Sports Coaching Education and Alternative Pedagogies : Approaches in Higher Education [1 ed.] 9781032574899, 9781032574950, 9781003439646

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations
List of Contributors
Acknowledgements
Introduction: Sports Coaching Education and Alternative Pedagogies: Approaches in Higher Education
1. The Use of Video Narratives of Elite Athletes’ Injury Experiences in Coach Education
2. Evaluating the Impact of Athlete Case Studies Told Through Creative Nonfiction on Coach Learners in University Coach Education
3. The Adoption of an Interactive and Immersive Installation to Educate Coaches on the Topic of Abuse in Sport
4. Two-Eyed Seeing in Coaching: An Indigenous Approach to Coaching Higher Education Sport in Canada
5. Bridging Theory and Practice: Innovations in Sports Coaching Education
6. Authentic Learning in Online Tertiary Coach Education Contexts: Positively Impacting Coaching Practice
7. Action Research and the Scholar-Coach: Learning to Coach More Ethically
8. Education for Sustainable Development: Fostering Sustain‘abilities’ in Sports Coaches
9. Education for Sustainable Athlete Development: Building More Critical and Reflective Coach Pedagogies
10. Environmental Sustainability: Actor-Network Theory and the Sustainability of Coaches’ Practices
Index

Citation preview

Sports Coaching Education and Alternative Pedagogies

Sports Coaching Education and Alternative Pedagogies: Approaches in Higher Education theorises alternative pedagogies and presents examples of what such teaching looks like in sports coaching in higher education. To do this, this new volume outlines the teaching goals of higher educa­ tion coach education, summarises the limitations of this education that research has demonstrated, and presents alternative pedagogy as a way forward. The book then turns to showcasing work by an international selection of authors practicing alternative pedagogies that focus on a range of topical issues relevant to sports coaching such as ethics, power, safeguarding/abuse, sustainability, gender/sexuality, race/ethnicity and pain/injury. The authors of each of the international chapters outline the alternative pedagogical approach they employ in their teaching and pre­ sent exemplary teaching materials that can be used by educators. Alter­ native or nontraditional pedagogies are strategies of delivery that are becoming more popular in undergraduate and postgraduate coach edu­ cation. Sports Coaching Education and Alternative Pedagogies raises attention to contemporary issues in sports coaching and alternative ped­ agogies of delivery for university coach education students. Using alternative pedagogies, the book presents coach education teaching materials on a range of topical issues that higher education scholars can implement in their teaching and is key reading for aca­ demics, researchers and students in the areas of sport coaching, sport education and the related disciplines. Natalie Barker-Ruchti, PhD, is Associate Professor in the School of Health Sciences at Örebro University, Sweden. She is passionate about educating future sports coaches on issues of ethics, sustainability and care(ful) coaching. Currently, she contributes to Swiss Olympic’s Ethics in Sport Project, where she, among other things, is developing ethics curriculum for Switzerland’s coach education system.

Laura Purdy, PhD, is Senior Lecturer at Liverpool John Moores Uni­ versity, UK, and a member of the Institute of Educational Research at Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania. Her recent scholarly activity has focused on issues in the sport industry that relate to relationships between organisations and sports workers (i.e., athletes, coaches, gen­ eral managers, agents and administrators), including welfare and safe­ guarding, advocacy, voice and sustainability. In disseminating this work, she enjoys drawing upon alternative pedagogies that enable learners to meaningfully link theory and practice.

Routledge Research in Sports Coaching

The Routledge Research in Sports Coaching series provides a platform for leading experts and emerging academics in this important discipline to present ground-breaking work on the history, theory, practice and contemporary issues of sports coaching. The series sets a new bench­ mark for research in sports coaching, and offers a valuable contribu­ tion to the wider sphere of sports studies. Available in this series: Sport Coaching with Diverse Populations Theory and Practice Edited by James Wallis and John Lambert Birth Advantages and Relative Age Effects in Sport Exploring Organizational Structures and Creating Appropriate Settings Edited by Adam L. Kelly, Jean Côté, Mark Jeffreys, and Jennifer Turnnidge Complexity in Games Teaching and Coaching A Multi-Disciplinary Perspective Felix Lebed Coach Education in Football Contemporary Issues and Global Perspectives Edited by Thomas M. Leeder Sports Coaching Education and Alternative Pedagogies Approaches in Higher Education Edited by Natalie Barker-Ruchti and Laura Purdy For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.rou­ tledge.com/Routledge-Research-in-Sports-Coaching/book-series/RRSC

Sports Coaching Education and Alternative Pedagogies Approaches in Higher Education

Edited by Natalie Barker-Ruchti and Laura Purdy

First published 2025 by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 and by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2025 selection and editorial matter, Natalie Barker-Ruchti and Laura Purdy; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Natalie Barker-Ruchti and Laura Purdy to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this title has been requested ISBN: 978-1-032-57489-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-57495-0 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-43964-6 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003439646 Typeset in Times New Roman by Taylor & Francis Books

Contents

List of Illustrations List of Contributors Acknowledgements Introduction: Sports Coaching Education and Alternative Pedagogies: Approaches in Higher Education

ix xi xvi

1

NATALIE BARKER-RUCHTI AND LAURA G. PURDY

1 The Use of Video Narratives of Elite Athletes’ Injury Experiences in Coach Education

7

CIARA EVERARD AND ROSS WADEY

2 Evaluating the Impact of Athlete Case Studies Told Through Creative Nonfiction on Coach Learners in University Coach Education

29

MARION GEARY AND NIAMH KITCHING

3 The Adoption of an Interactive and Immersive Installation to Educate Coaches on the Topic of Abuse in Sport

50

EMMA KAVANAGH, ADI ADAMS, MANUELA PICARIELLO AND LUCY SHEPPARD-MARKS

4 Two-Eyed Seeing in Coaching: An Indigenous Approach to Coaching Higher Education Sport in Canada

73

JOSEPH GURGIS AND BETTINA CALLARY

5 Bridging Theory and Practice: Innovations in Sports Coaching Education LINE DVERSETH DANIELSEN, ANNE TJØNNDAL AND STIAN RØSTEN

96

viii

Contents

6 Authentic Learning in Online Tertiary Coach Education Contexts: Positively Impacting Coaching Practice

118

STEVEN RYNNE, DONNA O’CONNOR AND CLIFFORD J. MALLETT

7 Action Research and the Scholar-Coach: Learning to Coach More Ethically

141

KRISTINA SKEBO AND PIRKKO MARKULA

8 Education for Sustainable Development: Fostering Sustain‘abilities’ in Sports Coaches

164

NATALIE BARKER-RUCHTI AND LAURA G. PURDY

9 Education for Sustainable Athlete Development: Building More Critical and Reflective Coach Pedagogies

187

CHRISTIAN THUE BJØRNDAL

10 Environmental Sustainability: Actor-Network Theory and the Sustainability of Coaches’ Practices

210

JIM DENISON

Index

211

Illustrations

Figures 1.1 An overview of the pedagogical process 2.1 Reflective Practice Submission Requirements for Case Study 2 2.2 Reflective Practice Submission Requirements for Case Study 4 3.1 Capturing the Event 3.2 Visual Example of the Data 3.3 Touch the Data 3.4 Stop, Look, Listen 7.1 Examples of Two Task Card Activities. (A) Leaping. (B) Rotating 7.2 Images from the ‘Generating Force’ Video Used to Help Explain Mechanical Concepts. (A) Use of animation in the video. (B) and (C) Articulating theoretical concepts. (D) Using activities to embody theory. The cylindrical objects (marshmallows) in image D represented a pillow that was stuck to the floor (to prevent slipping) for the gymnasts to use as part of an activity to understand about generation of force

13 39 40 58 59 59 60 153

154

Tables 2.1 Psychological Skills for Performance Module Overview 2.2 Case Study Summaries 2.3 CNF Adjudication Framework – Adjusted from Smith et al. (2015, pp. 70–71) 3.1 Interactive installation approaches: Considerations and Reflections

31 33 34 65

x

List of Illustrations

4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1

TES Recommendations for Coach Education Indigenous Rookie League Schedule The Development of Peer-Learning for a TES Approach Study Programme, Bachelor Programme in Strength and Conditioning Students’ Expected Workloads in the Strength and Conditioning Bachelor Programme Teaching Plan for IDR2003: Health, Injuries and Rehabilitation Written and Practical Assignments for IDR1011 Basic Sports Coaching Student Assignments (Tasks Developed by Teaching Staff): Critical Review of Information on the Internet Coffee Meeting: Physical Activity for Adults and Elderly People Summary of Lectures, Discussion Topics and Tasks Used in KSR 900 to Guide My IBL Process Using a Rigorous AR Framework Gestalts, Gestalt-Switching Competences and Examples of Coaching Competences Summaries of the Seven Cases the IIG206 Students Could Choose Intended Learning Outcomes of the Course Sports Coaching 2: Social Interaction in Sports Coaching An Overview of the Lectures and Seminars Included in Sports Coaching 2: Social Interaction in Sports Coaching

5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 7.1

8.1 8.2 9.1 9.2

80 84 88 100 101 102 103 109 111

147 167 173 191 192

Boxes 5.1 Practical Examination Procedure for IDR2004: Fitness Testing and Coaching Technology Case 2: The Ice Hockey Team

105 176

Contributors

Dr Adi Adams is a specialist in gender and sport coaching. His research is located in the discipline of sociology; previous research has been focused on gender, masculinities, sexuality, youth and sport. Other interests include qualitative research methods. Dr Natalie Barker-Ruchti is Associate Professor in the School of Health Sciences at Örebro University, Sweden. She is passionate about educating future sports coaches on issues of ethics, sustainability and care(ful) coaching. Currently, she contributes to Swiss Olympic’s Ethics in Sport Project, where she, among other things, is developing an ethics curriculum for Switzerland’s coach education system. Dr Christian Thue Bjørndal is Associate Professor in the Department of Sport and Social Sciences, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Norway. He holds a master’s degree in sport sciences from NIH, specialising in coaching and sports psychology. In 2017, he com­ pleted his PhD on talent development in Norwegian handball. Bjørndal focuses on interdisciplinary perspectives on participation, development and performance in sport, with an emphasis on youth sports. He has extensive coaching experience in youth and elite handball and is a certified EHF Master Coach. In 2021, he received 8 million kroner from the Research Council for Young Research Talents to lead a project on student athletes at specialised sports schools. Dr Bettina Callary is Canada Research Chair in sport coaching and adult learning and Associate Professor in sport and physical activity leadership at Cape Breton University in Nova Scotia, Canada. She researches coach education and development strategies and psycho­ social understandings of inclusive sport and coaching (e.g., coaching

xii

List of Contributors masters athletes, women coaches, Indigenous coaches). She is editor in chief of the International Sport Coaching Journal and a trained coach developer through the International Council for Coaching Excellence as well as the National Coaching Certification Program and Alpine Canada.

Dr Line Dverseth Danielsen is an associate professor in the Faculty of Education and Arts at Nord University, Norway. She leads the physical education, sports science, and outdoor Studies group and is a member of RESPONSE – Research Group for Sport and Society. Dr Jim Denison was Professor of coaching studies in kinesiology, sport and recreation (2007–2024) at the University of Alberta, Canada. A sport sociologist and coach educator, his research focused on the formation of coaches’ practices through a poststructuralist lens. In addition to contributing a substantial body of high-quality peerreviewed articles, Jim edited numerous texts, including Coaching Knowledges: Understanding the Dynamics of Performance Sport (2007) and Moving Writing: Crafting Movement in Sport Research (2003) and coedited The Routledge Handbook of Sports Coaching (2013). Jim passed away on Tuesday, February 13, 2024. Dr Ciara Everard is a sport and exercise psychology lecturer at Roe­ hampton University, United Kingdom. Her research interests focus on sport injury psychology, knowledge translation and qualitative research. Her interest in sport injury psychology stems from her background in physiotherapy and elite athletics. Her research oper­ ates at the intersection between psychology, sociology and sports medicine, and she works with various sporting organisations regarding the standard of care provided to injured athletes. Dr Marion Geary is a lecturer at the Technological University of the Shannon, Ireland: Midlands Midwest, coach, sport psychology practitioner and former high-performance athlete. Her areas of expertise include sport and performance psychology, player and talent development, coaching and elite athlete welfare. Her experi­ ences as a high-performance athlete and coach across all ages and levels inform her teaching and practitioner work. She is passionate about mentoring and guiding young coaches to develop well-roun­ ded players and athletes, particularly in developing psychosocial skills to prepare them for life within and outside sport. Dr Joseph Gurgis is an assistant teaching professor in the Faculty of Health Sciences at Ontario Tech University, Canada. His academic

List of Contributors

xiii

expertise primarily lies in the domains of Safe Sport and coach development, with a particular emphasis on investigating the psy­ chosocial determinants that impact the experiences of equity-deser­ ving populations. He currently serves as a coach developer for the Coaches Association of Ontario and was the lead content developer for the Coaching Association of Canada’s Safe Sport Training and the National Coaching Certification Program Creating a Positive Sport Environment modules. Dr Emma Kavanagh is Associate Professor in sport psychology and Safe Sport at Bournemouth University, United Kingdom. Her research interests are within the disciplines of psychology and sociology. Her projects have focused on athlete and coach welfare, understanding abuse in physical and online environments, safe­ guarding and (in)equalities in sport. Dr Niamh Kitching is Lecturer in physical education at Mary Imma­ culate College, University of Limerick, Ireland. She teaches at both undergraduate and postgraduate level in physical education and well-being education. Her research interests include the sociology of sport and physical education, sports pedagogy and coaching, and sports media. Her published research focuses on gender equality and sport, with a particular emphasis on the experiences of children in sport, along with professional women athletes, coaches, and fans and their presence, participation and presentation in sport and sports media. She has published in a number of sociology of sport journals and collections. Professor Clifford Mallett has enjoyed a distinguished career both as an Olympic and World Championship medal-winning track and field coach and more recently as a world-leading academic in sport psychology and coaching at the University of Queensland, Aus­ tralia. He has specific interests in understanding the person in con­ text (e.g., motivation, personality) and coaching practices (e.g., leadership, performance). Dr Pirkko Markula is Professor of sociocultural studies of physical activity at the University of Alberta, Canada. Her research focuses on poststructuralist analysis of dance, exercise and sport. Her main publications include Deleuze and the Physically Active Body (Rou­ tledge, 2019), Qualitative Research for Physical Culture coauthored with Michael Silk (Routledge, 2011), Foucault, Sport and Exercise: Power, Knowledge and Transforming the Self coauthored with Richard Pringle (Routledge, 2006) and Research Handbook on

xiv List of Contributors Gender and Diversity in Sport Management coedited with Annelies Knoppers (Elgar, 2024). She is also a contemporary dancer and choreographer. Professor Donna O’Connor is an internationally regarded academic in the fields of coach education and personal development/health and physical education at the University of Sydney, Australia. Her teaching and research are heavily focused on both coach and athlete development and performance. Additionally, she has contributed extensively to the sport industry through her long-standing partner­ ships with national and global sporting organisations. Dr Manuela Picariello is Senior Lecturer in sport management at Bournemouth University, United Kingdom. Her research interests are within environmental, social, and governance. Her research focuses on mentoring women and global majorities for leadership development, promoting gender equality, inclusion and environ­ mental sustainability within sports organisations. Dr Laura Purdy is Senior Lecturer at Liverpool John Moores University, United Kingdom, and a member of the Institute of Educational Research at Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania. Her recent scho­ larly activity has focused on issues in the sport industry that relate to relationships between organisations and sports workers (i.e., athletes, coaches, general managers, agents and administrators), including wel­ fare and safeguarding, advocacy, voice and sustainability. In dis­ seminating this work, she enjoys drawing upon nontraditional methods that enable learners to meaningfully link theory and practice. Stian Røsten is a PhD candidate in sociology and member of RESPONSE – Research Group for Sport and Society at Nord University, Norway. Associate Professor Steven Rynne is program convenor for sports coaching at the University of Queensland, Australia. Steven has worked and conducted research with a variety of peak domestic and international sporting bodies in the areas of high-performance coach learning and Indigenous sport. He teaches undergraduate and graduate students and has been involved in community sport for more than 20 years. Dr Lucy Sheppard-Marks is Lecturer in sport and events management at Bournemouth University, United Kingdom. Her research inter­ ests focus on athlete criminality, the protection of athletes, leader­ ship and equality, and diversity and inclusion in sport.

List of Contributors

xv

Kristina Skebo (MSc biology, master of coaching) is a PhD candidate in kinesiology at the University of Alberta, Canada. She is passio­ nate about skill acquisition and learning, and coach education in rhythmic gymnastics. Her research interests focus on movement skill (motor) development from a sociocultural perspective and is parti­ cularly interested in employing Deleuzian concepts to reconceptua­ lise ‘everyday’ coaching practices to create novel, holistic and more ethical alternatives. Dr Anne Tjønndal is Professor of sociology of sport and head of RESPONSE – Research Group for Sport and Society at Nord University, Norway. Ross Wadey is Professor at St Mary’s University, United Kingdom, and a chartered psychologist with the British Psychological Society. His research operates at the intersections between disciplines (e.g., sport psychology, sports sociology, sports medicine, sports commu­ nication) and aims to work with professionals operating across var­ ious fields (e.g., sport, military, health, performing arts) to support their craft (i.e., performance, health, well-being, mental health, social justice). In addition to his teaching and research activities, Ross is a trustee to the charity LimbPower, which aims to engage amputees and individuals with limb impairments in physical activity to improve quality of life and aid lifelong rehabilitation.

Acknowledgements

We thank the contributors for their willingness to share their teaching materials and experiences delivering these to sports coaching students. It is these efforts to engage and challenge students that has allowed this book. Teaching efforts are not often as acknowledged by the higher education sector and the academic community as they should be, and we hope that this book offers some recognition for the time and engagement that the authors have given to develop the learning activ­ ities, courses (read module or paper) and degree programmes that they present. We also acknowledge the people who have supported us in editing this book: Anna-Maria Strittmatter, for providing constructive feed­ back on our own chapter; and Megan Smith, editorial assistant and David Varley, senior editor, both Sport and Sports Science at Routledge. Lastly, the development and delivery of alternative teaching materi­ als could not have been possible without the enthusiasm and under­ standing of the students and coaches who engaged with us. Thank you for contributing to the (re)shaping of coach education in higher edu­ cation; your experiences and feedback will become part of the educa­ tion of sports coaches around the world.

Introduction Sports Coaching Education and Alternative Pedagogies: Approaches in Higher Education Natalie Barker-Ruchti and Laura G. Purdy Introduction The idea for this book stems from our efforts to prepare engaging and challenging teaching materials for sports coaching education in higher education (HE) contexts. We both have a long-standing interest in educating coaches, who become empowered through competences such as critical reflection, creative thinking, learning on the edge and adaptability. In considering how such competences can be instilled, we have over the years separately and collaboratively explored alternative pedagogical means and engaged in developing coach education pro­ grammes, university courses and curricular content. In 2013, we got to know Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), UNESCO’s educational framework to tackle global challenges such as climate change, inequality and loss of biodiversity. This approach turned our focus more purposefully on developing quality-of-mind competences (e.g., [self-]reflection, critical thinking and the consideration of multiple knowledges to understand self and others). Since then, our interest in alternative pedagogies in sports coaching education in HE has included efforts to make such curricular materials available to others. The aim of this book is to present an edited collection of chapters that offers coach education teaching materials on a range of topical issues that HE scholars can implement in their teaching. Specifically, each chapter theorises an alternative pedagogical approach and show­ cases what an HE degree programme, course (read module or paper), teaching and learning activities and/or assessment tasks look or could look like in sports coaching education in HE. Research on alternative pedagogies in coach education is not new. Scholars have for some time researched and come to recognise that tra­ ditional didactic approaches are limited in preparing the future coach population for the dynamic and often precarious and pressured sporting DOI: 10.4324/9781003439646-1

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Barker-Ruchti and Purdy

contexts in which coaches work (Cassidy, 2012; Denison & Avner, 2011; Hardman & Jones, 2010, 2011; Light & Evans, 2013; Morgan et al., 2013; Roderick, 2006). Indeed, the didactic delivery strategy may even be counterproductive in instilling ‘thinking on their feet’ and ‘quality of mind’ competences that coaches need to work in and manage their pro­ fessional contexts (Barker-Ruchti & Purdy, 2023; Wals, 2009, 2017). In response, sports coaching scholars have turned to and explored alter­ native educational strategies. Strategies that have become popular are those relating to communities of practice (Jones et al., 2012), online blogs (Stoszkowski, Collins, & Olsson, 2017), problem-based learning (Driska & Gould, 2014; Jones & Turner, 2006), ethno-drama (Morgan et al., 2013), case-method teaching (Roberts & Ryrie, 2014) and narrative pedagogy (McMahon et al., 2022). Research on the learning outcomes of these alternative educational strategies indicate that students’ learning includes the reflective, critical, creative and problem-solving competences that coaches are considered to need for best/contemporary/cutting-edge practice. Our own implementation of alternative sports coaching curri­ culum using ESD adds evidence that such outcomes are possible (BarkerRuchti & Purdy, 2023). The newest development in coach education in HE is poststructural coach education. Having emerged from sociology of sports coaching (e.g., Cassidy, Jones, & Potrac, 2004; Denison, 2007) and Foucauldian thinking most directly (Mills, Campbell, & Kuklick, 2024, p. 15), coach education informed by poststructural thinking offers ‘deeper explanations of power relations, or the multitudinous social processes producing people’s every­ day complex realities.’ In focusing on blind spots, such post–coach edu­ cation forces learners to reflect on and develop action to address these ‘unseen realities.’ Still, actual curricular materials, be it at the level of a degree pro­ gramme, a course (read module or paper), a teaching or learning activity, or an assessment task, are rarely presented in the literature, and it is this gap that has motivated us to bring together an interna­ tional group of scholars that is at the forefront of alternative curricular development in sports coaching education in HE. It is also with this intention that we in late 2022 approached scholars whom we hoped would want to contribute chapters to this edited book. Specifically, we asked the authors to include the following four elements in their chapters: 1

Pedagogical approach: An overview of and a rationale for the alternative pedagogy that informs the pedagogical practice and materials to be presented in the chapter

Introduction 2 3

4

3

Pedagogical practice and materials: A presentation of materials that were/are being used in coach education Reflections: Reflections on the (practice and) materials, and experiences that the authors (and possibly other teachers involved in the pedagogical practice presented) and students are making (if available) Recommendations for practice: Three key recommendations for practice

The chapters that follow this introduction range in educational level from full degree programmes and courses/modules to individual teaching and learning activities and assessment tasks. What all chap­ ters have in common is that all authors developed alternative mate­ rials on the consideration of what students actually need to develop quality-of-mind competences to work in and manage the con­ temporary (professional) sport coaching context. For readers, this collection provides a theoretical underpinning to each approach and specific examples of teaching materials that can be used in the classroom or aid in the (re)shaping of new sports coaching curricula. Overview of chapters In chapter 1, Ciara Everard and Ross Wadey introduce a (video) narrative approach aimed at educating sport coaches (students and practitioners) on the diverse ways that athletes experience injury. The authors illustrate how such an approach can stimulate awareness, discussion and understanding around injury experiences. Similarly, in chapter 2, Marion Geary and Niamh Kitching discuss the value of case studies featuring creative non­ fiction (CNF) in starting discussions about athlete identity in an under­ graduate course (read module/paper) on psychological skills for a performance course in Ireland. In doing so, the authors adopt an empiri­ cal approach to include student perceptions of the quality of CNF on a group of university-based coach learners. In keeping with the theme of creative approaches, in chapter 3, Emma Kavanagh, Adi Adams, Manuela Picariello and Lucy Sheppard-Marks use an art-informed installation to educate sport coaches on challenging topics and propose how this work could be used in university coach education degree programmes. Similar to the previous chapter, in chapter 4, Joseph Gurgis and Bettina Callary draw upon their applied work in Canada to propose how uni­ versity coach education can be more sensitive to Indigenous practices. Themes in this chapter are important as they resonate beyond Canada and call for further decolonisation of coach education and the

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development of culturally relevant provision. This involves employing more inclusive pedagogical methods that involve athletes in decisionmaking, empower athletes beyond their role in sport, demonstrate care and empathy toward athletes and create safe and respectful environments. Looking at degree programmes, in chapter 5, Line Dverseth Danielsen, Anne Tjønndal and Stian Røsten introduce a degree pro­ gramme at Nord University in Norway that was recently (re)developed to aid sports coaching students to better incorporate theory and prac­ tice. Also focusing on a degree programme, Steven Rynne, Donna O’Connor and Clifford Mallett, in chapter 6, connect the pedagogical notion of authenticity with online learning in two postgraduate coach development programmes in Australia. In chapter 7, Kristina Skebo shows how concepts discussed in Rynne et al.’s chapter can be inte­ grated in postgraduate coach education by reflecting on her experience of an inquiry-based learning action research project undertaken in her master’s degree (MCoach) in Canada. Collaborating with her super­ visor, Professor Pirkko Markula, the chapter plots Kristina’s process in becoming a more critical and ethical practitioner. Moving from postgraduate to undergraduate coach education, we (Natalie Barker-Ruchti and Laura Purdy) recognised that much of the formal coach education provision offered is limited in equipping prac­ titioners to operate within complex and ever-changing sport environ­ ments. To better address these gaps, in chapter 8, we introduce ESD and share an example of a final-year undergraduate module that is underpinned by this pedagogy. In the penultimate chapter, the focus moves to a poststructural approach to coach education led by Christian Thue Bjørndal. This chapter introduces a novel course being delivered at the Norwegian School of Sport Sciences that incorporates disciplinary knowledge in innovative ways to aid learners in realising more ethical, effective, and reflective coaching practices. This chapter is followed by a contribution from the late professor Jim Denison, who passed away early in 2024. We would like to acknowledge Jim’s extensive contribution to the field of sports coaching and coach education as it has had a profound impact on our thinking and teaching. The depth of his theoretical knowledge and his ability to think and see possibilities for coaching (and coach education) prompted us to initially contact him to see if the project was worthwhile and, if so, enquire if he would like to contribute a chapter. Unfortunately, the chapter did not develop beyond the abstract; however, we have included it in this collection to further the call for poststructural approaches to coach education and encourage readers to engage with his ideas and carry on this important work.

Introduction

5

References Barker-Ruchti, N., & Purdy, L. G. (2023). Education for sustainable develop­ ment: Teaching deliberation and ethical decision-making in university coach education. Sports Coaching Review, 12(2), 125–144. Cassidy, T. (2012). Exploring the potential of assessment efficacy in sports coaching: A commentary. International Journal of Sports Science & Coach­ ing, 7(2), 215–217. Cassidy, T., Jones, R., & Potrac, P. (2004). Understanding sports coaching: The social, cultural and pedagogical foundations of coaching practice. Abingdon: Routledge. Denison, J. (2007). Social theory for coaches: A Foucauldian reading of one athlete’s poor performance. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 2, 369–383. Denison, J., & Avner, Z. (2011). Positive practices for athlete development. Quest, 63(2), 209–227. Driska, A. P., & Gould, D. R. (2014). Evaluating a problem-based group learning strategy for online, graduate-level coach education. Kinesiology Review, 3(4), 227–234. Hardman, A., & Jones, C. (2010). The ethics of sports coaching. Abingdon: Routledge. Hardman, A., & Jones, C. (2013). Philosophy for coaches. In R. L. Jones & K. Kingston (Eds.), An introduction to sports coaching: Connecting theory to practice (2nd ed.) (pp. 99–110). Abingdon: Routledge. Jones, R. L., Morgan, K., & Harris, K. (2012). Developing coaching peda­ gogy: Seeking a better integration of theory and practice. Sport, Education and Society, 17(3), 313–329. Jones, R. L., & Turner, P. (2006). Teaching coaches to coach holistically: Can problem-based learning (PBL) help? Physical Education and Sport Peda­ gogy, 11(2), 181–202. Light, R. L., & Evans, J. R. (2013). Dispositions of elite-level Australian rugby coaches towards game sense: Characteristics of their coaching habitus. Sport, Education and Society, 18(3), 407–423. McMahon, J., Lang, M., Zehntner, C., & McGannon, K. R. (2022). Athlete and coach-led education that teaches about abuse: An overview of education theory and design considerations. Sport, Education and Society, 26(2), 161– 174. Mills, J. P., Campbell, S., & Kuklick, C. (2024). “It isn’t as clear as you think.” The post coach: Another step closer. Sports Coaching Review. doi:10.1080/ 21640629.2024.2309784. Morgan, K., Jones, R. L., Gilbourne, D., & Llewellyn, D. (2013). Innovative approaches in coach education pedagogy. In P. Potrac, W. Gilbert, & J. Denison (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Sports Coaching (pp. 486–497). Abingdon: Routledge. Roberts, S. J., & Ryrie, A. (2014). Socratic case-method teaching in sports coach education: Reflections of students and tutors. Sport, Education and Society, 19(1), 63–79.

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Roderick, M. (2006). The work of professional football: A labour of love? Abingdon: Routledge. Stoszkowski, J., Collins, D., & Olsson, C. (2017). Using shared online blogs to structure and support informal coach learning. Part 2: The partici­ pants’ view and implications for coach education. Sport, Education & Society, 22(3), 407–425. Wals, A. E. J. (2009). A mid-decade review of the decade of education for sustainable development. Journal of Education for Sustainable Development, 3(2), 195–204. Wals, A. E. J. (2017). Afterword: Ethical literacies and sustainability education: Young people, subjectivity and democratic participation. In O. Franck & C. Osbeck (Eds.), Ethical literacies and education for sustainable development (pp. 163–167). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

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The Use of Video Narratives of Elite Athletes’ Injury Experiences in Coach Education Ciara Everard and Ross Wadey

Introduction It is well documented that sports injuries can have devastating con­ sequences for athletes. An injury can impact an athlete’s mental health and psychological well-being, compromise their performance potential and, in some instances, induce an involuntary retirement from sport (Putukian, 2016). It is unsurprising, therefore, that a sports injury can be an uncom­ fortable and unwelcome experience for coaches (Gilbert et al., 2015). Accounting for the complex, dynamic and multifaceted nature of sports injury experiences, previous research has reinforced the notion that injury affects not only the injured athlete but impacts and is impacted by those around them (Wadey et al., 2018). For example, previous research has illustrated that injury can induce feelings of guilt and emotional distress amongst coaches as they experience a sense of heightened personal responsibility (Martinelli & Day, 2020). Moreover, coaches have also indi­ cated that injury can act as a pivotal stressor for them due to athletes not reporting when they are injured, or a lack of personal disclosure around injury (Didymus, 2017). Conversely, coaches have been associated with impacting injury by increasing athletes’ susceptibility to injury and ampli­ fying the psychosocial difficulties associated with injury (Wadey et al., 2018). Towards this end, research has highlighted that coaches can pro­ mote harmful behaviours such as pain normalisation (Cavallerio, Wadey, & Wagstaff, 2016 and extreme training regimes as well as punish, margin­ alise and isolate injured athletes (Roderick, Waddington, & Parker, 2000). Against this backdrop, it is important to consider the broader socio­ cultural milieu in which both athletes and coaches are situated. To expand, the coach–injured athlete relationship is located within the broader socio­ cultural context of (high-performance) sport whereby a culture of ‘winning at all costs’ is amplified and glorified (Douglas & Carless, 2008; Nixon, 1992). Sports injury experiences often get swept up as part of this ‘win at all DOI: 10.4324/9781003439646-2

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costs’ culture, as injury is seen as part and parcel of the fabric of elite sport (Barker-Ruchti et al., 2019). Through the process of socialisation, coaches and athletes alike can become indoctrinated into these sociocultural norms, beliefs and behaviours and learn to construct their thoughts, feelings and behaviours towards injury around these dominant discourses (e.g., by pro­ moting athletes to play through pain, athletes unwilling to disclose their injury experiences for fear of being seen as ‘weak’). Central to any coach education around athletes’ injury experiences, therefore, is the need for a pedagogical approach that accounts for the relational and shared nature of athletes’ injury experiences as well as the influence of the broader socio­ cultural context on these experiences. Moreover, traditionally, research has focused on how to upskill the injured athlete to better manage their injury experiences and hence negates the role of other key social agents, such as coaches, in influencing these experiences (Wadey & Day, 2022). To account for the multifaceted nature of athletes’ injury experiences, one pedagogical approach we would argue that can attend to the personal, social and cul­ tural dynamics of sports injury is narrative inquiry and narrative pedagogy.

Pedagogical approach Narrative inquiry posits that as humans, we are storytellers, and so to make sense of our experiences and communicate our experiences to others, we formulate and share stories, shaped from the narrative scripts available within our culture (Smith & Sparkes, 2009). To fully con­ textualise the meaning of narratives, it is important to illustrate the dif­ ference between a story and a narrative (Smith & Sparkes, 2009). A story can be viewed as a specific tale an individual or group tells. A narrative can be understood as a sociocultural plotline that individuals rely on to construct their personal stories, as these plotlines act as a template that helps connect events by providing an overarching explanation or con­ sequence (Smith & Sparkes, 2009). Storytelling can therefore be under­ stood as a meaning-making activity, whereby humans can generate and communicate meanings of their experiences by drawing upon culturally ubiquitous narratives as a thematic structure or template to map their personal story into a structured and coherent format (Polkinghorne, 1988). Given that narratives are sociocultural templates that shape and structure personal stories, narratives are conceptualised as being both personal and social. In this sense, while an athlete may have agency in telling a personal story about their injury experiences, how they tell their story will be dependent on the sociocultural narratives at their disposal (Smith & Sparkes, 2009). Exploring and understanding athletes’ stories can therefore generate powerful insights into the meaning of injury in

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their lives but also into how sociocultural contexts influence the ways in which they construct this meaning. Within an injury context, previous research has illustrated that ath­ letes have access to a limited number of narratives with which to make sense of their experiences (Barker-Ruchti et al., 2019; McGannon et al., 2021). Coaches have further been indicated to be limited in terms of their own collection of injury storylines and hence either reinforce the culture of risk (i.e., playing through pain) or propagate their own injury practices (Cavallerio, Wadey, & Wagstaff, 2016; Nixon, 1992). However, educating coaches on multiple and alternative injury scripts could serve to broaden both their own and their athletes’ potential narratives, thereby offering athletes more opportunities and flexibility to make sense of their injury experiences (Smith & Sparkes, 2009). Moreover, by exposing coaches to the danger of certain narratives, they may be able to anticipate some of the challenges of these storylines. Therefore, inter­ vention strategies can be put in place before rather than after problems occur (Smith & Sparkes, 2009). Such adaptations may reduce the uptake of risk-taking behaviour and better support athletes in managing the disruptions associated with injury (Williams, 2020). Alongside broadening coaches and, in turn, their athlete’s injury nar­ rative repertoire, previous research has highlighted how narratives are not only a way for individuals to make sense of their experiences (e.g., by expanding narrative resources; Frank, 2010) but allow for pedagogical encounters, which facilitate an understanding of issues through reciprocal exchange (McMahon et al., 2018). Narrative pedagogy is an educa­ tional tool that involves sharing narratives with participants and then collaborating with participants by engaging in meaning-making, deep dialogue and exchange to generate new understandings about the issue in contention (Goodson & Gill, 2011). Underpinned by social con­ structivism, narrative pedagogy is premised on the assumption that knowledge, experiences and the self are constructed with one another through the reciprocal sharing of stories (McMahon & Smith, 2016). Through extensive research, Goodson and Gill (2011) found that by engaging with narratives (i.e., reading a person’s story of experience) and then swapping the narrative(s) with another (i.e., exchanging stories about the story), pedagogic encounters (i.e., learning opportunities) arose. The process of narrative pedagogy involves three phases of narration (i.e., sharing the video narratives), collaboration (i.e., discussing the video narratives) and location (i.e., linking the narratives to their broader social and cultural context). This collaborative and social nature of learning requires an individual to engage with the ‘other’ in meaningful dialogue and exchange. It is this encounter with the ‘other’

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that can deepen understanding of diverse human experiences. This is because understanding begins when we as humans are prompted by strangeness (Goodson & Gill, 2011). An encounter with another’s story/perspective often prompts such strangeness and thus creates the conditions for learning, as the listener is confronted with something ‘new’ and thus attempts to resolve such tensions by seeking to under­ stand it. At the same time, in recognising something ‘new’ in the ‘other,’ the listener is learning about the limitations of their own standpoints. Using the concept of horizons, Gadamer (1977) highlights how each individual brings their own horizon of understanding to a narrative encounter – that is, everything that can be seen from a par­ ticular vantage point. However, by engaging with another’s story, this horizon can be expanded, as a new perspective emerges. This new perspective, termed a ‘fusion of horizons,’ is the result of a dialogical collaboration. For example, this fusion of horizons or new perspective could be codeveloped by the researcher and participants in educational narrative sharing or between coaches and athletes through the reci­ procal sharing of stories. Importantly, however, this ‘fusion’ is not a dissolving of tensions or consensus between individuals but rather a dynamic interplay in which tensions are uncovered and brought to the fore rather than glossed over (Goodson & Gill, 2011). Given the potential value of narrative pedagogy in stimulating a deeper learning and understanding of diverse human experiences, it has been used within sports coaching as an alternative approach to edu­ cating coaches around athletes’ experiences (Douglas & Carless, 2008; McMahon, 2013). Advocating for the use of narratives within coach education, researchers have illustrated how storytelling is ubiquitous within coaching cultures, and hence presenting data in a storied format can render the information relevant and meaningful to coaches as it is familiar to them, as opposed to statistical information which can serve to alienate coaches (Douglas & Carless, 2008). Secondly, researchers posit that presenting coaches with stories of athletes’ experiences can provide them with an insider’s perspective on athletes’ experiences, which they might not usually be privy to (McMahon, 2013). Taken together, these characteristics of narratives were illustrated by researchers to help mobilise coaches into empathising and better relating to athletes’ experiences, as well as prompting critical reflection on their coach­ ing practices (McMahon, 2013). For example, McMahon (2013) shared swimmers’ stories of their experiences within high-performance sport and highlighted how narratives helped facilitate Miller and Kerr’s (2002) three components of coach education – that is, reflection, holistic considerations and an athlete-centred approach. To expand, McMahon (2013, p. 33)

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evidenced how sharing athlete narratives prompted coaches to reflect on and cast ‘a beam of consciousness’ over their own practice leading them to adopt a more athlete-centred and holistic approach to coaching through collaborative decision-making. This shift in perspective points to the performative capacity of narratives to create change by acting on people to ‘shape the terms in which they think, know, and perceive’ (Frank, 2010, p. 48). Therefore, by actively engaging coaches in pedagogical discussions around diverse injury narratives, it can prompt coaches to not only reflect on their own coaching practices but incite them to create cultural change by expanding their own repertoire of injury stories and in turn the ‘terms’ available to athletes to think, feel and behave in relation to their injury experiences. In doing so, coaches may shift from being cultural allies (e.g., reinforcing dominant perspectives) to cultural architects who are involved in the design and execution of cultural change (McDougall et al., 2020).

Pedagogical practice and materials used Given this context and drawing upon the tenets of narrative inquiry and pedagogy, we have used narratives of injury to educate coaches on athletes’ injury experiences. The narratives used within our pedagogical encounters with coaches were developed from an existing evidence base (Everard et al., 2021), which used coconstructed life-history interviews with 15 elite track athletes. These interviews were analysed using dia­ logical narrative analysis (Frank, 2010) to identify the narrative typol­ ogies (i.e., ‘the most general storyline’) that could be recognised underlying these athletes’ injury stories (Frank, 2013, p. 75). Six nar­ rative typologies of injury were identified and are outlined below: �

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Resilience Narrative: The dominant injury narrative within elite sport that describes a maintenance in well-being and athletic tra­ jectory despite injury setbacks. Within the resilience narrative, injury is viewed as a physical problem to be ‘fixed,’ as it follows the plotline of ‘yesterday I was healthy, today I am injured but through working hard, I will be healthy and perform again.’ Merry-Go-Round Narrative: Reflects a cyclical plot of highs and lows where chronic and recurring sports injuries continually affect athletes’ well-being and sporting careers. Athletes’ stories start with ‘what could be,’ shifted to ‘what should be’ and end reflecting on ‘what could have been.’ Longevity Narrative: A progressive storyline of ‘time lost from injury is time gained in the longer term’ as athletes aim for a more balanced and long-term view of their health, well-being and performance.

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Pendulum Narrative: Athletes’ stories of injuries that alternate between longevity and performance narratives, subject to external (environment) and internal (body self-relationship) influences. Snowball Narrative: A downward trajectory of physical and psy­ chological decline following a series of sports injuries. It encapsu­ lates the normalisation of risk-taking behaviours and sporting cultural norms on athletes’ physical and mental well-being. More-to-Me Narrative: Athletics and injury are viewed within the broader context of athletes’ lives as this storyline embodies the plotline of ‘my injuries and sport do not define me as there is more to me.’

Recognising the need to translate sport injury psychology research in accessible and impactful ways (e.g., Leggat, 2020), since the completion of the project, the six narratives have been translated into a video format to enhance their impact and uptake to diverse audiences (see here). Operating within a narrative pedagogy framework, the six video narratives have been shared with three track and field coaches as part of focus group interviews (Everard et al., 2023). We shared and discussed the video narratives with coaches to understand how they related to and engaged with the stories presented (i.e., what, if anything, did they learn from them?). Moreover, emphasising a practice-based learning approach, we sought to explore how they felt the narratives could be used and integrated into their professional practice. Due to the time constraints of elite track and field coaches, a oneoff session was conducted with the coaches. However, feedback from the participants following this session was that they wanted more time to think with the narratives with others. Based on this feedback, we expanded this process to three conceptual phases across six specific sessions to examine its effectiveness with coaches from other sports (e.g., professional football). We will outline the tenets of the programme below and how it can be applied to a sport coaching educational context.

Sharing stories of sports injury: From research to practice The pedagogical programme is titled ‘Sharing Stories of Sport Injury: From Research to Practice.’ We would recommend delivering this pro­ gramme as part of block teaching and run the sessions across five consecutive weeks (i.e., one to two sessions per week) to allow for reflection in action and on action. Each session lasts approximately two hours and can involve a combination of lectures, seminars and critical discussions and reflections. Each attendee/student is provided with a workbook to facilitate engagement with the session and reflec­ tion. The three phases are outlined below (see figure 1.1):

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Figure 1.1 An overview of the pedagogical process

Phase one: Background and context to sport injury As highlighted in figure 1.1, the first phase introduces sport injury (i.e., prevalence, impact and timely examples), how injury is a multi­ disciplinary concern and the expanding role of sport injury psychology. Within an educational context, this phase can be presented as one twohour lecture and one two-hour seminar. Following an introduction to sport injury psychology, the role of stories and storytelling in enabling athletes (and others) to make sense of their injury experiences are dis­ cussed. Here, the premises of narrative inquiry can be foregrounded (Frank, 2010). For example, within our applied practice research, we highlight the difference between a story and a narrative and underscore the personal and social nature of storytelling (e.g., stories are personal, but how we construct our story will be constrained/enabled by the sociocultural narratives we are exposed to [Smith & Sparkes, 2009]). Once the theoretical underpinning of narratives has been outlined in an accessible and engaging way, as educators we recommend unpacking and problematising the issues with dominant narratives and cultural norms (e.g., injury as part and parcel of the sport). For example, within our own applied research, we explain how dominant narratives and cultural norms potentially endanger athletes’ well-being by negat­ ing the experience of injury for athletes and promoting the uptake of

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risk-taking behaviour (see Barker-Ruchti et al., 2019). Moreover, we emphasise how dominant narratives can marginalise alternative injury perspectives, thus limiting athletes’ opportunities in making sense of their experience in diverse and meaningful ways. Following this lecture, students can be provided with some reading (e.g., Barker-Ruchti et al., 2019; Douglas & Carless, 2013) for discussion within a follow-up cri­ tical seminar later in the week. Within the critical seminar, we suggest debating the narratives presented and discussing how they may have constrained/enabled athletes’ experiences in different ways. Overall, this background information (lecture and critical seminar) is imperative in setting the context for the video narratives to follow and in enabling sports coaching students to recognise the power and sig­ nificance of the stories they tell and are surrounded by. Following this lecture and seminar, we recommend providing students with some independent learning that involves completing a short reflection on their own injury story or the type of story/messages they portray to injured athletes. Students can submit the reflection in a written, audio (voice note), video or visual (e.g., photograph collage) format. Closing this introductory phase with a short reflection helps emphasise the collaborative and reflexive nature of this learning, with the educator being viewed as the facilitator rather than a transmitter of knowledge (Pritchard & Woollard, 2013). Moreover, consistent with a narrative pedagogy approach, this reflection enables students to gain some awareness of their own injury story and ‘horizon of understanding,’ thus priming them for engaging with alternative stories and in turn a deeper understanding to emerge. Phase two: Sharing and discussing sport injury stories The second phase involves three sessions that involve educating sports coaching students on the sports injury narratives within a narrative pedagogy framework (Goodson & Gill, 2011). To avoid learner fatigue and based on our experiences, we strongly recommend presenting the narratives across multiple sittings (e.g., two narratives per session). Each of the six narratives can be presented in line with the process of narrative pedagogy, which involves narration (i.e., sharing the video narratives), collaboration (i.e., discussing the video narratives) and location (i.e., linking the narratives to their broader social and cultural context). However, these phases do not occur systematically but instead dynamically and reciprocally, with ‘a natural flow between each phase that [involves] an interplay of sharing, listening, and storytelling’ (McMahon et al., 2018, p. 11). The first phase ‘narration’ involves

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sharing a video narrative with the group. Following the initial sharing of the video narrative, the collaboration phase begins as the video narrative is examined by posing questions in an open-ended manner. We propose that this collaboration phase involves two different com­ ponents: The first subphase, ‘Initial Reflection on the Narratives,’ involves asking sport coaching students their initial thoughts/impres­ sions of the narrative. For example, within our applied research, we ask coaches to consider what grabbed their attention the most? Is it a nar­ rative that they recognise? How does this narrative present itself within their context? According to Goodson and Gill (2011), the collabora­ tion phase involves exploring the meanings in the stories for the pur­ pose of better understanding the lived experiences being told. To this end, the initial reflection phase can involve providing sport coaching students with the opportunity to discuss their thoughts/feelings/reac­ tions around the narrative presented. This initial reflection phase cre­ ates the opportunity for students to think with the stories and consider how it relates to their own or others’ experiences. To help facilitate this process, we recommend peer and group discussion alongside some written reflective tasks to actively engage students with the narratives presented. The second subphase, ‘Problematisation of the Narratives,’ involves moving beyond this initial discussion to problematise the narratives by posing more challenging questions to sport coaching students. For example, within our applied research, when discussing the dominant resilience narrative or dominant cultural norms, we pose questions such as ‘How might this story enable/constrain athletes?’ and ‘Does this storyline work for everyone?’ In doing so, we aim to prompt coa­ ches to reflect on some of the ‘inconvenient truths’ of dominant per­ spectives (Nelson, 2001, p. 167). The resilience narrative, as the dominant narrative of injury, is often accepted as the ‘gold standard’ response for navigating injury experiences. However, by raising aware­ ness of how this narrative can work both for and against injured ath­ letes, it can prompt coaches to seeking alternative narratives and more inclusive ways of managing injury experiences. In line with generating a more inclusive understanding of athletes’ injury experiences, when introducing a marginalised perspective such as the merry-go-round, we pose questions such as ‘What are your big­ gest concerns/challenges with athletes embodying this narrative type?’ From our experiences of working with coaches, athletes, and practi­ tioners, these marginalised injury perspectives (e.g., chronic recurring injuries, injuries that don’t recover) are often silenced as they present uncomfortable challenges. However, by vocalising these experiences

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and bringing them to the fore, it can help normalise these experiences and provide coaches with the opportunity to make sense of and discuss their own challenges of working with injured athletes. Finally, when presenting an alternative injury narrative such as the longevity/more­ to-me narrative, we pose questions such as ‘What are some of the challenges to athletes engaging with this narrative?’ In doing so, we aim to raise coaches’ awareness of these alternative narrative types and address some of the contextual challenges to embedding these narra­ tives into practice. Within an educational context, we recommend that educators adopt this guided inquiry stance (Pritchard & Woollard, 2013) to facilitate students in thinking with and about the storylines presented as well as considering how they relate to their own experi­ ences of injury/working with injured athletes. Throughout this collaborative phase, the educator can draw upon their own experiences to help build rapport and contribute to the reciprocation and deep dialogue necessary for pedagogy (McMahon et al., 2022). Moreover, integrated into this process of narration and collaboration is the third phase of pedagogy that is location, which involves linking the narratives to their wider contexts including social and cultural practices (McMahon et al., 2018). To assist this stage, we have presented informa­ tion in an ad hoc manner including details of the existing evidence base informing the videos (i.e., Everard et al., 2021), details of how the videos presented related to other forms of research, and some theoretical insights into narrative enquiry. Integrating and discussing this information in an ad hoc and intuitive manner is important, as previous narrative pedagogy researchers indicated that introducing too much academic material can disrupt the flow and process of narrative exchange (McMahon, Knight, & McGannon, 2018). Overall, we recommend presenting the six narratives across three sessions as a seminar series that foregrounds pedagogical practices of critical questioning, discussion and reflection. Phase three: Looking back to forward This phase has one session that invites sport coaching students to reflect on their overall learnings from the pedagogy session (i.e., look back). Within our applied research, we encourage coaches to reflect on their own practices and to consider how their own story might fit with/differ from the narrative types presented and how they might work with athletes embodying alternative narrative types (i.e., look forward). Likewise, within an educational context, we would recommend drawing upon nar­ ratives of athletes embodying to inform/critically guide students’ under­ standing of how they might work with injured athletes in the future.

