metre. The extent

selection, including areas of translucency for both natural

to which hospitality areas are provided will depend on local

turf and media requirements; and the question of whether

market demand, and will play a significant part in determining

265

STADIA

operATIon AnD funDIng

chapter 23

the overall gross internal floor area and output cost of any

Stadia are large developments with a lot of

project. If designed correctly, they can also generate income

space beneath the terracing that is often underutilised. This

on non-event days from conference, restaurant and social

is where non-core facilities come in. Such space can be fitted

event use. While additional investment may be required, this

out with commercial offices, casinos, shops, bars, educational

is likely to represent a significant part of the revenue stream

facilities and the like which, in some instances, can be built

that will make the project financially sustainable.

at a reduced cost due to the sharing of the structure and

Operational areas, i.e. the back of house

infrastructure. Obviously the overall area and cost of the

accommodation that is required to make the facility `tick’,

development is increased, but adding these elements can

also vary from facility to facility: Larger stadia will require

attract separate funding, create additional revenue streams

larger operational areas to deal with stadium and event

and ensure that the development remains active beyond the

management,

normal event schedule. All this will assist in ensuring long-

security,

servicing,

waste

management,

media areas etc. While these areas can be designed to 266

term financial sustainability.

the  bare minimum, this will invariably result in inflexible

When considering whether to incorporate non-

and  operationally inefficient solutions. On paper, the

core facilities into the fabric of a stadium, it is important to

capital cost of the project may look good, but day-to-day

consider the following:

running costs will be increased due to more labour-intensive activities. There will be limits to which other activities can be held there. Before

incorporating

it

is

important

to

understand the true return on investment equation. For instance, incorporating a number of corporate boxes into a stadium will not just involve building the box, but also

• What are the cost benefits compared to building them as a separate building? • Will the space be compromised by stadium fabric (e.g. column spacing and only single aspect)? • Does the space increase in value as a result of being associated with the stadium brand?

increasing the spatial provision in the terracing and the seat quality to improve comfort levels, which in turn can

vertical circulation

increase the overall area of roof. In addition, extra separate

In larger-capacity stadia, an increasingly greater proportion

and dedicated circulation will need to be provided, additional

of the accommodation is located on upper levels. This not

operational space (e.g. kitchens) incorporated and finally

only means that the accommodation itself will cost more to

potentially extra car parking within the external works will

build, but it will have a negative impact on the cost of vertical

need to be provided. In fact, the true cost of incorporating a

circulation. The design of a 40,000-seat capacity stadium

corporate box can be nearly four times the cost of the box

can make it possible for at least 75 per cent of the spectators

itself. Figure 23.2 identifies the overall typical additional cost

to reach their concourse without climbing a single step. This

of incorporating corporate facilities within a large stadium

percentage is dramatically reduced in a typical 80,000-seat

compared to a basic general admission sports venue.

stadium to around 40 per cent. As a result, huge stair cores,

Participant facilities – i.e. the changing rooms

banks of lifts and, in some cases, escalators are required to

and other areas provided for the athletes – are defined by

facilitate the safe movement of people, and to ensure the

the proposed stadium use. Today’s venues not only have to

effective operation of the stadium’s servicing strategy.

accommodate the host sport’s changing facilities, warm-up areas and lounges, but must also consider requirements for

external envelope

pre-match events, and separate areas for female officials and

The final building element that will influence the overall cost

athletes. For larger-capacity venues, the total areas of these

of a stadium is the external envelope. In addition to providing

facilities generally increase in size, but not proportionally.

security and separating the indoor environment of the



operation and funding

chapter 23

building from the outdoors, this element along with the main

The quality and type of materials used for each

stadium roof can be used to create a unique stadium identity.

of the components identified above will not only influence

Whilst additional investment may be required, creating an

the capital cost and revenue-generating potential but will

instantly recognisable stadium can help enormously when

also influence the operational costs. So it will be important to

negotiating stadium naming-rights deals. Recent examples

plan ahead. For instance, what is the proposed design life of

of where this element has been used to create such instantly

the project? Materials should be selected with this in mind to

recognisable facilities include the Aviva Stadium, in Dublin,

avoid, wherever possible, expensive remedial or replacement

and the Allianz Arena, in Munich (see Case studies).

works. For example, savings made on the initial cost of the

Stadia

protective treatment applied to roof steels may benefit the every Stadium iS unique

initial capital budget; however, the cost of reapplication in

The key to the success of any project is to maximise the

10 to 15 years’ time will be very high due to the amount of

potential of the property asset. Focusing purely on revenue

temporary work associated with the re-application process.

generation is not the answer. A project must find the right

It is important to carry out life-cycle costing exercises

balance between capital expenditure, revenue generation

to determine the most appropriate materials to use and

and operational costs which will generate the greatest

ultimately the most economic whole-life cost solution. To put this into perspective, occupancy costs

operating profit.

Figure 23.4 Diagrammatic cut-away of a stadium identifying the main building elements.

Site Specific External Works

Vertical Circulation Bowl/Terracing

External Envelope

Main Roof

Image: GMP

Lower Tier

External precinct

Upper tier

Event Area

267

Stadia

chapter 23

operation and funding

for a building, for example, can be as much as ten times the

1, for example future- proofing of the foundations which may

capital cost over a 25-year lifespan, and therefore significant

never be required, but it is normally cheaper to design the

whole-life cost savings can be made through selective initial

original building to accept future conversions, than to convert

investment.

a building from scratch at a later date. The conversion process Quality will also influence the demand for the

may also have a negative impact on revenue-generating

product, and number of spectators. This needs to be reviewed

opportunities when the conversion works are taking place.

during the briefing process. What market are you trying

However, in the majority of cases, the benefits far outweigh

to sell to? The hospitality facilities may well be adequate

the negatives.

to generate revenue on a match day; however, unless they

268

compare favourably with neighbouring competition, it will be

23.3

operating coStS

harder to generate income during non-event days.

23.3.1

running coStS verSuS capital coStS

It is important that the scope and brief for each

In the enthusiasm of building a new stadium, the capital costs

of these components is understood at an early stage so that

of the project are usually investigated and planned in great

a realistic budget can be developed by the cost consultant,

detail while the running costs receive much less attention.

and incorporated into the business plan to establish whether

This is probably because the latter are harder to quantify at

the proposals deliver the long term return on investment

the planning stage, and also because running costs are felt to

required. One final point to consider is whether the stadium

be a problem for tomorrow rather than today.

will need to be expanded in the future, on either a permanent

This is a counter-productive approach because

or temporary basis. In many cases, the initial stadium brief

the running costs over the lifetime of any building usually far

may reflect the requirements of a one-off or low-frequency

exceed the initial construction cost – a trend that is likely to

event and for the rest of the building’s life it may be operating

intensify as the costs of energy and labour continue to rise in

significantly below designed capacity.

most countries. The aim should be a stadium proposal that

In

such

circumstances

it

is

worthwhile

investigating initially building a reduced-capacity stadium

gives value for money not only in terms of initial costs, but also in terms of its whole-life costs. These will include:

which is flexible enough to expand in the future on either a permanent or temporary basis (e.g. overlay). The latter may be required if the facility is being designed to host a future major event such as the FIFA World Cup or the Olympics, where capacity and accommodation

• Maintaining the playing surface and the fabric of the stadium in a safe and functionally satisfactory condition year after year.

requirements are significantly increased for the few weeks

• Keeping the stadium, playing field and grounds clean. • The actual operation of the stadium (staffing, lighting and

in which the event takes place. The benefits of such an

heating, security etc.). The building should be designed in

approach include:

a way that encourages efficiency in these areas.

1) Reduced initial capital costs.

In all these cases, value for money does not simply mean

2) Reduced day-to-day operational costs.

the lowest cost. It means the lowest cost in maintaining a

3) Overlay costs are an event cost.

pleasing, efficient and attractive stadium because it is only by

4) Building capacity slightly below market requirements

attracting paying customers that the owners can get a return

generates demand and can increase sales values.

on their investment. Maintenance and cleaning have been covered in

The downside to designing for future expansion flexibility is that it will involve some additional cost in phase

Chapter 22; lighting, security and other services in Chapter 21.

operation and funding

chapter 23

Some notes on staffing follow below. These are

Completely covered or domed stadia are able to achieve in

very general. Each case must be analysed individually.

Stadia

the order of 200 event days a year. Studies show that up to 250 or even 300 event days are possible.

23.3.2

Stadium

Staffing coStS

funding

nowadays

is

usually

a

Staffing is a significant factor in the operating policy. There

combination of both private and public money, using a

are a number of different categories of staff ranging from

number of different methods to balance the finances. We set

well-trained specialists to untrained operatives. A typical list

out below several of these methods, and explain the usual

of staff categories includes:

forms they take.

• Administration. • Stadium maintenance and groundsmen.

SponSorShip

• Tradesmen such as electricians, carpenters, gardeners, cleaners and general workmen.

stadium development for a whole range of reasons. Perhaps

• Auxiliary unqualified workers. • Additional staff for event days.

investment. Or perhaps it is a planned commercial investment

• Catering staff. • Stewards.

food company may inject millions in return for its product

• Security personnel.

on this in Chapter 25.

Adequate accommodation must be provided for all these

advertiSing

people and the equipment they need. (See Chapter 19.)

The greater the number of event days a year at the venue,

Private companies justify the injection of capital into a they simply love the sport, with no need for a return on their in return for some form of franchise. A major drinks or fastbeing sold exclusively in the stadium. See further comment

the more spectators will attend, the greater the value of the 23.4

income generation

advertising rights. If the events are televised, this will also

23.4.1

SourceS of fundS

significantly increase the revenue generated. A combination

The most common stadia around the world are those fully

of advertising positions is available around any stadium from

funded by the community. However, private finance is

fixed display boards on the perimeter of the ground to fixed,

growing in popularity, with more and more money being

movable or digital strip-boards around the outside of the

generated by the top sports clubs and individuals. In the

pitch. Front edges of roofs and upper balconies can also be

USA, private financing has usually been limited to the smaller

utilised. But the aesthetic balance of the stadium can be ruined

indoor venues, accommodating up to 200 events a year.

if this is not carefully judged. Large video display-boards and

Large stadia can generally attract only between 20 and 75

colour-matrix scoreboards within the seating bowl, and digital

event days a year, and are therefore hard pressed to justify

signage and televisions within spectator accommodation can

the significant financing necessary. This limitation on event

also be used to show advertising before and after play.

days is largely due to the fact that most stadia have an open roof, making them vulnerable to the elements. Also, there are

Seating

a limited number of events which can attract an audience

The most obvious area of revenue generation is selling the

of 50,000 to 100,000 spectators. These days, pop groups

seats themselves. A range of standards and positions is

prefer to book a venue for three nights at an arena of 20,000

important to maximise the return. Private hospitality areas and

rather than one night with 60,000. If all three nights do not

club enclosures are all part of this range of seats. They have the

sell out, they can always cancel the last night rather than

advantage of usually being paid for in advance. These more

go on stage to a half-full stadium lacking in atmosphere.

private facilities can be a deciding factor in the viability of a

269

Stadia

chapter 23

operation and funding

new development. In Europe, seat sales tend to account for

club funding

the major proportion of stadia income, but in the USA, income

If a stadium is not actually owned by a club, but by an

from seating ranks lower than income from concessions.

independent organisation, then the club which uses the

An increasingly popular form of financing is the

facilities can support the venue by injecting initial capital. In

pre-sale of seats for lengthy periods, particularly in the more

return, the club will usually expect some part of the equity of

expensive seating areas of the stadium. With guaranteed

the grounds or a return of the income generated.

income for a fixed period, the stadium owner can borrow money for reconstruction from banks against pre-sold seats.

land dealS

In some circumstances, this long-term season ticket or

An increasing number of soccer clubs in the UK are funding

licence can be mixed with equity in the stadium company to

themselves through land deals. They may own the ground

make it more saleable.

on which the club sits, but lack the funding to improve their venue. Provided their land is of sufficient value, they can often

270

named Stadia

pay for a new facility on less valuable land by selling their

There have been many stadia around the world named after

existing site. Land swap can also involve the local authority

the companies that fund them. This can be another form of

where an area of land surplus to the authority’s needs is sold

advertising, but not necessarily. The value of naming-rights

to the club so that it can move from its original location.

deals has increased significantly over the past five years and is now common place across the globe. The USA, which

Syndication

developed the concept, remains ahead of everyone else in

This is where a group of companies or individuals come

terms of the scale of deals agreed with the naming of Metlife

together to fund the development. Their motives can vary,

Stadium in New York for example worth a reported US$400

and are not important, provided they have certain similarities

million over 25 years.

in their expectations of the new facility.

conceSSionS

land donation

Selling concessions in a stadium is effectively letting space

A public authority may feel there is sufficient benefit to the

to the food and beverage industry to sell their goods and

community in retaining a facility in its area. This will justify

merchandise at the grounds. It can be the source of significant

providing land for its use. This method of donation is often

revenue, but the concession areas must be well planned at

done because land is the only asset the city owns.

an early stage to ensure they are attractive to prospective concession-holders. A percentage of the sales made is often

tax reductionS

part of the deal, but this will vary with the venue.

In countries where local taxes are controlled by the local authority, tax breaks can be offered to stadium developers.

parKing

In the USA, for example, a city authority can reduce or defer

Car, bus and bike parking is often limited at a stadium which

its local taxes on a stadium development.

means the facility can be charged for. Depending on the number of vehicles accommodated, the revenue can be

tax increaSe

substantial as parking charges are often a quarter to a half of

This is the opposite of the above approach. It works only where

the actual ticket price for the event.

a city uses revenue from a tax, or introduces a new tax, to pay for a stadium development. A popular method in the USA is the tourist tax, where a percentage is added to hotel bills so that people coming into the city help pay for the facility.

operation and funding

chapter 23

government bondS

profits, the sports facilities will benefit. In the USA, betting on

A range of different types of bonds are used in countries where

American football and baseball is illegal. But in the UK and a

local authorities or central government are allowed to raise

number of other countries, betting on all sports is legal. It is

them. These might be general obligation bonds where the city

not uncommon to find betting outlets at soccer stadia.

Stadia

sells bonds to finance the construction of a facility and is later paid back via the general city revenue funds. Or they might be

outSide income

revenue bonds which are sold and then paid back from the

Income can be generated to help finance a project from

revenue generated at the facility when it is operational.

outside the main operating area of the development. This usually involves the joint development of the stadium with

televiSion

other, perhaps more financially viable activities. These are

It is most common for TV rights for an event to remain with

sometimes referred to as ‘enabling developments’. They can

the event organiser, not the stadium. However, in some

range from directly related activities, such as sports and health

instances, the stadium can also be paid to allow certain rights.

clubs, to completely unrelated activities, such as offices and residential accommodation. Such developments may not be

club debentureS and bondS

possible in isolation but by combining with a stadium, they

A different type of bond is often used in the UK to fund new

can increase their value and chances of securing a successful

development. This involves members of the public being

planning application. In some instances it may be beneficial

offered the right to buy a seat for a fixed period of time. The

to complete some or all of this development first in order to

period can last from just a few years to as many as 125 years –

improve overall project cash flow.

as offered recently by a number of soccer clubs. This method of funding allows the club to finance new development and

non-event day activitieS

still maintain future income from seat sales.

