Specialised Languages in the Global Village : A Multi-Perspective Approach [1 ed.] 9781443831048, 9781443829090

Citation preview

Specialised Languages in the Global Village

Specialised Languages in the Global Village: A Multi-Perspective Approach

Edited by

Carmen Pérez-Llantada and Maida Watson

Specialised Languages in the Global Village: A Multi-Perspective Approach, Edited by Carmen Pérez-Llantada and Maida Watson This book first published 2011 Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2011 by Carmen Pérez-Llantada and Maida Watson and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-2909-9, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-2909-0

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ................................................................................... vii Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 Carmen Pérez-Llantada and Maida Watson Part I. The Socio-cultural Impact of Globalisation on Specialised Languages Chapter One................................................................................................. 9 English as a Lingua Franca of Business: Issues and Challenges Gibson R. Ferguson Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 27 Social Entrepreneurship and Community Service Learning: Building Sustainable Non-profits and Language Programs Annie Abbott Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 47 The Dynamics of Shared Quality Values in Language Education and Local Endeavours in Times of Change Laura Muresan Part II. The Rhetorical View of Specialised Languages: Effective Communication in Intercultural Contexts Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 79 Globalisation in the Legal Field: Adopting and Adapting International Commercial Arbitration Rules Maurizio Gotti Chapter Five ............................................................................................ 103 Complaining in the Business World: Email Interaction Miguel Ruiz-Garrido and Ana Mª Saorín-Iborra



vi

Table of Contents

Chapter Six ............................................................................................... 127 Communication for Maritime Purposes: A Survey-based Study Lieve Vangehuchten, Willy Van Parys and Alison Noble Part III. Discourse Practices, Disciplinary Communities and the Construction of Professional Identities Chapter Seven........................................................................................... 155 Beyond Cupcakes and Computers: Foreign Languages and Entrepreneurship Maida Watson Chapter Eight............................................................................................ 171 Languages for Specific Purposes: Strategies for Finding Common Ground in Academia and Business Christine Uber Grosse Chapter Nine............................................................................................ 187 A Community of Practice of Business and Foreign Language Faculty Mary E. Risner Part IV. The Impact of Globalisation on Languages for Special Purposes: Reflections on Language Instruction and Language Policy Suggestions Chapter Ten .............................................................................................. 217 Separating the Wood from the Trees: Methodologically Speaking in ESP Instruction Today Sonsoles Sánchez-Reyes Chapter Eleven ........................................................................................ 239 Putting Strategy into ESP Materials Development Christine B. Feak Chapter Twelve ....................................................................................... 261 Intercultural Competence and its Complementary Role in Language Education Stefanie Stadler Contributors.............................................................................................. 287 Index........................................................................................................ 293

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The publication of this volume was fully funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MICINN, Acción Complementaria FFI2009-05606-E/FILO), and is the outcome of the 1st International Seminar on LanguagesʊA Global Approach held on 5-6 June 2009 at the University of Salamanca in Ávila (Spain). The seminar was co-organised by the University of Zaragoza (Spain), Florida International University (USA) and the University of Salamanca in Ávila (Spain). It was also sponsored by the InterLAE research group at the University of Zaragoza (Spain), the Vicerrectorate of Research at the University of Zaragoza (Spain) and by CIBER-FIU (Center for International Business Education and Research, Florida International University, USA). We are most grateful to this national and international institutional support as it has made possible the compilation and publication of the present volume. Finally, we would also like to thank Cambridge Scholars Publishing for their interest and readiness in making this research volume possible.



INTRODUCTION SPECIALISED LANGUAGES AND GLOBALISATION CARMEN PÉREZ-LLANTADA AND MAIDA WATSON UNIVERSITY OF ZARAGOZA (SPAIN) AND FLORIDA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY (USA)

The status of LSP (Languages for Specialised Purposes) in the global expansion of social activities with the aim of operating internationally has been one ongoing central issue of scholarly debate for the past decade. It has raised concern on multiple theoretical and practical aspects related to LSP, namely, modes of communication practice in different professional and institutional domains, acquisition and mastery of communicative competence in foreign languages, development of both linguistic and cultural awareness, and responsiveness to international and cross-cultural communication. Specialised languages in the global village. A multiperspective approach is a collection of essays that assesses how the phenomenon of globalisation has problematised and will certainly keep on problematising intercultural communication within specialised communities of practice. Unquestionably, modern languages play a prominent role in this scenario, with English being, to date, the established lingua franca for international communication worldwide. The multi-perspective approach to the topic of this volume is grounded on the tenets of applied linguistics in the 21st century as it basically reflects the emergent, though already crucial, sociocultural flowsʊ increasing interdisciplinarity, plurality, and diversity: (…) challenges to the notion of unitary disciplines illuminate the character of applied linguistics, marked as it is by diversity, plurality and lack of an overarching single theory and set of procedures. Applied linguistics occupies essentially that pluricentrist position characteristic of the

2

Introduction postmodern intellectual condition. It is this which best makes applied linguistics adaptive to change, resilient, and accommodative of contradiction, and positions it to address the challenges of new issues and problems in language and its use. (Candlin 1999, 79)

As a well-established branch of applied linguistics, LSP addresses from both research and pedagogical perspectives the four strategic areas already envisaged by Candlin at the turn of the third millennium: i) multilingualism, ii) pragmatics and communication, iii) learning styles, and iv) language assessment. In seeking to contribute to these areas of enquiry, the volume captures a range of perspectives on the way the use of languages for specialised communication is affected by the globalisation phenomenon. It examines the evolving nature of modern languages for specialised purposes in a social context characterised by increasing multilingualism and cross-cultural values. It also provides documented and challenging claims on the way languages, particularly English, are being used in the second decade of the 21st century in specialised knowledge-domains. Further, it raises concern towards cultural differences and the way these emerge in the spoken and written practices of different professional communities. The edition of the volume draws substantial inspiration from the ongoing applied linguistic research conducted by the InterLAE research group at the University of Zaragoza within the national research project “Generic integrity in academic and professional communication: An analysis of genres and their correlation with the discourse practices and disciplinary cultures of different professional communities”, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (project code FFI200909792). This edition is a contribution to this project. Like the project, the edition nurtures from the principles of genre theory and applied discourse analysis (Swales 1990, Bhatia 1993, 2002) in order to address the theme of LSP and globalisation taking the three perspectives proposed by Bhatia (2004, xv) to understand the ‘real world of written discourse’: the ‘world of reality’, the ‘world of analysis’, and the ‘world of applications’. In an attempt to capture the ‘world of reality’, Part I of the volume, THE SOCIO-CULTURAL IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION ON SPECIALISED LANGUAGES, tackles the complex, changing, and often problematic dynamics of the world of reality. Gibson R. Ferguson’s opening chapter illustrates the standardisation of communication practices in a particular professional context, that of transnational business corporations. In doing so, he discusses the effects of multiculturalism on the communication practices of this professional setting. His documented discussion on the notions of standardness and correctness norms paves the way to offering

Specialised Languages and Globalisation

3

both constructive guidelines for teaching business English to non-native English speakers and insightful suggestions for research in English Lingua Franca (EFL) in the business context. In Chapter 2, Annie Abbott describes the unprecedented challenges and opportunities for language problems as a result of the global economic crisis. Specifically, Abbot explains how teaching social entrepreneurship content with community service learning pedagogy (CSL) can be one part of a language programme’s response to the current social demands. In Chapter 3, Laura Muresan approaches the way educational exigencies concerned with quality learning are affecting the domain of specialised languages in the present times. Muresan delves into the socio-cultural impact of language education in the globalisation era, and describes current interests in fulfilling governments’ exigencies for quality assurance in language programmes. Part II of the volume, THE RHETORICAL VIEW OF SPECIALISED LANGUAGES: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION IN INTERCULTURAL CONTEXTS, is devoted to the ‘world of analysis’ and brings new insights into the adoption of culturally oriented perspectives in LSP communication. The underlying conception of the three chapters of Part II is the rhetorical view of genres as social actions (see Miller 1984). In Chapter 4 Maurizio Gotti describes the challenges faced by communities of practice in the field of legal Englishʊmore specifically, that of international commercial arbitration. The author discusses how cross-cultural communication calls for the need for harmonising procedures in order to achieve common understanding in transnational communication. Relying on discourse and genre analysis his chapter explains the specific adaptations carried out in the ‘localisation’ process of the above mentioned harmonisation procedures. In Chapter 5, Miguel Ruiz-Garrido and Ana Mª Saorín-Iborra take the case of computer mediated communication (CMC) in the domain of tourism to explore different aspects of genre construction. Using a corpus of emails from corporate companies the authors examine the pragmatics of intercultural communication and discuss implications for the teaching of the written/spoken features of hybrid genres such as emails. Chapter 6, by Lieve Vangehuchten, Willy Van Parys, and Alison Noble, provide a clear-cut picture of multilingualism in the global village, with a particular focus on the sociolinguistic realities of English for maritime purposes. The chapter enquires into the linguistic and intercultural features of maritime communication that hinder or aid the quality of work onboard a merchant ship. In examining the factors that characterise (un)successful communication, the authors bring to the fore the importance of intercultural communication involving the use of a standard phraseology

4

Introduction

ʊin the case of the maritime sector, the use of SMCP (Standard Marine Communication Phrases). Parts III and IV endorse Bhatia’s conception of the ‘world of applications’. Part III, DISCOURSE PRACTICES, DISCIPLINARY COMMUNITIES AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF PROFESSIONAL IDENTITIES, offers comprehensive linguistic insights into the discourse of professional, domain-specific communities and hence, into the communication practices and procedures operating in those communities. In Chapter 7, Maida Watson examines different possibilities for creating start ups related to foreign languages in order to contend that their existence and growth during the last twenty years is a reflection of the globalisation of many aspects of industry, commerce and education. Her examination neatly illustrates how foreign language entrepreneurs do meet the growing demands of a globalised market and help professionals communicate across different countries and cultures overcoming the language barriers. In Chapter 8, Christine Uber Grosse addresses the not uncommon dilemma faced by LSP instructors, that is, they are expected to become familiarised with both the domain-specific knowledge of the specialised field and the particular professional identity their LSP instruction targets at. In an attempt to bridge the academic and specialised worlds, as she puts it, Grosse recommends that instructors get to know the discourse practices and community procedures of the professional field. For a gained understanding of the profession, the author proposes ways to build relationships between LSP instructors and faculty so as to understand each other’s culture, develop self-confidence and continue learning as they build relationships of mutual benefit. Instantiating ways to build such relationships, Mary E. Risner’s contribution also emphasises the importance of establishing ties between the study of language, culture, and business. She describes an interesting professional development model for a Community of Practice (CoP) intended to encourage collaboration between business and foreign language faculty through the use of emerging technologies. In foregrounding the value of situated learning ʊfocused real-world preparation of ‘globally competent’ studentsʊthis cooperative model is described as a suitable way to provide educators with sustainable, long-term resources and tools as well as first-hand knowledge of the professional culture. The contributors to Part IV, THE IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION ON LANGUAGES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES: REFLECTIONS ON LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION AND LANGUAGE POLICY SUGGESTIONS, argue for the interdisciplinary applicability of LSP (i.e. Bhatia’s ‘world of applications’), and for the intellectual challenges that both aspects pose to foreign

Specialised Languages and Globalisation

5

language educators in general and LSP instructors in particular. In Chapter 10, Sonsoles Sánchez-Reyes addresses current trends in foreign and LSP language teaching and learning approaches, and lays emphasis on multicultural awareness and the variegating cultural contexts where the teaching/learning of languages for specialised purposes takes place. Sánchez-Reyes examines current classroom trends and methodologies in LSP today as a response to the shifting demands in the social and discourse practices of different professional contexts. In stressing the relationship between language learning and cultureʊsince the former cannot be taught in a vacuum without reference to the culture it is ascribed toʊthis author discusses the pedagogical dilemmas resulting from the inevitable crossing of boundaries across local, national and international cultures in the global context. Putting emphasis on the task-based methodology reported in SánchezReyes’ chapter, in Chapter 11 Christine B. Feak addresses an often disregarded view of materials development for LSP. Drawing on her extensive experience as a materials writer, Feak offers a minute account of the process of planning, developing, piloting, and eventually validating tailor-made materials for the learning of English in domain-specific fields. Essentially, she tackles the kind of decisions and considerations that lie beneath the design of LSP materials. In the closing chapter of this volume, Chapter 12, Stefanie Stadler brings to the fore attested shortcomings in the educational context of foreign languages, particularly those concerning cultural communicative norms, a prerequisite to successful foreign language use. Stadler offers a panoramic view of foreign language education as well as future directions and language policy suggestions to suitably teach/train non-native English students in both linguistic and cultural competences. Extensively documented on theoretical work in linguistic pragmatics, this author advocates a reconciliation of cultures that may yield a more integrated view of languages and cultures for effective intercultural communication in the current global era. In sum, this multi-perspective collection of essays provides new insights into the way foreign languages and, in particular, English as a lingua franca, eventually make cross-cultural communication a complex and multi-faceted topic for scholarly exploration. The edition seeks to target researchers in languages for specialised purposes, specialists in the fields of discourse analysis, sociolinguistics and scholars in the area of rhetoric and composition. It also targets at language professionals (professional translators, language editors and language advisors) in the fields of specialised academic/professional communication. LSP instructors

6

Introduction

and foreign language teachers as well as teachers of languages for specific purposes will find informed guidelines and useful suggestions for their everyday classroom activities. We therefore hope that the volume brings to its readers insightful scholarly views on a wide range of applied linguistic and educational topics related to the LSP field. Considered holistically, the contributions of this edited volume reflect in various different ways the effects, challenges and courses of action resulting from discourse variability in frames of social action, from the construction of professional identities across cultural contexts and, taking a broader perspective, from the evolving nature of foreign languages in tune with the signs of the times. As one of the contributors to this volume notes, on a worldwide level English is perceived as having the highest utility and exchange values (Coulmas 1991). Like English, other foreign languages adapt and evolve in response to the current transnational communicative demands. Indeed, nobody would deny that the utility and exchange value of foreign languages in the contemporary global scene open up many avenues for further theoretical and experimental research in LSP.

References Bhatia, Vijay K. 1993. Analysing genre. Language use in professional settings. London: Longman. —. 2002. Applied genre analysis: A multi-perspective model. Ibérica 4: 319. —. 2004. Worlds of written discourse. London: Continuum. Candlin, Christopher. 1999. Notes for a definition of applied linguistics in the 21st century. AILA Review 14: 79-81. Coulmas, Florian. 1991. The language trade in the Asian Pacific. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 2/1: 1-27. Miller, Carolyn. R. 1984. Genre as social action. Quarterly Journal of Speech 70: 151-167. Swales, John M. 1990. Genre analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

PART I. THE SOCIO-CULTURAL IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION ON SPECIALISED LANGUAGES

CHAPTER ONE ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA OF BUSINESS: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES GIBSON R. FERGUSON UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD (UK)

Abstract. This chapter opens with a review of what we know about the extent of the use of English in the international business world and then considers the strategies adopted to facilitate communication within transnational business corporations. These range from the formal adoption of English as a corporate language, a not unproblematic solution, to more informal ad hoc coping strategies. This leads into a discussion of the notion of English as lingua franca in business communication and the norms that might be adopted in teaching business English, if not those of L1 standard English. The chapter concludes with some suggestions for teaching English as a lingua franca in business contexts.

1. Introduction: English as an international language of business A wealth of data attests to the fact that English has become a dominant lingua franca in the world of business playing a key role not just in the internal corporate communication of transnational corporations but in external communication with customers and shareholders. Crystal (2003), for example, claims that over 90% of European companies use English as a working language, while Erling and Walton (2007, 39) in a survey of 7 Berlin-based subsidiaries of multinational corporations found that English was widely used alongside German in a variety of functions and had become ‘a necessary basic qualification’ not just for top management as previously but also for lower levels of the corporate hierarchy. Kingsley (2009), meanwhile, reports how two international banks in Luxembourg, who have adopted English as corporate working language, now require English language skills in new recruits. In similar fashion Louhiala-

10

Chapter One

Salminen et al. (2005) observe that pan-Nordic corporations like PaperGiant and Skandibank,1 increasingly use English as corporate language in place of what they call ‘Scandinavian’ despite a largely Swedish or Finnish workforce. From Malaysia Nair-Venugopal (2001, 47) describes how local varieties of English are commonly used in private sector businesses and thereby reminds us that the variety of English used in many international business contexts is often rather different from the standard British or US English modelled in business English instructional materials. Among the multinational companies (MNCs) known or reported to have adopted English as a corporate language are such well-known names as Olivetti, Siemens, Daimler-Chrysler, Avensis,2 EADS, Kone, Deutsche Bank, Stora Enso, and Nissan-Renault. It is important, however, to qualify this picture of a seemingly ubiquitous English if only because the complexity of the business world makes it necessary to distinguish between local, national and international companies, between company internal and external communication with their different addressees, and between formal written and the more informal spoken genres of business communication, all of which variables influence the degree to which English is used with whom. Turning first to the issue of company size, it is quite apparent that in many companies of lesser size than the typical MNC English is still relatively little used. Vandermeeren’s (1999, 280) study of written corporate communication, for example, reveals that French and German companies tend not to correspond in English, with German companies preferring to use German in communication with Dutch companies. A further example comes from Loos’s (2007, 49) study of a Dutch company operating holiday centers in Germany, where a combination of Dutch and German was used on a pragmatic basis depending on the nationality of the customer, the customer’s language preference and the plurilingual language skills of the relevant company employees. It is quite likely, then, that language choices in corporate contexts are in a substantial proportion of cases locally negotiated on a pragmatic basis with regard paid to the language skills of the particular interactants. Moving on to the internal/external communication distinction, one can identify the company annual report as a key written genre addressed to an external audience, and one where the language used is a significant indicator of how the company wishes to position itself in the corporate world. Of particular interest in this connection is Jeanjean et al.’s (2008) 1 2

These, of course, are pseudonyms. In a few of these MNCs English is a joint rather than sole corporate language.

English as a Lingua Franca of Business: Issues and Challenges

11

large-scale survey of the use of English in external financial reporting. Surveying 3,994 firms in 27 non-Anglophone countries, they found that 50.8% of the sample issued an English language version of the annual report, and that company size, degree of internationalisation of sales, diffusion of ownership were among the factors predictive of English language publicationʊwith ownership concentration, the size of the local capital market, language distance between English and the local language being negatively related. Here again, we find limits to the penetration of English with the size of the company and the degree of internationalisation being particularly predictive of greater use of the language. Finally, even in MNCs that have adopted English as a corporate language one will not necessarily find that English is in widespread use at all levels of the corporate hierarchy and in all genres for the simple reason that MNCsʊwith their subsidiaries stretching across the worldʊare de facto multilingual organisations containing personnel with a variety of language skills, not all of whom are proficient in English. Thus, more often than not, English is confined to particular interactions, genres and individuals. This is illustrated in Kingsley’s (2009) study of banks in Luxembourg, which shows that English is common in written reports and emails, while other languagesʊFrench, German, Swedishʊare more frequently utilised alongside English in spoken communication (e.g. meetings and telephone calls) and especially in informal talk. Nickerson’s (1999, 48) case study of the emails of six managers in the Dutch division of a MNC shows, meanwhile, that email communication outside the division tends to be in English as required by corporate policy but in Dutch within the division except where a non-Dutch speaker required access to information or where the purpose was to report officially. Here one can again see a differentiation between internal communication within one’s division and external communication with other divisions of the company. Nekvapil and Nekula’s (2006, 320) study of a Siemens subsidiary in the Czech Republic also makes clear that, while English is the official corporate language, a variety of languages is used within the subsidiary: Czech among the blue-collar workers, German or English between white collar Czech workers and foreign employees, and between subsidiary and headquarters. A possible generalisation here is that English is more frequently used in formal communications, in writing, and at top management levels while other languages have greater use in informal spoken interactions and further down the corporate hierarchy. Further empirical studies would be needed to confirm this hypothesis, however.

12

Chapter One

2. Language management in companies Multilingualism within MNCs, combined with the often limited plurilingual skills of employees, can give rise to what is perceived as a ‘language barrier’, remedies for which are often discussed in the business management literature (see e.g. Marschan-Piekkari et al. 1999a, 1999b, Charles and Marschan-Piekkari 2002, Feely and Harzing 2003, Fredriksson et al. 2006, Harzing and Feely 2007, Harzing et al. 2010). Of these, one of the more interesting is Harzing et al. (2010), who, drawing on a study of 8 German and Japanese corporate headquarters and subsidiaries, document as many as 12 language management strategies. These cover a spectrum from informal, ad hoc, individual coping strategies (e.g. switching away from telephone to email communication, code-switching, adopting a more comprehensible communicative style with plentiful repetition, summary and exemplification) to more structured solutions usually involving the selection of a single corporate language, typically English, to build a corporate identity and facilitate formal reporting. This, however, as several observers note (e.g. Charles and Marschan-Piekkari 2002, 17), is far from a complete solution since many employees lack the necessary English skills and not uncommonly have difficulties understanding each others’ Englishesʊnative speakers’ included. To address such problems many companies (e.g. Kone, Siemens) invest substantially in language training combining this with recruitment processes that emphasise language skills, particularly English. A different type of language management strategy mentioned by Harzing et al. (2010) is the use of ‘bridge individuals’, that is individuals with the right level of language skills who become ‘language nodes’ through which communication between subsidiaries and with headquarters is channelled. A difficulty here, however, is that power tends to concentrate in the hands of such linking persons to a degree not warranted by the formal corporate status, and in extreme cases the outcome may be a ‘shadow structure’ that subverts the formal corporate hierarchy. Individuals with limited English skills may also start to feel marginalised and disempowered. Other strategies reported include the hire of external interpreters/translators, the main disadvantage of which, other than the expense, is their lack of specialised content knowledge, and/or the use of machine translation though this was reported by most of Harzing et al.’s (2010) respondents to be of extremely limited use. To conclude, there seems to be no easy or complete solution to the ‘language barrier’ cited in the literature. The adoption of a corporate language, even when accompanied by language training, seems to rarely

English as a Lingua Franca of Business: Issues and Challenges

13

be a fully effective solution and is thus often supplemented by micro-level practices in which individuals carefully modulate their communication so as to accomplish the task in hand.