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Narratives have the potential to enable students to connect their current understandings on a topic and apply it to addressing real-world issues, bridging the gulf that can sometimes appear between the real world and the classroom (Pritchard & Woollard, 2013). Moreover, we would recommend posing some critical reflections and tasks to students around how they would act to expand a narrative landscape to incorporate mul­ tiple and opposing perspectives within a sporting environment. Overall, this short reflective stage allows students to consolidate their learning and/or prompt consideration of how they can extend this learning and apply it to their own unique context in the future.

Reflections Given the potential value of using sports injury narratives to educate sport coaching students on sports injury experiences, it is important to consider coaches’ perspectives on how the narratives may inform their applied practice. From our research with sports coaches (Everard et al., 2023, 2024), the following themes have emerged with regards to how video narratives can facilitate coaches’ understanding of injury and thus inform their future practice. Firstly, coaches highlighted that the video narratives helped them make sense of athletes’ injury experiences. To expand, by conceptualising athletes’ injury experiences as different typol­ ogies, coaches highlighted how it helped provide them with a frame of reference for understanding the diverse ways in which athletes experience injury (Everard et al., 2023). Indeed, narratives can help make the ‘blooming buzzing confusion of the world habitable by providing us with guidance systems to understand both our own and others’ experiences’ (Frank, 2010, p. 48). By raising coaches’ awareness of athletes’ injury stories, they are better placed to both recognise and thus work with injured athletes, as described by the following coach: The videos are great because they break it all down and show you that you could have multiple athletes in front of you and so many different narratives. So it just makes it easier to identify these things. Because if you don’t bring your awareness to this stuff, then it’s easy to bypass it as a coach or physio, and ultimately, we are the people who can help the athletes. But realistically, unless you stumble upon those narratives yourself, you’re not going to recog­ nize it as a thing or even come from that perspective. Secondly, coaches described how the video narratives allowed them to view athletes’ injury experiences from an insider’s perspective. To

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expand, coaches discussed how viewing athletes’ injury experiences allowed them to gain a new perspective as they were confronted with a viewpoint that may have differed from their own injury experiences. For example, one coach highlighted, ‘I think as a coach, you often think back to how you handled injury or you draw a lot from your own experiences, but I think something like this is good because it gives you insight into how athletes may handle things and the thoughts and feelings around that, which can be very different to your own.’ Draw­ ing from Gadamer’s (1977) concept of horizons, educating coaches using injury narratives can therefore be useful in expanding their hor­ izon of understanding and thus enabling them to better resonate and empathize with athletes’ injury experiences. Such resonances and sub­ sequent empathetic responses have important implications for injured athletes. For example, previous sports injury research (Ronkainen & Ryba, 2017) indicates how injury can pose a relational rupture between athletes and their support networks, as athletes report feeling as though their injury concerns would not be well received by their support net­ work or that their support network cannot relate or empathize. Thus, by humanizing athletes’ injury experiences and enhancing support networks’ capacity to resonate and empathise with their experiences, the video narratives can facilitate a sense of shared understanding between athletes and coaches. That said, although some coaches described how their own experiences may differ from those presented in the videos, other coaches highlighted the shared nature of certain injury experiences. To illustrate, the following coach described: I think that the merry-go-round video almost mirrors what a coach goes through too, like questioning yourself, and when an athlete is in that spiral, you almost go through that yourself because you don’t know what to do, and as a coach, you are always thinking what could I have done slightly differently, but it’s so hard to get it right . . . and then if they don’t manage to get back from it, some do, some don’t, you are also left with that lifetime regret of ‘what could have been.’ I think they [video narratives] could be a really useful tool to get athletes and coaches to talk around some of these experiences, and I think anything that helps athletes and coaches talk and make sense of the rocky road that is any inter­ national career together is going to be beneficial. In this sense, the video narratives can serve as a fruitful tool within coach education by acting as a conduit to help facilitate discussion around athletes’ injury experiences. Moreover, in terms of professional

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practice, the video narratives could be used within dyadic encounters between athletes and coaches to help foster more communal dialogue and understanding. Discussing these narratives within dyadic relation­ ships (e.g., athlete and support network) can act to dismantle the hier­ archical perspective, which assumes that coaches and practitioners either need to understand or have empathy for injured athletes. Instead, such encounters could help shift our understanding towards a com­ munity perspective whereby meaning-making occurs alongside one another, and empathy is viewed as ‘a relationship in which each understands themselves as requiring completion by the other’ (Frank, 2013, p. 233). Finally, coaches highlighted how by educating them via these differ­ ent videos, they could extend that understanding to their athletes and in part use these videos as a means of preparing athletes for the possi­ bility of future injury setbacks. The necessity of this education was described by coaches to be especially pertinent within the current cul­ tural climate, whereby a cherry-picking of reality is often made visible, leaving athletes ill-equipped to navigate seemingly unforeseen circum­ stances. To illustrate, one coach reported, I think if you could educate athletes early on these different perspec­ tives, it might get them to understand that your journey is never this linear upward stairway, and if athletes could really come to under­ stand that from a younger age, then they might be able to take the hits when they happen because everyone still believes or expects to get that stairways to success, and something I’ve kind of learnt about this game, after years of it is that you cannot predict it, you can’t say how things are going to go, and I think what’s really important to all of this is the acceptance of things, and you know it’s hard because no one wants to say that you might never get to where you want to go, or that you might always be injured, or that you might fall out of love with the sport. But I think athletes need to be made aware of these things because it’s like coaches and parents are always talking about success, success, success, naturally that’s what we want, so we tend to avoid talking about injury, or the ‘bad stories,’ but ultimately it is not going to be a negative talking to someone about injury. If anything it is much worse having not talked about it and then they are com­ pletely lost if it does happen, so I think it needs to be brought to the table before it even happens. As illustrated by the above coach, injury can represent a loss in the destination or map that previously guided an athlete’s life (e.g.,

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‘stairways to success’) causing chaos and confusion (e.g., ‘completely lost if it does happen’). However, as highlighted above, by bringing injury ‘to the table before it even happens,’ coaches could use the video narratives and pedagogical discussions to support athletes’ future well­ being by protecting them against the possibility of ‘narrative wreckage,’ which occurs when the previous narrative or map that has guided an individual’s life path is broken, and in the absence of alternative nar­ ratives to regain coherence of their life story, they are left ‘shipwrecked’ by the storm (Frank, 2013, p. 53). Moreover, coaches indicated how the video narratives raised their awareness of the dangers of certain injury stories, and thus they indicated how they could use these videos to help identify red flags in their athletes, thus become proactive in implementing injury prevention solutions. Although not explicitly stated by coaches, drawing from our wider research with athletes and practitioners, the video narratives were fur­ ther evidenced to help create a common language around athletes’ injury experiences. Moreover, practitioners highlighted that the video narratives enabled them to critically reflect on the narratives they pro­ mote and perpetuate and consider how they may be socialising athletes into certain injury narratives in ways that are harmful to them. Given that coaches are often reported to encourage harmful ideals such as playing through pain, using these video narratives as part of an edu­ cational tool to encourage coaches to critically reflect on and pro­ blematise their own coaching ideology warrants further exploration. Considerations and tensions of sharing the narratives In considering how to integrate diverse pedagogies such as video nar­ ratives into sport coaching education, the challenges and tensions that arose or potentially could arise from sharing these diverse video nar­ ratives with coaches warrant consideration. To expand, while the notion of creating and sharing multiple narratives to help expand an individual’s narrative repertoire and thus cultivate a more inclusive and diverse narrative landscape is often discussed and recommended, the process of doing so is less articulated. Drawing from our previous research with athletes, we found that offering individuals more narra­ tives does not necessarily mean that they will engage with them (Ever­ ard, Wadey, & Howells, 2022). For example, when sharing and discussing the six sport injury narratives with athletes during the member reflection process, we noted that athletes silenced and mar­ ginalised alternative perspectives, reinforced dominant perspectives and/or struggled to engage with alternative perspectives of injury (i.e.,

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longevity). In integrating these narratives into coach education, it is therefore imperative to cultivate the conditions whereby coaches/stu­ dents may be receptive to hearing alternative injury perspectives. To do this, educators may consider reinforcing the notion that there is no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ narrative, rather that the goal is for athletes and coaches to have access to a multiplicity of perspectives to make sense of their experiences in diverse and meaningful ways. Educators may also consider amplifying counternarratives by using contemporary examples and/or raise awareness of the dangers inherent within domi­ nant perspectives of injury. Another potential consideration might include how stories are prepared and shared in the narration phase. While we made an informed choice to use narrative videos in our own research, Goodson and Gill (2011) recommended the use of a range of creative methods to extend the imaginative possibilities of stories. Preparing and sharing stories might include the introduction of drawings (Owton & Allen-Collinson, 2017, symbolic objects (Chamberlain & Lyons, 2019), poetry (Culver & Werthner, 2018), collages (Busanich et al., 2016) and comics (Forde, 2022). Furthermore, participants might also consider sharing stories by performing them (i.e., eth­ notheatre [Saldana, 2011]) to enable the audience to understand the story being told in a different format and facilitate further dialogue and interpretations with more diverse audiences. From the second author’s experiences of teaching with and through stories in academic and sporting institutions, embracing a plurality of people to witness the stories shared during the collaborative phase of narrative peda­ gogy is critical to honour and accommodate diverse views and to avoid creating an echo chamber (i.e., an environment whereby an individual encounters only beliefs and opinions that align with their own views). To connect a plurality of people, therefore, researchers and practitioners should strive to bring together and appreciate dif­ ferent knowledge bases. For example, sport injury researchers and practitioners using narrative pedagogy would do well to bring people together from different disciplines to enable them to work collabora­ tively and interdisciplinary. One example of how this might be done to accommodate a breadth of people’s views across disciplines is through a ‘world café,’ which involves three or more rounds of con­ versations with multiple groups and concludes with sharing these views across the groups (Brown, Isaacs, & the World Café Commu­ nity, 2005). However, acknowledging and respecting differences across disciplines and stepping outside one’s zone of comfort and expertise is no easy task (Smith & McGannon, 2015).

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Recommendations Building on previous research (Douglas & Carless, 2008; McMahon, 2013), we would recommend integrating narrative inquiry and narra­ tive pedagogy into coach education as a way of facilitating under­ standing of injured athletes’ experiences. By showcasing the diverse ways in which athletes may experience injury, it could act to enhance sport coaching students’ empathy towards injured athletes and provide them with more nuanced insights into the many ways that athletes can experience injury. By educating sport coaching students on the inherent dangers of dominant perspectives of injury (e.g., injury as part and parcel of the sport), and providing them with alternative perspectives, they may be better equipped to work with injured athletes in the future. Moreover, in raising awareness of the types of stories coaches may be promoting and how those stories can facilitate/constrain their athletes, coaches/students can become more reflective in their own practices (Miller & Kerr, 2002). Having access to a repertoire of injury narra­ tives can also sensitise coaches/students to the rhetoric of the injured athletes and thus facilitate them in understanding the types of stories an athlete may be living so that they can adjust their approach and messaging accordingly. Given the possibilities of narratives for applied coaching practice, we recommend integrating the narratives into coach education in the fol­ lowing ways: 1

2

3

The video narratives could be used as part of pedagogical sessions within coach education programmes. We recommend conducting the sessions across multiple time points and across the different phases (e.g., see pedagogical practice and materials section). The video narratives could be used within dyadic encounters between athletes and their coaches in real life or within educa­ tional setting as role-play examples. Within these dyadic encoun­ ters, a video narrative could be shared that represents the athletes’ experiences (e.g., merry-go-round) and thus acts as a conduit to both initiate and facilitate discussion around the injured athletes’ experiences. Swapping stories about the narrative (e.g., merry-go­ round) and listening to each other’s reflections on the narrative could expand coaches’ and athletes’ understanding of each other’s perspective and also emphasise the shared and relational nature of athletes’ injury experiences. The video narratives could be integrated into coach education as a means for coaches to discuss their own experiences and/or challenges

Use of Video Narratives

23

of working with injured athletes as part of communities of practice. Communities of practice are ‘a group of people [coaches] who share a common concern, set of problems, or a passion about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge and expertise in this area by interacting on an ongoing basis’ (Culver & Trudel, 2006, p. 98). To this end, the video narratives could be discussed within communities of practice to enable coaches to deepen their knowledge and understanding of injured athletes’ experiences. Moreover, educators could seek to maximise the emancipatory potential of narrative pedagogy by using the narratives to encourage coaches to firstly reflect on their own practices/ways of working with injured athletes, and to ensure that coaches maintain a critical consideration of both their own practices and others in working with injured athletes.

Conclusion Sports injuries pose significant challenges for the coach-athlete relation­ ship. For example, previous research has illustrated how injury can lead to a breakdown in communication within the coach-athlete dyad, whilst coaches have been associated with amplifying the psychosocial difficulties associated with injury by propagating harmful practices (e.g., extreme training regimes) and reinforcing dominant cultural norms (e.g., playing through pain) (Wadey et al., 2018). These harmful practices are in part attributed to coaches’ limited understanding of diverse ways of working with injured athletes (Cavallerio, Wadey, & Wagstaff, 2016; Nixon, 1992). Educating future coaches on athletes’ injury experiences is therefore imperative to ensure the future well-being and welfare of athletes and in ensuring that coaches feel competent and confident in working with injured athletes’ experiences. Taking into account the personal, social and cultural nature of sports injury, within this chapter, we have proposed a programme for educating sport coaching students on athletes’ injury experiences titled ‘Sharing Stories of Sport Injury: From Research to Practice.’ This programme, grounded in our research on sports injury narratives (Everard et al., 2021), applied research with sports coaches (Everard et al., 2023, 2024) and draws upon the tenets of narrative enquiry (Frank, 2010) and nar­ rative pedagogy (Goodson & Gill, 2011) to outline three conceptual phases of delivery (i.e., background and context of sports injury, sharing and discussing sports injury narratives, looking back to look forward). Educating students on sports injury narratives using narrative pedagogy, guided learning enquiry, reflections and case study designs can help raise their awareness of how injury is socially and culturally constructed.

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Alongside this raised awareness, this programme encourages students to think with injured athletes’ stories, thus expanding their own under­ standing of the different ways of working with injured athletes. Reflec­ tions from our applied research (Everard et al., 2023, 2024) further illustrate how sharing and discussing sports injury narratives can inform coaches’ applied practice by providing them with a frame of reference for understanding, empathising and thus working with injured athletes. Moreover, coaches illustrated how the video narratives can act as a conduit to facilitate discussion around injured athletes’ experiences. Given the applied value of sports injury narratives, we recommend integrating them into coach education as part of pedagogical sessions within coach education programmes, within dyadic encounters between athletes and coaches or as part of communities of practice whereby coaches use the narratives to discuss/problematise their own experiences of working with injured athletes.

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Owton, H., & Allen-Collinson, J. (2017). “It stays with you”: Multiple evocative representations of dance and future possibilities for studies in sport and physical cultures. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 9(1), 49–55. Polkinghorne, D. E. (1988). Narrative knowing and the human sciences. Albany: State University of New York Press. Pritchard, A., & Woollard, J. (2013). Psychology for the classroom: Constructivism and social learning. Abingdon: Routledge. Putukian, M. (2016). The psychological response to injury in student athletes: A narrative review with a focus on mental health. British Journal of Sports Injury, 50, 145–148. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2015-095586. Rice, S. M., Purcell, R., De Silva, S., Mawren, D., McGorry, P. D., & Parker, A. G. (2016). The mental health of elite athletes: A narrative systematic review. Sports Medicine, 46, 1333–1353. doi:10.1007/s40279-016-0492-2. Rich, E., & O’Connell, K. (2012). Visual methods in physical culture: Body culture exhibition. In K. Young and M. Atkinson (Eds.), Qualitative research on sport and physical culture (pp. 101–127). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing. Ristolainen, L., Kettunen, J. A., Kujala, U. M., & Heinonen, A. (2012). Sport injuries as the main cause of sport career termination among Finnish toplevel athletes. European Journal of Sport Science, 12(3), 274–282. doi:10.1080/17461391.2011.566365. Roderick, M., Waddington, I., & Parker, G. (2000). “Playing hurt”: Managing injuries in English professional football. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 35, 165–180. Ronkainen, N. J., & Ryba, T. V. (2017). Is hockey just a game? Contesting mean­ ings of the ice hockey life projects through a career-threatening injury. Journal of Sports Sciences, 35(10), 923–928. doi:10.1080/02640414.2016.1201211. Saldana, J. (2011). Ethnotheatre: Research from page to stage. New York: Oxford University Press. Smith, B., & McGannon, K. R. (2015). Psychology and sociology in sport studies. In R. Giulianotti (Ed.), Routledge handbook of the sociology of sport (pp. 194–203). London: Routledge. Smith, B., & Sparkes, A. C. (2009). Narrative inquiry in sport and exercise psychology: What can it mean, and why might we do it? Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(1), 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.01.004. Smith, B., & Sparkes, A. C. (Eds.). (2016). Routledge handbook of qualitative research methods in sport and exercise. Abingdon: Routledge. Smith, B., Tomasone, J. R., Latimer-Cheung, A. E., & Martin Ginis, K. A. (2015). Narrative as a knowledge translation tool for facilitating impact: Translating physical activity knowledge to disabled people and health pro­ fessionals. Health Psychology, 34(4), 303. Stoszkowski, J., & Collins, D. (2014). Communities of practice, social learning and networks: Exploiting the social side of coach development. Sport, Edu­ cation and Society, 19(6), 773–788.

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Evaluating the Impact of Athlete Case Studies Told Through Creative Nonfiction on Coach Learners in University Coach Education Marion Geary and Niamh Kitching

Introduction Formal and nonformal types of coach education have been widely researched, with the International Council for Coaching Excellence (ICCE) highlighting the need for suitable pedagogies that support experiential, social and self-directed learning in the development of quality undergraduate programmes for coach learners (ICCE, 2016). Similarly, Stoszkowski and Collins (2016) suggest that social learning activities such as learning communities should be prioritised in coach education, while Cushion (2014) argues that the unstructured and informal nature of mentoring is more valuable for coach development than formal coach education. In Ireland, the context in which this chapter is written, research by Sherwin et al. (2017) found that formal coach education often does not meet the needs of the coaches who prefer informal, self-directed learning with a focus on coaching experience. In sum, this evidence indicates the need to serve coach learners with appropriate learning activities to meet their needs and best inform their coaching. Real-to-life cases and case studies have also been found to be useful in coach education (e.g., Duarte & Culver, 2014; Taylor et al., 2014), while work is growing on the use of creative and fictional writing as a method through which to relay these narratives (e.g., see Smith, McGannon, & Williams, 2015). However, there is a dearth of research on the impact that creative approaches have on practitioners and pro­ fessionals in sport including, for example, initial emotive responses, longer-term habit changes or incitement to action. In this chapter, we evaluate how athlete case studies told through creative nonfiction (CNF) resonate with a group of university-based coach learners. It was DOI: 10.4324/9781003439646-3

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expected that using the case studies would elicit an emotional response with the coach learners and increase their learning, which could in turn lead to influence their practices as coaches.

Pedagogical approach Storied forms of communicating research are now well established as a qualitative method in sport, exercise and coaching. Since earlier writ­ ing by Douglas and Carless (2008, 2009) and Smith (2013) and Smith and Sparkes (2009), CNF has become widely used in sport and exercise research, as illustrated in a recent collection of CNF narratives from different sport and exercise settings (Cavallerio, 2022). More specifi­ cally, the use of CNF is also visible in research on coaching and coach education to, for instance, better communicate research findings around coach learning (Stodter, 2021), deal with sensitive topics (Dempsey et al., 2021; Lewis et al., 2020), tell authentic narratives whilst maintaining coach anonymity (Hogan et al., 2022) and enhance reflective learning (Adams, 2020). These recent publications give an indication of the growth and popularity of CNF in coach education. Advocates of storied research have spoken about the strong pedago­ gical potential of CNF (McGannon & Smith, 2015), particularly to convey knowledge in an accessible manner, facilitate dialogue, prompt coach learners to explore their own beliefs, and stimulate reflection in coach education. In writing about the perspectives of care-experienced young people in sport, Quarmby et al. (2021) suggest that stories can act as a pedagogical resource through which the reader can enter the world of the care-experienced young person and better understand their lived realities. Other recent work in sport and exercise research raises discussions around the resonance of athlete or participant stories with the experiences of others or the critical reflections of professionals working in sport (e.g., McGannon and McMahon, 2022). The pre­ vailing theme through this literature is around the possibilities of CNF, and in this vein, there is a need to follow up on what the stories might achieve (Orr et al., 2021). As an example of the steps following CNF, O’Malley et al. (2018) suggest that gaining a sense of a relational context allows the practitioner, coach or athlete to make informed decisions and cite their next steps in assessing the impact by engaging coaches and athletes about their reactions to the stories. Despite the growing and glowing assertions of these researchers to the potential of CNF, aside from a piece by Smith et al. (2015), who confirm the value of narrative as a way to disseminate evidence-based information to health-care professionals, there appears to be little written on the

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actual impact of CNF on the learning of practitioners and profes­ sionals in sport and if and how CNF can call practitioners to action. The purpose of this chapter, then, is to follow on from Adams’s (2020) study by exploring if and how CNF case studies enhanced learning for university coach learners.

Pedagogical practice and materials The first author, Marion, regularly teaches the SPRT08051 Psychological Skills for Performance module to a cohort of final-year coach learners, as part of their bachelor’s degree in sports development and performance at the Technological University of the Shannon: Midwest (see Table 2.1 for the module overview). Having previously conducted research on athlete identity and motivation with nine elite dual career athletes as part of another project (Geary, Campbell, et al., 2021; Geary, Kitch­ ing, et al., 2021), she decided to use anonymised case studies to com­ municate these data to her cohort of coach learners. With confidence as a central theme, Marion wrote four semifictional athlete case stu­ dies. Confidence was defined as an athlete’s belief in their ability to execute a desired behaviour such as performing a technical skill or controlling their emotions in high-pressure situations (Weinberg & Gould, 2019, p. 336). The case studies ranged in word count from 997 (case study 1), 1,921 (case study 2), 2,429 (case study 3) and 2,453 (case study 4). The data used to create the cases recalled examples of the

Table 2.1 Psychological Skills for Performance Module Overview Module Name

Psychological Skills for Performance

National Framework of Qualifications Level European Credit Transfer System Credits Module Delivery (per week) Total Workload

8*

Syllabus Overview

5 2 lecture sessions; 1 tutorial session In-person: 45 hours Independent learning: 55 hours Psychological skills training; energy management and arousal regulation; attention and concentration; visuali­ sation and mental imagery; con­ fidence; goal setting

Note: *Level 8 on the National Framework for Qualifications in Ireland typically refers to a four-year honours undergraduate degree programme.

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athletes’ displaying aspects of identity exclusivity and foreclosure in their sporting career to the detriment of their lives outside of elite sport (Geary, Campbell, et al., 2021). It was clear from the data that the identity profiles of the athletes impacted their overall self-confidence and sports self-confidence with implications on sports performance and lives outside sport. Similar to Hogan et al. (2022), Marion chose to present the data through CNF, with her aim to (1) maintain the anonymity of the athletes she interviewed and (2) enhance the engage­ ment and learning of her coach learners. It is this second aim that we wish to focus on in this chapter. Writing the case studies To explore the learning potential of case studies told through CNF to coach learners, we spent time developing the case studies, paying attention to the learning outcomes of the module, the literature on confidence, our focus in this chapter and the criteria we developed to harness the learning potential of CNF (see next section). During the case writing process, Marion kept a reflective log in which she recorded her own observations during the process, while simultaneously tallying the relevant literature around the theme of confidence to each parti­ cular case. During this drafting, the second author, Niamh, read through the case studies and gave feedback to Marion, who followed through the writing process until both authors deemed the cases ready for the module (see Table 2.2 for case study summaries). Adjudication of the case studies was achieved using a framework adapted from Smith, McGannon, and Williams (2015, pp. 70–71). Accordingly, case study content was examined in relation to whether it was evocative and illuminative, engaging, promoted an incitement to action by the stu­ dents and whether it was coherent with the overall aims of the study (see Table 2.3 for further details). It is hoped that in time, this process will be written into a journal article for wider circulation. In Marion’s original research on elite athletes (Geary, Campbell, et al., 2021; Geary, Kitching, et al., 2021), all participants were male, and we chose to honour these data in developing the CNF case studies using the pseudonyms ‘Robert’ and ‘Barry’ (see Table 2.2). Robert is an elite dual career athlete who identified predominantly as an athlete, which impacted his confidence, self-esteem and ability to balance all aspects of his life within and outside sport. Barry also identifies strongly as an athlete and has just made the transition from junior to senior elite sport, which has impacted his confidence. Furthermore, the case studies chart his progress through the setback of a serious injury. To provide a taste of the cases we

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Table 2.2 Case Study Summaries Case Study/ Week

Theoretical Concepts

Case Study Summary

Week 1. Robert

Athletic identity, self-esteem and self-confidence (global and domain), and the links between them. Overidentification with the athlete role and its impact on ath­ letic performance, dual career and confidence. Vealey’s Sports Self-Con­ fidence Model. Concepts of state and trait self-confidence and five broad types of sport self-confidence. Competitive orientation and confidence. Developing robust selfconfidence. Profiling athletes’ sources, types and levels of sport con­ fidence. Developing targeted interventions to improve con­ fidence, e.g., goal setting, sig­ nature strengths, self- talk and cognitive reframing. Injury, sports confidence and identity. Use of written emo­ tional disclosures to promote emotional processing during injury. Exploration of meth­ ods to improve confidence through the process of injury rehabilitation.

Internal monologues high­ lighting Robert’s struggles to manage his dual career, specifi­ cally balancing class attendance with sport responsibilities, aca­ demic confidence, identity and internal conflict associated with a poor performance. Conversation between Barry and the team sport psychologist regarding his confidence as he transitions into elite adult competition. Barry’s hypercom­ petitive orientation and its impact on his confidence.

Week 2. Barry

Week 3. Barry

Week 4. Barry

Second conversation with Barry and the sport psycholo­ gist where they examine the types and sources of this con­ fidence. Development of action points with a view to develop­ ing a robust self-confidence. Barry has suffered a knee injury and uses written emo­ tional disclosures to support emotional processing. Four diary entries (over a period of 13 months) chart his progress through injury focusing on the development of identity, coping strategies and self-confidence.

used, we choose to present excerpts from case studies 2 and 4 (both from Barry) as exemplars. The other cases are available on request by the cor­ responding author. Exemplar 1 – Case study 2 – Barry in conversation with sports psychologist The following excerpt is from a fictional conversation between Barry and the team’s sport and performance psychologist. Barry is a 20-year-old elite adult player who has been playing in academy and elite-level sport

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Table 2.3 CNF Adjudication Framework – Adjusted from Smith et al. (2015, pp. 70–71) Criterion

Associated Questions

Evocation and illumination

Does the narrative emotionally and/or intellectually illuminate a terrain, a process, individual, group and/or theory? Does the researcher begin to feel meanings within the story being told? Does the research keep me emotionally and intellectually interested? Do I want to carry on reading halfway through? Does the research move me, intellectually and emotionally? Does it generate new questions? Does it move people to act? How well does the work create a plausible and visceral lifeworld and charged emotional atmosphere as an incitement to act within and outside the context of the work? What might I do with this research? Does the study achieve what it purports to be about? Does it use methods and procedures that fit its stated goals? Does it meaningfully interconnect literature, research questions/foci, findings and interpretations with one another?

Engagement

Incitement to action

Meaningful coherence

since he was 15 years old, and this is his first year playing at the highest level of the sport. Barry reached out to meet for a one-to-one session because he is concerned with his confidence as it was fluctuating and impacting on his performance, particularly in ‘big’ match situations. While he has always had issues with confidence, this was his ‘norm’ and he always thought that this was just the way he was. He now realises (with exposure to full-time psychology support) that it is not something that he has to put up with but that he might be able to change. Hi, Barry. So we are meeting today to discuss your issues with confidence, and from what you have briefly told me, this has been going on a while? BARRY: Yes. It has been something that has always been there from a young age, but I just thought it was my personality and that I just need to manage it better. PSYCH: Okay. So because you are new to the setup and this is our first one-to one, I am going to try and get a sense of where this is coming from and then hopefully put a plan in place for how we might be able to improve your situation. So to begin with, historically have you had confidence in your ability to play at a higher level in sport? PSYCH:

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So most of the time, I do. I mean, my gut instinct tells me that I am good enough to play at this level and I have always felt that I am good enough. Like, when I was younger, I was always praised for my performances with the club, and I always made the inter­ county teams I was involved in all the way up along and most of the time I played well and we won a lot. So I suppose this personal and team success cemented the belief in myself, but I think besides this, I always knew I was better than those players around me, especially in the club. PSYCH: So when you say you are confident, what is this in relation to – for example, is it the skills of the game, decision-making, perform­ ing under pressure, executing a tactical strategy, concentration, adapting to different or new situations? BARRY: Well, I am very good at the skills of the game and I feel like I understand the game very well. Most of the time, I am good at executing a strategy and making decisions to make sure that hap­ pens. My biggest issue is when we are playing against teams that I feel are as good as us, or I am marking someone that is really good, or that I’ve marked before and they have kept me quiet. Then my confidence begins to take a hit and I don’t feel so good about it – like I begin to make decisions that I wouldn’t make in other games or against other opponents, I lose my head a little and I can’t seem to focus on the plan and sometimes I feel like I don’t even want the ball because I am not so sure that I will do the right thing with it. PSYCH: So it sounds to me, then, Barry that it can be quite stressful before and during games. But despite this, you are starting in every game. Why do you think you keep getting picked despite feeling like this? You still seem to be doing enough to get selected. BARRY: I know. Some of the reasons I keep getting picked is because I work hard – harder than most, I think; there isn’t a day where I don’t work on my game. In fact, I spend more time on sport than any other part of my life and I also set really high standards for myself. I want to play to my best all the time, and to be honest I am never fully happy with how I play anyway – I am always critical, even if I was player of the match! Or I could be on a winning team and be really disappointed with my own performance, and it could ruin the whole thing. Don’t get me wrong, I just love winning too, and I feel like I would do anything to win. Like, when I go out to play, I generally see my opponent as the ‘enemy,’ and when I beat someone, I feel better than them or more powerful. But then if they get the better of me, my confidence can plummet a bit and I feel like I am not as much of an athlete as I thought I was; sometimes I feel like it impacts my opinion of myself as BARRY:

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a person. I think because the competition is getting fitter and stronger as I get older and I move up the levels, it has happened more often and now it is impacting me more often. PSYCH: And why do you think your confidence is affected so much when someone gets the better of you? And why do you think you are less of a person when it happens? BARRY: I’m not so sure, to be honest. I think I have had a few coaches through the years that have led me to believe that the opposition is your ‘enemy’ and some of them have been ‘win at all cost’ mer­ chants. Like, when I was playing at minor level for the county, we had a good chance of winning the final. I wasn’t studying at all because I was training so much, especially at the weekends. When my mother brought it up with the manager, she was told that I could repeat my exams but that this football opportunity would only come around once. I was delighted; it fuelled that desire I had to be the best and I felt that with that manager that it was okay to do any­ thing to win. Like, I have always been known to live ‘on the edge’ on the field, but sometimes I know I have taken that too far. When it hasn’t worked for me and someone gets the better of me, then I feel completely deflated and I suppose that comes from always feeling like being an athlete is so important – more than anything else really! I think my dad has a little bit of this in him too, and he always encouraged me to be tough and to work hard. Exemplar 2 – Case study 4 – Barry’s written emotional disclosure Two weeks following Barry’s last session with the performance psychologist, he suffered a season-ending ACL injury. He was jumping for a high ball when his opponent came in with a late challenge and he landed awkwardly on his knee. After scans, it was revealed that he had torn his ACL and was out of the game for a minimum of ten months. He had a follow-on session with the performance psychologist who suggested that he use journaling (written emotional disclosure) as a means of getting his thoughts together as he felt he was struggling with the consequences of his injury. The following excerpts reflect his jour­ ney through injury and its impact on his confidence as he began to prepare for return to play. Diary entry 1: Two months post injury (two weeks post surgery). I cannot believe I am sitting here on my couch with nothing to do but watch TV, ice my knee, and sit on the exercise bike to try and straighten my leg, and on top of that I still have a lot of pain. What an

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absolute idiot to take me out of the air like that, and now I’m screwed for the year and even more if I don’t heal as quickly as they say I need to to get back out playing. I feel so completely useless now, and what­ ever chance I had of nailing any place on the team is well and truly over. What’s worse is that all the lads are going to be so far ahead of me now – I’ll be so unfit, and I won’t even resemble an athlete by the time I’m finished. To add insult to injury, I’ve no excuse now but to go to college, and if Mam doesn’t leave me alone about study, I think I’ll go crazy. If I could get a hold of that lad, I’m not sure I’d be respon­ sible for what I would do to him. I was just beginning to get a handle on the pace of the game at this level and I’ll just go backwards now, and I relied so much on my physicality and fitness, I may not even get that back to where it was before I got this injury. The only thing that I have to look forward to now is the physio appointment every week and hope that they go well and I get well ahead of schedule and get back quicker than they said. I’ve been trying to get ahead of myself, even now. I miss not going to training as well even though it has just been a couple of weeks. I miss the lads, and I just don’t feel myself now. I feel like there is a big gaping hole in my life and I might never get that back. Some of the older lads have texted me and encouraged me to start looking at finding something else to do with my time, but I just cannot imagine doing much else than sport. They have asked me to come down to training as well, but I cannot drive and I don’t feel as much part of the squad – it would be too depressing to watch them training when all I can do is stand there. Being honest, I’m not great at anything else either, so what do I do? Diary entry 2: Three months post surgery (six weeks post surgery). Just beginning to start to use some light weights and bands to strengthen my leg, and I’m beginning to get full range of motion back in my knee. I got back on the treadmill in the last two weeks, which is on schedule, so I’m happy with that. Back in college full time now, and if I’m being honest, it’s a little bit of a distraction. I’m getting to know some of the lads and girls in the class that I didn’t ever really bother my head with before I got injured. If I was to be truthful, I thought they were boring enough, only that I can go out now more often than I used to, so I kinda got to know them a bit better. They told me they thought I was an ass and full of myself, so I suppose at least I’m redeeming myself a little now – I probably did come across full of myself if I thought about it. I’ve started putting a little more time into college work too, and it’s beginning to pay off. I’d say I was a nightmare to be in a group with for projects – at least now I can get the work done with little stress because I’ve nothing else to do with my time.

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Geary and Kitching The one thing that kills me is that everyone keeps asking me how I am and how long will it be before I get back – before they would be asking me how training was going, or they’d be talking to me about the game at the weekend. Just feels like they see me completely differently now – a little less of a person and player than I was before, a little less interested in me. I don’t have near as much contact with the lads on the county team this past while. They are in championship mode now, which is an absolute killer. Ger, who took my place, is having a blinder of a season too from what I have heard – I cannot even watch the games as it’s too upsetting and I find it too hard to accept that I am going to miss the whole season. The lads have asked me to come to training loads of times, and I meet them in the gym when I’m there. But it doesn’t feel the same for me – they are great and all that, but until I’m back to play, I’m not sure I’ll feel like them. I also feel like it is easier if I just stay away; I haven’t been to any training matches or league games since I got injured because I just feel avoidance is my only option – I cannot watch them play at the moment. I’m due to go back to the physio next week, so hopefully that will go well.

Module delivery Prior to the module delivery, Marion devised a plan for the module and the feedback process for the learners, including where the case studies would align with the module learning content. As outlined in Table 2.2, it ran over a four-week period with eight contact hours. The overall design of the programme was guided by a need to satisfy the learning outcomes of the module with respect to the theme of confidence and psychological skills for performance but to do so in a manner that enhanced the engagement and knowledge of the coach learners. The theoretical under­ pinnings for each learning topic (see Table 2.2) were introduced to the coach learners in the first contact session of each week and the CNF case studies were issued to the learners in the second contact hour in which they were given time to review and consider the details of each case. To encourage exposure to the content, the case studies were also uploaded to an online sharing platform prior to the in-person sessions. Each case study also contained a brief introductory paragraph to guide the learners to the topics they were to consider as they read the mate­ rial. As soon as the learners were comfortable with the content, Marion guided initial discussions with questioning based on the key theoretical principles underlying the case studies. The coach learners were then given the freedom to engage in meaningful discussion and

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debate as it evolved over the allocated time. Open-ended questions were used to initiate this debate and discussion. Examples of the questions posed included ‘How did this story resonate with you?’; ‘What do you think you would have said to Robert in this situation?’; ‘How do you think you (as a coach) could support Barry as he returns from injury?’; ‘How influential do you think Robert’s underage coaches were in his identity development and his current confidence levels?’ Marion directed the discussion if it veered away from the subject area and ensured that each learning topic was explored in the context of the details of the case studies. Finally, as part of their module assessment, the learners were asked to demonstrate their understanding of the underlying theoretical concepts as they applied to the cases by completing reflective tasks at the end of each week. To achieve this, the main discussion points at the end of each session were summarised and details of the reflective practice submissions were outlined to the learners. See Figures 2.1 and 2.2 for assessment requirements for studies 2 and 4. The following excerpt is a reflection by a student, Ryan (pseudo­ nym), as part of the reflective practice component (part 2) of the assessment requirements for case study 2 as illustrated in Figure 2.1.

Sample student reflection 1 The high level of competitiveness Barry incorporates into his sporting pursuits is evident in his conversation with the sports psychologist when he refers to how he views his opponent on the field as an enemy that he must beat and he refers to deriving a feeling of power and

Figure 2.1 Reflective Practice Submission Requirements for Case Study 2

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Geary and Kitching confidence from getting the better of his opponent during the match when he states: ‘Don’t get me wrong, I just love winning too, and I feel like I would do anything to win. Like, when I go out to play, I generally see my opponent as the “enemy,” and when I beat someone, I feel better than them or more powerful.’ This could be seen as a form of negative thinking in the way his self-esteem and confidence could become dependent on whether he can outperform his opponent on any given match day; however, he does not have any control over the performance and actions of his opponent (his marker), so he could possibly be setting himself up for failure if he has to consistently mark players who are performing at the top level consistently and more experienced players. Barry seems to acknowledge that this form of thinking isn’t the most beneficial when he says: ‘But then if they get the better of me, my confidence can plummet a bit and I feel like I am not as much of an athlete as I thought I was; sometimes I feel like it impacts on my opinion of myself as a person.’ It may be more bene­ ficial to focus on element of his own game, which he could improve on and set himself personal goals for each performance so he can chal­ lenge himself to improve as opposed to being reliant on gaining con­ fidence from beating his opponent on the field.

The following excerpt is a reflection by a student, Grant (pseudonym), as part of the reflective practice component (part 2) of the assessment requirements for case study 4 as outlined in Figure 2.2.

Sample student reflection 2 Nearing the end of his injury period, Barry consulted with senior mem­ bers of the squad and the sport psychologist who set out giving him visualisation and mental imagery to help cope with his fear of injury when

Figure 2.2 Reflective Practice Submission Requirements for Case Study 4

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returning to play. This is evident when he states that ‘I’ve been working on reimagining the moment I got injured.…. Barry has also set himself short-term goals circled around factors that will assist in his rehabilitation like food, hydration, visualisation and socialising with friends once a week. Setting smaller goals outside of sport have helped him cope with the injury. He also has set medium goals like getting some game time before the first part of the season ends: ‘My first medium goal is to get some game time before the end of the league.’

Judging the case studies Carless et al. (2014) have offered a list of criteria for judging creative literary fiction, including evidence of authenticity, coherence and timeliness. Smith et al. (2015) further this by including aspects of con­ tribution and worthiness, focus, aesthetic merit, and evocation and illumination (see Table 2.3). Smith et al. (2015) suggest that the list can be modified depending on the purpose and context of the CNF, and they also encourage the development of other context-specific criteria that may emerge from future research. For the purposes of our goal to use the CNF case studies to enhance the engagement of coach learners, we used an adjusted framework from Smith et al. (2015) and the aforementioned criteria in two ways: (1) in the writing process for the case studies (described previously) and (2) as a framework for analys­ ing the impact of the case studies on the coach learners. Our adjusted framework, including the questions that Smith et al. (2015) use for each criterion, is outlined in Table 2.3. Using this framework, we focused on the capacity of the CNF content to express a reality and promote evocation, illumination, engagement and incitement to action amongst the learners. Furthermore, our study needed to have meaningful coherence ensuring that the pedagogical approach was useful as a method of coach education in itself but also that the learning outcomes of the module were achieved.

Reflections on the learner feedback For the purposes of obtaining learner feedback, ethical approval was sought and granted from TUS Limerick ethics committee (Approval reference 2.7). This allowed for the collection of data through (1) focus groups with the learners and (2) learner assessments that included their reflections on the case studies. Our analysis indicates that the pedagogical approach of using CNF case studies was effective and illuminating from a learner engagement perspective. This approach to teaching and learning prompted the

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learners to share personal stories and experiences, creating a greater sense of understanding amongst the learner group themselves and between the group and Marion. We have presented the data using the headings from the adjudication framework mentioned earlier (see Table 2.3) with pseudonyms used where appropriate. Expression of a reality One key reflection regarding the use of the CNF approach is that it is critical to present content that is true to life and reflects situations as they may transpire in practice (Smith et al., 2015; Carless et al., 2014). The learners reported how relatable the CNF case studies were, whereby the realism conveyed gave the content more meaning. A number of learners referenced the ‘true’ nature of the case study content, which fostered a sense of credibility from the beginning because the issues ‘played out in front’ of them and was thus more engaging than ‘the theoretical stuff.’ Further­ more, the nature of the coach learner is that they have often engaged in or are actively engaging in their own sporting endea­ vours. In this way, the content was relatable to them in their role as athletes (as well as coaches) and resonated with their own rea­ lities and lived experiences as teammates in sport, young athletes and players at an elite level: I read about the intercounty [elite] players, like [sic] and I honestly did think for a while before that once you got to that level . . . you never kind of have a lack of confidence again. . . . They’re all having the same doubts about themselves. . . . ’Twas good to get that account firsthand. (Ryan) Upon reflection, the sense of reality was enhanced by the coach learner being given the chance to relate the CNF stories to their own experi­ ences and to discuss these openly, thereby creating a communal sense of reality and practice. Moreover, the coach learners actively reflected not only their beliefs but others’ perspectives either through the CNF content directly or the class discussions that ensued. Evocation and illumination The presentation of the case studies evoked an emotional response in several of the coach learners, while for others it resulted in an increased self-awareness (illumination) as they realised that they had behaved in

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similar ways to the dual career athletes. Josh, for example, stated that ‘before coming into the class and not knowing about that stuff and then thinking about it, I used to do that. I used to do that!’ The informal nature of the class discussions was critical to this heightened awareness, and therefore coach educators should prompt learners to share these insights through the provision of inclusive and supportive environments. The potency of the informal approach used here is in line with findings from Cushion (2014) and Sherwin et al. (2017) regarding the preference of coach learners for this type of flexible, open-ended discussion format. While the disclosure of personal experiences was encouraged, care must also be taken where CNF deals with issues that may be ‘trigger­ ing’ for some. Laura, for example, revealed how resonating with the case studies was difficult as it reminded her of an experience she had in sport as a young high-performance athlete: Every year, every coach bar one [had a win-at-all-cost mentality]. . . . Everyone else was literally howling, ‘If you don’t perform, I’m not dealing with you; I’m going to the next person,’ and you’re left, you’re left alone and they make you feel worse. . . . It kind of showed me, so this is what they did, this is what I do to avoid it. This example demonstrates the need to provide learner coaches with a cautionary note and appropriate support whereby sensitive topics might be covered using the CNF approach. Engagement Another key reflection was that CNF resulted in meaningful class engagement, discussion and debate. The coach learners referred to the inclusive nature of the approach prompting a greater willingness to engage when compared with traditional pedagogical styles such as delivery of theoretical content through lecture sessions. As mentioned earlier, there was an element of discussion and debate and a high level of communal engagement with the cases: I was surprised that he would look forward to the physio because when I had injuries, I never looked forward to going to the physio; I hated it. It was just like, it’s like, oh here we go again. . . . It was different. (Grant) Ryan described how he was invested in the stories and he ‘wanted to read to see what happened at the end.’

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It was also suggested that the inclusive nature of the classes (facilitated by the relatable nature of the CNF case studies) may also have encouraged learners who may not have had the confidence to engage before to con­ tribute. Josh felt this confidence emerged from the emotional connection learners had to the topic as they could see that ‘this has happened to me. I can talk about how I feel’ and they could feel like ‘they know about the subject they’re talking about.’ In all, CNF learning materials provided a starting point to stimulate an inclusive approach particularly for learners who otherwise might find it difficult to contribute. Finally, the CNF approach also promoted a greater desire to attend class, with Ryan stating that ‘I was looking forward to coming, actually looking forward to coming in.’ It may therefore be worth exploring which module content coach lear­ ners have found challenging in the past (and thus may choose to avoid) and use CNF with a view to promoting increased attendance and engagement in these areas. Incitement to action Class discussion unearthed student incongruity and led to animated discussions, illustrating the emotional investment that the learners had in the case studies. The cases allowed for conversations about how to intervene or support the athlete, thereby allowing discussion around best practice in coaching. Several learners described what they might do with the insight they gained from the case studies in the context of future work in the coaching setting, while some suggested they were also engaging with the content within their current coaching contexts. So if I was working, I suppose with let’s say U16s or a minor team or whatever it is, like and I saw a player like that . . . you could tell them where you came from and maybe discuss that case study with them as well. (Ryan) It is therefore important that when using CNF that coach learners are actively encouraged to explore how the content might inform future practice. Meaningful coherence Regarding the delivery of an enhanced learning experience, the con­ sensus amongst the learners was that this was achieved and that the CNF approach was much more effective than the traditional formal

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approaches to module delivery that they were used to. Grant stated, for example, that it’s definitely more useful than just [lecture] slides. . . . Obviously, it’s good to see the definition of competence or the different types of competence on the slide but then see it play out is – it’s way more engaging than it would be seeing it on a slide as you actually see that people are . . . kind of struggling. Learners drew from previous experiences in other modules and sug­ gested that they had acquired a set of tools to understand confidence more than before or that they had ‘100% learned more from this module than in the four weeks than I would have in any other module in the whole semester.’ While coach learners found it easier to invest in their learning when compared with traditional approaches to delivery, several coaches stated the importance of understanding the theoretical concepts prior to engaging in the CNF approach. Stephen, for example, suggested that there was merit in using the CNF approach in conjunction with rather than instead of the traditional approa­ ches to teaching and learning. He stated that CNF case studies were ‘cementing links in our mind towards the things we’re learning in theory.’ It is therefore important that students are introduced to the theoretical underpinnings of the concepts they are being exposed to with CNF and thus traditional approaches may be useful here but on a limited scale. Contrary to the need to understand the concepts, for some students, referencing key theoretical texts in the assessment tasks was deemed unnecessary. They preferred the elements of the assessment that encouraged them to reflect on the concepts and how the cases demonstrated these concepts.