Although they are unlikely to be a major contributor to overall financing, the letting of the stadium’s club areas,

grantS

restaurants and boxes for conferences, weddings and parties

By far the most attractive method of funding, as far as the

can assist the whole financial picture. The frequency of these

developer is concerned, is a direct grant from a city or local

activities is likely to increase if the stadium is built adjacent to

authority. A grant may be offered for a number of reasons

a complementary enabling development.

and can be very substantial. Florida, in the USA, for example, is reported to be offering $30 million for a professional team

23.5

controlling coStS and revenueS

to move into the state. Grants can also take the form of

23.5.1

typical headingS

specific financial assistance with areas such as road systems,

If the feasibility study indicates that all the above factors can

drainage and general infrastructure. This can be significant at

be balanced to give a financially sustainable project, the next

the early stages of development.

step is to ensure effective financial control in all parts of the facility. This includes the careful recording and checking of all

betting revenue

transactions for both income and expenditure. It is important

Sometimes this is a politically sensitive subject, but the

that the individual sources of income and expenditure are

betting revenue which accrues from sport is enormous, and

identified to allow their assessment at a later date.

continues to grow largely due to the increased accessibility

We list below typical headings for these

of online betting. Although largely generated from horse

individual categories. Some carry very much more weight

racing, all sports promote some degree of betting. In

than others. The outgoing cost of financing the capital can

countries where it is possible to reinvest a proportion of the

account for as much as 70 per cent of the total.

271

Stadia

operation and funding

chapter 23

It also benefits the financial stability of a sport

income

1

Spectator attendance.

to limit the number of teams who can take part, although this

2

Visitors to the ground on non-match days.

is against the principles of most amateur sports since they

3

Club income from membership.

believe in as wide an involvement as possible. Rugby union,

4

Advertising revenue.

in the UK, for example, has around 2,000 registered clubs.

5

Television revenue.

The UK’s Football League, meanwhile, is having a hard time

6

Ground rental for events.

preventing their league reducing from approximately 60

7

Naming rights.

clubs. The theory is that if the number of top clubs is reduced,

8

Car parking.

and the number of spectators at least stays the same, then

9

Leasing of commercial space.

there will be more spectators at the clubs who do survive. If

10 Food and beverage sales.

you eliminate your competitors and thereby increase your market share, it is inevitable that sport becomes a market

expenditure

272

place when the financial risks and profits are so high. One of the reasons for the perceived success

1

Staff costs.

2

Administration costs.

of American sport is that the governing bodies of American

3

Maintenance expenses.

football and baseball limit the number of clubs they allow to

4

Public relations.

play in their competition by not granting playing franchises

5

Operation costs.

to new clubs. This has increased demand for the clubs who

6

Fuel and energy.

do have playing franchises since major cities value the

7

Machinery and repairs.

recognition and financial advantages a major league club

8

Events costs.

brings to their community. Having a team based in a city can

9

Taxation (if applicable).

add cultural perspectives to the community, and increase

10 Financing and depreciation.

secondary spending from out-of-town fans on restaurants and hotels in the city. This situation puts the sports club

23.5.2

club participation policy

in a very strong position to negotiate the terms of their

An important aspect of operational policy relates to the

moving to a city or their continued presence in a city. It is not

players who use a stadium owned and run by a club. The

uncommon for a club to have a new stadium built for it by the

skill of the players, managers and trainers largely dictates

city authorities, or to be offered cash to relocate.

the success of the team, and the success of the team in turn determines the financial strength of the club. A significant

23.6

factor in this equation is the cost of buying athletes in

Stadia must be designed to an exacting set of financial

professional sport, and the cost of training them. The league

controls in terms of both their initial capital cost and their

system is ideal for training as it gives all clubs a chance to

ongoing operating costs. Maximum revenue potential must

find new and promising players who they can train to their

be built into the design. This is the key consideration for all

financial benefit. But the North American college system

developments but for stadia, the finances are often tougher

is probably even better as it effectively pushes the cost of

than with other types of development. Therefore there is less

training on to the educational system. The cost of training

room to make mistakes in the financial planning. Modern, safe,

players in American football and baseball is therefore

efficient and beautiful new stadia are possible, but if they are

relatively low.

to survive anywhere near as long as those that our ancestors

concluSion

built, they must also prove themselves on the balance sheet.

24

SuStainable deSign

24.1

what is sustainable design?

24.2

Re-use

24.3

Reduce

24.4

Recycle

24.5

planting and gReen Roofs

24.6

ceRtification

24.7

futuRe technologies

24.1

what is sustainable design?

Sustainable design, also known as environmentally sustainable development (ESD), is an increasingly important consideration in building construction. It is one of the dominant issues of our time. The most widely quoted definition of sustainable development is from the Brundtland Commission of 1987: ‘Sustainable development meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.’ Sustainable design recognises the interdependence of the built and natural environments. It seeks to harness natural energy from biological and renewable processes, eliminate reliance on fossil fuels and avoid the use of toxic materials. Another aim is to improve resource efficiency. It is the responsibility of designers to create buildings which protect and potentially enhance the environment. the ioc

The International Olympic Committee (IOC) regards environmental issues as a priority. It is one of three policy objectives, alongside sport and culture. As societies around the world have become increasingly conscious of environmental threats and challenges, so too has the Olympic movement. It is now the case that the Olympic Games cannot ignore the expectations of the public, and the needs of the planet. It must support not just environmental protection, but also sustainable development. Many matters need to be considered. They include location and landscape. The Copper Box, the handball arena for the London 2012 Olympics, showing natural light tubes in the soffit. Architects: Make and Populous.

They determine not only the environmental impact, but also accessibility, proximity to users and visual impact. They include construction which can cause nuisance and can environmentally damage resources if not properly planned. And they include energy which can deplete resources, and increase air pollution, global warming and risks to human health.

275

STADIA

chapter 24

SuSTAInAble DeSIgn

Figure 24.1 Predicted global surface warming, based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (4th Assessment Report)

The London 2012 facilities are claimed to be the most sustainable of all modern Olympic Games. Sustainability will be an enormously important issue for the future. Projections show huge effects on the planet caused by an increase in the planet’s temperature. An increase

6.0

in temperature is set to continue as the table below indicates. In developed countries roughly one half of

276

Global surface warming (˚C)

5.0

the energy used by society is from the construction and operation of buildings. This results in carbon dioxide emissions

4.0

which are harmful to the planet. Figure 24.2 shows the typical consumption for countries by sector in the developed world

3.0

(based on UK statistics). 2.0

Building designers need to deal with the matter in two parts: the amount of energy needed in the construction

1.0

of the building, and the amount of energy required for its use. There are three key factors in minimising the

0

quantity of materials used in the construction, and reducing the environmental impact of sports and entertainment

-1.0

venues worldwide: 1900

2000 Year

2100

Re-use

Predicted global surafce warming, based on the intergovernmental panel in climate change. (4th assessment report)

Reduce Recycle

Figure 24.2 Diagram showing the typical national consumption of energy by sector.

50.8%

Building Energy Consumption including energy use construction

5.1%

Other, Mining etc.

23%

Manufacturing

5.5%

Energy Production Use

15.6%

Transportation



24.2

sustainable design

Re-use

When planning a new building, the first thing to investigate

chapter 24

stadia

massive investment in the Chinese capital’s transport system enabled several key projects to be completed including:

is whether an existing building can be re-used, refurbished or even given a radical redesign.

• A new terminal building and a third runway for the

Re-use: wiMbledon

• An additional fifth and sixth ring on the road network.

The redevelopment of Wimbledon’s Centre Court is a

• Four new metro lines for Beijing Metro, including a direct

international airport.

great example of a sports venue that has been given a

link between the city centre and the airport.

radical redesign. The owners, The All England Lawn Tennis Club, realised that to maintain the status of Wimbledon’s

Re-use: teMpoRaRy stRuctuRes

prestigious tennis tournament, they needed to improve their

Temporary structures are particularly useful for cities staging

facilities. But rather than knock down their existing Centre

major one-off sports events such as the Olympic Games.

Court, they decided to make a range of improvements to it, including a new retractable roof. Around 75 per cent of the stadium has been re-used, and much of the original 1922 design has remained (see Case studies). Other facilities at Wimbledon in need of upgrading will benefit from this blend of heritage and innovation.

There are many forms a temporary structure can take. These include: Temporary structures used only for a major sports event and then later dismantled. Several of these were built in London for the 2012 Olympic Games. Temporary modular grandstand structures added to an existing sports venue to cater for a one-off influx

Re-use: tRanspoRt

of spectators. Similarly, the main stadium for the 2014 Asian

Whenever possible, existing transport infrastructure should

Games in the South Korean city of Incheon will initially hold

be used. The potential legacy of new infrastructure should

70,000 spectators, before shrinking to a capacity of 30,000

be planned for.

afterwards and becoming a park for the local community.

Occasionally it is the local transportation rather

The Hypo-Arena, in the Austrian city of Klagenfurt, catered

than the actual stadium itself which is the most important

for 32,000 football fans during the 2008 European Football

feature of a redevelopment. In the 1990s, England’s Football

Championships. Now the event is over, it may be reduced

Association looked at several potential sites for their new

in size. The ANZ Stadium in Sydney featured temporary

national stadium. However, one of their existing stadium’s

stands for the 2000 Olympic Games that gave it a capacity

strongest points was its public transport system that had

of 115,000. When they were removed after the event then it

been developed over the previous 80 years. In terms of

reduced to 80,000 (see Case studies).

sustainability, it was far better to rebuild Wembley where it

Temporary facilities designed to be later

was, rather than relocate and be forced to construct brand

reassembled and re-used elsewhere. The temporary stand at

new transport links.

the Sydney Aquatic Centre, for the 2000 Olympic Games,

A new rail line was built for the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. It linked the city centre with Homebush Bay,

for example, was later reconstructed as part of Wollongong Showground, just south of Sydney.

home to a number of key Olympic facilities such as the main

The London 2012 Stadium was designed for

stadium, the swimming centre, the media centre, the athletes’

a capacity of 80,000 for the Olympic events. This allowed

village and the hockey, tennis and basketball venues.

the possibility for the upper tier structure to be removed

In Beijing, use was made of existing university facilities that were already well served by public transport. A

after the Games, leaving a reduced capacity of 25,000 (see Case studies).

277

STADIA

SuSTAInAble DeSIgn

chapter 24

24.3

Reduce

London’s O2 Arena has become the world’s most popular

Sports stadia are huge pieces in the overall infrastructure

entertainment venue, selling 2.34 million tickets in 2010. It

of a city. When it comes to sustainable design, their use of

is crucial that venues such as this are designed to stage all

energy is a major issue. The industry must learn to reduce

types of music, sports and entertainment, in order that the

the energy used in their initial construction – the so-called

embodied energy used to construct them is not wasted.

embodied energy – and to later re-use the building materials in future projects. Operational energy – The energy used in heating, lighting and cooling a building. Embodied energy – The energy used in the materials and construction of new buildings.

Reduce: opeRational use

The stadia we design need to be more flexible so they can stage all types of events, and operate at least 80 days a year. A stadium that can welcome sports as disparate as rugby or athletics, and stage pop concerts or large meetings, will be a more sustainable building over its life thanks to a more

Reduce: eMbodied eneRgy

278 278

efficient use of its embodied energy.

In office buildings, most of the energy expended is operational

Another solution is to design two venues within

energy, used to heat, cool and illuminate the interior. It is a

one and thereby satisfy the needs of several stakeholders.

similar case in concert arenas. The O2 Arena, in London, for

This prevents unnecessary construction, shares embodied

example, is used as much as 200 days a year.

energy and maximises revenue.

But when it comes to stadia, usage is on a

Every facility should be used as much as

much lower scale. The energy used to build a stadium – the

possible. Multi-purpose stadia and arenas should also include

embodied energy – far outweighs the operational energy

other non-sport functions and facilities that have a symbiotic

used over its lifetime. Most stadia are designed to last 50

relationship with the sport function. Hotels, for example,

years, but many are used for only 18 months of those 50

where hotel rooms are private viewing boxes, or conference

years. Once they reach the end of their useful lives, they then

space, educational facilities, community facilities etc.

require huge amounts of energy in demolition – far more than typical office buildings do. This is why lean design of stadia and the

Reduce: sustainable stRuctuRes efficient design

considered use of materials in construction or refurbishment

When it comes to developing sustainable structures, the

are so important.

most crucial aspect is efficient design. Innovative lightweight

Source materials used in the construction of

structures will reduce the amount of building material

buildings should be selected according to their life-cycle cost

required, and make use of materials that produce less carbon

and likely environmental impact. Consideration should be given

dioxide during their manufacture. This reduces both the

to factors such as energy used and pollution generated during

overall embodied energy and the financial costs. The less

extraction, processing, manufacture, transport, treatment and

material and the simpler the designs, the more you save in

disposal of these materials. It is a good idea to consider the life

energy and money.

of the materials to be used in construction in order to extend the period before replacement is needed. Materials which are

sustainable MateRials

produced using toxic substances should be avoided.

Wood, for example, is much easier to manipulate than

The design of stadia and arenas should incorporate flexibility for multi-purpose use. The stadia or arenas can also be linked with other facilities such as retail and conferences.

steel. It can always be sourced locally, and developed into clever but simple structural solutions. The building materials with the greatest amount of embodied energy in them are aluminium and stainless steel. The latter contains six times



sustainable design

chapter 24

stadia

Figure 24.3 Comparison of the whole-life energy use of stadia and other building types.

Energy Life Cycle Over 50 Years

Building Life Total Building Energy End Of Life Operational Energy Embodied Energy Building Not Used Building In Full Use

50 Years

279 279

0 Years Total Building Life

Typical Stadium

Typical Office Building

Typical Arena

Current Stadium Usage

Proposed Stadium Usage

more than reinforced concrete, for example. When it comes

tRanspoRtation

to carbon dioxide emissions, both aluminium and steel are

The transportation of building materials from source to

major culprits.

construction site is often overlooked. Shipping timber by

The choice of building material for sports venues

sea from Canada across the Atlantic Ocean to the UK, for

depends on several factors: size, capacity, location and use.

example, uses less embodied energy than transporting

Despite containing less embodied energy, concrete is not

timber the short distance by road from the north to the south

always the best choice since it is so much heavier than a steel

of the UK. Sea freight uses the least embodied energy, while

structure of similar strength. By far the greatest amount of

air freight uses the most.

embodied energy is in the foundations and superstructure, rather than in the cladding, so it is important for designers

topogRaphy

and engineers to use little steel or concrete in these areas.

It is important to make use of the existing topography of the construction site as much as possible. This may include

Recycled MateRials

Increased use of recycled materials is essential to reduce the embodied energy in the building fabric.

building terracing onto the natural slope of the land. Lightweight and efficient structures mean less material used in the structure. This, in turn, means fewer

STADIA

chapter 24

SuSTAInAble DeSIgn

foundations and ground works. Using the topography of

right into the interior. This reduces the need for electrical

the existing ground (i.e. building the lower bowl into the

lighting.

landscape) can also reduce materials required and therefore the embodied energy.

the pitch

Reduce: designing to MiniMise

grow lights to aid the growth of grass. Just five hours’ use

opeRational eneRgy

of these grow lights is the equivalent of lighting 60 domestic

MiniMising cooling, heating & lighting

homes for a whole day. Maximising natural light – for example

This can be achieved through considered building and

by designing stadium roofs to let in more sunlight – reduces

glazing orientation, effective building envelope insulation,

the need for artificial light. Artificial grass pitches negate

and installation of natural ventilation shafts, light tubes and

the need for sunlight altogether and, despite the high levels

adaptable solar shading.

of embodied energy in their manufacture, they allow the

Some grass pitches use what are known as

Efficient management systems can be used to 280

stadium to be used much more often.

meet complex fluctuating demand with the minimum energy. natuRal lighting Renewable eneRgy souRces

The use of translucent materials in the stadium

These can massively reduce energy demands. Wind turbines

roof will help. This will have two benefits. Firstly, it lessens the

and solar panels have become much more efficient in

need for artificial lighting. Secondly, it can give an outdoor

recent years, but it can take years, even decades, to recoup

feeling to events staged there.

the financial cost and the embodied energy required to produce them.

