Sport and the Christian Religion : A Systematic Review of Literature [1 ed.] 9781443859257, 9781443855037

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Sport and the Christian Religion

Sport and the Christian Religion: A Systematic Review of Literature

By

Nick J. Watson and Andrew Parker

Sport and the Christian Religion: A Systematic Review of Literature, by Nick J. Watson and Andrew Parker This book first published 2014 Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2014 by Nick J. Watson, Andrew Parker All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-5503-0, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-5503-7

From Nick: To Ben, a man after God’s own heart, and a fine sports educator From Andrew: In memory of Ernie Dyer, my friend and mentor

CONTENTS

Foreword ................................................................................. ix Professor Scott Kretchmar Preface .................................................................................... xii Dr Brian Brock Acknowledgements ................................................................ xv Introduction .............................................................................. 1 Chapter One ............................................................................. 7 Pioneering Scholars and Initiatives in the Field Chapter Two ........................................................................... 15 Theologies of Play in Sport Chapter Three ......................................................................... 27 Sport, Religion and Popular Culture Chapter Four .......................................................................... 44 Muscular Christianity and Sports Ministry Chapter Five ........................................................................... 63 Theological Ethics in Sport (with Psychological Considerations) Chapter Six ............................................................................. 86 Institutions and Governance of Sport: A Case Study of the Modern Olympic Games

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Contents

Chapter Seven ...................................................................... 100 Emerging Research Areas Conclusion ........................................................................... 119 Appendix A .......................................................................... 131 Academic and Practical Developments in Sport and Christianity Bibliography......................................................................... 150 Authors ................................................................................. 223

FOREWORD

It is a pleasure to write the foreword for a volume that provides such an ambitious, insightful, and useful overview of the intersection of sport and the Christian religion. The book is ambitious because it includes far-ranging analyses including the origins of scholarship on sport and religion as well as critical discussions of play and spirituality, sport as a civil religion, muscular Christianity and sport ministries, theological sport ethics, and the conjunction of religion, sport, and social institutions as evidenced in the governance and conduct of the modern Olympic Games. More than 1,050 references are cited in this comprehensive review of the literature. This ambitious and expansive list of resources includes the disciplines of theology, philosophy, history, sociology and psychology, among others. The text is not merely a report on the results of recent and current research. Rather the authors, Nick Watson and Andrew Parker, insightfully and critically interpret the literature. Each chapter reads like a scholarly narrative, one that describes what we currently know, what we still do not know, what seems controversial, where current debates stand, and what needs further study. In each chapter, the content is categorized and otherwise organized in coherent ways, and helpful syntheses of multiple studies allow readers (particularly those who are not familiar with this literature) to make sense of it. The book should be of considerable utility to at least two groups of scholars—first, those who focus on sport and need to know how religion has shaped its nature and value and second, those who focus on religion and are interested in how

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sport has affected it for better or worse. The authors argue that this interface is so significant, it would be impossible (or at least foolhardy) to attempt a comprehensive study of either sport or religion in the absence of the other one. This claim would undoubtedly seem less controversial for those who, like myself, focus on the sport side of the equation. It is impossible, most of us would argue, to understand sport without appreciating its origins in sacred play, ritual, the mythic significance of agon, and the like. Most of us sport philosophers agree, along with Novak, that there is considerable overlap between the values and experiences found in religion and those encountered in sport. But Watson and Parker also show how spiritual practices have been influenced and shaped by sporting activities and motifs, whether from Ancient Olympia or a contemporary sports stadium. The entire volume bears testimony to the interesting and complex symbiosis that exists between sport and religion, one that ranges from crass and shameless opportunism, on the one hand, to both subtle and profound interactions that result in mutual enhancement, on the other. Throughout the text, the authors are careful to balance enthusiasm for positive bi-directional influences with respect for the integrity of each domain itself. In fact, the volume itself is based on the premise that sport is not religion and is not an effective substitute for it. Conversely, religion cannot be reduced to sport. Each brings its own rules and purposes, as it were, to the relationship. While a fruitful marriage is possible and may well be desirable, caution is also warranted. This cautious tone of the volume is one that scholars of sport and religion alike should appreciate. The focus of the text is on accurate understanding, not devotional commitment. In other words, this review provides a guide for using and digesting the best multi-disciplinary and cross-denominational research available and following it wherever it leads. Because

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of this, the book should be a worthy resource for serious students of sport and religion for years to come. Professor Scott Kretchmar, Philosopher of sport, Department of Kinesiology, Pennsylvania State University, USA

PREFACE

This slim volume will prove an invaluable resource for scholars interested in a serious and multidisciplinary investigation of sport and will therefore no doubt be a discipline-defining document for years to come. Nick Watson and Andrew Parker have produced a winning combination of ecumenical and disciplinary breadth which is notable for the generosity with which they offer future scholars and students well-informed and sharply articulated questions for further scholarly investigation. Their careful teasing apart of the differences between a wide range of methods for studying sport and (and as) religion gives crucial definition to a field that has so obviously been characterized in modernity more by passing references and side remarks in the scholarly literature than serious and sustained investigation, especially in the field of academic theology. Precisely because of the modesty and diligence evident in the labour of producing a comprehensive bibliography of the field, they win readers over for their ground-breaking (and theologically faithful) insistence that types of methodological analysis that Christians have often avoided, such as that of Marxism or psychoanalysis, ought to be taken seriously by Christians, and by Christian scholars. This contribution is sure to render the book mandatory reading for every undergraduate and graduate student interested in the theme of sport of religion or sport and Christianity. What Watson and Parker offer us is no generic celebration of sport as something that Christians should without hesitation embrace as a “school for character,” but a

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sensitive and probing analysis of major questions and problems of which every Christian involved in sport or in the oversight of sporting activities in our modern societies should be aware. Does sport augment the worst aspects of modern societies, or can it be a place of resistance to the forces that destroy and impoverish human life in our age? How do followers of the “suffering servant” understand sport’s demand for the “killer instinct”? How ought Christians to approach the gender stereotypes that permeate sport, or sports in which serious injury or death are a constant possibility? What are we doing when we engage in “sport’s ministries,” and how are we to understand the role of professional Christians, such as chaplains, in sports ministry? These are serious questions which Watson and Parker bring before us with intellectual rigor and clarity, offering the reader at the same time an impressive array of references that will be relevant for further reading. They also propose some genuinely novel and theologically rich questions, such as: How might sports serve peace and reconciliation in arenas of social and political conflict? How might the psychological conditioning demanded by sport be related to spiritual disciplines? How ought all Christians, players and fans alike, understand their relation to the role that the pageantry surrounding sport has come to play in shoring up and inflaming modern cults of nationalism? These are old questions but ones which appear to us in new guises that make them very difficult to recognize as even approachable from classic Christian theological affirmations about the nature of reality. Watson and Parker show us many roads which we might follow from traditional theological truths into the theologically rich territory of modern sporting activity. In this they have done the church, of all denominations, a great service, not least in drawing their treatment together with the marvellous final

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declaration of ten affirmations that every Christian should consider as they think about, watch, or invest themselves in sporting activity. Dr Brian Brock, Reader in Moral and Practical Theology, School of Divinity, History and Philosophy, University of Aberdeen, UK

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank the editorial staff at Cambridge Scholars Publishing for their flexibility and professionalism in relation to the production of this book, in particular, Carol Koulikourdi, Amanda Millar and Camilla Harding. Our gratitude also goes to Max Novick (Routledge, New York) and Professor Ronald Simpkins (Editor of the Journal of Religion and Society), for granting permissions to republish sections of our previous work (Watson and Parker, 2013a and Watson and Parker, 2013b respectively). As the vast majority of this manuscript is based on the doctoral thesis of the first author (Nick J. Watson), it goes without saying, that there are many individuals who have contributed to this project in a variety of ways. Firstly, though, I would like to express my thanks to my lead supervisor, and co-author, Professor Andrew Parker, who skilfully and graciously guided me through the process of doctoral study and made a range of invaluable contributions to the manuscript. A number of other scholars and practitioners have identified resources and/or acted as ‘critical friends’ by providing feedback on draft sections and have generally encouraged me to pursue this area of academic enquiry and practice over the last decade. These include, in no particular order: John White, Synthia Sydnor, Andy Smith, Shirl Hoffman, Drew Gibson, Scott Kretchmar, Dominic Erdozain, Mark Nesti, Brian Bolt, Patrick Kelly, Stuart Weir, Joseph Price, Julie Walton, Michael Grimshaw, Greg Afman, Stephen Friend, Bud Williams, Glen Van Andel, Andrew Meyer, Robert (Jack) Higgs, Steve Overman, Chris Milner, Kevin Lixey, Brian Brock, Michael Novak, Victor Pfitzner, Edward Hastings, Jim Parry, Paul Heintzman, Tracy

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Acknowledgments

Trothen, and Steven Waller. Last, but by no means least, we would like to express our deep gratitude to our wives, Kate and Beckie, for their love and patience during the construction of this manuscript. Any errors or inaccuracies are, of course, entirely our own.

INTRODUCTION

Sport seduces the teeming ‘global village’; it is the new opiate of the masses; it is one of the great modern experiences … sport is a mirror … that reflection is sometimes bright, sometimes dark, sometimes distorted, sometimes magnified. This metaphorical mirror is a source of mass exhilaration and depression, security and insecurity, pride and humiliation, bonding and alienation. Sport, for many, has replaced religion as a source of emotional catharsis and spiritual passion … the story of modern sport is the story of the modern world … sport demands the attention of the academic. —Mangan, Majumdar and Dyreson (2009: xii-xiii)

Scholars who have written about the relationship between sport and Christianity are in general agreement that academics outside the traditional social-science sports studies disciplines1, such as theologians and philosophers of religion, have been slow to recognise the cultural significance of modern sports (e.g., Hoffman, 2010a; Twietmeyer, 2009, 2008; Watson, 2011a). As this review demonstrates, this trend is slowly changing. In addition to the birth of research centres, academic journals and Church-based, sport-faith initiatives, the contributors to recent monographs and anthologies that analyse the various aspects of the relationship between the Christian religion and sport now include scholars from across a plethora of disciplines and denominations (see Appendix A).2

1

These include sociology, history, anthropology, philosophy and psychology. 2 Appendix A provides a concise summary of academic and practical developments in the area.

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Introduction

Historians and anthropologists have mapped a relationship between religion and sport that spans approximately 3000 years and many of the more recent scholarly examinations of the dialectical relation between sports and Christianity are indebted to this work. Links between the sacred and sport have been identified in a number of historical epochs. These include primitive times when ritual-cultic ball-games were played to appease the gods (for fertility), the athletic spectacles of ancient Greece and the Olympic games that were held in honour of mythological deities, the gladiatorial contests of Rome, the festivals and folk-games of the Middleages in Britain and Europe, Puritanical suspicion and prohibitions against sports, and finally, Victorian muscular Christianity (1850-1910), a socio-theological movement and (some would argue) ideology, that significantly shaped the character of modern sports (see: Baker, 1988, 2007a, 2010; Ballou, 1973; Brasch, 1970; Carter, 1984a, 1984b; Coleman, 1989; Eisen, 1975; Eyler, 2013; Guttman, 1978/2004; Kelly, 2012; Koch, 2012; LipoĔski, 2009; McLeod, 2012; Mathisen, 2005).3 Additionally, there is a small corpus of work that has explored how sport interacts with other monotheistic and eastern (pantheistic) world religions, such as Islam, Judaism, Buddhism and Shintoism. These accounts provide useful comparative insights for scholars examining the sportChristianity relationship (e.g., Benn, Dagkas and Jawad, 2011; Benn, Pfister and Jawad, 2010; Meyer, 2009; Hargreaves, 2007; Magdalinski and Chandler, 2002; Prebish, 1993a; Hyland, 1990). Considering Christianity’s Hebraic roots in the old testament and its inseparable ties to Jewish history, faith and tradition, the discourse that is fast-developing around Judaism and sporting pursuits will undoubtedly assist scholars when 3

For a brief overview of the sport-religion relationship see Baker (2010) and Mathisen (2005).

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examining the relationship between sports and Christianity, especially in relation to historical, theological and sociological research on gender, embodiment and identity (e.g., Greenspoon, 2012; Alpert, 2011; Borish, 2009, 2002; Kaufman and Galily, 2009; Mendelsohn, 2009; Meyer, 2009; Kugelmass, 2007; Gurock, 2005; Eisen, 1998). In this book, however, our central task is to review empirical research and scholarship on sport and Christianity.4 While unavoidably touching on aspects of the sport-faith relationship throughout the last two millennia in order to ensure that we historically and culturally locate our analysis,5 our over-riding focus is the modern forms of sport that were birthed in Victorian Britain in the middle-to-late nineteenth century (1850-1910). The review is structured around six themed sections which comprise: (i) theologies of play in sport, (ii) sport, religion and popular culture, (iii) muscular Christianity and sports ministry, (iv) theological ethics in sport (with psychological considerations), (v) institutions and governance of sport: a case study of the modern Olympic Games, and (vi) emerging research topics. The discussion is prefaced by a brief overview of pioneering scholars and initiatives in the field and an outline of our aims and method. Aims and Method The aim of this systematic review is twofold. First, it seeks to identify, critically appraise and synthesise scholarship, empirical research and practical initiatives (e.g., research centres and organisations) in the sport-Christianity field. 4

The key existing literature reviews on sport and religion (not specifically Christianity) are those of Higgs (1982) and Deardorff, (2000), the latter being an updated and revised edition of Higgs’ earlier work. 5 For example, the exegesis and use of Pauline athletic metaphors, the principles of medieval sport and the perspectives of the Church Fathers (Patristic writings) on physical education and culture.

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Introduction

Second, it seeks to identify, encourage and facilitate emerging areas of research in this area by providing extensive resources from both the social scientific study of sport and the theological study of sport. A major finding of this review is that there has been a distinct lack of cross-disciplinary and cross-denominational dialogue between those examining the relationship between sports and Christianity. Whilst not exhaustive the review identifies key debates, seminal articles and scholarly texts and initiatives, allowing the reader to further explore specific themes of interest. The review adopts a systematic approach, although as the topic sits within the social sciences, it does not adhere to the stringent requirements of the Cocharne Collaboration format of a systematic review (Aveyard, 2008). In terms of the published work under consideration here, the majority of the sources referred to are from peer-reviewed journal articles and academic text books published in the English language.6 In addition, we include a selection of oftcited articles from periodicals (e.g., Sports Illustrated), popular books, academic conference papers and PhD theses that specifically inform the academic literature. In order to encourage stronger links between theory and practice in the sport-faith world, we also direct readers to resources written by practitioners from the fields of sports chaplaincy, sports mission/ministry and sport psychology all of which are areas 6

There have been a number of academic books on sport and Christianity published in German and Italian most notably by Alois Koch who has had some of his academic papers and book chapters translated into English and which are available online, see: http://www.con-spiration.de/koch/#english. See also the Religioni e Società (trans. Italian Review of the Sociology of Religion, 2011: Vol. 71) special edition on “Sport and Spirituality” (only available in Italian) and Stadion: International Journal of History (2009: Vol. 35) special edition on “Sport and Religion” comprising essays in English, German and French.

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in need of further study. While the numerous biographies of Christian sportspersons (e.g., Dungy, 2008; Keddie, 2007; Tebow, 2011), devotional literature (e.g., Lipe, 2005; O’Toole, 2001) and post-graduate theses provide invaluable insights for academic researchers, they are generally beyond the scope and remit of our discussion.7 Electronic databases used to source the literature include: ATLAReligion with ATLASerials, SportsDiscuss, Worldcat, Google Scholar, Index to Theses (to identify key researchers), British Education Index, CINAHL and PschINFO. Key words and combinations of words utilised for electronic searching with the word sport(s) were: Christianity, Christians, theology, Olympics/Paralympics/Special Olympics/Olympism, spirituality, women, faith, religion, God, Pauline athletic metaphors, Catholics/Protestants and muscular Christianity. The bibliographies of recent texts and hard and electronic copies of sport and theology journals held at York St John University8 and the British Library (Boston Spa, England), were also a means of sourcing material. In addition, many of the publications reviewed were identified from our engagement and professional roles in the field and from correspondence with key authors over the past decade. In order to provide historical context to the conceptual and 7

For a comprehensive list of sport-faith biographies, PhD and Masters theses on sport and Christianity, see Stuart Weir’s online bibliography: http://www.veritesport.org/downloads/Sports_bibliography_shorter.pdf Scholes and Sassower (2013) identify the need for a keen sense of criticality when academic scholars use insights from sporting biographies in their work. 8 York St John University (YSJU), UK library holds significant resources for the study of sport and religion/Christianity, with approximately 30 different academic book titles on the topic. This stems from the pioneering work of the Centre for the Study of Sport and Spirituality (2003-2009) at YSJU and undergraduate (and related postgraduate) course offerings and the related research of academic staff.

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Introduction

theoretical development of the literature surrounding sport and Christianity, it is to the pioneering work of some of these key authors that we initially turn.

CHAPTER ONE PIONEERING SCHOLARS AND INITIATIVES IN THE FIELD1

Until relatively recently, the majority of academic reflection on the relationship between sport and Christianity, has come from American scholars. During the post-war years of the 1960s, and amidst a swathe of civil and human rights movements, the United States witnessed a critical reassessment of all of its major social institutions including sports. In this era sporting organisations became increasingly professionalized and driven by free-market capitalist forces and political agendas, and thus, were ripe for social-scientific and theological analysis. While the pioneers in this particular field had a small number of writings at their disposal, for example, articles published in Church periodicals (Brasch, 1970; McNeill, 1948; Anderson, 1925)2 and popular sports magazines (Deford, 1976a, 1976b, 1976c, 1976d, 1986), academic journal papers, chapters and books3 and popular Christian literature (Peale, 1957), which included an edited collection (Simonson, 1962) of testimonies from athletes who were associated with 1

Details of the individuals discussed in this section have been verified through email correspondence and personal communication with those concerned. 2 Two decades later the US periodical, Christianity Today (1986, April 4), published a special edition on sports. 3 For example: Brasch (1970), Callois (1958), Edwards (1973), Miller (1969), Neale (1969), Slusher (1967) and Weiss, (1969). Oft-cited chapters and journal articles were: Deford (1979), Dirksen (1975), Hogan (1967), Miller (1971), Twomey (1958) and Wenkert (1963).

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the Fellowship of Christian Athletes (FCA, 1952/54-), it was Michael Novak’s seminal text, The Joy of Sports (1967/1994) that provided the first systematic study of the sport-faith interface and the foundation for what was to follow.4 Since then, Novak has made numerous conference presentations on the topic,5 published a small number of articles in periodicals and has more recently written the Foreword to an edited anthology on sports and Christianity (Watson and Parker, 2013a). As a consequence of his wider professional interests and responsibilities, however, Novak has not produced any further in-depth scholarly analyses on the sport-faith interface. One of the chapters from his ground-breaking book was republished in Shirl Hoffman’s edited anthology on sport and religion, the first of its kind. Shirl J. Hoffman, Emeritus Professor of Kinesiology at the University of North Carolina (Greensboro, USA) and former college basketball coach and official, began his work on sport and the Christian faith by producing a handful of academic papers (Hoffman, 1976, 1986, 1985, 1991), and then published the first edited anthology on the topic in 1992(a), which includes contributions from other pioneers in the field (i.e., Novak, Higgs, Price and Mathisen).6 Following nearly four decades of scholarly engagement on this topic, Hoffman recently published a single-authored text, Good Game: Christianity and the Culture of Sports (Hoffman, 2010a)7 4

Novak’s book is widely cited across the academic disciplines. For further details of Novak’s career see his personal webpage: http://www.michaelnovak.net/ 5 Professor Novak has made a provisional agreement to deliver a keynote address at the Inaugural Global Congress on Sports and Christianity, York St John University, UK, August, 2016. 6 Following the production of his 1992 anthology, Hoffman published a number of other papers (e.g., Hoffman, 1992a, 1992b, 1992c, 1999, and 2003). 7 For a review of Hoffman (2010a), see White (2012b).

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which is essentially a representation of his life’s work.8 Hoffman has been successful in disseminating his ideas in the media, regularly contributing to documentaries televised on networks such as CBS, ESPN, and Channel 4 in Britain, and to radio broadcasts for the BBC, CBS and NPR. Robert (Jack) Higgs, a chapter contributor to Hoffman’s anthology, has also been a leading authority on the topic over the last three decades. The first scholarly contribution of Higgs, a retired English literature professor at East Tennessee State University (USA), was a book which examined sport and religion (Christianity) in classic American literature (Higgs, 1981). This was followed by a review of philosophy and religion in sports that included an extensive bibliography (Higgs, 1982), and which was subsequently updated and revised (Deardorff, 2000). After publishing further related chapters and articles (e.g., Higgs, 1983, 1985, 1990), Higgs produced a monograph, God in the Stadium: Sports and Religion in America (Higgs, 1995), that was highly critical of the American sports institution, while championing the good of sport per se. This text has been widely cited in the related literature and has formed the basis of over 85 conference papers and invited presentations by Higgs. A co-authored book followed (Higgs and Braswell, 2004) that covered a wide-range of literary, theological, sociological and philosophical themes. Most recently, Higgs has written on archetypes and stereotypes in religion and American sports (Higgs, 2013). Another prolific scholar in the field is Joseph L. Price. Price is Professor of Religious Studies at Whittier College 8

An article based on a chapter of Hoffman’s (2010) book has been published in the periodical, Christianity Today (Hoffman, 2010b), whose current managing editor Mark Galli (2005, 2010) also has an interest in the topic. Hoffman (2012) contains a republished chapter from his book (Hoffman, 2010a).

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Chapter One

(USA), and editor of the Mercer University Press book series on “Sports and Religion”. In 2001 he produced an edited text on the religious aspects of American sports and their manifestation as a civil or surrogate religion (Price, 2001a) and in 2006 authored a monograph entitled, Rounding the Bases: Baseball and American Religion (Price, 2006). While Price has published on a range of topics in the area (e.g., Price, 1984, 1991, 1994, 1996, 2001b, 2002, 2007), his corpus of work is more focussed and specific than the broad-ranging analysis of the sports and Christianity relationship provided by Hoffman and Higgs, in that his primary research interests are American baseball and football adopting mainstream sociological theories and the tools of religious studies to analyse his subject matter. In addition to Novak, Hoffman, Higgs and Price, two other scholars, William J. Baker and James Mathisen, have also made significant inroads into the scholarly investigation of the sport-faith relationship. The major contribution of Baker, an emeritus historian at the University of Maine, (USA), is his scholarly and yet highly accessible socio-historical analysis of the American modern sports institution, Playing with God (Baker, 2007a). This was preceded by his provocatively entitled book, If Christ Came to the Olympics (Baker, 2000a) that is particularly useful for those wanting to critically analyse modern Olympia. He has also published on the socio-cultural movement of Victorian muscular Christianity (Baker, 2000b) and the historical relationship between western sports and religion (Baker, 1988, 2010). Similarly, a key area of interest for James Mathisen is that of muscular Christianity in American culture. A retired sociologist of religion at Wheaton College (USA), Mathisen has also published on Pauline athletic metaphors and the evolution and development of sports ministry organizations (Mathisen, 1990, 1994/2006, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2005). His co-authored book with Tony

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Ladd, Muscular Christianity: Evangelical Protestants and the Development of American Sport (1999) is his most wellknown, and for some practitioners of sports ministry, a controversial work. One of Mathisen’s (1994/2006) earlier contributions on muscular Christianity was published in a book that comprised papers from the annual American conference of the Christian Society for Kinesiology and Leisure Studies (CSKLS) which, until recently, was the only professional scholarly organisation to focus on sport and the Christian faith (see Appendix A). CSKLS was officially launched in 2002 but its roots go back to 1989 when Glen Van Andel, Professor of Recreation (now retired) at Calvin College, USA, founded the annual Symposium on Christianity and Leisure Studies. Tom Visker, Professor of Sport and Physical Education (Bethel College, USA) and Paul Heintzman, Professor of Leisure Studies (University of Ottawa, Canada) both attended the 1989 conference, and along with Van Andel, played key roles in the early development of this organization. In the early years of the annual symposium there was a focus on leisure and recreation studies, and the first collection of papers from the conferences entitled, Christianity and Leisure: Issues in a Pluralistic Society reflects this (see Heintzman, Van Andel, and Visker, 1994/2006). During the mid-1990s the overall scope of CSKLS extended to kinesiology9 stimulating a second collection of conference papers entitled, Physical Education, Sports, and Wellness: Looking to God as we Look at Ourselves (Byl and Visker, 1999). The significance of CSKLS as a pioneering organisation is further supported by the fact that both Hoffman (1994/2006) and Mathisen (1994/2006) have contributed chapters to these edited 9

Kinesiology is an American term and, broadly speaking, is synonymous in its usage with the disciplinary descriptors, “sports studies” and “sports sciences”.

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Chapter One

collections. Hoffman delivered invited keynote presentations at the 1991 and 2010 CSKLS conferences, while Mathisen has presented papers at the event on more than one occasion. With the recent launch of a professional journal, the Journal of the Christian Society for Kinesiology and Leisure Studies (2010-), CSKLS continues to be an important vehicle for research and scholarship in the field. The pioneering work of CSKLS and the scholars noted above (excluding Novak), have a strong protestant theological focus. However, this does not mean that the Catholic Church and community of scholars have not passionately engaged in reflecting upon sport and religion.10 Until recently, Novak’s (1967/1994) influential book has stood alone as the only systematic analysis of sport and the catholic faith produced in the English language. That said, scholars from Germany, Italy and Poland have contributed to such debates in their own languages, often in the form of documents written at the national level by catholic bishops. More recently, however, there has been a growing number of academic texts (e.g., White, forthcoming; Baum and Coleman, 1989; Feeney, 2006, 1995; Kelly, 2012; Lixey et al., 2012; Lixey, 2012a, b; O’Gorman, 2010a; Ryan, 1986; Sing, 2004), empirical studies (Hastings and DelleMonache, 2007; Hastings et al., 2006), scholarly essays,11 practitioner

10

Kelly (2012: 204) has recently argued that “… Catholics are typically overlooked in books about the history of recreation, sport, and leisure in America”. Kelly provides evidence for this claim by citing a number of major academic texts that do not mention catholic sports initiatives. From our own reading of, and engagement with, the study of sport over the last decade, we would support this argument. Also, see chapter 4, Case Study (I): Sport and the Medieval Catholic Church of Harvey (2014). 11 These scholarly essays include: Bauer and Froissart (2011), CombeauMari (2011), Cronin (2000), Gems (1993), Hastings (2004), Kerrigan (1986), Koehlinger (2012a,b), McDevitt (1997), Maranise (2009), Martin

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resources (Brown et al., 2006; Costantini and Lixey, 2011; Hess, 2012; Penrice, 2009; Yerkovich and Kelly, 2003) and periodical publications (see New Catholic World, 1986, JulyAugust) focusing on the relationship between sport and the Catholic faith. These have undoubtedly been driven by the Pontificate of John Paul II which, we would argue, has been as significant for the catholic community as the body of work developed by the protestant thinkers described above. Building on the work of his predecessor, Pope Pius XII, who addressed numerous catholic sport associations, John Paul II, who in his earlier life was a passionate sportsman, (i.e., football goalkeeper, skier and mountain climber, see Feeney, 2006, 1995), held two international sport gatherings in Rome’s Olympic stadium speaking no less than 120 times on the subject, addressing Olympic committees and able/disabled athletes (Müller and Schäfer, 2010). The launch of the Church Sport Office within the Pontifical Council for the Laity12 in 2004, led by Father Kevin Lixey, is arguably the most significant outcome of the long-held enthusiasm of the Holy See for sport, culminating in the pontificate of John Paul II. To date, this Office has held three international seminars at the Vatican, each of which has had a specific focus: (i) chaplaincy (ii) evangelism, and (iii) mission and education in sport. These events have resulted in the publication of three books (Liberia Editrice Vaticana, 2006, 2008, 2011). In addition, Pope Benedict XVI, while on a state visit to Great Britain (and in addition to his own reflections on the sportsworld, see Clemens, 2009), launched The John Paul II Foundation for Sport (2008-), safeguarding the enduring legacy of his predecessor.

(2011), Mills (2002), Miroslaw (2003), Munoz (2009), Nesti (2007c), Ryan (1985), Savant (2003), Sydnor (2009, 2006a, 2005) and Söll (1972). 12 Papal teachings on sport are available on the website.

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Chapter One

Most recently, the head of the ‘Culture and Sport’ section of the Pontifical Council for Culture at the Vatican, Msgr. Melchor Sanchez de Toca Alameda, has invited two highprofile American evangelical athletes, Tim Tebow (NFL football player) and Jeremy Lin13 (NBA basketball player), to attend an international conference on “re-instilling values in sports” (Glatz, 2013: 1; Christianity Today, 2012), alongside representatives from the Italian National Olympic Committee, FIFA and the International Cycling Union. A central historical motif of catholic discourse on sports and faith is the need to emphasise the joyful, festive and intrinsically playful nature of sport, a topic that is at the heart of the field and to which we now turn.

13

Kluck’s (2012) recent book provides an overview of the relationship between faith, and basketball and what commentators have called, “Linsanity”.

CHAPTER TWO THEOLOGIES OF PLAY IN SPORT

I wonder whether it is possible (it almost seems so today) to regain the idea of the Church as providing an understanding of the area of freedom (art, education, friendship, play), so that Kierkegaard’s ‘aesthetic existence’ would not be banished from the Church’s sphere, but would be re-established within it? —Bonhoeffer (1944).1

Over the past eighty years the study of the human impulse to play has entertained scholars from a wide range of academic disciplines and was a topic that the ancient Greek philosophers, Plato (424-348b.c) and Aristotle (384-322b.c), acknowledged as integral to human (and animal) experience (Ardley, 1967). Most of the academic work on sport and the Christian religion that is cited in this review discusses (to varying degrees) the role of play in modern sport and, perhaps more importantly, the lack of playfulness exhibited in such practices, a historical process that Guttman (1978/2004) describes as the “ludic diffusion”. This historical shift is something that philosopher of sport Anderson (2012) more recently described as the “The Death of Play in US Culture”. Kretchmar (2012), commenting on Anderson’s analysis, has called for the urgent ‘resuscitation’ of playful experiences in pedagogical practice, sport and general life. Taking up this challenge, the examination of play in sport, is our central task in this chapter and one that draws on literature from a number of academic disciplines. 1

Cited in Johnston (1983).