3. Business English research and teaching Despite the qualifications that we have had to make above, English remains the most dominant single language of business, and one largely used as a lingua franca between non-native users. Given this dominance, the economic importance of the business sector, and the number of individuals involved, it is hardly surprising that business English has emerged as one of the most important branches of English for Specific Purposes, well served by a flourishing market of textbooks, materials and innumerable courses. Writing in 1996, St. John argues that business English teaching is primarily materials rather than research-driven. But the picture has changed somewhat since then. Research has gathered pace and there is now a substantial empirical literature on business communication in English, very largely based, it has to be said, on discourse and genre approaches but also informed, though perhaps to a lesser degree, by pragmatic and intercultural frameworks. The written genres most commonly investigated are company emails (e.g. Louhiala-Salminen et al. 2005, Kankaaranta 2006); business letters (e.g. Bhatia 2004, Zhu 2004, Gillaerts and Gotti 2005), and promotional genres such as advertisements (e.g. Gerritsen et al. 2007). Turning to speaking, where there has been a noticeable heightening of interest over recent years, the genres particularly well-investigated include business meetings (e.g. Poncini 2002, Harris and Bargiela-Chiappini 2003, Rogerson-Revell 2007, 2008) and business negotiations (e.g. Planken 2005). Meanwhile, there has also been a growth of interest in intercultural aspects of business communication though culture in this literature is sometimes rather narrowly and simplistically conceived in terms of reified national cultures that are then held to influence communication strategies and patterns. Alongside this body of research on business communication, there is also increased reference to English as a lingua franca in business contexts (or BELF, Business English as a Lingua Franca: see e.g. LouhialaSalminen et al. 2005) but thus far there seems to have been relatively little impact of either on business English teaching materials, and relatively little further research on the lexico-grammatical or phonological features of BELF. However, because most use of English in business contexts is between second language users (e.g. Korean and German executives are very likely to speak English with each other), and because English is, if

14

Chapter One

anything, increasing its dominance in international business communication, a discussion of the full ramifications of the emergence of English as a preeminent lingua franca of business communication cannot be long be deferred. Accordingly, the remainder of this chapter focuses on this issue.

4. English as a Lingua Franca in business: conceptual and teaching implications The fact that by any reckoning a large proportion of the use of English is between bilingual second language users rather than so-called ‘native’ and ‘non-native’ users has quite rightly led to a questioning of the dominance of L1 British or American standard norms in teaching. And, while the debate has thus far mainly focused on general communication, it is of equal, if not greater, relevance to business communication given the importance of non-Anglophone economies (e.g. China, Japan, Korea, Germany, France) in world business and the inherently multilingual/ multicultural character of contemporary transnational business corporations. The principal arguments, as developed by leading English Lingua Franca (ELF) scholars such as Seidlhofer (2001, 2004, 2006) and Jenkins (2000, 2006a, 2006b, 2007), for giving recognition to a legitimate, deanglicised, lingua franca variety of English (ELF) substantially independent of L1 standard norms are that (a) English cannot qualify as a truly international language if native speaker varieties (i.e. standard British or American English) remain the exclusive norms of authoritative usage, and (b) that bilingual users deserve to be identified not as deficient users of a British or American standard English but as competent authoritative users of their own self-sufficient variety. Applied to the field of teaching business English, these ideas immediately prompt questions regarding what model of English business English teachers should teach, and whether they should adopt a much more relaxed stance as to what is ‘correct’ and allowable. This, in turn requires, consideration of further issues, central among which is whether ELFʊor BELFʊis an emerging variety of English (a code) or a particular use or function of English, or both.

4.1. The status of ELFʊor BELFʊas a variety It is widely recognised, of course, that there are many varieties of English ʊhence the term ‘new Englishes’, or ‘outer circle Englishes’ following Kachru’s (1985) distinction between inner, outer and expanding circles of English. There are, however, significant differences between the post-

English as a Lingua Franca of Business: Issues and Challenges

15

colonial, outer circle Englishes (e.g. Malaysian English) and ELF. For example, whereas the new Englishes mentioned above are the products of colonisation and have emerged in former British colonies, ELF is a more recent formation of globalisation and not confined to any particular territory. Again, while the new post-colonial Englishes are spoken by relatively stable, national communities of users, this is less clearly true of ELF whose users are highly heterogeneous in national background, L1, purpose and proficiency. Moreover, unlike the new Englishes, ELF does not appear to elicit strong emotional attachments: it is, as House (2006, 88) remarks, “a language for communication rather than identification”. On the structural plane, meanwhile, ELF does not exhibit the stability and regularity of outer circle Englishes. For example, in a study comprising 21 ELF speakers Breiteneder (2005) found that in no less than 80% of instances the 3rd person singular present tense ‘s’ morpheme was supplied in conformity with standard British English. Meierkord (2004, 128-9) remarks, meanwhile, that ELF is “a syntactically heterogeneous form of English” and that “it may well be that ELF never achieves a stable or even standardised form”. Thus, if we take a) subjective identification and b) a degree of structural consistency and stability as criteria for identifying a new variety, it may be too early to assert the existence of an independent, discrete, stable, systematic ELF code. But caution is needed here. None of the above means that an ELF variety will not emerge in the future. Most varieties start from small variations and it may be that we are still in the early stages of the formation of a variety. Relevant here also is the fact that ELF research, drawing on the VOICE corpus,3 has already identified a number of recurring lexico-grammatical commonalities in ELF discourse, features that pose no difficulties in communication even while ungrammatical in standard English. These would include: • variable use of third person present tense ‘s’ morpheme e.g. He work in Siemens

• levelling of distinction between ‘who’ and ‘which’ e.g. The manager which resigned....

3

VOICE stands for the Vienna-Oxford International Corpus of English.

16

Chapter One

• use of invariant question tags e.g. He knows they haven’t paid yet, isnt’it?

• levelling of distinction between mass and count nouns e.g. They ordered new furnitures

• divergent use of prepositions e.g. They discussed about the matter ….

Similar progress has been made in the pronunciation domain, where Jenkins (2000) has identified what she calls the Lingua Franca Core (LFC), a set of features which diverge from British pronunciation models yet have been found empirically to be internationally intelligible. Excluded from the core because they are unnecessary for international intelligibility are such traditionally taught features as: • the (British) dental fricatives /θ / and /ð/ • weak forms (i.e. ‘the use of schwa instead of full vowel sounds in, say, ‘to’, ‘from’, ‘was’) • stress-timed rhythm Thus, if there is as yet no delimited ELF variety, there is at least a measure of agreement regarding a cluster of features commonly found in ELF discourse which present no difficulties in communication even though divergent from L1 standard Englishes. A potential pedagogical implication is that these features should at least not be proscribed and perhaps even taught as allowable variants in contexts of ELF interaction. But here there arises the further question as to whether recurring features considered typical of ELF discourse should be treated as errors or variants.

4.2. Features of ELF usage: errors or variants? Utterances such as the following are not uncommon in ELF interactions in the business world: • and if I may give you an advice, I suggest that you should be much more concerned with the solving of the real problems of the European community…. • ‘They didn’t interest in my work.

English as a Lingua Franca of Business: Issues and Challenges

17

• I am working here since 1989.

But are these, or other similar, utterances to be treated pedagogically as erroneous? Measured against British standard English, they are certainly deviant and might be taken to signal incomplete acquisition, in which case they could be regarded as erroneous. Matters are not so simple, however, for precisely at stake is whether there is, or should be, any orientation to British or American standard English in ELF interactions, interactions where speakers are beginning to remake English according to their own purposes and audiences independent of native speaker overview/control. We also need to reconsider the very notion of correctness and its domain of application, and ask what we mean in saying an utterance is correct or incorrect. Here the notion of standardness is crucial, for correctness is conventionally defined by reference to standard English. But this itself is as much an ideological as an empirical concept, with various commentators such as Crowley (2003) disputing the existence of a standard spoken English given the well-known and significant differences between the lexico-grammar of spoken and written English (see e.g. McCarthy and Carter 2002, 70). There is, by contrast, much greater agreement regarding the less variable written language, where the notion of standardness, particularly of morpho-syntax, has greater purchase and clarity. From this it follows that is much easier to determine what is non-standard, and hence possibly erroneous, in relation to written than to spoken English. A second aspect of correctness is that it is a notion of relevance and applicability principally in formal language teaching contexts where the focus is on form. Outside these contexts in everyday situations, or indeed in business communication, what matters is intelligibility, clarity, getting the task in hand accomplished rather than formal correctness. Finally, the conventional SLA concept of error, that which is incorrect, may be appropriate applied to the speech of individuals, speech that is punctuated by individual idiosyncrasies, but is problematic applied to features that are frequent and widely distributed in a language community. Bearing all these considerations in mind, we would have to say that whether the utterances cited above are erroneous or not is substantially a matter of context. In particular, it depends on: a) whether we are dealing with speech or writing. Much greater latitude is accorded to spoken utterances. b) whether the grammatical features in question (e.g. use of the present progressive in place of present perfect) are frequent and

18

Chapter One

widespread in ELF interactions. This, of course, is an empirical question. c) whether the relevant interaction is taking place in a ELF context between second language users or is located, say, in Manchester and is taking place between a native speaker and second language user. In the former case the norms of L1 standard English can more comfortably be regarded as in suspension. d) whether the features in question are acceptable to ELF expert users. One of the difficulties with this last criterion is thatʊgiven that ‘not anything goes’ in ELF (Jenkins 2006b)ʊwe are not yet sure what is acceptable in ELF terms and what is not. Nor do we have the means as yet to distinguish reliably between the expert and the non-expert ELF user without implicitly or explicitly having recourse to native L1 standards. Further empirical investigation may help here but at present the situation remains somewhat ambiguous: the norms of L1 standard English no longer seem especially relevant, especially in the case of the spoken language but on the other hand alternative ELF norms have yet to stabilise and become widely accepted. Such a conclusion unfortunately is of limited practical use to the hard pressed teacher who has to make immediate judgements on acceptability. Thus, returning to the example utterances above I would be inclined in a classroom context to let them pass as acceptable ELF variants but to comment that they would probably not be acceptable in writing or in sociolinguistic contexts where L1 standard norms were in focus.

4.3. ELF and codification One of the ways in which it might be possible to establish what is or is not allowable in ELF would be to codify a set of ELF norms through the provision of authoritative descriptions and guides. This has potential for legitimising and making feasible the teaching of an alternative variety, distinct from the L1 standard form of the language, thus affording bilingual second language users the opportunity to participate in international business and scientific communication on a more equal basis. There are, however, significant risks and disadvantages. The effect of codification is to ‘fix’ or stabilise a variety, providing for uniformity. But ELF is still an emergent, inchoate variety, and to codify prematurely might be to remove the fluidity, the openness as communicative practice that is one of its more attractive features. It might short-circuit longer term processes of sedimentation and stabilisation and put in place an artificial

English as a Lingua Franca of Business: Issues and Challenges

19

construct that does not engage the loyalty of users. Codification of itself does not confer prestige nor win widespread acceptance. The history of linguistics/language planning is replete with standardisations and codifications that have withered through failing to gain the acceptance of those they are designed to serve. To flourish a newly codified variety needs the support of political authority and the relevant community of language users but, as attitudinal data suggest (see Timmis 2002; Jenkins 2007), this remains uncertain in the case of ELF. Moreover, intra-language hierarchies are a persistent feature of language ideology, and it might be that, far from conferring legitimacy, codification would encourage unfavourable comparisons to be made between ELF and the L1 standard form, with ELF regarded, misleadingly, as an inferior, ‘reduced’ variety. A final risk (see Elder and Davies 2006) is that in codifying an ELF variety one may be constructing an alternative set of norms, but ones with the same potential to exclude, even stigmatise, non-standard ELF users in ways not very dissimilar to how L1 standard English has at times served to exclude and stigmatise the non-standard speaker. Codification may in the end be necessary if ELF is to be taught formally as a code in addition to functioning as a de facto form of communicative practice, as languaging. But, as we have argued, this does not seem likely in the foreseeable future and should in any case be approached circumspectly with due regard to the potential drawbacks. This does not mean, however, that we can afford to set aside the whole notion of ELF as impractical, unproven and premature. The sociolinguistic reality of ELF, the frequency with which bilingual second languages users utilise English as an international lingua franca is such that it compels attention to the possible teaching implications, and it is to this that we turn in conclusion.

5. Conclusion: Pedagogic implications for BELF The following points are offered not as prescriptions but as suggestions as to how one might proceed pedagogically to take account of the very prevalent use of English as a lingua franca in business contexts. First, in teaching BELF, we could recognise that different linguistic norms apply in different sociolinguistic contexts and in different modalities of use. Thus, in formal writing, where there is comparatively little variation, we could accept the applicability of the norms of L1 standard English, as described, for example, in Huddleston and Pullum’s (2002) grammar. Speaking, however, is very different. In informal speech, standardisation is less powerful, less viable, and what counts most is

20

Chapter One

intelligibility to the relevant interlocutors (usually second language ELF users) rather than formal correctness. Thus, such features as the omission of third person singular, present tense ‘s’ or the pluralisation of mass nouns (e.g. ‘advices’) could be treated as recurrent, unremarkable variants rather than as errors. For most BELF interactions it no longer seems useful or appropriate to seek to instill L1 British or American pronunciation norms. More sociolinguistically sensitive, as well as pedagogically manageable, would be to aim at international intelligibility using Jenkins’s 2000 LFC (Lingua Franca Core) as a starting point for the design of a pronunciation syllabus. In teaching business English we cannot entirely neglect formal accuracy, which requires some attention to lexico-grammar. However, assuming that most business English learners have already developed a basic lexico-grammatical competence from their previous studies, it may be preferable to give more attention to effective communication strategies, intercultural competence, genre knowledge and to language skillsʊe.g. listening. Teaching BELF may thus involve some reordering of traditional teaching priorities with greater attention falling on effective communication and somewhat less on lexico-grammatical conformity and correctness. As far as listening is concerned, there is an obvious case for providing exposure to a variety of L2 accents that are likely to be more frequently encountered than British or American ones. Similarly, in business English materials it would be appropriate to incorporate many more examples of successful interaction between bilingual second language users in international lingua franca contexts (see also Feak’s chapter this volume). Representations of native speakers interacting with the second language speakers should not, of course, be excluded, but their frequency reduced in line with the sociolinguistic realities of ELF. In teaching spoken communication skillsʊor skills of interactionʊ one would again advise a greater emphasis on skills of accommodation and flexibility and rather less attention to form. There are implications here, for both ELF second language users and native speakers. The latter, for example, could be encouraged to speak with fewer colloquialisms and to avoid what Seidlhofer (2001) has referred to as ‘unilateral idiomaticity’ in production, that is, the use of idioms that are culture specific or peculiar to the UK or USA. The idiomaticity of the following, for example, could very well present comprehension difficulties in an international business meeting: “you may be creating a rod for the actuaries’ backs…” “we’ll have a second bite at the cherry...”

English as a Lingua Franca of Business: Issues and Challenges

21

Meanwhile, both native and second language users would be well advisedʊas part of developing skills of accommodationʊto listen carefully and ‘tune in’ gradually to speakers with different English accents. To a degree, of course, this may already be happening, for research (see e.g. Poncini 2002, Rogerson-Revell 2008) suggests that international business meetings generally tend to be orderly and effective with participants displaying tolerance for each other’s linguistic idiosyncrasies. Nonetheless, there is no harm in, and potentially much to be gained from, classroom practice in ‘tuning in’ to unfamiliar accents. Teacher education for business English may also need to change in response to the sociolinguistics of English as a lingua franca. In particular, in drawing attention to the sociolinguistic complexities of the use of English worldwide, teacher educators might find it useful to raise awareness that different norms may apply in different situations and that conformity to the norms of L1 standard English may not always be appropriate for all business English learners. That said, teaching ELF or BELF is not, as Seidlhofer (2006) has remarked, a matter of imposing a new set of ELF norms. Rather, once adequately informed, learners can be left to decide for themselves whether they wish, or need, to be taught a variety that conforms to traditional L1 standard norms or alternatively forms and ways of communicating in ELF contexts, or possibly both. The merit of EFL or BELF as a notion is that it does not restrict. Instead it offers a new window on variation within English in a globalising world, variation that is especially relevant in an international business context, and it suggests, but does not command, new avenues for pedagogic innovation. A final point concerns research. As previously remarked, research in business discourse has expanded considerably in recent years though the impact on teaching materials is as yet somewhat uncertain. A good proportion of this research has focused on particular business genres (e.g. letters, emails, company reports, meetings, negotiations) and their discursive features. This leaves room for further complementary research, perhaps using corpus data, on the more formal lexico-grammatical features of spoken interaction in business English contexts, research that would certainly enrich our understanding of BELF.

22

Chapter One

References Bhatia, Vijay K. 2004. Worlds of written discourse: A genre-based view. London: Continuum. Breiteneder, Angelika. 2005. The naturalness of English as a European lingua franca: the case of the third person ‘s’. Vienna English Working Papers 14/2: 3-26. Charles, Mirjaliisa, and Rebecca Marschan-Piekkari. 2002. Language training for enhanced horizontal communication: A challenge for MNCs. Business Communication Quarterly 65/2: 9-29. Crowley, Tony. 2003. Standard English and the politics of language. (2nd edition). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Crystal, David. 2003. English as a global language (2nd edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Elder, Catherine, and Alan Davies. 2006. Assessing English as a lingua franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 26: 282-301. Erling, Elisabeth, and Alan Walton. 2007. English at work in Berlin. English Today 23/1: 32-40. Feely, Alan J., and Anne-Wil Harzing. 2003. Language management in multinational companies. Cross-cultural Management: An International Journal 10/2: 37-52. Fredriksson, Riikka, Wilhelm Barner-Rasmussen, and Rebecca Piekkari. 2006. The multinational corporation as a multilingual organisation. Corporate Communications: An International Journal 11/4: 406-423. Gerritsen, Marinel, Catherine Nickerson, Andreu van Hooft, Frank van Meurs, Ulrike Nederstigt, Marianne Starren, and Rogier Crijns. 2007. English in product advertisements in Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands and Spain. World Englishes 26: 291-315. Gillaerts, Paul, and Maurizio Gotti, eds. 2005. Genre variation in business letters. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Harris, Sandra, and Francesca Bargiela-Chiappini. 2003. Business as a site of language contact. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 23: 155169. Harzing, Anne-Wil, and Alan J. Feely. 2007. The language barrier and its implications for HQ-Subsidiary relationships. Cross-cultural Management: An International Journal 15: 9-61. Harzing, Anne-Wil, Kathrin Köster, and Ulrike Magner. 2010. Babel in business: The language barrier and its solutions in the HQ-subsidiary relationship. Journal of World Business. (accessed February, 20, 2010).

English as a Lingua Franca of Business: Issues and Challenges

23

House, Julianne. 2006. Unity in diversity: English as a lingua franca for Europe. In Reconfiguring Europe: the contributions of Applied Linguistics, eds. Constant Leung, and Jennifer Jenkins, 87-103. London: Equinox. Huddleston, Rodney, and Geoffrey Pullum. 2002. The Cambridge grammar of the English language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jeanjean, Thomas, Cédric Lesage, and Hervé Stolowy. 2008. Why do you speak English (in your annual report)? Les Cahiers de Recherche 904. Paris: HEC. (accessed January 14, 2010). Jenkins, Jennifer. 2000. The phonology of English as an international language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. —. 2006a. Current perspectives on teaching world Englishes and English as a lingua franca. TESOL Quarterly 40/1: 157-8. —. 2006b. Points of view and blind spots: EFL and SLA. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 16/2: 137-62. —. 2007. English as a lingua franca: attitude and identity. Oxford: Oxford University Press Kachru, Braj B. 1985. Standards, codification, and sociolinguistic realism; the English language in the outer circle. In English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and the literatures, eds. Randolph Quirk, and Henry Widdowson, 11-30. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press in association with The British Council. Kankaaranta, Anne. 2006. ‘Hej, Seppo, could you pls comment on this!’ Internal email communication in Lingua Franca English in a multinational company. Business Communication Quarterly 69: 216225. Kingsley, Leilarna. 2009. Explicit and implicit dimensions of language policy in multilingual banks in Luxembourg. Language Problems and Language Planning 35/2: 153-173. Loos, Eugène. 2007. Language policy in an enacted world. Language Problems and Language Planning 31/1: 37-60. Louhiala-Salminen, Leena, Mirjaliisa Charles, and Anne Kankaanranta. 2005. English as a lingua franca in Nordic corporate mergers: Two case companies. English for Specific Purposes 24: 401-421. Marschan-Piekkari, Rebecca, Denice Welch, and Lawrence Welch. 1999a. Adopting a common corporate language: the IHRM implications. International Journal of Human Resource Management 10/3: 377-390.

24

Chapter One

—. 1999b. In the shadow: The impact of language on structure, power and communication in the multinational. International Business Review 8: 421-440. McCarthy, Michael, and Ronald Carter. 2002. Ten criteria for a spoken grammar. In New perspectives on grammar teaching in second language classrooms, eds. Eli Hinkel, and Sandra Fotos, 51-76. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Meierkord, Christiane. 2004. Syntactic variation in interactions across international Englishes. English World-Wide 25/1: 109-32. Nair-Venugopal, Shanta. 2001. The sociolinguistics of choice in Malaysian business meetings. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 152: 21-52. Nekvapil, JiĜí, and Marek Nekula. 2006. On language management in multinational companies in the Czech Republic. Current Issues in Language Planning 7/2-3: 307-327. Nickerson, Catherine. 1999. The use of English in electronic mail in a multinational corporation. In Genres, media and discourses, eds. Francesca Bargiela-Chiappini, and Catherine Nickerson, 35-56. London: Pearson Education. Planken, Brigitte. 2005. Managing rapport in lingua franca sales negotiations: A comparison of professional and aspiring negotiators. English for Specific Purposes 24/4: 381-400. Poncini, Gina. 2002. Investigating discourse at business meetings with multicultural participation. IRAL 40: 345-373. Rogerson-Revell, Pamela. 2007. Using English for international business. English for Specific Purposes 26: 103-120. —. 2008. Participation and performance in international business meetings. English for Specific Purposes 27: 338-360. Seidlhofer, Barbara. 2001. Closing a conceptual gap: the case for the description of English as a lingua franca. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 11/2: 133-58. —. 2004. Research perspectives on teaching English as a lingua franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 24: 209-39. —. 2006. English as a lingua franca in the expanding circle: What it isn’t. In English in the world: Global rules, global roles, eds. Rani Rubdy and Mario Saraceni, 40-50. London: Continuum. St. John, Maggie J. 1996. Business is booming: Business English in the 1990s. English for Specific Purposes 15/1: 3-18. Timmis, Ivor. 2002. Native speaker norms and international English: A classroom view. ELT Journal 56/3: 240-249.

English as a Lingua Franca of Business: Issues and Challenges

25

Vandermeeren, Sonja. 1999. English as a lingua franca in written corporate communication: Findings from a European survey. In Genres, Media and Discourses, eds. Francesca Bargiela-Chiappini, and Catherine Nickerson, 129-152. London: Pearson Education. Zhu, Wei. 2004. Writing in business courses: An analysis of assignment types, their characteristics, and required skills. English for Specific Purposes 23/2: 111-135.