Where appropriate, translucent roofs and walls can also be considered for other sports buildings. However, indoor arenas, which rely on multi-purpose use, might need

natuRal daylight & natuRal Ventilation

the performance area to block out daylight for arts and

The use of natural daylight should be designed whenever

entertainment use.

possible, together with maximising natural ventilation when the climatic conditions allow.

Natural daylight should be used as much as possible and taken into account when designing the building structure. This can be achieved either by using light shelves

faÇade design

at the perimeter of the building to reflect natural light into

The façade of a building seals it from the exterior, reducing

internal spaces, or perhaps through the use of light wells to

heat loss in winter and heat gain in summer. This will be true

bring daylight into the building.

in temperate climates. However, air flow through the fabric

The support areas of accommodation in a

of the stadium may need to be considered in tropical and hot

stadium are often buried deep under the spectator areas.

climates. The demands of the location need to be considered.

Those who work in and operate the building will benefit from

Buildings require intelligent façade systems including solar

more naturally lit spaces. Similarly, restaurants and social

shading and high-technology materials to reduce solar gain.

spaces will also benefit. Light wells and atria are two devices

The ANZ Stadium, in Sydney, Australia, is a good example

for achieving this.

(see Case studies). theRMal contRol light tubes

The building fabric should be well insulated. The thermal

Stadia are very deep buildings, so they benefit from the

insulation of a wall is measured by its U-value. Low U-values

installation of light tubes and fibre optics which bring sunlight

mean high levels of thermal insulation. This helps minimise



sustainable design

chapter 24

stadia

Figure 24.4 Diagrammatic section of the Forsyth-Barr stadium in Dunedin, New Zealand (see Case studies).

4% more light transmits through the ethylene tetraffuoroethylene (ETFE) roof than if glass had been used, helping the grass repair and grow

ETFE’s non-stick surface means rain and dirt will slide off rather than accumulate on top of it

+3˚c Temperature difference inside the stadium

ETFE is 99% lighter than glass and able to bear 400 times its own weight

37m to pitch level

The Forsyth-Barr stadium in New Zealand is the first stadium to have both a fixed roof and a natural grass pitch. The pitch has been laid using a hybrid grass system; the surface is 100% natural grass reinforced with artificial fibres.

heat loss in the winter and overheating in the summer. If a building is air tight, it will minimise the energy

the operational energy used during the lifetime of the facility. It is important to consider their layout carefully.

required to control the temperature inside the building. A heat exchange system should also be considered to allow fresh air

HEAT RECOVERY

into the building without losing control of the temperature.

In temperate climates, using waste heat to pre-warm

Solar protection: shading for large areas of glazing that face the sun will avoid overheating and

incoming fresh air reduces the cost of heating and recycles some of the heat generated.

subsequent energy demands for cooling systems. These shading devices can add to the aesthetic of the building, and

LIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM

may even include solar panels in their design.

Good controls will avoid wasting energy in lighting spaces

The use of efficient service systems will reduce

that are unoccupied.

281

STADIA

chapter 24

SuSTAInAble DeSIgn

heating and Ventilating contRol systeMs

wind tuRbines

These can be used similarly to light-control systems to ensure

To be effective, wind turbines need to be located in areas

that only occupied spaces are heated.

with high wind speeds. They need to be constructed on a huge scale which requires massive financial cost and large

natuRal Ventilation

amounts of embodied energy. Small units, such as 20-metre

This is an excellent way to reduce the need for air conditioning.

tall, 6KW turbines, may cost less to build, but will need many

ANZ Stadium, in Sydney, with its chimney effect, is a great

years before the capital costs are recouped. Meanwhile, large

example. Air is drawn into the base of the chimney, piped

120-metre tall, 2MW turbines cost millions to build, but could

through the stadium, providing cool, fresh air, while warm,

recoup their capital costs within three years.

stale air is expelled from the top of the chimney. Electric fans

Locating wind turbines can be a challenge,

in the chimney shaft, powered by solar panels on the roof,

particularly in urban areas. Problems such as appearance,

help push the air through.

noise and ice falling from the turbine blades need to be addressed, but advanced technology is helping. Location has

282

led lighting

a major impact on turbine efficiency. To work effectively they

Everyone is now aware of energy-saving light bulbs. Even

must be placed in areas with high average wind speeds, free

better is LED lighting which is more efficient, longer-lasting

of the turbulence caused by large buildings. For example, if a

and requires less embodied energy during manufacture.

turbine is placed near a 50-metre high stadium, it needs to be 500 metres away from that stadium – with no other buildings

Renewable eneRgy souRces

in between – in order to function efficiently. This is difficult in

Renewable energy is becoming important in generating part

urban areas.

of the energy needed in stadia. Renewable energy sources are those that are naturally replenished. The four main

geotheRMal

types that can be integrated into buildings are solar, wind,

Energy can also be recovered from waste water through

geothermal and biomass.

heat exchange. Where there is a suitable nearby river or water source, heat can also be recovered.

solaR panels and photoVoltaic systeMs

With an efficiency of around 17 per cent, traditional glass

24.4

solar panels tend to be the best at converting light energy

Recycling is crucial in the construction, operation and

into electricity. But the panels are cumbersome and heavy,

demolition of sports buildings. The use of recycled materials

and require considerable embodied energy to manufacture.

in construction can massively reduce embodied energy.

Recycle

The new generation of film photovoltaic systems are lighter, cheaper, more flexible and can be constructed out of many

Recycle: wateR

materials.

It is crucial to recycle and conserve the water used in a sports Large stadium roofs represent an excellent

stadium since huge quantities are needed for irrigation and

opportunity for micro-energy generation using photovoltaic

sanitation. The stadium roof is often ideal for collecting

panels. Although most people think the panels need to be

rainwater. At the ANZ Stadium, in Sydney, rainwater

angled to follow the sun, in fact when they’re laid on a flat

collected from the roof is used to flush toilets and irrigate

roof they are around 88 per cent efficient.

the pitch. This harvested water can also be used to irrigate landscaping.



sustainable design

chapter 24

RECYCLE: STEEL, ALUMINIUM, GLASS, CONCRETE,

running off into the drainage systems. They also help to control

BRICKS & MATERIALS FROM DEMOLITION

the heating and cooling of the building and absorb CO2. On the

Steel is the building material within a stadium which needs to

negative side, they can add weight to buildings and increase

be recycled the most. Virgin steel extraction requires huge

the embodied energy used in the original construction.

stadia

amounts of energy, so any recycled content will make huge savings. Currently, structural steel includes a recycled content

PLANTING

of around 60 per cent. Worldwide, around 440 million tonnes

The location of deciduous species should be considered

are recycled every year – the equivalent of 150 Eiffel Towers

carefully to allow sunlight to penetrate the facility during the

every day. Increase this by just one per cent and we can save

winter months and then to shade in the summer months when

36,500GWh a year – the amount of energy generated by 10

foliage returns. Geographic location will be a major determinant.

large power stations. Aluminium requires huge amounts of energy

24.6

CERTIFICATION

during manufacture but, because of its relatively low melting

Certification and building assessment methods are an

point, it is extremely good for recycling.

important and helpful way for architects to develop and

Glass requires much less energy to produce

improve the design and construction of their buildings in

and can easily be recycled. It is important to find innovative

a more sustainable form. Many methods exist, including

ways to use more glass. Already it is used in the cladding of

BREEAM, LEED and Estidama, in the Middle East. There

buildings, and in paving.

are now many such systems around the world. Certification

Reinforced concrete can be manufactured much more efficiently. Currently, most reinforcing steel used in

should be done at an early stage, depending on the building’s use, construction and location.

concrete is 100 per cent recycled, while traditional aggregates can be replaced with concrete from demolition sites. Other waste materials such as slag from blast furnaces can supplement traditional cement.

24.7

FUTURE TECHNOLOGIES

In the future, sports stadia could be producers of energy, rather than polluters, by using advanced harvesting technologies.

Examples of recycling include using crushed

For example, their exteriors may be painted with special

concrete as aggregate for ground works and hardcore,

photovoltaic paint that converts sunlight into electricity.

re-using bricks from demolished buildings and re-using

The energy created by the thousands of spectators passing

appropriate construction waste.

through turnstiles, and walking along concourses, could be put to use elsewhere in the stadium. The waste created by

LONDON 2012 OLYMPICS

these spectators will be recycled within the building and

There is a high recycled content in the concrete used for the

used to create energy. By connecting the stadia with their

foundations of the London 2012 Olympic Stadium, Aquatics

surrounding buildings and transport networks, all available

Centre and Copper Box. The ring beam of the Olympic

energy will be used as efficiently as possible.

Stadium roof uses reclaimed gas pipes.

The very largest stadia built for one-off sports events can later be broken down into smaller, more adaptable

24.5

PLANTING AND GREEN ROOFS

structures. Sections of stadia may be relocated to provide

GREEN ROOFS

seating for temporary venues elsewhere. Stadia will grow and

Modern planning laws often insist on certain aspects of green

shrink according to the events staged there, the seasonal

roof technology – i.e. roofs planted with vegetation. Where

changes, and the number of spectators. They will have to fit in

cities struggle to cope with flash flooding, these types of roofs

with the fabric of the cities around them, taking account of

can help soak up rainwater and reduce the amount of water

transport, local communities and commercial or social concerns.

283

Stadia

SuStainable deSign

CHAPTER 24

For the London 2012 Olympics, an energy centre

This all contributes significantly to the Games

provides efficient and low-carbon power to the Olympic Park

organisers’ overall target to reduce carbon emissions by 50

and Olympic stadium. This is likely to become a solution for

per cent across the Olympic Park. This site-wide heat network

future venues. The new technology in the centre includes

generates domestic hot water and heats the Aquatics Centre

biomass boilers and combined cooling, heat and power

swimming pools and other venues and buildings. The energy

plants (CCHP). The latter captures the heat generated as a

centre design is flexible to allow future technologies to be

by-product of electricity production, and is up to 30 per cent

incorporated as they are developed in years to come.

more energy-efficient than traditional generation.

284

Figure 24.5 Typical section of a low-energy stadium.

Translucent roofing to avoid artificial lighting and improve quality of grass

Aerodynamic shape of stadium reduces heat loss from wind Internal spaces naturally ventilated by air chimneys

Solar panels on roof to provide hot water and energy

Rain water collected by the stadium roof and reused for watering the pitch and for cleaning toilets

Natural renewable materials used in construction

Earth and ground shaped to form stadium bowl which will be lower in the ground. This will reduce building costs and movement of vehicles importing and removing materials.

25

Brand activation

25.1

MaxiMising revenue

25.2

TiMe, noT space

25.3

Brand acTivaTion Through inTegraTion: The fan experience

25.4

Marrying TeaM Brand wiTh coMMercial idenTiTies

25.5

The process

In the stadia business, revenue is generated primarily from three sources: • ticket sales • broadcasting rights • sponsorship Nowadays sponsors are looking for far wider and more sophisticated ways to engage with audiences than mere static adverts on a wall. Outside the seating bowl and its concourses, every part of a building is defined by commerciality. So how do you marry design with the need for revenue? 25.1

MaxiMising revenue

The first and most obvious point is to optimise the design to appeal to the relevant company or customer. A city law firm might want to see a wood-panelled suite, for example, whereas a digital start-up company would be looking for a more high-tech solution. Of course, for most commercial buildings, there’s more than one company to consider. The O2 Arena, for example, has a naming rights partner with huge collateral, but beneath that the building provides the canvas for up to ten founding partners and almost 100 suite-holders, each seeking return on their investments. For the designer, the goal is to create unique opportunities for all sponsorship partners, without drowning them out with other advertising noise. It’s crucial that the presence or impact of one branded opportunity doesn’t reduce the value of another. 25.2 Emirates Stadium London. The identities of the club and its major sponsor, Emirates Airlines, designed in concert around the venue. Architects: Populous

TiMe, noT space

It used to be the case that advertising – as far as buildings were concerned – was sign writing: simply a slogan occupying physical space. It was fixed and hard to change. Nowadays, technology allows all sorts of ways to advertise. Consider New York City’s Times Square – the flashing and blinking of hundreds of slogans, each given their allotted

287

STADIA

288

chapter 25

brAnD AcTIvATIon

time in rotation. This is a much more malleable form of branding.

25.4

Marrying teaM Brand with

Major sponsors, or founding partners, can be given longer and



coMMercial identities

more frequent time in the spotlight, whilst those with less

The Emirates Stadium, home of Arsenal Football Club,

equity still have an opportunity to have their name seen.

in  London, is another example of imaginative brand



This concept of time doesn’t just apply to names

activation. The large concrete letters spelling Arsenal at the

flashing up, or ticker-tape messages. Temporary pop-up

entrance act as an anti-terrorist vehicle barrier, a meeting

advertising structures are an increasingly popular branding

point and a climbing frame for local children. At the same

solution. Physically, particularly with stadia, it’s impossible to

time they embed the club in the community. The club’s

allot permanent space to every brand. The building would

identity is carefully balanced with that of the major naming-

need to be limitless. By creating temporary pods or pop-ups,

rights sponsor, Emirates – a key consideration in many

you allow brands a presence, and give fans an essential point

modern stadia.

of focus, without being committed to a permanent structure.

In the past decade, sports teams have become

This also enhances the fan zone experience. By giving brands

brands in their own right. Industry pioneers such as Karen

the option to re-site themselves outside a stadium or arena,

Brady have extended the brand of football clubs such as

they are able to continue interacting with the fans long after

Birmingham City through innovative community promotions.

the end of an event. This interaction can then be tailored to

For example, Arsenal have eight million fans on Facebook,

the particular event and its audience.

but only 60,000 seats in their ground. In the United States, only seven per cent of National Football League fans have

25.3

Brand activation through



integration: the fan experience



ever set foot in an NFL stadium. The world of social media, loyalty cards and mobile messaging has broadened the fan experience far beyond buying a ticket, leaving home and

We don’t do advertising anymore. We just do

travelling to a match.

cool stuff.

This has to be considered when designing

Simon Pestridge, Nike UK Marketing Director

sporting stadia. The identity of the club has to stay strong

(Revolution magazine)

and legible because it’s this identity that the commercial brands want to be associated with in the first place. Co-

This begs the question: how do our buildings become part of

branding is the ultimate aim: a perfect marriage between the

the cool stuff? Or, to put it another way, how do you create

sponsor and the owner.

an experience? To do this, it’s important to understand a brand.