Conclusion The small study discussed in this chapter is a starting point in demonstrating the usefulness of CNF case studies for coach education, perhaps giving credence to the potential (Orr et al., 2021) that has been touted in relation to CNF for sport practitioners. The CNF case study pedagogical tool provided a framework for learning that allowed for informal and open-ended discussion, flexibility and the stimulation of learner-centredness in a flipped classroom approach. The cases resonated with coach learners and became somewhat applied, whereby some recognised the call to adapt how they support athlete welfare in their own

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coaching contexts. On the flip side, the case studies necessitated deep reflection, which could have been triggering for some learners who may have had similar experiences in their own sporting or coaching careers. Further, several of the coach learners struggled to be persuaded around the value of the theoretical content related to the cases, particularly its inclusion in the reflective tasks and its conveyance using traditional delivery modes. Albeit small scale, this chapter provides evidence for the merits of CNF case studies for use in university-based coach education. There are some considerations for higher education staff should they contemplate using these tools. Firstly, using the case studies as a small part of one module was difficult, whereby the time dedicated to the case studies and the potential for learning was constrained by what had to be covered in the module. Along with the time frame, several limitations cut short the pos­ sibilities for the coach learners, one of which was the lack of flexibility in formalised university-based coach education (e.g., timetabling, lecture/ tutorial allocations per module descriptors). We suggest situating this practice in a cross-modular format, where case studies would be central and worked across a suite of relevant modules perhaps allowing for a multidisciplinary approach. This approach could provide more flex­ ibility and perhaps deeper and broader learning for the coach learners. Finally, the learners were forthright in terms of acknowledging the difficulty they might have had with both discursive sessions and theo­ retical elements. In terms of approaches to using CNF, Orr et al. (2021) suggest that members of the target population interact with the materials that the researcher has created. There is potential to offer learners choice in terms of an interactive format for engaging with the cases (e.g., audio version) and perhaps an opportunity to develop a response. This could be in the form of presenting an artefact or designing a leaflet, which would showcase the advice they would give to the athletes. There is also the potential for learners to write their own case studies from either a coach and/or athlete perspective.

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Hays, K., Thomas, O., Butt, J., & Maynard, I. (2010). The development of con­ fidence profiling for sport. Sport Psychologist, 24(3), 373–392. doi:10.1123/ tsp.24.3.373. Hogan, I., Bowles, R., & Kitching, N. (2022). Exploring the influence of the community-based sports club environment on the support and development of volunteer women coaches in Ireland [original research]. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 4. doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.809092. ICCE. (2016). ICCE standards for higher education sports coaching bachelor degrees. icds-draft-4-final-november-23.pdf (icce.ws). Lewis, C. J., Roberts, S. J., Andrews, H., & Sawiuk, R. (2020). A creative writing case study of gender-based violence in coach education: Stacey’s story. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 28(1), 72–80. doi:10.1123/wspaj.2018-0046. Mahood, C., Perry, M., Gallagher, P., & Sole, G. (2020). Chaos and confusion with confidence: Managing fear of re-injury after anterior cruciate ligament recon­ struction. Physical Therapy in Sport, 45, 145–154. doi:10.1016/j.ptsp.2020.07.002. Mankad, A., Gordon, S., & Wallman, K. (2009). Psycho-immunological effects of written emotional disclosure during long-term injury rehabilitation. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 3(3), 205–217. doi:10.1123/jcsp.3.3.205. McGannon, K. R., & McMahon, J. (2022). (Re)storying embodied running and motherhood: A creative non-fiction approach. Sport, Education and Society, 27(8), 960–972. doi:10.1080/13573322.2021.1942821. McGannon, K. R., & Smith, B. (2015). Centralizing culture in cultural sport psychology research: The potential of narrative inquiry and discursive psychology. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 17, 79–87. doi:10.1016/j. psychsport.2014.07.010. Mitchell, T. O., Nesti, M., Richardson, D., Midgley, A. W., Ubank, M., & Littlewood, M. (2014). Exploring athletic identity in elite-level English youth football: A cross-sectional approach. Journal of Sports Sciences, 32(13), 1294–1299. doi:10.1080/02640414.2014.898855. O’Malley, L., Winter, S., & Holder, T. (2018). “Always picking country over club”: A creative non-fiction story of an international coach–athlete–coach triad. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 10(2), 223–237. doi:10.1080/2159676X.2017.1367716. Orosz, G., Tóth-Király, I., Büki, N., Ivaskevics, K., Bothe, B., & Fülöp, M. (2018). The four faces of competition: The development of the Multi­ dimensional Competitive Orientation Inventory. Frontiers in Psychology, 9 (May), 1–16. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00779. Orr, K., Smith, B., Arbour-Nicitopoulos, K. P., & Wright, F. V. (2021). The café talk: A discussion of the process of developing a creative non-fiction. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 13(6), 887–903. doi:10.1080/2159676X.2020.1834443. Podlog, L., Dimmock, J., & Miller, J. (2011). A review of return to sport con­ cerns following injury rehabilitation: Practitioner strategies for enhancing recovery outcomes. Physical Therapy in Sport, 12(1), 36–42. doi:10.1016/j. ptsp.2010.07.005.

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Quarmby, T., Sandford, R., Hooper, O., & Duncombe, R. (2021). Narratives and marginalised voices: Storying the sport and physical activity experiences of care-experienced young people. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 13(3), 426–437. doi:10.1080/2159676X.2020.1725099. Sherwin, I., Campbell, M. J., & Macintyre, T. E. (2017). Talent development of high performance coaches in team sports in Ireland. European Journal of Sport Science, 17(3), 271–278. Smith, B. (2013). Sporting spinal cord injuries, social relations, and rehabilita­ tion narratives: An ethnographic creative non-fiction of becoming disabled through sport. Sociology of Sport Journal, 30(2), 132–152. Smith, B., & Sparkes, A. C. (2009). Narrative analysis and sport and exercise psychology: Understanding lives in diverse ways. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(2), 279–288. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.07.012. Smith, B., McGannon, K. R. & Williams, T. L. (2015). Ethnographic creative non-fiction: Exploring the whats, whys and hows. In Ethnographies in sport and exercise research (pp. 59–73). Abingdon: Routledge. Stodter, A. (2021). Filtering and finding a new way: A creative nonfiction of soccer coaches’ professional learning. In Creative nonfiction in sport and exercise research (pp. 106–118). Abingdon: Routledge. Stoszkowski, J., & Collins, D. (2016). Sources, topics and use of knowledge by coaches. Journal of Sport Sciences, 34(9), 794–802. Taylor, S. L., Werthner, P., & Culver, D. (2014). A case study of a parasport coach and a life of learning. International Sport Coaching Journal, 1(3), 127–138. doi:10.1123/iscj.2013-0005. Vealey, R. S. (1986). Conceptualization of sport-confidence and competitive orientation: Preliminary investigation and instrument development. Journal of Sport Psychology, 8(3), 221–246. doi:10.1123/jsp.8.3.221. Vealey, R. S., & Knight, B. J. (2002). Multidimensional sport-confidence: A conceptual and psychometric extension. Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology Conference. Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2019). Foundations of sport and exercise psy­ chology. 7th edition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Weinberg, R. S., & Williams, J. M. (2015). Integrating and implementing a psychological skills program (pp. 1–24). New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education. https://studylib.net/doc/5474927/integrating-and-implementing-a -psychological-skills-train.

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The Adoption of an Interactive and Immersive Installation to Educate Coaches on the Topic of Abuse in Sport Emma Kavanagh, Adi Adams, Manuela Picariello and Lucy Sheppard-Marks

Introduction The motivation for the adoption of an art-informed approach to coach education arose from potential knowledge gaps in the current training for neophyte and experienced practitioners on the topic of abuse in sport and our passion to support the education of future practitioners on core topics that underpin contemporary sporting spaces. Artsinformed methods were adopted to critically engage practitioners with the subject of abuse in sport and raise consciousness of the importance of the duty to care in practice. The impetus for this work was grounded in our aspirations to support cultural change in high-performance environments that aim to foster greater balance between performance and welfare objectives. A priority echoed more clearly through the articulation of a duty of care (Grey-Thompson, 2017; Kavanagh et al., 2021) and the emphasis on the promotion of caring climates to support athlete welfare. It is now widely recognised and documented that athletes can experience abuse while taking part in sport; the occurrence of which has been reported globally from community through to high-perfor­ mance sport (Kerr et al., 2020; Pankowiak et al., 2022; Vertommen et al., 2016; Woessner et al., 2023; Willson et al., 2022). Abuse can include sexual, psychological/emotional and physical abuse, neglect, bullying and harassment, which can happen in isolation and/or be co-occurring in nature. In academic research, collectively various types of abuse have been referred to as maltreatment (Stirling, 2009), nonaccidental violence (Mountjoy et al., 2016) and/or inter­ personal violence (Vertommen et al., 2016). While traditionally there was a focus on the child as a victim and coach as perpetrator of abuse and an overarching attention on sexual violence in sport, it DOI: 10.4324/9781003439646-4

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is now recognised that anyone can become the recipient or perpe­ trator of abuse, especially when taking part in ‘win at all cost’ sporting cultures that are tolerant of such behaviours in the pursuit of performance (Kavanagh et al., 2023). Acts of interpersonal vio­ lence, therefore, are not just individual acts perpetrated against vic­ tims. Instead, the presence of abuse shines a spotlight on more systemic sport practices and policies that enable abuse to occur in sporting spaces (Constandt et al., 2023). Many sport organisations have commenced work in the field of athlete safeguarding, including the development of policy and education pro­ grammes (Mountjoy et al., 2022). Kerr and Stirling (2019) describe safe­ guarding as measures put in place to ‘assure athletes’ safety and human rights’ (p. 372). Safeguarding should protect athletes from all types of harm (Mountjoy et al., 2022) where the rights, welfare and well-being of athletes are paramount. Further, the importance of evidence-based edu­ cation on the topic of abuse was identified as a primary mechanism of prevention in the International Olympic Committee’s (IOC’s) Consensus Statement on Harassment and Abuse in Sport (Mountjoy et al., 2016). In earlier work, McMahon (2013) and McMahon et al. (2018) sought to examine the efficacy of safeguarding education carried out with coaches in the sport of swimming and parents of athletes in swimming and gym­ nastics. While there were some benefits associated with education in the moment, there failed to be evidence of these education methods resulting in long-term or sustained change. More broadly, the mechanisms of delivery and the subsequent impact of safeguarding education remain an underreported area in the sporting academic literature. The Ways of Seeing Sport Coaching Violence project (developed by authors Kavanagh and Adams in 2019, receiving £1,000 of funding as part of the Economic and Social Research Counsel [ESRC] Festival of Learning), represented a commitment to sport practitioner education, alongside a response to Kerr and Stirling’s (2019) call for greater attention to be paid to safeguarding education for neophyte and experienced sport (psychology) practitioners. Indeed, Kerr and Stirling (2019, p. 2) argue that such an endeavour ‘will also require a rethinking of graduate curricula.’ More recently, McMahon et al. (2022) argued for more research to evaluate coach education that teaches about abuse in sport and for the design-impetus of coach-education events to be unpacked in greater practical and theoretical detail. Finally, Dohsten et al. (2020) and their work surrounding care in coaching highlight the potential of interventions grounded in care for informing or promoting more sustainable coaching practice. As Noddings’s (2010) work on the ethics of care would describe, this project aimed to move participants

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from caring about (being cognizant of the importance of safeguarding) to caring for (leading to effort toward sustained change in coaching practice to positively enhance athlete experiences). We attempted to achieve the movement from caring about to caring for athlete safety through presenting safeguarding information via an alternative method to traditional classroom or online sessions that are adopted at present in the education of the topic. In doing so, we created an interactive, immersive audiovisual experience for sport coaches and sport psychol­ ogists (henceforth sport practitioners) on the topic of abuse in sport (Kavanagh et al., 2023), which was a multisensory experience enabling attendees to engage with the topic of interpersonal violence in sport through sound, touch and sight, either as individuals or in conversa­ tion with others who were navigating the exhibition. In this chapter, we share our pedagogical approach, the stages and methods we adopted in the curation of an exhibition and our reflec­ tions on hosting such an event. In addition, we make practical recom­ mendations for engaging with art-informed approaches in coach education and consider how such approaches could result in more sustainable practice linked to fostering safe sport environments.

Conceptualisation of the pedagogical approach Arts-based pedagogy (ABP) is a term used to describe an alternative strategy of education that uses, for example, forms of art such as acting, clay modelling, poetry and visual installations to facilitate learning across a variety of topics (Kavanagh et al., 2023) and can result in arts-based learning (ABL). While we acknowledge ABP, for the purpose of this chapter we will adopt the term “arts-informed pedagogy” to describe the approach. This more accurately reflects how our work surrounding innovation in practitioner education was ‘informed’ by the arts rather than involving the production of or being directly ‘based’ in arts activities. Semantics aside, the need for, and value of, ABP to promote or augment learning is something that has been the focus of much advocacy and critique by academics with some arguing the approach could be meaningfully used to explore a variety of issues and topics (Hughes, 2009) whilst others being more sceptical (Guyas & Keys, 2016) surrounding this approach. Proponents of ABP such as adult educators and community organisations have found it to be a useful approach to help explore and tackle a plethora of social issues such as homophobia, racism and violence against women (Clover, 2006; Lawrence, 2005).

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Educators from multiple disciplines have suggested that the arts are an integral part of learning as a method to educate the senses and nurture the imagination (Rieger & Chernomas 2013). As a tool in education, ABP is recognised to cover a broad realm of creative, cog­ nitive and practical processes. These include processes of con­ ceptualisation, creation, performing, observing, using, integrating and reflecting on art to understand other areas of knowledge and experi­ ence (Rieger & Chernomas 2013). Literature points to two general uses of ABP, firstly whereby the student actively participates in the artistic process and secondly where the student observes and reflects on an art form to learn about a topic or discipline (Hunter & Frawley, 2023) Arts-based methods of learning have predominantly been used in fields such as sociology, social work, medicine and other health-related and social ‘caring’ professions (Back, 2008; Cramer et al., 2018; Guyas & Keys, 2016; Hughes, 2009; Shapiro, Rucker, & Beck, 2006). Within each of these various fields, different methods have been used for a variety of purposes. Hughes (2009), for example, used clay modelling with postgraduate students to transform and deepen their learning and understanding of leadership and management. Elsewhere, De le Croix et al. (2011) studied medical students’ perspectives on ‘acting like a doctor.’ Where practitioners are likely to be confronted with and be required to negotiate and understand complex human emotions and experiences, both their own and others, and where perhaps there is no definitive way to experience something, uses of ABL seem apt for creating environments in which reflection can take place to facilitate contextually relevant learning (Trevelyan et al., 2014). Indeed, the catalysation of critical reflection and reflexivity appears to be a particularly valuable learning outcome of arts-informed pedagogy. Trevelyan et al.’s (2014) use of arts-based media to promote critical reflexivity among students of social work provides a sharp example of this. Students navigated a visual installation, within which Trevelyan et al. (2014) presented themes of ‘self-determination’ in social work practice. Students were denied an immediate obvious meaning or explanation of what they were seeing, which stimulated further thinking in an attempt to understand the installation and its meaning for their own lives and pro­ fessional practice. In turn, students’ ‘sense-making’ process involved reworking and focusing their own understandings of power relations in social work: in other words, to engage in critical reflexivity. Important in this process, students experienced a sense of ‘felt difficulty’ (Dewey cited in Ixer 1999, p. 515) and uncomfortableness. This concept of ‘felt difficulty’ and its relationship to stimulating cri­ tical reflection is also documented in the work of Clover (2006) who used

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art-based community projects to tackle social issues of racism and ste­ reotyping. In one such project, the participants were asked to use quilting and storytelling to explain what sexual exploitation meant to them. The other project also used storytelling exercises to explore personal and community issues: life-size silhouettes, accompanied by community members’ stories, were created and displayed in the community. Both projects documented by Clover (2006) sought to tackle racism, stereo­ typing and cultural intolerance and open new cross-cultural conversa­ tional doors within their respective communities. Central in these social justice projects was the concept of visibility. Clover (2006) argues that the more visible or public art is and the more it dares to illuminate and grapple with difficult issues and in turn forces people to acknowledge and confront the issue, the more powerful it becomes. Within education settings, traditional teaching methods are increas­ ingly being critiqued as less effective in deepening student learning or engagement (Cramer et al., 2018). This is ever more so with the changing nature of the student post–Covid-19 (Neuwirth et al., 2021) and a demand for greater innovation in teaching and learning to meet the demands of a new generation of learners. As such, multimodal learning environments that encompass visual, auditory and experiential learning processes are valued for their potential to improve learning outcomes (Groff, 2013). ABL environments and activities provide the opportunity to open up spaces for critical questioning and creative knowledge con­ struction (Cramer et al., 2018; Trevelyan et al., 2014; Wawrzynski & Baldwin, 2014) and can foster environments in which reflection can take place to facilitate contextually relevant learning (Trevelyan et al., 2014). Arts-based or experiential learning methods have also gained sig­ nificant traction as a method of coach education. For example, in contemporary sports coaching pedagogy research, significant gains have been made in exploring the construction, value and impact of alternative and innovative methods of coach education (Jones & Turner, 2006; Morgan et al. 2013a, 2013b). Scholars in this field, such as Jones et al. (2012) and Morgan et al. (2013a), have clearly explicated a need for less didactic structure and more innovation to disrupt and drive forward contemporary coach development, education and learn­ ing experiences. Morgan et al.’s (2013b) exploration of ethnodrama as a means of portraying and bringing to life significant issues and pro­ blems experienced by coaches provided a particular reference point for this project. According to Morgan et al. (2013a), ‘cutting edge’ peda­ gogies are those that exist outside the realm of traditional sports coaching education that allow coaches to better engage with alternative learning opportunities to increase the relevancy of their experiences.

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Our own approach adds to a growing collection of existing work seeking to innovate in the realm of sport practitioner education on the topic of abuse in sport, recognised to be a complex social issue that might benefit from being communicated in a novel and creative format. Creating an interactive installation that allowed sport practitioners to engage with research data beyond the normative workshop or aca­ demic paper had the potential to put to work and to increase the impact of the existing research of the first author (Kavanagh, 2014; Kavanagh et al., 2017), while further delivering on the topic of abuse in a dynamic and innovative manner. An idea that started as a teaching method within our undergraduate sports coaching unit then evolved to become a practitioner education event. The following reflection cap­ tures the initial stages of the project and the evolution of an idea.

Reflection one: Innovation in sports coaching curricula At Bournemouth University, one of the courses offered is an under­ graduate degree in sports coaching. On this programme, there is a second-year unit titled ‘Developing Coaching Principles.’ With a developing understanding of the sports coaching pedagogy work of coaching scholars such as Jones and Turner (2006) and Morgan et al. (2013a, 2013b) – discussed earlier in this chapter – as an aca­ demic team we had an aim within the unit seminar delivery to attempt some ‘cutting edge’ applications of the literature around the con­ struction, value and impact of alternative and innovative methods of coach education. Seminars included activities such as ethnodrama, role play and the creation of an audiovisual ‘installation’ (after, coin­ cidently around the same time as developing the unit, seeing a video of Terra Lopez’s (2017) audiovisual exhibition ‘This Is What It Feels Like’). The intention with all these activities being to bring to life sport coaching–related issues and have student-coaches interact mean­ ingfully with (see, hear, touch, feel, move through) data from peerreviewed published coaching research. The seminar became a test­ ing ground for an early (and incredibly rudimentary and low-tech) version of the Ways of Seeing Sport Coaching Violence installation – the first time we ran the seminar was in a sports hall, with the lights turned off, badminton posts and nets creating a 20' x 20' area, and the space lit with a couple of head torches and the students’ mobile phone torches. As part of the creating process, students also engaged with research papers and selected data on sport coaching abuse from the key readings for the topic and used the voice app on

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Kavanagh et al. their phones to voice-record themselves speaking their chosen fragments of data out loud. Using another free app, the voice recordings were then set to play on a loop, and students placed their phones on benches set in a square below the badminton nets. In the dim and eery gloom of the sports hall, there was a sense of the space having been transformed – a familiar space for athletes and coaches, yet also now unfamiliar, jarring, cold and confronting, with moments of deep engagement from students in the task and topic. In subsequent years, on campus, we bumped into students who had taken part and, in some cases, we talked about the unit and that seminar – while they thought the seminars in general seemed a bit ‘out there’ (perhaps out of line with their conceptions of what coach education should entail) and ‘a bit mad,’ they gave the sense that they could still ‘see’ and ‘feel’ those seminars in some considerable detail. These early explorations into innovative, art-informed pedagogies and their application within coach education formed the foundations of the Ways of Seeing Coaching Violence installation.

Pedagogical practice and materials Titled ‘Ways of Seeing Sport Coaching Violence,’ we curated an immersive arts-informed exhibition which was hosted at Bourne­ mouth University in November 2019 as part of the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) Festival of Social Science. As mentioned previously, we were awarded only £1,000 to help fund the exhibition, and this meant we had to be creative in our ideas for bringing the event to fruition. The exhibition was positioned as an innovative method for educating coaches and other sports practi­ tioners on the topic of abuse in sport. After taking the time to review literature on the topic and examine other topics of this nature, we wanted to develop an event using an innovative, immer­ sive and sensory approach to engage the target audience of sport practitioners on the topic of abuse in sport. In doing so, we were particularly inspired by the work of Terra Lopez (2017) and their exhibition ‘This Is What It Feels Like,’ which was an examination of how women fear for their physical safety and have faced oppres­ sion in their daily lives. Lopez positioned their exhibition as an experience and provided attendees the opportunity to be on the receiving end of violence and misogyny. Further, the work of Elisa­ beth Simbuerger and Cath Lambert at Warwick University known as ‘Sociologists Talking’ adopted a live gallery of podcasts with the

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voices of sociologists bringing to life core topics within the curricu­ lum (Lambert, 2012). Perhaps closer to field or context of our research, we have been inspired by scholars such as Dr Jenny McMahon and her use of the innovative presentation of autoethnographic research (McMahon, McGannon, & Zehntner, 2017a; McMahon, Zehntner, & McGannon, 2017b) and Dr Jayne Caud­ well’s (at the time) work in progress with people from the trans and nonbinary community, sharing their personal drawings representing access to and engagement in the leisure pursuit of swimming in the United Kingdom (Caudwell, 2022). The exhibition provided the opportunity to (re)present qualitative data from the first author’s work in the field (Kavanagh, 2014; Kavanagh et al., 2017). This previous work collected narrative stor­ ies of athletes who had experienced abuse while in high-performance environments. Until this point, the data had been shared in a more traditional format through research papers, academic conferences and teaching on undergraduate and postgraduate courses. This was an opportunity to rethink that data to enable them to be accessible and open to an external audience as a method of practitioner education. The months running up to the event led us to consider how we curated the space. The choices we made in how to present the data were not dissimilar to the process we would go through to coauthor a traditional academic article. That said, we were free to move away from traditional presentation of data and think about designing some­ thing that we would want to attend and that would capture our atten­ tion as practitioners. In curating the space, we thought about the geography of the event; its location, layout, lighting, the time of day to host the exhibition and what should be included or presented. We used mood boards and sketches and worked with a graphic designer on the presentation of written data and shared our thoughts with academic colleagues so they could check and challenge how the final installation would look and feel for those who attended. The previously collected data were (re)presented in the form of text written or projected onto the surfaces of the room and dis­ played on easels like a gallery exhibit. The lighting was controlled, creating a dimly lit atmospheric space, a space that was cold and industrial. These were all decisions we made in our consideration of the mood or texture of the event which would help create the immersive experience. We chose to present the data both in audio and textual formal; we included some theory (definitions of abuse,

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an overview of the duty of care, information about safeguarding and reporting) as textual/visual information. We wanted to include voices so that people could hear the data, a choice made both for impact but also when considering accessibility and inclusivity in the planning of the event. Presenting the data in various ways meant that people could engage in a way they were most comfortable and that could observe or interact with all or part of the exhibit. Voices were recorded by our undergraduate students to pre­ serve the anonymity of the actual research participant(s). That said, the gender, ethnicity and age were represented as closely as possible to make the voices authentic or representative of the original data set. These voices were played on speakers around the room and were fur­ ther reproduced on ‘listening stations’ whereby participants could put on headphones and listen to the voices more closely. Data were both static so participants could read extracts in their own time and at their own pace and presented in a rolling format on screens with seating for participants to sit, watch and read. We also had extracts written on sporting artefacts such as footballs and rugby balls so participants could feel the data, pass it to others and reach out and touch it. The essence of the event is captured in the images below (i.e., Figures 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4):

Figure 3.1 Capturing the Event

Adoption of an Interactive and Immersive Installation

Figure 3.2 Visual Example of the Data

Figure 3.3 Touch the Data

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Figure 3.4 Stop, Look, Listen

For the people who visited the exhibition, we included information at the event that signposted attendees should the content of the exhibit be in any way triggering and/or should they need to follow up on a disclosure of abuse. This information included guidelines on reporting and sources of support (both physical and online resources). We put in place an age minimum of 18 to ensure that people who attended were adults and did not need a guardian to attend with them or to provide consent. When moving around the exhibit, participants could engage with some theoretical ideas that might challenge or explain the stories they were listening to. The ‘direction’ of the narrative was not dictated or linear but instead depended on the visitors’ movements around the room and which materials that caught their attention; we did not want to impose any restrictions on time or interaction and instead wanted the participant interaction with the exhibit to be more organic.

Reflection two: Dr Emma Kavanagh – putting to work research data, a step out of our comfort zone I am passionate about the realisation of cultural change in high-per­ formance environments where there is an emphasis placed on the opportunity to balance both performance and welfare objectives. As

Adoption of an Interactive and Immersive Installation a researcher in athlete welfare and safe sport, my work has empha­ sised the importance of understanding the whole athlete, their lives outside of sport and other dimensions of their identities. In addition, it has highlighted the demands of competing in high-performance spaces and how at times this can lead to the neglect of an indivi­ dual’s health or welfare (by themselves, others in their entourage or the sporting organizations of which they are a part). One of the first papers that sparked my interest in this topic was Miller and Kerr (2002) and their promotion of finding a balance between performance and personal excellence. They asserted, ‘Per­ formance and personal excellence as co-existing . . . where appro­ priate personal and athletic development occur within the sport experience. In this way, sport itself is conceptualised as an experi­ ence where personal excellence occurs alongside performance excellence’ (p. 145). This is something that is echoed more clearly in recent times through the articulation of a duty to care (Grey-Thomp­ son, 2017; Kavanagh et al., 2021) and the emphasis on fostering caring climates to support athlete welfare. The emergence of global patterns of abuse and the need for collective athlete action in response to the presence of toxic cultures in sport lies in stark con­ trast to the aspirations of welfare supporting environments and a balance between performance and personal excellence. I realised that through my research, I was helping to identify issues without providing solutions or exploring ways in which to change the narra­ tive. Tackling the issue of abuse in sport and realising significant change required focus on the education of practitioners such as sport coaches, and this became an area of passion and interest through the ways of seeing sport coaching violence exhibition. Curating this event and conducting research around this form of prac­ titioner education was a step out of my comfort zone. Embracing non­ traditional approaches to the dissemination of research data and as a tool for education was both a daunting and enlightening experience. I wouldn’t class myself as being artistic; I have followed a very traditional model of learning in sport science and psychology that adopted a positivist lens for the most part and a very traditional approach to indictive, qualitative research. Therefore, this felt like a giant leap into the unknown – both in whether we could pull it off and run an exhibition – but further, whether this approach could have an impact on those who attended. Although I was hesitant at first based on my own insecurities in being able to develop something that I would feel worthy of people giving their time up to attend, being the curator of this event actually

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Kavanagh et al. helped me to cope with a feeling of responsibility that I have held since first capturing stories of athlete abuse when completing my PhD research. Ever since the athletes I interviewed entrusted me with their stories, I have felt responsibility for how that information is used, both to ensure their voices are heard but further, how hearing them could lead to change. This exhibit served as a means to reach out, educate and empower practitioners in a way that a traditional aca­ demic journal potentially might never manage. I had spoken about a critical-ideological approach to my previous research – an approach grounded in critique and transformation, restitution and emancipation, a chance to foster change. Yet I felt that I had done very little to align with such a proposition until this time. A number of researchers and clinicians have emphasised the importance of trauma survivors developing a verbal account or nar­ rative: Harvey et al. (1990) refer to this process as account making, and Pipher (2002) writes of healing stories. I believe there was also the process of researcher healing through doing something with the data, something that felt worthy of the brave athletes who were will­ ing to speak to me about their lives and experiences. I recognise a number of personal developments through complet­ ing this process, including gaining increased confidence as a quali­ tative researcher, enhancing my understanding of arts-informed research and pedagogy and generating more confidence in my ability to try new and uncertain methods for engaging people with academic research and further to promote practitioner education. Further, the process of collaboration made me look at data differently and offered a lens that I would not have originally adopted. Had it not been for the bravery and imagination of Adi Adams, I probably wouldn’t have taken this leap into the unknown and the exhibit took shape through a process of exploration, collaboration and professional critique. This demonstrates the importance of working with and listening to others who challenge you to think differently about research and the edu­ cation experience. Feeling, hearing, seeing and touching the data was as impactful on the curator of this event as it was when we captured the voices of those who attended. The formality of traditional sport psychology and coaching peda­ gogy has been criticised by researchers because of its overly edu­ cational structure resulting in learners having difficulty transferring the knowledge into real-life situations (Chesterfield et al., 2010). The structure of the installation and the use of an arts-informed approach allowed the participants to engage with the materials provoking

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thought and emotion in a way that traditional methods could not. Inno­ vative methods such as those presented in this chapter certainly have the potential to make people think differently about how they practice and do what they do but also enabled us to engage sport coaching specialists more deeply with the challenging topic of abuse in sport.

Reflection three: Dr Adi Adams – a note on the project timeline and on embracing slow research In composing my reflections on the journey of undertaking this research and creating the event, I found valuable insights in Les Back’s Aca­ demic Diary (2016), a collection of reflections on various aspects of academic life – a text I find useful to return to in order to better under­ stand my own academic experience. In one chapter, Back asks the following (pertinent) question: ‘What do you need to do a piece of research?’ (Back, 2016, p. 65). In the chapter, Back’s discussion of the time aspect of research resonated and particularly given the extended (and unusual) timeline of our own project. As academics know too well, significant time is required for reading, discussions, intellectual devel­ opment, exploration, doing and writing. The inefficiencies and slow progress inherent in time-intensive projects, particularly when not clear in terms of how funding might be derived for such projects, may dis­ courage pursuit. However, with time, as we found, meandering thinking and experimentation in teaching practices can lead to the joining up of varied strands of thought and fascinating avenues of exploration. In writing this reflection, I indulge in briefly narrating the project’s timeline, something hereto ‘missing’ from the chapter, providing context to the incubation period of the ideas at the centre of this chapter and Emma’s dedicated longitudinal commitment to translat­ ing her research into impactful action. As noted in a previous reflection (above in this chapter), the roots of this project trace back six years to 2017, when the initial idea for the installa­ tion was ‘tested’ in an undergraduate sports coaching workshop at Bournemouth University. However, the empirical data forming the instal­ lation’s foundation originated from Emma’s PhD thesis, published in 2017 but initially completed in 2014, with data collection spanning the preced­ ing years. The gestation period, from the conception of the PhD research to data collection, to the exhibition and research described in this chapter spans over a decade. The intricacies of this trajectory might not have been

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Kavanagh et al. apparent at the project’s inception in the early 2010s; Emma likely could not have foreseen the unique path her PhD journey would take. When articulated in this manner, it is clear that the development and impact tra­ jectory of this body of work has not been a result of clear and coherent ‘long-term’ planning from the outset but instead has been a process of organic, small steps, partnerships, assemblages of ideas and interests, enriched at various turns by colleagues, professional acquaintances, administrative and support staff, students and academic reviewers. As I reflect on the (atypical) time frame and trajectory of this pro­ ject, Back’s question takes on further significance – what is needed, or what it takes, to undertake research can sometimes go beyond coherent and fixed timelines. In the context of this specific project, the trajectory from the initial idea to the exhibition described in this chapter speaks to the unpredictable yet enriching nature of our research and impact endeavours. The collaborative efforts and intel­ lectual relationship shared with Emma, or what Back (2016, p. 64) calls ‘companionship for further thought,’ has been instrumental in navigating this extended timeline, turning what may seem like ineffi­ ciencies into opportunities for profound exploration and impact. In sharing this reflection, I hope it somewhat unveils the research process and journey to this project for fellow academics and practi­ tioners, demystifying the path we took to the production of the event and subsequent publication.

Recommendations for practice Drawing inspiration from Morgan et al.’s (2013a, 2013b) insights on using art-informed practices to transform learning dynamics in coach education, our installation aimed to convey real-life examples of interpersonal vio­ lence in sport to coaches and sport psychologists through an immersive experience. Criticisms of traditional sport coach education’s rigidity (Ches­ terfield et al., 2010) prompted us to seek a more engaging approach. Cur­ ating the event, our intention was to encourage participants to see, hear and feel the issue of coaching violence from varied perspectives, using an arts-informed approach aligned with Morgan et al.’s (2013b) call for inno­ vative coach education pedagogies. Table 1 provides some considerations and reflective questions for educators, practitioners, coach educators or researchers who would like to adopt the interactive installation approach for engaging learners in a topic. This is by no means an exhaustive list, yet could be used as a starting point in planning to adopt such a method.

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Table 3.1 Interactive installation approaches: Considerations and Reflections Key Considerations

Points of Reflection and/or Action

Content

When preparing the event, consider what it should look like, feel like, sound like. What will attendees engage with? Is the content fixed or static? Can users engage directly with content, or are they observers of it? Mood boards can help with planning the look, feel and dynamic of the event. Much like the planning of a sci­ entific paper or chapter, there are decisions made in what to include and what to exclude. There is no right or wrong, just careful and planned consideration of details so that each aspect has place and purpose. Curating space is an essential part of any exhibition. How to arrange the exhibition and how people navi­ gate the space should be considered in the planning. Is this a linear story with a beginning and end, or can the event be experienced from multiple points and thus self-navigated? Do you need to consider the lighting, the capacity of venue and/or space sur­ rounding the exhibition for people to engage with others and/or decompress? Textures and geography of the event are essential for the experience and in ensuring an event is accessible. Is there a period when you would host an exhibit, or will this be open ended? Can visitors spend as much or as little time in the space? Is time an important aspect of an experience? The temporal frame of reference also speaks to any preparation or pre-event activities and post-event interaction. If online, will there be an ongo­ ing legacy to the event making it more sustainable? Do you want to prime or prepare attendees before they enter the exhibition? On departure, are messages of referral or aftercare needed? Do you need to have in place support mechanisms, future action or referral that might come from being active participant? Arts-based events can engage learners as curators and/or consumers or attendees of experiences. Both are options, and this remains a part of planning and consideration for open engagement with the target community. If adopting this as a teaching resource, you might con­ sider what the students need to know prior to engaging in the creative process (if anything). How much will you inform the process and/or let the students shape their own vision for the installation?

Space

Time

Entrance or exit

Who are the creators or cura­ tors of the event?

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Key Considerations

Points of Reflection and/or Action

Target audience

Who would you like to reach or speak to? Who might benefit from being engaged in the curation of the event and/or as an attendee? Does content need to be modified or adapted to meet the target audience and ensure it is accessible to a diverse audience? Does the event need to be advertised, or do people need to be invited to attend? Will it be a public space and therefore more open in terms of engagement?

Our collected data showcased how presenting topics in ‘unconven­ tional’ ways may not only deepen engagement but also pave the way for critical reflection and potentially transformative change in profes­ sional practice. To read further on the potential impact of such meth­ ods as a tool for practitioner education, we refer readers to our paper which shares some of the data collected from attendees (see Kavanagh, Adams, & Harvey, 2023). Although we acknowledge the promising outcomes of our event, we are mindful not to present this event format as a panacea. Rather, interactive installations of this kind may have an important role to play in a broader curriculum as a form of diverse teaching and learning activities which can sustain practitioner interest and present topics in a more innovative and engaging format to tradi­ tional teaching and learning methods. Looking ahead, we propose a broader exploration of art-informed pedagogy in sports psychology and coaching research and practice, envi­ sioning (1) teaching and learning scenarios including more active partici­ pation from coaches and athletes in decision-making about how data are presented in such installations, (2) integrating multiple innovative peda­ gogies (e.g., combining this installation with ethnodramatic perfor­ mances), and (3) exploring the integration of virtual and augmented reality technologies for a more impactful educational experience. Despite the challenges of COVID-19 faced quite soon after the initial event delivery, our plan to take the exhibition on the road and further explore its value remains intact. The design’s focus on reusability and sustainability ensures its potential for continued impact, already seen in its integration into teaching and conference presentations. The ongoing exploration of how to incorporate fully, or elements of, the installation into sport practitioner safeguarding training reflects the intended legacy of our initial event and prompts us to further contemplate the potential of immersive exhibitions as vehicles for education and research dissemina­ tion, even extending beyond the specific context of abuse in sports.

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Conclusion As a team of researchers and practitioners, we are passionate about innovation in our pedagogy and the importance of sustainability in coach education. Certainly, the approach detailed in this chapter represents some of our ideas in innovation in sports coaching education and demonstrates how we interact with students and develop course curricula. Such innovations have been taken forward across our teaching not only in sport coaching and psychology but sport management and event man­ agement. Our recommendations therefore are grounded in our reflections as a team of academics attempting (sometimes with success and other times less so) to challenge or stretch the norms of teaching in higher education and in practitioner development and education. We are cogni­ zant that to have such freedom is a fortunate position to find ourselves in as educators but would emphasise the importance of rethinking existing pedagogy, especially when considering the ever-changing students we are working with. Such an approach to education comes from collaboration, the willingness to stretch, often out of our comfort zones, but affords cri­ tical engagement with contemporary research and its translation into meaningful practice. In conclusion, we posit that artistic activities, such as drawing, painting or even writing, can provide alternative ways to express thoughts and emotions. It could be easier to communicate complex feelings through creative expression, leading to deeper selfawareness (Malchiodi, 2020). Art can be a universal language that transcends cultural and linguistic barriers (Lengel et al., 2022). More­ over, art-informed learning methods can be inclusive and sensitive to diverse cultural backgrounds and, in our context, make coaching accessible to a broader range of coaches, athletes and educators. We argue that a broader exploration of art-informed learning in sports psychology and coaching research and practice can also con­ tribute to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The SDGs are a set of 17 global goals adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015 as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. They provide a shared blueprint for addressing pressing global challenges and creating a more sustainable and equitable world. The SDGs cover a wide range of interconnected issues, including social, economic, environmental and governance dimensions. Art-informed learning can address multiple SDGs simultaneously by promoting holistic well­ being, fostering creativity, encouraging personal growth and supporting sustainable and inclusive practices (Jónsdóttir et al., 2021). Integrating art-based learning into coach education supports the concepts of sustainable development by addressing multiple aspects of

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well-being and promoting a more inclusive and fairer world. Incorporating artistic forms of expression into coach education can amplify the influence and efficacy of coaching interventions across a wide range of sustainability objectives. More precisely, by employing this approach of art-informed learning, we anticipate a positive impact on SDG 3: Good Health and WellBeing. Undoubtedly, artistic expression has the potential to enhance mental health and overall well-being. Participating in artistic endeavours can assist individuals in coping with stress, articulating feelings and improving their general mental health. Additionally, it can make a valuable contribution to SDG 4, which focuses on ensuring quality education. Art-informed learning offers a distinct and imaginative method for learning and self-exploration, contributing to the objective of advancing high-quality education that is inclusive and encourages lifelong learning opportunities. Incorporating art-informed learning into coach education through a workshop can bring about numerous benefits for both coaches and their athletes (Huet & Kapitan, 2021). Indeed, it stimulates creativity and helps coaches think outside traditional coaching methodologies. This can lead to innovative approaches to problem-solving and goal setting (Cahnmann-Taylor & Sanders-Bustle, 2020). Incorporating art-informed learning into coach education through a workshop also supports a holis­ tic coaching approach that considers the emotional, intuitive, and sensory dimensions of clients (Garner et al., 2022). This can lead to more comprehensive and meaningful coaching interventions.

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Two-Eyed Seeing in Coaching An Indigenous Approach to Coaching Higher Education Sport in Canada Joseph Gurgis and Bettina Callary

Prologue As non-Indigenous scholars, we would like to preface this chapter by acknowledging that the content presented is informed by intentional and ongoing discussions with several Indigenous coaches, coach educators, community members, Elders, and scholars. We are not attempting to appropriate or speak on behalf of the Mi’kmaq First Nation peoples or other Indigenous groups; rather, we aim to convey an important message about facilitating culturally relevant and inclusive coaching spaces for Indigenous peoples. We also acknowledge that our work has taken place on the ancestral and unceded territories of several Indigenous groups across Canada, and thus the concepts and practices conveyed in this chapter may not reflect the beliefs or traditions of other Indigenous groups across the world. Nonetheless, it is still important information as it contributes to a broader understanding of Indigenous knowledge and practices, fostering respect and appreciation for the diversity and richness of Indigenous cultures globally.

Introduction Canadian universities have initiated efforts to incorporate Indigenous knowledge and perspectives into academic settings as part of the process of Indigenising the academy. Across the country, this is reflected in the aca­ demic plans of various institutions. For example, in Ontario, the President’s Indigenous Reconciliation Task Force of Ontario Tech University has devised a strategic plan comprising five objectives aligned with the Calls to Action advanced by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) of Canada. These encompass enhancing visual and artistic depictions of Indigenous cultures, creating inclusive environments for Indigenous lear­ ners, promoting awareness via mandatory staff training initiatives, DOI: 10.4324/9781003439646-5

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enhancing recruitment efforts of Indigenous professionals, and shaping curricula that embrace Indigenous topics, perspectives, and ways of know­ ing (Ontario Tech University, 2020). Similarly, in Eastern Canada, Cape Breton University’s academic plan has five strategic directions in which one is ‘Indigenise the L’nu Way’ (L’Nu is the Mik’maq word for ‘the people’). In this strategic direction, the institution aims to embrace Indi­ genous ways of inquiry, expression and knowledge, while understanding responsibilities as ‘treaty people.’ It states: A Two-Eyed Seeing perspective enhances teaching and learning, disciplinary research and creative works, and the pursuit of solutions to address community needs. Our communities, as well as our faculty, staff and students, are enriched by efforts to increase access for Indigenous student and staff and Indigenise our institutional practices. (Cape Breton University, 2020, p. 6) These specific institutional directions support academic efforts to teach alternative perspectives across disciplinary boundaries, including in coach education. In this chapter, we explore the practical application of the Mi’kmaq First Nations guiding principle, Etuaptmumk, which translates to ‘the gift of multiple perspectives’ (Roher et al., 2021, p. 1) in coaching. Commonly known as Two-Eyed Seeing (TES) in English, this principle emphasises the importance of embracing diverse viewpoints from both Western and Indigenous perspectives. When applied within the context of higher edu­ cation (HE) sport, TES can enrich student coaches’ understanding of their practices, providing deeper insights into their roles and methodolo­ gies. By adopting TES, student coaches in HE gain the ability to navigate their coaching endeavours with a heightened awareness of the intricate dynamics involved in learning and teaching, ultimately fostering more holistic and effective coaching practices.

TES as a Coaching Pedagogy Although not traditionally framed as a pedagogy, the Indigenous principle of TES may be used to deepen understandings of coaching by presenting an opportunity for coaches to learn how to foster culturally relevant and inclusive sport experiences. The term ‘TES’ was coined by Elder Albert Marshall from Eskasoni First Nation, Unama’ki (Cape Breton Island), Nova Scotia, Canada (Bartlett et al., 2012). TES serves as a guiding principle that explains the collaborative journey of diverse

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cultural knowledge systems working in unison (Bartlett et al., 2012). In essence, TES embodies the idea of embracing multiple perspectives, wherein the merits of Indigenous knowledge are perceived symbolically through one eye, and the merits of Western (Eurocentric) knowledge are perceived through the other (Bartlett et al., 2012; Lavallée & Lévesque, 2013). Employing both ‘eyes’ symbolically offers a holistic, cross-cultural vantage point for comprehending the world and its constituent elements (e.g., our relationship with the environment and society) (Bartlett et al., 2012). To grasp the significance of this holistic style of coaching, it is necessary to provide a succinct overview of how Western and Indigenous participants uniquely approach sport and coaching. Westernised Sport The metaphor of two cultures has been used to capture the conceptual dis­ parities in the understanding and operationalisation of Western sport (Bailey & Talbot, 2015). One facet of this dichotomy alludes broadly to participation and delves into coaching themes such as positive youth development (Holt, 2016) or the utilisation of sport as a vehicle for attain­ ing and sustaining social and economic development (Collison et al., 2019). In contrast, the other facet aligns with high-performance sport, encom­ passing topics such as talent identification (Johnston et al., 2018), speciali­ sation (Baker et al., 2009) and winning (Henriksen, 2015). In both contexts, organised sport is highly praised as a vital endeavour for promoting the physical and psychological welfare of athletes (Eime et al., 2013). Coaches are seen as key agents (Holt et al., 2017) responsible for creating an environment that nurtures athletes’ personal growth and excellence (Côté, 2006; Miller & Kerr, 2002). To attain these objectives, several governing sport bodies mandate coaches to complete certain coach education requirements, albeit with a few exceptions, such as U SPORTS, the national governing body for university sport in Canada. Notably, there exists no stipulated minimum educational prerequisite for coaching within Canadian HE institutions. Nonetheless, coach education in Western contexts has been criticised for its train-and-certify approach (Van Woezik et al., 2021) and uniform design that fails to consider the needs, interests and epistemologies held by other groups, such as Indi­ genous coaches (Frisby & Poncic, 2013; Gurgis et al., 2023). Indigenous sport Indigenous peoples in Canada have engaged in sport for thousands of years. In its earliest form, Indigenous sport was characterised as

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being a cultural, therapeutic and enjoyable practice crucial for enhancing physical fitness, conflict resolution, community building, pride cultivation, healing, teaching basic survival skills, as well as individual and collective identity formation (Forsyth & Giles, 2013; Hall, 2013; Heine, 2013; Schinke et al., 2013). Amongst many Indi­ genous groups in Canada, participation in sport was also deemed essential for nurturing spiritual, economic, political, cultural, and social aspects of life (Hall, 2013). Indigenous sport, when operating with complete autonomy, functions as a space for imparting social and individual values such as respect, courage, personal excellence, integrity and a sense of appreciation for the wisdom bestowed by parents, Elders and communities dedicated to pre­ paring the younger generation for the responsibilities associated with adulthood (Canadian Heritage, 2003). Specific sports, such as ice hockey, which are known for bringing Indigenous communities together, have experienced an increasing proliferation and are characterised as a means of fostering positive self-identification and self-expression (McLeod et al., 2023; Robidoux, 2012). The realisation and inculcation of these values are heavily reliant on Indigenous coaches who assume a key role in educating young Indigenous athletes about the intrinsic value of sport and actively contribute to the cultivation of healthy perspectives regarding the relationship between sport and Indigenous culture (Bennie et al., 2019; Blodgett et al., 2008; Thomson et al., 2010). Indeed, these positive concepts must be understood within the context of the generational trauma that Indigenous peoples have suffered from various colonial assaults and displacements, including the residential school system in Canada between 1880 and 1996 (Davis, 1997; Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015). As a result of widespread removal of Indigenous children from their homes and communities, placed in sanitised institutions stripped of cultural heritage, erasure of traditions and rampant abuse under the guise of religious and govern­ ment-sponsored education, Indigenous peoples across Canada have suf­ fered from trauma that reproduces itself from one generation to the next (Douglas, 2020; Forsyth, 2013). The enduring impacts of colonisation have carried over into sport, wherein Indigenous coaches face escalating challenges when attempting to navigate Western sport contexts. For example, Indigenous coaches have reported encountering feelings of invi­ sibility, inequality, exclusion, discomfort in Western environments, and instances of institutional and interpersonal racism (Apoifis et al., 2018; Bennie et al., 2017; Gurgis, Callary, & Denny, 2022). To reconcile the disparities between Western and Indigenous sport, the TRC (2015) outlined five recommendations in their Calls to Action

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aimed at fostering a more inclusive and culturally relevant sporting environment for Indigenous communities. These calls urge various levels of the Canadian government to (a) provide education that dis­ seminates the historical narrative of Indigenous athletes (87); (b) sup­ port long-term development of Indigenous athletes and provide funding for the North American Indigenous Games (NAIG) (88); (c) amend Canada’s Physical Activity and Sport Act (89); (d) establish programmes, policies and initiatives that are inclusive of Indigenous communities (90); and (e) respect territorial protocols during sig­ nificant sporting events (e.g., Olympics) and engage Indigenous com­ munities in the planning and execution of these events (91). Despite these recommendations, Rajwani and colleagues (2021) reported that a limited number of national sport organisations in Canada have adop­ ted the Calls to Action, further highlighting the perpetuation of colo­ nial assimilation within sport and coaching. While efforts have been made by organisations in Canada, such as the Coaching Association of Canada’s development of the Aboriginal Coaching Module, criticisms have arisen regarding its generalised approach, which fails to recognise the unique cultural and spiritual beliefs among Canada’s three Indi­ genous groups—First Nations, Métis and Inuit (Gurgis et al., 2023). The integration of a TES approach in coach education signifies an innovative pedagogical framework with profound potential for instructing student coaches within HE and other contexts of sport and coaching. At its core, TES emphasises the significance of compre­ hending and embracing Indigenous epistemologies. However, it is cru­ cial to note that TES does not command the complete abandonment of Western philosophies; instead, it highlights the value of incorporating Indigenous perspectives alongside Western approaches to sport, which will be further conveyed in the subsequent section. By learning about, acknowledging and integrating diverse perspectives, TES can enrich student coaching practices, enhance athlete development, and promote a more inclusive and respectful sport environment within HE.