CHAPTER TWO SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND COMMUNITY SERVICE LEARNING: BUILDING SUSTAINABLE NON-PROFITS AND LANGUAGE PROGRAMMES ANNIE ABBOTT UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA-CHAMPAIGN (USA)

Abstract. The non-profit sector, both within the United States and internationally, faces unprecedented challenges—persistent, complex and high-stakes problems need solutions while at the same time the global economic crisis has left these organisations increasingly underfunded and the populations they serve even more vulnerable. Social entrepreneurship has emerged as one solution for nonprofits. The economic crisis, with its attendant budget cuts and increased scrutiny to produce measurable results has also affected higher education’s language programmes. Social entrepreneurship can also apply in this academic context. In this chapter I describe a course on “Spanish and social entrepreneurship.” The course content introduces students to the basic tenets of social entrepreneurship, whose goal is to create economically sustainable non-profits. The course pedagogy utilises community service learning (CSL), and students work in local non-profits that serve recent Spanish-speaking immigrants. I then detail some of the main concepts presented in the course and share illustrative classroom activities. Teaching social entrepreneurship content with CSL can be one part of a language programme’s response to the calls from within the field of foreign language education and outside it to innovate our curricula.

28

Chapter Two

1. Introduction The global financial crisis that began in 2008 has had devastating effects in the nonprofit sector. More people are visiting foodbanks, for example, but donations are down. Upticks in job loss are often associated with increases in domestic violence, but many women’s shelters have been forced to close their doors. International aid and private donations have not been enough to rebuild communities destroyed by natural disasters. In sum, while more demands are placed on nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) and nonprofits, resources—donations, money from the state and grants from private foundations—have decreased dramatically. Although times are difficult for everyone, social enterprises’ income-generating activities complement their other revenue sources and protect their financial sustainability. Although social entrepreneurship’s foremost goal is to create social value by providing solutions to societal challenges, a bankrupt organisation cannot produce any value. Hence, the increased interest in the theory and practice of social entrepreneurship today. Although the scope of the problem is smaller, the global economic crisis has also created an emergency of sorts among foreign language programmes in the United States. The announcement in the fall of 2010 that the State University of New York (SUNY) at Albany was closing the French, Italian, Russian and classics programmes sent shockwaves through the entire field of foreign language education. As the financial crisis forced deep budget cuts in higher education, and language programmes are seen as particularly vulnerable due to their courses’ relatively small enrollment caps that allow for communicative language teaching, the many double majors that are difficult to account for in campus-wide tracking systems, etc. Regarding SUNY at Albany’s decision, Rosemary Feal, the executive director of the Modern Language Association (MLA), called it a “distressing reverse to the university’s recent efforts to promote global competencies” (Jaschik 2010). Just a few years earlier, the MLA had released a report on the status of foreign languages in higher education that called for substantial changes in departmental structures and curricular content (2007). Notably, the report asserted that “The language major should be structured to produce a specific outcome: educated speakers who have deep translingual and transcultural competence” (n.p.) (see also the claims made by Stadler this volume). This bellwether call for profound change did not predict the outcome at SUNY at Albany, but Feal did sound a prescient warning in 2008: “without dramatic changes in the structure of language departments and approaches to teaching foreign languages, the profession may see the

Social Entrepreneurship and Community Service Learning

29

language major disappear entirely within the next decade or two” (Wasley 2008). Spanish, with its larger numbers, was spared at SUNY at Albany but is not immune to the changes urged by the MLA report. In fact, Carlos Alonso, while Chair of the Department of Spanish and Portuguese at Columbia University, asserted that, “Spanish should no longer be regarded as a foreign language in this country; and, consequently, we should undertake an institutional rethinking and reshaping of the place occupied by Spanish language and culture in the US academic world” (Alonso 2006, 17). In this chapter I describe a course on social entrepreneurship that is taught in Spanish and calls upon students to not only learn translingual and transcultural competence but to also apply that competence in their work with Spanish-speaking immigrants.1 For students of the so-called Millennial Generation, the course engages their desires to improve the world, connect to communities and take an active role in their education (Tapscott 1998, Howe and Strauss 2000). For language departments seeking to reinvigorate their programmes, it provides an interdisciplinary course offering with measurable outcomes for community impact, if not language learning itself. Finally, for language faculty schooled in the humanities, the course content and pedagogy stay true to the linguistic, cultural and critical thinking skills that lie at the heart of our profession.

2. Course description “Spanish and entrepreneurship: Languages, cultures and communities” is the name of the course.2 The course title attempts to alert people that this is not a course about Latino entrepreneurs or about how to create a business that sells to Latinos. Instead, it focuses on the ways that Spanish and entrepreneurship can influence each other. It also points toward the fact that languages, cultures and communities are integral components of both Spanish and entrepreneurship. It is an upper-level course available to Spanish majors, minors or any student who has taken the prerequisite course, “Spanish in the community,” which introduces students to the linguistic, cultural and professional skills they need to work effectively in the Latino community (Abbott 2010). Despite the prerequisite, in reality, students in the course have a wide range of abilities and backgrounds. 1 My colleague, Dr. Darcy Lear, and I developed this course together and co-taught it in its inaugural semester in the spring of 2006. Dr. Lear now teaches a similar course, but in English, at the University of North Carolina—Chapel Hill. 2 This course was developed with support from the Academy for Entrepreneurial Leadership at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.

30

Chapter Two

Some students are Spanish heritage speakers who are both bilingual and bicultural. Other students have advanced language proficiency and have deepened their cultural awareness through a semester or year of study abroad. Still other students have taken the prerequisite Spanish courses but have never studied abroad; their language proficiency is usually at the intermediate level, and they may have wide gaps in their knowledge of Hispanic cultures and other cultures in general. The book Enterprising nonprofits: A toolkit for social entrepreneurs forms the backbone of the course. We take the book’s definition of social entrepreneurship as our point of departure: social enterprises have a social objective and they blend social and commercial methods (9). One example provided by the book is the Orpheus Chamber Orchestra in New York City. It is a nonprofit with a social mission to bring high quality music to its community, and it generates income through ticket sales, season subscriptions and CDs, to name a few examples. The book provides a thorough introduction to social entrepreneurship and to the many business concepts that can make a nonprofit more sustainable: mission-based management, opportunity assessment, resource mobilisation, accountability, risk management, innovation, marketing, financial management and business planning for nonprofits. Ideally, the book would be in Spanish and include examples of social enterprises and entrepreneurs within the Latino community. Unfortunately, at the time of this writing, no equivalent book in Spanish is available. Therefore, a coursepack with additional teaching materials fills the language gap, incorporates communicative activities and provides culturally-relevant examples (Abbott and Lear 2010a). The course’s on-line, machine-scored quizzes serve a dual purpose. First, they assess students’ understanding of the concepts presented in Enterprising Nonprofits.3 Secondly, because Spanish is used exclusively during class time, the quizzes test the content knowledge in Spanish, giving students the necessary linguistic scaffolding to then discuss the topics in Spanish during class and apply them in task-based activities. For example, in one on-line quiz, students are given a list of enterprises —Walgreens, The Nature Conservancy, Goodwill Industries and Microsoft—and for each enterprise they must choose if: a) Tiene como objetivo principal el crear valor social; b) Combina estrategias sociales y comerciales; c) Los dos; o d) Ninguno de los dos. This tests students’ understanding of the book’s definition of social entrepreneurship and gives 3

Quizzes were developed with support from the Center for International Business and Education Research (CIBER) at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.

Social Entrepreneurship and Community Service Learning

31

them the necessary vocabulary to talk about it in Spanish, in class. As another example, one item included in the quiz about managing resistance to innovation asks students to complete the following sentence: “Cuando la innovación requiere un grado de conocimientos y habilidades muy diferente al/a los método/s anteriores...” The choices include: a) las posibilidades de resistencia son muy altas; b) las posibilidades de resistencia son moderadas; c) las posibilidades de resistencia son muy bajas; d) no habrá resistencia. The answer is “a,” and because the quizzes are machine-scored, the student gets that feedback instantly. Additionally, because the quizzes are done as homework, classroom time can be devoted to communicative activities that require students to apply the book’s concepts to the task. Finally, time that the instructor would have been spent grading is then available to handle other course components. To complement the theoretical understanding of social entrepreneurship that the book provides, students spend two hours each week doing community service-learning (CSL) work in a local nonprofit that provides services to Spanish-speaking immigrants. Three elements form the foundation of CSL. First, students must perform a service that meets a community need. Second, students’ service must enhance the academic content of the course. Finally, students must engage in structured reflection throughout the course. The result is a “meaningful community service that is linked to students’ academic experience through related course materials and reflective activities” (Zlotkowski 1998, 3). In this course, students’ CSL work allows them to continue to develop their Spanish proficiency and to deepen their knowledge of Latino cultures through communication with native Spanish-speakers. Our community partners include social service agencies, civic organisations and schools. Students who work at the Refugee Center, for example, welcome Spanishspeaking service recipients, take their phone calls and messages, help them fill out forms, make phone calls on their behalf and even accompany them on appointments. In the schools, CSL students serve as informal teacher aides in bilingual education classrooms and tutors in after-school programmes and in English-as-a-second-language classes. In this way, the CSL partnership is mutually beneficial: the CSL students help the community partners better achieve their organisational missions with Spanish-speakers, and at the same time students’ interactions with native speakers of Spanish challenge their language skills, increase their knowledge of Latino cultures and expose them to broader policy issues related to immigration. Overall, positive learning outcomes have been associated with CSL in many subject areas (Eyler and Giles 1999), including students’ increased

32

Chapter Two

sense of engaged citizenship and social justice (Perry and Katula 2001, Jones and Abes, 2004, Benigni Cipolle 2010). Spanish CSL also shows clear indicators that students improve their translingual and transcultural competence (Beebe and DeCosta 1993, Hellebrant and Varona 1999, Plann 2002, Hellebrandt et al. 2003, Weldon 2003, Long and Macián 2008, Lear and Abbott 2008, Abbott and Lear 2010b). To assess students’ participation in the community, one rubric is used by all students for a self-assessment and by some community partners (see Appendix). Some community partners, due to time constraints and the number of students they work with each semester, choose to give holistic, verbal feedback instead. While further research needs to be conducted in order to elucidate precisely how students’ CSL work relates to their learning outcomes regarding social entrepreneurship, we have shown that in this particular course, CSL allows students to achieve all of the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language’s (ACTFL) 5 C’s (Lear and Abbott 2008). Elsewhere I have detailed the necessary steps to create a Spanish CSL programme by building mutually beneficial relationships with community partners (Abbott 2011), while recognising that Spanish CSL is not without its challenges (Lear and Abbott 2009). Still, the positive outcomes for all Spanish CSL stakeholders make the extra effort worthwhile. Structured reflection is a vital component in CSL (Eyler and Giles 1999, Hatcher et al. 2004, Ash et al. 2005, Correia and Bleicher 2008), and in this course students write five reflective essays. As with the quizzes, the reflective essays serve two purposes. First, the reflective essays allow students to develop their Spanish writing skills. In the community, students rely mainly on listening, speaking and reading skills, but their reflective essays allow them to integrate their language skills and learning experiences into a writing product. Second, the reflective essays demonstrate the students’ higher-level thinking skills. For example, students begin their essays with simple statements about facts gathered, things they have observed in the community or topics presented in the course. The essay prompts then move students toward a deeper, more contextualised analysis of those facts. In their conclusions, students are expected to reflect on what they can do to further their own learning about the topic or the issue itself. For example, a prompt may ask students to first describe a common challenge that prompts the Spanish-speaking community members to visit the organisation where they do their CSL work. Then students can research and report on broader context (immigration policies, local ordinances, local employment issues, access to health care, etc.). Finally, students can identify a politician or another nonprofit whose mission coincides with that particular challenge and

Social Entrepreneurship and Community Service Learning

33

explain advocacy steps they themselves can take on that issue. In general, however, much research needs to be carried out on reflective writing in foreign language CSL. In particular, future research should tease out the connections between students’ reflective skills and their developing writing skills in the target language. The (in)compatibilities of the best practices for CSL reflective writing and second language writing instruction should also be explored. Finally, the course earns students advanced hours in part because of the community-based team project that is required. Community partners identify project-based service opportunities, and a student team is assigned to each project. The team must approach the project entrepreneurially by finding innovative approaches to the project and to gathering resources to complete the project. Examples of past projects include a student team that coordinated the production of a televised public service announcement (PSA) for a local refugee center. Students’ work entailed communicating with both the nonprofit and the television station to find out their expectations and the possibilities for the PSA, writing the script for the PSA and finally coordinating with the television station to ensure that the station produced the PSA. Another project involved researching grant possibilities for the same refugee center, gathering pertinent data from the nonprofit, writing and then submitting a grant proposal. Although it was announced after the semester had ended, the grant proposal was indeed funded. Other projects have included undertaking fundraising events, creating teaching materials for schools and integrating PayPal into an organisation’s website. In an era of increased calls for programme assessment, the “Spanish and Entrepreneurship” course provides some compelling data. Forty students may enroll in the class, and each student works 28 hours in the community. That represents 1,120 volunteer hours in the local community. The estimated value of volunteer time in 2009 and in the US, was $20.85 US dollars per hour (“Value of volunteer time”4). So, in terms of economic impact, the students’ CSL hours represent $23,352 US dollars, and even more if we consider the high value placed on Spanish language skills. While no research has emerged yet that can tell us about the actual language acquisition that takes place with a semester of Spanish CSL, anecdotally, students often report an increased confidence in their spoken Spanish. Likewise, many students say that they use the course and its components in their job and postgraduate application materials and 4

(accessed February 4, 2011).

34

Chapter Two

interviews. In particular, they draw examples from their experiences to highlight their abilities in several areas: collaborating in multicultural teams, developing leadership skills, meeting challenges and working with international clients. With some rather simple follow-up questionnaires and longitudinal studies, some connections between the course and students’ professional endeavours can be elucidated. In sum, Spanish and entrepreneurship: Languages, cultures and communities aims to give students both a solid theoretical footing in social entrepreneurship and the opportunity to observe and apply their expanding entrepreneurial skills to their CSL work and the community-based team projects. The textbook, on-line quizzes, CSL work, reflective essays and team projects provide ample opportunities to combine the abstract and concrete. Although social entrepreneurship has advanced greatly as both a practice and an area of research in the past decade, it is still an emerging field. Therefore, the next section of this paper will delve more deeply into three major concepts that are highlighted during the course. For each concept I will provide an example of how it is taught during class, because that is the crux of the matter for specialised languages in a globalised world: how to combine content instruction with the appropriate language scaffolding.

3. Important course concepts 3.1. Entrepreneurship is a process, not just a product Students come to the “Spanish and Entrepreneurship” course with notions about entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship that are usually ‘product’ based; that is, they believe that entrepreneurship is about starting businesses and that entrepreneurs are people who own businesses. While partly true, focusing on entrepreneurship as just an end product that is easily recognisable—a new business—ignores the very important process of entrepreneurship. That entrepreneurial process may lead to end-products that are just as important but not as visible as an entirely new enterprise: a new product line, an improved service offering, re-focused marketing strategies or streamlined internal procedures. Furthermore, when viewed as a process, entrepreneurial concepts are then transferable to any number of contexts, not just within the confines of a for-profit start-up. As taught in this course, the entrepreneurship process consists of three steps: 1) recognising opportunities, 2) gathering resources and 3) creating something of value. In a purely commercial sense, those steps would be recognising an opportunity to sell something, obtaining financing and

Social Entrepreneurship and Community Service Learning

35

producing the widget that people buy. In the nonprofit world, however, entrepreneurially-minded people can recognise opportunities for a totally new nonprofit organisation, a new programme within an existing nonprofit, a new way to deliver an old service programme, a new niche market, a new use for an existing product, a new affiliation with a commercial or social entity, to name just a few possibilities. Regarding the second step, both tangible and intangible resources are essential to the entrepreneurial process. During their CSL work, students can easily observe that gathering resources is about much more than just money. For example, a key resource for the success of a nonprofit’s programming —especially in a community that may include undocumented immigrants—may be trust. That trust may be gathered through partnering with another organisation that has already established trust and by inviting key community members themselves to serve on the nonprofit’s Board or committees. Finally, the last step is not just about sales, but rather, creating social value: filling community-identified needs and solving people’s problems. To illustrate this three-step entrepreneurial process, students are asked to read and analyse a brief case study. Although the names are changed, the case narrates the process that my colleague and I followed in 2005 in order to create this course, in Spanish, about social entrepreneurship—the first of its kind, to our knowledge. Students are asked to identify the various resources that the two faculty members gathered (for example, a faculty-team with complementary skills; the department Head’s signature, signifying the leadership’s support of the course initiative; the grant money to develop the course components). The case narrative also highlights the risks (for example, the two faculty-members are non-tenure track and have worked together only a short time; they are already busy with other projects; the business Spanish course is not valued by the department as a whole; the Spanish faculty are openly hostile to the entrepreneurial turn in higher education; the connection between Spanish and entrepreneurship is not immediately obvious to the staff at the granting programme). And finally, students are asked to make a decision: should these two faculty members apply for grant funds to develop a course on social entrepreneurship? Students argue both sides, and are surprised to realise that the case is in fact about the course they are taking. At this point, students can easily decide what value the course creates for its stakeholders (faculty-instructors, students, community partners, the university and the local Latino community). This example also helps students conceive of the entrepreneurial process as applicable in contexts outside of business, including within foreign language higher education.

36

Chapter Two

Indeed, the entrepreneurship process we teach to our students is equally useful to all faculty involved in specialised language instruction. In the US, specialised language courses and programmes have struggled to find a fit within Spanish departments at research institutions. The courses are often funded, at least initially, through outside programmes, they may lack broad support by the departmental faculty, and they are sometimes taught within the outside units dedicated to the content area (e.g., business, medicine, nursing, etc.). Tenure lines in Spanish departments continue to be filled by specialists in literature or linguistics, while instructors of specialised languages are most often non-tenure track. Despite the popularity of specialised language and CSL courses among students at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, those courses are not integrated into the broader curriculum at the time of this writing. Therefore, students are incentivised to take the more traditional courses that “count” for the major or minor. In an effort to institutionalise these courses we have begun working on an alternative minor: Spanish for Professional and Community Engagement. However, faculty resistance has been substantial, and the potential that the proposal will fail is high. This proposed curriculum innovation—the minor that combines courses in business Spanish, social entrepreneurship and community service learning—highlights the entrepreneurial process in general and other issues, such as failure, that are specific to entrepreneurship. An entrepreneurial mindset that emphasises innovation, creativity and resilience in the face of resistance or failure are key to the advancement of languages for specific purposes. “The world does not need more nonprofits,” lament many people working within that sector. While that may be an exaggeration, what is true is that existing nonprofits need entrepreneurially-minded people to infuse those organisations with innovation and commercial strategies that create sustainability. By teaching the entrepreneurial process and providing examples of how that same process applies across professional contexts, students see that entrepreneurship education is not only for people who want to start their own business.

3.2. Social enterprises generate revenue Social entrepreneurs garner attention and inspire others because of the social value that they create. Muhammad Yunus, winner of the Nobel Prize for Peace and founder of the Grameen Bank, is praised for the way that his bank’s microloans have improved the economic circumstances of the very poor in Bangladesh and now around the world. It is a powerful story that has been featured in many venues, including his own book,

Social Entrepreneurship and Community Service Learning

37

Banker to the poor, and in the Public Broadcasting System’s (PBS) fourhour series called “The New Heroes” (“Muhammed Yunus”5). However, that social value is created and sustained because social entrepreneurs also use business and organisational models that generate income. As compelling as one dynamic leader’s passion and vision may be, social entrepreneurship is ultimately about incorporating commercial methods into a social venture. The Grameen Bank, for example, covers its own costs with a mix of resource-gathering strategies, including the interest loan recipients pay. Those interest payments are an example of the fee-for service and repayment plans that social enterprises employ, along with commercial ventures and business partnerships, “[w]hether it’s the YMCA selling exercise programmes to the public, the Girl Scouts selling cookies, or the Arthritis Foundation licensing its logo to pharmaceutical manufacturers” (Dees et al. 2001, 14). While social enterprises still accept donations and go after grant monies, income generation is fundamental to their financial model. Many students see these concepts in action during their CSL work at the East Central Illinois Mutual Assistance Refugee Center (also known as “The Refugee Center”). The Refugee Center’s mission is to “aid in the resettlement of refugees and immigrants, regardless of country or origin, in the East-Central Illinois area and to aid in the exchange and preservation of their respective cultures” (“ECIRMAC”6). The nonprofit’s revenues come from donations, grants from the government and private foundations as well as an annual fundraising dinner with silent auction. Additionally, they charge a nominal fee to the service recipients for some services: translation of official documents, preparation of income tax forms, and more. When local agencies, hospitals and businesses need the Refugee Center’s interpretation or translation services, they charge them the full market value. To teach students to think creatively about possible income-generating activities that nonprofits can create, in class I describe one of the Refugee Center’s signature programmes: the Saturday morning tutoring programme. They rent space from a local church, and many of the children of the families served by the Refugee Center go there on Saturday mornings to receive help with their homework, do crafts, work on literacy skills and sometimes take field trips. The goals are to help students integrate both academically and socially into the schools while at the same time retaining a sense of community and their cultural identities. The 5

(accessed February 4, 2011). 6 (accessed February 4, 2011).

38

Chapter Two

Refugee Center’s service providers work closely with the children’s teachers and parents to understand their needs; they use a combination of grant money and donations to buy books, paper, pencils and craft items; they have a strong corps of dedicated, educated and enthusiastic volunteers through their close partnership with a service fraternity at the local university; and between the university-student-volunteers and the employees, they have adults who speak all the children’s languages —Chinese, Vietnamese, French (spoken by children from the Democratic Republic of the Congo) and Spanish. In short, they have the space, the know-how, the materials and the volunteers to run a successful tutoring programme that is also fun. Then I describe a potential change to this well-established programme that could convert it into an income-generating activity for the Refugee Center. To start, the name could be changed from “Saturday Morning Tutoring” to the “Multicultural Immersion Academy.” With no changes to the core curriculum—homework assistance, learning projects, arts, crafts and other fun activities—the programme could be opened up to local families as well. The children of the families served by the Refugee Center would continue to attend this programme for free, but other local families would apply for admission and be charged a premium. The target market would include university faculty and other professional parents who have a large disposable income, are frequent international travellers, value global literacy and foreign language education and would also benefit from childcare on Saturday mornings. Marketing materials would emphasise the dual-immersion aspect of the programme (both in terms of language and culture), the academic rigour, the emphasis on arts education, the qualified staff and adult supervisors as well as the programme’s long history. The marketing materials could be easily distributed to the target market through local private schools and other popular yet high-priced afterschool or weekend programmes, such as ballet, private art classes, etc. Students’ task, then, is to answer this question: Should the Refugee Center convert their current programme to the “Multicultural Immersion Academy?” Because many of them do their CSL work at the Refugee Center, they know that the organisation works on a shoe-string budget, is under-staffed and experiences cash-flow problems due to the State’s late payments during this economic crisis. Inevitably, however, the majority of students state that the Refugee Center should not make this change. Some students say that it simply isn’t fair to charge other families, especially a high price. Other students do not believe that parents will be willing to pay when there are so many free or low-cost children’s activities available. Students’ reasons, however, are usually based on emotions and

Social Entrepreneurship and Community Service Learning

39

suppositions instead of evidence from the book or class. As in the stories that are told of successful social entrepreneurs, students are often attracted more to the “social” than the “entrepreneurship” component of “social entrepreneurship.” This is a challenge for specialised language instruction: we must link the students’ interest in languages and cultures to the teaching of the actual subject content (in this case, branding, pricing, identifying niche markets, creating marketing materials, maximising your core competencies, etc.). Other questions can lead students’ analyses in different directions: Why hasn’t the Refugee Center done this already? Besides creating the marketing materials, what else would the Refugee Center need to do to start the Multicultural Immersion Institute? What would the current programme gain and what would it lose by making this change? In the end, students can recognise that they pay for services, products and experiences that bring value to their lives or solve their problems. In the same way, nonprofits can inventory their capacities and use them to generate income that helps them sustain their programming and accomplish their missions to create social value.

