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Speed Up Your Chinese: Strategies to Avoid Common Errors
 9780415501514,  9780415501521,  9780203100981

Table of contents :
Cover......Page 1
Speed Up Your Chinese......Page 2
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Table of Contents......Page 7
Introduction......Page 10
Glossary of grammatical terms......Page 13
Abbreviations......Page 17
§1. Sentences with a descriptive adjective......Page 18
§2. Sentences expressing location and existence......Page 20
§3. When an activity’s location is specified......Page 22
§4. ‘Be there’ or ‘go there’: [zài-location + VP] or [qù location + VP]
......Page 24
§5. Basic word order of an extended [Subj. + VP] sentence......Page 26
§6. Structures of comparison (i): contrast, with bĭ......Page 29
§7. Structures of comparison (ii): similarity......Page 32
§8. Structures of comparison (iii): behavior......Page 35
§9. The bă construction (i): its usage......Page 38
§10. The bă construction (ii): other elements and the verb phrase......Page 40
§11. The passive construction......Page 43
Check your grammar......Page 46
§12. Conjunctions linking compound clauses (i): If . . . , then . . .......Page 48
§13. Conjunctions linking compound clauses (ii): Both . . . and . . .......Page 50
§14. Conjunctions linking compound clauses (iii): Although . . . , (but) . . .......Page 51
§15. Sentences expressing simultaneous actions......Page 53
§16. Actions in a sequence: xiān VP1, zài VP2......Page 56
§17. ‘As soon as . . . , then . . .’: yī VP1, jiù VP2......Page 58
§18. Yes/no questions and answers......Page 60
§19. Structures with interrogative words: questions and answers......Page 63
§20. The object clauses of the verb zhīdào ‘know’......Page 67
§21. The two ors: a question or a statement?......Page 70
Check your grammar......Page 73
§22. Time phrases (i): when (chronological) vs. how long (durational)......Page 75
§23. Time phrases (ii): periods of the day vs. a.m./p.m.......Page 78
§24. Time phrases in a sentence......Page 80
§25. Time phrase (iii): . . . de shíhou......Page 85
§26. Time phrase (iv): yĭqián......Page 86
§27. Time phrase (v): shíshíkèkè......Page 88
§28. V- le: completed action......Page 90
§29. Emphasis on complements: the shì . . . de pattern......Page 93
§30. Completed action vs. its complements: V- le vs. shì . . . de......Page 97
§31. Adverbs cái and jiù (i): after a time phrase......Page 101
§32. Adverbs cái and jiù (ii): after a prior action......Page 104
§33. Action lasting to a certain point: V- dào + time phrase......Page 106
Check your grammar......Page 108
§34. Modifier + de (i): adjectives as modifiers of nouns......Page 110
§35. Modifier + de (ii): clauses as modifiers of nouns......Page 112
§36. Location phrases......Page 114
§37. Definite and indefinite references of nouns......Page 117
§38. Forms of action verbs......Page 120
§39. Verb-object compounds......Page 123
§40. When a verb-object compound involves another object......Page 126
§41. Simple verbs vs. verb-verb compounds......Page 128
§42. Verb complements (i): resultative......Page 131
§43. Verb complements (ii): directional......Page 133
§44. Verb-verb compounds: actual and potential forms......Page 135
§45. To describe an action’s manner or degree......Page 139
Check your grammar......Page 142
§46. Distinguishing the three homonyms: de1, de2, and de3
......Page 144
§47. ‘A little’: yìdiănr vs. yǒuyìdiănr
......Page 147
§48. Conjunctions hé/ gēn vs. adverb yě......Page 150
§49. ‘Some’: yìxiē vs. yŏude......Page 152
§50. ‘Each’: měi-Mea-N vs. měi-N......Page 154
§51. ‘All’: adverb dōu vs. adjective suŏyŏude......Page 157
§52. The preposition cóng and the prepositional phrase cóng X dào Y......Page 160
§53. The position of the adverb: after the subject and before the verb......Page 163
§54. The subject and the correlating adverb jiù......Page 165
§55. Verb-object compound shuì-jiào vs. verb-verb compound shuì-zháo
......Page 167
§56. Mandarin variations on the English verb ‘ask’......Page 169
§57. Auxiliary verbs huì, néng, and kěyĭ......Page 171
§58. Cognitive verbs zhīdào and rènshi......Page 173
Check your grammar......Page 175
Answer key to exercises......Page 177
Appendix: Examples in traditional characters......Page 188
Bibliography......Page 206
Index......Page 208

Citation preview

Speed Up Your Chinese

Speed Up Your Chinese is a unique and innovative resource that identifies and explains the common errors that English-speaking learners of Chinese repeatedly make. The book brings together these common errors to offer a valuable insight into the differences between English and Chinese and to reveal the inner workings of the latter allowing students to enhance their understanding and mastery of the Chinese language. Key features: • organizes basic principles of Mandarin grammar into coherent categories • learner-oriented and problem-solving approach analyzes approximately 150 commonly made errors highlights and explains differences between Mandarin and English • • ‘points to remember’ provide vital learning strategies • exercises with full answer key to reinforce learning • examples in traditional characters provided in the appendix Speed Up Your Chinese is the ideal reference for all learners of Chinese. Shin Yong Robson holds a PhD in Chinese linguistics from the University of Wisconsin at Madison. She has taught at Beloit College since 1992, having initiated its Chinese language program.

SPEED UP YOUR LANGUAGE SKILLS SERIES EDITOR: Javier Muñoz-Basols, University of Oxford, UK

The Speed Up Your Language Skills series publishes innovative, high quality textbooks focusing on common errors as an effective tool to improve one’s skills in a foreign language. Such errors are often either driven by linguistic transfer from English or caused by common misperceptions about the grammatical structure of a foreign language. The primary objectives of the series are to explain and illustrate in context the most common errors made by English-speaking students in a foreign language and to classify them in easy-to-reference categories. Students can thus learn the appropriate usage of words and expressions and understand the reasons why they persistently make the same mistakes. The inclusion of exercises, shortcuts, and much-needed strategies, not usually seen in conventional grammar books, facilitates vocabulary acquisition and mastery of essential grammatical elements. Books in the series are intended as primary or supplementary texts at the intermediate and advanced levels. Due to its self-explanatory approach and user-friendly format, the series is also recommended for self-learners who wish to “speed up” their language skills.

Speed Up Your Chinese

Strategies to avoid common errors

Shin Yong Robson

First published 2013 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2013 Shin Yong Robson The right of Shin Yong Robson to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978-0-415-50151-4 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-50152-1 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-10098-1 (ebk) Typeset in Swiss and Zapf Calligraphic by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong

To Art and the memory of my father

Contents

Introduction Glossary of grammatical terms Abbreviations Part I.

Simple sentences

x

xiii

xvii

1

§1.

Sentences with a descriptive adjective

1

§2.

Sentences expressing location and existence

3

§3.

When an activity’s location is specified

5

§4.

‘Be there’ or ‘go there’: [೼ zài-location + VP] or

[এ qù location + VP]

7

§5.

Basic word order of an extended [Subj. + VP] sentence

9

§6.

Structures of comparison (i): contrast, with ↨ bH

12

§7.

Structures of comparison (ii): similarity

15

§8.

Structures of comparison (iii): behavior

18

§9.

The ᡞ bF construction (i): its usage

21

§10.

The ᡞ bF construction (ii): other elements and

the verb phrase

23

The passive construction

26

Check your grammar

29

§11.

Part II.

Complex/compound sentences and questions

31

§12.

Conjunctions linking compound clauses (i): If . . . , then . . .

31

§13.

Conjunctions linking compound clauses (ii): Both . . .

and . . .

33

Conjunctions linking compound clauses (iii):

Although . . . , (but) . . .

34

§14.

viii

Contents

§15.

Sentences expressing simultaneous actions

36

§16.

Actions in a sequence: ‫ ܜ‬xiAn VP1, ‫ ݡ‬zài VP2

39

§17.

‘As soon as . . . , then . . .’: ϔ yC VP1, ህ jiù VP2

41

§18.

Yes/no questions and answers

43

§19.

Structures with interrogative words: questions and answers

46

§20.

The object clauses of the verb ⶹ䘧 zhCdào ‘know’

50

§21.

The two ors: a question or a statement?

53

Check your grammar

56

Part III. §22.

Temporal expressions

58

Time phrases (i): when (chronological) vs. how long (durational)

58

§23.

Time phrases (ii): periods of the day vs. a.m./p.m.

61

§24.

Time phrases in a sentence

63

§25.

Time phrase (iii): . . . ⱘᯊ‫ ׭‬de shíhou

68

§26.

Time phrase (iv): ҹࠡ yHqián

69

§27.

Time phrase (v): ᯊᯊࠏࠏ shíshíkèkè

71

§28.

V-њ le: completed action

73

§29.

Emphasis on complements: the ᰃ shì . . . ⱘ de pattern

76

§30.

Completed action vs. its complements: V-њ le vs. ᰃ shì . . . ⱘ de

80

§31.

Adverbs ᠡ cái and ህ jiù (i): after a time phrase

84

§32.

Adverbs ᠡ cái and ህ jiù (ii): after a prior action

87

§33.

Action lasting to a certain point: V-ࠄ dào + time phrase

89

Check your grammar

91

Part IV.

Noun and verb phrases

93

§34.

Modifier + ⱘ de (i): adjectives as modifiers of nouns

93

§35.

Modifier + ⱘ de (ii): clauses as modifiers of nouns

95

§36.

Location phrases

97

§37.

Definite and indefinite references of nouns

100

§38.

Forms of action verbs

103

§39.

Verb-object compounds

106

§40.

When a verb-object compound involves another object

109

Contents

ix

§41. Simple verbs vs. verb-verb compounds

111

§42. Verb complements (i): resultative

114

§43. Verb complements (ii): directional

116

§44. Verb-verb compounds: actual and potential forms

118

§45. To describe an action’s manner or degree

122

Check your grammar Part V.

Usage comparison of words and phrases

125

127

§46. Distinguishing the three homonyms: ⱘ de1, ഄ de2,

and ᕫ de3

127

§47.

‘A little’: ϔ⚍‫ ܓ‬yìdiFnr vs. ᳝ϔ⚍‫ ܓ‬yIuyìdiFnr

130

§48.

Conjunctions ੠ hé/䎳 gBn vs. adverb г yg

133

§49.

‘Some’: ϔѯ yìxiB vs. ᳝ⱘ yIude

135

§50.

‘Each’: ↣ mGi-Mea-N vs. ↣ mGi-N

137

§51.

‘All’: adverb 䛑 dDu vs. adjective ᠔᳝ⱘ suIyIude

140

§52.

The preposition Ң cóng and the prepositional phrase

Ң cóng X ࠄ dào Y

143

The position of the adverb: after the subject and

before the verb

146

§54.

The subject and the correlating adverb ህ jiù

148

§55.

Verb-object compound ⴵ㾝 shuì-jiào vs. verb-verb

compound ⴵⴔ shuì-zháo

150

§56.

Mandarin variations on the English verb ‘ask’

152

§57.

Auxiliary verbs Ӯ huì, 㛑 néng, and ৃҹ kGyH

154

§58.

Cognitive verbs ⶹ䘧 zhCdào and 䅸䆚 rènshi

156

Check your grammar

158

Answer key to exercises Appendix: Examples in traditional characters Bibliography Index

160

171

189

191

§53.





Introduction

Speakers of English wish to see Mandarin Chinese grammar organized in a way that sidesteps the pitfalls of literal translation from their native tongue. Accordingly this book’s contents focus on specific problems encountered by English-speaking learners. While many units in this book address mainstream topics, most organize the issues in new combinations. Many subsections, especially in Parts III–V, explore important grammatical details in ways different from most grammar books. Cross-category examination of items is common in these subsections since they present a series of interlocked topics. For instance, after clarification of the difference between the two types of questions and their structures in §§18–19, §20 demonstrates how these different questions maintain their respective structures as the object clause of the cognitive verb ⶹ䘧 zhCdào ‘know’. §20 thus addresses a common, yet long-overlooked, gram­ matical confusion. Users do not need to start this book from §1. Plunge into any of the 58 topics that interest you. Part I addresses simple sentences with one main verb, while Part II explains complex sentences or compound clauses. Part II also includes two major types of questions: yes/no questions and those with interrogative words (§§18–19). Part III concentrates on temporal expressions, an intractable component of Mandarin for English-speakers, since Mandarin is a language without obvious tense markers. Thus Part III offers numerous close comparisons: the difference between chronological time and durational time (§22); how these different time expressions function in a sentence (§24); how Mandarin, without using an a.m./p.m. system, delineates hours of the day (§23); how this seemingly tenseless language expresses past and future time (§§28–30); and how adverbs contribute to this task (§§31–32). Part IV discusses the different phrase structures: how location words and relative clauses function as modifiers (§§35–36); how Mandarin, without

Introduction xi equivalents to the English articles the and a(n), handles noun references (§37); and how Mandarin verb complements work (§45). Four of the subsections, §§41–44, are devoted to a multifaceted examination of a unique verb structure—the verb-verb compound—which always challenges English speakers. Part V focuses on subtle differences between similar words and phrases that may in fact belong to different grammatical categories, or derive from different word formations. The topics of Part V directly address typical errors, and the problems that they demonstrate. These topics also explore grammar details cross-categorically, while explaining differences between Mandarin and English. Each subsection follows these steps: a) states a topic and illustrates the grammatical rules; b) provides examples and again illustrates the rules; c) presents a case-analysis of illustrative errors, along with explanatory corrections; and d) ends with a ‘points to remember’ note that highlights the core of the discussion. In addition to the subsection exercises, each Part concludes with a review section called Check Your Grammar, which lists correct English versions of the typical errors used in that Part. You may wish to translate these English sentences back into Chinese, to check your grasp of the relevant grammar points. The essence of Mandarin grammar is phrase/sentence patterns. Because Mandarin lacks certain structures—such as singular and plural, noun-verb agreement, conjugations, and obvious tense markers—that reality paradox­ ically makes the grammar easier to grasp. This grammar in a sense emulates mathematics: the phrase/sentence patterns are formulae. Understand them, remember them, and follow them to put the right words in the right places. Then the language works. This is the reason that many sections detail the character of these patterns. The sample errors in this book come directly from a synthesis of classroom practices and students’ written exercises. Far from unique, these samples are highly representative because such mistakes echo across generations. These typical errors are a valuable tool in foreign language study because language learners gain much of their grammatical knowledge from the experience of self-corrected errors. You often learn, and refine, grammar points from such slips. This book aims to address and guide you through such linguistic quandaries. While the ideal audience of this book, because they know more grammar, is learners who have studied the language for two or more semesters, this book also guides beginners. Those with only a few weeks of Chinese will find familiar details in the subsections. Of course utility grows as beginners progress. On the other hand, the user of this book should have some background in the language since this book does not teach all the details of

xii Speed Up Your Chinese grammar: it is not a beginning textbook; nor is it comprehensive; rather it serves as a valuable complement to textbooks at all basic levels, and includes only the grammar fundamentally important to your background as an English speaker. I hope this book provides Chinese language learners with a useful set of tactics for their studies, and I look forward to obtaining feedback from you.

Acknowledgments I thank the students in my nearly three decades of teaching at the University of Wisconsin and at Beloit College, as well as my students in Beloit’s intensive language courses across twelve summers. Those vigorous discussions of grammar with you inspired this book. I am grateful for a Faculty Grants Award by Beloit College that supported this project. I thank anonymous reviewers for their valuable feedback, and am especially grateful to my Routledge editor Samantha Vale Noya for her patience, assertiveness, timely feedback, and many useful suggestions. It was a truly pleasant experience working with her. I also thank Javier MuñozBasols, the series editor, for his guidance and helpful suggestions. One last, but not least, delight was Cheryl Hutty, the copy-editor, whose sharp queries about notable details improved the text. Finally, great appreciation goes to my family—my parents for their tireless support, my brother Y.R. and my sister Duan for their humor, their everlasting curiosity about this project, and our insightful exchanges about grammar. My deepest gratitude is reserved for Arthur, my husband, for his understanding and patience, for the hours he spent with me discussing comparative grammar and writing styles, and for sharing my happiness and frustration about this project. His encouragement and inspiration helped to make this book possible.

Website Complementing this book are supplementary exercises for all subsections at the Speed Up Your Chinese website www.routledge.com/cw/robson

Glossary of grammatical terms

A-not-A structure One of the ways to form a yes/no question in Mandarin. The ‘A’ in the structure may be a descriptive adjective or an action verb. The ‘not-A’ is the negative form of either one, e.g. Ҟ໽‫ދ‬ϡ‫ ˛ދ‬jCntiAn lGng-bù­ lGng ‘Is today cold (or not)?’ Դⳟ≵ⳟ᡹˛ nH kàn-méi-kàn bào ‘Have you read the newspaper (or not)?’ action verbs Verbs that express activities. adjectives Words that modify nouns. (See also descriptive adjectives.) adverbs Words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. In distinction from English, the Mandarin adverb only stands before the word it modifies. adverbial phrase A phrase that modifies a verb or a descriptive adjective, indicating details such as time, location, manner, and degree. In Mandarin the adverbial phrase may appear before or after the word it modifies. aspect markers Verb suffixes that indicate how an action is viewed: progressing, continuing, or completed. The three major aspect markers in Mandarin are њ -le, ⴔ -zhe, and 䖛 -guò. auxiliary verbs Modal verbs that are added before a main verb to indicate ability, probability, willingness, requests, obligation, or wishes. The most common ones in Mandarin are Ӯ huì ‘can,’ 㛑 néng ‘be able to,’ ৃҹ kGyH ‘may,’ ᑨ䆹 yCnggAi ‘should,’ and ᕫ dGi ‘must.’ clause A group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. A clause that can stand alone as a simple sentence is an independent clause, or the main clause. A clause that cannot stand alone is a dependent clause, also called a subordinate clause. cognitive verbs Verbs that express the act or process of perceiving or knowing. ⶹ䘧 zhCdào ‘know’ and 䅸䆚 rènshi ‘recognize’ are two common cognitive verbs in Mandarin.

xiv

Speed Up Your Chinese

complement In Mandarin a verb complement is another verb or descriptive adjective that, following the main action verb, completes its meaning, as ԣ zhù ‘stay’ in 䆄ԣ jì-zhù ‘memorize-stay = to remember’; or ໻ dà ‘big’ in 䭓໻ zhFng-dà ‘grow-big = to grow up.’ A phrase complement usually follows a descriptive adjective to indicate its degree, e.g. 䌉ᕫ໮ guì-deduD ‘much (too) expensive’; or follows an action verb to indicate the manner of the action, e.g. ᴹᕫᕜᰮ lái-de hGnwFn ‘come very late.’ complex sentence A sentence that consists of one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses, e.g. Դಲᴹҹৢˈϔᅮ㒭៥ᠧ⬉䆱DŽ nH huílai yHhòu, yídìng gGi-wI dF-diànhuà ‘Please make sure to call me after you return.’ compound sentence A sentence that has two or more independent clauses, e.g. Ҟ໽㱑✊ϟњ䲾ˈैϡ໾‫ދ‬DŽ jCntiAn suCrán xià-le-xuG, què bú tài lGng ‘Although it snowed today, it is not too cold.’ conjunctions In Mandarin, coordinating conjunctions are those that join nouns or noun phrases (e.g. ੠ hé or 䎳 gBn ‘and’), whereas correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to link phrases or clauses (e.g. both . . . and . . . , either . . . or . . . , not only . . . but also . . . , if . . . then . . . , although . . . but . . . ). conjunctive adverb An adverb that introduces a clause showing a con­ sequential or temporal relationship with the previous clause in a compound sentence. The most common one in Mandarin is ህ jiù ‘. . . , then . . .’ demonstrative A word that locates a person or thing. In Mandarin it is 䖭 zhèi/zhè ‘this’ or 䙷 nèi/nà ‘that,’ preceding or replacing a number before a measure word, e.g. 䖭ϔϾ㣍ᵰ zhèi-yíge-píngguI ‘this one apple,’ or 䙷Ͼ 㣍ᵰ nèi-ge-píngguI ‘that apple.’ descriptive adjectives Words that describe a state of being. Monosyllabic descriptive adjectives modify nouns as English adjectives, e.g. ᇣ⑾ xiFoxC ‘small stream’; and ⷁ䗨 duFntú ‘short distance.’ In a simple sentence whose predicate is a descriptive adjective, the verb of being, ᰃ shì, is not used, e.g. ‫ހ‬໽ᕜ‫ދ‬DŽdDngtiAn hGn lGng ‘The winter (is) very cold.’ homonyms Words that have the same pronunciation and the same tone, but different meanings or functions. interrogative words (interrogatives) Words that are used to ask questions. In English these words usually begin with wh- (e.g. what, where, who, when) and introduce a question. In Mandarin the interrogative word occupies the same position in the question as the answer does in the response, e.g. Ҫྦྷ ҔМ˛ tA xìng shénme? ‘What is his last name?’ Ҫྦྷ⥟DŽtA xìng wáng ‘His last name is Wang.’ measure word (measure) A word used between a number or demonstrative and a noun, as slice in the English phrase ‘a/this slice of pie.’ The most

Glossary of grammatical terms xv common measure in Mandarin is Ͼ ge (neutral tone). In Mandarin a measure word is also used between ޴ / ໮ᇥ jH/duDshFo ‘how many’ (the question word for a number), ા nGi/nF ‘which’ (the question word for a demonstrative), or ↣ mGi ‘each/every’ and a noun. modifiers Words, phrases, or clauses that describe or qualify the meaning of a word, e.g. ⛁㤊 rè chá ‘hot tea’; ᕜ໻ hGn dà ‘very large’; Ҩ㒚ഄⳟ zHxìde kàn ‘carefully read’; or ߮䅸䆚ⱘ᳟ট gAng rènshi de péngyou ‘a friend just met.’ noun phrase A phrase that consists of a noun and its modifiers, e.g. ϔᴀ Ё᭛к yì-bGn zhDngwén shE ‘a Chinese book.’ nouns with definite/indefinite references A definite reference indicates a particular item (e.g. the tree outside my window). The identity of this noun is clear to the reader. An indefinite reference indicates an unspecified noun (e.g. trees in the forest). The identity of the noun in this context is not important. Mandarin does not have articles that correspond to the and a(n) in English. A noun with a definite reference usually gains that specificity from a demonstrative 䖭 zhèi/zhè ‘this’ or 䙷 nèi/nà ‘that’; or is the subject of a sentence, whereas a noun with an indefinite reference is usually not quantified and is the object of a sentence. objects A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a transitive verb. An indirect object is a noun or pronoun that indicates to whom or towards whom the action of a transitive verb is directed, (e.g. The teacher returned the students their homework). In Mandarin an indirect object is frequently introduced by the preposition gGi in an active-voice sentence, e.g. ៥ ϡ ᐌ 㒭 Ҫ Ӏ ᠧ ⬉ 䆱ˈ ៥ 㒭 Ҫ Ӏ থ ⷁ ֵDŽwI bù cháng gGi tAmen dF­ diànhuà, wI gGi tAmen fA-duFnxìn ‘I don’t often call them. I text them.’ As shown here, an object may follow its preposition. potential form Special form of a verb-verb compound in Mandarin. By adding an infix, ᕫ -de- ‘able to’ or ϡ -bù- ‘unable to,’ between the two verbs of the com­ pound, the potential form indicates the (in)ability to accomplish the action. predicate The part of a sentence that follows the subject and makes a statement about it. A simple Mandarin predicate contains a descriptive adjective (ቅ催DŽshAn gAo ‘The mountain (is) tall.’) or an action verb (៥এDŽwI qù ‘I (will) go.’) A complete predicate consists of the descriptive adjective or the action verb plus its modifiers, e.g. ቅᕜ催DŽshAn hGn gAo ‘The mountain (is) very tall.’ or ៥偀ϞএDŽwI mFshàng qù ‘I (will) immediately go.’ preposition A word that takes a noun or pronoun as its object to form a prepositional phrase, which in Mandarin functions as an adverbial modifier of the main verb, e.g. the preposition Ң cóng ‘from’ takes Ё೑ ZhDngguó ‘China’ to form the prepositional phrase ҢЁ೑ cóng-ZhDngguó ‘from China.’

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Speed Up Your Chinese

This prepositional phrase serves as an adverbial modifier of the main verb in

the sentence ҪҢЁ೑ᴹDŽtA cóng-ZhDnguó lái ‘He comes from China.’

pronouns Words that are used in place of nouns. Mandarin usually applies

this term to personal pronouns: ៥ wI ‘I, me,’ ៥Ӏ wImen ‘we, us,’ Դ nH ‘you

(sing.),’ ԴӀ nHmen ‘you (pl.);’ Ҫ tA ‘he, him,’ ཌྷ tA ‘she, her,’ and ҪӀ

tAmen ‘they, them.’

quasi-measures Nouns that can serve as measure words for other nouns,

and that do not need a measure when quantified by a numeral or preceded

by a demonstrative, e.g. ϝᵃ㤊 sAn-bBi-chá ‘three cups of tea,’ ϔᑈ yì-nián

‘one year,’ and 䙷໽ nèi-tiAn ‘that day.’

question particle The particle ৫ ma (neutral tone), which, added to a state­

ment, changes the statement to a yes/no question.

simple sentence A sentence that consists of a subject and a predicate, e.g.

⬉ᕅ + 䴲ᐌ᳝ᛣᗱ diànyHng + fBicháng yIuyìsi ‘the movie is very interesting.’

subject The noun or noun phrase of a clause or a sentence that identifies

the topic or the actor responsible for the action.

subjunctive mood A way of expressing conditions and wishes that are

hypothetical rather than actual.

subordinate clause A dependent clause that cannot stand alone as a simple

sentence, such as ‘before sleeping’ in ⴵ㾝ҹࠡˈ៥ᘏᰃୱϔ⚍‫ܓ‬⠯ཊDŽshuì­

jiào yHqián, wI zIngshi hB yìdiFnr niúnFi ‘Before sleeping, I always drink a

little milk.’ (See also clause.)

transitive and intransitive verbs The former are verbs that require a direct

object. The latter are verbs that do not take a direct object.

verb phrase In Mandarin it consists of the main verb and its object, or of the

main verb and its complements.

Abbreviations

Adj. Adv. Aux. DA Dem DVC lit. Mea N Neg. NP Num Obj. pl. RVC sing. Subj. V VC VP V-V * ?

adjective adverb auxiliary descriptive adjective demonstrative directional verb complement literally measure (word) noun negation noun phrase number object plural resultative verb complement singular subject verb verb complement verb phrase verb-verb unacceptable, ill-formed questionable

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Simple sentences

§1. Sentences with a descriptive adjective For a simple sentence whose predicate is a descriptive adjective, such as ‘he is hungry’ or ‘the movie is interesting,’ Mandarin uses the structure shown in 1a. 1a

Subj. + Adv. + DA ⬉ᕅ [Subj.] ᕜ [Adv.] ᳝ᛣᗱ [DA]DŽ diànyhng hgn yiuyìsi ‘The movie is very interesting.’

Similar to English adjectives, Mandarin descriptive adjectives describe states of being, such as ད hFo ‘good,’ or ᮄ xCn ‘new.’ Some textbooks therefore refer to them as stative verbs. A Mandarin sentence with a descriptive adjective, however, does not use the verb of being, ᰃ shì ‘be.’ E.g. 1a literally reads ‘movie very interesting.’ In sentences with a descriptive adjective, the adjectives are routinely preceded by an adverbial word/phrase, as hGn ‘very’ in 1a, fBicháng ‘extraordinarily’ in 1b, or yuèláiyuè ‘more and more’ in 1c. The suffix . . . jí le ‘extremely’ is the only adverbial word that follows a descriptive adjective, as shown in 1d, where it may be combined with another adverb zhBnshì ‘truly’ to form a frame around the DA for an even stronger emphasis on the adverbial force of the DA. Note that zhBnshì is the only adverb that may form such a frame with . . . jí le. 1b

ᓴ‫⫳ܜ‬䴲ᐌᖭDŽ Zhang xiansheng fbicháng máng ‘Mr. Zhang is extraordinarily busy.’

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1c

ᓴ‫⫳ܜ‬䍞ᴹ䍞ᖭDŽ Zhang xiansheng yuèláiyuè máng ‘Mr. Zhang is getting more and more busy.’

1d

ᓴ‫ⳳ ( ⫳ܜ‬ᰃ ᖭᵕњDŽ Zhang xiansheng (zhbnshì) máng jí le ‘Mr. Zhang is (truly) extremely busy.’

Negation The negation, either bù ‘not,’ as in 1e, or bù zGnme ‘not that . . .’ as in 1f, also precedes the descriptive adjective. The negation usually replaces the adverbial word/phrase in the statement. 1e

ᓴ‫⫳ܜ‬ϡᖭDŽ Zhang xiansheng bù máng ‘Mr. Zhang is not busy.’

1f

ᓴ‫⫳ܜ‬ϡᗢМᖭDŽ Zhang xiansheng bù zgnme máng ‘Mr. Zhang is not that busy.’

It is necessary to note that an unmodified descriptive adjective, such as máng in 1g, implies comparison. Modified by an adverbial word or phrase, on the other hand, sentences such as 1b–f do not have a comparative sense, and merely offer a general statement. 1g

ᓴ‫⫳ܜ‬ᖭDŽ Zhang xiansheng máng ‘Mr. Zhang (in comparison to someone else) is busy.’

The most common error is to use the verb of being, ᰃ shì ‘be,’ in an isolated, context-free sentence with a descriptive adjective, as in 1h. Sentences such as 1h could occur in oral conversations among native speakers, but only when they mean to stress the fact that Mr. Zhang is in fact really, truly busy (in response to some people’s view that he may not be busy). On the other hand, it is ill-formed with the verb ‘be’, shì, in an isolated comment with a descriptive adjective, such as in 1h. To correct the error, one simply uses an adverb to replace shì. 1h

ᓴ‫ * ⫳ܜ‬ᰃᖭDŽ Zhang xiansheng shì máng ᓴ‫⫳ܜ‬ᕜ / ໾ᖭDŽ Zhang xiansheng hgn/tài máng ‘Mr. Zhang is very/too busy.’

Simple sentences

3

Another common error is to use more than one adverb to modify the same descriptive adjective. This mistake usually occurs when suffix . . . jí le ‘extremely’ already attaches to the descriptive adjective, as in error 1i, where another adverb hGn ‘very’ is also used. Remember, the only adverb that can pair with . . . jí le is zhBnshì ‘truly,’ as in the correction. 1i

䖭Ͼ䯂乬*ᕜ䲒ᵕњDŽ zhèi-ge wèntí hgn nán jí le

‘This question is ?very extremely difficult.’

䖭Ͼ䯂乬ⳳᰃ䲒ᵕњDŽ zhèi-ge wèntí zhbnshì nán jí le ‘This question is truly extremely difficult.’

For a simple sentence with a descriptive adjective, such as ‘the movie is interesting,’ the structure is: Subj. + Adv. + DA. The verb of being, ᰃ shì, is not used.

For related topics, see §§6, 7, and 47.

Exercises EXERCISE 1. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3 4

Chinese grammar is very easy. All my friends are extremely tired, but I am not. The weather is getting colder and colder. Milk is not expensive.

§2. Sentences expressing location and existence Two structures specify location or existence. One uses the location verb ೼ zài ‘be (located) at’ in the structure: (specific) Subj. + ೼ zài-location phrase; and the other uses the existence verb ᳝ yIu ‘there is/are . . .’ in the structure: location phrase + ᳝ yIu. The subject of the first pattern, where zài is the verb, is a specific noun phrase. The term specific indicates that the subject noun (phrase) of this pattern possesses a definite reference, such as a particular person, place, or item, e.g. ‘my father’ and ‘the public library’ in 2a–b. A non-specific subject, such as ‘three fast-food restaurants’ in 2c, is unacceptable with this pattern.

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2a

៥⠊҆೼ᆊDŽҪ߮Ңᖋ೑ಲᴹDŽ wi fùqin zài jia, ta gang cóng Déguó huílai ‘My father is home. He just came back from Germany.’

2b

݀݅೒к佚೼㄀ϔ䫊㸠ⱘᇍ䴶DŽ gdnggòng túshegufn zài dìyc yínháng de duìmiàn ‘The public library is across from the First Bank.’

2c

*ϝϾᖿ令ᑫ೼㄀ϔ䫊㸠ⱘ䰘䖥DŽ san-ge kuàicandiàn zài dìyc yínháng de fùjìn ‘Three fast-food restaurants are near the First Bank.’

Mandarin expresses the idea of 2c in the second structure, where yIu is the verb to describe the existence of a non-specific noun (phrase). This pattern is a close equivalent to the English structure ‘there is/are. . . .’ See 2d–e below. Note that a specific subject should not be used in the yIu pattern. Thus the non-specific yí-ge gDnggòng túshEguFn ‘a public library’ in 2e is fine, but the specific gDnggòng túshEguFn ‘the public library’ in 2f is unacceptable. 2d

㄀ϔ䫊㸠ⱘ䰘䖥᳝ϝϾᖿ令ᑫDŽ dìyc yínháng de fùjìn yiu san-ge kuàicandiàn ‘There are three fast-food restaurants near the First Bank.’

2e

㄀ϔ䫊㸠ⱘᇍ䴶᳝ϔϾ݀݅೒к佚DŽ dìyc yínháng de duìmiàn yiu yí-ge gdnggòng túshegufn ‘There is a public library across from the First Bank.’

2f

㄀ϔ䫊㸠ⱘᇍ䴶᳝* ݀݅೒к佚DŽ dìyc yínháng de duìmiàn yiu *gdnggòng túshegufn ‘There is *the public library across from the First Bank.’

Negation The negation for the zài pattern is bù, as in 2g; whereas the negation for the yIu pattern is always méi, as in 2h. 2g

݀݅೒к佚ϡ೼㄀ϔ䫊㸠ⱘᇍ䴶DŽ gdnggòng túshegufn bú zài dìyc yínháng de duìmiàn ‘The public library is not across from the First Bank.’

2h

䖭‫≵ܓ‬᳝ᕜ໮ᷥDŽ zhèr méiyiu hgndud shù ‘There are not many trees around here.’

The most common error is using a non-specific subject in the ೼ zài struc­ ture, such as in 2i. This Mandarin sentence is unacceptable because

Simple sentences

5

wJ-tiáo-xCnwén ‘(any) five items of news’ is too general a subject for the verb zài. The ᳝ yIu pattern serves this idea. 2i

*Ѩᴵᮄ䯏೼Ҟ໽ⱘ᡹ϞDŽ wj-tiáo-xcnwén zài jcntian de bào-shang

‘Five items (of news) are in today’s paper.’

Ҟ໽ⱘ᡹Ϟ᳝Ѩᴵᮄ䯏DŽ jcntian de bào-shang yiu wj-tiáo-xcnwén

‘There are five items (of news) in today’s paper.’

The structure [location + ᳝ yIu . . .] describes the existence of a non­ specific noun phrase, equivalent to ‘there is/are . . .’. If a noun phrase is specific, it should be the subject of the pattern [Subj. + ೼ zài-location].

For related topics, see §§37 and 49.

Exercises EXERCISE 2. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3 4 5 6

The month of June has 30 days. There is a computer on the desk. Are there six tennis courts near the dorms? The teacher is not in her office. The Yellow River is in northern China. The children are in the park.

§3. When an activity’s location is specified As explained in §2, ೼ zài ‘be (located) at’ is the verb for the location of a specific subject, as in the sentence ࣫Ҁ೼⊇࣫ⳕ BGijCng zài HébGi shGng ‘Beijing is (located) in Hebei province.’ In a sentence where an activity, represented by an action verb, occurs at a location, such as ‘they play chess in the park,’ Mandarin uses pattern 3a, where zài is no longer the verb. 3a

Subj. + ೼ zài-location + VP

In this pattern zài and a place word form a location phrase ೼ zài-location, modifying the main action verb. See examples 3b–d below.

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This pattern is a close equivalent to the English expression “someone does/is doing something in/at a certain place.” Note that unlike English, in Mandarin the zài-location phrase must come before the main action verb. And the adverbial word or phrase (if there is one), such as chángcháng ‘often’ in 3c and mGitiAn xiàwJ ‘every afternoon’ in 3d, appears before the zài phrase. 3b

⥟‫⫳ܜ‬೼໻ᄺᬭк˗⥟໾໾೼䫊㸠Ꮉ԰DŽ Wáng xiansheng zài dàxué jiao-she; Wáng tàitai zài yínháng gdngzuò ‘Mr. Wang teaches at the university; Mrs. Wang works in a bank.’

3c

ཌྷᐌᐌ೼䍙㑻Ꮦഎфϰ㽓DŽ ta chángcháng zài chaojí shìchfng mfi-ddngxi ‘She often shops at the supermarket.’

3d

ҪӀ↣໽ϟज೼݀ುϟẟDŽ tamen mgitian xiàwj zài gdngyuán xià-qí ‘They play chess in the park every afternoon.’

Negation In this pattern the negation usually precedes the zài-location phrase to stress that the action does not, or not often, occur at the location specified. See example 3e. 3e

ཌྷ ϡ ᐌ ೼䍙㑻Ꮦഎфϰ㽓DŽ ta bù(cháng) zài chaojí shìchfng mfi ddngxi ‘She does not (often) shop at the supermarket.’

Note that while the activity itself could also be negated, as méi mFi-dDngxi ‘did not buy anything’ in 3f, using the regular negation ϡ bù to stress directly on the verb could be awkward. Compare 3g with 3c and 3e. 3f

ཌྷ೼䍙㑻Ꮦഎ≵фϰ㽓DŽ ta zài chaojí shìchfng méi mfi ddngxi ‘She didn’t buy anything (when she was) at the supermarket.’

3g

? ཌྷᐌᐌ೼䍙㑻Ꮦഎϡфϰ㽓DŽ ta chángcháng zài chaojí shìchfng bù mfi ddngxi ‘She is often at the supermarket but ?does not buy things.’

One common error is to place the ೼ zài-location phrase after the verb phrase, led by the English word order, while expressing the idea “someone does/is doing something in/at a certain place” in Mandarin. Sentences with this error, such as 3h, are unacceptable in Mandarin. 3h is a word-by-word translation of its English idea, hence producing a non-Mandarin structure. Remember: the pattern expressing such ideas should be: Subj. + ೼ zài-location + VP (3a).

Simple sentences

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* ៥Ꮉ԰೼ϔᆊ∝෵ࣙᖿ令ᑫDŽ wi gdngzuò zài yì-jia hànbfobao kuàicandiàn

‘I work at a burger joint.’

3h

៥೼ϔᆊ∝෵ࣙᖿ令ᑫᎹ԰DŽ wi zài yì-jia hànbfobao kuàicandiàn gdngzuò

In a sentence such as ‘she works at a bank,’ the location phrase ‘at a bank’ comes before the action verb. The structure is: Subj. + ೼ zài-location + V/VP. For related topics, see §§4 and 5.

Exercises EXERCISE 3. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3 4 5

The children play in the park every afternoon. Many American students study languages abroad. They planted flowers in the garden. She likes to drink coffee at Starbuck’s. We have our lunch at the student cafeteria.

§4.

‘Be there’ or ‘go there’: [Ᏼ zài-location + VP] or [བྷ qù location + VP]

As explained in §3, when an activity’s location is specified, the location phrase, introduced by ೼ zài, appears before the main verb phrase. 4a shows this sentence pattern. 4a

Subj. + (Adv. +) ೼ zài-location + VP ҪӀ ᐌ ೼ᖿ令ᑫৗ佁DŽ tamen (cháng) zài kuàicandiàn chc-fàn ‘They (often) eat at fast-food restaurants.’

A pattern similar to this one is 4b, with the verb এ qù ‘go’ preceding the location. In 4b, the location word after qù specifies the destination of the verb phrase that follows. Note in both 4a and 4b, the adverb (if there is one) appears before zài or qù.

8 4b

Speed Up Your Chinese Subj. + (Adv. +) এ qù location + VP ᴢ໾໾ ᳝ⱘᯊ‫ ׭‬এ‫ݰ‬䌌Ꮦഎфϰ㽓DŽ Lh tàitai (yiude shíhou) qù nóngmào shìchfng mfi-ddngxi ‘Mrs. Li (sometimes) goes to the farmers’ market to shop.’

Despite the similarity between 4a and 4b, they use different grammatical structures. 4a has one main verb phrase showing the idea that ‘someone does/is doing something in/at a certain place,’ whereas 4b uses two verb phrases in succession: the [qù + location] ‘go to a place’ and the second verb phrase that indicates the purpose or reason for going to that place. 4c

Ҫ↩ϮҹৢএЁ೑Ꮉ԰DŽ ta bìyè yhhòu qù Zhdngguó gdngzuò ‘After graduation, he will go to China to work.’

Negation The negation ϡ bù or ≵ méi for pattern 4b usually stands before qù, emphasiz­ ing the negation of the motion. See examples 4d–e. 4d

Ҫ↩ϮҹৢϡএЁ೑Ꮉ԰DŽ ta bìyè yhhòu bú qù Zhdngguó gdngzuò ‘After graduation, he will not go to China to work.’

4e

Ҫ↩Ϯҹৢ≵এЁ೑Ꮉ԰DŽ ta bìyè yhhòu méi qù Zhdngguó gdngzuò ‘After graduation, he did not go to China to work.’

Using both ೼ zài and এ qù before the location, such as in 4f, is a common error. 4f

៥ӀҞ໽ϟज *এ ೼໻␪䞠␌⋇DŽ wimen jcntian xiàwj qù zài dàhú li yóuying ?‘This afternoon, we will go and be at the Big Lake swimming.’

Students need to understand that zài means ‘be (located) at,’ whereas qù means ‘to go.’ While the former indicates that someone or something is located at a given place, the latter involves a motion to some location. Consequently zài and qù never appear in the same sentence. 4f is erroneous because one may either go to swim at the lake, as in 4g, or be swimming at the lake, as in 4h, but cannot go to and be at the lake at the same time. 4g

៥ӀҞ໽ϟजএ໻␪␌⋇DŽ wimen jcntian xiàwj qù dàhú yóuying ‘This afternoon we will go to the Big Lake to swim.’

Simple sentences 4h

9

៥ӀҞ໽ϟज೼໻␪䞠␌⋇DŽ wimen jcntian xiàwj zài dàhú li yóuying ‘This afternoon we will be swimming at the Big Lake.’

[೼ zài-location + VP] expresses the idea ‘do something in/at a certain place,’ whereas [এ qù location + VP] means ‘go to a place to do something.’ Thus zài ‘be at’ and qù ‘go’ cannot appear in the same sentence.

For related topics, see §§2, 3, and 5.

Exercises EXERCISE 4. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3 4 5

Many American students go to China to study Chinese. Let’s go camping in the mountains. I am going to the post office to mail a letter. She often goes to her friend’s room to chat. We didn’t go to the student cafeteria for lunch today.

§5. Basic word order of an extended [Subj. + VP] sentence While using adverbial phrases indicating time, location, and/or manner in a Mandarin [Subj. + VP] sentence, 5a shows the basic word order of the extended structure. 5a

Subj. + Adv./time(-when) + ೼ zài-location + VP + time(-spent)

Note that an adverb such as ᐌᐌ chángcháng ‘often,’ or ᘏᰃ zIngshì ‘always,’ as well as the chronological time expression (time-when), such as ↣໽ᰮϞ mGitiAn wFnshang ‘every evening,’ or ᯳ᳳ໽ xCngqCtiAn ‘Sunday,’ stand before the ೼ zài-location phrase; and in turn the zài-location stands before the main verb phrase of the sentence. On the other hand, the durational time expression (time-spent), i.e. the time indicating the length of the activity, stands after the main verb phrase. The adverbial phrases in the structure 5a, namely, the adverb/time(-when), zài-location, and time(-spent), do not necessarily appear in every sentence. Yet whether there is one adverbial phrase as in 5b–e, two adverbial phrases as in 5f–h, or three as in 5i–j, the basic word order of the structure 5a should remain constant. See the following examples. The adverbial forms are

10 Speed Up Your Chinese marked at the beginning of each example. Pay attention to the word order of adverbial phrases relevant to the main verb phrase. 5b

one adverbial phrase: Time(-when): ‘every Friday’ ⥟ᆊ↣᯳ᳳѨৗ低ᄤDŽ Wáng jia mgi xcngqcwj chc-jifozi ‘Wang’s family eats dumplings every Friday.’

5c

one adverbial phrase: Adverb: ‘often’ ⥟ᆊᐌᐌৗ低ᄤDŽ Wáng jia chángcháng chc-jifozi ‘Wang’s family often eats dumplings.’

5d

one adverbial phrase: Location: ‘(at) out’ ⥟‫⫳ܜ‬೼໪䴶ৗज佁DŽ Wáng xiansheng zài wàimian chc-wjfàn ‘Mr. Wang has his lunch out.’

5e

one adverbial phrase: Time(-spent): ‘(eat lunch) for one hour’ ⥟‫⫳ܜ‬ৗज佁ৗϔϾᇣᯊDŽ Wáng xiansheng chc-wjfàn chc yí-ge xifoshí ‘Mr. Wang eats his lunch for one hour.’

5f

two adverbial phrases: Adverb: ‘often’; Location: ‘(at) out’ ⥟‫⫳ܜ‬ᐌᐌ ೼໪䴶ৗज佁DŽ Wáng xiansheng chángcháng zài wàimian chc-wjfàn ‘Mr. Wang often has his lunch out.’

5g

two adverbial phrases: Time(-when): ‘every day’; Time(-spent): ‘(eat lunch) for one hour’ ⥟‫↣⫳ܜ‬໽ৗज佁ৗϔϾᇣᯊDŽ Wáng xiansheng mgitian chc-wjfàn chc yí-ge xifoshí ‘Every day Mr. Wang eats his lunch for one hour.’

5h

two adverbial phrases: Time(-when): ‘Wednesday afternoon’; Location: ‘at the supermarket’ ⥟໾໾᯳ᳳϝϟज ೼䍙㑻Ꮦഎф㦰DŽ Wáng tàitai xcngqcsan xiàwj zài chaojí shìchfng mfi-cài ‘On Wednesday afternoons Mrs. Wang goes grocery shopping at the supermarket.’

5i

three adverbial phrases: Adverb: ‘always’; Time(-when): ‘after dinner’; Time(-spent): ‘(take a walk) for a half hour’ ⥟‫⥟⫳ܜ‬໾໾ᘏᰃ ᰮ佁ҹৢᬷञϾ䩳༈ℹDŽ Wáng xiansheng Wáng tàitai zingshì wfnfàn yhhòu sàn bàn-ge zhdngtóu bù ‘Mr. and Mrs. Wang always take a half-hour walk after dinner.’

Simple sentences 5j

11

three adverbial phrases: Time(-when): ‘every Tuesday’; Location: ‘at the university’; Time(-spent): ‘(attend drawing class) for three hours’ ⥟໾໾↣᯳ᳳѠ ೼໻ᄺϞϝϾᇣᯊ ⱘ 㒬⬏䇒DŽ Wáng tàitai mgi xcngqc’èr zài dàxué shàng san-ge xifoshí (de) huìhuà kè ‘Every Tuesday Mrs. Wang attends a drawing class at the university for three hours.’

Similar to the problem in §3, common errors arise from the temptation to translate word-by-word from English. This procedure can lead to curious Mandarin sentences. 5k–l demonstrate such errors. The English translations indicate the ideas intended but not realized. These errors appear because the Mandarin word order differs from the English word order. 5k

* ཌྷᎹ԰೼ᄺ᷵令ख़↣᯳ᳳѨϟजಯϾᇣᯊDŽ ta gdngzuò zài xuéxiào cantcng mgi xcngqcwj xiàwj sì-ge xifoshí ‘She works at the school cafeteria every Friday afternoon for four hours.’ ཌྷ↣᯳ᳳѨϟज [time-when] ೼ᄺ᷵令ख़ [location] Ꮉ԰ [V] ಯϾᇣᯊ [time-spent]DŽ ta mgi xcngqcwj xiàwj zài xuéxiào cantcng gdngzuò sì-ge xifoshí

5l

* ៥ᄺд↣໽ᰮϞ೼೒к佚DŽ wi xuéxí mgitian wfnshang zài túshegufn

‘I study at the library every evening.’

៥↣໽ᰮϞ [time-when] ೼೒к佚 [location] ᄺд [V]DŽ wi mgitian wfnshang zài túshegufn xuéxí

5a shows the word order of an extended [Subj. + VP] sentence. While elements of this structure may not appear in every sentence, the basic word order remains constant.

For related topics, see §§3, 22, 23, 24, 36, and 53.

Exercises EXERCISE 5. Put the parenthetical phrases where they belong in the sentences. 1 2 3 4 5

៥੠᳟টୱ੪ଵDŽ ೼ཌྷᆊ ҪӀ᯳ᳳѨ೼ԧ㚆佚ᠧ⧗DŽ ϟज ҪӀ᯼໽ৗᰮ佁DŽ ৗњϝϾ䩳༈ ᇣ偀೼೒к佚Ꮉ԰DŽ ᯳ᳳѠᰮϞˈಯϾᇣᯊ ᇣ偀↣Ͼ᯳ᳳᎹ԰DŽ ೼೒к佚

12 Speed Up Your Chinese 6 7 8

៥এᑈᄺњ᮹᭛DŽ бϾ᳜ⱘ ཌྷ೼⬉ᕅ䰶ⳟ⬉ᕅDŽ ϡᐌ ҪӀㄝ៥ਸ਼ʽ ⦄೼ˈ೼໪䴶

EXERCISE 6. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3 4 5 6

That student worked in a supermarket last summer.

They usually have a one-hour lunch.

We have literature class on Tuesday evenings at 7:00.

Every spring they travel for three weeks.

She always gets on the train at that subway station.

My older sister taught one semester of English in China.

§6.

Structures of comparison (i): contrast, with ‫ ܈‬bH

To contrast differences, as in the sentence ‘X is louder than Y,’ Mandarin uses the pattern with ↨ bH ‘as compared with.’ The structure is: X + ↨ bH + Y + DA. In this pattern, X precedes bH and possesses a comparative relationship, which is described by the descriptive adjective, with Y. The sentence is literally ‘X compared to Y is louder.’ Note that Y stands before the DA. See examples 6a–b. 6a

੪ଵ↨㤊䌉DŽ kafbi bh chá guì ‘The coffee is more expensive than the tea.’

6b

䖭ᴵ㸫Ϟⱘ᠓ᄤ↨䚏㸫ⱘ㗕DŽ zhèi-tiáo-jib shang de fángzi bh línjib de lfo ‘The houses on this street are older than those on the adjacent street.’

The two elements of the comparison, i.e. X and Y, can inhabit varied grammatical structures, such as nouns kAfBi ‘coffee’ and chá ‘tea’ in 6a; or noun phrases such as zhèi-tiáo-jiB shàng de fángzi ‘the houses on this street’ and línjiB de ‘those on the adjacent street’ in 6b. They may also be in verb phrases such as shuD-zhDngwén ‘speak Chinese’ and xiG-hànzì ‘write Chinese characters,’ as in 6c. 6c

䇈Ё᭛↨‫∝ݭ‬ᄫᆍᯧDŽ shud-zhdngwén bh xig-hànzì róngyi ‘Speaking Chinese is easier than writing Chinese characters.’

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Negation While it is uncommon, the negation ϡ bù can be put before bH. Note that bù stands before bH but never before the descriptive adjective. See example 6d. 6d

䇈Ё᭛ϡ↨‫∝ݭ‬ᄫᆍᯧDŽ shud-zhdngwén bù bh xig-hànzì róngyi ‘Speaking Chinese is not easier than writing Chinese characters.’

Degrees of comparison There are modifications in the bH pattern that show degrees of comparison. An expression of measurement normally appears as the complement of the descriptive adjective, such as ϔ⚍‫ ܓ‬yìdiFnr ‘a little’ to show a small difference; or - ᕫ໮ -de duD ‘much more’ to show a large difference. See examples 6e–f. The idea of ‘very’ or ‘very much’ in a comparison is never expressed by using the adverb ᕜ hGn ‘very’ before the DA, but by adding -de duD to the DA. The complement showing degrees of comparison may also be a specific measurement, such as ‘ten cents’ in 6g. Note that as the complement, the measurement phrase always follows the DA. 6e

᠟ᴎ↨ᑻᴎᇣϔ⚍‫ܓ‬DŽ shiujc bh zuòjc xifo yìdifnr ‘The cell phone is a little smaller than the normal phone.’

6f

ཌྷⱘ≑䔺↨៥ⱘ䌉ᕫ໮DŽ tade qìchb bh wide guì-de dud ‘Her car is a great deal more expensive than mine.’

6g

੪ଵ↨㤊䌉ϔ↯䪅DŽ kafbi bh chá guì yì-máo-qián ‘Coffee costs ten cents more than tea.’

Another modification involves adverbs of degree such as duD ‘more’ (6h)/ shFo ‘less’; zFo ‘early’/wFn ‘late’ (6i). These words are used before the verb to indicate the comparative degree of an action. Note that in these cases, a specific measurement, such as yì-mén-kè ‘one course’ in 6h and liFng-gè­ zhDngtóu ‘two hours’ in 6i, is the complement of the verb; so it always follows the verb. 6h

ᓴ㗕Ꮬ↨ᵫ㗕Ꮬ໮ᬭϔ䮼䇒DŽ Zhang lfoshc bh Lín lfoshc dud jiao yì-mén-kè ‘Teacher Zhang teaches one course more than Teacher Lin does.’

14 Speed Up Your Chinese 6i

៥ᅸট↨៥ᰮⴵϸϾ䩳༈DŽ wi shìyiu bh wi wfn shuì lifng-ge-zhdngtóu ‘My roommate goes to bed two hours later than I do.’

One common error is to use an adverbial word or phrase to modify the descriptive adjective, such as hGn ‘very’ in 6j and . . . jí le ‘extremely’ in 6k. As mentioned in §1, only the unmodified descriptive adjectives in Mandarin imply comparison. In other words, only unmodified descriptive adjectives can appear in a comparative structure. A modified descriptive adjective is incompatible in the ↨ bH pattern. Examples 6j–k therefore are ill-formed. 6j

ᕜ໮Ҏ䅸Ўৗ㦰↨ৗ㙝*ᕜདDŽ hgn dud rén rènwéi chc-cài bh chc-ròu hgn hfo ‘Many people believe that eating vegetables is *very better than eating meat.’ ᕜ໮Ҏ䅸Ўৗ㦰↨ৗ㙝དDŽ hgn dud rén rènwéi chc-cài bh chc-ròu hfo

6k

Ҫ䅸䆚ⱘᄫ↨៥໮*ᵕњDŽ ta rènshi de zì bh wi dud jí le ‘The characters he recognizes are ?extremely more than I do.’ Ҫ䅸䆚ⱘᄫ↨៥໮DŽ ta rènshi de zì bh wi dud

‘He recognizes more characters than I do.’

Ҫ䅸䆚ⱘᄫ↨៥໮ᕫ໮DŽ ta rènshi de zì bh wi dud-de dud ‘He recognizes many more characters than I do.’

Another error often occurs with the negation of the bH pattern. Note that the nega­ tion ϡ bù should precede the comparison word bH. The negation never occurs before the descriptive adjective. The correct way to express 6l is given at 6d. 6l

*䇈Ё᭛↨‫∝ݭ‬ᄫϡᆍᯧDŽ shud-zhdngwén bh xig-hànzì bù róngyi ?‘Speaking Chinese, in comparison to writing Chinese characters, is not easy.’

Finally, the adverb of degree (cf. 6h–i) must appear before the verb, whereas the specific measurement is after the verb. 6m is unacceptable since the adverb zFo ‘early’ is put after the verb lái ‘come.’ 6m

㗕Ꮬ↨ᄺ⫳ * ᴹᮽकߚ䩳DŽ lfoshc bh xuésheng lái zfo shí-fbnzhdng ‘The teacher came ten minutes earlier than the students did.’ 㗕Ꮬ↨ᄺ⫳ᮽᴹ њ कߚ䩳DŽ lfoshc bh xuésheng zfo lái (le) shí-fbnzhdng

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The basic pattern is: X + ↨ bH + Y + DA. Adverbs such as ᕜ hGn ‘very’ never appear in this structure. Degrees of comparison, such as ϔ⚍‫ ܓ‬yìdiFnr ‘a little’ or - ᕫ໮ -de duD ‘much more’ follow the descriptive adjective.

For related topics, see §§7 and 8.

Exercises EXERCISE 7. Use the words given to form comparative sentences. e.g. 㕞㙝ˈ叵㙝ˈϔ⚍‫ˈܓ‬䌉ˈ↨ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8



㕞㙝↨叵㙝䌉ϔ⚍‫ܓ‬DŽ

᮹᭛䇁⊩ˈЁ᭛䇁⊩ˈ໡ᴖˈ↨ ㆅᄤˈкࣙˈ䞡ˈ↨ 䍄䏃ˈᓔ䔺ˈᮍ֓ˈ↨ હહˈᓳᓳˈϔ⚍‫ˈܓ‬催ˈ↨ ࣫Ҁˈᡓᖋˈᕫ໮ˈ໻ˈ↨ Ḩᄤˈ㣍ᵰˈϔഫ䪅ˈ䌉ˈ↨ ៥ⱘᅸটˈ៥ˈϔϾ䩳༈ˈᮽ䍋ˈ↨ Ҫˈ៥ˈϝᴀкˈ໮ⳟˈ↨

§7. Structures of comparison (ii): similarity There are three structures that describe similarity/equivalence in Mandarin. First, to express general similarity between two elements, X and Y, Mandarin uses pattern 7a. The two components are linked by 䎳 gBn or ੠ hé ‘and’ and followed by the adjective ϔḋ yíyàng ‘identical, the same.’ See examples 7b–c. 7a

X + 䎳 gBn/੠ hé + Y + ϔḋ yíyàng

7b

䖭Ͼ᠓䯈䎳䙷Ͼ᠓䯈ϔḋDŽ zhèi-ge fángjian gbn nèi-ge fángjian yíyàng ‘This room and that room are alike.’

7c

㣍ᵰ䎳Ḩᄤϔḋ৫˛ pínggui gbn júzi yíyàng ma ‘Are apples the same as oranges?’

16 Speed Up Your Chinese Second, to express similarity in specific respects, such as size, length, distance, or other qualities, a descriptive adjective goes after yíyàng, as in pattern 7d. In this case, yíyàng functions as an adverb meaning ‘equally.’ See example 7e. 7d

X + 䎳 gBn/ ੠ hé + Y + ϔḋ yíyàng + DA

7e

៥ྍྍ䎳៥ϔḋ催DŽ wi mèimei gbn wi yíyàng gao ‘My sister and I are the same height.’

Third, to express equivalence between X and Y, Mandarin uses the pattern 7f. Here the word yIu indicates X’s comparison to Y regarding the quality expressed by the descriptive adjective, such as guì ‘expensive’ in 7g. An adverb 䖭М zhème or 䙷М nème often precedes the DA. These adverbs are generally translated as ‘so’ or ‘as.’ Zhème ‘like this’ refers to something close by and nème ‘like that’ to something farther away. See example 7g. 7f

X + ᳝ y€u + Y (+ 䖭М zhème/ 䙷М nème) + DA

7g

䇒ᴀ᳝ᄫ‫݌‬䙷М䌉DŽ kèbgn yiu zìdifn nème guì ‘The textbook is as expensive as the dictionary.’

Negation Negations for the above patterns of similarity/equivalence need clarification. First, for patterns 7a and 7d, the negation ϡ bù may precede either gBn or yíyàng with no difference in meaning, as shown in examples 7h–i below. 7h

៥ྍྍϡ䎳៥ϔḋ催DŽ wi mèimei bù gbn wi yíyàng gao ‘My sister and I are not the same height.’

7i

៥ྍྍ䎳៥ϡϔḋ催DŽ wi mèimei gbn wi bù yíyàng gao ‘My sister and I are not the same height.’

Second, pattern 7f is generally preferred in negating equivalence or similarity. In this pattern the negation ≵ méi always stands before yIu, indicating that X falls short of Y regarding the quality expressed by the descriptive adjective. See examples 7j–k. 7j

‫ܓ‬ᄤ᳝⠊҆䙷М催ˈ ৃᰃ≵᳝⠊҆ 䙷М 㚪DŽ érzi yiu fùqin nème gao, kgshi méiyiu fùqin (nème) pàng ‘The son is as tall as the father, but not as chubby as the father.’

Simple sentences 7k

17

䇈Ё᭛≵᳝‫∝ݭ‬ᄫ 䖭М 䲒DŽ shud-zhdngwén méiyiu xig-hànzì (zhème) nán ‘Speaking Chinese is not as difficult as writing Chinese characters.’

Students often mistakenly put the negation ϡ bù before the descriptive adjec­ tive when they mean to express the idea “X is not as . . . as Y.’ A sentence such as 7l sounds rather awkward. As the translation shows, it does not express the intended idea but rather its opposite. As explained above, bù may either precede 䎳 gBn or ϔḋ yíyàng, but does not appear before the DA. Or in this case, one may use the negative version of pattern 7f which is preferred in negating similarity. 7l

? Դⱘ⬉㛥䎳៥ⱘ⬉㛥ϔḋϡᖿDŽ nhde diànnfo gbn wide diànnfo yíyàng bú kuài ?‘Your computer and my computer are the same: neither is fast.’ (Intending to say: ‘Your computer and my computer are not equally fast.’) Դⱘ⬉㛥䎳៥ⱘ⬉㛥ϡϔḋᖿDŽ nhde diànnfo gbn wide diànnfo bù yíyàng kuài Դⱘ⬉㛥≵᳝៥ⱘ⬉㛥ᖿDŽ nhde diànnfo méiyiu wide diànnfo kuài

‘Your computer is not as fast as mine.’

Another common error is 7m, where the basic pattern, X + ↨ bH + Y + DA, discussed in §6, is mixed with the negation of pattern 7f. As a result 7m does not convey any sensible meaning. 7m

* फᮍⱘ‫ހ‬໽↨࣫ᮍⱘ‫ހ‬໽≵᳝䙷М‫ދ‬DŽ nánfang de ddngtian bh bgifang de ddngtian méiyiu nème lgng फᮍⱘ‫ހ‬໽≵᳝࣫ᮍⱘ‫ހ‬໽䙷М‫ދ‬DŽ nánfang de ddngtian méiyiu bgifang de ddngtian nème lgng ‘Winter in the south is not as cold as in the north.’

The three patterns of similarity/equivalence are 7a, 7d, and 7f. As explained in the text, follow the rules governing their negations.

For related topics, see §§6 and 8.

Exercises EXERCISE 8. Use the words given to make sentences describing similarity/ equivalence.

18 Speed Up Your Chinese e.g. Ё᭛ˈ㣅᭛ˈ䲒ˈϔḋ � ྤྤˈྍྍˈ催ˈ≵᳝ � 1 2 3 4 5 6

Ё᭛੠㣅᭛ϔḋ䲒DŽ ྤྤ≵᳝ྍྍ 䙷М 催DŽ

㤊ᵃˈ䜦ᵃˈ໻ˈϔḋ ഄ䪕キˈ≑䔺キˈ䖥ˈϔḋ 㪱㡆ⱘˈ㓓㡆ⱘˈདⳟˈϔḋ 䙷ᴀкˈ䖭ᴀкˈ᳝ᛣᗱˈ≵᳝ Ёᄺ⫳ˈ໻ᄺ⫳ˈᖭˈ≵᳝ Ҟ໽ˈ᯼໽ˈ‫≵ˈދ‬᳝

EXERCISE 9 (§§6–7). Change the sentences to the ↨ bH structure. e.g. 䇈Ё᭛≵᳝‫∝ݭ‬ᄫ䙷М䲒DŽ � 1 2 3 4 5 6

‫∝ݭ‬ᄫ↨䇈Ё᭛䲒DŽ

䩳≵᳝᠟㸼䌉DŽ ᮻ⬉㛥≵᳝ᮄ⬉㛥䖭МᖿDŽ ḗᄤ≵᳝㽓⪰དৗDŽ ϞϾ᯳ᳳⱘࡳ䇒≵᳝䖭Ͼ᯳ᳳⱘ䖭М໮DŽ ⳟ⬉㾚≵᳝ⳟк᳝ᛣᗱDŽ ⒥䲾≵᳝⒥‫ބ‬ᆍᯧᄺDŽ

§8. Structures of comparison (iii): behavior When two parties, X and Y, are compared in their performance of a certain action, as in the sentence ‘X swims faster than Y does’ or ‘X and Y are equally well-read,’ an action verb phrase needs to be added to any one of the three comparative patterns discussed in §6 and §7, repeated here as 8a–c. 8a 8b 8c

X + ↨ bH + Y + DA X + 䎳 gBn + Y + ϔḋ yíyàng + DA X + ≵ ᳝ (méi)y€u + Y (+ 䖭М zhème/ 䙷М nème) + DA

Generally the action verb phrase is a verb-object compound. In a com­ parative structure, this verb-object compound must be followed by a repeating verb plus an added -ᕫ de in the repetition. The added verb phrase in a comparison then is: V-Obj. + V- ᕫ de. For instance, example 8d contains the action shuD zhDngwén ‘speak Chinese.’ In order to compare the abilities of party X and party Y to speak Chinese, one needs to use the phrase [V-Obj. + V- ᕫ de]. In this case it is shuD zhDngwén shuD-de. Let us first consider pattern 8a. There are a few variations in this structure, as examples 8d–f illustrate. The duplicated form of [V-Obj. + V ᕫ de ] may be before (as in 8d), after (8e), or split by [↨ bH + Y] (8f). Note the descriptive

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adjective, hFo ‘good/well’ in this case, functioning as an adverb when the action verb phrase is added, always stands at the end of the comparison. 8d

ཌྷ䇈Ё᭛䇈ᕫ↨៥དDŽ ta shud zhdngwén shud-de bh wi hfo ‘She speaks Chinese better than I do.’

8e

ཌྷ↨៥䇈Ё᭛䇈ᕫདDŽ ta bh wi shud zhdngwén shud-de hfo

8f

ཌྷ䇈Ё᭛↨៥䇈ᕫདDŽ ta shud zhdngwén bh wi shud-de hfo

The modifications showing degrees of comparison used in the basic bH pattern also apply to the compared behaviors. They may be an expression of measure such as ϔ⚍‫ ܓ‬yìdiFnr ‘a little’ to show a small difference; or - ᕫ໮ -de duD ‘much more’ to show a large difference. See example 8g. Again, the measure­ ment phrase always follows the descriptive adjective at the end of the comparison. 8g

ཌྷ䇈Ё᭛䇈ᕫ↨៥དϔ⚍‫ ܓ‬/ ᕫ໮DŽ ta shud zhdngwén shud-de bh wi hfo yìdifnr/-de dud ‘She speaks Chinese a little/much better than I do.’

The various locations for the duplicated form [V-Obj. + V-ᕫ de] apply similarly to patterns 8b and 8c. Both are discussed in §7. In structure 8b, the duplicated form [V-Obj. + V-ᕫ de] may appear before (as in 8h), after (8i), or split by [ 䎳 gBn + Y] (8j). In structure 8c, the duplicated form [V-Obj. + V- ᕫ de] may appear before (8k), after (8l), or split by [ ≵ ᳝ (méi)yIu + Y] (8m). Note that the modifications showing different degrees of measurement in the ↨ bH pattern do not apply in these two patterns. 8h

ᄺ⫳‫ݭ‬ᄫ‫ݭ‬ᕫ䎳㗕ᏜϔḋᖿDŽ xuésheng xig-zì xig-de gbn lfoshc yíyàng kuài ‘The student writes Chinese characters as fast as the teacher does.’

8i

ᄺ⫳䎳㗕Ꮬ‫ݭ‬ᄫ‫ݭ‬ᕫϔḋᖿDŽ xuésheng gbn lfoshc xig-zì xig-de yíyàng kuài

8j

ᄺ⫳‫ݭ‬ᄫ䎳㗕Ꮬ‫ݭ‬ᕫϔḋᖿDŽ xuésheng xig-zì gbn lfoshc xig-de yíyàng kuài

8k

៥Ӏⳟкⳟᕫ≵᳝Ҫ໮DŽ wimen kàn-she kàn-de méiyiu ta dud ‘We do not read as much as he does.’