25.5

the process

What is the brand’s DNA? And how can you integrate that

At the start of the design process, a stadium’s future sponsor

into a building so that fans or visitors interact with the

or naming-rights partner is, in all likelihood, unknown. Thus

brand in a three-dimensional way, and so that the positive

you’re creating a blank canvas to which you can apply a

experience they enjoy on seeing their favourite band or team

number of treatments, all with the aim of attracting different

play is extended to positive feelings about the brand?

sponsors. The space outside the building will also be key; and

Consider London’s O2 Arena. On the exterior

the internal and external elements need to work together.

of the building, the distinctive blue branding is bold, without

Much like building a Formula 1 car, experts work on each

being overwhelming. Inside, the colour continues, subliminally

component to create something that, as a whole, works

reminding event-goers who the venue sponsor is. From the

perfectly, giving the event-goer a seamless brand experience.

way-finding signage and the lighting, to the food and drink concessions, the identity of communications company O2 flows through the building like blood through a body.

01

appendix: Stadia briefing guide

General design information Status of commission

Feasibility study Outline design Full design Working drawings Supervision

Previous studies Board requirements Local authority needs

Finances

Financial constraints Maximum costs Revenue potential

Present income Projected income

Programme

Planning timetable Building start date Target completion date Close season consideration

Determine phasing Determine financing

Provide good visibility Minimum viewing distances

Running track included Additional sports

Project objectives Compactness

Catering

Participants Spectators Family provision Private boxes Hospitality suites Club facilities Administrators

Convenience

Accessible to transport Location in city

Comfort

Inviting environment Easily understood Clear signposting

Flexibility

Arrangement of spaces Juxtaposition of spaces Relationship of spaces

Economics

Initial capital expenditure Annual maintenance costs

Project parameters Client’s requirements

Accommodation schedule

Participants Spectators Administrators

Traffic movement

Car, bus, pedestrian, rail

Public and private vehicles Inside and outside stadia

Ground capacity

Seated and standing

Consider trends Design to be convertible

Site services Phased development

Present and future Options with flexibility

Service phasing Pattern of use Phased financing

Safety and control

Police and stewarding

291

Stadia

appendix 1

Stadia briefing guide

Site considerations

292

Investigation and survey

Old or new stadium site

Previous land use Mining survey Land contamination

Accessibility

Access and egress Crowd safety

Convenience Safe segregation zones People with disabilities

Constraints

Boundaries Buildings Roads and rights of way

Property deeds Planning restrictions

Orientation

Sun aspect Prevailing winds Micro climate consideration

Pitch maintenance Player comfort Spectator preference Solar panels Wind fans

Unusual difficulties

Identify special problems

Sub-soil stability Water table

Unusual advantages

Shared use of site Unique location

Sports and leisure Commercial considerations Hotel consideration

Vehicle parking

On the site Near the site Remote from the site Parking for spectators Parking for VIPs & players Coaches for visiting spectators & teams

Planning requirements

Fire brigade

Access for vehicles

Neighbours

Visual implications Construction implications

Consult local authority Local services

Capacity of ground

Proportion of spectator types Number of standing

Flexible arrangement Range of quality

Entry and exit of stadia

Fill time for events Timed exit analysis

Legislative requirements Follow good practice

Seating areas

Gangway location and size Radial or longitudinal Vomitory arrangement

Legislative requirements Minimum travel distance Sized for convenience

Toilet facilities

Proximity to spectators Near catering outlets

Male : female ratios Toilets for disabled people Numbers required

Catering outlets

Good range of quality & types

Food distribution policy Alcohol/no alcohol

First-aid centre

Central or dispersed Operation methods

Ambulance park nearby

Spectators

stadia briefing guide

appendix 1

Concourses

Adequate width Access to toilets Access to catering

Unrestricted to full length Adequate signposting Act as reservoir space

Provision for disabled people

Wheelchair access Ramps, lifts or escalators; not stairs

Legislative requirements Numbers to be accommodated Dispersed location to be considered

What events envisaged

Football Rugby American football Australian football Events for disabled people Concerts Multi-purpose use

Permanent or temporary installation

Size and type of play area

Warm up facilities

Protective measures

Club requirements

Practice area, equipment

Weather protection

Trainers and reserves

Seats at edge or in dugout Not restricting view

Protection from spectators Access to team rooms

Team rooms

Changing and washrooms Treatment areas Kit storage and lounges

Manager requirements Trainer requirements Comfortable temperature

Access to field

Tunnel access Protected route to field

Separate routes for teams Join before exit to field

Referee, umpires, linesmen

Changing and wash rooms Lounge area and store

Adjacent to team rooms Access to management

Press

Location and number Seats for reporters Positions for photographers

Local requirements National requirements International requirements

Radio

Location and number Cabin for announcers Cable servicing

Local requirements National requirements International requirements

Television

Location and number Cabin for announcers Interview studios

Local requirements National requirements International requirements

Media support facilities

Catering and rest areas Interview and briefing room Media vehicles Television van parking

Servicing requirements Access from administration Exterior location & connections

stadia

Participants

293

Media

STADIA

appendix 1

STADIA brIefIng guIDe

Management

294 294

Administration

Scale and location

Stadium management Team managers Accounts section Catering management

Directors

Lounge and entertainment Box for viewing

Board and guest rooms Access to viewing/ directors’ seating

Sponsors and club area

Lounge area Box for viewing

Access to directors’ area Good quality areas

Ground staff, stewards and volunteers

Changing and toilets Equipment stores

Vehicle access for loading Safe storage of chemicals Access to pitch

Private viewing areas

Number, location and type Range of quality

Well catered and serviced Well located in tier

Restaurants

Size to suit regular usage Close to main kitchen Banqueting/dining to be generally used outside event days

Catering strategy Vehicle access for loading

Private vehicle parking

Television van parking Directors, VIPs & team park

Size dependent on stadium Close to management areas

Control rooms

Stadium management Police control

General services Type of system

Central or local units Emergency back-up plant

Short distribution runs Plant near load centres

Plant location

Basement, ground or roof Individual plant areas

Access for venting Duct access

Fuel type

Gas, oil, coal, electricity Alternative solar use

More than one system Running costs

Space requirements

Fuel storage and equipment Workshop areas

Vehicle access

Thermal considerations

Building insulation Zoning energy control

Zone control for efficiency Non-event day control

Security requirements

Consult police & other authorities

Fire requirements

Sprinklers, alarms, hoses Emergency lighting

Stand-by generator Start-up time

Cleaning

Water and power supply Materials storage

Cleaning policy Manpower requirements

General installation

Power and lighting Communications and IT Public address and CCTV

Location and servicing Visible video board Cabled or wireless

stadia briefing guide

appendix 1

stadia

Ancillary areas General

Any special areas Time and duration of use

Floodlighting

Standards for play Standards for viewing Television standards

3D, HD television demands Discuss with TV company

Video or indicator board

Viewing location Adequate sizing

One end or both ends

Pitch heating

Electric cabling Hot water or hot air

Alternative economics

Stand heating

Under seat radiation Slab warming

Seat price economics

Concourses

Lighting and ventilation Environmental control

Often unheated or cooled

Telephones and IT

Management requirements Media requirements

Depends on standards

Communications

Crowd control by police Management and police

Discuss with police

295 295

02

appendix: video screens and electronic scoreboards

Since publication of the first edition of this book, there have been huge developments in giant screens and electronic scoreboards. Indeed, they have become a necessary feature in modern stadia and technology. They are also discussed in the Chapter on Services, Section 21.2.2. Larger stadia will often use the large screen colour video display (LSVD), but there are options for stadia with more modest budgets to use limited video capability, providing text information and high-quality graphics. For those stadia considering investing in this type of technology, early dialogue with manufacturers and suppliers is advisable. The following notes offer brief guidance: LSVD can represent a major capital outlay and should be carefully selected to suit the needs and light conditions of the stadium, as well as the budget the client has available. Considerations also need to be given to the integration of the scoreboards, the video production room and the LSVD, as the specification and performance of one of these elements can have an effect on the others. Video screens can now form part of larger integrated systems to transmit pictures to smaller screens around sports buildings through wireless signals to phones or other hand-held devices and onto the internet. Certain systems are sold with some accompanying video editing software, but in other cases an editing suite may be required to provide the content shown on the screen. The expertise of the simple scoreboard companies is usually not applicable to the LSVD companies, and vice versa. In order to secure the best value for each particular stadium, it should be considered whether high definition (or even very high definition) is required. For example, scoreboards need relatively low-tech light bulbs, whereas using the same technology to replay action from a cricket match would be inappropriate. Technology

LED technology has overtaken all others for large screens and now offers highresolution, fast-refresh rates, sufficient brightness to be viewed in sunlight and reduced energy usage. The screen is made up of three base colours: red, blue and green. When combined, these colours can produce the 16.7 million colours theoretically possible. life cycle

While the life-cycle costing of screens is important, their longevity is less important in a stadium situation. Most stadia will only use their screen for around 250 hours per year. Since most LED screens have a lifespan of approximately 100,000 hours, this is not a major consideration. The cost of maintenance, refurbishment and operation is, however, a key component in the life-cycle analysis. A decision also has to be made about how long the screen will remain cutting-edge, and how long before it becomes obsolete.

297

stadia

appendix 2

video screens and electronic scoreboards

QualiTy

coST

The quality of the screen image is mainly determined by the

After all considerations have been taken into account, it is

quality of the LEDs used for the pixels, and the pixel pitch

the available budget that will be the main determinant in the

of the screen. Generally, the smaller the pitch (i.e. the closer

selection of a screen. Manufacturers should be contacted

together the pixels are to each other), the better the image

about prices, but it is important to note that comparative

will be. A resolution of 576 x 720 is suggested as a minimum.

costs should include the supporting structure, electricity

The video processor is also of high importance for the quality

supply and control software. Some manufacturers will

of the image. The control system should at least be ready for

offer deals for the supply of large screens together with

HD-SDI signals. The pixel pitch has been reduced over the

other electrical equipment, or if the cost can be set against

last few years, and today the typical range of pixels used for

advertising revenue.

stadium installations is 16mm, 20mm or 26mm. Screen companieS

298 298

Screen Size and poSiTion

It seems there are over 4,000 screen companies currently

The size of a screen for any given location is ideally determined

in existence but probably only 20 to 30 who could be

by its height, which should be three to five per cent of the

considered major players.

maximum viewing distance from the screen. The screen itself should have a proportion of four units in width by three

programme

units in height. (Preferably 16 units wide by nine units high.)

The procurement strategy may consider a hire arrangement

Therefore, in a stadium where the maximum viewing distance

which can be very attractive if use is low. This might be a

is 200m, the screen should be 6m high and 8m or 10m

single package, or split into two or three packages. Lead

wide. This would produce a screen of 48m2 or 60m2, which,

times are around one month to develop an invitation to

if it was LED, would weigh around 3.5 tonnes. It should be

tender; one month for the companies to respond; four to five

noted that screens also have a minimum viewing distance of

months for manufacturing; and a final month for installation.

around 8m. It is obviously necessary for screens to be visible to all spectators. Viewing angles should not be less than 140° horizontally (-70°/+70°), and 60° vertically (-30°/+30°). Other ways of showing moving images are becoming available thanks to more powerful projectors, and LED in strips or curved screens that can be mounted in various imaginative ways around the building and the development of more powerful projectors.

03

APPENDIX: CASE STUDIES

introduCtion the following case studies are examples of stadia design from all over the world. they are listed in an alphabetical sequence. the examples have been chosen to illustrate different responses to the design challenges, which reflect location, climate and circumstance. They also reflect different uses: some are multi-purpose, some are sport specific. Many incorporate technical innovation, and some have opening and closing roofs. Most of the examples are large in scale: it is felt that these produce the real design challenges for the designers. some respond to their site situation, but all have something interesting to say about stadium design.

Marlins Park, Miami

01.

AlliAnz ArenA

Munich, GerMany

02.

AmsterdAm ArenA

aMsterdaM, netherlands

03.

Anz stAdium

sydney, australia

04.

ArizonA CArdinAls stAdium

Phoenix, usa

05.

AsCot rACeCourse

ascot, uK

06.

AstAnA stAdium

astana, KazaKhstan

07.

At&t PArk

san Francisco, usa

08.

AvivA stAdium

dublin, ireland

09.

BrAgA muniCiPAl stAdium

braGa, PortuGal

10.

CowBoys stAdium

dallas, usa

11.

donBAss ArenA

donetsK, uKraine

12.

emirAtes stAdium

london, uK

13.

Forsyth-BArr stAdium

dunedin, new zealand

14.

greenPoint stAdium

caPe town, south aFrica

15.

heinz Field

PittsburGh, usa

16.

mArlins PArk

MiaMi, usa

17.

melBourne CriCket ground

Melbourne, australia

18.

telstrA dome

Melbourne, australia

19.

nAnjing sPorts PArk

nanjinG, china

20.

oitA stAdium

oita, jaPan

21.

olymPiC stAdium

london, uK

22.

the ovAl

london, uK

23.

reliAnt stAdium

houston, usa

24.

sAlzBurg stAdium

salzburG, austria

25.

soCCer City

johannesburG, south aFrica

26.

soldier Field

chicaGo, usa

27.

stAde de FrAnCe

Paris, France

28.

stAttegg sPorts And leisure FACility

Graz, austria

29.

wemBley stAdium

london, uK

30.

westPAC stAdium

wellinGton, new zealand

31.

wimBledon AeltC: Centre Court

london, uK

301

STADIA

aPPendix 3

CASE STUDIES

01. AlliAnz ArenA Munich, GerMany

302

completed in 2005, the allianz arena was designed by herzog & de Meuron to host the opening game of the FiFa world cup 2006. it is home to two local soccer clubs, Fc Bayern and TSV 1860. The architecture of the 60,000-seat stadium is distinguished, above all, by its unique skin. this is a translucent luminous body consisting of large shimmering white, diamond-shaped ETFE cushions, each of which can be illuminated separately in white, red or light blue, the colours of the two clubs. the colours of the cushions can be controlled digitally so that the home team playing in the stadium can be identified from the outside. The outer enclosures of the stadium are multilayer, pneumatic structures. at every corner a pumping station maintains the internal air pressure within the pneumatic elements. the changing appearance of the stadium enhances its attraction as an urban monument even for people who are not interested in soccer. the design concept is based on three principles. Firstly,

the presence of the stadium as an illuminated body that can change its appearance. secondly, to have fans arrive procession-like in a landscaped area. And thirdly, to develop a crater-like interior of the stadium itself. both the shell and the structural skeleton of the stadium are designed throughout to implement these three key concepts. hence, the main stairs along the outside of the shell follow the line of greatest slope underscoring the procession-like approach of visitors to the stadium. as a huge luminous body, the stadium marks a new location in the open landscape to the north between the airport and downtown Munich. the car parks are laid out between the underground station and the stadium so as to create an artificial landscape for the arrival and departure of the fans. since only soccer will be played at the stadium, the seating is directly adjacent to the pitch, and each of the three tiers is as close as possible to the action.