3.3 Programming should be both linguisticallyand culturally-appropriate The course’s textbook, Enterprising nonprofits, does not emphasise the role of languages and cultures in social entrepreneurship. Nonetheless, students can easily grasp the importance of providing linguisticallyappropriate programming, especially because that is what they do in their CSL work. Less obvious to them, however, is the role of culture. For example, in the past, students suggested preparing tax preparation workshops for the course project. During their CSL work at the Refugee Center, students observe that in the months leading up to the incoming tax filing deadline, many Spanish-speakers came to the office to ask for help with the forms. Since the CSL students are not trained in preparing these forms, the staff takes each case, one at a time. A student team, they suggested, could go through the entrepreneurial process in order to create a template for a tax preparation workshop and supporting materials, including a preregistration form, so that staff members could help more than one client at a time. Although a perfectly good idea, preregistration forms were not necessarily culturally-appropriate for these particular clients who come from high-touch, personalised, relationship-centered cultures. Furthermore, some of the clients might be undocumented immigrants; asking for their personal information in a preregistration form might raise fear and certainly requires high levels of trust. Finally,

40

Chapter Two

preregistration presupposes literacy among clients who have varying degrees of literacy in their first language, and on-line preregistration would necessitate computer literacy and access to technology, which they may or may not have. In sum, the students’ idea was good in general, but it was not culturally appropriate. Analysing an existing social enterprise, then, can help students recognise the presence of culture in a nonprofit’s activities and how to use it effectively. Homeboy Industries provides a good example. They create social value by providing job training and other programmes to “at-risk, formerly gang-involved youth and the recently incarcerated” (“Homeboy Industries”7). They blend that social mission with the commercial method of generating revenue through the items and services the programme members produce during their training. For example, the bakery items they make while learning to become bakers are sold to the public through their storefront. Those food items and more are also sold through the “Homegirl Café and Catering,” generating even more revenue while the programme members learn waitressing, hostessing, cooking and catering skills. Items on the menu include dishes and ingredients that are both gourmet and culturally appropriate (for example, an appetizer of “roasted corn topped with crema fresca, cotija cheese, cayenne pepper and lime”). This earned-income along with donations and grants allows Homeboy Industries to provide even more programming. One of the programmes, the “Ya ‘stuvo” tattoo removal programme demonstrates the importance of programming that is both linguistically and culturally appropriate (“Ya ‘stuvo Tattoo Removal”8). The name of the programme is in Spanish, and specifically in “homeboy Spanish”—“ya ‘stuvo” is a colloquial way of saying “it’s over.” By utilising the language and slang of their target market, Homeboy Industries shows their deep level of cultural awareness. Moreover, their job training programmes would not have much impact or create social value if their trainees could not go on to find employment because of their gang-related tattoos. As a final example from Homeboys Industries, we examine one of their fundraising efforts, “the virtual carwash.” Students watch a video that explains that in that community, when tragedy strikes, community members hold a car wash to raise money for the stricken families (“Homeboy Industries Virtual Car Wash”9). Homeboy Industries connects 7

(accessed February 4, 2011). (accessed February 4, 2011). 9 (accessed February 4, 2011). 8

Social Entrepreneurship and Community Service Learning

41

their request for donations to that culturally-specific practice. To illustrate the cultural specificity of the virtual carwash, I explain how money is raised for families in need in my hometown’s culture. In one subculture— the conservative, religious one—“love offerings” are solicited during church. Another subculture raises money through “poker runs”: people pay a participation fee, ride their motorcycles to various checkpoints (usually bars), draw a card at each checkpoint, the winner has the best poker hand at the end of the run and the proceeds go to the family in need. If a nonprofit tried to organise a poker run for the love offering community members, that would be a clear example of culturally-inappropriate programming. Students then work in small groups to identify the cultural practices of their own communities when raising money for families in need. Creating culturally-appropriate programming is not just a way to show respect; it is imperative. A poker run marketed toward an evangelical, church-going crowd would not only be inappropriate, it would also fail to raise any money and tarnish the nonprofit’s reputation. By looking at concrete examples of carwashes, love offerings, poker runs and more, students realise that you need more than just a superficial knowledge of a community to develop transcultural competence and create culturallyappropriate programming. It requires time, and their two semesters of CSL work is just a start.

4. Discussion End-of-the-semester student evaluations for the “Spanish and Entrepreneurship” course are overwhelmingly positive. Community partner reactions are also generally positive. They come to depend on the students’ volunteer hours, and they praise almost all the students for their dedication and enthusiasm. Any complaints are almost always about students whose Spanish fluency is not as great as the community partners need. Even in those cases, the community partners almost always find ways to support the students linguistically and utilise them in tasks that require less fluency. The course’s focus on entrepreneurship and social entrepreneurship in particular have garnered it support from upper-level university administrators and cross-campus programmes. On one hand, the course meshes with the administration’s goals to innovate the curriculum in order to meet 21st-century needs. On the other hand, the CSL component fits into the university’s goal to increase students’ civic learning and to enhance community-university engagement. Nevertheless, the very discourse of entrepreneurship—economic sustainability, niche markets, pricing,

42

Chapter Two

mission statements—incites distrust and even hostility at the departmental level. Specialised language instruction breaks new ground and unsettles the assumptions of what a language department does, or should do. Although the course has been successfully taught for five years, there are areas that call for further development. Research should be conducted on students’ learning outcomes regarding specific entrepreneurial concepts. We need published case studies—in the target language—of social entrepreneurs working in Spanish-speaking countries or with Spanish-speaking communities in other countries. Published curricular materials that rigorously present the instruction of entrepreneurship content within communicative, task-based activities that contain the appropriate language scaffolding would facilitate the adoption of this course or something similar in other programmes. The uneasy status of foreign language programmes within higher education today is both a challenge and an opportunity for the teaching of social entrepreneurship and other areas within specialised languages. Just as social entrepreneurship is process that requires creativity, innovation, opportunity assessment, risk management, strategic planning and the understanding the clients’ needs and cultural perspectives, staking a place for specialised languages within the larger curriculum requires those same skills.

References Abbott, Annie. 2010. Comunidades: Más allá del aula. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. —. 2011. “Putting students to work: Spanish community service learning as a countervailing force.” Building infrastructures for Latino mental health, eds. Lissette Piedra, and Lydia Buki, (in press), Springer. Abbott, Annie, and Darcy Lear. 2010a. Spanish and entrepreneurship: Languages, cultures and communities. Ann Arbor, MI: XanEdu Publishing. —. 2010b. The connections goal area in Spanish community servicelearning: Possibilities and limitations. Foreign Language Annals 43: 231-245. Alonso, Carlos J. 2006. Spanish: The foreign national language. ADFL Bulletin 37/2-3: 15-20. Ash, Sarah L., Patti H. Clayton, and Maxine P. Atkinson. 2005. Integrating reflection and assessment to capture and improve student learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning 11/2: 4960.

Social Entrepreneurship and Community Service Learning

43

Beebe, Rose M., and Elena M. DeCosta. 1993. Teaching beyond the university: The Santa Clara University Eastside Project: Community service and the Spanish classroom. Hispania 76: 884-891. Benigni Cipolle, Susan. 2010. Service learning and social justice: Engaging students in social change. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Correia, Manuel G., and Robert E. Bleicher. 2008. Making connections to teach reflection. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning 14/2: 41-49. Dees, Gregory J., Jed Emerson, and Peter Economy. 2001. Enterprising nonprofits. A toolkit for social entrepreneurs. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Eyler, Janet, and Dwight E. Giles. 1999. Where’s the learning in servicelearning? San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Hatcher, Julie A., Robert G. Bringle, and Richard Muthiah. 2004. Designing effective reflection: What matters to service-learning? Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning 11/1: 38-46. Hellebrandt, Josef, Jonathan Arries, and Lucía Varona, eds. 2003. Juntos: Community partnerships in Spanish and Portuguese. Boston, MA: Thompson Heinle. Hellebrandt, Josef, and Lucía T. Varona. 1999. Introduction. In Construyendo puentes (Building bridges): Concepts and models for service-learning in Spanish, series ed. E. Zlotkowski, and vol. eds. Josef Hellebrandt and Lucía T. Varona, 1-7. Washington, DC: American Association for Higher Education. American Association for Higher Education series on service-learning in the disciplines. Howe, Neil, and William Strauss. 2000. Millennials rising: The next great generation. New York: Vintage Books. Jaschik, Scott. 2010. Disappearing languages at Albany. The Chronicle of Higher Education (accessed February 4, 2011). Jones, Susan R., and Elisa S. Abes. 2004. Enduring influences of servicelearning on college students’ identity development. Journal of College Student Development 45: 149-165. Lear, Darcy, and Annie Abbott. 2008. Foreign language professional standards and CSL: Achieving the 5 C’s. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning 14: 76-86. —. 2009. Aligning expectations for mutually beneficial community service-learning: The case of Spanish language proficiency, cultural knowledge, and professional skills. Hispania 92: 312-323.

44

Chapter Two

Long, Donna, and Janice Lynn Macián. 2008. Preparing Spanish majors for volunteer service: Training and simulations in an experiential course. Hispania 91: 167-175. Modern Language Association Ad Hoc Committee on Foreign Languages. 2007. Foreign languages and higher education: New structures for a changed world. (accessed February 4, 2011). Perry, James L., and Michael C. Katula. 2001. Does service affect citizenship? Administration and Society 33: 330-365. Plann, Susan J. 2002. Latinos and literacy: An upper-division Spanish course with service learning. Hispania 85: 330-338. Tapscott, Don. 1998. Growing up digital: The rise of the net generation. New York: McGraw Hill. Wasley, Paula. 2008. MLA’s recommendations on transforming foreignlanguage education continue to provoke debate. The Chronicle of Higher Education (accessed February 4, 2011). Weldon, Alice. 2003. Spanish and service-learning: Pedagogy and praxis. Hispania 86: 574-583. Zlotkowski, Edward. 1998. A new model of excellence. In Successful service learning programmes. New models of excellence in higher education, ed. E. Zlotkowski, 1-14. Bolton, MA: Anker.

Social Entrepreneurship and Community Service Learning

45

Appendix Community Participation Rubric Student Name: ______________________________________________ Place of Work: ______________________________________________ Total Number of Hours Worked: ____________ / 28 1.

Reliability. The student arrives on time to appointments and begins work promptly. During his/her time at the community partner place of work the student stays focused on the work and is productive. Agree Disagree 5 4 3 2 1 Explain with specific examples of your work: 2.

Thoroughness. The student is capable of carrying out a task from beginning to end. He/She does not leave loose ends for others to pick up. The student is also willing to tackle all kinds of tasks, not just the easiest or most pleasant ones. Agree Disagree 5 4 3 2 1 Explain with specific examples of your work: 3.

Responsibility. The student understands privacy issues and can be relied upon to maintain confidentiality. The staff feels that they can assign the student a task without checking up on him/her every step of the way. Agree Disagree 5 4 3 2 1 Explain with specific examples of your work: 4.

Enthusiasm. The student cooperates with all members of the staff and all clients and visitors. He/She carries out his/her tasks in a pleasant manner, putting the staff, clients and visitors at ease. Agree Disagree 5 4 3 2 1 Explain with specific examples of your work: 5.

Initiative. The student goes beyond the minimum requirements of the task assigned to him/her. He/She keeps busy even after completing an assigned task and volunteers ideas about possible tasks or approaches to them. Student is not afraid to initiate and sustain conversations in Spanish. Agree Disagree 5 4 3 2 1 Explain with specific examples of your work:

CHAPTER THREE THE DYNAMICS OF SHARED VALUES IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION AND LOCAL ENDEAVOURS IN TIMES OF CHANGE LAURA MURESAN UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS, BUCHAREST (ROMANIA)

Abstract. This study sets out to explore how generic quality principles are integrated and operationalised in the charters and the inspection scheme of EAQUALSʊthe European Association for Quality Language Servicesʊ and those of several national quality assurance systems, members of EAQUALS, in Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. Based on a survey, it also reflects the views of leading language professionals on changes in language learning interests and expectations, on how these relate to globalisation, as well as on qualityoriented institutional initiatives in response to emerging needs. The findings reveal the existence of underlying shared values among these organisations, as well as their commitment to quality assurance, despite various challenges in times of change.

1. Introduction In the current context of rapid changes and increased competition, there is growing importance attached to quality assurance in all fields of activity, including education. There is considerable literature on quality assurance in education, where it is seen both as part of globalisation processes and as key to other objectives (Cheng 2003, Fairclough 2006). For example, for quality assurance in Higher Education, especially with reference to the Bologna process, research has been carried out within the framework of ENQA (European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education), QAA (Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education, UK), but mainly without specific reference to distinct domains. In the field of

48

Chapter Three

languages, quality-related research is most often related to testing, the standardisation of assessment in international examinations and examination centres (Saville 2010), CEFRL-related calibration of communicative performance, comparative studies regarding language teacher training and qualifications (North and Mateva 2005, Rossner 2009), or with a specific focus on the implementation of the CEFRL and the ELP (Morrow 2005). There has also been insightful research into the values and quality of educational processes as perceived by academics, usually referring to the entire university (Watty 2006) or to the evaluation of academic research (Zaharia 2008). While there are projects supporting the implementation of quality principles in language teaching, learning and assessment in various educational contexts (Muresan et al. 2003, 2007), the preoccupation of investigating various quality dimensions of language education is more recent (Hughes 2007). Under focus in recent studies is, for instance, implementing quality assurance procedures in EAP/ESP contexts (Pérez-Llantada 2010) or quality assurance aspects of higher education programmes in a lingua franca as compared to tuition in one’s L1 (e.g. the CLIL-component of the “LanQua” project, Greere and Räsänen 2010). Starting from quality principles and models (e.g. as presented in the QualiTraining Guide, Heyworth 2007), this study explores how they are reflected in quality assurance (QA) systems specifically developed for language education. To illustrate how principles are operationalised at an international level, special reference will be made to the documents and inspection processes of EAQUALSʊThe European Association for Quality Language Services (Matheidesz 2010, EAQUALS 2010a,b). To further explore how general principles can be understood and implemented in similar ways in different countries (with national quality assurance systems, associate members of EAQUALS), the study will include examples from charters and QA documents of national quality associations in Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Romania, as an expression of local standardisation endeavours harmonised with international trends. For a more comprehensive picture, the analysis of institutional documents will be supplemented by the perspectives of key experts in the field from all the above countries, plus Greece. The study includes their perceptions of the latest trends in language learning interests and quality-related expectations, as well as their views on institutional initiatives, with examples of good practice. These will offer some glimpses of the interaction between global and local developments, as a reflection of inter-related quality principles at work in times of change.

The Dynamics of Shared Values in Language Education

49

2. Translating quality principles into practice 2.1. EAQUALSʊa case in point As an international association, EAQUALS’s mission is to promote and guarantee quality in language teaching and learning. It involves a complex quality assurance system for assessing and accrediting language schools and departments. The prerequisite for accreditation and membership is the commitment to the continuous development of academic excellence which is verified by EAQUALS through regular inspections. The main aim of the current section is to explore how general quality principles are incorporated in the QA documents and the inspection process of EAQUALS. The points of reference underlying the analysis will be the principles and models of quality described in the QualiTraining Guide (Heyworth and Muresan 2006, Heyworth 2007), each of them reflecting another facet of this complex reality: • • • • •

customer-satisfaction process-orientation results-orientation personal-development focus values-driven dimension

To start with, we shall take a closer look at the EAQUALS Charters: (a) The General Charter, (b) The Charter for Course Participants, (c) The Staff Charter, (d) The Information Charter, each of them being a concise, reader-friendly document, understood as an expression of the promise made by EAQUALS member schools to their learners, their staff, and the wider public, in general. For example, if we consider the ‘customer satisfaction’ dimension: “quality is achieved when customer needs are met, when client satisfactions are exceeded” (Heyworth 2007), how is this reflected in The EAQUALS Charter for Course Participants? We shall find it incorporated in several instances, e.g.: Accredited Members of EAQUALS undergo regular inspections, and courses accredited by EAQUALS are regularly verified, to ensure that: [...] 2. During the course, there is a focus on providing course participants with opportunities for successful learning, in particular: 2.1. Teaching and educational standards are high, and yield effective learning; [...]

50

Chapter Three 2.5. Resources and materials used are relevant to the needs of course participants and to the course objectives; 2.6 The teaching and learning/training methods and techniques used are appropriate and effective for the course participants; […] 2.8: Support and Advice: there are opportunities for course participants to discuss their individual questions and concerns, and to obtain information and advice. (EAQUALS 2010a)

Similarly, we can find the ‘customer satisfaction’ principle reflected also in The EAQUALS Staff Charter, formulated as a guarantee to the institution’s internal customers that, e.g.: 2. Terms and conditions of employment comply with EU directives, where applicable, and are fair in the context of the relevant local or national standards, especially in the following areas [...] 7. All staff have appropriate workspace and the facilities for them to carry out their duties effectively. [...] (EAQUALS 2010a)

The question that naturally follows on from this is: how are these aspects integrated in the EAQUALS Inspection Scheme, so that they can be operationalised through the inspection process? The EAQUALS Inspection Checklist, an integral part of the EAQUALS Inspections Scheme Manual (EAQUALS 2010b), which is transparently made available to the institutions applying for accreditation and membership, comprises 12 sections. Each of them refers to a distinct inspection area, which is further subdivided into several focus points. In all these there are numerous references to expected institutional features, processes and procedures addressing the ‘customer-satisfaction’ dimension of quality. In order to illustrate the close correlation with the above excerpts from The Charter for Course Participants, here is a selection of brief examples from the ‘Overview of the Inspection Process and Assessment’ regarding one of the main areas of inspection, ‘Teaching’:

The Dynamics of Shared Values in Language Education

51

Teaching Assessment criteria and focus points (excerpt) 1. Approach and content • Written evidence of a sound and clearly formulated pedagogic approach (which makes sense in the given context), which both staff and students are aware of. • Coherence between theory (i.e. as set out in the relevant documents) and classroom practice [...].

2. Teaching methods •

Effectiveness and appropriateness of methods in relation to course participants’ age, level, aims and needs, effective and appropriate use of resources [...]

3. Course participants, needs and learning • •

Attention to the needs and interests of individual course participants, as well as of the whole group A good level of course participant satisfaction, interest, involvement, participation [...]

(EAQUALS 2010b, 34-35)

How are these operationalised through the inspection process? In addition to evaluation criteria and focus points, the EAQUALS Inspections Scheme Manual also includes guidelines on inspection procedures, with ‘practical considerations’, as well as an indication of possible ‘sources of evidence’. All these are intended both for the inspectors, to ensure coherence of approach during inspections, and for the schools, so as to know how to prepare for an inspection, and for the teachers observed, to know what to expect, e.g.: Procedures Practical considerations (excerpts) Inspectors check that: [...] • Course participants are involved and made aware of learning aims. • There is a friendly, confident relationship between learners and teachers. • There is appropriate management of the class activities and the teaching approach and methods correspond to those described in the institution’s publicity. (EAQUALS 2010b, 35)

52

Chapter Three

The sources of evidence specified include lesson observation, meetings with academic coordinators, focus group meetings with teachers and, separately, with course participants, inspection of academic documents and of teaching materials, with a focus on their “appropriacy of quality and range”, as well as on “the relevance and coherence of the above documents to each other, to classroom practice and to the institution’s educational philosophy” (EAQUALS 2010b, 34). Similarly, the other quality principles are also reflected both in the EAQUALS Charters and in the Inspection Scheme. For example, the ‘process-model’ of quality, which involves attention paid to the various phases of the educational processʊe.g. planning, implementation and outcomeʊand careful analysis of all the processes involved in the delivery of language servicesʊe.g. through self-assessment, action research, observation, etc., is an underlying principle throughout the Charters, usually inter-related with other dimensions of quality, such as the ‘personal development’ and/or the ‘value-driven’ dimensions, as in the examples below: General Charter (excerpts) Accredited Members of EAQUALS undergo regular inspections [...] to ensure that there is commitment to [...] 1.2 Provide opportunities for language study and/or professional training in a teaching/learning environment of high quality within a clearly organised curriculum framework; 1.3 Improve and develop continually the means and resources available for study and training. Charter for Course Participants (excerpts) 2.2 Teaching/Training Staff: qualified and competent teachers or trainers experienced in teaching the target language work under the supervision of an appropriately qualified academic manager; [...] 2.7 Quality Control: there is regular observation of teaching or sampling of training by the course provider. Staff Charter (excerpts) 6. In addition to initial training, all staff are given opportunities to improve their skills in continuous professional development within and outside working hours. [...] (EAQUALS 2010a)

The focus on coherent, relevant and efficient processes is evident in all the sections of the EAQUALS Inspection Scheme Manual and constitutes an integral part of the inspection process itself. If we take just one

The Dynamics of Shared Values in Language Education

53

example, regarding ‘planning’, the criteria and focus points entered under ‘teaching methods’ include: •

Efficient planning and organisation of lessons, transparent to course participants so that they understand what they are doing and how it will help them learn.

(EAQUALS 2010b, 35)

These aspects are then taken up again, in more detail and from various angles, especially in the ‘Academic Management: Curriculum and Syllabus’ section, with emphasis placed on the meaningful referencing of institutional levels to the CEFRL, as well as on systematic course planning and organisation, which make “pedagogic sense in the institution’s context”. The same principle is reflected in the corresponding sub-sections of ‘Procedures’, highlighting the importance of lesson observation as “the core of the inspection”, as well as the need for inspectors to verify whether:  • • •

Lesson plans are available and show proper planning of the work in class. Lesson plans reflect what is laid down in the curriculum and syllabus documents. Course participants are involved and made aware of learning aims.