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Chapter Two

Empirical research and scholarly essays that analyse play, often with a link to games and organized sports, have come from a range of disciplines including: psychology (e.g., Csikzentmihalyi, 1975a, 1975b), education (e.g., Piaget, 1951), cultural anthropology (Geertz, 1973)2, sociology (e.g., Berger, 1970, 1967; Gruneau, 1980; Mead, 1934), particle physics (Sing, 2011, 2013), the philosophy and social study of sport (e.g., Giamatti, 1989/2011; Higgs, 1990; Hoffman, 1994/2006; McIntosh, 1979c; Morgan and Meier, 1995; Oriard, 1991; Ryall, Russell and Maclean, 2013; Schmid, 2011), history (e.g., Eisen, 1991; Huizinga, 1950), biological and physical anthropology (Burghardt, 2005; Bekoff and Byers, 1998; Sands and Sands, 2010;), leisure studies (e.g., Watson and O’Keefe, 2014; Heintzman, 2003b, 2006; Heintzman, Van Andel and Visker, 1994/2006; Hoffman, 1994/2006; Holmes, 1981; Pieper, 1948/1998; Ryken, 1987)3, evolutionary theory (Caroll, 2000) and, perhaps most importantly here, theology. The foundational study of play by Dutch cultural historian Huizinga (1950), provided a starting point for a number of scholars wishing to explore the relationship between play (the ludic element), sports (the agnostic element that involves a contest/test) and games, a well-documented and complex 2

Geertz (1973: 412-454) classic essay, Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight, explores rituals and social interactions between those involved in illegal cockfighting in Indonesia in the 1950s. Geertz examines how the experience of the risk of arrest (mainly due to gambling) and potential loss, or gain, of social status that characterizes illegal cock fighting, leads to moments of ‘deep play’ in which individuals transcend the rational (a key aspect of play) for short periods of time. See also Carlson’s (2013) essay on the metaphysics and ethics of ‘fantasy sports’ which uses Geertz’s work (among others) to explore notions of play in sporting realms. 3 See “Selected Bibliography on Play (and Work)”, prepared by Herbert F. Lowe for Religion Online that was originally published in Johnston (1983: 163-166).

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triad.4 The following quotation represents the basic tenets of Huizinga’s work: We may well call play a ‘totality’ in the modern sense of the word … In all its higher forms [play] at any rate belongs to the sphere of festival and ritual—the sacred sphere … The Platonic identification of play and holiness does not defile the latter by calling it play, rather it exalts the concept of play to the highest regions of the spirit … In play we move below the level of the serious, as the child does; but we can also move above it—in the realm of the beautiful and sacred.5

Clearly, for Huizinga (1950), play is imbued with a sacred or spiritual dimension. While his theory of play courts some theological themes, it was Rahner (1972),6 a Jesuit catholic theologian, who added a strong theological foundation to the 4

The relationship between play, games and competitive sports has been an important topic in the history of the philosophy of sport literature. Section 1 of Morgan and Meier’s (1995: 1-66) book that focuses on ontological frameworks and is entitled, The Nature of Play, Sport and Games, while dated, is arguably the most diverse and academically rigorous collection of essays on this topic. Articles by pioneering modern sport philosophers, such as Bernard Suits, Klaus Meier and Scott Kretchmar, alongside classic essays by pioneering play scholars, such as Huizinga, make this edited collection invaluable for those wishing to understand the complexities of this particular area of study. The section on metaphysics in Weiss’s (1969) seminal book and Part 1 of McNamee’s (2010: 9-92) more recent reader on sports ethics, entitled, “The Roots of Sports Ethics: Games, Play, Sports” are also helpful for examining play. With a specifically Christian focus, section four (comprising seven chapters) of Heintzman, Van Andel and Visker’s (2006) edited book, Play, Sport and Athletics, is also an invaluable resource. 5 This quote is from Mathisen (2005: 281), whose work we have relied on in order to chart the historical developments of the study of play in this section. 6 While Rahner’s work could be seen to be foundational with regard to a single study (monograph) on the topic of play, the theme of play was also in the work of Barth (Church Dogmatics III.4) and was a recurrent theme in the 19c. German post-idealist literature.

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concept of play, by locating God the Creator as the ‘ultimate player’. A series of philosophical and theological studies of play followed, all of which, in one way or another, are indebted to the protestant liberal theologian Tillich (18861965), who pioneered the theological analysis of culture in the twentieth century (Johnston, 2013,7 1983; Grimshaw, 2013). These scholars variously commented on the role of play and festivity (Cox, 1969; Pieper, 1965; see also, Eichberg, 2009a) in understanding God’s creation and mission, the evolution of civilization, human interactions and the relationship between (and significance of) play, games and sports (e.g., Callois, 1958; Johnston, 1983; Miller, 1969, 1971;Moltmann, 1972; Söll, 19728) and how Christian athletes may view playful sport as a form of worship; an expression of devotion and love toward God (Neale, 1969). Collectively, these authors, and others (e.g., Erdozain, 2012a; Feeney, 2006, 1995; Hamilton, 2008a; Harvey, 2014, 2013; Heintzman, Van Andel and Visker, 1994/2006;9 Hoffman, 2010a; Kelly, 2011; Kliever, 2001; Koch, 2003; Kretchmar, 2011; Preece, 2009; Schafer, 2012; Sing, 2011; Thoennes, 2008; Twietmeyer, 2009; Watson, and Kretchmar, forthcoming), are in general agreement that play can be characterized by a sense of freedom and autonomy, a non-utilitarian ethic, a celebratory and spontaneous spirit, creativity, joy, intrinsic enjoyment (the autotelic), a transcendence of ego-boundaries and a feeling of psychic (and

7

For a recent overview of theology and culture, see Johnston’s (2013) contribution to Mesiter and Beilby (2013: 795-805). 8 While Söll’s (1972) chapter on a catholic of sport theology (mainly based on the work of German catholic theologians) does not specifically address play, there is some reflection on this point, as in later catholic writings (see Feeney, 1995, 2006). 9 Section 4 of this text, entitled, Play, Sport and Athletics, has seven essays that, to varying degrees, discuss the role of play in modern sport.

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spiritual) holistic integration10. Arguably, it is Johnston’s book, The Christian at Play (1983), which provides one of the most comprehensive overviews on this particular topic.11 Charting the theological reflection of play from Augustine (354-430c.) and other Church fathers through to the modern era, Johnston (1983) provides a biblical model of play (i.e., Hebraic, Greek and Protestant),12 an exploration of leisure, work, play and sport and the differing theological options that have emerged (e.g., Moltmann, Berger and Lewis13). Following an existing line of thought, Johnston warns against the risk of framing a ‘theology of play’ as another “pop theology” (e.g., the death of God and human potential movements), by humanizing or deifying play and thus mistakenly adopting current opinion and identifying it with the Christian religion per se. On the whole, Johnston is optimistic about “Christians at play” but acknowledges the Church’s sometimes suspicious (e.g., Augustine and Puritans) and ambivalent attitude toward 10

It is interesting to note that Burstyn (2005) has called modern sports a “secular sacrament”. 11 These are: “the discharge of surplus energy (Herbert Spencer, J.C. Friedrich von Schiller); …relaxation, as recuperation from exhaustion (G.T.W. Patrick and Moritz Lazarus); …an internal educator (Karl Groos); as a means of catharsis, a safety valve to vent emotions (Aristotle); as a creative modelling of situations that enables the player to better handle experience (Erik Erikson); as a means of resolving psychic conflict (Sigmund Freud), or, on the contrary, as activity not motivated by the need to resolve inner conflict (Robert Neale)” (Johnston, 1983: 32). 12 While Johnston (1983) writes from a protestant perspective, his considerable engagement with key catholic scholars, such as Novak, Pieper and Rahner, in many ways allows this text to transcend theological and ecclesiological boundaries. 13 Johnston’s (1983) discussion of C.S. Lewis’s autobiography (Surprised by Joy, 1955, New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Harvest Books), in which Lewis describes his joyful play experiences in childhood that had a transcendent dimension, has clear links to more recent theological treatments of joy in sports (Null, 2004).

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play, pleasure and sport.14 He also suggests that protestant “… evangelical Christians are so prone to instrumentalize everything” (p.ix), including play, that modern commercialised sport has lost its playfulness, and thus its sacred roots. This claim has been at the centre of related scholarly debate since the late 1960s, especially in the US, and leading Catholic voices, such as Novak (1967/1994), point to the protestant work-ethic (rooted in individualistic Calvinistic doctrine) and Marxist ideology as the major forces that have transformed sport into a soul-less utilitarian endeavour. All of which echoes Huizinga’s (1950: 199) position: “… we have an activity nominally known as play but raised to such a pitch of technical organisation and scientific thoroughness that the real play-spirit is threatened with extinction”. Following a number of staunch Marxist critiques of modern sport (see Brohm, 1978; Hoch, 1972; Rigauer, 1981), which suggest that “sacred play moments” in sports have been lost to the pervasive forces of industrial capitalism (Gruneau, 1980),15 in support of Huizinga a number of scholars (Guttman, 1978/2004; Overman, 2011, 1997; Lasch, 1980), have argued that “sport has become work” for many (an individual calling in Calvinist doctrine); a practice characterized by rationality, quantification, bureaucracy, commercialism, greed and the quest for personal glory. The ethical sporting quandaries that arise from this institutional and instrumental approach to sport are many and varied and represent a topic to which we turn in due course. Another reason why sport may be perceived to 14

Waller’s (2010) research on play, leisure and sport in the Black church is a positive sign that more churches are beginning to recognise the value of play and sport. 15 Cultural Marxist, Gruneau (1980), provides a thorough and balanced analysis of classical Marxist critiques of sport (Rigauer, 1981; Brohm, 1971), while also considering Novak’s (1967/1994) theological position on play and Guttman’s (1978/2004) Weberian analysis of modern sport and play.

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have lost its playfulness (remembering that a key characteristic of play is anthropological holism i.e., mind, body and spirit), is the historical baggage of Platonic-Cartesian dualism in western theology and the theory and practice of physical education (i.e., the mind-body split). Addressing themes of embodiment and theological dichotomies (an insufficient epistemology that underplays the complexity of things) in the modern discourse on sports, a number of scholars have presented frameworks for thinking about sport rooted in holistic Judea-Christian and Pauline theology (Barrajón, 2012; Carraro, 2011; Hochstetler, Hopsicker and Kretchmar, 2008; Kretchmar, 2011; Scarpa and Twietmeyer, 2008, 2009; Watson, 2007a; White, 2012b; also see, Thaden, 2003). The Thomist scholar, Pieper (1948/1998, 1965) has been arguably the most important thinker from the Catholic community with regards to orthodox theological understandings of leisure, play, work and recreation. Drawing mainly on Aquinas (1225-1274c.) and thus Aristotle, Pieper extols the worth and necessity of leisure and play and attacks the ‘cult of work’ that has embroiled industrialised western civilization, by presenting a holistic theological anthropology that views the body as inherently good and spiritual. Pieper’s thesis has significantly influenced protestant accounts of sport and play, as well as recent analyses of play (and related psychological concepts, such as ‘flow’16) by Catholic sports scholars (see Kelly, 2011; Sing, 2011, 2004) that have helped to counter the epistemological and theological error of dualism in western theology and the study and understanding 16

The flow construct comprises nine dimensions (Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi, 1999): a balance between perceived challenges and skills, having clear goals, having a sense of control over one's actions, merging of action and awareness, receiving unambiguous feedback, being fully concentrated on the task, not being self-conscious, loss of time awareness, and the end result an autotelic experience (a high level of intrinsic satisfaction).

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of sport. The Greek dualistic philosophy of Plato, as used especially in the writings of Church father Origen (182251c.), have been extremely influential in denigrating the worth/sacredness of the body and thus sport and physical education (in comparison to academics and other cultural forms) in the last two millennia (Wilson, 1989). This trend has also permeated the predominantly secular based sports studies disciplines, such as sport psychology which we now discuss. Beginning with the Church fathers and practices of desert monasticism in the early centuries of Christendom, spiritual writers from across the traditions have advocated the sacrament of the “present movement”, in which a person can experience God bodily, a sense of wholeness, centeredness and peace (Merton, 1948; Quoist, 1965; Williams, 2003).17 This “present” disposition (based on the presence of the Holy Spirit) allows for negative experience and feelings from the past, and fears of the future, to be largely surrendered to God. Interestingly then, four decades of sport psychology research has consistently demonstrated that heightened levels of competitive-anxiety, largely due to personality traits, external influences (e.g., presence of significant others), past poorperformance and fear of failure (the opposite disposition to “flow”, see Sager, Lavallee and Spray, 2009), most often results in maladaptive stress, a reduced sense of overall wellbeing and resultant decrements in performance (Weinberg and Gould, 2011c). Indeed, longitudinal empirical studies have shown that when athletes attain “flow states”, being able to stay in the present (as with play) is a key aspect of this experience (Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). For 17

Research from the religion-health field has also identified clear links between “sacred [playful] moments” in a range of human endeavours, including sports, as a means of enhancing physical and emotional health and well-being (King, 1986).

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example, the golfer Tiger Woods has commented that: “I get so entrenched in the moment … that … there are many shots or many putts I don’t remember hitting. The more intense the situation gets that calmer I feel and the more things slow down. It’s a weird sensation” (Shedloski, 2011: 62). This raises two key questions: (i) are there any ontological and epistemological similarities in the experiences of religious devotees and sports performers? and (ii) is there a possibility that Christians may observe improvements in sports performance due to the peace and centeredness they may experience? The tendency to dichotomize subjective, playful sporting experience and sport psychology consultancy work has been critiqued by humanistic sport psychologists (e.g., Ravizza, 2002, 1984) and popular sports theorists (e.g., Cooper, 1998; Murphy and White, 1995). Collectively, Cooper (1998) and Murphy and White (1995), have subsequently gone on to make a series of claims that athletes’ reports of “being-in-the-zone”, “in the present moment”, and/or “in flow”, are in some way spiritual, religious, sublime (Kant and Burke), mystical or numinous (Otto) ecstatic experiences, that parallel those of Moses, St. Paul or the medieval mystics, such as St. John of the Cross and St. Theresa of Avila. Philosophically eclectic work surrounding the so-called “Runner’s High” (i.e., euphoric sensations experienced while long-distance running), has been central to this genre of scholarship (e.g., Battista, 2004; Jones, 2004; Joslin, 2003; Sands and Sands, 2009; Sands, 2010) and arguably stems from Sheehan’s seminal text, Running and Being (1978), which is often cited in sport-religion studies that explore religious experience and flow-states. Although some psychologists (i.e. Csikszentmihalyi, 1988) and catholic scholars (see Hastings, 2004; Kelly, 2011) have noted conceptual, if not ontological and epistemological, parallels between “flow” experiences and the meditative and

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contemplative practices of catholic communities (e.g., Jesuit and Ignation), Christian scholars have critiqued this eclectic body of work for its etymological and philosophical naivety, while championing the good of these sporting experiences in themselves (Higgs, 1983; Higgs and Braswell, 2004; Hoffman, 1992b, 1992c; Watson, 2007b). In particular, these writers, ask whether so-called spiritual experiences18 and the use and interpretation of sporting metaphors, such as “sporting spirit”, in traditional and alternative/extreme19 sports (see O’Gorman, 2010a; Watson, 2007b), lead the athlete to a deeper commitment to God, purification from vices and the development of humility, the benchmark of Christian mysticism down the centuries. In this vein, is it then theologically plausible to consider that the Christian belief of an athlete may lead to enhanced performance, and /or winning? Based on data from interviews with professional athletes who have made a commitment to the Christian faith during their career (Hubbard, 1998),20 it could be argued that the process of Christian salvation and the life-long surrendering of the heart to God (alongside technical physical practice and fitness conditioning), which according to Christian teaching 18

Spiritual experience based on the premise that spiritual revelation is received during the experience. 19 Work by Moore (2012), Heintzman (2003a, 2003b), Watson (2007b) and Price (1996), explores spiritual, mystical, numinous experiences in alternative sports (sometimes called extreme sports) and activities that are often undertaken in wilderness/nature-based environments and which may involve opportunity for contemplation in nature, risk-taking and experiences of the sublime. 20 In Hubbard’s (1998: 156) popular book that documents the lives and sports careers of Christian (and Muslim) athletes, there are a number of allusions to this idea. For example, in summarizing the testimony of Loren Roberts, an American professional golfer, Hubbard reports that, “When golf was his God, he [Roberts] realized he was putting incredible pressure on himself. When he placed God first, family second, and golf third, he began to relax—essential for a sport that is as much mental as physical”.

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leads to inner peace and a sense of identity rooted in God the father (Romans 8: 1-18), may inadvertently lead an athlete to improved performance in competition. That said, it is vital to point out that while the quest for excellence in any human endeavour is a positive goal, success, enhanced performance and winning in sport, is certainly not the central message of the Christian gospel (Watson, 2011b, 2012a, 2012b). Considering the wealth of research on play and related concepts and the fact that it has been argued that moderns (in a rationalized scientific age) have lost their playful “sense of wonder” (Dubay, 1999) and the ability to “see contemplatively” beyond the material world (Rolheiser, 2001), further research on play in organized sport is vital. In fact in support of many others, Hoffman (2010a) has argued that the recovery of the play ethic in modern sport is essential for its long-term health and re-creation. In this sense, key questions for future research include: in light of the historical suspicion and ambivalence of the Church with regard to play, how can playful activities such as sport, dance, music21 and the arts (see Begbie, 2000) be further integrated into ecclesiological praxis? Building on theological works of joy in sports (Altrogge, 2008; Null, 2004) and interdisciplinary analyses of humour in sporting contexts (Eichberg, 2009a, 2009b; Levine, 1967; Walford, 2009), what are the links between humour, laughter and play in sporting locales (see Berger, 1997; Capps, 2006; Eldredge, 2011; Heddendorf, 1994/2006; Kuschel, 1994; Martin, 2011; Wellard, 2013)? As the majority of previous research has largely assumed that play is a uniform concept, how does the experience of different depths of play (“deep/profound” and “shallow/ diversionary”; see Ackerman, 1997) impact the sportsperson? How can 21

Bart’s theological musings regarding Wolfgang Amadaeus Mozart’s playful creativity and imaginative expression of his gift (Metzger, 2003), have been used in previous analyses of play in sport (Watson, 2011b).

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theologies and philosophies of play help to counteract the commercialised and scientized world of sport? Does the theological basis of religious disability communities, such as L’Arche22 (i.e., cooperation, celebration, festivity, humour, forgiveness, humility and vulnerability), whose activities including sports and leisure (see O’Keefe, 1994/2006; O’Keefe and Watson, 2014), hold a prophetic and corrective message for the commercialised sports institution (see Watson, 2012a,b; Watson and Parker, 2012b)? What is the role of neuro-theological research in holistically understanding playful moments of transcendence during sports participation (see Ward, 2012; Dietrich, 2003)?23 What is the significance of a father “playing with his children” with regard to relational bonding and expressing something of God’s delight (playfulness) in His children (Jensen, 2003)? Of course, play experiences permeate our culture, with Berger (1970) famously calling these moments “signals of transcendence” in the human condition. Examining how such moments contribute to the notion that “sport has become a popular religion” for many people in western culture, is our next task.

22

L’Arche (French for Ark) is a Catholic, yet wholly ecumenical, international federation of over 140 communities in 50 countries, where people with and without learning difficulties live in community. Its founder is Jean Vanier, a pioneer, celebrated writer and practitioner in this area. 23 For an overview of “neurotheology”, see Wildman and Cooley’s contribution to Mesiter and Beilby (2013: 821-837).

CHAPTER THREE SPORT, RELIGION AND POPULAR CULTURE

If there is a universal popular religion in America it is to be found within the institution of sport. —Edwards (1972: 82) A godless world leaves a “terrifying meaningless-ness” and celebrities help fill the gap. —Cashmore (2010: 453)

Following early examinations of the sport-religion interface that included reflection on magic, superstition and ritual, by pioneering sociologists of sport (Edwards, 1973; Eitzen and Sage, 1978; Snyder and Spreitzer, 1983),1 religious studies scholars and theologians2 exploring the intersections between religion (especially Christianity) and popular culture have slowly begun to recognise the significance of sports as a dominant cultural form (e.g., Andrews, 2011; Bauer, 2011; Blazer, 2012; Borer, 2008; Butterworth, 2008; Chidester, 1

These books all contain sections or chapters on the relationship between sport and religion, for example, Snyder and Spreitzer’s (1983) chapter entitled, The Religious Significance of Sport. Of these three texts, however, it is the work of Edwards’ (1973) that has been most frequently cited and used to assess the “functional” similarities between these social institutions. 2 Historically speaking, there has been a dearth of collaborations between scholars from these fields. Latterly, however, there has been a gradual shift towards a greater sense of synthesis between theology and sociology (see for example, Brewer, 2007; Gill, 2012), which, some would argue, has devlopd in the wake of the publication of John Milbank’s, Theology and Social Theory (1989).

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2000; Cusack, 2010; Jona and Okou, 2012; Lelwica, 2000; Moore, 2003; Price, 2001a; Santana and Erickson, 2008; Scholes and Sassower, 2013).3 There are a number of theoretical frameworks and methodologies that have been used to analyse how popular cultures and religion relate to one another, these include: (i) religion in popular culture (ii) popular culture in religion (iii) religion and popular culture in dialogue, and (iv) popular culture as religion (Forbes, 2000). Scholars examining sport and religion have primarily adopted the latter, recognising that when a “… significant cultural activity takes on the social form of religion” (Forbes and Mahan, 2000: 163), it provides existential meaning and a sense of identity for the participant, fan, parent or practitioner (e.g., coach or manager). In short, sport has become a popular or civil religion. In-part, the argument that sport is a civil religion has emerged from the forces of secularisation that have shaped modern social history in the west (i.e., the US and Europe)4 since the early 1800s (e.g., Francis and Ziebertz, 2011; Ratzinger, 2005; Taylor, 2007; Ziebertz, Kay and Riegel, 2009)5 and thus the modern sporting institution (Guttman, 3

For an application of sociological and philosophical theories to the sportreligion interface see Gugutzer, R. and Böttcher, M. (2012) Körper, Sport and Religion: Zur Soziologie religiöser Verkörperungen, New York: Springer VS. 4 It is important to recognise the many differences in the historical development of the US and Europe (and between Europe and the UK) and how this significantly moderates understandings of secularization. For example, the role of the European enlightenment in secularization and the strong links between Church and State in many European countries that is markedly different to the separation of these institutions in North American society (see Berger and Davie, 2008). 5 In arguably the most thorough interdisciplinary analysis of secularization theory to date, Taylor (2007: 13) identifies the common elements of varied secularization theories. For example, that western states are no longer founded on religion and that religious institutions have been on the decline

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1994; Yamane, Mellies and Blake, 2010). An important caveat concerning the degree of significance afforded the paradigm of secularization and the subsequent decline of church attendance and the practice of Christianity over the last 200-years in Britain is Gill’s (2003) demonstration of other determining factors, such as shifts in global economic practices and the diverse use of social space. Gill’s multimethod approach to social research provides evidence of an inverse relationship in the sport-religion dyad that is helpful for understanding how sport has gradually begun to function as a pseudo-religion in the modern age. This relationship illustrates that the popularity of sport has exponentially increased (especially since the 1880s)6, while Church attendance and adherence to Christian beliefs has sharply decreased (see also, Brierley, 2006; Brown, 2009; Bruce and Glendinning, 2010). It is also worth noting that a significant number of British professional football clubs7 were founded since the 1800s. Taylor also highlights the plurality and liberty of religious believers’ perspectives: “… from a society in which it was virtually impossible not to believe in God … [we have moved] to one in which faith, even for the staunchest believer, is one human possibility among others”. 6 Organised sports evolved during the 19th century, but in particular in the 1860-90s due to their aggressive promotion in the English public schools (e.g., Rugby, and Eton) and subsequently across the British Empire, which was, in-part, a consequence of the spread of the Victorian ideology of muscular Christianity (1830-). The codification of a number of modern sports during this period and the development of sports governing bodies in the UK, such as the Football Association (1863), were also influential in the development of modern traditional sports (see Collins and Parker, 2009; Holt, 1990; Mangan, 1981/2000). The professionalization of sport in the 19th and 20th centuries quickly became a dominant model in the 1960s due to the commodification of sports (via mass production and the use of radio and television) and resulted in an exponential increase in the participation in, and consumption of, sports in the modern era. 7 Lupson (2006) identifies football clubs such as Aston Villa, Barnsley, Birmingham City, Bolton Wanderers, Everton, Liverpool, Fulham,

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by churches or Christian organisations (Lupson, 2006). However, apart from the existence of chaplains with a specific responsibility for sport and a small number individual footballers with Christian beliefs (Boyers, 2011, 2000; Heskins and Baker, 2006; Wood, 2011), it could be argued that any remnant of explicit Christian influence has long been subsumed by a “win-at-all-costs” ethos in professional football, which a large body of ethical, sociological, psychological and theological research has shown to be replete with moral and ethical issues (e.g., Brackenridge, Pitchford, Russell and Nutt, 2007; Parker, 1995, 2000, 2001, 2006; Roderick, 2006; Watson, 2011b). Notwithstanding the complex reasons for the historical emergence of sport as a popular or civil religion, scholars are in general agreement that the loss of traditional religious liturgies that helped define daily life prior to modernity has, to some degree, been replaced by sports (see Barthes, 2007),8 with their ritual, communal, aesthetic, transcendent, symbolic, mythical, ascetic and heroic structures. Indeed, Burstyn (2005) has called modern sport a “secular sacrament”. These sporting liturgies have helped fill a spiritual void in western culture, a void that the “celebrity athlete” (amongst other celebrities) may occupy for many (see Andrews and Jackson, 2001; Bolsmann and Parker, 2007; Cashmore and Parker, 2003; Cashmore, 2004, 2005; Haynes, 2004, 2005; Howe and Parker, 2012; Nalapat and Parker, 2005; Parker, 2009; Smart, 2005).

Manchester City, Queen’s Park Rangers, Southampton, Swindon Town and Tottenham Hotspur. 8 The French literary theorist and philosopher, Roland Barthes, while not explicitly analysing religious phenomena in his brief but insightful book (Barthes, 2007), provides excellent insight into the mythic and ritual aspects of modern sports.

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Cashmore (2010: 453) acknowledges this, stating that “a godless world leaves a ‘terrifying meaningless-ness’ and celebrities help fill the gap”, a gap that political, industrial, military and religious heroes have previously filled (see Digance and Toohey, 2011; Higgs, 1982; Rojek, 2001; RubioHerandez, 2011; Vande Berg, 1998). Historically, the extent to which sport has been seen to occupy the collective consciousness of western nations has been highlighted by various commentators. In 1905 Lord James Bryce noted that “… the passion for looking at and reading about athletic sports ... occupies the minds not only of the youths at universities, but also their parents and the general public. Baseball matches and football matches excite an interest greater than any other public events except the Presidential election” (cited in Hogan, 1967: 133). Reflecting on the globalised game of soccer nearly a century later, Giulianotti (1999) echoes these sentiments, observing that the modern game has, in some ways, supplanted religion9 as the primary institution that brings about social cohesion, a sense of community and the opportunity for aesthetic emotional experiences and states of ecstasy that mirror those experienced by religious adherents in churches, mosques and synagogues across the world. Perhaps somewhat predictably then, during the past four decades scholars from a variety of disciplines (but especially the sociology of religion) have attempted to demonstrate the similarities between modern sports and religion, with reference to the primordial and modern religious rituals, symbols and rites that characterize both institutions (in particular Christianity). This is, as 9

It is perhaps more important to recognise that the existential meaning drawn from sport and/or religion interweave in the lives of some participants and fans. The “either-or dichotomous argument” (i.e., sport is fully a surrogate religion), is perhaps a response that has evolved in the academic literature.

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Grimshaw (2000: 90)10 intimates, a functional and ritualistic view which “argues that sport contains elements of religion … sacred sites, scared rituals, sacred festivals, sacred songs, sacred texts, saviours and heretical figures”. From this perspective Grimshaw claims that “rugby is New Zealand’s national religion”, and an institution in and of itself. Indeed, the institution of sport has been variously described “as a religion” (Prebish, 1993b), a “natural religion” (Novak, 1967/1994), a “cultural religion” (Albanese, 1981), a “secular religion” (Alomes, 1994; Kock, 2002; Liponski, 2009), a “civil religion” (Butterworth, 2008; Guttman, 1988; Loy, McPherson and Kenyon, 1978), a “surrogate religion” (Percy and Taylor, 1997; Coles, 1975), a “quasi-religion” (Dunning, 1986), a “popular religion” (Trothen, 2006) and a “folk religion” (Mathisen, 2005, 2001). The conceptual differences between all of these descriptions of ‘sport as religion’ are complex and subtle, with Cady (1978), for example, (while not labelling sport as a form of religion), suggesting that sports have a “sacramental essence” that closely mirrors the religious aesthetic experience. Mathisen (2005), however, contends that perhaps ‘civil religion’ is the most durable and illuminating model, as it includes both sociological and political dimensions that map neatly to the sports world, as identified in Bellah’s (1967) seminal essay and his subsequent work on American institutions of civil religion (see Tipton, 2006). In order to analyse this socio-religious phenomena in sporting sub-cultures, scholars have drawn on the work of sociologists such as Emile Durkheim (1915), Talcott Parsons (1951), and Peter Berger (1967, 1970) (a sociologist of religion), cultural anthropologists, such as Victor Turner (1969/1995) and Clifford Geertz (1973), and works from religious studies, most notably Mircea Eliade’s (1957) classic 10

See Grimshaw (2012) for further exploration of this theme.

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depiction of the sacred and profane in human experience.11 There are many individual studies that have examined the symbiosis of sport and the Christian faith (and other religions).12 However, it was the sociologist, Harry Edwards’ (1973: 260), who, after recognising that “… sport, whether by deliberate design or social happenstance, has achieved a stature not wholly unlike that enjoyed by traditional religions”, developed a systematic typology demonstrating the links between the institutions of sport and religion that has been widely adopted and recently updated.13 Although based on North American sport, we would argue that Edwards’ model can be applied to any industrialised western sporting nation, as strongly intimated in Guttman’s (1978/2004) sociohistorical study of the development of modern sport. 11

Those wishing to pursue research drawing on these foundational works in the social-sciences should also access the monographs of Blanchard (1995) and Howe (2008) and the more recent anthology by Sands and Sands’ (2010) which analyses the anthropological dimensions of sports, including reflection on cultural, biological and spiritual dimensions. 12 For example, studies of sport that have utilised the theoretical ideas of Durkheim and Parsons include: Birrell (1981), Cottingham (2012) (on ritual in sports fandom), Goodger (1985), Mathisen (2005), Percy and Taylor (1997). Berger’s (1970) ideas, especially his notion of ‘signals of transcendence’ in the human condition, have been adopted by Hoffman (1992c), Goodger (1985) and Watson (2007b) to examine religious experience in sport. The work of Turner and Geertz has been extensively used by sports scholars, in particular, to investigate the ritual aspects of sports. See also: Cheska (1978), DaMatta (1989), Haualand (2007), Jones (2004), Lelwica (2000), Laughlin (1993), Santanna and Erickson (2008), Scholes and Sassower (2013) and Womack (1992). Miller-McLemore (2001) and Percy and Taylor’s (1997) essays on sports, are examples of work that draw on Eliade’s classic study of the sacred and profane. 13 Coakley (2007) has developed a typology of the the institutional similarities and differences between sport and religion building on the work of Edwards. However, we choose to emphasise Edward’s model due to its widespread use and clear links to other studies/topics discussed in this section.