TES in practice Teachings from Mi’kmaw First Nations coaches As coaches and coach educators, we have purposefully learned from Mi’kmaw First Nations sport leaders and Elders what a TES approach can do to cultivate a learning environment that embraces Western and Indigenous perspectives. This approach facilitates a more inclusive, culturally sensitive, and holistic coaching experience that fosters the

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development of coaches and athletes not only as skilled leaders and competitors but also as individuals who value the broader aspects of sport, including personal growth, community connection, and cultural appreciation. In our research with Mi’kmaw First Nations coaches from Cape Breton Island, many described how their coaching approach and pre­ ferences for coach education were shaped by principles of TES, believing that this bicultural approach enriched their coaching experi­ ences (Gurgis, Callary, & Nicholas, 2022). In practice, this manifested in various ways. For example, many coaches we worked with, who were also coach educators, acknowledged the value of coach education; however, expressed their preference for experiential coaching work­ shops, characterised by open discussions or storytelling (Gurgis et al., 2023). This finding emphasises the importance Indigenous coaches and coach educators place on coach education, a typically Western orga­ nised endeavour, while concurrently highlighting their preference for Indigenous ways of teaching and learning. Coach educators can use specific organisational approaches in the class­ room to encourage active participation and purposeful listening – key Indi­ genous practices. For example, arranging students in circular formations so that they can all see one another (as opposed to traditional row seating in classrooms), echoes the traditional sharing circles practiced by Indigenous groups. Coach educators can also use an object from that specific sport to serve as a talking stick (Douglas, 2020). For example, if a coaching work­ shop was being facilitated for developing hockey coaches, a hockey puck or stick may be used as a talking stick. The talking stick is passed around the sharing circle and the person holding the talking stick has the attention of the room. This simple yet significant tool ensures respectful dialogue, prompting others to listen attentively and empathetically when the person holding the talking stick speaks (Douglas, 2020). These small adjustments represent impactful changes in coach education, creating culturally relevant environments for nurturing the development of Indigenous coaches. The adoption of a TES approach in coaching empowers coaches to expand their guidance beyond the technical and tactical elements of sport, a practice described by the Mi’kmaw coaches as uncommon among Western coaches. Indigenous coaches frequently undertake diverse responsibilities, particularly supporting athletes from economic­ ally disadvantaged backgrounds or communities (Gurgis, Callary, & Nicholas, 2022). Consequently, many coaches assume additional roles beyond coaching, encompassing tasks such as arranging transportation, providing meals, offering academic support, and generally, providing mentorship to steer Indigenous youth away from trouble (Gurgis,

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Callary, & Nicholas, 2022). This multifaceted involvement reportedly cultivates a sense of pride and sense of community, which is consistent with existing literature that acknowledges the value of Indigenous coa­ ches adopting a personal and collaborative role (Schinke et al., 2013). A multifaceted approach can also be understood as providing a balanced experience whereby the coach supports the athletes across four broad domains of well-being: physical, mental, emotional and spiritual (Gurgis, Callary, & Nicholas, 2022). To assist Indigenous coaches in their commitment to supporting athletes with various needs, a con­ structive approach may involve establishing communities of practice, which involves forming a network of supportive individuals dedicated to sharing relevant knowledge and resources (Stoszkowski & Collins, 2014). Fostering these networks may establish a collective support system, thus augmenting Indigenous coaches’ ability to effectively fulfil their per­ ceived communal responsibility. Finally, the application of TES in coaching is believed to facilitate a holistic sport experience, allowing coaches and athletes to integrate cultural and spiritual elements into sport and coaching, behaviours typically not seen or facilitated by Western coaches. For instance, coa­ ches described incorporating rituals such as smudging, which is a sacred cultural ritual of purification used by many First Nations com­ munities that involves burning sacred herbs like white sage, tobacco, sweetgrass or cedar in a seashell or similar vessel (Douglas, 2020). After burning the herbs, individuals would gently fan the smoke over their eyes, ears, mouth, feet and head to purify or cleanse the physical space and/or body of negative energy or emotions (Douglas, 2020). This practice is often incorporated at the onset of Indigenous events or before and after games (Gurgis, Callary, & Nicholas, 2022). TES in coach education Table 4.1 outlines essential factors for designing and delivering coach education sessions based on insights from Gurgis et al. (2023) and Bennie et al. (2019), in line with TES principles. These guidelines are designed to foster the development of Indigenous and Western coaches alike, while also promoting a deeper understanding of Indigenous traditions among Western coaches. It is important to recognise that this compilation of recommendations is not exhaustive, and the strategies may not uni­ versally apply to all Indigenous groups due to the distinct history, beliefs and cultural practices of each group. Furthermore, these considerations and recommendations are not intended to replace Western-designed coach education; instead, they are proposed to complement such

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Table 4.1 TES Recommendations for Coach Education Workshop Considerations

TES Recommendations

Design

Includes Indigenous peoples in the design of coach education. Integrates Indigenous art, symbols and images in coaching materials. Incorporates Indigenous language into coaching instructions when suitable (e.g., greetings, praise, basic commands like run, jump, or throw). Includes objectives related to emotional and spiri­ tual growth alongside technical/tactical or physical/ mental goals. Identifies community-based objectives, such as fos­ tering inclusivity, promoting cultural appreciation and facilitating community engagement that align with the broader goals of the coaching programme. In addition to sport-specific content, incorporates education on Indigenous history and culture, provid­ ing insights into their relevance to sport and coaching. The content may encompass various elements, such as traditional sport practices, the historic and con­ temporary impact of colonialism, sacred rituals like smudging, dietary and nutritional factors (e.g., lactose-free or diets rich in animal fats, lean meat and fish), the symbolism of the medicine wheel,1 the sig­ nificance of land and efforts towards reconciliation. Discusses the different community-oriented leadership styles adopted by Indigenous coaches (e.g., medicine wheel coaching, multifaceted coaching, TES coach­ ing2) and their relevance to fostering a holistic sport environment. Begins each workshop acknowledging and honouring Indigenous peoples as the traditional stewards of the land. Further, discusses the implications of the land acknowledgement in terms of its impact on the past, present and future. Promotes collaborative delivery involving both Indi­ genous and Western coach educators. Presents material in alignment with Indigenous peda­ gogical approaches (e.g., storytelling, mentorship, experiential learning, land-based education). Utilizes communities of practice to facilitate colla­ borative dialogues among Indigenous and Western coaches with different experiences, backgrounds, beliefs and expertise.

Objectives

Content

Delivery

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Workshop Considerations

TES Recommendations

Classroom management

Intentionally places Indigenous and non-Indigenous coaches together during group activities to foster collaboration and facilitate the exchange of innova­ tive ideas and information. Seats coaches in a circle to symbolize inclusivity and foster a sense of equality and unity among partici­ pants. Promotes open and respectful dialogue by utilizing techniques like passing around a talking stick, which encourages equitable participation and ensures voices are heard.

Notes:1 The medicine wheel is a multifaceted, nonhierarchical symbol of health that originated among Prairie First Nation groups and was later adopted by various Indi­ genous groups across Canada. It embodies multiple levels of symbolism, including the four aspects of human life (i.e., spiritual, emotional, physical, mental), the four stages of life (i.e., birth, youth, adulthood, death), the four seasons (i.e., fall, winter, spring, summer), and the four directions (i.e., north, south, east, west). The core teaching of the medicine wheel revolves around holistic health, emphasizing that each component must be balanced and in harmony to achieve overall well-being. 2 See Gurgis, Callary, & Nicholas (2022)

frameworks, illustrating how a TES approach can be used to subtly advance culturally relevant coach education. In coach education, understanding the principles of TES could sig­ nificantly enhance coaches’ pedagogy. Tailoring courses to incorporate Indigenous ways of teaching and learning, acknowledging the sig­ nificance of cultural and spiritual elements within sport activities, and taking into consideration the unique cultural beliefs, practices, and customs of diverse groups of Indigenous peoples could foster a more inclusive and culturally responsive coaching environment. While not typically done, integrating these insights into coach education can equip student coaches in HE with a broader perspective, enabling them to connect more meaningfully and sensitively with diverse athletes and communities, ultimately enriching the coaching experience. The con­ cept of TES has not been formally understood as a pedagogical approach in coach education in Canada, so its application is still novel and exploratory. Its potential, however, is clear.

Reflecting on and utilising TES As non-Indigenous coaches, coach educators and scholars, we are acutely aware of the importance of not appropriating Mi’kmaq

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concepts and acknowledge that our understanding is limited to what we have learned from the stories shared by the Indigenous friends and collaborators we have worked closely with. As previously mentioned, the content presented in this chapter, as well as in other scholarly works and practical applications, is informed by many intentional and ongoing discussions with several Indigenous coaches, coach educators, community members, Elders and scholars, which have taught us about historical and ongoing inequities, the value of learning to empathise and the importance of understanding others. It is with this lens that we share what we have learned and showcase the words of a notable Indigenous partner, Elder Albert Marshall. During a personal exchange (A. Marshall, personal communication, November 25, 2021), Elder Albert Marshall expanded on TES as a practice in sport coaching: Imagine you are a coach, what would your main objective be? I’m sure it would be the well-being of that individual physically, cog­ nitively, emotionally, and spiritually. You’re going to make sure that that person is so well balanced, so confident that now they have to continue and improve their skills so they can excel and hopefully win for Canada. . . . It’s going to be a little backwards from what you’re normally used to, but this is how I would look at it. Your player, you’ve got to make sure that that second person’s four domains [physical, mental, emotional, spiritual] are always going to be appealing and balancing in a harmonious way. . . . Then you can work on the techniques. Elder Albert’s sharing of knowledge on TES has greatly deepened our understanding of how this concept can be applied in coaching and coach education. We respectfully share this knowledge as an innovative framework for coaching and coach education in HE. To illustrate its impact, we present two distinct scenarios demonstrating how each of us has applied TES teachings to enhance the coaching and sport experiences of Indigenous peoples and student coaches in HE.

Jays Care Foundation In 2019, as a programme specialist for Jays Care Foundation, the charitable arm of Canada’s professional baseball team, the Toronto Blue Jays, I (Joseph) was involved in designing and implementing baseball programmes for underrepresented youth nationwide. Jays Care Foundation utilises base­ ball as a vehicle for facilitating personal and societal change among diverse

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groups, including Indigenous youth, young girls, inner-city youth, and chil­ dren with physical and cognitive disabilities. Part of my role involved sup­ porting the Indigenous Rookie League programme, specifically delivered by the communities of Lac La Ronge Band in north-central Saskatchewan, Canada. Indigenous Rookie League is an eight-week intergenerational baseball initiative aimed at enhancing the physical and mental well-being of Indigenous youth. This programme also aimed to foster healing through intergenerational connections and community collaboration. Participants enrolled in the league participated in weekly practices and games, learning the fundamental skills of baseball, in preparation for a final two-day base­ ball tournament at the end of the summer. Reflecting on the planning and execution of the eight-week league, I utilized a TES approach to accomplish two main objectives: (1) Develop participants’ technical and tactical skills around baseball (a Western sport and Western coaching approach), and (2) Enable participants to integrate Indigenous cultural beliefs and values into their approach to the sport, fostering a deeper understanding and appreciation of Indigenous per­ spectives within baseball (an Indigenous approach). I found it relatively straightforward, as a non-Indigenous coach with a background playing and coaching baseball, to consistently meet the first objective; partici­ pants took part in one 90-minute practice and one 90-minute game per week, providing ample opportunities to develop fundamental baseball skills such as throwing, catching, striking and fielding. However, accom­ plishing the second objective proved to be more challenging due to my limited experience at the time of how to integrate Indigenous knowledge, customs and beliefs into sport. Through several insightful dialogues with Elders, Chiefs, coaches, and community members throughout Lac La Ronge Indian Band, I gained insight into the significance and simplicity of incorporating Indigenous practices into sport. Specifically, our approach involved organising weekly practices and games around themes aligned with each of the Seven Grandfather Teachings. These teachings, rooted in Anishinaabe tradition, serve as guiding principles for leading a virtuous life (Kotalik & Martin, 2016), encompassing love, respect, humility, truth, honesty, bravery and wisdom. Table 4.2 provides an overview of the activities implemented each week to reinforce the values inherent in the Grandfather Teachings, leading to the final tournament. From my experience, purposefully incorporating Indigenous knowledge into the weekly games and practices, along with the final tournament, illustrates the seamless yet effective integration of a TES approach in coaching. TES permitted us to organise the Indigenous Rookie League in ways that concurrently adhere to the traditional Western rules of baseball, while embracing the cultural beliefs and values of various Indigenous

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Table 4.2 Indigenous Rookie League Schedule Weeks

Objectives

Activities

1 Love

Introduce participants to the concept of love as a foundational value in Indigenous cultures and its relevance to baseball.

1

2

3

2 Respect

Instil in participants a deep respect for them­ selves, their teammates, coaches, opponents, community, and the game of baseball itself.

3 Humility

Cultivate humility in participants by recognizing their strengths while remaining open to learning and growth.

1

Sharing Circles: Begin each ses­ sion with a circle where partici­ pants express appreciation for one another, fostering a sense of belonging and camaraderie. Team Bonding Exercise: Engage in team-building activities that promote cooperation and unity (e.g., group relay race, coopera­ tive drills, team logo and jersey design). Storytelling Session: Share Indi­ genous stories that emphasize the importance of love and unity within communities, relating them to the teamwork required in baseball.

Respect Circle: Encourage par­ ticipants to share their perspec­ tives on what respect means to them and how it applies to baseball. 2 Cultural Exchange: Invite an Elder to share teachings on respect from Indigenous tradi­ tions, relating them to baseball etiquette and conduct on the field. 3 Team Clean: Encourage parti­ cipants to demonstrate respect for the community and the sac­ redness of the land by picking up a minimum of ten pieces of litter after practices and games. 1 Reflection Journal or Art: Encourage participants to jour­ nal or use art to reflect on their strengths and areas of growth in baseball, fostering self-awareness and humility.

Two-Eyed Seeing in Coaching Weeks

Objectives

Activities

4 Truth

Encourage participants to value honesty and integrity both on and off the baseball field.

1

5 Honesty

Reinforce the importance of honesty in communication and self-assessment within the context of baseball.

1

6 Bravery

Encourage participants to demonstrate courage and resilience in the face of challenges on and off the baseball field.

1

7 Wisdom

Foster a deeper understanding of baseball strategy and decisionmaking, guided by wisdom and experience.

85

Values Discussion: Facilitate a group discussion on the impor­ tance of truthfulness and hon­ esty in sports, exploring how it builds trust among teammates and opponents. 2 Ethical Dilemmas: Present sce­ narios where participants must make decisions based on honesty and integrity. 3 Umpire Appreciation Day: Invite a local umpire to discuss the role of honesty and fairness in officiating baseball games, highlighting the importance of upholding the truth in sportsmanship. Personal Integrity Exercise: Lead a reflection activity where participants identify moments of honesty and integrity they have witnessed or demonstrated during games or practices. 2 Sportsmanship Pledge: Have participants create a sportsman­ ship pledge outlining their com­ mitment to honesty and fair play, which they can sign and display in the dugout. Challenge Day: Design drills or activities that push participants out of their comfort zones. 2 Inspirational Stories: Share stor­ ies of Indigenous athletes or his­ torical figures who exemplify bravery and determination in and out of sport. 3 Visualization Exercise: Lead a guided visualization where parti­ cipants imagine themselves facing challenging game situations with bravery and confidence. 1 Elder Wisdom Circle: Invite Elders, parents or experienced coaches to share their insights and advice on baseball strategy and leadership, drawing on their wisdom and experience.

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Weeks

Objectives

Activities

8 Final Tournament

Apply the principles of the Seven Grandfather Teachings in a friendly and respectful competitive baseball tournament.

1

Opening Ceremony: Begin the tournament with a ceremonial opening, which includes Indigen­ ous traditions and values such as smudging, a ceremonial dance, and traditional blessing. 2 Good Sportsmanship Award: Recognize teams or individuals who demonstrate exemplary sportsmanship and adherence to the Grandfather Teachings throughout the tournament. 3 Closing Circle: Conclude the tour­ nament with a circle where parti­ cipants reflect on their experiences and lessons learned, reaffirming their commitment to embodying the values of love, respect, humi­ lity, truth, honesty, bravery and wisdom in baseball and beyond.

peoples. While the sport itself remained unchanged, our coaching metho­ dology introduced strategies typically overlooked in conventional Western coaching education settings, thus highlighting the significance of TES in fostering culturally relevant coaching and sport experiences. Unama’ki Surf Programme In the summers of 2021 and 2022, I (Bettina) worked with the Unama’ki Surf Programme run by the First Nation Mi’kmaq Physical Activity Lea­ ders on Cape Breton Island (Unama’ki), in conjunction with the Surfing Association of Nova Scotia. In line with the key tenet of TES to understand and embrace Indigenous epistemologies, we explored Mi’kmaq ways of knowing about place-based cultural sport participation, from the perspec­ tives of leaders and youth involved in the surf programme. To follow the TES recommendations outlined in Table 4.1, we set up stations as work­ shops at the beach in which the youth and leaders could paint the blank white bottom (prepared for painting) of surfboards, reflecting on the meaning that surfing has on their lives. Specifically, to get the youth and leaders thinking about the meaning that the Unama’ki Surf Programme has on their lives, we asked, ‘What does being Mi’kmaq mean to you?’ and ‘Illustrate your cultural identity and what the Unama’ki Surf Programme

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means to you.’ They were also given prompts, such as connection to the land, life, and/or physical activity, body in movement, social/cultural/spiri­ tual connections, mental health, various Mi’kmaw terms/words, petroglyphs and clan animals. These had been developed through conversations with our Mi’kmaw collaborators. Design recommen­ dations from Table 4.1 included photos, video, and audio recordings were taken during the workshops, when the youth were surfing, and on the beach. Given the opportunity to express themselves through movement and art, in and out of the water, the participants deliv­ ered a rich understanding of the cultural significance of the sport programme and the ways in which the leaders could support and foster cultural, physical, mental, and emotional well-being in and through surfing. We learned that Mi’kmaw programme adaptations, wherein cultural and place-based aspects were prioritised, shifted the goals of the programme away from a technically focused approach, towards something more holistic and community focused (Callary & Barrick, 2022). These questions and prompts can be used when working with Indigenous coaches across other sports to help them think through the ways in which sport has meaning in their lives. Developing student coaches in HE Moving from practice to the development of student coaches in HE, within the classroom at Cape Breton University and specific to a course in sport psychology, one unit of the course that spanned across the semester focused on ‘Indigenising’ the curriculum by using a TES pedagogical approach. Using TES knowledge gained from the Unama’ki Surf Pro­ gramme, I shared my understanding of TES, Mi’kmaw culture and his­ tory, drawing on my Mi’kmaw partners’ shared knowledge, to provide student coaches with an understanding of the environment in which we live, work and coach sport. Further, the students’ deeper learning, reflec­ tive practice, and awareness of the ways in which they could incorporate a TES approach began early in the semester and was built on throughout the semester. Therefore, an exploration of the topic and Indigenous ways of knowing were weaved together with Western concepts throughout three phases that followed TES recommendations identified in Table 4.1 for objectives (e.g., promoting cultural appreciation), content (e.g., discussing different community-oriented leadership styles adopted by Indigenous coaches), delivery (e.g., facilitating collaborative dialogues among Indi­ genous and Western coaches) and classroom management (e.g., fostering open and respectful dialogue to encourage equitable participation). Each phase had specific objectives and activities as outlined in Table 4.3 below.

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Table 4.3 The Development of Peer-Learning for a TES Approach Phase

Objective

Activities

1

Setting an expectation of reflective practice and selfawareness in respectful dialogue of experiences to foster peer learning

2

Thinking through/criti­ quing the leadership of local sport systems and leagues in terms of cul­ tural accommodations and inclusivity

1. What is reflective practice (see Kuklick & Kasales, 2020 for a specific assignment progression for student coaches in HE to help develop reflective practice). In every class, students are prompted to share their personal experiences with each topic so that they get to know one another, become accustomed to sharing and comfortable with doing so. 2. Brief lecture on what is deep learning? How to deepen learning through reflection using Moon’s (2001) framework that moves from simple description through to dialogue, critical awareness of own actions/thoughts/feelings, multiple perspectives, emotional influences, etc. 3. What is self-awareness in sport? In-class activity: Does how you feel affect the way that you per­ form (e.g., coach)? What is feel (multidimensional)? Why do you love coaching? How does it make you feel? What do you do to feel the way you want to feel? What gets in the way of those feelings (obstacles)? What allows you to reconnect with the way you want to feel? Questions for discussion: 1 What local sport leagues/clubs are you part of? Describe their systems and leadership approaches. 2 How does the sport system accommodate (or not) cultural perspectives? Explain this. 3 How can the sport system and leadership of the league/club foster inclusive sport experiences for everyone?

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Phase

Objective

Activities

3

In-depth analysis and pre­ sentation on topic of their choice* Note: Students may choose any topic that is appropriate for sport and exercise psychology and must have it approved at least two weeks prior to their presentation. The list of topics is posted, and students cannot repeat the same topic that someone else has already chosen.

Assignment: A ten-minute presentation followed by open sharing circle discus­ sions and questions. The presentation should include five PowerPoint slides that prompt the pre­ senter’s talk and enhance the audience’s understanding of the presentation: Slide 1: Define and explain the topic that you have chosen (if it is associated with other concepts covered in this course, please build and do not repeat what we have already learned) (worth 30 marks). Slide 2: Synthesize a peer-reviewed journal article related to your topic in sport and/or exercise psychology. State the purpose of the article/study. Describe the article’s methodology, results, and discussion (worth 30 marks). Slide 3: Critically reflect on the findings as they relate to the literature on your topic and concepts discussed in class (worth 10 marks). Slide 4: Critique the article and topic for your own personal use in sport and exer­ cise psychology as it relates to your sport­ ing life (worth 20 marks). Slide 5: Include the reference for the article and any other references that you have used for this presentation (worth 10 marks).

*Note: Although students did not need to choose a topic on Indigenous ways of know­ ing, TES or inclusion in sport, because they had developed a comfort level in sharing with their peers through phase one and an interest and knowledge of these issues in phase two, they were primed to do so if they wanted to.

Two Mi’kmaw student coaches independently chose to share their stories in mental health and performance related pressures respectively through the assignment in phase three. These students’ firsthand accounts could be critically reflected upon using the aca­ demic literature on these topics. However, the specific experiences and examples could not have come from me, the facilitator of the class, and needed to be an agentic decision by the Indigenous stu­ dent coaches themselves. I believe that the climate that was created in the classroom through our discussions allowed these student

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coaches to feel comfortable sharing these stories. The result was a pow­ erful group learning community in which students taught one another. As the facilitator, I simply ‘planted the seed,’ as Elder Marshall suggested is a core tenet of using TES pedagogically. I often reflect on the ways in which the privilege that I hold as a white, Canadian settler is a limitation to my knowledge of others’ experiences that may impact the ways that I facil­ itate coach development. However, turned around, this limitation can provide the opportunity to engage others in community building, story­ telling, and deep reflection on their own ways of learning, to open possi­ bilities to better understand others’ ways of knowing and learning.

Recommendations for practice Cultivate collaborative partnerships When used as a coaching pedagogy, a TES approach can foster a reciprocal and respectful exchange between Western and Indigenous coaches, shaping coaching practices to be more inclusive and culturally sensitive. Notably, successful examples of coaching programmes, such as Australia’s Coaching Unlimited launched in 2017 for Indigenous coaches, exemplify the efficacy of such collaborative initiatives in decolonising sport and coaching (Bennie et al., 2019). This programme’s emphasis on centring Indigenous perspectives throughout the design, implementation, and evaluation demonstrated a profound understanding of integrating Indigenous ways of knowing into coaching, considering their cultural, social, historical, and geographical significance (Bennie et al., 2019). Cultivating these collaborative partnerships not only acknowledges Indi­ genous voices but also serves as a foundational step toward genuinely inclusive and culturally responsive coaching practices within the HE and broader sport contexts. Indigenise coach education Throughout history, a prevailing trend has involved Euro-Canadians assuming the responsibility of making educational decisions on behalf of Indigenous communities. Consequently, this has resulted in the infusion of Euro-Canadian knowledge, values, and interests into Indi­ genous education (Orr et al., 2002). Within the context of coach edu­ cation, programmes developed in the absence of Indigenous input may unintentionally perpetuate Western sport values, such as early specia­ lisation and an unwavering emphasis on winning. These values stand in contrast to the holistic sport values advocated by Indigenous coaches

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(Gurgis, Callary, & Nicholas, 2022). The culturally relevant approach to coach education that was presented earlier in the chapter may sup­ port Indigenous coaches’ unlearning of Western values. Further, the active inclusion of Indigenous perspectives in the development of coach education programmes can act as a driving force for confronting the assimilative framework underpinning Western coach education. This framework tends to standardise coaching practices in Canada by consistently reinforcing Western coaching theories (Gurgis et al., 2023; Orr et al., 2002). By actively integrating Indigenous voices and per­ spectives into coach education, HE institutions can work towards conciliatory coaching practices and fostering a more inclusive, cultu­ rally relevant, and holistic approach to coaching (Gurgis et al., 2023). This inclusive approach has the potential to enhance the quality of coaching in HE while respecting Indigenous values and traditions. Embrace a TES coaching approach To promote the Indigenisation of coaching in HE through a TES approach, it is recommended that coaches embrace a holistic leader­ ship approach. Many scholars, even those not specifically focused on Indigenous sport, reference holistic coaching processes (Cassidy, 2010; Cronin et al., 2018; Griffin et al., 2018); these processes generally per­ tain to coaches employing more inclusive pedagogical methods that involve athletes in decision-making, empower athletes beyond their role in sport, demonstrate care and empathy toward athletes, and create safe and respectful environments. Albeit important, Gurgis, Callary, and Nicholas (2022) challenge whether these holistic coaching concepts adequately account for the beliefs and interests of Indigenous coaches. Holistic coaching through a TES lens necessitates coaches to attend to the spiritual, emotional, and mental well-being of athletes in addition to their physical development, which is the primary focus in high-per­ formance Western sport contexts (Gurgis, Callary, & Nicholas, 2022). Practically, one illustrative instance of this integration is in Indigenous sport programmes’ inclusion of ceremonial smudging rituals prior to Western-style refereed and rule-governed games and tournaments. This approach offers several notable benefits, recognising the sacredness of Indigenous languages and narratives (Douglas, 2020). Alternatively, utilising sharing circles for collective decision-making and conflict resolution is an effective means of maintaining harmonious relation­ ships, which contrasts the typical top-down approach of Western coa­ ches who rely on criticism and shame to resolve disputes (Schinke et al., 2013).

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Conclusion As a coaching pedagogy, the concept of TES promotes the enhancement of student coaching in HE programmes that are reflective of both Indi­ genous and Western perspectives. Overemphasis on Western, mainstream approaches to coaching can lead to the integration of rules and practices that reinforce a system favouring Western values, consequently neglecting the needs, beliefs, and interests of Indigenous coaches (Gurgis, Callary, & Dennis, 2022). Conversely, an exclusive emphasis on Indigenous approa­ ches to coaching may not sufficiently prepare coaches to engage in a sport system predominantly characterised by Western values (e.g., winning). As such, a TES approach allows Western and Indigenous sport systems and coaching approaches to coexist harmoniously, transcending their differ­ ences. Further, if embraced as a pedagogy, TES in HE sport and coaching has the potential to promote cultural diversity and reconciliation, while also enhancing the holistic well-being of Indigenous athletes and coaches alike. Ultimately, the adoption of a TES approach may play a critical role in the ongoing process of decolonising coaching in Canada, ensuring that Indigenous perspectives and knowledge systems are consistently inter­ woven into coaching programmes across HE institutions.

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Blodgett, A. T., Schinke, R. J., Fisher, L. A., George, C. W., Peltier, D., Ritchie, S., & Pickard, P. (2008). From practice to praxis: Community-based strategies for aboriginal youth sport. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 32(4), 393–414. Callary, B., & Barrick, S. (2022). “It’s not really about the surf”: Exploring Mi’kmaw perspectives of the Unama’ki Surf Program. A report of the Community Participatory Action Research conducted with the Unama’ki Surf Program, 2021–2022. Canadian Heritage. (2003). North American Indigenous Games (NAIG) funding framework for 2008 and onwards hosting component. Ottawa: Canadian Heritage. Cape Breton University. (2020). Academic plan. Transformation through inquiry. Sydney, NS: Cape Breton University. https://www.cbu.ca/about-cbu/ office-of-the-president/vice-president-academic-provost/academic-plan/. Cassidy, T. (2010). Holism in sports coaching: Beyond humanistic psychology. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 5(4), 439–501. doi:10.1260/1747-9541.5.4.439. Collison, H., Darnell, S. C., Giulianotti, R., & Howe, D. (2019). Routledge handbook of sport for development and peace. Abingdon: Routledge. Côté, J. (2006). The development of coaching knowledge. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 1(3), 217–222. Cronin, C., Armour, K., & Gano-Overway, L. (2018). Care theory and sport coaching. In C. Cronin & K. Armour (Eds.), Care in sport coaching: Pedago­ gical cases (pp. 15–29). Abingdon: Routledge. Davis, S. A. (1997). Mi’kmaq: Peoples of the Maritimes. Halifax, NS: Nimbus Publishing. Douglas, V. (2020). An introduction to Indigenous health and healthcare in Canada: Bridging health and healing (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. Eime, R. M., Young, J. A., Harvey, J. T., Charity, M. J., & Payne, W. R. (2013). A systematic review of the psychological and social benefits of participation in sport for children and adolescents: Informing development of a conceptual model of health through sport. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 10(1), 98. doi:10.1186/1479-5868-10-98. Forsyth, J. (2013). Bodies of meaning: Sports and games at Canadian residen­ tial schools. In J. Forsyth, and A. R. Giles (Eds.), Aboriginal peoples and sport in Canada: Historical foundations and contemporary issues (pp. 15–34). Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. Forsyth, J., & Giles, A. R. (2013). Introduction. In J. Forsyth & A. R. Giles (Eds.), Aboriginal peoples and sport in Canada: Historical foundations and con­ temporary issues (pp. 1–11). Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. Frisby, W., & Ponic, P. (2013). Sport and social inclusion. In L. Thibault & J. Harvey (Eds.), Sport policy in Canada (pp. 381–403). Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press. Griffin, L. L., Butler, J. I., & Sheppard, J. (2018). Athlete-centred coaching: Extending the possibilities of a holistic and process-oriented model to athlete development. In S. Pill (Ed.), Perspectives on athlete-centred coaching (pp. 9–23). Abingdon: Routledge.

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Gurgis, J., Callary, B., & Denny, L. (2022). First Nation stories of coaching barriers: A Mi’kmaq perspective. Sports Coaching Review, 12(3), 343–364. doi:10.1080/21640629.2022.2073136. Gurgis, J., Callary, B., & Denny, L. (2023). Considerations for designing Indi­ genous coach education. International Sport Coaching Journal, 10(2), 244– 253. doi:10.1123/iscj.2022-0061. Gurgis, J., Callary, B., & Nicholas, J. (2022). An exploration of the coaching approaches used by Mi’kmaw First Nation coaches. Sports Coaching Review, 11(2), 170–191. doi:10.1080/21640629.2022.2045138. Hall, A. M. (2013). Toward a history of aboriginal women in Canadian sport. In J. Forsyth & A. R. Giles (Eds.), Aboriginal peoples and sport in Canada: Historical foundations and contemporary issues (pp. 64–91). Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. Heine, M. (2013). Performance indicators. In J. Forsyth & A. R. Giles (Eds.), Aboriginal peoples and sport in Canada: Historical foundations and contemporary issues (pp. 160–181). Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. Henriksen, K. (2015). Developing a high-performance culture: A sport psy­ chology intervention from an ecological perspective in elite orienteering. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 6(3), 141–153. doi:10.1080/ 21520704.2015.1084961. Holt, N. L. (2016). Positive youth development through sport (2nd ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. Holt, N. L., Neely, K. C., Slater, L. G., Camiré, M., Côté, J., Fraser-Thomas, J., MacDonald, D., Strachan, L., & Tamminen, K. A. (2017). A grounded theory of positive youth development through sport based on results from a qualitative meta-study. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychol­ ogy, 10(1), 1–49. doi:10.1080/1750984X.2016.1180704. Johnston, K., Wattie, N., Schorer, J., & Baker, J. (2018). Talent identification in sport: A systematic review. Sports Medicine, 48, 97–109. doi:10.1007/s40279­ 017-0803-2. Kotalik, J., & Martin, G. (2016). Aboriginal health care and bioethics: A reflection on the teaching of the seven grandfathers. American Journal of Bioethics, 16(5), 38–43. doi:10.1080/15265161.2016.1159749. Kuklick, C., & Kasales, M. (2020). Reflective practice to enhance coach development and practice. In B. Callary & B. Gearity (Eds.), Coach educa­ tion and development in sport (pp. 81–96). Abingdon: Routledge. Lavallée, L., & Lévesque, L. (2013). Two-eyed seeing: Physical activity, sport, and recreation promotion in Indigenous communities. In J. Forsyth & A. R. Giles (Eds.), Aboriginal peoples and sport in Canada: Historical foundations and con­ temporary issues (pp. 206–228). Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. McLeod, D., McKegney, S., Zanussi, D., & Keepness, S. (2023). “Who am I . . . a hockey player”: Indigenous generosity and the transformative power of education in hockey spaces. Sociology of Sport Journal, 40(3), 272–280. doi:10.1123/ssj.2022-0085.

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Miller, P. S., & Kerr, G. A. (2002). Conceptualizing excellence: Past, present, and future. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14(3), 140–153. Moon, J. (2001). Short courses and workshops: Improving the impact of learn­ ing, training and professional development. London: Kogan Page. Ontario Tech University. (2020). President’s Indigenous Reconciliation Task Force strategic plan September 2020. https://ontariotechu.ca/about/publica tions/presidents-indigenous-reconciliation-task-force-strategic-plan.php. Orr, J., Paul, J. J., & Paul, S. (2002). Decolonizing Mi’kmaw education through cultural practical knowledge. McGill Journal of Education, 37(3), 331–354. Rajwani, Y., Giles, A. R., & Forde, S. (2021). Canadian national sport orga­ nizations’ responses to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission: Calls to Action and settler silence. Sociology of Sport Journal, 39(2), 205–215. doi:10.1123/ssj.2020-0144. Robidoux, M. A. (2012). Stickhandling through the margins: First Nations hockey in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. doi:10.3138/ 9781442662131. Roher, S. I., Yu, Z., Martin, D. H., & Benoit, A. C. (2021). How is Etuaptmumk/Two-Eyed Seeing characterized in Indigenous health research? A scoping review. PloS One, 16(7), e0254612–e0254612. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0254612. Schinke, R. J., Peltier, D., & Yungblut, H. (2013). Canadian elite aboriginal ath­ letes, their challenges, and the adaptation process. In J. Forsyth & A. R. Giles (Eds.), Aboriginal peoples and sport in Canada: Historical foundations and con­ temporary issues (pp. 124–142). Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. Stoszkowski, J., & Collins, D. (2014). Communities of practice, social learning and networks: Exploiting the social side of coach development. Sport, Edu­ cation and Society, 19(6), 773–788. doi:10.1080/13573322.2012.692671. Thomson, A., Darcy, S., & Pearce, S. (2010). Ganma theory and thirdsector sport-development programmes for aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth: Implications for sports management. Sport Management Review, 13(4), 313–330. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2015). Truth and Reconcilia­ tion Commission of Canada: Calls to action. Ottawa: Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. http://trc.ca/assets/pdf/Calls_to_Action_English2.pdf. Van Woezik, R., McLaren, C. D., Côté, J., Erickson, K., Law, B., Horning, D. L., Callary, B., & Bruner, M. W. (2021). Real versus ideal: Understanding how coaches gain knowledge. International Sport Coaching Journal, 9(2), 189–202. doi:10.1123/iscj.2021-0010.

5

Bridging Theory and Practice Innovations in Sports Coaching Education Line Dverseth Danielsen, Anne Tjønndal and Stian Røsten

Introduction In sports coaching, tacit knowledge derived from experience-based insights into techniques and tactics is considered a paramount criterion for the recruitment of coaches. The prioritisation of experienced-based knowledge often translates into the recruitment of coaches who have distinguished themselves as athletes (Nash & Collins, 2006; Tjønndal, 2023). For many sports organisations, it would be unthinkable to recruit a coach who does not have experience as an athlete in the same sport in which they are to work. However, there is no linearity between being a good athlete and being a good coach (Schempp et al., 2010). The increasing professionalisation and scientification of sports coach­ ing through higher education (HE) is an expression of a recognition that being a good striker is not the same as being good at leading a football team to success. The professionalisation and scientification of sports coaching also impacts the type of knowledge and expertise that coaches need to thrive in today’s sports labour market. For instance, coaches are now expected to manage a variety of sports technologies, interpret data from wearable devices, and use this ‘objective data’ to improve athletic performance (Toner, 2024). The role of HE in the development of sports coaching is thus pivotal in that it serves as a driver for a professionalisation and scientific inquiry of coaching while reshaping perspectives on crucial knowledge within the discipline. A byproduct of professionalisation and scientification is that various forms of expert knowledge become more appreciated and valued (Gid­ dens, 1991; Guttmann, 1978). This also applies to the field of sports coaching (Tjønndal, 2023), which in turn impacts both the expectations of students in sports coaching in HE and the pedagogical approaches offered by universities. For instance, the scientification implies an increased use of digital technologies in sports coaching; a tendency that DOI: 10.4324/9781003439646-6

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applies to most sports. Today, it is quite common for football teams to use wearable technology to measure how fast and far players run, how many times they touch the ball, and other variables. In boxing, athletes use similar wearable devices that are integrated into the gloves to measure the number of punches, types of punches thrown, and the speed and force of each punch. Such technological tools produce, without end, a massive volume of data for coaches to evaluate and make use of. Hence, such technologies are part of a larger endeavour to apply evidence-based insights in sports coaching. This is a driving force of the professionalisa­ tion of sports coaching and one of many examples of how professionali­ sation, scientification and technology influence the expectations and demands of sports coaching in practice and in HE. Such changing expectations and demands for sports coaching are the rationale for the innovative pedagogy in HE that is presented in this chapter. The chapter examines how professionalisation and scientifica­ tion have created a need for novel practices in sports coaching in HE. It shows how the revised curriculum and pedagogical approach of the Strength and Conditioning bachelor programme at Nord University attempts to bridge theory and practice in sports coaching to prepare students for a working life in the sports and fitness industry. Using the Aristotelian knowledge forms of episteme (scientific knowledge), and techne (practical skills), we argue that the increased focus on reflective practice in the bachelor programme elucidates how the scientification of sports coaching creates a need for more practice-based approaches in HE. To illustrate what such alternative forms of coach education might look like in practice, we make use of course materials from multiple subjects included in the bachelor programme, as well as stu­ dent and teacher evaluations. In the following, we begin by outlining the pedagogical approach. Second, we describe the pedagogical practice and materials. Third, we provide reflections on the experiences of staff and students engaged in the Strength and Conditioning bachelor programme. Based on these reflections, we end the chapter by detailing three key recommendations for practice.

Conceptualization of the pedagogical approach The Strength and Conditioning bachelor programme at Nord University implemented a revised curriculum in 2019 and aims to recruit 60 students annually. An important change in the curriculum was related to the bal­ ancing of theory and practice, where the focus on practice was strength­ ened in the revised curriculum and pedagogical approach. The

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programme also changed its name from Sport Science to Strength and Conditioning. The reason for the development of a new pedagogical approach and bachelor programme was a recognition amongst the aca­ demic staff that there was a growing job market in coaching and that the students in the former bachelor programme in sport science did not have the necessary skills and expertise to work as sports coaching professionals in the health and fitness industry. This is further outlined in the accred­ itation application of the new bachelor programme: The background for the accreditation application lies in the aca­ demic staff’s recognition of a societal need for more individuals trained in coaching, both within sports, the fitness industry, and in relation to physical activity in general. A more diverse customer group in the fitness industry entails greater demands for coaching competence among fitness instructors and personal trainers. Cur­ rent higher educational programmes do not meet these needs. Current Norwegian sports education programmes have chosen profiles that are not primarily aimed at working with coaching and physical training within sports. This is partly due to a low degree of practice-oriented teaching within science degrees in higher edu­ cation. Specialised bachelor’s level education with a main focus on training and a high degree of practice-oriented teaching is not currently offered at any Nordic educational institutions. This means that Nord University has a unique opportunity to become a market leader in education for the sports and fitness industry in the Nordics and Scandinavia.1 The focus on practice-oriented teaching builds on Aristotle’s classifica­ tion of different forms of knowledge. Despite the historical gap, it is argued that an Aristotelian perspective offers a fruitful theoretical way of understanding the relationship between educational theory and professional practice (Kinsella & Pitman, 2012). This is also a relevant point of departure in the context of sports coaching (Standal & Hem­ mestad, 2010). In the following, we describe two of the three Aris­ totelian forms of knowledge – episteme and techne2 – and consider how they interact. The chapter is based on the work and interpretation of Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics in the modern educational context by Tone Saugstad (2002). Primarily, Aristotle distinguishes between two categories of knowl­ edge: theoretical knowledge and practical knowledge. According to Saugstad (2002, p. 378), theoretical knowledge is understood as cer­ tain, universal and ‘concerns everything that exists through necessity.’

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Practical knowledge, on the other hand, is concrete and changeable through human activity. Aristotle also makes a distinction between two kinds of practical knowledge based on the purpose of the activity. The first type is ‘instrumental,’ where the aim of the activity is related to a ‘product’ (e.g., building a house), while the second type deals with ethical and social concerns (e.g., performing just actions). The distinc­ tion between theoretical and practical knowledge are important in that they have their own purpose (e.g., informing about a given subject versus guiding practical life) and are learned in different ways (e.g., teaching in schools and academic institutions versus through experi­ ences and activities in real life). This understanding of theoretical and practical knowledge leads to Aristotele’s division of knowledge into three forms (Saugstad, 2002). Episteme (i.e., scientific knowledge) is theoretical knowledge obtained through systematic research and logical reasoning. The pur­ pose is to provide universal and certain principles and thrusts about the ‘cosmos’ based on evidence (Saugstad, 2002). In the Strength and Conditioning bachelor programme, this includes knowledge about nutrition, biomechanics and physiology communicated through plen­ ary lectures in subjects such as IDR2005 Sports Nutrition (Nord Uni­ versity, 2024b) and IDR1010 Anatomy and Physiology (Nord University, 2024c). Techne (i.e., art) is practical knowledge that concerns the skills and techniques that are needed to make, produce or manufacture things. In the Strength and Conditioning programme, this concerns technical knowledge to teach athletes specific skills, such as passing in football or footwork in boxing. Thus, techne is primarily learned through experience and practiced in a situated way with the guidance of an expert (Saugstad, 2002). As highlighted by Standal and Hemmestad (2010), just as painters learn to become painters by painting, coaches learn to become coaches by coaching. During the bachelor pro­ gramme, this is developed through, for example, the subject IDR2009 Sports Specific Strength and Conditioning and Endurance Training (Nord University, 2024a). In summary, Aristotle’s classification of knowledge into these two forms reflects different ways of learning and using knowledge. For instance, in athlete development, coaches use episteme to understand the science behind skill acquisition, and techne to instruct athletes about important skills. The Strength and Conditioning bachelor pro­ gramme aims to combine these forms of knowledge to develop sports coaching professionals who would be well prepared for any challenges they might face in the field.

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Pedagogical practice and materials The Strength and Conditioning bachelor programme at Nord Uni­ versity provides a thorough introduction to planning, implementing and evaluating training and physical activity. The programme is not tied to specific sports or performance levels but is suitable for coaching all types of athletes and individuals. The goal is to develop coaches who can serve as pedagogical guides to enhance the skills of the various participants (children, youth, recreational athletes and elite athletes) through tar­ geted and individually adapted pedagogical methods, training and lea­ dership. The study programme is highlighted in Table 5.1. Table 5.1 Study Programme, Bachelor Programme in Strength and Conditioning Semester

Course

1. semester

IDR1009 Resistance Training IDR1013 Growth, Movement and Long-Term Athletic Development IDR1010 Anatomy and Physiology IDR1012 Development of Speed and Endur­ ance IDR1011 Basic Sports Coaching IDR1008 Functional Screening and Basic Biomechanics IDR2003 Health, Injuries and Rehabilitation IDR2002 Weightlifting IDR2001 Effective Coaching in Strength and Conditioning IDR2006 Planning and Managing Strength and Conditioning Programmes IDR2005 Sports Nutrition IDR2004 Fitness Testing and Coaching Technology IDR2009 Sports Specific Strength and Con­ ditioning and Endurance Testing IDR2008 Strength and Conditioning for Spe­ cial Populations IDR2007 Scientific Work and Research Methods in Strength and Conditioning IDR2012 Advanced Functional Screening and Biomechanics IDR2019 Recovery IDR2018 Bachelor Thesis

2. semester

3. semester

4. semester

5. semester

6. semester

ECTS Credits 10 10 10 10 10 10

10 10 10 10 10 10

10 10 10

10 5 15

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The bachelor programme targets students seeking a functional educa­ tion that provides competence in sports coaching, strength and con­ ditioning, and the management of physical activity at various levels and age groups. According to the accreditation application, the revision of the bachelor programme was developed in response to health challenges related to inactivity and the growing need for coaching professionals with expertise to plan, organise and evaluate training programmes for various groups of people. Additionally, there is a rising demand in sports organi­ sations for expertise in strength and conditioning. Students completing the Strength and Conditioning bachelor programme are expected to pos­ sess the necessary skills to work in these areas (Nord University, 2018). The bachelor programme includes theoretical insights into various subjects and a significant amount of practical training. This is high­ lighted in the outline of students’ expected workloads (Table 5.2). The programme offers insights into how to plan training, both peda­ gogically and practically, for individuals with different prerequisites who want to improve their physical fitness and personal health. Students learn to provide various forms of feedback on completion of the training and justify their choices regarding different aspects of coaching and training management. This alternating approach between a theoretical introduc­ tion and practical application is a fundamental element of the pro­ gramme. The idea is that students learn best in an environment where there is a close connection between classroom teaching and various aspects of practical sports coaching. The curriculum and course plans (Nord University, 2024e) highlight how students’ practical work is a basic element of the programme. For example, throughout the programme students experience a balance between a theoretical introduction and the

Table 5.2 Students’ Expected Workloads in the Strength and Conditioning Bachelor Programme

1st year 2nd year 3rd year

Theore­ tical Lectures

Practical Assign­ ments at University

Practical Work with Industry Partners

Reading and SelfStudy

Exams and Exam Prepara­ tions

Total Workload (Number of Hours)

300 hours 300 hours 300 hours

580 hours

20 hours

300 hours

550 hours

50 hours

500 hours

100 hours

500 hours 500 hours 500 hours

1,700 hours 1,700 hours 1,700 hours

300 hours 300 hours

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practical execution of training. Practical training varies in content and form across different subjects and the students’ progression in the pro­ gramme. We exemplify this with the course plan of IDR2003 Health, Injuries and Rehabilitation presented in Table 5.3. Simultaneously, practical instruction within the programme enables students to experiment with various pedagogical methods, training approaches and leadership styles by undertaking practical assignments that involve coaching other students in the same degree course. This includes experiences with authoritarian, laissez-faire and democratic lea­ dership styles (Danielsen, 2023), as well as assuming roles as both parti­ cipants and facilitators in technological and physical testing scenarios. Notably, this involvement encompasses their participation in a scientific research intervention involving physical tests conducted before and after a period of strength and conditioning training. During this intervention, students are asked to serve as coaches for participants throughout the

Table 5.3 Teaching Plan for IDR2003: Health, Injuries and Rehabilitation Week

Theoretical Topic

Practical Exercise

Facilities

1

Introduction public health

2 3 4

Public health Sport injuries Muscular imbalance

Swimming pool Classroom Sports hall Fitness centre

5 6

Mobility training Sport injuries – upper body Sport injuries – lower body Women’s health

Health improving activities in water Public health debate Preventive exercises Testing muscular imbalance Yoga Preventive exercises

Sports hall Sports hall

Preventive exercises

Sports hall

Training during pregnancy Practical examples

Sports hall

7 8

12

Training in water – prevention/rehabilitation Coordination and balance Psychological challenges during injury Soft tissue healing

13 14

Soft tissue healing Summary

9 10 11

Practical examples Practical examples Sport injuries and rehabilitation Case presentations None

Swimming pool Fitness centre Fitness centre Fitness centre Fitness centre Classroom

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training period. Additionally, they have the chance to actively engage in scientific research projects conducted by faculty members. For instance, in the course IDR1011, Basic Sport Coaching (Nord Uni­ versity, 2024h), students are required to collaborate in groups to design a 45-minute training session with a personal trainer (see Table 5.4 as an example). Subsequently, they are to execute this session with one student acting as the client, another as the personal trainer and the third as an observer. The observation is to be conducted with a focus on the utilization of motivation, communication, coaching models, physical touch and feed­ back. Finally, the group is expected to engage in a collective discussion to evaluate the implementation of the personal training session. Table 5.4 Written and Practical Assignments for IDR1011 Basic Sports Coaching Task 1: Motivation

Task 2: The Personal Trainer

Task 3: Personal Trainer Day

Task 4: Group Fitness Instructor

Written task: Briefly describe one of the presented theories on motivation outlined in Abrahamsen et al.’s (2019) chap­ ter. Provide 2–4 examples to discuss how this approach can be relevant for you as personal trainers to motivate a client to train regularly. The examples might include possible sce­ narios or build on your own experiences. Practical task: Plan a 45-minute training session and perform the training session in your group. One in the group is the client, one the personal trainer and the rest obser­ vers. The observers’ assess the training session based on coaching elements such as communication, motivation and feedback, and instructions. After the training session, evaluate what the successful elements were and what could have been done otherwise. Written Task: Clearly present the training session in a table and discuss how a personal trainer should lead the session efficiently based on your experiences and evaluations. Written task: Outline a plan to complete a personal trainer day at a fitness centre. The plan should include a description of the day’s overall aims and time schedule. You should justify why selected marketing and activities are selected and how this might increase the sale opportunities. Practical task: Plan a 45-minute group fitness activity (e.g., strength, aerobic fitness, dance, step, spin bike intervals, etc.), and perform the session for the rest of the class. Take notes of the comments and feedback you receive. Written task: Briefly introduce the group fitness instructor role. Present your session in a table and elaborate on the structure and intensity of the session, use of music and so forth. Evaluate how the session went based on your experiences and feedback from the class, and discuss what you would do differently in future sessions.