(EAQUALS 2010b, 35)

Possible ‘sources of evidence’ specified include, in addition to lesson observation, a variety of academic documents (e.g. curriculum and syllabus documents, lesson plans, weekly and/or monthly plans, class registers, etc.), as well as meetings with academic coordinator(s), also considered “one of the core elements of the inspection” (EAQUALS 2010b, 37). The EAQUALS QA system inspection processes play an important role, with lesson observation and multiple meetings as keyelements of the inspection procedures and as valuable opportunities for getting first-hand information on how the academic system works in the school’s context. Moreover, there are clear requirements for accredited or candidate institutions to have in place their own internal quality monitoring processes, including regular lesson observation, mentoring, peer-feedback, etc. An important dimension, which is at the core of all the above quality processes, is the ‘personal-development’ orientation, as already mentioned,

54

Chapter Three

when illustrating its presence in various forms in the EAQUALS Charters (e.g. in correlation with quality control, with the continuous-improvementpromise made to course-participants, etc.). How is this quality principle operationalised in the Inspection Scheme? It is an integral part of ‘Academic ManagementʊQuality Assurance’, being incorporated in several criteria and focus points, e.g. under ‘Support and guidance for teachers’ (induction for new teachers, professional support, through mentoring, consultation, etc.), ‘Coherence between class observation and internal training’; ‘Professional development review of teaching staff’ (having a system in place, conducting regular professional development interviews, linked with feedback on lesson observation, self-assessment, etc.) (EAQUALS 2010b, 43). Closely linked with the above aspects is the underlying quality principle of an entire inspection area: ‘Qualifications, experience and training’. Thus, the criteria and focus points under ‘Training and professional development’ probably best exemplify the importance attached to a dynamic approach to continuous development: 29. Training and professional development • Existence of professional training and development plans for all teaching staff and especially for less experienced teachers. • Staff training and professional needs are regularly discussed with them. • Provision is made for in-service or on-the job training for teaching and admin staff. • Opportunities for professional development for teaching and administrative staff, with the institution’s financial support are available. (EAQUALS 2010b, 52)

In line with these criteria, one of the main inspection aims for this area is two-fold: ensuring that there is institutional commitment to training and development for all staff members, and that there are teacher training programmes in place which are relevant to the teachers’ professional development needs, related to classroom practice. Guidelines regarding inspection procedures and possible “sources of evidence” indicate the documentation to be verified and compared with the findings of lesson observation (e.g. concrete training programmes and their content, records of internal and external training/development events), meetings and interviews to be conducted (e.g. with academic coordinators and/or with teacher training coordinators, teachers’ focus

The Dynamics of Shared Values in Language Education

55

groups), as well as teachers’ library/bank of resources, subscriptions to professional journals, etc. The above quality principles are some of the most visible features of the commitment to quality in language education and they are underpinned by core-values such as fairness, truthfulness, reliability, transparency of procedures, coherence between advertising and school reality, internal coherence and consistency among documents and processes. They are incorporated in the EAQUALS Charters, as well as in the Inspection Scheme, without its being prescriptive. An essential characteristic of this approach is that it is generic enough to be applicable to a variety of contexts, and specific enough to help both language schools prepare for and go through the accreditation process, and inspectors assess educational processes in concrete contexts of operation. The survey referred to in section 3 includes examples of how principles work in practice. At the same time, the EAQUALS Quality Assurance system has been inspirational and supportive of quality endeavours in national environments, as will be illustrated in the next section.

2.2. How are quality principles reflected in national quality assurance systems? To explore the quality principles integrated in national quality assurance systems, several documents of 6 national associations from Central and Eastern Europe were analysed, all of them Associate Members of EAQUALS and also participants in joint European projects (e.g. “Quality Management in Language Education” and “QualiTraining” within the framework of the European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) of the Council of Europe, and a Grundtvig Learning Partnership project entitled “Innovative Practice in Adult Language Education”). The documentation accessed consisted of the Codes of Practice, some of the Charters and excerpts of the Inspection Schemes, which were available in English (Muresan et al. 2003), as well as excerpts of more recent, updated versions, kindly provided by representatives of the QA-organisations included in the study, i.e.: • • • • • •

OPTIMA, Bulgaria PRIMA, Croatia ACERT, Czech Republic NYESZE, Hungary PASE, Poland QUEST, Romania

56

Chapter Three

These documents were analysed with the quality principles in mind, an exercise similar to the one focusing on the EAQUALS Charters and Inspection Scheme, discussed above. The analysis revealed that, despite some differences in the structuring of information or in the labelling of categories, all the main areas present in the EAQUALS Inspection Scheme are addressed also in the six national QA-systems, and they reflect, in various forms, the quality principles mentioned in the previous section. To illustrate this, I have selected brief examples from the documents analysed and, for a better overview, have grouped them in Table 3-1 below, according to underlying principles reflected in them. The main selection criteria were: • • •

•

to cover all the quality principles with at least two examples for each to have all the 6 countries represented to include meaningful samples from several areas focused on in inspections (e.g. Academic Management, Teaching, Teacher Training / Staff Development, Assessment, PR and Marketing, etc.) to strike a balance between thematic convergence and complementariness of aspects addressed.

Quality Principles Customersatisfaction

Customersatisfaction

Customersatisfaction Customersatisfaction & Personal development dimension

Examples of integrating quality principles in the QA documentation of national associations All OPTIMA schools guarantee: • opportunity for students to express their opinion of the course • a clear and fair written procedure for dealing with complaints, grievances and indiscipline High teaching and educational standards providing adequate opportunities for language study • clearly organised curriculum framework appropriate to students’ age and needs, • effectiveness and appropriateness of teaching methods Members have clearly specified written procedures for dealing with staff grievances and disciplinary problems. Members provide all staff with adequate workspace and facilities to carry out their duties. Teaching and Learning: Delivery and Resources The teaching will meet the requirements of the Scheme. Programmes of learning will be managed to the benefit of students; teachers will be professionally prepared and given appropriate support to ensure that their teaching meets the needs of the students.

Source documents OPTIMA (BG) Student Charter PRIMA (HR) Code of practice PRIMA Staff Charter ACERT (Cz) Inspection Scheme

The Dynamics of Shared Values in Language Education Quality Principles Customersatisfaction & Processorientation

Customersatisfaction

Customersatisfaction & Processorientation

Processorientation Processorientation & Personaldevelopment Processorientation & Personaldevelopment focus

57

Examples of integrating quality principles in the QA documentation of national associations Quality of Teaching: The Teacher Classroom Management: Teacher’s personal style (The criteria for assessment) The teacher is friendly and helpful. He/she does not dominate the lesson but has a firm control over the class. His/her voice and articulation are suitable for the learning group and the classroom. He/she does not use bad language or show other inappropriate behaviour. II. Management: 1. Administration & organisation: b) Dealing with staff Focus points: procedures for dealing with grievances and disciplinary problems c) Dealing with the customer Focus points, e.g. - reception service: comprehensive information for the customer including availability of the level descriptions - course feedback questionnaire Teaching: Awareness of the Learner Code of Practice Schools belonging to QUEST guarantee • high teaching and educational standards delivered by competent teachers • a quality teaching and learning environment • no discrimination against students on grounds of gender, race or religions Points to check: • classroom atmosphere (teacher-student, studentstudent rapport) • learners’ understanding of what they are doing and why (students’ attitude, facial expression, eye contact) • opportunities for learner involvement/learner empowerment • opportunities for self/peer correction All OPTIMA schools guarantee: • a commitment to maintain and develop ELT standards • regular monitoring of the teaching activity Regular internal supervision promoting quality assurance

Source documents NYESZE (HU) Accreditation Scheme (Professional Standards)

Academic Management: Lesson observation 24. Post-observation procedures (The criteria of assessment) The observer and the teacher discuss the observed lesson in detail and they draw up an agreed action plan in writing, which serves as a basis for the further professional development of the teacher.

NYESZE (HU) Accreditation Scheme (Professional Standards)

PASE (PL) Recognition Scheme (II. Management)

QUEST Romania Inspection Scheme

OPTIMA Student Charter PRIMA Inspection Scheme

58 Quality Principles Personaldevelopment focus

Personaldevelopment focus

Personaldevelopment focus

Resultsorientation Resultsorientation Values-driven dimension & Customer satisfaction

Chapter Three Examples of integrating quality principles in the QA documentation of national associations Academic Management: Focus point: 2.4 Availability of teacher induction system (inspectors check procedures and relevant written documentation and talk to teachers) Focus point: 2.5. Opportunities for continuous training and development of teachers. (inspectors check whether there is a coherent in-service training scheme. Is support provided for conference participation? Do teachers’ meetings take place regularly?) Members employ administrative and academic staff with appropriate qualifications according to national norms and showing willingness to continuously work on improving their standards of work. Members provide all staff with relevant opportunities for training and development within and outside working hours. Academic Management: Managing the teaching team and teacher support Code of Practice Members provide staff with relevant opportunities for training and development Points to check: • Is there a coherent in-service training scheme for teachers? • Is support provided for conference participation? • Do teachers’ meetings take place regularly? All OPTIMA schools guarantee: appropriate, regular assessments (progress tests/final tests), reports and end-of-course assessment procedures leading to a certificate of attendance Appropriate regular assessment and reports, End-of-course assessment procedures leading to certificate of attainment Members guarantee to treat all staff equally, fairly and without any discrimination on grounds of social status, nationality, gender, race or religion. Equal opportunities for all students without discrimination on grounds of social status, nationality, gender, race or religion. Provisions for students with special needs.

Source documents OPTIMA Inspection & Accreditation Scheme

PRIMA Staff Charter

QUEST Romania Inspection Scheme

OPTIMA Student Charter PRIMA Inspection Scheme PRIMA Staff Charter Code of Practice

The Dynamics of Shared Values in Language Education Quality Principles Values-driven dimension

Examples of integrating quality principles in the QA documentation of national associations 2. PR and Marketing a) Promotion and advertising Focus points: fairness of advertising and truthfulness of information b) Fair trading Focus points: - fairness of dealing with the competition - fairness in dealing with the customer

59 Source documents PASE Recognition Scheme

Table 3-1. Excerpts from national quality assurance schemes illustrating underlying quality principles In the selection above, even if consisting only of snapshots of the QAdocuments analysed, it is evident that there is a good degree of similarity with aspects reflected in the EAQUALS Charters and Inspection Scheme, which is not surprising, considering that most of these national organisations have developed their QA-system drawing inspiration from EAQUALS. At the same time, there is an obvious degree of overlap among the various schemes, even if the distribution into areas and sub-areas may differ from one set of documents to another. The main differences among national QA-systems, which become noticeable especially when analysing the full set of documents available, are related to the level of internal organisation into areas and sub-areas, the grading system, the weighting given to various areas in the Inspection Scheme. It would be beyond the scope of this study to go into too many details regarding these aspects, as this could be the object of further research. What is particularly relevant for the current study is that there are visible synergies among these QA-systems, as expressions of the same underlying principles and a shared value system.

2.3. Shared values The analysis of both the EAQUALS QA-documents and of a selection of documents from six national QA-systems revealed the preoccupation for standardising the understanding of what ‘quality’ means in language education and of operationalising quality principles so that they become meaningful in concrete educational contexts. In addition to the Codes of Practice, the Charters and the checklists of criteria and focus points in the Inspection Schemes, there are also guidelines to the inspectors and the schools working towards accreditation, for a better understanding of the correlation between theory and practice.

60

Chapter Three

Similarly, in the spirit of the QA systems discussed above, the operations and features of a language school/department can be interpreted and assessed from the perspective of compliance with quality criteria and principles. Through transparent QA systems in place, the evaluation can be done consistently despite possible differences due to local specificity. For example, learner-centred teaching practice can be seen as a concern for implementing both the ‘client satisfaction’ and the ‘process’ model of quality. If in addition to these, the institution has consistent and reliable procedures for assessing student performance, supporting on-going, measurable progress of linguistic and communicative competencies, this would be an indication of importance attached to the results-oriented quality principle. The institution’s focus on teacher training and mentoring, constantly motivating people and creating for them opportunities to improve personally and professionally, would reflect a preoccupation for the ‘personal growth’ model of quality, associated with the ‘value-driven’ dimension. Facilitating factors to be observed in such organisations would necessarily include a collegiate atmosphere, an open organisational culture, fostering on-going improvement of all those involved (Fairclough 2006, Rose 2007). An important dimension of quality assurance in practice is coherence and consistency of approach between the institutional promise, as expressed in the Charters adhered to and through publicity material, including information posted on the language school’s web site, on the one hand, and school realities, on the other. The developmental model of quality, integrated with the ‘value-driven’ principle, can be identified also beyond the discursive level of quality schemes and the practice-based school level. They can be seen at work, for instance, through the special interest projects initiated by EAQUALS, in order to support developments in member and candidate schools, in line with the quality principles incorporated in its quality system (EAQUALS 2010a). Further examples at this meta-level of QA-organisational preoccupation can be seen in the regular inspector training and the induction sessions for potential members, quality management events, facilitation of institutional self-evaluation, consultancy, institutional mentoring, and other similar activities, organised both by EAQUALS and by national quality associations, as indicated on their websites and as exemplified in the next section.

The Dynamics of Shared Values in Language Education

61

3. Perceptions of globalisation in adult language learning interests and quality assurance developments The aim of this section is to gather insights into how quality assurance works in practice in adult language education and to find out from experts in the field their perceptions of the influences of globalisation on language learning and quality assurance expectations. The study elaborated on in this section is based on a survey tailored for leading professionals involved in the management of the national quality assurance systems analysed above, plus QLSʊthe Pan-Hellenic quality assurance association in Greece, also a member of EAQUALS. Some of the respondents also coordinate quality language schools / FL-departments with national and/or international accreditation. Thus, the questionnaire with open-ended questions (see Appendix) was sent electronically to a small target group of respondents in 7 countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, Poland, Romania). 27 questionnaires were sent out, making sure that there were at least 3 respondents per country, and where possible, based in more than one city in a country. All 27 were returned filled in (almost 80% of the respondents known within the framework of EAQUALS and/or European projects). Five interviews took place face-to-face at the beginning of December 2010 in Sofia, Bulgaria. The information gathered through replies to the questionnaire was triangulated through further interviews, via phone or Skype in January 2011 (with 5 respondents, one per country), and with several other respondents there was follow-up communication via e-mail. The survey and the field work were carried out in December 2010-January 2011.

3.1. New trends in language learning needs, interests and expectations: the language professionals’ views The first set of questions elicited the respondents’ views on change in language learning needs, interests and expectations over the last 10 years, as well as views on possible factors determining or influencing existing changes. All the respondents confirmed that they had noticed clear changes in their adult learners’ language learning needs and interests. The main trends identified could be grouped as follows: (a) better awareness of needs and readiness ‘to voice them’ (as one of the respondents put it), both individual learners and companies becoming ever more demanding (b) specificity of learning aims and skills focusʊ‘knowing what they

62

Chapter Three

want’, interest in specialised, work-related courses, interest in developing soft skills via the foreign language, predominance given to speaking (c) awareness of methodological aspects, knowing what they can expect from a language class, a language teacher, a language services provider (d) expectations regarding the language course in terms of duration and intensity (e) interest in learning also other languages, in addition to English. A further trend, mentioned by several of the respondents, seems to be a better level of mastery, especially with reference to English, which leads to adults’ interest in learning also other languages, including non-workrelated purposes (as shown below, under 3.3). Additional languages mentioned by respondents from various country contexts included: German (e.g. Bulgaria, Poland, Romania), Spanish, Italian (Croatia, Greece, Romania), Russian (e.g. Croatia, Greece), French, Portuguese, Dutch, and also other less-widely-learned-and-taught languages (LWULT) learned also for professional purposes in Romania. The language professionals’ perception of learner needs and company expectations, regarding work-related skills development and the importance attached to communication, is comparable to the ‘Employers’ perception of graduate employability’, based on a survey carried out in AugustSeptember 2010 in all the EU countries (The Gallup Organisation 2010). As for the factors determining or influencing these changes, most of the respondents associated them with various aspects of globalisation. Thus, responses from all the countries underlined the importance of the international nature of business, e.g. an ever increasing number of multinationals, of mergers with foreign companies, including foreign managers, a multicultural work environment, or also local companies introducing international standards and requesting FL competencies, often as part of their recruitment policy. Professional factors mentioned in this sense included business relations with partners from around the world, the need and interest to access the latest information in one’s field of specialisation, and availability of relevant documentation usually in English or another foreign language. Another category of factors was mobility-related: international workopportunities, study abroad, often requiring international certification of FL-competencies, sometimes linked also with international/European programmes. International travel for personal reasons, associated with communication with family and friends all over the world, was also

The Dynamics of Shared Values in Language Education

63

mentioned as an important motivator for acquiring certain sets of communication skills. In addition, at least one respondent from each of the countries included in the survey justified the trend regarding awareness of various language learning and teaching-related issues through increased exposure to foreign languages, a wider range of language service providers in the local market, supplemented by easy access to relevant information on the internet, which allows for comparability of offers, in terms of both quality and price. Council of Europe (CoE) and EU language policies and projects promoting language learning (L1 + two other languages), as well as a higher profile acquired by quality language associations and awareness of accreditation bodies were mentioned by several respondents (e.g. from Bulgaria, Greece, Poland, and Romania). Some of these aspects were perceived as positive, opening up new opportunities, while others, especially the work/job-related ones, as negative, e.g. pressure from employers, pressure of the labour-market for those in search for a job or finding it difficult to maintain their job in the absence of FL-competencies. The table below summarises and groups responses to the above question also from this perspective: positive factors facilitating language learning habits and interests versus more challenging aspects bringing about the need for change (under pressure). Facilitating factors & opportunities CoE & EU framework promoting multilingualism, e.g. through language policies • lifelong learning programmes and projects Various international opportunities • exchange programmes • mobility: for study or work, for personal reasons International exams, available and administered also locally, international certification recognised by universities, employers, etc. Language services market becoming more diversified and sophisticated. Companies’/Employers’ valuing FL-skills

Challenges/pressurising factors & their impact on language learning (examples) • Economic & financial factors, the financial crisis affecting both the public and the private sector (learners expecting ‘more for less’) • work-related pressure (bringing about a ‘focus on specialised language and soft skills’) • labour-market pressure, increased competition at all levels: national, EU, international (English is a must, but no longer sufficient, hence the need for additional FLs; need for internationally recognised certification) • time pressure, pace of life (expectations regarding short, intensive courses)

IT, ICT, etc.

Table 3-2. Positive factors and challenging realities influencing current trends in language learning needs and expectations

64

Chapter Three

3.2. How do perceptions of quality relate to globalisation processes? This question invites views on a possible relationship between globalisation processes and perceptions of quality in adult language education. A recurrent response from several countries referred to the large-scale introduction of quality assurance and certification systems in most domains of activity as a wider globalisation process; as a result of this, both companies and business people have developed “more or less the same understanding of quality” (BG/R1), which contributes to their becoming “more demanding and voicing their needs and requirements more often than 10 years ago”, as mentioned in one of the responses from Bulgaria, reflected in similar ways also in responses from Croatia and Romania: Quality has become a buzz word. Companies worldwide have gone through ISO certification (or other adequate certifications) and most business people are aware of what quality assurance means. They actually expect their partners (in this case schools) to act accordingly. (HR/R1) I think that Q is a label that has been introduced at all the levels of activity and, as a consequence, language teaching and learning, which in the current economic context plays the role of a transversal work competence and has been aligned to other work processes that are analysed and assessed on a regular basis [...]. (RO/R1)

One of the effects of this global QA-process is that the understanding of ‘quality’ in the corporate sector is strongly influenced by languagesector external criteria, which are transferred from industry to quality expectations of educational processes. One of the responses from Romania, for instance, highlights not only an important aspect of this understanding of quality: [a]ssessment of the way in which a process or a product could be delivered in a more optimal format, so that the ratio efficiency-effortmoney-deliverable functions with a subtle balance. The best results are obtained with the most efficient investment of time, resources, effort. (RO/R1)

but also illustrates (at a conceptual and discursive level) how corporate output-oriented organisational culture penetrates the world of language educators. In support of this approach, several responses from different countries confirm that language training providers have to be aware of and

The Dynamics of Shared Values in Language Education

65

integrate corporate customer expectations in their day-to-day operation, if they want to be successful. Other respondents highlight the impact of CoE and EU projects on the consolidation of more or less the same understanding of quality in adult language education: Globalisation in the area of quality language services is materialised through numerous mobility and exchange programmes, through the use of the ELP and the CEFRL which are becoming more and more popular. We need to stress the role of international projects as well (e.g. Grundtvig projects involving different national associations). (BG/R2)

Language-sector specific global processes mentioned included international benchmarking, as well as quality criteria with a focus on teaching and learning, both (a) from the teachers’ perspective, e.g.: Quality in language education relates to such issues as methodology, teacher training and development and organisation of the educational process. There is a growing understanding among professionals from different countries that languages are learned for communication and that the methods and approaches for their learning should reflect this need. (BG/R3)

and (b) from the learners’ perspective (as perceived by the respondents): I think people are more and more aware of quality they expect in language learning, standards and conditions, especially regarding the novelty of teaching material, teaching approach and methods, respect for individual characteristics and needs of students, quality of premises and technology used, size of learning groups, general attitude of the school in the administrative respect. (HR/R2)

A closer look at the responses, reading also between the lines, indicates that they reflect most of the quality principles discussed in the beginning, usually several principles merging due to the nature of processes and aspects involved. An insightful reflection from Greece eloquently expresses the role of globalisation in relation to perceptions of quality and interdependencies in language education: “globalisation has certainly been an eye-opener both in terms of the language-teaching providers and of learner demands” (GR/R1).