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Edwards’ (1973: 261-262) typology states that sport has: (i) a body of formally stated beliefs, accepted on faith by masses of people (ii) “‘saints’—those departed souls who in their lives exemplified and made manifest the prescriptions of the dogma of sport” (iii) ruling patriarchs, a prestigious group of coaches, managers, and sportsmen who exercise controlling influence over national sport organizations (iv) “gods”—star and superstar athletes, who, though powerless to alter their own situations, wield great influence and charisma over the masses of fans (v) high councils, controlled or greatly influenced by patriarchs who make or interpret the rules of sports involvement (vi) scribes—the hundreds of sports reporters, sports telecasters and sport broadcasters whose primary duty is to record the on-going history of sports and to disseminate the dogma and word of its day-to-day glory among the people (vii) “seekers of the kingdom”, its true believers, devotees and converts. In short, sport has its fanatics (viii) shrines—the national halls of fame and thousands of trophy rooms (ix) “houses of worship” spread of across the land where millions congregate to bear witness to the manifestations of their faith, and (x) “symbols of faith”— the trophies; game balls; the bats, gloves, headgear or socks or immortal personages of sports. There has been a steady stream of studies that have examined different elements of Edwards’ (1973) broad typology. One element that has been researched in particular is that of sporting ‘gods’. The way in which sports celebrities such as Michael Jordan, Pele, Sachin Tendulkar, David Beckham, Muhammad Ali and Diego Maradonna, have been worshipped as “gods” (or more accurately “demi-gods”)14 by their fans has emerged as an interesting area of study (e.g., Archetti, 2002; 14

In the colloquial sense, the term “demi-god” denotes a godlike person in the eyes of others (The Oxford Compact Dictionary and Thesaurus, 1997, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, p.192).

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Ganzevoort, 2004; Kluck, 2009b; Nalapat and Parker, 2005; Rial, 2012; Sutil, 2008; Watson, 2011b; Watson and White, 2007; White, 2008a). Powerful illustrative examples of this deific projection15 are demonstrated by Michael Jordan’s biographer, who, in adopting more than a hint of hyperbole, described him as “Jesus in Nikes” (Halberstam, 2001) and the recent establishment of Iglesia Marodoniana, the “Maradonian Church” (1998-). With a following of reportedly 100,000 from over sixty nations, a somewhat bizarre version of the“Ten Commandments”which states, among other things, that adherents must name their second child Diego, and a syncretic theology based on a liberal South-American Catholicism and the humanistic idolisation and worship of their god—Maradonna, the Maradonian Church is an example of the multifarious ways in which sport and religion interact across a variety of nations and cultures (see Archetti, 2002; Sutil, 2008).16 Perhaps one of the best known and most controversial examples of the co-mingling of sports and Christianity in modern culture is the sports-themed stained glass window17 in the cathedral of St John the Divine in New York, America (Willis and Wettan, 1977); a representation of the relationship between sports and religion in the country in which it is most explicit. Commissioned by Bishop William Thomas Manning, the window features a range of popular sporting images from 15

Williams (1994) examines this “deific projection” of sports persons into “immortals” in his incisive psychological analysis (that is helpful for Christian scholars), drawing on thinkers such as Carl Jung, Otto Rank and Ernest Becker. 16 This is a similar phenomenon to other pop-culture churches, such as the Elvis Church. 17 To our knowledge, the only other sport-themed stained glass window is situated in a small church in the south-west of France. The church has been called, Notre-dame-du-Rugby: The Church of the Oval Ball, as a consequence of the world rugby cup motifs used.

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baseball, boxing, motor-sport and horse racing and was completed and installed shortly after the end of WWII. The majority of studies that have examined different elements of Edwards’ (1973) typology, for example, the symbolism of a sports stained glass window in a cathedral, have largely evolved from American scholars. Though Mathisen (2005), a sociologist of religion, has provided a concise overview of this topic, with regard to the sport-faith interface, it is Price (1984, 1994, 2001a, 2005, 2006) who has driven forward this genre of scholarship, most notably via his assessments of the Super Bowl as a religious festival (also see Real, 1975) and through his work on baseball18 and American religion. Other academic examinations of American football (Bain-Selbo, 2008a, 2008b; Butterworth, 2008; Doyle, 1997), baseball (Allen, 2004; Butterworth, 2005, 2011; Chidester, 2000; Garrett, 1976; Jolley, 2005; Lewis, 2013; Marlett, 2012; Santana and Erickson, 2008; Scholes, 2005, 2004) and what Forney (2010) aptly calls the “Holy Trinity” of American sports (i.e., baseball, American football and basketball), are largely based on Price’s earlier work. In sum, it is clear that “many Americans worship at the Church of Sports” (Cheska, 1978: 58), as do those from a range of other countries. Academic analyses of European and British sports are not as prevalent as those emanating from the US. Nonetheless, there has been a considerable amount of literature that has developed around what Watson (2012a) has termed the “god of the English”, the game of football (soccer). Following Coles’ (1975) early study that framed British football as a “surrogate religion”, the anthropologist, Morris (1981), highlighted similarities in the phenomenology of fandom to religion and tribalism, and thus described the soccer match as 18

For a comprehensive list of Works Relating to Baseball and Religion, see Price (2006: 239-252). This includes memoirs, fiction, historical analyses and reflections on literature in regard to the sport of baseball.

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a form of religious (primitive) ceremony. A number of popular books (e.g., Edge, 1999; Hornby, 1992; Longman, 2005; Parks, 2002) and academic texts (e.g., Giulianotti, 1999; Percy and Taylor, 1997; Xifra, 2008) have recognised soccer as a “new civil religion” and a more recent anthropological study has examined religiosity in Brazilian professional football within the context of the NeoPentecostal diaspora (Rial, 2012).19 In a similar way, the ritual and sacred aspects of the opening and closing ceremonies of sports mega-events, such as the Olympic and Paralympic games and the World Deaf Games, have also been identified as an area of interest (e.g., Baker, 2000a; Haualand, 2007; Luo, 2010), as has the religiosity of sports fans themselves. Historian of sport, Baker (2010: 216), observes that “rabid sports fans and religious fanatics drink from a common cup of true belief”, with many “… rituals, ceremonies and liturgies”, helping to structure both religious and sports meetings. While a number books on sport and faith touch on the experience of fandom (e.g., Evans and Herzog, 2002; O’Gorman, 2010a; Price, 2001a), specific Christian analyses are sparse, with a few notable exceptions, such as the work of Ellis (2012a), Gibson (2008), Ellison, (2001), Percy and Taylor (1997) and Reysen (2006). The “religious” devotion of sports spectators has also been the focus of a handful of books and papers written by sports studies scholars and anthropologists who have identified the multiple factors of fandom that are imbued with religious motifs (see Burstyn, 2005; Cheska, 1978; Cottingham, 2012; Crawford, 2004; Edwards, 1973; Goldstein, 19

Rial (2012: 130), interviewed 60 Brazilian professional soccer players, including a number of high-profile internationals, to explore how athletes have become the “new missionaries” who “preach . . . to reach billions of homes” and, in turn, how the relationship between professional football and Christianity in South-America, is often closely tied to a “theology of prosperity”.

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1998; Guttman, 1986; Marjoribanks and Farquharson, 2012; Morris, 1981; Mumford, 2011). Some of these are clearly linked to Edward’s (1973) typology including: zealous devotion and fanaticism of star players and/or their teams; singing and chanting as a collective group, i.e. the sectarian religious songs of Glasgow Rangers and Glasgow Celtic Scottish football fans (see Bradley, 2004; Lawrence 2011; Giulianotti and Gerrard, 2001); investment of identity and meaning in players, the club and/or performances; the attraction and fascination of violent entertainment; the profound emotional, aesthetic and moral experience of watching the theatre of sporting competition with its failures, successes and performance excellence; and the honouring of club traditions and saints of the club. Arguably, one of the most original and informative empirical studies20 on religious fandom is that of Gibson (2008) which examines the use of sporting inscriptions and emblems on headstones in the main cemetery of east Belfast, Northern Ireland. Of the 3000 headstones examined (most of which were less than 10 years old), 81 had some sort of sporting (with a bias towards football) motif or inscription21

20

The themes that emerge in Gibson’s (2008) study, relate closely to the findings of Rial (2012: 142-143), who, on visiting the ground of Atletico Madrid football club in Spain, found the “… Memorial Atletico Madrid, a space where the members and fans of the club could leave their ashes in small urns nestled in a space in one of the tiles that compose large mosaics with photos of the club and its emblem. This is nothing less than a cemetery installed in a broad and modern space inside the stadium, with a chapel to conduct funeral services. This was the solution found to respond to the many requests from fans to have their ashes strewn on the stadium’s field, given that European law prohibited such practices for alleged health reasons”. 21 These sporting inscriptions and motifs can be found on the gravestones of both young and old. The kinds of sports represented include: football, horse racing, dog racing, fishing, and pigeon fancying. The football teams

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and belonged to men. Gibson concludes that for many male fans, sport and its demi-gods provide a source of existential meaning and identity, a place to be in community and experience love (i.e., philia), to share joys, sorrows, successes and failures and hope and despair. In line with Cashmore (2010), Gibson also observes that sports “… can lift people out of the mundane and into the quasi-mystical” and because of this, sports in peoples’ lives often come “… perilously close to idolatry ... a false religion that usurps the place that God alone ought to have in the lives of individuals and communities” (p.5-6). Like Watson (2012a,b), Watson and White (2007) and Stringfellow (1973/2004), Gibson goes on to suggest that the sporting institution is to some degree impacted by the “principalities and powers” (Col. 2: 15, KJV) described in the Christian scriptures. These are the celestial powers that lie behind all human institutions and ideologies, such as government, multi-national corporations, free-market capitalism, Olympism and communism. Similarly, while acknowledging the corpus of work on civil religion and sport as being useful in advancing our understanding of the cultural and sociological dynamics of sporting locales, there has also been a group of scholars who have strongly argued against Prebish’s (1993b) controversial proposal that sport is a religion in and of itself22 (see Cady, 1978; Chandler, 2002; Higgs, 1995; Higgs and Braswell, 2004; Joisten, 2012; Schmitt and Leonard, 1986; Watson and White, 2007; White, 2008a), while championing the potential of sport as a social good. In agreement with these scholars, Grimshaw (2000: 87, 92) has called for a theological deconstruction of what he interprets to be a post-Christian represented include, Manchester United, Liverpool, Glasgow Rangers and Glasgow Celtic. 22 Prebish (1993b) argues that there is a “complete identity” between sport and religion in America.

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“pagan mythology” of “fallible gods” through which sportsparticipants and fans can supposedly experience the spiritual, “… yet without the other-worldly connotations of a traditional understanding” of Christianity. To some degree, the rhetoric surrounding these fallible sports gods is perpetuated by the media and popular films that have effectively melded together narratives of religion and sport. The last two decades have witnessed an exponential growth in the number of books and articles written about the relation between film and theology (e.g., Johnston, 2006; Marsh, 2007). For example, the cinematic productions Chariots of Fire (1981) and Million Dollar Baby (2004) have been discussed in publications such as the Journal of Religion and Film (Cashmore, 2008; Roubach, 2007). Focusing on the issues surrounding “winning and losing” in sport, Whannel (2008) provides a helpful examination of a range of sports films, including those with religious subtexts, such as Bend it Like Beckham (2002). To date, however, besides Poulton and Roderick’s (2009) edited collection on sport and film which addresses some religious motifs and a themed conference session on “Religion and Spirituality in Sport Films”,23 Crosson’s (2012)24 work is the only account of its kind to explicitly analyse this topic.25 Due to the embryonic nature of 23

At the annual conference of the American Academy of Religion in 2009 in Montreal, Mercer University Press sponsored a Forum on “Sports and Religion” the specific theme of which was “Religion and Spirituality in Sports Films”. The session was coordinated by Dr Eric Bain-Selbo. This information was sourced from a personal email communication with Professor Joseph Price, 1st December, 2011. 24 The chapter that focuses on sport, film and religion has not yet been clarified. 25 See Appendix A for a tabulated list of sport films with a major Christian theme, or sub-theme, and the handful of university courses on this topic that have recently emerged. Teachers from all levels of tertiary and higher education could use these films to assist in teaching religious education

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this subject area there is significant scope for further research here especially in light of the fact that the evangelical Christian community has fully embraced the multi-media revolution as a means to communicate their message. A recent example is the sports-faith movie, Facing the Giants (2006), made entirely by the members of an entrepreneurial North American church. The film illustrates a host of ethical dilemmas in the personal and professional life of a Christian American college football coach and his team of players. Sport in the global age will foreseeably continue to grow in popularity and cultural significance and may thus be increasingly “consumed” (Marjoribanks and Farquharson, 2012). Opportunities and questions for further academic investigations are, therefore, numerous. Moving beyond sociological analyses of sport conceived as a popular/civil religion, Christian theologians could, for example, apply the tools of systematic and biblical theology to examine concepts such as idolatry, celebrity and the multi-media representation of sport and the Christian religion. Although quasi-religious (and official religious) rituals, memorials and shrines in Churches and sporting locales and collective outpourings of grief and pilgrimages are commonly witnessed in the wake of major sporting disasters26 (see Brennan, 2006a, 2008b, 2008c, 2009; Darby, Johnes and Mellor, 2005), to date there has been limited academic reflection on this topic (e.g., Boyle, 2001; and theology in an interesting and cultural engaging manner through the vehicle of sport. 26 We classify “major sporting disasters” as those events in which there has been multiple deaths and/or serious injuries. For example: the Olympic Munich Terrorist Attack (1972, Germany), the Hillsborough Football Stadium disaster (1989, UK), the Heysel Football Stadium disaster (1985, Germany), the Munich Air Crash—Manchester United Football team (1958, Germany), Le Mans Gran Prix (1955, France), Port Said, Football Fan Violence (2012, Egypt) and the terrorist bomb at the Boston Marathon (2013, US).

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Jones, forthcoming; Walter 1991). While not addressing sporting disasters explicitly, recent theological-political reflections on “natural disasters” (Brittain, 2011; Winter, 1998),27 may prove helpful in thinking through the complex dynamics of such tragedies in the world of sports. In seeking to understand sport in post-modern culture, scholars have recently implemented “Radical Orthodoxy”,28 for example, to investigate the cultural impact and “illness 27

Chapter 5 of Brittain’s (2011) book examines “ideological reactions to tragedy”, which may be helpful in critically analysing the role and place of civil religion in the wake of sporting disasters. Also, Chapter 1 explores “secular theodicies” which may be of help to scholars wishing to conceptualise the way in which the bereaved deal with suffering and loss in the absence of religious belief. Jay Winter’s (1998) classic text, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History offers insight into issues surrounding collective remembrance, solace, belonging and commemoration, following large-scale tragedies. For example, periodic memorial services (e.g., on the 10th and 20th anniversaries) have been a definitive aspect of communal grief and remembrance following the Hillsborough Football Disaster in 1989 (see Boyle, 2001; Jones, forthcoming). Brennan’s work comprises a detailed sociological analysis of the public outpourings of grief surrounding the Hillsborough events. 28 Radical orthodoxy is a relatively recent school of theology-philosophy that has evolved from the writings of John Milbank, Graham Ward and Catherine Pickstock in the early 1990s (see Milbank, J and Oliver, S. (eds.) The Radical Orthodoxy Reader, London: Routledge, 2009). Its principal thesis, which stems from thinkers across the Christian traditions, is that the theologian’s task is to view all contemporary phenomena (i.e., explored in the social sciences) through the lens of orthodox Christian doctrine (theological ontology and epistemology) laid down in the early church creeds and writings of the Church fathers and rearticulated and interpreted by modern theological reflection, for example, in the works of protestant, Karl Bart and Catholic, Hans Urs Balthasar. This precludes that radical orthodoxy provides a strong attack on the paradigms of secularization in modern western culture. For a recent overview of ideas surrounding radical orthodoxy, see Long’s contribution to Mesiter and Beilby (2013: 647-650).

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narrative” of sporting icon and cyclist, Lance Armstrong (Meyer, 2012; Meyer and Watson, forthcoming) and the role of Catholicism in the study of sports history (Sydnor, 2003, 2006a). Further investigations using radical orthodoxy may assist scholars and religious practitioners (e.g., Christian ministers, sports chaplains, coaches etc.) to further understand and contextualize their faith in sporting contexts and theological and cultural analysis beyond western sporting locales is also an important topic to consider. In the wake of the South African 2010 World Football Cup (see Alegi and Bolsmann, 2012; Jeroh, 2012;29 Ngonyama, 2010), the African Association for the Study of Religions (AASR) provided a platform for such reflection by organising their annual conference in 2012 around the theme of sports and leisure (see Gunn, 2006; Nyenyembe, 2010; Waller, 2010). Scholars wishing to examine the cultural dynamics and interplay of the Christian religion and sports should access Niebhur’s (1951) classic work, Christ and Culture. Niebhur’s five-point typology, which has been adapted by Wittmer (2008) to examine modern sport, is an invaluable tool for examining socio-cultural movements such as Victorian muscular Christianity and modern sports ministry, an area to which we now turn.

29

Jeroh’s (2012) essay explores the sport-religion nexus with a particular focus on the way in which religion and sport (esp. Christianity) interact in Nigeria (e.g., how Church leaders and Churches use sport), the author’s place of residence and work.

CHAPTER FOUR MUSCULAR CHRISTIANITY AND SPORTS MINISTRY … first, convert the athletes, who are among the most visible individuals in our society, then, use these stars for what is generally known in the business as ‘outreach’, an up-to date rendering of the old-fashioned phrase ‘missionary work’. —Deford (1976b: 66)

Due to the historical significance and impact of the AngloAmerican (and largely protestant)1 movement of Victorian muscular Christianity (1850-) on the development of modernday sport, physical education and the evolution of sports mission and ministry (i.e., neo-muscular Christian groups), there are numerous books and scholarly articles on this subject.2 In short, the ideology of Victorian muscular Christianity proffers the notion that sport and physical education has the potential to build manly and virtuous character, which is typically characterised by “… fair play, respect (both for oneself and others), strength (physical and emotional), perseverance, deference, subordination, obedience, discipline, loyalty, cooperation, self-control, self-sacrifice [and], endurance” (Collins and Parker, 2009: 194). This philosophy materialised during an age when the colonial, military and industrial aspirations of the Empire were high on 1

As McGrath (2008) suggests, the muscular Christian movement was largely (but not exclusively) protestant in origin, with a range of catholicrelated initiatives and educational institutions adopting its principles. 2 The majority of books cited both within this chapter and in Appendix A contain sections that reflect on muscular Christianity.

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the agenda of the British ruling classes and sports, in the Victorian public schools, were a mechanism via which leaders could be created, that is leaders who manifested the characteristics of “good Christian gentlemen” (Watson, Weir and Friend, 2005; Mangan, 1981/2000). Heavily influenced by the incarnational theology of F.D. Maurice and champions of the Christian Socialist movement (one aspect of the “social gospel” rhetoric) such as J.M. Ludlow (1821-1911), it was Charles Kingsley (1819-1875) and Thomas Hughes (18221896) who developed and applied the doctrine of muscular Christianity which quickly gained acceptance both at home and overseas especially in North America, in particular through the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) and the ministry of D.L. Moody (Bloomfield, 1994; Norman, 1987). Over the last 150 years, but particularly since protestant evangelicals began to recognise sport as a cultural vehicle to proselytise in the 1950s (Watson, 2007a), muscular Christianity (or, more accurately, aspects of the movement) has morphed into a largely evangelical endeavour, under the banner of “sports ministry”. For scholars wishing to study this influential movement, the key scholarly texts that focus mainly on the British context and which, we would argue, are indebted to Mangan’s (1981/2000) seminal work, are Erdozain (2010), Hall (1994), Vance (1985), Haley (1978) and McLeod, (forthcoming) with socio-historical treatments of Victorian sport being important complementary resources (Huggins, 2004; Birley, 1993; Dunning and Sheard, 1979/2005). The notable academic analyses of muscular Christianity in the North American context, are Putney (2001a) (largely historical), Bundgaard (2005) and Ladd and Mathisen (1999), the latter being especially insightful with regards to modern-day sports ministry organisations and the use of Pauline athletic metaphors by modern muscular Christians. Along similar

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lines, Hoffman (2010a) and Krattenmaker’s (2010), while noting the historical development of muscular Christianity, document and critique the approach of modern-day North American neo-muscular Christian sports ministry organisations, such as the Fellowship of Christian Athletes (FCA) and the practice of sports chaplaincy (see Appendix A)3. There are also a number of scholars from other Christian traditions and world religions who have examined similar and derivative movements, including: “muscular Catholicism” (Chandler, 2002; McDevitt, 1997), “muscular Judaism” (Eisen, 1998; Gurock, 2005; Hughes, 1996; Meyer, 2009; Mendelsohn, 2009; Pressner, 2007), “muscular Islam” (Baker, 2007b; Smith 2002), “muscular Hinduism” (Alter, 2004), “muscular Mormonism” (Kimball, 2008) and “muscular Quakerism” (Freeman, 2010). These resources are helpful when seeking to more fully understand the evolution of muscular Christianity in a culturally and religiously pluralistic world. Conceptually, Ladd and Mathisen’s (1999) four models of muscular Christianity comprise a useful overview of how this movement has evolved in Britain4 and the US during the last 150 years. Ladd and Mathisen’s framework comprises: (i) the classical model, based primarily on the ideology and social 3

While discussion in this chapter focuses on neo-muscular Christian sports ministry organisations, it is important to recognise that, in general, sports chaplaincy practice in America is sometimes more closely tied to the evangelical concerns of sports ministry organisations. However, in the United Kingdom, the practice of sports chaplaincy has a tendency to operate in line with a more traditional model focusing on the spiritual, pastoral and broader welfare needs of athletes and support staff. Of course, the degree to which this statement is true varies greatly in relation to sporting/institutional context, denominational practice, and the specific settings within which chaplains work. 4 For those wishing to examine the historical development of muscular Christianity in Anglican and Non-Conformist churches in the UK, McLeod (2003) provides a helpful chronological map of such events (see also, Parker and Weir, 2012).

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praxis of Kingsley and Hughes that had significant impact on the development of the English (and North American)5 public school system in the late nineteenth century (e.g., Eton, Uppingham, Marlborough, Harrow and Rugby schools) (ii) the evangelical model, which was championed by C.T. Studd (1860-1931) and D.L. Moody (1837-1899) in the early years and, thereafter, athletes, such as Eric Liddell (1902-1945), whose athletic and religious accomplishments were depicted in the l981 film, Chariots of Fire (1981: see Cashmore, 2008; Preece, 2009) (iii) the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA)6 model that was birthed in 1844 in London, England, and 1851 in Boston, America, and whose ideas were supported by all those who saw the importance of care for the poor and the advancement of the gospel through masculine and moral young men (e.g., Fretheim, 2008; Garnham, 2001; Binfield, 1973), and (iv) the Olympic model, the principal advocate of which was the founder of the modern Olympic Games (1896-), the French aristocrat and philanthropist, Baron Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), who’s exposure to the quintessential muscular Christian novel, Tom Brown’s Schooldays (Hughes, 1857)7 and brief visit to Rugby school in 1883 stimulated a personal fascination with the ideology. Both of these events had a significant role in the formation of

5

Bundgaard’s (2005) analysis of the rise of “muscle and manliness” in North American boarding schools is helpful for those examining the role and impact of classical muscular Christianity in the US. 6 A caveat with regards to the strength and significance of the historical and philosophical relationship between muscular Christianity and the YMCA is that some administrators and evangelists within the YMCA disavowed the phrase muscular Christianity (Erdozain, 2010). 7 The 150th anniversary of the publication of Tom Brown’s Schooldays was celebrated by way of a conference at the University of Chicago which was convened by Professor John MacAloon. Kidd’s (2013) essay reflects on the influence of the book in Canadian society, past and present.

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de Coubertin’s subsequent ideas around the establishment of the modern Olympics.8 There are, of course, scores of book chapters and articles that address many of the sub-topics within Ladd and Mathisen’s (1999) four models. For example: the historical roots of muscular Christianity in the Old Testament and Medieval Europe that explored notions of chivalry and knighthood in the middle-ages and war and dance in the Jewish faith (Ballou, 1973; Carter, 1984a, 1984b; Eisen, 1975; Eyler, 2013; Higgs and Braswell, 2004; Thomas, 1976); the connections between war, modern sports and North American muscular Christianity (Dowland, 2011; Schippert, 2003); the relationships between the Puritan view of sport and muscular Christianity (e.g., Harvey, 2014, Ch. 5; Overman, 2011; Ryken, 2006, 1987, 1986; Swanson, 1978); the development of the muscular Christian idiom in classic British literature (Stakweather, 2011); the presence of muscular Christian motifs in media representation of modern professional athletes such as those relating to the cyclist Lance Armstrong (Meyer, 2012); how the secularisation of western society impacted sports and leisure in Victorian England and, conversely, how the modern-day obsession with sport may contribute to the secularization of churches by diverting their mission focus (Collins and Parker, 2009; Erdozain, 2010); the social and ethical issues implicit within the muscular Christian movement (Bradley, 2007; Grace, 2000; Higgs, 1983; Hoffman, 1986, 2010a; McIntosh, 1979b; Spencer, 2000; Watson, 2007a); the role of muscular Christianity in the evolution of the modern Olympic Games (Kruger, 1993; Lucas, 1975, 1976); muscular Christian motifs in Tom Brown’s School Days and classic children’s literature 8

See Koch (2005a), Lucas (1975, 1976) and Parry (2007a) for further information on the links between muscular Christianity (and religion) and the modern Olympic Games.

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that pre-date the birth of the movement in the 1850s (Kidd, 2013; Redmond, 1978; Winn, 1960), and how, over the years, British colonialism served to spread the muscular Christian message and with it a number of traditional British sports (e.g., Alter, 2004; Macaloon, 2009; Mills, 2002), especially cricket (e.g., Majumdar, 2008; Malcolm, 2013; O’Keefe, 2012).9 Likewise, scholarship and commentary around Sunday sport (i.e., sport on the Sabbath) has been extensive. Over the last century Church attendance has sharply declined in the western world, especially in the UK (see Brierley, 2006; Gill, 2003). This has led Deford (1976d: 92) to observe that “… the churches have ceded Sunday to sports … Sport owns Sunday now, and religion is content to lease a few minutes before big games”. This scenario has been briefly examined by sports historians (e.g., Brailsford, 1991; Holt, 1990) and others who have addressed a range of issues surrounding the doctrine of Sabbatarianism (e.g., Briggs, 2013; Helman, 2008; Heintzman, 2006; Jarvie and Thornton, 2012; McMullin, 2012; Oppenheimer, 2013; Price, 2001b; Waller, 2009).10 To varying degrees, most of these authors frame their analyses around the well-known story of the Scottish athlete Eric Liddell whose decision not to compete on a Sunday (Exodus, 20:8) in a qualifying heat of the 100 9

For further analysis of the links between sport, religion and British colonialism (and, specifically, cricket in British social history), see the Special Issue of the journal, Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media and Politics, 2012, Vol. 15, Issue 2. 10 An interesting recent example of how Sabbatarian beliefs in sport have caused controversy is provided by Jarvie and Thornton (2012). They recount an incident in 2004 when two professional surfers wanted to surf on a Sunday on the Isle of Lewis (one of the Scottish Outer Hebrides islands that is renowned for surfing) where the Sabbath is still observed. There was much resistance to this by members of the Stornaway Free Church of Scotland and, in addition, the local council had previously turned down plans to open a multi-million pound sports hall on the Sabbath (also see McMullin, 2012).

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metres at the 1924 Paris Olympics, was depicted in the film, Chariots of Fire (see Cashmore, 2008; Keddie, 2007; Preece, 2009; Watson, 2007a). The former triple-jump Olympic champion and world record holder, Jonathan Edwards was until he renounced his Christian faith,11 often viewed as a modern-day muscular Christian comparable to Liddell (Folley, 2001). Such comparisons were principally based on Edwards’ decision not to compete in the British athletic trials for the 1988 Seoul Olympics, as they also took place on a Sunday. In time, however, Edwards had a change of heart and began to to compete on Sundays, this after becoming aware of a new-covenant bible verse (Romans 14: 15) that states that “one man considers one day more sacred than the other; another man considers everyday alike” (Folley, 2001). In more recent times, both Euan Murray (a Scottish rugby international) and Dan Walker (a BBC sports presenter), have followed in the footsteps of Liddell. Murray refuses to play rugby on Sundays and when signing autographs includes a bible verse (Kessel, 2010). Likewise, in order not to compromise his Sabbatarian beliefs, Walker (2009) refuses to work for the BBC on the Sabbath.

11

In their neo-Freudian analysis of the win-at-all-costs culture of modernday, professional sport, Gogarty and Williamson (2009) publish a verbatim interview with Jonathan Edwards that focuses on his retirement from athletics and his subsequent loss of faith. The interview is entitled, “An Interview with Jonathon Edwards: Judgment Day – Resolving Pathology” and clearly reflects a Freudian perspective. While there has been some speculation in the UK media regarding the degree to which Edwards has in fact lost his faith, there is clear evidence within the interview of this. For example, Edwards is quoted as saying: “I didn’t find losing my faith devastating. I analysed what I had always believed and it didn’t seem to make sense in the way that it had done before and I just accepted it and moved on” (219).

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Other niche areas of research on muscular Christianity include: Catholic reflections on the movement12 (Chandler, 2002; Costantini and Lixey, 2011; McDevitt, 1997; McGrath, 2008; Vost, 201113) which feature empirical research from The Mirenda Centre for Sport, Spirituality and Character Development (Hastings et al, 2006; Hastings and DelleMonache, 2007); the links between revivalism and rugby in Edwardian Wales (Morgan, 2005); critiques identifying an emphasis of the physical over the moral in the ideology and practice of muscular Christianity (Mangan and Walvin, 1987); examination of gender construction in Victorian educational ideology and how this has transposed into modern contexts (McDonald, 2007; Neddham, 2004); the neglect and celebration of, “muscular women” (Borish, 1987; Bederman, 1989; Chen and Zhao, 2001; Deardorff and Deardorff, 2008; Millikan, 2006; Putney, 2001b; Stebner and Trothen, 2002; Vertinsky, 1987); the role of muscular Christianity in the emergence of men’s movements such as the Promise Keepers (1990-) in North America in the 1990s (Allen, 2002; Armato and Marsiglio, 2002; Balmer, 2000; Bartoski, 2004; Beal, 1997; Gelfer, 2010; Harper, 2012; Hawkins, 2000; Randels and Beal, 2002; Web-Mitchell, 1997); the enmeshed imperialistic and political agendas of militarism, social Darwinism and muscular Christianity (Mangan, 2011; Pope, 2010); the historical and social process that at least partially wed soccer to Christian masculine ideals (Kwauk, 2007; Lupson, 2006; Mangan and Hickey, 2008); and the influence 12

Aitken (1989) notes that the ethos of muscular Christianity became very popular in North American Catholic universities from around the 1950s onwards, for example, Georgetown, Notre Dame, Boston College and St. John’s. 13 Kevin Vost, a former Olympic weightlifter and well-known academic Catholic apologist, has written two books (Vost, 2011, 2008) that focus on exercise, weightlifting and healthy eating both of which have clear links to muscular Christian ideals (see West, 2011).