Architects: Herzog & de Meuron

CASE STUDIES

aPPendix 3

STADIA

02. AmsterdAm ArenA aMsterdaM, netherlands Completed in 1996, Amsterdam ArenA was the first European stadium to be built with a retractable roof. it opens and closes within 25 minutes. The state-of-the-art 52,000-seat stadium, which can be increased to 68,000 seats for concerts, is the home of the ajax Football club, as well as the stage for a range of very successful entertainment events. the stadium hosts more than 70 major events every year, including concerts, dance parties, religious meetings, product presentations and other sporting events such as international matches of the dutch national soccer team and american football. the amsterdam arena has a wide range of corporate facilities including a royal suite, ViP lounges and 16 hospitality rooms which can seat 2,500, as well as 2,000 business seats.

the stadium is located in the east of amsterdam and is accessed by several metro and railway stations. there is also a large car park for 2,000 cars under the stadium, and 12,000 car parking spaces within walking distance of the arena. the arena is continuously upgrading its facilities such as a new sound system, and more escalators and elevators for the long climb from the underground parking to the second tier. the roof is based on two large arches with two longitudinal beams corresponding to the playing field’s rectangle fixed to them. Semi-transparent panels are connected to the arch. it is these panels which open and close to provide the retractable roof. the arena has two large video screens and an internal pay system with smart cards acting as an electronic purse. supporting facilities include a museum and fan shop. 303

Architects: Robert schuurman & sjoerd soeters

STADIA

aPPendix 3

CASE STUDIES

03. Anz stAdium sydney, australia anz stadium (formerly stadium australia and telstra stadium) was the largest olympic stadium ever built. during the main ceremonies of the sydney 2000 olympic Games it hosted 110,000 people. it is both durable and adaptable, a powerful icon on the sydney landscape. it has since been reconfigured to 80,000 seats, with a rectangular pitch added, to suit rugby league, rugby union and soccer. it is also used for concerts, exhibitions and public gatherings. the philosophy behind the stadium is to provide a flexible, multi-functional and economically viable venue with widespread appeal. One of the main design features is the translucent saddleshaped stadium roof which is 58m (or 16 storeys) above the arena. it is a hyperbolic paraboloid, which not only offers protection to twice the number of spectators when compared to stadia with cantilever roofs of a similar form, but allows

rainwater to be siphoned off into tanks to irrigate the pitch. the roof slopes down towards the pitch, enhancing the intense atmosphere and optimising stadium acoustics. the roof is supported by the seating structure and two 295m-long trusses. spectators have access to the stands via four helical ramps, escalators and lifts. The stadium’s circulation routes for spectators, athletes and services personnel were designed never to cross for reasons of security, convenience and efficiency. the stadium is environmentally sustainable. Passive design measures include ventilation, natural cooling and heating. rainwater is recycled from the roof and used to irrigate the pitch. Architects: Populous and Bligh Voller Nield

CASE STUDIES

aPPendix 3

STADIA

04. ArizonA CArdinAls stAdium Phoenix, usa

Architects: Populous with eisenmann architects

Architects: Populous in collaboration with eisenman architects Photographs on this page: huttoncrown

The Arizona Cardinals Stadium is a 65,000-seat stadium located in the Phoenix suburb of Glendale, in arizona. the project sports an opening roof to shelter spectators from the desert sun. Additionally, as a first for North America, the stadium contains a moveable playing field. The field resides outdoors most of the time, rolling into the stadium on rails for use during american football games and other sporting events. this provides the grass with the sunshine it needs to grow, and also allows the building to function as a venue for trade shows, concerts or other events on non-game days. the basic form of the stadium pays tribute to its surroundings, taking the shape of a barrel cactus. the outer skin features dramatic vertical slots that alternate with large, smooth panels, creating a beacon whose colour and light reflect the brilliant Arizona desert sky. This mixture of steel decking, glass, stucco and a fabric roof creates sweeping lines and a sense of texture in the design. in addition to housing the arizona cardinals american football team, the stadium hosted the 2008 super bowl.

305

STADIA

aPPendix 3

CASE STUDIES

05. AsCot rACeCourse ascot, uK

306

Top-class thoroughbreds and world-class jockeys compete for some of the highest accolades in horse racing against the stunning new backdrop of this grandstand, completed in 2006. As elegant as the fashions on the field, and as exciting as the action on the track, the new ascot racecourse provides the essential requisites for a satisfying racing experience: aesthetics, style, taste, simplicity and clarity. The new 30,000-seat grandstand is perched on the brow of a hill with panoramic views of the course to the north and windsor Great Park beyond. The 480-metre grandstand takes the form of a shallowarched hyperbolic paraboloid, conceptualised as ‘a building between trees’. A slight curve on plan embraces the racecourse. the new stands, with their lofty, elegant and structured architecture, form a backdrop to the parade ring, the outdoor public spaces and social activities. The combination of largescale dramatic new stands, the buildings retained at the site

edge, and major public outdoor lawn spaces distinguished by mature deciduous trees, all provide the race-goer with a variety of different spatial experiences. This much-loved characteristic experience of the ascot racecourse has been preserved to enhance the uplifting spaces created in the new buildings. running the length of the building, the internal galleria both separates and connects the viewing and dining functions. the design of the southern elevation to the galleria brings natural light into the covered concourse, providing eventempered environmental shelter at the heart of the building. the grounds of ascot racecourse have numerous superb trees which inspired the soaring steel structure of the cathedrallike galleria. the large atrium acts as an environmental lung for the grandstand, which is topped by a lightweight glass and steel roof. sailing over the whole building are the dramatic form and lines of the roof’s light, sweeping canopy.

Architects: Populous



Case studies

aPPendIx 3

stadia

307

06. ASTANA astana, KazaKHstan the astana stadium is a 32,500-seat venue located in the new sports campus of the Kazakhstan capital, astana. It has an opening roof, and is fully air-conditioned to mitigate the extremes of the local climate. the pitch is turfed to FIFa standards. This is the first modern stadium project in Kazakhstan, and the first stadium in any former Soviet Union country with an opening roof. It was opened by the president of Kazakhstan on 3 July 2009 and, two years later, hosted the opening ceremony of the 2011 asian Winter Games. the stadium is conceived as a multi-functional venue for soccer and other sporting events, as well as grand shows and large-scale cultural ceremonies. Its form was generated by the need to create an efficient enclosure and to ensure a simple opening roof design. the overall form is cylindrical with the roof moving horizontally across the short east-west axis. Primary and secondary trusses connect to quadruped columns in the stadium bowl. the moving roof elements are clad with clear polycarbonate, and a roof light encircles the stadium all the way around the perimeter, coinciding with the structure of the perimeter truss and the wall structure. In this way, the structural design of the stadium is highlighted so that spectators can have a sense of how the building works.

architects: Populous in collaboration with tabanlioglu architects

STADIA

aPPendix 3

CASE STUDIES

07. At&t PArk, san Francisco, usa The site for AT&T Park has it all: San Francisco’s skyline, the hills of the east bay and vivid ocean sunsets over the Golden Gate. the ballpark takes every advantage of its spectacular location, creating a seamless relationship with the city and turning the bay into an inimitable design feature. the San Francisco Chronicle called it ‘reassuring proof that cities can still glow’. spectators commonly arrive using public transport. the journey becomes part of the experience, from a lively streetcar ride to a scenic ferry trip, or an invigorating amble down second street. upon arrival, visitors are greeted with a

308

composition of steel, concrete and brick. heroic in scale and proportion, the ballpark’s rugged face recaptures the spirit of the grand old game, and the south of Market context. Flanked by clock towers, this face engages the city street network and the neighbourhood’s scale. recalling the language of the ubiquitous waterfront pier buildings, larger than life portals allow the public to glimpse the verdant playing field without a ticket. This gesture of owner and architect collaboration is perhaps the most compelling example of the effort to combine the building, the game and the city as one.

Architects: Populous

CASE STUDIES

aPPendix 3

STADIA

08. AvivA stAdium dublin, ireland The new 50,000-seat Aviva stadium was opened in 2010 to replace the lansdowne road stadium where the first game of international rugby was played in ireland in 1876. the new building was developed by the Football association of ireland and the irish rugby Football union as the new home for their national teams, whilst also being flexible enough to host concerts on the pitch, conferences and social events in the lounges and concourses. the site is close to the centre of the city, with a railway running through it, surrounded by residential properties on three sides, and a river on the fourth side. the complicated site conditions led the design team to create a building responsive to the requirements of the land and its surroundings. a curvilinear shape,

Architects: Populous and Scott Tallon Walker

and a roof that drops to the south and drops more dramatically to the north, allows light to the nearby houses. covered in polycarbonate panels, the roof and walls of the stadium allow plenty of light onto the pitch and into the spaces surrounding it. this is an environmentally friendly stadium. energy use was reduced during construction, and measures have been included to lower energy consumption during the life of the building. the mechanical systems include hot water heated by waste heat from the generators, whilst rainwater is recycled to irrigate the pitch. its location in the city, with no parking on site for spectators, means that car travel is reduced. spectators reach the stadium either on foot or via public transport.

309

STADIA

CASE STUDIES

aPPendix 3

31o

Architects: Souto Moura – arquitectos

09. BrAgA muniCiPAl stAdium braGa, PortuGal braga Municipal stadium is situated within the dume sports Park on the northern slope of Monte castro, in Portugal. the stadium, built for the 2004 ueFa european Football championship, has two unusual features. it has been integrated into its rocky surroundings, and it features only two stands, located along the sides of the pitch. the location was chosen to avoid making a dam along the water’s edge in the valley. The two stands, each accommodating 15,000 spectators, are very different. the west stand was dug into the rock after 1,000,000m3 of granite were removed from the hillside. it is

accessed from above at a height of 40m. the entrance offers expansive views across the stadium and the surrounding countryside. inside there are spacious access and concourse areas as well as extensive VIP areas, including a twostorey underground car park beneath the pitch, a separate entrance and catering facilities. The East Stand is a free-standing, solid reinforced concrete building, accessed via eight ramps which lead to an ambulatory serving the lower tier, with stairs to the upper tier. both stands are fully covered with strongly projecting roofs, connected with ropes and modelled on the ancient bridges of the Peruvian incas.

CASE STUDIES

aPPendix 3

STADIA

10. CowBoys stAdium dallas, usa deeply concerned at the adverse impact of television on fan attendance, the stadium owner for the dallas cowboys nFl team challenged the architects to deliver a facility within which the ‘real time/real place’ experience of viewers would be superior in all aspects to that of home viewing. hKs responded with a design that effectively ‘fuses’ three building genres (stadium/auditorium/cinema) into a new stadium typology. the new stadium for the dallas cowboys in arlington, texas, was opened in 2009. it is the largest domed stadium in the world with a capacity of 110,000 including 80,000 seats, plus decks and terraces at the ends for standing spectators. It has an opening roof and opening ends walls and is fully airconditioned internally. spectators watch the events live whilst simultaneously viewing action ‘close-ups’ on the 55 metre wide/15 metre high centre-hung screens which also provide complementary information (personal player histories etc.) and action replays as the event proceeds. over 3,000 lcd screens within ViP and concourse areas ensure fans remain involved and informed wherever they are within the stadium.

Architects: HKS

the stadium is also designed to accommodate multiple other sporting events, concerts and conferences as a basis for securing supplementary revenues. these range from traditional conventions and trade fairs to motocross, and from rodeo shows to soccer, pop-concerts, ‘popera’ and opera. In the spirit of the Greek and Roman traditions of ‘civitas’ and public place making, leading contemporary artists were commissioned to create major installations throughout the public areas of the venue. Priceless and permanent, they are an expression of the civic value attached to the stadium

311

STADIA

appendix 3

CASe STuDIeS

11. donbass arena donetsk, ukraine this stadium, for local team shaktar donetsk, seats 52,500 people, and opened in august 2009, to coincide with ukrainian Miners’ day. it is situated in a region famous for mining. Construction began on 27 June 2006. around us$400 million was spent constructing it, and also the surrounding landscape. Ukraine’s first UEFA Five Star Stadium, it was a host venue for the 2012 UEFA European Football Championship. It was conceived as a ‘jewel in the park’, namely Donetsk’s Leninsky Komosol Park, a site of major cultural importance. It is also known locally as the ‘Diamond of Donetsk’. The arena has a distinctive jewel-like shape, with a 24,000m2 glazed facade, intended to evoke a diamond when lit from within at night. 312 architects: arup

the roof design is partly a solution to the geotechnical challenges of the four mines and two fault lines in the area. it slopes from north to south so as to allow optimal sunlight and ventilation to the natural grass pitch. Besides sporting events, the venue also hosts concerts and shows. there are cafes and restaurants on site, as well as a club museum and brand shop. The stadium has over 1,000 car parking spaces (245 are underground), and 45 corporate boxes that can accommodate 830 people. it has received several awards, including: the 2009 Top Construction site award by donetsk design & Construction Club, the 2009 Best International Mobotix Project award, and the 2009 Best Construction in ukraine prize.

CASE STUDIES

aPPendix 3

STADIA

12. emirAtes stAdium london, uK 313 emirates stadium is a striking addition to the civic architecture of islington, in north london, and an excellent example of a stadium acting as a tool for urban regeneration. on a former brownfield site defined by railway lines on two of its boundaries, this 60,000m2, 60,000-seat state-of-the-art stadium replaced the revered Highbury Stadium. The design reflects the demanding nature of the site and rises dramatically behind Victorian terraces, revealing itself in unusual, unexpected vistas that create a striking juxtaposition of scale. two new bridges link the stadium with the adjacent neighbourhoods. it has an elliptical form with eight cores around the circumference. steel tripods support the two primary trusses, resulting in a cleanedged roofline. The materials give a clear reading of the building’s function. Toughened glass plank façades at podium level respond to the more robust environment of large crowds, while overlapping glazed and woven-steel mesh screens articulate the exposed concrete of the vertical circulation cores at higher level. a metallic under-clad roof seemingly floats above the exposed concrete seating bowl. undulating glazing shelters the rear of the upper tier. the stadium provides an upper and lower tier of general admission seating, with a range of positions for disabled spectators. in between these levels are the corporate and executive box facilities. the club level provides a unique mix

of restaurant and networking bar spaces, plus dedicated bowl seating, with 150 executive boxes and an exclusive private members’ club above. emirates stadium was the catalyst for an integrated urban planning exercise to regenerate a deprived, underutilised area stretching west from the existing stadium. one of Britain’s largest regeneration projects, it will see the construction of over 2,000 new homes, including key worker and social housing, and create over 1,800 new jobs. by adopting a series of green measures integral to the design – for example, using passive environmental systems to heat and cool the building – the stadium also helps to redevelop the area in a forward-looking and sustainable way.

Architects: Populous

STADIA

aPPendix 3

CASE STUDIES

13. Forsyth-BArr stAdium dunedin, new zealand located in the city of dunedin, on new Zealand’s South Island, this innovative building is the most southerly professional sports stadium in the world. it has a notoriously cold, wet and windy climate. completed for the rugby world cup, in 2011, to replace the existing carisbrook stadium, it has 20,000 permanent and 11,000 temporary seats. this meant that after the tournament it became the largest indoor venue in the country, and was used for concerts and festivals as well as rugby and soccer.

314

this is the only stadium in the world to have a natural grass pitch grown under a fully enclosed roof of ETFE. It’s a new prototype for stadia in cooler climates. the stands are on the two long sides, with the end walls and roof designed to maximise the amount of sunlight reaching the grass. the pitch construction, maintenance regime, ventilation and light conditions were thoroughly modelled and studied before construction. an experimental enclosure was set up to test the growth of grass under a sample roof, and out in the open. the turf under the etFe was found to be stronger.