66

Chapter Three

3.3. What is the institutional response to quality-related expectations? New QA-developments in (g)local contexts The following set of questions focuses mainly on institutional endeavours and QA-initiatives at local/national level: (2.b) How are quality-related expectations reflected at an institutional level (e.g. a language school, FL-department, your quality assurance organisation, in teacher training)? (3.a) Which are the main developments introduced by your (national and/or institutional) Quality Assurance (QA) system over the last years? (3.b) Do they reflect mainly national developments or international trends? (3.c) In your QA system, which are the main areas currently focused on? When analysing the answers received from all the 27 respondents in the 7 countries, it became evident that the QA preoccupations and developments referred to could be best seen in their dynamic complexity, if addressed together, following both the internal logic of responses and their complementariness. I have, therefore, decided to group them according to main area focused on, while trying, at the same time, to identify the underlying quality principle(s) at work in the intertwining of aspects and cause-effect relationships. The institutional context referred to (language school/FL-department vs. national QA system) also provided a rough grouping criterion, so as to have a better basis also for comparisons across countries. Thus, quality initiatives in language schools/FL-departments will be analysed first, and QA-developments at national level afterwards. Focus on ‘Quality Teaching’ʊreflecting the ‘customer-satisfaction’ and ‘process-orientation’ quality principles One of the key-areas, standing out in institutional quality-related preoccupations, is ‘Teaching’, associated with the ‘customer-satisfaction’ and ‘process-orientation’ quality principles, aiming not only to satisfy, but also to exceed learner/customer expectations. Respondents from all the 7 countries mentioned the following aspects, processes and products focused on/introduced by language schools in this area or adjacent sub-areas:

The Dynamics of Shared Values in Language Education • • • • • •

• •

67

a wider range of specialised courses, customised to learner needs and/or interests expressed by corporate clients more courses with an exam focus, to prepare course participants for international exams leading to certification course planning, syllabus and test design aligned to the CEFRL new technology in the classroom, associated with new methodological approaches, such as blended learning selecting ‘CEFRL-referenced teaching materials, the latest developments in the field’ closer monitoring of teaching activities, to ensure that the learner is at the centre of educational processes (examples included concern for effective error-correction, lesson observation for a variety of purposes) enhancing learning processes through ELP-based self-assessment and by promoting learner-autonomy new procedures and instruments for gathering regular student feedback, to make sure that student needs and expectations are catered for.

Several respondents also mentioned other teaching and learning related processes and procedures, e.g. the introduction of progress tests (in addition to end-of-course assessment), with a two-fold aim: to provide feedback to learners on progress and “to receive feedback on the composition of study plans” (Cz/R4); the introduction of on-line learner management systems for monitoring progress and for easier, more professional reporting of learning outcomes (to state institutions, to corporate clients, etc.). Furthermore, developments also in other areas (e.g. internal quality monitoring, teacher training and development, multidirectional communication), to be referred to in what follows, are specifically targeted to contribute to better teaching and learning, with a clear preoccupation for enhancing the quality of language education, a recurrent theme in absolutely all the responses received. Focus on ‘Assessment, reporting and certification’ʊreflecting the ‘results-orientation’ quality principle (plus) The complex area of student performance assessment, reporting and certification of learning outcomes was mentioned by most of the respondents, either in relation to institutional developments already introduced or as an area currently focused on, in response to “a growing need for internationally recognised certificates based on the CEFRL level

68

Chapter Three

description” (PL/R3). The main aspects mentioned by the respondents referred to the CEFRL-alignment of test-design, learner-involvement through selfassessment, but also to introducing new internal procedures for the standardisation and moderation of assessment, e.g. assessment of speaking in class based on CEFRL-criteria, with a co-teacher or academic director acting as 2nd assessor (HR/R2, PL/R3, RO/R5), marking of written tasks by two assessors (HR/R2), regular progress testing, followed by feedback to learners and guidance, as needed (mentioned by at least one respondent from each country). The current focus on ‘Assessment, reporting and certification’ as a key area of development, actually reflects the interaction of several underlying quality principles, with ‘results-orientation’ as the main one (especially from the learners’ and corporate clients’ perspective), supportedʊas in the case of ‘Teaching’ʊby the language training provider’s preoccupation “to satisfy customer needs and expectations”, as well as an in-depth understanding of the key role of both ‘process-orientation’ and ‘personal professional development’. The following response from Poland speaks for itself in this sense: We managed to implement the EAQUALS Certification Scheme last year, which was preceded by several years of staff training and changes introduced in our standardisation and moderation systems. (PL/R3)

As compared to the perception of student interests and related institutional endeavours in the area of ‘Teaching’, where there is overall agreement among respondents, as mentioned above, there is a greater variety of responses regarding the area of ‘Assessment and certification’. While the majority mentioned the adult learners’ ‘result orientation’ and interest in obtaining internationally recognised certificates (e.g. BG/R1, CZ/R3, GR/R2, HR/R2, HU/R2, PL/R3, RO/R3), as well as institutional developments specifically in the area of assessment and certification, other respondents either considered that there is less exam-orientation (specifying that the focus has shifted to competency-oriented trainingʊ e.g. HR/R1) or take a comparative approach when referring to learning goals depending on the language chosen, and to institutional initiatives adapted to diversified demand. As this seemed an interesting area for further exploring, follow-up interviews were conducted with four respondents, each from a different country. Their explanation can be seen in the context of adult learners’ interest in learning more languages and the institutional response consisting in offering a greater variety of courses in different languages.

The Dynamics of Shared Values in Language Education

69

Thus, English and German are learned mainly for work-related purposes, and there continues to be interest in attaining at least level B1 (often B2 or higher) and in having the level of proficiency confirmed through internationally recognised certification. In addition to English and German, further work-related languages include, depending on country context, e.g. Spanish and Italian (in Greece), Italian (in Croatia). But even so, for languages such as Spanish, Italian, French, Russian, Japanese, Chinese, the courses in demand are usually at level A1, A2, and the skills focus is on speaking, mainly for non-work-related purposes (examples were provided from Greece, Poland, Croatia). In the case of Romania, the respondent interviewed indicated demand for a greater variety of languages for work-related purposes (including Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, Dutch, among others), and if the courses take place within the framework of European structural funds, end-of-course assessment has to be marked and validated by external examiners. This brings up a whole new area regarding standardisation and moderation of syllabus design, teaching, test-design and assessment across languages, in line with the CEFRL and the EAQUALS-ALTE ELP (RO/R5). Focus on Teacher Training/Professional Developmentʊreflecting the ‘personal-development orientation’ Another key-area, mentioned by all the respondents, is Teacher Training and Professional Development for all language school/department employees, within the broader framework of Human Resources Management, with ‘personal development orientation’ as the underlying quality principle, considered at the core of ‘institutional developments’. As this is so closely linked to developments in all the other areas, it is not surprising that most of the responses highlight the institution’s commitment to staff development, as exemplified below: • •

• •

careful induction for new teachers teacher training and development, e.g. re CEFRL-alignment of syllabus- and test-design (mentioned by all the respondents), regarding error-correction and feedback-techniques, TT linked to the outcomes of lesson observation, TT and guidance on how to provide students with relevant feedback and guidance, etc. mentoring for less experienced teachers calibration sessions for teachers of various languages conducting courses for the same company, to ensure that there is a standardised approach to syllabus design, teaching, testing, reporting, a

70

Chapter Three

• • •

•

harmonised understanding of progress and performance criteria (with examples from Romania - RO/R5) peer-support through co-teaching and guidance in various forms encouraging self-evaluation, both for personal goal-setting and linked to a positive approach to performance review lesson observation by peers and academic coordinators, for multiple purposes, mentioned by all the respondents, highlighting the key role of observation for ongoing improvement of teaching quality and other institutional processes induction for all staff with a focus on QA processes, procedures and documentation (e.g. regular, standardised, transparent reporting on learning outcomes).

A new development mentioned in two of the responses (as examples of good practice from two different countries) refers to the introduction of different types of teacher training workshops, one for less experienced teachers, the other for experienced teachers, justifying also the rationale for this development. Several respondents highlighted the introduction of a new approach to communication, as a component of professional guidance and development, as well as an instrument for the teachers’ familiarisation with corporate client requirements, thus taking on also the function of cultural induction to corporate clients’ understanding of quality and related expectations. From most of the responses it becomes evident that academic coordinators have to invest both time and effort into multidirectional communication, e.g. as interface between more and more demanding corporate clients and teachers, which could be seen also as organisational culture mediation. Considering all these aspects and facets of quality, Professional Development in the broadest sense could be seen as a complex reflection of the inter-relatedness of quality principles. When giving examples of initiatives and investment, most of the respondents name Teacher Training/Staff Development and new technology. A further dimension, which is important in the broader context (signalled by at least one respondent per country), is attention paid to integrating systemic requirements (e.g. rigorous procedures, amount and transparency of documentation) with a humanistic orientation (including staff motivation, attitudinal aspects in the unfolding of academic management processes, collegiate atmosphere, etc.). Respondents also stress that both teacher training and class observation have become a must in language education and are at the core of a quality culture. The following example illustrates this complex approach and its multiple

The Dynamics of Shared Values in Language Education

71

functions: One of the crucial ways of quality control and assurance is regular observations. However, in order to be able to carry out observations in an efficient way, an open attitude of teachers is important. By systematic communication with our teachers we have managed to create a friendly environment in which regular observations are perceived mainly as an efficient tool of personal professional development. We pay special attention to the way feedback on observations is communicated to the teachers, making sure that rather than criticism, which may possibly lead to the decrease in job satisfaction and working ethics, teachers receive a set of detailed and tangible recommendations on how to improve their teaching strategies. [This] has so far led to more open relationship with teachers, who are more willing to come discuss whatever issue they might encounter in their everyday work. We also have better information about the courses and can predict where possible difficulties may arise. This allows us to take precautionary action and assure the highest possible quality of our services. (Cz/R4)

3.4 Developments initiated by national quality assurance systems Out of the 27 respondents participating in the survey, at least one respondent per country is involved in the management of the national quality assurance system, in most cases even 2 or 3, as most of them are wearing several hats, i.e. one for school management, another one for involvement in the QA-system, a possible third one for a role also in other accreditation-related projects, e.g. with EAQUALS, etc. Thus, several of the responses received offer valuable information also on QAdevelopments initiated by national associations and help putting in relation school-based developments within the wider framework, both at national and at European level. As most of the national QA-systems referred to in this study were set up in the 1990s and since Quality Assurance is not a static reality, most of the national associations have started revisiting their inspection and accreditation schemes, in line with new developments at national and European level. Thus, the responses to the questionnaire indicate that several of them have recently revised their QA-Scheme, while others are currently working on this. The reasons given in some of the replies, and confirmed also in the follow-up interviews include: •

the preoccupation to bring it closer to the EAQUALS Inspection Scheme

72

Chapter Three •

•

Council of Europe developments and instrumentsʊthe CEFRL and the ELP, and hence, the need to revisit especially the sections on Academic Management and Assessment, to ensure that the quality criteria specified include CEFRL-referencing the perceived ‘results-orientation’ of learners and companies, and hence the member schools’ interest in standardising assessment procedures, with a view to standardised end-of-course certification.

In interviews, representatives of QA-systems mentioned that this revision and updating process involved: • •

•

•

•

entering a higher level of detail, so as to help new candidates in the preparation process for an inspection CEFRL-alignment, with reference to the level system, Academic Management, CEFRL-referenced teaching resources, introducing ELP-based self-assessment as a quality criterion, etc. substituting reference to English with more general formulations, so as to be applicable also to other languages, in the case of QAsystems initially designed for the accreditation of English language teaching (e.g. PASEʊThe Polish Association for Standards in English) translating inspection-related documentation into the national language, since in a lot of cases the initial version was in English, while there is now a growing number of language schools teaching also other languages and becoming interested in accreditation organising inspector training and standardisation, quality management workshops for member schools and accreditation candidates, as well as conferences with a QA-focus for the wider community of language professionals.

Referring to developments introduced in various country-contexts as a result of the national QA-system and its membership to EAQUALS, several respondents mentioned the introduction of transparent systems of documenting the teachers’ educational background and teaching experience, as well as a focus on producing documentation, both for academic management purposes and for reporting student progress. Another area repeatedly mentioned by the respondents was that of professional development and the introduction of performance review systems, integrating self-assessment with appraisal and the outcomes of lesson observation, even in countries where this was not part of national requirements or of the local tradition. The respondents also highlighted the

The Dynamics of Shared Values in Language Education

73

benefits of peer-observation and co-teaching, of mentoring and regular teacher training events, introduced by the national QA-systems as accreditation requirements (mainly in the 1990s). In the meantime they have become standard procedures in the national network of quality schools. The interviews have, thus, helped close the loop, as most of the developments and current preoccupations mentioned by the representatives of national QA-systems confirm the developments introduced or planned by member schools, and are in line also with the perception of learner expectations and stricter requirements expressed by corporate clients, mentioned in the beginning.

4. By way of conclusion This study set out to explore how generic quality principles are reflected in the main quality assurance documentation both of the European Association for Quality Language Services EAQUALS and of several national associations in Central and Eastern Europe, members of EAQUALS. By including in the analysis the codes of practice and charters of these organisations, on the one hand, as expressions of the members’ commitment to quality, and the inspection schemes, on the other hand, it was possible to gain some insights also into the operationalisation of quality principles. This approach allowed for comparisons i) between the level of generic quality principles and their application to a specific educational domain, i.e. language education and ii) between the European quality assurance system and the national QA systems, as well as among national QA systems. The analysis revealed convergence of underlying quality principles present in the key-documentation of these organisations, as well as similar preoccupations for standardising quality assurance procedures. This focus on quality in language education and the development of similar systems for the evaluation of educational processes and outcomes, building on the same understanding of general quality principles, across boundaries, irrespective of the language being taught/learned, can be seen as a reflection of the workings of both globalisation and localisation. For a more comprehensive picture, the analysis of institutional documents has been supplemented by a survey targeted at leading professionals in the field of language education, known for their contribution to the development of the QA systems in their countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, Poland, and Romania). Their perception of the latest trends in language learning interests and

74

Chapter Three

quality-related expectations, and their views on institutional initiatives in response to local and international developments have confirmed the quality dimensions reflected in the QA-documentation analysed. They also offered some glimpses of the interaction between global and local developments in the area of quality assurance applied to language education. Even if in several responses there is reference to the current financial-economic situation and to the need “to survive” in difficult times, overall, they come to confirm a positive, dynamic approach to Quality Assurance, as well as to turn challenges into new development opportunities. Obvious limitations of the current study are its small scale and its addressing only one target group of respondents in a particular geographic and historic context. Including a greater diversity of respondents would have probably yielded a greater variety of findings. It would, therefore, be worthwhile to take the research further, to explore also other dimensions of quality assurance in its balancing act between globalisation and localisation.

References Cheng, Yin Cheong. 2003. Quality assurance in education: Internal, interface, and future. Quality Assurance in Education 11/4: 202-213. EAQUALS. 2010a. EAQUALS Charters (revised). (accessed January 29, 2010). EAQUALS. 2010b. EAQUALS Inspections Scheme Manual (version 6), available on request from the EAQUALS Secretariat (details on ). Fairclough, Norman. 2006. Language and globalisation. London and New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis. Greere, Anca, and Anne Räsänen. 2010. Lost in CLIL? Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) across Europe: approaches and quality issues in higher education. Presentation at the LANQUA conference ”Languages in higher education 2010: raising the standard for languages”, London, 1-2 July, 2010. Heyworth, Frank. 2007. Quality and people. In QualiTrainingʊA training guide for quality assurance in language education, eds. Muresan Laura, Frank Heyworth, Galya Mateva, and Mary Rose, 7-21. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. Heyworth, Frank, and Laura Muresan. 2006. Issues in developing and implementing codes of practice. The example of EAQUALS. Plenary presentation at the ALTE conference, Sofia, 10 November 2006. Hughes, Stephen P. 2007. The identification of quality indicators in

The Dynamics of Shared Values in Language Education

75

English language teaching: A study in compulsory and noncompulsory secondary level language education in the province of Granada. Granada: Universidad de Granada (unpublished PhD Thesis). Matheidesz, Maria. 2010. International accreditation of quality in language learning and teaching. Cambridge ESOL: Research Notes 39: 33-38. Morrow, Keith, ed. 2005. Insights from the Common European Framework. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Muresan, Laura, Frank Heyworth, Maria Matheidesz, and Mary Rose, eds. 2003. Quality management in language education, Graz/Strasbourg: ECML and Council of Europe (CD ROM)

(accessed March 4, 2011). Muresan Laura, Frank Heyworth, Galya Mateva, and Mary Rose. 2007. QualiTrainingʊA training guide for quality assurance in language education. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. North, Brian, and Galya Mateva. 2005. A professional profile for teachers: Is a teacher portfolio feasible? Plenary presentation at the EAQUALS Conference: European Quality StandardsʊAccessing and Assessing Quality, Athens, 24-26 November. Pérez-Llantada, Carmen. 2010. A small-scale management system for quality assurance in an EAP course: Challenges, outcomes and implications. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference of the European Association of Languages for Specific Purposes (CD-Rom). Rose, Mary. 2007. Quality and people. In QualiTrainingʊA training guide for quality assurance in language education, eds. Laura Muresan, Frank Heyworth, Galya Mateva, and Mary Rose, 23-36. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. Rossner, Richard. 2009. Developing common criteria for comparison and assessment in language teacher education. Cambridge ESOL: Research Notes 38: 4-14. Saville, Nick. 2010. Auditing the quality profile: From code of practice to standards. Cambridge ESOL: Research Notes 39: 24-28. The Gallup Organisation. 2010. Employers’ perception of graduate employability, Flash Eurobarometer Series #304, survey conducted upon the request of DG for Education and Culture. Watty, Kim. 2006. Addressing the basics: Academics’ view of the purpose of higher education. The Australian Educational Researcher 33/1: 2340.



76

Chapter Three

Zaharia, Rodica M. 2008. Performance of academic research. Case study: Bucharest University of Economics. The view of academics. Synergy 4/2: 26-30.

Appendix Dear colleague, Could you please take a few minutes to reflect on developments related to language learning interests and the impact of globalisation on quality assurance in your context? Since you have been actively involved in promoting quality in your context, I would be very grateful if you would like to share some of your perceptions and experiences by answering the questions below (however briefly or tentatively). This is part of a pilot comparative study in preparation for an article. 1. (a) Have you noticed any changes in the language learning interests, needs and/or expectations of your adult learners over the last 10 years? If yes, please enumerate and describe some of them. 1. (b) Which do you think are the main factors determining or favouring these changes? 2. (a) Building on your professional experience, how do you see the relationship between globalisation processes and perceptions of quality in adult language education? 2. (b) How are quality-related expectations reflected at an institutional level (e.g. a language school, FL-department, your quality assurance organisation, in teacher training)? 3. (a) Which are the main developments undergone/introduced by your (national and/or institutional) Quality Assurance (QA) system over the last years? 3. (b) Do they reflect mainly national developments or international trends? 3. (c) In your QA system, which are the main areas currently focused on? 4. Please give one or two examples of good practice in operationalising quality principles in teaching/learning practice, with reference to concrete educational contexts. Thank you very much for your time and your co-operation! Please let me know if you are interested in the overall findings, and I will be pleased to send you the outcome of this small-scale study. LM / December 2010

PART II. THE RHETORICAL VIEW OF SPECIALISED LANGUAGES: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION IN INTERCULTURAL CONTEXTS

CHAPTER FOUR GLOBALISATION IN THE LEGAL FIELD: ADOPTING AND ADAPTING INTERNATIONAL COMMERCIAL ARBITRATION RULES1 MAURIZIO GOTTI UNIVERSITÀ DI BERGAMO (ITALY)

Abstract. Nowadays legal texts are subject to the pressures of globalism operating upon contemporary legal systems. However, in spite of the growing efforts of the international community to guarantee greater and greater harmonisation in legislation and procedures, specific linguistic and cultural aspects as well as local and social constraints still are relevant conditioning factors. A case in point is represented by the norms connected with international commercial arbitration. The high recourse to this instrument has given rise to a widely felt need for greater harmonisation of the procedures followed, which has led to the elaboration of a specific law to be used as a model by most countries when producing their own individual statutory provisions for commercial arbitration. This chapter analyses the adoption of the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration issued by the United Nations in 1985 (and later integrated into the laws of several countries with varying constitutional, socio-cultural and economic conditions) and its connected Arbitration Rules, in order to highlight the adaptations carried out in its ‘localisation’ process. In particular, this chapter investigates the norms enacted by some Italian arbitration chambers and shows the influence of the socioeconomic environment in which the legal norms are to be introduced on the style adopted in drafting the texts.

1

The research on which this chapter is based is part of the National Research Programme Tension and change in domain-specific genres, funded by the Italian Ministry of University (COFIN Grant No. 2007JCY9Y9).