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of the social gospel movement and leisure revolution that led to the notion of “rational recreation” (Cavallo, 1981; Cunningham, 1980; Hargreaves, 1986; Holt, 1990), a classbased and political ideology “…designed to counter moral slippage, mass delinquency and mob culture” of the Victorian age (Collins and Parker, 2009: 196). The games playing ethos inculcated by the muscular Christian message in the English public schools and which was an implicit feature of rational recreation (see Parker and Watson, 2013), was not, Mangan (1982: 33) observes, the “… exclusive prerogative of didactic muscular Christians … Hedonists, opportunists, pragmatists and moralists … embraced the cult of games … in late Victorian England”. For sure, political leaders throughout the twentieth century continued to advance the long-held (and sometimes controversial) muscular Christian idea that sport builds character (Coakley, 2011). A wide range of social and religious movements have also emerged during the last 150 years which have advocated physical endeavours such as sport and physical training (later to be called physical education) as a vehicle through which to enhance the development of civil and moral character (sometimes with militaristic undertones). Social historian Freeman (2010), suggests that these include the utilisation of sports in the Sunday School movement in the 1880s (see also McLeod, 2007),14 the Boy Scouts15, founded by Sir Baden-Powell 14

An interesting caveat regarding the relationship between Sunday schools and sport is the suggestion that when most UK youth soccer leagues moved from Saturday to Sunday mornings in the 1990s, this had a negative impact on the attendance of young people (primarily young males) at church (Collins and Parker, 2009). The relationship between a decline in church attendance and an increase in youth sports participation has also been noted in a recent empirical study that examined the secularization of Sunday in North American communities (McMullin, 2012). This work adopted a multi-method approach comprising: a survey

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(1857-1941) in 1907 (see Turner and Posner, 2010), the Boys Brigade (1883-), and the Outward Bound movement (1941-), the latter of which was instigated by the German educationalist Kurt Hahn (1886-1974). Freeman goes on to note that during the 1960s there was a shift away from a focus on character training and education for leadership (a corporate vision) to an individual quest for personal growth and selfdiscovery. Arguably, this reflects the secularisation of western culture and the individualism and promulgation of theories of selfactualisation from humanistic psychology and sport psychology (e.g., Bellah, 2007; Maslow, 1968; Ravizza, 1984). Indeed, in support of those who have evaluated the prevalence and validity of the use of prayer, superstition and ritual in sports (e.g., Coakley, 2007), Aitken (1989: 401) argues that “Born-Again Sport,” like fundamentalist Christianity, holds to a very traditionalist view of North American life where winning as a virtue “… has contributed to the on-going process of secularization by reducing religion to magic”. Possibly the most controversial and widelydocumented example of this kind of scenario is when athletes are seen (or heard) to pray for God to be on their team in an attempt to influence the outcome of a game or competition in questionnaire with 551 congregants, one-to-one interviews with 21 church leaders (16 of whom were ordained clergy), and focus groups with 71 church members. Similarly, the US-based, 2008 Faith Communities Today Survey (see http://faithcommunitiestoday.org/faith-communities-today2008-study), demonstrated that Sunday sport activities were a major obstacle (amongst others) to regular Church attendance (also see Briggs, 2013). 15 The fact that Bear Grylls (TV personality, adventurer, and the public face of the Alpha Course, Holy Trinity Brompton Church, London) became the Chief Scout for the UK in 2009, demonstrates, once again, the links between physicality and the Christian religion (i.e., muscular Christianity). A number of Grylls’ (2011, 2012a, 2012b) popular books have a muscular Christian flavour.

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their favour (see Hoffman, 2011; Kreider, 2003; Price, 2009). Over the last four decades, Hoffman (1986: 18) has been one of the most vociferous critics of this kind of utilitarian approach: Christian athletes confront an inevitable contradiction. Sport which celebrates the myth of success is harnessed to a theology that often stresses the importance of losing. Sport which symbolizes a morality of self-reliance and teaches the just rewards of hard-work is used to propagate a theology dominated by the radicalism of grace (the first shall be last and the last shall be first). Sport, a microcosm of meritocracy, is used to celebrate religion that says that all are unworthy and undeserving.

While championing the many positives of sports, this ethic, Watson (2011b, 2007b) argues, is diametrically opposed to the Christian injunction to die to oneself and thus is more analogous to the atheistic existentialism of philosophers such as Sartre, Camus or Nietzsche. Echoing such thoughts, Erdozain (2010: 105),16 proposes that the foundational muscular Christian doctrine of manliness (and competitiveness) that frequently seems to indoctrinate humanistic virtues, is “… the opposite to the Pauline concept of divine strength being made ‘perfect in weakness’: the [competitive sport] model is divine approval for human strength, albeit strength of will rather than mere physicality”. Historically, this contention stems from what Overman (2011: 61) calls the “great protestant delusion”, that is, that human existence is principally directed and shaped by the force of human will, a point of critique for most Catholic scholars reflecting on protestant models of sport (e.g., Novak, 1967/1994). Observations such as this have sparked a growing genre of scholarship that has vigorously questioned the theologies of 16

On this point, also see, Brock (2012), Erdozain (2012b) and Watson (2012a).

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competition which have emerged in and around modern sports ministries. At the heart of this literature is the proposal that modernday advocates of muscular Christian ideals often uncritically adopt tenets of contemporary sporting culture that have little, if any, affinity with the gospel of Christ (e.g., Aitken, 1989; Brock, 2012; Erdozain, 2010; Hoffman, 2010a; Krattenmaker, 2010; Ladd and Mathisen, 1999; Mathisen, 1990, 1994/2006, 1998). Sociologists of religion, Ladd and Mathisen (1999) have conceptualised the broader ideology that has developed within the short history of modern sports ministry (1950s-), as a “folk theology” comprising five key elements: (i) Pragmatic utility (ii) Meritocratic democracy (iii) Competitive virtue (iv) Heroic models, and (v) Therapeutic self-control. The most frequently cited of these elements is that of pragmatic utility, which considers sport’s usefulness as a means to attract and convert people to the Christian faith.17 Notwithstanding the criticisms surrounding modern sports ministry, there are a number of scholars (and notably the majority of Catholic Popes of the 20th century, see Koch, 2012), who also believe in the goodness and worth of the endeavours of sports ministry (e.g., Liberia Editrice Vaticana, 2006; Pfitzner, 2012; White, 2012a; Watson, 2007a). Reflecting on this, we encourage scholars to consider whether sports ministry organisations, particularly those in North America, might simply be an intimation (albeit an imperfect one) of the “local tradition” or “light” (i.e., manifestation of the gospel/Church) in the microcosm of modern sport. This thesis stems from our reading of the Old 17

For example, during Billy Graham’s evangelistic crusades in the 1950s, Christian sporting celebrities (e.g., Gill Dodds, see Mathisen, 1990) were invited to share their testimonies which, some would argue, is not the typical way (i.e., platform ministry) that authentic Christian conversion is initiated (e.g., Macarthur, 2003).

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Testament theologian, Brueggeman (2010: 18), who, in resonating with other prophetic voices such as Jim Wallis, William Stringfellow (1973, 2004) and Jacques Ellul, argues that the hegemonic “American Empire” is a modern-day Babylon that is “… living in a cocoon of self-justification” and unconscious denial, as was the case for previous empires, for example, Roman, Persian and British. For Brueggman, the American Church, the faithful body of believers, is the “local tradition” as were the exiled Jews in Babylon before the intervention of Cyrus, and thus should actively resist the imperialistic self-indulgent greed, pride, power and arrogance of the empire (as did the prophets). Do sports ministry organisations, in some small way, fulfil this role of the “local tradition” in what Watson and White (2007) have called the modern sporting Babel? If, as Hoffman (2010a) has consistently claimed, modern sports ministry groups uncritically embrace the cultural norms of this sporting Babel, then Brueggman (2010) has a stark warning, but one which also provides a glimmer of hope (and credence) for our thesis: The local tradition, which stands in deep tension with the empire, knows the denial cannot finally cover over the reality … [of] anxiety … The congregation of the local tradition, having inhaled so much imperial air, is itself slow and reluctant to realise what has been entrusted to it … Such a congregation is tempted to collude with and accommodate itself to the loud, insistent practices of the empire. At best, however, the congregation, funded by the local tradition, knows better … it tells an alternative and opposing story to that of the empire centred on the covenant with YHWH.18

Brueggeman (2010) goes onto explain that scholars wanting to pursue this line of reasoning must do so with care so as not to dichotomize (or demonize) a complex and dynamic relationship between empire and local tradition, as any 18

Cited at p.18-19 and 45 of Brueggeman (2010).

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organisation or institution can occupy, to varying degrees both roles simultaneously. Future scholarship, could however examine how this dynamic operates within sport ministry locales and how models of overt (e.g., proselytizing)19 and covert (incarnational modelling through service to others) ministry could both be affectively embraced (see Johnson, 2006).20 Beyond institutional analyses of the sport-faith dyad, there are a whole range of more specific research questions and topics that Watson (2007a) has urged scholars and practitioners from across the traditions of Christendom to collaborate on. Perhaps one of the most important tasks is to 19

Some scholars (e.g., Butterworth, 2013; Feezell, 2013; Newman, 2009, 2010) have been critical of athletes who openly testify to their faith in Jesus Christ on winning a match or championship (e.g., American footballer, Tim Tebow and PGA golfers, Zach Johnson and Bubba Watson). However, we would argue that the bible teaches that it is the ‘motivation of the heart’ behind the testimony of the individual that determines whether or not a testimony is authentic. In addition, unless the athlete explicitly states otherwise, it is often very difficult to know whether these testimonies are to thank God for winning (which could be problematic), or to thank God for who He is in their lives. Thus, we would urge scholars to be careful not to fall into judgementalism when analyzing the testimonies of professional athletes (see Michael Novak’s (2013) recent reflections on Tim Tebow). It is also interesting to note that a recent Barna Survey (Weber, 2013: 1) demonstrated that “… 61 percent of Americans support athletes’ public professions of faith (including most evangelicals (88%), blacks (79%), Boomers (66%), parents of children under 18 (66%), and women (65%)), with the most cited reason being they believe athletes have freedom of speech (40%).” 20 Johnson (2006) provides a useful model of these two approaches to evangelism in his explanation of how Christian believers can invade, what he calls ‘Mountains of Influence’ in modern culture. For example, the institutions of sports and entertainment (see Chapter 5: Invading Babylon). The ‘Mountains of Influence’ or Seven Mild-Molders’ of society are: home; church; education; media (electronic and print); government and politics; performing arts (including entertainment and sports); and, Commerce (including science and technology).

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undertake a comprehensive mapping of sports ministry publications, provision21 and practice across different countries and Christian traditions (e.g., UK and North America, catholic and protestant). In addition to the largely critical works on muscular Christianity and the resources22 of sports ministry organisations themselves (e.g., Neal, 1981, 1972;23 White et al., 2008), sources from a protestant perspective include: Connor (2003), Daniels and Weir (2004), Garner (2003), McCowan and Gin (2003), Mason (2003, 2011), Null (2004, 2008b), Shields (2002), TƗlberga and FernƗte (2012), Tucker and Woodbridge (2012), Weir (2000), Voss (1997), White and White (2006) and Yessick (1996). And from a catholic standpoint: Hastings et al., (2006) Liberia Editrice Vaticana (2006) and White (2012a). Beyond their application to sports ministry praxis, some of these resources are used on a range of postgraduate courses in North America and more recently in the UK at the University of Gloucestershire (Collins and Parker, 2009), which have a specific focus on sports ministry and/or chaplaincy. The systematic mapping of such educational pathways and publications would provide an objective sociological and theological foundation and rationale for further research and course development at all levels of tertiary and higher education. The results of such a project would also pave the 21

A well-established provider of undergraduate sports ministry programmes in the US is the Moody Bible Institute (Chicago), which has a Lifetime Fitness and Sports Ministry Department in which students can undertake a “sports ministry” major. 22 In addition to instructional handbooks on sports ministry there are a number of sport-themed bible editions (for example, Branon’s (2002) NIV Sports Devotional Bible: Daily Inspirations for Sports Enthusiasts) that include testimonies of famous athletes. 23 Aitken (1989: 396) argues that Wesley Neal’s (1972, 1981) books provided the foundational theology for the FCA and that Neal “… became the principal theologian in the movement [FCA]”.

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way for greater ecumenical and inter-cultural dialogue through sport-faith organisations that Catholic scholars have recently identified as an important initiative (Müller, 2011; Kammogne, 2011) which could provide a forum to broach more divisive ecclesiological matters. Considering that Sport Alpha (2012-)24 has recently been launched at Holy Trinity Brompton Church in London, UK, scholars should also investigate how the medium of sport can be used as a means of outreach and evangelism within church structures, given that the majority of sports ministries are currently para-church organisations (see Carpenter, 2001; Cornick, 2012; Daniels and Weir, 2008; Oakley, 2012). In addition to sports ministry groups and collectives, a number of individual sports evangelists, such as the extradited Zimbabwean international cricketer Henry Olonga, have recently begun to use their sporting success/fame as a means by which to combat human-rights abuses and to share their faith (see Batts, 2010; Olonga, 2010).25 Research investigating the experiences and effectiveness of lone modern-day muscular Christians such as Olonga and others, for example, U.S Christian sports stars, Jeremy Lin (NBA basketball player), Tim Tebow (NFL footballer) and Josh Hamilton (Major League Baseball) (see Bolt, 2012; Christianity Today,

24

For more on Sport Alpha see: http://uk-england.alpha.org/alpha/sportsalpha 25 Olonga’s ministry mainly involves after-dinner speaking and church visits. With regard to the latter, Olonga typically sings gospel music (he is a well-respected soloist), is interviewed about his life as a Christian sportsperson and his experience of being extradited from Zimbabwe due to his protest against the human-rights abuses of President Mugabe, and toward the end of the event he shares the gospel message and signs copies of his biography (Olonga, 2010). For further information, see Olonga’s personal website: http://www.henryolonga.net/container/

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2012; Dalrymple, 2012; Gibbons, Dixon and Braye, 200826; Glatz, 2013; Goldsher, 2012; Novak, 2013; Tebow, 2011) would be invaluable in terms of comparing and contrasting these biographies with previous Christian sports figures, such as Eric Liddell. Conceptualisations of Christian masculinity, within sporting contexts, are also a niche area which has received little attention to date. In addition to the plethora of research on masculine identities in modern sport (e.g., Messner and Sabo, 1990; Messner, Mckay and Sabo, 2000; Wellard, 2009), scholars looking for a more holistic understanding of this topic should access both protestant and catholic writings (e.g., Aune, 2010; Claussen, 2000; Gelfer, 2010; Eldredge, 2001; Putney, 2001a; Rohr, 2004a, 2004b, 2005; Ward, 1999)27 and the work of Deardorff and Deardorff (2008), who draw on some of this literature in their theological analysis of both masculine and feminine templates in sports settings. Similarly, the challenges that Christian sportswomen face in negotiating their femininity in male-dominated sports is a topic which has attracted little attention, save the offerings of of Deardorff and Deardorff and a handful of scholarly essays from catholic (Sydnor, 2005, 2006a, 2006b, 2009, 2012) and protestant thinkers (Millikan, 2006; Bederman, 1989; Borish, 1987; Carmody, 1986; Chen and Zhao, 2001; Putney, 2001b; Stebner and Trothen, 2002; Vertinsky, 1987). Further research in this area is crucial if church and sports ministry organisations are to more fully engage with, and provide 26

Gibbons, Dixon and Braye’s (2008) paper explores the dramatic conversion experience of an English football hooligan, who then became a well-known Christian minister in the north of England and who used his life-story within sporting locales to assist in sharing the gospel message. 27 The following three journals are useful sources of information on this topic, Men and Masculinities, The Journal of Men’s Studies and THYMOS: Journal of Boyhood Studies.

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guidance for, Christian women who are passionate about sport. Another closely related topic is that of the exegesis and use of Pauline athletic metaphors (e.g., 1 Corinthians 9: 24-27) and, in particular, the agon motif in the literature and praxis of sports ministry organisations; what Mangan (1982) terms, “agnostic muscularity”. In addition to Catholic analyses on this topic (e.g., Arnold, 2012; Costantini and Lixey, 2011; Feeney, 1995, 2006; Koch, 2003, 2005b, White, 2012a), it is the work of Lutheran theologian, Pfitzner (1967, 1981, 2009, 2012) encompassing historical, cultural, philosophical and theological dimensions of the study of such metaphors, which scholars argue is the most authoritative resource (Hoffman, 2010a; Ladd and Mathisen, 1999; Watson, 2007a). This area of research comprises three broad themes: (i) exegetical and hermeneutical issues surrounding the praxis of Pauline athletic metaphors in preaching and sports ministry contexts; (ii) historical, cultural and archaeological evidence that situates and contextualises the use of Paul’s athletic metaphors and related concepts (such as asceticism, endurance, suffering, self-sacrifice, martyrdom and death, victory, heroism, contest and struggle) in relation to the fulfilment of a spiritual (eschatological) or earthly goal (victory in sport), and (iii) the use of athletic metaphors to construct a theology of sport and/or a theology of sports competition based on the controversial premise that sport builds character and is a vehicle for evangelistic endeavours.28 28

Helpful resources for these three topics are: (i) Exegesis and hermeneutics (Brock, 2012; De Vries, 1975; Duff, 1991; Esler, 2005; Eyler, 2013; Garrison, 1993, 1997; Gudorf, 1998; Henderson, 1997; Pfitzner, 1967, 1981, 2009, 2012; Yinger, 2008; Seesengood, 2005, 2006a, 2006b; Thaden, 2003; Ringwald, 1971; Howson, 1868; White, 2012a; Williams, 1999; Yong, forthcoming). For the specific application of Pauline athletic metaphors in modern sports ministry, see Costantini and Lixey (2011), Hoffman (2010a), Krattenmaker (2010), Ladd and Mathisen

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Following this latter theme, Kidd (2010: 163) has recently suggested that the myriad of sport-peace enterprises that have emerged over the last decade, whose aim it is to combat ethical and social issues through the vehicle of sport are a “… striking reassertion of Thomas Hughes’ nineteenth-century ideals of sport as a pedagogy of beneficial change”. Our next task then, is to review the literature that has documented and analysed the ethical issues surrounding modern-day sports.

(1999), Mathisen (2002) and Watson (2007a); (ii) Historical, cultural and archaeological (see Broneer, 1971, 1962a, 1962b; Combes, 1997; Fredriksen, 2002; Freyne, 1989; Harrison, 2008; Hoffman, 2010a; Hullinger, 2004; Kajava, 2002; Krentz, 2003; Murphy-O’Conner, 2002; O’Gorman, 2010b; Pfitzner, 1967, 2012; Poliakiff, 1984, 1987; Raschke, 1986; Savage, 2004; Seesengood, 2005, 2006a; van Nijf, 2001; Williams, 1999). (iii) The use of athletic metaphors to construct a theology of sport and/or a theology of sport competition (see Brock, 2012; Freyne, 1989; Hoffman, 2010a; Kock, 1999; Krattenmaker, 2010; Novak, 1967/1994; Pfitzner, 2009, 2012; Watson, 2007a; Seesengood, 2006a; White, 2012a; Yong, forthcoming).

CHAPTER FIVE THEOLOGICAL ETHICS IN SPORT (WITH PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS)

Reducing sporting performances to matters of science, money, power or fame ultimately destroys their internal significance, and becomes a kind of moral defeatism. —Grace (2000:12) Professional athletes have become the naughty vicars of the 21st century, required to set a moral example for which they have no inclination and little aptitude … A moral burden … is placed on the back of every professional athlete. —Barnes (2011: 93)

In 1986 Shirl Hoffman published an article in the periodical Christianity Today entitled, The Sanctification of Sport: Can the Mind of Christ Co-exist with the Killer Instinct?1 In many ways this question provides a basic start point for theological ethicists examining the sports world that has, since Victorian times, been upheld up as a “moral laboratory” (see McFee, 2004). Not forgetting the many positive values that can be experienced in and through sport, such as, teamwork, altruism, strength, self-control, justice, loyalty, wisdom, self-sacrifice, equality, courage, generosity, joy, honesty, tenacity and hard work, solidarity, peace, love (Philia, friendship love) and community spirit (Corlett, 1996; McNamee, 2011; Scarpa and Carraro, 2011; Watson, 2011b; 1

Oppenheimer’s (2013) article asks similar questions to those of Hoffman, i.e., how can Christians reconcile the explicit violence evident in American Football with the seemingly contrary teachings of the Bible.

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White, 2008, 2012a), which Pope John Paul II recognised as the “the most authentic dimension of sport”,2 the multibillion-dollar global institute of professional and American College sport (see Overman, 2011) has been fraught with ethical and moral issues for over a century. This led historian and social commentator, Lasch (1980), to title his oft-cited chapter The Degradation of Sport3 which, he argues, partially stems from the loss of the sacred dimension in modern sporting milieu. Besides the secularization of western culture (Taylor, 2007; Ratzinger, 2005) and (somewhat inevitably) the microcosm of sporting locales (Guttman, 1978/2004; Yamane, Mellies and Blake, 2010), the scientization, commodification and professionalization of sport since the 1960s has largely been driven by the allied advent and growth of technology (i.e. television) and mass sponsorship (Whannel, 1986). This shift, it is argued, has been a major determinant in the decline of ethical values in the sporting realm (Beamish and Ritchie, 2006; Cashmore, 2012; Hoberman, 1992). Recognising that the application of science to sport (i.e., biomechanics, physiology and psychology) is not a negative development in itself. Indeed, Twietmeyer (2008: 461), highlights that these historical changes may have inadvertently led to a more utilitarian approach to sport: “… science (a necessary, although not sufficient, good in Kinesiology) ends up overwhelming the field. Consequently the study of human movement is unalterably crippled”. Any quest for deeper spiritual meaning, or simply a spirit of freedom and playfulness in sporting contexts, is often then lost in a quest for external gains, such as winning for personal glory and status and/or financial greed. 2

Cited in Feeney (1995: 69). Lasch’s chapter has recently been republished as part of a reader on sports ethics (see McNamee, 2010: 369-381). 3

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The moral and ethical issues that have materialized from this instrumental approach to sport are innumerable and have been at least partly driven by what Walsh and Giulianotti (2007) call the “Sporting Mammon” that rapidly emerged as sport was professionalized and became big-business. Key areas of research on this topic include: the physical and verbal abuse of opponents (and even teammates), fan violence, including sectarianism (e.g., Flint and Kelly, 2013; Lawrence, 2011; Sugden and Bairner, 1993), intimidation, blatant disregard for the rules and laws of play and a deliberate dismissal of established behavioural codes, customs and traditions, mistaking legality for ethicality, the sexual abuse of athletes by coaches, praying to win (Kreider, 2003), sledging/trash talk, cheating, playing through pain and injury (Howe, 2004; Nixon, 1992; Sinden, 2012), financial greed and corruption, alienation in individual and international relations (e.g., political boycotting of the Olympics and the threat of global terrorism),4 invasive non-corrective surgery for athletic performance enhancement (Hamilton, 2006), drugdoping, abuse of officials, genetic-enhancement technologies, abusive child and youth elite development academies (see, for example, Hong, 2006), overtraining and the abuse of one’s body and the potential deleterious effects of excessive expectations and pressure from parents, coaches and even nations (see Lumpkin, Stoll and Beller, 2002; McCloskey and Bailes, 2005; McIntosh, 1979a ; McNamee and Parry, 1998; McNamee, 2010; Miah, 2004, 2010; Morgan, 2007; Simon, 2004)5. This burgeoning sports ethics literature identifies 4

The ever-present threat of terrorism at sporting mega-events cannot be illustrated more clearly than by the potential mooring of a Royal Naval Warship (Type-45 destroyer) with air defence capability, in the Docklands of east London during the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic games. See Coghlan, Schlesinger and Savage (2011). 5 For those wishing to critique the ethics of the institution of modern-day sport, Part 6 of McNamee’s (2010: 363-434) reader, entitled, “Commercialism,

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many moral problems within professional sport and has spawned a number of practical initiatives, both in the US and across continental Europe. Examples include: the American Sport Education Program (1981-), the Centre for ETHICS (1993)6, the Character Counts project (Josephson Institute, Centre for Youth Ethics, 1987-), the Positive Coaching Alliance (1998-) and the Vatican Church Sport office (2004-), all of which promote ethical practice (and scholarship) in sport through educational programmes and workshops. Within the discipline of sport philosophy, this corpus of ethical studies and concomitant initiatives far outweigh contributions from other philosophical sub-disciplines, such as epistemology, aesthetics and metaphysics (see McNamee, 2010; Morgan, 2007; Simon, 2004). For the Christian theologian, it is the divorce of ethics from metaphysics that presents a serious epistemological error (see Kretchmar, 1983) and which is rooted in the fact that for the first 20 years of the discipline the bulk of ethical reflection on sport was underpinned by secular analytical philosophy (McNamee, 2007a, 2010). Schools of thought, such as pragmatism (especially Jamesian) and phenomenology that appear more compatible with spiritual concepts, have slowly begun to emerge in the discipline of the philosophy of sport, which is a promising sign. Notwithstanding all of this, Watson (2011a: 10) has questioned whether or not “… the world of sport, especially big-business professional sport, [has] … changed significantly”, following 40 years of philosophical reflection and programming? Critiquing the values of modern-day sport Corruption and Exploitation in Sport”, (which contains six essays from leading thinkers addressing the ethics of adult and child sports), is very helpful. 6 Stoll and Beller’s (2008) longitudinal research on moral reasoning in sporting contexts and related examination of whether or not sport builds character, stems from the Centre for ETHICS, University of Idaho, USA.

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by way of Augustinian ethics, philosopher Hamilton (2011), suggests not and argues that we need to explore the metaphysical roots of the problems in sport rather than seeking piecemeal solutions. Similarly, Kretchmar (1998) has argued that when studying sport, “… to do ethics in vacuo, without some sort of metaphysical basis, is a questionable endeavour”.7 It is encouraging then that the two leading journals in the field, Sport, Ethics and Philosophy and the Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, have published papers and book reviews along a spiritual and/or Christian theme (e.g., Abe, 1986; Carlson, 2013; Feezell, 2013; Hoffman, 1976; Hopsicker, 2009; Kreider, 2003; Scarpa and Carrarao, 2011; Thompson, 2011; White, 2013; Wertz, 1977). In addition, The Centre for Christian Ethics at Baylor University, Texas, US, has published 13 essays that address a range of ethical issues in sports locales, as a Special Edition of their in-house journal (Kruschwitz, 2008). Theological ethicists interested in sport who wish to build on these foundations have a range of theoretical options to choose from. Accoding to sports ethicist, Parry (2011), such options include, “Divine Command Theory” (which has historically dominated Christian ethics) but also a number of well-used ethical frameworks that have a theological basis such as the virtue ethics of Aristotle and MacIntyre (e.g., Goodson, 2012; McNamee, 2011, 2008; Shafer, 2012) and Paley’s Utilitarianism and Aquinas’s Natural Law theory. Other theological investigations of morality in sport that have concentrated on the sin of pride and the virtue of humility 7

It is interesting to note that the seminal academic book written by a Catholic philosopher (Weiss, 1969) for the discipline of the philosophy of sport contains a section on metaphysics and yet this school of thought has not, until recently (e.g., Carlson, 2013), received any sustained attention (with exceptions: Osterhoudt, 1991, 218-232) and has largely been divorced from ethical reflection.

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(Austin, 2013; Watson, 2012a; Watson and White, 2007), have in-part utilised the Catholic model of the “Seven Deadly Sins” (i.e., wrath, greed, sloth, pride, lust, envy and gluttony) to examine sporting experience, drawing specifically on interpretations of this concept from pastoral-theology (Capps, 1987) and psychiatry (Menninger, 1973). Helpfully, Parry (2011: 21) outlines a range of topics that could be addressed using the ethical theories suggested above: ƒ The application of the insights of theological thinkers to ethical issues in sport (e.g., Augustine); ƒ The understanding of religious practices in relation to sport (e.g., prayer); ƒ The clarification and exploration of theological concepts, and their relevance in sporting environments (e.g., evil, sin and redemption); ƒ The significance of religious beliefs in terms of social and lifestyle issues (e.g., Christian beliefs and sporting identity); ƒ The application of religious morality to sporting practices; ƒ The interpretation of sporting events, institutions and relationships in religious terms; ƒ The critique of sport from a theological point of view.

Drawing on the sport ethics literature and applying some of the Christian ethical theories outlined above, anthologies and monographs by Baum and Coleman (1989), Deardorff and White (2008), Feeney (1995, 2006), Hoffman (1992a, 2010), Higgs (1995), Higgs and Braswell (2004), Heintzman, Van Andel and Visker, (1994/2006), Kelly (2012), Lixey et al., (2012), and Novak (1967/1994), Parry, Nesti and Watson (2011), Parry et al., (2007) and Watson and Parker (2013), contain numerous chapters discussing ethical sporting dilemmas and proffer ways to bring redemption to the sporting institution. Along these lines, there is also an emerging body of empirical research and essays that seeks to shed further light on this subject matter.