8l

៥Ӏ≵᳝Ҫⳟкⳟᕫ໮DŽ wimen méiyiu ta kàn-she kàn-de dud

8m ៥Ӏⳟк≵᳝Ҫⳟᕫ໮DŽ wimen kàn-she méiyiu ta kàn-de dud

20 Speed Up Your Chinese Students sometimes skip the V-ᕫ de part in these comparative patterns. Remember: the V-ᕫ de must be used in compared behaviors. While the V-Obj. phrase may be omitted if it is clear from the context, the V-ᕫ de part cannot. 8n is unacceptable in Mandarin. 8n

* ៥⠌⠌䎳៥ཛྷཛྷ‫خ‬㦰ϔḋདDŽ wi bàba gbn wi mama zuò-cài yíyàng hfo

‘My dad cooks as well as my mom.’

៥⠌⠌䎳៥ཛྷཛྷ‫خ‬㦰‫خ‬ᕫϔḋདDŽ wi bàba gbn wi mama zuò-cài zuò-de yíyàng hfo

Another common error is to use an adverbial word or phrase such as hGn ‘very’ (as in 8o) or fBicháng ‘unusually’ (8p) to modify the descriptive adjec­ tive in a comparison. Again, only unmodified descriptive adjectives can be used in a comparative structure. Modified descriptive adjectives, such as those in 8o–p, are incompatible with any comparative structure. To correct these mistakes, one needs to remove the adverbs. 8o

㗕Ꮬ䇈Ё᭛↨ᄺ⫳䇈ᕫ*ᕜᖿDŽ lfoshc shud-zhdngwén bh xuésheng shud-de hgn kuài ‘The teacher speaks Chinese ?very faster than the students do.’ 㗕Ꮬ䇈Ё᭛↨ᄺ⫳䇈ᕫᖿDŽ lfoshc shud-zhdngwén bh xuésheng shud-de kuài

8p

៥ⱘৠᄺ䎳៥㗗䆩㗗ᕫ* ϔḋ䴲ᐌདDŽ

wi de tóngxué gbn wi kfo-shì kfo-de yíyàng fbicháng hfo

?‘My classmate and I tested the same unusually well.’

៥ⱘৠᄺ䎳៥㗗䆩㗗ᕫϔḋདDŽ wi de tóngxué gbn wi kfo-shì kfo-de yíyàng hfo

When comparing two parties in their conduct of an action, use the structure: V-Obj. + V-ᕫ de. You may add three variations on this structure to each of the comparative patterns 8a–c.

For related topics, see §§6, 7, and 45.

Exercises EXERCISE 10. The duplicated form of the verb phrase has three patterns. Translate each sentence into Chinese, using all three patterns. 1 2 3

My mom sings much better than I do. The younger brother runs as fast as the older brother does. Adults do not sleep as much as children do.

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EXERCISE 11 (§§6–8). Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3 4 5 6

He is three inches taller than his younger sister. April is a little warmer than March. His cell phone is as new as mine. Shandong cuisine is not as spicy as Sichuan cuisine. The daughter plays chess better than her father. He eats as much as I do. But he is not as chubby as I am.

§9.

The ‫ ڳ‬bF construction (i): its usage

The ᡞ bF construction has no direct equivalent in English. To illustrate its function, let us first compare the two ways, shown by 9a–b, of expressing ‘he has broken his tea cup’ in Mandarin. 9a

The normal word order: Subj. + V + Obj. Ҫ [Subj.] ᠧ⸈њ[V] Ҫⱘ㤊ᵃ [Obj.]DŽ ta df-pò-le tade chábbi

9b

The ᡞ bF construction: Subj. + ᡞ-Obj. + V, where ᡞ bF transposes the object to a position between the subject and the verb. Ҫ [Subj.] ᡞҪⱘ㤊ᵃ [Obj.] ᠧ⸈њ[V]DŽ ta bf tade chábbi df-pò-le

While these two sentences, 9a–b, can be translated identically into English, their different emphases become apparent when one looks at the questions that 9a and 9b answer: 9a answers the question ‘What happened?’ � He broke his tea cup. 9b answers the question ‘What did he do to his tea cup?’ � He broke it. The Chinese character ᡞ bF as a verb means ‘grasp; hold.’ The bF construc­ tion may be read literally as ‘Subj. grasps Obj. and does V (to/with it).’ The function of the bF structure 9b hence emphasizes the result: how the action affects the transposed object. Based on this function, this construction has two constraints: i) The bF-Obj., which is also the object of the verb, must be a specific, i.e. definite, noun phrase, such as Ҫⱘ㤊ᵃ tAde chábBi ‘his tea cup,’ or 䙷ᴀк nèi-bGn-shE ‘that book,’ etc. Quantified noun phrases, such as ϔϾ㤊ᵃ yC-ge-chábBi ‘one tea cup’ or Ѩᴀк wJ-bGn-shE ‘five books,’ cannot be used as the bF-Obj. since quantified noun phrases are indefinite in Mandarin (see §37); ii) The verb of the bF construction must be a transitive action verb. Certain verbs

22 Speed Up Your Chinese that express motion, emotion, cognition, or existence, such as those in 9c, are therefore incompatible with the bF construction. 9c

Verbs that cannot be used in the bF construction ᴹ lái ‘come’; এ qù ‘go’; ⾏ᓔ líkAi ‘depart’; ୰⃶ xHhuan ‘like’; ᗩ pà ‘fear’; 㾝ᕫ juéde ‘feel’; ‫ ڣ‬xiàng ‘resemble’; ⶹ䘧 zhCdào ‘know’; 䅸䆚 rènshi ‘recognize’; 䆄ᕫ jìde ‘remember’; ᰃ shì ‘be’; ೼ zài ‘be at’; ᳝ yIu ‘there is/are’

The bF construction is commonplace when: 9d

the sentence contains a directional complement: ҪӀᡞкḠᨀߎএњDŽ tamen bF shezhud ban-chequ le

‘They moved the desk out.’

9e

the verb takes both direct and indirect objects: 䇋ԴᡞֵѸ㒭ᴢ‫⫳ܜ‬DŽ qhng nh bF xìn jiao-ggi Lh xiansheng

‘Please hand the letter to Mr. Li.’

9f

both an object and a place word are used: Ьᅶᡞㆅᄤᬒ೼㸠ᴢᶊϞDŽ chéngkè bF xiangzi fàng-zài xínglijià shang

‘Passengers put their suitcases on the luggage rack.’

9g–j are errors that misuse the ᡞ bF construction. Their English translations note what the writers wanted to say. None of these ideas needs to use the bF construction. 9g

Ҫᡞཌྷⱘৡᄫ *ⶹ䘧њDŽ

ta bF tade míngzi zhcdào le

� Problem: zhCdào ‘know’ is a verb of cognition rather than action, which does not act upon the bF-Obj. tAde míngzi ‘her name.’ Ҫⶹ䘧њཌྷⱘৡᄫDŽ ta zhcdào le tade míngzi

‘He has learned her name.’

9h

៥ * ᡞⳟк㾝ᕫᕜ᳝ᛣᗱDŽ wi bF kàn-she juéde hgn yiuyìsi

� Problems: i) kàn-shE ‘read (books)’ is a verb phrase which cannot be used as the bF-Obj.; ii) juéde ‘feel’ is a verb that shows emotions and here it indicates a predicate, juéde hGn yIuyìsi ‘feel interesting,’ which is a comment and does not directly act upon the bF-Obj. ៥㾝ᕫⳟкᕜ᳝ᛣᗱDŽ wi juéde kàn-she hgn yiuyìsi

‘I think reading is (very) interesting.’

Simple sentences 9i

23

៥ᕜ㌃ˈᛇ *ᡞҞ໽ϟजӥᙃӥᙃDŽ

wi hgn lèi, xifng bF jcntian xiàwj xiexi xiexi

Problem: xiExi xiExi ‘rest a bit’ is an intransitive verb phrase that certainly does not act upon the time word jCntiAn xiàwJ ‘this afternoon.’ ៥ᕜ㌃ˈҞ໽ϟजᛇӥᙃӥᙃDŽ wi hgn lèi, jcntian xiàwj xifng xiexi xiexi ‘I am tired. I want to rest a bit this afternoon.’

The problem in 9j is the indefinite bF-Obj. yí-ge píngguI ‘an/one apple.’ As mentioned above, the bF-Obj. must have a definite/specific reference; and in Mandarin quantified noun phrases are indefinite (see §37). A sentence of the normal [Subj. + V + Obj.] word order is a more natural way. 9j

᯼໽៥ * ᡞϔϾ㣍ᵰৗњDŽ zuótian wi bF yí-ge pínggui chc-le

᯼໽៥ৗњϔϾ㣍ᵰDŽ zuótian wi chc-le yí-ge pínggui

‘Yesterday I ate an apple.’

The verb of the ᡞ bF construction must be a transitive action verb. Verbs that express motion, emotion, cognition, or existence are incompatible with this structure. The bF-Obj. cannot be a quantified noun phrase.

For related topics, see §§10, 11, and 37.

§10. The ‫ ڳ‬bF construction (ii): other elements and the verb phrase While the basic form of the ᡞ bF construction is [Subj. + ᡞ bF-Obj. + V], 10a elaborates the structure and shows that other possible elements, such as a negation, auxiliary verb, adverb, or time phrase, should appear before the bFObj. and that the verb in the bF construction ought to be a verb phrase. 10a

Subj. + (Neg./Aux./Adv./time-when) + ᡞ bF-Obj. + VP

In this section, we analyze two structural details: i) the other elements that appear immediately before the bF-Obj.; and ii) variations in the verb phrase. First, these are the elements that, if necessary, the bF-Obj.: negations ϡ bù or ≵ méi; auxiliary 㛑 néng ‘can,’ ᑨ䆹 yCnggAi ‘should,’ or ᛇ xiFng ゟࠏ lìkè ‘immediately,’ г yG ‘also,’ ‫ ܜ‬xiAn ‘first,’

appear immediately before verbs such as Ӯ huì ‘will,’ ‘think of’; adverbs such as or Ꮖ㒣 yHjCng ‘already’; and

24 Speed Up Your Chinese chronological time words such as ϟजϸ⚍ xiàwJ liFngdiFn ‘2 p.m.,’ ᯳ᳳ໽ xCngqCtiAn ‘Sunday,’ etc. See examples 10b–e. 10b ៥ϡᡞџᚙࡲᅠˈϡ㛑ಲᆊDŽ wi bù bf shìqing bàn-wán, bù néng huí-jia

‘If I don’t finish the work, I can’t go home.’

10c

Դᑨ䆹ᡞҪӀ䗕ࠄᴎഎDŽ nh ycnggai bf tamen sòng-dào jcchfng ‘You should escort them to the airport.’

10d ៥ ‫ܜ‬ᡞџᚙࡲᅠˈ‫ݡ‬ಲᆊDŽ wi xian bf shìqing bàn-wán, zài huí-jia

‘I first finish the work; then I go home.’

10e ཌྷҞ໽Ϟजᡞ᭄᥂ᭈ⧚དњDŽ ta jcntian shàngwj bf shùjù zhgnglh-hfo le ‘She sorted out the data this morning.’ Next, let us consider the verb phrase variations. In the bF construction the main verb cannot stand alone. It must include other elements to form a VP. There are numerous VP variations. 10f–k are common examples of various elements that follow the main verb. 10f VP = V-RVC compound 㗕Ꮬ≵ᡞ䖭ϔゴ㾷䞞⏙ἮDŽ lfoshc méi bf zhèi-yì-zhang jigshì-qcngchu

‘The teacher didn’t explain this chapter clearly.’

10g VP = V-DVC compound Դৃҹᡞϰ㽓ᨀ䖯ᴹDŽ nh kgyh bf ddngxi ban-jìnlai

‘You may move your stuff in.’

10h VP = V + ೼ zài-location ᅶҎᛇᡞҪӀⱘ䔺‫ذ‬೼䏃䖍‫ܓ‬DŽ kèren xifng bf tamen-de chb tíng zài lùbianr

‘The guests want to park their cars on the side of the road.’

10i VP = V + ࠄ dào-location + এ qù/ᴹ lái ᇣ⥟ᡞ᳟টⱘ㞾㸠䔺健ࠄᄺ᷵এњDŽ Xifo Wáng bf péngyou-de zìxíngchb qí dào xuéxiào qù le

‘Little Wang rode his friend’s bicycle to school.’

10j VP = V + 㒭 gGi-indirect Obj. ៥ᡞࡳ䇒Ѹ㒭㗕ᏜњDŽ wi bf gdngkè jiao ggi lfoshc le

‘I handed my homework to the teacher.’

Simple sentences 10k

25

VP = V + verb suffix њ le ៥ᡞҪⱘৡᄫᖬњDŽ wi bf tade míngzi wàng le

‘I forgot his name.’

10l–n are common errors. In each case, the asterisk marks the specific problem. The idea that each of these sentences means to express is in parentheses. 10l

䇋Դ฿ϔᓴ㸼ˈᡞԴⱘഄഔ੠ྦྷৡ * ⏙ἮDŽ qhng nh tián yì-zhang-bifo, bf nhde dìzhh hé xìngmíng qcngchu (‘Please fill out the form and write your name and address clearly.’) Problem: The main verb is missing. qCngchu ‘clear(ly)’ here is the RVC but not the main verb. The verb phrase needs to be a V-RVC: xiG-qCngchu ‘write-clearly.’ 䇋Դ฿ϔᓴ㸼ˈᡞԴⱘഄഔ੠ྦྷৡ‫⏙ݭ‬ἮDŽ qhng nh tián yì-zhang-bifo, bf nhde dìzhh hé xìngmíng xig-qcngchu

10m

ཌྷᡞཌྷⱘ䔺 * ϡᛇ‫׳‬㒭ৠᄺDŽ ta bf tade chb bù xifng jiè-ggi tóngxué (‘She doesn’t want to lend her car to her schoolmate.’) Problem: The negative auxiliary phrase bù xiFng ‘not want’ is misplaced. It should appear before the bF-Obj., not before the main verb phrase jiè-gGi ‘lend to.’ ཌྷϡᛇᡞཌྷⱘ䔺‫׳‬㒭ৠᄺDŽ ta bù xifng bf tade chb jiè-ggi tóngxué

10n

៥ᡞ䖭Ͼᕜ䲒ⱘ䯂乬 * ಲㄨϡߎᴹDŽ wi bf zhèi-ge hgn-nán-de wèntí huídá-bù-chelái

(‘I can’t answer this very difficult question.’)

Problem: The bF construction does not take the potential form (see §44) as the verb phrase. In this case the negative potential form huídá-bù-chElái ‘unable to answer’ stresses the impossibility of the action itself and does not affect the bF-Obj. To express the idea in parentheses, one needs to avoid the bF construction. ៥ಲㄨϡߎᴹ䖭Ͼᕜ䲒ⱘ䯂乬DŽ wi huídá-bù-chelái zhèi-ge hgn-nán-de wèntí

A negation, auxiliary verb, adverb, or time phrase appears immediately before the ᡞ bF-Obj. The main verb cannot stand alone; it must appear in a verb phrase, as in 10f–k.

For related topics, see §§9, 11, 38, 41, 42, 43, and 44.

26 Speed Up Your Chinese

Exercises EXERCISE 12 (§§9–10). If possible, rewrite the sentences using the ᡞ bF con struction. (Note that some of them cannot be changed to the bF construction.) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

៥पњ៥ⱘᮻ䔺DŽ

䖭Ͼ㒗дˈԴҞ໽ϔᅮᕫ‫خ‬ᅠDŽ

䖭ӊџˈԴਞ䆝䇕њ˛

៥㾝ᕫ䙷Ͼᬙџ᳝䍷ᵕњDŽ

䇋Դᠧᓔ⬉㾚ˈདϡད˛

៥ӀҞ໽⥽‫ܓ‬ᕫⳳ催݈DŽ

བᵰ᳝䯂乬ˈ䇋ԴВ䍋᠟ᴹ DŽ

Դⱘࡳ䇒ˈԴᯢ໽Ѹ㒭㗕Ꮬ৻DŽ

Ҫএᑈ໻ᄺ↩ϮњDŽ

Ϟ䇒ⱘヨ䆄ˈ៥୰⃶䆄೼кϞDŽ ᠔᳝ⱘᮄᕅ⹳ˈҪӀ䛑‫׳‬䍄њ DŽ ଚᑫ䗕ᴹњ㗕Ҏфⱘϰ㽓DŽ

EXERCISE 13. Translate into Chinese, using the ᡞ bF construction.

1 2 3 4 5 6

They don’t want to open the window.

Please move the chairs out.

She has already forgotten my phone number.

You can’t park (your car) here.

I saw the problem much too simply.

I didn’t bring the computer back home.

§11.

The passive construction

11a illustrates the structure of a passive sentence in Mandarin. In this structure, one of three prepositions, 㹿 bèi, 䅽 ràng, or ি jiào, indicates the passive voice. The subject of the sentence is the recipient of the action, or the thing acted upon, whereas the object of the preposition, which is optional for bèi but obligatory for both ràng and jiào, is the agent of the action. 11b–d are examples of the passive construction. 11a Subj.[recipient] + 㹿 / 䅽/ ি-Obj.[agent] + VP 11b 㸷᳡㹿 䲼 ⎟⑓њDŽ ycfu bèi (yj) lín-shc le ‘The clothes are soaked (by the rain).’

Simple sentences 11c

䪅䅽䌐ً䍄њDŽ qián ràng zéi tdu-ziu le ‘The money is stolen by the thief.’

11d

㗕㫵ি㗕ယ偖њϔ乓DŽ Lfo Cài jiào lfopo mà-le yí-dùn ‘Old Cài was scolded by his wife.’

27

The preposition bèi, regarded in most grammar books as the main passive marker, usually appears in more formal speech, whereas both ràng and jiào more frequently occur in colloquial speech. Another difference between bèi and ràng/jiào, as briefly mentioned earlier, is that when bèi is used, the agent of the action does not necessarily need to be clarified, while both ràng and jiào must take an object as the agent of the action. As shown in examples 11b–d, the agent yJ ‘rain’ is optional in 11b, whereas both zéi ‘thief’ in 11c and lFopo ‘wife’ in 11d are obligatory. The passive construction has three features in common with the ᡞ bF con­ struction. First, the verbs used in the passive construction are those that act upon the recipient. Verbs that do not act upon the recipient of the action, such as those that express motion, emotion, or existence, are incompa­ tible with the passive construction (see examples in 9c). Second, the verb in the passive construction cannot stand alone; it must take other elements or complements to form a verb phrase. The passive construction employs the same set of verb phrase variations as the bF construction (see examples 10f–k). These verb phrases indicate the result of the action upon the recipient. Third, as in the bF construction, modifying words such as negations, auxiliary verbs, adverbs, and time phrases, as well as the adverb 䛑 dDu ‘all,’ (see §51) appear before the prepositions bèi, ràng, or jiào. See examples 11e–g. 11e

ԡᄤ≵㹿ऴএˈ៥ⳳ催݈DŽ wèizi méi bèi zhàn-qù, wi zhbn gaoxìng ‘The seat was not occupied. I was really happy.’

11f

㸷᳡偀Ϟ䅽䲼⎟⑓њDŽ ycfu mfshàng ràng yj lín-shc le ‘The clothes were immediately soaked by the rain.’

11g

‫ބ‬ㆅ䞠ⱘ亳⠽䛑িҪৗ‫ܝ‬њDŽ bcngxiang-lh de shíwù ddu jiào ta chc-guang le ‘All the food in the refrigerator was consumed by him.’

Grammarians often contend that the Mandarin passive construction typi­ cally refers to an unfortunate hardship suffered by the recipient of the

28 Speed Up Your Chinese action. In reality, while the passive voice is much less common than the active voice, it is not limited to describing unfavorable events. One may apply the passive construction to a variety of situations. For instance, neither 11h nor 11i refers to an unfortunate event. However, since both contain an agent, the ideas of 11h and 11i can be easily expressed in the bF construction. 11h

䔺ᄤিҪ⋫ᕫᑆᑆ‫ޔޔ‬DŽ chbzi jiào ta xh de ganganjìngjìng

‘The car was washed really clean by him.’

11i

䍄϶њⱘᄽᄤ䅽䄺ᆳᡒಲᴹњDŽ ziu-die-le de háizi ràng jhngchá zhfo-huílai le

‘The lost child was brought back by the police.’

As a final note, one should bear in mind that in Mandarin the passive construction is much less common than in English. In other words, many English passive sentences, especially those where the agent of the action is not expressed, do not translate into the Mandarin passive construction marked by the preposition bèi. The active voice simplifies the sentence and the identification of agency. The problem in 11j is that the agent of the action is missing after the preposi­ tion 䅽 ràng. Remember, if one chooses to use the preposition 䅽 ràng or ি jiào in a passive sentence, it must take an object as the agent of the action. 11j

䖭ѯᄫ *䅽‫ݭ‬ᕫᕜདⳟDŽ zhèi-xib-zì ràng xig-de hgn hfokàn ‘These characters were written very prettily.’ 䖭ѯᄫ㹿‫ݭ‬ᕫᕜདⳟDŽ zhèi-xib-zì bèi xig-de hgn hfokàn

In 11k, the adverb 䛑 dDu ‘all’ should appear before the preposition 㹿 bèi, not after it. 11k

䖭‫ܓ‬᠔᳝ⱘк㹿 *䛑ߚњ㉏DŽ zhèr suiyiude she bèi ddu fbn-le-lèi ‘All the books here were classified.’ 䖭‫ܓ‬᠔᳝ⱘк䛑㹿ߚњ㉏DŽ zhèr suiyiude she ddu bèi fbn-le-lèi

This construction shares three features with the ᡞ bF construction: i) the verb must be transitive; ii) the verb cannot stand alone; iii) modifying words appear before the prepositions 㹿 bèi, 䅽 ràng, or ি jiào. The object of the preposition is optional for bèi, but obligatory for both ràng and jiào.

Simple sentences

29

For related topics, see §§9, 10, 38, and 51.

Exercises EXERCISE 14. Rewrite the sentences in the passive construction. 1 2 3 4 5 6

ᇣًًњҪⱘ䪅DŽ ᄽᄤᐌᐌᓘണ⥽‫݋‬DŽ Ҫᡞ㲟㊩ৗњDŽ ៥≵᳝Ӳˈ䲼ᡞ㸷᳡䛑⎟⑓њDŽ ҪᏆ㒣ᡞк䖬㒭೒к佚њDŽ ᇣ↯ᡞ᠓䯈ᠧᠿᕫᕜᑆ‫ޔ‬DŽ

Check your grammar Translate these sentences into Chinese, and then check to see that you have implemented the relevant grammar points. The parenthetical numbers and letters identify the pertinent subsections and examples. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Mr. Zhang is very busy. (§1h)

This question is extremely difficult. (§1i)

There are five items (of news) in today’s paper. (§2i)

I work at a burger joint. (§3h)

This afternoon we will go to the Big Lake to swim. (§4g)

This afternoon we will be swimming at the Big Lake. (§4h)

She works at the school cafeteria every Friday afternoon for four hours.

(§5k) I study at the library every evening. (§5l) Many people believe that eating vegetables is better than eating meat. (§6j) He recognizes many more characters than I do. (§6k) Speaking Chinese is not easier than writing Chinese characters. (§6l) The teacher came ten minutes earlier than the students did. (§6m) Your computer and mine are not equally fast./Your computer is not as fast as mine. (§7l) Winter in the south is not as cold as in the north. (§7m) My dad cooks as well as my mom. (§8n) The teacher speaks Chinese faster than the students do. (§8o) My classmate and I tested equally well. (§8p) He has learned her name. (§9g) I think reading is (very) interesting. (§9h) I am tired. I want to rest a bit this afternoon. (§9i) Yesterday I ate an apple. (§9j)

30 Speed Up Your Chinese 22 23 24 25 26

Please fill out the form and write your name and address clearly. (§10l)

She doesn’t want to lend her car to her schoolmate. (§10m)

I can’t answer this very difficult question. (§10n)

These characters were written very prettily. (§11j)

All the books here were classified. (§11k)

Notes

2

Complex/compound sentences and questions

§12. Conjunctions linking compound clauses (i): If . . . , then . . . In the pattern བᵰ rúguI/㽕ᰃ yàoshì . . . ህ jiù . . . ‘if . . . , then . . .’ the pair of complementary words correlate two clauses in a compound sentence. Yàoshì is a more colloquial version of rúguI. The first clause led by rúguI or yàoshì usually expresses a condition, and the second clause containing jiù expresses a consequence, as in example 12a. If the entire sentence is a question, as in example 12b, jiù is omitted. 12a

བᵰ  㽕ᰃҪ᳝䯂乬ˈህᴹ䯂៥DŽ rúgui/yàoshì ta yiu wèntí, jiù lái wèn wi ‘If he has any questions, he will come to ask me.’

12b

བᵰ  㽕ᰃҪϡএˈ䇕এ˛ rúgui/yàoshì ta bú qù, shéi qù ‘If he doesn’t go, then who will?’

RúguI or yàoshì may be omitted, since in context jiù alone implies the first clause expressing a condition. For instance, 12a can be expressed as 12c, where rúguI or yàoshì is omitted. On the other hand, when rúguI or yàoshì is used, jiù may be omitted if there is an adverbial modifier for the second clause, e.g. yídìng ‘certainly’ or yG ‘also,’ replaces jiù in the second clause in 12d–e. 12c

Ҫ᳝䯂乬ˈህᴹ䯂៥DŽ ta yiu wèntí, jiù lái wèn wi ‘If/when he has any questions, he will come to ask me.’

12d

བᵰ  㽕ᰃԴ᳝䯂乬ˈϔᅮᴹ䯂៥DŽ rúgui/yàoshì nh yiu wèntí, yídìng lái wèn wi ‘If you have any questions, be sure to come ask me.’

32 Speed Up Your Chinese 12e

བᵰ  㽕ᰃԴ᳝䯂乬ˈгᴹ䯂៥DŽ rúgui/yàoshì nh yiu wèntí, yg lái wèn wi ‘If you have any questions, also come to ask me.’

Note that this structure can be translated into English using either the indicative or the subjunctive mood. See the translations for example 12f. 12f

བᵰ  㽕ᰃ៥᳝䪅ˈህф䙷ᴵ㠍DŽ rúgui/yàoshì wi yiu qián, jiù mfi nèi-tiáo-chuán ‘If I have money, I will buy that boat.’ ‘If I had money, I would buy that boat.’

Students need to address two details. First, in Mandarin བᵰ rúguI/ 㽕ᰃ yàoshì is a complementary part of this pattern and must appear at the beginning of the compound structure. In other words, Mandarin rúguI/yàoshì cannot be taken as an isolated equivalent to ‘if’ or ‘whether’ in English. Thus examples 12g–h are erroneous. While the English translations of both sentences are fine, the Mandarin sentences are unacceptable because yàoshì is misused in both—it is put in the middle of the sentence and treated as if it were simply equivalent to the English word ‘whether.’ 12g

*៥Ӏ䛑ϡⶹ䘧㽕ᰃ䖭Ͼ㗗䆩ᕜ䲒DŽ wimen ddu bù zhcdào yàoshi zhèi-ge-kfoshì hgn nán ‘None of us knows whether this exam is difficult.’ ៥Ӏ䛑ϡⶹ䘧䖭Ͼ㗗䆩䲒ϡ䲒DŽ(cf. §20 for this grammar point.) wimen ddu bù zhcdào zhèi-ge-kfoshì nán-bù-nán

12h

*Ҫ䯂៥㽕ᰃ៥ᯢᑈ↩ϮDŽ ta wèn wi yàoshi wi míngnián bìyè

‘He asks me whether I will graduate next year.’

Ҫ䯂៥ᯢᑈӮϡӮ↩ϮDŽ ta wèn wi míngnián huì-bú-huì bìyè

Second, jiù ‘then’ in the second clause must follow the subject if there is one in the second clause. See the following examples. 12i is erroneous because jiù is put before the subject wImen ‘we’ in the second clause. 12i

བᵰ≵᳝⛁∈ˈ*ህ៥Ӏϡ⊵㤊DŽ

rúgui méiyiu rèshuh, jiù wimen bú pàochá

བᵰ≵᳝⛁∈ˈ៥Ӏህϡ⊵㤊DŽ rúgui méiyiu rèshuh, wimen jiù bú pàochá ‘If there is no hot water, we will not brew tea.’

Complex/compound sentences and questions 33

བᵰ rúguI or 㽕ᰃ yàoshì ‘if’ must appear at the beginning of the com­ pound sentence, whereas ህ jiù ‘then’ should follow the subject, if there is one in the second clause.

For related topics, see §§17, 20, 53, and 54.

Exercises EXERCISE 1. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3

If you have time tonight, we will go to a movie. If I knew, I would tell you. If you forget her name, you will definitely feel embarrassed.

§13. Conjunctions linking compound clauses (ii): Both . . . and . . . The pattern ϡԚ búdàn . . . 㗠Ϩ érqiG/ᑊϨ bìngqiG . . . is equivalent to the English expression ‘both . . . and . . .’; or ‘not only . . . but also. . . .’ Here the com­ plementary words búdàn and érqiG/bìngqiG correlate two clauses in a compound sentence, usually stressing the greater importance of the second clause which follows érqiG/bìngqiG. ÉrqiG and bìngqiG are interchangeable. See examples 13a–b. 13a

៥Ӏⱘࡳ䇒ϡԚ໮ˈ㗠Ϩ䲒DŽ wimen-de gdngkè búdàn dud, érqig nán ‘Our homework is both heavy and difficult.’

13b

ᓴ㗕ᏜϡԚⳟкⳟᕫ໮ˈᑊϨⳟᕫᕜᖿDŽ Zhang lfoshc búdàn kàn-she kàn-de dud, bìngqig kàn-de hgn kuài ‘Teacher Zhang not only reads a lot, but also reads quickly.’

The subject of this compound structure usually precedes the conjunction búdàn, as wImen-de gDngkè ‘our homework’ in 13a and ZhAng lFoshC ‘Teacher Zhang’ in 13b illustrate. Búdàn comes at the beginning of the first clause only when the clauses have different subjects, as in both 13c and 13d. There are two subjects in these sentences: wI ‘I’ and wImen quán jiArén ‘the whole family’ in 13c; and gDngyuán-lH ‘in parks’ and jiBdào liFngpáng ‘on curbs’ in 13d.

34 Speed Up Your Chinese 13c

ϡԚ៥এˈ㗠Ϩ៥ӀܼᆊҎ䛑এDŽ búdàn wi qù, érqig wimen quán jiarén ddu qù ‘Not only will I go, but the whole family will go as well.’

13d

ϡԚ݀ು䞠ˈᑊϨ㸫䘧ϸᮕ䛑⾡ⴔ㢅DŽ búdàn gdngyuán-lh, bìngqig jibdào lifngpáng ddu zhòng-zhe hua ‘Both in parks and on curbs, flowers are profuse.’ ‘Both in parks and on curbs, flowers are all over.’

13e is a common error. Here ϡԚ búdàn is put at the beginning of the first clause; yet there is only one subject, wImen ‘we,’ for the entire compound structure. Note that while nothing is wrong with the English translation, the Mandarin sentence is awkward. 13e

*/ ? ϡԚ៥Ӏ೼ᆓ㟡ৗ佁ˈᑊϨⳟ⬉㾚DŽ búdàn wimen zài sùshè chc-fàn, bìngqig kàn-diànshì

‘We both eat and watch television in the dorm.’

៥ӀϡԚ೼ᆓ㟡ৗ佁ˈᑊϨ೼䙷‫⬉ⳟܓ‬㾚DŽ wimen búdàn zài sùshè chc-fàn, bìngqig zài nàr kàn-diànshì

‘We both eat in the dorm and watch television there.’

If there is only one subject for the entire compound structure, ϡԚ búdàn ‘not only’ should follow the subject.

For related topics, see §§3, 45, and 51.

Exercises EXERCISE 2. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3

Students must both attend class and do their homework. She both likes to read stories and to tell us about them. Not only do boys play soccer, but girls do so as well.

§14.

Conjunctions linking compound clauses (iii): Although . . . , (but) . . .

The pair of complementary words 㱑✊ suCrán . . . ৃᰃ kGshì . . . ‘although . . . , (but) . . .’ correlates two clauses that present contrasts. The subject of this compound structure precedes suCrán at the beginning of the sentence. See

Complex/compound sentences and questions 35 the subjects zhèi-zhAng-zhuDzi ‘this table’ and LFo Wáng ‘Old Wang’ in 14a and 14b respectively. The second conjunction kGshì appears at the beginning of the second clause, also as shown in 14a–b. 14a 䖭ᓴḠᄤ㱑✊ᇣˈৃᰃᕜ䌉DŽ zhèi-zhang-zhudzi sucrán xifo, kgshì hgn guì ‘Although this table is small, it is expensive.’ 14b

㗕⥟㱑✊ᢑ⚳ˈৃᰃϡୱ䜦DŽ Lfo Wáng sucrán chdu-yan, kgshì bù hb-jij ‘Although Old Wang smokes, he doesn’t drink.’

If the two clauses of this compound structure have different subjects, one subject appears after suCrán in the first clause and the other subject appears after kGshì in the second clause, as in 14c. 14c

㱑✊ᴢ໾໾୰⃶ⳟ⬉㾚ˈৃᰃᴢ‫⫳ܜ‬ϡ୰⃶ⳟDŽ sucrán Lh tàitai xhhuan kàn diànshì, kgshì Lh xiansheng bù xhhuan kàn ‘Mrs. Li likes to watch television, but Mr. Li doesn’t.’ ‘Although Mrs. Li likes to watch television, Mr. Li doesn’t.’

Note that while no single English sentence contains both ‘although’ and ‘but,’ it is grammatically correct to use their equivalents in a single Mandarin sentence, as in 14a–c. Nonetheless it is also grammatically correct to omit suCrán, with kGshì alone carrying out the basic function of the pattern. 14a, for instance, can be written as 14d. On the other hand, if suCrán appears in the first clause, without kGshì in the following one, the compound structure sounds rather awkward in most cases, as shown by 14e, even though 14e’s English translation is acceptable. 14d 䖭ᓴḠᄤᇣˈৃᰃᕜ䌉DŽ zhèi-zhang-zhudzi xifo, kgshì hgn guì ‘Although this table is small, it is expensive.’ 14e

㗕⥟㱑✊ᢑ⚳ˈ?ϡୱ䜦DŽ



Lfo Wáng sucrán chdu-yan, bù hb-jij

‘Although Old Wang smokes, (he) doesn’t drink.’

In any case, while a sentence starts with suCrán, either kGshì or a substitute Ԛᰃ dànshì ‘but’ or ै què ‘however’ ought to be used, as in examples 14f–g. Note that in distinction from the position of kGshì or dànshì, the Mandarin adverb què ‘however’ must appear after the subject of the second clause. 14f

㱑✊೒к佚᳝ϡᇥкˈԚᰃᄫ‫݌‬ϡ໮DŽ

sucrán túshegufn yiu bùshfo she, dànshì zìdifn bù dud ‘Although the library has many books, it doesn’t have many dictionaries.’

36 Speed Up Your Chinese 14g

㱑✊೒к佚᳝ϡᇥкˈᄫ‫ै݌‬ϡ໮DŽ sucrán túshegufn yiu bùshfo she, zìdifn què bù dud ‘Although the library has many books, it doesn’t have many dictionaries.’

A common error is to put the adverb ै què ‘however’ before the subject of the second clause in this compound structure, as in 14h. Remember: if one chooses to use què in the second clause and if there is a second subject, què must follow that subject. To correct the error in 14h, one can simply drop wI ‘I’ in the second clause since the same subject governs both clauses. 14h

៥㱑✊ᕜかˈ*ै ៥᳝ᕜ໮ད᳟টDŽ

wi sucrán hgn qióng, què wi yiu hgn dud hfo péngyou

‘Although I am (financially) poor, I have many good friends.’

៥㱑✊ᕜかˈै᳝ᕜ໮ད᳟টDŽ wi sucrán hgn qióng, què yiu hgn dud hfo péngyou

When used to replace ৃᰃ kGshì ‘but,’ the adverb ै què ‘however,’ must follow the subject of the second clause.

For related topics, see §53.

Exercises EXERCISE 3. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3

Although my friend has a television, he seldom watches it. Although I can speak a bit of Chinese, I don’t speak well. (using ै què) Although snow is falling, the weather is not cold. (using ै què)

§15. Sentences expressing simultaneous actions 15a and 15d are two different patterns for expressing simultaneous actions. 15a

Subj. ϔ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬yìbiAn(r) VP1ˈϔ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬yìbiAn(r) VP2 One subject; two verb phrases ‘While doing X, Subj. also does Y.’

ϔ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬yìbiAn(r) and ϔ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬yìbiAn(r) in pattern 15a are parallel conjunctions, signifying that two (or even more) actions are happening

Complex/compound sentences and questions 37 simultaneously. Note that there is one subject carrying out both (or more) actions at the same time. See examples 15b–c. 15b

៥Ӏϔ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬ଅ℠ˈϔ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬䏇㟲DŽ wimen yìbian(r) chàng-gb, yìbian(r) tiào-wj ‘We sang as we danced.’/ ‘We sang while dancing.’

15c

Ҫϔ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬ৗ佁ˈϔ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬ୱସ䜦ˈϔ䖍 ‫ⳟ ܓ‬ᮄ䯏DŽ ta yìbian(r) chc-fàn, yìbian(r) hb-píjij, yìbian(r) kàn-xcnwén

‘He ate, (and) drank a beer while watching the news.’

While the second pattern, 15d, also contains two simultaneous actions, it is different from 15a because 15d has two subjects. 15d

Subj.1 VP1 ⱘᯊ‫ ׭‬de shíhouˈSubj.2 ℷ೼ zhèngzài VP2 Two subjects; two verb phrases

‘While/when Subj.1 does X, Subj.2 is doing Y.’

The first half of this pattern is [Subj.1 + VP1] plus the time expression ⱘᯊ‫ ׭‬de shíhou ‘while. . . .’ This first clause highlights a moment that is secondary to the second clause’s continuing action (VP2). The main clause that follows has the adverb ℷ೼ zhèngzài ‘in the midst of,’ stressing the ongoing action (VP2) that Subj.2 is carrying out. The two actions in pattern 15d are interrelated in this way: at the moment when VP1 occurs, VP2 is/has been going on. See examples 15e–f. 15e

៥㒭Ҫᠧ⬉䆱ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬Ҫℷ೼ⴵ㾝DŽ wi ggi ta df-diànhuà de shíhou, ta zhèngzài shuì-jiào ‘When I called him, he was sleeping.’

15f

Ҫࠄᬭᅸⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬㗕Ꮬℷ೼ಲㄨ䯂乬DŽ ta dào-jiàoshì de shíhou, lfoshc zhèngzài huídá-wèntí

‘When he arrived at the classroom, the teacher was answering questions.’

An effective way to use either of these two patterns correctly is to start with the number of subjects—one or two? If there is one subject, use 15a. If there are two subjects, use 15d. This is also a practical method for resolving the problems in this section. The ideas the following erroneous sentences intend to express are in parentheses. 15g

(While eating breakfast, I listen to music.) * ៥ৗᮽ佁ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬ℷ೼਀䷇ФDŽ wi chc-zfofà de shíhou, zhèngzài tcng-ycnyuè Analysis: There is one subject, ‘I,’ in this sentence, thus pattern 15a, not 15d, should be used. ៥ϔ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬ৗᮽ佁ˈϔ䖍 ‫䷇਀ ܓ‬ФDŽ wi yìbian(r) chc-zfofà, yìbian(r) tcng-ycnyuè

38 Speed Up Your Chinese 15h

(While attending school, many students take part-time jobs.) * ᕜ໮ᄺ⫳ᗉ໻ᄺⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬ℷ೼ᠧᎹDŽ hgndud xuésheng niàn-dàxué de shíhou, zhèngzài df-gdng Analysis: Even though the subject ‘many students’ refers to a plural noun phrase, this noun phrase represents a single subject. Therefore, it should be pattern 15a, not 15d. ᕜ໮ᄺ⫳ϔ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬ᗉ໻ᄺˈϔ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬ᠧᎹDŽ hgndud xuésheng yìbian(r) niàn-dàxué, yìbian(r) df-gdng

15i

(My little sister texted while I was reading a book.) * ៥ྍྍϔ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬㒭៥থⷁֵˈ៥ϔ䖍 ‫ⳟ ܓ‬кDŽ wi mèimei yìbian(r) ggi wi fa-dufnxìn, wi yìbian(r) kàn-she Analysis: There are two subjects in this sentence, ‘my little sister’ and ‘I.’ Thus 15d, not 15a, is the correct pattern for expressing the idea. ៥ྍྍ㒭៥থⷁֵⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬៥ℷ೼ⳟкDŽ wi mèimei ggi wi fa-dufnxìn de shíhou, wi zhèngzài kàn-she.

To express simultaneous actions, if there is one subject, use pattern 15a: [Subj. ϔ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬yìbiAn(r) VP1ˈϔ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬yìbiAn(r) VP2]; if there are two subjects, use pattern 15d: [Subj.1 VP1 ⱘᯊ‫ ׭‬de shíhouˈSubj.2 ℷ೼ zhèngzài VP2].

For related topics, see §25.

Exercises EXERCISE 4. Choose the correct Chinese translation of each English sentence. 1

At the party the guests drank and chatted. a) 䜦ӮϞˈᅶҎϔ䖍‫ܓ‬ୱ䜦ˈϔ䖍‫ܓ‬㘞໽DŽ b) 䜦ӮϞˈᅶҎୱ䜦ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬ℷ೼㘞໽DŽ

2

He often reads when he eats. a) b)

3

When he arrived at school, she was in class. a) b)

4

Ҫᐌᐌϔ䖍‫ܓ‬ৗ佁ˈϔ䖍‫ⳟܓ‬кDŽ Ҫᐌᐌৗ佁ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬ℷ೼ⳟкDŽ

Ҫϔ䖍‫ࠄܓ‬ᄺ᷵ˈཌྷϔ䖍‫ܓ‬Ϟ䇒DŽ Ҫࠄᄺ᷵ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬ཌྷℷ೼Ϟ䇒DŽ

Many people talk on their cell phone while driving. a) b)

ᕜ໮Ҏϔ䖍‫ܓ‬ᓔ䔺ˈϔ䖍‫⫼ܓ‬᠟ᴎDŽ ᕜ໮Ҏᓔ䔺ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬ℷ೼⫼᠟ᴎDŽ

Complex/compound sentences and questions 39 5

She was driving on the freeway when the rain began. a) b)

6

䲼ϔ䖍‫ܓ‬ϟˈཌྷϔ䖍‫ܓ‬೼催䗳݀䏃Ϟᓔ䔺DŽ ᓔྟϟ䲼ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬ཌྷℷ೼催䗳݀䏃Ϟᓔ䔺DŽ

When you called, I was reading the newspaper. a) Դϔ䖍‫ܓ‬ᠧ⬉䆱ˈ ៥ϔ䖍‫ⳟܓ‬᡹DŽ b) Դᠧ⬉䆱ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬៥ℷ೼ⳟ᡹DŽ

§16. Actions in a sequence: ሌ xiAn VP1, Ᏻ zài VP2 The pattern for actions in a sequence is: [Subj. ‫ ܜ‬xiAn VP1ˈ‫ ݡ‬zài VP2]. XiAn ‘first’ precedes the first verb phrase and zài ‘then’ precedes the second one, as in examples 16a–b below. The subject of the sequential actions begins the sentence, as wI ‘I’ and wImen ‘we’ do respectively in 16a and 16b. 16a

៥‫⋫ܜ‬᠟ˈ‫ݡ‬ৗ佁DŽ wi xian xh-shiu, zài chc-fàn ‘I will wash my hands before eating.’

16b

៥Ӏ‫ܜ‬ᄺ⫳䆡ˈ‫ݡ‬䇏䇒᭛DŽ wimen xian xué-shbngcí, zài dú-kèwén ‘We will first study the vocabulary, then read the text.’

The second adverb zài is interchangeable with ✊ৢ ránhòu ‘then,’ as in example 16c. 16c

ཌྷ‫ܜ‬ৗ佁ˈ✊ৢⳟᮄ䯏DŽ ta xian chc-fàn, ránhòu kàn-xcnwén ‘She will first eat, then watch the news.’

When there is a series of actions, zài and ránhòu may appear before the second and the third verbs as in 16d. Another adverb, ᳔ৢ zuìhòu ‘finally’ may be used for the last action, as in 16e. 16d

ৗЁ令ⱘᯊ‫ܜˈ׭‬ৗ‫ޝ‬㦰ˈ‫ݡ‬ৗ⛁㦰ˈ✊ৢୱ∸DŽ chc-zhdngcan de shíhou, xian chc-liángcài, zài chc-rècài, ránhòu hb-tang ‘In a Chinese meal, one first eats cold dishes, then hot ones, and then drinks soup.’

16e

៥Ӏ‫ܜ‬ৗ‫ޝ‬㦰ˈ‫ݡ‬ৗ⛁㦰ˈ✊ৢୱ∸ˈ᳔ৢৗ⫰⚍DŽ wimen xian chc-liángcài, zài chc-rècài, ránhòu hb-tang, zuìhòu chc-tiándifn ‘We first eat cold dishes, then hot ones, and then drink the soup. Finally we enjoy the dessert.’

40 Speed Up Your Chinese Regarding their position relative to the subject of the sentence, both xiAn and zài must follow the subject. While both polysyllabic adverbs ránhòu and zuìhòu could appear before the subject, the sentence sounds smoother if they follow the subject. See example 16f. 16f

‫ܜ‬ৗ‫ޝ‬㦰ˈ‫ݡ‬ৗ⛁㦰ˈ៥Ӏ✊ৢୱ∸ˈ៥Ӏ᳔ৢৗ⫰⚍DŽ xian chc-liángcài, zài chc-rècài, wimen ránhòu hb-tang, wimen zuìhòu chc-tiándifn ‘First cold dishes, then hot ones, then we drink the soup. Finally we have dessert.’

Most common errors in this pattern occur when students put ‫ ܜ‬xiAn and/or ‫ ݡ‬zài before the subject. To correct the following mistakes, one should simply remember to put these two monosyllabic adverbs after the subject. 16g

*‫ܜ‬៥‫خ‬ᅠ៥ⱘࡳ䇒ˈ✊ৢ៥ৃҹ䎳Դএⳟ⬉ᕅDŽ xian wi zuò-wán wide gdngkè, ránhòu wi kgyh gbn nh qù kàn-diànyhng ‘First I will finish my homework; then I can go watch a movie with you.’ ៥‫خܜ‬ᅠ៥ⱘࡳ䇒ˈ✊ৢ៥ৃҹ䎳Դএⳟ⬉ᕅDŽ wi xian zuò-wán wide gdngkè, ránhòu wi kgyh gbn nh qù kàn-diànyhng

16h

ᤶᮙ㸠ᬃ⼼ᕜ咏⚺ˈ*‫ܜ‬Դᕫ᳝ᡸ✻ˈ*‫ݡ‬Դ೼ᬃ⼼ϞㅒᄫDŽ huàn lkxíng zhcpiào hgn máfan, xian nh dgi yiu-hùzhào, zài nh zài zhcpiào shàng qian-zì ‘It is really troublesome to cash traveler’s checks. First you need a passport; then you [must] sign each check.’ ᤶᮙ㸠ᬃ⼼ᕜ咏⚺ˈԴ‫ܜ‬ᕫ᳝ᡸ✻ˈԴ‫ݡ‬೼ᬃ⼼ϞㅒᄫDŽ huàn lkxíng zhcpiào hgn máfan, nh xian dgi yiu-hùzhào, nh zài zài zhcpiào shàng qian-zì

Both adverbs ‫ ܜ‬xiAn ‘first’ and ‫ ݡ‬zài ‘then’ should follow the subject.

For related topics, see §53.

Exercises EXERCISE 5. Put the parenthetical adverbs in the appropriate positions in the sentence. 1 2

(Learning Chinese, you first study pinyin, then characters.) ᄺЁ᭛ˈԴᄺᣐ䷇ˈᄺ∝ᄫDŽ ‫ ݡˈܜ‬ (Small children first learn how to walk, and then to run.) ᇣᄽᄤᄺ䍄䏃ˈᄺ䎥DŽ ‫ ݡˈܜ‬

Complex/compound sentences and questions 3 4

41

(First the old passengers get off, then the new passengers get on.) ϟ䔺ⱘҎϟˈϞ䔺ⱘҎϞDŽ ‫ ݡˈܜ‬ (You sit down first, then we will talk.) Դതϟˈ៥Ӏ䇜DŽ ‫ ݡˈܜ‬

EXERCISE 6. Translate into Chinese, using the pattern ‫ ܜ‬xiAn VP1ˈ‫ ݡ‬zài VP2. 1 2 3

She decided first to have lunch, then to return home.

First you check the map, then go.

You speak first, then I will respond.

§17. ‘As soon as . . . , then . . .’: ጙ yC VP1, ௓ jiù VP2 The pattern ϔ yC VP1ˈህ jiù VP2 indicates the immediate connection be­ tween the first and the second action, meaning ‘as soon as . . . , then . . .’ or ‘once . . . , then. . . .’ YC introduces the first verb phrase, followed by jiù and a second verb phrase. The complex sentence may have one or more subjects. See examples 17a–b. 17a

One subject: Subj. ϔ VP1 ህ VP2 ҪϔҢ೑໪ಲᴹህএⳟ⥟‫⫳ܜ‬њDŽ ta yì cóng guówài huí-lai, jiù qù kàn Wáng xiansheng le ‘As soon as he returned from abroad, he went to see Mr. Wang.’

17b

Two subjects: Subj.1 ϔ VP1ˈSubj.2 ህ VP2 ⬉䆱ϔડˈҪህ᥹њDŽ diànhuà yì xifng, ta jiù jib le ‘When the phone rang, he immediately picked it up.’

We may also see this pattern as indicating the consequence of two actions. To a degree the first action functions as the condition producing the second one, as shown by 17c–d. 17c

䲼ϔ‫ˈذ‬໾䰇ህߎᴹњDŽ yj yì tíng, tàiyang jiù che-lai le ‘As soon as the rain stopped, the sun came out.’

17d

ԴᓔࠄϟϔϾ䏃ষˈᕔেϔᢤህࠄњDŽ nh kai-dào xià yí-ge-lùkiu, wàng yòu yì gufi jiù dào le ‘Drive to the next intersection. As soon as you turn right, you will be there.’

In this pattern, both yC and jiù must follow the subject(s), as in 17e–h. The subjects are underlined.

42 Speed Up Your Chinese 17e

Դϔᠧ਀ህⶹ䘧њDŽ nh yì dfting jiù zhcdao le ‘Once you ask around, you will know.’

17f ཌྷϔ᳝䪅ህ㒭᳟টф⼐⠽DŽ ta yì yiu-qián jiù ggi péngyou mfi-lhwù ‘Whenever she has money, she buys gifts for her friends.’ 17g ϗ⚍ϔࠄˈ⬉ᕅህᓔྟњDŽ qcdifn yí dào, diànyhng jiù kaishh le ‘As soon as it was 7 o’clock, the movie began.’ 17h

៥ϔᭆˈԴህᡞ䮼ᓔᓔDŽ wi yì qiao, nh jiù bf mén kai-kai ‘Once I knock, you open the door (immediately).’

Placing ህ jiù before Subj.2 is a common error. Remember: one should always put it after the subject. 17i

Դϔ䯂ᅠ䖭Ͼ䯂乬ˈ*ህ៥ಲㄨԴDŽ

nh yí wèn-wán zhèi-ge-wèntí, jiù wi huídá nh.

‘As soon as you finish this question, *will I answer it.’

Դϔ䯂ᅠ䖭Ͼ䯂乬ˈ៥ህಲㄨԴDŽ nh yí wèn-wán zhèi-ge-wèntí, wi jiù huídá nh.

As shown in patterns 17a–b, both ϔ yC ‘as soon as . . .’ and ህ jiù ‘then’ must follow the subject of the complex sentence, or their respective subjects if there are two.

For related topics, see §§53 and 54.

Exercises EXERCISE 7. Put the parenthetical adverbs in the appropriate positions in the sentence. 1 2 3 4

(Soon after he graduated, he got a very good job.) Ҫ↩ϮᡒࠄϔϾᕜདⱘᎹ԰DŽ ϔˈህ (Today she slept as soon as she returned to the dorm.) ཌྷҞ໽ಲࠄᆓ㟡ⴵ㾝њDŽ ϔˈህ (Once the weather becomes cold, it’s easy for him to catch a cold.) ໽ব‫ˈދ‬Ҫᆍᯧᛳ‫ݦ‬DŽ ϔˈህ (The train left as soon as they stepped aboard.) ҪӀϞ䔺ˈ☿䔺ᓔњDŽ ϔˈህ

Complex/compound sentences and questions

43

EXERCISE 8. Translate into Chinese, using the pattern ϔ yC VP1 ህ jiù VP2. 1 2 3

Whenever that athlete drinks ice tea, he gets a stomachache. Once she has a little money, she will spend it. Once he explained it, we understood.

§18.

Yes/no questions and answers

As the name suggests, a yes/no question requests an answer that is either an agreement “yes,” or a disagreement, “no.” There are two basic methods to form a yes/no question: either adding the question particle ৫ ma to the end of a statement, as in 18a–c; or using both positive and negative forms of the verb/descriptive adjective in the sentence, as in 18d–g.

Method 1 Add the question particle ৫ ma to the end of any statement. Without any change in word order, this sentence thereby becomes a yes/no question. 18a 䖭ϸϾᄺ⫳ᯢᑈএЁ೑DŽ zhèi lifng-ge-xuésheng míngniánqù Zhdngguó ‘These two students will go to China next year.’



䖭ϸϾᄺ⫳ᯢᑈএЁ೑৫˛ zhèi lifng-ge-xuésheng míngnián qù Zhdngguó ma? ‘Will these two students go to China next year?’

18b ҪҞ໽‫خ‬ᕫᅠࡳ䇒DŽ ta jcntian zuò-de-wán gdngkè ‘He is able to finish his homework today.’



ҪҞ໽‫خ‬ᕫᅠࡳ䇒৫˛ ta jcntian zuò-de-wán

gdngkè ma?

‘Is he able to finish his

homework today?’

18c ᮄᓎⱘᴎഎᕜ໻DŽ xcnjiàn de jcchfng hgn dà ‘The newly built airport is big.’



ᮄᓎⱘᴎഎᕜ໻৫˛ xcnjiàn de jcchfng hgn dà ma? ‘Is the newly built airport big?’

Method 2 Use the “A-not-A” structure. The A in this pattern can be either a verb/VP, as in 18d–f, or a descriptive adjective, as in 18g. When a verb/VP/DA is followed by its negation in the same sentence, the sentence becomes a yes/no question. Note that there is no need to use the question particle ৫ ma in the A-not-A structure. Nor should the adverb ᕜ hGn ‘very’ appear before the DA in this structure, as 18g illustrates.

44 Speed Up Your Chinese 18d 䰘䖥᳝≵᳝㦰Ꮦഎ˛ fùjìn yiu-méi-yiu càishìchfng? ‘Is there a vegetable market in the vicinity?’ 18e ԴӀᰮϞⳟϡⳟ⬉㾚˛ nhmen wfnshang kàn-bú-kàn diànshì? ‘Do you watch TV in the evening?’ 18f

Դᡒᕫࠄᡒϡࠄ䙷ᴀк˛ nh zhfo-de-dào zhfo-bú-dào nèi-bgn-she? ‘Are you able to find that book?’

18g 䖭Ͼㆅᄤ䞡ϡ䞡˛ zhèi-ge-xiangzi zhòng-bú-zhòng? ‘Is this suitcase heavy?’ If the A in this A-not-A structure is a verb or a verb phrase, there is an alternative way to form the question: put the negation at the end of the sentence. See 18d′–f′. 18d′ 䰘䖥᳝㦰Ꮦഎ≵᳝˛ fùjìn yiu càishìchfng méi-yiu? ‘Is there a vegetable market in the vicinity?’ 18e′ ԴӀᰮϞⳟ⬉㾚ϡⳟ˛ nhmen wfnshang kàn diànshì bú-kàn? ‘Do you watch TV in the evening?’ 18f′

Դᡒᕫࠄ䙷ᴀкᡒϡࠄ˛

nh zhfo-de-dào nèi-bgn-she zhfo-bú-dào? ‘Are you able to find that book?’

Answers Since Mandarin lacks exact counterparts to ‘yes’ and ‘no,’ in order to answer a yes/no question, one repeats the verb/VP/DA of the question in its positive or negative form. While the minimal response is the verb/VP that answers the question, elements other than this key word are optional. See example 18h. 18h

Q: ҪҞ໽‫خ‬ᕫᅠࡳ䇒৫˛

ta jcntian zuò-de-wán gdngkè ma? ‘Is he able to finish his homework today?’ A:

‫خ‬ᕫᅠDŽ zuò-de-wán ‘(He) is able to finish.’

Ҫ‫خ‬ᕫᅠDŽ ta zuò-de-wán ‘He is able to finish.’

Complex/compound sentences and questions 45 ҪҞ໽‫خ‬ᕫᅠDŽ ta jcntian zuò-de-wán ‘He is able to finish today.’ ҪҞ໽‫خ‬ᕫᅠࡳ䇒DŽ ta jcntian zuò-de-wán gdngkè ‘He is able to finish his homework today.’ When the key word for answering a yes/no question is a descriptive adjective, the minimal response can be different degrees of this descriptive adjective. See example 18i. 18i

Q: 䙷Ͼ⬉ᕅ᳝ᛣᗱ৫˛ nèi-ge diànyhng yiuyìsi ma? ‘Is that movie interesting?’ A: ᳝ᛣᗱDŽ

yiuyìsi ‘(It is) interesting.’

ᕜ᳝ᛣᗱDŽ hgn yiuyìsi ‘(It is) very interesting.’ ᳝ᛣᗱᵕњDŽ yiuyìsi jí le ‘(It is) extremely interesting.’ ϡ໾᳝ᛣᗱDŽ bú tài yiuyìsi ‘(It is) not that interesting.’

18j is erroneous because the question particle ৫ ma is added to an A-not-A structure. To form a yes/no question, use either the question particle ma or the A-not-A structure. Not both. 18j

*ҪӮϡӮଅ℠৫˛ ta huì-bú-huì chàng-gb ma? ‘Can he sing?’ ҪӮଅ℠৫˛ ta huì chàng-gb ma? ҪӮϡӮଅ℠˛ ta huì-bú-huì chàng-gb?

Students sometimes may be confused when using a potential form (cf. §44) in a yes/no question and make an awkward sentence such as 18k, where the A-not-A structure of a simple verb ( ⳟϡⳟ kàn-bú-kàn) intrudes on a segment of the potential form (-ᕫព de-dIng). While some native speakers may admit to hearing such a sentence, 18k, in fact, sounds colloquial and is likely the pro­ duct of certain dialects. The grammatically standard A-not-A structure for a potential form is: V-ᕫ de-V + V-ϡ bù-V. Thus the correct way to ask this ques­ tion is 18l. 18k

?ԴⳟϡⳟᕫពЁ᭛к˛ nh kàn-bú-kàn-de-ding zhdngwén-she?

46 Speed Up Your Chinese 18l

ԴⳟᕫពⳟϡពЁ᭛к˛ nh kàn-de-ding kàn-bù-ding zhdngwén-she? ‘Are you able to read Chinese books?’

To form a yes/no question, use either the particle ৫ ma or the “A-not-A” struc­ ture. Not both. The A-not-A structure for a potential form is: V-ᕫ de-V + V-ϡ bù-V.

For related topics, see §§1, 2, 20, 41, 44, and 57.

Exercises EXERCISE 9. Rewrite the yes/no question using the A-not-A structure. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

㢅ᕜ㕢৫ ˛ Ҫⱘ䆱᳝䘧⧚৫˛ 䙷Ͼ⊩೑ҎӮ䇈㣅᭛৫˛ Դୱସ䜦৫˛ ԴⳟᕫពЁ᭛к৫˛ ҪӀф᠓њ৫˛ ԴӀ਼᳿ⴵᕫᕜᰮ৫˛

EXERCISE 10. Translate into Chinese using either the A-not-A structure or

the question particle ৫ ma.

1 2 3 4

Can you drive?

Do you expect to bump into him this afternoon? (Use the V-V compound

⺄ࠄ) Did you watch the news last night? Is the soup hot?

§19. Structures with interrogative words: questions and answers Mandarin interrogative words are listed in 19a. 19a ҔМ shénme ‘what’ ҔМഄᮍા‫ ܓ‬shénme dìfang/nFr ‘where’ ҔМᯊ‫ ׭‬shénme shíhou ‘when’ ા nGi(nF) ‘which’ ໮ᇥ޴ duDshFo/jH ‘how many’ ໮ᇥ䪅 duDshFoqián ‘how much (of money)’

Complex/compound sentences and questions 47 䇕 shéi(shuí) ‘who/whom’

䇕ⱘ shéide(shuíde) ‘whose’

໮ duD + Adj. ‘to what degree of . . . ’

ЎҔМ wèishénme ‘why’

ᗢМ zGnme ‘how’ Among these interrogatives, shénme ‘what’ can also combine with a noun to form more specific requests, such as ҔМ䯂乬 shénme wèntí ‘what problem?’ or ҔМ Ꮉ԰ shénme gDngzuò? ‘what (kind of) work?’ etc. Two other interrogatives, ‘where’ and ‘when,’ are actually formed in this way: ҔМ shénme + ഄᮍ dìfang ‘what + place’ = ‘where’; and ҔМ shénme + shíhòu ᯊ‫‘ ׭‬what + time’ = ‘when.’ NGi(nF) ‘which’ and duDshFo/jH ‘how many’ are usually followed by a measure word and a noun, such as ાỉᷥ nGi(nF)-kB-shù? ‘which tree?’ or ໮ᇥ/ ޴া 右 duDshFo/jH-zhC-niFo? ‘how many birds?’ Questions that use these Mandarin interrogatives have two notable characteristics: i) They do not use the question particle ৫ ma; and ii) the word order of the questions and of their answers is identical. The Mandarin interrogative word occupies the same position in the question as the answer does in the response. This second characteristic applies to all the interrogatives in 19a except for ‘why’ and ‘how.’ See the following examples. The interrogatives and their answers are underlined. Note that they appear in the same position in the question and in its answer. 19b

Q: 㤝Ϟ᳝ҔМ˛ cfo-shàng yiu shénme? ‘What is on the grass?’



19c

Q: Դএા‫ܓ‬фϰ㽓˛ nh qù nfr mfi-ddngxi?

� A: ៥এ‫ݰ‬䌌Ꮦഎфϰ㽓DŽ wi qù nóngmào shìchfng mfi-ddngxi ‘I shop at the farmer’s market.’

‘Where do you go shopping?’

A: 㤝Ϟ᳝䴆∈DŽ cfo-shàng yiu lùshuh ‘On the grass is dew.’

� A: ៥ЁजএDŽ wi zhdngwj qù ‘I will go at noon.’

19d

Q: ԴҔМᯊ‫׭‬এ˛ nh shénme shíhou qù? ‘When are you going?’

19e

Q: ાᵃ㤊ᰃԴⱘ˛ � ngi-bbi-chá shì nhde? ‘Which cup of tea is yours?’

A: Ꮊ䖍䖭ᵃᰃ៥ⱘDŽ zui-bian zhèi-bbi shì wide ‘The one on the left is mine.’

19f

Q: 䖭ᴀᄫ‫݌‬໮ᇥ䪅˛ � zhèi-bgn-zìdifn dudshfoqián? ‘How much does this dictionary cost?’

A: 䖭ᴀᄫ‫݌‬ϝकഫDŽ zhèi-bgn-zìdifn sanshí-kuài ‘This dictionary costs 30 yuan.’

48 Speed Up Your Chinese 19g

Q: 䇕এ˛ shéi qù? ‘Who will go?’



A: ៥এDŽ wi qù ‘I will go.’

19h

Q: Ҫᰃ䇕ⱘ᳟ট˛ ta shì shéide péngyou? ‘Whose friend is he?’



A: Ҫᰃ㗕ᓴⱘ᳟টDŽ ta shì Lfo Zhang de péngyou ‘He is Old Zhang’s friend.’

The last three interrogatives in 19a require separate illustrations. The answer for [ ໮ duD + Adj.] ‘to what degree of (length, height, distance, etc.)’ usually is a specific measurement, as shown in 19i. 19i

Q: ᄺ᷵⾏Ҫᆊ໮䖰˛ � xuéxiào lí ta-jia dud yufn? ‘How far is the school from his home?’

A: ᄺ᷵⾏Ҫᆊϔ㣅䞠DŽ xuéxiào lí ta-jia yì-ycnglh ‘It is one mile from the school to his home.’

Wèishénme ‘why’ demands an explanation; hence the response starts with ಴Ў yCnwèi ‘because,’ as in 19j. 19j

Q: ҪЎҔМϡⴵ㾝˛ � ta wèishénme bú shuìjiào? ‘Why hasn’t he gone to sleep?’

A: ಴ЎҪᕫ໡дࡳ䇒DŽ ycnwèi ta dgi fùxí gdngkè ‘Because he needs to review his work.’

19j′

Q: ҪᗢМϡⴵ㾝˛ ta zgnme bú shuìjiào? ‘How come he hasn’t gone to sleep?’



A: ಴ЎҪᕫ໡дࡳ䇒DŽ ycnwèi ta dgi fùxí gdngkè ‘Because he needs to review his work.’

The last interrogative, zGnme ‘how,’ has three related denotations, as in 19k. 19k

i) ‘how come,’ which is similar to wèishénme ‘why.’ See sentence 19j′ above where zGnme replaces wèishénme and the question basically remains the same. ii) ‘how,’ which seeks corresponding explanations or responses, as in ‘how to do something,’ e.g. ᗢМ‫ خ‬zGnme-zuò? ‘how does one do . . . ?’; ᗢМ⫼ zGnme-yòng ‘how does one use (it)?’; or ᗢМএ zGnme-qù ‘how does one get to . . . ?’ etc. iii) ‘how is it,’ as in the idiomatic phrase ᗢМḋ zGnmeyàng, e.g. ᳔䖥ᗢМḋ˛ zuìjìn zGnmeyàng? ‘how is everything lately?’ or ୱϔ⚍‫ܓ‬㤊ˈᗢМḋ˛ hB-yìdiFnr-chá, zGnmeyàng? ‘how about some tea?’ (lit. ‘Have some tea, how is it?’)

Students tend to make the mistakes illustrated in 19l–m; namely, erroneous word order. The errors exist because they attempt word-by-word translations from English by putting the Mandarin interrogative at the beginning of the question.

Complex/compound sentences and questions 49 19l

䇋䯂ˈ* ҔМ䷇Ф䖭ᓴ‫Ⲭܝ‬᳝˛៥ᛇ䆩਀ϔϟDŽ qhngwèn, shénme ycnyuè zhèi-zhang guangpán yiu? wi xifng shìtcng-yíxià (Intending to say: ‘Excuse me, what music is on this CD? I’d like to sample it.’) Analysis: The interrogative word shénme yCnyuè ‘what music’ should follow the verb yIu. Remember: except for ‘why’ and ‘how,’ the Mandarin interrogative occupies the same position in the question as the answer does in the response. For example, we suppose the answer to this question is, ‘The CD has Japanese folksongs (on it),’ which is 䖭ᓴ‫Ⲭܝ‬ ᳝᮹ᴀ⇥℠ zhèi-zhAng guAngpán yIu RìbGn míngB. Note that as the object of the verb yIu, the answer RìbGn míngB ‘Japanese folksongs’ follows the verb. This is the position where the interrogative word shénme yCnyuè ‘what music’ should therefore be in the question. 䇋䯂ˈ䖭ᓴ‫Ⲭܝ‬Ϟ᳝ҔМ䷇Ф˛៥ᛇ䆩਀ϔϟDŽ qhngwèn, zhèi-zhang guangpán-shang yiu shénme ycnyuè, wi xifng shìtcng-yíxià

19m

* ા‫ܓ‬Դ୰⃶এфϰ㽓˛ nfr nh xhhuan qù mfi-ddngxi (Intending to say: ‘Where do you like to go shopping?’ Analysis: The interrogative nFr ‘where’ is the object of the verb qù ‘go.’ It therefore follows the verb qù. Again, this is where the answer is expected to be, e.g. এଚᑫ qù shAngdiàn ‘go to store’ or এ䍙Ꮦ qù chAoshì ‘go to supermarket.’ Դ୰⃶এા‫ܓ‬фϰ㽓˛ nh xhhuan qù nfr mfi-ddngxi

Another common error is to use the unnecessary yes/no question particle ৫ ma or the A-not-A structure with the interrogative, as in 19n–o below. Because these two elements pertain to the yes/no question, they should not be used in questions that use interrogatives. 19n

* ԴҔМᯊ‫׭‬᳝Ё᭛䇒৫˛ nh shénme shíhou yiu zhdngwénkè ma? (Intending to say: ‘When do you have Chinese class?’) ԴҔМᯊ‫׭‬᳝Ё᭛䇒˛ nh shénme shíhou yiu zhdngwénkè

19o

*ᇣᴢ䎳䇕এϡএ਀ⓨ䆆˛

Xifo Lh gbn shuí qù-bú-qù tcng yánjifng?