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Practical work and assignments are central to the pedagogical approach to the programme in that they allow students to apply theo­ retical knowledge with various groups in different contexts. The pro­ gramme emphasises the development of students as effective training educators who can reflect on their own practices and learn to adjust them to the needs of the people they coach. Nord University has established collaborative agreements with various organisations in the sport and fitness industry to ensure that students gain experience in planning and implementing training sessions for diverse groups of people over the course of the three-year programme. Throughout the programme, students interact with the practical field via Nord Uni­ versity’s partnership with fitness centres and local sports clubs (i.e., a total of 170 hours across the three years; see Table 5.2). Practical training takes place in the first, second, and third years, with an increasing learning curve. In the first year, observation is a significant part of the practice, while in the third year, students function as inde­ pendent pedagogical leaders and trainers. The practical experience during the first academic year involves observation at a fitness centre, primarily assuming the role of a personal trainer. In the second year, students work in groups with peers to plan and execute training ses­ sions for various groups (ranging from children to adults) at different skill levels. In the final year, they primarily engage in practical training as independent pedagogical leaders, autonomously designing, imple­ menting and evaluating the physical training for their athletes and cli­ ents. Students can secure their own internship placements, subject to the approval of the internship coordinator, although the majority are assigned placements with sports clubs affiliated with the university through collaborative agreements. Particularly, in the third year, where students are expected to function as pedagogical leaders and trainers, their involvement with the fitness and sports industry is important for developing practical experience (Saugstad, 2002). Here, it is expected that the students will apply their theoretical and methodological knowledge for the benefit of the client’s/athlete’s development, life cir­ cumstances and well-being. For instance, in the context of fitness cen­ tres, students may interact with elderly people diagnosed with cancer or coach people with Parkinson’s disease. This urges the students to reflect on and make ethical considerations when formulating training goals and programmes, as it requires a balance between maintaining quality of life for the clients (e.g., improving strength and conditioning) and respecting their difficult life situations (e.g., spending time with family instead of training).

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New examination formats were implemented when the bachelor pro­ gramme changed from Sports Science to Strength and Conditioning. Prac­ tical exams were also introduced to prepare students for working life. There are practical exams in all three academic years in addition to oral, theore­ tical and portfolio assignments. For example, IDR1011 Basic Sports Coaching, IDR2003 Health, Injuries and Rehabilitation and IDR2004 Fit­ ness Testing and Coaching Technology include practical examinations with oral hearings. An example includes the practical exam within the course IDR2004 Fitness Testing and Coaching Technology (Box 5.1). Box 5.1 Practical Examination Procedure for IDR2004: Fitness Testing and Coaching Technology Procedure The student candidate is, 15 minutes prior to the practical examina­ tion, randomly assigned to perform and interpret the result of the following physiological test: (1) maximal oxygen consumption, (2) lactate profile or (3) jump height and rate of force development. During the 30-minute examination, the student is provided with detailed instructions and is required to prepare the testing equip­ ment, perform the test and interpret and explain the test results. During the oral examination, the student will be asked questions by an examiner. Assessments The student is assessed based on the following criteria:

� � � � �

How well they master the use of testing technology and tools Whether the test is carried out in an appropriate way (i.e., testing protocol) How well they master the role as a test leader How well they understand the results How well they understand the strengths and challenges of the test

There are several reasons why practical examinations function effec­ tively for sports coaching in HE. Firstly, sports coaching often requires practical skills that cannot be fully assessed by theoretical examina­ tions. By incorporating practical examinations, academic staff can better assess students’ abilities to apply knowledge and skills in

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practical situations that closely resemble the demands of the workforce in the sport and fitness industry. This includes skills such as coaching, test management, communication, team leadership and practical pro­ blem-solving. Overall, practical examinations contribute to creating a more comprehensive and relevant learning experience for students in sports education with a stronger connection between knowledge and practice. During the first and second year of the bachelor programme, it also helps academic staff to identify which students need more sup­ port and supervision to develop their sports coaching competencies. Another alteration in the examination format in the new bachelor programme is the introduction of portfolio assignments across various subjects so that students can collaborate in groups and delve into course topics over an extended period, thereby fostering a deeper understanding of the important issues in sports coaching. Moreover, portfolio assignments facilitate a comprehensive assessment of the stu­ dents’ knowledge, skills and ability to apply theory in practical con­ texts. Furthermore, these assignments enable students to engage with pertinent challenges, thereby offering them valuable experience and preparing them for their future careers. The portfolio assignment in the course IDR1011 Basic Sport Coaching exemplifies this (Table 5.4). The assignment is a collaboration between students divided into groups and consists of four tasks. The tasks bridge theoretical and practical approaches relevant for personal trainers. To give further insights into the pedagogical practice and materials in the Strength and Conditioning bachelor programme, we give exam­ ples from three courses: (1) IDR2004 Fitness Testing and Coaching Technology (Nord University, 2024f), (2) IDR2003 Health, Injuries and Rehabilitation (Nord University, 2024g) and IDR1011 Basic Sports Coaching (Nord University, 2024h). These subjects have been selected because they illustrate the need for new forms of knowledge and innovative practices in sports coaching programmes in HE. IDR2004 Fitness Testing and Coaching Technology In the subject of physiological testing and technology, students learn to perform common tests for endurance and muscle strength. What sets the Strength and Conditioning bachelor programme apart from many other sports coaching programmes is that all subjects consist of 50% lectures and 50% practical experimentation, even in typically theory-heavy sub­ jects. The practical teaching for Fitness Testing and Coaching Technology primarily takes place in a test lab. Students learn to test maximum oxygen uptake, lactate profile, maximum heart rate, jump height, explosive force

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development, sprint speed and maximum muscle strength. In addition to the practical execution, students also learn to interpret and analyse the results of such tests. The module also involves a significant amount of practice in being a test leader, which is evaluated in a practical exam with an oral examination (see Box 5.1). In contrast to the previous Sport Sci­ ence bachelor programme, where testing was also integrated into the curriculum, students in the new programme now spend significantly more hours as test administrators during practical instruction. This approach enhances students’ understanding, skills and confidence in conducting, leading and analysing physiological tests. The reason for prioritizing this subject is that physiological testing and the analysis of collected data have become important skills for those working in the sports and fitness industry (Toner, 2024). There is a strong connection between theory and practice in the subject, which is highlighted by having a theoretical session on the week’s topic at the beginning of each teaching week. Subsequently, later in the week students engage in practical instruction directly related to the theoretical content. An example of a teaching week in the subject of physiological testing and technology is a theory class on force cells and electromyography (EMG), where in the practical session students in groups conduct force measurement and EMG (similar setup as in IDR2003; see Table 5.3). IDR2003 Health, Injuries and Rehabilitation In the subject of Health, Injuries and Rehabilitation, students gain an understanding of what health is and the significance of sports for health, both at the individual and public health levels. Students learn about the risk factors for various sports injuries, how to prevent them, as well as rehabilitation procedures after an injury or surgery. The objective is that the students develop an understanding of the rehabili­ tation process. In this course, the week begins with a theoretical session on Monday related to the broader topic of the week, which is followed on Wednesday with a practical instructional session closely tied to the theoretical content of the initial session. For example, an instructional session in Health, Injuries and Rehabilitation in week two (see Table 5.3) begins with a theory class on the topic of public health. On Wednesday, a practical session is conducted as a public health debate. One of the debate topics is whether personal training sessions should be something that doctors could prescribe to patients. During the practical session stu­ dents are divided into groups to discuss the topic and formulate four to five strong arguments supporting their given statement (e.g., health

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benefits, disease prevention, reduced health-care costs, individually tai­ lored programmes, economic costs, the individualization of health and increased patient responsibility). A debate is then conducted between student groups tasked with different arguments related to the topic. The rationale for employing debate as a teaching method lies in its numerous pedagogical advantages (Alèn et al., 2015). For instance, it fosters a comprehensive approach that enhances academic knowledge in the sub­ ject, while also influencing the student’s development of critical thinking, independent learning, communication skills and collaborative abilities. The purpose of this type of debate is to engage students as active partici­ pants in the learning process, subsequently rendering the educational experience more dynamic, developmental and engaging. Another exam­ ple is in week eight where women’s health is the topic in the theoretical class, and the practical session involves practical training for pregnant women (see Table 5.3). The purpose of practical instruction in this case is to help students to link theoretical knowledge with practical application. This provides students with a more comprehensive understanding of the subject, along with skills and experiences that better equip them for the professional environment. The rationale here is to enable students to act with competency and confidence when encountering real-world work situations. An example of this is when individuals working as personal trainers or fitness coaches encounter clients/athletes who are pregnant and require strength and conditioning guidance throughout their pregnancy. An example of an instructional module from IDR2003 is a portfolio task that is designed to engage students in critical analysis and an assessment of information obtained from the internet. The aim is to develop skills to critically evaluate the reliability, relevance and applicability of online resources. Each case study presents a specific scenario, where students in groups are tasked with evaluating the pro­ vided information, synthesizing key points and providing evidencebased recommendations (Table 5.5). IDR1011 Basic Sports Coaching When it comes to the course Basic Sports Coaching, students receive an introduction to fundamental topics in sports psychology, mental training, motivation and communication. Furthermore, students are introduced to the significance of these topics at various levels in terms of conditioning, sports and lifestyle changes. Through theoretical and practical coaching management, students gain experience in how sports coaches, personal trainers and fitness instructors effectively communicate with athletes and participants to facilitate high-quality

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Table 5.5 Student Assignments (Tasks Developed by Teaching Staff): Critical Review of Information on the Internet General task: Based on the knowledge you have attained during the module, you should be able to critically review information given on the internet. Think of a situation where a client comes to you with a question ‘I have seen A, B, C on the inter­ net. Is this some advice I should follow?’ You are working in groups with one of the six given cases obtained from arti­ cles and videos on the internet. You are presenting your case in the practical lesson next week. The presentation should take 10–15 minutes, followed by five minutes of questions from the opponent group. The opponent group should take on the role of the client, asking about the source(s). This requires that the opponents are familiar with the source(s) themselves. Case 1: Plant-based fast food isn’t always healthier Task

Sources

Your client can’t make sense of this article. Give a general assess­ ment of the information given in the article. Take a deeper dive into the first example of the BK Whooper versus BK Impossible Whooper (use nutritional data of the two burgers given by Burger King). How would you consider an alternative as more or less healthy? Based on this example, give your client some key points to look out for when it comes to finding healthier alternatives. https://www.menshealth.com/nutrition/a30456441/plant-based-fa st-food/https://www.menshealth.com/nutrition/a30456441/plant-ba sed-fast-food/ https://www.burgerking.ca/nutrition-explorer

Case 2: Magnus Lygdback simple and delicious – 5 best high-protein breakfasts in 5 min or less Task

Sources

In the YouTube clip, Lygdback claims to show the five ‘best’ breakfasts that are both high in protein and healthy. Your client is wondering if all the alternatives can be considered equally healthy and protein rich. Use the ‘nutrition planner’ (*) and plot all the five alternatives (make a new weekly menu, and choose each breakfast for one weekday so you can get an overview of the nutritional information). Explain to your client the differences between the different meals, regarding protein (how much, where does the protein come from) and the meal being ‘healthy.’ Give your client tips on how to choose the best alternatives based on their goals and lifestyle. (You are free to make up information about your client to base your recommendations on). https://youtu.be/4ooybhk60Lk?si=rD0T-huzxVutZT8h https://www.kostholdsplanleggeren.no/ (*) (*)

Case 3: Healthy eating on a budget – 10 grocery shopping tips to save money Task

Source

Your client has watched the YouTube clip, and since they are a stu­ dent on a tight budget, they were inspired and want to incorporate this in their shopping and cooking routines. However, they wonder if all these tips, like cutting down on meat, are in line with a fitnessoriented lifestyle. Comment on the different tips given in the video, and add additional advice regarding food for fitness. https://youtu.be/5jc1NGlnYQk?si=JyjuqjLCV4AZBOfL

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Case 4: What if processed foods are actually good for you? Task

Source

In the article, the author is commenting on ‘Six myths about processed food.’ Since the author and the information are in a US context, your client is wondering how these myths apply to the Norwegian context and how they can be better at recognizing ‘good’ and ‘bad’ processed foods. Comment on the authors’ recommendations regarding the six myths and how you would comment them in a Norwegian context. https://www.menshealth.com/nutrition/a45666819/are-processed­ foods-bad/

Case 5: 30 high-protein snacks that are healthy and portable, according to dietitians Task

Sources

The article claims to present high-protein and healthy snacks. Your client – a student with a limited budget – is wondering which of these alternatives you would consider best. Review the following five recommended foods according to the claims made in the article (rich in protein and healthy). Give your client some snack alternatives that you, based on your knowledge, would consider to be rich in protein, healthy and budget-friendly. https://www.womenshealthmag.com/food/g28857774/healthy­ high-protein-snacks/ Items to review: · RXBAR Chocolate Sea Salt Protein Bar: https://shop.rxbar. com/shop/chocolate-sea-salt-box-of-12-bars.html · Wonderful Pistachios Chili Roasted Pistachios: https://www. walmart.com/ip/Wonderful-Pistachios-Chili-Roaste d-22-Ounce/358928630 · Stonefield Organic Greek Whole Milk Yogurt: https://www. stonyfield.com/products/whole-milk-greek-plain-30-oz · Hope Foods Original Hummus: https://hopefoods.com/p roducts/original-recipe-hummus · Seven Sundays Upcycled Oat Protein Super Fruity Cereal: https://www.sevensundays.com/products/oat-protein-cereal-va riety-pack

Case 6: 8 micronutrients important for performance and where to get them Task

Source

Your client is following a vegetarian diet and is wondering how they can get all the nutrients named in the article. Give some recommendations on good food sources. Further review the gen­ eral information in the article and, if you are missing any further micronutrients, you would consider important for performance and why. https://www.muscleandfitness.com/nutrition/performance-nutri tion/8-micronutrients-important-for-performance-a nd-where-to-get-them/

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training sessions. The course also addresses the essentials for success in sales and the recruitment of personal training clients. It comprises both theoretical lectures and practical instruction, with the instructional week beginning with theory and concluding with practical sessions. An example of a teaching week in the course involves a theore­ tical lecture on ‘How to Succeed as a Personal Trainer.’ In the practical instructional session students are paired, with one student playing the role of a personal trainer and the other as the client. They start with an initial consultation, during which the personal trainer plans a training session for the client based on the informa­ tion gathered (e.g., goals, training experience, preferred exercise modalities, injuries, desired communication patterns). Finally, the student playing the role of personal trainer implements a training session for the student acting as a client. The rationale behind the practical sessions is similar to the arguments presented for IDR2003 Health, Injuries and Rehabilitation and IDR2004 Fitness Testing and Coaching Technology above. Here is another example from IDR1011, where students practice communicating knowledge to athletes/clients through social media (Table 5.6).

Table 5.6 Coffee Meeting: Physical Activity for Adults and Elderly People General task: How to impart knowledge in a creative way to adults and elderly people As public health workers, an important task is to impart knowledge to clients. You are working in small groups with a given case where you should present possible solutions to motivate your client group. You are presenting your case at the ‘Coffee Meeting’ in the practical lesson. Your case should be presented in a creative way – for example, by creating a comic strip, an Instagram story, a TikTok clip, a video, a podcast, a song or a dance. The presentation should take 5–10 minutes, followed by a five-minute discussion from the opponent group and external jury. Cases: 1 What conditioning training is suggested for elderly people and how can it be done in practice? 2 How would you prevent underweight among elderly people? 3 How would you secure a proper vitamin D intake for elderly? 4 What is important to consider in training during pregnancy? 5 Is eating vegetarian during pregnancy healthy? 6 What strength training is suggested for elderly people and how can it be done in practice? 7 How would you facilitate a beneficial nutrition environment for elderly people? 8 Which physical changes happen during aging phases?

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Reflections on the pedagogical practice and materials The revision of the curriculum and pedagogical approach of the bachelor programme signifies a shift from theory to bridging theory and practice. A core aspect is the 50/50 split between theory and practice in all courses, which provides students with a substantial number of hours doing practical work, both on campus and with industry partners. Based on student evaluation surveys and course evaluations by academic staff, the revisions are appreciated. Most of the academic staff express that they feel that students are better pre­ pared to face diverse challenges in the field of sports coaching follow­ ing the implementation of the innovative pedagogical approach. The practical sessions were characterized by relevant work tasks that the students appreciated. Sports injuries and rehabilitation are topics that everyone is interested in but lack competence in dealing with as sports coaching professionals. The students were interested and contributed a lot during the practical teaching. (Quote from course evaluation) We see that students who were active in practical teaching generally performed better in exams. Overall, we feel that the students are well prepared for practical and theoretical training management, whether as personal trainers, fitness instructors or coaches for a sports team. (Quote from course evaluation) The students are very satisfied with the content of the subject, which they find relevant and applicable. They were also very pleased with the teaching methods. (Quote from course evaluation) The students are satisfied; they find it relevant and interesting and greatly appreciate the combination of theoretical and practical teaching. They particularly pointed out that they find it educa­ tional and sensible to have a lot of practical teaching. (Quote from course evaluation) However, some members of the academic staff felt that it was too early to determine the effects of the implementation of the innovative pedagogical approach and materials. In the course evaluations, they expressed that the increased engagement and contribution of the stu­ dents in relation to practical assignments was related to the

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implementation of mandatory participation for these teaching activities and not necessarily the pedagogical approach or materials. It’s difficult to say something concrete, but the restructuring of the course in terms of mandatory participation resulted in greater involvement in practical assignments. (Quote from course evaluation) Some members of the academic staff also expressed that it was ‘especially the introduction of practical exams’ that was a success in the new pedagogical approach to sports coaching at the university. From the student evaluation surveys, it would seem that the students agreed with the academic staff. They reported that the theoretical and practical knowledge they acquired through the bachelor programme prepared them for the sports coaching and fitness industry job market. Students particularly appreciated the high volume of practical assign­ ments and engagement with industry partners. However, some students were less satisfied with the exams and evaluations of courses, as many of these were assigned as group work. Some were less satisfied with the fact that the assessment method in the course was only a group assignment, as they had some group members who contributed too little. (Quote from course evaluation by the course coordinator based on student feedback) The composition of student groups appeared to be challenging for some students. Still, the university could not omit group tasks because working in group settings was a valuable skill for sports coaches to learn. Some adjustments and improvements have been made since the pro­ gramme’s inception in 2019. For example, there used to be no practical examination in the course Basic Sports Coaching. This has now been changed because faculty members recognised the importance of practical exams for testing students’ knowledge and skills in a better and more relevant manner. Furthermore, as the course evaluations indicated, there have been too many group assignments in some courses. This has led to portfolio assignments transitioning from solely group tasks to including individual and group components. This underlines the significance of student feedback in course evaluations, providing faculty with insights to enhance the programme. The programme still has room for improve­ ment – for instance, by incorporating more sport and society themes, as presently most of the programme contains natural science subjects.

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As outlined in the chapter, the novel pedagogical approach in Nord University’s bachelor programme in Strength and Conditioning emphasises the integration of Aristotelian knowledge forms – episteme and techne – into sports coaching education (Saugstad, 2002). This approach aligns theoretical knowledge with practical application, thereby preparing students for diverse roles in the sports and fitness industries. Reflections from both staff and students indicate a positive response to this integration by highlighting its effectiveness in prepar­ ing competent sports coaching professionals. The practical experience gained by students through this programme appears to be a crucial part of its success. Students engage in hands-on training by working directly with athletes and clients, which is vital for their development as coaches. This practical aspect is not limited to the mere execution of learned techniques but extends to the development of critical thinking and decision-making skills (Saugstad, 2002). The programme’s blend of theoretical and practical learning helps students to understand and apply scientific principles (episteme) in real-world coaching situations, a skill that is highly valued in today’s job market. The feedback from students and staff underlines the success of this approach. Students report feeling more prepared for the challenges of professional coach­ ing. They appreciate the balance between theoretical knowledge and practical application, finding it highly relevant to their future careers. Faculty members also observe a marked improvement in students’ practical skills and theoretical understanding contributing to a more comprehensive learning experience.

Recommendations for practice In this chapter, we illustrate how an increased professionalisation and scientification of sports coaching creates a need for novel practices and pedagogical approaches in sports coaching in HE. We demonstrate this by using the revised curriculum and pedagogical approach of the bachelor programme Strength and Conditioning at Nord University as an empirical example. The revisions in the bachelor programme repre­ sent a shift from theory-heavy subjects to a greater emphasis on brid­ ging theory and practice in sports coaching and aim to better prepare students for their working life in the sports and fitness industry. A main argument in the chapter is that the increased focus on reflective practice in the bachelor programme elucidates how the scientification of sports coaching creates a need for more practicebased approaches in HE. The revised curriculum shows how sports coaching in HE needs to value practical experience and scientific

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knowledge equally, whereas the case previously has been in favour of theoretical knowledge of sports coaching subjects. We argue that this shift in pedagogical approach is a response to the growing professionalisation and scientification of sports coaching, which demands a more comprehensive set of theoretical and practical skills and knowledge from coaches. The chapter also reflects on the implications of these changes for pedagogical approaches in HE by advocating for a curriculum that integrates new sports technologies, diverse coaching competencies and ethical considerations, as is the case with the subjects IDR2003 and IDR2004. It underlines the importance of a balanced approach to knowledge, including theore­ tical understanding, practical skills and ethical judgement. This comprehensive perspective is vital in preparing sports coaches who are adaptable, ethical and capable of thriving in a dynamic sporting environment. Based on the experiences of delivering the Strength and Conditioning bachelor programme at Nord University, there are three key recommendations for pedagogical practices in sports coaching in HE that readers should make a note of: �

�

�

Emphasis on practical experience: It is essential to provide students with practical experience through training, simulations and realworld situations. This prepares them for the actual field and strengthens their coaching skills. Incorporating the latest sports technologies and scientific methods: Staying up to date with the latest technologies and scientific methods is crucial. This may include using sensors, data analysis tools and advanced training techniques. Additionally, grounding coaching practices in the latest scientific research ensures that stu­ dents are equipped with evidence-based strategies that enhance athlete performance and reduce the risk of injury. Focus on diverse coaching competencies: Coach education should not only emphasise technical skills but also interpersonal skills, communication, leadership and cultural competence. This enables coaches to work effectively with diverse athletes and clients.

Conclusion The programme’s focus on a wide range of coaching competencies, from individual sports techniques to broader health and fitness con­ siderations, reflects the diverse demands of the sports and fitness industry. This diversity ensures that graduates are equipped to work in various settings, from professional sports teams to fitness centres.

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Moreover, the programme’s pedagogical practice extends beyond the traditional classroom and gym settings. Partnerships with industry professionals provide students with insights into the current trends and demands of the sports industry, further enhancing their learning and employability. This comprehensive educational model not only equips students with the necessary skills and knowledge for the sports coach­ ing profession but also instils in them the capacity for ethical judge­ ment and adaptability that is crucial for success in the dynamic field of sports coaching. The chapter’s recommendations for practice underline the impor­ tance of practical experience, incorporation of the latest sports tech­ nologies and scientific methods and a focus on diverse coaching competencies. These elements are crucial for developing adaptable, ethical sports coaches who are capable of thriving in a dynamic envir­ onment. By adopting these recommendations, HE institutions can better equip future sports coaches with the comprehensive skills and knowledge required to excel in a variety of settings, from traditional sports teams to more diverse groups, such as the elderly, and those with specific health conditions. Ultimately, this approach fosters a new gen­ eration of sports coaches who are not only theoretically sound but also practically adept and ethically grounded.

Notes 1 Translated from the accreditation application of the bachelor programme in strength and conditioning (Nord University, 2018). 2 As Saugstad (2002), we will use the Greek terms for the knowledge forms in the chapter. She argues that the English terms scientific knowledge as ‘epis­ teme,’ art as ‘techne’ and prudence as ‘phronesis’ are not fully adequate and can be misleading.

References Alèn, E., Domínguez, T., & de Carlos, P. (2015). University students’ percep­ tions of the use of academic debates as a teaching methodology. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education, 15–21. doi:10.1016/j. jhlste.2014.11.001. Danielsen, L. D. (2023). Elitefotballtreneres praktiske kunnskap. In O. J. Ander­ sen & J. B. Otterlei (Eds.), Kunnskapsforvaltning: Bidrag til studier av profesjo­ nell yrkespraksis (pp. 79–94). Bergen: Fagbokforlaget. doi:10.55669/oa280805. Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and self-identity: Self and society in the late modern age. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

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Guttmann, A. (1978). From ritual to record – The nature of modern sports. New York: Columbia University Press. Kinsella, E. A., & Pitman, A. (Eds.). (2012). Phronesis as professional knowl­ edge. Practical wisdom in the professions. Dordrecht: Sense Publishers. Nash, C., & Collins, D. (2006). Tacit knowledge in expert coaching: Science or art? Quest, 58(4), 465–477. doi:10.1080/00336297.2006.10491894. Nord University. (2018). Accreditation application: Bachelor programme in strength and conditioning. Faculty of Education and Arts. Nord University. (2024a). Sports specific strength and conditioning and endur­ ance training. https://www.nord.no/en/studies/courses/idr2009?year=2026& semester=H%C3%98ST. Nord University. (2024b). Sports nutrition. https://www.nord.no/en/studies/ courses/idr2005?year=2026&semester=V%C3%85R. Nord University. (2024c). Anatomy and physiology. https://www.nord.no/en/stu dies/courses/idr1010?year=2024&semester=H%C3%98ST. Nord University. (2024d). IDR1013 growth, movement and long- term athletic development. https://www.nord.no/en/studies/courses/idr1013?year=2024& semester=H%C3%98ST. Nord University. (2024e). Bachelor in strength and conditioning. https://www.nord. no/en/studies/study-plans/bachelor-in-strength-and-conditioning-autumn-2024. Nord University. (2024f). Fitness testing and coaching technology. https://www. nord.no/en/studies/courses/idr2004?year=2026&semester=V%C3%85R. Nord University. (2024g). Health, injuries and rehabilitation. https://www.nord. no/en/studies/courses/idr2003?year=2025&semester=H%C3%98ST. Nord University. (2024h). Basic sports coaching. https://www.nord.no/en/stu dies/courses/idr1011. Nord University. (2024i). Effective coaching in strength and conditioning. https:// www.nord.no/en/studies/courses/idr2001?year=2025&semester=H%C3%98ST. Saugstad, S. (2002). Educational theory and practice in an Aristotelian per­ spective. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 46(4), 373–390. doi:10.1080/0031383022000024561. Schempp, P. G., McCullick, B. A., Foo, C., & Wieser, K. (2010). Professional playing experience does not lead to professional coaching success. Journal of Coaching Education, 3(3), 72–82. doi:10.1123/jce.3.3.72. Standal, Ø. F., & Hemmestad, L. B. (2010). Becoming a good coach: Coaching and phronesis. In A. R. Hardman & C. Jones (Eds.), The ethics of sports coaching (pp. 45–55). Abingdon: Routledge. Tjønndal, A. (2023). Teknologi, profesjonalisering og vitenskapeliggjøring i trenerrollen. In O. J. Andersen & J. B. Otterlei (Eds.), Kunnskapsforvaltning i. praksis (pp. 95–117). Bergen: Fagbokforlaget. doi:10.55669/oa280806. Toner, J. (2024). Wearable technology in elite sport. A critical examination. Abingdon: Routledge.

6

Authentic Learning in Online Tertiary Coach Education Contexts Positively Impacting Coaching Practice Steven Rynne, Donna O’Connor and Clifford J. Mallett

Introduction Over the past decade, online learning has increasingly been positioned as a way of supporting the diverse needs of sport coaches across a vari­ ety of contexts (Driska & Nalepa, 2020; Whatman, 2017). This trend has mirrored many of the developments in the tertiary sector, where online learning has transitioned from something that was only a feature of ‘distance education’ programmes to being an almost ubiquitous fea­ ture of all programmes of study. It must be noted, however, that this movement towards online learning is not an entirely new phenomenon. For nearly two decades, organisations responsible for the education of coaches have made increasing use of online, self-paced delivery of con­ tent (Callary et al., 2020). The rationale for such online delivery is typically related to both increased accessibility of materials (e.g., across geographically dispersed contexts and accessible at times most con­ venient to the coach) as well as optimising the use of time when coming together for intensive face-to-face offerings (e.g., removes need for con­ tent delivery in face-to-face offerings and permits higher-order thinking and practical work) (Driska & Nalepa, 2020). Of course, with the onset of the COVID-19 global pandemic, the proliferation of online learning in coach education and the tertiary sector reached unprecedented levels (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2023; Callary et al., 2020). Subsequent research has sought to differentiate the ‘emergency remote teaching’ practices that occurred at very short notice because of the COVID-19 pandemic and often without thorough consideration and planning, from the well-established field of online learning. Regardless, our view is that the impacts of the last four years have meant that online learning has a far more assured place in the tertiary sector overall. This expansion of online learning practices is aimed at taking advantage of the recognised opportunities afforded by such DOI: 10.4324/9781003439646-7

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practices. For coaches who generally seek to combine their education with their coaching activities, the opportunity presented by online learning is the ability to study high-quality materials when and where it suits them best (Pérez-Camarero et al., 2022). Thus, online learning has the potential to make tertiary study more attractive, relevant, authentic and practical for coaches. However, the potential of online learning for coaches to support coach development can only be realised if the delivery is of a high quality. Pérez-Camarero and colleagues (2022) suggest that there are six main considerations in this regard: � �

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Openness. Online offerings must be easy for coaches to access and navigate. Flexibility. The timetabling (including synchronous and asynchro­ nous components), rhythm of progression and format of avail­ ability (including device compatibility) can impact the quality of the experience. Effectiveness. Varying degrees of interactivity (e.g., extremely pas­ sive to active engagement and collaborative learning) exist in online offerings. Economy. While often erroneously thought of as being very low cost, it is more widely understood that high investment (i.e., financial and human) is required in high-quality online programmes. Motivation and initiative. Issues such as coach interest (e.g., high motivation), organisation mandates (e.g., compulsory courses), privacy (e.g., data sharing) and individualisation (e.g., bespoke nature) are important in online environments. Democratisation of education and information. Advances in online technologies (e.g., Web 2.0) mean users (coaches) can edit and contribute to online learning spaces, and this can improve diversity and dynamism.

Despite these opportunities, there are some significant issues with technology-enhanced learning broadly and online learning for coaches more specifically (Pérez-Camarero et al., 2022). For example, techno­ logical issues continue to plague online and blended offerings in coach education (e.g., usability of and accessibility to online platforms). Moreover, online learning has, in many cases, heightened inequality, with those who can afford devices and access to reliable internet being advantaged. A variety of pedagogical issues also persist, with educators and coaches regularly reporting discomfort with the nature of the

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relationship across online environments. There are also broad concerns that despite increases in the use of technology in coaching, the evi­ dence for the efficacy of its use is weak (Cushion & Townsend, 2018). In attempting to capitalise on the potential of online learning, while acknowledging the inherent issues, we highlight the innovative cou­ pling of the pedagogical notion of authenticity with online learning in two postgraduate coach development programmes.

Pedagogical approach Origins of authentic learning We introduce the notion of authenticity as an innovative way of con­ ceptualising the design and deployment of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment intended to impact the online learning of sport coaches in higher education contexts. The broad concept of authenticity, as noted by Jones et al. (2023), is about awaking from an unreflective state to a more clearly developed sense of self. Colloquially, we refer to this as ‘living your words’ or ‘walking the talk.’ The inherent value of authenticity helps to overcome the regularly discussed theory-practice divide in sports coaching. Interconnectedness inspires thoughts of Kurt Lewin’s (1951) wellknown maxim that there is nothing so practical as a good theory and John Dewey’s (1938) notion that education is not a preparation for life but is a fundamental aspect of the very experience of living. Similarly, Vygotsky’s metaphorical idea of the ‘dialectical river’ is useful in over­ coming the Cartesian dualism of mind (theories) and body (experi­ ences) by considering the various and interrelated lines that originate from different sources but flow together and from which we might draw on in forming concepts (Jones et al., 2018). The key point is that they should not be separated. Without sound theory to underpin practices, coaches are likely to engage (often without conscious thought) with practical/folk theories that may be limited or flawed. There is no transformation or conceptual thinking possible in such a scenario. Similarly, theorising that does not pay sufficient attention to the realities of life as a coach is destined to be meaningless. While drawing inspiration from the early educational psychology and philosophy mentioned above, authentic learning has been descri­ bed as having roots in situated cognition/situated learning (con­ structivism) (Herrington et al., 2010). Collins (1988) defined situated learning most simply as ‘the notion of learning knowledge and skills in contexts that reflect the way the knowledge will be useful in real life’

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(p. 2). Building on this, Brown et al. (1989) suggested that for mean­ ingful learning to take place, the learning activities must be embedded in the social and physical context in when they will take place. As is relatively well known in the coaching literature, Lave and Wenger (1991) furthered the theorising of situated learning through their claims that learners engage in communities of practice (CoPs) through legit­ imate peripheral participation. While much debate and critique has ensued (particularly regarding the appropriateness of the largely apprenticeship-based theorising of CoPs to university and other con­ texts of learning), the principal theorists of situated learning have con­ tinued to advocate for its relevance in a variety of educational settings. This is a position that has been advanced by others in sports coach education (e.g., Bertram et al., 2017; Stoszkowski & Collins, 2014) including those online (e.g., Whatman, 2017). Authentic learning in sports coaching Authentic learning in sports coaching is related to, but distinct from, authentic coaching. Authentic coaching occurs when there is a ‘direct, obvious, and coherent link between beliefs and actions’ (Barnson, 2014, p. 70). This notion aligns well with Heidegger’s conceptualisation of authenticity whereby individuals seek to determine their own potenti­ ality for being (Jones et al., 2023; Magrini, 2006). However, authentic coaching is more than ‘just being yourself.’ We argue this partly because of our socio-psycho-pedagogical position that there is no settled self in quality coaching – we are always in a process of becoming. This account of authentic coaching is like our descriptions of authentic learning in that they both seek to achieve congruence between abstract/rhetorical concepts (e.g., theories or coaching philo­ sophies) and the realities of social worlds. Both also involve navigating certain tensions. For example, tensions arise in authentic coaching when coaches act in ways that do not match their beliefs. This incon­ gruence requires a form of surface acting that comes with an emotional labour cost (Potrac et al., 2018). Similarly, tensions are present in authentic learning when the learning environment does not match with contexts that are recognisable to the coaches. This disconnect serves to weaken the learning and negatively impact the agency of the learner (Herrington et al., 2014). When done well, authentic learning engages coaches, ‘allowing them to explore and discuss complex, real-world problems in order to find solutions’ (Crudgington, 2019, p. 179). In keeping with Dewey’s theo­ rising (e.g., 1938), grounding learning experiences in the messiness of

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real-world contexts helps reflect the complex and dynamic realities of coaching, thus providing coach learners with more relevant knowledge and strategies to inform their ongoing work. Further, we can align Bernstein’s (1977) concepts of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment (three interrelated message systems) to the principles of authenticity in pursuit of high-quality learning. Authentic learning: Curriculum Curriculum is concerned with the content of what is to be learned (i.e., a course of study to prepare a person for current and future [coaching] work). In thinking about curriculum, we might ask some key questions. For example, what knowledge is privileged and marginalised? How is curricu­ lum negotiated and by whom? Who has voice? Who has power and how and why is it sustained over time? What is the status quo in terms of curri­ culum (content . . . the what)? Are there conversations challenging the status quo of what is in the curriculum? How fluid are the boundaries between the what of curriculum (compartmentalised content) to enable more problembased and authentic learning to take place (see Cassidy et al., 2024)? Authentic curricula should foster meaningful conversations (by coach developers and policymakers) that embrace the complexity and messiness of what knowledge is deemed legitimate for what context. Furthermore, authentic learning tasks can be integrated and applied across different areas of curriculum – they span knowledge silos and potentially reduce compart­ mentalisation of knowledge domains (Cassidy et al., 2024). They encourage interdisciplinary perspectives, wallowing in the messiness and complexity of practice (Herrington et al., 2010).

Authentic learning: Pedagogy Pedagogical approaches move beyond what is taught to how knowledge is delivered to learners. Greater consideration of how content (cf. content itself) is delivered and subsequently facilitates coach learning and praxis has become more topical in coach education. This shift is consistent with a learner-centred approach (Woodburn & Milistedt, 2024). Authentic pedagogy requires higher-order thinking, substantive conversations, deep knowledge and connections to the world beyond classrooms (Newmann et al., 1996) and although facilitating coach learning is an important goal, authentic pedagogy should also be focused on evidencing how the peda­ gogical approaches have impacted coaches’ learning and subsequent praxis (Woodburn & Milistedt, 2024). Authentic pedagogy (inspired by reading Herrington et al., 2010) involves real-world relevance, tasks that

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are often ill-defined (requiring coaches to first define the task – something that is often missing in coaching pedagogy), issues that have multiple interpretations and solutions (encouraging collaborations with others and across knowledge domains), entails tasks and subtasks (forces prioritisa­ tion of actions and thoughts about how tasks progress and interact), can take place over extended periods (e.g., course of a season). Therefore, relevant methods would be problem-based approaches, group work, case studies, reflective tasks, choose-your-own adventure, inquiry-based approaches, simulations, role-playing and so forth. It is not about being active – learners can be very active but produce intellectually shallow and weak work (Newmann et al., 1996).

Authentic learning: Assessment Assessment is the third message system, and although it is central to the learning process, it has received less attention in empirical studies of coach learning (e.g., Hay et al., 2012; McCarthy et al., 2021a). Assess­ ment is typically focused on measuring coach learning and often asso­ ciated with accreditation (e.g., McCarthy et al., 2021b); however, we underscore the importance of thinking about assessment both in terms of assessment of coach learning AND assessment for coach learning (e.g., Hawe & Dixon, 2017). In assessment practices, coach developers typically decide what is assessed and reflect what they consider of higher impor­ tance. Specifically, authentic assessment requires organisation of infor­ mation, consideration of alternatives, disciplinary content, disciplinary process, elaborated written communication, problem connected to the world, and audience beyond the school (Newmann et al., 1996). McCar­ thy et al. (2021b) propose three interdependent principles in authentic learning through assessment: (i) clear and shared success criteria, (ii) assessment as skill development and (iii) recognising the role of others. In authentic learning, assessment is seamlessly integrated with learning tasks and reflects real-world (contextualised) requirements. Authentic assess­ ment outcomes should allow demonstration of the required criteria and standards but also generate quality (and original) ‘products’ valuable for the coach and/or their sport in their own right.

Authentic learning in the online environment Before we turn our attention to the innovative authentic online learn­ ing approaches adopted in two long-standing tertiary programmes in sports coaching, we focus more specifically on the ways in which online learning applies specifically to the online environment. Here, we draw

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heavily on the valuable contributions of Crudgington (2019) who insightfully extends the work of Herrington and colleagues (2010) to identify nine principles of authentic e-learning in coach education. Briefly, authentic e-learning in coach education requires: 1 2 3 4

5 6

7

8 9

An understanding that reflects how knowledge is applied within a coaching context. Authentic contextualised activities are rich, complex and multifaceted and that require sustained engagement over significant time periods. Access to experts across a variety of knowledge and performance domains (e.g., experienced coaches, applied researchers). Presentation of multiple roles and perspectives as well as exposure to different points of view such as those of coaches, players, offi­ cials and parents. Collaborative learning supported through activities such as group work and problem-based scenarios. Opportunities for sustained and specific reflection on current and previous coursework and learning activities, particularly in relation to the learner’s own coaching practice. Provision of spaces that allow coaches and coaching groups to express points of view, articulate and defend specific positions and/ or garner consensus on particular topics. Appropriate scaffolding whereby the course facilitator acts more as a colleague or learning guide than an instructor. Assessment that seamlessly aligns with the learning activities and the requirements of the coaching context.

We now show practical examples of formal sports coach education that represent the inextricably intertwined nature of quality theory and practice. This is important in the context of tertiary programmes in sports coaching because while there are clear standards of achievement required for the university to award a degree, of utmost importance is how coaches enact this learning in their varied contexts to the benefit of all with whom they work (i.e., most notably athletes but also coaching peers, paraprofessionals, parents, media, etc.).

Pedagogical practice and materials Both the University of Queensland (UQ) and the University of Sydney (US) offer online postgraduate programmes in sports coaching, and these will be the focus of this section. The institutions have long histories with US being the first university founded in Australia (1850) and UQ being established in

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1909. Since that time, these large comprehensive universities have achieved international acclaim, regularly being ranked in the top 50 institutions globally. More specifically, their reputation with regards to expertise in sport is even more renowned, with both UQ and US generally considered to be in the top five institutions globally for sport-related research (e.g., UQ ranked second and US fourth in the most recent QS World Rankings by subject). Within this domestic and global landscape, UQ and US have been offering postgraduate programmes in sports coaching for approximately two decades. Both institutions offer online modalities, with UQ provid­ ing their sports coaching programmes exclusively online soon after their inception, and US offering an online version of their face-to-face pro­ gramme for more than five years. As opposed to undergraduate pro­ grammes that are typically aimed at preparing people for a future career, the postgraduate programmes in sports coaching are positioned as con­ tinuing professional development for already practicing sports coaches. This is an important point as it has implications for the types of students that we attract, as well as for the ways in which we might engage them in development. For example, given the general status and employment conditions for sports coaching (globally, but most specifically in Aus­ tralia), the coaches are unlikely to secure future employment based solely on their completion of a postgraduate degree. They are similarly unlikely to receive increased pay in their current position because of completion. In addition, while some have their university fees subsidised by their sport, most pay fees from their personal savings. We outline all of this to emphasise that our coaches are primarily engaging for the sole reason that they want to learn and get better at what they do in their coaching work. Our students are highly self-suf­ ficient and motivated learners, from a multitude of sports, who are investing in their own coaching future. This is very different from undergraduate cohorts who may struggle to envisage their future beyond study. In what follows, we present materials from two contexts: UQ’s late-programme offering (SPCG7027 Quality Coaching: Action Research) that encourages authenticity using action research (AR), and US’s early-programme offering (EDPN5013 Coaching Pedagogy) that encourages authenticity through athlete-centred coaching approaches. SPCG7027 Quality coaching: Action research As evidenced by Mallett and Dickens (2009), the UQ sports coaching programmes have been striving towards the sustained achievement of authenticity since their inception. In SPCG7027 Quality Coaching: Action Research (henceforth Quality Coaching: AR), we have sought

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to achieve this through high-quality, systematic, reflective practice. The importance of reflection to learning and improvement in coaching has been demonstrated across a variety of studies; however, learning how to meaningfully reflect and then being able to engage with it over the course of a career are not easy without support and specific reflective structures (Cushion, 2018; Trudel et al., 2020). In Quality Coaching: AR, we make use of the well-established method of AR. The use of AR highlights the inextricable links between the three ele­ ments of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment. For example, for the first three weeks of this course, coaches engage in Module 1, where AR is the key curriculum element. Then in Module 2, the focus shifts to the development of an AR project whereby the coaches use their (newfound) knowledge of AR to undertake a project focused on their own coaching in their own context. At this point, AR becomes the pedagogical device through which coaches generate new knowledge about their own practices. The major assessment item for the course in Module 3 (the final module) is the write-up of the AR project, at which point AR comprises the assessment element.

Curriculum In Quality Coaching: AR, the aim is to provide integrated learning experiences that are authentic and designed to develop professional knowledge and skills. Authenticity requires a learner-centred approach (Milistetd et al., 2018) enabling coaches to connect declarative and proce­ dural knowledge with current coaching practices (Mallett & Dickens, 2009). Integration of conceptual and procedural knowledge is expressed in the links between what is studied and the work of enrolled coaches. These notions combine in the early curriculum focus on AR in this course. AR has a long and storied history. Generally attributed to the work of American psychologist Kurt Lewin, there are others who have noted the use of highly participatory approaches by a variety of social refor­ mers prior to Lewin’s association. However, it was Lewin’s work in the mid-1940s that remains most notable, particularly related to AR as ‘a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of planning, action and the evaluation of the result of action’ (Kemmis & McTaggert, 1990, p. 8). Lewin, however, only engaged in limited writings directly about AR, and as a result many aspects of AR remained quite open to inter­ pretation (Peters & Robinson, 1984). Despite this, participatory prac­ tices remained a clear and present focus. It is this participatory focus that resonates most strongly with the notion of authenticity in Quality Coaching: AR. Lewin (1948) also highlighted the interrelated notions of action, research and education, describing them as a ‘triangle that

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should be kept together’ (p. 211). Astute readers will note the strong connections here with Dewey’s work in education that received some revitalisation in the 1970s through the teacher-researcher movement (e.g., Stenhouse, 1975). As well as some of the more technical and practical approaches to AR, there are also emancipatory elements as exemplified by Paulo Freire’s work in Brazil. Freire viewed knowledge as power and he sought to support oppressed communities through knowledge creation, participation and action to change how they looked at the world (Coghlan & Brydon-Miller, 2014). Acknowledging this history and the contemporary use of AR is the curriculum focus of the first part of Quality Coaching: AR. Indeed, AR remains central throughout the course as it transitions from being the focus of the curriculum to the underpinning pedagogy through which other cur­ riculum elements are explored. For example, in keeping with the con­ siderations outlined by Pérez-Camarero and colleagues (2022), we then use our online platform to promote interactivity and initiative as the coaches explore the curriculum elements of coaching behaviours (i.e., what they may like to focus on for their project) as well as research components (e.g., quantitative and qualitative methods). In the latter stages of Quality Coaching: AR, the curriculum focus shifts to the ways in which coaches might communicate the findings of AR to various audiences for various purposes. Such curricular foci are intended to promote authenticity through the sustained and specific focus on reflection afforded through AR.