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Empirical qualitative research in this field is relatively scarce but that which does exist features: examinations of how Christian athletes negotiate the paradoxical cultures and norms of elite-competitive sport and Christianity (Stevenson, 1991, 1997; see also, Curry, 1988; Schroeder and Scribner, 2006; Sinden, 2012; Stevenson, 2008), the experience of athletes in Christian sports leagues (Dunn and Stevenson, 1998; Keller, Naylor, and Stirling, 2006) and a case study exploring how a Christian intercollegiate coach at an evangelical North American college responds to the dominant values of competitive sport (Bennett et al., 2005; also see Hunt, 1999). Scholars have also explored embodiment in relation to identity construction amongst Christian physical education teachers (Macdonald, 1998; Macdonald and Kirk, 1999; see also, Riesen, 2007) and the notion of “athletic identity” through a theological and psychological lens (Watson, 2011b). Closely related to this work are educational studies in sporting locales (in particular, physical education) that have a strong moral and spiritual underpinning. These studies have drawn variously on Kohlberg’s (1984) theory of the “stages of moral development” (building on Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development),8 Aristotelian (and MacIntyrean) and Platonic ethics, theological virtue ethics and the educational doctrine within the philosophy of Olympism (e.g., Arnold, 1989, 1994, 1997, 1999, 2001; Costantini, 2011; Feeney, 1995; Lixey, 2012a; McIntosh, 1979a ; McNamee, 2011, 20109; Parry, 2007b; Robinson, 2007; Schafer, 2012: 50-91; Shields, 1996). This corpus of work is intimately related to 8

See Chapters 11 and 25 of Francis and Astley (2002), on the Moral Development and Moral Education of children, respectively, which provide a theological appraisal and critique of cognitive approaches. 9 Part 5, of McNamee (2010: 301-362) entitled, “Ethical Development in and Through Sports: Rules, Virtues and Vices” contains five essays from leading thinkers in this area of study.

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the literature on moral reasoning and character development in sport (e.g., Stoll and Beller, 2008), and how sporting competition is more generally understood. The theme of competition in sport, the “win-at-all-costs” culture and the possible moral issues that this may engender, is the central theme of a number of scholarly works with a Christian emphasis that are helpful to the contextualisation of this empirical work and which reflect the importance of psychological insight in this area of study (e.g., Aitken, 1989; Arnold, 1989; Clifford and Feezell, 2009; Grace, 2000; Hall, 2006; Henkel, 2007; Higgs, 1983; Hoffman, 1986; Koch, 1994, 2005c; Robinson, 1997; Sciarabba, 2012; Shields and Bredemeier, 2009, 2011b; Spencer, 2000; Watson, 2011b; Watson and White, 2007; Weir, 2008; also see, Walker, 1980). Intense and often unhealthy competition between nations to top the Olympic and Paralympic medals table has also been evidenced and is closely tied to a quest for geopolitical power on the world stage (Close, Askew and Xin, 2007; De Bosscher et al., 2008) which Higgs (1982) suggests is frequently rooted in pride of heart. Ethicists, psychologists, philosophers, theologians and those involved in sports ministry10 that have examined the nature of sporting competition have wrestled with a number of challenging questions. These include: how might one define sport and competition? Is competitive sport ethically given that it always produces a zero-sum outcome—a winner and loser? Can Christianity transform the potentially negative elements of zero-sum outcomes into mutual benefits? How do sporting opponents compete and/or cooperate with one another in the quest for excellence? Does sport build positive Christian 10

Greg Linville, CEO of the US-based Association of Church Sports and Recreation Ministries (CSRM), has published a book (Linville, 2014) and a series of articles on the theology of competition which are available online, see: http://www.csrm.org/index.html

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character, can this be measured, and if so, how might one define it? Does participation in competitive sport augment or reduce moral reasoning in the athlete? Do athletes with Christian beliefs demonstrate higher levels of moral reasoning than non-believers, and thus behaviour in-line with the biblical code, and if not, why not? Etymologically, sporting competition can be understood as a “mutual striving together for excellence”11 (Greek, arête)12 in which opponents honour their opponent and cooperate to bring out the best in one another (see Duina, 201113; Hyland, 1937, 1978, 1988; Kretchmar, 1995; Smith, Johnson and Hiller, 2012; Schafer, 2012; Weinberg and Gould, 2011a; see also, Newman, 1989; Mead, 1937).14 There are important links here to Pauline athletic metaphors and the meaning of challenge or contest in sporting competition, in the original Greek, the agon, a term that the apostolic athlete, Paul, regularly used to help describe the ethics of the Christian life in his broader eschatological vision (see Brock, 2012; Pfitzner, 1967, 2012; White, 2012a). Of course, in the emotionally charged world of sport, this ideal sometimes dissolves into “… alienation and violence” and a host of other moral dilemmas (Hyland, 1988: 177; see also Bredemeier et 11

For a wealth of helpful insights on the notion of excellence from a Christian worldview, see the Special Edition (1995 (4)1: 3-138) of the Journal of Research on Christian Education, which focusses on the quest for excellence in school education contexts. 12 As McNamee (2011: 36-44) has noted, the concept of arête (i.e., excellence) in Greek culture was closely tied to virtue ethics, as it is in modern sport. The word “competition” is derived from the Latin competito, which translates, “questioning or striving together”. 13 Drawing on a range of sociological and psychological theories, Duina’s (2011) work is particularly insightful with regard to demonstrating the “cultural embeddedness” of winning in America, which he calls a “national obsession”. 14 Gibbs’ (2012) popular book provides and insightful account of how fan rivalry (competition) can lead to a series of moral issues.

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al., 1987; Bredemeier and Shields, 1985, 1986, Messner, 1990; Trothen, 2009; Young, 2011). This has led some socialscientists and psychologists to question whether sporting competition is ethically defensible at all, and/or whether or not it can assist in building positive character (e.g., Kohn, 199215; Olgilvie and Tutko, 1971). Nevertheless, according to Linville (2014) Lixey (2012a), McNamee (2011) and Watson and White (2007), the general consensus amongst scholars from across the disciplines, is that sporting competition is essentially good and has the potential to lead to positive outcomes such as mutual excellence and friendship and the development of positive (Christian) character attributes.16 There is, however, limited empirical evidence to support this complex thesis (Coakley, 2011), in-part, because of the many variables that White (2012a: 14, ft., 54)17 acknowledges are “… difficult to isolate when analysing empirical and

15

For a recent evaluation of the validity of Kohn’s (1992) oft-cited work, see Shields and Bredemeier (2010). 16 Tracy’s (1996: 374) essay that explores if “Virtue can be taught?”, is helpful in that it uncovers the roots of western education in “the Athens of Socrates, the great tragedians, and Plato” and the Christian classics. He argues that the formation/training of the soul (as understood in the bible) should be the focus of attention, which helps to guard against individualistic tendencies (Bellah, 2007) in European and North American contexts (see also Schafer, 2012). With regards to practical initiatives, there are a range of organizations in the US whose aim it is to develop character in citizens (sometimes through the vehicle of sport), for example, Character Counts, the Character Education Partnership and Character Networks. However, it was not until recently that there was any such initiative in the UK. With funding from the Templeton Foundation and from government, the Learning for Life organisation was founded in 2008. The current Coalition government’s sponsorship of this initiative is, in part, due to the spontaneous riots that occurred in a number of major UK cities in August, 2011. See: http://www.learningforlife.org.uk/ 17 See also Clifford and Feezell (2009) who provide an extensive study of this topic.

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anecdotal evidence for and against” the theory that sport builds character. Stoll and Beller’s (2008) longitudinal sports ethics research (over 20 years with some 90,000 respondents) demonstrates that athletes in North American Christian and secular schools show little, if any, difference, in moral reasoning and that Christian athletes have a tendency to compartmentalise their faith and exclude it from competitive sport (see also Bell, Johnson and Peterson, 2011; Beller et al., 1996; Bredemeier and Shields, 2005; Erdozain, 2012b; Forte, 2013; Kelly, Hoffman and Gill, 1990; Mara and Barber, 2000; Naylor and Yeager, 2013; Shields and Bredemeier, 1995, 2005, 2010, 2011a; Weinberg and Gould, 2011b; Shields, et al., 2005; Storch et al., 2004; Storch and Storch, 2002b; Storch et al., 2001).18 Such an approach that accepts unethical and violent behaviour on the field of play but not off it, is what Walsh and Guilianotti (2007: 1) aptly term “white line fever” (also see, Upton, 2011), whereby “sporting arenas comprise special spheres where the rules of life do not apply”. One example of this is illustrated by the normativity of explicit violence in Canadian ice-hockey participation and fandom (Klein and Austen, 2011; Trothen, 2009). Commenting on this same theme and on Stoll and Beller’s (2008) findings, Watson (2011b) advocates the need to balance the spiritual development of the heart of the athlete, or fan (see Proverbs 4:23; Matthew 12:34), with sound ethical/biblical instruction and habitual practice of virtuous behaviour. This is largely based on the theological proposition that it is not self-control that is the master of Christian virtue but rather surrender of self to Christ, in which both the motivations of the heart and the ethical knowledge accrued through instruction (McNamee, 2011) play a determining role 18

See also Section 6 of Papaioannou and Hackfort (2014) entitled, Career, Life Skills and Character Development through Sport.

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in sporting attitudes and behaviours (Worthington and Berry, 2005).19 This thesis is, in some way, supported by McNamee (2011: 41), who by drawing on Aristotelian ethics, observes that moral behaviour in sport is a combination of virtuous action and “emotional sensibility” (of the heart?)20, which makes up a “… fuller model of virtue development”. Of course, the notion of self-control in moral reasoning is deeply embedded in the psyche of nations (e.g., the US) founded on the Protestant work ethic and the moral imperatives of Calvinism and Puritanism (e.g., emphasising individual calling and moral perfection). Sociologist, Overman (2011: 61), has argued that the “… great Protestant delusion was (and is) that human existence is shaped by human will”. He defines seven Protestant virtues (with apologies to Thomas Aquinas) that characterise North American (and other largely Protestant nations), culture and sport and: (i) worldly asceticism (ii) rationalisation (iii) goaldirected behaviour (iv) achieved status (v) individualism (vi) 19

The balance between the development of the heart and ethical knowledge in determining attitudes and behaviour in sport is indicative of a much wider and vigorous historical debate that has continued down the centuries (especially around the Reformation period), with regard to the balance of emphasis between faith (leading of the heart) and reason (the bible) or word (the bible) and spirit (leading of the heart) in ecclesiological praxis in different denominations. 20 Orthodox Christian anthropology holds that humans consist of soul, body and spirit (see 1 Thessalonians 5: 23) and the soul (or psyche) of the person consists of the will, intellect and emotions. Fundamentally, it is our spirit that relates to God’s spirit (Romans 8: 16), not first, our emotions/emotional sensibility. This said, McNamee’s proposal of “emotional sensibility” is interesting given the holistic and inseparable nature of all aspects of human personhood that are often referred to collectively as the heart (see Chambers, 1936/1962). Thus, God relates to the person via the spirit but also through the soul of the individual, the emotions, will and intellect (see John Paul II, 1997; Miller and Delaney, 2005; Watson, 2011b).

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work ethic, and (vii) time ethic. That said, self-control is a biblical virtue that is essential to the Christian life and sport. But as Taylor (2007: 497-498) has observed, moralism (i.e., the autocratic application of codes of behaviour) and in-turn, a repression of bodily pleasures in the modern secular project (Erdozain, 2010), has largely failed to inculcate Christian moral and ethical behaviour and character: This [moralism] is perhaps not an outlook which is easy to square with a reading of the New Testament, but it nevertheless achieved a kind of hegemony across the broad reaches of the Christian Church in the modern era. The outlook ends up putting all the emphasis on what we should do, and/or what we should believe, to the detriment of spiritual growth.

The result of a legalistic and mechanized approach to sport (versus the play ethic), what Brock (2012: 19) calls a “… culture of individualized economic competition” and “introspection” entrenched in capitalist ideology (see also, Bellah, 2007; Lasch, 1980; Vitz, 1977/1994), is clearly demonstrated in a large body of sport and exercise psychology research. Of particular interest here is the significant literature that indicates the prevalence of physical and psychological burnout and overtraining in elite adult and youth sport (Smith, Lemyre and Raedeke, 2007). The prevalence of such a condition, we argue, is a direct consequence of the obsessive, driven and results-oriented protestant work-ethic (and Marxist ideologies and Athlete Development Models21) that has shaped modern life and professional sport in many western nations (Erdozain, 2012c; Guttman, 1978/2004; Overman, 21

A contributing factor to the work ethic and modern-day approach to professional sport could, we would argue, be Long Term Athlete Development (LATD) frameworks that have evolved over the last three decades demanding early skill specialisation whilst sponsoring the idea that 10,000 hours of sports-specific training is required to attain elite sport status (see De Bosscher et al., 2008).

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2011; Weber, 1958). Catholic sports scholars, for example Novak (1967/1994), have warned against this ethos and called for a renaissance of the play ethic in sport, yet such calls have largely fallen on deaf ears. Relatedly, other psychiatric, philosophical and theological writings (see Watson, 2011b)22 and quantitative studies from the fields of clinical sport psychology and religion and health on sports performers (especially North American university student athletes) have recorded a wide range of maladaptive responses to participating in sports that are permeated with questionable ethical practices (Begel and Burton, 2000; Cavar, Sekulic and Culjak, 2010; Rodek, Sekulic and Pasalic, 2009; Sekulic et al., 2013; Sinden, 2012; Storch et al., 2001, 2002, 2003; Storch and Farber, 2002; Storch and Storch, 2002a; Storch, Storch and Adams, 2002; Zenic, Stipic and Sekulic, 2011). These include clinical levels of social and competitive anxiety, substance abuse, eating disorders, narcissistic tendencies, and moral emotions, such as: guilt, shame, depression, suicide and suicidal ideation, which research has also demonstrated in athletes that have suffered career-ending injuries, retirement and de-selection (especially in professional sports, see Null, 2008a; Roderick, 2006; Watson, 2011b). An important caveat in this research is that religiousness in North American university sport students (both male and female), has been found to have a significant buffering affect against binge (alcohol) drinking and illicit drug taking (e.g., Cavar, Sekulic and Culjak, 2010; Zenic, Stipic and Sekulic, 2011). Bearing in mind the moral malaise surrounding ‘Jock Culture’ in modern sports settings, particularly university sport settings (Martens, 1979; Sparkes, Partington and Brown, 2007; Waldron, Lynn and Krane, 2011), these results elucidate the need for further psychological research conducted from a 22

Watson’s (2011b) chapter contains reference to a wide-range of research from across the disciplines.

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Christian viewpoint (see Cook, 1985; Lynn, Pargament and Krane, 2010; Maranise, 2013; Nesti, 2007a, 2007b, 2007c, 2011; Peña, 2004; Smith, 2010; Watson, 2011b; Watson and Nesti, 2005).23 Additional ethical enquiry to complement and underpin this body of work from trained theologians and Christian psychologists and ethicists will be crucial if we are to begin to counter the wave of systemic moral problems in global sports. In concluding their essay on sports ethics, Scarpa and Carraro (2011: 120) identify “… a commonality and reciprocity of values between sports and Christian ethics” that should encourage scholars to explore a gamut of ethical questions in the sporting domain (also see, Kretschmann and Benz, 2012). Of course, resources from the sports philosophy field and those from the embryonic literature on theology and sport discussed here are a solid foundation from which to begin this task. Importantly, however, academics might also more fully engage with the foundational writings of the early Church fathers, Christian philosophers and medieval theologians. For example, Tertullian, Philo, Augustine, John Chrysostom, John Cassian and Thomas Aquinas, who provided exegesis on Pauline athletic metaphors (e.g., Cor. 9: 24-27) and ideas surrounding embodiment in response to different gnostic heresies (typically dualisms) and pagan and gladiatorial sports that have emerged down the ages (see Carter, 1984b; Eyler, 2013; Hoffman, 2010a; Koch, 2012; Pfitzner, 2012; Scarpa and Carraro, 2011). During the twentieth century, some major theologians, from both 23

While not specifically conducted from a Christian standpoint, two recent quantitative studies have explored the role of spiritual transcendence with regard to competitive anxiety and self-confidence in athletes offering valuable insights into the psychology of the athlete from a broader spiritual perspective (Azimirad and Jalilvand, 2012; Narimani, Babolan and Ariapooran, 2011).

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Catholic and protestant traditions, have made passing reference to sport in their ethical musings (e.g., Barth, 1981; Bonhoeffer, 1955)24, with Moltmann (1989, 1972) being an exception having written specific papers on the ethics of the modern Olympic games and a book on the theology of play. Over the last 80 years a succession of Popes, drawing chiefly on catholic moral theology (e.g., Curran, 2005)25 and reflections on culture (e.g., Rowland, 2003), have used what Pope Pius XII called the “Sport Epistle”—Paul’s Corinthian correspondence, in particular his athletic metaphors (Koch, 2012)—as a framework for cultural reflection when delivering homilies and speeches in sporting locales (see Feeney, 1995, 2006; Liberia Editrice Vaticana, 2006; Lixey et al., 2012; Mazza, 2012; Müller and Schäfer, 2010; O’Gorman, 2010a; White, 2012a). This is encouraging, although further catholic and protestant biblical and systematic theological study is essential if the discourse on sport is to advance in credibility and depth. A recent conference on “Christian Ethics and Sport” (2011) hosted by the well-respected Society for the Study of Christian Ethics26 and three international seminars hosted by 24

In discussing the theology of play, Bonhoeffer (1955) touches on a range of ethical issues relating to sport, as does Barth, in the Church Dogmatics, where he talks of the institution of sport becoming the “… playground of a particular-earth-spirit” (Barth, 1981: 229), that is, a form of idolatrous spirit that partially characterises institutions. 25 There are subtle differences between catholic moral theology (closely allied to the Church magisterium) and Christian ethics. For example, as Kirk (1949: 223-224) notes, “moral theology is concerned not so much with the highest standards of Christian conduct (that is perhaps the special province of Christian ethics) as with the minimum standard to which conduct must attain if it is to be adjudged Christian at all”. 26 Plenary papers from this meeting at the University of Cambridge were published in a special edition of the Society’s journal, Studies in Christian Ethics: Christian Ethics and Sport (2012: Vol. 25, 1, February). See also Kruschwitz (2008). In response to London hosting the 2012 Olympic and

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the Vatican’s Church Sport office (2005, 2007, 2009) that addressed (amongst other things) the ethical dimension of sport, provide another promising sign that the discipline of theology (and the Church) is beginning to take sport more seriously. This work is complemented by the vital contributions of Christian ethicists who have helped counter the insightful, but largely trans-humanist and post-humanist literature (e.g., Butryn and Masucci, 2009; McNamee, 201027; Magdalinski, 2009; Miah, 2004, 2010; Tamburrini and Tannsjo, 2005), addressing genetic enhancement technology in sport (Shafer, 2012; The President’s Council on Bioethics, 2003; Trothen, 2012, 2011, 2008a, 2008b). Applying MacIntyre’s (2007) virtue ethics, Goodson (2012) analyses both genetic sport technologies and performance-enhancing drugs, which have plagued professional sport for decades. This genre of work will continue to be important, given that “creating a superathlete” (Green, 2007:171) amidst futurological movements (i.e., trans-humanism and post-humanism) that have been recognised as new religions (Amarasingam, 2008; Hefner, 2009), will undoubtedly be on the agenda for those wedded to the victory-cult. Related technological innovations from the fields of robotics, artificial intelligence, nanotechnology and cognitive science, may also begin to infiltrate the sports world and thus will need careful attention from theologians. In order to provide sound ethical and theological reflection on the interface between humans and technology in sport, Watson (2011b) has urged that scholars embed their reflections in a sound biblical anthropology and psychology—Christian Paralympic games, a number of other theological and religious studies journals produced special editions on sport focusing on sport and theology (See Appendix A). 27 See McNamee (2010: 153-224) Part 3, entitled “Doping, Genetic Modification and the Ethics of Enhancement” that includes six essays from key thinkers in this topic area.

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personhood (e.g., Chambers, 1936/1962; McFadyen, 1990; Miller and Delaney, 200528; John Paul II, 1997; Schwobel and Gunton, 1991). Further research questions and topics that require Christian ethical attention include: how might classic devotional literature, such as the writings of Thomas á Kempis, Oswald Chambers, Francois Fenelon, Andrew Murray and C.S. Lewis, be used to reflect on ethical issues in sport and the need for humility, love and spiritual growth of the heart (Gal. 5: 22-25), so as to produce accessible resources (e.g., White and White, 2006; Fellowship of Christian Athletes, 2008) for athletes, coaches and parents (see Goodson, 2012; Hastings and DelleMonache, 2007; Holowchak, 2008; Kluck, 2009b; Kretchmar, 2012; Simmons, 2011; Watson and White, 2007)?29 Closely linked to this, scholars might further consider what constitutes Christian character in sports competition, and how, if at all, moral codes of behaviour and typologies of good character, fit with the many biblical biographies, such as that of King David, where multiple moral failures are evident?30 The topic of ‘sport as a vocation/job 28

Section II of Miller and Delaney’s (2005) book, entitled, “The Nature of the Human Person”, is especially helpful. See also the Journal of Psychology and Theology, the Journal of Psychology and Christianity (studies of prayer in sport have been published in the latter) and the Journal of Psychology and Judaism for psychological insights of human nature from a Judea-Christian standpoint. A Special Edition of, Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology (2005, Vol., 59, No. 4) that focuses on biblical anthropology and biblical portraits of personhood is also a rich source of theological insights. 29 Catholic theologians such as Richard Rohr and the philosopher of sport Kretchmar (2012), have challenged Christian scholars to consider issues such as humility in sport in the light of the writings of other faith traditions. 30 This is an interesting line of enquiry given the fact that moralism has failed in the modern world (see Taylor, 2007) and while personal character attributes such as consistency, trustworthiness, faithfulness, loyalty, self-

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(for professional Christian athletes)’ is also an area that deserves further attention given the growing social significance of sports in a global context (see Null, 2008a; Brock, 201031). How, we might ask, do Christians involved in high-risk sports, where there is immediate danger of serious injury or death (Russell, 2005), for example, extreme/outdoor32 (Watson, 2007b) and motor sports (Newman, 2009, 2010; Shirley, 2000), rationalise such risk-taking in light of the Christian teaching that life is a gift to be nurtured and protected? Relatedly, how, or to what extent, might Christians endorse or participate in violent33 and combative events such control and being principled are desirable traits in the Christian life, if an individual builds a reputation on these principles and glories in them, the dangers of self-righteousness and religious pride remain present (i.e., moralising about others). As Lewis, (1952/1997) noted, a prostitute that knows her desperate need of God may be far closer to Him than a churchgoer of many years that is highly principled and seen as a pillar of the community. This is the offence of grace. Jesus had a total disinterest in building a reputation for himself (see Phil. 2: 1-11) and King David, after committing murder and adultery, was famously described as a man after God’s own heart (after repenting of his sins), because he had a broken and contrite spirit (Psalm 51), not because he always acted in a principled and ethical manner. Based on this, perhaps, Christian character could be better understood as a combination of moral principles evident in an individual’s life but also as the existence of a tender (broken) heart that is always willing to repent quickly and that extends mercy and grace to persecutors (i.e., a state of heart that desires that the offender does not suffer consequences and/or punishment)? 31 Brock’s (2010) book provides a useful theological analysis of the professionalization of the modern world that would be useful when examining sport. 32 Examples are, big-wave surfing, BASE jumping, off-piste skiing and snowboarding, free rock climbing and mountaineering. 33 As theorists have noted (Dixon, 2007), violence and physical harm (injury) are also clearly evident in more broadly conceived combative sports such as, rugby and American football and thus, these activities could also be a focus of research from a Christian perspective.

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as boxing and mixed martial arts, the latter being a sport that has experienced an exponential increase in popularity and participation over the last decade (Garcia and Malcolm, 2010) and which partially mirrors the gladiatorial contests of ancient Rome and the Pankration of Ancient Greece (see Poliakoff, 1984, 1987; Seesengood, 2006a, 2006b)? To assist scholars in tackling these questions, there is a fast emerging socialscience literature on mixed martial arts (e.g., Abramson and Modzelewski, 2011; Jensen et al., 2013; Salter and Tomsen, 201234; Spencer, 2011; Van Bottenburg and Heilbron, 2006), secular ethical analyses of boxing (e.g., Dixon, 2007; Nixon, 1992; Simon, 2007), a handful of essays and presentations on boxing and/or mixed martial arts from a Christian perspective (e.g., Borer and Schafer, 2011; Carter, Kluck and Morin, 2012; Gore, 2011; Hillman, 1951; Koehlinger, 2012a 2012b; Leone, 1992; Leone and Schneiderman, 2010; Marty, 2007; Shirley, 1999; Waller, 2013; Watson and Brock, forthcoming)35 34

Salter and Tomsen’s (2012) essay examines violence between former convicts and other men analysing the links between felony fights and mixed martial arts and those between violent fighting and criminality. A related research question for those wishing to examine MMA as a sport, might be: does participation in, or the spectatorship of, such events, encourage criminal and/or unethical behaviour? (see, for example, Endersen and Olweus, 2005; Hishinuma et al., 2012; Jenkins and Ellis, 2011). 35 Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) is also known as cage fighting and gained popularity mainly through the televised Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) (1993-). Borer and Schafer (2011: 167) note that roughly 700 American churches “have begun incorporating MMA into their ministry in some capacity”, a development that has been controversial for many Christian ministers (see Schneiderman, 2010). Additionally, in a blog on the Sydney Anglican Network entitled “The Christian and the Cage Fighter”, Craig Schwarze (2010), notes that there is little, if any, literature on this topic to date and given that the controversial American pastor, Mark Driscoll, has endorsed the Ultimate Fighting Championship as a legitimate vehicle to develop muscular Christians in a feminized world church, academic analysis is urgently needed. See:

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and a burgeoning literature on violence in sport more generally (e.g., Guttman, 1998; Messner, 1990; Young, 2012). A related question is: can Christians morally justify partaking in animal hunting as a competitive sport (see Campolo, 1988; Gelfer, 2013; Morgan and Meier, 199536; Peiser, 1997; White and Hill, forthcoming, 2014)? What are the Christian ethical questions that surround participation in alternative/extreme sporting forms, for example, in relation to the tension between risk-taking, autonomy and paternalism (see McNamee, 2007b, 2010;37 Watson, 2007b)? What are the issues surrounding blasphemy in sporting locales with regard to the tensions surrounding the religious freedom of individuals and the criminal law (and thus offences) given that it has been suggested that rules about blasphemy in sport “… are used to curb bad manners and bad behaviour” (Gianfreda, 2011: 182)? How do models of servant leadership in sport, (rather than top-down leadership styles), inform the ethical practice and effectiveness of sports leaders, for example, coaches, managers, officials and team captains (see Degraaf, Jordan and Degraaf, 1999; DeSensi and Rosenberg, 2003; Dungy, 2008, 2010; Greenleaf, 1977/2002; Rieke, Hammermeister and Chase, 2008)? What are the tensions surrounding notions of the modern sporting celebrity and idolatry and is there theological justification for sporting celebrities to sell the gospel (via “platform ministry”) based on their fame and human abilities? In support of others (see Brock, 2012), this is what Macarthur (2003: 40) calls “posturing from positions of http://sydneyanglicans.net/life/daytoday/the_christian_and_the_cage_fight er/ 36 Part XVII of Morgan and Meier’s (1995) book, entitled, “The Morality of Hunting and Animal Liberation”, which has five essays on the topic, provides a secular ethical perspective. 37 See Part 7 of McNamee (2010: 435-500), entitled, “Ethics and Adventurous Activity”, for five essays that address this topic.

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prestige” which, he argues, is the very antithesis of the gospel (1 Cor. 1: 27-29; Phil. 2: 5-11)? Again, the pursuit of such research inevitably brings with it the dangers of judgmentalism as we may so easily become Gods ourselves.38 Disability sport is another broad area of research that warrants urgent attention from a Christian standpoint. Building on recent research in sports ethics (Jesperson and McNamee, 2009), theology (e.g., Brock and Swinton, 2012; Swinton, 2011) and embryonic work on the theology of disability sport (e.g., O’Keefe, 1994/2006; Watson, 2012a, 2012b; Watson and Parker, 2012b, 2014;39 Watts, 2007), there are a plethora of questions to be addressed in relation to Christian understandings of physical and intellectual disability in sport. For example, what are the social values and norms that dictate that there are markedly different funding models and levels of media and cinematic representation in physical and intellectual disability sports (e.g., Paralympics and Special Olympics) in comparison to able-bodied sports (e.g., Olympics). Relatedly, why have no celebrities emerged from the Special Olympics? A further area of investigation is the moral attitudes and emotions that permeate competitive sport, 38

It is interesting to note that the All American Speakers Bureau and Celebrity Network, which includes the details of a number of high-profile Christian athletes (some charging up to $50,000 for one speaking engagement), advertise as follows: “we know the power of celebrity endorsements, stated or implied, and there are few bigger celebrities than famous athletes from the world of sports. When a top athlete makes an appearance at your corporate event, you get the benefits of his or her star power … they help give you … media and public attention” (Famous Sports Figure and Athlete Appearances, 2010: available at: http://allamericanspeakers.com). 39 A Special (double) Edition of the Journal of Religion, Disability and Health entitled, “Sports, Religion and Disability” focusing on sport and leisure comprises a mix of scholarly essays and empirical research studies which provide a start point for research in this area. This Special Edition is also published as a book (Watson and Parker, 2014).

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such as shame and guilt (Hamilton, 2002; McNamee, 2008), joy (Null, 2004), narcissism (Begel and Burton, 2000), pain and suffering (Howe, 2004; Nesti, 2007b), relational difficulties and experiences of failure and success. Continuing this ethical theme, our next task is to examine morality within the structures of modern-day and, more specifically, in relation to institutions such as the modern Olympic and Paralympic Games.

CHAPTER SIX INSTITUTIONS AND GOVERNANCE OF SPORT: A CASE STUDY OF THE MODERN OLYMPIC GAMES

Global sport governing bodies proclaim lofty ideals and espouse generic principles that set high moral standards for themselves and others … Behind the facades of principled rhetoric is often something quite different … a lack of transparency and accountability … goes hand in glove with a propensity for corruption … sports academics need to take a much more critical approach to the task of researching power relations in world sport. —Jennings (2011: 387) Today what is called sport seems to have become the playground of a particular earth-spirit. —Barth (1981: 229)

In the preface to one of the most recent biographies of the Olympic Christian athlete and “muscular Christian” par excellence, Eric Liddell (Keddie, 2007:12, also see, Cashmore, 2008; Preece, 2009), Lord Sebastian Coe, Chairperson of the London 2012 Olympics and Paralympics Organising Committee (LOCOG), writes that “… in an era where more heroes and role models are needed ... Eric Liddell’s ... decision to sacrifice his strong chance of winning the Olympic Games [1924] blue ribbon 100 metres sprint event because the competition clashed with his Christian beliefs continues to fascinate and capture the imagination ... and resonates” with the wider vision of the 2012 London Games (London, 2012). Indeed, there are many positive dimensions of the Olympic

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and Paralympic games that have been identified by anthropologists, sociologists and theologians, for example, the pursuit and demonstration of excellence, the ritual and sacred elements of the opening and closing ceremonies and the building of individual, regional and international relations (e.g., Bentley, 2012; Luo, 2010; Haualand, 2007; Moltman, 1989, 1980; Norman and Cusack, 2012; Ryken, 2004; Vachicouras, 2004; Watson and White, 2012; Willimon, 2006). These issues, in addition to the comments of Lord Coe, provide a noble vision but one that is challenged by Baker’s (2000a: 44) provocative reflections on the modern Olympics as an institution: If Christ came to the Olympics, He would be impressed with the quasi-religious aspects of the Olympic rituals and sterling athletic performances on the field, but He would also be uneasy with some less positive features of the Games. He might well be inspired to bring out His whip against the modern scene, for he would most certainly recognise some idolatrous tendencies embedded in today’s Olympism.