Architects: Populous in association with jasmax

CASE STUDIES

aPPendix 3

STADIA

315

14. greenPoint stAdium caPe town, south aFrica the skyline of cape town is dominated by table Mountain, signal hill and the atlantic ocean. Greenpoint stadium forms a landmark at the foot of Signal Hill, and fits respectfully into its environment. the challenge was to create a standalone building in this unique location that enriches rather than mars the world-famous picture-postcard setting. together with the horizontal line of table Mountain and the rounded top of signal hill, the curving contours of the stadium act as a kind of bottom note in a harmonious triad. lightweight in concept, the circular stadium comes across as unobtrusive and respectful of its surroundings. its appearance varies greatly with the typical lighting conditions of the area. with its translucent external skin, it reacts to different weather and daylight conditions at different times of the day or seasons, and diverse lighting effects give it a sculptural look. this design concept was combined with the purely functional requirements. For spectators, it provides a logical but sensory structure, and inside the stadium engenders a terrific atmosphere during soccer and rugby matches and concerts alike. the stadium provides seats for 68,000 spectators, arranged on three tiers, 2,400 of them for business and a further 2,500 in boxes. broad access promenades on Levels 2 and 6 form ‘lobbies’ round the stadium arena, allowing visitors freedom of movement, a pleasant environment to linger in and ease of orientation round the stadium. the pitch is visible from the ‘lobby’. The upper ‘lobby’ at a height of 25m offers a panoramic view over Green Point common, the city and the ocean.

Architects: gmp-von Gerkan, Marg und Partner-Architects

The parabolic profile of the stands gives all spectators an optimal view of the pitch. the strongly curving outline of the top tier contrasting with the more muted curves of the roof edge is a result of their functional geometry. during the 2010 world cup temporary rows of seating were installed on either side of the top tier, but these were replaced later by event suites and club rooms. this reduced the seating capacity from 68,000 to 55,000 but increased the number of rentable areas, so as to contribute to the commercial viability of the stadium post-World Cup.

STADIA

aPPendix 3

CASE STUDIES

15. heinz Field PittsburGh, usa the design for heinz Field is inspired by elements integral to Pittsburgh and its people. the steelers american football team takes its name from Pittsburgh’s famous steel industry. Reflecting that legacy, steel is a primary building material in heinz Field. while respecting the heritage of the city, the stadium’s design conveys a contemporary image that looks to the future. two towers create a frame, or doorway, to the stadium. The stadium’s stone-like masonry is inspired by the stone and steel buildings that once defined the city’s skyline. Progressing up the stadium façade, the building gradually changes from

316

Architects: Populous

steel and stone into transparency. Glass allows fans to see and be seen. Views in and out of heinz Field convey how the building works and how fan activity enhances every event. With seats starting just 18m from the field, Heinz Field gives fans in every section a great view of the game. Heinz Field’s horseshoe-shaped design takes full advantage of the stadium’s riverfront site. The open south end frames Point state Park, Mount washington and views of the rivers. the northeast and northwest corners of the bowl are also open, and the stadium’s upper concourses offer dramatic views of downtown and the city’s urban skyline.

CASE STUDIES

aPPendix 3

STADIA

16. mArlins PArk MiaMi, usa the new stadium for the Miami Marlins Mlb team in Miami, Florida, opened in april 2012. Marlins Park replaces the memorable orange bowl in little havana, adjacent to downtown Miami. situated on the same footprint, the ballpark is intended to be the anchor for redevelopment of the site. The new 37,000-seat stadium includes an opening roof to shield spectators from the sun and rain, inherently changing the perception of summertime baseball in Florida. the urban plan proposes a fundamental change in the character of the old orange bowl precinct, recreating the neighbourhood street network and reconnecting little havana to the main public streets. within this framework the stadium and future development including parking buildings are presented as urban buildings on city blocks, creating an urban centre. it is a civic setting for a civic building, an urban gallery, with the ballpark located between major public plazas on the east and west boundaries. Parking structures form the other two walls of the gallery, moderating the scale between

the ballpark and adjoining neighbourhoods. the western plaza changes as the roof is rolled over the park below. the ballpark will provide retail at its base to integrate with the proposed adjacent retail development, intentionally creating a street edge that connects to the surrounding neighbourhood. the stadium architecture is a modern, kinetic sculpture of faceted metal and glass. the building is conceived as an abstraction of water merging with land, symbolic of Miami’s coastal landscape. the base of the ballpark will create a backdrop for urban life with arcades and colourful mosaics reflecting the diverse culture of Miami. The arcades are capped by large sweeping balconies allowing people to feel a part of the street life surrounding the ballpark. the seating bowl is comprised of three decks with fewer than 10,000 seats in the intimate upper deck. interior features include atrium spaces filled with colour and art, and a huge operable window to downtown Miami .

Architects: Populous

317

STADIA

aPPendix 3

CASE STUDIES

318

17. melBourne CriCket ground Melbourne, australia One of the largest-capacity sporting venues in the world, Melbourne cricket Ground (McG) is over 150 years old. it has great historic and spiritual significance as the home of Australian cricket and australian rules football. it was the main venue for the 1956 olympic Games and, in March 2006, hosted the opening and closing ceremonies and the athletics for the commonwealth Games. the McG has undergone a number of transformations. the latest, a aud$435 million remodelling, completed in March 2006, involved a 60 per cent redevelopment of the ground, transforming the stadium into a modern worldclass facility. Populous was commissioned to provide full architectural services as part of McG5 sports architects*. the new stadium is open and transparent, with views back to the city and into the yarra

Park. the design took care to ensure patrons felt a connection to the city which is within walking distance. each of the three new entrances features a grand glass atrium, serviced by escalators taking patrons to the upper levels. the new hybrid roof is constructed of metal and glass. Sightlines from all 100,000 seats are uninterrupted, with the new structure much closer to the field of play than the stands it replaces. 80 per cent of the seats are under cover. another major feature of the redevelopment is the relocation and expansion of the stadium’s heritage facilities, with a precinct for museums and entertainment which is open seven days a week. the museums include the australian Gallery of sport and olympic Museum, the sport australia hall of Fame and the australian cricket hall of Fame.

*McG5, a joint venture between Populous, daryl jackson, hassell, cox architects and ts&e, provided full architectural services

CASE STUDIES

aPPendix 3

STADIA

18. telstrA dome Melbourne, australia telstra dome, formerly colonial stadium, is set in the redeveloped docklands precinct immediately adjacent to Melbourne’s central business district. the aud$430 million integrated urban stadium development, which opened in 2000, was designed to be flexible, allowing it to attract a full range of sports and entertainment events. The multi-functional four-tier stadium features a fully closing roof, moveable spectator tiers and a natural turf playing surface. it provides uncompromised sightlines and proximity to the playing surface, with 52,000 seats for oval pitchbased sports, and over 49,000 for rectangular pitch-based sports. Sophisticated moving-tier technology allows the lower section of the stadium seating to be

reconfigured, drawing spectators up to 18m closer to the action when hosting soccer or rugby the roof, in its retracted position, provides an opening of 160m by 100m, while still maintaining roof protection to 98 per cent of the patrons in the spectator stands. the roof can be closed in 20 minutes. another key feature is a ring road located at basement level connecting all back-of-house facilities, and allowing independent servicing without disruption to match-day patrons. There are 67 luxury suites and 12,500 membership seats with separate dining and bar facilities, plus a four-tier spectator bowl, all overlooking the playing surface with views back to the city.

Architects: Telstra Dome was designed by a joint venture of Populous, bligh Voller nield and daryl jackson Pty ltd.

319

STADIA

aPPendix 3

CASE STUDIES

19. nAnjing sPorts PArk nanjinG, china

320

the nanjing sports Park, one of the largest athletic venue projects ever completed in asia, was designed and built for the 10th china national Games, held in the ancient chinese capital in october 2005. Populous was the architect for the masterplan and all buildings, designing all stages from beginning to completion of the project. The US$285 million sports park includes a 60,000-seat stadium, 11,000-seat arena, swimming pool, tennis centre, media centre and outdoor facilities for baseball, softball, hockey and basketball. the sports park forms the centrepiece of a new downtown precinct development to the west of nanjing, and marks a new generation of stadia, illustrating the significance of sport as a catalyst for urban development. the chinese government used the national Games as a precursor to the beijing olympics to gain as much experience as possible about how

facilities work for a major event. the primary concept of the sports park was to create what they called a ‘people’s palace’, a combination of world-standard sporting facilities with the main stadium as the centrepiece within a recreational park. the sports buildings are grouped closely together with 35 per cent of the precinct dedicated to parkland. the sports complex incorporates a number of new design features and represents a leap forward in interconnectivity. all facilities were designed concurrently and in record time to allow the greatest possibilities for interconnection and design harmony, and also to enable maximum efficiency for both major event and everyday use. access to the buildings is by an elevated podium so that the park can be used regardless of whether events are taking place in the sports buildings. spectators can circulate between the facilities, via the podium, without needing to enter the park area.

Architects: Populous

CASE STUDIES

aPPendix 3

STADIA

20. oitA stAdium oita, jaPan the oita stadium, in southwest japan, was built for the 2002 FiFa world cup. designed by Kisho Kurokawa and the takenaka corporation, it is affectionately known as the big eye because, with its retractable roof, it resembles a large eye and eyelid. the stadium is extremely versatile. as well as providing a home for soccer and rugby, it can host international athletics and a range of entertainment events such as rock concerts. the closing roof and a movable seating tier, which can be installed in the front section, help create maximum atmosphere. oita stadium is designed as a simple geometric sphere, based on ancient japanese symbolism. the gentle curvature not only blends in with the surrounding landscape, but also provides a perfect base for a retractable roof. the elliptical shape at the opening portions of the roof has a north-south axis, and is designed to allow maximum sunlight into the rectangular natural grass pitch. The use of Teflon in the movable roof panels also allows sunlight to reach the grass when the roof is closed. when open, some main beams remain exposed over the central area.

The Oita Stadium is part of a large-scale versatile sports park for the people of oita Prefecture. the total land is 255ha. as well as the stadium, the masterplan includes an arena, training centre, pool, parkland and facilities for soccer, rugby, softball, baseball, gateball and tennis. the use of deliberate gaps between the seats and the roof gives natural ventilation to the stadium. it also means patrons do not feel enclosed since they can look out on the mountains beyond. The Oita Stadium installed the world’s first mobile camera, which meant images could be sent around the world.

321

Architects: Kisho Kurokawa architect and associates

STADIA

aPPendix 3

CASE STUDIES

21. olymPiC stAdium, london , uK

322

embrace the temporary. this was the philosophy Populous adopted for the architectural design of London’s Olympic stadium. the unprecedented brief called for an 80,000-capacity stadium to host the athletics competition and the opening and closing ceremonies of the olympic and Paralympic Games. but, after the Games, it had to be scaled down to a smaller 25,000-capacity venue. This meant that within the larger venue there could be a smaller permanent facility. however, surrounding the larger venue there would be the temporary facilities needed just for the Games. the triangular stadium site, bounded by rivers on two sides, and a public footpath on the third, is located at the southern end of the new Olympic park. The fact that it’s an island allowed the designers to separate the venue perimeter from the stadium structure, so that once spectators cross the bridges over the rivers and have their tickets checked, they are inside the venue. this allows the stadium perimeter itself to be permeable and easily negotiated, something that is particularly important for a stadium where all spectators will be visiting for the first time. the levels of the site were manipulated so that the spectator circulation around the building could be separated from the level below where the athletes warm up and meet the media, and where other back-of-house activities take place. the permanent 25,000 seats are provided in the lower tier, accessed from the podium. Most of the remaining seats

are within the upper tier, reached by simple staircases that radiate around the building. as hospitality facilities are provided elsewhere in the park during the Games, the stadium has a modestly sized accommodation for the olympic family and heads of state, taking the form of lounges and a 400-cover dining suite located within the west stand, with direct access to seats in the mid tier. this simple arrangement has allowed a surprisingly compact seating bowl to be created, in an elliptical shape around the athletics field of play. Taking inspiration from the 2012 Games logo, a striking pattern has been created with the seats using black fragments on a white background. the roof is a very lightweight tensile fabric design which appears to hover over the upper tier, surrounded by a white tubular steel truss, supported on diagonal columns which contrast against the black-painted steel that supports the upper tier. this composition has already become a symbol of the success of London’s Olympic project. surrounding the stadium is the wrap. this provides the all-important threshold between the garden party atmosphere of the outer podium and the intensity of the seating bowl. 360 strips of white tensile fabric, each twisting by 90 degrees, reach down to the podium to allow spectators to pass through. It’s a lightweight envelope to match the lightest olympic stadium ever built.

CASE STUDIES

aPPendix 3

STADIA

323

Architects: Populous

STADIA

CASE STUDIES

aPPendix 3

22. the ovAl london, uK

324 Populous provided the concept design for the oval. Millersport provided detailed design.

surrey county cricket club had an ambition, in 1995, to preserve the status of the 125-year-old Oval as one of the finest cricket grounds in the world. in june 2005, this ambition was realised when the stadium opened following an eyecatching facelift to host the final Ashes Test where england was at last victorious. the oval has been transformed, boasting a brand new four-tier 23,000-capacity structure, known as the ocs stand. Geometrically bold with futuristic curves in white steel, the stylish new stand is truly iconic, elegantly harmonising with the imposing Victorian appearance of the Pavilion. the dramatic sweeping form of the new roof has been composed to act as a foil to the gas holders which form the backdrop at this end. the ocs stand has been designed to dramatically improve the match-day experience. spectators are brought closer to the action than ever before, and presented with the added

luxury of more legroom. acoustic consideration was also important. The stand now reflects the noise back into the ground to create a more vibrant atmosphere. a further feature of the redevelopment is the 183m external living wall, which supports a variety of climbing plants, adding to the summer ambience of the external concourse, and bringing the seasons into the urban fabric of the area. the tapering timber louvre screen also helps restrict overlooking from the adjacent residential accommodation, and dissipates traffic noise from the main end. The Oval is a stadium fit for the 21st century, providing spectator terracing, a press centre, broadcasting suite and corporate hospitality facilities. open all year, the stadium can host everything from conferences and board meetings to weddings.

CASE STUDIES

aPPendix 3

STADIA

23. reliAnt stAdium houston, usa houston is an epicentre of technology, industry and space exploration. reliant stadium is designed to embody the city’s visionary spirit and the uniquely texan sense of pioneering and adventure. The 70,000-seat stadium features a retractable fabric roof which combines with expansive areas of glazing to provide a sense of transparency. The stadium’s sliding roof panels are made of steel-hinged frames wrapped in translucent ultralox fabric, which allows in natural daylight. The bright, open-air feel of the facility’s concourses and gathering spaces generate the feel of an outdoor stadium with the comforts of climate control necessary for Houston’s extreme weather.

home of the houston texans nFl franchise, reliant stadium offers an intimacy and compactness similar to a large indoor arena. all seating levels are designed to be as close to the field as possible. A palletised natural grass field provides the optimum playing surface for american football and soccer, while allowing flexibility for rodeos and other events. the interiors of the facility have also been designed with the region in mind. the careful use of frosted glass and brushed aluminium with stained woods, rich leathers and cattle brands evokes the blend of Houston’s sleek modernism and Texas’ rugged sense of history and heritage. 325

Architects: Populous

STADIA

aPPendix 3

CASE STUDIES

24. sAlzBurg stAdium salzburG, austria the salzburg stadium, in austria, opened in 2003. the 16,500-seat venue, designed mainly for soccer, has been integrated into its surroundings in the immediate vicinity of Klessheim castle, designed by Fischer von erlach in 1694. this has had a significant impact on the design of the stadium. the heights of the surrounding buildings and the fact that the stadium is so close to the castle has resulted in a design concept in which the building height of the stadium has been kept to a minimum. As a result, the soccer field was dug into the topography. hence, what is seen from the outside is the shape of a slightly slanted, uniform building, with a semitransparent light roof, supported by an intricate steel-frame structure.

the low building height has created great atmosphere inside the stadium, enhanced by the design of a continuous seating bowl. the concourse has been positioned at entrance level. The stadium was designed to be multi-functional and has already been used for a range of events including concerts and motocross meetings. it was expanded to a 32,000-seat capacity for the 2008 UEFA European Football championship.