(Intending to say: ‘With whom is Little Li going to listen to the speech?’) ᇣᴢ䎳䇕এ਀ⓨ䆆˛ Xifo Lh gbn shuí qù tcng yánjifng?

50 Speed Up Your Chinese

Except for ‘why’ and ‘how,’ an interrogative word occupies the same position in the question as the answer does in the response. Neither the yes/no question particle ৫ ma nor the A-not-A structure should be used with any interrogative word.

For related topics, see §§18 and 20.

Exercises EXERCISE 11. For each of the sentences, ask a question about the underlined segment. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

䙷Ͼཇᄽ‫ܓ‬ᰃҪྍྍDŽ

䖭ᰃ⥟໻໿ⱘ⬉䆱োⷕDŽ

↨ᇨᰃࡴᣓ໻ҎDŽ

៥Ӏᐌᐌএम⠽佚DŽ

៥Ӏ᯳ᳳѨЁजᓔӮDŽ

㺭ᄤ प ϝकഫDŽ

ཌྷᰃग़৆ϧϮDŽ

Ё᭛⧁᳝Ѩक໮Ͼᄺ⫳DŽ

䙷䕚㑶㡆ⱘ䔺ᰃ㗕ᴢⱘDŽ

ҪӀത݀Ѹ䔺এᴎഎDŽ

EXERCISE 12. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3 4 5

How many days are there in a year? Whose cell phone is this? Where does she often eat dinner? What class do you have today? Which song is your favorite?

§20. The object clauses of the verb ᒀࡸ zhCdào ‘know’ The cognitive verb ⶹ䘧 zhCdào ‘know (about a fact),’ either in its positive, nega­ tive, or interrogative form, often takes an object clause to elaborate factual knowledge in a sentence such as ‘I (don’t) know whether he is at home’ or ‘Do you know when the train arrives?’ In Mandarin the object clauses of the verb zhCdào by themselves are direct questions. Attached to the verb zhCdào, they become indirect questions within the same structure. See 20b–c.

Complex/compound sentences and questions 51 20a Ҫ೼ᆊ䖬ᰃߎএњ˛ ta zài-jia háishì cheqù le?

‘Is he home or has he gone out?’

20b ៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧Ҫ೼ᆊ䖬ᰃߎএњDŽ wi (bù) zhcdào ta zài-jia háishì cheqù le?

‘I (don’t) know whether he is home or has gone out.’

20c Դⶹ䘧ϡⶹ䘧Ҫ೼ᆊ䖬ᰃߎএњ˛ nh zhcdào bù zhcdào ta zài-jia háishì cheqù le? ‘Do you know whether he is home or has gone out?’ 20b could be the answer to the direct question 20a. Note that 20a, as underlined, becomes the object clause of the verb zhCdào in 20b. This is also true of the interrogative form of zhCdào, in 20c. As discussed in the previous two sections, there are two other types of direct questions: yes/no questions and questions using interrogative words. Once one grasps their respective structures, the correct way to form an object clause of zhCdào follows naturally. See the following two groups.

ᒀࡸ zhCdào + A-not-A structure The underlined clause is a yes/no question, in the A-not-A structure. 20d ៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧ҪӀୱϡୱ੪ଵDŽ wi (bù) zhcdào tamen hb-bù-hb kafbi ‘I (don’t) know whether they drink coffee.’ 20e ៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧䚂ሔ⾏䖭‫ܓ‬䖰ϡ䖰DŽ wi (bù) zhcdào yóujú lí zhèr yufn-bù-yufn ‘I (don’t) know whether the post office is far from here.’ 20f ៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧ཌྷҞ໽ⳟᕫᅠⳟϡᅠ䙷ᴀкDŽ wi (bù) zhcdào ta jcntian kàn-de-wán kàn-bù-wán nèi-bgn-she ‘I (don’t) know whether she can finish reading that book today.’

ᒀࡸ zhCdào + interrogative The underlined clause is a question using an interrogative word. 20g ៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧䙷ϾҎᰃ䇕DŽ wi (bù) zhcdào nèi-ge-rén shì shéi ‘I (don’t) know who that person is.’

52 Speed Up Your Chinese 20h ៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧ԴᓳᓳিҔМৡᄫDŽ wi (bù) zhcdào nh dìdi jiào shénme míngzi ‘I (don’t) know what your younger brother is called.’ 20i ៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧ҪӀҔМᯊ‫׭‬ಲᴹDŽ wi (bù) zhcdào tamen shénme shíhou huílai

‘I (don’t) know what time they will return.’

20j ៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧ԴЎҔМ䗝њ䖭䮼䇒DŽ wi (bù) zhcdào nh wèishénme xufn le zhèi-mén-kè ‘I (don’t) know why you chose this course.’ 20k ៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧䖭⾡䔺प໮ᇥ䪅DŽ wi (bù) zhcdào zhèi-zhing-chb mài dudshfoqián ‘I (don’t) know how much this kind of car costs.’ The cause of these common mistakes is word-by-word translation from English, as shown in 20l–o. In both 20l and 20m yàoshì is directly translated as ‘whether/if’ and put in the middle of the sentence. To the English sentence ‘I don’t know whether/if . . . ,’ the object clause of the verb ⶹ䘧 zhCdào ‘know’ should be a yes/no question in the A-not-A structure (see the translations of 20d–f). In the case of 20l, it is ‘does his work go smoothly?’ tA gDngzuò shùnlì-bú-shùnlì? There is no need for the word ‘whether/if’ in Mandarin. Note also that the erroneous object clause in 20m must be amended to an A-not-A structure. 20l

៥ϡⶹ䘧*㽕ᰃҪᎹ԰乎߽DŽ wi bù zhcdào yàoshì ta gdngzuò shùnlì ៥ϡⶹ䘧ҪᎹ԰乎߽ϡ乎߽DŽ wi bù zhcdào ta gdngzuò shùnlì-bú-shùnlì ‘I don’t know whether his work goes smoothly.’

20m

Դⶹ䘧ϡⶹ䘧*㽕ᰃҪҞ໽ϟज೼ᆊ˛ nh zhcdào-bù-zhcdào yàoshì ta jcntian xiàwj zài jia? Դⶹ䘧ϡⶹ䘧ҪҞ໽ϟज೼ϡ೼ᆊ˛ nh zhcdào-bù-zhcdào ta jcntian xiàwj zài-bú-zài jia? ‘Do you know whether he is at home this afternoon?’

The object clauses in both 20n and 20o are questions using interroga­ tives. Again, the problem in 20n–o is that both follow the English word order. Remember: Mandarin interrogatives do not stand at the beginning of the question but in the same position as the answer does in the response (see §19). For example, in the case of 20n, ‘what is the teacher saying?’ is lFoshC shuD shénme? And this direct question becomes the object clause of zhCdào.

Complex/compound sentences and questions 53 20n

Ϟ䇒ⱘᯊ‫׭‬៥ϡⶹ䘧*ҔМ㗕Ꮬ䇈DŽ shàng-kè de shíhòu wi bù zhcdào shénme lfoshc shud Ϟ䇒ⱘᯊ‫׭‬៥ϡⶹ䘧㗕Ꮬ䇈ҔМDŽ shàng-kè de shíhòu wi bù zhcdào lfoshc shud shénme ‘In class, I don’t know what the teacher is saying.’

20o

៥ϡⶹ䘧*໮ᇥ䪅䙷ᴀЁ᭛ᄫ‫݌‬पDŽ wi bù zhcdào dudshfoqián nà-bgn zhdngwén zìdifn mài ៥ϡⶹ䘧䙷ᴀЁ᭛ᄫ‫݌‬प໮ᇥ䪅DŽ wi bù zhcdào nà-bgn zhdngwén zìdifn mài dudshfoqián

‘I don’t know how much that Chinese dictionary sells for.’

The object clauses after ⶹ䘧 zhCdào are by themselves direct questions. If the idea is ‘I (don’t) know whether . . . ,’ the object clause is an “A-not-A” structured yes/no question; whereas if the idea is ‘I (don’t) know who/ where/when/how . . . ,’ the object clause follows the same structure as a question with an interrogative.

For related topics, see §§12, 18, 19, 21, and 58.

Exercises EXERCISE 13. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

His parents know whether he likes that job. The students know whether the Final is difficult. We don’t know whether the plumber is coming. We also don’t know when the plumber is coming. She doesn’t know why she took a Chinese course. Do you know whether he drinks tea or coffee? Do you know what (dishes) we should order?

§21.

The two ors: a question or a statement?

In Mandarin, there are two patterns that structure ‘either . . . or . . .’ alternatives. One is a question: ‘Is it X or Y?’ The other is a statement: ‘Either (it is) X or Y.’

54 Speed Up Your Chinese

Question First, the pattern for questions is: (ᰃ shì ) . . . 䖬ᰃ háishì . . . ? The conjunc­ tions shì (which may be optional) and háishì link the two choices, X and Y, one of which will be the answer to the question. The alternatives X and Y can be various grammatical elements. 21a–c are some possibilities. 21a alternatives between subjects: (ᰃ shì ) Subj.X + VP 䖬ᰃ háishì Subj.Y + VP? Q: ᰃ ៥⋫⹫䖬ᰃԴ⋫⹫˛ (shì) wi xh-wfn háishì nh xh-wfn? ‘Am I going to do the dishes or will you?’ 21b alternatives between verb phrases: Subj. (ᰃ shì ) VPX 䖬ᰃ háishì VPY? Q: ៥Ӏ ᰃ ϟẟ䖬ᰃⳟ⬉ᕅ˛ wimen (shì) xià-qí háishì kàn-diànyhng? ‘Are we going to play chess or watch a movie?’ 21c alternatives between objects: (ᰃ shì ) Obj.X 䖬ᰃ háishì Obj.Y? Q: ៥ӀୱҔМ˛ ᰃ 㤊䖬ᰃ੪ଵ˛ wimen hb shénme? (shì) chá háishì kafbi? ‘What are we going to drink? Tea or coffee?’

A: ៥⋫DŽ wi xh. ‘I will.’

A: ⳟ⬉ᕅDŽ kàn-diànyhng. ‘Watch a movie.’

A: 㤊DŽ

chá.

‘Tea.’

For alternative questions, if the verb of the sentence is shì ‘be,’ as in example 21d, the usually optional shì at the beginning of this pattern is required, rather than optional. 21d 䙷ᰃϔ䕚᮹ᴀ䔺䖬ᰃϔ䕚⊩೑䔺˛ nèi shì yí-liàng Rìbgn chb háishì yí-liàng Ffguó chb? ‘Is that a Japanese car or a French one?’

Statement Second, the pattern for the statement ‘either (it is) X or Y’ is: X ៪㗙 huòzhG Y, 䛑 dDu. . . . In this pattern, the conjunction huòzhG marks a choice between two or more options; whereas the follow-up adverb dDu ‘either/all’ introduces a complementary phrase as in ‘either/all would be fine.’ The choices in ‘X huòzhG Y, dDu . . .’ also can rely on various grammatical elements. See examples 21e–g, which can likewise be the responses to examples 21a–c respectively if the answers to those questions happen to be ‘either would be fine.’

Complex/compound sentences and questions 55 21e ៥⋫⹫៪㗙Դ⋫⹫ˈ䛑ৃҹDŽ wi xh-wfn huòzhg nh xh-wfn, ddu kgyh ‘I’ll wash the dishes, or you do them: either would be OK.’ 21f ϟẟ៪㗙ⳟ⬉ᕅˈ䛑㸠DŽ xià-qí huòzhg kàn-diànyhng, ddu xíng ‘Playing chess or watching a movie: either is fine.’ 21g 㤊៪㗙੪ଵˈ䛑དDŽ chá huòzhg kafbi, ddu hfo ‘Tea or coffee, either is fine with me.’ Sometimes more than one huòzhG is used, depending on the number of choices, as in example 21h. 21h ៥Ӏϟẟˈ៪㗙ⳟ⬉ᕅˈ៪㗙㘞໽ˈ䛑㸠DŽ wimen xià-qí, huòzhg kàn-diànyhng, huòzhg liáo-tian, ddu xíng ‘We may play chess, watch a movie, or chat: any possibility is fine.’ The bottom line: there are two ors in Mandarin: either háishì for alternative questions or huòzhG for statements of choices. Their functions never switch. The former marks a question, ‘Is it X or Y?’ And the latter makes a statement, ‘Either X or Y would be fine.’ The common error is to use 䖬ᰃ háishì, the “question or” for ៪㗙 huòzhG, the “statement or.” This error puzzles listeners because when háishì is uttered, a listener would expect a question, but then if a 䛑 dDu ‘either/all’ appears afterward, the whole sentence sounds very confusing. 21i is such an example, in which huòzhG, not háishì, should be used. 21i

ᇍ៥ᴹ䇈ˈᬭк ?䖬ᰃᔧ亲㸠ਬˈ?䛑ᰃ⧚ᛇⱘᎹ԰DŽ duì wi lái shud, jiao-she háishì dang-fbixíngyuán, ddu shì lhxifng de gdngzuò (Intending to say: ‘To me—teaching or being a pilot—either is an ideal job.’) ᇍ៥ᴹ䇈ˈᬭк៪㗙ᔧ亲㸠ਬˈ䛑ᰃ⧚ᛇⱘᎹ԰DŽ duì wi lái shud, jiao-she huòzhg dang-fbixíngyuán, ddu shì lhxifng de gdngzuò

On some occasions, a sentence such as 21j is spoken, which, due to the misuse of háishì (the “question or”), appears to be a question: ‘Next semester, should I study Chinese, or should I study Japanese?’ Since this is apparently not meant to be a question, again, it is huòzhG, not háishì, that should be used. 21j

?៥ϟᄺᳳᄺЁ᭛ˈ䖬ᰃᄺ᮹᭛DŽ wi xià xuéqc xué-zhdngwén, háishì xué-rìwén (Intending to say: ‘Next semester, I will study either Chinese or Japanese.’)

56 Speed Up Your Chinese ៥ϟᄺᳳᄺЁ᭛ˈ៪㗙ᄺ᮹᭛DŽ wi xià xuéqc xué-zhdngwén, huòzhg xué-rìwén

There are two patterns that structure ‘either . . . or . . .’ alternatives. 䖬ᰃ háishì is the ‘or’ for the question ‘Is it X or Y?’; whereas ៪㗙 huòzhG is the ‘or’ for the statement ‘Either (it is) X or Y.’

For related topics, see §§20 and 51.

Exercises EXERCISE 14. Select 䖬ᰃ háishì or ៪㗙 huòzhG from the squared parentheses for each sentence. 1 2 3 4

A: ៥ത݀݅≑䔺 [ 䖬ᰃˈ៪㗙] തഄ䪕এᴎഎ˛ B: Դএᴎഎˈത݀݅≑䔺 [ 䖬ᰃˈ៪㗙 ] തഄ䪕䛑ᕜᮍ֓DŽ ៥ᕜ␈DŽ䇋ᴹϔᵃ∈ [ 䖬ᰃˈ៪㗙] ϔ⫊ସ䜦DŽ Դ㾝ᕫⳟк᳝ᛣᗱ [ 䖬ᰃˈ៪㗙] ⳟ⬉㾚᳝ᛣᗱ˛ ཌྷᛇфϔ䕚᮹ᴀ䔺 [ 䖬ᰃˈ៪㗙] 䶽೑䔺DŽ

EXERCISE 15. Translate into Chinese.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Do you like the red one or the blue one?

Which do you think is more expensive, the newspaper or the magazine?

You may take this medicine either in the morning or in the evening.

She wants to learn an East Asian language, either Chinese or Japanese.

Is Mr. Li going to China or India this summer?

To me, living in the dorm or off campus is the same.

We may eat rice or noodles; either is fine.

Check your grammar Translate these sentences into Chinese, and then check to see that you have implemented the relevant grammar points. The parenthetical numbers and letters identify the pertinent subsections and examples. 1 2 3 4 5 6

None of us knows whether this exam is difficult. (§12g)

He asks me whether I will graduate next year. (§12h)

If there is no hot water, we will not brew tea. (§12i)

We both eat in the dorm and watch television there. (§13e)

Although I am (financially) poor, I have many good friends. (§14h)

While eating breakfast, I listen to music. (§15g)

Complex/compound sentences and questions 57 7 While attending school, many students take part-time jobs. (§15h)

8 My little sister texted while I was reading a book. (§15i)

9 First I will finish my homework; then I can go watch a movie with you.

(§16g) 10 It is really troublesome to cash traveler’s checks. First you need a passport; then you (must) sign each check. (§16h) 11 As soon as you finish this question, I will answer it. (§17i) 12 Can he sing? (§18j) 13 Are you able to read Chinese books? (§18k) 14 Excuse me, what music is on this CD? I’d like to sample it. (§19l) 15 Where do you like to go shopping? (§19m) 16 When do you have Chinese class? (§19n) 17 With whom is Little Li going to listen to the speech? (§19o) 18 I don’t know whether his work goes smoothly. (§20l) 19 Do you know whether he is at home this afternoon? (§20m) 20 In class, I don’t know what the teacher is saying. (§20n) 21 I don’t know how much that Chinese dictionary sells for. (§20o) 22 To me—teaching or being a pilot—either is an ideal job. (§21i) 23 Next semester, I will study either Chinese or Japanese. (§21j)

Notes

3

§22.

Temporal expressions

Time phrases (i): when (chronological) vs. how long (durational)

There are two types of time expressions in Mandarin: chronological time and durational time.

Chronological time Chronological time expressions identify time-when, i.e. a designated time for the occurrence of an action or situation. We can classify these time expressions in the subgroups 22a–h. 22a

year: Ѡ嗟嗟ܿᑈ èr líng líng bA nián ‘2008’ ᯢᑈ míng nián ‘next year’

22b

season: ᯹໽ chEntiAn ‘spring’ এᑈ໣໽ qùnián xiàtiAn ‘last summer’

22c

month: Ѡ᳜ èryuè ‘February’ 䖭Ͼ᳜ zhèi-ge yuè ‘this month’

22d

week: ᯳ᳳ໽ xCngqCtiAn ‘Sunday’ Ϟ᯳ᳳѠ shàng xCngqC’èr ‘last Tuesday’

Temporal expressions 59 22e day: th कϗো shíqC hào ‘the 17 day’ ᯼໽ zuótiAn ‘yesterday’ 22f period of a day: ᮽϞ zFoshang ‘morning’ ϟज xiàwJ ‘afternoon’ 22g clock time: ЁजकѠ⚍ϔࠏ zhDngwJ shí’èr-diFn yí-kè ‘12:15 p.m.’ 22h relative time: Ңࠡ cóngqián ‘before’ ߮ᠡ gAngcái ‘just now’ ϝ໽ҹৢ sAn-tiAn yHhòu ‘three days later’ ↩Ϯⱘᯊ‫ ׭‬bìyè de shíhou ‘when graduating’ Generally, the sequence of chronological time expressions, when they are used together, is from the largest period to the smallest: year-month-date-period of the day-hour-minute; year-season, etc. See examples 22i–k. 22i Ѡ嗟ϔ嗟ᑈϔ᳜ϔোЁजकѠ⚍Ѩߚ èr líng yc líng nián ycyuè ychào zhdngwj shí’èr-difn wj-fbn

‘12:05 p.m. January 1, 2010’

22j

Ѡ嗟嗟ܿᑈ໣໽ èr líng líng ba nián xiàtian

‘summer 2008’

22k ᯢᑈб᳜ míngnián jijyuè

‘September of the next year’

Durational time Durational time expressions refer to time-spent, i.e. the length of time an action takes. Durational time expressions usually display the structure: Num + Mea + N. Note that some of the nouns in durational time expressions can be the measures themselves, such as nián ‘year’ (22l), tiAn ‘day’ (22p), yè ‘night’ (22q), and fBnzhDng ‘minute’ (22r). In these cases, the structure of the expression is: Num + N. We can classify durational time expressions in the subgroups 22l–s. 22l year: ϸᑈ liFng-nián ‘two years’ ञᑈ bàn-nián ‘half a year’

60 Speed Up Your Chinese 22m season: ϝϾ໣໽ sAn-ge xiàtiAn ‘three summers’ 22n month: ݁Ͼ᳜ liù-ge yuè ‘six months’ 22o week: ಯϾ᯳ᳳ sì-ge xCngqC ‘four weeks’ 22p day: ϝक໽ sAnshi-tiAn ‘30 days’ ޴໽ jH-tiAn ‘several days’ 22q period of a day: ϔ Ͼ Ϟज yí (ge) shàngwJ ‘the whole morning’ ϔ໰ yí yè ‘the whole night’ 22r clock time: Ѡकಯ Ͼ ᇣᯊ èrshísì-(ge) xiFoshí ‘24 hours’ ϝकߚ䩳 sAnshi-fBnzhDng ‘30 minutes’ 22s indefinite quantities: ϔӮ‫ ܓ‬yìhJir ‘a while’ ϔѯ᮹ᄤ yìxiB rìzi ‘some days’

ᕜЙ hGnjiJ ‘a long while’

Like chronological time expressions, the sequence for durational time, when compounded, proceeds from the larger period to the smaller one. The character 䳊 líng ‘with a little extra’ notes the last remnant. See example 22t. 22t ϝᑈϝϾ᳜䳊Ѩ໽ san-nián san-ge yuè líng wj-tian ‘3 years, 3 months, and 5 days’

ܿϾᇣᯊ 䳊 Ѡकߚ䩳 ba-ge xifoshí (líng) èrshi-fbnzhdng ‘8 hours and 20 minutes’

Note: To distinguish the two types of time expressions, one may formulate them as questions. Chronological time expressions answer the question when?, i.e. at/during what time the action or situation occurs. Durational time expressions, on the other hand, answer the question how long?, i.e. the length of time the action takes. For example, regarding when, the answer may be ϝ᳜ sAnyuè ‘March,’ while regarding how long, the answer should be ϝϾ᳜ sAn-ge-yuè ‘three months.’ Similarly: 䖭ϸ໽ zhèi-liFng-tiAn ‘these two days’ (when) vs. ϸ໽ liFng-tiAn ‘two days’ (how long). The following are some contrasting pairs.

Temporal expressions 61 When?

How long?

Ҟᑈ jCn nián ‘this year’

ϔᑈ yì-nián ‘one year’

कѠ᳜ shí’èryuè ‘December’

कѠϾ᳜ shí’èr-ge-yuè ‘12 months’

䖭Ͼ᳜ zhèi-ge-yuè ‘this month’

ϔϾ᳜ yí-ge-yuè ‘one month’

䖭Ͼ᯳ᳳ zhèi-ge-xCngqC ‘this week’

ϔϾ᯳ᳳ yí-ge-xCngqC ‘one week’

st

ϔো yC hào ‘the 1 ’

ϔ໽ yì-tiAn ‘one day’

ᯢᑈ⾟໽ míngnián qiEtiAn ‘next fall’

ϔϾ⾟໽ yí-ge-qiEtiAn ‘one fall’

໰䞠 yèlH ‘during the night’

ϔ໰ yí-yè ‘one night’

ϸ⚍ liFng-diFn ‘two o’clock’

ϸϾ䩳༈ liFng-ge-zhDngtóu ‘2 hours’

ϝ⚍ϔࠏ sAn-diFn yí-kè ‘3:15’

ϔࠏ䩳 yí-kè-zhDng ‘15 minutes’

ϝ⚍कߚ sAn-diFn shí-fBn ‘3:10’

कߚ䩳 shí-fBn-zhDng ‘10 minutes’

Chronological time expressions answer the question when the action occurs, whereas durational time expressions answer the question how long in time the action takes.

For related topics, see §§23, 24, 31, 33, and 50.

Exercises EXERCISE 1. Identify the following time phrases as indicating either chronological time or durational time. 1 2 3 4

ಯकѨߚ䩳 Ҟᑈ᯹໽ ϔ᳜ϔ᮹ कѨϾ᯳ᳳ

5 6 7 8

ञϾ᳜ ᕜЙҹৢ कϾᇣᯊ ᯼໽ϟज

9 10 11 12

ϸ໽ ϝᑈҹࠡ ᯳ᳳ݁ᰮϞб⚍ ಯᑈ

§23. Time phrases (ii): periods of the day vs. a.m./p.m. Chronological time expressions include those expressed by a clock, such as Ϟजक⚍ shàngwJ shídiFn ‘ten in the morning.’ The structure of this expression

62 Speed Up Your Chinese is shàngwJ ‘morning’ + shídiFn ‘ten o’clock.’ The first word, shàngwJ, clarifies the time as 10 a.m., not 10 p.m. Unlike English, where a day can be neatly divided into two equal periods: ‘a.m.’ and ‘p.m.,’ Mandarin has a set of words that indicate the different periods of a 24-hour day, as shown in 23a–j. These are the words that appear before any particular hour on the clock, such as shàngwJ shídiFn in the previous paragraph, and ϟजϝ⚍ञ xiàwJ sAndiFnbàn ‘3:30 in the afternoon.’ 23a 23b 23c 23d 23e 23f 23g 23h 23i 23j

‫ޠ‬᰼ língchén (before dawn; in the small hours) ⏙᰼ qCngchén (early morning)

ᮽ᰼/ᮽϞ zFochén/zFoshang (morning, from dawn to 8 or 9 a.m.)

Ϟज shàngwJ (from daybreak to noon; before-noon)

Ёज zhDngwJ (midday, around noon)

ϟज xiàwJ (afternoon; from noon until sunset)

١ᰮ bàngwFn (dusk)

ᰮϞ wFnshang (evening; between sunset and midnight) ໰䞠 yèlH (as opposed to ‘daytime’; from dusk to dawn) ञ໰ /ज໰ bànyè/wJyè (midnight; around 12:00 a.m.)

As their meanings show, there is not a clear-cut break between any two adjacent time periods represented by these words. Certain parts of the adjacent portions can overlap, and these time periods vary in length. When seasons change, the beginning and end of the periods also vary. For instance, the length of xiàwJ ‘afternoon’ (23f ) varies by season. It could last until 5 p.m. during the winter or until later than 7 p.m. during the summer, since xiàwJ by definition can stretch to sunset and the sun sets at different points in different seasons. In order to tell time more accurately, one needs these words. Meanwhile one also needs to understand that choosing a word to designate a period of the day in Mandarin depends on common sense. For example, 3 a.m. can be either ໰䞠ϝ⚍ yèlH sAndiFn ‘three during the night’ (23i) or ‫ޠ‬᰼ϝ⚍ língchén sAndiFn ‘three before dawn’ (23a); but it certainly cannot be *Ϟजϝ⚍ shàngwJ sAndiFn ‘three in the mid-morning’ (23d) or * ᰮϞϝ⚍ wFnshang sAndiFn ‘three in the evening’ (23h). Following the ‘a.m.’ vs. ‘p.m.’ routine in English, students tend to use only one or two words from the above list to cover the different hours in a 24-hour day. Most commonly used are: ᮽϞ zFoshang (23c), Ϟज shàngwJ (23d), ϟज xiàwJ (23f), and ᰮϞ wFnshang (23h). This practice leads to the following errors in Mandarin. 23k

*Ϟज/ ϟजकѠ⚍ (for 12 p.m.)

shàngwj/xiàwj shí’èr difn

Problem: Neither shàngwJ (23d) nor xiàwJ (23f) matches ‘noon.’ So the accurate word should be zhDngwJ (23e). ЁजकѠ⚍ zhdngwj shí’èr difn

Temporal expressions 63 23l

*ᮽϞϸ⚍ (for 2 a.m.)

zfoshang lifng difn

Problem: The portion of time that zFoshang (23c) represents is too late for 2 a.m. ໰䞠 / ‫ޠ‬᰼ϸ⚍ yèlh/língchén lifng difn

23m

*ϟजϗ⚍ (for 7 p.m.)

xiàwj qc difn

Problem: The portion of time that xiàwJ (23f ) represents usually does not stretch to 7 p.m., although in some parts of the world the sun does not set till after 7 p.m. during the summer. Again, use these words on the basis of common sense. ᰮϞϗ⚍ wfnshang qc difn

23n

*ᮽϞक⚍ (for 10 a.m.) zfoshang shí difn Problem: The portion of time represented by zFoshang (23c) usually does not stretch to 10 a.m. ShàngwJ (23d) is more suitable. Ϟजक⚍ shàngwj shí difn

Unlike the two periods evenly divided by a.m. and p.m., Mandarin has a set of words that indicate the different periods of a 24-hour day. The choice of these words depends on common sense.

For related topics, see §§22, 24, 31, 33, and 52.

Exercises EXERCISE 2. (§§22–23) Write these time phrases in Chinese. 1 2 3 4

12 p.m. this week two hours & ten minutes 10 a.m. Monday

§24.

5 6 7 8

July 14, 1789 half a year five months 7:10 p.m.

9 10 11 12

2:30 in the morning one year later seven days 6 a.m. yesterday

Time phrases in a sentence

The two types of time expressions—chronological and durational—occur at different positions in a Mandarin sentence, relative to the main verb.

64 Speed Up Your Chinese

Chronological time Chronological time expressions, i.e. time-when, indicate the time set for the occurrence or non-occurrence of an action. While this time expression may stand before or (more often) after the subject, it always precedes the main verb of the sentence, as in examples 24a–b. Time-when can be a specific point in time, such as jiJdiFn ‘(at) nine o’clock’ in 24a; or a period of time, such as shàng-ge xCngqC ‘last week’ in 24b. 24a ҪӀб⚍Ϟ䇒DŽ tamen jijdifn shàngkè ‘They attend class at nine.’ 24b ϞϾ᯳ᳳ៥⮙њˈ≵Ϟ⧁DŽ shàng-ge xcngqc wi bìng le, méi shàng-ban ‘Last week I was sick and didn’t go to work.’ In questions, the interrogative pronoun ҔМᯊ‫ ׭‬shénme shíhou ‘when’ always appears after the subject, and precedes the main verb, as in 24c. 24c

ԴҔМᯊ‫׭‬䍄˛ nh shénme shíhou ziu? ‘When are you leaving?’

៥ ϟϾ᳜ 䍄 DŽ (wi) xià-ge yuè (ziu) ‘(I am leaving) next month.’

The general principle concerning the order of individual time words in the chronolo­ gical time expression is that larger units precede smaller units (see §22). Examples 24d–e contain chronological time expressions formed by multiple time words. 24d ៥ྤྤ᯼໽ᰮϞकϔ⚍ञ⫳њϔϾཇ‫ܓ‬DŽ wi jigjie zuótian wfnshang shíyc-difn bàn shbng-le yí-ge nk’er ‘My older sister gave birth to a daughter at 11:30 last night.’ 24e

㕢೑ϔϗϗ݁ᑈϗ᳜ಯোᅷਞ⣀ゟDŽ Mgiguó yc qc qc liù nián qcyuè sì hào xuangào dúlì ‘The United States proclaimed its independence on July 4, 1776.’

Durational time Durational time expressions, i.e. time-spent, measure how long an action takes. This time expression stands after the main verb. In a sentence, timespent may appear in either of two structures. See examples 24f–g. 24f

Subj. + V-Obj. + V + time-spent, where the durational time expression immediately follows the repeated main V. ཌྷⳟ⬉㾚ⳟњϸϾᇣᯊDŽ ta kàn-diànshì kàn-le lifng-ge-xifoshí

‘She watched television for two hours.’

Temporal expressions 65 24g

Subj. + V + time-spent (ⱘ de) + Obj., where the durational time expression serves as a modifying element with an optional ⱘ de before the object. ཌྷⳟњϸϾᇣᯊ ⱘ ⬉㾚DŽ ta kàn-le lifng-ge-xifoshí (de) diànshì

‘She watched television for two hours.’

When the verb is intransitive, i.e. it does not take an object, such as gDngzuò ‘work’ and xiExi ‘rest’ in example 24h, the durational time expression directly follows the verb itself. 24h

៥Ӏ↣໽Ꮉ԰ܿϾᇣᯊˈЁजӥᙃϔϾᇣᯊDŽ wimen mgitian gdngzuò ba-ge-xifoshí, zhdngwj xiexi yí-ge-xifoshí ‘Every day we work eight hours and take a one-hour break at noon.’

In questions, the interrogative phrase normally is either ໮䭓ᯊ䯈 duDcháng shíjiAn or ໮Й duD jiJ ‘for how long.’ Either interrogative phrase stands in the time-spent slot, as in either 24i or 24j. 24i Դ↣໽Ꮉ԰໮䭓ᯊ䯈˛ nh mgitian gdngzuò dudcháng shíjian? ‘How long do you work each day?’

ܿϾᇣᯊDŽ ba-ge xifoshí ‘Eight hours.’

24j ཌྷᄺЁ᭛ᄺњ໮Йњ˛ ta xué-zhdngwén xué-le dud jij le? ‘How long has she studied Chinese?’

ᄺњ ϝᑈњDŽ (xué-le) san-nián le ‘(She has studied) for three years.’

Combining the two time expressions A chronological time expression (time-when) and a durational time expression (time-spent) may appear in the same sentence, as shown in the examples 24k–l. Note that the former must stand before the main verb, setting the time zone when the action occurs, whereas the latter must stand after the main verb, indicating how long the action lasts. E.g. 24k states that last week (chronological time), the action ‘raining’ lasted for three days (durational time). 24k

ϞϾ᯳ᳳ䖭‫ܓ‬ϟ䲼ϟњϝ໽DŽ shàng-ge xcngqc zhèr xià-yj xià-le san-tian ‘Last week it rained here for three days.’

24l ⥟㗕Ꮬএᑈ໣໽ᬭњϸϾ᳜ ⱘ Ё᭛DŽ Wáng lfoshc qù nián xiàtian jiao-le lifng-ge yuè (de) zhdngwén ‘Last summer Teacher Wang taught Chinese for two months.’

66 Speed Up Your Chinese One common error is for students to follow English word order when they compose a sentence in Mandarin using time-when (chronological) expressions. E.g. while nothing is wrong with the English translation of 24m, its Mandarin counterpart is ill-formed because the chronological time zhèi-ge zhDumò ‘this weekend’ is put at the end of the sentence, following the English word order. Remember: the chronological time expression precedes the main verb in Mandarin. 24m

*៥এ㡱ࡴહ䖭Ͼ਼᳿DŽ wi qù Zhcjiagb zhèi-ge zhdumò ‘I will go to Chicago this weekend.’ ៥䖭Ͼ਼᳿এ㡱ࡴહDŽ wi zhèi-ge zhdumò qù Zhcjiagb

Another common mistake is that students often mix the two types of time expressions and misplace them in a sentence. In 24n, the time yí-ge xuéqC ‘one semester’ here is durational time and should be put after the verb phrase xué-zhDngwén. 24n is unacceptable since the durational time has been placed before the VP. 24n

៥ᠧㅫ *ϔϾᄺᳳࠄЁ೑এᄺЁ᭛DŽ wi dfsuàn yí-ge xuéqc dào Zhdngguó qù xué-zhdngwén ‘I plan to go to China to study Chinese for one semester.’ ៥ᠧㅫࠄЁ೑এᄺϔϾᄺᳳ ⱘ Ё᭛DŽ wi dfsuàn dào Zhdngguó qù xué yí-ge xuéqc (de) zhdngwén

In 24o, the time liù-diFn zhDng ‘six o’clock’ is chronological time and should be put before the verb phrase shuì-jiào ‘sleep.’ 24o is ill-formed because the chronological time follows the VP. In this case, if one intends to say ‘I normally go to bed at six o’clock,’ the time liù-diFn zhDng should precede the VP. On the other hand, if one intends to say ‘I normally sleep for six hours,’ the current time position in 24o is the right place for the durational time, ‘six hours.’ The time expression for ‘six hours,’ however, should be liù-ge zhDngtóu. Examples 24p–q correctly show the two ideas. 24o

៥ᑇᐌⴵ㾝ⴵ* ݁⚍䩳DŽ wi píngcháng shuì-jiào shuì liù-difn zhdng ‘I normally sleep for *six o’clock.’

24p

៥ᑇᐌ݁⚍䩳ⴵ㾝DŽ wi píngcháng liù-difn zhdng shuì-jiào ‘I normally go to bed at six o’clock.’

24q

៥ᑇᐌⴵ㾝ⴵ݁Ͼ䩳༈DŽ wi píngcháng shuì-jiào shuì liù-ge zhdngtóu ‘I normally sleep for six hours.’

Temporal expressions 67

Chronological time (when) precedes the main verb of the sentence, whereas durational time (spent) stands after the main verb. 24f and 24g show the two structural forms of durational time expressions.

For related topics, see §§5, 19, 22, and 23.

Exercises EXERCISE 3. Put the parenthetical time phrase(s) in the appropriate position(s) in each sentence. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Ҫߎএ䎥ℹˈ亢䲼᮴䰏DŽ ᮽϞ݁⚍ ៥ӀӥᙃDŽ कߚ䩳 ᓴ㗕‫↣⫳ܜ‬໽ᠧ໾ᵕᣇDŽ ϔϾ䩳༈ ៥ᓳᓳ䖛⫳᮹DŽ ϟϾ᯳ᳳ݁ Ҫ᯼໽໾㌃њˈⴵњ㾝DŽ ᭈᭈϔ໽

ཌྷ໻ᄺ↩ϮDŽ ᯢᑈ᯹໽

ҪӀᠧㅫ㒧ီDŽ क᳜

៥ӀᏆ㒣䅸䆚њ˛ ໮Й

ҪӀ೼䴲⌆ᮙ㸠њDŽ এᑈˈϸϾ᳜

޴Ͼᄽᄤ೼໪䴶⥽‫ܓ‬њDŽ Ҟ໽ˈϝϾ໮ᇣᯊ Ҫᄺ䖛Ё᭛DŽ ҹࠡˈ݁Ͼ᯳ᳳ 䚏ሙ䇋њᅶDŽ ਼᳿ˈϔ໽

EXERCISE 4. Finish each sentence, choosing an appropriate time phrase from the parentheses. 1 2 3 4 5 6

ᇣ↯ _________ এњ໣Ҹ㧹DŽ ϔϾ໣໽ˈҞᑈ໣໽ ៥Ӏ _________ ಲᆊњDŽ ϔϾ᯳ᳳˈϞϾ᯳ᳳ ਼᳿៥Ӏᠧњ _________ ⱘ⧗DŽ ϸϾ䩳༈ˈϸ⚍䩳 ϔᑈ᳝ _________DŽ कѠϾ᳜ˈकѠ᳜ ⦄೼Ϟज _________DŽ б⚍Ѡकߚ䩳ˈб⚍Ѡकߚ ៥ᅸট᯼໽ _________ ϸ⚍ᠡⴵDŽ ϔ໰ˈ໰䞠

EXERCISE 5. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3 4

We watch the news every day at 6 p.m. He gave a 20-minute speech. We have waited here for three hours! The fall semester starts in September.

68 Speed Up Your Chinese 5 6

The old man takes a half-hour nap every afternoon. That salesperson works six days a week.

§25.

Time phrase (iii): . . . ࡼဟ઀ de shíhou

The clause containing the time phrase . . . ⱘᯊ‫ ׭‬de shíhou ‘while . . . , when . . .’ complements the action in the main clause. See example 25a. 25a

ϞЁ᭛䇒ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬ᄺ⫳ϔᅮᕫ䇈Ё᭛DŽ shàng-zhdngwénkè de shíhou, xuésheng yídìng dgi shud-zhdngwén ‘While attending Chinese class, students must speak Chinese.’

What precedes . . . de shíhou has various structures. It is either a verb-object phrase, as 25a–b, or more commonly a short clause, as 25c–d. The structure [VP/clause + de shíhou] is normally followed by a comma, which means that the time specified should occur in the first of the two clauses. The subject of the complex sentence is usually at the beginning of the second clause, as in 25a–c. If there are two subjects, e.g. mAma ‘mom’ and háizi ‘the child’ in 25d, each initiates its respective clause. 25b

䆆䇒ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬㗕Ꮬ⫼њᑏ♃೒⠛DŽ jifng-kè de shíhou, lfoshc yòng-le huàndbng túpiàn ‘While lecturing in class, the teacher used slides.’

25c

೼⬉ᕅ䰶ⳟ⬉ᕅⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬ᕜ໮Ҏৗ⟚㉇㢅DŽ zài diànyhngyuàn kàn-diànyhng de shíhou, hgndud rén chc-bàomhhua ‘While watching movies in the cinema, many people eat popcorn.’

25d

ཛྷཛྷϡ೼ᆊⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬ᄽᄤৗњᕜ໮Ꮋ‫࡯ܟ‬DŽ

mama bú zàijia de shíhou, háizi chc-le hgndud qifokèlì ‘When mom was not home, the child ate a lot of chocolate.’

In English a clause led by ‘while’ may appear in the second complex sentence. For instance, an alternative translation of 25a is must speak Chinese while attending Chinese class.’ In Mandarin, the clause with . . . de shíhou must be in the first half of the sentence. 25e is unacceptable in Mandarin. 25e

៥ᐌᐌ਀䷇Фˈ* ೼೒к佚ᄺдⱘᯊ‫׭‬DŽ

wi chángcháng tcng-ycnyuè, zài túshegufn xuéxí de shíhou

‘I often listen to music while studying at the library.’

೼೒к佚ᄺдⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬៥ᐌᐌ਀䷇ФDŽ

zài túshegufn xuéxí de shíhou, wi chángcháng tcng-ycnyuè

half of a ‘Students however, complex

Temporal expressions 69

A clause with . . . ⱘᯊ‫ ׭‬de shíhou ‘while . . .’ must begin the complex sentence.

For related topics, see §§15 and 39.

Exercises EXERCISE 6. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3 4

Some people use a cell phone while driving.

He is polite when asking directions.

When we first met, she had long hair.

While travelling in Africa, I ran into an old schoolmate. ⺄ࠄ

§26.

Time phrase (iv): ጲ༄ yHqián

The time word ҹࠡ yHqián ‘in the past’ may appear in either of the following two forms in a Mandarin sentence: i) alone; or ii) placed after another time reference. First, used alone, yHqián ‘in the past, formerly, previously’ refers to a time prior to the utterance. It may stand either before or after the subject of a sentence, as in 26a–b respectively. It may also take a noun-phrase position in a comparison, as in 26c. 26a

ҹࠡ៥ϡពЁ᭛DŽ yhqián wi bù ding-zhdngwén ‘Previously I didn’t understand Chinese.’

26b

ҪӀҹࠡԣ೼䌍ජDŽ tamen yhqián zhù zài Fèichéng ‘They previously lived in Philadelphia.’

26c

៥Ӏᄺ᷵↨ҹࠡ໻໮њDŽ wimen xuéxiào bh yhqián dà dud le ‘Our school is much larger than it was before.’

Second, yHqián is placed immediately after an expression of chronological time (26d), durational time (26e), a verb phrase (26f), or a clause (26g) to form a spe­ cific time-when expression, meaning ‘before. . . .’ Attached to the word, phrase, or clause, yHqián can be shortened to ࠡ qián. The entire expression functions as an adverbial modifier to the main action. The phrase with ҹ ࠡ (yH)qián must precede the main verb phrase in a sentence, whereas the subject of the sentence may stand before or after the phrase with (yH)qián. See examples 26d–g.

70 Speed Up Your Chinese 26d Դक⚍ ҹ ࠡৃҹ೼ࡲ݀ᅸᡒࠄ㗕ᏜDŽ nh shídifn (yh)qián kgyh zài bàngdngshì zhfo-dào lfoshc ‘You may find the teacher in her office before 10 o’clock.’ 26e ཌྷϸᑈ ҹ ࠡ䖬ᰃϔϾЁᄺ⫳DŽ ta lifng-nián (yh)qián háishì yí-gè zhdngxuéshbng ‘She was still a high school student two years ago.’ 26f ৗ佁 ҹ ࠡˈԴᑨ䆹⋫᠟DŽ chc-fàn (yh)qián, nh ycnggai xh-shiu ‘You should wash your hands before dinner.’ 26g ៥↣໽এए䰶Ϟ⧁ ҹ ࠡ䘯⢫DŽ wi mgitian qù ycyuàn shàng-ban (yh)qián liù-giu ‘I walk the dog every day before going to work at the hospital.’ In the case of ҹࠡ yHqián, errors seem to arise from using English as a filter. 26h

* ҹࠡ㒗дк⊩ˈ៥䳔㽕‫ޚ‬໛དヨ๼੠㒌DŽ yhqián liànxí sheff, wi xeyào zhjnbèi-hfo bh mò hé zhh ‘?Practicing calligraphy in the past, I need to be ready with brush, ink, and paper.’ Problem: When yHqián is not placed after another time reference, it means ‘in the past,’ or ‘previously.’ The first phrase therefore means ‘when I previously practiced calligraphy,’ which is not what the sentence intends to say. To say ‘before practicing calligraphy,’ one needs to place yHqián after the verb phrase liànxí-shEfF ‘to practice calligraphy.’ 㒗дк⊩ҹࠡˈ៥䳔㽕‫ޚ‬໛དヨ๼੠㒌DŽ liànxí sheff yhqián, wi xeyào zhjnbèi-hfo bh mò hé zhh ‘Before practicing calligraphy, I need to be ready with brush, ink and paper.’

26i

Ё೑Ҏϡᐌᥦ䯳*ҹࠡϞ䔺DŽ Zhdngguórén bùcháng pái-duì yhqián shàng-chb (Intending to say: ‘Chinese people do not often stand in line before getting on buses.’) Problem: A phrase-by-phrase translation from an English sentence, the Mandarin verb phrase here creates chaos. Guessing at the intended mean­ ing of 26i, one might say ‘?Chinese people do not often get on buses before they stand in line’; or ‘?Chinese people did not often stand in line previously when they tried to get on buses.’ Neither guess would work. To express the idea of the English sentence above, place yHqián after the VP shàng-chB ‘get on buses’; then place this entire phrase with yHqián before the main VP bùcháng pái-duì ‘not often stand in line.’ Remember, the phrase with yHqián must precede the main verb phrase. Ё೑ҎϞ䔺ҹࠡϡᐌᥦ䯳DŽ Zhdngguórén shàng-chb yhqián bùcháng pái-duì

Temporal expressions 71 26j

៥೼ৗᰮ佁ⱘ*ࠡˈᐌᐌⳌᔧ体DŽ wi zài chc-wfnfàn de qián, chángcháng xiangdang è ‘Before dinner I am often hungry.’ Problem: The first clause is unacceptable in Mandarin. The shortened word qián can never be used as a noun and placed after ⱘ de, and neither yHqián nor qián appears in the structure ೼ zài . . . ⱘ de . . . ‘at. . . .’ To fix, simply place yHqián after the verb phrase chC-wFnfàn ‘to have dinner.’ ៥ৗᰮ佁ҹࠡᐌᐌⳌᔧ体DŽ wi chc-wfnfàn yhqián chángcháng xiangdang è

Used alone, ҹࠡ yHqián is a time word meaning ‘in the past.’ Used with another time reference, e.g. ‘before Friday’ or ‘before eating,’ the other time reference should precede yHqián, and this entire expression must precede the main verb phrase in a sentence.

For related topics, see §§22, 24, 38, and 39.

Exercises EXERCISE 7. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3 4 5 6

She used to smoke.

Please do not call me before 7 a.m.

We didn’t know each other before.

Where did you live before?

Before reading the text, we’d better learn the vocabulary first.

Do you need to change some money before traveling abroad?

§27. Time phrase (v): ဟဟరర shíshíkèkè ᯊᯊࠏࠏ shíshíkèkè ‘continuously, always’ is a time expression, used as an adverbial modifier to the verb, as in 27a–b. 27a

Ҫᯊᯊࠏࠏᦤ䝦㞾Ꮕ㽕‫ދ‬䴭DŽ ta shíshíkèkè tíxhng zìjh yào lgngjìng ‘He constantly reminds himself to be calm.’

27b 䋶䗋ᯊᯊࠏࠏᛇথ䋶DŽ cáimí shíshíkèkè xifng fa-cái ‘The miser always wants to get rich.’

72 Speed Up Your Chinese While using this expression, however, one needs to understand the literal meaning of this compound phrase since the simple translations ‘constantly,’ or ‘always’ easily lead to its misuse. ᯊ shí is ‘an hour’ and ࠏ kè is ‘a quarter of an hour.’ The compound duplicative phrase shíshíkèkè literally means ‘every single moment of time.’ This literal meaning should be grasped as the precise value of translations compressed to ‘always’ or ‘constantly.’ Any action using this expression as its adverbial modifier must acknowledge its literal denotation. Keep in mind that only a few actions literally occupy or last ‘(at) all times.’ An adverbial modifier, shíshíkèkè always precedes the verb phrase in a sentence, as shown in 27a–b. Both 27c and 27d overlook the literal meaning of the phrase ᯊᯊࠏࠏ shíshíkèkè ‘every single moment of time.’ Neither action, qù jiàn péngyou ‘go to see friends’ in 27c or chC ZhDngguócài ‘eat Chinese food’ in 27d, can occupy every single minute. Hence, shíshíkèkè cannot apply in these cases. Other adverbs, e.g. ᐌᐌ chángcháng ‘often,’ or ᘏᰃ zIngshì ‘always,’ may replace shíshíkèkè. 27c

Ҫ*ᯊᯊࠏࠏএ㾕ҪⱘЁ೑᳟টDŽ ta shíshíkèkè qù jiàn tade Zhdngguó péngyou ?‘He goes to see his Chinese friends at all times.’ Ҫᐌᐌএ㾕ҪⱘЁ೑᳟টDŽ ta chángcháng qù jiàn tade Zhdngguó péngyou

27d

ཌྷⳳ୰⃶Ё೑㦰ˈ᠔ҹཌྷ *ᯊᯊࠏࠏৗЁ೑佁DŽ ta zhbn xhhuan Zhdngguócài, suiyh ta shíshíkèkè chc Zhdngguócài ‘She really likes Chinese food, so she always eats Chinese food.’ ཌྷⳳ୰⃶Ё೑㦰ˈ᠔ҹཌྷᘏᰃৗЁ೑㦰DŽ ta zhbn xhhuan Zhdngguócài, suiyh ta zingshì chc Zhdngguócài

Be aware that the simple translation of the time phrase ᯊᯊࠏࠏ shíshíkèkè as ‘constantly’ or ‘always’ overlooks its literal meaning ‘every single moment of time.’

For related topics, see §24.

Exercises EXERCISE 8. (§§25–27) Fill the blanks with ⱘᯊ‫ ׭‬de shíhou, ҹࠡ yHqián, or ᯊᯊࠏࠏ shíshíkèkè. 1 ៥ _________ ≵਀䇈䖛䖭ӊџDŽ 2 ᮙ㸠 _________ˈԴ᳔དᏺⴔഄ೒DŽ 3 䖭޴໽Ҫ _________ ᛇⴔཌྷDŽ

Temporal expressions 73 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

㗗䆩 _________ˈ៥Ӏϔᅮᕫ໡дDŽ ྍྍߎ೑ _________ˈ៥Ӏ䛑এᴎഎ䗕ཌྷDŽ Ҫ _________ ⊼ᛣⴔ㙵⼼Ꮦഎⱘᚙ‫މ‬DŽ Ё೑Ҏৗ佁 _________ ϔ㠀⫼ㅋᄤDŽ 䖯䮼 _________ˈ䇋Դ‫ܜ‬ᭆᭆ䮼DŽ ᕜЙ _________ˈ䖭䞠䖬᳝ᕜ໮ᷥDŽ Դৗϰ㽓 _________ˈ᳔དϡ㽕䇈䆱DŽ

§28.

V-೫ le: completed action

The Mandarin aspect marker -њ le is a verb suffix. When it attaches to the verb, the structure V-le indicates that the action by the verb is completed. The com­ pletion of the action signified by -le refers to a time either in the past or in the future. See examples 28a–c. Note that sentences with V-le may be expressed in English by the past, the present perfect, or the future perfect tenses. 28a

៥Ӏ᯼໽এњࡼ⠽ುDŽ wimen zuótian qù-le dòngwùyuán ‘We went to the zoo yesterday.’

28b

ҪӀфњϔϾ‫ބ‬ㆅDŽ tamen mfi-le yí-ge bcngxiang ‘They have bought a refrigerator.’

28c

ᯢᑈ៥ⱘЁ೑᳟ট↩њϮৃ㛑ಲ೑DŽ míngnián wide Zhdngguó péngyou bì-le-yè kgnéng huíguó ‘My Chinese friend will probably return to her country next year after she graduates.’

28c is an example demonstrating that -le should not be taken as a past-tense marker because, while it indicates the completion of an action, the occurrence of such action is not limited to past time. In 28c, the time phrase míngnián ‘next year’ clearly sets the action bìyè ‘graduate’ in the future. Yet -le is still used in this case to stress that bìyè will be a completed action prior to another action, huíguó ‘return to her country,’ i.e. by the time she returns to her country, she will have graduated (a completed action). The suffix -le is not a past-tense marker for an additional reason: some pasttense actions do not need it. E.g. the action ‘travel’ in 28d is set in the year 1998. Yet the verb in this case does not take -le since the sentence does not stress the completion of the action ‘traveling.’ 28d

៥ϔббܿᑈ೼Ё೑ᮙ㸠DŽ wi yc jij jij ba nián zài Zhdngguó lkxíng ‘I traveled/was traveling in China in 1998.’

74 Speed Up Your Chinese

Negation In the negation of this structure, the negative adverb ≵ ᳝ méi(yIu) ‘has not’ appears before the verb to express the non-occurrence or incompletion of the action, as in 28e. The suffix -le therefore drops out when the negation méi(yIu) takes over. 28e

៥≵ ᳝ Ң೒к佚‫׳‬кDŽ wi méi(yiu) cóng túshegufn jiè-she ‘I didn’t check out any books from the library.’

Interrogative forms The structure V-le has three approaches in its yes/no interrogative form, as shown in 28f–h: with question particle ৫ ma (28f), in the A-not-A form (28g), and with the negation ≵᳝ méiyIu as the question particle (28h). Note that in both 28f and 28h, -le immediately precedes the question particle ma or méiyIu. The latter form also allows a variation, 28h′, with -le attached to the verb. This variation, however, is not an option for 28f in which ma is used. There are, therefore, the following ways (28f–h′) to ask the question: ‘Have you watched that movie?’ 28f

Subj.+ V + Obj.+ њ le + ৫ ma Դⳟ䙷Ͼ⬉ᕅњ৫˛ nh kàn nèi-ge diànyhng le ma?

28g

Subj.+ V-≵ méi-V + Obj. Դⳟ≵ⳟ䙷Ͼ⬉ᕅ˛ nh kàn-méi-kàn nèi-ge diànyhng?

28h

Subj.+ V + Obj.+њ le + ≵᳝ méiyou Դⳟ䙷Ͼ⬉ᕅњ ≵᳝˛ nh kàn nèi-ge diànyhng le méiyou?

28h′ Subj.+ V-њ le + Obj.+ ≵᳝ méiyou Դⳟњ䙷Ͼ⬉ᕅ≵᳝˛ nh kàn-le nèi-ge diànyhng méiyou? Examples 28i–l are commonly made errors. In each case, the asterisk marks the specific problem. The idea that each of these sentences intended to express is given in parentheses. 28i

Դⳟ㾕ᴢ㗕Ꮬњ৫˛៥≵ⳟ㾕ཌྷ*њDŽ nh kànjiàn Lh lfoshc le ma? wi méi kànjiàn ta le (‘Have you seen Teacher Li? I haven’t seen her.’) Analysis: Once the adverb méi negates the completion of the action, the suffix -le must be dropped.

Temporal expressions 75 Դⳟ㾕ᴢ㗕Ꮬњ৫˛៥≵ⳟ㾕ཌྷDŽ nh kànjiàn Lh lfoshc le ma? wi méi kànjiàn ta 28j

Ҫॳᴹ䇈㽕ᴹ䖭Ͼᄺ᷵ˈ݊ᅲ*ϡᴹњDŽ ta yuánlái shud yào lái zhèi-ge xuéxiào, qíshí bù lái le (‘He originally said that he was coming to this school. In fact he didn’t come.’) Analysis: The negative adverb for this structure should be méi, not bù; and the suffix -le must be dropped in a negation. Ҫॳᴹ䇈㽕ᴹ䖭Ͼᄺ᷵ˈ݊ᅲ≵ᴹDŽ ta yuánlái shud yào lái zhèi-ge xuéxiào, qíshí méi lái

28k

ᇣᄽᄤৗ佁ҹࠡ*⋫њ᠟≵⋫᠟˛

xifo háizi chcfàn yhqián xh-le-shiu méi xhshiu?

(‘Did the little child wash his hands before the meal?’)

Analysis: cf. 28g. The A-not-A form should be: V-≵ méi-V + Obj. ᇣᄽᄤৗ佁ҹࠡ⋫≵⋫᠟˛ xifo háizi chcfàn yhqián xh-méi-xh shiu?

28l

Ҫ*䇈њ៥Ӏএ㡱ࡴહˈ៥*䇈њ䖭ⳳᰃϔϾདЏᛣDŽ ta shud-le wimen qù Zhcjiagb, wi shud-le zhèi zhbn shì yí-ge hfo zhúyi (‘He said we were going to Chicago. I said that was a really good idea.’) Analysis: -le is erroneously used as a past-tense marker. Neither -le is needed here because the emphasis is not on the completed action ‘he/I said.’ Ҫ䇈៥Ӏএ㡱ࡴહˈ៥䇈䖭ⳳᰃϔϾདЏᛣDŽ ta shud wimen qù Zhcjiagb, wi shud zhèi zhbn shì yí-ge hfo zhúyi

The verb suffix -њ le indicates a completed action, and should not be taken as a past-tense marker. The negative form of this structure is ≵ ᳝ méi(yIu). Méi(yIu) and -le never appear in the same sentence.

For related topics, see §§18, and 30.

Exercises EXERCISE 9. Answer each question in both its positive and its negative forms. e.g. Q: Դ᯼໽Ϟ㔥њ৫˛ A1: ៥᯼໽Ϟ㔥њDŽA2: ៥᯼໽≵ ᳝ Ϟ㔥DŽ

76 Speed Up Your Chinese 1 2 3 4

Դ೼੪ଵ䞠ᬒ⠯ཊњ৫˛ Ҫⱘ䆱ˈԴ਀ពњ৫˛ Դ䇈ᅠњ≵᳝˛ 䖯ᴹҹࠡˈԴᭆ䮼њ≵᳝˛

EXERCISE 10. Translate into Chinese. (Note that not all of them need the verb suffix -њ le.) 1 2 3 4 5 6

She went to see a doctor two days ago. He didn’t watch last evening’s news. Last week it rained every day. At dinner, they drank one bottle of red wine. We didn’t know you were abroad last year. Has the student finished his homework?

§29. Emphasis on complements: the ဵ shì . . . ࡼ de pattern The ᰃ shì . . . ⱘ de pattern only addresses an action that has already occurred. This pattern emphasizes circumstances surrounding the action, such as time, location, means, or purpose, rather than the completed action itself. It asks or answers questions about when, where, with whom, why, or how the action has occurred. In the shì . . . de frame, shì stands immediately before the emphasized element and de always appears after the main verb and usually at the end of the sen­ tence. In an affirmative statement shì can be omitted. 29a–f are some examples. 29a

Emphasizing time: ҪӀ ᰃ ᯼໽ᰮϞࠄⱘDŽ tamen (shì) zuótian wfnshang dào de

‘They arrived last night.’

29b

Emphasizing location: ҪӀ ᰃ ҢϞ⍋ᴹⱘDŽ tamen (shì) cóng Shànghfi lái de

‘They came from Shanghai.’

29c

Emphasizing means: ៥Ӏ ᰃ ത☿䔺ᴹⱘDŽ wimen (shì) zuò-huichb lái de

‘We came by train.’

Temporal expressions 77 29d Emphasizing company: ៥Ӏ ᰃ 䎳⠊↡ϔ䍋ᴹⱘDŽ wimen (shì) gbn fùmj yìqh lái de

‘We came with our parents.’

29e Emphasizing purpose: ཌྷ ᰃ এ䙷‫ܓ‬ᄺ⊩ᕟⱘDŽ ta (shì) qù-nàr xué-fflk de

‘She went there to study law.’

29f Emphasizing the subject: ᰃ ៥䫕ⱘ䮼DŽ (shì) wi sui de mén

‘It was I who locked the door.’

While de usually stands at the end of the sentence, there is one exception—when the main verb has a noun object, such as mén ‘door’ in 29f or zhèi-zhAng-huàr ‘this painting’ in 29g, de normally stands between the verb and its object, as shown in 29f–g. A common variant is to place such an object at the beginning of the sentence as in 29g′. 29g

៥ᰃ೼Ё೑фⱘ䖭ᓴ⬏‫ܓ‬DŽ wi shì zài Zhdngguó mfi de zhèi-zhang-huàr ‘I bought the painting in China.’

29g′ 䖭ᓴ⬏‫ˈܓ‬៥ᰃ೼Ё೑фⱘDŽ zhèi-zhang-huàr, wi shì zài Zhdngguó mfi de ‘This painting, I bought it in China.’ The structure of 29g′ is not an option if the object is a pronoun, e.g. tA ‘her’ in 29h and 29h′. In such a case de may appear at the end of the sentence (29h) or between the verb and its pronoun object (29h′). 29h ៥ᰃᓔ䔺এᴎഎ᥹ཌྷⱘDŽ wi shì kai-chb qù jcchfng jib ta de ‘I went to the airport to pick her up in my car.’ 29h′ ៥ᰃᓔ䔺এᴎഎ᥹ⱘཌྷDŽ wi shì kai-chb qù jcchfng jib de ta

‘I went to the airport to pick her up in my car.’

Negation While shì may be omitted in an affirmative statement, it must be retained in a negative statement, and it is always preceded by the negative adverb ϡ bù. 29d′–f′ are the negative counterparts of 29d–f.

78 Speed Up Your Chinese 29d′ ៥Ӏϡᰃ䎳⠊↡ϔ䍋ᴹⱘDŽ wimen bú shì gbn fùmj yìqh lái de ‘We didn’t come with our parents.’ (We came alone.) 29e′ ཌྷϡᰃএ䙷‫ܓ‬ᄺ⊩ᕟⱘDŽ ta bú shì qù-nàr xué-fflm de ‘She didn’t go there to study law.’ (She went there to study medicine.) 29f′

ϡᰃ៥䫕ⱘ䮼DŽ bú shì wi sui de mén ‘It was not I who locked the door.’ (Someone else did it.)

Interrogative forms As discussed in §18, the same two basic methods form a yes/no question with the shì . . . de pattern, i.e. either adding the question particle ৫ ma to the end of the sentence (29i) or using the A-not-A form, which is always ᰃϡ ᰃ shì-bú-shì (29j) in this structure. 29i Ҫᰃএᑈ↩Ϯⱘ৫˛ ta shì qùnián bì-yè de ma? ‘Did he graduate last year?’ 29j Ҫᰃϡᰃএᑈ↩Ϯⱘ˛ ta shì-bú-shì qùnián bì-yè de? ‘Did he graduate last year?’ The same procedure for forming a question that uses an interrogative word also applies to the shì . . . de pattern: namely, to place the interrogative word, when, where, who(m), how, etc., in the position that reflects the circumstance emphasized. See examples 29k–m. �

A: Ҫᰃ᯼໽ᴹⱘDŽ ta shì zuótian lái de ‘He came yesterday.’

Q: ҪᰃᗢМᴹⱘ˛ ta shì zgnme lái de? ‘How did he come?’



A: Ҫᰃത亲ᴎᴹⱘDŽ ta shì zuò-fbijc lái de ‘He came by plane.’

29m Q: ҪᰃҢા‫ܓ‬ᴹⱘ˛ ta shì cóng nfr lái de? ‘Where did he come from?’



A: ҪᰃҢ㒑㑺ᴹⱘDŽ ta shì cóng Nijyub lái de ‘He came from New York.’

29k Q: ҪᰃҔМᯊ‫׭‬ᴹⱘ˛ ta shì shénme shíhou lái de? ‘When did he come?’ 29l

29n

៥ᰃकϗቕⱘᯊ‫׭‬ᓔྟᎹ԰*DŽ

wi shì shíqc-suì de shíhòu kaishh gdngzuò

‘I started to work when I was 17.’

Temporal expressions 79 Problem: de is missing at the end of the sentence. In the shì . . . de pattern, while shì may be omitted in an affirmative statement, de must always be present. ៥ᰃकϗቕⱘᯊ‫׭‬ᓔྟᎹ԰ⱘDŽ wi shì shíqc-suì de shíhòu kaishh gdngzuò de 29o

ᰃ䎳䇕*Ҫএᠧ⧗ⱘ˛ shì gbn shéi ta qù df-qiú de? ‘With whom did he go play ball?’ Problem: The subject tA ‘he’ is in the wrong place. It should be at the beginning of the sentence. The shì . . . de structure is a frame that emphasizes a particular element of an action, but does not alter the basic word order of the sentence. Ҫᰃ䎳䇕এᠧ⧗ⱘ˛ ta shì gbn shéi qù df-qiú de?

29p

Դᰃ* ⫼≵⫼ֵ⫼वф䖭Ͼ⼐⠽ⱘ˛ nh shì yòng-méi-yòng xìnyòngkf mfi zhèi-ge-lhwù de? ‘Did you buy this gift with your credit card?’ Problem: Ill-formed yes/no question. If one chooses to use the A-not-A structure to form a shì . . . de question, the ‘A’ is always shì, not the main verb. In other words, it is always shì-bú-shì (cf. 29j). Դᰃϡᰃ⫼ֵ⫼वф䖭Ͼ⼐⠽ⱘ˛ nh shì-bú-shì yòng xìnyòngkf mfi zhèi-ge-lhwù de?

This pattern emphasizes the complements to a past action, such as time, location, means, or purpose. To form a yes/no question in this structure, either add the particle ৫ ma at the end or use ᰃϡᰃ shì-bú-shì. When the complements are interrogatives, the word order remains the same.

For related topics, see §§18, 19, and 30.

Exercises EXERCISE 11. Change the sentences into the ᰃ shì . . . ⱘ de pattern, emphasiz­ ing the underlined segment. 1 2 3 4 5

ཌྷ⠊↡᯼໽ᰮϞಲএњDŽ ҪӀതߎ⾳䔺এ䚞໪њDŽ ཌྷཛྷཛྷᡞ䖭ӊџਞ䆝ཌྷњDŽ ៥এЁ೑ᄺЁ᭛њDŽ ៥ϞЁᄺⱘᯊ‫׭‬এЁ೑ᄺњЁ᭛DŽ

80 Speed Up Your Chinese 6 7 8 9

Ҫ㢅њϸगഫ䪅фњᮄ⬉㛥DŽ 䙷Ͼᄽᄤ೼๼㽓હߎ⫳њDŽ ྍྍҢᄺ᷵ಲᴹњDŽ ᓳᓳ䎳៥Ӏϔ䍋এ⒥䲾њDŽ

EXERCISE 12. (§§18 & 29) For each sentence, ask a question about the underlined segment. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

ཌྷ⠊↡ᰃ᯼໽ᰮϞಲএⱘDŽ ҪӀᰃതߎ⾳䔺এ䚞໪ⱘDŽ ᰃཌྷཛྷཛྷᡞ䖭ӊџਞ䆝ཌྷⱘDŽ ៥ᰃϞЁᄺⱘᯊ‫׭‬এЁ೑ᄺⱘЁ᭛DŽ Ҫᰃ㢅њϸगഫ䪅фⱘᮄ⬉㛥DŽ 䙷Ͼᄽᄤᰃ೼๼㽓હߎ⫳ⱘDŽ ྍྍᰃҢᄺ᷵ಲᴹⱘDŽ ᓳᓳᰃ䎳៥Ӏϔ䍋এ⒥䲾ⱘDŽ

§30. Completed action vs. its complements: V-೫ le vs. ဵ shì . . . ࡼ de While both the sentence with V-њ le and the ᰃ shì . . . ⱘ de pattern describe an already completed action, a fundamental difference lies between their emphases. A V-le sentence emphasizes the completion of the action, whereas the shì . . . de pattern stresses the particular circumstances related to the action. Compare 30a and 30b. Both sentences refer to a past event of two people getting married. While 30a, with V-le, simply states that such an event did occur, 30b, in the shì . . . de pattern, stresses the time—it was last year—when the event occurred. 30a ҪӀএᑈ㒧ီњDŽ tamen qùnián jié-hen le ‘They got married last year.’ 30b ҪӀᰃএᑈ㒧ီⱘDŽ tamen shì qùnián jié-hen de ‘It was last year when they got married.’ The difference between 30a and 30b may also be captured by considering what question either one may answer. While 30a responds to a question whether (or not) the event occurred (30c), 30b stresses the time (when)

Temporal expressions 81 such an event took place (30d). 30c′–d′ are the Mandarin equivalents of 30c–d respectively. Thus the former, 30c′, uses the V-le structure, while the latter, 30d′, relies on the shì . . . de pattern. 30c Did they get married last year?