These are strong words. Yet some scholars have gone so far as to claim that there are irreconcilable differences between the Christian faith and the ideology and praxis of modern Olympism, based upon an eclectic ideology of muscular Christianity, ancient Greek mythology, pagan ritualism and social Darwinism (Harker, 1997, 1996; Vondey, 2003). In support of this, theologian Null (2008a: 325), contends that the notion of religio athletae (see also Bailey, 1997; Koch, 2005a; Kortzfleisch, 1970; Kruger, 1993; Lucas, 1964, 1975, 1976; MacAloon, 1978; 2001; Parry, 2007a; Tomlinson, 1984) and the institution of modern Olympia1 that was at the 1

Amidst the evolution of the Modern Olympics (1896-) in Athens, Greece, is the pre-existence of the Cotswold Olympic Games, founded in 1636 by Robert Dover that lasted for 200 years and the Much Wenlock Olympic Society founded by Dr Penny Brook in 1850, who met and

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heart of “ ... Coubertin’s vision of sport is completely antithetical to Christian doctrine”, a point that has informed recent scholarship on the Olympic and Paralympic games. Following this line of thinking, Watson (2012a, 2012b) and Stringfellow (1973/2004), supporting intimations in the theology of Barth (1981) and more recently Wink (1998) and Brueggeman (2010), argue that the institution of modern commercialised sport, including the Olympic Games and to a lesser degree, the Paralympics (e.g., Cherney and Lindermann, 2010; Gard and Fitzgerald, 2008; Howe, 2008), is a major edifice in the modern “tower of Babel”—an idol (see White, 2008a). This proposition is based on empirical evidence that self-exaltation, pride, idolatry and ruthless competition characterize the modern sports institution and, indeed, the geo-politics of trans-national sports corporations (see Segart, 2012; Silk, Andrews and Cole, 2005), something that has been highlighted by numerous sports ethicists, psychologists and theologians over the last forty years (Hamilton, 2011; Higgs and Braswell, 2004; Hoffman, 2010a; Hogan, 1967; Holowchak, 2008; Lasch, 1980; McNamee, 2010; Novak, 1967/1994; Scanlon, 2009; Watson, 2011b; Watson and White, 2007; White, 2008a). While it is crucial to recognise that sport has never been pure, not even during the so-called halcyon days of amateur athleticism (or shamaterism),2 in the nineteenth century and the early days of the modern Olympics (1896-), many of these problems that stem from human sin3 have multiplied due to “… the ruthless collaborated with Baron de Coubertin as he birthed Modern Olympia as we know it (Young, 2005a). 2 Holt and Mason (2000) discuss the hypocritical practice of ‘shamaterism’ where athletes were given gifts and incentives (often financial) by governments, organisations and individuals while competing under the guise of amateur status. 3 There are principally two types of sin in orthodox Christian theology which Hordern (1969: 204) describes: “Sin is the prideful state in which

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competitiveness that professionalism has ushered in” (Cashmore, 2010: 473), especially since the 1960s. Arguably, this would have alarmed de Coubertin, a lapsed Catholic with a Jesuit education who had championed an Olympic model which he described as a “universal humanistic religion” to assist in bringing peace to warring nations, alongside a number of other idealistic and utilitarian goals (Young, 2005a). Amateurism, fair play, strength and the dualistic Greek idea of soundness of body and mind (mens sana in corpore sano: see, for example, Young 2005b) were central to de Coubertin’s vision at the turn of the twentieth century, and yet historical research also demonstrates a range of unhealthy (again, in-part sinful) attitudes and social practices that plagued the first four or five decades of this institution. In a recent essay, Chatziefstathion (2011) identifies these as elitism, exclusionary principles based on ‘race’ and gender, European humanism and unbridled colonial imperialism. Of course, we now operate in a radically different globalised sporting world (Maguire, 2005; Marjoribanks and Farquharson, 2012), yet some of these issues remain while others, such as the exclusion of women, have begun to be positively addressed. The last seven decades of the Olympic Games, however, have unfortunately seen a range of new problems emerge. For example, systematic corruption involving political propaganda (e.g., the so-called Nazi Olympics, Berlin 1936 and the Olympics becoming a pawn of the international cold-war during the 1960s), overt nationalism, doping, human rights abuses (e.g., Beijing 2008), financial irregularities and politically-motivated terrorism at the Munich games in 1972 man revolts against God and makes himself the measure of all things [original sin, rooted in pride]. From this state of sin various sins flow in the form of unethical and immoral actions” [sinful actions that are witnessed in all aspects of life, including sport].

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(see Close, Askew and Xin, 2007; Hoberman, 1986; Lenskyj, 2008; Tomlinson and Young, 2006). Pointing to the metaphysical root of many of these problems, Higgs (1982: 179) argues that history has shown that “… whether communist, democratic, or fascist, modern governments have one thing in common–a reliance on sports to help define and bolster national pride” and, we would argue, national wealth and global status. Consider, the Beijing 2008 Olympiad, which has been cast as a strategic political manoeuvre in China’s emergence as a geo-political super-power (Close, Askew and Xin, 2007; Kidd, 2010a). Such claims are supported by a recent international and systematic empirical study of the “Global Sporting Arms Race”, which demonstrates a strong correlation between funding (i.e., multi-million pound/dollar packages for individual sports) for elite sports development by the governments of Olympic host nations and national sporting success (De Bosscher et al., 2008). Having said that, MacAloon (1997)4 advocates that global mega-events, such as the Olympics, can provide “… favourable conditions … for difficult meetings” between “… global political elites, including … nations at war or [those] having no diplomatic relations with one another”, and warns social scientists not to polarize the complex sport-politic dyad in a post-cold-war context (see also, Beacom, 2012). Identifying and combating immoral and inequitable practices within institutions, including those of political origin, is, however, crucial. As Steenbergen (2001: 48) highlights, for analytical purposes it is vital to clearly differentiate between practices and institutions; what he calls that “double character of sport”. Relying heavily on the philosophy of MacIntyre (2007) in his discussion of the “institutional embeddedness of sport”, Steenbergen (2001: 484

Cited in Keys (2010: 254).

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49) provides a useful start-point for an analysis of the historical evolution of modern sporting institutions: Institutions are characteristically concerned with … external goods. They are involved in acquiring money and other material goods; they are structured in terms of power and status, and they distribute money and power as rewards. Nor could they do otherwise if they are to sustain not only themselves, but also practices of which they are bearers.

As Steenbergen suggests, there are powerful centrifugal forces that operate through global political economy which we contend, endorse and perpetuate undesirable practices within the institution of sport. As Higgs and Braswell (2004) have argued, pride of heart, striving for power, status and reward (sinful attitudes and practices) are, more often than not, seen as virtues in the microcosm of professional sport. Blinded by these deeply entrenched ideologies, North American and western sports in general, White (2008b) suggests, have lost their corporate moral compass; we have, it seems, forgotten what is “good”. Examining in more detail how the sporting institution evolved in modern social history is then fundamental if we are to more clearly view this phenomenon through a Christian lens. To understand the evolution and defining characteristics of modern sporting institutions, in this case the modern Olympics, the extensive socio-historical studies of Guttman (1978/2004, 1994, 2002) and Overman (1997, 2011) are helpful (see also, Coleman, 1989; Rigauer,1981). Guttman (1994) elucidates how modern western sports have evolved through the industrial, capitalist, scientific, imperial and cultural developments of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Utilising the work of Weber (1958), Guttman cites six defining elements of modern sports: (i) secularisation, (ii) bureaucratisation, (iii) specialisation, (iv) rationalisation, (v) quantification, and (vi) the obsession with records. Drawing

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heavily on Guttman (and thus Weber, 1958) and others such as the nineteenth century social economist Veblen (1899/1970), Overman (2011) provides an in-depth analysis of how western sports (with a focus on the US) have been shaped by the forces of the protestant work ethic, Puritanism, Calvinism and aggressive free-market capitalism. In Overman’s (1997: 350) words, “the Victorian Age gave birth to … [a] … phenomenon which dramatically altered the nature of sport and recreation: the fruition of the spirit of capitalism. Sport has more and more to do with making money … The money changers have entered the temple of sport”. Not surprisingly, such developments have not escaped the attention of scholars of a Marxist persuasion who have, for some time, identified the need to critique the structures and administration of sporting locales. During the 1960s and 70s a group of academics that Kidd (2010b) calls the “jockrakers” (i.e., Hoch 1972; Meggyesy, 1971; Rigauer, 1982; Scott, 1971), and others (Brohm, 1978), provided trenchant neo-Marxist (broadly conceived) cultural critiques of the modern sporting institution. Framing sport as a melting-pot of alienation, racism, militarism, sexism, economic exploitation (capitalism) and imperial and political monopoly, this was a radical genre that emerged in sport studies at a time when such writings were popular across the social science disciplines. Illustrative of this Brohm (1978: 136-137), for example, suggests that “contemporary sport is nothing but an auxiliary structure of imperialist finance capitalism … a new type of industrial sector”. Brohm even includes in his book a section entitled “Draft Appeal for the Setting up of an Anti-Olympic Committee” (169-174). As with most neo-Marxist critiques, Brohm and others, while helpfully identifying a range of exploitative practices were, according to Novak (1967/1994), economically deterministic, overly negative and thus largely ignorant and/or dismissive of

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the playful and potential religious elements of sport. In his staunch deconstruction of the work of these writers, Novak (224-225) concludes, “There is no greater sacrilege than politicizing sports ... sports are deeper than politics”. While in principle, religious scholars may agree with Novak’s reflections on the sacred dimensions of the sporting act, we argue that the critiques provided by the “jockrakers” in the 1960s and 70s and subsequent cultural-Marxist5 (see, for example, Carrington and McDonald, 2009; Gruneau, 1980, 1999; Hargreaves, 1986) and classical Marxist (Bairner, 2007) analyses, are helpful in shedding light on the capitalist power plays, class inequalities and political corruption evident in modern-day sport. For example, the unchecked spending and multi-million-pound deficits which characterize the fiscal strategies of the majority of English and Scottish Premier League football clubs are what Hamil and Walters (2010) label “an inconvenient truth” that is more often than not ignored in the quest to succeed at “all costs”. The recent global economic crisis (2008-) has explicitly demonstrated that divorcing ethics and economics, as has happened in the elite sports business model, is a dangerous occupation. Resonating this truth, Sacks (2011), when commenting on the Eurozone economic crisis (2011-) observes that “ultimately, financial failure is the result of moral failure … markets need morals”. Nonetheless, given that the majority of Christians appear to “reject Marxism for its atheist materialism” (Bancroft, 1983:43), is it theologically appropriate for scholars examining the sport-faith relation to draw on the works of Marx and his followers? 5

While it is difficult to specifically categorise sports scholars, such as John Hargreaves and Richard Gruneau, within particular schools of social thought, their use of social history, political economy and interpretive cultural analysis can be described as a “synthetic approach” (Gruneau’s, 1999, term) that lends itself to cultural-Marxism.

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Based on the principle that “both Jesus and Marx ask us to consider what the world would be like if we inverted dominant power structures and social practices in the name of justice” (Davis, 2008: 20-21), it would seem plausible that theologians could selectively adopt aspects of Marxist theory to help critically appraise economic and class inequalities in modern sports. The degree to which Marxist and Christian ideas should be synthesised or not has been the topic of vigorous historical debate that started during the birth of “liberation theology” in the 1970s (see Howson, 2011; Aguilar, 2007; Rowland, 2007). Amidst a web of complex arguments and counter arguments focussing on socialist ideology, ethics, historical, dialectical and philosophical materialism and political tensions between the “secular left” and “religious right”, it seems that it is around epistemological and ontological issues and assumptions where there remains “a gulf between theists and Marx” (Bancroft, 1983:65). Therefore, if Christian sports scholars choose to dialogue with Marx, they must carefully unpick and integrate theory, while holding fast to orthodox ontological, epistemological and anthropological theism (see Denis, 1998; Lasch, 1982; Lyon, 1981; Miranda, 1974), and guard against a dilution or marginalisation of the gospel message in their attempts to stimulate social action. This, of course, was the foundation of the criticism and suspicion of evangelical leaders concerning the social gospel movement during the early part of the 20th century. Notwithstanding the potential insights which might be gleaned from Marxist and other critical theories of sport, we argue that input from systematic and biblical theologians is also crucial if we are to better understand the complex phenomenon of sport in the twenty-first century. The eroding forces of western secularisation on religious thought (Taylor, 2007) and thus sports (Guttman, 1994), has led to a general

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disregard for spiritual and religious issues in sports-based research. Pound (2011), a notable Olympics scholar and administrator, recently put forward a research agenda for Olympic reform yet of the 42 questions that he proposed none addressed spirituality or religion. This level of neglect is mirrored in a recent historical overview of international relations in sport that similarly fails to mention religion and spirituality (Keys, 2010) and the Routledge 2012 Olympics Collection that comprised 40 journal special editions from a range of disciplines but none from theology or religious studies.6 In light of the fact that all major Christian denominations wholeheartedly engaged with the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic games through the organisation More Than Gold (see Hawkins, 2010) and that numerous Olympic able-bodied and Paralympic athletes are Christian believers (see Weir, 2004), this oversight provides some cause for concern. In turn, the provocative questions posed by Staalsett’s (1994:1) article seem valid: Christian worship and Olympic games–do they belong together? What has the Olympic ‘culture of winning’ to do with ‘by grace alone’? Are we trying to Christianise a heathen myth? Has the Christian Church an ‘Olympic cause’, or are we only after a place in the sun?

Provocative, yes, but perhaps these questions are a little too dichotomous and simplistic to the extent that they may simply lead to an outright rejection of the Olympic idea, which would benefit no one. Reflecting on the London 2012 games, Watson and White (2012) alternatively suggest that whilst 6

A caveat to this point is that Routledge commissioned this project in conjunction with the 2012 International Convention on Science, Education and Medicine in Sport, Glasgow, Scotland, 19-24 July, 2012, which had a “Sport and Religion” strand, organized by Professor Mike Collins, University of Gloucestershire, UK.

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there are many corrupting influences impacting the modern Olympics that do not sit comfortably with the tenets of the Christian religion and are in need of redemption, at the same time, there are many positive facets of the Games that Christians should celebrate and engage with. For example, the display of human excellence and beauty in sporting movement (i.e., aesthetics), the coming together of peoples from diverse backgrounds, and the “legacy” (see Gold and Gold, 2009; Weed, Cored and Fiore, 2009), projected by LOCOG in relation to social, environmental, health, cultural and economic benefits. Further research into both the positive and negative aspects of sporting institutions will continue to be important as the global sport machine marches on unabated. Indeed, additional questions and issues include: how and to what extent has the historical shift from a rehabilitative-participatory model of disability sport to an elite performance model (that is more-and-more frequently mirroring the “win-at-all-costs” culture of able-bodied professional sport), impacted ethical practice in the modern Paralympics (see Gard and Fitzgerald, 2008; Howe, 2008)? Feminist theologians might explore how the Olympic institution (and others like it), so often criticised for its patriarchal structures and governance, explicitly or implicitly inculcates the sexualisation of women in the media (see Billings, 2008; Bruce, Hovden and Markula, 2010; Markula, 2009)? Are sporting institutions, such as the Olympic, Paralympic and eXtreme Games (see Rinehart, 2010) modernday idols and thus objects of worship for participants and fans alike (see Keller, 2009; Stringfellow, 1973/2004; Watson, 2012a; White, 2008a)? How might theologians and the Church address the “institutionalization” of violence, bigotry, and hatred between the Scottish (and Irish, see Sugden and Barnier, 1993) football clubs Glasgow Rangers and Glasgow Celtic (see Bradley, 2004; Flint and Powell, 2009; Giulianotti

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and Gerrard, 2001; Lawrence, 2011; Kelly, 2010), which, in recent years, has reached a new low with parcel bombs and death threats being sent to club officials and administrators (see Cook, 2011; Reid, 2008)? An area of research that may be particularly fruitful for theologians to explore is the sport and peace/reconciliation sector (or international development studies) that has, to date, been largely dominated by scholars from within political science and social policy. There are clear conceptual links to Christian theological concepts here such as “peace-making” and “reconciliation” that theologians have addressed in various global contexts (e.g., Kim, Kollanti and Hoyland, 2008). In addition to the United Nations (2003) article, Sport for Peace and Development: Building a Peaceful and Better World through Sport and the Olympic Ideal, a number of well-funded international organisations that have the patronage of sporting celebrities and royalty have been established, such as, the Laureus: Sport for Good Foundation (2000-), the John Paul II Foundation for Sport (2010-) and Peace and Sport: Together, Building Sustainable Peace through Sport (2007-). This is in addition to the recently established academic centres of excellence, such as the Centre for the Study of Peace and Sport (2012-, University of Tennessee, USA) which has a Christian foundation, and the Centre for Peace and Reconciliation Studies (1999-, Coventry University, UK) that has focussed increasingly on disability sport. A significant literature also exists around the concept of sport development which concentrates on how the Olympic movement (e.g., Guest, 2009; Parry, 2007a; Spaaij and Burleson, 2011)7 and sport more generally can be utilised as a

7

A recent Special Edition of the journal, Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics (2012, Vol. 15, Issue 6) entitled, The Olympic Movement and the Sport of Peace-making, examines a host of ways in

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tool to: (i) promote peace and reconciliation in conflict-torn nations such as Israel, the Balkans, Northern Ireland and Africa (e.g., Galily, 2013; Darnell, 2012; Gilbert and Bennett, 2012; Giulianotti, 2011; Giulianotti and Armstrong, 2011; Schinke and Hanrahan, 2011; Garratt, Jarvie 2013a, 2013b, 2012, 2011; Kidd and Donnelley, 2007; Levermore, 2011; Shields and Bredemeier, 1996; Sugden, 2008, 2010, 2013) (ii) help combat the spread of HIV/AIDS (Lindsey and Banda, 2010) and terrorism (Mertzman, 2013) and, (iii) tackle and alleviate broader human rights abuses (e.g., Kidd, 2010a).8 A small number of scholars (mainly neo-Marxists) have dissented from this view-point arguing, for example, that “as a new spiritual authority guiding souls, sport is the total contemporaneous social myth that has enlisted politics and international relations in its service”. For these scholars, the “sport peace” rhetoric is a smokescreen for power politics (Redeker, 2008: 499; also see, Hoberman, 2011). Selectively adopting aspects of Marxist theory, Christian scholars should be encouraged to analyse the underlying political and economic motivations of such initiatives. However, with the consensus of opinion regarding the sportpeace nexus being largely positive, research questions within this area are numerous and could lead to significant practical changes in sporting locales and beyond. For example, what do the concepts of peace and reconciliation mean in Christian theological terms? How can Churches, governments, international governing bodies of sport (i.e., the International Olympic Committee) and non-governmental organisations collaborate which this aspect of the philosophy of Olympism operates within the Olympic and Paralympic movements. 8 The Global Peace Games is an example of this type of initiative (that has a Christian ethos) and is organised by Albert Kunihira, CEO of Africa Youth Ministries. The Games are held annually in Uganda, Africa, with the aim of educating young people (e.g., war orphans) about non-violence, AIDS/HIV and life-skills.

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on sports projects to bring about sustained reconciliation and peace in areas of conflict? One suggestion could be to fund and support initiatives that provide sporting events for the vulnerable and marginalised in society, for example, the Homeless World Cup (see Sherry, Karg and O’May, 2011)? The content of the preceding chapters reflect the key themes of scholarship that have developed in the past four decades in the sport-religion literature. The questions and topics identified at the end of each of these chapters have provideed suggstions for further research within these subject areas. In the next chapter we identify a series of additional emerging research areas and related resources to stimulate further Christian reflection on modern sports.

CHAPTER SEVEN EMERGING RESEARCH AREAS

Theological Analysis of Disability Sport Past work in this area is sparse with a handful of exceptions (O’Keefe, 1994/2006; Watts, 2007; Yong, 2007), although recent publications (Brock, 2012; Watson, 2012a, 2012b; Watson and Parker, 2012), doctoral work (Schafer, 2012) and a special (double) edition of the Journal of Religion, Disability and Health entitled, “Sport, Religion and Disability”, comprising a mix of scholarly essays and empirical research studies, is a promising sign (Watson and Parker, 2014). Resources from the theology of disability that will assist scholars in addressing this topic in the sports domain include: Swinton’s (2011) research report, Brock and Swinton’s (2012) ‘reader’ on Christian theology and disability, and Ward’s (2011) anthology of writings on research methodologies for examining theology and disability (also see, Parker and Watson, 2014). Prayer in Sport Whilst prayer has been a topic of discussion in many publications on sport and religion, empirical research in this area has been limited. The work of Hoffman (2011) and Price (2009) are the most comprehensive on this topic, while Coakley (2007) provides a clear overview of the key themes in play. Other studies have addressed the legality of prayer in American physical education settings (Lee, 2005; Sawyer,

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1997), praying to win (Kreider, 2003), and providence, prayer and sport (Hamilton, 2009). In turn, there is an embryonic sport psychology literature which addresses the utilisation of rituals and prayer in sporting locales (Czech and Bullet, 2007; Czech et al., 2004; Lee, 2003; Murray et al., 2005; Hochstetler, 2009; Maranise, 2013; Park, 2000; Watson and Czech, 2005; Watson and Nesti, 2005). One critique of the ‘use’ of prayer in sports is when it is viewed as a utilitarian ‘tool’, to win, to beat opponents, or, as a means to personal success. While petitionary prayer, thanksgiving, adoration and confession, are all accepted methods of devotion, when used in a utilitarian, consumerist and individualistic manner1 prayer arguably shifts away from its biblical roots, as Oswald Chambers (1935) points out: Prayer is the way that the life of God in us is nourished. Our common ideas regarding prayer are not found in the New Testament. We look upon prayer simply as a means of getting things for ourselves, but the biblical purpose of prayer is that we may get to know God Himself … To say that “prayer changes things” is not as close to the truth as saying, “Prayer changes me and then I change things.” God has established things so that prayer, on the basis of redemption, changes the way a person looks at things. Prayer is not a matter of changing things externally, but one of working miracles in a person’s inner nature.

1

There is an interesting link here to the fast-emerging literature on theology and medicine and in particular, research that has stressed the causal link (often in a utilitarian manner) between prayer and health and wellness (i.e., the stronger faith one has have the healthier one is). While of course for a Christian adherent, prayer, as described in the bible, can most certainly be a source of healing and wellness, the relationship is not always causal. Consider St Paul’s ‘thorn in the flesh’ (probably a physical or mental ailment), for example. For an in-depth analysis of the relationship between theology and medicine, see: Shuman, JJ. And Meador, K.G. (2002) Heal Thyself: Spirituality, Medicine and the Distortion of Christianity, New York: Oxford University Press.

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That said, the difficulty of course, is discerning the ‘motivation of the heart’ (‘… a person’s inner nature’) of a sportsperson who crosses him/herself while running onto the field of play, points to the sky when scoring, and/or gives thanks to God on bended-knee (e.g., Tim Tebow). A|nd thus, theologians need to exercise caution when ‘judging’ (Romans 2: 1-3) the external ritualistic behavior of sporting celebrities (Ward, 2011). Sport and Exercise Psychology A recent review of literature that examined the role of spirituality and religion in the discipline of sport psychology identified that there is a paucity of work on this topic (Watson and Nesti, 2005; also see, Lynn, Pargament and Krane, 2010), and, perhaps more significantly, that the majority of core disciplinary texts fail to mention this central aspect of human experience (e.g., Weinberg and Gould, 2011d). Encouragingly, however, a steady flow of related materials has appeared more recently including journals articles (e.g., Maranise, 2013), book chapters (Cook, 1985; Watson, 2011) and books (Parry, Watson and Nesti, 2011; Peña, 2004; Smith, 2010), which have specifically examined the psychological dynamics of sport, and sport psychology consultancy, from a Christian perspective.2 The potential avenues of research in this area are vast and include: the origins of different forms of motivation; the potential spiritual aspects of psychological states such as “flow” and “mindfulness” (see Chapter 2); moral reasoning and character development (see Chapter 5); defence 2

Nesti (2007a, 2007b, 2007c, 2011), an academic and consultant sport psychologist who has worked with a number of English professional football clubs and Olympic athletes, has produced various writings from a Catholic perspective which draw on existentialist thought (e.g., Kierkegaard and Marcel) to examine the psychological and religious dimensions of elite sports participation and consultancy strategies.

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mechanisms with regard to performance excellence and interpersonal relationships; ritualistic behaviour; the use of cognitive-behavioural techniques; leadership styles; maladaptive and healthy perfectionism;3 addictions (to exercise and chemical substances) and eating disorders (see Chapter 5); athletic identity issues with regards to retirement, career ending injuries, de-selection, burnout and overtraining; group dynamics; pastoral models for counselling/consultancy and analyses of prototypical emotions4 such as, shame, guilt, stress and anxiety, anger/aggression, love, fear, grief, joy (well-being), and how these impact the sportsperson’s performance, enjoyment, adherence to the activity and wider interpersonal relationships. When investigating any of these suggested topics through a Christian lens, scholars should not neglect the wealth of sports psychology literature (largely secular) that has emerged since the birth of the discipline which will assist in identifying themes for exploration and provide empirical data on which to base further analyses (e.g., Gardner and Moore, 2006; Smith 3

Over the last decade there has been a significant increase in studies that have examined the multi-dimensional concept of perfectionism in sports contexts. Winter (2005), a psychiatrist and practical theologian, has provided a book length treatment of this topic from a Christian standpoint (with some discussion of sports). We note this specific area of research as the variables related to perfectionist attitudes of states of heart are wideranging and, we argue, link to many significant themes in sporting locales, for example: shame and guilt, parental influences, pride and humility, depression, anger and eating disorders, the pursuit of excellence, genetic and cultural influence (themes mainly derived from chapters in Winter’s book). 4 Arguably, reflections by psychiatrists on sport (in comparison to those of sport psychologists), have focussed on aspects of human experience more closely allied to theological concepts, such as shame, guilt, pride, love and fear, and thus this body of literature is useful to those wishing to examine psycho-religious dimensions of sport (e.g., Begel and Burton, 2000; Beisser, 1967).

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and Bar-Eli, 2007; Papaioannou and Hackfort, 2014; Weinberg and Gould, 2011d).5 In order to ensure a sound theological and anthropological start-point to work in this area (i.e., epistemology and ontology), researchers can access a wealth of resources from the disciplines of theology and sport (Lixey, Hübenthal, Mieth and Müller, 2012;6: Watson, 2011), the psychology of religion (e.g., Pargament, 2013) and theology/Christianity and psychology (e.g., Colicutt, 2012; Collins, 1973; Entwistle, 2010; Morea, 1997; Watts, 2002; William and Delaney, 2005; Vitz, 1999, 1998, 1994).7 The Theory and Practice of Sports Chaplaincy Until recently, the majority of reflection on this topic has stemmed from the work of practitioners themselves providing useful insight into the day-to-day lives of sports chaplains (Boyers, 2011, 2000; Heskins and Baker, 2006; Wood, 2011). The Vatican Church Sport office (Liberia Editrice Vaticana, 2008) and academic-practitioners, contend that the professional training and accreditation of chaplains in sporting locales is long overdue and thus there are numerous avenues of research to investigate (see Dzikus, Waller and Hardin, 2010; Gamble, Hill and Parker, 2013; Waller, Dzikus and Hardin, 2010, in press). A recent book, Sports Chaplaincy: Trends, Issues and Debates (Parker, Watson and White, 2015, 5

There are many professional sport psychology journals, examples include: The Sport Psychologist, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, and the Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 6 Part 2 of this text comprises three chapters and is entitled, Anthropological Aspects. 7 Key journals here are: Journal of Psychology and Theology and the Journal of Psychology and Christianity, the latter of which has published empirical studies on the use and role of prayer in sporting contexts (e.g., Czech et al., 2004).

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forthcoming), which includes contributions from academics, chaplains and clergy (some of which hold more than one of these roles), and arguably provides the first global analysis of chaplaincy in sport. Additionally, Part Three of Lixey, Hübenthal, Mieth and Müller’s (2012) catholic text, Sport and Christianity: A Sign of the Times in Light of Faith, entitled Pastoral Aspects, contains a range of helpful contributions, not least Maier’s (2012) chapter which specifically addresses the role of a sports chaplain. Theological Reflection on Exercise, Health and Wellbeing Some scholars have argued that health clubs and gyms have become the new church for many, sometimes characterised by a narcissistic quest for bodily perfection (e.g., Brock, 2012; Hoverd, 2005; Hoverd and Sibley, 2007; Lelwica, 2000). Hoffman (1992c: 157) has termed this phenomena as culticus aerobicus, adherents to which he refers to as: “the horde of Sunday morning joggers … who claim to have found on the roads passing the Church what they could never find within its walls”. Similarly, the Lord’s Gym (a word-play on Gold’s Gym) and Faith and Fitness magazine in America, represent an interesting dimension of western exercise culture and the co-mingling of sports, exercise, health (including diet) and religion that deserves closer academic attention (see Moore, 2012; Sinden, 2012; Griffith, 2004; Schippert, 2003). There is also a small body of work emanating both from catholic and protestant thinkers that in recognising the body as the temple of the Holy Spirit, provides a more positive analysis of exercise and the pursuit of health and wellness (e.g., Byl and Visker, 1999; Feeney, 1995; Hill, 2005; Ryan, 1986; Thomas, 2011; Vost, 2011, 2008; Walters and Byl,

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2013).8 To date scholars exploring this area have, to some degree, neglected a significant body of research that has examined the relationship between religion and health (e.g., Koeing, 2012, 2008). A focal source of this research has been the Centre for Spirituality, Theology and Health at Duke University Medical Centre, USA. With reference to the global obesity epidemic (the alleghed ‘silent killer’) that has multifarious causes, future studies might also apply the doctrine of gluttony and sloth, in relation to eating and exercise/physical activity patterns (see Griffith, 2004; Hoverd and Sibley, 2007; Hoverd, 2005; Prentice and Jebb, 1995; Thomas, 2011). The potential role of the Church (and related faith-based organisations) in combatting obesity, preventing disease and enhancing health and wellness through exercise, sport and physical activity,9 has also recently been identified. Two systematic reviews of literature (Bopp and Fallon, 2013; Bopp, Petersen and Webb, 2013) have identified the rationale and key conceptual and methodological characteristics of this emergent body of empirical research: (i) The church, as a central US institution, has significant potential reach through health and wellness programmes (that include some faith-based biblical aspects to the intervention), to combat a whole range of health-related issues (Allicock et al., 2013; Powell-Wiley et al., 2013; Summers et al., 2013), and, in turn, the enormous economic burden for the medical care of diseased populations (ii) Church leaders have a significant role to play in promoting, and modelling, the importance of health and wellness through “Healthy Bodies– 8

Arguably, Walters and Byl’s (2013) edited text, Christian Paths to Health and Wellness provides the most comprehensive analysis on this topic. It also provides many practical suggestions with regards to integrating faith, spirituality and physical wellbeing. 9 Scholars should not neglect the rich source of information available from sport and exercise psychology. See section 7 of Papaioannou and Hackfort’s (2014) book, entitled, Enhancing Health and Well-Being.