Pedagogy AR has been regularly used in a variety of pedagogical settings (including sport coaching) as a way to encourage practitioners to deepen and broaden their understanding of their work and associated matters (e.g., Ahlberg & Mallett, 2008; Barker-Ruchti, 2002; Chapron & Morgan, 2019; Hall & Gray, 2016; Kidman & Carlson, 1998; Mili­ stetd et al., 2019; Rovio et al., 2012; Voldby & Klein-Døssing, 2020). While there are a variety of forms, AR is typically problem-focused, action-oriented, cyclical, collaborative and participatory, self-focused, evidence-based, reflective, structured, reform-oriented and situated within a broader sociocultural context (Kirk, 1995; Kemmis & McTaggert, 1990; Peters & Robinson, 1984). These features are inti­ mately linked with authenticity as described earlier. The pedagogical dimensions inherent in AR are crucial because as noted by Jones et al. (2023), personal awakenings do not happen through ‘some personal rumination or innate introspective act alone’ (p. 209). In the case of Quality Coaching: AR, such awakenings are

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intended to be supported though the components of AR that include systematic data generation about one’s practice, involvement of a cri­ tical friend, and connection with empirical research and theory. These components also link directly with authentic e-learning principles (Crudgington, 2019) such as contextualisation of work, specificity to practice, inclusion of multiple perspectives and sustained reflection. More specifically, Quality Coaching: AR introduces the elements of AR via a variety of online tasks including sharing the elements of their coaching work on a Padlet and then grouping them into common categories that could form the basis of an AR project. To enhance the authenticity of this activity, while scaffolding the coa­ ches’ increasing understandings of the empirical literature, we incorporate recorded conversations between ‘factitious’ partners Sam and Alex. We describe them as ‘factitious’ because while they are fictional, they are based on an amalgam of real-world coaches that we know. In the style of a ‘radio play,’ we introduce to our students Alex, who is a national netball coach, and Sam (Alex’s partner), who is a state sprint coach. Both are physical education teachers, but Alex has a fractional appointment due to heavy and seasonal coaching work in netball. In striving for authenticity while employing this pedagogical device, the character of Alex is studying Quality Coaching: AR (i.e., Alex is doing everything across the course that the coaching students will be expected to do). The coaching students have reported that they value the stimulus pro­ vided by our characters. For example, when the coaches link to the Padlet to list the elements of their coaching, Alex’s sample respon­ ses are already there to spark ideas and provide a point of com­ parison. Then, after the coaches complete their categorisations, a short (i.e., ~90 second) conversation between Alex and Sam plays where Alex discusses her experience (and difficulty) completing the task (and the ever-competitive Alex also challenges Sam to try the timed activity too). Similar recordings (i.e., 24 audio clips of 60–240 second duration) are interspersed throughout each of the modules and involve applied conversations relating to the curriculum areas. For exam­ ple, the coaching students reportedly benefitted from the Alex and Sam conversations about quality coaching behaviours (e.g., clarifying the importance of listening, instruction, feedback), quantitative data genera­ tion (e.g., ideas about how to incorporate systematic observations into training sessions), qualitative data generation (e.g., the components of a reflective coaching journal), and writing their assessment item (e.g., sub­ mission components and format options). Further, the cyclical nature of AR is emphasised as coaches are provided with multiple opportunities to

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share their experiences in an iterative process (e.g., through the use of asynchronous discussion board conversations) and are provided with access to exemplars of previous AR projects.

Assessment As noted earlier, authentic assessment practices not only evidence learning and achievement of tertiary programme objectives, but they can promote meaningful change and improvement in policy and practice (Hay et al., 2012; Hay et al. 2013; Newmann et al., 1996). In Quality Coaching: AR, assessment is firstly used to check coa­ ches’ understandings of AR and to assist coaches in identifying possible areas of focus using a self-video submission. Subsequent assessment focuses on the authentic value and doability of the coa­ ches’ proposed projects. This matches with the suggestion of Jones et al. (2023) that authenticity ‘involves reflexively distinguishing what is worth pursuing in the social/professional context, before becoming the social embodiment of that aspiration’ (p. 208). Finally, it is a requirement of the final major assessment items in Quality Coaching: AR that submissions be directly aligned to the context in which the coaches work (with topics and approaches and final submission formats being negotiated with the coach). For example, an elite football coach at a ‘traditional’ club focused on implicit coaching1 for her AR project. Her negotiated final submis­ sion not only included a comprehensive outline of the cycles of her project (demonstrating her understanding and application of AR), but she included a resource she had developed for her players (and their parents) so they could understand the benefits of her implicit coaching approach. This provided additional value as it addressed some concerns she had (also shared in the literature) that this alternative approach might lead players and parents to think she did not know what she was doing just because she coached in ways that were ‘different’ from what others did in her club and league. Another example is the community cycling coach who wanted to eliminate his use of gendered language when coaching his mixed gender squad. His final submission demonstrated a clear reduction in such language but also showed how he had positively influenced the language that his riders used in sessions. It also led to him being invited to present at the state coaching conference to share his results with other coaches (all of which were included in his final ‘portfolio’ submission).

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EDPN5013 Coaching pedagogy An important aspect of coaching is being able to create an optimal learning environment for athletes to enhance their readiness for competi­ tion. What coaches want their athletes to learn and be able to perform underpins each practice session. A coach who uses an athlete-centred coaching approach allows athletes to be actively engaged in challenging activities that are representative of the problems they encounter in com­ petition – this is the heart of authenticity for athletes. In EDPN5013 Coaching Pedagogy we examine several concepts to enhance the quality of a coach’s practice and assist them in improving their communication skills, becoming more aware of their behaviours and influence on others and creating optimal environments for their athletes to learn and develop. Following the principles of authenticity (Herrington et al., 2010), coaches address ‘real world’ complex coaching situations, have access to experts, collaborate, express their viewpoints and are provided the opportunity to reflect on learning activities and their own coaching practice.

Curriculum EDPN5013 Coaching Pedagogy aims to develop a coach’s profes­ sional, interpersonal and professional knowledge (Côté & Gilbert, 2009) and skills to enhance their coaching practice, assist athlete learning and holistically develop athletes. To achieve this aim, three broad curriculum foci are included: � �

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authentic communication (one-on-one, in team meetings, during competition, tough conversations with stakeholders); athlete learning and creating a learning environment (knowing your athletes; coach behaviours and interaction with athletes; basic psychological needs satisfaction; structure, pedagogical approach and type of practice); reflective practice (in-action and post-action, evidence-based to increase self-awareness, reflective frameworks).

The integration of theoretical principles, empirical research findings and practical real-world applications create an academically rigorous curriculum aimed at fostering critical thinking, promoting deep understanding and application of knowledge. The curriculum is flexibly structured to incorporate the diversity of coach interests and issues they face in their workplace. When considering what knowledge is relevant and worthwhile for each cohort, their current knowledge,

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experience and interest of each coach is determined and informs mod­ ifications to curriculum and pedagogy.

Pedagogy Using a learner-centred approach, my role (Donna) is to facilitate coach learning by carefully developing learning activities that are authentic, meaningful and challenging, actively engaging coaches to discover, learn from each other and critically self-reflect (Araya et al., 2015). Where possible, coaches are part of the decision-making process and are given choices within learning activities, select contexts that are relevant to them and provide input and feedback throughout. In achieving these outcomes, a variety of pedagogical approaches are used including providing stimulus material for discussion (e.g., TED Talks, short videos); problem-based approaches to specific scenarios; evalua­ tion of coaching practice (e.g., training, meetings and competition day); critical incident account (e.g., professional judgements); stories and examples from experts/prominent coaches who provide firsthand insight into case studies; role plays; reflective tasks (e.g., self-report questionnaires), using different reflection frameworks to critically selfreflect; use of Padlet, Google Docs, and discussion boards. All of these pedagogical approaches and devices provide the coaches with oppor­ tunities to engage in the learning process deeply and authentically by linking theory and research with complex dilemmas and coaching situations, consider multiple perspectives, support and learn from each other, question their own assumptions and evaluate their current coaching practices. The duration of each learning activity is not pre­ determined as it is based on the needs of the coaches. An example of an authentic learning activity related to coaches facilitating a review or preparation meetings for athlete learning is where coaches watch three recordings of team meetings from experi­ enced coaches and evaluate these in relation to athlete learning (i.e., was the aim of the meeting clear? Was this achieved? What coach communication was used and what were the characteristics?). The coaches then bring their notes (e.g., observations, judgments, examples, and justifications) to the virtual workshop. In small groups, coaches share their views on each meeting in a breakout room and provide a summary of key points on a Google Doc. Considering what they learnt from the readings and their evaluation of the recordings, the groups then collaborate to plan a team meeting (e.g., review, scouting opposi­ tion, preparation for upcoming opposition) outlining the learning environment they would create and justifying the structure, content

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and delivery mode(s) they have chosen and indicating how they would evaluate their own meeting. Each group uploads their meeting plan on the Learning Management System and is assigned another group’s plan to review and provide feedback. Facilitation of this task promotes an environment where coaches assess, question and collaboratively build understanding with their peers which is pivotal in challenging existing practices and fostering continuous improvement.

Assessment Three authentic assessment tasks guide and assess learning and all involve choice of topic and content to meet the needs and motivation of the coach. Two of the three tasks described below also involve coaches sup­ porting each other by providing meaningful feedback to each other. Each task is scaffolded and connected with previous learning activities. The authentic assessment task of role-playing a tough conversation assesses the coaches’ knowledge and skills as well as preparing them for future real-world challenges by fostering effective communication skills, critical thinking and problem solving. In keeping with the suggestions of Her­ rington et al. (2010), the coaching practice (i.e., review and reflection assessment) ‘seamlessly aligns with the learning activities and the requirements of the coaching context’ (principle 9). The final assessment task (skill analysis and development) is representative of what coaches continually face during their practice, and assesses their ability to evaluate real problems, and apply knowledge to create new learning opportunities for their athletes. Each of these authentic assessment tasks involve clearly defined expectations and criteria (rubrics), provide flexibility so they meet the needs of the individual coaches, promote critical thinking and reflec­ tion on their own practice, and encourage coaches to innovate and implement changes. By directly addressing challenges within their coach­ ing context, these assessments are not only engaging but also highly motivating, preparing coaches to excel in their coaching practice. Role-play – Tough conversations. For this assessment task, coaches are asked to consider the conversations that are difficult for them. This provides a meaningful context for each coach and makes the task rele­ vant. Coaches select someone they know to ‘act’ as one of their athletes, or another stakeholder (e.g., coach, parent, administrator). They discuss the personality and background of the stakeholder with them prior to the role play. The aim is to simulate (as close as possible) a real meeting on the issue of the coach’s choice. Although the ‘meeting’ is not rehearsed, coaches are encouraged to plan for their meeting. The roleplay (~10–15mins) is recorded and uploaded on the Learning

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Management System where the coaches add any relevant background information regarding the context and what they were aiming to achieve from the conversation. Coaches then work in pairs in a virtual breakout room, and each coach facilitates a guided reflection with the coach in the role play. Using the GRIP (Goal-Reflection-Input-Plan; ICCE 2015) framework, the ‘facilitator’ asks questions (e.g., ‘Tell me a few things you did well’; ‘Tell me more; what did you notice when you said . . . ’), provides input, and encourages the coach to consider future planning and what they have learnt. This process supports deeper reflection by the coach rather than the coach only receiving feedback on their role play. The final assessment task asks coaches to reflect on their own role-play (i.e., what they learnt from participating in the role-play, the feedback they received from peers, and watching their own role-play). They also reflect on what they learnt from observing at least six other role-plays including facilitating a guided reflection with a peer. Coaching practice – Review and reflection. Coaches upload video foo­ tage of one of their coaching sessions to the Learning Management System. Coaches provide any information that will assist their two peer reviewers (i.e., background to the session, their aim, context, etc.). They may also indicate a specific aspect of the session they would like the reviewers to focus on. Each coach has two coaching sessions to review and provide feedback. Overall comments can be in audio or written for­ mats as well as specific annotations directly on the footage (timestamp) on the Learning Management System. In addition to any specific focus areas requested by the coach, the reviewer also considers aspects of coach behaviour (e.g., implicit versus explicit instructions, questioning, feed­ back, focus of attention, demonstrations, observational skills) and prac­ tice opportunities for athletes (structure and type of practice) that had previously been discussed. In addition to providing feedback to their peers, coaches submit a written report and are assessed on the feedback provided to peers (ability to provide effective feedback; knowledge); their ability to evaluate two coaching sessions (knowledge of effective coaching practice and relevant theory/principles; comments/judgements supported by relevant literature and specific examples from the feedback they pro­ vided); identify strengths and areas for improvement; reflection on what was learnt from observing two coaches; and application to their own coaching. The final component of this assessment task is a written selfreflection regarding their own coaching practice. This may include areas such as reflecting on the planning and preparation for their coaching ses­ sion; the actual coaching session and whether it went according to plan; the learning objectives and their achievement; the structure of practice, communication or coaching behaviours. Coaches reflect on what they

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learnt from observing their own video and receiving feedback from peers and indicate any changes or modifications they would make. Coaches are then assessed on the depth of their self-reflection – personal reflection, insightful, attention to emotions, implications for own coaching practice; provide specific detailed examples or evidence to support their opinion/ evaluation; where appropriate cite relevant literature; and strong evidence of synthesis of ideas presented and insights gained. Skill analysis and development. For this assessment task, coaches are required to identify two skill areas where some athletes (or the team) are experiencing difficulties during competition. These areas may be technical skills (e.g., backhand with spin; passing under pressure) or tactical skills (e.g., transition from attack to defence; decision-making under fatigue). The five steps are outlined below with a guide to assessment criteria provided: 1

2

3

4

5

Coaches describe the two skill difficulties, the context when this occurs, and outline an example of how they’ve coached this in the past (Describe – meets requirements for assessment). They then outline possible reasons why their athletes (or team) are having these difficulties during competition (Analyses perfor­ mance; Demonstrates knowledge of contributing factors). After reviewing their response to the first two questions, the coach details how they can change their coaching to assist their athletes to overcome these problems (Evaluate previous coaching and practice design; Critical reflection plus action). Coaches create a new practice session to assist athlete learning in relation to the two identified skills. They provide specific informa­ tion on coaching behaviours and the practice activities (Apply principles and Create – this addresses the how and what). The final section asks coaches to justify how/why these activities and behaviours are likely to be successful (Justify decisions made in step 4; Evidence-based).

Reflections In this chapter, we noted the increasing prominence of online learning in coach education, particularly within the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, emphasising the potential benefits of online learning, such as increased accessibility and flexibility, and acknowledging the chal­ lenges, including technological issues and concerns about efficacy. The importance of delivering high-quality online education for coaches was highlighted, with six main considerations noted, including openness,

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flexibility, effectiveness, economy, motivation and democratisation of education. There were also a variety of impediments to authentic learn­ ing in higher education identified in the work of Herrington et al. (2010). For example, there are a variety of issues related to staffing (e.g., increasing student: staff ratios, highly casualised workforce and a lack of tenured academic staff in key knowledge areas, limited learning support for course staff), technology (e.g., rapid changes in Learning Manage­ ment Systems, specific educational software and applications), policy (e. g., automatic recording of ‘lectures’) and common practices (e.g., ten­ dency to revert to transmissive modes of delivery online). Plagiarism and increasing use of AI (artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT) are further muddying the waters of online pedagogies and tertiary study more broadly. We argue for authenticity as a potentially generative and innovative path for navigating many of these issues. As such, in this chapter we introduced the concept of authenticity in online learning for sports coaches, exploring it extensively using Bern­ stein’s (1977) message systems of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment, as a way of emphasising the need for meaningful, real-world relevance in formal coach education. In discussing the components of authentic learning in sports coaching and their application to curriculum design, pedagogical approaches and assessment practices, we sought to make the point that achieving high-quality online offerings is not easy and requires specific structures (Trudel et al., 2020). Indeed, a variety of studies have shown how difficult this can be to achieve, with low levels of authentic work present in other tertiary programmes (e.g., Saye et al., 2018). Accordingly, we extended to the concept of authenticity to the online environment, adopting Crudgington’s (2019) nine principles for authentic e-learning in coach education. These were then exemplified through the specific offerings at UQ and US. Overall, we underscore the importance of integrating authenticity into online coach education programmes, providing practical examples and principles to enhance the quality of learning experiences for coaches.

Recommendations for practice Based on our experiences outlined above, there are a number of key recommendations we offer for those wanting to positively impact coaching practices through engagement with authentic learning in online tertiary coach education contexts. �

Consideration must be given to account for the audience (e.g., who is intended to engage in this work and for what purposes) and the

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Rynne et al. context (e.g., what sports and what educational situations). For exam­ ple, there are great differences between the audiences and contexts relating to formal online learning (higher education) aimed at pre­ paration for a career in sports coaching (e.g., undergraduate full-time study) versus that which is aimed at professional development for practising coaches (e.g., postgraduate part-time study). Take regular opportunities to both clarify and communicate the notion of ‘authenticity’ in the context of formal online coach edu­ cation offerings. Authenticity is the kind of notion that should be ‘played’ with often to ensure that educational offerings continue to evolve in ways that represent the evolution of coaching practices. This can then lead to better integration of the authentic learning principles in the curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment practices in ways that are specific to the audience. Involving coaches in discussions about curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment can also help to ensure authenticity. The aim should be to support coaches to advance coaching. While there is potential value in the development of more ‘pracademics’ (i.e., coaches who are also engaged in research practices and academic outputs), regardless of the configuration, the concern for all academics should be about how coaching research can improve the conditions and work of coaches and those they impact. Be mindful of and embrace the challenges and complexities in online learning to enhance the quality of learning experiences. This includes generating an evidence base for ongoing decision making about teaching practices. For example, the authentic e-learning framework may be used as a way to generate data from the per­ spective of coaches as well as coach educator colleagues.

Conclusions In this chapter, we highlight the growth in coach education via online learning and report our experiences of the opportunities and challenges. In the pursuit of high-quality online learning experiences for coaches, we highlight Pérez-Camarero and colleagues’ (2022) six key elements for high-quality online learning: openness, flexibility, effectiveness, economy, motivation and democratisation of education. The aim of authentic learning in the online environment (as it is in other educational contexts) is to bridge the gap between theory and practice (i.e., evidence-based praxis), which requires consideration of coaches’ real-world experiences. This realworld relevance fosters meaningful engagement in the coaches’ learning process, including promoting their reflection in and on practice and

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importantly it is differentiated from authentic coaching practices. Through examples from two university programmes, we demonstrate integration of authenticity across Bernstein’s (1977) three message systems: curriculum, pedagogy and assessment. This is a significant challenge for coach devel­ opers in tertiary institutions but one worth pursuing. In promoting authenticity in online coach learning, we also adopted Crudgington’s (2019) nine principles for authentic e-learning to promote quality learning experiences. These operational frames provide guidance to academics who are responsible for coach education in the tertiary sector.

Note 1 Implicit coaching aims to reduce the amount of direct, skill-specific instruction provided by coaches to participants. Rather, the emphasis is on supporting participants to be able to perform skills implicitly, without requiring them to be able to verbalise how they did it

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7

Action Research and the ScholarCoach Learning to Coach More Ethically Kristina Skebo and Pirkko Markula

Introduction As a set of national policies, Safe Sport has been recently created to highlight and help Canadian coaches ‘see’ abusive practices and their potential consequences. However, guidance on how to coach more ethically on a day-to-day basis is still lacking. As authors, we think learning to coach more ethically is a complex process. Therefore, throughout this chapter, we refer to Denison and Avner’s (2011) idea that transforming one’s coaching practices begins with the re-creation of oneself to become more ethical. Rather than simply ‘following a code or a set of guidelines to govern, monitor, and judge coaches’ behaviours as “right” or “wrong,”’ we are dedicated to ‘ongoing com­ mitment to the problematization of every aspect of the coaching act is critical for the development of more ethical coaching practices’ (Deni­ son & Avner, 2011, p. 211, italics original). For me, Kristina, this meant problematising everyday coaching practices instead of doing things in certain ways because ‘that’s what a coach is supposed to do.’ Thus, in this chapter, we follow my learning process of ‘becoming a more ethical coach’ to weave together the multilayered approach used in a postsecondary coach education course. As coach education becomes more commonly available at post­ secondary institutions, it typically follows a lecture-based model, where coaches learn to apply theory through written assignments. The master of coaching (MCoach) programme at the University of Alberta follows a similar structure in that it is a course-based degree until the second year of study, where students are required to complete a coaching practicum and an independent research project, also known as ‘a cap­ ping project.’ In this chapter, we focus specifically on the capping pro­ ject as a learning opportunity in coach education. Although MCoach students can complete their capping projects using traditional DOI: 10.4324/9781003439646-8

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quantitative or qualitative methods led by a supervisor, an alternative course is now offered that relies on a student-led research process. We highlight my experience, as a student, in using a novel pedagogical approach framed by action research (AR) methodology in my capping project to explore how to become a more ethical coach. In the following sections, we describe the implementation of a multilayered innovative pedagogical approach in the graduate-level capping project course. An inquiry-based learning format, framed by an AR methodology, assisted me to create new, improved coaching practices through the implementation of a novel pedagogical approach. In the first section, we outline the continuum of learnerbased approaches to coach education, and how these informed my search for novel coaching practices. In the second section, we outline the practices and materials I employed as part of my research process. I then reflect on my experience of learning how to become a better coach. In the final section, we make three recommendations based on my experience to guide others in implementing a similar higher edu­ cation coaching course.

Pedagogical approaches to coach education Sociocultural researchers often refer to the ‘messy reality’ of coaching (e.g., Denison & Kindrachuk, 2019, p. 92) to highlight the complex nature of both coaching and the use of alternative learning approaches to develop more ethical coaching practices. For us, coaching more ethically means the coach-researcher continually problematising every aspect of their knowledge and underlying assumptions about ‘every­ day’ practices (Denison & Avner, 2011). To begin to address this com­ plexity, some university-level coach developers have implemented innovative pedagogical approaches that shift the focus from content (what to learn) to context (how to apply learning) and from teacher-led to student-centred learning (Griffiths, 2004; Jones & Turner, 2006; McCleery et al., 2022; Milistetd et al., 2019). The common thread among these approaches is the active role the student must take in their own learning. As emphasized by Jones and Turner (2006), student-centred learning opportunities that explicitly connect theory and practice allow students to engage more deeply with the learning process and create a more relevant learning experience. When the focus is not just on specific content but on the process of learning and the application of knowledge acquired, coaches have also been found to display increased motivation to learn (Chow et al., 2008; Gearity & Callary, 2019).

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The extensive array of student-centred learning approaches is often difficult to categorise as each author/instructor has slightly varied the method used (Stephenson & Galloway, 2004). To date, multiple stu­ dent-centred approaches have been used in university-level physical education (PE) teacher and coach training courses: problem-based (Chow et al., 2008; Driska & Gould, 2014; Jones & Turner, 2006; Milistetd et al., 2019), project-based (Gearity & Callary, 2019), casebased (Roberts & Ryrie, 2014), inquiry-based (Oliver et al., 2015) or a combination of theoretical (e.g., problem-based) and experiential approaches (Bethell & Morgan, 2011; McCleery et al., 2022). In each of these approaches, learning took place beyond what was possible in formal instructor-led education (Milistetd et al., 2019). Problem-based learning (PBL) in coach education is often employed in the development of reflective-based coaching practices that could be applied to a ‘real world’ problem or an issue they might have encoun­ tered as a coach (Driska & Gould, 2014; Jones & Turner, 2006; Mili­ stetd et al., 2019). In PBL, learning is primarily collaborative, not just between students and teacher but also among the students themselves, where sharing and discussion to create solutions are emphasised over rote learning. However, there are some limitations to PBL. First, the instructor sets the problem(s) for the coaches to solve thus, the content is shaped by the instructor rather than by the students. Second, some students become focused on identifying the ‘right’ solution to obtain high marks as opposed to learning to explore or to generate innovate content ideas (Chow et al., 2008; McCleery et al., 2022). Finally, as PBL focuses on applying theory in the classroom, opportunities to transfer acquired knowledge and constructed solutions to coaching contexts have not been an inherent part of the learning process (Bethell & Morgan, 2011; McCleery et al., 2022). Other student-centred approaches explored by coach educators are project-based (Gearity & Callary, 2019), experiential (McCleery et al., 2022) and case-based (Roberts & Ryrie, 2014) pedagogies. When using these pedagogies, coaches are challenged to intellectualise their coach­ ing practices (Jones & Turner, 2006) while creating specific products to connect theory and practice (Gearity & Callary, 2019). However, simi­ lar to PBL, it is the instructor who sets the tasks and project topics, and thereby shapes coach learning. Inquiry-based learning (IBL), like PBL, involves collaboration and discussion between students and the instructor and has been frequently employed in PE teacher education (Levy et al., 2013; Oliver et al., 2015). As a context-specific rather than problem-specific approach, inquiries are set by the students and focus on improving existing

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knowledge and/or on creating new knowledge (Levy et al., 2013; Ste­ phenson & Galloway, 2004). This allows the relationship between student and instructor to shift fundamentally (Oliver et al., 2015). In this chapter, we draw attention to graduate-level education where the focus is on research. Consequently, we discuss what research methodology enabled me, a graduate student, to employ an IBL-type pedagogy in my final research project that focused on improving coaching practice. The context for this discussion was a course in the Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport and Recreation (KSR 900) at the University of Alberta, specifically designed for master’s-level coaching students to facilitate the completion of their ‘capping projects’ (an independent research study that explores in depth a particular topic, issue or practice related to the area of interest to produce a piece of scholarly writing). In this graduate-level course, students employ AR to design, implement and reflect on their own coaching practices. We now explain how using an AR framework allows coachresearchers to develop a research project that employs an IBL-type ped­ agogical approach to enhance their learning and performance. IBL-inspired AR project AR is a form of cyclical inquiry that has been used by coach-researchers to increase self-awareness about coaching practices and develop expertise through transformational change (Ahlberg et al., 2007; Chapron & Morgan, 2020; McNiff & Whitehead, 2016). In these studies, researchers focused on the coaching process itself rather than measuring the effects of the coaching intervention, prioritising the coach’s learning. Similarly, in KSR 900, the learning process is context-specific, where the process of knowledge creation informs action and reflection and, ultimately, shapes the development of new and improved practices or praxis (Manfra, 2019; McNiff & Whitehead, 2016). The expectation is that this transforma­ tional change would enable a better alignment between the coach­ researcher’s personal values and practices (McNiff & Whitehead, 2016). To bring about intentional change, Chapron and Morgan (2020) explain that AR has a clearly defined research process with specific protocols that elevate it beyond a simple description of one’s own experience with pro­ blem solving in a particular context. As an inquiry-based approach, coach-researchers engage in an iterative process of planning, action, observing (data collection), reflection and change – known as an action cycle – while immersed in a contextually relevant situation (Chapron & Morgan, 2020). The data collected provides immediate evidence and feedback to inform the coach-researcher’s reflections and the subsequent changes made to their coaching practices (Ahlberg et al., 2007).

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AR, consequently, provides opportunities for coach-researchers to answer specific questions through iterative exploration, analysis of data and reflection (Levy et al., 2013; Pedaste et al., 2015; Stephenson & Galloway, 2004) similar to IBL pedagogy. In this sense, a research process, guided by the expertise of the instructor, informs inquiry-based learning where knowledge is created to improve specific practices or obtain better results within a specific context (Griffiths, 2004). For example, Corsby et al. (2020) employed AR in a postgraduate degree programme (doctorate of sport coaching), where the main aim was to ‘make sense of and share their pedagogical experiences’ (p. 34). Coachresearchers used theoretical concepts, selected and taught by the instructor, in an iterative AR process to translate to and refine their own coaching practices. KSR 900 follows similar AR principles but differs from Corsby et al.’s (2020) approach to better align with the transformative intent of AR and the overarching goal of completing an independent research pro­ ject. The focus, thus, is on inquiry to advance learning, specifically through iterative exploration, data collection and analysis, and reflec­ tion. KSR 900 is an eight-month-long graduate-level course, where class size ranges from one to eight students who are assigned a weekly course schedule. During the course, students conduct an AR project to advance their own insight, knowledge and understanding of coaching through an original research project, ‘a capping project.’ The learning outcomes are designed to guide the students’ research process over two 13-week semesters by asking them to: 1

2 3 4

Design a coaching practice/action based on their review of the relevant coaching and/or sport science literature and their identifi­ cation of a ‘practice gap’ specific to their coaching context. Implement the practice they designed with a suitable and appro­ priate cohort of athletes. Reflect on the impact of the practice they designed and imple­ mented for their ongoing professional development as a coach. Write up their findings in a scholarly manner.

The course is structured to guide students through a research process that includes a literature review chapter of their chosen topic, a method chapter on how they implemented AR, a data collection and analysis phase, a results chapter and, finally, a concluding chapter. A series of lectures outlining the main premises for each chapter allows students to work independently. Students complete drafts of their literature review and methods chapters at the end of the first semester before embarking

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on data collection and completion of the capping project during the second semester of the course. Each draft is submitted to the course instructors and provides the basis for group discussions and feedback. The final document is about 60 double-spaced pages and is due at the end of the course. The capping project is assigned as ‘credit only,’ therefore only the final document is evaluated (pass or fail) by the student’s supervisor and a second academic reader. This IBL frame­ work entailed five two-hour lectures interspersed over a total of 26 weeks. Subsequent to each lecture was a gap of one to six weeks, which gave each student time to complete assignments. The final paper is submitted by the 26th week. Creating an IBL-informed AR approach: Kristina’s AR process During the KSR 900 course, Pirkko presented AR as an inquiry-based research process using PowerPoint slides, discussions and tasks (Table 7.1). Pirkko thus guided me in making connections between learning in the classroom (theory) and learning in the sport context (my coaching experiences) through an iterative process (Chow et al., 2008; Kirschner et al., 2006). To begin, Pirkko suggested three broad areas in which I could consider improving my coaching practices: (1) my effectiveness and development as a coach, (2) the why and how behind my practice design decisions and/or (3) my coaching situation (e.g., well-being, satisfaction). In each of the five lectures, Pirkko embedded different discussion topics and tasks to develop my critical-thinking abilities and to help me generate ideas. Learning about the rigorous AR framework facilitated my thinking as a researcher to inform and improve my coaching abilities and expertise (Bowyer & Akpinar, 2022; Griffiths, 2004). The time between classes ranged from one to six weeks depending on the depth of the assigned task(s), and each class acted as a steppingstone in the IBL process culminating in a task to be prepared for the following lecture. As a rhythmic gymnastics (RG) coach for over 30 years, I chose to focus my capping project on the how and why of my practice design decisions, specifically the traditional pedagogical approaches to skill practice. For me, learning to become a more ethical coach practitioner meant critically thinking about how I typically taught and trained gymnastics skills on a daily basis (e.g., moving away from the constant use of drills, progressions and rote repetition; relying less on the coach’s feedback; and reconsidering the structure of the training space). I thus had to depart from the typical RG coaching materials to complement my attempts to use a unique pedagogical approach. By

Make the case for the project by locat­ ing it within existing scientific literature (rationale).

Literature review

Literature review follow-up

Readings on AR, and coaching learning/ expertise.

Focus on the struc­ ture and write-up of the studies (rationale,

justification). (1 week) Submit one-page out­ line with major head­ ings and subheadings; cite ten sources. (1 week) Submit a draft litera­ ture review chapter (15–20 double-spaced pages). (2 weeks) What are some issues you’ve experienced in your coaching practices (e.g., physical, pedagogical, psychological issues, a specific problem, ideas you’re curious to explore)?

Be able to justify and support the idea you want to implement with specific coaching and/or sport science research. Connect to your ideas of what ‘more ethical practices’ are. Create an overarching idea for the project based on ideas from first class and literature review. Write a draft literature review.

A form of systema­ tic inquiry and reflective practice. Attention is on the coaching process itself, not athlete outcomes.

What is action research?

Discuss feedback, identify flaws and narrow down ideas.



What it is, why it’s needed. Questions about structure.

Task(s) (Time Given to Do Task)

Discussion Topic(s)

Learning Outcomes

General Focus of Slides

Lecture Topic

Table 7.1 Summary of Lectures, Discussion Topics and Tasks Used in KSR 900 to Guide My IBL Process Using a Rigorous AR Framework1



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Submit one-page out­ line of ‘Action Research in Action’ section (tie to your coaching context). (1 week) Submit a draft Meth­ ods chapter (about 15 double-spaced pages). (2 weeks)

How can you differentiate between personal observa­ tions and athlete out­ comes? How does this differ from participatory action research?

Understand AR frame­ work, set the structure for the Methods chapter. Focus on personal transformation. How to categorize data. Three-step analysis pro­ cess: (1) organize field­ notes into categories, (2) look for common themes under each category, (3) compare themes from all cate­ gories. Repeat three-step pro­ cess with each cycle, and combine to com­ pare and contrast themes.

Coaching in AR

Methods





Data collection Data analysis and reflection. How to use analysis after first action cycle to inform planning of second cycle.



AR in action

Task(s) (Time Given to Do Task)

Discussion Topic(s)

Learning Outcomes

General Focus of Slides

Lecture Topic

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Writing the paper

Questions about the writ­ ing process.

What is the purpose of an abstract and introduction? How can you set the scene? What was the gen­ esis of your research question?

Connect findings to lit­ erature review to illus­ trate why readers should care, describe limitations, and impact of your research on your future develop­ ment and learning as a coach.

Compare and con­ trast findings to lit­ erature and identified practice gap. Writing the abstract and introduction.

Discussion Topic(s)

Task(s) (Time Given to Do Task)

Submit a draft Results and Discus­ sion, and Conclusion chapters (15–25 double-space pages) after analysis is com­ plete. (6 weeks) Write a one-page abstract. Write a one- to twopage introduction using examples from your literature review as a framework. Research paper sub­ mitted at the end of the semester. (5 weeks)

(8 weeks)



Be able to start writing Results and Discussion chapter.

Learning Outcomes



How to organize findings based on themes identified in analysis.

General Focus of Slides

Action cycle implementation Fieldnotes, reflection and analysis

Lecture Topic

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employing an AR approach, I had to examine more closely my values as a coach, my knowledge and my practices to then begin my trans­ formative process. Based on my reading of scientific literature and cri­ tical self-reflection, I first considered what ‘more ethical coaching practices’ meant to me: � � �

Developing a learning environment that encourages sharing knowledge and collaboration between coach and gymnasts Finding an alternative pedagogical approach to decrease the risk of overuse injury and increase active participation (cognitive, emotional and physical) by gymnasts Critically questioning my intentions and the consequences of my practices

Without this step of critical examination, there would be no sub­ stantive change to my coaching practices. The literature review, there­ fore, provided an essential step that enabled me to identify a research gap, pose a research question and acquire new knowledge that I could translate and implement in my sport context through my research design. Throughout the development of my methods and data collec­ tion, Pirkko shared her research expertise to help focus my observa­ tions (fieldnotes) by creating the following six data collection categories: structure and organisation of practice; description of activ­ ities, time and space; individual athletes’ reactions and responses; suc­ cesses; setbacks; and personal observations (e.g., surprises, comments). Together, Pirkko’s lectures, our discussions and my tasks shaped my approach to the AR process. I had to learn how to create new research knowledge to ensure changes I made better aligned with my goal of learning to coach more ethically and my pedagogical practices. Thus, I developed and carried out my AR research project based on Pirkko’s framing and integration of AR principles into an IBL process. First, following the principles of AR, I identified my reason for action: Large amounts of time in an RG training session (>50%) are dedicated to sport-specific skill practice, yet how skills were taught and practice was rarely questioned. Second, I examined how skill learning was currently tied to my values as a coach. While I worked with sub-elite gymnasts, my knowl­ edge about how to practice skills and structure training was steeped in high-performance traditions heavily influenced by the top practitioners in the world. Pedagogical approaches, such as rote repetition of drills and progressions, were reified in formalised coaching courses, my per­ sonal experience as a gymnast, and coach mentoring. Such repetitive

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skill practice was intended to help a gymnast develop body awareness through automation of movement (performing skills without thought) and perfect execution (Barker-Ruchti, 2008). However, the unintended consequences of this mechanistic approach to movement, such as overuse injuries and hiding or pushing through pain, are normalised early in gymnasts’ careers (e.g., Gram et al., 2021; Thomson et al., 2011) and reinforced by a culture that positions the coach as the authority figure who provides constant feedback on skill performance in highly regulated training sessions (e.g., Barker-Ruchti, 2008; BarkerRuchti & Tinning, 2010; Cavallerio et al., 2016; Jacobs et al., 2017; Kerr, 2014; Oliver et al., 2018). Finally, I critically questioned how I could learn to coach more ethically by changing how I talked about, thought about and struc­ tured skill practice in the gym. Making superficial change, like imple­ menting the same practices using a kinder, gentler tone or slightly decreasing the total number of repetitions was obviously not enough (Smits et al., 2022). To transform my practices and tie these more clo­ sely to my values, I had to create a new pedagogical approach. Because gaining new knowledge was an essential part of the inquiry-based AR process, I reviewed scientific literature describing different motor learning pedagogies. In this search, I came across a new pedagogical approach that allowed me to think differently about skill development and paved the way to create these novel practices (Konoval et al., 2021).

Creating an IBL-informed AR approach: Pedagogical practices and materials I employed kinesio-cultural exploration (KCE), an exploration of movement landscapes or ‘kinescapes’ (Larsson et al., 2021, p. 2) in which mechanical, cultural and aesthetic expectations of good sport performance are intertwined (Barker, Nyberg, & Larsson, 2022). As a pedagogical approach, KCE focused on developing ability through a dynamic physical and socioculturally constructed process (Nyberg, Barker, & Larsson, 2020). Considering skill as a kinescape provided a means for me to reconceptualise skill development, even in a highly specialised sport like RG, and create unique learning opportunities that avoided the use of rote repetition of drills and progressions, emphasised understanding and awareness over automation and perfection, and minimized my authority and control. For me, striving to improve my practices meant taking a more holistic pedagogical approach to skill practice, where gymnasts were engaged physically, mentally,

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emotionally and socially in the learning process. To do this, I had to depart from the typical RG coaching materials to complement this unique pedagogical approach. What ‘counts’ as materials? In RG, sport-specific handheld objects (rope, ball, hoop, clubs and ribbon) and other objects, such as resistance bands, exercise balls and chairs, are commonly used to help develop skills. These are seen as tools with which the gymnast works to produce certain types of sport-specific movements. However, instead of focusing on what objects I could use, I began by considering what the gymnasts could learn about, not just what they needed to know (Larsson, Nyberg, & Barker, 2021). I drew on my experience of developing drills – deconstructing skills into isolated or serial components that would allow gymnasts to improve their perfor­ mance – to inform my learning of basic mechanical principles and dif­ ferent ways of experiencing movement. Nyberg, Barker, and Larsson (2020) created a set of ten stations (videos, images and issues to reflect on) to reorganise the learning environment of physical education students as they explored how to juggle. With this approach, the focus was less on scaffolded learning (starting with basic skills) and considered what abil­ ities, capabilities, interests and needs the students might have. I used Nyberg et al.’s approach as a stimulus to challenge the dominant form of skill practice in gymnastics (use of drills and progressions) to see how I could continually shift and shape the gymnasts’ exploration of move­ ment. Similar to Nyberg et al., I chose to share my new knowledge in the form of task cards (Figure 7.1) to allow gymnasts to develop different movement abilities (e.g., leaping, rotating). Although I had employed stations with competitive gymnasts in the past, my focus then was on teaching or practicing specific drills to improve performance and replicate idealised skills. Instead, the activities in my research project were designed to help the gymnasts connect new knowledge with their sensing and noticing of how different movements felt in their bodies. This emphasis on developing a sense of movement expertise required not only physical and mental engagement, but an appreciation of the ‘social norms, values and expectations that help to comprise that kinescape’ (Barker, Nyberg, & Larsson, 2022, p. 32). Understanding how an athlete experiences these activities was inextricably linked to their previous experience, what was learned at the stations and how this knowledge was embodied through movement. Thus, an inquirybased AR process challenged me to look beyond traditional RG objects and their uses to broaden my ideas of what counted as

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Figure 7.1 Examples of Two Task Card Activities. (A) Leaping. (B) Rotating

materials. Using Larsson et al. (2021) as inspiration, I employed print and video materials, space, language and atypical objects to learn how to enhance my development as a coach.

Print and video materials I created print and video materials to explain mechanical and biological concepts associated with skill movement in RG. For example, I descri­ bed different types of muscle contractions and provided anatomical images illustrating the location of certain muscles in the body. I created videos using animated characters and humour to simplify explanations of mechanical concepts, such as generation of force and conservation of momentum in leaping and rotating skills (Figure 7.2). Embedded within these descriptions and explanations were different activities with which gymnasts could experiment connecting theory with movement. This represented a radical departure from traditional practices, where gym­ nasts learned primarily through evaluative, descriptive and/or pre­ scriptive feedback given by the coach. By sharing concepts of how to generate movement and asking the gymnasts to consider how this information could help them improve their ability to perform a skill, I was able to connect theory and movement in a highly unique way. I also used dance and physical education (teaching) resources to learn about different qualities of movement, emotion and expression to help develop gymnasts’ body awareness. Planning and creating these materials required me to enhance my professional knowledge by reading scientific articles and searching through lay resources (blogs, videos).

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Figure 7.2 Images from the ‘Generating Force’ Video Used to Help Explain Mechanical Concepts. (A) Use of animation in the video. (B) and (C) Articulating theoretical concepts. (D) Using activities to embody theory. The cylindrical objects (marshmallows) in image D represented a pillow that was stuck to the floor (to prevent slipping) for the gymnasts to use as part of an activity to understand about generation of force.

Connecting theory and movement in this way not only changed the content of my practices but also the form of instruction (knowledge trans­ mission) I provided. Because I used printed and video materials at stations, gymnasts were able to control what and how much they learned; they could read, watch and do as little or as much as they wanted. They could learn at their own pace, ask questions and share experiences that resonated with them. In articulating theoretical concepts, I exposed the gymnasts to the how and why behind skill practice rather than simply telling them what to do, see, feel or think. These materials allowed me to change my actions as a coach and take a more hands-off approach in the gym. The way I arranged these materials (in stations) changed how I used the training space.

Space Different spaces and the materials therein can influence a person’s experience of physical ability (Monteforte, 2018). Instead of placing gymnasts into lines and formations based on age or training group as is typically reported in gymnastics (Barker-Ruchti & Tinning, 2010), I arranged the printed materials and videos in a series of stations around the perimeter of the space (rectangle). Gymnasts could move through the space, individually or in groups, chatting and discussing or pausing

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to take a break when they wanted. This open format presented differ­ ent opportunities to use and fill the space in a way that felt more naturally suited to the reciprocal dynamic of learning that I wanted to create. In short, changing the rhythm and flow of what was typically a highly regulated training space allowed me to see different opportu­ nities to transform my coaching practices, including how the gymnasts and I communicated and shared experiences.

Language Thinking about skill practice as both physically and socioculturally con­ structed challenged me to rethink what I said and how I said it. As Denison (2023) noted, a coach’s instructions are one element in an assemblage of objects and materials that influence movement skill learn­ ing in sport. I used words like ‘notice,’ ‘sense’ instead of phrases like ‘do it this way,’ ‘do it again’ or ‘don’t do that.’ Thinking about skill practice as an exploration of kinescapes encouraged me to talk about experimenting with movement (what happens if you try . . . ) rather than telling gymnasts what to do. I used words like ‘preferred’ or ‘other,’ trying to reflect a choice a gymnast could make or how a gymnast might feel about the movement. Rather than giving specific directions or providing a ‘right’ answer, I also learned to ask divergent, open-ended questions (e.g., What did you notice or sense when you did this? Which activity was your favourite and why? What did you learn from doing that activity? How did doing this activity compare to ...?) per Partington et al. (2014) to encou­ rage gymnasts to make their own connections between what they learned, what they knew and what they felt. Therefore, considering the language I used as a material to implement a unique pedagogical approach changed not only the content of what gymnasts could learn but how the coach and gymnasts thought about and discussed movement. These conversations often began with the atypical objects (e.g., a pillow) I employed at various stations (e.g., ‘What’s the pillow for?’; see Figure 7.2).

Objects Use of handheld objects is fundamental to RG; these objects determine the kind of skills gymnasts can create through manipulation in complex sequences of movement. Instead, I used pillows, towels, hurdles, a weigh­ ted sock, a stick, and cartoon images of different facial expressions to alter my pedagogical approach to focus on developing ability and incor­ porated typical RG apparatus at a single station that focused solely on

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play. These unusual objects prompted questioning looks by the gymnasts followed by curiosity about the content and activities at each station. I also considered the gymnasts’ bodies as pedagogical material: the sound, rhythm and tempo their feet made during locomotory and landing movements; the sound and feel of their breathing; and their own awareness of different qualities of movement (e.g., angry, happy, slow, fast, glide, sharp). In gymnastics, the emphasis is usually on visual observation by the coach with attention focused primarily on the ‘correct’ execution of a skill. Utilising other senses to explore move­ ment shifted my attention away from observation and surveillance to a create a broader, more holistic experience of movement. One of the most unlikely and yet revealing materials I used was a bench. Rather than commanding from the front or prowling around the space, I sat off to the side and became more conscious of my surveiling gaze. Relinquishing control of the gymnasts’ learning experi­ ence profoundly challenged my understanding of my role as a coach in the gym, where gymnasts could lead their own learning by sharing knowledge, collaborating and being emotionally and cognitively engaged, not just physically. Using a bench as a material to implement a unique pedagogical approach to skill practice sparked my realisation that inhabiting awkward spaces was an integral part of transforming my coaching practices and becoming a more ethical coach. In summary, the use of AR as a methodological approach enabled me to experiment with kinesio-cultural pedagogy that shaped my inquiry-based learning process in KSR 900. The iterative AR process required me to gain new knowledge to find an alternative pedagogical approach to skill practice (KCE) that challenged and changed how I thought about, talked about and practiced skills. To understand the impact of this unique and multilayered learning approach, I engaged in critical reflection.

Reflections In this section, I reflect on my practices, the materials I employed, and my experiences of using a KCE approach within an AR framework to explore how I could become a better gymnastics coach. KCE as a pedagogical approach within an AR framework At a stage in my coaching career where everything felt monotonous, I found joy in pushing myself to learn, understand and implement new knowledge. Thinking differently meant reconsidering the content (what

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gymnast could learn) to then thinking more creatively about the objects and materials I could use to ultimately reshape coach-gymnast inter­ actions through collaborative efforts to ask questions and make con­ nections. The process of sharing knowledge in multiple ways and using different materials to stimulate conversation excited and inspired me to continue to challenge my understanding of skill development as a PhD student. However, that was not to say that everything ran smoothly. I experienced a roller coaster of emotions throughout each action cycle. These cycles began with excitement, the idea of exploring something new with the gymnasts, where I did not have to have all the answers. This was followed by a drop in confidence and an increase in frustra­ tion. I found that asking thoughtful questions was not always easy; I often noticed opportunities to make connections after the training ses­ sion was complete, when I was recording my fieldnotes. Waiting for the gymnasts to share their thoughts required patience; I struggled to stay silent and not put words in their mouths. Sitting off to the side on a bench was discouraging and lonely at times for me. However, seeing these new ideas take shape and hearing the gymnasts enthusiastically share their thoughts and experiences at the culmination of each action cycle, re-energised and helped me regain confidence and engendered pride in what I had done. Creating videos was the most enjoyable and challenging part of the process. Using animated video inspired me to become more knowledgeable. I learned how to use a new app (Animaker) to create a ‘story’ to explain relevant mechanical and biological con­ cepts using words that would be understandable by gymnasts of a range of ages (12–19 years). Video creation made it easier to inject humour (e.g., incorporating plays on words, animated objects like rockets and people) into coaching practices that were traditionally staid and mechanical. One of the most surprising aspects was the revelation of how deeply embedded my expectations of ‘what a coach is, does, and should do’ were still tied to RG culture and traditions. Sitting on a bench made me feel useless and lazy, yet at the same time allowed me to see that I had created a more enjoyable learning environment, punctuated with laughter and encouragement, where gymnasts actively engaged in a more open, less coach-led training space. This helped me realise that transforming myself to become a more ethical coach was a complex process filled with an unexpected range of emotions, something that was never addressed in any previous coaching courses. Thus, my

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experience was made more meaningful and transformative because of the sense of purpose instilled by using an AR framework. AR as pedagogical and methodological framework AR, as an inquiry-based form of learning, was an effective pedagogical method to use in a graduate coaching course. As a student, I had to read scientific articles and write a literature review that helped me see what research had been done and where gaps remained. The process of identifying and answering a research question taught me how I could begin to create new research knowledge. As a methodological approach, the iterative process of AR required me to continually reflect on and revise my actions, challenging me to become aware of how my coaching practices were still intertwined in the culture and traditions of RG (i.e., the coach as the authority figure who dictates what is to be done and how by providing constant feed­ back in highly regimented spaces). The iteratively structured data col­ lection process of learning and doing helped me see that the ‘whole’ of my learning experience – how I could and was able to transform myself and my coaching practices using a pedagogical approach that infused my thinking about skill as an ability – was greater than the sum of the individual knowledges, materials and practices I employed. Trans­ forming my practices was not just something that happened because I chose to do it. This process required a significant amount of work and a deeper interrogation of my intentions and actions than I anticipated. This process of exploring how I could become a more ethical coach continues to influence and shape my practices, framing how I interpret what I see and experience in the gym, what I say and how I do things today.