80

Chapter Four

1. Globalisation in the legal field The last few decades have witnessed a major development in the process of globalisation not only in general contexts of social life and international communication but also in specialised domains. The analysis of this process of globalisation has offered several illustrations of the interaction between linguistic and cultural factors in the construction of discourse, both within specialised domains and in wider contexts. Indeed both general and specialised languages are prone to the pressures of intercultural variation, as it is not only the socio-cultural factors inherent in a text but also the interpretive schemata which deeply affect its realisation and interpretation within the host professional community (Candlin and Gotti 2004, 2007). This globalising trend has also affected the legal field, where an international perspective has become more and more widespread. Legal discourse is thus another significant area where intercultural factors may be investigated. Although legal discourse is often thought to be less likely, in respect to other professional genres, to display strong cross-cultural variations since law texts are commonly aimed at practitioners closely linked to national legal contexts, cultural aspects do represent an important conditioning factor on its construction and interpretation (Gotti and Williams 2010). Indeed, legal discourse—which used to be employed in narrow professional and local milieux and thus more closely geared to specific cultural values and identity systems—is now more and more frequently involved in globalising processes, which have relevant effects on the discourse produced by both native and non-native practitioners working in intercultural and cross-cultural settings. Nowadays many of the texts in use at a local level are the result of a process of translation or adaptation of more general documents formulated at an international level. This is the consequence of the fact that in the context of co-operation and collaboration in international trade, law too is fast assuming an international perspective rather than remaining a purely domestic concern. The increasing need at an international level for accurate and authoritative translation of legal texts and documents across languages relies on the need for them to convey appropriately in both languages the pragmatic and functional intentions and implications of the original text (Šarþeviü 1997, Gotti and Šarþeviü 2006). An excellent example of this trend is the need for a common European legal framework; this task is much more complex than simply translating common normative documents into all the languages of the European Union, because this newly created framework is meant to be interpreted

Globalisation in the Legal Field

81

within the contexts of a diversity of individual legal systems and tongues. Significant differentiations may arise in the various member countries of the European Union, especially when one needs to interpret such issues as human rights, international agreements and contracts, freedom of speech, freedom of trade, protection of intellectual property, all of which have very strong socio-political and cultural constraints. Although legal documents in all languages address these issues, they do so in distinctive and also in overlapping ways, because of the different languages in which they are constructed and the cultural differences of the societies in question and of their legal systems. Indeed, legal terminology is so culture-bound (the reasons being at the same time historical, sociological, political and jurisprudential) that a satisfactory translation of all the legal terms of one text from one context to another is at times impossible. David underlines this difficulty with a few examples: To translate into English technical words used by lawyers in France, in Spain, or in Germany is in many cases an impossible task, and conversely there are no words in the languages of the continent to express the most elementary notions of English law. The words common law and equity are the best examples thereof; we have to keep the English words […] because no words in French or in any other language are adequate to convey the meaning of these words, clearly linked as they are to the specific history of English law alone. (David 1980, 39)

The adoption of a particular term instead of another may result in ambiguity and misinterpretation. Several examples of this are given by Fletcher (1999), who examines the translation into various languages of the English text of the European Convention on Human Rights. For instance, the translation provided for the expression fair and regular trial into juicio justo y imparcial (Spanish) and procès juste et équitable (French) is not satisfactory, as the use of the non-equivalent adjectives regular (English)/imparcial (Spanish)/équitable (French) can easily show. The same could be said for the rendering of the concept of reasonableness, basic in common law systems, where expressions such as reasonable steps, reasonable measures, reasonable person and proof beyond a reasonable doubt frequently occur. This concept, instead, when translated into languages spoken in countries adopting a civil law system is considered too vague and its rendering as ragionevole, raisonnable or vernünftig often gives rise to criticism and dissatisfaction. Other excellent examples of translation discrepancies can easily be found in texts relating to the process of building a common European legal framework. For example, translators into English find it difficult to

82

Chapter Four

express such culturally-specific French collocations as acteurs sociaux, acteurs économiques, acteurs institutionnels, acteurs publics, acteurs politiques, which have no direct equivalent in the target language (Salmasi 2003, 117), and they sometimes transliterate terms or create calques from one language into another, relying on the false premise of a very close relationship between similar lexemes in different languages (see the examples of transmettre/transmit and prévoir/foresee in Seymour 2002). Indeed, in Europe the legal drafting issue has become extremely important with the elaboration of a multilingual legislation concerning the European Union. This depends on the fact that the official languages of the European Union are those of its Member States, and as new countries join the Union, their languages are added to the number. This is part of a precise policy aiming to build a community of peoples respecting and safeguarding at the same time the existing variety of customs and cultural identities, a principle based on the conviction that the languages of Europe are part of its immense and diverse cultural heritage, and therefore it is considered the duty of the Union to guarantee their preservation. Since European Union legislation must be published in all Member States’ official languages in order to be valid also at a national level, a fundamental role is played by legal drafting and translation in its elaboration and introduction into the various national contexts. The elaboration of the texts is carried out in a parallel fashion by the various teams, making use of a common multilingual terminological database and relying on shared community concepts and institutions. This procedure, however, encounters problems mainly due to the presence of different legal systems in the various countries and the existence of a specific tradition of a legal register in each Member State. Indeed, closer cooperation between the various legal systems of the EU members has not been achieved through creation of a new legislative framework to replace the existing one. Such systems are still in use and only in very few cases have the more evident discrepancies been eliminated. European authorities are aware of these problems and greater and greater emphasis is being laid on the quality of legislation drafting at supranational level. An example of this is the Declaration on the Quality of the Drafting of Community Legislation which is an important part of the Treaty of Amsterdam (1998). This document explicitly states that “the quality of the drafting of Community legislation is crucial if it is to be properly implemented by the competent national authorities and better understood by the public and in business circles”. This has led to much greater uniformity in the translation of European directives into the various languages of the Union and to more marked homogeneity and

Globalisation in the Legal Field

83

interdependence of the resulting texts. Translators work in single-language units of approximately twenty people and translate, almost without exception, into their mother tongue. Their command of foreign languages is expected to be backed up by a good general knowledge and some competence in at least one specialised area such as law, technology, economics, etc. Translators are also assumed to possess word processing and other computer skills such as database interrogation, as they frequently rely on terminology and documentation available in electronic versions. This new approach to the translation of European directives has also served a harmonising function, in the sense that from the adoption of the texts of the European Union greater uniformity has derived in the use of terminology as well as a higher degree of conceptual homogeneity, which is then transferred into local legal practices (Šarþeviü 2010). A typical example of this influence of European legislation on the local legal language is the frequent adoption of equivalent definitions of legal concepts deriving directly from European regulations and directives. However, these efforts and initiatives in better drafting procedures have not solved all discrepancy problems, as the final texts are also conditioned by the different rhetorical traditions pertaining to the cultural systems involved, thus often leading to diverging constructions and therefore to conflicting interpretations, with the risk of raising legal controversies. Moreover, in the translation process there is often an addition to and/or alteration of the semantic value of the original, due to the fact that the interpreter brings his/her own experience, knowledge and attitude to the text he/she is translating into another language. For this reason it is commonly suggested that translators working in this field should have two different types of competence: not only linguistic but also legal (Robertson 2010). The process of globalisation has certainly favoured English, which has undoubtedly become the language of international communication in most international contexts. Indeed, on a worldwide level English is perceived as having the highest “utility and exchange values” (Coulmas 1991), as it offers the possibility of making use of the language for the widest range of purposes and in the largest number of places all over the world. The increasing role of English as a lingua franca can also be seen at the European Union level, where the use of English has become prevalent. At the Translation Service of the European Union, nearly three-fifths of the documents sent for translation are drafted originally in English. This is nearly double the quantity of material drafted in French, which for decades was the dominant language. The great increase in the use of English in this

84

Chapter Four

context is due to the fact that English is often adopted as a ‘relay language’ for translations between combinations of languages, such as the Baltic languages and almost any other, for which the EU institutions are unlikely to find enough translators who can bridge the gap directly: the first translation is into English and from this a text in another language is then produced.

2. International commercial arbitration An excellent example of the globalising process taking place in the legal system is constituted by international commercial arbitration. In the last few decades, all over the world arbitration has become more and more common as a legal instrument for the settling of commercial disputes. The very wide acceptance of this adjudging procedure has been promoted by the growing internationalisation of commercial exchanges, which involves an ever-increasing number of trade disputes. This popularity can be explained by the many advantages that arbitration offers compared to litigation, the main one being that the arbitrator is usually an expert in the field of the dispute and thus ensures that the entire procedure can be conducted without the intervention of lawyers, or other representatives, with major gains in speed and cost-saving. Other advantages that have contributed to the diffusion of arbitration proceedings are that the parties can choose the arbitrator themselves and can either represent themselves or be represented by any person of their choice; moreover, many disputes can be resolved on paper without a hearing, as the procedure is private, self-contained and final. Another aspect that makes this procedure attractive is that it is financially advantageous; indeed, in comparison with court proceedings, the risk of high costs and long delays due to appeals is lower (Bernstein et al. 2003, Berger 2006). The high recourse to international arbitration has given rise to a widely felt need for greater harmonisation of the procedures followed,2 which has led to the elaboration of the UNCITRAL Model Law3 to be used as a starting document by most of the member countries when producing their 2

Indeed, in this process of harmonisation, arbitration has taken a leading role, as “historically, [this process] is one of the earliest examples of an attempt to adapt independent national legal systems to the relentless progress of international commerce” (Cremades 1998, 158). 3 The UNCITRAL Model Law (United Nations document A/40/17, Annex I) was adopted on 21 June 1985 by the Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) and is available online at .

Globalisation in the Legal Field

85

own individual statutory provisions for commercial arbitration. Indeed, this model has been adopted by a large number of countries all over the world. As the Model Law and its connected arbitration rules were created with the purpose of achieving the highest degree of harmonisation, the single countries have been recommended to make as few changes as possible when incorporating them into their legal systems. However, the adoption of this Model Law has not guaranteed complete uniformity among the various national legislations, as the different countries have used this model in different ways, depending upon their national requirements, concerns, cultures, legal systems, languages, and other constraints. Indeed, in the process of adoption of this model, the English language text of the UNCITRAL has often had to be translated into the local languages, a procedure which has implied not only the adaptation of the original discourse to the typical features and resources of the national tongues, but also its adjustment to the cultural needs and legal constraints of each specific country. It is the aim of this chapter to investigate the adoption of the UNCITRAL Model Law in the Italian context and to examine in particular the adaptations that have been made to the model document in the process of localisation of this harmonising effort.4 The texts analysed here are drawn from Italian legislation on international arbitration based on the Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration (ML) and the UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules (AR); in particular, the analysis focuses on the Italian arbitration law inserted in the Code of Civil Procedure (arts. 806-840)5 and the regulations drafted by the arbitration chambers of

4

This process of adoption and adaptation of the UML has been the object of analysis of two international research projects, one entitled Generic integrity in legislative discourse in multilingual and multicultural contexts () and the other International commercial arbitration practices: A discourse analytical study (), both led by Prof. Vijay Bhatia of the City University of Hong Kong. These projects have investigated the linguistic and discoursal properties of a multilingual corpus of international arbitration laws drawn from a number of different countries, cultures, and sociopolitical backgrounds, written in different languages, and used within and across a variety of legal systems. Some of the results of the project are presented in Bhatia et al. (2003), Bhatia et al. (2008), Bhatia et al. (2010). 5 More specifically, articles 806-831 constitute the legislative and procedural framework for arbitration per se, while 832-840 contain special provisions for international controversies.

86

Chapter Four

Milan, Bergamo and Venice.6 In order to highlight the differentiations and adaptations to a particular context, the Italian documents taken into consideration will be compared to those of the United Nations, with the aim of offering a more detailed understanding of linguistic and textual phenomena closely linked to cross-cultural traits.

3. Linguistic adaptation The analysis of arbitration texts has shown examples of discrepancy due to different legal discursive conventions. This can be seen, for example, in the way juridical obligation is signalled. This concept is traditionally expressed by modal shall in English legal discourse: (1) The appointing authority shall, at the request of one of the parties, appoint the sole arbitrator as promptly as possible. In making the appointment the appointing authority shall use the following list-procedure, unless both parties agree that the list-procedure should not be used or unless the appointing authority determines in its discretion that the use of the listprocedure is not appropriate for the case […]. (AR 6.3)7

Italian legal discourse, instead, usually adopts a present indicative to state legal provisions, thus emphasising the actuality and applicability of the legal provision and also implying that the law draws its force from the natural order of things rather than an order imposed by human agents:

6

The texts taken into consideration are: articles 806-840 of the Code of Civil Procedure (CCP, available at http://www.camera-arbitrale.com/codice.htm; an English translation, offered by the Milan Chamber of National and International Arbitration, is available at ; it is the version referred to in this article), UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules (AR, available at ), the United Nations Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration (ML, available at ), the regulations enacted by the Milan Arbitration Chamber (MAC, available at ), the regulations enacted by the Bergamo Arbitration Chamber (BAC, available at ), and the regulations enacted by the Venice Arbitration Chamber (VAC, available at ). 7 Emphasis added, as in all quotations in this chapter.

Globalisation in the Legal Field

87

(2) Gli arbitri, sentite le parti, provvedono entro venti giorni. (CCP 826.2) [The arbitrators take the necessary action within twenty days, after hearing the parties] (3) Gli arbitri redigono il lodo in tanti originali quante sono le parti e ne danno comunicazione a ciascuna parte mediante consegna di un originale, anche con spedizione in plico raccomandato, entro dieci giorni dalla data dell’ultima sottoscrizione. (CCP 825) [The arbitrators draft the award in as many originals as the number of the parties and give notice of it to each party by handing over an original or sending it by registered mail within ten days of the date of the last signature]

This preference for the present tense is also part of the drafting tradition of another country belonging to the civil law system, that is, France. As Garzone’s (2003, 206) analysis shows, the simple present indicative—rather than the deontic modal devoir—is the form customarily used to convey both the prescriptive and the performative functions of normative and legislative texts. Another cause of variation in the linguistic realisation in different languages is the greater degree of concern for clarity of expression. This is very high in the UNCITRAL text, which pays great attention to conceptual and terminological unambiguity. This feature can be associated to the emphasis normally placed by common law legislation on precision and detail for action in specific circumstances (Campbell 1996). Another reason for this greater need for clarity is the broader scope of the Model Law, which targets the whole international community and as such is potentially more prone to misinterpretation. This explains why ML devotes various parts of its text to very detailed terminological explanations: (4) ‘Arbitration agreement’ is an agreement by the parties to submit to arbitration all or certain disputes which have arisen or which may arise between them in respect of a defined legal relationship, whether contractual or not. An arbitration agreement may be in the form of an arbitration clause in a contract or in the form of a separate agreement. (ML 7.1)

88

Chapter Four

CCP, instead, gives hardly any terminological definitions. This is also due to the fact that the monocultural background of CCP is in fact less likely to require such specifications. Indeed, in the Italian text there are cases in which specifications remain implicit or refer vaguely to “law” in general: .

(5) se nel procedimento non sono state osservate le forme prescritte per i giudizi sotto pena di nullità. (CCP 829.7) [where the formalities laid down for proceedings under penalty of nullity have not been observed] (6) Gli arbitri debbono pronunciare il lodo entro il termine stabilito […] dalla legge; (CCP 813) [The arbitrators shall render their award within the time limit set […] by law;]

This different degree of precision is also visible in the lexis found in the two texts, the Italian one employing a wider range of words. Indeed, types in CCP account for 20 per cent of tokens, as compared to 14 per cent in ML. This greater lexical variety of CCP also accounts for a higher proportion of polysemous items in its specialised lexis. This evidence suggests that English legal discourse is more lexically restricted and specific than Italian, which results from the layering of the formal, specialised and bureaucratic registers of language (Petta 1994).

4. Textual adaptation Although the coverage of the contents of both ML and CCP is very similar—mainly following the chronological progression from the drafting of a commercial contract to the eventual recourse against the award—the Italian law is more comprehensive, as it deals both with national and international arbitration, while the Model Law does not apply to domestic controversies. Moreover, the Italian text displays a high degree of intertextual linking as this new law is embedded in the extant body of legislation, and therefore has to be interpreted in the light of hundreds of other texts of greater or equal authority. The sources of some of these references are explicitly mentioned in the text (see quotation 7 below), but in other cases the links to other documents remain implicit, as in quotation

Globalisation in the Legal Field

89

8, where references to other parts of the Civil Code (c.c.) or Penal Code (c.p.) are given in brackets: (7) La clausola compromissoria contenuta in condizioni generali di contratto oppure in moduli o formulari non è soggetta alla approvazione specifica prevista dagli artt. 1341 e 1342 del Codice civile. (CCP 833.1) [An arbitration clause contained in general conditions of contract or standard forms shall not be subject to the specific approval provided for in Arts. 1341 and 1342 of the Civil Code] (8) Gli arbitri possono essere sia cittadini italiani sia stranieri. Non possono essere arbitri i minori (c.c. 2), gli interdetti (c.c. 414; c.p. 32), gli inabilitati (c.c. 415), i falliti, e coloro che sono sottoposti a interdizione dai pubblici uffici (829 n. 3; c.p. 28, 23, 31.). (CCP 812) [The arbitrators may be Italian or foreign nationals. Minors (c.c. 2), persons under a legal incapacity (c.c. 414, 415; c.p. 32), bankrupts and those who have been disqualified from holding a public office (829 n. 3; c.p. 28, 23, 31) may not act as arbitrators]

In ML, instead, reference is usually internal and has the function of facilitating “textual mapping” (Bhatia 1987). This is achieved mainly through the use of complex prepositional phrases, such as under, in accordance with or according to: (9) The award shall state the reasons upon which it is based, unless the parties have agreed that no reasons are to be given or the award is an award on agreed terms under article 30. The award shall state its date and the place of arbitration as determined in accordance with article 20(1). (ML 31.2-3)

Other typical grammatical realisations include past-participle clauses such as referred to and specified in: (10) Where an action referred to in paragraph (1) of this article has been brought, arbitral proceedings may nevertheless be commenced or continued, and an award may be made, while the issue is pending before the court. (ML 8.2)

90

Chapter Four (11) Any party may request the court or other authority specified in article 6 to take the necessary measure, unless the agreement on the appointment procedure provides other means for securing the appointment. (ML 11.4)

Intra-textual links also occur in CCP, as can be seen in the following case: (12) La clausola compromissoria deve risultare da atto avente la forma richiesta per il compromesso ai sensi dell’articolo 807, commi primo e secondo. (CCP 808.1) [The arbitration clause shall be contained in a document meeting the formal requirements for an arbitration agreement according to Art. 807, first and second paragraphs]

However, these devices are less frequent in the Italian text, this being linked to the fact that this law is firmly embedded within the Code of Civil Procedure and its authority, whereas ML is a stand-alone law with no inherent intertextual linking.

5. Cultural adaptation Even from a very superficial analysis of arbitration practices, it is easy to realise that the cultural environment greatly influences the outcome of the arbitration procedure. This is clearly visible in those cases in which the national legislation imposes specific obligations in compliance with local customs and traditions: for example, some countries such as Korea and Saudi Arabia uphold requirements of nationality and/or residence for a person to serve as arbitrator (Jarvin 1999, 60); Saudi Arabia also requires arbitrators to be male and of the Islamic faith (Saleh 1992, 549). These criteria impose serious restrictions on the choice of arbitration in an international dispute and are usually taken into consideration by foreigners when they have to fix the site of an arbitration case with a party residing in one of those countries. But even when cultural differences are not so evident, it is impossible to guarantee a perfectly homogeneous process, as the various legal patterns of the countries involved will re-emerge in some of the procedures described or in a few of the principles set out. Such professional traits will not only characterise the written texts, but will be present in the minds of the arbitrators themselves, who—no matter how neutral and culturally open they wish to be—will be conditioned by their

Globalisation in the Legal Field

91

own specific legal philosophy. This emergence of the arbitrator’s educational and professional background may create problems in the assessment of the parties’ behaviour and originate negative consequences on the outcome of the proceedings themselves, a risk international arbitrators are fully aware of: [A]n arbitrator, without relinquishing the most impartial frame of mind, may nonetheless remain very distant, in educational and cultural terms, from the particular party or its counsel. In such a case, difficulties are likely to arise which have nothing to do with the probity of the arbitrator in question. They are due solely to the fact that said arbitrator reveals a greater intellectual propensity to grasp every detail of the arguments put forward by one party, while encountering objective and honest difficulties in understanding the submissions of the other(s) in the same way. Albeit unwillingly, the conduct of the arbitrator may thus adversely affect the equal treatment of the parties. (Bernini 1998, 42)

A similar opinion is expressed by Lalive, who remarks: [Participants in international arbitration] have different origins or places of business, different educations, methods, reactions or Weltanschauungen. In short, what has perhaps struck me more than anything after many years of arbitral practice, either as advocate or as arbitrator, is the capital role played by what may best be called ‘conflicts of cultures’ between the parties (as well as their respective counsel) and, as a result, by difficulties of ‘communication’ between them and arbitrators. (Lalive 1992, 80, italics in the original)

In spite of the growing international arbitration culture, the national influences traced in the arbitrators’ behaviour may prove particularly harmful and often rely on the arbitrators’ unfamiliarity with one of the parties’ site rules and practices. This is the reason why in recent legislation on arbitration there is a growing tendency to offer the parties a more comprehensive set of procedural rules rather than leaving the conduct of the proceedings completely to the discretion of the arbitral tribunal, an approach in line with the UNCITRAL Model Law. This process of harmonisation, however, is very hard to carry out, and even if all the procedures were to be unified, some differences would still remain in their perception at a local level. The reason for this is to be found in the underlying professional background: Our own legal cultures remain, for the time being, in certain areas, an important limiting factor to harmonisation because […] the application of

92

Chapter Four the same rule may lead, despite all good intentions, to strikingly different results. (Lazareff 1999, 36)

This explains why differentiation in the formulation of legal norms may also depend on diverging cultural implications involved in dispute resolution or on the different legal system adopted (e.g. common law vs. civil law). One of the main features of the common law system is the greater degree of autonomy enjoyed by the judge (see Borris 1994). Similarly, the arbitrator plays a very active role in the arbitration process because no jury is involved in the proceedings and the majority of the disputes in international commercial arbitration are of a technical and complicated nature. Moreover, the arbitrator often makes proposals for an amicable settlement of the dispute if he sees any feasible solutions. It is important, therefore, that the decision-making process should be totally transparent and that the arbitrator should be impartial and independent. This need is particularly felt in the Italian context, where the custom of non-standard arbitration has often been regarded as too sensitive to the parties’ interests and pressures (Ceccon 2000, 12), and provides an explanation for the specific rules that several Italian arbitration chambers have laid down to regulate the conduct of appointed arbitrators. In particular, the regulations laid down by a few arbitration chambers contain specific codes of conduct concerning such important issues as the arbitrator’s competence, impartiality and independence, which are largely modelled on the Criteria of Arbitral Ethics (Criteri di Deontologia Arbitrale) enacted by the Italian Arbitration Association in 1999 (see Bartolini and Delconte 2001). In the UNCITRAL text, instead, this issue is considered in very general terms: (13) In making the appointment, the appointing authority shall have regard to such considerations as are likely to secure the appointment of an independent and impartial arbitrator and shall take into account as well the advisability of appointing an arbitrator of a nationality other than the nationalities of the parties. (AR 6.4)

This requirement, instead, is clearly stated as a strict obligation in other texts, with the use of a strong deontic modal auxiliary such as must and the explicit mention of situations that may impair such impartiality: (14) Every arbitrator must be and remain independent of the parties involved in the arbitration. (Rules of the International Chamber of Commerce Court of Arbitration 7.1)

Globalisation in the Legal Field

93

(15) An arbitrator must be impartial and independent. (Rules of the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce 17) (16) All arbitrators conducting an arbitration under these Rules shall be and remain at all times impartial and independent of the parties; and none shall act in the arbitration as advocates for any party. No arbitrator, whether before or after appointment, shall advise any party on the merits or outcome of the dispute. (Rules of the London Court of International Arbitration 5.2)

The codes of conduct included in MAC and BAC are even more specific as they consist of 15 articles, covering various aspects connected to the problem of arbitrators’ impartiality and independence and regulating the conduct of arbitrators in a very detailed way, from the moment they accept the appointment throughout the entire arbitration procedure. Also VAC has a specific article (Art. 13) stating in an explicit way that the appointed arbitrator is expected to send a written statement expressing his independence and impartiality and declaring he has no connections with the parties involved in the arbitration process. Moreover, BAC also includes the need for a Roster of Arbitrators (Section 6) and outlines in detail the characteristics of a potential arbitrator and of the application procedures. The specification of a Roster of Arbitrators stresses the wish of this arbitration chamber to exercise strict control over the competence and reliability of prospective arbitrators. Also, as regards the procedure for challenging an arbitrator, AR indicates the grounds for challenge in general terms, only mentioning “justifiable doubts as to his impartiality or independence” (Art.10). BAC (Section 8.1), instead, makes a clear reference to the reasons for challenging an arbitrator and refers to a precise external source of jurisdiction for their specification: (17) The party may reject the arbitrator in the cases specified in Section 51 of the Italian Code of Civil Practice. (BAC 8.1.2)

Also, in the Arbitration Law of the People’s Republic of China the grounds for challenging the appointment of arbitrators are stated in very specific terms, and are exemplified in the mention of a close relationship with any “one litigant” or “the attorney”, “private meetings with the litigants or with their attorneys” or acceptance of “invitation of the litigants or their attorneys to dine” or acceptance of “gifts” (Bhatia et al. 2001, 10). This implication of possibilities of bribery or influence may be

94

Chapter Four

prompted by particular socio-cultural factors specific to that country, a hypothesis which finds confirmation in the words of an expert on Chinese law, Professor Jerome Cohen from New York University, quoted by Jane Moir in an article in the South China Morning Post (5 October 2001): The longer my experience as either an advocate or an arbitrator in disputes presented to CIETAC [China International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission], the graver my doubts have become about its independence and impartiality. […] At a minimum, I would surely no longer advise clients to accept CIETAC jurisdiction unless the contract’s arbitration clause required the appointment of a third country national as presiding arbitrator. (Quoted in Bhatia et al. 2001, 8)

6. Social adaptation The socio-economic environment in which legal provisions are introduced may also influence the style adopted in drafting the normative texts. An example can be seen in the regulations enacted in the Italian context by the Milan, Bergamo and Venice Arbitration Chambers. These institutions are situated in one of the most highly industrialised areas in Northern Italy, where a large number of small enterprises operate successfully on foreign markets. Their sets of rules are intended for a number of business people running small and medium-sized companies and wanting clear indications on how to resolve commercial disputes without recourse to ordinary justice. This explains the higher degree of user-friendliness encountered in their texts, which can be observed in several cases. One instance is the fact that two of them (BAC and MAC) include standard arbitration clauses— such as the clauses for a sole arbitrator, for an arbitral tribunal and for a multi-party arbitration—which can be adopted verbatim and completed easily by the reader, as can be seen from the following examples: (18) Arbitration agreement (a) The undersigned (b) …………………………and ………………………. considering that a dispute has arisen on the subject (c) ………………………... agree to defer this dispute to the decision of (d) ……………………… to be appointed in accordance with the Rules of the National and International Arbitration Chamber of Bergamo, which the parties expressly declare they know and which they accept in full. The arbitrators / the sole arbitrator shall decide according to the rules and regulations …………....... / fairness (specify what is relevant). The language of the arbitration shall be ..…………………….