Architects: Schuster Architekten

326

327 25. soCCer City stAdium johannesburG, south aFrica soccer city stadium, located near soweto, in johannesburg, seated 88,600 for the 2010 FiFa world cup. it was the venue for the opening and closing matches. the previous 1980s structure of the Fnd stadium was almost entirely demolished to make way for the new stadium. this was not the original intent but, during construction, it was decided to almost totally rebuild the stadium. some aspects of the original stadium were retained, and the geometry of the bowl was modified to improve sightlines, with a unique split-level lower tier and concourse introduced for the first time in a large soccer stadium project. the stadium external envelope was determined after intense consultation with local cultural leaders. it resembles a pot, or calabash, in the local idiom. this reading has been adopted widely and was evident during the opening ceremony of the FiFa world cup. the seating bowl is designed to be as open as possible, yet it retains a strong intimacy, despite its size. A double-layer tensile fabric roof covers the upper half of the stadium. the roof structure rests on super-columns featured in the perimeter atrium, which is enhanced with a continuous roof light.

the main vertical circulation ramps are entirely contained within the calabash so that spectators get a sense of the drama of the large roofed atria spaces within. lower level concourses are open to the bowl and to the perimeter so that the space seems to flow directly from inside to outside, and the spectator has a sense of the stadium’s entirety.

Architects: Populous in collaboration with bueP architects

STADIA

aPPendix 3

CASE STUDIES

26. soldier Field ChiCago, USa after years of political wrangling, the chicago Bears and their fans are finally enjoying their new state-of-the-art 63,000-seat stadium. Named the ‘best damn new stadium, period’ by GQ magazine, this venue and its 17 new acres of parkland is changing the face of sports architecture. wood + zapata, working in close collaboration with the team’s owners, developed a scheme that saves the classic colonnades of

328

soldier Field, while providing one of the most exciting luxury skybox configurations in american football, with 120 luxury suites, 9,000 partially covered club seats, and two cantilevered lcd video boards, one in each end zone. the regular seats offer a superior view of the playing field, due to their proximity, and also offer fans incomparable views of both downtown chicago and lake Michigan.

Architects: Wood + zapata. lohan caprile Goettsch architects

CASE STUDIES

aPPendix 3

STADIA

27. stAde de FrAnCe Paris, France the cities of antiquity have demonstrated that stadia were, and still are, magnificent urban objects. the stade de France, built in the heart of saint denis, a district close to Paris, provides public open spaces for the local inhabitants with a roof that seems to offer shelter to the neighbouring districts. From the very top it offers panoramic views over the town, with, in the distance, the monuments of the sacré coeur and the saint denis basilica. the imposing stade de France is distinguishable by its great elliptical disc, the high-tech roof of the stadium, elevated 43m into the air. The disc is supported by 18 steel masts, placed at 45m from each other and following the curve of the nearby Saintdenis canal. The multi-functional 80,000-seat stadium, built originally for the final of the 1998 FIFA world cup, is designed for both football and rugby, because of the elliptical shape of the tiered seating. it naturally provides a convergence of the spectators’ view towards the pitch, and more particularly, towards the goals. but it is also adaptable to a wide range of athletic events. The 25,000 seats of the first ring terraces are mobile, and can be mechanically pulled back 15m, rolling on a cushion of air, steel and Teflon rollers. the roof has a total surface of more than 6ha, weighs as much as the eiffel tower, and houses all the lighting and acoustical functions. its interior edge of glass also works as a filter of natural light, and can be used as a backdrop for a variety of special lighting effects.

Architects: Aymeric zublena, Michel Macary, Michel regembal & claude constantini

127

STADIA

aPPendix 3

CASE STUDIES

28. stAttegg sPorts FACility Graz, austria

330

stattegg sports facility, on the outskirts of Graz, is a model complex, built on the basis of a study on multi-functional leisure and sports facilities with an integrated energy strategy. The project is the combination of a wooden module system with versatile rooms that can be used in a number of different ways. Because of the difficult topography, and poor orientation of the existing sports ground, and the incorrect position of the clubhouse, the site was completely reorganised. the new two-storey stadium with solar panels on its roof is now situated along the southwest side of the pitch. the stand is triangular in shape, reflecting the wedge shape of the site – wide at the entrance area that all visitors have to pass through, and narrower towards the rear. the façade facing away from the pitch resembles a residential building, and blends in with the surrounding architecture.

The players’ changing rooms and toilets are located on the lower floor, and the upper floor has been designed so that virtually all functional units have at least two uses. in the centre is the restaurant area, which takes the form of a freestanding red cube inserted beneath the large stadium roof. the kitchen, serving hatch and toilets of the sports bistro can also be used during matches, while the soccer club-room is available as a restaurant extension. The two offices adjoining this, and the associated infrastructure, are shared by several different sports clubs. Simple, confidently used and often brightly coloured materials make the building an inviting new village centre. The good-looking, cost-effective facility has been extremely well received by the stattegg community.

Architects: Hohensinn Architektur

CASE STUDIES

aPPendix 3

STADIA

331

wembley stadium was designed by the world stadium team (wst), a joint venture between Populous and Foster & Partners

29. wemBley stAdium london,uK The 90,000-seat state-of-the-art Wembley stadium, which opened in 2007, has built upon its past heritage to become the world’s most dynamic stadium. designed to the highest specifications, using the latest technology and offering every fan an unrivalled match-day experience, the stadium continues its renowned status as the Venue of legends. replacing the famous twin towers is a wonder of modern architecture. when our first sketches of an arch hit the tracing paper, one could see the magic in that form. rising 133m, the wembley stadium arch not only provides london with an iconic landmark, but holds a crucial function in supporting the 7,000-tonne steel roof structure, eliminating the need for pillars. the roof has retractable panels to allow light and air onto the pitch, maintaining the quality of the famous wembley stadium turf. between events, the roof can be left open, but can be moved to cover all the seats within 50 minutes, ensuring fans are sheltered during an event.

stadium facilities have been designed to maximise spectator comfort and enjoyment. the quality of seats and the space allowed has improved dramatically. seating provisions for disabled spectators have been greatly improved, increasing from 100 to 310. the geometry of the seating bowl, designed as a single form rather than four separate stands, ensures that spectators have an unobstructed view from each of the three tiers. careful attention has been paid to the acoustics which enhance the noise from fans on match days and create a legendary atmosphere. the famous wembley roar has not been forgotten. although designed primarily for rugby, soccer and concerts, the new stadium is capable of hosting world-class athletics events by means of a platform adaptation. with the platform in place, the stadium seating reduces to 67,000.

STADIA

aPPendix 3

CASE STUDIES

30. westPAC stAdium wellinGton, new zealand

126

sited on disused railway yards on the edge of Wellington Harbour, the 34,500-seat Westpac Stadium is a modern purpose-built cricket ground. It is also the home of New Zealand’s other main sporting code, rugby. the stadium has taken a leading role in the redevelopment of the surrounding area. the project provided a unique opportunity to develop a world-class cricket venue as a whole entity rather than adding to an existing facility in a piecemeal fashion. the design demonstrates a minimalist approach, with the cricket arena cut back to the tightest possible configuration, allowing the stadium to also accommodate rugby without placing the spectators too far from the pitch. the bowl design includes a complete oval lower tier, with separate box level seating for 2,600, to the underside of the roof, giving dramatic and unobstructed views of the whole arena. The complete enclosure of the field with the oval seating bowl provides an ideal amphitheatre for the action of the sporting arena. The building’s external skin of horizontally striated reflective metal cladding has created a large sculptural landmark on the northern edge of the city’s central business district. The concourse areas include gallery spaces providing seven-day-a-week entertainment, cultural and exhibition space serving the community. the stadium also includes offices, a sports-medicine facility, cricket academy and a cricket museum. it opened in early january 2000, and has been awarded the new zealand institute of architects (nzia) resene national award for design and the royal australian institute of architects international building award.

westpac stadium was designed in a joint venture between Populous and bligh Voller nield in association with warren and Mahoney

CASE STUDIES

aPPendix 3

STADIA

31. wimBledon AeltC Centre Court london, uK Wimbledon is one of the world’s most recognisable and evocative sports arenas, with a history of more than 120 years. almost every summer, however, the prestigious outdoor grass-court Grand Slam tournament has to deal with the frustrations of the occasionally inclement british weather. until recently, the australian open was the only Grand slam tennis event with a retractable roof. it was important for wimbledon to move with the times and protect its position at the top of world venues. the organisers also needed to ensure their huge tV audiences had tennis to watch so as to ensure the event’s long-term financial viability. The Centre court stayed where it was. it was simply remodelled to bring the 1922 building into the 21st century. The design of the innovative hydraulically-operated roof (a folding fabric concertina) evolved after a scientifically demanding process. Measuring 65m by 70m, the structure works on a principle similar to an umbrella, with metal ribs supporting a translucent fabric.

a key element of the design is to allow natural light to reach the grass, while an airflow system removes condensation from within the bowl to provide the optimum internal environment for the comfort of spectators and players when the roof is closed. the addition of six rows of seating to the upper tier on three sides allowed increased capacity on centre court from 13,800 to 15,000 spectators. new wider seats were installed, as well as extra stairs and lifts to provide greater spectator comfort. to allow for the new seating, new media facilities and commentary boxes replaced those in the upper tier. they were located in a similar position at the back of the seating bowl.

333 Architects: Populous

bibliography

ADA and ABA (2006) ADA and ABA: Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities. Download from www.accessboard.gov/ada-aba/final.htm Australian Football League (AFL) (2011) Minimum Standards AFL Venues 2011, Melbourne, AFL. Bouw, Matthjis and Provoost, Michelle (2000) The Stadium: architecture of mass sport, Rotterdam, Netherlands Architecture Institute. British Standards Institution (BSI) (2009) British Standard BS 8300: 2009 Design of buildings and their approaches to meet the needs of disabled people – Code of Practice. London, BSI.

334

British Standards Institution (BSI) (2003) British Standard BS EN 13200-1:2003 Spectator facilities. Layout criteria for spectator viewing area – Specification. London, BSI. British Standards Institution (BSI) (2005) British Standard BS EN 13200-3:2005 Spectator facilities. Separating elements requirements. London, BSI. British Standards Institution (BSI) (2006) British Standard BS EN 13200-6:2006 Spectator facilities. Demountable (temporary) stands. London, BSI. Centre for Accessible Environments (CAE) (2004) Designing for Accessibility. London, CAE.

Centre for Accessible Environments (CAE) (2004) Good Loo Design Guide. London, CAE. Chartered Institute of Building Service Engineers (CIBSE) (2006) CIBSE Lighting Guide: Sport LG4, plus addenda. London, CIBSE. Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) (2003) – now the Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG) – Approved Document M: Access to and use of buildings. London, The Stationery Office. Department for Transport (DfT) (2002) Inclusive Mobility: a Guide to Best Practice on access to Pedestrian and Transport Infrastructure. London, DfT. Department of the Environment (1994) Planning Policy Guidance Note: Sport and Recreation. London, The Stationery Office. Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) (2008) Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds, 5th edition (‘The Green Guide’). London, The Stationery Office. Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) (2011) Football Stadiums, Technical recommendations and requirements, 5th edition. Zurich, FIFA. Football Stadia Improvement Fund (FSIF) and Football Licensing Authority (FLA) (2003) Accessible Stadia. London, Football Foundation.

Football Stadia Improvement Fund (FSIF) and Football Licensing Authority (FLA) (2006) Concourses. London, Football Licensing Authority. Football Stadia Improvement Fund (FSIF) and Football Licensing Authority (FLA) (2006) Control rooms. London, Football Licensing Authority. Football Stadia Development Committee (1994) Toilet Facilities at Stadia. London, Sports Council. Football Spectators Act 1989 (1989) London, HMSO. Home Office (1985) Committee of inquiry into crowd safety and control at sports grounds. Chairman: Mr Justice Popplewell. Interim Report, London, HMSO, CMND 9595. Home Office (1986) Committee of inquiry into crowd safety and control at sports grounds. Chairman: Mr Justice Popplewell. Final Report, London, HMSO, CMND 9710. Home Office (1989) The Hillsborough stadium disaster. 15 April 1989. Inquiry by Rt Hon. Lord Justice Taylor. London, The Stationery Office. Home Office (1990) The Hillsborough stadium disaster, 15 April 1989. Inquiry by the Rt Hon. Lord Justice Taylor. Final Report. London, The Stationery Office. Inglis, S. (1996) The Football Grounds of Britain. London, Harper Collins Willow.



Inglis, S. (1990) The Football Grounds of Europe. London, Harper Collins Willow. International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) (2008) Track and Field Facilities Manual 2008, Monaco, IAAF. International Commission on Illumination (CIE) (1986) Guide 67: Guide for the photometric specification and measurement of sports lighting installations. Vienna, CIE. International Commission on Illumination (CIE) (2005) Practical design guidelines for the lighting of sports events for colour television and filming. Vienna, CIE. International Hockey Federation (FIH) (2008) Guide to installing hockey pitches and associated facilities. Lausanne, FIH. International Olympic Committee (IOC) (1999) Olympic Movement’s Agenda 21 Sport for Sustainable Development. Lausanne, IOC. Major League Baseball, Official Rules, Download from http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/official_ info/official_rules Nixdorf, Stefan (2008) Stadium Atlas, Technical recommendations for grandstands in modern stadia, Berlin, Ernst and Sohn. Schmidt, T. (1988) Building a Stadium. Olympic stadiums from 1948–1988. Part 1. Olympic Review, 247, June, 246–251. Shields, A. (1989) Arenas: A Planning, Design and Management Guide. London, Sports Council.



bibliography

STaDia

Sports Council, Royal Institute of British Architects, UIA Work Group for Sports, Leisure and Tourism (1990) Sports Stadia in the 90’s. London, Sports Council. Sports Council (1992) Planning and Provision for Sport. Section on planning for stadia. London, Sports Council. Sports Council Technical Unit for Sport: Geraint John and Kit Campbell (1995) Handbook of Sports and Recreational Building Design. Vol. 1. Outdoor Sports, 2nd edition. Butterworth-Heinemann. Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) (2010) UEFA Stadium infrastructure regulations. Nyon (Switzerland), UEFA. Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) (2011) UEFA Guide to Quality Stadiums. Nyon (Switzerland), UEFA. Wimmer, M. (1976) Olympic Buildings. Edition Leipzig (out of print).

335

INDEX

Note: page numbers in italics refer to figures; page numbers in bold refer to tables.