30d When did they get married?

� They got married last year.

30c′ ҪӀএᑈ㒧ီњ৫˛ tamen qùnián jié-hen le ma? ‘Did they get married last year?’



ᇍˈҪӀএᑈ㒧ီњDŽ(30a) duì, tamen qùnián jié-hen le ‘Yes (lit. correct), they did.’

30d′ ҪӀᰃҔМᯊ‫׭‬㒧ီⱘ˛ � tamen shì shénme shíhòu jié-hen de? ‘When did they get married?’

ҪӀᰃএᑈ㒧ီⱘDŽ(30b) tamen shì qùnián jié-hen de ‘They got married last year.’

Yes, they did.

We can think about the difference between the V-le structure and the shì . . . de pattern in this way: the former responds to yes/no questions—whether the event occurred or did not occur, whereas the latter responds to interrogative words that address certain circumstances. In other words, if we intend to stress the occurrence of an action, we use the V-le structure. If we need to stress circumstances surrounding the action, we use the shì . . . de pattern. See 30e–i. 30e After work, did she do anything? Yes. ཌྷϟ⧁ҹৢҢࡲ݀ᅸᓔ䔺এᴎഎ᥹‫⫳ܜ‬њDŽ ta xiàban yhhòu cóng bàngdngshì kai-chb qù-jcchfng jib xiansheng le ‘After work, she drove from the office to the airport to pick up her husband.’ 30f When did she go to the airport? ཌྷᰃҔМᯊ‫׭‬এᴎഎⱘ˛ ta shì shénme shíhòu qù-jcchfng de



She went there after work. ཌྷᰃϟ⧁ҹৢএⱘDŽ ta shì xiàban yhhòu qù de

30g

From where did she go to the airport? ཌྷᰃҢા‫ܓ‬এᴎഎⱘ˛ ta shì cóng nfr qù-jcchfng de



She went there from the office.

By what means did she go to the airport? ཌྷᰃᗢМএᴎഎⱘ˛ ta shì zgnme qù-jcchfng de



For what purpose did she go to the airport? ཌྷᰃЎҔМএᴎഎⱘ˛ ta shì wèishénme qù-jcchfng de



30h

30i

ཌྷᰃҢࡲ݀ᅸএⱘDŽ ta shì cóng bàn’gdngshì qù de She went there by car. ཌྷᰃᓔ䔺এⱘDŽ ta shì kai-chb qù de She went there to pick up her husband. ཌྷᰃএ᥹‫ⱘ⫳ܜ‬DŽ ta shì qù jib xiansheng de

82 Speed Up Your Chinese In the use of either the V-њ le structure or the ᰃ shì . . . ⱘ de pattern, the cause of most errors appears to be an incomplete grasp of their respective functions. See the following examples. The idea that each of these sentences means to express is given in parentheses. 30j

(How did you go home? I went home by bus.) *ԴᗢМಲᆊњ˛ ៥ത݀䔺ಲᆊDŽ nh zgnme huí-jia le? wi zuò-gdngchb huí-jia Analysis: Contrary to what they mean to say, these Mandarin clauses express two unrelated ideas: ‘?How come you went home?’ and ‘I go home by bus.’ To show the idea in the parentheses, one simply applies the shì . . . de pattern to both clauses, emphasizing the action’s circumstance ‘how.’ The action huí-jiA ‘going home,’ is achieved by zuò-gDngchB ‘taking the bus.’ ԴᰃᗢМಲᆊⱘ˛ nh shì zgnme huí-jia de?

30k

៥ᰃത݀䔺ಲᆊⱘDŽ wi shì zuò-gdngchb huí-jia de

(When did you study German? I studied it last year.) *៥এᑈᄺᖋ᭛DŽ ԴᰃҔМᯊ‫׭‬ᄺᖋ᭛ⱘ˛ nh shì shénme shíhòu xué-déwén de? wi qùnián xué-déwén Analysis: The problem here is the second clause, which responds to the question of the first clause, but does not remain in the same grammatical structure. The shì . . . de pattern solves this problem by emphasizing the temporal circumstance, qùnián ‘last year.’ ៥ᰃএᑈᄺⱘ ᖋ᭛ DŽ wi shì qùnián xué de (déwén)

30l

(We all know that you traveled. But we don’t know which month you departed. And we don’t know when you returned.) ៥Ӏ䛑ⶹ䘧Դএᮙ㸠њDŽ* ৃᰃ៥Ӏϡⶹ䘧Դ޴᳜এᮙ㸠ˈ*៥Ӏгϡⶹ䘧 ԴҔМᯊ‫׭‬ಲᴹDŽ wimen ddu zhcdào nh qù lkxíng le. kgshì wimen bù-zhcdào nh jhyuè qù lkxíng, wimen yg bù-zhcdào nh shènme shíhòu huílai Analysis: In this example, none of the three clauses by itself is illformed. While the first clause states clearly, however, that the person has already traveled, the second and third units then, by not using the shì . . . de pattern, obscure the context. By not using the shì . . . de pattern, these two clauses mean: ‘We don’t know which month you will be traveling. Neither do we know when you will return.’ ৃᰃ៥Ӏϡⶹ䘧Դᰃ޴᳜এᮙ㸠ⱘˈ៥Ӏгϡⶹ䘧ԴᰃҔМᯊ‫׭‬ಲᴹⱘDŽ kgshì wimen bù-zhcdào nh shì jhyuè qù lkxíng de, wimen yg bù-zhcdào nh shì shènme shíhòu huílai de

Temporal expressions 83

V-њ le emphasizes the fact of the action’s completion. The ᰃ shì . . . ⱘ de pattern, on the other hand, stresses the particular circumstances related to a completed action, e.g. at what time, where, by what means, or for what purpose the action occurred.

For related topics, see §§18, 19, 28, and 29.

Exercises EXERCISE 13. Choose the correct Chinese translation of each English sentence. 1 It was in Italy that they became acquainted. a) ҪӀ೼ᛣ໻߽䅸䆚њDŽ b) ҪӀᰃ೼ᛣ໻߽䅸䆚ⱘDŽ

2 They became acquainted in Italy.

a) b)

ҪӀ೼ᛣ໻߽䅸䆚њDŽ ҪӀᰃ೼ᛣ໻߽䅸䆚ⱘDŽ

3 Grandpa drank three cups of coffee.

a) b)

⠋⠋ୱњϝᵃ੪ଵDŽ

⠋⠋ᰃୱϝᵃ੪ଵⱘDŽ

4 Did you sleep for only five hours yesterday?

a) b)

Դ᯼໽াⴵњѨϾᇣᯊ৫˛ Դ᯼໽ᰃাⴵњѨϾᇣᯊⱘ৫˛

5 It was on the second floor that they lived.

a) b)

ҪӀԣ೼ѠὐњDŽ

ҪӀᰃԣ೼ѠὐⱘDŽ

6 My sister bought this car last year.

a) b)

៥ྤྤএᑈфњ䖭䕚䔺DŽ ៥ྤྤᰃএᑈфⱘ䖭䕚䔺DŽ

7 It was last year that my sister bought this car.

a) b)

៥ྤྤএᑈфњ䖭䕚䔺DŽ ៥ྤྤᰃএᑈфⱘ䖭䕚䔺DŽ

84 Speed Up Your Chinese 8 The doctor let the patient go home. a) b)

ए⫳䅽⮙ҎಲᆊњDŽ ए⫳ᰃ䅽⮙ҎಲᆊⱘDŽ

9 She wore a white blouse today. a) b)

ཌྷҞ໽こњϔӊⱑ㹀㸿DŽ ཌྷҞ໽ᰃこϔӊⱑ㹀㸿ⱘDŽ

10 It was the subway that Mr. Feng took to the city. a) b)

DŽ ‫⫳ܜރ‬തഄ䪕䖯ජњ DŽ ‫⫳ܜރ‬ᰃതഄ䪕䖯ජⱘ

11 Mr. Feng took the subway to the city. a) b)

§31.

DŽ ‫⫳ܜރ‬തഄ䪕䖯ජњ DŽ ‫⫳ܜރ‬ᰃതഄ䪕䖯ජⱘ

Adverbs ‫ ݣ‬cái and ௓ jiù (i): after a time phrase

When the adverbs ᠡ cái and ህ jiù are placed after a time phrase, they are a part of that temporal statement. Here their similarity ends, for in this pattern they are opposites. Cái implies that the action, identified by the verb that follows it, takes place later than expected, in the sense of ‘not until then’; or ‘only until then (does the action occur).’ This ‘then’ is the time phrase that precedes cái. See example 31a. Jiù, on the other hand, implies that the action, identified by the verb that follows it, takes place sooner than expected, in the sense of ‘as soon/early as (a certain time).’ See example 31b. Again, the time phrase that precedes jiù is the ‘certain time’ it refers to. 31a

៥ᯢ໽ᠡಲএDŽ wi míngtian cái huíqu ‘I won’t return until tomorrow.’

31b

៥ᯢ໽ህಲএDŽ wi míngtian jiù huíqu ‘I’ll return as early as tomorrow.’

Note that 31a and 31b use the same structure, with cái and jiù each occupying the same position. In most cases, such as in 31a–b and 31d–e, the time phrase before cái or jiù is chronological time, i.e. it refers to ‘until when’ or ‘as early as when’ the action after cái or jiù occurs. We formulate the pattern as in 31c. 31c

Subj. + chronological time + ᠡ cái/ህ jiù + VP

Temporal expressions 85 If the action is a past occurrence, the sentence with jiù ends with the particle њ le, as in 31e. Le, however, never appears in a sentence with cái, as illustrated in 31d. 31d

⬉ᕅϗ⚍ᓔྟˈᴢ‫⫳ܜ‬ϗ⚍ϔࠏᠡᴹDŽ diànyhng qcdifn kaishh, Lh xiansheng qcdifn yíkè cái lái ‘The movie started at 7:00. Mr. Li didn’t arrive until 7:15.’

31e ⬉ᕅϗ⚍ᓔྟˈ⥟‫⚍݁⫳ܜ‬ञህᴹњDŽ diànyhng qcdifn kaishh, Wáng xiansheng liùdifn bàn jiù lái le ‘The movie started at 7:00. Mr. Wang arrived early, at 6:30.’ Although not as common, a durational time phrase can also be used before either adverb cái or jiù, as in examples 31g–h. Durational time phrases refer to time-spent. In a sentence with cái or jiù, durational time indicates the length of time a prior action takes before the consequent second action occurs, i.e. the one that follows cái or jiù. Cái implies that the first action takes a longer time than expected, whereas jiù implies that the first action takes a shorter time than expected. The verb phrase representing the second action should come after the adverb cái or jiù. 31f shows the sentence structure with a durational time phrase. Note that in indicating the completion, the verb suffix -le is a necessary complement to the first action (V1); and stands between V1 and the durational time phrase. If the first action involves an object, Obj.1 comes after the durational time (with an optional ⱘ de), e.g. duì ‘line’ in 31g. This structure may also allow a second subject for the second action (VP2), e.g. tA ‘he’ in 31h. Subj.2 should precede the adverb cái or jiù. 31f

Subj.1 + V1 + њ le + durational time + ( ( ⱘ de) Obj.1) + (Subj.2) ᠡ cái/ህ jiù + VP2

31g ៥ᥦњϝϾᇣᯊ ⱘ 䯳ᠡфࠄ⧗⼼DŽ wi pái-le san-ge-xifoshí (de) duì cái mfi-dào qiúpiào ‘I had to stand in line three hours for the (baseball) tickets.’ (It took that long a time for me to obtain the tickets.) 31h ៥ㄝњѨߚ䩳Ҫ ህᴹњDŽ wi dgng-le wj-fbnzhdng ta jiù lái le ‘I only waited for five minutes before he came.’ (I didn’t wait long before he showed up.) Placing the adverbs ᠡ cái or ህ jiù after a time phrase, one needs to follow either the pattern in 31c if the time phrase is chronological time; or the pattern in 31f if the time phrase is durational time. Errors such as 31i–j violate the basic rules.

86 Speed Up Your Chinese 31i

ཌྷ* ᠡ⦄೼ᛇ䍋ᴹҞ໽ᰃཌྷྍྍⱘ⫳᮹DŽ ta cái xiànzài xifng-qhlai jcntian shì ta mèimei de shbngrì ‘Only now does she remember that today is her sister’s birthday.’ Problem: Cái is put before the time word xiànzài ‘now.’ Cái should appear after the time phrase. ཌྷ⦄೼ ᠡᛇ䍋ᴹҞ໽ᰃཌྷྍྍⱘ⫳᮹DŽ ta xiànzài cái xifng-qhlai jcntian shì ta mèimei de shbngrì

31j

៥ⱘᅸট*ϝϾᇣᯊህ䍋ᴹњDŽ wide shìyiu san-ge-xifoshí jiù qhlai le ‘My roommate got up as early as ?three hours.’ Problem: The time phrase sAn-ge-xiFoshí ‘three hours’ is durational time. Durational time needs a V-le structure when used before jiù (cf. 31f ). If the idea is ‘My roommate got up after having slept for only three hours,’ add the verb ⴵ shuì ‘sleep’ together with the verb suffix -њ le before the durational time. If, on the other hand, the idea is ‘My roommate got up as early as three o’clock,’ use the chronological time ϝ⚍䩳 sAn-diFn zhDng ‘3:00.’ ៥ⱘᅸটⴵњϝϾᇣᯊህ䍋ᴹњDŽ wide shìyiu shuì-le san-ge-xifoshí jiù qhlai le ៥ⱘᅸটϝ⚍䩳ህ䍋ᴹњDŽ wide shìyiu san-difn zhdng jiù qhlai le

Used in identical structures, as in 31c and 31f, the adverbs ᠡ cái and ህ jiù in opposed ways cue their respective temporal statements. In either pattern, cái or jiù stands after the time reference and before the verb.

For related topics, see §§17, 22, 24, 28, 32, and 54.

Exercises EXERCISE 14. (§§31–32) Fill in the blanks with ᠡ cái or ህ jiù. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

᯼໽ᰮϞ៥Ӏⳟ⬉㾚ⳟᕫᕜᰮˈ໰䞠ϔ⚍ ______ ⴵDŽ ᇣ偀ᮽϞ䍋њᑞҹৢ ______ ⋫╵DŽ ҪӀ᳜݁㒧ီDŽ໻ᆊ᯼໽ ______ ⶹ䘧њˈ៥Ҟ໽ ______ ⶹ䘧DŽ ⠌⠌䇈Ҫϗ⚍ಲᆊৗᰮ佁ˈৃᰃҪ݁⚍ ______ ಲᴹњDŽ ԴҔМᯊ‫׭‬এ˛៥⦄೼ ______ এDŽ 䙷ᴀкˈཌྷⳟњϝϾ᯳ᳳ ______ ⳟᅠDŽ 䙷Ͼᄽᄤϝቕњ ______ Ӯ䍄䏃DŽ Ҫ䫕ད䮼 ______ ⾏ᓔњDŽ

Temporal expressions 87

§32.

Adverbs ‫ ݣ‬cái and ௓ jiù (ii): after a prior action

As a variation of pattern 31f, either adverb ᠡ cái or ህ jiù may be placed after a prior action, in the structure outlined in 32a. The prior action is represented by V1 followed either by the verb complement ᅠ wán ‘finish’ or by the verb suffix -њ le, plus an optional Obj.1. The adverb cái or jiù is then followed by another action represented by VP2. See examples 32b–c. 32a

Subj.1 + V1 + ᅠ wán/њ le + (Obj.1) + (Subj.2) ᠡ cái/ህ jiù + VP2

32b

ᄽᄤ⋫ᅠ/ њ᠟ᠡৗ佁DŽ háizi xh-wán/le-shiu cái chc-fàn ‘Only after the child washes his hands, may he eat.’

32c

ᄽᄤ⋫ᅠ/ њ᠟ህৗ佁DŽ háizi xh-wán/le-shiu jiù chc-fàn ‘Once the child washes his hands, he will eat.’

In pattern 32a, either the verb complement wán ‘finish’ or the verb suffix -le is a required complement to mark the completion of the prior action (V1). In this structure, cái indicates that the completion of the prior action (V1) is a con­ dition for the action that follows (VP2), i.e. ‘not until the finishing of action V1, does VP2 occur.’ See 32d–e. Note that if action VP2 has a different subject, such as guAnzhòng ‘audience’ in 32e, it stands before the adverb cái. 32d

៥ⳟњᇣ䇈ᠡⶹ䘧䇕ᰃᴔ᠟DŽ wi kàn-le-xifoshud cái zhcdao shéi shì shashiu ‘Only after I read the mystery did I know who the killer was.’

32e

ཌྷⓨ䆆ᅠˈ㾖ӫᠡᓔྟᦤ䯂DŽ ta yfnjifng-wán, guanzhòng cái kaishh tíwèn ‘She finished the speech; only then did the audience start asking questions.’

With the adverb jiù, pattern 32a is a structure of sequential actions. The adverb jiù here indicates ‘then’ or ‘consequently,’ introducing VP2, which takes place after the completion of V1. Jiù hence marks VP2 as the consequent action upon the completion of the prior action (V1). Note that the object of V1, if there is one, comes after wán or -le, e.g. xìn ‘letter’ in 32f and wJfàn ‘lunch’ in 32g. And if both actions occur in the past, a second le should be added at the end of the sentence, as in 32g. 32f

ཌྷ‫ݭ‬ᅠֵህএᆘDŽ ta xig-wán-xìn jiù qù jì ‘Once she finishes writing the letter, she will mail it.’

88 Speed Up Your Chinese 32g ҪӀৗњज佁ህএϞ䇒њDŽ tamen chc-le-wjfàn jiù qù shàng-kè le ‘After they’d had lunch, they went to class.’ Summary: when the adverbs cái and jiù are used after a prior action, as in the structure 32a, i) V1 must be followed either by the verb complement wán or by the verb suffix -le; ii) wán or -le precedes Obj1, if there is one; iii) if there is a Subj.2, it must precede cái or jiù; and iv) the sentence particle le may appear at the end of a sentence with jiù, but never at the end of a sentence with cái. The common errors in this case seem to arise from misplacing the adverb ᠡ cái or ህ jiù. 32h ៥㗗ᅠ໻㗗*ᠡ៥ⱘ⠊↡ᴹ᥹៥DŽ wi kfo-wán-dàkfo cái wide fùmj lái jib wi ‘Only after I take the Final will my parents pick me up.’ Problem: Cái is put before Subj.2 wIde fùmJ ‘my parents.’ The second subject must precede the adverb cái. ៥㗗ᅠ໻㗗៥ⱘ⠊↡ ᠡᴹ᥹៥DŽ wi kfo-wán-dàkfo wide fùmj cái lái jib wi 32i ៥पњ៥ⱘᮻ䔺*㛑 ህфᮄ䔺DŽ wi mài-le-wide jiù chb néng jiù mfi xcn chb ‘Once I have sold my old car, I will be able to buy a new one.’ Problem: The auxiliary verb néng ‘be able to’ is put before the adverb jiù. The auxiliary verb néng is part of VP2 (see §57) and the entire VP2 should be modified by the adverb jiù. Jiù therefore should precede néng. ៥पњ៥ⱘᮻ䔺ህ 㛑фᮄ䔺DŽ wi mài-le-wide jiù chb jiù néng mfi xcn chb

Either ᠡ cái or ህ jiù may stand after a prior action, in the structure 32a. Cái stresses the completion of the prior action as the condition for the action that follows, whereas jiù emphasizes the action that follows as a consequence.

For related topics, see §§17, 28, 31, 41, 54, and 57.

Exercises EXERCISE 15. (§§31–32) Translate into Chinese, using the grammar pattern given in parentheses.

Temporal expressions 89 1 2 3 4

They are not coming until next week. ᠡ Only when we have the money, will we be able to buy the TV. ᠡ She had her lunch early, at 11 a.m. ህ . . . њ Once you pay the bill, we will leave. ህ

§33. Action lasting to a certain point: V-ࡵ dào + time phrase Attached to the main verb, the verb ࠄ dào ‘reach, arrive’ here functions as a verb complement, meaning ‘up to.’ The chronological time expression that follows dào specifies the moment to which the action leads. The sentence structure is as in 33a, which means ‘(at the point specified) someone does/ did something till. . . .’ See examples 33b–d. 33a Time reference + Subj. + V-Obj. + V-ࠄ dào + chronological time 33b

᯼໽ᰮϞཌྷӀ㘞໽‫ܓ‬㘞ࠄकѠ⚍DŽ zuótian wfnshang tamen liáo-tianr liáo-dào shí’èr difn ‘Last night they chatted till 12 o’clock.’

33c Ҟ໽ϟजЁ᭛⧁㗗䆩㽕㗗ࠄѨ⚍DŽ jcntian xiàwj zhdngwénban kfo-shì yào kfo-dào wj difn ‘This afternoon, the Chinese exam will last until 5 o’clock.’ 33d

ᓴ‫ࡼ⫳ܜ‬њ᠟ᴃˈᕫ೼ए䰶ԣࠄ᯳ᳳϝDŽ Zhang xiansheng dòng-le shiushù, dgi zài ycyuàn zhù-dào xcngqcsan ‘After the operation, Mr. Zhang must stay in hospital until Wednesday.’

Note that if the verb phrase is a V-Obj. form, e.g. liáo-tiAnr ‘chat’ in 33b and kFo-shì ‘take an exam’ in 33c, the verb must be repeated, since dào as the verb complement only attaches to the verb. In 33d, because the verb zhù ‘stay’ does not involve an object, it need not be repeated. 33e

៥ӀϞ᯳ᳳ݁*䏇㟲ࠄ໰䞠ϔ⚍DŽ

wimen shàng xcngqcliù tiào-wj-dào yèlh yìdifn

‘Last Saturday we danced until one in the morning.’

Problem: The verb-complement dào attaches to the object wJ, which is a noun. Because the verb phrase tiàowJ ‘dance’ is a V-Obj. structure, the verb tiào must be repeated since dào only attaches to the verb. ៥ӀϞ᯳ᳳ݁䏇㟲䏇ࠄ໰䞠ϔ⚍DŽ wimen shàng xcngqcliù tiào-wj tiào-dào yèlh yìdifn

33f

᯼໽៥ϡ㟦᳡ˈ಴ℸˈ៥ⴵ㾝ⴵࠄ*कϾ䩳༈DŽ zuótian wi bù shefu, ycnch, wi shuì-jiào shuì-dào shí-ge-zhdngtóu ‘I didn’t feel well yesterday, so I slept ?up to ten hours.’

90 Speed Up Your Chinese Problem: Shí-ge-zhDngtóu ‘ten hours’ is durational time. What follows V-dào must be chronological time. If the idea is ‘I slept until 10 o’clock (chronological time),’ the Mandarin should be: ៥ⴵ㾝ⴵࠄक⚍ wi shuì-jiào shuì-dào shídifn If, however, the idea is ‘I slept for ten hours (durational time),’ V-dào is not the right phrase to use since this sentence is not concerned with chronological time. Instead, the verb suffix -њ le should follow the verb shuì and the sentence becomes: ៥ⴵ㾝ⴵњकϾ䩳༈DŽ wi shuì-jiào shuì-le shí-ge-zhdngtóu

(cf. §§22, 24, and 28)

33g

៥ᕜ୰⃶ⳟкˈ᳝ᯊ‫׭‬Ӯ*ᮽϞϝ⚍* ᠡ‫ⳟذ‬кDŽ wi hgn xhhuan kàn-she, yiushíhou huì zfoshang sandifn cái tíng kàn-she ‘I really like to read. Sometimes it is 3 o’clock in the morning before I stop.’ Problems: i) ZFoshang ‘morning’ is an erroneous way to refer to 3 a.m. (see §23); ii) Cái tíng kàn-shE ‘only then stop reading’ is a literal transla­ tion from English. However, it is not an acceptable phrase in Mandarin. Use the [V-dào + chronological time] pattern for this sentence. ៥ᕜ୰⃶ⳟкˈ᳝ᯊ‫׭‬Ӯⳟࠄ໰䞠ϝ⚍DŽ wi hgn xhhuan kàn-she, yiushíhou huì kàn-dào yèlh sandifn ‘I really like to read. Sometimes I read till 3 o’clock in the morning.’

A suffix of the main verb, but not of the verb-object phrase, ࠄ dào ‘up to’ specifies the moment the action leads to. The time phrase that follows dào must represent chronological time (when).

For related topics, see §§22, 23, 24, 28, 38, 39, and 41.

Exercises EXERCISE 16. Finish each sentence, choosing an appropriate word or phrase from the parentheses. 1 2 3 4

ҪӀㄝ亲ᴎ ________ ໰䞠कϔ⚍໮DŽ ㄝࠄˈࠄ Ҫ᯼໽Ꮉ԰ ________ ᰮϞб⚍DŽ Ꮉࠄˈࠄ ៥Ӏ᯳ᳳ݁ᰮϞ⥽‫ࠄܓ‬໰䞠 ________ ᠡⴵDŽ ϸϾ䩳༈ˈϸ⚍䩳 ϟ䲼ϟࠄᰮϞ ________ ᠡ‫ذ‬DŽ ܿ⚍ˈܿϾ໮ᇣᯊ

Temporal expressions 91 EXERCISE 17. Translate into Chinese, using the grammar pattern V-ࠄ dào. 1 2 3 4

Every Tuesday, we have class till 4 p.m. He waited for you till 9:30. They watched television till 2 in the morning. The winter here is long. It snows until April.

Check your grammar Translate these phrases/sentences into Chinese, and then check to see that you have implemented the relevant grammar points. The parenthetical numbers and letters identify the pertinent subsections and examples. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

12 p.m. (§23k) 2 a.m. (§23l) 7 p.m. (§23m) 10 a.m. (§23n) I will go to Chicago this weekend. (§24m) I plan to go to China to study Chinese for one semester. (§24n) I normally go to bed at six o’clock. (§24p) I normally sleep for six hours. (§24q) I often listen to music while studying at the library. (§25e) Before practicing calligraphy, I need to be ready with brush, ink and paper. (§26h) Chinese people do not often stand in line before getting on buses. (§26i) Before dinner I am often hungry. (§26j) He often goes to see his Chinese friends. (§27c) She really likes Chinese food, so she always eats Chinese food. (§27d) Have you seen Teacher Li? I haven’t seen her. (§28i) He originally said that he was coming to this school. In fact he didn’t come. (§28j) Did the little child wash his hands before the meal? (§28k) He said we were going to Chicago. I said that was a really good idea. (§28l) I started to work when I was 17. (§29n) With whom did he go play ball? (§29o) Did you buy this gift with your credit card? (§29p) How did you go home? I went home by bus. (§30j) When did you study German? I studied it last year. (§30k) We all know that you traveled. But we don’t know which month you departed. And we don’t know when you returned. (§30l)

92 Speed Up Your Chinese 25 Only now does she remember that today is her sister’s birthday. (§31i) 26 My roommate got up after having slept for only three hours. / My roommate got up as early as three o’clock. (§31j) 27 Only after I take the Final will my parents pick me up. (§32h) 28 Once I have sold my old car, I will be able to buy a new one. (§32i) 29 Last Saturday we danced till one in the morning. (§33e) 30 I didn’t feel well yesterday, so I slept until 10 o’ clock / for ten hours. (§33f) 31 I really like to read. Sometimes I read till 3 o’clock in the morning. (§33g)

Notes

4

§34.

Noun and verb phrases

Modifier + ࡼ de (i): adjectives as modifiers of nouns

In regard to descriptive adjectives as modifiers of nouns, we recognize three categories: monosyllabic adjectives, polysyllabic adjectives, and monosyllabic adjectives modified by an adverb. First, most monosyllabic Mandarin adjectives can be used like English adjectives to modify a noun. See those in 34a where the nouns are all modified by monosyllabic adjectives. 34a

催ቅ gao shan ‘tall mountain’

໻⊇ dà hé ‘big river’

ᇣජ xifo chéng ‘small town’

དк hfo she ‘good book’

㗕Ҏ lfo rén ‘old people’

ឦ⣿ lfn mao ‘lazy cat’

ᮄ䔺 xcn chb ‘new car’

ᮻഄഔ jiù dìzhh ‘old address’

Second, most polysyllabic adjectives require a suffix -ⱘ de when modifying nouns, as in 34b. 34b

᳝ᛣᗱⱘᬙџ yiuyìsi-de gùshi ‘interesting story’

ᆍᯧⱘ㗗䆩 róngyì-de kfoshì ‘easy exam’

དⳟⱘ㸷᳡ hfokàn-de ycfu ‘good-looking clothing’

㟦᳡ⱘộᄤ shefu-de yhzi ‘comfortable chair’

੠㬐ⱘ㗕Ꮬ hé’fi-de lfoshc ‘amiable teacher’

⫼ࡳⱘᄺ⫳ yònggdng-de xuésheng ‘hard-working student’

94 Speed Up Your Chinese Third, when monosyllabic adjectives are modified by adverbs, the descriptive adjective phrases are obviously polysyllabic. Thus modified monosyllabic adjectives likewise require the use of -de. See examples in 34c, where the monosyllabic adjectives are modified by negation bù ‘not,’ hGn ‘very,’ -jíle ‘extremely,’ and zuì ‘the most.’ 34c ϡ䞡㽕ⱘџ bú zhòngyào-de shì ‘unimportant matter’

ᕜᖭⱘҎ hgn máng-de rén ‘very busy people’

䌉ᵕњⱘϰ㽓 guì jíle-de ddngxi ‘extremely expensive things’

᳔໻ⱘ⊇ zuì dà-de hé

‘the largest river’

Finally, for idiomatic reasons, in a few phrases polysyllabic adjectives can omit -de, as in 34d. 34d 㘾ᯢҎ cdngming rén ‘intelligent person’

᳝䪅Ҏ yiuqián rén ‘wealthy people’

֓ᅰ䋻 piányi huò ‘cheap goods’

The most common error in this case is the missing ⱘ de from polysyllabic modifiers such as bù hFo ‘not good’ in 34e and nánchC ‘insipid’ in 34f. 34e

ᇣ↯ϡ⫼ࡳˈҪᰃ*ϡདᄺ⫳DŽ

Xifomáo bú yònggdng, ta shì bù hfo xuésheng

‘Xiaomao does not work hard. He is not a good student.’

ᇣ↯ϡ⫼ࡳˈҪϡᰃདᄺ⫳DŽ Xifomáo bú yònggdng, ta bú shì hfo xuésheng Note: While a de should be added between the polysyllabic modifier bù hFo and the noun, as in ϡདⱘᚙ‫ މ‬bù-hFo de qíngkuàng ‘bad situation,’ or ϡདⱘ䆱 bù-hFo de huà ‘unkind remarks,’ in this case, the more idiomatic way, as in English, is to negate the verb ᰃ shì, as in this correction.

34f

៥ϡ㽕এᄺ᷵令ख़ৗ*䲒ৗ佁DŽ wi bú yào qù xuéxiào cantcng chc nánchc fàn ‘I don’t want to go to the school cafeteria to eat the insipid food.’ ៥ϡ㽕এᄺ᷵令ख़ৗ䲒ৗⱘ佁DŽ wi bú yào qù xuéxiào cantcng chc nánchc-de fàn

Polysyllabic adjectives require a suffix ⱘ de when they modify nouns. This rule also applies to the modified monosyllabic adjectives when they modify nouns.

For related topics, see §§35 and 46.

Noun and verb phrases 95

Exercises EXERCISE 1. Where necessary, insert ⱘ de between the modifier and the noun. 1 2 3 4

⛁㤊 ᑆ‫ޔ‬᠓䯈 ᳝䍷ᬙџ ᮻ⬉㛥

§35.

5 6 7 8

ᕜ໻ජᏖ 剰㢅 ⷁ䪙ヨ ᅝ䴭໰ᰮ

9 ᮄ≑䔺 10 䲒乬 11 ϡ⫰㽓⪰ 12 䴲ᐌᇣ␪

Modifier + ࡼ de (ii): clauses as modifiers of nouns

English phrases such as “the bicycle that I bought . . .” or “my friend who lives in Boston . . .” contain a subordinate clause (see italics) that modifies the noun antecedent to the relative pronoun (that and who in these cases). In contrast to English, a Mandarin subordinate clause that serves as a modifier stands before the noun it modifies, linked by ⱘ de. The modified noun phrase uses the structure: Modifier + ⱘ de + N. The subordinate clause preceding de can use multiple structures. See examples 35a–f. In 35a–c, the subject of the subordinate clause is omitted because it is actually the noun being modified, i.e. the one that comes after de. In 35d–f, the object of the subordinate clause is the noun being modified. 35a

Modifier = V-Obj. phrase: ୱ੪ଵⱘҎ hb-kafbi de rén

‘the person who drinks/is drinking coffee’

35b

Modifier = Aux. + V-Obj. phrase: Ӯ䇈Ё᭛ⱘ㕢೑ᄺ⫳ huì-shud-zhdngwén de Mgiguó xuésheng ‘American students who can speak Chinese’

35c

Modifier = Location + V phrase: ೼кᑫᎹ԰ⱘཇᄽ‫ܓ‬ zài shediàn-gdngzuò de nkháir ‘the girl who works at the bookstore’

35d

Modifier = Subj. + V phrase ཌྷ‫ֵⱘݭ‬ ta-xig de xìn ‘the letter she wrote’

96 Speed Up Your Chinese 35e

Modifier = Subj. + location + V phrase ៥೼Ё೑䅸䆚ⱘ᳟ট wi-zài Zhdngguó-rènshi de péngyou

‘the friend(s) I met in China’

35f

Modifier = (Subj. +) time + V phrase ҪӀ এᑈфⱘ᠓ᄤ (tamen) qùnián-mfi de fángzi

‘the house (they) bought last year’

The structure [Modifier + ⱘ de + N] remains a noun phrase. This modified noun phrase functions grammatically as a simple noun in a sentence, in spite of containing a subordinate clause. For instance, 35a, hB-kAfBi de rén ‘the person who drinks/is drinking coffee’ can be either the subject of a sentence, as in 35g, or the object, as in 35h. 35g

䙷Ͼୱ੪ଵⱘҎᰃ៥ⱘ᳟টDŽ nèi-ge hb-kafbi de rén shì wide péngyou ‘The person who is drinking coffee is my friend.’

35h

៥䅸䆚䙷Ͼୱ੪ଵⱘҎDŽ wi rènshi nèi-ge hb-kafbi de rén ‘I know the person who is drinking coffee.’

While intending to compose a modified noun with a subordinate clause in Mandarin, some students habitually use English word order. For instance, 35b ‘American students who can speak Chinese’ may be directly translated to Mandarin as 35i. 35i

㕢೑ᄺ⫳Ӯ䇈Ё᭛ Mgiguó xuésheng huì shud-zhdngwén

‘American students can speak Chinese.’

The problem here is that although 35i is well-formed, it does not create the modified noun phrase 35b that it seeks. 35i is a complete sentence with a subject, MGiguó xuésheng ‘American students’; an auxiliary, huì ‘can’; a verb, shuD ‘speak’; and an object, zhDngwén ‘Chinese.’

A subordinate clause that serves as a modifier stands before the noun it modifies. The clause and the noun are linked by ⱘ de. The structure of the modified noun phrase is: Modifier (clause) + ⱘ de + N. For related topics, see §46.

Noun and verb phrases 97

Exercises EXERCISE 2. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

the dictionary that she often uses the engineer whose family name is Wang the book I read last week the person who takes the train to work the car he bought recently The car he bought recently is a Toyota ( Є⬄ fBngtián). The person who takes the train to work is tall. She really likes the movie we watched last week.

§36.

Location phrases

Location phrases indicate place or position. 36a contains basic location words. 36a ϰ Ϟ ࠡ ᇍ

dDng ‘east’; 㽓 xC ‘west’; फ nán ‘south’; ࣫ bGi ‘north’ shàng ‘above’; ϟ xià ‘below’; Ꮊ zuI ‘left’; ে yòu ‘right’ qián ‘front’; ৢ hòu ‘behind’; 䞠 lH ‘inside’; ໪ wài ‘outside’ duì ‘across from’; ᮕ páng ‘next to’; Ё zhDng ‘in the middle’

These basic location words may take the suffixes 䴶 -miàn, 䖍 ‫ ܓ‬-biAn(r), ༈ -tou, or 䯈 ‫ ܓ‬-jiAn(r). Most of them allow more than one possibility. 36b lists some examples. 36b Location words with their suffixes ϰ dDng: ϰ䴶 ; ϰ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬ ࠡ qián: ࠡ䴶 ; ࠡ䖍 ‫ࠡ ; ܓ‬༈ 㽓 xC: 㽓䴶 ; 㽓䖍 ‫ ܓ‬ ৢ hòu: ৢ䴶 ; ৢ䖍 ‫ৢ ; ܓ‬༈ फ nán: फ䴶 ; फ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬ 䞠 lH: 䞠䴶 ; 䞠䖍 ‫ ; ܓ‬䞠༈ ࣫ bGi: ࣫䴶 ; ࣫䖍 ‫ ܓ‬ ໪ wài: ໪䴶 ; ໪䖍 ‫ ; ܓ‬໪༈ Ϟ ϟ Ꮊ ে

shàng: Ϟ䴶 ; Ϟ䖍 ‫ ; ܓ‬Ϟ༈ xià: ϟ䴶 ; ϟ䖍 ‫ ; ܓ‬ϟ༈ zuI: Ꮊ䴶 ; Ꮊ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬ yòu: ে䴶 ; ে䖍 ‫ ܓ‬

ᇍ duì: ᇍ䴶 ᮕ páng: ᮕ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬ Ё zhDng: Ё䯈 ‫ ܓ‬

Some locations words do not take the suffixes above, as 36c illustrates. 36c 䰘䖥 乊Ϟ ϰ࣫ 㽓࣫

fùjìn ‘near’; ὐϞ lóushàng ‘upstairs’; ὐϟ lóuxià ‘downstairs’ dHngshang ‘top’; ᑩϟ dHxia ‘beneath’; ᔧЁ dAngzhDng ‘in the midst’ dDngbGi ‘northeast’; ϰफ dDngnán ‘southeast’ xCbGi ‘northwest’; 㽓फ xCnán ‘southwest’

98 Speed Up Your Chinese To point out the specific position, other nouns or pronouns may stand before these location words to form a location phrase. A modifier ⱘ de usually appears between the noun and the location word. Yet this de can be omitted. See the examples in 36d. 36d ೒к佚 ⱘ ᇍ䴶 túshEguFn (de) duìmiàn ‘across from the library’ 㹟ᄤ ⱘ 䞠䖍 ‫ ܓ‬dàizi (de) lHbiAn(r) ‘inside the bag’ кᶰ ⱘ 乊Ϟ shEguì (de) dHngshang ‘on top of the bookcase’ ᑞ ⱘ ᑩϟ chuáng (de) dHxia ‘under the bed’ ᄺ᷵ ⱘ 䰘䖥 xuéxiào (de) fùjìn ‘near the school’ ජ ⱘ 㽓࣫ chéng (de) xCbGi ‘to the northwest of the city’ 36e lists some idiomatic location phrases where one of the basic location words, usually Ϟ shàng ‘above,’ 䞠 lH ‘inside,’ or ໪ wài ‘outside,’ attaches to its noun to form an abbreviated location phrase. Note that both shàng ‘above’ and lH are pronounced in the neutral tone when attached to a noun. 36e ḠϞ ᡹Ϟ ๭Ϟ ഄϞ 㸫Ϟ ᆊ䞠 に໪

zhuD-shang ‘on the table’ bào-shang ‘in the newspaper’ qiáng-shang ‘on the wall’ dì-shang ‘on the floor’ jiB-shang ‘in the street’ jiA-li ‘at home’ chuAng-wài ‘out the window’

Some students may wish to translate the English location phrases into Mandarin word by word. Thus they produce a phrase that is not a location phrase in Mandarin but a modified noun phrase. For example, ‘across from the library’ in Mandarin is ೒к佚 ⱘ ᇍ䴶 túshEguFn (de) duìmiàn. If one follows the word order in the English phrase, one would have 36f. Nothing is grammatically wrong with 36f, but as the translation shows, it means something else other than ‘across from the library.’ 36f ᇍ䴶ⱘ೒к佚 duìmiàn de túshegufn ‘the library that is across from (here)’ Comparing 36g with 36h, we receive rather different messages. The difference here is that for location phrases, the modifier noun, i.e. the reference, must stand before the location word (36g, túshEguFn (de) duìmiàn), whereas for a modified noun phrase, the location word stands before the noun and ⱘ de cannot be omitted (36h). 36g ៥೼೒к佚 ⱘ ᇍ䴶ㄝԴDŽ wi zài túshegufn (de) duìmiàn dgng nh ‘I will be waiting for you across from the library.’

Noun and verb phrases 99 36h ៥೼ᇍ䴶ⱘ೒к佚ㄝԴDŽ wi zài duìmiàn de túshegufn dgng nh ‘I will be waiting for you at the library that is across from (here).’

In contrast with English, the site specified for a Mandarin location phrase, e.g. ‘the school’ in ‘outside the school,’ stands before the location word ‘outside’: ᄺ᷵ ⱘ ໪䴶 xuéxiào (de) wàimiàn. For related topics, see §§34 and 35.

Exercises EXERCISE 3. Choose the correct Chinese translation of each location phrase. 1

in front of the supermarket a) b)

2

southeast of the city a) b)

3

䞠䖍 ‫☿ⱘ ܓ‬䔺キ ☿䔺キⱘ䞠䖍 ‫ ܓ‬

under the chair a) b)

7

ϸϾҎⱘЁ䯈 ‫ ܓ‬ Ё䯈 ‫ⱘ ܓ‬ϸϾҎ

in the railway station a) b)

6

Ѡὐⱘᆓ㟡 ᆓ㟡ⱘѠὐ

between the two people a) b)

5

ϰफⱘජᏖ ජᏖⱘϰफ

on the second floor of the dorm a) b)

4

䍙㑻Ꮦഎⱘࠡ䖍 ‫ ܓ‬ ࠡ䖍 ‫ⱘ ܓ‬䍙㑻Ꮦഎ

ộᄤⱘϟ䴶 ϟ䴶ⱘộᄤ

across from Starbucks a) b)

᯳Ꮘ‫ⱘܟ‬ᇍ䴶 ᇍ䴶ⱘ᯳Ꮘ‫ܟ‬

100 8

Speed Up Your Chinese above the jewelry store a) b)

ὐϞ/Ϟ䴶ⱘ⦴ᅱᑫ ⦴ᅱᑫⱘὐϞ/Ϟ䴶

EXERCISE 4. Finish each sentence, using the Chinese terms equivalent to the location phrases in parentheses. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

________ ᳝ϔϾᇣ᠓ᄤDŽ (on top of the hill)

________ ࠄ໘ᰃ㢅㤝DŽ (inside the park)

________ ⱘԡᄤぎⴔDŽ (to my left)

________ ᰃ‫⬄ݰ‬DŽ (next to the highway)

________ ‫ⴔذ‬ᕜ໮㞾㸠䔺DŽ (outside the library)

᷵ऎህ೼ ________DŽ (near the lake)

ҪӀ೼ ________ 㺙䔺DŽ (behind the restaurant)

ᄭᄤത೼ ________DŽ (between grandpa and grandma)

§37. Definite and indefinite references of nouns Mandarin does not have words that correspond to the English articles ‘the’ and ‘a(n).’ 37a–e are a few possible combinations of Mandarin noun phrases that coincide with the ideas of ‘the’ (definite reference) and ‘a(n)’ (indefinite reference). Let us take the noun к shE ‘book’ as an example, and list these combined noun phrases in 37a–e. 37a 37b 37c 37d 37e

N: к shE ‘(the) books’

Num + Mea + N: ϔᴀк yì-bGn-shE ‘one/a book’

Dem + Num + Mea + N: 䖭कᴀк zhèi-shí-bGn-shE ‘these ten books’

Dem + Mea + N: 䖭ᴀк zhèi-bGn-shE ‘this book/the book’

Dem + ѯ xiB (Mea) + N: 䖭ѯк zhèi-xiB-shE ‘these books/the books’

37a is a simple noun. With neither a demonstrative nor a quantity, it can be either definite (the books) or indefinite (books). 37b, in the structure [Num + Mea + N], shows quantified nouns in Mandarin, e.g. yì-bGn-shE ‘one book’; ϸা右 liFng-zhC-niFo ‘two birds’; and कϾᄺ⫳ shí-ge-xuésheng ‘ten students.’ 37c, in the structure [Dem + Num + Mea + N], with a demonstrative 䖭 zhèi ‘this’ (or 䙷 nèi ‘that’) appearing before the quantified noun phrase, points specifically to a particular item or a group of items, e.g. zhèi-yì-bGn-shE ‘this (one) book’; nèi-liFng-zhC-niFo ‘those two birds’; and zhèi-shí-ge-xuésheng ‘these ten students.’ With a demonstrative, zhèi ‘this’ (or nèi ‘that’), when the

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noun is a single item, the number yC ‘one’ is usually omitted, as in 37d: Dem + Mea + N, e.g. zhèi-bGn-shE ‘this book’; or nèi-zhC-niFo ‘that bird.’ In 37e, the suffix xiB ‘a few’ is the measure for a plural noun phrase. Attached to the demonstrative zhèi (or nèi), xiB replaces any other measure to indicate the plurality of the noun phrase, e.g. zhèi-xiB-shE ‘these (few) books’; or nèi­ xiB-niFo ‘those (few) birds.’ Using a demonstrative, zhèi ‘this’ (or nèi ‘that’), the last three illustrations, 37c–e, show noun phrases with definite references. The difference between 37c and 37e is that for 37c we know there are exactly ten books in the group, and the number is deliberately specified, whereas for 37e the number of the books is unspecified. 37a–b represent nouns or noun phrases with indefinite reference. In Mandarin, however, if a noun (or a noun phrase, e.g. zhDngwén kè, ‘Chinese class’) has neither a demonstrative nor a quantity, such as 37a, its definite or indefinite reference is usually determined by its grammatical role in the sentence. As a subject, likely preceding the verb, it is normally definite; as an object, likely in a post-verbal position, it is normally indefinite. See the translations for the noun phrase zhDngwén kè ‘Chinese classes’ in examples 37f–g. 37f

៥Ӏᄺ᷵ᓔЁ᭛䇒DŽ wimen xuéxiào kai zhdngwén kè ‘Our school offers Chinese classes.’

37g

Ё᭛䇒ϡ䲒DŽ zhdngwén kè bù nán ‘The Chinese classes are not difficult.’

A non-quantified noun such as 37a can be the subject of a sentence since it refers to the books. On the other hand, it can be completely non-referential when it is the object in a sentence—any books in the world. This is not the case for 37b, which, in the structure of [Num + Mea + N], is a quantified noun phrase. A quantified noun phrase such as 37b, yì-bGn-shE ‘one/a book,’ with a specified number yC ‘one,’ is not completely non-referential. It refers to a book. That is, it has an indefinite reference in two senses: i) it refers to (any) one book, but not two or three books; ii) it refers to a certain book whose title is not given. In other words, the quantity defines the noun’s clear indefinite reference. A quantified noun phrase therefore cannot be the subject of a sentence. A very common error is a phrase such as 37h. Note this erroneous phrase has two measures, ѯ xiB and Ͼ ge. As the plural suffix, xiB attaches to the demonstratives 䖭 zhèi ‘this’ and 䙷 nèi ‘that’ to form the plural demonstratives

102 Speed Up Your Chinese 䖭 ѯ zhèi-xiB ‘these’ and 䙷 ѯ nèi-xiB ‘those.’ Some students then simply regard zhèi-xiB as ‘these’ and nèi-xiB as ‘those,’ and use them as separate demonstratives, which produces erroneous phrases such as 37h. Remember, xiB is a plural suffix, but once used to modify a noun, it replaces the measure, and it does not appear in the same phrase with a number (cf. 37c–e). 37h

*䖭ѯकϾᄺ⫳

zhèi-xib shí-ge-xuésheng

(intended: ‘these ten students’) 䖭ѯᄺ⫳ zhèi-xib xuésheng

‘these students’

䖭कϾᄺ⫳ zhèi-shí-ge-xuésheng

‘these ten students’

The problems in 37i and 37j involve the misuse of the quantified noun phrase (Num + Mea + N, 37b). A quantified noun phrase cannot be the subject of a sentence. This is the error in 37i. In this case, one does not need to use the [Num + Mea] yíliàng. Without this clarifying number, qìchB would be ‘cars’ with a definite reference since this noun is the subject. And the sentence would work in both Mandarin and English: ‘It would be an exceptional situation if cars (i.e. not just one car) did not yield to pedestrians.’ 37i

೼㕢೑ˈ* ϔ䕚≑䔺ϡ䅽㸠Ҏᰃᕜ⡍⅞ⱘᚙ‫މ‬DŽ zài Mgiguó, yí-liàng-qìchb bú ràng xíngrén shì hgn tèshe de qíngkuàng ‘In America, it would be an exceptional situation if a car didn’t yield to pedestrians.’ ೼㕢೑ˈ≑䔺ϡ䅽㸠Ҏᰃᕜ⡍⅞ⱘᚙ‫މ‬DŽ zài Mgiguó, qìchb bú ràng xíngrén shì hgn tèshe de qíngkuàng

The Mandarin sentence 37j is as awkward as its English translation. It sounds as if the person doesn’t have one brother but may have more brothers since the number “one” is specified. There is no need in Mandarin to use a quantified object if the verb is negative. ϔϾ yí-ge, even of indefinite reference, still refers to a certain “one.” In Mandarin, if a person doesn’t have an older brother, then he doesn’t have any older brothers at all. 37j

៥≵᳝*ϔϾહહDŽ

wi méiyiu yí-ge-gbge

?‘I don’t have one big brother.’

៥≵᳝હહDŽ wi méiyiu gbge ‘I don’t have big brothers.’ (Or: ‘I don’t have a big brother.’ Now you know where the erroneous 37j comes from.)

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The demonstratives 䖭 zhèi ‘this’ and 䙷 nèi ‘that’ indicate nouns of definite reference. While both quantified nouns (ϝᴀк sAn-bGn-shE ‘three books’) and non-quantified nouns (к shE ‘books’) themselves have indefinite refer­ ence, the latter becomes a definite reference when it is the subject of a sentence.

For related topics, see §§39 and 49.

Exercises EXERCISE 5. Complete each noun phrase with the appropriate word. 1 2 3 4 5 6

(one) _______ Ͼ㣍ᵰ (this one) _______ Ͼ㣍ᵰ (these) _______ 䔺 (these five) _______ 䕚䔺 (nine) _______ ӊ㸷᳡ (which one) _______ ᆊଚᑫ˛

7 8 9 10 11 12

(that) _______ ᓴഄ೒ (those) _______ ᷥ (those eight) _______ ỉᷥ (this) _______ ᇕֵ (that one) _______ ӑ᡹ (which) _______ ᴵ䏃˛

EXERCISE 6. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I bought a big map.

All three of those cars are blue.

This orange is really sweet.

Those tourists are Korean.

He wants to eat these grapes.

There are five small restaurants on this street.

She has two children, a daughter and a son.

They booked four plane tickets to China.

We did not watch that movie.

Which dog is yours?

§38.

Forms of action verbs

We recognize three forms of action verbs in Mandarin: intransitive verbs, and two derivations of transitive verbs—verb-object compounds and verb-verb compounds.

Intransitive verbs Intransitive verbs are simple action verbs. They do not take any object, although some of them may take a verb complement. Many of the intransitive

104 Speed Up Your Chinese verbs are polysyllabic, as in 38a. Used in a sentence they may duplicate, such as xiExi-xiExi in 38b; be modified by an adverb such as bùtíngde ‘unceasingly’ in 38c or by an adverbial phrase such as zài dìpíngxiàn shàng ‘above the horizon’ in 38d. 38a Intransitive verbs ⫳䭓 shBngzhFng ‘grow (up)’ ⌏ࡼ huódòng ‘exercise’ ӥᙃ xiExi ‘rest’

Ꮉ԰ gDngzuò ‘work’ ߎ⦄ chExiàn ‘appear’ 乸ᡪ chàndIu ‘tremble’

38b ៥Ӏ⦄೼ӥᙃӥᙃDŽ wimen xiànzài xiexi-xiexi ‘Let’s take a break now.’ 38c

ҪӀ೼‫ދ‬亢Ёϡ‫ذ‬ഄ乸ᡪDŽ tamen zài lgngfbng zhdng bùtíngde chàndiu

‘They are trembling non-stop in the cold air.’

38d ᳱ䰇ߎ⦄೼ഄᑇ㒓ϞDŽ zhaoyáng chexiàn zài dìpíngxiàn shang ‘The morning sun rises above the horizon.’

Verb-object compounds Mandarin transitive verbs commonly appear with an object. Thus they are a form of verb-object compound. The object in a verb-object compound may be a generic one that is not required in the English translation, as in 38e. The object may also be a specific one, as in 38f. 38e V-Obj. compounds with a generic object: 䇈䆱 shuD-huà (lit. speak-speech) ‘speak; talk’ ⳟк kàn-shE (lit. read-book) ‘read’ ৗ佁 chC-fàn (lit. eat-rice) ‘eat; dine’ 38f V-Obj. compounds with a specific object: 䇈䇢 shuD-huFng (lit. speak-lie) ‘lie’ ⳟ⬉㾚 kàn-diànshì ‘watch television’ ৗ㨵㧘 chC-pútao ‘eat grapes’ The verb and its object can be split by ϔӮ‫ ܓ‬yìhuHr ‘a while’ or ϔ⚍‫ܓ‬ yìdiFnr ‘a little,’ as in kàn-yìhuHr-shE ‘read a while’ or shuD-yìdiFnr-huFng ‘tell a little lie.’ For more on this topic, see §39.

Verb-verb compounds Mandarin transitive verbs also appear in the form of verb-verb compounds. In this structure, the first verb represents the action, whereas the second verb,

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as a verb complement, indicates the resultant state, such as the completion, attainment, or success of the action by the first verb. While being labeled as verb-verb compounds, the majority of the verb complements (the second verb), however, are actually descriptive adjectives. See a few examples in 38g. 38g V-V/DA[complement] compounds 䇈ᅮ shuD-dìng (lit. speak-settle) ‘settle; agree on’ ⳟ㾕 kàn-jian (lit. look-perceive) ‘see’ ৗᅠ chC-wán (lit. eat-finish) ‘finish eating’ ᥼䖳 tuC-chí (lit. push-late) ‘postpone’ 䭓໻ zhFng-dà (lit. grow-big) ‘grow up’ 㾷ᬷ jiG-sàn (lit. undo-disperse) ‘dismiss’ Verb-verb compounds are regarded as action verbs. They may take an object, such as xíngqC ‘the date of departure’ in examples 38h–i. Verb-verb compounds often appear in a ᡞ bF construction, as in 38i. (See §9 for the difference in emphasis these sentences indicate.) 38h

⥟‫᥼⫳ܜ‬䖳њ㸠ᳳDŽ Wáng xiansheng tuc-chí le xíngqc ‘Mr. Wang has postponed his date of departure.’

38i

⥟‫⫳ܜ‬ᡞ㸠ᳳ᥼䖳њDŽ Wáng xiansheng bf xíngqc tuc-chí le ‘Mr. Wang has postponed his date of departure.’

Errors occur when these forms of action verbs go unrecognized, as in 38j–l. 38j

Ҫϔ‫ݡ‬ഄୱ䜦ˈ⦄೼*ᕜୱ䝝DŽ ta yízàide hb-jij, xiànzài hgn hb-zuì ‘He kept drinking (lit. repeatedly drank). Now he is very drunk.’ Problem: HB-zuì (lit. drink-drunk) ‘be drunk’ is a V-V/DA compound, not a descriptive adjective. It therefore cannot be modified by the adverb hGn ‘very.’ Ҫϔ‫ݡ‬ഄୱ䜦ˈ⦄೼ୱ䝝њDŽ ta yízàide hb-jij, xiànzài hb-zuì le

38k

Ҟ໽໽⇨ⳳདˈ៥Ӏᑨ䆹ࠄ໪䴶এ* ⌏ϔӮ‫ࡼܓ‬DŽ jcntian tianqì zhbn hfo, wimen ycnggai dào wàimiàn qù huó-yìhuhr-dòng ‘Today’s weather is really nice. We should go out to exercise a bit.’ Problem: Huódòng ‘exercise’ is a simple intransitive verb. The two characters of this polysyllabic word cannot be split. To correctly express the idea, one can either put yìhuHr ‘a while’ after the verb huódòng, or duplicate the verb. ៥Ӏᑨ䆹ࠄ໪䴶এ⌏ࡼϔӮ‫ ܓ‬/ ⌏ࡼ⌏ࡼDŽ wimen ycnggai dào wàimiàn qù huódòng yìhuhr/huódòng huódòng

106 Speed Up Your Chinese 38l

ཌྷ⦄೼೼೒к佚 * Ꮉ԰ཌྷⱘᄺᳳ᡹ਞDŽ ta xiànzài zài túshegufn gdngzuò tade xuéqc bàogào ‘She is now working on her term paper at the library.’ Problem: In Mandarin, gDngzuò ‘work’ is a simple intransitive verb that does not take an object. To correct this error, one needs a different verb, such as ‫ ݭ‬xiG ‘write.’ ཌྷ⦄೼೼೒к佚‫ݭ‬ཌྷⱘᄺᳳ᡹ਞDŽ ta xiànzài zài túshegufn xig tade xuéqc bàogào

Intransitive verbs, verb-object compounds, and verb-verb compounds are all action verbs. Intransitive verbs do not take an object. A modifier may split the verb and its object in a verb-object compound. Verb-verb compounds may take an object and often appear in a ᡞ bF construction. For related topics, see §§9, 39, 40, 41, and 42.

Exercises EXERCISE 7. Identify the following phrases as polysyllabic intransitive verb, verb-object compound, or verb-verb compound. 1 2 3 4 5

дᛃ ‫ࡳخ‬䇒 䆄ԣ 䍄䏃 ᠧᓔ

§39.

6 7 8 9 10

‫ذ‬䔺 䖤ࡼ ৗ佁 ⳟ㾕 ӥᙃ

11 12 13 14 15

ୱ㤊 ਀ព ҹЎ ᄺӮ 䇋ᅶ

Verb-object compounds

In a verb-object compound, an action verb such as 䇈 shuD ‘speak’ takes a generic object 䆱 huà ‘speech’ to form the compound 䇈䆱 shuD-huà (lit. speak-speech). The compound is considered the verb ‘speak,’ since the generic object is not required in the English translation. 39a gives some common verb-object compounds. 39a ⳟк ‫ݭ‬ᄫ ଅ℠ 䏇㟲 ৗ佁 ‫خ‬џ

kàn-shE ‘read-book = read’ xiG-zì ‘write-character = write’ chàng-gB ‘sing-song = sing’ tiào-wJ ‘dance-dance = dance’ chC-fàn ‘eat-rice = dine’ zuò-shì ‘do-thing = work’

Noun and verb phrases

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⬏⬏‫ ܓ‬huà-huàr ‘paint-picture = paint; draw’ фϰ㽓 mFi-dDngxi ‘buy-thing = shop’ ୱ䜦 hB-jiJ ‘drink-wine = drink (an alcoholic beverage)’ ᓔ䔺 kAi-chB ‘drive-vehicle = drive’ Mandarin transitive verbs usually do not stand alone. The verb either takes a generic object, as in 39a, or a specific one, as in 39b. The verb-object compounds in 39b have the same action verbs as those in 39a, yet with more specific objects, these compounds represent different activities. 39b

ⳟ᡹ kàn-bào ‘read a newspaper’ ‫ ֵݭ‬xiG-xìn ‘write a letter’ ଅ៣ chàng-xì ‘act in a traditional drama’ 䏇∈ diào-shuH ‘dive’ ৗ㋴ chC-sù ‘be a vegetarian’ ‫خ‬佁 zuò-fàn ‘cook’ ⬏೒ huà-tú ‘make a chart; draw designs’ ф᠓ᄤ mFi-fángzi ‘buy a house’ ୱ∈ hB-shuH ‘drink water’ ᓔ亲ᴎ kAi-fBijC ‘operate an airplane’

The object in a verb-object compound can be even more elaborate, modified by a quantity, a descriptive adjective, or a modifier clause. See a few examples in 39c. 39c

V-Obj. compounds with more elaborate objects: ⳟϸᴀк kàn-liFng-bGn-shE ‘read two books’ ⳟᖋ᭛к kàn-déwén-shE ‘read German books’ ⳟ⬙䫔к kàn-chàngxiAo-shE ‘read best sellers’ ⳟ᳝䍷ⱘк kàn-yIuqùde-shE ‘read interesting books’ ⳟ᯼໽фⱘк kàn-zuótiAn mFide-shE ‘read the book(s) bought yesterday’

Students sometime mistake verb-object compounds for noun phrases. Remember: no matter how elaborate the object is, the whole compound is a verb phrase, not a noun phrase. See errors 39d–e. 39d

៥ⱘ䑿ԧ໽໽䳔㽕*ϔϾ⋫╵DŽ

wide shbnth tiantian xeyào yí-ge xh-zfo

‘I (lit. my body) need(s) a bath every day.’

Problem: The verb-object compound xH-zFo ‘take a bath’ is a verb, not a noun. Thus one cannot use the counter yí-ge ‘one’ before this compound (‘*a taking bath’). However, one can place the counter yí-ge before the object zFo ‘bath’ to make it a more elaborate one. ៥ⱘ䑿ԧ໽໽䳔㽕⋫ϔϾ╵DŽ wide shbnth tiantian xeyào xh-yíge-zfo

108 Speed Up Your Chinese 39e

៥ᕜ୰⃶៥Ӏⱘ *Ё᭛Ϟ䇒DŽ wi hgn xhhuan wimen-de zhdngwén shàng-kè ‘I really like our Chinese ?attending class.’ Problem: The verb-object compound shàng-kè ‘attend class’ is misused as a noun, and is modified by zhDngwén ‘Chinese.’ To correct the mistake, one either uses the noun phrase zhDngwén kè ‘Chinese class,’ or the verb phrase shàng zhDngwén-kè ‘attend Chinese class.’ ៥ᕜ୰⃶៥ӀⱘЁ᭛䇒DŽ wi hgn xhhuan wimen-de zhdngwénkè

‘I really like our Chinese class.’

៥ᕜ୰⃶ϞЁ᭛䇒DŽ wi hgn xhhuan shàng-zhdngwénkè

‘I really like to attend Chinese class.’

The object in a verb-object compound may be generic (39a), or specific (39b). The object can be modified by a quantity, an adjective, or a modifier clause.

For related topics, see §§34, 35, 37, and 38.

Exercises EXERCISE 8. Write the noun phrases in Chinese. 1

ୱ㤊: a) b) c)

2

ത䔺: a) b) c) d)

3

drink green tea; drink a cup of hot tea; drink the tea given (as a gift) by friends

take take take take

the the the the

bus; taxi; noon train; train (that goes) to New York

ଅ℠: a) b) c) d) e)

sing sing sing sing sing

a song; Japanese songs; melodic (great-sounding) songs; the songs written by him; my favorite songs

Noun and verb phrases 4

109

‫خ‬㦰: a) b) c) d)

cook cook cook cook

a few dishes; Chinese dishes; dishes with regional flavors; the dishes we like

§40. When a verb-object compound involves another object As discussed in §39, the object in a verb-object compound may be generic or more elaborate, as in 40a–b. Either way, the object is a necessary element. In other words, for example, ‘drink’ (an alcoholic beverage) in Mandarin must be ୱ䜦 hB-jiJ ‘drink-wine.’ The verb hB itself only appears in a particular context, as in the answer to Դୱ䜦৫˛ nH hB-jiJ ma ‘Do you drink?’ ୱDŽhB ‘Yes, I do.’ 40a The verb has a generic object: e.g. ୱ䜦 hB-jiJ ‘drink wine = drink’ 40b The verb has a more elaborate object: ୱ⊩೑䜦 hB-FFguó-jiJ ‘drink French wine’ ୱϔᵃ䜦 hB-yì-bBi-jiJ ‘drink a glass of wine’ ୱ᳟ট䗕ⱘ䜦 hB péngyou sòng de-jiJ ‘drink the wine sent by friends’ Verb-object compounds do not take an indirect object. Thus the two sentences in 40c are unacceptable, because the verb-object compound fA­ duFnxìn ‘text’ takes as its object wIde péngyou ‘my friend.’ 40c I often text my friends. ៥ᐌᐌ*থⷁֵ៥ⱘ᳟টDŽ

wi chángcháng fa-dufnxìn wide péngyou

៥ᐌᐌ*থ៥ⱘ᳟টⷁֵDŽ

wi chángcháng fa wide péngyou dufnxìn

Yet some verb-object compounds, such as fA-duFnxìn ‘text’ in 40c and those in 40d, likely involve another object noun/pronoun, since these activities by definition likely include more than one party. 40d 䇈䆱 shuD-huà ‘speak-speech = converse’ 㘞໽ liáo-tiAn ‘chat-(about) weather = chat’ ‫ ֵݭ‬xiG-xìn ‘write-letter = write a letter’ ᠧ⬉䆱 dF-diànhuà ‘make-phone call = phone’

ᓔ⥽ュ kAi-wánxiào ‘crack-joke = joke’

㒧ီ jié-hEn ‘knot-marriage = get married’

110 Speed Up Your Chinese ⾏ီ lí-hEn ‘leave-marriage = divorce’

Ϟᔧ shàng-dàng ‘set-(foolishly) treated = be fooled’

✻Ⳍ zhào-xiàng ‘reflect-image = photograph’

To include another object noun/pronoun with the verb-object compound, one must apply different grammatical patterns. The most common way is to employ the adverb 㒭 gGi or 䎳 gBn to introduce another object to the verbobject compound. In less common cases, the adverb 䅽 ràng is also used. The matching between these adverbs and the verb-object compounds, however, is set. Each of them only works with certain verbs. See examples 40e–g. 40e

Subj. + 㒭 gGi + Obj. + V-Obj. compound: ៥ᐌᐌ㒭⠊↡‫ ֵݭ‬/ ᠧ⬉䆱 /থⷁֵ/✻ⳌDŽ wi chángcháng ggi fùmj xig-xìn/df-diànhuà/fa-dufnxìn/zhào-xiàng ‘I often write to/phone/text/take a picture of my parents.’

40f

Subj. + 䎳 gBn + Obj. + V-Obj. compound: ⥟‫⫳ܜ‬೼䎳䚏ሙ䇈䆱 /㘞໽ /ᓔ⥽ュDŽ Wáng xiansheng zài gbn línje shud-huà/liáo-tian/kai-wánxiào ‘Mr. Wang is conversing/chatting/joking with his neighbor.’ ↨ᇨ䎳㥢Б㒧ီ/⾏ီњDŽ

Bh’gr gbn Shalì jié-hen/lí-hen le

‘Bill and Sally have married/divorced.’

40g

Subj. + 䅽 ràng + Obj. + V-Obj. compound 䙷ϾଚҎᘏᰃ䅽乒ᅶϞᔧDŽ nèi-ge shangren zingshì ràng gùkè shàng-dàng

‘That merchant always fools his customers.’