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Healthy Souls” interventions in church environments (Anshel and Smith, 2013; Baruth and Saunders, 2013; Bopp and Fallon, 2011; Bopp et al., 2013; Webb, Bopp and Fallon, 2011), and (iii) To date, the majority of studies in this area have adopted quantitative methodologies, with some exceptions (Bopp et al., 2007; Webb and Fallon, 2011). These studies have most often used self-report survey questionnaires and accelerometers to measure physical activity levels within randomized controlled designs. African-American women (and Black churches) are the most commonly targeted population due to high levels of obesity, cardio-vascular disease and diabetes (Baruth et al., 2013; Bopp et al., 2007; Williams et al., 2013). What is especially interesting within this embryonic literature, are the studies that examine health promotion and wellness in mega-churches (i.e., with a membership of over 2000) due to their mega-reach (Bopp and Webb, 2013). Bopp and Webb (2013) also stress the pivotal role of the Pastor in promoting the relative importance of health and wellness, as part of a holistic approach to Christian faith. These studies, and others that support their findings (e.g., Briggs, 2013; McMullin, 2013), strongly suggest that leaders of megachurches and mainstream evangelical congregations generally tend to have a more progressive outlook that actively seeks to engage with socio-cultural shifts in work and leisure patterns. McMullin (2012: 58) captures this in his study which explores progressive and more traditional churches with regards to observance of the Sabbath and issues relating to health, sport and leisure: Churches that recognize and understand the changed religious market can compete effectively. Instead of blaming the changed social environment, these congregations intentionally make internal changes in order to remain religiously meaningful and relevant. With Sunday no longer considered sacred as it once was, the freedom to offer worship services on other days of the week may

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even provide new opportunities for such congregations to grow. Organized sports activities affect church attendance. Pastors and members of the declining congregations responded by blaming parents, and with a desire to return to a time when Sunday was sacred. The result is that families whose children are involved in sports stop attending.

Given that a recent nationwide survey in North America (Weber, 2013) demonstrated that two-thirds of the study sample reported that “Pro Athletes Influence Society more than Pastors”, perhaps it is time for church leaders to be more intentional in their inclusion of health and wellness programmes (and biblical teaching on health) and sporting activities in church environments. We argue that this could have multiple benefits: (i) it may increase the probability of families with children involved in sports attending church together (ii) through teaching, members of congregations may become more aware the of the biblical mandate to take care of the body and soul (i.e., health), and may, in turn, have the chance to participate in activities towards meeting this end (iii) participation in health and wellness programmes and sports in church settings may enhance a sense of belonging and community, and (iv) church leaders, with busy ministry schedules who actively engage in these activities may be encouraged to adopt sporting/physical activity as a means to ensure greater work-life balance. Issues surrounding fasting by Christian athletes (and its psychological and physiological impact on performance) could be an insightful avenue of research. To-date, this has only been explored in the line with the Muslim-sport interface (e.g., Jolly et al., 2012). Women, Sport and the Christian Faith There is a paucity of theological reflection on women in sport, with the majority of academic books and papers cited in this review making only passing reference to this important

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topic.10 Building on a handful of papers and chapters (and popular literature)11 that have explored the role of women in the muscular Christianity movement (Araki et al., 2013; Bederman, 1989; Borish, 1987; Chen and Zhao, 2001; Millikan, 2006; Putney, 2001b; Stebner and Trothen, 2002; Vertinsky, 1987) and issues of embodiment/anthropology and sexulization with regard to how women negotiate their femininity in male dominated sports settings (Carmody, 1986; Deardorff and Deardorff, 2008; Vos, 2013; Sydnor, 2005, 2006a, 2006b, 2009, 2012), scholars have a wide array of questions to examine. Importantly, any subsequent work in this area should consult the burgeoning literature on women’s sports that has emerged from the social sciences since the 1960s (e.g., Bandy, 2010; Hargreaves, 1994; Hargreaves and Anderson, 2013; Scraton and Flintoff, 2002). However, given that “… Christianity itself is usually depicted as naïve and repressive, a religion at odds with sophisticated critical [feminist] studies in sport” (Sydnor, 2009: 83), this will be a challenging task but one that is worth embracing to shed further light on the engagement of women in the world’s most popular pastime. There has also been virtually no Christian scholarship to date on the links between sports participation

10

However, there is a significant body of scholarly work on Christian theology, women and embodiment more generally, for example, the writings of Rosemary Radford Ruether, Sallie McFague, Marcella Athaus Reid and Ivone Gebara. For a recent overview of feminist theology, see Radford’s (2013) contribution to Mesiter and Beilby (2013). 11 Holly Page (2009) recently published a popular book that examines females (in particular, children and adolescents) with Christian beliefs who play sport. This is a practical book and may be especially helpful for coaches, mentors and teachers. The author is a former college athlete, has coached sport for over 25 years and is currently an elementary school physical education teacher with a daughter playing in state-level sports competition.

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and eating disorders in women,12 something that has become a major issue in certain sports, for example, gymnastics, cheerleading, dance and long-distance running (see Lelwica, 2000, 1999; Quinn and Crocker, 1999). In summary, Blazer’s forthcoming book, entitled Sports, Gender, and Evangelical Christianity in America, will be the first book-length treatment of women, sport and the Christian faith. Global Perspectives on Sport and Christianity Previous monographs and anthologies that have explored the sport-Christian interface have solely focussed on western understandings of sport and Christianity (e.g., Watson and Parker, 2013) and have primarily adopted a narrow NorthAmerican evangelical standpoint (e.g., Baker, 2007; Higgs and Braswell, 2004; Hoffman, 2010; Overman, 2011; Price, 2001; Scholes and Sassower, 2013). Indeed, there appears to have been no Christian theological (and/or sociological) reflection on this topic beyond these western analyses aside from a recent international conference on sport and religion in Kenya, Africa (2012),13 and work that has examined the spread of the muscular Christian ethos through the vehicle of British colonialism (e.g., Malcolm, 2013; Mangan, 2001;

12

While the eating disorders are far more prevalent in women’s sports, this has become an increasing problem for sportsmen in sports such as boxing, wrestling and horse-riding (i.e., jockeys), which require participants to reach/maintain a specific bodyweight. 13 The 5th AASR conference was held at Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya, 18th-23rd July, 2012. The title of the conference was Sports, Leisure, Religion and Spirituality in Africa and the African Diaspora. The convenor of this event was Dr Afe Adogame, Senior Lecturer in World Christianity, School of Divinity, University of Edinburgh, and General Secretary of the African Association for the Study of Religions who has lead editorial roles with Studies in World Christianity and the Journal of World Christianity.

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Majumdar, 2008).14 In light of this, it is proposed that scholars should begin discussion on the dialectical relationship between sports and Christianity across diverse global cultures: Africa, Asia, Europe,15 North-America and Australasia. Such work would create a niche area of research within the field and encourage scholars and practitioners from a wide-range of disciplines to address sporting phenomena. To assist in contextualising this scholarship, there is a considerable amount of existing social science literature examining sport in non-western contexts, including research on sport in a global context (e.g., Taylor, 2013; Marjoribanks and Farquharson, 2012; Majumdar, 2009) and the concurrent migration of sports performers (Maguire and Falcous, 2010), which will be of help for those writing from a theological and religious studies backgrounds. More specifically, there is a growing social science research base that has examined a variety of sporting phenomena in Africa, especially, apartheid issues in South-Africa (e.g., Alegi and Bolsmann, 2010; Booth, 1998), Asia (e.g., Bromber, Krawietz and Maguire, 2012; Chakraborty, Chakrabarti and Kingshuk, 2009; Hong, 2009),16 Russia (Orttung, 2013), South America (Wood and Johnson, 2009), and Australia (e.g., Hess, 2006).17 In the 14

Another example is a Special Edition of the International Journal of the History of Sport (2006, Vol. 5) that is also published as a book (Macaloon, 2009). 15 It is important to note that there has been significant reflection on the relationship between sports and Christianity in continental Europe, especially from within the catholic community (the Vatican, Italy). 16 A recent special edition of the Sociology of Sport Journal (2012, Vo. 29, Issue 4), is dedicated to social-scientific analyses of Globalization and Sports in Asia, and thus provides a useful resource for scholars wishing to explore the religious aspects of this topic. 17 Preece and Hess’s (2009), book provides a number of examples of how sports interact with religion in Australia (i.e., not a specific, or substantive analysis in an Australian context), which to our knowledge is the only one of its kind.

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disciplines of theology and religious studies there is, of course, a wealth of literature that addresses understandings of Christianity across the globe (both within, and across, different world religions) which is published in journals such as Studies in World Christianity and the Journal of World Christianity. We contend that the mission statement of the journal, Studies in World Christianity (2013, Vol. 18. 3), which, to date, has not published any articles on sport, captures the need for the development of research in this area and more generally sets the scene for broadening the research agenda on sports and Christianity: The journal is concerned … to promote creative thinking and lively scholarly interchange in the interpretation of all aspects of Christianity as a world religion. Articles from historical, theological, and social scientific perspectives are equally welcome. Whilst the primary interest of the journal is in the rich diversity of Christian life and thought found in Africa, Asia, Latin America, Oceania, and eastern Europe, contributions that reflect on channels of influence in either direction between Christianity in the majority world and western Europe or North American will also be considered. —Stanley, 2013

The need and rationale for further research that investigates the sport-Christianity relationship, from non-western perspectives, is therefore vast and a forthcoming anthology, edited by Adogame, Watson, and Parker (2016, forthcoming), provides initial impetus for work in this area. Sport, Religion and Popular Culture Scholars wishing to examine the social and cultural dynamics and interplay of Christianity and sports could access Niebhur’s (1951) classic work, Christ and Culture and emerging scholarship in sport adopting the theology of radical orthodoxy (Meyer, 2012; Meyer and Watson, 2014; Sydnor,

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2003, 2006a). Niebhur’s five-point typology, which has been adapted by Wittmer (2008) to examine modern sport, is an invaluable tool for examining a plethora of socio-cultural movements, such as Victorian muscular Christianity and modern sports ministry, sport, religion and film (see Cashmore, 2008; Crosson, 2012; Johnston, 2006; Poulton and Roderick, 2009; Roubach, 2007) and sport-faith initiatives such as the Maradonian Church (Archetti, 2002). Johnston’s (2013) recent overview of ‘theology and culture’, is a good starting point for those wishing to examine cultural phenomena in the sports realm, as he summarises the major theological approaches that have been adopted to study culture, and diffentiates and critiques, the two historical schools of thought that have emerged in the writings, for example, of Schleiermacher, Bart,18 Niebuhr, Moltmann, C.S. Lewis and N.T. Wright: a hermeneutic of separation and a hermeneutic of engagement. Beauty and Aesthetics in Traditional and Alternative/Extreme Sports Drawing on recent philosophical and theological treatments of beauty and the sublime in various sporting locales (e.g., Dougherty, 2007; Gumbrecht, 2006; Hübenthal, 2012; Higgs, 1983; IIundian-Agurraza, 2007; Schafer, 2012; Schmid, 2012; Stranger, 2007; Watson, 2007b), future studies could investigate this positive dimension of sports participation and spectatorship. Some key theological works that may assist scholars in this project are Kant (1790/1952) and Burke’s (1757/1990) seminal work on the sublime and more recent analyses of beauty and aesthetics in academic theology (e.g., 18

Those wishing to draw on Barth’s neo-orthodox theology, as a lens through which to critically evaluate the sacred and secular dynamic in modern culture, may wish to consult Metzger (2003).

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Dubay, 1999). A Special Issue of the journal, Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, entitled, Sport and Art: An Essay in the Hermeneutics of Sport (2013, Vol. 7. 1) which contains essays on aesthetics and beauty in sporting locales, will also be helpful for scholars wanting to explore this avenue of research. Theological Examination of Child and Youth Sports Many of the ethical and moral issues in professional sport that are acknowledged in the mass media and a burgeoning corpus of research from the disciplines of sports ethics, the sociology of sport, the psychology of sport and the theology of sport, predictably filter down into childrens’ and youth sports. As Harvey and Light (2013) comment, “the influence of professional, adult sport on youth sport is now a global concern”.19 The titles of oft-cited books that have documented and critiqued this trend, speak for themselves: The Cheers and the Tears: A Healthy Alternative to the Dark Side of Youth Sports (Murphy, 1999), Human Rights in Youth Sports: A Critical Review of Children’s Rights in Youth Sports (David, 2005) and John Hoberman’s classic text, Mortal Engines: The Science of Performance and the Dehumanization of Sport (1992), which in part, discusses youth sport. Common themes of discussion and analysis in these books and related literature are: the negative effects of parental and coach pressure, doping and the use of performance enhancing supplements,20 eating disorders (body image), genetic-enhancement 19

Cited in the front matter of the book (no page number). McCloskey and Bailes (2005) provide wide ranging advice for parents, coaches and athletes with regard to a whole series of ethical issues in sport. Interestingly, they note that, “over one million American children between the ages of twelve and seventeen have used some form of supplement [performance enhancing]—in most cases with the parent’s full consent” (extract taken from the book jacket).

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technologies, physical and mental burnout due to overtraining, physical and verbal violence, sexual abuse, neglect of family and peer relationships, idolatry of sports icons, damaging elite-level training camps and academies, anxiety and depression and overly competitive physical education regimes in school environments. There is then a need for analyses of these issues from a Christian theological perspective. Encouragingly, recent ethical treatments of youth sport from the social sciences (Harvey and Light, 2013) have articulated a range of constructive proposals, reflected in chapter titles, such as, “Putting the Child back in Children’s Sport Nurturing Young Talent in a Developmentally Appropriate Manner” and “Doing Moral Philosophy with Youth in Urban Programs: Strategies from the Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility Model and the Philosophy for Children Movement”. Nevertheless, religion, spirituality and/or Christianity are rarely mentioned in this work and while many books and papers on sports and Christianity do discuss, at least in-part, various dimensions of children’s and youth sports, we argue that a more systematic analysis of this important issue is necessary. To accomplish this goal, scholars will need to access the wealth of theological resources21 that specifically evaluate the spiritual life of children and adolescents (Berryman, 2010; Francis and

21

Useful journal publications include: Journal of Childhood and Religion (free full-online access); a Special Edition (2007, 4: 215-447) of the Christian Education Journal, entitled, “Children’s Spirituality”; a Special Edition (1995, 4, 1: 3-138) of the Journal of Research on Christian Education, which focusses on the quest for excellence in school education contexts; a Special Edition (2013, 18, 1: 1-132) of the International Journal of Children’s Spirituality, entitled, Spirituality and Physicality: Crossing the Thresholds (this publication examines spirituality across different religions).

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Astley, 2002; Harvey, 2012; Lawson, 2012; Richards et al., 2009; Miller-McLemore, 2003, 2006). Fatherlessness, Fatherhood and Sports According to many social scientists and theologians, we live in a fatherless age that is characterized by family breakdown and dysfunction and which is leading to social and moral fragmentation (e.g., Blankenhorn, 1995; Kay, 2009; Marx, 2003; Sowers, 2010). Perhaps the most illustrative example of this in the sports world is the story of the NFL footballer Michael Oher which is depicted in the Hollywood film, Blind Side (2009). The title of a biography that narrates the life of Oher, I Beat the Odds: From Homelessness, to the Blind Side (Oher, 2012), conveys the value of sport as a vehicle to father and mentor others. Recognising fatherlessness as one specific socio-cultural context in and through which sport is experienced, raises a number of related theological and ethical questions such as: what are the historical spiritual roots of fatherlessness in modern times and what does the Bible suggest as an antidote to this problem (see Aune, 2010; Gelfer, 2010; Harper, 2012; Sowers, 2010; Stibbe, 2010)? How can sport be used as a vehicle to father and mentor children and youths and thus inculcate desirable character attributes and practices for healthy civil engagement22 (see Dungy, 2010; Kay, 2009; Sowers, 2010;23 Teaff, 2012; 22

Research on fatherlessness (e.g., Sowers, 2010) demonstrates a significant correlation between fatherlessness, criminality and the subsequent incarceration of young men. Thus, Meek’s (2013) recent text that explores the use of Sport in Prison, and in particular the positive effect on rehabilitation and behaviour could be a helpful resource. See also: Parker and Meek (2013) and Parker, Meek and Lewis (2013). 23 Sowers book (that includes a number of sporting references) is a synopsis of his doctoral thesis that examines the theology of fatherlessness and provides, in part, the rationale for The Mentoring Project (see

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Watson, 2013, forthcoming)? In turn, how can sport be used as a means for developing strong family bonds and relationships? How do theological narratives of play inform father behaviour with children (see Jensen, 2003)? What is the role and impact of fatherlessness on the prevalence of moral and ethical concerns in professional and amateur sport? How can coaches, physical educators and support staff, such as sport psychologists and sports chaplains, through sensitive spiritual and pastoral care and leadership, help to counter the deleterious effects of fatherlessness (see Brown, 2012; Cooper and Park, 2006; Dzikus, Waller and Hardin, 2010; Liberia Editrice Vaticana, 2008; McCuaig, हhmans and Wright, 2011; McGuire, Waller, Dzikus and Hardin, in press; Watson, 2015, forthcoming; Teaff, 2012)? Interpersonal Relationships in Sporting Contexts Jowett and Wylleman (2006) recently noted that the study of interpersonal relationships in sport psychology is unexplored territory.24 In support of this, Watson (2012a) has argued that while there is some reflection on relationships in the physical education and coaching literature (e.g., Martens, 2004), in http://thementoringproject.org/ ). Sowers is President of this organisation and was recently honoured as a “Champion of Change” in US society, by President Obama. The main aim and stated mission of The Mentoring Project is to “… respond to the American crisis of fatherlessness by inspiring and equipping faith communities to mentor fatherless youth”. Tony Dungy, ex-Super Bowl winning coach and well-known Christian author/leader, is also significantly involved in addressing the problem of fatherlessness in the US and has worked alongside Sowers at The Mentoring Project and has written on the topic of mentoring through sports (Dungy, 2010). See also Bowden (2010) and Teaff (2012). 24 Encouragingly this trend is beginning to change with Section 2 of Papaioannou and Hackfort’s (2014) recent book, entitled, Understanding the Influence of Environments on Sport and Exercise, addressing issues regarding relationships and families in sports contexts.

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sports ministry and sport chaplaincy texts (e.g., Fellowship of Christian Athletes, 2008; Heskins and Baker, 2006) and in popular books on coaching from a Christian perspective (Brown et al., 2006; Costantini and Lixey, 2011; Dungy, 2008, 2010; Ehrmann, 2011; Marx, 2003; Riesen, 2007; Teaff, 2012; Wooden, 2005; Yerkovich and Kelly, 2003), there are, at present, no academic contributions which specifically address relationships from a Christian worldview. This, it would seem, represents a major oversight, in the sense that that the notion of relationship is at the heart of the Christian faith. Scholars could explore issues such as listening in the relational encounter utilising Buber’s (1923/1958) dialogical concept of I-Thou (Nesti, 2007c; Progen and DeSensi, 1984; Watson and Nesti, 2005) and friendship in sport (Gallagher, 2008). Leadership is another key aspect of relations in sport25 and future studies may wish to explore the merits of the Christian based servant leadership model (Greenleaf, 1977/2002) that has recently been applied to sport and recreation contexts (Degraaf, Jordan and Degraaf, 1999; Rieke, Hammermeister and Chase, 2008).

25

See section 5 of Papaioannou and Hackfort (2014) entitled, Understanding how to Build and Lead Teams.

CONCLUSION

One of the key findings of this review is that while there is a significant amount of scholarship on sports and Christianity, there is a distinct lack of primary empirical research in the area. Therefore, further research is necessary. For example, large scale survey studies that examine the prevalence and quality of sport within the context of local church life would provide baseline evidence concerning the popularity and proliferation of sport, exercise and wellbeing activities, and initiatives amongst and across faith/denominational groups. Likewise, survey studies examining formal and/or informal links between local churches and secular sport clubs and organisations would facilitate an up-to-date mapping of the sport-faith interface at a regional level. Similarly, a systematic assessment of the provision of sport-religion courses1 across the educational spectrum would provide benchmarks for scholars, publishers, grant awarding bodies and churches alike. 2

1

As a starting-point, teachers from all levels of tertiary and higher education looking to design courses on sport and religion (Christianity) could adopt accessible summary chapters on the topic which would serve as introductory reading for pre-university students and undergraduates (e.g., Coakley, 2007; Delaney and Madigan, 2009; Jarvie and Thonton, 2012; Woods, 2007). 2 One example of the scope and potential of large scale survey research in religious studies that could be used by scholars as a template for the development of new research ventures is the work of Revd. Dr Leslie Francis (and co-workers) at the University of Warwick, UK, who have researched a wide range of religious phenomena in modern culture, most significantly religious education provision and church attendance (e.g.,

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The National Church of England Consultation on Sports Ministry that was held at Loughborough University, UK, in 2014, and the birth of the Vatican’s ‘Church and Sport’ office within the Pontifical Council of the Laity, in 2004, are two initiatives that demonstrate that sport is ‘on the agenda’ of the modern Church across the denominations, and thus this type of engagement and dialogue will be vital, alongside more traditional empirical enquiry. Ethnographic and interview-based research within a ‘practical theology framework’ that explores how modern-day Christian athletes, coaches and officials, reconcile their religious beliefs with those of modern sporting culture, is one example of how a qualitative approach might also be deployed in order to provide some form of corrective to the dearth of such empirical evidence in the sport-Christianity field (Parker and Watson, 2014). In short, a widening of this overall research agenda would benefit the subject area in a number of ways and may serve to encourage theologians and religious studies scholars to more fully engage in related endeavours. With regard to the disciplinary focus of such engagement we propose two initial pathways; first, mono-disciplinary work that examines specific variables within the context of the sport-Christianity interface. Biblical studies scholars and systematic theologians could provide further exegesis and analysis of sports-related themes in the bible, such as embodiment/incarnation and Pauline athletic metaphors, with specific reference to the context of modern-day sport. This would provide social scientists in sport with a greater resource base and further theological grounding for socio-cultural analysis given that, to date, sports scholarship has largely ignored the theological dimensions of sport. Clear accessible Francis and Ziebertz, 2011; Francis and Richter, 2007; Francis, Robbins and Astley, 2005).

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scholarship on sport and Christianity would both inform and encourage traditional sports studies scholars to think critically about, and integrate, theological insights into their work. Second, we would wish to encourage interdisciplinary research that investigates the overlap between the substantive themes discussed in this review. An example of this work would be an analysis of how transcendent/playful moments in modern-day sport (a psychological, theological and sociological experience) contribute to an understanding of how sport operates as a surrogate religion (i.e., sport as religion) for participants and fans. Of course, given that the potential research topics exploring the relationship between sport and Christianity are vast and complex, one drawback of promoting further interdisciplinarity is the potential fragmentation of an emerging field. One approach that may encourage cohesive and coherent progression is the delineation of research in sport within and across the disciplines and mono-theistic religions. There has been a recent upsurge in scholarly work that has examined aspects of the relationship between Islam and sport, in particular, Muslim women in sport (e.g., Benn, Pfister and Jawad, 2010). Scholars have also begun to systematically document the importance of sports within Judaism (e.g., Alpert, 2011; Mendelsohn, 2009). Hence, it could be argued that specific journals, with a remit solely for scholarship addressing other mono-theistic religions and sport, are needed to present such work in a coherent and systematic way. That said, there are many theological dimensions of sporting experience, such as embodiment, social inclusion and exclusion (i.e., issues of “belonging”), ethical quandaries and conceptions of individual and group identity, which share similarities across the three Abrahamic religions. Based on this premise, we would argue that interfaith dialogue and interdisciplinarity in the field are both

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essential, alongside mono-religious sport-faith research. For example, Christian scholars, such as Sydnor (2012) and Deardorff and Deardorff (2008), who have explored themes of femininity, embodiment and appropriate dress codes and behaviour with regard to females in sport, could glean many useful insights from related research concerning the issues that Muslim women face in sporting locales. Building on a rapidly developing area of the social sciences that examines sport and peace-making projects (see Darnell, 2012; Giulianotti, 2011; Jarvie, 2013a; Sugden, 2013), theological research investigating how sport can be used as an interfaith tool to inculcate peace and reconciliation between sectarian religious and political groups, in Northern Ireland, the Balkans and the Middle East, is another example (see Watson and Parker, 2013b). Given that the International Journal of Religion and SportIJRS (2009-)3 has a multi-faith and multi-denominational remit, it could be argued that this would be an ideal forum for such inter-faith work. That said, in the first edition of IJRS (and recent sport-themed ‘special editions’ of theological journals: see Appendix A) some of the contributions by theologians and religious studies scholars fail to make connections with: (i) the vast social science literature on sport (ii) research on sport and other faith traditions, and (iii) mainstream sociological, philosophical and historical debates with regard to the sport-Christianity nexus. Therefore, while it is encouraging that theologians and scholars of religion are beginning to provide academic reflection on sport, such blindspots may limit the depth, quality and contextual validity of this work. For example, the fruits of any exegesis of Pauline athletic metaphors is of limited use either for expository preaching or scholarly publication, if it is not contexualized and related to the modern-sporting sphere. Scholars of sport 3

At the time this book went ‘to press’, the IJRS was without a publisher.

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and Christianity should also aim to disseminate their findings in accessible ways for mainstream disciplinary as well as nonacademic readerships, thus ensuring the practical application of their research in differing cultural contexts. Within the Christian tradition, further interdenominational collaboration on sport-faith issues is also vital to ensure that the field sustains the momentum evidenced over the past decade with a view to establishing itself as a legitimate discipline. There are encouraging signs that scholars, governing bodies and stakeholders from a variety of denominations are beginning to engage in collaborative projects and initiatives.4 To further stimulate these ecumenical endeavours, an Ingaural World Congress on Sport and Christianity5 is currently been organised which involves a diversity of strands that map to the substanive and emergent themes that we have identified herein. For example: Catholicism and sport; theologies of disability sport; health/well-being, exercise and religion; ministry and chaplaincy in sport; fathering and mentoring in sport and physical education; women, sport and Christianity; sport, conflict and peace/religion; theological ethics in sport, and, global perspectives in sport and Christianity. The benefits of such an event will be numerous and wide ranging: the establishment of a global and interdenominational network of scholars, athletes and practitioners in the field; the publication of edited collections and/or journal special editions for each 4

For example, two recently edited volumes on sport and theology have chapter contributions from both catholic and protestant scholars (Parry, Nesti and Watson, 2011; Watson and Parker, 2013a). 5 An Inaugural World Congress on Sport and Christianity is being organised for 2016 and will be held at York St John University (YSJU), UK. The convener of this event is Dr Nick J. Watson (YSJU) and the international organizing committee comprises: Professors Shirl Hoffman, Brian Bolt, John White, Andrew Parker, Scott Kretchmar, Andrew Smith and Drs Mark Nesti and Steven Wright.

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conference thematic strand; the potential launch of an international journal on sports and Christianity’; the hosting of seminars within each strand, with a view to establishing specific academic journals and accessible (practitioner) publications for athletes, coaches and parents, all of which could be seen as a means to attract publishing houses and grant awarding bodies to further support such work. In short, the Ingaural World Congress on Sport and Christianity will provide a foundation for the further promotion and legitimisation of a field that began four decades ago with the publication of the Joy of Sports (Novak, 1967/1994). The vision and foundation for such an initiative was discussed at a Think-Tank (2012)6 for sports and Christianity in the US that was convened by Professor Shirl Hoffman (an academic)7 and Dr Steven Wright (a high-school American Football Coach),8 and attended by coaches, theologians, 6

This two-day Think-Tank event (Sport and Christianity Summit) was hosted by Dr John White at Baylor University, Waco, Texas, USA, 14-15th June, 2013. Attendees were: Shirl Hoffman (Convenor, Emeritus Professor, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, US), Tony Ladd (Emeritus Professor, Wheaton College, US), John White (Baylor University, US), Brian Bolt (Calvin College), Julie Walton (Calvin College, US), Valerie Gin (Gordon College, US) and Steven Wright (Convenor, Head Football Coach, Cardinal Gibbons High School, US) and Nick Watson (York St John University, UK). 7 Professor Hoffman has made a provisional agreement to deliver a keynote address that is based on the ‘Declaration on Sport and the Christian Life’ at the Inaugural Global Congress on Sports and Christianity, York St John University, UK, August, 2016. The wording of the ‘Declaration on Sport and Christian Life’ as shown below may be slighted altered in the final draft of this document. 8 Professor Hoffman is a leading expert on sports and Christianity having been engaged in this area of study for over 40 years Hoffman recently published, Good Game: Christianity and the Culture of Sports (2010, Baylor University Press), that is essentially a representation of his life’s work in the field. Further to completing a doctoral thesis at GordonConwell Theological Seminary, US, in 2009, entitled, Coaching as

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sociologists and those involved in sports ministry and chaplaincy. The aim of this meeting was to draft a “Declaration on Sport and the Christian Life” (which includes physical and intellectual disability sport) that might eventually bear the signatures of hundreds, if not thousands, who share similar interests and concerns. It is hoped that this Declaration will affirm a national and international (and perhaps global) unified position on sport and faith and also serve as a springboard for further discussion and action to change the culture of the sporting world to more fully reflect Christianbased values and ethics. We believe it fitting to end this systematic review of literature with the words of the Declaration in that it provides an accessible vision for academics, athletes, coaches, administrators and parents to understand what sport may look like through a Christian lens. A Declaration on Sport and the Christian Life Sport has a legitimate place in the Christian life

Sport has its basis in a divinely-given impulse to play and deserves a rightful place in Christian living. People play sport primarily for the love of the game, the thrill of competition, of doing something well and for the sense of community that comes from participation. When played and watched as faithful witness to God this love of sport takes a legitimate Discipleship: Exploring the Values and Practices of Principle-Based Coaching in the Game of Football, and then reading, and being challenged by, Hoffman’s book, Steven Wright, the Head Football Coach of Cardinal Gibbons High School, US, and Founder and President of the organisation, A Coaching Revolution contacted Professor Hoffman in 2012 to explore ways in which his vision to revolutionize sporting culture may be fulfilled. The two-day Think-Tank at Baylor University was the outcome of this initial contact.