Recommendations for practice Based on my experience, we make the following recommendations for how an inquiry-based approach, using AR as a methodological and pedagogical framework for learning, can be used in a graduate coach­ ing degree to complete an independent research project. 1

The student selects the topic. Allowing the student to develop their own topic makes the experience learner-centred and develops a greater sense of ownership of the work. Because the student iden­ tifies an issue from their own coaching context, they can choose a topic and pose a research question that is highly relevant.

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Furthermore, an AR framework enables the students to ‘research’ their own experiences instead of interviewing or observing others, enabling them to find and/or create new knowledge that is specific to the issue they have identified. This, in turn, increases the like­ lihood that this new knowledge will continue to be applied long after the completion of the project. Instructor as facilitator. Because the emphasis is placed on learning that interests the student, this inherently shifts relations between student and instructor, where the instructor now becomes a facil­ itator, guiding the student’s development as both a coach and as a researcher. By providing support through the iterative AR process of planning, implementing, analysis and reflection, the instructor enables a more critical and informative search for new knowledge that is implemented as part of the research process. As outlined in my reflection, transforming my coaching practices was neither straightforward nor easy. The instructor can facilitate conversa­ tions about who a coach is, what a coach does, what a coach’s role is in a training session and what it means to ‘become more ethical’ not only prior to the start of the research project but as a followup to examine how a coach-researcher’s ideas have changed over the course of the research project. In so doing, the instructor facilitates the coach-researcher’s critical thought, reflection and implementation of these ideas, going beyond simply applying wellintentioned but superficial ideas (e.g., ‘being nicer,’ asking athletes how they feel). Emphasising the iterative process of creating, implementing and evaluating new knowledge. The iterative process of AR requires that the coach-researcher looks beyond developing a toolbox of ideas as the process of continual reflection means knowledge is always changing. Unlike interviews or observation studies in which the researcher is on the outside looking in, utilising IBL and an AR framework challenges the coach-researcher to think more creatively and to find opportunities to think beyond quantitatively derived knowledge.

Being critical of one’s practices was not easy and may not work for every student and hence may be a limitation of this multilayered approach. One student’s experience of ‘becoming more ethical’ may be difficult to translate to coaches with less experience of the messiness of coaching, to coaches who struggle to see beyond the positivist and humanist approaches advocated in coaching courses, or to a larger class. In addition, the main focus of the course was on writing the research

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project; therefore, the research period was relatively short. Having a longer research window could add to coach-researchers’ learning, allow­ ing them to find more inventive ways to push the boundaries of their coaching practices. However, these limitations could also inform future research directions, such as examining how a larger group of coachresearchers can create their own inquiry-based research project to trans­ form their own coaching practices. Or instead of a single research paper, students could write multiple, short papers on how their use of novel pedagogies within an iterative AR framework allows them to explore multiple ways of how to become more ethical coaches.

Conclusion Becoming a more ethical coach requires more than simply following wellintentioned guidelines and policies. It is a challenging process of re-creat­ ing oneself through the critical questioning of everyday practices and assumptions about what a coach should do. In KSR 900, I employed an AR framework, under Pirkko’s guidance, to examine critically my current pedagogical practices as an RG coach. I began by considering what ‘more ethical coaching practices’ could look like in RG and searched for alter­ native scientifically informed approaches using an inquiry-based learning process. I actualised the knowledge I gained, and created a kinesio-cultural pedagogical approach. Such an approach shifted my coaching practices away from drills, progressions and constant feedback toward practices that enabled me to embody my values through my actions and words. As a result, I was able to create a more collaborative learning space where laughter, questions and discussions took priority over mechanical approaches to skill practice. Based on this experience, we think using AR to frame an IBL process is an effective way to facilitate coach-researchers’ development and learning to become more ethical practitioners in the context of higher education.

Note 1 The explicit demonstration and discussion of ‘what to do’ and ‘how to do it’ was a vital step in the AR process. Action cycles (data collection) were implemented over a six-week period following discussion of the Methods chapter. The fieldnotes class was held between the action cycles. The final class, Writing the Paper, was held after data were analysed.

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8

Education for Sustainable

Development

Fostering Sustain‘abilities’ in Sports Coaches Natalie Barker-Ruchti and Laura G. Purdy

Introduction Athlete reports of abuse, bullying and harassment by coaches have increased the importance and urgency of challenging unethical beha­ viours in sport with the key to improved coaching lying with evidencebased education (Armour, 2010; Mergaert et al., 2016). Consequently, the quality, development and delivery of meaningful coach education has been a long-standing area of interest by scholars and practitioners alike. In developing meaningful coach education, scholars have considered ways it could reflect the integrated, pressured and fluid nature of coaches’ work. Methods that have been utilised to address the complexity of coaching include communities of practice (Jones et al., 2012), blogs (Stoszkowski et al., 2017), problem-based learning (PBL) (Driska & Gould, 2014; Jones & Turner, 2006), ethnodrama (Morgan et al., 2013) and case method teaching (Roberts & Ryrie, 2014). These pedagogies have been valued due to their ability to encourage learners to be creative, solve problems, make links between theory and practice, and work collabora­ tively – competences that have been identified as essential to quality coaching practice (Roberts & Ryrie, 2014; Shaheen, 2010). However, these innovative pedagogies also have limitations. For example, although their starting point has been to ‘fix’ the weaknesses of didactic approaches (e.g., connecting theory and practice, bringing in more authenticity, encoura­ ging interdisciplinary knowledge), the methods may be limited in devel­ oping ethical values, attitudes and behaviours considered necessary to transform the normalised training methods and coaching practices that athletes have in recent years disclosed and which are today recognised to violate their physical and psychological integrity. This chapter introduces Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), an approach that teaches ‘quality of mind’ competences also termed sus­ tain‘abilities’ (Wals, 2010a; Wals & Jickling, 2002). We further demonstrate DOI: 10.4324/9781003439646-9

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how ESD, alongside a case method pedagogy, has the potential to over­ come some of the limitations of existing pedagogies and didactic approa­ ches in coach education. Lastly, we provide details of the University of Gothenburg course (read also module; paper) IIG206 Sustainable Sports Coaching, which the authors created based on ESD. The chapter concludes with reflections on the course and recommendations for practice.

Pedagogical theory and approach ESD was first endorsed in 1987 by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly and anchored in the UN’s Agenda 21 in 1992 (UNESCO, 1992). Today, ESD is part of the UN’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which its 193 member states adopted in 2015 (UN, 2015). The 2030 Agenda does not specifically mention sport; however, the UN and the Office on Sport for Development and Peace recognise and support the contribu­ tions sport can make to enable sustainable development (UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development A/RES/70/1, paragraph 37). The UN recognises education as the key foundation to achieve the 17 SDGs. Taking this recognition to higher education, environmental education scholar and UNESCO chair of Social Learning and Sus­ tainable Development Arjen Wals (2010b) argues that ‘universities in particular have a responsibility in creating space for alternative think­ ing and the emergence of new ideas, as well as in critically exploring old ones’ (p. 380). For universities to fulfil this responsibility, Wals (2010b) calls for a move away from a knowledge to a competence orientation. In this scholar’s opinion (as others; Barth et al., 2015), a competence orientation is essential for learners to gain the capacity to respond to today’s challenges concerning environmental sustainability. ESD’s focus on competence to develop sustainability has its origin in the belief that sustainability cannot be prescribed but must be sought (Wals & Jickling 2002). This seeking process is continuous and must be democratic so as to integrate the organisations and individuals that are locally affected by sustainability challenges (Jickling & Wals 2008; Wals & Jickling 2002). Finding solutions that are sustainable econom­ ically, environmentally and socially, however, is tricky, if not impos­ sible, especially within the contemporary prioritisation of the economy. A similar situation may also be the case for sport and elite sport in particular. Indeed, in the current context of elite sport, practices that may be sustainable for athletes’ health and welfare are often incon­ sistent with expected performance progression, competition results and sponsorship deals (Barker-Ruchti et al., 2017). This may be even more

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so if athletes have little or no agency over their training and perfor­ mance goals, which is an experience many athletes disclose. The definition of sustainability as a process of seeking rather than an outcome reflects two interlinked assumptions. First, ESD scholars agree that it is impossible to find universal answers to sustainability because knowledge of what may be sustainable changes over time and between contexts (Wals, 2011). Second, research has shown that a prescription of sustainable actions to reach certain outcomes disempowers the people locally affected by sustainability challenges (Wals, 2009, 2011). While the current urgency given to environmental and/or economic protection may tempt the prescription of sustainable behaviour, Wals (2011) cautions, arguing that ‘the flight to instrumentalism [i.e., teach what is right and wrong] might keep us from developing a more resilient society with a planetary conscience’ (p. 178). Ready-to-consume answers do not increase learners’ awareness to change behaviour; rather, such answers may be counterproductive as they stifle creativity, critical thinking and ethical decision-making. Therefore, in response to the criticism towards conventional knowledge orientation and instrumental education, ESD scholars have turned to investigate emancipatory and transformative pedagogies and approaches to teaching. From this perspective, education is charged to foster the mindsets that can ‘critique, construct and act with a high degree of autonomy and self-determination’ (Wals, 2011, p. 179). It is here that ESD reflects the idea that sustainability must be sought through a process that co-constructs understanding and action (Wals & Jickling, 2002). It is also here that scholars (e.g., Bamber, 2020; BarkerRuchti & Purdy, 2023; Nasibulina, 2015) argue that ESD can instil in learners the competence to search for ethically acceptable actions. Gestalt switching as a sustainability competence To conceptualise what ESD is aiming to achieve, scholars (Barth et al., 2007; Wals, 2010b) propose ‘gestalt switching’ as a metaphor and overview of desirable sustainability competences. Epistemologically, gestalt switching is described as a forward-looking ability that enables individuals ‘to modify and model the future of the societies in which [they] live, participating actively in the spirit of sustainable development’ (de Haan, 2006, p. 22, emphasis ours). Ontologically, gestalt switching is explained as a form of ‘being’ that entails skills such as ‘creative and critical thinking, oral and written communication, collaboration and cooperation, conflict manage­ ment, decision-making, problem-solving and planning, and practical citi­ zenship’ (Barth et al., 2007, p. 418; see also de Haan, 2006; Wals, 2010a). Table 8.1 outlines the five gestalts of gestalt switching with examples of

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Temporal gestalt



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Working interdisciplinarily

Achieving open-mindedness



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Disciplinary gestalt

Spatial gestalt

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Thinking in a forwardlooking manner Dealing with uncertainty Managing predictions and expectations Planning for the future

Gestalt-Switching Competences

Gestalts

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Emphasise social relevance Accept that athletes are intelligent and capable citizens who have a desire to engage in meaningful learning and overall development

Employ ethically practical knowledge from different sources (e.g., different sciences, experience, different actors) Make context-specific value judgements Adopt a no-one-size-fits-all philosophy

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Connects sport-specific values and learn­ ing to wider society Facilitates possibilities for athletes to contribute to making decisions Facilitates learning experiences outside of the athlete’s specific training context and sport (could be another sport)

Is educated in and develops his/her interdisciplinary knowledge Recognises the unique circumstances of a situation and evaluates the importance of various factors within it Individualises his/her coaching and the training methods

Sets process, not outcome goals Is aware of unexpected events and adjusts regularly and accordingly Facilitates the dual career approach, time for other activities (family/friends, work, holidays) Cultivates relationships with, e.g., ath­ letes’ families/schools/work

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� � Adopt a process orientation Accept and work with uncertainty and unpredictability Invest in athletes’ athletic/ physical and personal growth Establish and maintain communal relations

Examples of What Coaches Would Do

Examples of Coaching Competences

Table 8.1 Gestalts, Gestalt-Switching Competences and Examples of Coaching Competences

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Protecting the environment Adopting biocentric ethics

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� Act carefully towards the environment Reflect critically on technology and the use of technology Act carefully towards animals involved in sport

Create pluralist community and working ethics Conduct athlete-centred coaching that cares or is care(ful) Instil high degrees of selfdetermination and transformation Co-create knowledge and emergent objectives Provide positive feedback

Examples of Coaching Competences



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Transhuman gestalt

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Cultural gestalt

Appreciating difference Cooperating across cultures Feeling empathy, sympathy and solidarity

Gestalt-Switching Competences

Gestalts

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Considers carefully how to travel to/from training/competition and use of equip­ ment/facilities Uses technology only when well versed in or with experts Respects animal rights and individua­ lises training methods

Accepts that athletes have different motivations and goals and supports their achievement Co-constructs goals and training process with athletes Has myriad ways that facilitate athlete contribution/co-decision-making Implements various ways to give positive feedback (i.e., not only orally)

Examples of What Coaches Would Do

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what coaching competences these might entail. The ‘temporal gestalt’ includes past, present, future and intergenerational mindsets; the ‘disciplinary gestalt’ includes knowledge from the social and natural sciences; the ‘spatial gestalt’ includes local, regional, global and beyond global gestalts; the ‘cultural gestalt’ entails multiple cultural mindsets, and the ‘transhuman gestalt’ accounts for the nonhuman world (Wals, 2010a). According to Wals (2011), responding to the challenges of sus­ tainability requires the ability to switch between gestalts as well as ‘an awareness of one’s own predominant Gestalts and willingness to, at least temporarily, put oneself into another Gestalt’ (p. 182). This is possible, according to Wals (2011), via transformative social learning theory, an amalgam of several learning theories: transdis­ ciplinary learning, transformative learning, anticipatory learning, collaborative learning and social learning. This learning theory focuses on developing new ways of being and seeing through reallife situations and learning with and from others, especially in con­ texts that include diversity (Wals & Blewitt, 2010). This is the pre­ mise of ESD as individual transformation is required for learners to understand and handle today’s sustainability challenges and to develop sustainable futures. Transforming higher education learners into gestalt switchers requires questions about how universities focus their education on ‘learning for doing’ and ‘learning for being’ whilst still developing ‘learning for knowing.’ These questions are particularly relevant as the gestalt-switching competences outlined above are argued to not be teachable but to require development through alternative pedagogical strategies of delivery (Barth et al., 2007). In coach education, Wals’s (2011) emancipatory perspective of education and authentic, transdisciplinary, interactive and selfdetermined strategy of delivery makes sense, as sport (elite sport in particular) has been identified as a practice and product that creates ethical dilemmas and has multiple unsustainable consequences (e.g., abuse, doping, corruption) (Barker et al., 2014). Moreover, gestaltswitching competences could very well act as a normative starting point to support coaches in responding to the unpredictability and precarity of contemporary sport (Gerdin et al., 2018; Purdy & Potrac, 2016). Thus, and to explore ESD’s transformative potential, we embarked on developing the course IIG206 Sustainable Sports Coaching, which we intended to allow students to work with reallife scenarios that foster ethical competences.

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Pedagogical practice and materials The course IIG206 Sustainable Sports Coaching (read also module; paper) was developed for third-year sports coaching students of a threeyear bachelor degree programme at the University of Gothenburg in Sweden. The course was taught in English and was worth 7.5 ECTS credits, which translated to a total of 200 hours of in-person and inde­ pendent study. The course was held in a five-week teaching block, during which the students did not read other courses. The course con­ sisted of two blocks. The first block, covering the first three days of the course, entailed three three-hour lectures that aimed to introduce sus­ tainability science, sustainability and sport (lectures 1 and 2) and ethics in sport (lecture 3). The second block, during the rest of the five-week course time, entailed four seminars through which the students dis­ cussed sustainability and ethics along a provided practice case study (seminar 1, at the end of the course’s first week) and presented and dis­ cussed the case-based work that the students prepared for each of the remaining three seminars during the remaining four weeks of the course. A case method pedagogy was selected to reflect Wals’s (2010b) transformative social learning theory, which intends to afford students agency and individuality in developing their learning (Sriskandarajah et al., 2010). This method includes case studies or representations of real-life situations that require the learners to identify and address problems that are realistic to that faced in the workplace (Ellet, 2007). Through its analysis, students develop habits for dissecting problems, reasoning analytically about issues, drawing conclusions and develop­ ing action plans for solutions (Clawson & Haskins, 2006). Through this process of analysing a case, students are asked to think on their feet (i. e., quick decision-making), identified as key for coaches (Cassidy, 2012; Light & Evans, 2013; Morgan et al., 2013; Roberts & Ryrie, 2014). The case method has also been identified as valuable in bridging the gap between theory and practice – that is, the classroom-based content and the skills required to perform in the workplace (Dixon, 2008) and is thus suited to address the popular criticism of formal coach education programmes (Jones et al., 2012; Morgan et al., 2013; Stoszkowski et al., 2017; Szedlak et al., 2018). An additional focus of ESD is its focus on ethics (Barth et al., 2007; de Haan, 2006; Wals, 2010b). As men­ tioned previously, this was important to us as discussions of ethics have largely been absent in higher education coach education, despite more and more athletes raising attention about abuse and maltreatment by their coaches. Further, one of the appeals of case method pedagogy that we considered important is the possibility for the facilitator/

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teacher to provide the occasional interjection with critical questions to focus attention on areas such as ethics. For students to understand the delivery and work process involved, we split the course into four phases: Phase 1: Making sense of sustainability, ethics and case study learning Phase 2: Adapting the chosen case and making sense of it from student and stakeholder perspectives Phase 3: Drawing upon scientific literature to understand the case Phase 4: Developing intervention strategies with stakeholders and considering risks The assessment consisted of a portfolio that should not exceed 35 pages (including title page, table of contents, list of references). The portfolio included group- and individually produced (and graded) sections, which the students developed during the course’s four phases.1 The group sec­ tions entailed the description of the adjusted case, the proposed interven­ tion and the group’s risk assessment. The individual sections comprised of students’ own reflections on the scientific perspective and knowledge chosen to inform the case, synthesis of scientific knowledge, consideration of the implications in relation to sustainability science and the process of working with the chosen dilemmatic case. Below, we present the course’s four phases, and to illustrate the students’ work, we include text boxes that contain the exemplary work that a group had produced on the ice hockey case (see Table 8.2 for a description of the case). Phase 1: Making sense of sustainability, ethics and case study learning The purpose of the three teacher-led sessions was to familiarise stu­ dents with the concept of sustainability thinking as defined by Jickling and Wals (2008). That is, sustainability and sustainable outcomes cannot be prescribed and indoctrinated but must be sought through a continuous inclusive, co-creative and transformative process of ‘learn­ ing at the edge.’ On the one hand, this understanding was crucial for students to understand sustainability in sport (and sports coaching) and to learn gestalt switching (Wals, 2010b). On the other hand, the understanding was essential for students to become familiar with the nature, structure and assessment of the course. In session 3, students were introduced to rule- and virtue-based ethics (McNamee, 2011). The emphasis here was to demonstrate that prescriptive ethics (i.e., rule-based ethics) may be limited because although such ethics “commonly tell us what not to do, often what to aim towards, and

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occasionally, what to do, they leave so much else in the void’ (McNamee, 2011, p. 3). Translated to (elite) sport, the lecture focused on demonstrating how competing discourses – particularly sport’s logic of competition and winning – may influence stakeholders (e.g., coaches, athletes, officials) to ignore and/or find loopholes to get around rules (Kvalens & Hemmestad, 2010). Virtue-based ethics, in contrast, entail the deliberation on ‘things that are good or bad for humans’ (Aristotle, 1976, p. 1140), a practice that McNamee (2011) considers necessary to strengthen rule-based ethics. For the IIG206 course, the combination of sustainability thinking and virtuebased ethics were not only compatible, but they also provided a crucial conceptual foundation for students to embark on their case-based work. As students were unfamiliar with the case method, seminar 1 inclu­ ded an exemplary case (Case 3, see Table 8.2) and a set of questions on sustainability and ethics that students answered in preparation and discussed during the seminar. The questions were: 1 2 3 4

5 6

What rule- and virtue-based ethics does the case relate to? Which rule- and virtue-based ethics does the situation presented in the case violate? In answering questions (1) and (2), whose perspectives do you adopt? Could your perspective be considered biased? If so, in which way(s)? Who is responsible to ensure that (rule- and virtue-based) ethics are adhered to by those involved in the case? If adherence is ensured, who is to benefit, and who may not benefit? What factors may harm or even hinder ethical adherence? How may the violation of (rule- and virtue-based) ethics relate to (un) sustainability? What type of (un)sustainability are you considering? How do you propose (a more) sustainable situation of the case under study?

At the conclusion of the seminar, the students were asked to form groups of two to five students and choose one of the seven cases introduced to them (see Table 8.2 for case summaries). Phase 2: Adapting the chosen case and understanding it from the stakeholder perspectives Following the selection of a case, students adapted the chosen case to suit their coaching backgrounds. Students were able to amend aspects of the case such as the sport, the athlete’s/athletes’ age, gender, ability, and details of the situation and problem (e.g., change the elbow injury in tennis to a knee injury in soccer). The rationale behind the adaption was

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Primary stakeholders: 2 female surfers, female national coach (which is the role the student group was asked to adopt) Secondary stakeholders: Male strength and conditioning coach, National Surfing Federation, interna­ tional surfing community Situation and problem: The two surfers don’t like each other, and training develops into competi­ tions between the two rather than perfor mance development. To solve this, you train the surfers individually (while the other does strength training). In response, the surfers become suspicious that you favour one surfer over the other. You are aware that if you cannot succeed with one or both surfers, you will jeopardize your coaching career prospects. Primary stakeholders: Head coach, assistant coach 1, assistant coach 2 (which is the role the student group was asked to adopt), 20 ice hockey players Secondary stakeholders: Strength and conditioning coach, ice hockey club, young athletes’ parents Situation and problem: You notice a lack of energy and motivation in the players, mainly the younger ones. The group seems divided into old and new players, and the older ones feel threatened by the younger ones and therefore exclude the new team members from the group, which results in bad per­ formances of the team. Primary stakeholders: 18-year-old swimmer, youth-level swimming coach (which is the role the student group was asked to adopt), medical practitioner, Swimming Federation selectors Secondary stakeholders: Parents, senior national champion, boyfriend Situation and problem: The young swimmer you are coaching has beaten the seven-time national champion’s time. The National Championships are one we ek away. Your young swimmer has re cently increased her training sessions from six to nine sessions. The day before you leave for the national championships, the young swimmer tells you that she believes she has a chest infection. She is a for mer asthmatic and prone to chest infections, but her parents have assured you that she is fine. The swimmer is generally quiet and doesn’t share private infor mation with you.

National coach to develop toplevel surfers

Youth-level swimming coach

Assistant coach on an ice hockey team

Case Summary

Case Title

Table 8.2 Summaries of the Seven Cases the IIG206 Students Could Choose

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Primary stakeholders: Assistant coach (which is the role the student group was asked to adopt), head coach, players, team captain, honorarium advisers Secondary stakeholders: Football club, national federation, players’ agents Situation and problem: As an assistant coach, you have had a good professional relationship with the head coach and a close relationship with the players. In the past couple of weeks, you have noticed that the head coach is bringing in external experts and excluding you from the sessions. You do not recogniz e this behaviour. At present, you are at an international tournament and your team is expected to place in the top five. Early on, your team loses to a lower ranked team. After the final whistle, the head coach leaves the team. The players are extremely upset and are threatening to do the same even though there are two more matches to play. The next day, the media report negatively about your team. Primary stakeholders: Regional coach (which is the role the student group was asked to adopt), bas­ ketball player, strength and conditioning coach, player’s family Secondary stakeholders: Basketball team, national basketball team Situation and problem: One of your players has been selected into the national team for the upcoming major international championships. This player is 32 years old. During the week of the championships, a family situation arises, and the player decides to stay behind. This is stressful and will affect his pro­ spects in the national team. Consequently, the player increases his training. The national selectors are negative about his performance – reminding him that he missed a ‘major’ tournament. You have seen how the player has progressed and the intensity put into the sport; however, due to work commitments, family commitments and the increased training load, the athlete has been ill on several occasions and subsequently missed several sessions. The national selectors have asked you whether he is fit for selection.

Assistant coach women’s toplevel club foot­ ball team

Regional coach of a wheelchair basketball team

Case Summary

Case Title

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Primary stakeholders: Coach (which is the role the student group was asked to adopt), tennis player, parents Secondary stakeholders: University, club, national Olympic committee Situation and problem: You are working with one of the top tennis players in your country. Your player is determined, and her goal is to improve her WTA (Women’s Tennis Association) ranking. Due to her strong two-handed backhand, she is on her way. Unfortunately, your player sustains an overuse injury on her wrist, which requires her to have surgery. Following the surgery and intensive physiotherapy, the athlete is struggling to regain her two-handed backhand. You decide to have her relearn the stroke using one arm/hand only. The relearning frustrates the player because it further slows her ranking progression. Your player loves tennis and really wants to win, but you can see a change in her behaviour. She stops smiling at training and is not as talkative. Furthermore, given that she is funded by her country’s Olympic committee, there is pressure for her to regain her form to maintain her funding. Primary stakeholders: Performance director (which is the role the student group was asked to adopt), coach, skiers Secondary stakeholders: Sport governing body, sport scientists Situation and problem: Your sport relies on government funding, and podium finishes at international events are important to secure funding for each Olympic cycle. You fear that a loss in funding will set the programme back. Consequently, you have been very strategic in terms of allocating funding to athletes who are strong contenders for podium finishes. However, you have been hearing murmurs from your sport sci­ ence support team that the coach’s approach to training methods is ‘old fashioned.’ Rather than investing his faith in sport science, lactate levels, and other measurements, the coach appears to believe that survival on the terrain determines who should be on the team. Recently, the more experienced athletes and sport scientists have approached you with similar concerns. You are worried that such opposing opinions of the coach may have an impact on the team. In addition, you receive an angry phone call from the lead researcher in charge of the next Olympic campaign asking why you have not spent the money allocated to you for additional sport science support, specialised equipment and more sophisticated testing. Feeling under pressure, you know you need to decide the coach’s future in the programme.

Junior develop­ ment coach of a tennis player

Performance director of a high-perfor­ mance Nordic ski team

Case Summary

Case Title

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that it would make it easier for students to speak with stakeholders represented in the case – that is, to contact individuals from their coach­ ing/sporting networks. Upon returning to class one week later (seminar 2), the students presented the adapted case, their own and the stake­ holders’ understanding of the situation and unethical/unsustainable dilemma, as well as reflections on responsibilities and initial ideas as to how the situation could be managed. In the text box below, we provide an example of how the group of students working with the ice hockey case approached the dilemma. The group opted to keep the sport the same as they were well connected in it. To discuss the case and propose solutions, the students consulted an older and a young player, and a head coach. Understanding the perspectives of stakeholders who would be confronted with the dilemma presented in the case reflects the democratic process of seeking which is essential to ESD. Case 2: The Ice Hockey Team Background You have been appointed as the new assistant coach along with four other colleagues (head coach, assistant coach, strength coach and conditioning coach) to a semi-professional ice hockey team, and for the first two weeks, you are given time to just observe to get a sense of the club and the team. Of the total of 20 players, four are young high school students and new to the team, whereas the rest of the team has played together for a long time and are well acquainted with the head coach’s programme. All the athletes have some sort of occupation besides ice hockey, such as a part-time job or as a stu­ dent. The team has two on-ice training sessions a day, and these are scheduled every morning and evening. Problem As a new member of the group, you have observed a lack of energy and motivation in the players, mainly the younger ones. You con­ clude that the younger players have trouble performing well because of the lack of team cohesion and the fact that the older players don’t allow the youngsters to enter the group on the same conditions as the older ones. That conclusion is based on the observation of younger players leaving the locker room with their heads down and seemingly in a bad mood after training, as well as an unbalanced distribution of the workload during training. Also, the younger players

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regularly are ‘responsible’ for collecting and picking up the pucks and packing sweaty hockey gear after training sessions and games, which is considered a menial job. To sum it up, the group seems divided into old and new players, and the older ones seem to feel threatened by the younger ones and therefore exclude the new team members from the group, which results in bad performances of the team. The case as perceived by stakeholders in their discussions with the students Head coach: He says that it’s extremely tough for a coach knowing that something is wrong but not exactly what it is. He would start with talking to the players individually and maybe not illustrate that it’s a problem when talking to the older players. When talking to the new, younger players, he says that he would be much more direct and ask them how they feel and how they have been received by the other team members. He challenges norms like who is supposed to pick up the pucks but states that one must be a really strong leader to be able to do that. Older player: He doesn’t recognize the problem as such and thinks that hazing rituals often can be helpful in integrating new members to the team. It seems natural for younger players to pick up pucks after training, ‘because it’s always been like that.’ He believes that the solution to the problem could be team-building activities without the pressure of having to perform in training. He also thinks that team discussions could deepen the problem and therefore suggests indi­ vidual talks or discussions in small groups. Younger player: He says that as a younger player, one must accept to do things like pick up the pucks or unpack the bags, and it’s not a big deal. ‘All the other players’ have been in the same situation, and that’s normal. He states that it isn’t fun but that it’s a part of becoming a member of the team.

Phase 3: Drawing upon scientific literature to understand the case In this phase, students needed to search for inter-paradigmatic knowledge about the topics presented in the unethical/unsustainable case dilemma. Each student was tasked to source and summarise one peer-reviewed scientific article that helped them to better

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understand the case. In doing so, each student group was required to work interdisciplinarily – that is, to collate and synthesise knowledge about the case from scientific perspectives across the positivist, post-posi­ tivist and interpretive paradigms. In seminar 3, the students discussed the acquired knowledge in their groups and prepared a synthesis of this information for their portfolio. To illustrate what this search for interparadigmatic literature looked like, the following text box presents the choices the group working with the ice hockey case made. 1 2 3 4

Transitions in sport – pedagogical literature on how younger athletes could be better incorporated into the team/PE class Group/team environments – business literature on group dynamics and leadership Principles of ‘positive youth development’ – psychological lit­ erature using self-determination theory Team sports cultures – sociological literature on hazing

At the conclusion of seminar 3, students were introduced to ways that they can evaluate risks when intervening in the unsustainable/unethical dilemma. Students were asked to assess the risks that the intervention strategies that they would develop as part of the course’s last phase (see below) can entail. The content of the introduction to risk assessment was based on Klinke and Renn’s (2002) alternative approach, which assumes that risk and what is considered ‘risky’ is socially constructed and thus specific to contexts, cultures, practices and people. Accordingly, for risk assessments to include perceived and real risks, listening to people’s per­ ceptions of risks and drawing upon scientific knowledge to predict risks is required (Klinke & Renn, 2002). This precaution-based risk management aligns nicely with the co-constructive understanding of sustainability thinking and virtue-based ethics. Phase 4: Developing intervention strategies with stakeholders and considering risks In this final phase, students developed the strategies to affect the unsustainable/unethical case dilemma and assessed their risks. Important here was that students who were now informed by their review of literature and an understanding of ethics completed this phase in collaboration with the stakeholders that they had spoken with in phase 1. The rationale for this was that students do not

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prescribe sustainable outcomes but democratically develop these with those represented in the case (Jickling & Wals, 2008). In semi­ nar 4, students presented their intervention strategies and risk assessment to the class and their classmates provided feedback, which the students used to finalise their portfolios. The text box below presents the solutions the student group working with the ice hockey case proposed. As a coach, we could delegate responsibility and tasks such as who picks up the pucks to the players. The reason for this is to challenge old habits that often appear in an ice hockey locker room. The younger player thinks that if the orders come from the coaching staff and they are clear, then the players would listen and adhere to them. The coach stakeholder also says that it might be good to try to break the norms. He says that he would have competitions about the puck-picking instead or let everyone unpack their own bags after games. He would like the age-related tasks to disappear and is aware that this needs to be challenged continuously. The older player is not certain that these things would make the situation better, as he doesn’t see it as a problem. He says the issue will not be resolved by hanging out with the new ones all the time; it’s more about getting them to feel comfortable in the group. One way to address this is by reducing the hierarchical tasks required to become a member of the team. For example, the assistant coaches can take a role in which we show up early to practices or talk to the younger players more. The coaches could also be more present in the locker room to get a better picture of what the team environment looks like and get to know the players better. The young player thinks that such an intervention would be really good, and he thinks it promotes a more relaxed relationship between players and coaches. The older player also thinks it’s a good idea as it would reduce hierarchies and let the coaching staff see what’s going on. Possible risks: 1

2

The ice hockey players might ignore the coaches’ directions/ instructions if they are not presented clearly and with great importance. The older players might take a bigger role in the group, leaving the younger players with limited voice.

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Reflections and recommendations for practice In this section, we reflect on three aspects and, based on these reflec­ tions, present recommendations for practice. Where relevant, we include student quotations taken from course evaluations. Our first reflection and recommendation relate to reimagining sports coaching pedagogy in higher education. As mentioned throughout the chapter, sustain‘abilities’ (i.e., gestalt switching) are learnable but not teachable in a traditional (didactic) way. Sustainable development necessitates societal modernisation and may only be realised via the active participation of competent citizens. Thus, a transformative social learning theory approach and case method pedagogy are useful to enable such learning. However, curriculum developers need to be aware that it may take time to ‘reimagine’ such a course. Such reimagination may not be straight forward as presently, limited literature is available to guide this endeavour. It may also take time to convince programme directors and co-facilitators/teachers that alternative strategies are fruitful. Doubts may also be voiced by students, especially if they have predominantly experienced traditional approaches and pedagogy. This may result in resistance to the student-independence approach and limit the overall effectiveness of the course. However, this could be mitigated by allowing students time to ‘settle in’ to the module and offering additional practice opportunities before students begin to work with the case. Relating to this, the students enjoyed the IIG206 course and found it valuable to their learning; however, they recognised that the experience of working through the case ‘challenge[d] their views and that it [was] quite exhausting or draining’ (student evaluation). Our second reflection and recommendation relate to where a course such as IIG206 would ‘best’ be positioned in a degree programme and if, in preceding courses, students could be prepared for it. For instance, if delivered in the third year of study, students could be introduced to case method pedagogy earlier in the programme so that they are accustomed to the process of engaging with a case. If this is not pos­ sible, students might need more time and practice before moving to the assessed case. A similar argument could be applied to student’s famil­ iarisation with searching for and reviewing literature and working independently. Relating to this, there needs to be coherence between the pedagogical approach, strategies and content. For example, it is important to consider when to introduce particular concepts or the­ ories (i.e., the case method, sustainability thinking, ethics, risk evalua­ tion) and the assessment. Here, it is important to allow time to process the information before introducing another idea/concept. Still, students

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may experience frustrations going through the course’s four phases. A recurring problem some students experienced was a fretting over details that they felt the case descriptions lacked. For some, this frustration over missing information prevented students from moving on from the first two phases, which focused on understanding the case, to phases 3 and 4, which required intervening in the case. Their getting stuck shows how important and valuable the seminars were for students to receive feedback but also for students to have opportunities to deal with ambiguity and precarity, as this replicates the complexity of reallife situations. For most of the students, having to work ‘at the edge’ was appreciated, as the following two student quotations indicate: I have learned that things are changeable, and how I could develop ideas and thoughts along with my classmates. I have gotten more aware of the possibility of situations that might interfere with performance and goal achievement. I have realized an advantage as an educated coach compared to coaches with no scien­ tific education when facing unsustainable and risky situations. Further, the search for interdisciplinary literature across different sci­ entific paradigms, and the synthesis of the gained knowledge was challenging. This is also where the grading showed the greatest differ­ ences, with some students producing excellent syntheses while others needing to revise this part of the portfolio assessment multiple times before reaching a passing grade. Still, student evaluations showed that this challenge, too, was appreciated, also because it developed colla­ boration competences: I improved on working within a team. I learned about how much scientific knowledge contributes to a sustainable solution. It was useful to learn how we can use scientific knowledge in practice. Our third reflection and recommendation relate to student agency. The case method such as we used it in the IIG206 course allows the student groups freedom in how to complete each of the four phases. While the seminars give the course a tight structure (given the tight five-week schedule) and serve as checkpoints for the work students produce, their decisions regarding the adaption of the case, the inclusion of stake­ holders, the chosen literature, the intervention and the risk assessment can be surprising! This in turn requires that the facilitator/teacher accepts diverse outcomes in how students develop their case work.

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Conclusion There are numerous examples of unsustainable practices in the sport industry (e.g., abuse, doping, corruption), with scholarship identifying unethical coaching at the core of many athlete welfare issues (Kavanagh et al., 2023; Wilinsky & McCabe, 2021). Furthermore, it has been agreed that traditional didactic approaches to coach education neglect to prepare students for the swift (ethical) ‘thinking on one’s feet’ that coaches require (e.g., Hemmestad et al., 2010; Morgan et al., 2013; Roberts & Ryrie, 2014). As these scholars identify, this form of deliberation has been recognised to entail several ‘quality of mind’ competences including (self-) reflection, critical thinking, and the consideration of multiple knowledges to understand the impact on self and others. Beyond the field of sports coaching, there has been growing dissatisfaction with traditional didactic forms of higher education and a desire for a more relevant and ‘effective’ approach to education – for example, McMaster University’s problem­ based learning approach to medical studies (Spaulding & Neufeld, 1973) and, more recently, Arjen Wals’s (2009) ESD. ESD’s focus from a knowledge- to competence-orientated higher education places emphasis on the development of ‘quality of mind’ competences also termed sustain‘abilities’ (Wals, 2010a; Wals & Jick­ ling, 2002). This form of ‘gestalt switching’ or forward-looking ability requires students’ ability to switch between the various gestalts (i.e., temporal, disciplinary, spatial, cultural and transhuman) and a will­ ingness, albeit only temporarily, to put oneself into another gestalt (Wals, 2011). To do this, Wals and colleagues (i.e., Jickling & Wals, 2008; Sriskandarajah et al., 2010) argue that education needs to build on real-life cases that entail group work, include diverse learner popu­ lations, and foster the learning of ‘quality of mind’ competences that are essential for ethical decision-making and deliberation. Thus, a case method pedagogy coheres with ESD as its underpinning transformative social learning theory affords students agency and individuality in developing their learning (Sriskandarajah et al., 2010; Wals, 2010b). Furthermore, it requires students to identify and address ethical situa­ tions or issues that they are likely to encounter in the field, something that has been a challenge to achieve through traditional didactic forms of university coach education but are essential to coaching practice. Through the use of IIG206 Sustainable Sports Coaching, we in this chapter showed how ESD and a case method pedagogy could be used to foster coaching sustain‘abilities’ to aid coaches in practicing the creativity, critical thinking, and deliberation needed in ethical decision-making. While there are challenges that need to be considered when developing

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and delivering such a course, particularly in the planning stages, the resultant community/stakeholder and student engagement, enthusiasm for the approach and development of ‘qualities of mind’ competences have shown us that it is worth pursuing for a (more) sustainable sport industry. We believe that these benefits will also hold true for other sportrelated education, such as sport management and physical education.

Note 1 The formatting guidelines were 12 font size, 1.5 line spacing and 6 pt para­ graph spacing.

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Mergaert, L., Arnaut, C., Vertommen, T., & Lang, M. (2016). Study on gender-based violence in sport in EU Member State countries: Results of a study commissioned by the European Commission Education, Audio-visual and Culture Executive Agency (EU Official Journal Publication: 2015/S242– 438491). Brussels: European Commission. Morgan, K., Jones, R. L., Gilbourne, D., & Llewellyn, D. (2013). Innovative approaches in coach education pedagogy. In P. Potrac, W. Gilbert, & J. Denison (Eds.), Routledge handbook of sports coaching (pp. 486–497). Abingdon: Routledge. Nasibulina, A. (2015). Education for sustainable development and environ­ mental ethics. Procedia, Social and Behavioural Sciences, 214, 1077–1082. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.708. Purdy, L. G., & Potrac, P. (2016). Am I just not good enough? The creation, development and questioning of a high performance coaching identity. Sport, Education and Society, 21(5), 778–795. doi:10.1080/ 13573322.2014.941795. Roberts, S. J., & Ryrie, A. (2014). Socratic case-method teaching in sports coach education: Reflections of students and tutors. Sport, Education and Society, 19(1), 63–79. doi:10.1080/13573322.2011.632626. Shaheen, R. (2010). Creativity in education. Creative Education, 1(3), 166– 1693. doi:10.4236/ce.2010. Spaulding, W. B., & Neufeld, V. R. (1973). Regionalization of medical educa­ tion at McMaster University. British Medical Journal, 3(5871), 95–98. doi:10.1136/bmj.3.5871.95. Sriskandarajah, N., Bawden, R., Blackmore, C., Tidball, K. G., & Wals, A. E. J. (2010). Resilience in learning systems: Case studies in university educa­ tion. Environmental Education Research, 16(5–6), 559–573. doi:10.1080/ 13504622.2010.505434. Stoszkowski, J., Collins, D., & Olsson, C. (2017). Using shared online blogs to structure and support informal coach learning. Part 2: The participants’ view and implications for coach education. Sport, Education & Society, 22(3), 407–425. doi:10.1080/13573322.2015.1030382. Szedlak, C., Smith, M. J., Day, M. C., & Callary, B. (2018). Using vignettes to analyse potential influences of effective strength and conditioning coaching on athlete development. Sport Psychologist, 6, 1–42. doi:10.1123/tsp.2017-0060. UN. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable devel­ opment. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015, 42809, 1-13. doi:10.1007/s13398-014-0173-7.2. UNESCO. (1992). United Nations Conference on Environment and Develop­ ment: Agenda 21. Geneva: United Nations. Wals, A. E. J. (2009). A mid-decade review of the decade of education for sustainable development. Journal of Education for Sustainable Development, 3(2), 195–204. Wals, A. E. J. (2010a). Between knowing what is right and knowing that is it wrong to tell others what is right: On relativism, uncertainty and democracy

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in environmental and sustainability education. Environmental Education Research, 16(1), 143–151. doi:10.1080/13504620903504099. Wals, A. E. J. (2010b). Mirroring, Gestaltswitching and transformative social learning: Stepping stones for developing sustainability competence. Interna­ tional Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 11(4), 380–390. doi:10.1108/14676371011077595. Wals, A. E. J. (2011). Learning our way to sustainability. Journal of Education for Sustainable Development, 5(2), 177–186. doi:10.1177/097340821100500208. Wals, A. E. J., & Blewitt, J. (2010). Third-wave sustainability in higher educa­ tion: Some (inter)national trends and developments. In S. Sterling (Ed.), Sustainability Education (pp. 70–89). Abingdon: Routledge. Wals, A. E. J., & Jickling, B. (2002). “Sustainability” in higher education: From doublethink and newspeak to critical thinking and meaningful learn­ ing. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 3(3), 221– 222. doi:10.1108/14676370210434688. Wilinsky, C. L., & McCabe, A. (2021). A review of emotional and sexual abuse of elite child athletes by their coaches. Sports Coaching Review, 10(1), 84– 109. doi:10.1080/21640629.2020.1775378.

9

Education for Sustainable Athlete Development Building More Critical and Reflective Coach Pedagogies Christian Thue Bjørndal

Introduction The primary civic purpose of the university in a democratic society is to educate future generations of citizens to forge the knowledge needed to sustain a just and prosperous world. The university is a place where people of integrity, from all nations, gather to learn to think and think deeply about the nature of things, about the ways we live, about truth and justice, peace and conflict, freedom and responsibility, the dis­ tribution of wealth, health and sustainability, beauty and virtue. They learn to weigh these thoughts against the evidence of experience and to translate them into policy and practice, systems of law and governance, as well as great works of science, literature and art. These things are the foundations of civilised life. Our university will be a place where they can be incubated and nurtured (Ingold, 2020, p. 66). In democratic societies, the development of a formative culture through pedagogical practices is essential for producing critical, self-reflective, knowledgeable and socially responsible citizens (Giroux, 2020). This holds true in the realms of sport coaching and athlete development, where sport organisations and coach education programmes strive to address issues related to sustainable athlete development and long-term success (Barker-Ruchti & Purdy, 2021). These concerns include how to build long-term athlete development, foster enduring motivation and long-term participation in sport, prevent sports-related injuries, promote life skills and positive youth development and maintain the psychological health and well-being of athletes. While holistic and athlete-centred coaching approaches have gained support, such approaches have also been criti­ cised by researchers for their perceived simplicity and naivety (e.g., Camiré, 2022; Denison & Avner, 2011; Ronkainen et al., 2020). Drawing on the foundational work of scholars such as Denison (2010) and Cushion and Jones (2014) I have argued recently, together DOI: 10.4324/9781003439646-10

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with my colleagues, for more critical and ethical examinations of the scientific and cultural underpinnings of current coach education (Bjørndal et al., 2022). One of the central concerns we have raised is how sports coaching is shaped by fragmented components of knowl­ edge and how it tends to be focused narrowly on individual measurable elements (such as physiological parameters, biomechanical analysis, psychological skills). This compartmentalisation has created a gap between the physical and social dimensions of sport, as well as between the theory and practice of coaching (Denison, 2023). It has also hin­ dered the development of both coaches and athletes. My goal in this chapter is to inspire coach educators to foster more transformative approaches for sport coaching and athlete development. I believe that post-structural theory and critical pedagogy can help both coaches and researchers to transcend disciplinary boundaries. Camiré (2023, p. 11) has contended that ‘youth [and elite] sport research should make efforts to reflect on their shared responsibility to produce scholarship that creates new horizons for what youth [and elite] sport can do, differently.’ I show in this chapter how post-struc­ tural/critical pedagogy can be applied in a coach education course (read module or paper) in new and innovative ways. Additionally, I provide examples of the kinds of reflections and discussions that emerge through these more structured but open-ended approaches. The chapter concludes with reflections on the course offered at the Norwe­ gian School of Sport Sciences and suggestions on how to advance more sustainable, ethical and effective practices.