Most errors result from conceiving the verb-object compounds as simple action verbs, and consequently adding another object after the compounds. To correct these errors, follow the patterns in 40e–g, applying the adverbs 㒭 gGi, 䎳 gBn, or 䅽 ràng accordingly. 40h–k are a few erroneous examples. 40h

ཌྷᘏᰃᕜᖭˈᴹϡঞ*䇈䆱ཌྷⱘ᳟টDŽ ta zingshi hgn máng, láibùjí shud-huà tade péngyou (‘She is always busy, with little time for talking to her friends.’) ཌྷᘏᰃᕜᖭˈᴹϡঞ䎳ཌྷⱘ᳟ট䇈䆱DŽ ta zingshi hgn máng, láibùjí gbn tade péngyou shud-huà

40i

䙷Ͼস㨷ᑫⱘ㗕ᵓ*Ϟᔧ៥њDŽ

nèi-ge gjdingdiàn-de lfobfn shàng-dàng wi le

(‘The owner of that antique store fooled me.’)

䙷Ͼস㨷ᑫⱘ㗕ᵓ䅽៥ϞњᔧDŽ nèi-ge gjdingdiàn-de lfobfn ràng wi shàng-le-dàng

Noun and verb phrases 40j

111

៥ * ᠧѸ䘧њҪᕜ໮⃵DŽ

wi df-jiaodào le ta hgndud cì

(‘I have contacted him quite a few times.’)

៥䎳Ҫᠧњᕜ໮⃵Ѹ䘧DŽ wi gbn ta df-le hgndud-cì jiaodào

40k

ཌྷϔ*⾏ီњཌྷⱘ‫ˈ⫳ܜ‬ህ *㒧ီњ߿ⱘ⬋ҎDŽ ta yì lí-hen le tade xiansheng, jiù jié-hen le biéde nánren (‘As soon as she divorced her husband, she married another man.’) ཌྷ ϔ䎳ཌྷⱘ‫⾏⫳ܜ‬њီˈህ䎳߿ⱘ⬋Ҏ㒧њီDŽ ta yì gbn tade xiansheng lí-le-hen, jiù gbn biéde nánren jié-le-hen

One needs to apply patterns 40e–g to activities that by definition involve more than one party. In these patterns an adverb such as 㒭 gGi or 䎳 gBn introduces another object to the verb-object compound.

For related topics, see §39.

Exercises EXERCISE 9. (§§39–40) Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Mom made a fruitcake. We have listened to five speeches this week. That child is learning how to paint. Mr. Li checked out two books from the library today. They only buy goods made in the United States. We ordered her favorite dishes. My little sister rarely writes to my parents. She always calls them. She really wants to marry him. Sales people deal with customers every day. ᠧѸ䘧 He likes to joke with friends.

§41. Simple verbs vs. verb-verb compounds As introduced in §38, Mandarin transitive verbs usually function in one of two structures: either as verb-object compounds or as verb-verb compounds. Because the latter can also take an object, 41a illustrates these three structures with the same verb ‫ ݭ‬xiG ‘write.’

112 Speed Up Your Chinese 41a

V-Obj. compound: ‫ ֵݭ‬xiG-xìn ‘write a letter’ V-V compound: ‫ݭ‬ᅠ xiG-wán (lit. write-finish) ‘finish writing’

V-V compound + Obj.: ‫ݭ‬ᅠֵ

xiGwán-xìn ‘finish writing a letter’

The translations show that with the simple verb xiG ‘write,’ the verb-object compound ‫ ֵݭ‬xiG-xìn only specifies the action ‘writing a letter.’ To indicate that the letter is actually finished by its writer, we need to use the verb-verb compound, i.e. we need to add the second verb ᅠ wán ‘finish’ onto the first verb xiG to specify the idea ‘finish writing the letter.’ Thus there is a difference between a simple verb and a verb-verb compound formed by the same action verb and its verb complement (the second verb). 41b–g offer more examples. 41b 41c 41d 41e 41f 41g

ⳟ kàn ‘look’ vs. ⳟ㾕 kàn-jian (lit. look-see) ‘see’

ⳟ kàn ‘read’ vs. ⳟព kàn-dIng (lit. read-comprehend) ‘understand (by

reading)’ ᡒ zhFo ‘look for’ vs. ᡒࠄ zhFo-dào (lit. look for-reach) ‘find’ ф mFi ‘buy’ vs. фࠄ mFi-dào (lit. buy-reach) ‘be able to buy’ ୱ hB ‘drink’ vs. ୱᅠ hB-wán (lit. drink-finish) ‘finish drinking’ ᏺ dài ‘bring’ vs. ᏺಲ dài-huí (lit. bring-return) ‘bring back’

A simple verb and a verb-verb compound therefore convey different meanings. Now compare 41h, which contains the simple verb zhFo, with 41i, which has the verb-verb compound zhFo-dào. 41h

៥Ӏᕫএᡒᴢ‫⫳ܜ‬DŽ wimen dgi qù zhfo Lh xiansheng ‘We must go to look for Mr. Li.’

41i

៥Ӏᕫএᡒࠄᴢ‫⫳ܜ‬DŽ wimen dgi qù zhfo-dào Lh xiansheng ‘We must go to find Mr. Li.’

The choice of using either a simple verb or a verb-verb compound depends on what one intends to express. 41j

៥Ӏܿ⚍ህᓔྟᡒᴢ‫ࠄˈ⫳ܜ‬क⚍ᠡᡒࠄDŽ wimen badifn jiù kaishh zhfo Lh xiansheng, dào shídifn cái zhfo-dào ‘We started to look for Mr. Li at 8 o’clock; we didn’t find (him) until 10 o’clock.’

When students misuse the verb-verb compound, the ideas they tend to express are confusing. See the following examples.

Noun and verb phrases 41k

113

៥᯼໽≵ ?ⳟҪDŽ

wi zuótian méi kàn ta

?‘I didn’t look at him yesterday.’

Analysis: The simple verb kàn only means ‘look at.’ One needs to use the verb-verb compound kàn-jian ‘(look and) see.’ ៥᯼໽≵ⳟ㾕ҪDŽ wi zuótian méi kàn-jian ta

‘I didn’t see him yesterday.’

41l

བᵰԴᐌᐌ㒗дˈԴህ㛑?䆄ᕜ໮∝ᄫDŽ rúgui nh chángcháng liànxí, nh jiù néng jì hgn dud hànzì ‘If you practice often, you will ?memorize many Chinese characters.’ Analysis: The simple verb jì means ‘memorize.’ One needs to use the verb-verb compound jì-zhù (lit. memorize-stay) ‘remember.’ Դህ㛑䆄ԣᕜ໮∝ᄫDŽ nh jiù néng jì-zhù hgn dud hànzì

‘You will remember many Chinese characters.’

A simple verb, e.g. ᡒ zhFo ‘look for,’ and a verb-verb compound formed by the same action verb and its verb complement, e.g. ᡒࠄ zhFo-dào ‘find,’ express different meanings. Some activities need to be described by the latter.

For related topics, see §§38 and 42.

Exercises EXERCISE 10. (§§41–42) Finish each sentence, choosing an appropriate verb/verb compound from the parentheses. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

⦄೼ϡᇥ㕢೑Ҏ೼ _______ Ё᭛DŽ ᄺˈᄺӮ Ҫ⫼њϝϾ᳜ᠡ _______ ␌⋇DŽ ᄺˈᄺӮ ៥ⳳ≵ _______ ҪгᴹњDŽ ᛇˈᛇࠄ ҪӀ _______ ೼␪䖍ф᠓ᄤDŽ ᛇˈᛇࠄ 䖭Ͼ਼᳿ҪӀএජ໪ _______ ᳟টDŽ ⳟˈⳟ㾕 䙷Ͼ⬉ᕅˈԴ _______ њ৫˛ ⳟˈⳟ㾕 ៥Ӏ೼᡹Ϟ _______ њ䖭Ͼ⍜ᙃDŽ ⳟˈⳟࠄ ԴӀϔᅮᕫᡞ㦰 _______DŽ ৗˈৗᅠ ៥ӀᏆ㒣 _______ њ㄀कѨ䇒DŽ ᅠˈᄺᅠ ⳳ‫ދ‬DŽ៥Ӏ _______ にᄤ৻DŽ ݇ˈ݇Ϟ ᯼໽ˈ៥ⳟ㾕Դ೼ _______ 㸷᳡DŽ ⋫ˈ⋫ᑆ‫ ޔ‬ ᴢ໻ᯢ≵ᡞ䙷Ͼᄫ _______DŽ ‫⏙ݭˈݭ‬Ἦ

114 Speed Up Your Chinese

§42.

Verb complements (i): resultative

Verb complements refer to the second verb of verb-verb compounds, such as ࠄ dào ‘reach’ in ᡒࠄ zhFo-dào (lit. look for-reach) ‘find.’ As the name suggests, the verb complement in a verb-verb structure expresses the resultant state, such as the completion, attainment, or success of the action by the first verb (ᡒ zhFo ‘look for’ in this case). Commonly used verb complements generally fall into two categories: resultative verb complements (this section) and directional verb complements (see §43). The former category includes a large number of descriptive adjectives, as in 42a. 42a

Commonly used RVCs (underlined): ਀㾕 tCng-jiàn ‘listen-perceive = hear’ ଅᅠ chàng-wán ‘sing-finish = finish singing’ ໳ⴔ gòu-zháo ‘reach toward-touch = attain’ ᛇࠄ xiFng-dào ‘think-reach = think of’ ᡧԣ zhuA-zhù ‘grab-stay = hold onto’ 䭓៤ zhFng-chéng ‘grow-become = grow into’ ‫خ‬ད zuò-hFo ‘do-good = satisfactorily done’ ⣰ᇍ cAi-duì ‘guess-right = guess correctly’ ਀䫭 tCng-cuò ‘listen-wrong = mishear’ ‫⏙ݭ‬Ἦ xiG-qCngchu ‘write-clear = write clearly’

The verb-verb compound, formed by a simple action verb and a resultative verb complement, should be regarded as one verb and may take an object. Compare examples 42b and 42c. 42b has the simple verb xH, whereas 42c contains the verb-verb compound xH-gAnjing, both taking the object yCfu ‘clothes.’ 42b

ཌྷᘏᰃ᯳ᳳ݁Ϟज⋫㸷᳡DŽ ta zingshì xcngqcliù shàngwj xh-ycfu ‘She always does her laundry on Saturday mornings.’

42c

ཌྷ᯳ᳳ݁ϔᅮᕫ⋫ᑆ‫ޔ‬㸷᳡ᠡ㛑‫ⱘ߿خ‬џDŽ ta xcngqcliù yídìng dgi xh-ganjing-ycfu cái néng zuò biéde shì ‘On Saturdays she can’t do anything else until her clothes are (washed) clean.’

Note: While regarding a Mandarin verb-verb compound as one verb, it is necessary to remain conscious of its two-part V-RVC structure. In other words, one must keep in mind the meanings of both the action verb and its verb

Noun and verb phrases

115

complement. For example, the meaning of the verb-verb compound ໳ⴔ gòu-zháo ‘reach toward-touch = attain’ only means ‘touch an actual object by reaching over.’ One cannot use gòu-zháo to express the idea ‘he has attained a goal.’ Considering only the combined meaning of a verb-verb compound and overlooking the meaning of the action verb may lead to grammatical errors. Using the resultative verb complement as the main verb is a common error, as shown in 42d–e. The underlined words are RVCs that cannot function as main verbs. In both cases, an action verb needs to precede the RVC. 42d

៥Ꮖ㒣 *ᅠњ៥ⱘࡳ䇒DŽ wi yhjcng wán-le wide gdngkè ‘I have already finished my homework.’ ៥Ꮖ㒣‫خ‬ᅠ (‘do-finish’) њ៥ⱘࡳ䇒DŽ wi yhjcng zuò-wán-le wide gdngkè

42e

㗗䆩ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬ᄺ⫳≵ *⏙Ἦ䯂乬DŽ kfo-shì de shíhou, xuésheng méi qcngchu wèntí ‘During the exam, the student didn’t clear? the question.’ 㗗䆩ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬ᄺ⫳≵ⳟ⏙Ἦ (‘read-clear’) 䯂乬DŽ kfo-shì de shíhou, xuésheng méi kàn-qcngchu wèntí

42f shows what happens when students simply translate the English verb ‘see’ into ⳟ㾕 kàn-jian. In Mandarin, this verb-verb compound, with the verb kàn ‘look’ and the verb complement jiàn ‘perceive,’ specifies concrete visual perception, not ‘visit (someone),’ as was the apparent intent in 42f. To correct this error, one can use jiàn ‘see, perceive’ as the main verb. 42f

ᴢᯢᖬњএ *ⳟ㾕Ҫⱘ㗕ᏜˈҪᕜϡདᛣᗱDŽ Lh Míng wàng-le qù kàn-jian tade lfoshc, ta hgn bùhfoyìsi ‘Li Ming forgot to go to see his teacher. He is embarrassed.’ ᴢᯢᖬњএ㾕Ҫⱘ㗕ᏜˈҪᕜϡདᛣᗱDŽ Lh Míng wàng-le qù jiàn tade lfoshc, ta hgn bùhfoyìsi

In a V-RVC compound, the initial verb expresses the action, whereas its verb complement (the second verb) describes the resultant state of the action. The meanings of both verbs are important.

For related topics, see §§38 and 41.

116 Speed Up Your Chinese

§43.

Verb complements (ii): directional

Directional verb complements follow an action verb or a placement verb and indicate the direction of an action, such as ಲ huí ‘return’ in 䗕ಲ sòng-huí ‘send back’ or ߎএ chEqù ‘out’ in ᨀߎএ bAn-chEqù ‘move out.’ Mandarin directional verb complements can be basically sorted into three groups: simple (43a and 43b); and compound (43d). 43a Simple DVCs (1) -ᴹ lái ‘come’ -এ qù ‘go’

e.g. 亲ᴹ fBi-lái ‘fly here’ e.g. 䗕এ sòng-qù ‘send over’

ᴹ lái ‘come’ and এ qù ‘go’ as simple verbs respectively indicate a motion toward or away from the speaker. While serving as directional verb complements to other active verbs, they likewise indicate the direction of the action. As the examples in 43a show, the verb-verb compound fBi-lái (DVC = lái) indicates the motion of ‘flying’ is toward the speaker, whereas the verb-verb compound sòng-qù (DVC = qù) shows the motion of ‘sending’ is away from the speaker. 43b Simple DVCs (2) -Ϟ shàng ‘ascent-up’ -ϟ xià ‘descend-down’ -䖯 jìn ‘enter-in’ -ߎ chE ‘exit-out’ -䍋 qH ‘rise-up’ -ಲ huí ‘return-back’ -䖛 guò ‘cross-over’

e.g. e.g. e.g. e.g. e.g. e.g. e.g.

ᦤϞ ᬒϟ ᨀ䖯 पߎ ᣓ䍋 ᬊಲ ᥼䖛

tí-shàng ‘lift up’ fàng-xià ‘put down’ bAn-jìn ‘move in’ mài-chE ‘sell out’ ná-qH ‘pick up’ shDu-huí ‘collect back’ tuC-guò ‘push over’

The members of the 43b group may also function as active verbs, taking lái or qù as their directional verb complement. In other words, the verbs from 43b followed by lái or qù from 43a form the following V-DVC compounds in 43c. 43c

Ϟᴹ ϟᴹ 䖯ᴹ ߎᴹ 䍋ᴹ ಲᴹ 䖛ᴹ

shànglái ‘come up here’ xiàlái ‘come down here’ jìnlái ‘come in here’ chElái ‘come out here’ qHlái ‘get up’ huílái ‘come back here’ guòlái ‘come over here’

Ϟএ ϟএ 䖯এ ߎএ

shàngqù ‘go up there’ xiàqù ‘go down there’ jìnqù ‘go in there’ chEqù ‘get out (of here)’

ಲএ huíqù ‘go back there’ 䖛এ guòqù ‘go over there’

All the members of 43c may also serve in turn as compound directional verb complements to other active verbs. See the examples in 43d. In each of these cases, the first element, i.e. a member from the 43b group, shows the

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direction of the motion: up or down, in or out, etc.; and the second element, i.e. lái ‘come’ or qù ‘go,’ shows whether the direction of the action is toward or away from the speaker. 43d Compound DVCs -Ϟᴹ / -Ϟএ e.g. 䗕Ϟᴹ /Ϟএ sòng-shànglái/-shàngqù ‘send up here/there’ -ϟᴹ / -ϟএ e.g. ᣓϟᴹ/ϟএ ná-xiàlái/-xiàqù ‘take down here/there’ -䖯ᴹ / -䖯এ e.g. 䍄䖯ᴹ /䖯এ zIu-jìnlái/-jìnqù ‘walk in here/there’ -ߎᴹ / -ߎএ e.g. ᨀߎᴹ / ߎএ bAn-chElái/-chEqù ‘move out (from there/here)’ -䍋ᴹ e.g. キ䍋ᴹ zhàn-qHlái ‘stand up’ -ಲᴹ / -ಲএ e.g. 䎥ಲᴹ /ಲএ pFo-huílái/-huíqù ‘run back here/there’ -䖛ᴹ / -䖛এ e.g. 䏇䖛ᴹ/䖛এ tiào-guòlái/-guòqù ‘jump over here/there’ Like the V-RVC compounds, V-DVC compounds may take an object, as in 43e. And they often appear in a ᡞ bF construction, as in 43f. 43e ྤྤᣓߎϔᴵⓖ҂ⱘೈᏒDŽ jigjie ná-che yì-tiáo piàoliang de wéijcn ‘The older sister took out a pretty scarf.’ 43f

ᄺ⫳ᡞЁ᭛ᄫ‫݌‬ᏺᴹњDŽ xuésheng bf zhdngwén zìdifn dài-lái le ‘The student brought the Chinese dictionary here.’

When a V-DVC structure takes a compound directional verb complement, i.e. those from the 43d group, its object may appear either after the whole V-DVC structure (43g) or before lái or qù (43h). 43g

偀‫⫳ܜ‬䗕䖛ᴹϔ⫊䜦DŽ Mf xiansheng sòng-guòlái yì-píng-jij ‘Mr. Ma sent over a bottle of wine.’

43h

偀‫⫳ܜ‬䗕䖛ϔ⫊䜦ᴹDŽ Mf xiansheng sòng-guò yì-píng-jij lái ‘Mr. Ma sent over a bottle of wine.’

If, however, the direction of the motion involves a location, such as chéng ‘the city’ in 43i, this location word must appear just before the final ending lái or qù. Now compare 43i with 43i’ below; the latter is grammatically unacceptable. 43i

Ҫᡞ䔺ᓔಲජএњDŽ ta bf chb kai-huí chéng-qù le ‘He drove the car back to the city.’

118 Speed Up Your Chinese 43i′

* Ҫᡞ䔺ᓔಲএජњDŽ

ta bf chb kai-huíqù chéng le

A common error is the misplaced location word. See the ill-formed example 43j. Remember: if the direction of the motion involves a location, túshEguFn ‘the library’ in this case, the location word must appear immediately before the final ending lái or qù. 43j

೒к佚ਬ䇈ᄺ⫳ϡ㛑ᡞᄫ‫ߎ׳ * ݌‬এ೒к佚DŽ túshegufnyuán shud xuésheng bùnéng bf zìdifn jiè-cheqù túshegufn ‘The librarian says that students can’t check the dictionaries out of the library.’ . . . ᄺ⫳ϡ㛑ᡞᄫ‫ߎ׳݌‬೒к佚এDŽ

xuésheng bùnéng bf zìdifn jiè-che túshegufn qù

While not in the ᡞ bF construction, the object of a V-DVC compound may appear either after the whole V-DVC structure (43g) or before ᴹ lái or এ qù (43h). The latter, however, is the only choice for an object that is a location (43i).

For related topics, see §§9, 38, 41, and 42.

Exercises EXERCISE 11. Fill in the blanks with directional complements ϟˈ䖯ˈߎˈಲˈ 䍋ˈᴹ or এ, using each only once. 1 2 3 4 5 6

䇋䖯ʽ䇋ത ______ ৻ʽ ཌྷϡ୰⃶䖭‫ˈܓ‬᠔ҹᨀ ______ ҹࠡⱘᆓ㟡এњDŽ ໽⇨ⳳདDŽ៥Ӏߎ ______ 䍄䍄৻˛ Ϟ䇒ҹࠡˈᄺ⫳䍄 ______ ᬭᅸDŽϟ䇒ҹৢˈᄺ⫳䍄 ______ ᬭᅸDŽ 㘮令ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬Ҫᏺ ______ ϔϾᮄ᳟টDŽ Ҫᗑ✊ᛇ ______ ϔӊџDŽ

§44. Verb-verb compounds: actual and potential forms Verb-verb compounds appear in a sentence in one of two forms: the actual or the potential. The actual form addresses the occurrence or non-occurrence of the compound’s action, e.g. whether a person actually heard (਀㾕њ tCngjiàn le)

Noun and verb phrases

119

or did not hear (≵਀㾕 méi tCngjiàn). The potential form addresses the ability to accomplish the action, e.g. whether the person is able or unable to hear.

Actual form The actual form of a verb-verb compound, as shown in 44a–b, functions as a simple verb. The occurrence of the Vaction + Vresult is indicated by the verb suffix -њ le following the compound, and its non-occurrence by the negation ≵ ᳝ méi(yIu) preceding the compound. 44a

The action has succeeded. (Positive: V-V + њ le) 䄺ᆳᡧࠄњᇣًDŽ jhngchá zhua-dào le xifotdu

‘The police caught the thief.’

44b

The action has not succeeded. (Negative: ≵ ᳝ méi(yIu) + V-V) 䄺ᆳ≵ ᳝ ᡧࠄᇣًDŽ jhngchá méi(yiu) zhua-dào xifotdu

‘The police didn’t catch the thief.’

Because verb-verb compounds in their actual form usually occur in the ᡞ bF construction (see §§9–10), note this slight difference regarding the position of the verb suffix -њ le: while it must follow the resultative verb complement (44c), with the V-DVC structure there are two choices: -le either follows the directional verb complement or the action verb (44d–d′). 44c

䄺ᆳᡞᇣًᡧࠄњDŽ(V-RVC-њ ) jhngchá bf xifotdu zhua-dào le ‘The police caught the thief.’

44d

䄺ᆳᡞᇣًᏺಲᴹњDŽ(V-DVC-њ ) jhngchá bf xifotdu dài-huílai le ‘The police brought back the thief.’

44d′ 䄺ᆳᡞᇣًᏺњಲᴹDŽ(V-њ-DVC) jhngchá bf xifotdu dài-le-huílai ‘The police brought the thief back.’

Potential form The potential form of verb-verb compounds, on the other hand, uses infixes. Inserting ᕫ de for the positive form or ϡ bù for the negative form between the action verb and its verb complement indicates the potential capacity to accomplish the action. For example, if the actual verb-verb compound is ᡧࠄ zhuA-dào ‘grab-reach (catch),’ the positive potential form is ᡧᕫࠄ

120 Speed Up Your Chinese zhuA-de-dào ‘be able to catch (the thief)’; and the negative potential form is ᡧϡࠄ zhuA-bú-dào ‘unable to catch (the thief).’ See a few examples in 44e. 44e

V-V compounds in potential form Positive

ⳟᕫᅠ kàn-de-wán ‘able to finish (reading)’

‫خ‬ᕫད zuò-de-hFo ‘able to do well’

ಲᕫᴹ huí-de-lái ‘able to return here’

Negative

ⳟϡᅠ kàn-bù-wán ‘unable to finish (reading)’

‫خ‬ϡད zuò-bù-hFo ‘unable to do well’

ಲϡᴹ huí-bù-lái ‘unable to return here’

Note: Two points about the actual and potential forms are important. First, when an action verb takes a resultative verb complement or a directional verb complement, it does not follow that both actual and potential forms are commonly used. For instance, a verb-verb compound with the resultative verb complement њ liFo for ‘possibility’—such as ৗϡњ chC-bù­ liFo ‘impossible to eat’ in ៥Ӏৗϡњ䖭М໮㦰 wImen chC-bù-liFo zhème duD cài ‘We can’t possibly eat so much food’—by definition only appears in the potential form, and never in the actual. Second, as we have established that only the actual form of a verb-verb compound is used with the bF construction, compare 44f with 44g. The latter is unacceptable because it uses the verb-verb compound’s potential form. 44f

䇋Դᡞ䆱䇈⏙ἮDŽ qhng nh bf huà shud-qcngchu ‘Please speak clearly.’

44g

䇋Դᡞ䆱 *䇈ᕫ⏙ἮDŽ qhng nh bf huà shud-de-qcngchu

?‘Please be able to speak clearly.’

44h

Ё᭛ⱘ⫳䆡໾໮ˈ៥ᐌᐌ *ϡ㛑䆄ᕫԣDŽ zhdngwén de shbngcí tài dud, wi chángcháng bùnéng jì-de-zhù ‘There are too many Chinese words. I often can’t remember (them).’ Problem: The sentence introduces an unnecessary negation bùnéng ‘cannot’ to the verb-verb compound’s potential form jì-de-zhù ‘be able to remember.’ One should simply use the negative equivalent jì­ bú-zhù ‘unable to remember.’ Ё᭛ⱘ⫳䆡໾໮ˈ៥ᐌᐌ䆄ϡԣDŽ zhdngwén de shbngcí tài dud, wi chángcháng jì-bú-zhù

Noun and verb phrases 44i

121

៥Ҟ໽ϔᅮᕫᡞࡳ䇒䛑 * ‫خ‬ᕫᅠDŽ wi jcntian yídìng dgi bf gdngkè ddu zuò-de-wán ‘Today I must finish all the homework.’ Problem: The potential form does not go with the ᡞ bF construction. To correct the mistake, simply use the actual form. ៥Ҟ໽ϔᅮᕫᡞࡳ䇒䛑‫خ‬ᅠDŽ wi jcntian yídìng dgi bf gdngkè ddu zuò-wán

44j

㕢㣅ᡞ༈থ *࠾њⷁDŽ Mgiycng bf tóufa jifn-le-dufn ‘Mgiycng has cut her hair short.’ Problem: The verb suffix -le splits the action verb jiFn ‘to scissor’ and its resultative verb complement duFn ‘short.’ Since the verb-verb compound functions like a simple verb, -le should attach to the resultative verb complement (cf. 44c). 㕢㣅ᡞ༈থ࠾ⷁњDŽ Mgiycng bf tóufa jifn-dufn le

The actual form of a verb-verb compound appears as [V-V + њ le (positive)] and [≵ ᳝ méi(you) + V-V (negative)]. The potential form of a verb-verb compound uses infixes: [V-ᕫ de-V (positive)] and [V-ϡ bù-V (negative)].

For related topics, see §§9, 10, 28, 41, 42, and 43.

Exercises EXERCISE 12. (§§42–44) Fill in the blanks with verb complements 㾕 jiàn, ព dIng, ࠄ dào, ԣ zhù, ᅠ wán, ϟ xià, 䍋ᴹ qHlái, or ߎএ chEqù. You need to put the potential infix ᕫ de (able to) or ϡ bù (unable to) before each complement according to the context. Some complements may be used more than once. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

៥≵ᄺ䖛⊩᭛ˈ⊩೑⬉ᕅ៥ⳟ _________(understand)DŽ 令ख़ᕜ໻ˈത _________(contain) ϔⱒϾᅶҎDŽ 㦰໾໮њˈ៥Ӏৗ _________(finish)DŽ ത೼ৢ䴶ⱘҎ਀ _________(hear) ৫˛ ៥ᖬњཌྷྦྷҔМˈ៥ᛇ _________(recall) њDŽ ៥Ӏ䆄 _________(register) 䖭М໮ⱘ⫳䆡DŽ 㗕Ꮬ䇈Ё᭛䇈ᕫϡᖿˈᄺ⫳䛑਀ _________(understand)DŽ ᛇⳟ⧗䌯ⱘҎᕜ໮ˈ៥ф _________(obtain) ⼼DŽ ϰ㽓ᕜᇣˈཌྷᨀ _________(out)DŽ ࡳ䇒ϡ໮ˈ៥Ӏ‫(_________ خ‬finish)DŽ

122 Speed Up Your Chinese EXERCISE 13. (§§42–44) Translate the sentences into Chinese, using the verb-verb compound given in parentheses. Note that some of these compounds need to be in the actual form, and some are in the potential form. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

We did not see him return. ⳟ㾕

Can you finish this book today? ⳟᅠ

The door is broken; it can’t be closed. ݇Ϟ Today they bought fresh fish. фࠄ

Mrs. Zhang is not able to read English. ⳟព

The whole family has heard this news. ਀ࠄ

This topic is very complicated. One cannot explain it easily. 䇈⏙Ἦ

Nurse Wang has already moved out. ᨀߎএ

Sorry, I didn’t understand what you said. ਀ព

This is the address. Do you think we can find him here? ᡒࠄ You are right: she really is my sister. 䇈ᇍ He ordered too much food. We didn’t finish. ৗᅠ

§45.

describe an action’s manner or To degree

To describe an action’s manner or degree, we use pattern 45a, where the duplicated verb takes ᕫ de to introduce a complement. The verb 䇈 shuD in the verb-object compound 䇈䆱 shuD-huà ‘speak’ must be repeated when it takes ᕫ de. 45a Subj. + V-Obj. + V-ᕫ de + complement ⥟㗕Ꮬ䇈䆱䇈ᕫᕜᖿDŽ Wáng lfoshc shud-huà shud-de hgn kuài

‘Teacher Wang speaks fast.’

The complement after de is actually a modified descriptive adjective phrase, functioning as an adverbial phrase, to indicate the manner or the degree of the action. 45b ཌྷྍྍଅ℠ଅᕫⳳᰃདᵕњDŽ ta mèimei chàng-gb chàng-de zhbnshì hfo-jíle ‘Her younger sister sings really well.’ 45c ៥᯼໽ୱ੪ଵୱᕫ໾໮ˈᰮϞⴵϡⴔDŽ wi zuótian hb-kafbi hb-de tài dud, wfnshang shuì-bù-zháo ‘Since I drank too much coffee yesterday, I wasn’t able to sleep last night.’

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When the context makes the point clear, the verb-object segment (not the V-de) in pattern 45a can be omitted. For example, the answer to the question 㗕Ꮬ䇈䆱䇈ᕫᖿ৫˛ lFoshC shuD-huà shuD-de kuài ma? ‘Does the teacher speak fast?’ naturally is ཌྷ䇈ᕫᕜᖿDŽtA shuD-de hGn kuài ‘Yes, (she speaks) very fast.’ The verb-object compound shuD-huà ‘speak’ does not need to be repeated in the answer since it is clearly stated in the question. Alternatively, the object in the verb-object segment may be at the beginning of the sentence, as in 45d. There is no need for the duplication of the verb in this structure. 45d

䙷佪℠ˈཌྷଅᕫϡ䫭DŽ nèi-shiu-gb, ta chàng-de búcuò ‘That song, she sings rather well.’

When the verb is intransitive, i.e. when it is not a verb-object compound, such as xiExi ‘rest’ in 45e and lái ‘come’ in 45f, there is no need for duplication. The particle de directly attaches to the verb itself, as shown in these examples. 45e

໽⇨໾⛁ˈ៥ӀӥᙃᕫϡདDŽ tianqì tài rè, wimen xcuxi-de bù hfo ‘The weather is too hot. We didn’t rest well.’

45f

ԴᴹᕫϡᎻˈཌྷ߮䍄DŽ nh lái-de bù qifo, ta gang ziu ‘You came at the wrong time. She just left.’

The interrogative form for this pattern usually focuses on the complement, as shown in 45g–h. The phrase ᗢМḋ˛ zBnmeyàng ‘how is . . . ?’ is commonly used in the complement position, as in 45h. 45g

Դⳟкⳟᕫ໮ϡ໮˛ nh kàn-she kàn-de dud-bù-dud ‘Do you read much?’

45h

ҪᄺЁ᭛ᄺᕫᗢМḋ˛ ta xué-zhdngwén xué-de zgnmeyàng ‘How are his Chinese studies going?’

Summary: These details are essential for pattern 45a: Subj. + V-Obj. + V­ ᕫ de + complement. i) The verb of the verb-object compound must be duplicated before taking de. ii) The duplication can only be omitted when the verb is intransitive or when the object occurs at the beginning of the sentence. iii) When the context makes the point clear, the verb-object segment can be omitted; but the V-de segment can never be omitted. iv) The

124 Speed Up Your Chinese complement after de most likely is a descriptive adjective phrase functioning as an adverbial modifier. Other kinds of phrases such as noun phrases, verb phrases, or time expressions do not fit in this position. v) The interrogative form focuses on the complement, not on the verb. The following are a few common errors that in one way or another violate the details of pattern 45a. 45i

៥ཛྷཛྷ* ‫خ‬㦰ᕫདৗᵕњDŽ wi mama zuò-cài-de hfochc jíle ‘My mom cooks delicious dishes.’ (She cooks exceedingly well.) Problem: The verb is not duplicated. ៥ཛྷཛྷ‫خ‬㦰‫خ‬ᕫདৗᵕњDŽ wi mama zuò-cài zuò-de hfochc jíle

45j

Ё೑ⱘ⦄ҷ࣪ *䖯㸠䖯ᕫᕜᖿDŽ

Zhdngguó-de xiàndàihuà jìnxíng jìn-de hgn kuài

‘China’s modernization is moving very fast.’

Problem: Part of the polysyllabic intransitive verb is duplicated. Ё೑ⱘ⦄ҷ࣪䖯㸠ᕫᕜᖿDŽ Zhdngguó-de xiàndàihuà jìnxíng-de hgn kuài

45k

៥↣໽ⴵ㾝 *ⴵᕫѨϾᇣᯊDŽ

wi mgitian shuì-jiào shuì-de wj-ge xifoshí

‘I sleep five hours every day.’

Problem: A time expression is used as the complement. ៥↣໽ⴵ㾝ⴵᕫᕜᇥDŽ(I sleep very little every day.)

wi mgitian shuì-jiào shuì-de hgn shfo

៥↣໽ⴵ㾝ⴵѨϾᇣᯊDŽ(A different pattern. See §24.)

wi mgitian shuì-jiào shuì wj-ge xifoshí

45l

Ё᭛䇒ˈ㗕Ꮬ *䆆ϡ䆆ᕫᕜ⏙Ἦ˛

zhdngwénkè, lfoshc jifng-bu-jifng de hgn qcngchu

‘Does the teacher teach the Chinese class clearly?’

Problem: The interrogative focuses not on the complement but on the verb. Ё᭛䇒ˈ㗕Ꮬ䆆ᕫ⏙Ἦϡ⏙Ἦ˛ zhdngwénkè, lfoshc jifng-de qcngchu bù qcngchu

45a is the pattern for describing an action’s manner or degree. Here V-ᕫ de introduces a complement, which is normally a descriptive adjective.

For related topics, see §46.

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125

Exercises EXERCISE 14. Complete the sentences, using the structure [V-Obj. + V-ᕫ de + complement]. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

(The teacher writes Chinese characters beautifully.) 㗕Ꮬ‫ݭ‬ᄫ_____________DŽ (The old gentleman rises early.) 㗕‫⫳ܜ‬䍋ᴹ _____________DŽ (Does Dad drink much beer?) ⠌⠌ୱସ䜦 _____________ ˛ (You type very slowly!) Դᠧᄫ _____________ ʽ (I don’t swim that well.) ៥␌⋇ _____________DŽ (The older sister walks quickly.) ྤྤ䍄䏃 _____________DŽ (How well does the chef cook?) ໻ॼ‫خ‬㦰 _____________ ˛ (You don’t eat enough fruit.) Դৗ∈ᵰ _____________DŽ

Check your grammar Translate these phrases/sentences into Chinese, and then check to see that you have implemented the relevant grammar points. The parenthetical numbers and letters identify the pertinent subsections and examples. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Xiaomao does not work hard. He is not a good student. (§34e)

I don’t want to go to the school cafeteria to eat the insipid food. (§34f)

American students who can speak Chinese (§35b)

the library that is across from (here) (§36f)

these ten students (§37h)

In America, it would be an exceptional situation if a car didn’t yield to

pedestrians. (§37i) I don’t have big brothers. (§37j) He kept drinking (lit. repeatedly drank). Now he is very drunk. (§38j) Today’s weather is really nice. We should go out to exercise a bit. (§38k) She is now working on her term paper at the library. (§38l)

I (lit. my body) need(s) a bath every day. (§39d)

I really like our Chinese class. / I really like to attend Chinese class. (§39e)

She is always busy, with little time for talking to her friends. (§40h)

The owner of that antique store fooled me. (§40i)

I have contacted him quite a few times. (§40j)

As soon as she divorced her husband, she married another man. (§40k)

I didn’t see him yesterday. (§41k)

If you often practice, you will remember many Chinese characters. (§41l)

I have already finished my homework. (§42d)

During the exam, the student didn’t quite understand (didn’t read clearly)

the question. (§42e) Li Ming forgot to go to see his teacher. He is embarrassed. (§42f)

126 Speed Up Your Chinese 22 The librarian says that students can’t check the dictionaries out of the library. (§43j) 23 There are too many Chinese words. I often can’t remember (them). (§44h) 24 Today I must finish all the homework. (§44i) 25 Meiying has cut her hair short. (§44j) 26 My mom cooks delicious dishes. (She cooks exceedingly well.) (§45i) 27 China’s modernization is moving very fast. (§45j) 28 I sleep very little every day. / I sleep five hours every day. (§45k) 29 Does the teacher teach the Chinese class clearly? (§45l)

Notes

5

Usage comparison of words and phrases

§46. Distinguishing the three homonyms: ࡼ de1, ࢐ de2, and ࡻ de3 Each of these three characters, ⱘ, ഄ , and ᕫ, each pronounced de (neutral tone), has its own grammatical function. First, the modification of nouns, indicated by ⱘ de1. The structure: Modifier­ ⱘ de1 + N. The word/phrase that precedes de1 modifies the noun that stands after it. 46a illustrates the modifiers (see §§34–35). 46a

The modifier is a noun: 㗕Ꮬⱘࡲ݀ᅸ lFoshC-de1 bàngDngshì ‘the teacher’s office’ ೒к佚ⱘк túshEguFn-de1 shE ‘the library’s books’ The modifier is a pronoun:

ཌྷⱘ᠓䯈 tA-de1 fángjiAn ‘her room’

៥ӀⱘЏᛣ wImen-de1 zhúyi ‘our idea’

The modifier is a polysyllabic descriptive adjective, or a monosyllabic one modified by an adverb:

៤ࡳⱘଚҎ chénggDng-de1 shAngren ‘successful businessman’

ᕜᮄⱘ⬉㛥 hGnxCn-de1 diànnFo ‘a very new computer’

The modifier is a clause: ៥᯼໽фⱘ䔺 wI zuótiAn mFi-de1 chB ‘the car I bought yesterday’ Ҫ䆆ⱘᬙџ tA jiFng-de1 gùshi ‘the story he told’

Second, the modification of verbs, indicated by ഄ de2. The structure: DA-ഄ de2 + V. That is, DA-de2 becomes an adverbial phrase modifying the verb. The suffix de2 attaches either to a polysyllabic descriptive adjective, or a

128 Speed Up Your Chinese monosyllabic one modified by an adverb, such as ᕜ hGn ‘very’ or 䴲ᐌ fBicháng ‘exceptionally.’ DA-de2 precedes the verb to modify the verb’s manner of action. See the examples in 46b. 46b DA + ഄ de2 / adverb-DA + ഄ de2 催݈ gAoxìng ‘happy’ + ഄ de2 Ҩ㒚 zHxì ‘careful’ + ഄ de2 ᕜ᜶ hGn-màn ‘very slow’ + ഄ de2 䴲ᐌᮽ fBicháng-zFo ‘exceptionally early’ + ഄ de2

� � � � �

adverbial phrase (V) 催݈ഄ (ଅ) ‘happily (singing)’ Ҩ㒚ഄ(ⳟ) ‘carefully (reading)’ ᕜ᜶ഄ(䍄) ‘very slowly (walking)’ 䴲ᐌᮽഄ(⾏ᓔ) ‘(leaving) exceptionally early’

Third, the verb complement, indicated by ᕫ de3. The structure: V-ᕫ de3 + complement. The verb uses de3 to introduce a complement indicating the manner or degree of the action. When the verb is a verb-object compound, the verb that takes de3 must be duplicated. See the examples in 46c. (See also §45.) 46c

ⳟк ⳟᕫᖿᵕњ (kàn-shE) kàn-de3 kuài-jíle ‘read extremely fast’ ৗ佁 ৗᕫᕜᇥ (chC-fàn) chC-de3 hGn shFo ‘eat very little’ ⥽‫ܓ‬ᕫⳳ催݈ wánr-de3 zhBn gAoxìng ‘have a good time playing’ (lit. ‘play really happily’) ュᕫ㙮ᄤ⮐ xiào-de3 dùzi téng ‘laugh so hard that the stomach hurts’

Comparative note: While both ഄ de2 and ᕫ de3 relate to the manner of an action, the former is more interpretive, i.e. it notes the way the action unfolds, whereas the latter is more descriptive, i.e. it notes the action’s character. The adverbial phrase with de2 is more likely a speaker’s subjective view, whereas the complement introduced by de3 is more likely the action’s objective nature. Compare sentences 46d–e, and another pair of examples, 46f–g. 46d ⥟㗕Ꮬ୰⃶䴲ᐌᖿഄ䇈䆱DŽ Wáng lfoshc xhhuan fbicháng-kuài-de2 shud-huà ‘Teacher Wang likes to speak really fast.’ (He prefers to speak really fast.) 46e ⥟㗕Ꮬᐌᐌ䇈䆱䇈ᕫ䴲ᐌᖿDŽ Wáng lfoshc chángcháng shud-huà shud-de3 fbicháng-kuài ‘Teacher Wang often speaks exceptionally fast.’ (The manner in which he speaks is often exceptionally fast.) 46f ៥Ӏᕜᮽഄৗњ佁ˈএⳟᰮഎ⬉ᕅDŽ wimen hgn-zfo-de2 chc-le-fàn, qù kàn wfnchfng diànyhng ‘We ate early, in order to go to see the evening movie.’ (We deliberately ate early in order to see the movie.)

Usage comparison of words and phrases 129 46g ៥Ӏৗ佁ৗᕫᕜᮽDŽ wimen chc-fàn chc-de3 hgn-zfo ‘We eat early.’ (Eating early is our habit.) We summarize the functions of the three homonyms in 46h as a grammatical guide. Based on this guide, the errors in 46i–l can be simply explained and corrected. 46h ⱘ de1 indicates the noun modification: Modifier-ⱘ de1 + N ഄ de2 indicates the verb modification: DA-ഄ de2 + V ᕫ de3 indicates the verb complement: V-ᕫ de3 + complement 46i

Ҟ໽៥ϡ㟦᳡ˈ಴ℸˈ៥ⴵ㾝ⴵ*ⱘᕜ໮DŽ

jcntian wi bù shefu, ycnch, wi shuì-jiào shuì-de1 hgn dud

‘I don’t feel well today. So I slept a lot.’

Analysis: HGn duD ‘a lot’ is a complement of the verb shuì ‘sleep.’ What follows the verb should be ᕫ de3.

46j

䖭ϔᏺⱘೳഄ↨݊Ҫഄᮍ㙹≗ *ⱘ໮DŽ

zhèi-yídài de tjdì bh qíta dìfang féiwò de1 dud

‘The soil in this area is much more fertile than other places.’

Analysis: In a comparison, the ‘much more (adjective)’ is DA-ᕫ໮ de duD. Since duD is a complement, it follows ᕫ de3. (See §§6 and 8 for comparisons.)

46k

៥Ӏ᯹‫؛‬এᮙ㸠ˈ䖤⇨ *ᕫ≵᳝⺄ࠄฉ䔺DŽ wimen chenjià qù lkxíng, yùnqi-de3 méiyiu pèngdào dj-chb ‘We traveled during spring break and luckily didn’t run into traffic jams.’ Analysis: ‘Luckily’ is an adverb. The descriptive adjective yùnqi ‘lucky’ should take ഄ de2 to form an adverbial phrase describing the action ‘not run into traffic jams.’

46l

៥䖬䆄ᕫԴϔᑈࠡ䇈*ᕫ䆱DŽ

wi hái jìde nh yì-nián qián shud-de3-huà

‘I still remember what you said a year ago.’

Analysis: ‘The words you said’ is a noun phrase, while 䆱 huà ‘words’ is modified by Դ䇈 nH shuD ‘you said.’ So this case requires ⱘ de1.

46h summarizes the functions of the three homonyms. The structures are: [Modifier-ⱘ de1 + N]; [DA-ഄ de2 + V]; and [V-ᕫ de3 + complement].

For related topics, see §§34, 35, and 45.

130 Speed Up Your Chinese

Exercises EXERCISE 1. Insert ⱘ de1 in the appropriate place in each phrase/sentence.       

དৗ⚍ᖗ ᳝䍷ᬙџ ໻ᆊџ ៥⠌⠌ᮄ䔺 ড়⧚ࠊᑺ ජ㽓䖍݀䏃 ᳟ট݀ᆧ

     

ᕜ䖰ഄऎ Ҫфᮄ⬉㛥ᕜ䌉DŽ ៥㽕এ䙷Ͼഄᮍ೼फ㕢⌆DŽ ៥ᴹҟ㒡ϔϟ៥ᮕ䖍䖭ϾҎDŽ ໻ᆊ䛑୰⃶䙷Ͼ⬉ᕅ៥䖬≵ⳟDŽ ⦄೼健㞾㸠䔺Ҏ䍞ᴹ䍞໮њDŽ

EXERCISE 2. As appropriate, put ഄ de2 or ᕫ de3 in the blanks. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

ཌྷ‫ܓ‬ᄤक݁ቕњˈ䭓 _____ ᕜ催DŽ ᴢ‫⫳ܜ‬ᘏᰃᕜᅶ⇨ _____ 䯂໻ᆊདDŽ ᅶख़↨ऻᅸ໻ _____ ໮DŽ Ҫ催݈ _____ 䇈˖⃶䖢⃶䖢ʽ៥Ӏህᕜ䱣֓ _____ തϟњDŽ Դ೼೒к佚ϡ㛑໻ໄ _____ 䇈䆱DŽ ྍྍ㗗 _____ ϡདˈཌྷ䲒䖛 _____ ુњDŽ ៥ӀϡពˈҪজ㗤ᖗ _____ 㾷䞞њϔ⃵DŽ ߬㗕Ꮬ䇈Ё᭛䇈 _____ ᕜ᜶ˈ៥Ӏ䛑਀ _____ ⏙ἮDŽ

§47.

‘A little’: ጙ࢛ए yìdiFnr vs. ᎌጙ࢛ए yIu yìdiFnr

While both ϔ⚍‫ ܓ‬yìdiFnr and ᳝ϔ⚍‫ ܓ‬yIu yìdiFnr can be translated as ‘a little,’ each has its own grammatical function. YìdiFnr is an adjective, indicating an indefinite small quantity. It usually precedes a comparable noun, as in 47a. 47a

ୱϔ⚍‫∈ܓ‬ ពϔ⚍‫ܓ‬ᖋ᭛ фϔ⚍‫ܓ‬ϰ㽓 mfi yìdifnr ddngxi hb yìdifnr shuh ding yìdifnr déwén ‘buy (a little) something’ ‘drink a little water’ ‘understand a little German’

Note that the [yìdiFnr + N] phrase is the object of the verb. The noun that yìdiFnr modifies may be omitted when it is clear from the context, as in 47b. 47b

㦰ᕜ໮ˈԴ‫ݡ‬ৗϔ⚍‫৻ܓ‬DŽ cài hgn dud, nh zài chc-yìdifnr ba ‘There is a lot of food, (please) eat a little more.’

The phrase yIu yìdiFnr, often shortened to ᳝⚍‫ ܓ‬yIudiFnr, functions as an adverb, modifying the descriptive adjective that follows it. The phrase [yIu

Usage comparison of words and phrases 131 yìdiFnr + DA] usually indicates a slight degree of dissatisfaction with the quality represented by the descriptive adjective. See examples 47c–d. 47c

ᵃᄤ᳝ϔ⚍‫ܓ‬㛣DŽ bbizi yiu yìdifnr zang ‘The glass is a little dirty.’

47d

㗕Ꮬ᳝ϔ⚍‫⇨⫳ܓ‬DŽ lfoshc yiu yìdifnr shbngqì ‘The teacher is a little upset.’

If the descriptive adjective modified by yIu yìdiFnr itself has a clearly positive meaning—such as 催݈ gAoxìng ‘happy,’ ⒵ᛣ mFnyì ‘satisfied,’ 㟦᳡ shEfu ‘comfortable,’ or 㘾ᯢ cDngming ‘smart’—the negation ϡ bù ‘not’ must precede the adjective in the structure [yIu yìdiFnr + ϡ bù + DA]. Compare sentences 47e–f with their counterparts 47e′–f′. Without the infixed negation bù, sentences 47e–f with clearly positive descriptive adjectives jiFngdàolH ‘reasonable’ and qCngchu ‘clear’ are awkward with yIu yìdiFnr, as shown in 47e′–f′. 47e

㗕ᓴ᳝ϔ⚍‫ܓ‬ϡ䆆䘧⧚DŽ Lfo Zhang yiu yìdifnr bù-jifngdàolh ‘Old Zhang is a little unreasonable.’

47e′

?㗕ᓴ᳝ϔ⚍‫ܓ‬䆆䘧⧚DŽ Lfo Zhang yiu yìdifnr jifngdàolh

47f

咥ᵓϞⱘᄫ᳝ϔ⚍‫ܓ‬ϡ⏙ἮDŽ hbibfn shàng-de-zì yiu yìdifnr bù-qcngchu ‘The characters on the blackboard are a little unclear.’

47f′

?咥ᵓϞⱘᄫ᳝ϔ⚍‫⏙ܓ‬ἮDŽ hbibfn shàng-de-zì yiu yìdifnr qcngchu

47g and 47h summarize respectively the structures of the phrases with yìdiFnr and with yIu yìdiFnr as well as their functions. 47g

ϔ⚍‫ ܓ‬yìdiFnr V + ϔ⚍‫ ܓ‬+ Obj.: follows a verb and often precedes a noun object.

47h

᳝ϔ⚍‫ ܓ‬yIu yìdiFnr ᳝ϔ⚍‫ ܓ‬+ DA: precedes a descriptive adjective usually suggesting a slight dissatisfaction with the quality represented by the adjective ᳝ϔ⚍‫ ܓ‬+ ϡ + DApositive: the negation ϡ bù must be inserted when the descriptive adjective has a clearly positive meaning.

Since both yìdiFnr and yIu yìdiFnr can be translated as ‘a little,’ one may be tempted to regard them as interchangeable and overlook their structural differences. Most errors derive from this misunderstanding.

132 Speed Up Your Chinese 47i

㽕ᰃԴ * ϔ⚍‫ܓ‬㌃ˈ៥ӀህӥᙃӥᙃDŽ yàoshì nh yìdifnr lèi, wimen jiù xiexi-xiexi ‘If you are a little tired, we will take a break.’ Analysis: Lèi ‘tired’ is a descriptive adjective. It should have yIu yìdiFnr preceding it. 㽕ᰃԴ᳝ϔ⚍‫ܓ‬㌃ˈ៥ӀህӥᙃӥᙃDŽ yàoshì nh yiu yìdifnr lèi, wimen jiù xiexi-xiexi

47j

៥୰⃶↣໽ᮽϞ * ୱ㤊ϔ⚍‫ܓ‬DŽ wi xhhuan mgitian zfoshang hb-chá yìdifnr ‘I like to drink a little tea every morning.’ Analysis: HB-chá ‘drink tea’ is a verb-object phrase. YìdiFnr comes between the verb and the object (see 47g). ៥୰⃶↣໽ᮽϞୱϔ⚍‫ܓ‬㤊DŽ wi xhhuan mgitian zfoshang hb-yìdifnr-chá

47k

៥ⱘᆓ㟡ഄ⚍དˈ⾏ᬭᅸ੠令ख़䛑 *᳝ϔ⚍‫ܓ‬䖥DŽ wide sùshè dìdifn hfo, lí jiàoshì hé cantcng ddu yiu yìdifnr jìn ‘The location of my dorm is good. It’s a small distance to both classrooms and the cafeteria.’ Analysis: From the context, the descriptive adjective jìn ‘close’ clearly notes a positive view. The sentence thus sounds confusing with yIu yìdiFnr modifying it (see 47h). One needs to use a more definite adverb, such as ᕜ hGn ‘very’ or ⡍߿ tèbié ‘especially,’ in this case rather than ‘a little.’ ៥ⱘᆓ㟡ഄ⚍དˈ⾏ᬭᅸ੠令ख़䛑⡍߿䖥DŽ wide sùshè dìdifn hfo, lí jiàoshì hé cantcng ddu tèbié jìn

ϔ⚍‫ ܓ‬yìdiFnr lies between the verb and the noun object, whereas ᳝ϔ⚍ ‫ ܓ‬yIu yìdiFnr always precedes a descriptive adjective. The negation ϡ bù must be inserted between yIu yìdiFnr and an adjective that has a clearly positive meaning.

For related topics, see §§1 and 38.

Exercises EXERCISE 3. Fill in the blanks with ϔ⚍‫ ܓ‬yìdiFnr or ᳝ϔ⚍‫ ܓ‬yIu yìdiFnr. 1 2 3 4

៥Ӏ↣໽䛑䇈 _______ Ё᭛DŽ 䖭ঠ䵟 _______ ᇣˈϡ㟦᳡DŽ ៥ _______ 体ˈ៥ᛇৗ _______ ϰ㽓DŽ ᯼໽ϟњ _______ 䲼DŽ

Usage comparison of words and phrases 133 5 6 7

ཌྷ೼੪ଵ䞠ᬒњ _______ ⠯ཊDŽ

Ҫᖬњ៥ⱘৡᄫˈ_______ ϡདᛣᗱDŽ

ㆅᄤ _______ 䍙䞡DŽ

EXERCISE 4. Translate into Chinese.

1 2 3

I am a little thirsty. (So) I want to drink a little water.

How about eating a little more?

She didn’t come. He was a little disappointed.

§48.

Conjunctions ਜ਼ hé/ৌ gBn vs. adverb ጐ yG

Both ੠ hé and 䎳 gBn, meaning ‘and,’ are commonly used words for connect­ ing nouns, pronouns, or noun phrases, as shown in 48a–c. The two are interchangeable. 48a Connecting nouns: 㗕Ꮬ੠ᄺ⫳ Ѯ⌆੠䴲⌆ ⬉㛥੠⬉䆱 lfoshc hé xuésheng Yàzhdu hé Fbizhdu diànnfo hé diànhuà ‘teacher and student’ ‘Asia and Africa’ ‘computer and telephone’ 48b Connecting pronouns: Ҫ䎳ཌྷ ៥Ӏ䎳ԴӀ ta gbn ta wimen gbn nhmen

‘he and she’ ‘we and you (pl.)’

48c Connecting noun phrases: 㑶㢅䎳㓓৊ hóng-hua gbn lm-yè ‘red flowers and green leaves’

ྦྷᴢⱘए⫳੠ྦྷ⥟ⱘᡸ຿ xìng Lh de ycshbng hé xìng Wáng de hùshi ‘the doctor named Li and the nurse named Wang’

The adverb г yG ‘also’ appears in compound sentences composed of two or more related verb phrases, descriptive adjectives, or clauses. A compound sentence may consist of one subject with more than one predicate, as in 48d, ‘drinking coffee and drinking tea,’ or with a pair of clauses, each of which has its own subject, as in 48e, ‘book’ and ‘movie.’ The adverb yG appears before the predicate of the second verb phrase, descriptive adjective, or clause, as in both 48d and 48e. 48d ៥ୱ੪ଵˈгୱ㤊DŽ wi hb-kafbi, yg hb-chá ‘I drink coffee, and tea too.’

134 Speed Up Your Chinese 48e кᕜ᳝ᛣᗱˈ⬉ᕅгᕜ᳝ᛣᗱDŽ she hgn yiuyìsi, diànyhng yg hgn yiuyìsi ‘The book is interesting, and the movie is as well.’ Let us summarize the difference between the functions of hé/gBn ‘and’ on the one hand, and yG ‘also’ on the other. The former are connective words that link nouns, pronouns, or noun phrases, whereas the latter is an adverb that is used before the predicate of a second verb phrase, descriptive adjective, or clause. One may formulate their functions as 48f–g. Note that the asterisks mark the incorrect usages. 48f [NP ੠ hé/䎳 gBn NP] (*[VP/DA /clause ੠ hé/䎳 gBn VP/DA/clause]) 48g [Subj. VP1, г yG VP2] or [Subj.1 VP, Subj.2 г yG VP] (*[NP1 г yG NP2]) [Subj. DA1, г yG DA2] or [Subj.1 DA, Subj.2 г yG DA] Errors overlook the difference between 48f and 48g. Unlike ‘and’ in English, ੠ hé/䎳 gBn do not link clauses, whereas г yG ‘also’ does not link noun phrases. These errors also arise from direct translation to Mandarin. See examples 48h–j below. While the English translations may be intelligible, the underlined parts are erroneous in Mandarin. 48h

៥ *г៥ⱘᆊҎ䛑୰⃶ⳟЁ೑⬉ᕅDŽ

wi yg wide jiarén ddu xhhuan kàn Zhdngguó diànyhng

‘My family and I like to watch Chinese movies.’

Problem: YG should be replaced with hé or gBn since wI ‘I’ is a pronoun and wIde jiArén ‘my family’ is a noun phrase. ៥੠/ 䎳៥ⱘᆊҎ䛑୰⃶ⳟЁ೑⬉ᕅDŽ

48i

㽕ᰃԴ䎳Դⱘৠሟ䇜ϡᴹ * ੠Դ㽕᳝ϔ䯈ऩҎ᠓ˈ䇋এ฿ϔᓴ㸼DŽ yàoshi nh gbn nhde tóngwe tán-bù-lái hé nh yào yiu yì-jian-danrénfáng, qhng qù tián yì-zhang-bifo ‘If you can’t get along with your roommate and you want a single room, please fill out a form.’ Problem: Hé should be replaced with a comma. While ‘and’ can be used in the English sentence, hé cannot link two clauses in Mandarin. 㽕ᰃԴ䎳Դⱘৠሟ䇜ϡᴹˈԴ㽕᳝ϔ䯈ऩҎ᠓ˈ䇋এ฿ϔᓴ㸼DŽ

48j

៥ⱘᎹ԰ᯊ䯈ᕜ♉⌏ˈ៥ⱘᎹ԰⦃๗ϡ䫭ˈ*੠៥ⱘᬊܹгᕜ݀ᑇDŽ wide gdngzuò shíjian hgn línghuó, wide gdngzuò huánjìng búcuò, hé wide shdurù yg hgn gdngpíng ‘My work schedule is flexible; my working environment is good, and my income is also fair.’ Problem: Hé should be removed. Again, unlike ‘and’ in the English sentence, hé cannot link clauses in Mandarin. ៥ⱘᎹ԰ᯊ䯈ᕜ♉⌏ˈ៥ⱘᎹ԰⦃๗ϡ䫭ˈ៥ⱘᬊܹгᕜ݀ᑇDŽ

Usage comparison of words and phrases 135

੠ hé/䎳 gBn ‘and’ link nouns, pronouns, or noun phrases, but never verb phrases, adjectives, or clauses. г yG ‘also’ is used before a second verb phrase, adjective, or clause, but never precedes nouns, pronouns or noun phrases.

For related topics, see §§13 and 53.

Exercises EXERCISE 5. Link the given words/phrases with the conjunctions ੠ hé/䎳 gBn or the adverb г yG. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

࣫Ҁ໻ᄺ જԯ໻ᄺ ྍྍӮ⒥䲾 ྍྍӮ␌⋇ ϞϾ᯳ᳳϝ 䖭Ͼ᯳ᳳϝ ⠌⠌催݈ᵕњ ཛྷཛྷ催݈ᵕњ 㑶㡆ⱘ໻㸷 咥㡆ⱘⲂ䵈 Ҫфⱘ佂᭭ ཌྷфⱘ∈ᵰ ྤྤ⚍њ‫ބ‬㤊 ៥⚍њ‫ބ‬㤊 ཌྷᛇᄺ᭛ᄺ ཌྷᛇᄺग़৆

EXERCISE 6. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3

The big chair is comfortable, and so is the small one. Both the big and the small chairs are comfortable. We ordered cola; we also ordered beer.

§49.

‘Some’: ጙቋ yìxiB vs. ᎌࡼ yIude

Both ϔѯ yìxiB ‘a few, some’ and ᳝ⱘ yIude ‘some’ modify a noun or a noun phrase. The difference between the two is that the noun or the noun phrase preceded by the former is usually the object of the verb, whereas the noun or the noun phrase preceded by the latter must be the subject. The word yìxiB indicates a small but indefinite quantity, e.g. ϔѯ㗕Ꮬ yìxiB lFoshC ‘a few teachers’ and ϔѯ∈ᵰ yìxiB shuHguI ‘some fruit.’ Since the noun phrase with yìxiB has an indefinite reference, it is normally the object of the verb, as yìxiB xCnshBng ‘some new students’ is in 49a. On the other hand, to make the noun phrase with yìxiB the subject of a sentence, one needs to replace yì with a demonstrative, 䖭 zhèi ‘this’/䙷 nèi ‘that’ or ᳝ yIu (as in ᳝ⱘ yIude), to eliminate its indefiniteness, as in 49b (see §37).

136 Speed Up Your Chinese 49a ៥Ӏএᴎഎ᥹њϔѯᮄ⫳DŽ wimen qù jcchfng jib-le yìxib xcnshbng ‘We went to the airport to pick up some new students.’ 49b 䖭/䙷/᳝ѯᮄ⫳ԣ೼䙷Ͼᆓ㟡䞠DŽ zhèi/nèi/yiu-xib xcnshbng zhù zài nèi-ge-sùshè li ‘These/those/some new students stay in that dorm.’ The meaning of the word yIude is ‘some but not all.’ It usually indicates a portion of a larger entity. In Mandarin, since the whole stands before the part, the sentence usually begins, ‘As for these, some are . . . ,’ rather than ‘Some of these are . . . .’ See example 49c. Note that the noun, shù ‘tree’ in this case, may be omitted after yIude when it is clear from the context. 49c also shows that the noun preceded by yIude is the subject of the short clauses (lit. ‘As for these trees, some are tall, some are short’). 49c 䖭ѯᷥˈ᳝ⱘ ᷥ 催ˈ᳝ⱘ ᷥ ⷂDŽ zhèi-xib-shù, yiude(shù) gao, yiude(shù) fi ‘Some of these trees are tall, some are short.’ While the noun phrase with yIude can be the subject of a sentence as in 49d, it never follows a verb as the object. Hence 49e is ill-formed. When the noun phrase with yIude is the object of the verb, it must be placed before the verb, such as yIude kAfBiguFnr ‘some coffee shops’ in 49e′. 49d ᳝ⱘ੪ଵ佚‫ܓ‬гपϝᯢ⊏DŽ yiude kafbigufnr yg mài sanmíngzhì ‘Some coffee shops also sell sandwiches.’ 49e * ཌྷ୰⃶ජ䞠᳝ⱘ੪ଵ佚‫ܓ‬DŽ ta xhhuan chénglh yiude kafbigufnr 49e′ ජ䞠᳝ⱘ੪ଵ佚‫ܓ‬ཌྷ୰⃶DŽ chénglh yiude kafbigufnr ta xhhuan ‘She likes some of the coffee shops in town.’ Sentence 49f is erroneous because the noun phrase with ᳝ⱘ yIude is con­ strued as an object of the verb fàng ‘to place.’ Since a N/NP with yIude can only be the subject but not the object of a sentence, whereas the N/NP with ϔѯ yìxiB usually is the object, in this case use the latter. 49f

ཌྷ೼ৄϞᬒњ*᳝ⱘộᄤDŽ

ta zài tái-shang fàng-le yiude yhzi

‘She placed some chairs on the stage.’

ཌྷ೼ৄϞᬒњϔѯộᄤDŽ ta zài tái-shang fàng-le yìxib yhzi

Usage comparison of words and phrases 137

᳝ⱘ yIude modifies a noun or noun phrase that must be the subject of a sentence, whereas ϔѯ yìxiB routinely modifies a noun or noun phrase that is the object of the sentence.

For related topics, see §37.

Exercises EXERCISE 7. Fill in the blanks with ϔѯ yìxiB or ᳝ⱘ yIude. 1 2 3 4 5

______ ֓ᅰ䋻݊ᅲ䋼ഄϡ䫭DŽ

ཛྷཛྷএ䫊㸠পњ ______ 䪅DŽ

______ Ё೑㦰໾䕷ˈ៥ϡ㛑ৗDŽ

ҪӀ䇋њ ______ ᳟টᴹ‫خ‬ᅶDŽ

᠓䯈䞠ᬒⴔ ______ ᮻᆊ‫݋‬DŽ



EXERCISE 8. Translate into Chinese.

1 2 3

Some of those people are nurses, and some are doctors.

Some of the rooms in the dorm are small.

She taped some postcards to the door.

§50.

‘Each’: ඛ mGi-Mea-N vs. ඛ mGi-N

↣ mGi ‘each, every’ may accompany any noun in either of the two structures shown in 50a–b. 50a 50b

↣ mGi + Mea + N ↣ mGi + N

Now for a quick review of the measures. Mandarin uses a measure word whenever a noun is quantified by a number or linked to a demonstrative, 䖭 zhèi ‘this’ or 䙷 nèi ‘that.’ The measure always appears between the number or the demonstrative and the noun. The choice of the measure, however, is determined by the noun. Many nouns require a specific measure. And the same noun may take different measure words in different circumstances, e.g. ϔᴵ䴶ࣙ yì-tiáo-miànbAo ‘one loaf of bread’ or ϔ⠛䴶ࣙ yí-piàn-miànbAo ‘one slice of bread.’ Since the most frequently used measure in Mandarin is Ͼ ge, some nouns may take either ge or a specific measure.

138 Speed Up Your Chinese We can sort measures into different groups. Here are a few common examples. 50c Standard: ϝ⺙㙝 sAn-bàng-ròu ‘three pounds of meat’ क㣅䞠䏃 shí-yCnglH-lù ‘ten miles (of distance)’ 50d Specific: Ѩकᓴ㒌 wJshí-zhAng-zhH ‘fifty sheets of paper’ ϸ乫᯳ liFng-kB-xCng ‘two stars’ 50e Collective: ϔ㕸Ҏ yì-qún-rén ‘a group of people’ ಯ༫к sì-tào-shE ‘four sets of books’ 50f Indefinite: ϔѯḨᄤ yì-xiB-júzi ‘some oranges’ ϔ⚍‫ ∈ܓ‬yì-diFnr-shuH ‘a little water’ 50g Frequency: ϸ⃵䅼䆎 liFng-cì-tFolùn ‘two discussions’ ϝ乓佁 sAn-dùn-fàn ‘three meals’ The word mGi may replace the number in the phrases that use all these kinds of measures—with the exception of 50f, the indefinite measures—to form phrases such as mGi-bàng-ròu ‘each pound of meat’ or mGi-zhAng-zhH ‘every sheet of paper.’ This structure observes the pattern of 50a: ↣ mGi + Mea + N. We sometimes, however, may see another structure, 50b: ↣ mGi + N, such as ↣໽ mGi-tiAn ‘every day.’ Nouns that appear in this structure amount to measures themselves. In some grammar books they are referred to as ‘quasi-measures.’ Quasi-measures are small in number and are normally of two kinds: nouns that relate to temporal terms, as listed in 50h, and nouns that represent some types of containers, as sampled in 50i. 50h Temporal nouns: ᑈ nián ‘year’ ᳜ yuè ‘month’ ᯳ᳳ xCngqC ‘week’ ໽ tiAn ‘day’

ᇣᯊ xiFoshí ‘hour’ ߚ䩳 fBnzhDng ‘minute’ ⾦ miFo ‘second’

50i Nouns that represent containers: ⹫ wFn ‘bowl’ 㹟 dài ‘bag’ ᵃ bBi ‘cup; glass’ ⫊ píng ‘bottle’ Ⲧ hé ‘box’ 㔤 guàn ‘jug’

Usage comparison of words and phrases 139 The word mGi requires no measure word with the temporal nouns listed in 50h, e.g. mGi-xCngqC ‘every week’ or mGi-miFo ‘every second.’ Note that not every temporal noun can be used in this way. 䩳༈ zhDngtóu, another term for ‘hour,’ cannot be used in this form. Nor can any nouns that represent seasons or portions of a day, such as Ёज zhDngwJ ‘noon.’ Nouns of the sort in 50i, on the other hand, function as measures for other specific nouns. See 50j below. 50j

↣⹫佁 mGi-wFn-fàn ‘each bowl of rice’ ↣ᵃ㤊 mGi-bBi-chá ‘each cup of tea’ ↣Ⲧ㊪ mGi-hé-táng ‘each box of candy’ ↣㹟㸷᳡ mGi-dài-yCfu ‘each bag of clothing’ ↣⫊䜦 mGi-píng-jiJ ‘each bottle of wine’ ↣㔤∈ mGi-guàn-shuH ‘each jug of water’

Errors likely arise from the complexity of quasi-measures. 50k

៥ *↣ᰮϞ䛑೼೒к佚ᄺдDŽ

wi mgi-wfnshang ddu zài túshegufn xuéxí

‘I study at the library every evening.’