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place as part of the created world and helps express our relationship to God and to one another. When the passion for sport exceeds the passion for Christ or the work of His church, or when sport becomes all-consuming and supersedes kingdom practices of worship, service, and family, sports pose a challenge to the consecrated life. In light of whom God is and who He calls us to be, we must stand ready to examine and order our affections and priorities regarding sport. Sport touches all dimensions of human life

God created humans as holistic, unified creatures. Sport engages us, not only bodily, but in mind and spirit as well. It can powerfully affect our emotions, mental states, and spiritual lives. Our experiences in sport can, at times, uplift as well as disappoint us. Although sport is commonly viewed as solely a physical endeavour, this dualistic view underestimates the value of sport and its far-reaching ramifications for our lives and institutions. The true value of sport is inherent in the experience itself

Our experience in sport reveals our playfulness, our desire to be excellent, and our desire to belong. We delight in our roles as Christ-followers in the world of athletics and understand that our behaviour in contests is a form of witness to the kingdom of God. When the human experience of sport is subverted to other ends: a means of commerce, a way to achieve fame, publicity, money, personal glory, or even as a tool of evangelism, attention is diverted from the spiritual importance of the sport experience itself. Sport has many benefits but they are conditional

When we do sport well it has the potential to, among other things, improve health, develop social and family relationships,

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strengthen moral character, foster positive life habits and civic engagement, act as a vehicle of peace and reconciliation, and affect a person’s relationship with God. However, realization of these values depends on the meanings we attach to games, the motivations and behaviours of players and coaches, and the environments in which sport takes place. We must never assume that sport, irrespective of these conditions, will have its intended beneficial effects. Sport programs can be a vital component of Christian education

Properly integrated with curricula at Christian secondary schools, colleges and universities, sport experiences not only serve as an effective complement to knowledge gained in classrooms, laboratories and in other traditional venues. Properly managed they also can be a unique source of learning in itself. We believe that participating in sports can open the mind and heart to truth and assist students in developing a mature faith anchored in the realization that all truth is God’s truth. These important benefits are not derived serendipitously; they require careful thought and planning with an eye toward educational outcomes. When institutions cede the purpose and design of sport programs to constituencies interested only in sports entertainment, or who regard winning as the raison d’etre of such programs, or disproportionately emphasize athletics they compromise their sacred calling and diminish the educational promise of sports. Well played, sport can glorify God

To glorify God is to reflect the will and way of Christ in everything. Thus, the quality of the Christian’s play and participation should be distinctive, marked by Spirit-informed virtues including love, hope, faith, patience, kindness, humility, self-control and other fruits of God’s spirit.

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Successes in sport competition can help garner public acclaim for oneself, one’s team, one’s community or one’s country. While potentially good in themselves, these kinds of glory should not be confused with bringing glory to God. Competition is an essential element of sport

In competition, players test their skills and strategies in an environment of uncertainty, suspense, and drama. Competition provides opportunities for personal growth, friendship, and enjoyment and can lead to maximum athletic performance. During games personal and team relationships necessarily are characterized by a temporary, playful antagonism in which competing parties necessarily elevate their own interests in the game against their competitors. This playful antagonism is central to the concept of sport. However, when competition becomes an end in itself it can breed resentment between competing parties and may bring dishonour to God. Tactics, contexts, and environments which persuade players, coaches and fans to supplant playful antagonism with mean spiritedness, or replace a spirit of friendly competition with enmity, alienation, and estrangement have no place in a Christian approach to sports. God does not favour one player or team over another

In a Christian view of sports God is acknowledged as Father of all athletes who compete. All athletes, coaches, and fans - regardless of team affiliation - are created in the image of God and are deserving of Christian goodwill, kindness, and love. Christian athletes cannot and should not claim an exclusive relationship to God. God should not be portrayed as favouring one team or athlete over another. When the culture of sport encourages us to think of our competitors as less human, less honourable, less deserving of Christian love, or

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less loved by God than ourselves it is a sign that sport has gone astray and is not serving its divine purpose. In sport, the Christian virtues are manifested most clearly in behaviours that go beyond obeying the rules of games

Rules governing sports define how games are to be played and ensure a measure of fairness in competition. By joining the game players implicitly agree to submit to the rules. It stands to reason, therefore, that Christians should not cheat nor seek ways to circumvent the rules governing sport contests. But Christians are also bound by a higher calling, not only to obey the rules, but to apply self-imposed behaviours supporting, affirming, and upholding the witness of Christ even when such acts might work to their competitive disadvantage. Simply adhering to the rules does not, by itself, distinguish either the coach’s or athletes’ conduct as essentially Christian. We are created to move, enjoy and exercise care over our bodies

Sports are most obviously physical exertions; as such they can promote physical health and vigour. Sports also can be a means for celebrating our bodies that God has created for His service. Finally, sport performances can be a means for honouring God through our bodies. At the same time sport entails risks of injury and abuse. In some sports instrumental violence inflicted as part of a competitive strategy elevates the probability of injury to levels beyond what might be considered reasonable. In addition, unhealthy pursuit of excellence can encourage the use of harmful training and performance-enhancing practices. We believe the human body is a reflection of the image of God and that such practices cannot be condoned.

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Watching sports can be a way to celebrate God’s goodness

For millennia, athletes have inspired us with displays of excellence, grit, tenacity, beauty and grace. The drama of competition can foster healthy exuberance and move us in ways that few other forms of entertainment can. As such, sports-watching can be a means of celebrating God’s creation and goodness, and pursued with Christian grace, can trigger a spirit of hope and joy that foreshadows an eternal future with Christ. Left unchecked by a biblical sense of proportion, the passions stirred by watching sports can cloud powers of spiritual discernment and lead to the idolatrous worship of athletes and teams, and to the neglect of spiritual responsibilities to family and church. When, passions stirred by events of the game are allowed to override biblical calls to moderation, humility and self-discipline, they can foster spirits of license, self-indulgence, and militancy. Sport can be a means of spiritual formation

Sport offers special benefits to Christians who recognize playing as a legitimate station for spirituality. Like aesthetic endeavours, athletic pursuits can remind us that God is the source of all strength, grace, and beauty and can speak to us in failure and human weakness and brokenness in mind and body. They can help focus our attention on the reality of God and our humanness in a way that ordinary life often does not. They also can lead to moments of personal transcendence which can be experiences in which God communes with us. These extraordinary outcomes are unlikely to be realized when sports are approached self-indulgently and with an intensity unbridled by the wisdom of our faith.

APPENDIX A ACADEMIC AND PRACTICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN SPORT AND CHRISTIANITY

Appendix

Baker, W. J. (2007) Playing with God: Religion and Modern Sport.

Bain-Selbo, E. (2008) Game Day and God: Football, Faith and Politics in the American South.

This list is not exhaustive but includes all the major protestant and catholic academic texts (or books written by journalists and freelance authors that have academic credibility) that focus broadly on the sport-Christianity interface. Some of the books listed (e.g., Magdalinski and Chandler, 2002; Prebish, 1993) do not focus exclusively on Christianity and sport, although the majority of book chapters are on this theme. Books on muscular Christianity and other specific topics are not cited with the exception of Ladd and Mathisen (1999) as this work considers Christianity and North American sport in a broader context including a socio-ethical analysis. Many of these texts have chapters from both catholic and protestant scholars (e.g., Parry, Nesti and Watson, 2011). However, for clarity we have indicated which texts are written purely from a catholic perspective: (catholic).

1

Centre of Sport, Spirituality and Religion (2009present), University of Gloucestershire, UK (Founding Director, Professor Andrew Parker).

Adogame, A., Watson, N.J., and Parker, A. (2016, forthcoming) Global Perspectives on Sports and Christianity.

Religion, Sport and Play, specialist group/section of the American Academy of Religion (2012-present), (Co-Chairs of Steering Committee, Professors Rebecca Alpert and Eric Bain-Selbo).

Alpert, R. (forthcoming) A Case Study Textbook on Religion and Sport.

Academic Books on Sport and Christianity1

Academic Research Centres and Study Groups

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Centre for Sport and Peace (2012- present), University of Tennessee, USA (Founding Director, Dr Ashleigh Huffman).

Centre for the Study of Sport and Spirituality (20032009), York St John University, UK (Founding CoDirectors, Dr Nick J. Watson and Dr Mark Nesti).

The Mirenda Centre for Sport, Spirituality and Character Development, home to the Institute for Sport, Spirituality and Character Development (1999present), Neumann University, USA. (Founding Director, Dr Edward Hastings).

133

Byl, J. and Visker, T. (eds.) (1999) Physical Education, Sports, and Wellness: Looking to God as we look at Ourselves.

Bolano, T. (2012) Theology of Sport: Object, Sources and Method.

Blazer, A. (forthcoming) Sports, Gender, and Evangelical Christianity in America.

Baum, G. and Coleman, J. (eds.) (1989) Sport.

Baker, W.J. (2000) If Christ came to the Olympics.

Academic and Practical Developments in Sport and Christianity

Evans, C.H. and Herzog, W.R. (eds.) (2002) The Faith of 50 Million: Baseball, Religion and American Culture (foreword by Stanley Hauerwas).

Ellis, R. (2012b) The Games People Play: Theology, Religion and Sport.

Deardorff, D, II. And White, J. (eds.) (2008) The Image of God in the Human Body: Essays on Christianity and Sports.

Costantini, E. and Lixey, K. (2011) Sport and Paul: A Course for Champions.

.

134

Hoffman, S.J. (ed.) (1992) Sport and Religion.

Hoffman, S.J. (2010) Good Game: Christians and the Culture of Sport.

Higgs, R.J. and Braswell, M.C. (2004) An Unholy Alliance: The Sacred and Modern Sports.

Higgs, R.J. (1995) God in the Stadium: Sports and Religion in America.

Heintzman, P., Van Andel, G. and Visker, T. (eds.) (1994/2006) Christianity and Leisure: Issues in a Pluralistic Society.

Harvey, L. (2014) A Brief Theology of Sport.

Forney, C.A. (2010) The Holy Trinity of American Sports: Civil Religion in Football, Baseball and Basketball.

Feeney, F. (1995) (Ed.) A Catholic Perspective: Physical Exercise and Sport (catholic).

Feeney, F. (2006) The Catholic Ideal: Exercise and Sport (catholic).

Appendix

135

Liberia Editrice Vaticana (2006) Sport: An Educational and Pastoral Challenge (catholic).

Liberia Editrice Vaticana (2008) The World of Sport Today: A Field of Christian Mission (catholic).

Liberia Editrice Vaticana (2011) Sport, Education and Faith: Toward a New Season for Catholic Sports Associations (catholic).

Ladd, T. and Mathisen, J.A. (1999) Muscular Christianity: Evangelical Protestants and the Development American Sport.

Krattenmaker, T. (2010) Onward Christian Athletes: Turning Ballparks into Pulpits and Players into Preachers.

Kluck, T. (2009a) The Reason for Sports: A Christian Manifesto.

Kelly, P. (ed.) (2012b) The Catholic Approach to Sports: From Medieval to Modern Times (catholic).

Kelly, P (2012a) Body and Soul in Sport: A Revised History (catholic).

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Parry, J., Watson, N.J. and Nesti, M.S. (eds.) (2011) Theology, Ethics and Transcendence in Sports (foreword by Robert Higgs).

Parker, A., Watson, N.J. and White, J. (eds.) (2015, forthcoming) Sports Chaplaincy: Trends, Issues and Debates.

Overman, S.J. (1997) The Influence of the Protestant Ethic on Sport and Recreation.

Overman, S.J. (2011) The Protestant Work Ethic and the Spirit of Sport: How Calvinism and Capitalism Shaped American Games.

O’Gorman, K. (2010) Saving Sport: Sport, Society and Spirituality (catholic).

Novak, M. (1967/1994) The Joy of Sports: End Zones, Bases, Baskets, Balls and Consecration of the American Spirit.

Magdalinski. T. and Chandler, T.J.L. (eds.) (2002) With God on their Side: Sport in the Service of Religion.

Lixey, K.., Hübenthal, C., Mieth, D. and Müller, N. (eds.) (2012) Sport and Christianity: A Sign of the Times in the Light of Faith (catholic).

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137

Van Andel, G. and Heintzman, P. (eds.) (2014, forthcoming) Christianity and Leisure: Volume II.

Sing, S. (2004) Spirituality of Sport: Balancing Body and Soul (catholic).

Scholes, J. and Sassower, R. (2013) Religion and Sports in American Culture.

Price, J.L. (ed.) (2001) From Season to Season: Sports as American Religion.

Price, J.L. (2006) Rounding the Bases: Baseball and American Religion.

Prebish, C.S. (ed.) (1993) Religion and Sport: The Meeting of Sacred and Profane.

Preece, G., and Hess, R. (eds.) (2009) Sport and Spirituality: An Exercise in Everyday Theology.

Parry, J., Robinson, S., Watson, N.J. and Nesti, M.S. (2007) Sport and Spirituality: An Introduction (foreword by Shirl Hoffman).

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138

White, J. (forthcoming, 2016/2017) John Paul II’s Personalism and Sports: A Theological Ethic of Modern Sports. (catholic)

Watson, N.J. and Parker, A. (2014) Sport and the Christian Religion: A Systematic Review of Literature (Foreword, Scott Kretchmar. Preface, Brian Brock).

Watson, N.J. and Parker, A. (eds.) (2014) Sports, Religion and Disability (Preface by Joni Eareckson Tada).

Watson, N.J. and Parker, A. (eds.) (2013) Sports and Christianity: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (foreword by Michael Novak).

Appendix

Athletes in Action, USA (1966- present) (President, Mark Householder).

Inaugural Global Congress on Sports and Christianity, York St John University, UK. August, 2016. (Convener and Chairperson, Dr Nick J. Watson).

present)

The Association of Church Sport and Recreation Ministries (CSRM), USA (1994present) (CEO, Dr Greg Linville).

Christians in Sport, UK (1980- present) (Director, Graham Daniels).

(1974-

The dates provided for the founding of each of these organizations is that on which they were officially launched. In some cases, the activities of a number of these organizations began earlier than the stated date and some evolved as suborganizations of others.

2

Sport and Religion/Spirituality Seminar, 11th Conference of the European Sociological Association (RN28 Society and Sports), Torino, Italy, 28th-31st August 2013 (Conveners, David Sterchele, Stef Aupers and Hubert Knoblauch).

Baseball Chapel, USA (President, Vince Nauss).

Ambassadors in Sport, UK (1990- present) (Executive Director, David Oakley).

Sports Ministry Organizations

Academic Conferences and Seminars

Exploring the Link between Sport and Spirituality, St Patrick’s College, Thurles, Ireland. January 24-25 2014. (Convener and Chairperson, Ft. Tom Fogarty).

Sports Ministry and Chaplaincy Organisations2

139

Conferences, Seminars and Think Tanks

Academic and Practical Developments in Sport and Christianity

Appendix

The Soul of Youth Sport Symposium, University of Notre Dame, USA, 24th-26thJune, 2012. (Organized by Professor Father Patrick Kelly). This is an annual joint-event and partnership organized by Seattle University, University of Notre Dame, Neumann University and the National Catholic Education Association.

Sport and Religion Theme, 2012 International Convention on Science, Education and Medicine in Sport, Glasgow, Scotland, 19th24th July. (Organized by Professor Mike Collins).

Sport, Spirituality and Social Identity, Sports Ministries Think Tank Annual Day Conference, Hosted by the Centre for Sport, Spirituality and Religion, University of Gloucestershire, UK, 2nd May 2012. (Organized and chaired by Professor Andrew Parker).

Sports, Leisure, Religion and Spirituality in Africa and the African Diaspora, The 5th Annual Conference of the African Association for the Study of Religions, Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya, 18th-23rd July, 2012. (Organized and chaired by Dr Afe Adomgame).

International Seminar on Religion and Sport: Past, Present and Future, Department of Religious Studies and the Centre for the Study of World Christianity, University of Edinburgh, UK. 27th March 2013. (Convener and Chairperson, Dr Afe Adogame).

140

(1989-

(2004-present).

For web-links to all the above organizations and multiple ministry organizations for specific sports, see: http://uksportsministries.org/category/organisati ons-list; and http://www.glos.ac.uk/research/dse/cssr/Pages/l inks.aspx

Sports Ministry UK, UK (Administrator, Stuart Weir).

Professional Athletes Outreach, USA (1974present) (Director, Jim Horsley).

International Sports Coalition,, USA (1985present) (Director and Global Coordinator, Paul Moses).

Fellowship of Christian Athletes, USA (1952/1954- present) (President, Lee Steckel).

European Christian Sports Union present) (Director, Hannes Schmidts)

Towards a Theology of Sport, Sports Ministries Think Tank Annual Day Conference, Hosted by the Centre for Sport, Spirituality and Religion, University of Gloucestershire, UK, 4th May, 2011. (Organized and chaired by Professor Andrew Parker).

Sport and Religion Seminars, Annual Conference of the American Academy of Religion in, 2008 (Chicago), 2009 (Montreal), 2010 (Atlanta) and 2011 (San Francisco). The papers presented at these seminars have focused on a range of sport-religion themes, for example, sport chaplaincy, sport and film, sport as a surrogate religion and religion and baseball.

Christian Ethics and Sport, Annual Conference of the Society for the Study of Christian Ethics, University of Cambridge, UK, 2nd-4th September, 2011. (Organized by Dr Robert Heimburger). A special edition of the journal of the SSCE, Studies in Christian Ethics (2012: 25, 1) comprising plenary papers from the conference has been published.

Spirituality and Physicality: Crossing the Boundaries, The 12th International Conference of Children’s Spirituality, University of East Anglia, UK, 1st-5thJuly, 2012. (Organized and chaired by Drs. Linda Rudge and Jacqueline Watson). A special edition of the journal, International Journal of Children's Spirituality (2013: 1), comprising papers from this conference was published. (1974-

present)

141

Sports Chaplaincy Australia, Australia (1980present) (National Director, Cameron Butler)

Sport Chaplaincy UK (formerly SCORE), UK (1991-present) (CEO, Richard Gamble)

Baseball Chapel, USA (President, Vince Nauss).

Sports Chaplaincy Organizations

Academic and Practical Developments in Sport and Christianity

Appendix

First International Conference, Sport and Religion: An Inquiry into Cultural Values, St Olaf’s College, Minnesota, USA, 24th –26th June, 2004. (Organized and chaired by Dr Gary Wicks).

Inaugural International Conference on Sport and Spirituality, 28th– 31st August, 2007. Hosted by the Centre for the Study of Sport and Spirituality, York St. John University (2003-2009), UK. (Convener and Chairperson, Dr Nick J. Watson). An edited book comprising a selection of papers from the conference was published by Routledge (Parry, Nesti and Watson, 2011).

Story, Sport and Spirit: A Conference to Explore the Theory and Practice of Storytelling in Athletics, 19th-21st May, 2010. Hosted by the Institute for Sport, Spirituality and Character Development, Neumann University, USA. (Organized and chaired by Dr Edward Hastings).

Christianity and Sport, Public Lecture Series, Regent’s Park College, University of Oxford, UK, Oxford Centre for Christianity and Culture, Six Weekly Lectures, 18th January–1st March, 2011. (Organized and chaired by Dr Andrew Moore). A special edition (on sport) of the journal, Anvil: An Evangelical Journal for Theology and Mission (2012: 28, 1) comprising papers from the Lecture Series has been published and edited by Dr Andrew Moore.

142

Summit on Sport and Christianity: Seeking a Shared Vision of Sports in the Christian Life, Think Tank Raleigh, North Carolina, USA, 4-5 January 2013. (Conveners Dr Steven D. Wright and Professor Shirl Hoffman).

Think Tanks

The Christian Society for Kinesiology and Leisure Studies has held an annual conference at various Christian colleges in the USA since 1989. This organization was founded by Professors Glen Van Andel, Tom Visker and Paul Heintzman. Two books have been published that comprise papers from annual conferences (Van Andel, Heintzman, and Visker, 1994/2006; Byl, and Visker, 1999).

The Church and Sport Office, within the Pontifical Council for the Laity in the Vatican, Italy, has hosted three international seminars on various aspects of the relationship between Catholicism and sports in 2005, 2007 and 2009 (see Liberia Editrice Vaticana, 2006, 2008, 2011). (Organized and chaired by Father Kevin Lixey).

Second International Conference, Sport and Religion: An Inquiry into Cultural Values, St Olaf’s College, Minnesota, USA, 28th–29th October, 2005. (Organized and chaired by Dr Gary Wicks).

Academic and Practical Developments in Sport and Christianity 143

Appendix

To view the report published from this event, see: http://www.theosthinktank.co.uk/files/files/Reports/Give%20us%20our%20ball%20back%20text%20combined.pdf

3

Mobilising the Church of England to Engage with Sport in Mission and Ministry. Organised by the National Church of England Consultation on Sports Ministry Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK. 27th February 2014.

Non-academic Conferences

Think Tank, Lord of Sport: A Quest to Discover God’s Wisdom for Sport, Hosted by Athletes in Action, Dayton, Ohio, USA, 13th-16th May, 2005. (Organized by Dr John White, Stuart Weir and Lowrie McCown). An edited book was published by Edwin Mellen Press, comprising a selection of papers authored by selected delegates from the conference (Deardorff and White, 2008).

Sports Think Tank: Reclaiming Sport for the Common Good, Hosted by Theos –the Public Theology Think Tank, Theos Offices, London, 25th January, 2012.3

Summit on Sport and Christianity: Think Tank Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA, 14th-15th June, 2012. (Conveners Dr Steven D. Wright and Prof Shirl Hoffman).

144

Watson, N.J. and Parker, A. (Guest Editors) (2014: 18. 1 and 18. 2) Special Edition, Sports, Religion and Disability, Journal of Religion, Disability and Health. (also published as a book with additional material).

Journal Special Editions

Journal of the Christian Society for Kinesiology and Leisure Studies (Founding editors, 2010-present, Dr Valerie Gin and Professor Dale Connally. This journal is only available online).

International Journal of Religion and Sport (Founding editors, 20092010, Dr Chris Anderson and Professor Gordon Marino. Co-editors, 2010-2012, Professor Andrew Parker and Professor Eric Bain-Selbo.

Journals

Journals, Special Editions and Book Series

More Than Gold. Church and Sport: The Way Forward. Hosted by Christians in Sport, London, 26th November 2013.

145

Catholic Athletes for Christ (2006- present) (Founder, Ray McKenna).

The Church and Sport Office, within the Pontifical Council for the Laity in the Vatican, Italy (2004 -present) commissioned by Pope JPII. (Founding Director, Father Kevin Lixey. Current Director, Santiago Pérez de Camino Gaisse).

The John Paul II Foundation for Sport (2008present) commissioned by Pope Benedict XVI.

More Than Gold was established as part of the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games (CEO, David Willson). The More than Gold legacy (2013-present) is administered by Christians in Sport, UK.

Para/Church Sporting Organisations and Initiatives

Academic and Practical Developments in Sport and Christianity

Appendix

Preece, G., and Hess, R. (Eds.) (2009) Special Edition: Sport and Spirituality: An Exercise in Everyday Theology, Interface: A Forum for Theology in the World, 11, 1: (also published as a book: Preece and Hess, 2009)

Lämmer, M., Smith, M., and Terret, T. (2009) Special Edition, Sport and Religion: Stadion: International Journal of the History of Sport, 35: 1-393. (not all papers are on sport and the Christian religion)

Stoddart, E. (ed.) (2012: 5, 2) Special Edition, Sport: Practical Theology.

Moore, A. (ed.) (2012, 28, 1) Special Edition, Christianity and Sport, Anvil: An Evangelical Journal for Theology and Mission.

Plant, S.J. (ed.) (2012: 114, 4, July/August) Special Edition, Sport and Theology: Theology (SPCK/Sage).

Parsons, S. (2012: 25, 1, February) Special Edition, Christian Ethics and Sport: Studies in Christian Ethics. Plenary Papers from the Annual Conference of the Society for the Study of Christian Ethics, University of Cambridge, UK, 2nd-4th September, 2011.

146

Young Women’s Christian Association, YWCA, (1855-present) (Founders, Lady Mary Jane Kinnaird and Emma Roberts).

Young Men’s Christian Association, YMCA (1844-present) (Founder, Sir George Williams).

Sport Alpha (2012-), Holy Trinity Brompton Church, Knightsbridge, London, UK.

Sports Faith International (2008- present) (Chairperson, Patrick McCaskey).

The University Press of Kentucky has published a number of books in the Philosophy of Popular Culture book series (Going Deep) that have some chapters with themes on Christian faith and sports (e.g., Hamilton, 2008b, 2007, 2004).

Routledge have published six books on sport and religion, with a main focus on sport and Christianity (Scholes and Sassower, 2013; Watson and Parker, 2012; Parry, Nesti and Watson, 2011; Parry, Robinson, Watson and Nesti, 2007; Magdalinski and Chandler, 2002; Adogame, Watson and Parker, 2016, forthcoming).

Nine books with a general focus on sport and Christianity have been published in the Sports and Religion Series, by Mercer University Press, USA. (Series Editor, Professor Joseph Price).

Book Series/Themes

Watson, J. (2013) Special Edition: Spirituality and Physicality: Crossing the Boundaries, International Journal of Children's Spirituality. Papers from The 12th International Conference of Children’s Spirituality, Spirituality and Physicality: Crossing the Boundaries, University of East Anglia, UK, 1st-5thJuly 2012.

Baum, G. and Coleman, J. (Eds.) (1985) Special Edition, Sport: International Journal of Theology, 5, 205. (also published as a book: Baum and Coleman, 1989)

Academic and Practical Developments in Sport and Christianity 147

Chariots of Fire (1981). See Cashmore’s (2008) socio-historical analysis.

Field of Dreams (1989).

Million Dollar Baby (2004). See Roubach’s (2007) theological analysis.

Facing the Giants (2006).

Hansie (2008).

Invictus (2009).

In the US a significant number of Christian colleges host courses on sport and faith and/or courses containing some content on this topic.

4

Sport and Spirituality (2007-2013), University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia, Module Leader, Reverend Canon Richard Pengelley. From 2012 this module was renamed as, The Spirit of Sport.

Sport and Spirituality (2000-present), Spiritual Themes in Sports Movies (2011-) and a Spirituality of Coaching (2012-), Neumann University, USA (2000-), Module Leader, Dr Edward Hastings.

Sport and Spirituality (2007-2013), York St John University, UK, Module Leader, Dr Nick J. Watson.

Blind Side (2009). See also biography of central character, Michael Oher (Oher, 2012).

Films with a central Christian/religious theme

Examples of Undergraduate Modules4

Grace and Play: Christianity and Meaning of Sport (summer school), Regent College (2011-present), Vancouver, Canada. Module Leader, Dr Dominic Erdozain, King’s College, London.

Cinematic productions and Related Publications

Appendix

Sport and Religion Courses in Higher Education

148

Sports Ministry Concentration (2012-present). Module on Master of Divinity. Baylor University, USA, Module leader, Dr John White.

The Soul of Athletics, Neumann University, USA (2002-present). Module on MA Education. Module Leader, Dr Edward Hastings.

Postgraduate Certificate/Postgraduate Diploma/MA Sport and Christian Outreach (Sports Chaplaincy) (2009-present). University of Gloucestershire, UK, Course Leader, Professor Andrew Parker. See web-link: http://www.glos.ac.uk/courses/postgraduate/scc/Pages/default.aspx Sport, Psychology and Spirituality (2008 and 2009, module on MSc Sport Psychology), York St John University, UK. Module Leader, Dr Nick J. Watson.

Hoosiers (1986).

Postgraduate Certificate/Postgraduate Diploma/MA Sport and Christian Outreach (Sports Ministry) (2007-2013).University of Gloucestershire, UK, Course Leader, Professor Andrew Parker.

149

Angels in the Outfield (1951, remade under the same title in 1994).

The Leather Saint (1955).

Trouble Along the Way (1953).

The Pride of the Yankees (1942).

The Babe Ruth Story (1948).

Rocky (1976).

Films with a Christian/religious subtext

Postgraduate Courses and Modules

Academic and Practical Developments in Sport and Christianity

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AUTHORS

Dr Nick J. Watson is Senior Lecturer in Sport, Culture and Religion at York St John University (YSJU) and is head of pastoral care for sports students. He was the Founding Director of the Centre for the Study of Sport and Spirituality (YSJU, 2003-2009) and whilst in this role he convened and chaired the Inaugural International Conference on Sport and Spirituality, YSJU, 2007, and is currently organizing the Inaugural Global Congress on Sports and Christianity, YSJU, UK, 2016. Nick is an associate and advisory board member of the Centre for Sport, Spirituality and Religion (CSSR) at the University of Gloucestershire, UK. His doctoral work examined the relationship between modern sports and Christianity drawing on theology and the social sciences. In addition to having coached athletes with disabilities, Nick also has significant experience of coaching football in Spain, the US and the UK and was the founding Head Coach of La Manga Junior Football Academy, Spain (2001-2006). Reflecting his practical and academic background in the world of sport, and experience of Church leadership, a major aim of Nick’s work is to bridge the theory-practice gap and, in turn, to facilitate the coming together of scholars, athletes, church leaders and practitioners from across all denominations and streams of Christianity, to affect a culture change in the world of sports. This has resulted in presentations for, and collaborations with, universities, churches, think-tanks, disability groups and mission and chaplaincy organizations. Nick has published extensively on sports and Christianity and is currently working on a co-edited volume with Dr Afe

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Authors

Adogame (University of Edinburgh) and Andrew Parker, entitled, Global Perspectives on Sports and Christianity. He has published and reviewed papers for a wide-range of theological and sports journals and serves on the editorial board of the International Journal of Religion and Sport. The topic of ‘fatherlessness’ and the positive and redemptive role that fathering/mentoring may have through the vehicle of sport, is a long-term project that he is presently embarking on. This vision has been nurtured though Nick’s experience of mentoring and acting as a Trustee with The Island (York, UK), which is a charity that mentors young vulnerable children. Andrew Parker is Professor of Sport and Christian Outreach and Director of the Centre for Sport, Spirituality and Religion (CSSR) in the Faculty of Applied Sciences at the University of Gloucestershire, UK. Andrew’s research interests include sport and spirituality, sport and social identity and the relationship between sport and criminal justice. Published outputs reflect these interests and have appeared in periodicals such as the Sociology of Sport Journal, the International Review for the Sociology of Sport, Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health and the Journal of Religion and Society. Andrew has served on the editorial boards of the Sociology of Sport Journal (2005–2008) and Qualitative Research (2001–present), and was co-editor of the International Journal of Religion and Sport between 2010 and 2012.