Pedagogical approaches Coach education is typically informed by separate, compartmentalised courses of knowledge, each of which focuses on individual elements of coaching. This has led to a preoccupation with segmented, scientific dis­ ciplines that are underpinned by strongly positivist and reductionist philo­ sophies. For coaches to cultivate more ethical, effective and reflective coaching practices that promote athlete development, they need instead to integrate knowledge from different disciplines and to do so in innovative ways (Bjørndal et al., 2022). One way of achieving this is to connect new pedagogical approaches to the insights that post-structural theory and cri­ tical pedagogy can offer to higher education. These approaches are valu­ able because they seek to transcend disciplinary boundaries. They also provide useful ways to critique power structures and enable social change. Post-structural theories (developed by thinkers such as Michel Fou­ cault, Gilles Deleuze, Félix Guattari, Jacques Derrida and Judith

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Butler, among others) highlight the fluid and socially constructed nature of subjectivity and identity, and the need to critically examine and question established norms. Critiques informed by such theory are centred, therefore, on the deconstruction and destabilisation of fixed meanings, identities and truths. Post-structuralist insights, I suggest, enable a deeper recognition that policies and practices are not neutral but are distinctive, subjective ideological positions that shape the lives of youth and elite athletes. Such critical approaches offer potentially valuable insights for coaches, who often need to navigate the complex interplay between their own philosophies, the varying contexts of sport, and the multiple needs of athletes. Further, they are affected by domi­ nant, sometimes overlapping, discourses such as the pursuit of perfor­ mance excellence, scientific rationality, athlete-centred coaching and long-term athlete development (Mills et al., 2024). Critical pedagogy, associated with scholars such as Paulo Freire and bell hooks, is rooted in critical theory and focuses on education as a transformative force in society. It emphasises the importance of empowering marginalized individuals, and the value of fostering posi­ tive self-identity and agency, critical thinking, dialogue and social action within educational settings. Critical pedagogy, however, is not an a priori method that can simply be applied irrespective of the con­ text. Instead, it is the outcome of particular struggles (related to, for example, oppression and marginalisation, reproduction of inequities, lack of critical thinking, cultural hegemony, and alienation and disen­ gagement) and is shaped by the specificity of particular contexts, people, communities and the resources available (Giroux, 2020, p. 2). Examples of struggles within the sports domain include (but are not limited to) the continued marginalisation of women in sport (Persson, 2022), the socioeconomic inequalities related to youth participation in organised sports (Andersen & Bakken, 2019) and the (imbalanced) power dynamics that occur between athletes and coaches (Mills & Denison, 2018). The intention of critical pedagogy is to promote student-centred approaches in which people are actively encouraged to participate in learning processes, and to analyse and question the world around them critically. The role of the teacher in this form of pedagogy is to facil­ itate learning. Students are guided in their explorations through open and respectful dialogue, which encourages and nurtures critical think­ ing skills and encourages people to engage in sharing ideas, experi­ ences, and perspectives. Drawing on the work of Paulo Freire, critical pedagogy emphasises praxis – actions that are rooted in critical reflec­ tions on personal experiences – and to further address social injustices

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and inequalities. Ultimately, critical pedagogy serves to highlight the importance of connecting classroom learning to students’ lived rela­ tionships, their embodied experiences, and to the broader social con­ texts in which they are located. While critical pedagogy is focused primarily on educational practices and the transformation of classrooms, post-structural theory offers a broader theoretical framework that extends beyond education. Poststructural theory can inform social analyses and critiques in various contexts and helps to shed light on wider power dynamics related to participation, development, and performance in sports. It also seeks to challenge dominant narratives beyond the educational realm. However, it is important to note that there remains a lack of literature (and consensus) related to ‘how to do post-structural pedagogy’ and that post-structural analyses and critiques remain common but often lack actionable steps (Kuklick & Mills, 2023, p. 3). The implications of the lack of attention to practical implementation seem to manifest as an inability of coach development to create meaningful, consistent, longlasting changes in coaches’ practices (Denison, 2019). As coach educators, I believe our responsibility is to expand the horizons of how (young) people can think, feel and engage in sports. We can do this by encouraging student-coaches to reflect upon their own experiences in sport and prompt them to question the norms, values, knowledge and truths that underpin what is considered to be ‘best practice.’ By incorporating post-structural theory and critical pedagogy into coach education, and by placing an emphasis on change, transformation and engagement, we can enable coaches to reflect more critically on the power dynamics and social structures that shape coaching knowledge and the subjectification of coaches and athletes. This is an important way to help coaches (and athletes) to challenge existing norms and explore alternative approaches. Coaches need to be encouraged to recognise to question and to challenge the power structures in which they operate, including the micropolitical dynamics and compliance cultures inherent in coaching roles (Potrac et al., 2012). By doing so, coaches can choose to position themselves in new ways, and draw from different discourses in their coaching practices. This, I believe, can foster diverse, inclusive envir­ onments that prioritize the well-being and development of athletes.

Pedagogical practice and materials I will now showcase how post-structural theory and critical pedagogy have been applied together in the course Sports Coaching 2: Social

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Interaction in Sports Coaching. This is a ten European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credit course offered by the Nor­ wegian School of Sport Sciences1 and is a mandatory component during the third year of the 180 ECTS bachelor programme in Sport Coaching and Psychology. The course is an in-depth exploration of how coaches interact with their environments. Special emphasis in this programme is placed on the pedagogical activities and social competencies of coaches. The purpose of doing so is to develop a critical appreciation of the key aspects of the students’ own (and others’) sporting practices and to develop an ethically grounded, effective and reflective practice. Students are strongly encour­ aged to combine theory with practical experience as they train to be coaches, training instructors or teachers (see Table 9.1 for a list of the course’s intended learning outcomes). The course comprises a two-hour teacher-led lecture conducted weekly throughout 12 weeks, complemented by peer-led seminars held every other week (see Table 9.2). The student group consists of approximately 30 individuals. As the course developer and current teacher, I oversee its implementation and delivery. The course is organised according to four themes, each with their own set of lectures, seminars and assessment activities: � � � �

An examination of the construction of coaching knowledge and its impact on athletes and coaches’ subjectivities. Revisiting disciplinary practices and their role in sports coaching. Critically examining the trend towards the ‘scientification’ of sports coaching and moving beyond reductionist approaches. Analysing the influence of capitalism and neoliberal values on sports coaching.

Table 9.1 Intended Learning Outcomes of the Course Sports Coaching 2: Social Interaction in Sports Coaching After completing the course, the student should be able to: � � � �

Explain how specific historical, cultural and social contexts shape and influence identity development, sports practices and coaching activities. Explain how social interactions and micropolitical actions impact sports practices and the everyday life of coaches. Discuss how dilemmas and contradictions, including issues related to sustainability and innovation, can be best addressed in sports prac­ tices and the daily lives of coaches. Deliberate on the ethical aspects of one’s own and others’ sports practices, coaching and mentoring activities.

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Each theme includes a series of lectures and mandatory seminars that focus on the development, sharing, discussion and theoretical analysis of autoethnographic accounts drawn from students’ own athletic and coaching experience. During the course, students are encouraged to engage actively in self-reflection and to explore topics within the context of their own experiences. With a reduced class size (approximately 30 students), lectures take an alternative form and are, instead, facilitated through conversations with the students, which creates a more interactive and dynamic learning environment. During the seminars, the class is divided into colloquium groups of six students each, and the students are required to work in pairs. This gives the students greater responsibility for presenting their work, and the experience of giving (and receiving) written and oral feedback on the assignments. Students use autobiographical writing as a tool to reflect on their personal journeys of learning about how to coach. In the course, this introspective process helps students to engage in critical self-reflection and to identify the influences, chal­ lenges and transformative moments that have shaped their coaching philosophy and approaches (Jones, 2009).

Table 9.2 An Overview of the Lectures and Seminars Included in Sports Coaching 2: Social Interaction in Sports Coaching Theme

Week

Lecture

1

1

An introduction to a post-structural reading of sports coaching and athlete development (Lecture 1) Autoethnography as a method for professional development (Lecture 2) The discursive formation of coaching knowl­ edge (Lectures 3–6) The disciplinary legacy of sport (Lectures 7–8) Critically examining the trend towards the ‘scientification’ of sport coaching, moving beyond reductionist approaches (Lectures 9–10) Analysing the influence of capitalism and neo­ liberal values on sports coaching (Lectures 11–12)

2 3-6 2 3

7-8 9-10

4

11-12

Seminar

1 2–3 4 5

6

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I want to encourage students to examine critically their own beliefs, to question established norms and to consider alternative approaches to athlete development. This means that they are required to move beyond merely presenting autobiographical stories and must enrich such narra­ tives with in-depth analyses that offer critiques of the current historical moment in which they find themselves (Denison, 2016). In other words, the trainee coaches are asked to link their own biographical reflections to reflections about wider structural constraints. Typically, students discuss their experiences related to lecture topics from their own athletic and/or coaching careers in short written essays, which they then present, critique and discuss in seminars. This approach prompts them to think analyti­ cally using the concepts introduced throughout the course. For their final written exam, students write a maximum of 5,000 words on a topic of their choice about their specific sports practice. This task is based on, and continues, the autoethnographic observations that they made during their seminars. In the exam, students are asked to analyse their experiences using one of the theoretical frameworks cov­ ered during the course. Students are required to explore how social and material factors have impacted on their own sports practice. They are also required to reflect on the implications that these factors have on their identity development and to discuss the intended and unintended consequences of these impacts for both athletes and coaches. As an educator, my aim is to support coaches as they explore deeper insights and innovative perspectives with the intention of empowering them. From my perspective, coach educators should help coaches to understand their own philosophies and approaches in ways that promote sustainable athlete development and foster more dynamic understandings of what success in sports can mean. As educators, I believe we act as public intellectuals who are located within specific cultural formations and relations of power (Giroux, 1999), and therefore have a responsibility to foster more active and reciprocal relationships between coach educators and coaches. The use of autoethnographic techniques such as the example of autobiographical writing described above, helps the coaches to delve into their own experiences, beliefs, and practices and will, I contend, enable them to develop a deeper understanding of their own development. Examining the construction of coaching knowledge and its impact on athletes and the subjectivities of coaches To many people, knowledge and everyday life appear to be bound by unquestionable constructs and norms. However, it is essential, as Giroux (2020, p. 13) contends, that people are able to interrogate such

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‘common-sense’ assumptions. I believe it is important that coach edu­ cators and coaches seek to examine how language, knowledge, power and identity are socially constructed and intimately entangled with material realities. I believe that post-structural thinking is a particularly valuable approach to critically evaluate coaching knowledge and the subjectification of athletes and coaches. This is because it enables us to examine the intricate systems of thought, knowledge and meaning that shape and regulate specific ways of thinking and acting (Markula & Pringle, 2006). The first theme of the course aims to introduce students to a poststructural perspective on sports coaching and athlete development, and to autoethnography as a method of professional development, covering topics such as the discursive formation of coaching knowledge, trans­ lating post-structural assumptions into coaching practice, cultural reproduction, socialisation, the hidden curriculum, impression man­ agement and stigma in sport. The range of themes requires students to examine the disciplinary knowledge(s) they are drawing upon and the ‘truths’ they are produ­ cing about planning, pedagogy and performance in their sports. I prompt them by asking them to interrogate key actors who have been in positions of power and authority and have helped to shape the stu­ dents’ understanding of sport and ‘best practice’; skills, competences and experiences that are required to be a ‘good’ coach; type of indivi­ duals and/or groups of people who are favoured or marginalised; and the extent to which the system sustains and reproduces existing power relations and positions. A recurrent theme in my course is the dominant position of coaches and the diversity of their roles as gatekeepers, distributors of resources and partners for sport talent development (Skrubbeltrang et al., 2021). I help students to understand that these different coaching roles are connected in complex, sometimes ambiguous and even conflicting, ways. One student from the course storied his experiences related to the pursuit of a football career. Despite his physical discomfort and doubts about his choice of sport specialisation, the student grappled with the complexities of balancing sports and school life and the expectation that he would excel: ‘Can you come up to my office tomorrow?’ Those were Thomas’s words after the U20 session last night. Now I’m on my way up the stairs to the staff room, and I honestly have no idea what awaits me. Thomas has been my sports teacher for two years now and has been a crucial part of my development as a football player. In the

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past year, Thomas has also been the coach for the G19 team where I play. Second floor. Thomas is a nice guy, caring and kind. He probably knows me better than any other coach I’ve had, but I’ve struggled a bit having him both as a coach and a sports teacher. Climbing these stairs feels so slow. I feel like I have to give my all in every session, including at school. If I underperform in class, Thomas notices. He keeps track, knows what I’m capable of and lets me know if something isn’t good enough. I like that he’s honest. He calls this honesty with care. Why are the offices on the top floor? He says I should let him know if I’m tired, but I don’t want to miss anything. My knee has been hurting for a couple of weeks now, but I want to play all the games. In the development meeting, he said my willingness to train and my effort are my best qualities. I have to be the best version of myself; it’s important. I mustn’t show weakness. But at the same time, it’s a bit exhausting. We talk about school during football training and about football at school. ‘What formation should we play this weekend?’ he asked during lunch once. It’s fun, but I regret choosing sports specialisa­ tion a little. Almost there. Should’ve just gone for regular studies, like Andreas and the gang. The club has an agreement with the school, so several of the guys also have him as both a teacher and a coach, but I don’t think any of the others feel the same way. Fifth floor. The door is open. The curriculum is inspired by Foucauldian-informed approaches that draw attention to how power is facilitated through the production of knowledge and what is perceived to be ‘true’ or ‘normal’ within a sport society. By doing so, the discursive formations of coaching knowledge can be interrogated more critically. In the description above, for example, the student has begun to highlight and question the estab­ lished norms and expectations and the hidden power dynamics between the athlete and the coach. It is possible, too, to explore multiple and ambiguous truths using Foucauldian analysis and to recognise the contested discourses sur­ rounding coaching knowledge, as expressed in the above quote where a football player grapples with conflicting demands and feelings. The recognition of the subjectivity of decision-making and practice leads the trainee coaches to formulate more critical pedagogies. There is potential, in other words, to recognise more deeply that knowledge, values, desires and social relations are intrinsically intertwined with power (Giroux, 2020, p. 5) and to understand more deeply that coaching practice is (and should always be) debatable and contestable.

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One of my students demonstrated a growing awareness of how she was reproducing the same problematic coaching discourses that she had been subjected to. The first quote expresses her experience as a crosscountry skier, while the second quote reflects her transition into a coaching role: It was one of these days. A day where I was distant, restless and had to go to the bathroom a bit too often. We were supposed to run the uphill test2 at practice that evening. It’s so tough, running that test! Simply put, it’s a mental battle from start to finish. Additionally, I hadn’t seen any progress the last few times I had run the test. I didn’t understand it because I had trained better than ever. But my body just felt heavier and heavier up those hills. Every time, my legs stiffened immediately. I was dreading it a lot. Once again, time for the uphill test! It’s November, so it’s the third time this year we’re doing the test during practice. Emily comes over to me during warm-up and says, ‘Hey, Coach, why do we even have this stupid test? I’ve never done well on it. I feel like I’m too heavy. Why do we have to just run uphill? It’s only the light and small ones who do well.’ I believe that discourse analysis provides a valuable theoretical frame­ work through which individuals can begin to deepen their under­ standing, both of themselves and the world around them. Such questioning can help students to define what is considered to be normal, acceptable and true within a particular social context and to interrogate the appropriateness of their own – and others’ – decision-making. The second seminar assignment in the course focuses on the devel­ opment of the identity of athletes and coaches. Using a Foucauldian­ informed approach,3 I encourage students to reflect on how they are shaped by and within specific power relations. This approach helps them to reflect on how they, as individuals, have come to embrace and embody the norms, values and beliefs of current sporting discourses. I also require them to reflect on their own subjectification – a social process through which they have come to identify and align themselves with certain subject positions and specific identities within the world of sport. I ask the students to reinterpret the experiences of their athletic and coaching identities and how these have been shaped through the sporting practices they have been a part of. A recurrent theme that has emerged from the classes is how coach­ ing practice is entrenched with hypermasculine norms and values, as illustrated by one student’s experience in youth football:

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‘You play like a bunch of little girls!’ The voice was firm and growing in intensity. ‘You need to fight more, run more!’ Silence. I stared down at my feet, afraid to meet his gaze. ‘I want to see something completely different in the second half, otherwise it’s physical training next week.’ Fostering an environment in which students are able to reflect on and share their personal experiences as athletes and coaches is important, I suggest, because it allows the students to gradually uncover the dis­ cursive formation of knowledge and the processes of subjectification they have encountered within specific power relations. Revisiting disciplinary practices and their role in sports coaching The purpose of the second theme of the course is to introduce the students to an exploration of how elements of discipline and punish­ ment have shaped – and continue to shape – sporting experiences and coaching practices (Lectures 7 and 8). A distinction between power and discipline is made because, as Foucault (1984, p. 380) suggests, ‘power is not discipline, discipline is [instead] a possible procedure of power relations.’ Extensive research has shown that if the disciplinary logic of sport coaching is left unquestioned and undisturbed, the result is docility (Mills & Denison, 2018). It is therefore important for the students to uncover and identify both the productive and unproductive effects of sporting disciplinary practices as well as the unexpected out­ comes of discipline. To facilitate such critical examinations, the con­ ceptual and analytical approaches of Michel Foucault offer valuable points of departure for the examination of the dynamics of discipline and punishment within coaching practice. The fourth seminar assignment in the course is a Foucauldian ana­ lysis of disciplinary power. This requires the students to analyse how various forms of discipline regulate and control individuals in sport. By paying attention to the complex historical (and current) factors that have shaped policies and practices, students are asked to continue to develop their autoethnographic stories and to reflect on how dis­ ciplinary practices and techniques have shaped their personal experi­ ences in sport. This assignment requires the students to reflect on how disciplinary power operates through ‘normal’ practices, and how they, as athletes, think about (and work with) sport planning, training and performance. It encourages them to understand that elements of dis­ cipline and punishment can be both overt (i.e., punishment as an explicit threat if the athlete does not perform correctly) or more subtle

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(i.e., working through strong expectations or behavioural codes). It also enables them to reflect on the appropriateness of the decisions and responses that they, and others, make within sporting environments. One student’s story from this assignment included a commentary on her sense of neglect and frustration when her coach failed to support her multiple sporting interests. Was it so difficult for him to understand that as a 15-year-old, I didn’t want to fully commit to a sport where most of the training sessions were done in solitude? For [Coach], it was difficult to understand. . . . There was something else that didn’t add up. Something that often correlated with me informing him that I had to attend handball instead of javelin. . . . It felt like he chose to avoid me because I didn’t make the choices he wanted. The cultivation of critical reflections and self-awareness is especially important in the world of sport because many coaches and athletes continue to believe that strict authoritarian regulation and control are essential to achieving success (Kelly & Waddington, 2006). One stu­ dent described, for example, the rigid structure and disciplinary ele­ ments of road cycling: We gather outside, a bit before the agreed time as usual. Just like the day before and the day before that. We stand and chat, about everything and nothing. At exactly 9:00 a.m., the coach starts talking. We stop chatting and turn towards him. The plan for today’s training is reviewed, and everything that’s written in the training plan we received earlier is repeated verbally. He explains how the session will be conducted: warm-up, number of intervals, length of intervals and breaks, and the route we’ll be cycling. Everything is planned and decided. We’ve understood everything. When he’s finished, we start. Breaking free from the legacy of such disciplinary practices and shift­ ing towards embracing alternative coaching approaches is challenging, but it is nevertheless important because inappropriate practices obstruct the recognition and application of more sustainable athlete development practices. The misuse of discipline and punishment stifles creativity, hinders innovation, increases the anxiety and stress levels of athletes and turns them into passive learners.

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Moving beyond reductionist approaches and the ‘scientification’ of sports coaching The purpose of the third theme of the course is to demonstrate to stu­ dents that coaching is a social phenomenon which has been heavily influenced by scientific and technological progress and change (Lec­ tures 9 and 10). These influences, as I demonstrate, have shaped athlete and coach learning and performance in profound ways. Athlete devel­ opment, since the second half of the twentieth century, has been char­ acterised by increasing professionalisation and specialisation, the rapid expansion of scientific training technologies, and the application of reducationist and mechanical principles of performance development (Barker-Ruchti et al., 2014). This growing reliance on science- and technology-based training and programming has yielded exceptional results for some athletes (e.g., Solli et al., 2017; Tjelta, 2019). However, the progress and the application of scientific methodologies to new forms of training and coaching technologies appear to have become social forces in and of themselves that now generate their own laws that are governed by a rationality that appears to exist beyond human control. Importantly, while science is often perceived to be a linear, unified and singular paradigm, it is crucial to acknowledge that the positivist assumptions that underly most contemporary sports science have faced criticism. These include accusations that positivist-based approaches are overly simplistic and based on a flawed, false duality between experiential knowledge and mechanistic explanations (Loland et al., 2023). The intention of the third theme of the course is therefore to challenge the suitability of these predominant reductionist approaches and to push coaches away from positivist pedagogies that tacitly sup­ port deeply conservative views about human nature, society, knowledge and social action (Giroux, 1979). In the fifth seminar assignment, students discuss, as coaches and athletes, the scientification of their own sports practice, and their experiences of scientific training technologies. Students are asked to provide examples of scientification in their own sport planning, train­ ing and performance and to demonstrate how these elements have positive and negative consequences, both intended and unintended. Finally, students are asked to reflect on the disciplinary knowledge that informs scientification and to find other less prioritised ways of under­ standing that could potentially contribute in positive ways to coaching and athlete development.

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Many students have written in this assignment, for example, about their complicated experiences with the use of training technologies, such as heart rate monitors, training diary applications and social media. One athlete, a cross-country skier, noted: Two delightful hours in the sunshine have just been completed. Twenty delightful kilometres of roller skiing along the seaside road. A lovely gentle breeze, in a pleasant 20 degrees, makes this a perfect roller skiing trip. I pull out my phone and prepare to post the activity on Strava. ‘Two hours of pure summer joy on roller skis by the seaside!’ I write in the caption, before publishing the activity with a smile on my face. Then I scroll down a bit on the Strava feed, peaking at what others have been training. The smile that was there just a few minutes ago gradually fades away. Guilt sneaks in. Why didn’t I go farther? I wasn’t that tired. A notification pops up on my phone. It’s [Coach] commenting on my training session: ‘Only 2 hours today, huh. I thought the training plan said 2.5 hours?’ I guess, I’ll have to train a bit more next time, then. Critical thinking about the scientification of sports coaching is espe­ cially important because of the growing impact of monitoring tech­ nologies. Some injury prevention and load monitoring technologies, as Paul et al. (2022) argue, have shown limited effectiveness as pre­ ventative methods. Athletes can feel controlled and observed (Jones, 2019), and some surveillance technologies may even potentially harm, rather than improve, the physical and emotional well-being of athletes (Barker-Ruchti et al., 2021; Jones et al., 2016; Williams & Manley, 2016). In part, these negative impacts are due to the reliance of such technologies on quantitative methods, experimental control, objective measures, biomedical examinations, surveillance and athlete com­ pliance – approaches that sometimes contradict the principles of sus­ tainable athlete development and athlete well-being. It is simplistic to see particular coaching practices as ‘correct,’ ‘definitive’ or unques­ tionable simply because they are institutionalised in processes and structures or regarded by coaches as ‘the norm.’ I believe we should strive instead to cultivate methods of education that draw attention to the (changing) materiality of sport settings. The scientification of sports coaching and athlete development has narrowed the attention of athletes, coaches and researchers to specific training modalities. These have overshadowed the dynamic socio­ cultural influences on athletes’ learning and development and their performance within the contexts of sports, family and school settings

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(Schubring et al., 2015). As such, these preoccupations have resulted in the scope of coaching being restricted within the confined forms of particular forms of disciplinary knowledge – a narrowing of attention that has hampered both the pedagogy of coaching and the program­ ming of training and learning activities. The purpose of coach education should be to equip students with the ability to embrace multiple truths and knowledge. This is particularly important because the scientification of learning, development and performance in sports has tended to marginalise alternative perspec­ tives and insights. Post-structuralist interpretations and approaches can, and should, I believe, help students to question the universal ‘legitimacy’ of scientific methodologies (Bell & Russell, 2000, p. 195). Coach educators can achieve this objective by presenting contrasting evidence. They can highlight problems that challenge the standard beliefs and actions, and knowledge of coaching students and demon­ strate the value of recognising that there are multiple ways of knowing (Kuklick & Mills, 2023). In this way, coach educators can help their students to develop the skills and resources that they will need to reflect on the methods they are using and to apply more appropriate coaching and athlete development methods (Mills et al., 2022). A transition to more integrative thinking is crucial because the cul­ ture of positivism is not merely a set of disseminated ideas. Rather, it is a material force that is manifested through the embedded practices that are found in the routines and experiences of our everyday lives (Giroux, 1979). Recognising the limitations of traditional empiricalanalytical approaches enables educators and coaches to liberate them­ selves from the constraints of reductionism. Coaches will be better able to adopt more comprehensive and dynamic approaches to coaching and embrace more diverse perspectives and disciplinary knowledge. It means that coaches will be better able to transcend binary thinking and to challenge the dichotomies that limit our understanding of coaching. Coaches will be able to view coaching – and learning – as processes that are also mediated through our bodies, our relations with others and through processes of subjective change. Analysing the influence of capitalism and neoliberal values on sports coaching The purpose of the fourth theme of the course is to analyse the influ­ ence of capitalism and neoliberal values on sport coaching (Lectures 11 and 12). Sport has a long history of being utilised as a political tool and serving vested national interests, and recent examples of

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sportswashing suggest that it remains a valuable means of propaganda (Fruh et al., 2023). It is also an arena in which neoliberal capitalism, commercialisation and marketing continue to dominate. Corporate sponsors, media companies and advertisers invest heavily in sports events, leagues and athletes. They also prioritise marketing profitmaking and revenue generation: pay-for-play models, for example, are driven by the pursuit of profit and viewership, and these have had a significant impact on media coverage, scheduling decisions and the overall commercialisation of sport content. Globalisation has further amplified the opportunities for profit-making and investment. While such changes have undoubtedly increased access to sporting as well as investment and commercial opportunities, the capitalist imperative behind these efforts remains problematic. In the realm of athlete development, neoliberal principles have heavily influenced the processes of scouting, recruiting and training young athletes (Kilger, 2019). Early specialisation and intense training are often promoted as ways to enhance performance and gain a com­ petitive edge, but it must be acknowledged that the purpose of doing so is not simply to foster individual skills and abilities. The rigorous emphasis on (hyper)structured talent development, on maximising effi­ ciency, on tests and on examinations and competitions is intended to maximise the potential for success and profit in competitive sports (Till & Baker, 2020). Structured talent identification and development sys­ tems are crucial to achieving international sporting success, but eco­ nomic and human investments have become inextricably entwined in the landscape of talent development (Karlsson et al., 2023). The relentless pursuit of growth within finite systems in a capitalist society poses a significant challenge to the health and well-being of athletes and coaches (Gammelsæter & Loland, 2022). For coaches, the prevailing state of affairs in many sport organisations mirrors the performative technologies of neoliberal management (O’Gorman et al., 2020) and puts immense pressure on them to engage in constant impression management (Hickey & Roderick, 2023; Stamp et al., 2021). Political and emotional labour is required to meet the expecta­ tions of others (Partington & Cushion, 2012; Potrac et al., 2012), and these pressures cascade down to young athletes who are faced with the burden of strict qualification criteria and the rigours of team selections and talent development (Brown & Potrac, 2009; Wrang et al., 2023; Øydna & Bjørndal, 2023). Necessarily, these pressures can impact the decision-making of athletes and even encourage riskier behaviours and sports-related injuries (Bjørndal et al., 2017; Bjørndal & Ronglan, 2018; Ojala, 2020; Webb et al., 2020).

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In the sixth seminar assignment of the course, students are asked to continue to develop their autoethnographic stories by exploring how market forces continue to influence their sports practice, for both coaches and athletes. Students are asked to discuss the opportunities and pitfalls that these have for effective, ethical and sustainable athlete and coach development and well-being. Finally, the students are required to reflect on how a detachment, or at least a greater distance from, commercial interests could open up new, effective ways of working for sport planning, training and performance. This includes critically examining selection procedures, the role of early specialisation and the intensification of training and competition at young ages (e.g., Barth et al., 2022; Güllich & Barth, 2024). By engaging with these issues, I, as a coach educator, can help coaches gain a deeper understanding of the underlying forces at play within the world of sport and enable them to develop strategies than can better support the well-being and development of athletes. The ability to scrutinise and critique the influence of capitalist and neoliberal values on sports coaching is, for some students, a liberating experience. One student wrote about her experiences as an NCAA Division 1 runner and how it left her feeling dehumanised and stripped of individuality and agency: At that point, I understood that I was just another piece in the puzzle, another number, another chance for them to build their repertoire. It was so clear that I was not a whole human being with a mind, body, and spirit, but a machine with no voice, and the coach held all the power. In her story, she recognises that the coach holds all the power and control, while she is viewed merely as a means to an end, lacking a voice or significance beyond her role in the coach’s agenda. This highlights issues of power dynamics and the dehumanising aspects of certain coaching practices. When athletes are required to operate inside a system where everything must be known, measured, conquered or made useful, as Rosa (2019) suggests, it leaves few opportunities to explore or negotiate personal experiences or subjectivities. An excessive emphasis on athletes taking full control over their development can also adversely affect motivation and well-being, particularly if athletes struggle to match the progress of their peers (Skrubbeltrang et al., 2016). The combination of a critical exam­ ination of how capitalist and neoliberal values continue to influence sports, together with critical self-reflection through autobiographical writing offers coaches opportunities to gain valuable insights into their own values and practices.

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Reflections and conclusion In this chapter, I have argued that post-structural and critical theory offer powerful ways to ensure that coach education becomes more focused on sustainable athlete development. The concepts of discipline, reductionism and capitalism tend not to be the ones that are upper­ most in the minds of most of my coaching students when we discuss sports exercises or how to programme and coach athlete development. Yet pedagogy, as Giroux (2020, p. 81) stresses, is a moral and political practice that is embedded in power relations. Coaches must be encouraged, therefore, to transcend disciplinary boundaries and to integrate diverse disciplinary knowledge in new and innovative ways. I believe it is important that students contemplate new and alter­ native ideas. It is important for them to be able to assess whether their own knowledge and practices are serving their best interests, and whe­ ther they really are the basis for sustainable athlete development. Cri­ tical pedagogy offers transformative potential by actively involving both teachers and students in processes that can reshape knowledge instead of passively accepting it (Giroux, 2020). I believe that it is possible to improve and sustain better coaching practices in the midst of the uncertainties and unpredictability of planning, pedagogy and performance (Bjørndal & Ronglan, 2019). Through the utilisation of autoethnographic writing, for example, and the use of the four peda­ gogical practices I have outlined above, my aim is to inspire coaches to explore more critically their coaching journeys and philosophies. It is challenging to strike a balance between engaging with complex the­ oretical material, practical coaching experience and embracing established knowledge and, at the same time, also encouraging critical exploration. I continue to reflect on how best to nurture the development of my students. My goal is for my coaching students to understand the biopsychosocial processes relevant to understanding athlete learning, development and per­ formance in sports. But I also want them to understand that ‘the knowledge, beliefs, perspectives, values, norms, and practices coaches consider true, real, normal, and natural are manufactured’ (Mills et al., 2022, p. 13). It is important that the students appreciate that current practices and norms originate from specific historical, social and cultural contexts and are subject to contestation. Critical reflection, I hope, will prompt them to move beyond assuming that there is a single truth or only one acceptable type of knowledge, practice, belief, perspective or value in the world of coaching. As Mills et al. (2022, p. 15) rightly argue, ‘what coaches ordinarily think is a problem may not be, what coaches think cannot change, can, and what coaches think is complete knowledge, is limited and partial.’ It is important

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that students embrace greater flexibility and experimentation and learn how to become better coaches by transcending disciplinary boundaries. These objectives lie at the core of my coaching and pedagogical practices.

Notes 1 For additional details about the course and the most recent course reference list, please visit https://www.nih.no/studier/emner/2023/host/ti300.html. 2 The uphill test assesses preseason progress in cross-country skiing. The perfor­ mance of some athletes may not improve, even with increased training, for a variety of reasons, including puberty-related challenges for girls. Coaches do not state explicitly that specific physical attributes are needed to ensure success, but achieving a fast uphill run typically requires being relatively lightweight and strong. Implicitly, this suggests that certain expected physical characteristics are crucial. Importantly, excelling at uphill running shouldn’t necessarily be the ulti­ mate goal because cross-country skiing takes place in rugged and varied terrain. 3 In the course, we also explore the conceptualisations of Goffman, Deleuze and Guattari concerning impression management and identity development. However, for the purpose of this chapter, this topic is beyond its scope.

Acknowledgements This chapter is dedicated to my friend Jim, who has been my greatest inspiration for broadening my perspectives as a critical sports coaching scholar and for his support along that path. I will do my best to carry forward Jim’s legacy. I would also like to thank Professor Martin Camiré, Dr Milla Saarinen and Dr Mark O’Sullivan for their feedback on several drafts of this manuscript and Marie Loka Øydna for her collaborative efforts in developing the course and teaching materials that have been essential to the continued advancement of our coach education programme. I value deeply her professional expertise and our friendship, both of which I hold in the highest regard.

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10 Environmental Sustainability Actor-Network Theory and the Sustainability of Coaches’ Practices Jim Denison

Across the sport and recreation industry, attention has been increas­ ingly given to various environmental matters. This includes golf courses recycling wastewater for irrigation, stadiums adopting carbon-neutral construction practices and ski resorts preserving real snow over the summer to reduce their dependence on artificial snow. Within highperformance sport, however, less consideration has been given to how sports’ various training spaces and the corresponding formation of coaches’ programmatic and pedagogical practices might be associated with any number of matters related to environmental sustainability. With this concern in mind, I turned to Bruno Latour’s actor-network theory (ANT) to address within my graduate coaching course how the act of coaching, as an assemblage of a range of human and nonhuman entities, comes with multiple connections to the environment. To assist me with this, I asked the students to read a series of articles from the New York Times sports section where the environment featured as a powerful actor. Additionally, I had the students provide ANTinformed readings of these articles through an online discussion forum. In this chapter, I discuss the effects I believe this pedagogical strategy had on my teaching and the implications this might hold for the future of coach education in higher education.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003439646-11

Index

Note: Page numbers in italics indicate figures, bold indicate tables in the text and references following “n” refer notes. abuse in sport 50–1 action cycle 144, 160n1 action research (AR) 125–9, 142, 144, 160; approach to ethical pedagogy 146–51; creating IBL-informed AR approach 146–51, 151–6; in graduate-level coach education 144–6; IBL-inspired AR project 144–6; inquiry-based learning and 142–4; KCE 156–8; KSR (900) 145, 160; as pedagogical and methodological framework 158; recommendations for implementing 158–60; to refine coaching practices 145 actor-network theory (ANT) 210 Aristotelian approach 97–100 art-informed approaches 50, 64–6, 67–8; abuse in sport 50–1; artsbased learning 53; arts-informed pedagogy 52–5; athlete welfare education 60–4; at Bournemouth University 55–60; critical reflexivity 53; curating immersive education 56–60; ‘cutting edge’ pedagogies 54–5; ethnodrama 54; ‘felt difficulty’ 53–4; and immer­ sive installations 64–6; innovative approaches 54–6; interactive installation approaches 65–6; pedagogical approach 52–5; pedagogical practice and materials

56–60; project timeline and slow research 63–4; putting research data to work 60–3; safeguarding education in sport 51–2; students’ ‘sense-making’ process 53; trans­ forming coach education 64–6; “Ways of Seeing Sport Coaching Violence” exhibition 56–60, 58, 59, 60 arts-based learning (ABL) 52 arts-based pedagogy (ABP) 52 athlete: confidence and identity 31–2; development 199; welfare educa­ tion 60–4 Australia’s Coaching Unlimited 90 authentic coaching 121 authenticity 121 authenticity learning 120–1; assessment 123; curriculum 122; in online environment 123–4; origins of 120–1; pedagogy 122–3; principles of authentic e-learning 124; in sports coaching 121–2 Avner, Z. 141 Back, L. 63, 64 Barker, D. 152 Barker-Ruchti, N. 2, 4, 7–8, 9, 13–4, 127, 151, 154,165, 166, 187, 199, 200 bell hooks 189 Bennie, A. 79

212

Index

Bernstein, B. 122, 135, 137 Brown, J. S. 121 Camiré, M. 188 ‘capping project’ 141, 144, 145 Carless, D. 30, 41 Caudwell, J. 57 Chapron, J. 144 Clover, D. 53, 54 coach 75; educators 78; –injured athlete relationship 7 coach education 141, 158–60, 188; action cycle 144, 160n1; action research 142–51, 158; alternative pedagogies in 1–3; ‘capping project’ 141, 144, 145; coaching ethically 142, 160; components of 10; creative nonfiction impact in 30–1; ethical coach 141–2; ethical skill development 150–1; guided inquiry-based approach 150; IBL-informed AR approach 146–51, 151–6; IBL-inspired AR project 144–6; images from ‘Generating Force’ video 154; innovative 55–6; inquiry-based learning 142–4, 160; kinesio-cul­ tural exploration 151–2, 156–8; KSR (900) 145, 147–9, 160; lan­ guage in coaching 155; MCoach programme 141; ‘more ethical coaching practices’ 150; multimedia approach to skill development 153–4; objects 155–6; pedagogical approaches 142–51; pedagogical practices and materials 151–6; poststructural 2; print and video materials 153–4; problem-based learning 143; purpose of 201; reflections on coaching transformation 156–8; reimagining training spaces 154–5; rhythmic gymnastics 152–6; stu­ dent-centred learning approaches 143; task-based approach 152–3, 153; transformational change in coaching practices 144–51 coaching 199; holistic 91; implicit 137n1; knowledge and athlete development 193–7; practice 132

coach learners: case studies on con­ fidence for 32–3; emotional respon­ ses and self-awareness in 42–3 cognition/situated learning 120–1 Collins, A. 120 Collins, D. 29 communities of practice (CoPs) 121 competence-based approach 165–6 confidence 31 Corsby, C. L. 145 creative nonfiction (CNF) 29, 45–6; adjudication framework 34; case studies 31–8, 33, 39, 40, 41–2; challenges and opportunities 46; comparison with traditional approaches 44–5; confidence and recovery 36–8; conversation with sport psychologist 33–8; designing learning experience 38–9; emotional responses and selfawareness 42–3; engagement 43–4; evocation and illumination 42–3; expression of reality 42; fostering meaningful engagement and con­ fidence 43–4; framework for eval­ uating 41; future coaching practice 44; impact in coach education 30–1; incitement to action 44; judging case studies 41; learner feedback 41–5; learning through 44–5; meaningful coherence 44–5; module delivery 38–9; pedagogical approach 30–1; pedagogical practice and materials 31–8; psy­ chological skills for performance module overview 31; reflections 36–8, 41–5; reflective practice submission requirements for case study 39, 40; sample student reflection 39–40; struggle with confidence 33–6 critical pedagogy 189–90, 204 Crudgington, B. 124, 135, 137 culturally inclusive education 81–2 curating immersive education 56–60 Cushion, C. J. 29, 43, 187 ‘cutting edge’ pedagogies 54–5 de la Croix, A. 53 Denison, J. 141, 155, 187

Index Dewey, J. 120, 121, 127

Dickens, S. 125

didactic approaches 164

didactic delivery strategy 2

discourse analysis 196

Dohsten, J. 51

Douglas, K. 30

dyadic relationships 19

echo chamber 21

EDPN5013 Coaching Pedagogy 130; assessment 132–4; curriculum 130–1; learner-centered approach 131–2; pedagogy 131–2 educational strategies, alternative 1–2 Education for Sustainable Develop­ ment (ESD) 1, 164, 182–3; adapt­ ing chosen case 172, 176–7; casebased approach 171–2; case study 176–7; competence-based approach 165–6; developing inter­ vention strategies 178–9; ethical coaching 177–8; ethical reflection 172, 176–7; gestalt switching 166–9, 167–8, 180, 182; ice hockey coaching 176–7; IIG206 Sustain­ able Sports Coaching 170–1, 180; instrumentalist approach 166; integrating sustainability and ethics 171–2; pedagogical practice and materials 170; pedagogical theory and approach 165; prescriptive ethics 171–2; risk assessment and knowledge synthesis 177–8; using scientific literature 177–8; seven cases IIG206 students could choose 173–5; student-centered approach 172, 176–7; sustainability 166, 182; sustainability thinking 171; Sustainable Development Goals 165; teacher-led learning 171–2; team cohesion and ethical dilem­ mas 176–7; virtue-based ethics 172 Elisabeth, S. 56

‘emergency remote teaching’

practices 118

environmental sustainability 210

episteme 99, 116n2 ethical coach 141–2, 160

213

ethical skill development 150–1

ethnodrama 54

Etuaptmumk 74

evidence-based praxis 136

experienced-based knowledge 96, 97

‘felt difficulty’ 53–4 Foucault, M. 197; Foucauldian analysis 195–6 fragmentation in sports coaching 188

Freire, P. 127, 189

Gadamer, H. G. 10, 18

gestalt switching 166, 180, 182;

competences 169; five gestalts of

167–8; transformative social

learning theory 169, 170

Gill, S. 15, 21

Giroux, H. A. 193, 204

Goodson, I. 15, 21

guided inquiry-based approach 150

Harvey, J. H. 62

Hemmestad, L. B. 99

Herrington, J. 124, 132, 135

Hogan, I. 32

holistic coaching 91

Hughes, S. 53

IIG206 Sustainable Sports Coaching

170–1, 180

implicit coaching 137n1 Indigenous Rookie League 83, 84–6 Indigenous sport 75–7; CallstoAction and challenges in Canada 76–7; and coaching 76; designing culturally responsive coach educa­ tion 79–81; implementing TES in coaching 77–9; smudging 79; teachings from Mi’kmaw First Nations coaches 77–9; TES and coach education 79–81, 80–1 innovative coach education 55–6 inquiry-based learning (IBL) 143–4, 160; and action research 142–4; creating IBL-informed AR approach 146–51, 151–6; format 142; IBL-inspired AR project 144–6 instrumentalist approach 166

214

Index

International Council for Coaching

Excellence (ICCE) 29

Jays Care Foundation 82

Jickling, B. 171

Jones, R. L. 54, 55, 120, 127, 129,

142, 187

Kerr, G. A. 10, 51, 61

kinesio-cultural exploration (KCE) 151–2; as pedagogical approach within AR framework 156–8 Klinke, A. 178

KSR (900) 145, 160; lectures, discus­ sion topics and tasks used in 147–9

Lambert, C. 56

Larsson, H. 152, 153

Lave, J. 121

Lewin, K. 120, 126

Lopez, T. 55, 56

Mallett, C. J. 125

Marshall, E. A. 74, 82, 90

master of coaching (MCoach)

programme 141

McCarthy, L. 123

McGannon, K. R. 32

McMahon, J. 10, 51, 57

McNamee, M. 172

Mi’kmaw programme adaptations 87

Miller, P. S. 10, 61

Mills, J. P. 204

‘more ethical coaching practices’ 150

Morgan, K. 54, 55, 64, 144

narrative 8, 17; inquiry 8; typologies 11–12 narrative pedagogy 9; ‘fusion of horizons’ 10; integrating 22–3; process of 9; role in coach education 10–12 Nicholas, J. 91

NicomacheanEthics (Aristotle) 98

Noddings, N. 51

Nyberg, G. 152

O’Malley, L. 30

online learning 118, 135–7; authentic

assessment 123; authentic

curriculum 122; authenticity 120–1, 125–9, 134–5; authentic learning 120–4; authentic peda­ gogy 122–3; challenges of 119–20; cognition/situated learning 120–1; considerations for high-quality 119; creating optimal learning environments 130–4; EDPN5013 Coaching Pedagogy 130–4; ‘emergency remote teaching’ practices 118; online postgraduate programs 124–5; pedagogical approach 120–2; pedagogical practice and materials 124; principles of authentic e-learning 124; SPCG7027 Quality Coaching: AR 125–9 online postgraduate programs 124–5 Orr, K. 46 Partington, M. 155

Paul, D. 200

pedagogies, alternative 1–3 Pérez-Camarero, J. 119, 127, 136

Pipher, M. 62

place-based sport participation 86–7 post-structural: coach education 2;

theories 188–9, 190, 204;

thinking 194

‘pracademics’ 136

practical knowledge 99

praxis 189; evidence-based 136

prescriptive ethics 171–2 problem-based learning (PBL) 143

professionalisation and scientification see ‘scientification’ of coaching Purdy, L. 2, 4, 166, 169, 187

Quarmby, T. 30

Rajwani, Y. 77

Renn, O. 178

rhythmic gymnastics (RG) 146; expanding movement exploration 152–3; images from ‘Generating Force’ video 154; language in Coaching 155; multimedia approach to skill development 153–4; objects 155–6; print and video materials 153–4; reimagining

Index training spaces 154–5; task-based approach to skill development 152–3; task cards 152, 153 Rosa, H. 203 safeguarding 51 Safe Sport 141 Saugstad, S. 116n2 Saugstad, T. 98 ‘scientification’ of coaching 96, 115–16, 199–201; byproduct of 96; episteme 99; experienced-based knowledge 96, 97; practical knowledge 99; techne 99; theore­ tical knowledge 98 Sherwin, I. 29, 43 situated learning 120–1 Smith, B. 30, 32, 41 smudging 79 ‘Sociologists Talking’ 56 Sparkes, A. C. 30 SPCG7027 Quality Coaching: AR 125–6; assessment 129; curriculum 126–7; pedagogy 127–9 SportsCoaching2: SocialInter­ actioninSportsCoaching 190–1; critical reflection and autoethnography 193; intended learn­ ing outcomes 191; lectures and seminars included in 192 sports injury 7, 22–4; background and context 13–14; coaches on video narratives 17; coach–injured athlete relationship 7; enhancing coaching practices 17–20; harmful behaviours 7, 23; integrating diverse pedagogies 20–1; integrat­ ing narrative pedagogy 22–3; mar­ ginalised injury perspectives 15; narrative pedagogy 9–12; narrative typologies of injury 11–12; over­ view of pedagogical process 13; pedagogical approach 8–11; peda­ gogical practice and materials used 11–12; pedagogical programme for coach education 12; reflections 16–21; sharing and discussing stories 12–17, 20–1, 23 sportswashing 202 Standal, Ø. F. 99

215

Stirling, A. 51 story 8 storytelling 8 Stoszkowski, J. 29 Strength and Conditioning bachelor programme 97, 99, 100–6, 114–15; Aristotelian approach 97–100; bachelor programme 101; Basic­ SportsCoaching103, 108–11, 113; client consultation and session implementation 111; comprehensive learning in health, injuries, and rehabilitation 107–8; conceptualiza­ tion of 97; curriculum revision and pedagogical innovation 112–14; episteme 99; evaluation of online information 109–10; Fitness Testing and Coaching Technology 106–7; Health, InjuriesandRehabilitation 107–8; pedagogical approach 97; pedagogical innovations 112–15; pedagogical practice and materials 100–6, 112–14; practical and theo­ retical integration 106–7; practical application of personal training 111; practical knowledge 99; practical work and assignments 104–6; stu­ dent assignments 109–10; students’ expected workloads 101; study programme 100; teaching plan for IDR2003, 102; techne 99; theore­ tical knowledge 98; written and practical assignments 103 student-centered approach 143, 172, 176–7 students’ ‘sense-making’ process 53 sustainability 166, 182; environ­ mental sustainability 210; integrat­ ing sustainability and ethics 171–2; thinking 171 sustainable athlete development 187, 204–5; challenging reductionist paradigms 199–201; coach educa­ tion purpose 201; coaching knowl­ edge and athlete development 193–7; critical pedagogy 189–90, 204; critical reflection and flex­ ibility 204–5; disciplinary practices 197–8; discourse analysis 196; Foucauldian analysis 195–6;

216

Index

hypermasculine norms and power dynamics 196–7; influence of capitalism and neoliberalism 201–3; pedagogical approaches 188–90; pedagogical practice and materials 190; post-structural theories 188–9, 190, 204; poststructural thinking 194; power and discipline 197; praxis 189; ‘scienti­ fication’ of coaching 199–201; SportsCoaching2: SocialInter­ actioninSportsCoaching 190–3, 191, 192; sportswashing 202; impact of training technologies on athlete well-being 200; uphill test 205n2 Sustainable Development Goals

(SDGs) 67, 165

techne 99, 116n2 theoretical knowledge 98

Trevelyan, C. 53

Turner, P. 55, 142

Two-Eyed Seeing (TES) 73, 90; Australia’s Coaching Unlimited 90; as coaching pedagogy 74–7; cultivating collaborative partner­ ships 90; culturally inclusive edu­ cation 81–2; decolonising coaching practices 90; developing student coaches in HE 87–90; development of peer-learning 88–9; Etuapt­ mumk 74; holistic coaching 91; indigenising coach education 90–1;

indigenising sport psychology edu­ cation 87–90; Indigenous perspec­ tives 73–4; Indigenous Rookie League 83, 84–6; Indigenous sport 75–7; integrating indigenous knowledge into sport 82–6; inte­ grating Indigenous perspectives 90–1; Jays Care Foundation 82; Mi’kmaw programme adaptations 87; place-based sport participation 86–7; reflecting on and utilising TES 81–2; two cultures in sport 75; Unama’ki Surf Programme 86–7; Western and Indigenous perspectives 74–5; westernised sport 75 Unama’ki Surf Programme 86–7

university 187

unsustainable practices 182

uphill test 205n2

virtue-based ethics 172

Vygotsky, L. S. 120

Wals, A. E. J. 165, 166, 169, 170,

171, 182

Ways of Seeing Sport Coaching

Violence project 51, 56–60, 58,

59, 60

Wenger, E. 121

westernised sport 75

Williams, T. L. 32

‘world café’ 21