Analysis: WFnshang ‘evening’ is a noun that does not count as a quasi-measure in Mandarin. Hence there must be a measure between mGi and wFnshang. ‘Every evening’ in Mandarin is ↣໽ᰮϞ mGi-tiAn-wFnshang, lit. ‘every day’s evening,’ in the structure [↣ mGi + Mea +N]. ໽ tiAn ‘day’ is the (quasi-)measure in this case.

50l

*↣Ͼࣙཌྷⱘ㸠ᴢ䛑䍙䞡њDŽ mgi-ge-bao tade xíngli ddu chaozhòng le

‘Every bag of her luggage is overweight.’

Analysis: First, the possessive pronoun tA-de ‘her’ should precede the [↣ mGi + Mea] phrase. Second, bAo ‘bag’ is a quasi-measure itself. It does not need another measure ge, and it functions as the (quasi-)measure of the noun xíngli ‘luggage.’ ཌྷⱘ↣ࣙ㸠ᴢ䛑䍙䞡њDŽ tade mgi-bao xíngli ddu chaozhòng le

As either a number or a demonstrative (䖭 /䙷 zhèi/nèi ‘this/that’), ↣ mGi ‘each’ modifies a noun in the structure [↣ mGi + Mea + N]. But if the noun itself is a ‘quasi-measure,’ as are those in 50h–i, the structure is: ↣ mGi + N. For related topics, see §§37 and 49.

140 Speed Up Your Chinese

Exercises EXERCISE 9. Where necessary, fill in the blanks with the appropriate measure words: ᴀ bGn, ᡞ bF, Ͼ ge, ᓴ zhAng, ᴵ tiáo, 䕚 liàng, ӊ jiàn, or া zhC. Some will be used more than once.        

↣ ↣ ↣ ↣ ↣ ↣ ↣ ↣

᯳ᳳ ∝ᄫ к Ⲧ ⬏‫ܓ‬ Ⲭ ᳜ ᄫ‫݌‬

       

↣ ↣ ↣ ↣ ↣ ↣ ↣ ↣

剐 㒌 㞾㸠䔺 㹀㸿 ᇣᯊ ໽ џ ⹫

       

↣ ↣ ↣ ↣ ↣ ↣ ↣ ↣

ᵃ ᑈ ࣙ ⫊ ộᄤ ⣿ 㣍ᵰ 䯂乬

EXERCISE 10. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3

She swims three times each week. Every day this week it snowed a bit. Each bottle of wine is expensive.

§51.

‘All’: adverb ࣒ dDu vs. adjective Ⴥᎌࡼ suIyIude

The English translation for both 䛑 dDu and ᠔᳝ⱘ suIyIude is ‘all.’ But in Mandarin the former is an adverb, whereas the latter is an adjective. Different parts of speech produce different grammatical functions.

The adverb ‘all’ The meaning of 䛑 ‘all’ is in the sense of ‘altogether.’ As an adverb it pre­ cedes a verb/VP (e.g. another adverb plus the verb). Its meaning of totality usually refers to the plural, or the collective noun/NP standing before it. A noun/NP that precedes dDu is usually the subject of its sentence. See examples 51a–b. 51a

ᄺ⫳䛑ⴵⴔњDŽ xuésheng ddu shuì-zháo le ‘The students all fell asleep.’

51b

↣ϾҎ䛑᳝ৡᄫDŽ mgi-ge-rén ddu yiu míngzi ‘Every person has a name.’

Usage comparison of words and phrases 141 On the other hand, if dDu is used to refer to the plural object of the verb, this object must be placed at the beginning of the sentence, as nèi-sAn-ge­ diànyHng ‘those three movies,’ the object of the verb kàn ‘watch,’ in 51c. 51c 䙷ϝϾ⬉ᕅཌྷ䛑ⳟ䖛DŽ nèi-san-ge-diànyhng ta ddu kàn-guo ‘She has watched all three of those movies.’ If both the subject and the transposed object are plural, the sentence may have ambiguous readings. See example 51d. DDu may refer to either the object zhDngwén hé rìwén ‘Chinese and Japanese’ or the subject tAmen ‘they,’ or both. Nonetheless context usually clarifies intention. 51d Ё᭛੠᮹᭛ҪӀ䛑ពDŽ zhdngwén hé rìwén tamen ddu ding ‘They understand both Chinese and Japanese.’ (dDu refers to the Obj.) ‘All of them understand Chinese and Japanese.’ (dDu refers to the Subj.) ‘All of them understand both Chinese and Japanese.’ (dDu refers to both the Obj. and Subj.)

The adjective ‘all’ As an adjective, suIyIude only modifies nouns. If the noun is polysyllabic, the suffix ⱘ de can be omitted. See a few examples in 51e below. 51e ᠔᳝ⱘҎ suIyIude rén ‘all of the people’ ᠔᳝ⱘ䪅 suIyIude qián ‘all of the money’

᠔᳝ ⱘ ᓎㄥ suIyIu(de) jiànzhù ‘all of the buildings’

᠔᳝ ⱘ 䯂乬 suIyIu(de) wèntí ‘all of the problems’

The noun phrase with suIyIude ‘all of the . . .’ is most likely the subject of the sentence, and precedes the verb/VP. Since the subject modified by suIyIude is plural, note that the verb is always preceded by the adverb dDu ‘altogether,’ as in 51f–g. If the noun phrase modified by suIyIude is the object of the verb, it is usually transposed to the beginning of the sentence, as suIyIude gDngjùshE ‘all the reference books’ in 51g. 51f

᠔᳝ⱘ☿䔺䛑‫ޚ‬ᯊࠄ䖒њDŽ suiyiude huichb ddu zhjnshí dàodá le ‘All of the trains arrived on time.’

51g

᠔᳝ⱘᎹ‫݋‬кԴ䛑ৃҹ⫼DŽ suiyiude gdngjùshe nh ddu kgyh yòng ‘You may use all the reference books.’

Summary: 51h–i summarize the respective structures of dDu and suIyIude in a sentence pattern. The former is an adverb that precedes the verb

142 Speed Up Your Chinese phrase, whereas the latter, an adjective, precedes a noun phrase which is usually the subject of the sentence. 51h Subj.(pl.) + 䛑 dDu VP; or Obj.(pl.) + Subj.(pl.) + 䛑 dDu VP 51i ᠔᳝ⱘ suIyIude-NP + 䛑 dDu VP Errors such as 51j–k are most likely caused by the direct translation of ‘all’ from English to 䛑 dDu in Mandarin. DDu is usually the first word students of Chinese learn for ‘all,’ and ᠔ ᳝ ⱘ suIyIude usually appears later in their vocabulary. One cannot, however, use dDu in these cases, because both ZhDngguó cài ‘Chinese dishes’ in 51j and xuésheng ‘students’ in 51k are nouns. The adverb dDu should not be used here since it never precedes nouns (see 51h). The adjective suIyIude should replace dDu in both 51j and 51k. Moreover, the object phrase in 51j, ‘almost all Chinese dishes,’ must be transposed to the beginning of the clause. 51j

Ң㡹݄⠯㙝ࠄ䈚㜤ˈ៥୰⃶޴Т *䛑Ё೑㦰DŽ cóng jièlán niúròu dào dòufu, wi xhhuan jche ddu Zhdngguó cài ‘From beef with broccoli to tofu, I like almost all Chinese dishes.’ Ң㡹݄⠯㙝ࠄ䈚㜤ˈ ޴Т᠔᳝ⱘЁ೑㦰៥䛑୰⃶DŽ cóng jièlán niúròu dào dòufu, jche suiyiude Zhdngguó cài wi dDu xhhuan

51k

* 䛑ᄺ⫳ϔᅮᕫ‫ࡳخ‬䇒 DŽ ddu xuésheng yídìng dgi zuò-gdngkè

‘All the students must do their homework.’

᠔᳝ⱘᄺ⫳ 䛑ϔᅮᕫ‫ࡳخ‬䇒DŽ suiyiude xuésheng dDu yídìng dgi zuò-gdngkè

The problem in 51l is that the phrase suIyIude is placed after the verb kàn ‘watch.’ The phrase with suIyIude, if it is the object of the verb, must be transposed to the beginning of the sentence (cf. 51g). 51l

Ё೑ⱘᑓਞ᳝ᕜདⱘֵᙃˈؐᕫⳟ * ᠔᳝ⱘDŽ Zhdngguó-de-gufnggào yiu hgnhfode xìnxc, zhídé kàn suiyiude ‘The Chinese advertisements provide good information. It’s worth watching all (of them).’ . . . , ᠔᳝ⱘ 䛑ؐᕫⳟDŽ

. . . , suiyiude dDu zhídé kàn

The adjective ᠔᳝ⱘ suIyIude ‘all’ modifies nouns, whereas 䛑 dDu, the adverb ‘all,’ in the sense of ‘altogether,’ only precedes a V/VP (dDu never precedes a N/NP). For related topics, see §§49 and 52.

Usage comparison of words and phrases 143

Exercises EXERCISE 11. Fill in the blanks with 䛑 dDu or ᠔᳝ⱘ suIyIude. 1 2 3 4

⠯ཊˈ䈚⌚ˈ㤊ˈ៥ ______ ୰⃶ୱDŽ Ҫ ______ 㹀㸿 ______ ᰃⱑ㡆ⱘDŽ ὐϞ ______ にᄤ ______ ݇ⴔDŽ 䖭‫≵ܓ‬᳝໪᭛кDŽ______ к ______ ᰃ㣅᭛ⱘDŽ

EXERCISE 12. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3

All the wines are expensive. Each of them shook hands with him. Do all of you work at the university?

§52.

The preposition ࠭ cóng and the prepositional phrase ࠭ cóng X ࡵ dào Y

The preposition Ң cóng ‘from,’ followed by a noun/NP, indicates a starting point for the action of the verb. The noun phrase that follows cóng may be a time-expression (52a), a location (52b), or a topic (52c). Note that the cóng X phrase precedes the verb. 52a 52b 52c

Ңб⚍ᓔྟϞ䇒 cóng jiJdiFn kAishH shàngkè ‘start class from 9:00’ ҢЁ೑ಲᴹ cóng ZhDngguó huí-lai ‘return from China’ Ңᇣџⳟߎ䯂乬 cóng xiFo-shì kàn-chE wèntí ‘recognize the problem from small things’

Cóng ‘from’ is often used with ࠄ dào ‘to’ in the prepositional phrase cóng X dào Y ‘from X to Y’ to indicate scope, with X representing the starting point and Y the end. The scope set by this phrase may be temporal, spatial, quantitative, or topical. See examples 52d–g. 52d

Temporal, where X and Y are time expressions (and Ң cóng is sometimes omitted): Ң ᯳ᳳϔࠄ᯳ᳳѨ (cóng) xCngqCyC dào xCngqCwJ ‘from Monday to Friday’

52e

Spatial, where X and Y are locations: ҢᴎഎࠄᏖЁᖗ cóng jCchFng dào shìzhDngxCn ‘from the airport to downtown’

52f Quantitative, where X and Y are measurements: Ңकৼࠄϝकৼ cóng shí-dEn dào sAnshi-dEn ‘from 10 tons to 30 tons’

144 Speed Up Your Chinese 52g Material things, degrees, topics, etc.: Ң⬉㾚ࠄ⬉䆱 cóng diànshì dào diànhuà ‘from television to telephone’ Ңᇣࠄ໻ cóng xiFo dào dà ‘from small to large’ Ң೑䰙䌌ᯧࠄ㒣⌢থሩ cóng guójì màoyì dào jCngjì fAzhFn ‘from

international trading to economic development’

The prepositional phrase cóng X dào Y grammatically serves as an adverbial modifier of the main verb. There are two possible frameworks for this prepositional phrase. One is in the structure of 52h, where the entire phrase is followed by the adverb 䛑 dDu ‘all,’ i.e. ‘altogether,’ and dDu likewise pre­ cedes the verb, as in examples 52i–k below. 52h Subj. + Ң cóng X ࠄ dào Y + 䛑 dDu + VP 52i ᄽᄤҢ༈ࠄ㛮䛑こᕫᕜⓖ҂DŽ háizi cóng tóu dào jifo dDu chuan-de hgn piàoliang ‘From head to toe, the child is attractively dressed.’ 52j 䙷ϾഄऎҢकϔ᳜ࠄϝ᳜䛑ᰃ‫ހ‬ᄷDŽ nèi-ge-dìqe cóng shíycyuè dào sanyuè dDu shì ddngjì ‘From November to March, it is winter in that area.’ 52k 㦰ು䞠ⱘક⾡ᕜ໮ˈҢ⬾㣘ࠄफ⪰䛑᳝DŽ càiyuán-lh de phnzhing hgn dud, cóng fanqié dào nángua dDu yiu ‘There are many kinds of vegetables in the garden. From tomatoes to squash, it has everything.’ In the second structure (52l) the duplicated verb appears between cóng X and dào Y. In distinction from 52h, this structure indicates that the subject carries out an action, from a starting point signified by cóng X, all the way to the end signified by dào Y. In this case, if the verb is a V-Obj. compound, it first appears before cóng X, and the verb then repeats itself before dào Y. 52m–n are such examples. On the other hand, if the verb does not display a V-Obj. form, it does not repeat but simply precedes dào Y, as in 52o. 52l Subj. + (V-Obj. +) Ң cóng X + V + ࠄ dào Y 52m ៥᯼໽ᰮϞ‫ݭ‬䆎᭛Ңܿ⚍‫ࠄݭ‬໰䞠ϸ⚍DŽ wi zuótian wfnshang xig-lùnwén cóng badifn xig-dào yèlh lifngdifn ‘Last night I wrote my paper from eight till two in the morning.’ 52n ᄭ㗕Ꮬ䆆䇒Ңϱ㓌П䏃䆆ࠄ㔫偀Ᏹ೑DŽ Sen lfoshc jifng-kè cóng scchóu zhc lù jifng-dào Luómf Dìguó ‘Teacher Sun’s lectures began with the Silk Road, and ended with the Roman Empire.’

Usage comparison of words and phrases 145 52o ៥ӀҢ㄀ϔ䇒ᄺࠄ㄀कѨ䇒DŽ wimen cóng dì-yc-kè xué-dào dì-shíwj-kè ‘We studied (from) Lessons 1 to 15.’ Either Ң cóng X ‘from X’ or Ң cóng X ࠄ dào Y ‘from X to Y’ functions as an adverbial modifier of the verb. Cóng X always precedes the verb. In pattern 52h, the cóng X dào Y phrase also precedes the verb, whereas in the action-oriented pattern 52l, the duplicated verb appears immediately before dào Y. The following errors violate these rules. 52p

* এᄺ⫳令ख़Ң៥ⱘᆓ㟡ᕜᮍ֓ DŽ qù xuésheng cantcng cóng wide sùshè hgn fangbiàn

‘Going to the student cafeteria from my dorm is very convenient.’

Problem: Cóng X follows the verb phrase. Cóng X should be moved to the pre-verbal position. Ң៥ⱘᆓ㟡এᄺ⫳令ख़ᕜᮍ֓DŽ cóng wide sùshè qù xuésheng cantcng hgn fangbiàn

52q

䖭Ͼଚᑫ *पҢᇣ䇈ࠄ↯㸷DŽ

zhèi-ge-shangdiàn mài cóng xifoshud dào máoyc

‘This shop sells everything, from fiction to sweaters.’

Problem: The cóng X dào Y phrase follows the verb. The phrase, plus a 䛑 dDu ‘all,’ should be moved to the pre-verbal position. 䖭ϾଚᑫҢᇣ䇈ࠄ↯㸷䛑पDŽ zhèi-ge-shangdiàn cóng xifoshud dào máoyc dDu mài

52r

᯳ᳳѠᰮϞ៥ *Ϟ䇒Ңϗ⚍ࠄक⚍ˈᕜ㌃DŽ xcngqc’èr wfnshang wi shàng-kè cóng qcdifn dào shídifn, hgn lèi ‘On Tuesday evenings I have class from 7 to 10 o’clock. It is tiring.’ Problem: An unsplit cóng X dào Y phrase follows the V-Obj. compound shàng-kè. Following pattern 52l, a duplicated verb Ϟ shàng should be inserted between cóng X and dào Y. . . . ៥Ϟ䇒Ңϗ⚍Ϟࠄक⚍ˈᕜ㌃DŽ

. . . wi shàng-kè cóng qcdifn shàng-dào shídifn, hgn lèi

52l is the pattern that shows the action continuing from X to Y. In this pattern, the duplicated verb appears immediately before the phrase ࠄ dào Y.

For related topics, see §§33 and 51.

146 Speed Up Your Chinese

Exercises EXERCISE 13. Translate into Chinese. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

from February to May

from birth to death

from country to city

drive north from here

The winter time-change begins on Sunday.

From old to young, everyone likes ice cream.

This movie is interesting from the beginning to the end.

We walked from the dorm to the cafeteria.

They are having a meeting from 4 to 6 o’clock.

She is on vacation until Monday.

§53. The position of the adverb: after the subject and before the verb Listed in 53a are a few frequently used adverbs. These adverbs modify the verb/ VP in a Mandarin sentence. Examples 53b–e demonstrate two important traits of Mandarin adverbs: i) they always come after the subject, never before it; and ii) they always come before a verb or another adverb. 53a г yG ‘also, as well’ ै què ‘yet, however’

‫ ܜ‬xiAn . . . ‫ ݡ‬zài . . . ‘first . . . then . . . ’ ᐌᐌ chángcháng ‘often’

53b ៥ୱ㤊ˈ ៥ гୱ੪ଵDŽ wi hb-chá, (wi) yg hb-kafbi ‘I drink tea, also coffee.’ 53c Ҫ≵໡дࡳ䇒ˈҞ໽ै㗗ᕫᕜདDŽ ta méi fùxí-gdngkè, jcntian què kfo-de hgn hfo ‘He didn’t review his homework; yet he did well on his test today.’ 53d

Դ‫⋫ܜ‬᠟ˈ‫ݡ‬ৗ佁DŽ nh xian xh-shiu, zài chc-fàn ‘First you wash your hands; then you eat.’

53e Ҫᐌᐌৗᖿ令DŽ ta chángcháng chc-kuàican ‘He often eats fast food.’

Usage comparison of words and phrases 147 Students may be tempted to put the adverb before the subject. 53f–i provide a few such examples. Remember: Mandarin adverbs never precede the subject. Put them after the subject. 53f

᯼໽ᰮϞ៥ᕜ㌃ˈ*ै៥ࠄϝ⚍䖬≵ⴵDŽ zuótian wfnshang wi hgn lèi, què wi dào sandifn hái méi-shuì ‘I was tired last night, even so I still didn’t go to bed until 3 o’clock.’ Problem: The adverb què ‘even so’ precedes the unnecessary subject wI ‘I.’ ᯼໽ᰮϞ៥ᕜ㌃ˈैࠄϝ⚍䖬≵ⴵDŽ zuótian wfnshang wi hgn lèi, què dào sandifn hái méi-shuì

53g

䖭Ͼ乬Ⳃᇍ៥ᴹ䇈ᕜ䰠⫳ˈ*г៥ϡњ㾷ӏԩֵᙃDŽ zhèi-ge-tímù duì wi láishud hgn mòshbng, yg wi bù liáojig rènhé xìnxc ‘This topic is very unfamiliar to me. Also I have no information (about it).’ Problem: The adverb yG ‘also’ precedes the subject wI ‘I.’ 䖭Ͼ乬Ⳃᇍ៥ᴹ䇈ᕜ䰠⫳ˈ៥гϡњ㾷ӏԩֵᙃDŽ zhèi-ge-tímù duì wi láishud hgn mòshbng, wi yg bù liáojig rènhé xìnxc

53h

*ϔ‫ݡ‬Ҫ䯂㗕Ꮬ䖭Ͼ䯂乬DŽ yízài ta wèn lfoshc zhèi-ge-wèntí

‘He repeatedly asked the teacher this question.’

Problem: The adverb yízài ‘repeatedly’ precedes the subject tA ‘he.’ Ҫϔ‫ݡ‬䯂㗕Ꮬ䖭Ͼ䯂乬DŽ ta yízài wèn lfoshc zhèi-ge-wèntí

53i

ཌྷ᯹‫؛‬ϡಲᆊˈ

*ᅲ೼ཌྷ≵᳝䪅фᴎ⼼DŽ ta chenjià bù huí-jia, shízài ta méiyiu qián mfi-jcpiào ‘She is not going home during spring break. The fact is she doesn’t have money for the plane ticket.’ Problem: The adverb shízài ‘actually’ precedes the subject tA ‘she.’ ཌྷ᯹‫؛‬ϡಲᆊˈཌྷᅲ೼≵᳝䪅фᴎ⼼DŽ ta chenjià bù huí-jia, ta shízài méiyiu qián mfi-jcpiào

Another common error is using adverbs to modify nouns, as in 53j. Remember: adverbs modify verbs/VP. Put them before a verb or another adverb, never before a noun. 53j

㕢೑Ҏ໮ञ‫ܓ‬Ӯ䇈 *া㣅᭛DŽ Mgiguórén dudbànr huì shud zhh ycngwén ‘Most Americans only speak English.’ Problem: The adverb zhH ‘only’ precedes the noun yCngwén ‘English.’ It should appear before the verb phrase huì shuD ‘can speak.’ 㕢೑Ҏ໮ञ‫ܓ‬াӮ䇈㣅᭛DŽ Mgiguórén dudbànr zhh huì shud ycngwén

148 Speed Up Your Chinese

Adverbs precede a verb or another adverb. Consequently they never precede a subject.

For related topics, see §§16, 48, and 54.

Exercises EXERCISE 14. (§§53–54) Put the parenthetical adverb(s) in the appropriate location(s). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

ҪӀএ᯳Ꮘ‫ܟ‬ୱ੪ଵDŽ ᐌ ᓳᓳᕜ㘾ᯢˈϡ⫼ࡳDŽ ै

Դ᮶✊ϡ୰⃶䖭ӊ↯㸷ˈ߿фDŽ ህ

ᴢᯢ୰⃶䖤ࡼˈ୰⃶ᠧ㇂⧗DŽ ᇸ݊

Դা㽕໡дњˈϔᅮ㗗ᕫདDŽ ህ

៥ϟ䇒ҹৢৗज佁ˈಲᆓ㟡DŽ ‫ ݡˈܜ‬ ҪӀⶹ䘧њˈ៥≵਀䇈DŽ 䛑ˈै

བᵰᯢ໽ϡϟ䲼ˈ៥Ӏএ䞢令DŽ ህ

៥ϔⳈᛇএⳟ⬏ሩˈৃᰃ≵᳝ᯊ䯈DŽ ᘏᰃ

ϔᑈ㑻ⱘᄺ⫳䅸䆚䖭ϾᄫDŽ 䛑 བᵰԴ健㞾㸠䔺ˈԴᕫ᠈ᅝܼᐑDŽ ህ Ҫ᯼໽≵ᴹˈϡⶹ䘧DŽ ᔧ✊

§54. The subject and the correlating adverb ௓ jiù The adverb ህ jiù occurs in compound sentences that possess a pair of complementary words correlating two verb phrases or clauses. Jiù is the second word of the complementary pair, meaning ‘then’ or ‘thereupon,’ introducing the second verb phrase/clause. See examples 54a–c. 54a Դা㽕фњ⼼ˈ Դ ህৃҹ䖯এDŽ nh zhhyào mfi-le-piào, (nh) jiù kgyh jìnqu ‘Only if you buy a ticket, do you get in.’ 54a′ া㽕Դфњ⼼ˈ Դ ህৃҹ䖯এDŽ zhhyào nh mfi-le-piào, (nh ) jiù kgyh jìnqu 54b Դ᮶✊᳝⮙ˈ Դ ህདད‫ܓ‬ӥᙃ৻DŽ nh jìrán yiu-bìng, (nh ) jiù hfohaor xiexi ba ‘Since you are sick, you should get more rest.’

Usage comparison of words and phrases 149 54b′ ᮶✊Դ᳝⮙ˈ Դ ህདད‫ܓ‬ӥᙃ৻DŽ jìrán nh yiu-bìng, (nh) jiù hfohaor xiexi ba 54c ៥ ϔ ϟњ䇒ህಲᆓ㟡এⴵ㾝DŽ wi (yí) xià-le-kè jiù huí-sùshè qù shuìjiào ‘(Soon) after the class is over, I’ll go back to the dorm to sleep.’ 54a–c have a single subject: nH ‘you’ in 54a–b and wI ‘I’ in 54c. Regarding the position of the subject, 54a–b are different from 54c. First, the subject may appear before or after the first complementary word. Compare 54a–b with 54a′–b′. Second, this single subject may optionally appear at the beginning of the second clause, as the parenthetical subjects show in both examples. These two opinions, however, do not apply to 54c, the pattern of [yC VP1 jiù VP2], where the subject can only appear at the beginning of the sentence. Compound sentences may also have two subjects—one for each sub-VP/clause, e.g. háizi ‘child’ and mAma ‘mom’ in 54d; shíjiAn ‘time’ and wImen ‘we’ in 54e; and lFoshC ‘teacher’ and xuésheng ‘students’ in 54f. 54d া㽕ᄽᄤこ໳㸷᳡ˈཛྷཛྷህᬒᖗњDŽ zhhyào háizi chuan-guò-ycfu, mama jiù fàng-xcn le ‘Only if the child dresses warmly, would the mom be content.’ 54d′ ᄽᄤা㽕こ໳㸷᳡ˈཛྷཛྷህᬒᖗњDŽ háizi zhhyào chuan-guò-ycfu, mama jiù fàng-xcn le 54e ᮶✊ᯊ䯈䖬ᮽˈ៥Ӏህ‫ⳟݡ‬ϔഎ⬉ᕅDŽ jìrán shíjian hái zfo, wimen jiù zài kàn yì-chfng-diànyhng ‘Since it is still early, let’s watch another movie.’ 54e′ ᯊ䯈᮶✊䖬ᮽˈ៥Ӏህ‫ⳟݡ‬ϔഎ⬉ᕅDŽ shíjian jìrán hái zfo, wimen jiù zài kàn yì-chfng-diànyhng 54f 㗕Ꮬ ϔ 㾷䞞њ䇁⊩ˈᄺ⫳ህᯢⱑњDŽ lfoshc (yì) jigshì-le-yjff, xuésheng jiù míngbai le ‘(Soon) after the teacher explained the grammar, the students understood it.’ In both 54d and 54e, Subj. 1 may appear before or after the first complementary word, as their 54d′–e′ counterparts show. Again this is not an option for 54f, the [yC VP1 jiù VP2] pattern, where Subj.1 can only appear at the beginning of the sentence. Subj.2 for all of these sentences must appear at the beginning of the second clause, i.e. before the adverb jiù. Summary: i) In a compound sentence, the lone subject or Subj.1 may appear before or after the first complementary word (54a–a′, b–b′, d–d′, and

150 Speed Up Your Chinese e–e′), whereas Subj.2 appears at the beginning of the second VP/clause preceding the adverb jiù. ii) In the [yC VP1 jiù VP2] pattern, the lone subject or Subj.1 must appear before the first complementary word (54c & f), whereas Subj.2 appears at the beginning of the second VP/clause preceding the adverb jiù. iii) The cardinal rule: the subject always precedes the correlating adverb jiù. The commonly made error in this case is to place the subject after the correlating adverb ህ jiù, as in the erroneous examples 54g–h. Remember: the subject always precedes jiù. 54g

㽕ᰃ佁᳝↦ˈ*ህ៥ϡৗњʽ

yàoshì fàn yiudú, jiù wi bù chc le

‘If the food is poisoned, (then) I will not eat it.’

㽕ᰃ佁᳝↦ˈ៥ህϡৗњʽ yàoshì fàn yiudú, wi jiù bù chc le

54h

Դা㽕᳝䪅ˈ*ህԴৃҹфᕜ໮ϰ㽓DŽ

nh zhhyào yiu-qián, jiù nh kgyh mfi hgndud ddngxi

‘Only if you have money, can you buy many things.’

Դা㽕᳝䪅ˈԴህৃҹфᕜ໮ϰ㽓DŽ nh zhhyào yiu-qián, nh jiù kgyh mfi hgndud ddngxi

The subject always precedes the correlating adverb ህ jiù, and never follows it. For related topics, see §§12, 17, 31, and 32.

§55.

Verb-object compound ၻ௻ shuì-jiào vs. verb-verb compound ၻᓹ shuì-zháo

ⴵ㾝 shuì-jiào is a verb-object compound, where the verb shuì ‘sleep’ takes the object jiào, which is a noun referring to ‘a natural condition of rest,’ i.e. ‘a sleep.’ As noted in §39, since Mandarin transitive verbs in most cases do not stand alone, the verb shuì ‘sleep’ has a generic object jiào. The verb-object compound shuì-jiào, lit. ‘sleep a sleep,’ functions as a verb, meaning ‘sleep’ or ‘go to bed.’ ⴵⴔ shuì-zháo is a verb-verb compound, where the verb shuì ‘sleep’ has the verb complement zháo ‘attain.’ As in other V-V compounds, the verb complement expresses the resultant state of the action initiated by the

Usage comparison of words and phrases 151 first verb. The verb complement zháo here indicates the success of the action shuì ‘sleep.’ The meaning of the entire compound hence comes from both the verb shuì and its complement zháo ‘sleep-attain = fall asleep’ (see also §§38, 41, and 42). Since the simple verb shuì and the V-V compound shuì-zháo convey different meanings, to express the fact that someone ‘falls asleep,’ one needs to use the V-V compound shuì-zháo. 55a below shows the difference between the two verb compounds shuì-jiào and shuì-zháo. In the first clause, we need to use shuì-jiào ‘sleep,’ whereas in the second clause, we must use the V-V compound to show that the subject tried to sleep but was unable to. 55a

៥क⚍ህϞᑞⴵ㾝њˈৃᰃϸ⚍䖬≵ⴵⴔDŽ wi shídifn jiù shàng-chuáng shuì-jiào le, kgshì lifngdifn hái méi shuì-zháo ‘I went to bed (to sleep) at ten o’clock, but still lay awake (unable to fall asleep) at two.’

From the context in 55b–c, we realize that each of these two sentences misuses the other sentence’s verb compound. To correct these mistakes, we simply reverse the two verb compounds. 55b

Ҫᬭ䆁៥ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬៥Ꮒϔ⚍‫ⴵ* ܓ‬㾝DŽ ta jiàoxùn wi de shíhou, wi chàyìdifnr shuì-jiào ‘While he was lecturing me, I almost ?slept.’ Ҫᬭ䆁៥ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬៥Ꮒϔ⚍‫ ⴔⴵܓ‬њ DŽ(I almost fell asleep.) ta jiàoxùn wi de shíhou, wi chàyìdifnr shuì-zháo (le)

55c

ᑊϡᰃҪ≵᳝ᯊ䯈ᐂ៥ⱘᖭˈ㗠ᰃҪ㽕 *ⴵⴔDŽ bìng búshì ta méiyiu shíjian bang wide máng, érshì ta yào shuì-zháo ‘It’s not that he lacks time to help me; he simply wants to ?fall aleep.’ . . . , 㗠ᰃҪ㽕ⴵ㾝DŽ(He wants to sleep.) . . . , érshì ta yào shuì-jiào

Differing in structure, the verb-object compound ⴵ 㾝 shuì-jiào and the verb-verb compound ⴵⴔ shuì-zháo express different meanings. For related topics, see §§38, 39, 41, 42, and 44.

Exercises EXERCISE 15. Place two parenthetical phrases in their proper locations. 1 2

ҪӀ _______ˈ䖬≵ _______ ୰⃶ⱘDŽ ᡒࠄˈᡒ᠓ᄤˈᡒϡࠄ ྍྍ _______ˈᗢМг _______DŽ ᄺк⊩ˈᄺӮњˈᄺϡӮ

152 Speed Up Your Chinese 3 4 5 6

ᄺ⫳ _______ њˈৃᰃ≵ _______DŽ 㗗དˈ㗗ᕫདˈ㗗䆩 ཌྷᛇ _______ˈৃᰃϔⳈ _______DŽ ⴵⴔˈⴵ㾝ˈⴵϡⴔ 㗕Ꮬ䅽ᄺ⫳ _______ˈᄺ⫳䇈 _______DŽ ਀ᔩ䷇ˈ਀ϡពˈ਀ព ҪӀ _______ ⚍ᕫ໾໮ˈ᠔ҹ≵ _______DŽ ৗᅠˈ≵ৗᅠˈ⚍㦰

§56. Mandarin variations on the English verb ‘ask’ The English verb ‘ask’ may be used in different senses, as indicated in parentheses at the end of sentences 56a–e. Their respective Mandarin equivalents illustrate how each of these meanings requires a different Mandarin verb (underlined). 56a The student asked a question. (‘inquire’) ᄺ⫳䯂њϔϾ䯂乬DŽ xuésheng wèn-le yí-ge wèntí 56b The judge asks the lawyer for an explanation. (‘demand’) ⊩ᅬ㽕∖ᕟᏜ㾷䞞DŽ ffguan yaoqiú lmshc jigshì 56c The doctor asks the patient to quit smoking. (‘urge’) ए⫳䅽⮙Ҏ៦⚳DŽ ycshbng ràng bìngrén jiè-yan 56d The child asks the parents to buy a toy. (‘request a favor’) ᄽᄤ∖/ 䇋⠊↡ф⥽‫݋‬DŽ háizi qiú /qhng fùmj mfi-wánjù 56e Friends ask me out for dinner. (‘invite’) ᳟ট䇋៥ߎএৗ佁DŽ péngyou qhng wi cheqù chc-fàn Note that 56a is in a simple structure of [Subj. + V + Obj.], and it is the only one where the English verb ‘ask’ means simply ‘inquire.’ The other four examples, 56b–e, require the structure of 56f, as in ‘Bill invites Mary to have a coffee,’ the subject (N1) asks N2 to do something. Note that in this structure, the second noun serves as the object of the first verb and the subject of the second verb phrase. 56f N1(Subj.) + V1 + N2(Obj. /Subj.) + VP2

Usage comparison of words and phrases 153 Errors occur when students use Mandarin verb 䯂 wèn ‘ask (a question)’ in the structure of 56f. 56g–i need different Mandarin verbs to express their respective ideas. 56g

៥᳝䯂乬ⱘᯊ‫ *ˈ׭‬䯂៥⠌⠌ᛇ㾷‫⊩ࡲⱘއ‬DŽ wi yiu-wèntí de shíhou, wèn wi bàba xifng jigjú de bànff

‘When I have a problem, I ask my dad to come up with a solution.’ Analysis: ‘Ask’ here means ‘request help (from dad).’ The verb is 䇋 qHng. . . . , 䇋៥⠌⠌ᛇ㾷‫⊩ࡲⱘއ‬DŽ

. . . , qhng wi bàba xifng jigjú de bànff

56h

ཌྷ*䯂໻ᆊএখࡴཌྷⱘ⫳᮹ᰮӮDŽ

ta wèn dàjia qù canjia tade shbngrì wfnhuì

‘She asks everyone to her birthday party.’

Analysis: ‘Ask’ here means ‘invite.’ The verb is 䇋 qHng. ཌྷ䇋໻ᆊএখࡴཌྷⱘ⫳᮹ᰮӮDŽ ta qhng dàjia qù canjia tade shbngrì wfnhuì

56i

㗕Ꮬ*䯂ᄺ⫳↣໽㒗дЁ᭛DŽ

lfoshc wèn xuésheng mgitian liànxí zhdngwén

‘The teacher asks students to practice Chinese everyday.’

Analysis: ‘Ask’ means ‘demand’ or ‘urge.’ The verb is 㽕∖ yAoqiú or 䅽 ràng. 㗕Ꮬ㽕∖/䅽ᄺ⫳↣໽㒗дЁ᭛DŽ

lfoshc yaoqiú/ràng xuésheng mgitian liànxí zhdngwén

The different meanings of the English verb ‘ask’ require different Mandarin verbs. 䯂 wèn only refers to ‘ask a question.’

Exercises EXERCISE 16. Choose the correct Chinese translation of each English sentence. 1

We don’t know how to get there. We must ask for directions. a) b) c)

2

៥Ӏϡⶹ䘧ᗢМএDŽ៥Ӏᕫ䯂ϔϟ䏃DŽ ៥Ӏϡⶹ䘧ᗢМএDŽ៥Ӏᕫ䇋ϔϟ䏃DŽ ៥Ӏϡⶹ䘧ᗢМএDŽ៥Ӏᕫ㽕∖ϔϟ䏃DŽ

He often asks his girlfriend to the movies. a) b) c)

Ҫᐌᐌ䯂ཇ᳟টⳟ⬉ᕅDŽ Ҫᐌᐌ䇋ཇ᳟টⳟ⬉ᕅDŽ Ҫᐌᐌ䅽ཇ᳟টⳟ⬉ᕅDŽ

154 Speed Up Your Chinese 3

The teacher asks students to speak Chinese in class. a) b) c)

4

Do you want to ask him for help? a) b) c)

5

Դᛇ䯂Ҫᐂᖭ৫˛ Դᛇ䇋Ҫᐂᖭ৫˛ Դᛇ㽕∖Ҫᐂᖭ৫˛

The mother asked the child to go to bed early. a) b) c)

6

Ϟ䇒ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬㗕Ꮬ䯂ᄺ⫳䇈Ё᭛DŽ Ϟ䇒ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬㗕Ꮬ∖ᄺ⫳䇈Ё᭛DŽ Ϟ䇒ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬㗕Ꮬ㽕∖ᄺ⫳䇈Ё᭛DŽ

ཛྷཛྷ䯂ᄽᄤᮽϔ⚍‫ⴵܓ‬㾝DŽ ཛྷཛྷ䇋ᄽᄤᮽϔ⚍‫ⴵܓ‬㾝DŽ ཛྷཛྷ䅽ᄽᄤᮽϔ⚍‫ⴵܓ‬㾝DŽ

She asks the waiter whether they have green tea. a) b) c)

§57.

ཌྷ䯂᳡ࡵਬ᳝≵᳝㓓㤊DŽ ཌྷ䇋᳡ࡵਬ᳝≵᳝㓓㤊DŽ ཌྷ㽕∖᳡ࡵਬ᳝≵᳝㓓㤊DŽ

Auxiliary verbs ્ huì, ถ néng, and భጲ kGyH

While all of these three auxiliary verbs—Ӯ huì, 㛑 néng and ৃҹ kGyH—are translated as ‘can,’ they convey different meanings. Huì means ‘know how to,’ referring to a skill, usually acquired through learning or training. See examples 57a–b. 57a ҪӮ䇈ϔ⚍‫ܓ‬Ё᭛ˈৃᰃϡӮ‫∝ݭ‬ᄫDŽ ta huì shud-yìdifnr-zhdngwén, kgshì bú-huì xig-hànzì ‘He can speak a little Chinese, but doesn’t know how to write Chinese characters.’ 57b

៥ᓳᓳӮ਍ワᄤDŽ wi dìdi huì chuc-dízi ‘My younger brother can play the flute.’

Néng means ‘be able to,’ referring to ability, the capacity to do something. See 57c–d. ‘Be able to’ also implies that the situation or conditions allow one to do so. When the meaning veers into ‘possibility,’ it is interchangeable with ৃҹ kGyH, as shown in 57e and 57g.

Usage comparison of words and phrases 155 57c 䖭ϾᄽᄤϔϾ໣໽㛑ⳟѨकᴀкDŽ zhèi-ge-háizi yí-ge-xiàtian néng kàn wjshí-bgn-she ‘This child can read fifty books in a summer.’ 57d Դୱњϡᇥ䜦ˈϡ㛑ᓔ䔺DŽ nh hb-le bùshfo jij, bù néng kai-chb ‘You have drunk a lot. You can’t drive.’ 57e ᅠџњDŽ៥Ӏ㛑䍄њDŽ wán-shì-le. wimen néng ziu le ‘It’s finished. We can leave now.’ KGyH, means ‘may,’ referring to permission or possibility. See examples 57f–g. Note the similarity between 57g and 57e above. 57f Դৃҹ⫼៥ⱘ䔺DŽ nh kgyh yòng wide chb ‘You can /may use my car.’ 57g ᅠџњDŽ៥Ӏৃҹ䍄њDŽ wán-shì-le. wimen kgyh ziu le ‘It’s finished. We can /may leave now.’ To avoid errors such as 57h–j, one needs to be aware of the different meanings these auxiliary verbs respectively convey. 57h

៥ࠄ⦄೼䖬 *ϡৃҹ健㞾㸠䔺DŽ

wi dào xiànzài hái bù kgyh qí zìxíngchb

‘Today I still can’t ride a bicycle.’

Analysis: Knowing how to ride a bicycle is a skill that one has learned. Thus the auxiliary verb should be Ӯ huì. ៥ࠄ⦄೼䖬ϡӮ健㞾㸠䔺DŽ wi dào xiànzài hái bú huì qí zìxíngchb

57i

៥≵᳝䪅ˈ㒧ᵰ *ϡӮф䙷Ͼ⬉㛥DŽ

wi méiyiu qián, jiégui bú huì mfi nèi-ge-diànnfo

‘I don’t have money; so I can’t buy that computer.’

Analysis: It’s impossible for me to buy the computer, or I am unable to buy it, because I do not have money. This has nothing to do with skills. So the auxiliary verb should be 㛑 néng. ៥≵᳝䪅ˈ㒧ᵰϡ㛑ф䙷Ͼ⬉㛥DŽ wi méiyiu qián, jiégui bù néng mfi nèi-ge-diànnfo

57j

೼㕢೑ˈकܿቕⱘҎ᳝ᕜ໮⡍ᴗˈৃᰃ*ϡӮୱ䜦DŽ zài Mgiguó, shíba suì de rén yiu hgndud tèquán, kgshì bú huì hb-jij ‘In the US, eighteen-year-olds have some privileges. But they can’t drink.’

156 Speed Up Your Chinese Analysis: This case is clearly about permission (and possibility). Again, it has nothing to do with skills. The auxiliary verb therefore should be ৃҹ kGyH or 㛑 néng. कܿቕⱘҎ᳝ᕜ໮⡍ᴗˈৃᰃϡৃҹ/ϡ㛑ୱ䜦DŽ shíba suì de rén yiu hgndud tèquán, kgshì bù kgyh/bù néng hb-jij

Each auxiliary verb has its own meaning: Ӯ huì means ‘know how to’; 㛑 néng means ‘be able to’; and ৃҹ kGyì means ‘may.’

Exercises EXERCISE 17. Fill in the blanks with an auxiliary verb: Ӯ huì, 㛑 néng, or ৃҹ kGyH. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

៥ ______ 䇈ϔ⚍‫֘ܓ‬䇁ˈг ______ ⳟϔ⚍‫֘ܓ‬᭛кDŽ 㽕ᰃԴϡពˈ______ 䯂䯂㗕ᏜDŽ Դ೼೒к佚䞠ϡ ______ ໻ໄ䇈䆱DŽ ᄽᄤ໾ᇣˈ䖬ϡ ______ 䍄䏃DŽ Ϟ䇒ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬㗕Ꮬ㽕៥Ӏ䇈Ё᭛ˈϡ ______ 䇈㣅᭛DŽ ៥਀䇈䙷Ͼ㕢೑Ҏ ______ ଅЁ೑⇥℠DŽ 䇋䯂៥ ______ ೼䖭‫ܓ‬਌⚳৫˛ ᇍϡ䍋ˈ៥⦄೼ᕜᖭˈϡ ______ এDŽ

§58.

Cognitive verbs ᒀࡸ zhCdào and ཱྀဤ rènshi

While both Mandarin cognitive verbs ⶹ䘧 zhCdào and 䅸䆚 rènshi are translated as ‘know,’ they represent different senses of the English verb. ZhCdào means to know about facts. See examples 58a–b. To express ‘know how to do . . . ,’ the Mandarin phrase is [ ⶹ䘧ᗢМ zhCdào zGnme + VP], as in 58c. 58a

៥ⶹ䘧∝䇁᱂䗮䆱᳝ಯໄDŽ wi zhcdào hànyj pjtdnghuà yiu sì-shbng

‘I know that Mandarin Chinese has four tones.’

58b

៥ⶹ䘧Є⬄ᰃ᮹ᴀ䔺DŽ wi zhcdào Fbngtián shì Rìbgn chb

‘I know that Toyotas are Japanese cars.’

Usage comparison of words and phrases 157 58c

៥ⶹ䘧ᗢМ♪㕞㙝DŽ wi zhcdào zgnme dùn-yángròu

‘I know how to make lamb stew.’

Rènshi, representing knowledge as familiarity, has a few denotations, e.g. be acquainted with a person (58d), recognize or be familiar with things (58e–f), and meet someone, even for the first time (58g). 58d

៥䅸䆚ⱑ‫ˈ⫳ܜ‬៥Ӏᰃ䚏ሙDŽ wi rènshi Bái xiansheng, wimen shì línju

‘I know Mr. Bai. We are neighbors.’

58e

䙷Ͼᄺ⫳䅸䆚ϸग໮Ͼ∝ᄫDŽ nèi-ge-xuésheng rènshi lifngqian dud-ge-hànzì

‘That student can handle more than 2,000 Chinese characters.’

58f

Ҫ䅸䆚䏃ˈ䅽ҪᏺԴএ৻DŽ ta rènshi lù, ràng ta dài nh qù ba

‘He is familiar with the route. Let him take you there.’

58g

䅸䆚Դˈᕜ催݈DŽ rènshi nh, hgn gaoxìng

‘Pleased to meet you.’

To avoid errors such as 58h–k, one needs to observe the respective denotations that ⶹ䘧 zhCdào and 䅸䆚 rènshi possess. 58h

៥ *ϡ䅸䆚䙷Ͼᄺ⫳ᰃ䇕DŽ

wi bú rènshi nèi-ge-xuésheng shì shéi

‘I don’t know who that student is.’

Analysis: ‘Who that student is’ is a fact. The verb here should be zhCdào. On the other hand, if the idea is ‘I am not acquainted with that student,’ remove shì shéi ‘who it is.’ ៥ϡⶹ䘧䙷Ͼᄺ⫳ᰃ䇕DŽ wi bù zhcdào nèi-ge-xuésheng shì shéi ៥ϡ䅸䆚䙷Ͼᄺ⫳DŽ wi bú rènshi nèi-ge-xuésheng

58i

ߎ⾳ৌᴎ *䅸䆚៥ᰃ㕢೑ҎˈҪ䎳៥㽕催ӋDŽ cheze scjc rènshi wi shì Mgiguórén, ta gbn wi yào gao-jià ‘The taxi driver knew I was an American, so he asked a higher price.’ Analysis: The taxi driver is not acquainted with me. But he knows the fact that I am an American. Thus the verb should be zhCdào. ߎ⾳ৌᴎⶹ䘧៥ᰃ㕢೑ҎˈҪ䎳៥㽕催ӋDŽ cheze scjc zhcdào wi shì Mgiguórén, ta gbn wi yào gao-jià

158 Speed Up Your Chinese 58j

催㥝㥝ᰃ៥ⱘЁ᭛⧁ৠᄺDŽ៥ᔧ✊ *ⶹ䘧ཌྷʽ

Gao Lìli shì wide zhdngwénban tóngxué. wi dangrán zhcdào ta!

‘Gao Lili is my classmate in Chinese class. Of course I know her!’

Analysis: Since Gao Lili is a classmate, I am certainly her acquaintance. Besides ‘she’ is not a fact. The verb therefore should be rènshi. 催㥝㥝ᰃ៥ⱘЁ᭛⧁ৠᄺDŽ៥ᔧ✊䅸䆚ཌྷʽ Gao Lìli shì wide zhdngwénban tóngxué. wi dangrán rènshi ta!

58k

ϔᑈ㑻ⱘᄺ⫳䖬 *ϡⶹ䘧ᕜ໮∝ᄫDŽ yc-niánjí de xuésheng hái bù zhcdào hgn dud hànzì ‘The first-year students still don’t know many Chinese characters.’ Analysis: The first-year students are not familiar with many Chinese characters. The verb should be rènshi. ϔᑈ㑻ⱘᄺ⫳䖬ϡ䅸䆚ᕜ໮∝ᄫDŽ yc-niánjí de xuésheng hái bú rènshi hgn dud hànzì

ⶹ䘧 zhCdào means to know about facts or ‘know how to do . . . ,’ whereas 䅸䆚 rènshi represents knowledge in terms of familiarity, such as being acquainted with a person or recognizing things. For related topics, see §20.

Exercises EXERCISE 18. From the squared parentheses for each sentence, select ⶹ䘧 zhCdào or 䅸䆚 rènshi. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Դ>ⶹ䘧ˈ䅸䆚@䙷Ͼཇ⫳৫˛Դ>ⶹ䘧ˈ䅸䆚 ]ཌྷিҔМৡᄫ৫˛ ៥>ⶹ䘧ˈ䅸䆚@⋄ቅ೼ቅϰⳕDŽ 䇋䯂ˈԴ>ⶹ䘧ˈ䅸䆚@Ё೑সҷⱘಯ໻থᯢ৫˛ ᇍϡ䍋ˈ៥гϡ>ⶹ䘧ˈ䅸䆚@䖭ϾᄫDŽ ҪӀᰃϞ໻ᄺⱘᯊ‫ⶹ> ׭‬䘧ˈ䅸䆚@ⱘDŽ Ҫ>ⶹ䘧ˈ䅸䆚@ᗢМএഄ䪕キDŽ ೼Ё೑ത☿䔺ᮙ㸠ৃҹ>ⶹ䘧ˈ䅸䆚@ᕜ໮᳟টDŽ

Check your grammar Translate these sentences into Chinese, and then check to see that you have implemented the relevant grammar points. The parenthetical numbers and letters identify the pertinent subsections and examples. 1 I don’t feel well today. So I slept a lot. (§46i)

2 The soil in this area is much more fertile than other places. (§46j)

Usage comparison of words and phrases 159 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

We traveled during spring break and luckily didn’t run into traffic jams. (§46k) I still remember what you said a year ago. (§46l) If you are a little tired, we will take a break. (§47i) I like to drink a little tea every morning. (§47j) The location of my dorm is good. It’s a small distance to both classrooms and the cafeteria. (§47k) My family and I like to watch Chinese movies. (§48h) If you can’t get along with your roommate and you want a single room, please fill out a form. (§48i) My work schedule is flexible; my working environment is good, and my income is also fair. (§48j) She placed some chairs on the stage. (§49f) I study at the library every evening. (§50k) Every bag of her luggage is overweight. (§50l) From beef with broccoli to tofu, I like almost all Chinese dishes. (§51j) All the students must do their homework. (§51k) The Chinese advertisements provide good information. It’s worth watching all (of them). (§51l) Going to the student cafeteria from my dorm is very convenient. (§52p) This shop sells everything, from fiction to sweaters. (§52q) On Tuesday evenings I have class from 7 to 10 o’clock. It is tiring. (§52r) I was tired last night, even so I still didn’t go to bed until 3 o’clock. (§53f) This topic is very unfamiliar to me. Also I have no information (about it). (§53g) He repeatedly asked the teacher this question. (§53h) She is not going home during spring break. The fact is she doesn’t have money for the plane ticket. (§53i) Most Americans only speak English. (§53j) If the food is poisoned, (then) I will not eat it. (§54g) Only if you have money, can you buy many things. (§54h) While he was lecturing me, I almost fell asleep. (§55b) It’s not that he lacks time to help me; he simply wants to sleep. (§55c) When I have a problem, I ask my dad to come up with a solution. (§56g) She asks everyone to her birthday party. (§56h) The teacher asks students to practice Chinese everyday. (§56i) Today I still can’t ride a bicycle. (§57h) I don’t have money; so I can’t buy that computer. (§57i) In the US, eighteen-year-olds have some privileges. But they can’t drink. (§57j) I don’t know who that student is. / I am not acquainted with that student. (§58h) The taxi driver knew I was an American, so he asked a higher price. (§58i) Gao Lili is my classmate in Chinese class. Of course I know her! (§58j) The first-year students still don’t know many Chinese characters. (§58k)

Answer key to exercises

Part I EXERCISE 1. 1. Ё᭛䇁⊩ᕜᆍᯧDŽzhdngwén yjff hgn róngyi / 2. ៥ⱘ᳟ট䛑㌃ᵕњˈ៥ैϡ㌃DŽ wide péngyou ddu lèi-jíle, wi què bú lèi / 3. ໽⇨䍞ᴹ䍞‫ދ‬DŽtianqì yuèláiyuè lgng / 4. ⠯ཊϡ䌉DŽniúnfi bú guì

EXERCISE 2. 1. ᳜᳝݁ϝक໽DŽliùyuè yiu sanshí tian / 2. кḠϞ᳝ Ͼ⬉㛥DŽshezhud-shàng yiu yí-ge-diànnfo / 3. ᆓ㟡䰘䖥᳝݁Ͼ㔥⧗എ৫˛ sùshè fùjìn yiu liù-ge-wfngqiúchfng ma / 4. 㗕Ꮬϡ೼ཌྷⱘࡲ݀ᅸDŽlfoshc bú zài tade bàngdngshì / 5. 咘⊇೼Ё೑࣫ᮍDŽhuánghé zài Zhdngguó bgifang / 6. ᄽᄤӀ೼݀ು䞠DŽháizimen zài gdngyuán-lh

EXERCISE 3. 1. ᄽᄤӀ↣໽ϟज೼݀ು䞠⥽‫ܓ‬DŽháizimen mgitian xiàwj zài gdngyuán-li wánr / 2. ᕜ໮ 㕢೑ᄺ⫳೼೑໪ᄺ䇁㿔DŽhgn dud Mgiguó xuésheng zài guówài xué yjyán / 3. ҪӀ೼ುᄤ 䞠⾡њ㢅DŽtamen zài yuánzi lh zhòng-le-hua / 4. ཌྷ୰⃶೼᯳Ꮘ‫ܟ‬ୱ੪ଵDŽta xhhuan zài xcngbakè hb-kafbi / 5. ៥Ӏ೼ᄺ⫳令ख़ৗज佁DŽwimen zài xuésheng cantcng chc-wjfàn

EXERCISE 4. 1. ᕜ໮㕢೑ᄺ⫳এЁ೑ᄺЁ᭛DŽhgn dud Mgiguó xuésheng qù Zhdngguó xué zhdngwén / 2. ៥ӀএቅϞ䴆㧹৻DŽwimen qù shanshàng lùyíng ba / 3. ៥এ䚂ሔᆘ ᇕֵDŽwi qù yóujú jì yì-fbng-xìn / 4. ཌྷᐌএཌྷ᳟টⱘ᠓䯈㘞໽DŽta cháng qù ta péngyou de fángjian liáo-tian / 5. ៥ӀҞ໽≵এᄺ⫳令ख़ৗज佁DŽwimen jcntian méi qù xuésheng cantcng chc-wjfàn

EXERCISE 5. 1. ៥੠᳟ট೼ཌྷᆊୱ੪ଵDŽwi hé péngyou zài ta jia hb-kafbi / 2. ҪӀ᯳ᳳѨϟज೼ԧ㚆佚 ᠧ⧗DŽtamen xcngqcwj xiàwj zài thyùgufn df-qiú / 3. ҪӀ᯼໽ৗᰮ佁ৗњϝϾ䩳༈DŽ tamen zuótian chc-wfnfàn chc-le san-ge-zhdngtóu / 4. ᇣ偀᯳ᳳѠᰮϞ೼೒к佚Ꮉ԰ಯϾ ᇣᯊDŽXifo Mf xcngqc’èr wfnshang zài túshegufn gdngzuò sì-ge-xifoshí / 5. ᇣ偀↣Ͼ ᯳ᳳ೼೒к佚Ꮉ԰DŽXifo Mf mgi-ge-xcngqc zài túshegufn gdngzuò / 6. ៥এᑈᄺњ бϾ᳜ⱘ᮹᭛DŽwi qùnián xué-le jij-ge-yuè de rìwén / 7. ཌྷϡᐌ೼⬉ᕅ䰶ⳟ⬉ᕅDŽ

Answer key to exercises 161 ta bùcháng zài diànyhngyuàn kàn-diànyhng / 8. ҪӀ⦄೼೼໪䴶ㄝ៥ਸ਼ʽ tamen xiànzài zài wàimian dgng wi ne!

EXERCISE 6. 1. 䙷Ͼᄺ⫳এᑈᱥ‫؛‬೼䍙㑻ᏖഎᠧᎹDŽnèi-ge-xuésheng qùnián shjjià zài chaojí shìchfng df-gdng / 2. ҪӀᑇᐌৗ Ͼᇣᯊⱘज佁DŽtamen píngcháng chc yí-ge-xifoshí de wjfàn; ҪӀᑇᐌৗज佁ৗ ϾᇣᯊDŽtamen píngcháng chc-wjfàn chc yí-ge-xifoshí / 3. ៥Ӏ᯳ᳳѠᰮϞϗ⚍Ϟ᭛ᄺ䇒DŽwimen xcngqc’èr wfnshang qcdifn shàng-wénxuékè / 4. ҪӀ↣ᑈ᯹໽ᮙ㸠ϝϾ᯳ᳳDŽtamen mgi-nián chentian lkxíng san-ge-xcngqc / 5. ཌྷᘏᰃ೼䙷Ͼഄ䪕キϞ䔺DŽta zingshì zài nèi-ge-dìtigzhàn shàng-chb / 6. ៥ྤྤ೼ Ё೑ᬭњ Ͼᄺᳳⱘ㣅᭛DŽwi jigjie zài Zhdngguó jiao-le yí-ge-xuéqc de ycngwén

EXERCISE 7. 1. ᮹᭛䇁⊩↨Ё᭛䇁⊩໡ᴖDŽrìwén yjff bh zhdngwén yjff fùzá / 2. ㆅᄤ↨кࣙ䞡DŽ xiangzi bh shebao zhòng / 3. 䍄䏃↨ᓔ䔺ᮍ֓DŽziu-lù bh kai-chb fangbiàn / 4. હહ↨ ᓳᓳ催 ⚍‫ܓ‬DŽgbge bh dìdi gao yìdifnr / 5. ࣫Ҁ↨ᡓᖋ໻ᕫ໮DŽBgijcng bh Chéngdé dà-de dud / 6. Ḩᄤ↨㣍ᵰ䌉 ഫ䪅DŽjúzi bh pínggui guì yí-kuài-qián / 7. ៥ⱘᅸট↨ ៥ᮽ䍋 Ͼ䩳༈DŽwide shìyiu bh wi zfo qh yí-ge-zhdngtóu / 8. Ҫ↨៥໮ⳟϝᴀкDŽ ta bh wi dud kàn san-bgn-she

EXERCISE 8. 1. 㤊ᵃ੠䜦ᵃ ḋ໻DŽchábbi hé jijbbi yíyàng dà / 2. ഄ䪕キ੠≑䔺キ ḋ䖥DŽdìtigzhàn hé qìchbzhàn yíyàng jìn / 3. 㪱㡆ⱘ੠㓓㡆ⱘ ḋདⳟDŽlánsè-de hé lmsè-de yíyàng hfokàn / 4. 䙷ᴀк≵᳝䖭ᴀк 䖭М ᳝ᛣᗱDŽnèi-bgn-she méiyiu zhèi-bgn-she (zhème) yiuyìsi / 5. Ёᄺ⫳≵᳝໻ᄺ⫳ᖭDŽzhdngxuéshbng méiyiu dàxuéshbng máng / 6. Ҟ໽ ≵᳝᯼໽ 䙷М ‫ދ‬DŽjcntian méiyiu zuótian (nème) lgng

EXERCISE 9. 1. ᠟㸼↨䩳䌉DŽshiubifo bh zhdng guì / 2. ᮄ⬉㛥↨ᮻ⬉㛥ᖿDŽxcn diànnfo bh jiù diànnfo kuài / 3. 㽓⪰↨ḗᄤདৗDŽxcgua bh táozi hfochc / 4. 䖭Ͼ᯳ᳳⱘࡳ䇒↨ϞϾ᯳ᳳ ⱘ໮DŽzhèi-ge-xcngqc de gdngkè bh shàng-ge-xcngqc de dud / 5. ⳟк↨ⳟ⬉㾚᳝ᛣᗱDŽ kàn-she bh kàn-diànshì yiuyìsi / 6. ⒥‫↨ބ‬⒥䲾ᆍᯧᄺDŽhuá-bcng bh huá-xug róngyi xué

EXERCISE 10. 1. ៥ཛྷཛྷଅ℠ଅᕫ↨៥དᕫ໮DŽwi mama chàng-gb chàng-de bh wi hfo-de dud; ៥ཛྷཛྷ↨៥ଅ℠ଅᕫདᕫ໮DŽwi mama bh wi chàng-gb chàng-de hfo-de dud; ៥ཛྷཛྷ ଅ℠↨៥ଅᕫདᕫ໮DŽwi mama chàng-gb bh wi chàng-de hfo-de dud / 2. ᓳᓳ䎥ℹ 䎥ᕫ䎳હહ ḋᖿDŽdìdi pfo-bù pfo-de gbn gbge yíyàng kuài; ᓳᓳ䎳હહ䎥ℹ䎥ᕫ ḋᖿDŽdìdi gbn gbge pfo-bù pfo-de yíyàng kuài; ᓳᓳ䎥ℹ䎳હહ䎥ᕫ ḋᖿDŽ dìdi pfo-bù gbn gbge pfo-de yíyàng kuài / 3. ໻Ҏⴵ㾝ⴵᕫ≵᳝ᄽᄤ໮DŽdàrén shuì-jiào shuì-de méiyiu háizi dud; ໻Ҏ≵᳝ᄽᄤⴵ㾝ⴵᕫ໮DŽdàrén méiyiu háizi shuì-jiào shuì-de dud; ໻Ҏⴵ㾝≵᳝ᄽᄤⴵᕫ໮DŽdàrén shuì-jiào méiyiu háizi shuì-de dud

EXERCISE 11. 1. Ҫ↨Ҫྍྍ催ϝ㣅ᇌDŽta bh ta mèimei gao san ycngcùn / 2. ಯ᳜↨ϝ᳜ᱪ੠ ⚍‫ܓ‬DŽ sìyuè bh sanyuè nufnhuo yìdifnr / 3. Ҫⱘ᠟ᴎ੠៥ⱘ ḋᮄDŽtade shiujc hé wide yíyàng xcn / 4. ቅϰ㦰≵᳝ಯᎱ㦰 䙷М 䕷DŽShanddng cài méiyiu Sìchuan cài (nème) là / 5. ཇ‫↨ܓ‬⠌⠌ϟẟϟᕫདDŽnk’ér bh bàba xià-qí xià-de hfo / 6. Ҫৗᕫ䎳៥ ḋ໮ˈ ৃᰃ≵᳝៥ 䖭М 㚪DŽta chc-de gbn wi yíyàng dud, kgshì méiyiu wi (zhème) pàng

162 Speed Up Your Chinese EXERCISE 12. 1. ៥ᡞ៥ⱘᮻ䔺पњDŽ wi bf wide jiù-chb mài le / 2. ԴҞ໽ ᅮᕫᡞ䖭Ͼ㒗д‫خ‬ᅠDŽnh nh bf zhèi-jiàn-shì jcntian yídìng dgi bf zhèi-ge-liànxí zuò-wán / 3. Դᡞ䖭ӊџਞ䆝䇕њ˛

qhng nh bf gàosù shuí le? / 4. Cannot be changed. / 5. 䇋Դᡞ⬉㾚ᠧᓔˈདϡད˛

diànshì df-kai, hfo bù hfo? / 6. Cannot be changed. / 7. བᵰ᳝䯂乬ˈ䇋Դᡞ᠟В䍋ᴹDŽ

rúgui yiu wèntí, qhng nh bf shiu jj-qhlái / 8. Դᯢ໽ᡞԴⱘࡳ䇒Ѹ㒭㗕Ꮬ৻DŽnh míngtian bf nhde gdngkè jiao ggi lfoshc ba / 9. Cannot be changed. / 10. ៥୰⃶ᡞϞ䇒ⱘヨ䆄䆄

೼кϞDŽwi xhhuan bf shàngkè de bhjì jì zài sheshang / 11. ҪӀᡞ᠔᳝ⱘᮄᕅ⹳䛑‫׳‬䍄њDŽ tamen bf suiyiude xcn yhngdié ddu jiè-ziu le / 12. ଚᑫᡞ㗕Ҏфⱘϰ㽓䗕ᴹњDŽ shangdiàn bf lforén mfi de ddngxi sòng-lái le

EXERCISE 13. 1. ҪӀϡᛇᡞにᄤᠧᓔDŽtamen bù xifng bf chuangzi df-kai / 2. 䇋 Դ ᡞộᄤᨀߎএDŽ qhng (nh) bf yhzi ban-cheqù / 3. ཌྷᏆ㒣ᡞ៥ⱘ⬉䆱োⷕᖬњDŽta yhjcng bf wide diànhuà hàomf wàng le / 4. Դϡ㛑ᡞ䔺‫ذ‬೼䖭‫ܓ‬DŽnh bù néng bf chb tíng zài zhèr / 5. ៥ᡞ䖭Ͼ 䯂乬ⳟᕫ໾ㅔऩњDŽwi bf zhèi-ge-wèntí kàn-de tài jifndan le / 6. ៥≵ᡞ⬉㛥ᏺಲᆊDŽ wi méi bf diànnfo dài-huí jia

EXERCISE 14. 1. Ҫⱘ䪅㹿ᇣًًњDŽtade qián bèi xifotdu tdu le / 2. ⥽‫݋‬ᐌᐌ㹿ᄽᄤᓘണDŽwánjù chángcháng bèi háizi nòng-huài / 3. 㲟㊩িҪৗњDŽdàngao jiào ta chc le / 4. ៥≵᳝Ӳˈ 㸷᳡䛑㹿䲼⎟⑓њDŽwi méiyiu sfn, ycfu ddu bèi yj lín-shc le / 5. кᏆ㒣㹿Ҫ䖬㒭 ೒к佚њDŽshe yhjcng bèi ta huán ggi túshegufn le / 6. ᠓䯈䅽ᇣ↯ᠧᠿᕫᕜᑆ‫ޔ‬DŽ fángjian ràng Xifo Máo dfsfo de hgn ganjìng

Part II EXERCISE 1. 1. བᵰԴҞ໽ᰮϞ᳝ぎˈ៥Ӏህএⳟ⬉ᕅDŽrúgui nh jcntian wfnshang yiu kòng, wimen jiù qù kàn-diànyhng / 2. 㽕ᰃ៥ⶹ䘧ˈ៥ህਞ䆝ԴDŽyàoshi wi zhcdào, wi jiù gàosu nh / 3. བᵰԴᖬњཌྷⱘৡᄫˈԴ ᅮӮ㾝ᕫϡདᛣᗱDŽrúgui nh wàng-le tade míngzi, nh yídìng huì juéde bùhfoyìsi

EXERCISE 2. 1. ᄺ⫳ϡԚᕫϞ䇒ˈ㗠Ϩᕫ‫ࡳخ‬䇒DŽxuésheng búdàn dgi shàng-kè, érqig dgi zuò­ gdngkè / 2. ཌྷϡԚ୰⃶ⳟᬙџˈ㗠Ϩ୰⃶㒭៥Ӏ䆆 ཌྷⳟⱘ ᬙџDŽta búdàn xhhuan kàn-gùshi, érqig xhhuan ggi wimen jifng (ta kàn de) gùshi / 3. ϡԚ⬋ᄽᄤ䏶䎇⧗ˈ 㗠Ϩཇᄽᄤг䏶DŽbúdàn nán háizi tc-zúqiú, érqig nk háizi yg tc

EXERCISE 3. 1. 㱑✊៥ⱘ᳟ট᳝⬉㾚ˈৃᰃҪᕜᇥⳟDŽsucrán wide péngyou yiu diànshì, kgshi ta hgnshfo kàn / 2. 㱑✊៥Ӯ䇈 ⚍‫ܓ‬Ё᭛ˈै䇈ᕫϡདDŽsucrán wi huì shud yìdifnr zhdngwén, què shud-de bùhfo / 3. 㱑✊ ℷ೼ ϟ䲾ˈ໽⇨ैϡ‫ދ‬DŽsucrán (zhèngzài) xià-xug, tianqì què bù lgng

EXERCISE 4. 1. a / 2. a / 3. b / 4. a / 5. b / 6. b

Answer key to exercises 163 EXERCISE 5. 1. ᄺЁ᭛ˈԴ‫ܜ‬ᄺᣐ䷇ˈ‫ݡ‬ᄺ∝ᄫDŽxué-zhdngwén, nh xian xué-pcnycn, zài xué-hànzì / 2. ᇣᄽᄤ‫ܜ‬ᄺ䍄䏃ˈ‫ݡ‬ᄺ䎥DŽxifoháizi xian xué-ziulù, zài xué-pfo / 3. ϟ䔺ⱘҎ‫ܜ‬ϟˈ Ϟ䔺ⱘҎ‫ݡ‬ϞDŽxiàchb-de rén xian xià, shàngchb-de-rén zài shàng / 4. Դ‫ܜ‬തϟˈ ៥Ӏ‫ݡ‬䇜DŽnh xian zuò-xia, wimen zài tán

EXERCISE 6. 1. ཌྷ‫އ‬ᅮ‫ܜ‬ৗज佁ˈ‫ݡ‬ಲᆊDŽta juédìng xian chc-wjfàn, zài huí-jia / 2. Դ‫ܜ‬ᶹᶹഄ೒ˈ ‫ݡ‬এDŽnh xian chácha-dìtú, zài qù / 3. Դ‫ܜ‬䇈ˈ៥‫ݡ‬ㄨDŽnh xian shud, wi zài dá

EXERCISE 7. 1. Ҫ ↩Ϯህᡒࠄ ϾᕜདⱘᎹ԰DŽ ta yí bìyè jiù zhfo-dào yí-ge hgnhfo de gdngzuò / 2. ཌྷҞ໽ ಲࠄᆓ㟡ህⴵ㾝њDŽta jcntian yì huí-dào sùshè jiù shuìjiào le / 3. ໽ ব‫ˈދ‬ Ҫህᆍᯧᛳ‫ݦ‬DŽtian yí biàn lgng, ta jiù róngyì gfnmào / 4. ҪӀ Ϟ䔺ˈ☿䔺ህᓔњDŽ tamen yí shàng-chb, huichb jiù kai le

EXERCISE 8. 1. 䙷Ͼ䖤ࡼਬ ୱ‫ބ‬㤊ህ㙮ᄤ⮐DŽnèi-ge-yùndòngyuán yì hb-bcngchá jiù dùzi téng / 2. ཌྷ ᳝⚍‫ܓ‬䪅ህ㢅ᥝDŽta yì yiu-difr-qián jiù hua-diào / 3. Ҫ 㾷䞞ˈ៥ӀህពњDŽ ta yì jigshì, wimen jiù ding le

EXERCISE 9. 1. 㢅㕢ϡ㕢 ˛ ycnghua mgi-bù-mgi? / 2. Ҫⱘ䆱᳝≵᳝䘧⧚˛ tade-huà yiu-méi-yiu dàolh? / 3. 䙷Ͼ⊩೑ҎӮϡӮ䇈㣅᭛˛nèi-ge-Ffguórén huì-bú-huì shud-ycngwén? / 4. Դୱϡ ୱସ䜦˛ nh hb-bù-hb píjij? / 5. ԴⳟᕫពⳟϡពЁ᭛к˛ nh kàn-de-ding kàn-bù-ding zhdngwén-she? / 6. ҪӀф≵ф᠓˛ tamen mfi-méi-mfi fáng? / 7. ԴӀ਼᳿ⴵᕫᰮϡᰮ˛ nhmen zhdumò shuì-de wfn-bù-wfn?