A

336

access roads, 41 activity areas see playing areas administrative operations, 215–222 advertising, 269, 287–288 boards and signs, 97, 234, 269 air-supported roofs, 65 Alberta, McMahon stadium, 131 American football, 12–14 pitch layout and dimensions, 87 preferred viewing positions, 134 viewing distances, 135 amphitheatres, 3–5 Amsterdam ArenA, 66, 303 angle of rake for viewing tiers, 141–143 Ann Arbor, Michigan Stadium, 13 anti-graffiti coatings, 57 anti-terrorism measures, 34, 71–75 appeals room, 230 architectural form and structure, 49–68 Arizona, Cardinals Stadium, 305 Arles amphitheatre, 5 artificial surfaces, 77, 79, 81–83 artificial turf, 81–82, 256–257 Ascot Racecourse, 306 Astana Stadium, Kazakhstan, 307 Athens ancient Greek stadia, 2–3 Olympic stadium (1896), 6 Olympic stadium (2004), 11, 21, 52 athletes, 16–17 athletics orientation of playing areas, 29, 30 track and field layout and dimensions, 94, 95 viewing distances, 135 Atlanta, Olympic stadium (1996), 11 attendance, 127–128 audio systems, 242–246 Australian rules football, 88, 134 automatic vending machines, 186–188

B Baltimore, Oriole Park, 34 Barcelona Noucamp Stadium, 204, 205 Olympic stadia and arenas (1992), 11 Bari Stadium, 49, 54 bars see catering baseball, 12–14 pitch layout and dimensions, 92 preferred viewing positions, 134 viewing distances, 135 Beijing Olympic Stadium, 11, 232 Berlin Olympic stadium (1936), 6–7, 7 betting revenue, 271 bicycles, 42 board rooms, 216

box enclosures, 160–161 Bradford Odsal Stadium, 79 Valley Parade stadium, 18, 30, 55 Braga Municipal Stadium, Portugal, 310 brand activation, 287–288 brickwork, 55 broadcasting see media building maintenance and services rooms, 218 bullring method, 116 bus parking, 42 Byzantium Hippodrome, 6

C cable net structures, 63–64 canopies see roofs cantilever structures, 61–62 capacity of grounds, 127–128 Cape Town, Greenpoint Stadium, 315 capital costs, 131 Cardiff, Millennium Stadium, 35, 66, 135 cars see parking areas catchment area, 35, 130 catenary cable structures, 63 catering, 183–192, see also private viewing and facilities disabled people, 123 media, 211 cat’s cradle fence, 111, 112 Cheltenham racecourse, 41, 186, 203 Chicago Comiskey Park Baseball Stadium, 13 Soldier Field, 328 circulation, 73, 167–180 disabled access, 123 closed-circuit television (CCTV), 240–241 club debentures and bonds, 271 club enclosures, 162–163 club funding, 270 coach parking, 42 colours in materials, 54 of seating, 151 commentators’ cabins, 210 communications technology, 249–252 compression/tension ring structures, 62–63 computer equipment rooms, 218 concerts, 106 concourses, 57 concrete shell structures, 62 concrete structures, 54–55 conference rooms, 211–212 Constantinople stadium, 18 control rooms, 73, 216–218 costs capital, 131 operating, 268–269 cricket, 15, 93 crowd control, 109–116, 178

D Dallas, Cowboys Stadium, 311 delivery facilities, 43 Delphi stadium, 3 directors’ lounges, 163 disabled access, 53 disabled spectators, 119–124 parking provision, 42 seating, 128–129, 155 toilets, 199–200 display screens, 217–218, 242, 297–298 domed stadia, 68 Donetsk, Donbass Arena, 312 drainage, playing areas, 80 Dublin, Aviva Stadium, 12, 144, 260, 309 Dunedin, N.Z., Forsyth-Barr Stadium, 281, 314

E economic considerations, 17–18, 21–22, 261–268 Edinburgh, Murrayfield rugby stadium, 61, 131 egress from stadia, 175–176, 177 disabled people, 124 electronic scoreboards, 297–298 elevators, 180 emergency exit, 175–176 emergency lighting, 233–234 enclosure complete, 65, 68 degree of, 58 energy conservation, 278, 280–282, 284 entrances, 169–171, 176, 178 disabled access, 122–123 Ephesus stadium, 3 Epidauros stadium, 3 Epsom Downs racecourse, 57 escalators, 166, 179 event days, typical, 102 executive suites, 161–162 expansion, staged, 131, 268

F fast-food kiosks, 188 fences, 110–112 financial viability, 17–18, 21–22, 261–268 fire detection and fighting, 246–247 fire safety zoning, 30–32 fireproof construction and materials, 55, 150, 151 first aid facilities, 221–222 flammability of seating, 151 football see soccer

G Gaelic football, 89 gates and turnstiles see entrances Gelsenkirchen, Veltins arena, 56 glare control (lighting), 235 Glasgow, Ibrox Park, 18, 61 glass, safety, 73–74 goal post structures, 60–61 Goodwood Racecourse, 65 government bonds, 271





grants, 271 grass surfaces, 56, 68, 78–80, 255–256 Graz, Austria, Stattegg sports facility, 330 ground capacity, 127–128 guest rooms, 163

Queens Park Rangers stadium, 160 Stamford Bridge football stadium, 62 Tottenham FC stadium, 160 Twickenham Rugby Football Ground, 12, 131, 205 Wembley Stadium, 76, 111, 118, 134, 159–160, 166, 331 White City, 6, 7 Wimbledon AELTC Centre Court, 14, 66, 67, 277, 333

H heating and cooling systems, 246 history of stadia, 2–15 hockey pitches, 90 Hong Kong stadium, 46, 60 horse-racing see racecourses Houston Astrodome, 38, 68, 77 Minute Maid stadium, 13 Reliant Stadium, 325 Huddersfield, Galpharm Stadium, 39, 131, 136, 159 hurling pitches, 91

I illumination see lighting income, 269–271 Indianapolis, RCA Dome, 65, 68, 100, 102 information systems, 40, 217–218, 241–242, 249–252 in-town stadia, 38, 52 inward movement into stadia see entrances irrigation of grass, 80–81, 256

J Johannesburg, Soccer City Stadium, 327

K Kansas, Harry S Truman sports complex, 13, 14, 103, 105, 179 kiosks, 44 kitchens, 160, 161, 186, 188 Kuala Lumpur, Selangor Turf Club, 179

L land availability and cost, 39 landscaping, 44–46 lawn tennis, 14–15 court layout and dimensions, 96, 97 orientation of courts, 29 playing surfaces, 78 viewing distances and positions, 133, 134 lay-by areas on circulation routes, 174, 175 layout for circulation, 168 lifts, 180 light spill, 235 lighting, 44, 233–240, 280 location of stadia, 38–39 London Emirates Stadium, 136, 156, 160, 286, 313 Lord’s Cricket Ground, 15, 51, 64, 68 O2 arena, 182 Olympic stadium (1908), 6 Olympic stadium (1948), 7 Olympic Stadium (2012), 11, 26, 27, 274, 322–323 Oval Cricket Ground, 15, 324

M Madrid, Zarzuela racetrack, 54, 62 Manchester City FC ground, 53 Manchester United FC stadium, 205, 256 markings on pitches, 81, 83 Marylebone Cricket Club see London: Lord’s Cricket Ground masterplanning, 27–35 materials for seating, 150, 151 for stadia, 53–55 sustainable design, 278–289, 282–283 media, facilities for, 43, 207–213 medical facilities, 221–222, 230 Melbourne Cricket Ground, 161, 318 Etihad Stadium, 104, 105 Rod Laver Arena, 14, 14–15 Telstra Dome, 319 members’ enclosures see private viewing and facilities membrane structures, 64–65 Mexico City Aztec Stadium, 8, 11, 131, 135 Olympic Stadium (1968), 8, 10 Miami Marlins Park, 300, 317 Orange Bowl, 13 Sun Life stadium, 53, 103, 105, 179 Milan, San Siro Stadium, 53, 65–66, 78, 179 Milwaukee, Miller Park (Brewer) baseball stadium, 66 Minneapolis, Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome, 68 moats, 112–116 Monte-Carlo, Louis IV Stadium, 40, 52 Montreal, Olympic stadia and arenas (1976), 11, 66 motorcycles, 42 movable seating, 103, 105–106 multi-purpose uses, 22, 99–106 viewing distances and positions, 136–137 Munich Allianz Arena, 302 Olympic Stadium (1972), 10, 11, 48, 63–64, 135 museum spaces, 205

N Nanjing Sports Park, 320

INDEX

STADIA

Youth Olympics, 33 natural grass surfaces, 56, 68, 78–80, 255–256 New Haven Hockey rink, 63 Yale Bowl, 13 New Orleans, Louisiana Superdome, 13, 68 New York Flushing Meadows, 14, 15 John Shea Stadium, 13 Yankee Stadium, 13 Nimes amphitheatre, 5

O office accommodation, 216 officials, facilities for, 43, 229 Oita Stadium, 66, 321 Olympia stadium, 3 Olympic stadia, 6–11 open sites, 38 opening roofs, 66 operating costs, 268–272 orientation of playing areas, 29 out-of-town stadia, 38 outwood movement from stadia see egress from stadia

P Paris Parc des Princes, 51, 61 Roland Garros stadium, 15 Stade de France, 12, 105, 265, 329 parking areas, 40–45 disabled people, 122 media, 209 security implications, 72 Pasadena, Rose Bowl, 13 pedestrian routes, 43–44, 167–180 Peloponnesus stadium, 3 perimeter fences, 110–112 Pessimus Hippodrome, 6 pitch replacement concept, 79 pitches see playing areas Pittsburgh, Heinz Field, 2, 316 planning, 37–46 planting see landscaping players, facilities for, 43, 225–231 playing areas dimensions and layout, 83–96 lighting, 234–240 maintenance, 255–257 orientation, 29, 30 perimeter fences, 110–112 pitch markings, 81, 83 protective coverings, 83 shared uses, 103 surround, 96–97 playing surfaces, 16–17, 55–56, 77–83 police, facilities for, 219–220 polymeric surfaces, 82–83, 257 Pontiac, Silverdome, 45, 65, 68 pop-music concerts see concerts Popplewell Inquiry into stadium safety, 18

337

STADIA

INDEX

post and beam structures, 60 power supplies, 247–248 press see media private viewing and facilities, 157–164 programme sales, 204 protective coverings, 83 public transport, 40 Pula amphitheatre, 5

Q queue management, 178

R

338

racecourses, 41, 57, 65, 186, 203, 306 rain, shelter from, 58–59 rake, angle of, 141–143 ramps, 53, 57, 179 refreshment facilities see catering renewable energy, 282 retail sales, 203–205 retractable seating, 103, 105–106 Rio de Janeiro, Maracana Municipal stadium, 12 riser heights, 137–143 Riyadh Stadium, 65 Rome ancient circuses, 5–6 Colosseum, 3, 4, 5, 49, 109 Olympic stadia and arenas (1960), 7–8, 8, 8, 9, 54, 62, 63 roofs, 51, 58–66, 131–132, 265 coverings, 66–68 opening, 66 routes see circulation rugby, 12 orientation of pitch, 29 pitch layout and dimensions, 85–86 viewing distances and positions, 133, 134, 135

S safe areas, 32, 174 safety, 18 circulation, 167–169 crowd control, 109–116, 178 perimeter fences, 110–112 seating, 143, 145–146 zoning, 30–32, 168–169 St Louis, Busch Stadium, 13 Salzburg Stadium, 326 San Francisco, AT&T Park, 308 scoreboards, 242, 297–298 screens, display, 217–218, 242, 297–298 seating capacity, 29, 127–128 colours, 151 design, 24, 145–155 dimensional standards, 149 dimensions, 152–154, 153 disabled spectators, 155 fixings, 154–155 flammability, 151 geometry, 56–57

materials and finishes, 151 movable and retractable, 103, 105–106 private facilities, 157–159 range of viewing standards, 158 retractable and movable, 103, 105–106, 149 versus standing accommodation, 129–130 types, 146–150 seating times, 146 Seattle Husky Stadium, 61 Safeco Field baseball stadium, 66 security, 34, 71–75, 219–220 CCTV, 240–241 Seoul, Olympic stadia and arenas (1988), 12, 51, 53, 62 service and delivery facilities, 43 services, 233–252 shared uses see multi-purpose uses Sheffield Don Valley Stadium, 65, 68 Hillsborough Stadium, 18, 38, 110, 184, 221 shelter provided by roofs, 58–59 shops, 204–205 sightlines, 136, 137–143 perimeter fences and moats, 110–116 signage, 174 disabled spectators, 124 parking, 44 Silverstone motor racing circuit, 41, 185 site boundary planting, 46 snack-bar kiosks, 188 soccer, 11–12 orientation of pitch, 29 pitch layout and dimensions, 84 viewing distances and positions, 133, 134, 135, 136 sound systems, 242–246 souvenir shops, 204 space frames, 65–66 special events, 32–33, 101–102, 102 spectators, 15–16, see also disabled spectators; stands ground capacity, 127–128 Split stadium, 68 sponsors’ lounges, 164 sponsorship, 269, 287–288 sprinkler systems, 55 staged expansion, 131, 268 stairs, 57, 173, 178–179 stand-by power, 247–248 standing areas, 129–130 stands, see also seating angle of rake for, 141–143 degree of enclosure, 58, 59 entrances, 171–174 geometry, 56–57 maintenance, 257–258 viewing angles and sightlines, 137–141 steel structures, 55 sterile zones, 168 stewards, provision for, 218–219

structural systems, 60–66 subdivision of stadia, 168 sun, protection from, 58 surface finishes, 53–54, 57–58 surfaces, playing see playing surfaces Surrey County Cricket Club see London: Oval Cricket Ground sustainable design, 275–286 Sydney ANZ Stadium see Olympic stadia and arenas (2000), 126 Olympic stadia and arenas (2000), 11, 36, 46, 51, 68, 127, 277, 282, 304 Sydney Football Stadium, 52 synthetic turf, 81, 82

T tax concessions, 270 Taylor report on stadium safety, 18, 38, 221 technology, 23–24 television, see also media lighting for, 239–240 temporary events management, 218 temporary structures, 50–51, 277 tennis see lawn tennis tension structures, 63–65 terrorism, 34, 71–75 Thebes stadium, 3 ticket sales, 203–204 disabled people, 122 timed exit analysis, 175–176, 177 toilet and washing facilities, 195–201 administrative staff, 221 disabled people, 124, 199–200 media, 211 players, 227, 229 private, 160 Tokyo ‘Big Egg’, 65 Jingu National Stadium, 8, 9 Olympic stadia and arenas (1964), 8, 9, 51, 54, 63 Toronto, Skydome, 38, 102, 105, 164, 204, 219–220, 220, 234 tourism, 34–35 transport issues, 39–40, 277 turf see grass surfaces

U Ulleval stadium, 82 urban sites, 38, 52

V Vancouver, BC Place, 65 vending machines, 186–188 ventilation, 73, 246 Verona amphitheatre, 5 video displays, 217–218, 242, 297–298 Vienna, Prater Stadium, 53, 55, 62, 63 viewing, 127–143, see also sightlines angles and sightlines, 137–141





INDEX

STADIA

disabled spectators, 123 exploiting the corners, 133 optimum viewing distance, 132, 133, 135 preferred locations, 132, 134 VIPs see private viewing and facilities visitor centres, 205 visitors’ rooms, 163

W washing facilities see toilet and washing facilities water supply, 248, 282 Wellington, N.Z., Westpac Stadium, 332 wheelchair users, see also disabled spectators provision for, 128–129 wind, shelter from, 58–59 wind uplift, roof design for, 60

Z zoning, parking, 43 zoning, safety, 30–32, 168–169

339