EXERCISE 10. 1. ԴӮᓔ䔺৫˛ nh huì kai-chb ma?; ԴӮϡӮᓔ䔺˛ nh huì-bú-huì kai-chb? / 2. ԴҞ໽ ϟज⺄ᕫࠄҪ৫˛ nh jcntian xiàwj pèng-de-dào ta ma?; ԴҞ໽ϟज⺄ᕫࠄ⺄ϡࠄҪ˛ nh jcntian xiàwj pèng-de-dào pèng-bú-dào ta? / 3. Դ᯼໽ᰮϞⳟᮄ䯏њ৫˛ nh zuótian wfnshang kàn-xcnwén le ma?; Դ᯼໽ᰮϞⳟ≵ⳟᮄ䯏˛ nh zuótian wfnshang kàn-méi-kàn xcnwén? / 4. ∸ᕜ⛁৫˛ tang hgn rè ma?; ∸⛁ϡ⛁˛ tang rè-bú-rè?

EXERCISE 11. 1. 䙷Ͼཇᄽ‫ܓ‬ᰃ䇕˛ nèi-ge-nkháir shì shéi? / 2. 䖭ᰃ䇕ⱘ⬉䆱োⷕ˛ zhèi shì shéi-de diànhuà hàomf? / 3. ↨ᇨᰃા೑Ҏ˛Bh’gr shì nf-guó rén? / 4. ԴӀᐌᐌএા‫˛ܓ‬ nhmen chángcháng qù nfr? / 5. ԴӀҔМᯊ‫׭‬ᓔӮ˛nhmen shénme shíhou kai-huì? / 6. 㺭ᄤ प ໮ᇥ䪅˛qúnzi (mài) dudshfo qián? / 7. ཌྷᰃҔМϧϮ˛ta shì shénme zhuanyè? / 8. Ё᭛⧁᳝໮ᇥϾᄺ⫳˛ zhdngwénban yiu dudshfo ge xuésheng? / 9. ા䕚䔺ᰃ㗕ᴢⱘ˛ nf-liàng-chb shì Lfo Lh de? / 10. ҪӀᗢМএᴎഎ˛ tamen zgnme qù jcchfng?

EXERCISE 12. 1. ᑈ᳝໮ᇥ໽˛yì-nián yiu dudshfo tian? / 2. 䖭ᰃ䇕ⱘ᠟ᴎ˛zhèi shì shéide shiujc? / 3. ཌྷᐌ೼ા‫ܓ‬ৗᰮ佁˛ta cháng zài nfr chc-wfnfàn? / 4. ԴҞ໽᳝ҔМ䇒˛nh jcntian yiu shénme kè? / 5. Դ᳔୰⃶ા佪℠˛ nh zuì xhhuan nf-shiu-gb?

164 Speed Up Your Chinese EXERCISE 13. 1. Ҫ⠊↡ⶹ䘧Ҫ୰⃶ϡ୰⃶䙷ϾᎹ԰DŽta fùmj zhcdào ta xhhuan-bù-xhhuan nèi-ge­ gdngzuò / 2. ᄺ⫳ⶹ䘧໻㗗䲒ϡ䲒DŽxuésheng zhcdào dàkfo nán-bù-nán / 3. ៥Ӏϡⶹ䘧 ∈ᱪᎹᴹϡᴹDŽwimen bù zhcdào shuhnufngdng lái-bù-lái / 4. ៥Ӏгϡⶹ䘧∈ᱪᎹҔМ ᯊ‫׭‬ᴹDŽwimen yg bù zhcdào shuhnufngdng shénme shíhou lái / 5. ཌྷϡⶹ䘧ཌྷЎҔМ 䗝њЁ᭛䇒DŽta bù zhcdào ta wèishénme xufn-le zhdngwénkè / 6. Դⶹ䘧Ҫୱ㤊䖬ᰃୱ ੪ଵ৫˛ nh zhcdào ta hb-chá háishì hb-kafbi ma?; Դⶹ䘧ϡⶹ䘧Ҫୱ㤊䖬ᰃୱ੪ଵ˛ nh zhcdào-bù-zhcdào ta hb-chá háishì hb-kafbi? / 7. Դⶹ䘧ϡⶹ䘧៥Ӏᑨ䆹⚍ҔМ㦰˛ nh zhcdào-bù-zhcdào wimen ycnggai difn shénme cài?

EXERCISE 14. 1. A: 䖬ᰃ háishì; B: ៪㗙 huòzhg / 2. ៪㗙 huòzhg / 3. 䖬ᰃ háishì / 4. ៪㗙 huòzhg

EXERCISE 15. 1. Դ୰⃶㑶㡆ⱘ䖬ᰃ㪱㡆ⱘ˛nh xhhuan hóngsè-de háishì lánsè-de? / 2. Դ㾝ᕫ᡹㒌䌉䖬 ᰃᴖᖫ䌉˛nh juéde bàozhh guì háishì zázhì guì? / 3. ԴᮽϞ៪㗙ᰮϞৗ䖭Ͼ㥃䛑ৃҹDŽ nh zfoshang huòzhg wfnshang chc zhèi-ge-yào ddu kgyh / 4. ཌྷᛇᄺ 䮼ϰѮ䇁㿔ˈ Ё᭛៪㗙᮹᭛䛑㸠DŽta xifng xué yì-mén-ddngyà yjyán, zhdngwén huòzhg rìwén ddu xíng / 5. ᴢ‫⫳ܜ‬Ҟᑈ໣໽এЁ೑䖬ᰃএॄᑺ˛Lh xiansheng jcnnián xiàtian qù Zhdngguó háishì qù Yìndù? / 6. ᇍ៥ᴹ䇈ˈԣᆓ㟡៪㗙ԣ᷵໪ˈ䛑 ḋDŽduì wi lái shud, zhù-sùshè huòzhg zhù-xiàowài, ddu yíyàng / 7. ៥Ӏৗ㉇佁៪㗙䴶ᴵ䛑དDŽ wimen chc-mhfàn huòzhg miàntiáo ddu hfo

Part III EXERCISE 1.

Chronological time: 2; 3; 6; 8; 10; 11 / Durational time: 1; 4; 5; 7; 9; 12

EXERCISE 2. 1. ЁजकѠ⚍ zhdngwj shí’èr-difn / 2. 䖭Ͼ᯳ᳳ zhèi-ge-xcngqc / 3. ϸϾᇣᯊकߚ䩳 lifng-ge-xifoshí shí fbnzhdng / 4. ᯳ᳳ Ϟजक⚍ xcngqcyc shàngwj shí-difn / 5. ϗܿбᑈϗ᳜कಯ᮹ yc qc ba jij nián qcyuè shísì rì / 6. ञᑈ bàn nián / 7. ѨϾ᳜ wj-ge-yuè / 8. ᰮϞϗ⚍कߚ wfnshang qc-difn shí-fbn / 9. ໰䞠ϸ⚍ञ yèlh lifng-difn­ bàn / 10. ᑈҹৢ yì-nián yhhòu / 11. ϗ໽ qc-tian / 12. ᯼໽ᮽ᰼ / ᮽϞ݁⚍ zuótian zfochén/zfoshang liù-difn

EXERCISE 3. 1. ҪᮽϞ݁⚍ߎএ䎥ℹˈ亢䲼᮴䰏DŽta zfoshang liù-difn cheqù pfo-bù, fbngyj wúzj / 2. ៥Ӏӥᙃकߚ䩳DŽwimen xiexi shí-fbnzhdng / 3. ᓴ㗕‫↣⫳ܜ‬໽ᠧ Ͼ䩳༈ ⱘ ໾ᵕᣇDŽ Zhang lfo xiansheng mgitian df yí-ge-zhdngtóu (de) tàijíquán / 4. ៥ᓳᓳϟϾ᯳ᳳ݁䖛 ⫳᮹DŽwi dìdi xià-ge-xcngqcliù guò-shbngrì / 5. Ҫ᯼໽໾㌃њˈⴵњᭈᭈ ໽ ⱘ 㾝DŽ ta zuótian tài lèi le, shuì-le zhgngzhgng yì-tian (de) jiào / 6. ཌྷᯢᑈ᯹໽໻ᄺ↩ϮDŽ ta míngnián chentian dàxué bìyè / 7. ҪӀक᳜ᠧㅫ㒧ီDŽtamen shíyuè dfsuàn jié-hen (decision made in October); ҪӀᠧㅫक᳜㒧ီDŽtamen dfsuàn shíyuè jié-hen (wedding to be held in October) / 8. ៥ӀᏆ㒣䅸䆚໮Йњ˛ wimen yhjcng rènshi dudjij le? / 9. ҪӀএᑈ೼䴲⌆ᮙ㸠њϸϾ᳜DŽtamen qùnián zài Fbizhdu lkxíng-le lifng-ge-yuè / 10. ޴ϾᄽᄤҞ໽೼໪䴶⥽‫ܓ‬њϝϾ໮ᇣᯊDŽjh-ge-háizi jcntian zài wàimian wánr-le san-ge dud xifoshí / 11. Ҫҹࠡᄺ䖛݁Ͼ᯳ᳳ ⱘ Ё᭛DŽta yhqián xué-guò

Answer key to exercises 165 liù-ge-xcngqc (de) zhdngwén / 12. 䚏ሙ਼᳿䇋њ yì-tian (de) kè

໽ ⱘ ᅶDŽlínje zhdumò qhng-le

EXERCISE 4. 1. Ҟᑈ໣໽ jcnnián xiàtian / 2. ϞϾ᯳ᳳ shàng-ge-xcngqc / 3. ϸϾ䩳༈ lifng-ge zhdngtóu / 4. कѠϾ᳜ shí’èr-ge-yuè / 5. б⚍Ѡकߚ jij difn èrshi fbn / 6. ໰䞠 yèlh

EXERCISE 5. 1. ៥Ӏ↣໽ᰮϞ݁⚍ⳟᮄ䯏DŽwimen mgitian wfnshang liù-difn kàn-xcnwén / 2. Ҫⓨ䆆

њѠकߚ䩳DŽta yfnjifng-le èr’shi-fbnzhdng / 3. ៥Ӏ೼䖭‫ܓ‬ㄝњϝϾ䩳༈њʽ

wimen zài-zhèr dgng-le san-ge-zhdngtóu le? / 4. ⾟ᄷᄺᳳб᳜ᓔྟDŽqiejì xuéqc jijyuè kaishh /

5. 㗕Ҏ↣໽ϟजजⴵञϾ䩳༈DŽlfo-rén mgitian xiàwj wjshuì bàn-ge-zhdngtóu /

6. 䙷Ͼଂ䋻ਬ Ͼ᯳ᳳᎹ԰݁໽DŽnèi-ge-shuòhuòyuán yí-ge-xcngqc gdngzuò liù-tian

EXERCISE 6. 1. ᓔ䔺ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬ ᳝ѯҎ⫼᠟ᴎDŽ kai-chb de shíhou, yiuxib rén yòng-shiujc / 2. 䯂䏃ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬ Ҫᕜᅶ⇨DŽwèn-lù de shíhou, ta hgn kèqi / 3. ៥Ӏ㄀ ⃵㾕䴶ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬ཌྷ⬭ⴔ䭓থDŽ wimen dìyccì jiàn-miàn de shíhou, ta liú-zhe chángfà / 4. ೼䴲⌆ᮙ㸠ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬៥⺄ࠄњ Ͼ㗕ৠᄺDŽzài Fbizhdu lkxíng de shíhou, wi pèng-dào-le yí-ge-lfo tóngxué

EXERCISE 7. 1. ཌྷҹࠡ਌⚳DŽta yhqián xc-yan / 2. ᮽϞϗ⚍ҹࠡ䇋߿㒭៥ᠧ⬉䆱DŽzfoshang qc-difn yhqián qhng bié ggi wi df-diànhuà / 3. ៥Ӏҹࠡϡ䅸䆚DŽwimen yhqián bú rènshi / 4. Դҹࠡԣ೼ા‫ ˛ܓ‬nh yhqián zhù zài nfr? / 5. ⳟ䇒᭛ҹࠡˈ៥Ӏ᳔ད‫ܜ‬ᄺ⫳䆡DŽ kàn-kèwén yhqián, wimen zuìhfo xian xué-shbngcí / 6. Դߎ೑ᮙ㸠ҹࠡ䳔㽕ᤶ ѯ䪅৫˛ nh che-guó lkxíng yhqián xeyào huàn yìxib qián ma?

EXERCISE 8. 1. ҹࠡ yhqián / 2. ⱘᯊ‫ ׭‬de shíhou / 3. ᯊᯊࠏࠏ shíshíkèkè / 4. ҹࠡ yhqián / 5. ⱘᯊ‫ ׭‬de shíhou / 6. ᯊᯊࠏࠏ shíshíkèkè / 7. ⱘᯊ‫ ׭‬de shíhou / 8. ҹࠡ yhqián / 9. ҹࠡ yhqián / 10. ⱘᯊ‫ ׭‬de shíhou

EXERCISE 9. 1. A1: ៥೼੪ଵ䞠ᬒ⠯ཊњDŽwi zài kafbi li fàng-niúnfi le; A2: ៥≵ ᳝ ೼੪ଵ䞠ᬒ⠯ཊDŽ wi méi(you) zài kafbi li fàng-niúnfi / 2. A1: Ҫⱘ䆱ˈ៥਀ពњDŽtade huà wi tcng-ding le; A2: Ҫⱘ䆱ˈ៥≵ ᳝ ਀ពDŽtade huà, wi méi(you) tcng-ding / 3. A1: ៥䇈ᅠњDŽ wi shud-wán le; A2: ៥≵ ᳝ 䇈ᅠDŽwi méi(you) shud-wán / 4. A1: 䖯ᴹҹࠡˈ៥ᭆ䮼њDŽ jìnlai yhqián, wi qiao-mén le; A2: 䖯ᴹҹࠡˈ៥≵ ᳝ ᭆ䮼DŽjìnlai yhqián, wi méi(you) qiaomén

EXERCISE 10. 1. ཌྷϸ໽ҹࠡএⳟњए⫳DŽta lifng-tian yhqián qù kàn-le ycshbng / 2. Ҫ≵ ᳝ ⳟ᯼໽ᰮϞ ⱘᮄ䯏DŽta méi(you) kàn zuótian wfnshang de xcnwén / 3. ϞϾ᯳ᳳ໽໽ϟ䲼DŽ shàng-ge-xcngqc tiantian xià-yj / 4. ᰮ佁ⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬ҪӀୱњ ⫊㑶䜦DŽwfnfàn de shíhou, tamen hb-le yì-píng-hóngjij / 5. ៥Ӏϡⶹ䘧Դএᑈ೼೑໪DŽwimen bù zhcdào nh qùnián zài guówài / 6. 䙷Ͼᄺ⫳‫خ‬ᅠࡳ䇒њ৫˛nèi-ge-xuésheng zuò-wán gdngkè le ma; 䙷Ͼᄺ⫳‫خ‬ᅠࡳ䇒њ≵᳝˛nèi-ge-xuésheng zuò-wán gdngkè le méiyou?

166 Speed Up Your Chinese EXERCISE 11. 1. ཌྷ⠊↡ᰃ᯼໽ᰮϞಲএⱘDŽta fùmj shì zuótian wfnshang huíqù de / 2. ҪӀᰃതߎ⾳䔺 এ䚞໪ⱘDŽtamen shì zuò-chezechb qù jiaowài de / 3. ᰃཌྷཛྷཛྷᡞ䖭ӊџਞ䆝ཌྷⱘDŽ shì ta mama bf zhèi-jiàn-shì gàosù ta de / 4. ៥এЁ೑ᰃᄺЁ᭛ⱘDŽwi qù Zhdngguó shì xué-zhdngwén de / 5. ៥ᰃϞЁᄺⱘᯊ‫׭‬এЁ೑ᄺⱘЁ᭛DŽwi shì shàng-zhdngxué de shíhou qù-Zhdngguó xué de zhdngwén / 6. Ҫᰃ㢅њϸगഫ䪅фⱘᮄ⬉㛥DŽta shì hua-le lifngqian-kuài-qián mfi de xcn diànnfo / 7. 䙷Ͼᄽᄤᰃ೼๼㽓હߎ⫳ⱘDŽnèi-ge­ háizi shì zài Mòxcgb cheshbng de / 8. ྍྍᰃҢᄺ᷵ಲᴹⱘDŽmèimei shì cóng xuéxiào huílai de / 9. ᓳᓳᰃ䎳៥Ӏ 䍋এ⒥䲾ⱘDŽdìdi shì gbn wimen yìqh qù huá-xug de

EXERCISE 12. 1. ཌྷ⠊↡ᰃ᯼໽ᰮϞಲএⱘ৫˛ ta fùmj shì zuótian wfnshang huíqù de ma?; ཌྷ⠊↡ᰃ ϡᰃ᯼໽ᰮϞಲএⱘ˛ta fùmj shì-bú-shì zuótian wfnshang huíqù de? / 2. ҪӀᰃᗢМএ 䚞໪ⱘ˛tamen shì zgnme qù jiaowài de? / 3. ᰃ䇕ᡞ䖭ӊџਞ䆝ཌྷⱘ˛shì shéi bf zhèi-jiàn-shì gàosù ta de? / 4. ԴᰃҔМᯊ‫׭‬এЁ೑ᄺⱘЁ᭛˛ nh shì shénme shíhou qù-Zhdngguó xué de zhdngwén? / 5. Ҫᰃ㢅њ໮ᇥ䪅фⱘᮄ⬉㛥˛ ta shì hua-le dudshfoqián mfi de xcn diànnfo? / 6. 䙷Ͼᄽᄤᰃ೼ા‫ ˛ⱘ⫳ߎܓ‬nèi-ge-háizi shì zài nfr cheshbng de? / 7. ྍྍᰃҢᄺ᷵ಲᴹⱘ৫˛ mèimei shì cóng xuéxiào huílai de ma?; ྍྍᰃϡᰃҢᄺ᷵ಲᴹⱘ˛ mèimei shì-bú-shì cóng xuéxiào huílai de? / 8. ᓳᓳᰃ䎳៥Ӏ 䍋এ‫خ‬ҔМⱘ˛dìdi shì gbn wimen yìqh qù zuò-shénme de?

EXERCISE 13. 1. b / 2. a / 3. a / 4. a / 5. b / 6. a / 7. b / 8. a / 9. a / 10. b / 11. a

EXERCISE 14. 1. ᠡ cái / 2. ህ jiù / 3. ህ jiù; ᠡ cái / 4. ህ jiù / 5. ህ jiù / 6. ᠡ cái / 7. ᠡ cái / 8. ህ jiù

EXERCISE 15. 1. ҪӀϟϾ᯳ᳳᠡᴹDŽtamen xià-ge-xcngqc cái lái / 2. ៥Ӏ᳝њ䪅ᠡ㛑ф⬉㾚DŽwimen yiu-le-qián cái néng mfi-diànshì / 3. ཌྷϞजक ⚍ህৗज佁њDŽta shàngwj shíyc-difn jiù chc-wjfàn le / 4. ԴҬњ䪅ˈ៥Ӏህ䍄DŽnh fù-le-qián, wimen jiù ziu

EXERCISE 16. 1. ㄝࠄ dgngdào / 2. ࠄ dào / 3. ϸ⚍䩳 lifng-difn zhdng / 4. ܿ⚍ ba-difn

EXERCISE 17. 1. ៥Ӏ↣᯳ᳳѠϞ䇒Ϟࠄϟजಯ⚍DŽwimen mgi xcngqc’èr shàng-kè shàng-dào xiàwj sìdifn / 2. ҪㄝԴㄝࠄб⚍ञDŽta dgng-nh dgng-dào jij-difn bàn / 3. ҪӀⳟ⬉㾚ⳟࠄ ञ໰ϸ⚍DŽtamen kàn-diànshì kàn-dào bànyè lifng-difn / 4. 䖭‫ހⱘܓ‬໽ᕜ䭓DŽ ϟ䲾ϟࠄಯ᳜DŽzhèr de ddngtian hgn cháng. xià-xug xià-dào sìyuè

Part IV EXERCISE 1.

ⱘ de is necessary: 2; 3; 5; 8; 11; 12 / ⱘ de is unnecessary: 1; 4; 6; 7; 9; 10

EXERCISE 2. 1. ཌྷᐌ⫼ⱘᄫ‫ ݌‬ta cháng yòng de zìdifn / 2. ྦྷ⥟ⱘᎹ⿟Ꮬ xìng Wáng de gdngchéngshc / 3. ៥Ϟ᯳ᳳⳟⱘк wi shàng-xcngqc kàn de she / 4. ത☿䔺এϞ⧁ⱘҎ zuò-huichb qù shàng-ban de rén / 5. Ҫ᳔䖥фⱘ䔺 ta zuìjìn mfi de chb / 6. Ҫ᳔䖥ф

Answer key to exercises 167 ⱘ䔺ᰃЄ⬄䔺DŽta zuìjìn mfi de chb shì fbngtián chb / 7. ത☿䔺এϞ⧁ⱘ 䙷Ͼ Ҏᕜ催DŽ zuò-huichb qù shàng-ban de (nèi-ge) rén hgn gao / 8. ཌྷⳳ୰⃶៥ӀϞ᯳ᳳⳟⱘ⬉ᕅDŽ ta zhbn xhhuan wimen shàng-xcngqc kàn de diànyhng

EXERCISE 3. 1. a / 2. b / 3. b / 4. a / 5. b / 6. a / 7. a / 8. b

EXERCISE 4. 1. ቅ乊Ϟ᳝ Ͼᇣ᠓ᄤDŽshan dhngshang yiu yí-ge-xifo fángzi / 2. ݀ು䞠ࠄ໘ᰃ㢅㤝DŽ gdngyuán li dàochù shì huacfo / 3. ៥ ⱘ Ꮊ䖍‫ⱘܓ‬ԡᄤぎⴔDŽwi (de) zuibianr de wèizi kòng-zhe / 4. ݀䏃ⱘᮕ䖍ᰃ‫⬄ݰ‬DŽgdnglù de pángbian shì nóngtián / 5. ೒к佚ⱘ ໪䴶‫ⴔذ‬ᕜ໮㞾㸠䔺DŽtúshegufn de wàimiàn tíng-zhe hgn dud zìxíngchb / 6. ᷵ऎህ೼ ␪ⱘ䰘䖥DŽxiàoqe jiù zài hú de fùjìn / 7. ҪӀ೼佁佚ⱘৢ䴶㺙䔺DŽtamen zài fàngufn de hòumiàn zhuang-chb / 8. ᄭᄤത೼⠋⠋੠ཊཊⱘЁ䯈 ‫ ܓ‬DŽsenzi zuò zài yéye hé nfinai de zhdngjian(r)

EXERCISE 5. 1. Ͼ㣍ᵰ yí-ge-pínggui / 2. 䖭 Ͼ㣍ᵰ zhèi-yí-ge-pínggui / 3. 䖭ѯ䔺 zhèi-xib-chb / 4. 䖭Ѩ䕚䔺 zhèi-wj-liàng-chb / 5. бӊ㸷᳡ jij-jiàn-ycfu / 6. ા ᆊଚᑫ˛ ngi-yì-jia­ shangdiàn? / 7. 䙷ᓴഄ೒ nèi-zhang-dìtú / 8. 䙷ѯᷥ nèi-xib-shù / 9. 䙷ܿỉᷥ nèi-ba-kb-shù / 10. 䖭ᇕֵ zhèi-fbng-xìn / 11. 䙷 ӑ᡹ nèi-yí-fèn-bào / 12. ાᴵ䏃˛ ngi-tiáo-lù?

EXERCISE 6. 1. ៥фњ ᓴ໻ഄ೒DŽwi mfi-le yì-zhang dà dìtú / 2. 䙷ϝ䕚䔺䛑ᰃ㪱㡆ⱘDŽnèi-san­ liàng-chb ddu shì lánsè de / 3. 䖭ϾḨᄤⳳ⫰DŽzhèi-ge-júzi zhbn tián / 4. 䙷ѯ␌ᅶᰃ 䶽೑ҎDŽnèi-xib-yóukè shì Hánguórén / 5. Ҫᛇৗ䖭ѯ㨵㧘DŽta xifng chc zhèi-xib-pútao / 6. 䖭ᴵ㸫Ϟ᳝ѨϾᇣ佁佚DŽ zhèi-tiáo-jib shang yiu wj-ge xifo fàngufn / 7. ཌྷ᳝ϸϾᄽᄤˈ Ͼཇ‫ܓ‬੠ Ͼ‫ܓ‬ᄤDŽta yiu lifng-ge-háizi, yí-ge-nk’ér hé yí-ge ér’zi / 8. ҪӀ䅶њಯᓴ এЁ೑ⱘᴎ⼼DŽtamen dìng-le sì-zhang qù Zhdngguó de jcpiào / 9. ៥Ӏ≵ⳟ䙷Ͼ⬉ᕅDŽ wimen méi kàn nèi-ge-diànyhng / 10. ાা⢫ᰃԴⱘ˛ ngi-zhc-giu shì nhde?

EXERCISE 7. Polysyllabic intransitive verbs: 1; 7; 10; 13 / V-Obj. compounds: 2; 4; 6; 8; 11; 15 / V-V compounds: 3; 5; 9; 12; 14

EXERCISE 8. 1a. ୱ㓓㤊 hb lm chá; 1b. ୱ ᵃ⛁㤊 hb yì-bbi rè chá; 1c. ୱ᳟ট䗕ⱘ㤊 hb péngyou sòng de chá / 2a. ത݀Ѹ䔺 zuò gdngjiaochb; 2b. തߎ⾳䔺 zuò chezechb; 2c. തЁज ⱘ☿䔺 zuò zhdngwj de huichb; 2d. തএ㒑㑺ⱘ☿䔺 zuò qù Nijyub de huichb / 3a. ଅ 佪℠ chàng yì-shiu-gb; 3b. ଅ᮹ᴀ℠ chàng Rìbgngb; 3c. ଅད਀ⱘ℠ chàng hfotcng-de gb; 3d. ଅҪ‫ ℠ⱘݭ‬chàng ta-xig de gb; 3e. ଅ៥᳔୰⃶ⱘ℠ chàng wi zuì-xhhuan de gb / 4a. ‫޴خ‬Ͼ㦰 zuò jh-ge-cài; 4b. ‫خ‬Ё೑㦰 zuò Zhdngguócài; 4c. ‫خ‬亢ੇ㦰 zuò fbngwèicài; 4d. ‫خ‬៥Ӏ୰⃶ৗⱘ㦰 zuò wimen-xhhua-chc de cài

EXERCISE 9. 1. ཛྷཛྷ‫خ‬њ Ͼ∈ᵰ㲟㊩DŽmama zuò-le yí-ge-shuhgui dàngao / 2. ៥Ӏ䖭Ͼ᯳ᳳ਀њ ѨϾⓨ䆆DŽwimen zhèi-ge-xcngqc tcng-le wj-ge-yfnjifng / 3. 䙷Ͼᄽᄤℷ೼ᄺ⬏⬏‫ܓ‬DŽ nèi-ge-háizi zhèngzài xué-huàhuàr / 4. ᴢ‫⫳ܜ‬Ҟ໽Ң೒к佚‫׳‬њϸᴀкDŽLh xiansheng jcntian cóng túshegufn jiè-le lifng-bgn-she / 5. ҪӀাф㕢೑ࠊ䗴ⱘଚકDŽtamen zhh

168 Speed Up Your Chinese mfi Mgiguó zhìzào de shangphn / 6. ៥Ӏ⚍њཌྷ᳔୰⃶ৗⱘ㦰DŽwimen difn-le ta zuì xhhuan chc de cài / 7. ៥ྍྍᕜᇥ㒭⠊↡‫ֵݭ‬DŽཌྷᘏᰃ㒭ҪӀᠧ⬉䆱DŽwi mèimei hgnshfo ggi fùmj xig-xìn. ta zingshi ggi tamen df-diànhuà / 8. ཌྷᕜᛇ䎳Ҫ㒧ီDŽ ta hgn xifng gbn ta jié-hen / 9. ଂ䋻ਬ↣໽䎳乒ᅶᠧѸ䘧DŽshòuhuòyuán mgitian gbn gùkè df-jiaodào / 10. Ҫ୰⃶䎳᳟টᓔ⥽ュDŽta xhhuan gbn péngyou kai-wánxiào

EXERCISE 10. 1. ᄺ xué / 2. ᄺӮ xué-huì / 3. ᛇࠄ xifng-dào / 4. ᛇ xifng / 5. ⳟ kàn / 6. ⳟ kàn / 7. ⳟࠄ kàn-dào / 8. ৗᅠ chc-wán / 9. ᄺᅠ xué-wán / 10. ݇Ϟ guan-shang / 11. ⋫ xh / 12. ‫⏙ݭ‬Ἦ xig-qcngchu

EXERCISE 11. 1. ϟ xià / 2. ಲ huí / 3. এ qù / 4. 䖯 jìn; ߎ che / 5. ᴹ lái / 6. 䍋 qh

EXERCISE 12. 1. ⳟϡព kàn-bù-ding / 2. തᕫϟ zuò-de-xià / 3. ৗϡᅠ chc-bù-wán / 4. ਀ᕫ㾕 tcng-de-jiàn / 5. ᛇϡ䍋ᴹ xifng-bù-qhlái / 6. 䆄ϡԣ jì-bú-zhù / 7. ਀ᕫព tcng-de-ding / 8. фϡࠄ mfi-bú-dào / 9. ᨀᕫߎএ ban-de-cheqù / 10. ‫خ‬ᕫᅠ zuò-de-wán

EXERCISE 13. 1. ៥Ӏ≵ⳟ㾕ҪಲᴹDŽwimen méi kàn-jian ta huílai / 2. ԴҞ໽ⳟᕫᅠ䖭ᴀк৫˛ nh jcntian kàn-de-wán zhèi-bgn-she ma?; ԴҞ໽ⳟᕫᅠⳟϡᅠ䖭ᴀк˛ nh jcntian kàn-de-wán kàn-bù-wán zhèi-bgn-she? / 3. 䮼ണњˈ݇ϡϞњDŽmén huài le, guan-bú-shàng le / 4. ҪӀҞ໽фࠄњᮄ剰ⱘ剐DŽtamen jcntian mfi-dào le xcnxian de yú / 5. ᓴ໾໾ⳟϡព 㣅᭛DŽZhang tàitai kàn-bù-ding ycngwén / 6. ܼᆊ䛑਀ࠄњ䖭Ͼ⍜ᙃDŽquánjia ddu tcng-dào le zhèi-ge xiaoxi / 7. 䖭Ͼ乬Ⳃᕜ໡ᴖˈԴ䇈ϡ⏙ἮDŽzhèi-ge-tímù hgn fùzá, nh shud-bù-qcngchu / 8. ⥟ᡸ຿Ꮖ㒣ᨀߎএњDŽWáng hùshi yhjcng ban-cheqù le / 9. ᇍϡ䍋ˈ៥≵਀ពԴ䇈ⱘ䆱DŽduìbuqh, wi méi tcng-ding nh shud de huà / 10. 䖭ᰃഄഔDŽԴᛇ៥Ӏ೼䖭‫ܓ‬ᡒᕫࠄҪ৫˛ zhèi shì dìzhh. nh xifng wimen zài-zhèr zhfo-de-dào ta ma? / 11. Դ䇈ᇍњˈཌྷህᰃ៥ྍྍDŽnh shud-duì le, ta jiù shì wi mèimei / 12. Ҫ⚍њ໾໮ⱘ㦰ˈ៥Ӏ≵ৗᅠDŽta difn-le tài dud de cài, wimen méi chc-wán

EXERCISE 14. 1. 㗕Ꮬ‫ݭ‬ᄫ‫ݭ‬ᕫᕜདⳟDŽlfoshc xig-zì xig-de hgn hfokàn / 2. 㗕‫⫳ܜ‬䍋ᴹᕫᕜᮽDŽ lfo xiansheng qhlai-de hgn zfo / 3. ⠌⠌ୱସ䜦ୱᕫ໮ϡ໮˛ bàba hb-píjij hb-de dud-bù-dud? / 4. Դᠧᄫᠧᕫⳳ᜶ʽ nh df-zì df-de zhbn màn! / 5. ៥␌⋇␌ᕫϡ໾དDŽ wi yóu-ying yóu-de bú tài hfo / 6. ྤྤ䍄䏃䍄ᕫᕜᖿDŽjigjie ziu-lu ziu-de hgn kuài / 7. ໻ॼ‫خ‬㦰‫خ‬ᕫᗢМḋ˛ dàchú zuò-cài zuò-de zgnmeyàng? / 8. Դৗ∈ᵰৗᕫ໾ᇥDŽ nh chc-shuhgui chc-de tài shfo

Part V EXERCISE 1. 1. དৗⱘ⚍ᖗ hfochc de1 difnxin / 2. ᳝䍷ⱘᬙџ yiuqù de1 gùshi / 3. ໻ᆊⱘџ dàjia de1 shì / 4. ៥⠌⠌ⱘᮄ䔺 wi bàba de1 xcn chb / 5. ড়⧚ⱘࠊᑺ hélh de1 zhìdù / 6. ජ㽓 䖍ⱘ݀䏃 chéng xcbian de1 gdnglù / 7. ᳟টⱘ݀ᆧ péngyou de1 gdngyù / 8. ᕜ䖰ⱘഄऎ hgn yufn de1 dìqe / 9. Ҫфⱘᮄ⬉㛥ᕜ䌉DŽta mfi de1 xcn diànnfo hgn guì / 10. ៥㽕এ ⱘ䙷Ͼഄᮍ೼फ㕢⌆DŽwi yào qù de1 nèi-ge dìfang zài Nán Mgizhdu / 11. ៥ᴹҟ㒡 ϟ

Answer key to exercises 169 ៥ᮕ䖍ⱘ䖭ϾҎDŽwi lái jièshào yíxià wi pángbian de1 zhèi-ge-rén / 12. ໻ᆊ䛑୰⃶ⱘ 䙷Ͼ⬉ᕅ៥䖬≵ⳟDŽdàjia ddu xhhuan de1 nèi-ge-diànyhng wi hái méi kàn / 13. ⦄೼健 㞾㸠䔺ⱘҎ䍞ᴹ䍞໮њDŽxiànzài qí-zìxíngchb de1 rén yuèláiyuè dud le

EXERCISE 2. 1. ᕫ de3 / 2. ഄ de2 / 3. ᕫ de3 / 4. ഄ de2; ഄ de2 / 5. ഄ de2 / 6. ᕫ de3; ᕫ de3 / 7. ഄ de2 / 8. ᕫ de3; ᕫ de3

EXERCISE 3. 1. 4.

⚍‫ ܓ‬yìdifnr / 2. ᳝ ⚍‫ ܓ‬yiu yìdifnr / 3. ᳝ ⚍‫ ܓ‬yiu yìdifnr; ⚍‫ ܓ‬yìdifnr / ⚍‫ ܓ‬yìdifnr / 5. ⚍‫ ܓ‬yìdifnr / 6. ᳝ ⚍‫ ܓ‬yiu yìdifnr / 7. ᳝ ⚍‫ ܓ‬yiu yìdifnr

EXERCISE 4. 1. ៥᳝ ⚍‫ˈ␈ܓ‬៥ᛇୱ ⚍‫∈ܓ‬DŽwi yiu yìdifnr kg, wi xifng hb yìdifnr shuh / 2. ‫ݡ‬ৗ ⚍‫ˈܓ‬ᗢМḋ˛ zài chc yìdifnr, zgnmeyàng? / 3. ཌྷ≵ᴹDŽҪ᳝ ⚍‫ܓ‬༅ᳯDŽ ta méi lái. ta yiu yìdifnr shcwàng

EXERCISE 5. 1. ࣫Ҁ໻ᄺ䎳જԯ໻ᄺ Bgijcng dàxué gbn Hafó dàxué / 2. ྍྍӮ⒥䲾ˈгӮ␌⋇DŽ mèimei huì huá-xug, yg huì yóuying / 3. ϞϾ᯳ᳳϝ䎳䖭Ͼ᯳ᳳϝ shàng-ge xcngqcsan gbn zhèi-ge xcngqcsan / 4. ⠌⠌催݈ᵕњˈཛྷཛྷг催݈ᵕњDŽbàba gaoxìng jíle, mama yg gaoxìng jíle / 5. 㑶㡆ⱘ໻㸷੠咥㡆ⱘⲂ䵈 hóngsè de dàyc hé hbisè de píxub / 6. Ҫфⱘ佂᭭੠ཌྷфⱘ∈ᵰ ta mfi de yhnliào hé ta mfi de shuhgui / 7. ྤྤ⚍њ‫ބ‬㤊ˈ ៥г⚍њ‫ބ‬㤊DŽjigjie difn-le bcngchá, wi yg difn-le bcngchá / 8. ཌྷᛇᄺ᭛ᄺˈгᛇᄺग़৆DŽ ta xifng xué-wénxué, yg xifng xué-lìshh

EXERCISE 6. 1. ໻ộᄤᕜ㟦᳡ˈᇣộᄤгᕜ㟦᳡DŽdà yhzi hgn shefu, xifo yhzi yg hgn shefu / 2. ໻ộᄤ ੠ᇣộᄤ䛑ᕜ㟦᳡DŽdà yhzi hé xifo yhzi ddu hgn shefu / 3. ៥Ӏ⚍њৃФˈг⚍њସ䜦DŽ wimen difn-le kglè, yg difn-le píjij

EXERCISE 7. 1. ᳝ⱘ yiude / 2.

ѯ yìxib / 3. ᳝ⱘ yiude / 4.

ѯ yìxib / 5.

ѯ yìxib

EXERCISE 8. 1. 䙷ѯҎˈ᳝ⱘᰃᡸ຿ˈ᳝ⱘᰃए⫳DŽnèi-xib-rén, yiude shì hùshi, yiude shì ycshbng / 2. ᆓ㟡䞠᳝ⱘ᠓䯈ᕜᇣDŽsùshè lh yiude fángjian hgn xifo / 3. ཌྷ೼䮼Ϟ䌈њ ѯᯢֵ⠛DŽ ta zài mén-shang tib-le yìxib míngxìnpiàn

EXERCISE 9.

Phrases that do not need a measure word: 1; 4; 6; 7; 13; 14; 16; 17; 18; 19; 20

Phrases that need a measure word: 2) ↣Ͼ∝ᄫ mgi-ge-hànzì; 3) ↣ᴀк mgi-bgn-she;

5) ↣ᓴ⬏‫ ܓ‬mgi-zhang-huàr; 8) ↣ᴀᄫ‫ ݌‬mgi-bgn-zìdifn; 9) ↣ᴵ剐 mgi-tiáo-yú; 10) ↣ᓴ㒌 mgi-zhang-zhh; 11) ↣䕚㞾㸠䔺 mgi-liàng-zìxíngchb; 12) ↣ӊ㹀㸿 mgi-jiàn-chènshan; 15) ↣ӊџ mgi-jiàn-shì; 21) ↣ᡞộᄤ mgi-bf-yhzi; 22) ↣া⣿ mgi-zhc-mao; 23) ↣Ͼ㣍ᵰ mgi-ge-pínggui; 24) ↣Ͼ䯂乬 mgi-ge-wèntí

EXERCISE 10. 1. ཌྷ↣᯳ᳳ␌ϝ⃵⋇DŽta mgi xcngqc yóu-sancì-ying / 2. 䖭Ͼ᯳ᳳ↣໽䛑ϟњ ⚍‫ܓ‬䲾DŽ zhèi-ge-xcngqc mgitian ddu xià-le yìdifnr xug / 3. ↣⫊䜦䛑ᕜ䌉DŽmgi-píng-jij ddu hgn guì

170 Speed Up Your Chinese EXERCISE 11. 1. 䛑 ddu / 2. ᠔᳝ⱘ suiyiude; 䛑 ddu / 3. ᠔᳝ⱘ suiyiude; 䛑 ddu / 4. ᠔᳝ⱘ suiyiude; 䛑 ddu

EXERCISE 12. 1. ᠔᳝ⱘ䜦䛑ᕜ䌉DŽsuiyiude jij ddu hgn guì / 2. ҪӀ↣ϾҎ䛑䎳Ҫᦵњ᠟DŽtamen

mgi-ge-rén ddu gbn ta wi-le shiu / 3. ԴӀ䛑೼໻ᄺᎹ԰৫˛ nhmen ddu zài dàxué

gdngzuò ma?

EXERCISE 13. 1. ҢѠ᳜ࠄѨ᳜ cóng èryuè dào wjyuè / 2. Ң⫳ࠄ⅏ cóng shbng dào sh / 3. Ң‫ݰ‬ᴥࠄ ජᏖ cóng nóngcen dào chéngshì / 4. Ң䖭‫ܓ‬ᕔ࣫ᓔ cóng zhèr wàng bgi kai / 5. ‫ހ‬ᄷ ᯊ䯈Ң᯳ᳳ໽ᓔྟDŽddngjì shíjian cóng xcngqctian kaishh / 6. Ң㗕ࠄᇥˈҎҎ䛑୰⃶‫ޠ▔ބ‬DŽ cóng lfo dào shào, rénrén ddu xhhuan bcngjclíng / 7. 䖭Ͼ⬉ᕅҢ༈ࠄሒ䛑ᕜ᳝ᛣᗱDŽ zhèi-ge-diànyhng cóng tóu dào wgi ddu hgn yiuyìsi / 8. ៥ӀҢᆓ㟡䍄ࠄ令ख़DŽwimen cóng sùshè ziu-dào cantcng / 9. ҪӀᓔӮҢಯ⚍ᓔࠄ݁⚍DŽtamen kai-huì cóng sìdifn kai-dào liùdifn / 10. ཌྷᬒ‫؛‬ᬒࠄ᯳ᳳ DŽta fàng-jià fàng-dào xcngqcyc

EXERCISE 14. 1. ҪӀᐌএ᯳Ꮘ‫ܟ‬ୱ੪ଵDŽtamen cháng qù xcngbakè hb-kafbi / 2. ᓳᓳᕜ㘾ᯢˈैϡ⫼ࡳDŽ dìdi hgn cdngming, què bú yònggdng / 3. Դ᮶✊ϡ୰⃶䖭ӊ↯㸷ˈህ߿фDŽnh jìrán bù xhhuan zhèi-jiàn-máoyc, jiù bié mfi / 4. ᴢᯢ୰⃶䖤ࡼˈᇸ݊୰⃶ᠧ㇂⧗DŽLh Míng xhhuan yùndòng, yóuqí xhhuan df-lánqiú / 5. Դা㽕໡дњˈህ ᅮ㗗ᕫདDŽnh zhhyào fùxí le, jiù yídìng kfo-de-hfo / 6. ៥ϟ䇒ҹৢ‫ܜ‬ৗज佁ˈ‫ݡ‬ಲᆓ㟡DŽwi xià-kè yhhòu xiAn chc-wjfàn, zài huí-sùshè / 7. ҪӀ䛑ⶹ䘧њˈ៥ै≵਀䇈DŽtamen dDu zhcdào le, wi què méi tcngshud / 8. བᵰᯢ໽ϡϟ䲼ˈ៥Ӏህএ䞢令DŽrúgui míngtian bú xià-yj, wimen jiù qù ygcan / 9. ៥ Ⳉᛇএⳟ⬏ሩˈৃᰃᘏᰃ≵᳝ᯊ䯈DŽwi yìzhí xifng qù kàn-huàzhfn, kgshi zIngshi méiyiu shíjian / 10. ᑈ㑻ⱘᄺ⫳䛑䅸䆚䖭ϾᄫDŽyc-niánjí de xuésheng dDu rènshi zhèi-ge-zì / 11. བᵰԴ健㞾㸠䔺ˈԴህᕫ᠈ᅝܼᐑDŽrúgui nh qí-zìxíngchb, nh jiù dgi dài-anquánmào / 12. Ҫ᯼໽≵ᴹˈᔧ✊ϡⶹ䘧DŽta zuótian méi lái, dAngrán bù zhcdào

EXERCISE 15. 1. ᡒ᠓ᄤ zhfo-fángzi; ᡒࠄ zhfo-dào / 2. ᄺк⊩ xué-sheff; ᄺϡӮ xué-bú-huì / 3. 㗗䆩 kfo-shì; 㗗ད kfo-hfo / 4. ⴵ㾝 shuì-jiào; ⴵϡⴔ shuì-bù-zháo / 5. ਀ᔩ䷇ tcng-lùycn; ਀ϡព tcng-bù-ding / 6. ⚍㦰 difn-cài; ৗᅠ chc-wán

EXERCISE 16. 1. a / 2. b / 3. c / 4. b / 5. c / 6. a

EXERCISE 17. 1. Ӯ huì; 㛑 néng / 2. ৃҹ kgyh / 3. 㛑 néng or ৃҹ kgyh / 4. Ӯ huì / 5. 㛑 néng / 6. Ӯ huì / 7. ৃҹ kgyh / 8. 㛑 néng

EXERCISE 18. 1. 䅸䆚 rènshi; ⶹ䘧 zhcdào / 2. ⶹ䘧 zhcdào / 3. ⶹ䘧 zhcdào / 4. 䅸䆚 rènshi / 5. 䅸䆚 rènshi / 6. ⶹ䘧 zhcdào / 7. 䅸䆚 rènshi

Appendix

Examples in traditional characters §1 1a 1b 1c 1d 1e 1f 1g

䳏ᕅᕜ᳝ᛣᗱDŽdiànyhng hgn yiuyìsi ᔉ‫⫳ܜ‬䴲ᐌᖭDŽZhang xiansheng fbicháng máng ᔉ‫⫳ܜ‬䍞՚䍞ᖭDŽZhang xiansheng yuèláiyuè máng ᔉ‫ⳳ ⫳ܜ‬ᰃ ᖭὉњDŽZhang xiansheng (zhbnshì) máng jí le ᔉ‫⫳ܜ‬ϡᖭDŽZhang xiansheng bù máng ᔉ‫⫳ܜ‬ϡᗢ咐ᖭDŽZhang xiansheng bù zgnme máng ᔉ‫⫳ܜ‬ᖭDŽZhang xiansheng máng

§2 2a 2b 2c 2d 2e 2f 2g 2h

៥⠊㽾೼ᆊˈҪ࠯ᕲᖋ೟ಲ՚DŽwi fùqin zài jia, ta gang cóng Déguó huílai ݀݅೪᳌仼೼㄀ϔ䡔㸠ⱘᇡ䴶DŽgdnggòng túshegufn zài dìyc yínháng de duìmiàn * ϝ‫ן‬ᖿ令ᑫ೼㄀ϔ䡔㸠ⱘ䰘䖥DŽ*san-ge kuàicandiàn zài dìyc yínháng de fùjìn ㄀ϔ䡔㸠ⱘ䰘䖥᳝ϝ‫ן‬ᖿ令ᑫDŽdìyc yínháng de fùjìn yiu san-ge kuàicandiàn ㄀ϔ䡔㸠ⱘᇡ䴶᳝ϔ‫݅݀ן‬೪᳌仼DŽdìyc yínháng de duìmiàn yiu yí-ge gdnggòng túshegufn ㄀ϔ䡔㸠ⱘᇡ䴶᳝* ݀݅೪᳌仼DŽdìyc yínháng de duìmiàn yiu *gdnggòng túshegufn ݀݅೪᳌仼ϡ೼㄀ϔ䡔㸠ⱘᇡ䴶DŽgdnggòng túshegufn bú zài dìyc yínháng de duìmiàn 䗭‫≦ܦ‬᳝ᕜ໮‍DŽzhèr méiyiu hgndud shù

§3 3b 3c 3d

⥟‫⫳ܜ‬೼໻ᅌᬭ᳌˗⥟໾໾೼䡔㸠Ꮉ԰DŽWáng xiansheng zài dàxué jiao-she; Wáng tàitai zài yínháng gdngzuò ཌྷᐌᐌ೼䍙㋮Ꮦจ䊋ᵅ㽓DŽta chángcháng zài chaojí shìchfng mfi ddngxi Ҫ‫↣ץ‬໽ϟज೼݀೦ϟẟDŽtamen mgitian xiàwj zài gdngyuán xià-qí

172 Speed Up Your Chinese 3e 3f 3g

ཌྷϡ ᐌ ೼䍙㋮Ꮦจ䊋ᵅ㽓DŽta bù(cháng) zài chaojí shìchfng mfi ddngxi ཌྷ೼䍙㋮Ꮦจ≦䊋ᵅ㽓DŽta zài chaojí shìchfng méi mfi ddngxi ? ཌྷᐌᐌ೼䍙㋮Ꮦจϡ䊋ᵅ㽓DŽ?ta chángcháng zài chaojí shìchfng bù mfi ddngxi

§4 4a 4b

Ҫ‫ ץ‬ᐌ ೼ᖿ令ᑫৗ仃DŽtamen (cháng) zài kuàicandiàn chc-fàn ᴢ໾໾ ᳝ⱘᰖ‫ ׭‬এ䖆䊓Ꮦจ䊋ᵅ㽓DŽLh tàitai (yiude shíhou) qù nóngmào

4c 4d 4e

shìchfng mfi-ddngxi Ҫ⬶ὁҹᕠএЁ೟Ꮉ԰DŽta bìyè yhhòu qù Zhdngguó gdngzuò Ҫ⬶ὁҹᕠϡএЁ೟Ꮉ԰DŽta bìyè yhhòu bú qù Zhdngguó gdngzuò Ҫ⬶ὁҹᕠ≦এЁ೟Ꮉ԰DŽta bìyè yhhòu méi qù Zhdngguó gdngzuò

§5 5b 5c 5d 5e 5f 5g 5h 5i 5j

⥟ᆊ↣᯳ᳳѨৗ仗ᄤDŽWáng jia mgi xcngqcwj chc-jifozi ⥟ᆊᐌᐌৗ仗ᄤDŽWáng jia chángcháng chc-jifozi ⥟‫⫳ܜ‬೼໪䴶ৗज仃DŽWáng xiansheng zài wàimian chc-wjfàn ⥟‫⫳ܜ‬ৗज仃ৗϔ‫ן‬ᇣᰖDŽWáng xiansheng chc-wjfàn chc yí-ge xifoshí ⥟‫⫳ܜ‬ᐌᐌ೼໪䴶ৗज仃DŽWáng xiansheng chángcháng zài wàimian chc-wjfàn ⥟‫↣⫳ܜ‬໽ৗज仃ৗϔ‫ן‬ᇣᰖDŽWáng xiansheng mgitian chc-wjfàn chc yí-ge xifoshí ⥟໾໾᯳ᳳϝϟज೼䍙㋮Ꮦจ䊋㦰DŽWáng tàitai xcngqcsan xiàwj zài chaojí shìchfng mfi-cài ⥟‫⥟⫳ܜ‬໾໾㐑ᰃᰮ仃ҹᕠᬷञ‫ן‬䧬丁ℹDŽWáng xiansheng Wáng tàitai zingshì wfnfàn yhhòu sàn bàn-ge zhdngtóu bù ⥟໾໾↣᯳ᳳѠ೼໻ᅌϞϝ‫ן‬ᇣᰖ ⱘ 㐾⬿䂆DŽWáng tàitai mgi xcngqc’èr zài dàxué shàng san-ge xifoshí (de) huìhuà kè

§6 6a 6b 6c 6d 6e 6f 6g 6h 6i

੪ଵ↨㤊䊈DŽkafbi bh chá guì 䗭ṱ㸫Ϟⱘ᠓ᄤ↨䜄㸫ⱘ㗕DŽzhèi-tiáo-jib shang de fángzi bh línjib de lfo 䁾Ё᭛↨ᆿ⓶ᄫᆍᯧDŽshud-zhdngwén bh xig-hànzì róngyi 䁾Ё᭛ϡ↨ᆿ⓶ᄫᆍᯧDŽshud-zhdngwén bù bh xig-hànzì róngyi ᠟″↨ᑻ″ᇣϔ咲‫ܦ‬DŽshiujc bh zuòjc xifo yìdifnr ཌྷⱘ≑䒞↨៥ⱘ䊈ᕫ໮DŽtade qìchb bh wide guì-de dud ੪ଵ↨㤊䊈ϔ↯䣶DŽkafbi bh chá guì yì-máo-qián ᔉ㗕᏿↨ᵫ㗕᏿໮ᬭϔ䭔䂆DŽZhang lfoshc bh Lín lfoshc dud jiao yì-mén-kè ៥ᅸট↨៥ᰮⴵܽ‫ן‬䧬丁DŽwi shìyiu bh wi wfn shuì lifng-ge-zhdngtóu

§7 7b 7c

䗭‫ן‬᠓䭧䎳䙷‫ן‬᠓䭧ϔῷDŽzhèi-ge fángjian gbn nèi-ge fángjian yíyàng 㯟ᵰ䎳‬ᄤϔῷ஢˛ pínggui gbn júzi yíyàng ma

Appendix: Examples in traditional characters 173 7e 7g 7h 7i 7j 7k

៥ྍྍ䎳៥ϔῷ催DŽwi mèimei gbn wi yíyàng gao 䂆ᴀ᳝ᄫ‫݌‬䙷咐䊈DŽkèbgn yiu zìdifn nème guì ៥ྍྍϡ䎳៥ϔῷ催DŽwi mèimei bù gbn wi yíyàng gao ៥ྍྍ䎳៥ϡϔῷ催DŽwi mèimei gbn wi bù yíyàng gao ‫ܦ‬ᄤ᳝⠊㽾䙷咐催ˈৃᰃ≦᳝⠊㽾 䙷咐 㚪DŽérzi yiu fùqin nème gao, kgshi méiyiu fùqin (nème) pàng 䁾Ё᭛≦᳝ᆿ⓶ᄫ 䗭咐 䲷DŽshud-zhdngwén méiyiu xig-hànzì (zhème) nán

§8 8d 8e 8f 8g 8h 8i 8j 8k 8l 8m

ཌྷ䁾Ё᭛䁾ᕫ↨៥དDŽta shud zhdngwén shud-de bh wi hfo ཌྷ↨៥䁾Ё᭛䁾ᕫདDŽta bh wi shud zhdngwén shud-de hfo ཌྷ䁾Ё᭛↨៥䁾ᕫདDŽta shud zhdngwén bh wi shud-de hfo ཌྷ䁾Ё᭛䁾ᕫ↨៥དϔ咲‫ ܦ‬/ᕫ໮DŽta shud zhdngwén shud-de bh wi hfo yìdifnr/-de dud ᅌ⫳ᆿᄫᆿᕫ䎳㗕᏿ϔῷᖿDŽxuésheng xig-zì xig-de gbn lfoshc yíyàng kuài ᅌ⫳䎳㗕᏿ᆿᄫᆿᕫϔῷᖿDŽxuésheng gbn lfoshc xig-zì xig-de yíyàng kuài ᅌ⫳ᆿᄫ䎳㗕᏿ᆿᕫϔῷᖿDŽxuésheng xig-zì gbn lfoshc xig-de yíyàng kuài ៥‫ⳟץ‬᳌ⳟᕫ≦᳝Ҫ໮DŽwimen kàn-she kàn-de méiyiu ta dud ៥‫≦ץ‬᳝Ҫⳟ᳌ⳟᕫ໮DŽwimen méiyiu ta kàn-she kàn-de dud ៥‫ⳟץ‬᳌≦᳝Ҫⳟᕫ໮DŽwimen kàn-she méiyiu ta kàn-de dud

§9 9a 9b 9c

Ҫᠧ⸈њҪⱘ㤊ᵃDŽta df-pò-le tade chábbi ҪᡞҪⱘ㤊ᵃᠧ⸈њDŽta bf tade chábbi df-pò-le ՚ lái; এ qù; 䲶䭟 líkai; ୰ℵ xhhuan; ᗩ pà; 㾎ᕫ juéde; ‫ ڣ‬xiàng;

9d 9e 9f

ⶹ䘧 zhcdào; 䁡䄬 rènshi; 㿬ᕫ jìde; ᰃ shì; ೼ zài; ᳝ yiu Ҫ‫ץ‬ᡞ᳌ḠᨀߎএњDŽtamen bf shezhud ban-chequ le 䂟ԴᡞֵѸ㌺ᴢ‫⫳ܜ‬DŽqhng nh bf xìn jiao-ggi Lh xiansheng Ьᅶᡞㆅᄤᬒ೼㸠ᴢᶊϞDŽchéngkè bf xiangzi fàng-zài xínglijià shang

§10 10b 10c 10d 10e 10f 10g 10h 10i 10j 10k

៥ϡᡞџᚙ䕺ᅠˈϡ㛑ಲᆊDŽwi bù bf shìqing bàn-wán, bù néng huí-jia Դឝ䁆ᡞҪ‫ץ‬䗕ࠄ″จDŽnh ycnggai bf tamen sòng-dào jcchfng ៥‫ܜ‬ᡞџᚙ䕺ᅠˈ‫ݡ‬ಲᆊDŽwi xian bf shìqing bàn-wán, zài huí-jia ཌྷҞ໽Ϟजᡞᭌ᪮ᭈ⧚དњDŽta jcntian shàngwj bf shùjù zhgnglh-hfo le 㗕᏿≦ᡞ䗭ϔゴ㾷䞟⏙ἮDŽlfoshc méi bf zhèi-yì-zhang jigshì-qcngchu Դৃҹᡞᵅ㽓ᨀ䘆՚DŽnh kgyh bf ddngxi ban-jìnlai ᅶҎᛇᡞҪ‫ⱘץ‬䒞‫ذ‬೼䏃䙞‫ܦ‬DŽkèren xifng bf tamen-de chb tíng zài lùbianr ᇣ⥟ᡞ᳟টⱘ㞾㸠䒞俢ࠄᅌ᷵এњDŽXifo Wáng bf péngyou-de zìxíngchb qí dào xuéxiào qù le ៥ᡞࡳ䂆Ѹ㌺㗕᏿њDŽwi bf gdngkè jiao ggi lfoshc le ៥ᡞҪⱘৡᄫᖬњDŽwi bf tade míngzi wàng le

174 Speed Up Your Chinese

§11 11b 㸷᳡㹿 䲼 ⎟▩њDŽycfu bèi (yj) lín-shc le 䣶䅧䊞ً䍄њDŽqián ràng zéi tdu-ziu le 11c 11d 11e 11f 11g 11h 11i

㗕㫵ি㗕ယ㕉њϔ䷧DŽLfo Cài jiào lfopo mà-le yí-dùn ԡᄤ≦㹿Ԩএˈ៥ⳳ催㟜DŽwèizi méi bèi zhàn-qù, wi zhbn gaoxìng 㸷᳡侀Ϟ䅧䲼⎟▩њDŽycfu mfshàng ràng yj lín-shc le ‫ބ‬ㆅ㺵ⱘ亳⠽䛑িҪৗ‫ܝ‬њDŽbcngxiang-lh de shíwù ddu jiào ta chc-guang le 䒞ᄤিҪ⋫ᕫђђ⎼⎼DŽchbzi jiào ta xh de ganganjìngjìng 䍄ϳњⱘᄽᄤ䅧䄺ᆳᡒಲ՚њDŽziu-die-le de háizi ràng jhngchá zhfo-huílai le

§12 12a 12b 12c 12d 12e 12f

བᵰ/㽕ᰃҪ᳝ଣ丠ˈህ՚ଣ៥DŽrúgui/yàoshì ta yiu wèntí, jiù lái wèn wi བᵰ/㽕ᰃҪϡএˈ䂄এ˛ rúgui/yàoshì ta bú qù, shéi qù? Ҫ᳝ଣ丠ˈህ՚ଣ៥DŽta yiu wèntí, jiù lái wèn wi བᵰ/㽕ᰃԴ᳝ଣ丠ˈϔᅮ՚ଣ៥DŽrúgui/yàoshì nh yiu wèntí, yídìng lái wèn wi བᵰ/㽕ᰃԴ᳝ଣ丠ˈг՚ଣ៥DŽrúgui/yàoshì nh yiu wèntí, yg lái wèn wi བᵰ/㽕ᰃ៥᳝䣶ˈህ䊋䙷ṱ㠍DŽrúgui/yàoshì wi yiu qián, jiù mfi nèi-tiáo-chuán

§13 13a ៥‫ࡳⱘץ‬䂆ϡԚ໮ˈ㗠Ϩ䲷DŽwimen-de gdngkè búdàn dud, érqig nán 13b ᔉ㗕᏿ϡԚⳟ᳌ⳟᕫ໮ˈϺϨⳟᕫᕜᖿDŽZhang lfoshc búdàn kàn-she kàn-de dud, bìngqig kàn-de hgn kuài 13c ϡԚ៥এˈ㗠Ϩ៥‫ܼץ‬ᆊҎ䛑এDŽbúdàn wi qù, érqig wimen quán jiarén ddu qù 13d ϡԚ݀೦㺵ˈϺϨ㸫䘧ܽᮕ䛑。㨫㢅DŽbúdàn gdngyuán-lh, bìngqig jibdào lifngpáng ddu zhòng-zhe hua

§14 14a 䗭ᔉḠᄤ䲪✊ᇣˈৃᰃᕜ䊈DŽzhèi-zhang-zhudzi sucrán xifo, kgshì hgn guì 14b 㗕⥟䲪✊ᢑ✭ˈৃᰃϡୱ䜦DŽLfo Wáng sucrán chdu-yan, kgshì bù hb-jij 14c 䲪✊ᴢ໾໾୰ℵⳟ䳏㽪ˈৃᰃᴢ‫⫳ܜ‬ϡ୰ℵⳟDŽsucrán Lh tàitai xhhuan kàn diànshì, kgshì Lh xiansheng bù xhhuan kàn 14d 䗭ᔉḠᄤᇣˈৃᰃᕜ䊈DŽzhèi-zhang-zhudzi xifo, kgshì hgn guì 14e 㗕⥟䲪✊ᢑ✭ˈ?ϡୱ䜦DŽLfo Wáng sucrán chdu-yan, ?bù hb-jij 14f 䲪✊೪᳌仼᳝ϡᇥ᳌ˈԚᰃᄫ‫݌‬ϡ໮DŽsucrán túshegufn yiu bùshfo she, dànshì zìdifn bù dud 14g 䲪✊೪᳌仼᳝ϡᇥ᳌ˈᄫ‫݌‬ॏϡ໮DŽsucrán túshegufn yiu bùshfo she, zìdifn què bù dud

Appendix: Examples in traditional characters 175

§15 15b 15c 15e 15f

៥‫ץ‬ϔ䙞 ‫ ܦ‬ଅ℠ˈϔ䙞 ‫ ܦ‬䏇㟲DŽwimen yìbian(r) chàng-gb, yìbian(r) tiào-wj Ҫϔ䙞 ‫ ܦ‬ৗ仃ˈϔ䙞 ‫ ܦ‬ୱସ䜦ˈϔ䙞 ‫ⳟ ܦ‬ᮄ㘲DŽta yìbian(r) chc-fàn, yìbian(r) hb-píjij, yìbian(r) kàn-xcnwén ៥㌺Ҫᠧ䳏䁅ⱘᰖ‫ˈ׭‬Ҫℷ೼ⴵ㾎DŽwi ggi ta df-diànhuà de shíhou, ta zhèngzài shuì-jiào Ҫࠄᬭᅸⱘᰖ‫ˈ׭‬㗕᏿ℷ೼ಲㄨଣ丠DŽta dào-jiàoshì de shíhou, lfoshc zhèngzài huídá-wèntí

§16 16a 16b 16c 16d 16e 16f

៥‫⋫ܜ‬᠟ˈ‫ݡ‬ৗ仃DŽwi xian xh-shiu, zài chc-fàn ៥‫ܜץ‬ᅌ⫳䀲ˈ‫ݡ‬䅔䂆᭛DŽwimen xian xué-shbngcí, zài dú-kèwén ཌྷ‫ܜ‬ৗ仃ˈ✊ᕠⳟᮄ㘲DŽta xian chc-fàn, ránhòu kàn-xcnwén ৗЁ令ⱘᰖ‫ܜˈ׭‬ৗ⎐㦰ˈ‫ݡ‬ৗ➅㦰ˈ✊ᕠୱ⑃DŽchc-zhdngcan de shíhou, xian chc-liángcài, zài chc-rècài, ránhòu hb-tang ៥‫ܜץ‬ৗ⎐㦰ˈ‫ݡ‬ৗ➅㦰ˈ✊ᕠୱ⑃ˈ᳔ᕠৗ⫰咲DŽwimen xian chc-liángcài, zài chc-rècài, ránhòu hb-tang, zuìhòu chc-tiándifn ‫ܜ‬ৗ⎐㦰ˈ‫ݡ‬ৗ➅㦰ˈ៥‫✊ץ‬ᕠୱ⑃ˈ៥‫ץ‬᳔ᕠৗ⫰咲DŽxian chc-liángcài, zài chc-rècài, wimen ránhòu hb-tang, wimen zuìhòu chc-tiándifn

§17 Ҫϔᕲ೟໪ಲ՚ህএⳟ⥟‫⫳ܜ‬њDŽta yì cóng guówài huí-lai jiù qù kàn Wáng xiansheng le 17b 䳏䁅ϔ䷓ˈҪህ᥹њDŽdiànhuà yì xifng, ta jiù jib le 17c 䲼ϔ‫ˈذ‬໾䱑ህߎ՚њDŽyj yì tíng, tàiyang jiù che-lai le 17d Դ䭟ࠄϟϔ‫ן‬䏃ষˈᕔেϔᢤህࠄњDŽnh kai-dào xià yí-ge-lùkiu, wàng yòu yì gufi jiù dào le 17e Դϔᠧ㙑ህⶹ䘧њDŽnh yì dfting jiù zhcdao le 17f ཌྷϔ᳝䣶ህ㌺᳟ট䊋⾂⠽DŽta yì yiu-qián jiù ggi péngyou mfi-lhwù 17g ϗ咲ϔࠄˈ䳏ᕅህ䭟ྟњDŽqcdifn yí dào, diànyhng jiù kaishh le 17h ៥ϔᭆˈԴህᡞ䭔䭟䭟DŽwi yì qiao, nh jiù bf mén kai-kai

17a

§18 18a

18b 18c

䗭ܽ‫ן‬ᅌ⫳ᯢᑈএЁ೟DŽzhèi lifng-ge-xuésheng míngnián qù Zhdngguó �䗭ܽ‫ן‬ᅌ⫳ᯢᑈএЁ೟஢˛ zhèi lifng-ge-xuésheng míngnián qù Zhdngguó ma ҪҞ໽‫خ‬ᕫᅠࡳ䂆DŽta jcntian zuò-de-wán gdngkè �ҪҞ໽‫خ‬ᕫᅠࡳ䂆஢˛ ta jcntian zuò-de-wán gdngkè ma ᮄᓎⱘ″จᕜ໻DŽxcnjiàn de jcchfng hgn dà �ᮄᓎⱘ″จᕜ໻஢˛ xcnjiàn de jcchfng hgn dà ma?

176 Speed Up Your Chinese 18d 18d′ 18e 18e′ 18f 18f′ 18g 18h

18i

䰘䖥᳝≦᳝㦰Ꮦจ˛ fùjìn yiu-méi-yiu càishìchfng? 䰘䖥᳝㦰Ꮦจ≦᳝˛ fùjìn yiu càishìchfng méi-yiu? Դ‫ץ‬ᰮϞⳟϡⳟ䳏㽪˛ nhmen wfnshang kàn-bú-kàn diànshì? Դ‫ץ‬ᰮϞⳟ䳏㽪ϡⳟ˛ nhmen wfnshang kàn diànshì bú-kàn? Դᡒᕫࠄᡒϡࠄ䙷ᴀ᳌˛ nh zhfo-de-dào zhfo-bú-dào nèi-bgn-she? Դᡒᕫࠄ䙷ᴀ᳌ᡒϡࠄ˛ nh zhfo-de-dào nèi-bgn-she zhfo-bú-dào? 䗭‫ן‬ㆅᄤ䞡ϡ䞡˛ zhèi-ge-xiangzi zhòng-bú-zhòng? Q: ҪҞ໽‫خ‬ᕫᅠࡳ䂆஢˛ ta jcntian zuò-de-wán gdngkè ma? A: ‫خ‬ᕫᅠDŽzuò-de-wán / Ҫ‫خ‬ᕫᅠDŽta zuò-de-wán / ҪҞ໽‫خ‬ᕫᅠDŽ ta jcntian zuò-de-wán / ҪҞ໽‫خ‬ᕫᅠࡳ䂆DŽta jcntian zuò-de-wán gdngkè Q: 䙷‫ן‬䳏ᕅ᳝ᛣᗱ஢˛ nèi-ge diànyhng yiuyìsi ma? A: ᳝ᛣᗱDŽyiuyìsi / ᕜ᳝ᛣᗱDŽhgn yiuyìsi / ᳝ᛣᗱὉњDŽyiuyìsi jí le / ϡ໾᳝ ᛣᗱDŽbú tài yiuyìsi

§19 19a

19b 19c 19d 19e 19f 19g 19h 19i 19j 19j′

Ҕ咐 shénme; Ҕ咐ഄᮍ / ા‫ ܦ‬shénme dìfang/nfr; Ҕ咐ᰖ‫ ׭‬shénme shíhou; ા ngi(nf); ໮ᇥ/ᑒ dudshfo/jh; ໮ᇥ䣶 dudshfoqián; 䂄 shéi(shuí); 䂄ⱘ shéide(shuíde); ໮ dud + Adj.; ⚎Ҕ咐 wèishénme; ᗢ咐 zgnme Q: 㤝Ϟ᳝Ҕ咐˛ cfo-shàng yiu shénme? / A: 㤝Ϟ᳝䴆∈DŽcfo-shàng yiu lùshuh Q: Դএા‫ܦ‬䊋ᵅ㽓˛ nh qù nfr mfi-ddngxi? / A: ៥এ䖆䊓Ꮦจ䊋ᵅ㽓DŽwi qù nóngmào shìchfng mfi-ddngxi Q: ԴҔ咐ᰖ‫׭‬এ˛ nh shénme shíhou qù? / A: ៥ЁजএDŽwi zhdngwj qù Q: ાᵃ㤊ᰃԴⱘ˛ ngi-bbi-chá shì nhde? / A: Ꮊ䙞䗭ᵃᰃ៥ⱘDŽzui-bian zhèi-bbi shì wide Q: 䗭ᴀᄫ‫݌‬໮ᇥ䣶˛ zhèi-bgn-zìdifn dudshfoqián? / A: 䗭ᴀᄫ‫݌‬ϝकพDŽzhèi-bgn-zìdifn sanshí-kuài Q: 䂄এ˛ shéi qù? / A: ៥এDŽwi qù Q: Ҫᰃ䂄ⱘ᳟ট˛ ta shì shéide péngyou? / A: Ҫᰃ㗕ᔉⱘ᳟টDŽta shì Lfo Zhang de péngyou Q: ᅌ᷵䲶Ҫᆊ໮䘴˛ xuéxiào lí ta-jia dud yufn? / A: ᅌ᷵䲶Ҫᆊϔ㣅䞠DŽxuéxiào lí ta-jia yì-ycnglh Q: Ҫ⚎Ҕ咐ϡⴵ㾎˛ ta wèishénme bú shuìjiào? / A: ಴⚎Ҫᕫᕽ㖦ࡳ䂆DŽycnwèi ta dgi fùxí gdngkè Q: Ҫᗢ咐ϡⴵ㾎˛ ta zgnme bú shuìjiào? / A: ಴⚎Ҫᕫᕽ㖦ࡳ䂆DŽycnwèi ta dgi fùxí gdngkè

§20 20a 20b 20c 20d

Ҫ೼ᆊ䙘ᰃߎএњ˛ ta zài-jia háishì cheqù le? ៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧Ҫ೼ᆊ䙘ᰃߎএњDŽwi (bù) zhcdào ta zài-jia háishì cheqù le Դⶹ䘧ϡⶹ䘧Ҫ೼ᆊ䙘ᰃߎএњ˛ nh zhcdào bù zhcdào ta zài-jia háishì cheqù le? ៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧Ҫ‫ץ‬ୱϡୱ੪ଵDŽwi (bù) zhcdào tamen hb-bù-hb kafbi

Appendix: Examples in traditional characters 177 20e 20f 20g 20h 20i 20j 20k

៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧䛉ሔ䲶䗭‫ܦ‬䘴ϡ䘴DŽwi (bù) zhcdào yóujú lí zhèr yufn-bù-yufn ៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧ཌྷҞ໽ⳟᕫᅠⳟϡᅠ䙷ᴀ᳌DŽwi (bù) zhcdào ta jcntian kàn-de-wán kàn-bù-wán nèi-bgn-she ៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧䙷‫ן‬Ҏᰃ䂄DŽwi (bù) zhcdào nèi-ge-rén shì shéi ៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧ԴᓳᓳিҔ咐ৡᄫDŽwi (bù) zhcdào nh dìdi jiào shénme míngzi ៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧Ҫ‫ץ‬Ҕ咐ᰖ‫׭‬ಲ՚DŽwi (bù) zhcdào tamen shénme shíhou huílai ៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧Դ⚎Ҕ咐䙌䗭䭔䂆DŽwi (bù) zhcdào nh wèishéme xufn zhèi-mén-kè ៥ ϡ ⶹ䘧䗭。䒞䊷໮ᇥ䣶DŽwi (bù) zhcdào zhèi-zhing-chb mài dudshfoqián

§21 21a 21b 21c 21d 21e 21f 21g 21h

Q: ᰃ ៥⋫⹫䙘ᰃԴ⋫⹫˛ (shì) wi xh-wfn háishì nh xh-wfn? / A: ៥⋫DŽwi xh. Q: ៥‫ ץ‬ᰃ ϟẟ䙘ᰃⳟ䳏ᕅ˛ wimen (shì) xià-qí háishì kàn-diànyhng? / A: ⳟ䳏ᕅDŽkàn-diànyhng. Q: ៥‫ץ‬ୱҔ咐˛ ᰃ 㤊䙘ᰃ੪ଵ˛ wimen hb shénme? (shì) chá háishì kafbi? / A: 㤊DŽchá. 䙷ᰃϔ䓯᮹ᴀ䒞䙘ᰃϔ䓯⊩೟䒞˛ nèi shì yí-liàng Rìbgn chb háishì yí-liàng Ffguó chb ៥⋫⹫៪㗙Դ⋫⹫ˈ䛑ৃҹDŽwi xh-wfn huòzhg nh xh-wfn, ddu kgyh ϟẟ៪㗙ⳟ䳏ᕅˈ䛑㸠DŽxià-qí huòzhg kàn-diànyhng, ddu xíng 㤊៪㗙੪ଵˈ䛑དDŽchá huòzhg kafbi, ddu hfo ៥‫ץ‬ϟẟˈ៪㗙ⳟ䳏ᕅˈ៪㗙㘞໽ˈ䛑㸠DŽwimen xià-qí, huòzhg kàn-diànyhng, huòzhg liáo-tian, ddu xíng

§22 22a 22b 22c 22d 22e 22f 22g 22h 22i 22j 22k 22l 22m 22n 22o 22p 22q

Ѡ嗟嗟ܿᑈ èr líng líng ba nián; ᯢᑈ míng nián ᯹໽ chentian; এᑈ໣໽ qùnián xiàtian Ѡ᳜ èryuè; 䗭‫ן‬᳜ zhèi-ge yuè ᯳ᳳ໽ xcngqctian; Ϟ᯳ᳳѠ shàng xcngqc’èr कϗ㰳 shíqc hào; ᯼໽ zuótian ᮽϞ zfoshang; ϟज xiàwj ЁजकѠ咲ϔࠏ zhdngwj shí’èr-difn yí-kè ᕲࠡ cóngqián; ࠯ᠡ gangcái; ϝ໽ҹᕠ san-tian yhhòu; ⬶ὁⱘᰖ‫ ׭‬bìyè de shíhou Ѡ嗟ϔ嗟ᑈϔ᳜ϔ㰳ЁजकѠ咲Ѩߚ èr líng yc líng nián ycyuè ychào zhdngwj shí’èr-difn wj-fbn Ѡ嗟嗟ܿᑈ໣໽ èr líng líng ba nián xiàtian ᯢᑈб᳜ míngnián jijyuè ܽᑈ lifng-nián; ञᑈ bàn-nián ϝ‫ן‬໣໽ san-ge xiàtian ݁‫ן‬᳜ liù-ge yuè ಯ‫ן‬᯳ᳳ sì-ge xcngqc ϝक໽ sanshi-tian; ᑒ໽ jh-tian ϔ ‫ ן‬Ϟज yí (ge) shàngwj; ϔ໰ yí yè

178 Speed Up Your Chinese 22r 22s 22t

Ѡकಯ ‫ ן‬ᇣᰖ èrshísì-(ge) xifoshí; ϝकߚ䧬 sanshi-fbnzhdng ϔ᳗‫ ܦ‬yìhjir; ϔѯ᮹ᄤ yìxib rìzi; ᕜЙ hgnjij ϝᑈϝ‫ן‬᳜䳊Ѩ໽ san-nián san-ge yuè líng wj-tian; ܿ‫ן‬ᇣᰖ 䳊 Ѡकߚ䧬 ba-ge xifoshí (líng) èrshi-fbnzhdng

§23 23a 23b 23c 23d 23e 23f 23g 23h 23i 23j

‫ޠ‬᰼ língchén ⏙᰼ qcngchén ᮽ᰼/ᮽϞ zfochén/zfoshang Ϟज shàngwj Ёज zhdngwj ϟज xiàwj ١ᰮ bàngwfn ᰮϞ wfnshang ໰㺵 yèlh ञ໰/ज໰ bànyè/wjyè

§24 24a 24b 24c 24d 24e 24f 24g 24h 24i 24j 24k 24l

Ҫ‫ץ‬б咲Ϟ䂆DŽtamen jijdifn shàngkè Ϟ‫ן‬᯳ᳳ៥⮙њˈ≦Ϟ⧁DŽshàng-ge xcngqc wi bìng le, méi shàng-ban ԴҔ咐ᰖ‫׭‬䍄˛ nh shénme shíhou ziu? / ៥ ϟ‫ן‬᳜ 䍄 DŽ(wi) xià-ge yuè (ziu) ៥ྤྤ᯼໽ᰮϞकϔ咲ञ⫳њϔ‫ן‬ཇ‫ܦ‬DŽwi jigjie zuótian wfnshang shíyc-difn bàn shbng-le yí-ge n„ÿer. 㕢೟ϔϗϗ݁ᑈϗ᳜ಯ㰳ᅷਞ⤼ゟDŽMgiguó yc qc qc liù nián qcyuè sì hào xuangào dúlì ཌྷⳟ䳏㽪ⳟњܽ‫ן‬ᇣᰖDŽta kàn-diànshì kàn-le lifng-ge-xifoshí ཌྷⳟњܽ‫ן‬ᇣᰖ ⱘ 䳏㽪DŽta kàn-le lifng-ge-xifoshí (de) diànshì ៥‫↣ץ‬໽Ꮉ԰ܿ‫ן‬ᇣᰖˈЁजӥᙃϔ‫ן‬ᇣᰖDŽwimen mgitian gdngzuò ba-ge-xifoshí, zhdngwj xiexi yí-ge-xifoshí Դ↣໽Ꮉ԰໮䭋ᰖ䭧˛ nh mgitian gdngzuò dudcháng shíjian? / ܿ‫ן‬ᇣᰖDŽ ba-ge xifoshí ཌྷᅌЁ᭛ᅌњ໮Йњ˛ ta xué-zhdngwén xué-le dud jij le? / ᅌњ ϝᑈњDŽ(xué-le) san-nián le Ϟ‫ן‬᯳ᳳ䗭‫ܦ‬ϟ䲼ϟњϝ໽DŽshàng-ge xcngqc zhèr xià-yj xià-le san-tian ⥟㗕᏿এᑈ໣໽ᬭњܽ‫ן‬᳜ ⱘ Ё᭛DŽWáng lfoshc qù nián xiàtian jiao-le lifng-ge yuè (de) zhdngwén

§25 25a 25b

ϞЁ᭛䂆ⱘᰖ‫ˈ׭‬ᅌ⫳ϔᅮᕫ䁾Ё᭛DŽshàng-zhdngwénkè de shíhou, xuésheng yídìng dgi shud-zhdngwén 䃯䂆ⱘᰖ‫ˈ׭‬㗕᏿⫼њᑏ➜೪⠛DŽjifng-kè de shíhou, lfoshc yòng-le huàndbng túpiàn

Appendix: Examples in traditional characters 179 25c 25d

೼䳏ᕅ䰶ⳟ䳏ᕅⱘᰖ‫ˈ׭‬ᕜ໮Ҏৗ⟚㉇㢅DŽzài diànyhngyuàn kàn-diànyhng de shíhou, hgndud rén chc-bàomhhua ႑႑ϡ೼ᆊⱘᰖ‫ˈ׭‬ᄽᄤৗњᕜ໮Ꮋ‫࡯ܟ‬DŽmama bú zàijia de shíhou, háizi chc-le hgndud qifokèlì

§26 26a 26b 26c 26d

ҹࠡ៥ϡពЁ᭛DŽyhqián wi bù ding-zhdngwén Ҫ‫ץ‬ҹࠡԣ೼䊏ජDŽtamen yhqián zhù zài Fèichéng ៥‫ץ‬ᅌ᷵↨ҹࠡ໻໮њDŽwimen xuéxiào bh yhqián dà dud le Դक咲 ҹ ࠡৃҹ೼䕺݀ᅸᡒࠄ㗕᏿DŽnh shídifn (yh)qián kgyh zài bàngdngshì

zhfo-dào lfoshc 26e ཌྷܽᑈ ҹ ࠡ䙘ᰃϔ‫ן‬Ёᅌ⫳DŽta lifng-nián (yh)qián háishì yí-ge zhdngxuéshbng 26f ৗ仃 ҹ ࠡˈԴឝ䁆⋫᠟DŽchc-fàn (yh)qián, nh ycnggai xh-shiu 26g ៥↣໽এ䝿䰶Ϟ⧁ ҹ ࠡ䘯⢫DŽwi mgitian qù ycyuàn shàng-ban (yh)qián liù-giu

§27 27a 27b

Ҫᰖᰖࠏࠏᦤ䝦㞾Ꮕ㽕‫ދ‬䴰DŽta shíshíkèkè tíxhng zìjh yào lgngjìng 䉵䗋ᰖᰖࠏࠏᛇⱐ䉵DŽcáimí shíshíkèkè xifng fa-cái

§28 28a ៥‫ץ‬᯼໽এњࢩ⠽೦DŽwimen zuótian qù-le dòngwùyuán 28b Ҫ‫ץ‬䊋њϔ‫ބן‬ㆅDŽtamen mfi-le yí-ge bcngxiang 28c ᯢᑈ៥ⱘЁ೟᳟ট⬶њὁৃ㛑ಲ೟DŽmíngnián wide Zhdngguó péngyou bì-le-yè kgnéng huíguó 28d ៥ϔббܿᑈ೼Ё೟ᮙ㸠DŽwi yc jij jij ba nián zài Zhdngguó lkxíng 28e ៥≦ ᳝ ᕲ೪᳌仼‫׳‬᳌DŽwi méi(yiu) cóng túshegufn jiè-she Դⳟ䙷‫ן‬䳏ᕅњ஢˛ nh kàn nèi-ge diànyhng le ma? 28f 28g Դⳟ≦ⳟ䙷‫ן‬䳏ᕅ˛ nh kàn-méi-kàn nèi-ge diànyhng? 28h Դⳟ䙷‫ן‬䳏ᕅњ≦᳝˛ nh kàn nèi-ge diànyhng le méiyou? 28h′ Դⳟњ䙷‫ן‬䳏ᕅ≦᳝˛ nh kàn-le nèi-ge diànyhng méiyou?

§29 29a 29b 29c 29d 29d′ 29e 29e′ 29f

Ҫ‫ ץ‬ᰃ ᯼໽ᰮϞࠄⱘDŽtamen (shì) zuótian wfnshang dào de Ҫ‫ ץ‬ᰃ ᕲϞ⍋՚ⱘDŽtamen (shì) cóng Shànghfi lái de ៥‫ ץ‬ᰃ ത☿䒞՚ⱘDŽwimen (shì) zuò-huichb lái de ៥‫ ץ‬ᰃ 䎳⠊↡ϔ䍋՚ⱘDŽwimen (shì) gbn fùmj yìqh lái de ៥‫ץ‬ϡᰃ䎳⠊↡ϔ䍋՚ⱘDŽwimen bú shì gbn fùmj yìqh lái de ཌྷ ᰃ এ䙷‫ܦ‬ᅌ⊩ᕟⱘDŽta (shì) qù-nàr xué-fflm de ཌྷϡᰃএ䙷‫ܦ‬ᅌ⊩ᕟⱘDŽta bú shì qù-nàr xué-fflm de ᰃ ៥䥪ⱘ䭔DŽ(shì) wi sui de mén

180 Speed Up Your Chinese 29f′ 29g 29g′

ϡᰃ៥䥪ⱘ䭔DŽbú shì wi sui de mén ៥ᰃ೼Ё೟䊋ⱘ䗭ᔉ⬿‫ܦ‬DŽwi shì zài Zhdngguó mfi de zhèi-zhang-huàr 䗭ᔉ⬿‫ˈܦ‬៥ᰃ೼Ё೟䊋ⱘDŽzhèi-zhang-huàr, wi shì zài Zhdngguó mfi de

29h 29h′ 29i 29j 29k

៥ᰃ䭟䒞এ″จ᥹ཌྷⱘDŽwi shì kai-chb qù jcchfng jib ta de ៥ᰃ䭟䒞এ″จ᥹ⱘཌྷDŽwi shì kai-chb qù jcchfng jib de ta Ҫᰃএᑈ⬶ὁⱘ஢˛ ta shì qùnián bì-yè de ma? Ҫᰃϡᰃএᑈ⬶ὁⱘ˛ ta shì-bú-shì qùnián bì-yè de? Q: ҪᰃҔ咐ᰖ‫׭‬՚ⱘ˛ ta shì shénme shíhou lái de? / A: Ҫᰃ᯼໽՚ⱘDŽta shì zuótian lái de Q: Ҫᰃᗢ咐՚ⱘ˛ ta shì zgnme lái de? / A: Ҫᰃത亯″՚ⱘDŽta shì zuò-fbijc lái de Q: Ҫᰃᕲા‫ܦ‬՚ⱘ˛ ta shì cóng nfr lái de? / A: Ҫᰃᕲ㋤㋘՚ⱘDŽta shì cóng Nijyub lái de

29l 29m

§30 30a 30b 30c′ 30d′ 30e 30f 30g 30h 30i

Ҫ‫ץ‬এᑈ㌤ီњDŽtamen qùnián jié-hen le Ҫ‫ץ‬ᰃএᑈ㌤ီⱘDŽtamen shì qùnián jié-hen de Ҫ‫ץ‬এᑈ㌤ီњ஢˛ tamen qùnián jié-hen le ma? / ᇡˈҪ‫ץ‬এᑈ㌤ီњDŽ duì, tamen qùnián jié-hen le Ҫ‫ץ‬ᰃҔ咐ᰖ‫׭‬㌤ီⱘ˛ tamen shì shénme shíhòu jié-hen de? / Ҫ‫ץ‬ᰃএᑈ㌤ီⱘDŽtamen shì qùnián jié-hen de ཌྷϟ⧁ҹᕠᕲ䕺݀ᅸ䭟䒞এ″จ᥹‫⫳ܜ‬њDŽta xiàban yhhòu cóng bàngdngshì kai-chb qù-jcchfng jib xiansheng le ཌྷᰃҔ咐ᰖ‫׭‬এ″จⱘ˛ ta shì shénme shíhòu qù-jcchfng de? / ཌྷᰃϟ⧁ҹᕠএⱘDŽ ta shì xiàban yhhòu qù de ཌྷᰃᕲા‫ܦ‬এ″จⱘ˛ ta shì cóng nfr qù-jcchfng de? / ཌྷᰃᕲ䕺݀ᅸএⱘDŽ ta shì cóng bàn’gdngshì qù de ཌྷᰃᗢ咐এ″จⱘ˛ ta shì zgnme qù-jcchfng de? / ཌྷᰃ䭟䒞এⱘDŽ ta shì kai-chb qù de ཌྷᰃ⚎Ҕ咐এ″จⱘ˛ ta shì wèishénme qù-jcchfng de? / ཌྷᰃএ᥹‫ⱘ⫳ܜ‬DŽ ta shì qù jib xiansheng de

§31 31a 31b 31d 31e 31g 31h

៥ᯢ໽ᠡಲএDŽwi míngtian cái huíqu ៥ᯢ໽ህಲএDŽwi míngtian jiù huíqu 䳏ᕅϗ咲䭟ྟˈᴢ‫⫳ܜ‬ϗ咲ϔࠏᠡ՚DŽdiànyhng qcdifn kaishh, Lh xiansheng qcdifn yíkè cái lái 䳏ᕅϗ咲䭟ྟˈ⥟‫݁⫳ܜ‬咲ञህ՚њDŽdiànyhng qcdifn kaishh, Wáng xiansheng liùdifn bàn jiù lái le ៥ᥦњϝ‫ן‬ᇣᰖ ⱘ 䱞ᠡ䊋ࠄ⧗⼼DŽwi pái-le san-ge-xifoshí (de) duì cái mfi-dào qiúpiào ៥ㄝњѨߚ䧬Ҫህ՚њDŽwi dgng-le wj-fbnzhdng ta jiù lái le

Appendix: Examples in traditional characters 181

§32 32b 32c 32d 32e 32f 32g

ᄽᄤ⋫ᅠ/ њ᠟ᠡৗ仃DŽháizi xh-wán /le-shiu cái chc-fàn ᄽᄤ⋫ᅠ/ њ᠟ህৗ仃DŽháizi xh-wán/le-shiu jiù chc-fàn ៥ⳟњᇣ䁾ᠡⶹ䘧䂄ᰃ↎᠟DŽwi kàn-le-xifoshud cái zhcdào shéi shì shashiu ཌྷⓨ䃯ᅠˈ㾔ⴒᠡ䭟ྟᦤଣDŽta yfnjifng-wán, guanzhòng cái kaishh tíwèn ཌྷᆿᅠֵህএᆘDŽta xig-wán-xìn jiù qù jì Ҫ‫ץ‬ৗњज仃ህএϞ䂆њDŽtamen chc-le-wjfàn jiù qù shàng-kè le

§33 33b 33c 33d

᯼໽ᰮϞཌྷ‫ץ‬㘞໽‫ܦ‬㘞ࠄकѠ咲DŽzuótian wfnshang tamen liáo-tianr liáo-dào shí’èr difn Ҟ໽ϟजЁ᭛⧁㗗䀺㽕㗗ࠄѨ咲DŽjcntian xiàwj zhdngwénban kfo-shì yào kfo-dào wj difn ᔉ‫ࢩ⫳ܜ‬њ᠟㸧ˈᕫ೼䝿䰶ԣࠄ᯳ᳳϝDŽZhang xiansheng dòng-le shiushù, dgi zài ycyuàn zhù-dào xcngqcsan

§34 催ቅ gao shan / ໻⊇ dà hé / ᇣජ xifo chéng / ད᳌ hfo she / 㗕Ҏ lfo rén / ៊䉧 lfn mao / ᮄ䒞 xcn chb / 㟞ഄഔ jiù dìzhh 34b ᳝ᛣᗱⱘᬙџ yiuyìsi-de gùshi / ᆍᯧⱘ㗗䀺 róngyì-de kfoshì / དⳟⱘ㸷᳡ hfokàn-de ycfu 㟦᳡ⱘộᄤ shefu-de yhzi / ੠㯍ⱘ㗕᏿ hé’fi-de lfoshc / ⫼ࡳⱘᅌ⫳ yònggdng-de xuésheng 34c ϡ䞡㽕ⱘџ bú zhòngyào-de shì / ᕜᖭⱘҎ hgn máng-de rén / 䊈Ὁњⱘᵅ㽓 guì jíle-de ddngxi / ᳔໻ⱘ⊇ zuì dà-de hé 34d 㙄ᯢҎ cdngming rén / ᳝䣶Ҏ yiuqián rén / ֓ᅰ䉼 piányi huò

34a

§35 35a 35b 35c 35d 35e 35f 35g 35h

ୱ੪ଵⱘҎ hb-kafbi de rén ᳗䁾Ё᭛ⱘ㕢೟ᅌ⫳ huì-shud-zhdngwén de Mgiguó xuésheng ೼᳌ᑫᎹ԰ⱘཇᄽ‫ ܦ‬zài shediàn-gdngzuò de nkháir ཌྷᆿⱘֵ ta-xig de xìn ៥೼Ё೟䁡䄬ⱘ᳟ট wi-zài Zhdngguó-rènshi de péngyou Ҫ‫ ץ‬এᑈ䊋ⱘ᠓ᄤ tamen) qùnián-mfi de fángzi 䙷‫ן‬ୱ੪ଵⱘҎᰃ៥ⱘ᳟টDŽnèi-ge hb-kafbi de rén shì wide péngyou ៥䁡䄬䙷‫ן‬ୱ੪ଵⱘҎDŽwi rènshi nèi-ge hb-kafbi de rén

§36 36a

ᵅ ddng / 㽓 xc / फ nán / ࣫ bgi / Ϟ shàng / ϟ xià / Ꮊ zui / ে yòu / ࠡ qián / ᕠ hòu / 㺵 lh / ໪ wài / ᇡ duì / ᮕ páng / Ё zhdng

182 Speed Up Your Chinese 36b

ᵅ䴶 ; ᵅ䙞 ‫ ܦ‬ddngmiàn; ddngbian(r) / 㽓䴶 ; 㽓䙞 ‫ ܦ‬xcmiàn; xcbian(r) / फ䴶 ; फ䙞 ‫ ܦ‬nánmiàn; nánbian(r) / ࣫䴶 ; ࣫䙞 ‫ ܦ‬bgimiàn; bgibian(r) / Ϟ䴶 ; Ϟ䙞 ‫ ; ܦ‬Ϟ丁 shàngmiàn; shàngbian(r); shàngtou / ϟ䴶 ; ϟ䙞 ‫ ; ܦ‬ϟ丁 xiàmiàn; xiàbian(r); xiàtou / Ꮊ䴶 ; Ꮊ䙞 ‫ ܦ‬zuimiàn; zuibian(r) / ে䴶 ; ে䙞 ‫ ܦ‬yòumiàn; yòubian(r) / ࠡ䴶 ; ࠡ䙞 ‫; ܦ‬ ࠡ丁 qiánmiàn; qiánbian(r); qiántou / ᕠ䴶 ; ᕠ䙞 ‫ ; ܦ‬ᕠ丁 hòumiàn; hòubian(r); hòutou / 㺵䴶 ; 㺵䙞 ‫ ; ܦ‬㺵丁 lhmiàn; lhbian(r); lhtou / ໪䴶 ; ໪䙞 ‫; ܦ‬ ໪丁 wàimiàn; wàibian(r); wàitou / ᇡ䴶 duìmiàn / ᮕ䙞 ‫ ܦ‬pángbian(r) / Ё䭧 ‫ ܦ‬zhdngjian(r)

36c

䰘䖥 fùjìn / ῧϞ lóushàng / ῧϟ lóuxià / ䷖Ϟ dhngshang / ᑩϟ dhxia / ⭊Ё dangzhdng / ᵅ࣫ ddngbgi / ᵅफ ddngnán / 㽓࣫ xcbgi / 㽓फ xcnán ೪᳌仼 ⱘ ᇡ䴶 túshegufn (de) duìmiàn / 㹟ᄤ ⱘ 㺵䙞 ‫ ܦ‬dàizi (de) lhbian(r) / ᳌ₗ ⱘ ䷖Ϟ sheguì (de) dhngshang / ᑞ ⱘ ᑩϟ chuáng (de) dhxia / ᅌ᷵ ⱘ 䰘䖥 xuéxiào (de) fùjìn / ජ ⱘ 㽓࣫ chéng (de) xcbgi ḠϞ zhud-shang / ฅϞ bào-shang / ⠚Ϟ qiáng-shang / ഄϞ dì-shang / 㸫Ϟ jib-shang / ᆊ㺵 jia-li / に໪ chuang-wài

36d

36e

§37 37a 37b 37c 37d 37e 37f 37g

᳌ she ϔᴀ᳌ yì-bgn-she 䗭कᴀ᳌ zhèi-shí-bgn-she 䗭ᴀ᳌ zhèi-bgn-she 䗭ѯ᳌ zhèi-xib-she ៥‫ץ‬ᅌ᷵䭟Ё᭛䂆DŽwimen xuéxiào kai zhdngwénkè Ё᭛䂆ϡ䲷DŽzhdngwénkè bù nán

§38 38a 38b 38c 38d 38e 38f 38g 38h 38i

⫳䭋 shbngzhfng / ⌏ࢩ huódòng / ӥᙃ xiexi / Ꮉ԰ gdngzuò / ߎ⧒ chexiàn / 丿ᡪ chàndiu ៥‫⧒ץ‬೼ӥᙃӥᙃDŽwimen xiànzài xiexi-xiexi Ҫ‫ץ‬೼‫ދ‬乼Ёϡ‫ذ‬ഄ丿ᡪDŽtamen zài lgngfbng zhdng bùtíngde chàndiu ᳱ䱑ߎ⧒೼ഄᑇ㎮ϞDŽzhaoyáng chexiàn zài dìpíngxiàn shang 䁾䁅 shud-huà / ⳟ᳌ kàn-she / ৗ仃 chc-fàn 䁾䃞 shud-hufng / ⳟ䳏㽪 kàn-diànshì / ৗ㨵㧘 chc-pútao 䁾ᅮ shud-dìng / ⳟ㽟 kàn-jiàn / ৗᅠ chc-wán / ᥼䙆 tuc-chí / 䭋໻ zhfng-dà / 㾷ᬷ jig-sàn ⥟‫᥼⫳ܜ‬䙆њ㸠ᳳDŽWáng xiansheng tuc-chí le xíngqc ⥟‫⫳ܜ‬ᡞ㸠ᳳ᥼䙆њDŽWáng xiansheng bf xíngqc tuc-chí le

§39 39a

ⳟ᳌ kàn-she / ᆿᄫ xig-zì / ଅ℠ chàng-gb / 䏇㟲 tiào-wj / ৗ仃 chc-fàn / ‫خ‬џ zuò-shì / ⬿⬿‫ ܦ‬huà-huàr / 䊋ᵅ㽓 mfi-ddngxi / ୱ䜦 hb-jij / 䭟䒞 kai-chb

Appendix: Examples in traditional characters 183 39b ⳟฅ kàn-bào / ᆿֵ xig-xìn / ଅ᠆ chàng-xì / 䏇∈ diào-shuh / ৗ㋴ chc-sù / ‫خ‬仃 zuò-fàn / ⬿೪ huà-tú / 䊋᠓ᄤ mfi-fángzi / ୱ∈ hb-shuh / 䭟亯″ kai-fbijc 39c ⳟܽᴀ᳌ kàn-lifng-bgn-she / ⳟᖋ᭛᳌ kàn-déwén-she / ⳟᱶ䢋᳌ kàn-chàngxiaoshe / ⳟ᳝䍷ⱘ᳌ kàn-yiuqùde-she / ⳟ᯼໽䊋ⱘ᳌ kàn-zuótian mfide-she

§40 40a ୱ䜦 hb-jij 40b ୱ⊩೟䜦 hb-Ffguó-jij / ୱϔᵃ䜦 hb-yì-bbi-jij / ୱ᳟ট䗕ⱘ䜦 hb péngyou sòng de-jij 40c ៥ᐌᐌ*ⱐⷁֵ៥ⱘ᳟টDŽwi chángcháng *fa-dufnxìn wide péngyou / ៥ᐌᐌ*ⱐ៥ⱘ᳟টⷁֵDŽwi chángcháng *fa wide péngyou dufnxìn 40d 䁾䁅 shud-huà / 㘞໽ liáo-tian / ᆿֵ xig-xìn / ᠧ䳏䁅 df-diànhuà / 䭟⥽ュ kai-wánxiào / ㌤ီ jié-hen / 䲶ီ lí-hen / Ϟ⭊ shàng-dàng / ✻‫ ڣ‬zhào-xiàng 40e ៥ᐌᐌ㌺⠊↡ᆿֵ / ᠧ䳏䁅 / ⱐⷁֵ / ✻‫ڣ‬DŽwi chángcháng ggi fùmj 40f

40g

xig-xìn/df-diànhuà/ fa-dufnxìn/zhào-xiàng ⥟‫⫳ܜ‬೼䎳䜄ሙ䁾䁅/㘞໽/䭟⥽ュDŽWáng xiansheng zài gbn línje shud-huà/liáo-tian/kai-wánxiào / ↨⠒䎳㥢呫㌤ီ/䲶ီњDŽBh’gr gbn Shalì jié-hen/ lí-hen le 䙷‫ן‬ଚҎ㐑ᰃ䅧主ᅶϞ⭊DŽnèi-ge shangren zingshì ràng gùkè shàng-dàng

§41 41a 41b 41c 41d 41e 41f 41g 41h 41i 41j

ᆿֵ xig-xìn / ᆿᅠ xig­wán / ᆿᅠֵ xigwán-xìn ⳟ kàn / ⳟ㽟 kàn-jian ⳟ kàn / ⳟព kàn-ding ᡒ zhfo / ᡒࠄ zhfo-dào 䊋 mfi / 䊋ࠄ mfi-dào ୱ hb / ୱᅠ hb-wán ᐊ dài / ᐊಲ dài-huí ៥‫ץ‬ᕫএᡒᴢ‫⫳ܜ‬DŽwimen dgi qù zhfo Lh xiansheng ៥‫ץ‬ᕫএᡒࠄᴢ‫⫳ܜ‬DŽwimen dgi qù zhfo-dào Lh xiansheng ៥‫ܿץ‬咲ህ䭟ྟᡒᴢ‫ࠄˈ⫳ܜ‬क咲ᠡᡒࠄDŽwimen badifn jiù kaishh zhfo Lh xiansheng, dào shídifn cái zhfo-dào

§42 42a

42b 42c

㙑㽟 tcng-jiàn / ଅᅠ chàng-wán / ໴㨫 gòu-zháo / ᛇࠄ xifng-dào / ᡧԣ zhua-zhù / 䭋៤ zhfng-chéng / ‫خ‬ད zuò-hfo / ⣰ᇡ cai-duì / 㙑䤃 tcng-cuò / ᆿ⏙Ἦ xig-qcngchu ཌྷ㐑ᰃ᯳ᳳ݁Ϟज⋫㸷᳡DŽta zingshì xcngqcliù shàngwj xh-ycfu ཌྷ᯳ᳳ݁ϔᅮᕫ⋫ђ⎼㸷᳡ᠡ㛑‫ⱘ߹خ‬џDŽta xcngqcliù yídìng dgi xh-ganjing-ycfu cái néng zuò biéde shì

184 Speed Up Your Chinese

§43 43a

՚ lái; 亯՚ fbi-lái / এ qù; 䗕এ sòng-qù

Ϟ shàng; ᦤϞ tí-shàng / ϟ xià; ᬒϟ fàng-xià / 䘆 jìn; ᨀ䘆 ban-jìn / ߎ che; 䊷ߎ mài-che / 䍋 qh; ᣓ䍋 ná-qh / ಲ huí; ᬊಲ shdu-huí / 䘢 guò; ᥼䘢 tuc-guò 43c Ϟ՚ shànglái; Ϟএ shàngqù / ϟ՚ xiàlái; ϟএ xiàqù / 䘆՚ jìnlái; 䘆এ jìnqù / ߎ՚ chelái; ߎএ cheqù / 䍋՚ qhlái / ಲ՚ huílái; ಲএ huíqù / 䘢՚ guòlái; 䘢এ guòqù 43d 䗕Ϟ՚ / Ϟএ sòng-shànglái/-shàngqù // ᣓϟ՚ / ϟএ ná-xiàlái/-xiàqù // 䍄䘆՚ / 䘆এ ziu-jìnlái/-jìnqù // ᨀߎ՚ / ߎএ ban-chelái/-cheqù // キ䍋՚ zhàn-qhlái // 䎥ಲ՚ / ಲএ pfo-huílái/-huíqù // 䏇䘢՚ / 䘢এ tiào-guòlái/-guòqù 43e ྤྤᣓߎϔṱⓖ҂ⱘೡᏒDŽjigjie ná-che yì-tiáo piàoliang de wéijcn ᅌ⫳ᡞЁ᭛ᄫ‫݌‬ᐊ՚њDŽxuésheng bf zhdngwén zìdifn dài-lái le 43f 43g 侀‫⫳ܜ‬䗕䘢՚ϔ⫊䜦DŽMf xiansheng sòng-guòlái yì-píng-jij 43h 侀‫⫳ܜ‬䗕䘢ϔ⫊䜦՚DŽMf xiansheng sòng-guò yì-píng-jij lái 43i Ҫᡞ䒞䭟ಲජএњDŽta bf chb kai-huí chéng-qù le 43i′ Ҫᡞ䒞 * 䭟ಲএජњDŽta bf chb *kai-huíqù chéng le 43b

§44 44a 44b 44c 44d 44d′

䄺ᆳᡧࠄњᇣًDŽjhngchá zhua-dào le xifotdu 䄺ᆳ≦ ᳝ ᡧࠄᇣًDŽjhngchá méi(yiu) zhua-dào xifotdu 䄺ᆳᡞᇣًᡧࠄњDŽjhngchá bf xifotdu zhua-dào le 䄺ᆳᡞᇣًᐊಲ՚њDŽjhngchá bf xifotdu dài-huílai le 䄺ᆳᡞᇣًᐊњಲ՚DŽjhngchá bf xifotdu dài-le-huílai

44e

ⳟᕫᅠ kàn-de-wán / ⳟϡᅠ kàn-bù-wán / ‫خ‬ᕫད zuò-de-hfo / ‫خ‬ϡད zuò-bù-hfo / ಲᕫ՚ huí-de-lái / ಲϡ՚ huí-bù-lái 䂟Դᡞ䁅䁾⏙ἮDŽqhng nh bf huà shud-qcngchu 䂟Դᡞ䁅 *䁾ᕫ⏙ἮDŽqhng nh bf huà *shud-de-qcngchu

44f 44g

§45 45a 45b 45c 45d 45e 45f 45g 45h

⥟㗕᏿䁾䁅䁾ᕫᕜᖿDŽWáng lfoshc shud-huà shud-de hgn kuài ཌྷྍྍଅ℠ଅᕫⳳᰃདὉњDŽta mèimei chàng-gb chàng-de zhbnshì hfo-jíle ៥᯼໽ୱ੪ଵୱᕫ໾໮ˈᰮϞⴵϡ㨫DŽwi zuótian hb-kafbi hb-de tài dud, wfnshang shuì-bù-zháo 䙷佪℠ˈཌྷଅᕫϡ䤃DŽnèi-shiu-gb, ta chàng-de búcuò ໽⇷໾➅ˈ៥‫ץ‬ӥᙃᕫϡདDŽtianqì tài rè, wimen xcuxi-de bù hfo Դ՚ᕫϡᎻˈཌྷ࠯䍄DŽnh lái-de bù qifo, ta gang ziu Դⳟ᳌ⳟᕫ໮ϡ໮˛ nh kàn-she kàn-de dud-bù-dud? ҪᅌЁ᭛ᅌᕫᗢ咐ῷ˛ ta xué-zhdngwén xué-de zgnmeyàng

§46 46a

㗕᏿ⱘ䕺݀ᅸ lfoshc-de1 bàngdngshì / ೪᳌仼ⱘ᳌ túshegufn-de1 she / ཌྷⱘ᠓䭧 ta-de1 fángjian / ៥‫ⱘץ‬Џᛣ wimen-de1 zhúyi / ៤ࡳⱘଚҎ chénggdng-de1

Appendix: Examples in traditional characters 185 shangren / ᕜᮄⱘ䳏㜺 hgnxcn-de1 diànnfo / ៥᯼໽䊋ⱘ䒞 wi zuótian mfi-de1 chb / Ҫ䃯ⱘᬙџ ta jifng-de1 gùshi 46b 催㟜ഄ ଅ gaoxìngde2 (chàng) / Ҩ㌄ഄ ⳟ zhxìde2 (kàn) / ᕜ᜶ഄ 䍄 hgn­ mànde2 (ziu) / 䴲ᐌᮽഄ 䲶䭟 fbicháng-zfode2 (líkai) 46c ⳟ᳌ ⳟᕫᖿὉњ (kàn-she) kàn-de3 kuài-jíle / ৗ仃 ৗᕫᕜᇥ (chc-fàn) chc-de3 hgn shfo / ⥽‫ܦ‬ᕫⳳ催㟜 wánr-de3 zhbn gaoxìng / ュᕫ㙮ᄤ⮐ xiào-de3 dùzi téng 46d ⥟㗕᏿୰ℵ䴲ᐌᖿഄ䁾䁅DŽWáng lfoshc xhhuan fbicháng-kuài-de2 shud-huà 46e

⥟㗕᏿ᐌᐌ䁾䁅䁾ᕫ䴲ᐌᖿDŽWáng lfoshc chángcháng shud-huà shud-de3

fbicháng-kuài ៥‫ץ‬ᕜᮽഄৗњ仃ˈএⳟᰮจ䳏ᕅDŽwimen hgn-zfo-de2 chc-le-fàn, qù kàn 46f wfnchfng diànyhng 46g ៥‫ץ‬ৗ仃ৗᕫᕜᮽDŽwimen chc-fàn chc-de3 hgn-zfo

§47 䊋ϔ咲‫ܦ‬ᵅ㽓 mfi yìdifnr ddngxi / ୱϔ咲‫ ∈ܦ‬hb yìdifnr shuh / ពϔ咲‫ܦ‬ᖋ᭛ ding yìdifnr déwén 47b 㦰ᕜ໮ˈԴ‫ݡ‬ৗϔ咲‫৻ܦ‬DŽcài hgn dud, nh zài chc-yìdifnr ba 47c ᵃᄤ᳝ϔ咲‫ܦ‬傦DŽbbizi yiu yìdifnr zang 47d 㗕᏿᳝ϔ咲‫⇷⫳ܦ‬DŽlfoshc yiu yìdifnr shbngqì 47e 㗕ᔉ᳝ϔ咲‫ܦ‬ϡ䃯䘧⧚DŽLfo Zhang yiu yìdifnr bù-jifngdàoli 47e′ ? 㗕ᔉ᳝ϔ咲‫ܦ‬䃯䘧⧚DŽ?Lfo Zhang yiu yìdifnr jifngdàoli 咥ᵓϞⱘᄫ᳝ϔ咲‫ܦ‬ϡ⏙ἮDŽhbibfn shàng-de-zì yiu yìdifnr bù-qcngchu 47f 47f′ ? 咥ᵓϞⱘᄫ᳝ϔ咲‫⏙ܦ‬ἮDŽ?hbibfn shàng-de-zì yiu yìdifnr qcngchu 47g ϔ咲‫ ܦ‬yìdifnr 47h ᳝ϔ咲‫ ܦ‬yiu yìdifnr

47a

§48 48a 48b 48c 48d 48e

㗕᏿੠ᅌ⫳ lfoshc hé xuésheng / Ѳ⌆੠䴲⌆ Yàzhdu hé Fbizhdu / 䳏㜺੠䳏䁅 diànnfo hé diànhuà Ҫ䎳ཌྷ ta gbn ta / ៥‫ץ‬䎳Դ‫ ץ‬wimen gbn nhmen ㋙㢅䎳㍴㨝 hóng-hua gbn l…-yè / ྦྷᴢⱘ䝿⫳੠ྦྷ⥟ⱘ䅋຿ xìng Lh de ycshbng hé xìng Wáng de hùshi ៥ୱ੪ଵˈгୱ㤊DŽwi hb-kafbi, yg hb-chá ᳌ᕜ᳝ᛣᗱˈ䳏ᕅгᕜ᳝ᛣᗱDŽshe hgn yiuyìsi, diànyhng yg hgn yiuyìsi

§49 49a 49b 49c 49d 49e 49e′

៥‫ץ‬এ″จ᥹њϔѯᮄ⫳DŽwimen qù jcchfng jib-le yìxib xcnshbng 䗭/䙷/ ᳝ѯᮄ⫳ԣ೼䙷‫ן‬ᆓ㟡㺵DŽzhèi/nèi/yiu-xib xcnshbng zhù zài nèi-ge-sùshè li 䗭ѯ‍ˈ᳝ⱘ ‍ 催ˈ᳝ⱘ ‍ ⷂDŽzhèi-xib-shù, yiude(shù) gao, yiude(shù) fi ᳝ⱘ੪ଵ仼‫ܦ‬г䊷ϝᯢ⊏DŽyiude kafbigufnr yg mài sanmíngzhì * ཌྷ୰ℵජ㺵᳝ⱘ੪ଵ仼‫ܦ‬DŽ*ta xhhuan chénglh yiude kafbigufnr ජ㺵᳝ⱘ੪ଵ仼‫ܦ‬ཌྷ୰ℵDŽchénglh yiude kafbigufnr ta xhhuan

186 Speed Up Your Chinese

§50 50c 50d 50e 50f 50g 50h 50i 50j

ϝ⺙㙝 san-bàng-ròu / क㣅䞠䏃 shí-ycnglh-lù Ѩकᔉ㋭ wjshí-zhang-zhh / ܽ业᯳ lifng-kb-xcng ϔ㕸Ҏ yì-qún-rén / ಯ༫᳌ sì-tào-she ϔѯ‬ᄤ yì-xib-júzi / ϔ咲‫ ∈ܦ‬yì-difnr-shuh ܽ⃵㿢䂪 lifng-cì-tfolùn / ϝ䷧仃 san-dùn-fàn ᑈ nián / ᳜ yuè / ᯳ᳳ xcngqc / ໽ tian / ᇣᰖ xifoshí / ߚ䧬 fbnzhdng / ⾦ mifo ⹫ wfn / ᵃ bbi / Ⲧ hé / 㹟 dài / ⫊ píng / 㔤 guàn ↣⹫仃 mgi-wfn-fàn / ↣ᵃ㤊 mgi-bbi-chá / ↣Ⲧ㊪ mgi-hé-táng / ↣㹟㸷᳡ mgi-dài-ycfu / ↣⫊䜦 mgi-píng-jij / ↣㔤∈ mgi-guàn-shuh

§51 51a 51b 51c 51d 51e 51f 51g

ᅌ⫳䛑ⴵ㨫њDŽxuésheng ddu shuì-zháo le ↣‫ן‬Ҏ䛑᳝ৡᄫDŽmgi-ge-rén ddu yiu míngzi 䙷ϝ‫ן‬䳏ᕅཌྷ䛑ⳟ䘢DŽnèi-san-ge-diànyhng ta ddu kàn-guo Ё᭛੠᮹᭛Ҫ‫ץ‬䛑ពDŽzhdngwén hé rìwén tamen ddu ding ᠔᳝ⱘҎ suiyiude rén / ᠔᳝ⱘ䣶 suiyiude qián / ᠔᳝ ⱘ ᓎ㆝ suiyiu(de) jiànzhù / ᠔᳝ ⱘ ଣ丠 suiyiu(de) wèntí ᠔᳝ⱘ☿䒞䛑⑪ᰖࠄ䘨њDŽsuiyiude huichb ddu zhjnshí dàodá le ᠔᳝ⱘᎹ‫݋‬᳌Դ䛑ৃҹ⫼DŽsuiyiude gdngjùshe nh ddu kgyh yòng

§52 ᕲб咲䭟ྟϞ䂆 cóng jijdifn kaishh shàngkè ᕲЁ೟ಲ՚ cóng Zhdngguó huí-lai ᕲᇣџⳟߎଣ丠 cóng xifo-shì kàn-che wèntí ᕲ ᯳ᳳϔࠄ᯳ᳳѨ (cóng) xcngqcyc dào xcngqcwj ᕲ″จࠄᏖЁᖗ cóng jcchfng dào shìzhdngxcn ᕲकౌࠄϝकౌ cóng shí-den dào sanshi-den ᕲ䳏㽪ࠄ䳏䁅 cóng diànshì dào diànhuà / ᕲᇣࠄ໻ cóng xifo dào dà / ᕲ೟䱯䊓ᯧࠄ㍧△ⱐሩ cóng guójì màoyì dào jcngjì fazhfn 52i ᄽᄤᕲ丁ࠄ㝇䛑こᕫᕜⓖ҂DŽháizi cóng tóu dào jifo ddu chuan-de hgn piàoliang 䙷‫ן‬ഄऔᕲकϔ᳜ࠄϝ᳜䛑ᰃ‫ހ‬ᄷDŽnèi-ge-dìqe cóng shíycyuè dào sanyuè ddu 52j shì ddngjì 52k 㦰೦㺵ⱘક。ᕜ໮ˈᕲ⬾㣘ࠄफ⪰䛑᳝DŽcàiyuán-lh de phnzhing hgn dud, cóng fanqié dào nángua ddu yiu 52m ៥᯼໽ᰮϞᆿ䂪᭛ᕲܿ咲ᆿࠄ໰㺵ܽ咲DŽwi zuótian wfnshang xig-lùnwén cóng badifn xig-dào yèlh lifngdifn 52n ᄿ㗕᏿䃯䂆ᕲ㍆㍶П䏃䃯ࠄ㕙侀Ᏹ೟DŽSen lfoshc jifng-kè cóng scchóu zhc lù jifng-dào Luómf Dìguó 52o ៥‫ץ‬ᕲ㄀ϔ䂆ᅌࠄ㄀कѨ䂆DŽwimen cóng dì-yc-kè xué-dào dì-shíwj-kè

52a 52b 52c 52d 52e 52f 52g

Appendix: Examples in traditional characters 187

§53 53a 53b 53c 53d 53e

г yg / ॏ què / ‫ ܜ‬xian . . . ‫ ݡ‬zài . . . / ᐌᐌ chángcháng ៥ୱ㤊ˈ ៥ гୱ੪ଵDŽwi hb-chá, (wi) yg hb-kafbi Ҫ≦ᕽ㖦ࡳ䂆ˈҞ໽ॏ㗗ᕫᕜདDŽta méi fùxí-gdngkè, jcntian què kfo-de hgn hfo Դ‫⋫ܜ‬᠟ˈ‫ݡ‬ৗ仃DŽnh xian xh-shiu, zài chc-fàn Ҫᐌᐌৗᖿ令DŽta chángcháng chc-kuàican

§54 54a 54a′ 54b 54b′ 54c 54d 54d′ 54e 54e′ 54f

Դা㽕䊋њ⼼ˈ Դ ህৃҹ䘆এDŽnh zhhyào mfi-le-piào, (nh) jiù kgyh jìnqu া㽕Դ䊋њ⼼ˈ Դ ህৃҹ䘆এDŽzhhyào nh mfi-le-piào, (nh) jiù kgyh jìnqu Դ᮶✊᳝⮙ˈ Դ ህདད‫ܦ‬ӥᙃ৻DŽnh jìrán yiu-bìng, (nh) jiù hfohaor xiexi ba ᮶✊Դ᳝⮙ˈ Դ ህདད‫ܦ‬ӥᙃ৻DŽjìrán nh yiu-bìng, (nh) jiù hfohaor xiexi ba ៥ ϔ ϟњ䂆ህಲᆓ㟡এⴵ㾎DŽwi (yí) xià-le-kè jiù huí-sùshè qù shuìjiào া㽕ᄽᄤこ໴㸷᳡ˈ႑႑ህᬒᖗњDŽzhhyào háizi chuan-guò-ycfu, mama jiù fàng-xcn le ᄽᄤা㽕こ໴㸷᳡ˈ႑႑ህᬒᖗњDŽháizi zhhyào chuan-guò-ycfu, mama jiù fàng-xcn le ᮶✊ᰖ䭧䙘ᮽˈ៥‫ץ‬ህ‫ⳟݡ‬ϔจ䳏ᕅDŽjìrán shíjian hái zfo, wimen jiù zài kàn yì-chfng-difnyhng ᰖ䭧᮶✊䙘ᮽˈ៥‫ץ‬ህ‫ⳟݡ‬ϔจ䳏ᕅDŽshíjian jìrán hái zfo, wimen jiù zài kàn yì-chfng-diànyhng 㗕᏿ ϔ 㾷䞟њ䁲⊩ˈᅌ⫳ህᯢⱑњDŽlfoshc (yì) jigshì-le-yjff, xuésheng jiù míngbai le

§55 55a

៥क咲ህϞᑞⴵ㾎њˈৃᰃܽ咲䙘≦ⴵ㨫DŽwi shídifn jiù shàng-chuáng shuì-jiào le, kgshì lifngdifn hái méi shuì-zháo

§56 56a 56b 56c 56d 56e

ᅌ⫳ଣњϔ‫ן‬ଣ丠DŽxuésheng wèn-le yí-ge wèntí ⊩ᅬ㽕∖ᕟ᏿㾷䞟DŽffguan yaoqiú l…shc jigshì 䝿⫳䅧⮙Ҏ៦✭DŽycshbng ràng bìngrén jiè-yan ᄽᄤ∖ / 䂟⠊↡䊋⥽‫݋‬DŽháizi qiú/qhng fùmj mfi-wánjù ᳟ট䂟៥ߎএৗ仃DŽpéngyou qhng wi cheqù chc-fàn

§57 57a 57b 57c

Ҫ᳗䁾ϔ咲‫ܦ‬Ё᭛ˈৃᰃϡ᳗ᆿ⓶ᄫDŽ ta huì shud-yìdifnr-zhdngwén, kgshì bú-huì xig-hànzì ៥ᓳᓳ᳗਍ワᄤDŽwi dìdi huì chuc-dízi 䗭‫ן‬ᄽᄤϔ‫ן‬໣໽㛑ⳟѨकᴀ᳌DŽzhèi-ge-háizi yí-ge-xiàtian néng kàn wjshí-bgn-she

188 Speed Up Your Chinese 57d 57e 57f 57g

Դୱњϡᇥ䜦ˈϡ㛑䭟䒞DŽnh hb-le bùshfo jij, bù néng kai-chb ᅠџњDŽ៥‫ץ‬㛑䍄њDŽwán-shì-le. wimen néng ziu le Դৃҹ⫼៥ⱘ䒞DŽnh kgyh yòng wide chb ᅠџњDŽ៥‫ৃץ‬ҹ䍄њDŽwán-shì-le. wimen kgyh ziu le

§58 58a 58b 58c 58d 58e 58f 58g

៥ⶹ䘧⓶䁲᱂䗮䁅᳝ಯ㙆DŽwi zhcdào hànyj pjtdnghuà yiu sì-shbng ៥ⶹ䘧䈤⬄ᰃ᮹ᴀ䒞DŽwi zhcdào Fbngtián shì Rìbgn chb ៥ⶹ䘧ᗢ咐♪㕞㙝DŽwi zhcdào zgnme dùn-yángròu ៥䁡䄬ⱑ‫ˈ⫳ܜ‬៥‫ץ‬ᰃ䜄ሙDŽwi rènshi Bái xiansheng, wimen shì línju 䙷‫ן‬ᅌ⫳䁡䄬ܽग໮‫⓶ן‬ᄫDŽnèi-ge-xuésheng rènshi lifngqian dud-ge-hànzì Ҫ䁡䄬䏃ˈ䅧ҪᐊԴএ৻DŽta rènshi lù, ràng ta dài nh qù ba 䁡䄬Դˈᕜ催㟜DŽrènshi nh, hgn gaoxìng

Bibliography

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——. 2009. Basic Chinese: A grammar and workbook, 2 edition. London and New York: Routledge. Yong, Shin. 1997. ‘Grammatical functions of verb-complements in Mandarin Chinese,’ Linguistics 35(1): 1–24. 䰜⥝⋕ . 2007. ‘䞣䆡㒧ᵘϢ䞣䆡ⱘᅮ䇁ᷛ䆄ࡳ㛑 ,’ljЁ೑䇁᭛NJ2007.6: 516–30. 啮ग♢ . 2000.lj∝䇁ⱘᯊⳌˈᯊࠊˈᯊᗕNJଚࡵॄк佚DŽ ݄ᆒ∝䙶৥ϰЏ㓪 . 2006.lj⦄ҷ∝䇁NJЁढкሔDŽ ᳜߬ढㄝ . 1983.ljᅲ⫼⦄ҷ∝䇁䇁⊩NJ໪䇁ᬭᄺϢⷨおߎ⠜⼒DŽ ৩ন␬Џ㓪 . 2000.lj⦄ҷ∝䇁ܿⱒ䆡NJଚࡵॄк佚DŽ ——. 2006.lj䇁⊩ᄺдNJ໡ᮺ໻ᄺߎ⠜⼒DŽ ⥟♓啭 . 2006. ‘ᄬ⦄হহ⊩㒧ᵘࡼ಴ⱘ໮㾦ᑺ㗗ᆳ ,’lj䇁⊩ⷨお੠᥶㋶NJ कϝ ˈଚࡵॄ к佚ˈ214–19. ᓴԃ∳ . 2006. ‘ᄬ⦄হ䞠ⱘϧ᳝ৡ䆡ᆒ䇁 ,’lj䇁⊩ⷨお੠᥶㋶NJ कϝ ˈଚࡵॄк佚ˈ 128–45. ᓴ䈿ዄ . 2006.lj⦄ҷ∝䇁হᄤⷨおNJᄺᵫߎ⠜⼒DŽ ᴅᖋ❭ . 1999.lj䇁⊩䆆НNJଚࡵॄк佚DŽ

Index

(NB: numbers refer to sections, e.g. 1 = §1.)

a.m/p.m. 23

A-not-A structure 18, 20

action

before adverbs cái ᠡ and jiù ህ 32

completed 28, 30

lasting to a point 33

adjective

as (verb) complement 38

as modifier 34, 46

descriptive 1, 6, 7, 8

suIyIude ᠔᳝ⱘ 51

adverb

cái ᠡ 31, 32

dDu 䛑 51, 52

gGi 㒭 40

gBn 䎳 40

in the bF ᡞ construction 10

in the passive construction 11

jiù ህ 12, 17, 31, 32, 54

position 15, 16, 17, 53

què ै 14

yG г 48

zhème/nème 䖭М/ 䙷М 7, 8

adverbial

manner and degree 45

phrase 1, 5, 8

all

dDu 䛑 51

suIyIude ᠔᳝ⱘ 51

also

yG г 48

and

hé/gBn ੠/䎳 48

ask 56

auxiliary verb

huì Ӯ 57

in the bF ᡞ construction 9, 10

kGyH ৃҹ 57

néng 㛑 57

bF ᡞ construction

its usage 9

verb phrase variations 10

word order 9, 10

bèi/ràng/jiào 㹿/䅽/ি 11

búdàn . . . érqiG/bìngqiG . . . ϡԚ . . . 㗠Ϩ/

ᑊϨ . . . 13

can 57

clause

as modifier 35, 46

compound 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 54

subordinate 20, 35

comparison

behavior 8

contrast with bH ↨ 6, 8

equivalence 7, 8

similarity 7, 8

complement

descriptive adjective 38, 46

directional verb 9, 43

in comparison 6

in the shì . . . de ᰃ . . . ⱘ pattern 29, 30

of manner and degree 45, 46

resultative verb 38, 41, 42

compound

sentence 12, 13, 14, 54

verb-object 8, 38, 39, 40, 55

verb-verb 38, 41, 42, 43, 55

192

Index

cóng . . . dào . . . Ң . . . ࠄ . . . 52 conjunctions although . . . , (but) . . . 14 as soon as . . . then . . . 17 both . . . and . . . 13 either . . . or . . . 21 from . . . to . . . 52 hé/gBn ੠/䎳 48 if . . . then . . . 12 not only . . . but also . . . 13 de1 ⱘ 34, 35, 36, 46 de2 ഄ 46 de3 ᕫ 8, 44, 45, 46 . . . de shíhou . . . ⱘᯊ‫ ׭‬15, 25 degrees of comparison 6, 8 demonstrative nèi 䙷 37 zhèi 䖭 37 each/every mGi ↣ 50 existence 2 gBn . . . yíyàng 䎳 . . .

ḋ 7, 8

interrogative words (interrogatives) 19 jìrán . . . jiù . . . ᮶✊ . . . ህ . . . 54 le њ attached to verb-verb compound 44 verb suffix 28, 30, 32 (a) little yìdiFn(r) ⚍ ( ‫ ) ܓ‬47 yIu yìdiFn(r) ᳝ ⚍ ‫ ܓ‬47 location phrase 3, 36 sentence 2 verb 2 word 36 manner adjective + de2 ഄ 46 and degree 45 comparison 8 measure word (measures) 37, 50 quasi-measure 50 xiB ѯ 37 measurement in comparison 6, 8 modification in comparison 8 modifier adjective 34, 46 adverbial 46

clause 35 noun 46 pronoun 46 negation bù ϡ 3 in comparison 6, 7, 8 in the bF ᡞ construction 10 in the passive construction 11 in the shì . . . de ᰃ . . . ⱘ pattern 29 méi(yIu) ≵ ᳝ 3 V-le њ 28 verb-verb compound 44 noun as modifier 46 definite 2, 9, 37 indefinite 9, 37 modified 34, 35, 39 phrase 34, 35, 37 quantified 9, 37 specific 9 object clause 20 direct 9 generic 38, 39 indirect 9, 40 of verb-verb compound 42, 43 specific 38, 39 transposed 9 or 21 passive construction 11 potential form 44 preposition cóng Ң 52 in the passive construction 11 pronoun as modifier 46 qù এ 4 quantity 37 question A-not-A structure 18, 20 alternative 20, 21 indirect 20 manner and degree 45 shì . . . de ᰃ . . . ⱘ pattern 29 with interrogative words 19 yes/no 18 yes/no of V-le њ 28 question particle ma ৫ 18 question words 19

Index reference

definite 37

indefinite 37

of location 36

rènshi 䅸䆚 58

rúguI/yàoshì . . . jiù . . . བᵰ/

㽕ᰃ . . . ህ . . . 12

sentence

complex 15, 20–21

compound 12–14, 16–17

existence 2

simple 1–11, 18–19

shì . . . de ᰃ . . . ⱘ 29, 30

shíshíkèkè ᯊᯊࠏࠏ 27

simultaneous actions

. . . de shíhou, . . . zhèngzài . . . . . . ⱘᯊ‫ ׭‬, . . . ℷ೼ . . . 15 yìbiAn(r) . . . yìbiAn(r) . . . 䖍 ‫ ܓ‬. . . 䖍 ‫ ܓ‬. . . 15 some

yìxiB ѯ 49

yIude ᳝ⱘ 49

yIuxiB ᳝ѯ 49

subject non-specific 2, 37

specific 2, 37

with definite reference 2, 37

subjunctive mood 12

suCrán . . . kGshì . . . 㱑✊ . . . ৃᰃ . . . 14

there is/are 2

these

zhèixiB 䖭ѯ 37, 49

those

nèixiB 䙷ѯ 37, 49

time

after V-dào ࠄ 33

before adverbs cái ᠡ and jiù ህ 31

chronological (-when) 5, 22, 24

durational (-spent) 5, 22, 24

in sentence 24

in the bF ᡞ construction 10

order 22, 23

phrase 22, 23, 25, 26, 27

verb

action 9, 38

cognitive 9, 58

duplicated 8, 33, 38, 45

emotion 9

existence 2, 9

intransitive 9, 38, 45

motion 9, 43

phrase 38

transitive 9, 38, 41, 42

when/while 15, 25

word order 3, 4, 5, 10, 24, 31

xiAn . . . zài . . . ránhòu . . . ‫ ܜ‬. . . ‫ ݡ‬. . . ✊ৢ . . . 16

yìdiFn(r) ⚍ ‫ ܓ‬38, 47 yìhuHr Ӯ‫ ܓ‬38 yC . . . jiù . . . . . . ህ . . . 17, 54

yHqián ҹࠡ 26

yIu ᳝

verb 2

yIu . . . zhème/nème . . . ᳝ . . .

䖭М/䙷М . . . 7

yIu yìdiFn(r) ᳝ ⚍ ‫ ܓ‬47 zài ೼ location phrase 2, 3, 4, 5

verb 2

zhCdào ⶹ䘧 20, 58

zhHyào . . . jiù . . . া㽕 . . . ህ . . . 54

193