Globalisation in the Legal Field

95

Notes The arbitration agreement is a document that is stipulated when the dispute has already arisen between the parties and in the absence of a precautionary arbitration clause. (b) Specification of the name and residence, or in the case of companies, the head offices of the parties. (c) Reference, also expressed in general terms, of the subject under dispute, with possible reference to the contract out of which the dispute originated. (d) Specification of the number of arbitrators (one or three). (BAC, Arbitration agreement) (a)

(19) Clause for Sole Arbitrator All disputes arising out of the present contract(1), including those concerning its validity, interpretation, performance and termination, shall be referred to a sole arbitrator according to the International Arbitration Rules of the Chamber of National and International Arbitration of Milan, which the parties declare that they know and accept in their entirety. The sole arbitrator shall decide according to the norms ... (2). The language of the arbitration shall be ... Notes (1) Where the arbitration clause is contained in a document other than the contract to which it pertains, the contract referred to shall be indicated. (2) The parties may indicate the norms applicable to the merits of the dispute; alternatively, they may provide that the arbitrator decide ex aequo et bono. (MAC, Clause for Sole Arbitrator)

The texts above have the form of ready-to-use specimens and are thus very easy to copy and complete. Instead, the UNCITRAL arbitration rules, on which the Italian texts are modelled, are mainly informative and imply some sort of adaptation on the part of the user of the clauses presented (see quotation 20). This is in line with the results of Salmi-Tolonen’s (2003) analysis of the Finnish Arbitration Act compared with the UNCITRAL Model Law, which confirm her hypothesis that the functions of the national law and the international law are slightly different: expository and descriptive in the case of international law, and directive in the case of national law: (20) Model arbitration clause Any dispute, controversy or claim arising out of or relating to this contract, or the breach, termination or invalidity thereof, shall be settled by arbitration in accordance with the UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules as at present in force.

96

Chapter Four Note Parties may wish to consider adding: (a) The appointing authority shall be ... (name of institution or person); (b) The number of arbitrators shall be ... (one or three); (c) The place of arbitration shall be ... (town or country); (d) The language(s) to be used in the arbitral proceedings shall be … (AR 1)

AR’s adherence to a more traditional legal style is also demonstrated by the lengthy and complex structure of most of its sentences, in line with the features of legal discourse (Mellinkoff 1963, Gustafsson 1975, Hiltunen 1990, Solan 1993, Tiersma 1999, Gotti 2008). As can be seen in Table 4-1, the average sentence length is higher in AR than in the other three texts: Average sentence length 43.1 37.0 34.4 29.8

AR MAC BAC VAC

Table 4-1. Average sentence length in the corpus analysed (from Belotti 2003, 33) The more complex structure of legal discourse in AR is confirmed by the data concerning sentence types. As Table 4-2 shows, AR has more complex sentences than the Italian texts; MAC, BAC and VAC, on the contrary, contain more simple and compound sentences. AR Simple Compound Complex Complexcompound

5 1 24

17% 3% 80%

9

MAC 19%

36 2

77% 4%

15 2 37

BAC 28% 4% 68%

4 5 3

VAC 33% 42% 25%

Table 4-2. Distribution of sentence types (from Belotti 2003, 34) The shorter sentence length and the higher average number of simple and compound sentences determine a positive impact on the level of readability of the Italian texts and make them easier to process, which strengthens their greater degree of user-friendliness. This greater attention

Globalisation in the Legal Field

97

to reader’s competence and expectations is confirmed by the use of lexis. Indeed, AR contains many Latin and French forms, some of which already found in ML: ex aequo et bono, amiable compositeur, de iure, de facto, ipso iure, in camera. These, instead, do not occur at all in some of the Italian arbitration rules (such as BAC) or are very few in others (MAC and VAC). The same can be said for archaic words (see Table 4-3): AR Forthwith Hereinafter Therefore Therefor Therein Thereof Thereon Thereto Total

1 2 2 2 2 2 11

MAC 1

BAC

2 2 1 3

9

VAC

3

0

3

Table 4-3. Type and number of occurrences of archaic words (from Belotti 2002, 132)

7. Conclusion As can be seen from the analysis carried out in this chapter, the recent strong moves towards globalisation have implied relevant consequences in socio-cultural and communication terms. As language is inseparable from set cultural implications and is deeply involved in social change, local discourse often demonstrates that linguistic and cultural adaptations are bound to arise. Variations in the formulation of legal norms are also to be attributed to the different cultural traits and legal traditions of the communities for which they are meant. This can be seen, in particular, in the analysis of the specificity of information included in the various texts, which may vary significantly, perhaps due to differences in socio-cultural expectations and practices that constrain social behaviour in local contexts. The investigation of the process of adaptation of the UN Model Law to different national realities has shown that, in spite of the growing efforts of the international community to guarantee greater and greater harmonisation in legislation and procedures, local constraints and specific cultural aspects still represent a relevant conditioning factor. This is clearly visible in the normative texts in use in the various contexts which show discrepancies deriving not only from differing legal and cultural systems, but also from the use of different linguistic codes.

98

Chapter Four

The analysis of arbitration texts has also shown that, although the Model Law has been created with the purpose of achieving the highest degree of harmonisation, total harmonisation has not been realised, with the consequence that it is no longer unanimously perceived as a final and attainable goal. Indeed, the current prevalent interpretation of the harmonisation process emphasises a common understanding of the meaning of terms and practices rather than total adoption and blind acceptance of proposed models (Borris 1999, 11). In spite of the desire to make international arbitration procedures “unbound” (Paulsson 1981) by local constraints, linguistic, social and cultural aspects still represent an important conditioning factor in the construction and interpretation of the legal discourse concerning this mediating practice. Although the analysis reported in this chapter has primarily concentrated on the discoursal properties of arbitration documents located in specific contexts, its results may contribute to a wider understanding of how legal texts are constructed, interpreted and used in multilingual and multicultural settings. According to this more general perspective, the discussion of certain linguistic and textual features has provided interesting insights, for example, into how socio-cultural factors are influenced by common law systems on the one hand and civil law systems on the other, or by different target readers with their own legal culture and professional expectations. In this way, even a limited investigation of a specific case such as the one presented in this chapter may be of help for a better knowledge of legal language seen from an international perspective and for a more detailed understanding of linguistic and textual phenomena closely linked to crosscultural traits.

References Bartolini, Francesco, and Roberto C. Delconte, eds. 2001. Il codice dell’arbitrato [The Arbitration Code]. Piacenza: La Tribuna. Belotti, Ulisse. 2002. The language of Italian arbitration rules in English: Some measurable aspects. Linguistica e Filologia 15: 113-141. —. 2003. Generic integrity in Italian arbitration rules. In Legal discourse in multilingual and multicultural contexts: Arbitration texts in Europe, eds. Vijay Bhatia, Christopher N. Candlin, and Maurizio Gotti, 19-40. Bern: Peter Lang. Berger, Klaus P. 2006. Private dispute resolution in international business: Negotiation, mediation, arbitration. The Hague: Kluwer Law International.

Globalisation in the Legal Field

99

Bernini, Giorgio. 1998. Is there a growing international arbitration culture? In ICCA (International Council for Commercial Arbitration) International dispute resolution: Towards an international arbitration culture, gen. ed. Albert Jan van den Berg, 41-46. Dordrecht: Kluwer Law International. Bernstein, Ronald, John Tackaberry, Arthur L. Marriott, and Derek Wood, eds. 2003. Handbook of arbitration practice. London: Sweet and Maxwell. Bhatia, Vijay K. 1987. Textual-mapping in British legislative writing. World Englishes 1/1: 1-10. Bhatia, Vijay K., Christopher N. Candlin, and Sandy Wei. 2001. Legal discourse in multilingual and multicultural contexts: A preliminary study. Research Group Report. Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong. Bhatia, Vijay K., Christopher N. Candlin, and Maurizio Gotti, eds. 2003. Legal discourse in multilingual and multicultural contexts: Arbitration texts in Europe. Bern: Peter Lang. Bhatia, Vijay K., Christopher N. Candlin, and Jan Engberg, eds. 2008. Legal discourse across cultures and systems. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Bhatia, Vijay K., Christopher N. Candlin, and Maurizio Gotti, eds. 2010. The discourses of dispute resolution. Bern: Peter Lang. Borris, Christian. 1994. Common law and civil law: fundamental differences and their impact on arbitration. Arbitration 60/2: 78-85. —. 1999. The reconciliation of conflicts between common law and civil law principles in the arbitration process. In Conflicting legal cultures in commercial arbitration: Old issues and new trends, eds. Stefan N. Frommel, and Barry A.K. Rider, 1-18. The Hague: Kluwer Law International. Campbell, Lisbeth. 1996. Drafting styles: Fuzzy or fussy? ELaw. Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law 3/2.

(accessed October 9, 2010). Candlin, Christopher, and Maurizio Gotti, eds. 2004. Intercultural discourse in domain-specific English. Special issue of Textus 17/1, Genoa: Tilgher. —. eds. 2007. Intercultural aspects of specialised communication. Bern: Peter Lang. Ceccon, Roberto. 2000. La Corte Arbitrale di Venezia, una nuova istituzione per attrarre l’arbitrato internazionale in Italia [The Venice Arbitration Chamber, a new institution to attract international

100

Chapter Four

arbitration to Italy]. In Le prospettive dell’arbitrato interno ed internazionale: Il Regolamento della Corte Arbitrale di Venezia, 7-12. Turin: Giappichelli. Coulmas, Florian. 1991. The language trade in the Asian Pacific. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 2/1: 1-27. Cremades, Bernardo M. 1998. Overcoming the clash of legal cultures: The role of interactive arbitration. Arbitration International 14/2: 157-172. David, René. 1980. English law and French law. London: Stevens. Fletcher, George P. 1999. Fair and reasonable: A linguistic glimpse into the American legal mind. In Les multiples langues du droit européen uniforme, eds. Rodolfo Sacco, and Luca Castellani, 57-70. Turin: L’Harmattan Italia. Garzone, Giuliana. 2003. Arbitration rules across legal cultures: An intercultural approach. In Legal discourse in multilingual and multicultural contexts: Arbitration texts in Europe, eds. Vijay K. Bhatia, Christopher N. Candlin, and Maurizio Gotti, 177-220. Bern: Peter Lang. Gotti, Maurizio. 2008. Investigating specialised discourse. Bern: Peter Lang. Gotti, Maurizio, and Susan Šarþeviü, eds. 2006. Insights into specialised translation. Bern: Peter Lang. Gotti, Maurizio, and Christopher Williams, eds. 2010. Legal discourse across languages and cultures. Bern: Peter Lang. Gustafsson, Marita. 1975. Some syntactic properties of English law language. Turku: University of Turku, Department of English. Hiltunen, Risto. 1990. Chapters on legal English: Aspects past and present of the language of the law. Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia. Jarvin, Sigvard. 1999. Leading arbitration seats: A (mostly European) comparative view. In Conflicting legal cultures in commercial arbitration: Old issues and new trends, eds. Stefan N. Frommel, and Barry A.K. Rider, 39-61. The Hague: Kluwer Law International. Lalive, Pierre. 1992. On communication in international arbitration. The American Review of International Arbitration 3/1-4: 79-82. Lazareff, Serge. 1999. International arbitration: Towards a common procedural approach. In Conflicting legal cultures in commercial arbitration: Old issues and new trends, eds. Stefan N. Frommel, and Barry A.K. Rider, 31-38. The Hague: Kluwer Law International. Mellinkoff, David. 1963. The language of the law. Boston: Little, Brown and Co.

Globalisation in the Legal Field

101

Paulsson, Jan. 1981. Arbitration unbound: Award detached from the law of its country of origin. International and Comparative Law Quarterly 30: 358-387. Petta, Paolo. 1994. Il linguaggio del legislatore [The legislator’s language]. Quaderni Regionali: 1303-1316. Robertson, Colin. 2010. Legal-linguistic revision of EU legislative texts. In Legal discourse across languages and cultures, eds. Maurizio Gotti, and Christopher Williams, 51-73. Bern: Peter Lang. Saleh, Samir. 1992. La perception de l’arbitrage au Machrek et dans les pays du Golfe. Revue de l’Arbitrage 4: 549. Salmasi, Stefano. 2003. English as a Lingua Franca at the European Union: The undertakings of pride? Recherches Anglaises et NordAméricaines 36: 113-120. Salmi-Tolonen, Tarja. 2003. Arbitration law as action: An analysis of the Finnish Arbitration Act. In Legal discourse in multilingual and multicultural contexts: Arbitration texts in Europe, eds. Vijay K. Bhatia, Christopher N. Candlin, and Maurizio Gotti, 313-332. Bern: Peter Lang. Šarþeviü, Susan. 1997. New approach to legal translation. The Hague: Kluwer Law International. —. 2010. Creating a pan-European legal language. In Legal discourse across languages and cultures, eds. Maurizio Gotti, and Christopher Williams, 23-50. Bern: Peter Lang. Seymour, Edward. 2002. Euro-English: The new pidgin? Terminologie et traduction 3: 22-32. Solan, Lawrence M. 1993. The language of judges. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Tiersma, Peter M. 1999. Legal language. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

CHAPTER FIVE COMPLAINING IN THE BUSINESS WORLD: COMPLAINT AND ADJUSTMENT EMAILS MIGUEL F. RUIZ-GARRIDO AND ANA Mª SAORÍN-IBORRA UNIVERSITAT JAUME I, CASTELLÓN (SPAIN)

Abstract. In today’s business world, the use of Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) has become fundamental. Among the different media used in communication, email messaging has probably become the most common one and the most frequently used. Emails are considered to be ‘embedded messages’ or a ‘dialogue genre’, which somehow accounts for their hybrid nature: spoken discourse displayed in a written text. This chapter is based on a sample of email messages taken from a one-year corpus received and sent by a car rental company based in Spain when dealing with customers complaints. In this chapter, we analyse the discourse of complaint and apology messages, understood as an ‘adjacency pair’ (Trosborg 2003). This chapter examines the rhetorical organisation of emails and analyses the recurring sequences of rhetorical moves for information organisation as well as the linguistic choices writers make when they are complaining and apologising. At the end of the chapter, we provide some pedagogical implications, with a focus on the teaching of pragmatics in ESP (business) courses.

1. An overview of business email writing In the last decade, the use of computer-mediated communication (CMC) or, more specifically, electronically-mediated communication (ECM) (Giménez 2005, 235) has become part of everyone’s life, with emails as the star medium. In fact, at the turn of the 21st century, Baron (1998) and Yus (2001) already observed that this new medium was increasing in use to the detriment of other types of communication such as long distance

104

Chapter Five

phone calls, interoffice memos or face-to-face encounters. Nowadays, this effect is even greater. Actually, the study of business emails has also become widely approached by different authors and from different standpoints. Over the past years, research on business email writing has increased substantially (Extejt 1998, Gains 1998, Louhiala-Salminen 1999a, 1999b, Nickerson 1999, 2000, Giménez 2000, 2002, 2005, Bondi 2005, Poncini 2005). These studies have examined recurring features of electronic mails concerning style, register or contextual aspects from different theoretical standpoints. Most of these findings support the idea that email messages move between features from the written language (more formal) and those from the spoken language (less formal) and therefore the analysis of corpora shows differences in the level of formality. For instance, the study by Gains (1998) finds that email messages use more informal language than the texts analysed by Giménez (2000). These dissimilarities are supported by the fact that the documents analysed by Gains seem to be more legal records than just simple interpersonal exchange (Giménez 2000, 246). Evidence of the mix of both types of register is also provided by Yus (2001), based on Baron (1998), when he explains the characteristics of the email usage according to four aspects: i) its social dynamics (being predominantly writing), ii) its format (mixing writing and speech), iii) use of grammar (predominantly speech in the lexicon and mixing writing and speech in syntax), and iv) style (predominantly speech). As Giménez (2005, 237) argues, most of the research on business emails has concentrated on simple, one-way emails. He makes use of the term “embedded messages” (from Yates et al. 1999) to prove the evolution of emails. Giménez (2005, 237) points out the growing tendency to use embedded email messages in specific business settings where international communication is part of their daily communication routine. Yates et al. (1999, 92) define embedded messages as “dialogue genre”, “as they allow participants to see all parts of the communicative event as in a written dialogue” (Giménez 2005, 238). This chapter is basically based on this definition (Yates et al. 1999, Giménez 2005) as we are dealing with email messages which require a continuous and nearly immediate reply to a previous email message.

2. Business complaints and apologies As detailed later, the corpus of analysis for the present study is made up of complaint messages and the corresponding reply, when writers try to apologise or deal with the specific complaint. The whole interchange of

Complaining in the Business World: Complaint and Adjustment Emails 105

messages looks like a dialogue in writing (without interruptions and overlapping). This messages exchange, like in letter writing, illustrates a rich form of interaction, both from intertextual as well as interdiscursive viewpoints (Bhatia 2005, 38). As Bhatia also states, emailsʊand letters in generalʊshould be analysed as interactional constructs. Complaints and adjustment letters (name also known for the apologies, the replies to complaints) are an instance of interactional constructs. From a pragmatic perspective, the idea of approaching both types of emails makes sense since Trosborg (2003, 257, referring to Levinson 1983) states that “complaint and apology constitute an adjacency pair. A complaint is a first part act, with an apology as a ‘preferred’ second part, that is, a complaint can be immediately followed by an apology”. Following Trosborg (1995), complaints can be regarded as illocutionary acts by means of which complainers show or express their disapproval or dissatisfaction about a product or service for which they hold the complainee responsible, either directly or indirectly. Apology, on the contrary, is the action or utterance which is intended to “set things right” (Trosborg 2003, 257), that is to say, to find a solution to compensate the complainer for any harm done in order “to restore harmony and trust between a complainer and the complainee” (Trosborg and Shaw 2005, 191), although “there is also an element of face saving involved with a protective orientation towards saving the interlocutor’s face and a defensive orientation towards saving one’s own face” (Prachanant 2006, 30, based on Trosborg 1995). Several studies deal with letters of complaint/apology or consumer complaints/apologies but unfortunately, at least to our knowledge, scholarly work has not often looked into customers’ emails of complaint/apology. Examples of related studies are Hatipo÷lu (2004), who analyses email apologies in an academic context, and Swangboonsatic (2006), who is involved in business emails using preselected users and studying complaints and apologies as part of a negotiation process. Since emails can be regarded as the digital format of paper letters, according to Gillaerts and Gotti (2005, 17), in this chapter we also take into account previous literature on letters of complaint or apology.

2.1. Complaints in the business context Business letters of complaint have been a particular locus of interest for genre analysts. Saorín Iborra (2003) examines the case of a letter of complaint sent by a travel agency to highlight two main features in this type of texts: its macrostructure and the use of pragmatic politeness.

106

Chapter Five

The macrostructure of complaints (Cortés de los Ríos and Cruz Martínez 2001) can be subdivided into primary structure and secondary structure. While the primary structure refers to the basic sections of a business letter layout, the secondary structure concerns with the organisation of the content, which can be split into rhetorical moves (see Swales 1990, Bhatia 1993) that determine different communicative purposes of the writer. According to Cortés de los Ríos and Cruz Martínez (2001), letters of complaint follow three main moves: (i) introduction of the main purpose of the letter, registering a complaint; (ii) detailed explanation of the problem; and (iii) request for some action to solve or compensate the problem. Politeness involves different ways through which writers try to establish, maintain, and save a positive image/impression of themselves (face) in written interaction. In any business situation, effective communication must be the goal. Communicating in the written mode may be more difficult than communicating orally as writers cannot see the readers’ reactions immediately and hence the language used must be carefully chosen to obtain the desired results. Although the main goal of a complaint is to get some action done to solve a problem or mistake, we should not forget that complaints are a speech act that threatens the addressee’s face (Brown and Levinson 1987). Therefore, because of the conflicting nature of a complaint and an apology, writers should be aware of the pragmatic aspects of email communication, namely how things are said and how they are presented. Linguistic realisations of politeness occur in both complaints and apologies and help email writers maintain a good business relationship with their addressees. It is advisable that writers use expressions that soften the face-threatening act of complaining and apologising. This kind of language is expected to avoid conflict with the reader. Among all the negative politeness strategies proposed by Brown and Levinson (1987), four are usually found in letters of complaint: impersonalisation, nominalisation, hedging and being conventionally indirect (Marcén Bosque 1999, 198). All these strategies have a range of linguistic realisations, as explained below. Impersonalisation is used to avoid personal references and helps the sender of the message not to accuse the addressee. The passive voice is a recurrent realisation of this strategy, as it places responsibility on the facts or avoiding an accusatory tone (Booher 1988). Passive constructions are useful to deal with sensitive issues with tact and diplomacy, to express objective and impartial matters. Using the ‘you-attitude’ and ‘we’ instead of ‘I’ are other ways of impersonalising the written message. The strategy

Complaining in the Business World: Complaint and Adjustment Emails 107

of nominalisation helps soften the threat in the complaint. Brown and Levinson (1987) regard this strategy as a typical component of formal style. The strategy of hedging involves mitigating locutions that distance the sender and the receiver from the complaint. Hedging helps the writer accomplish the delicate task of telling the bad news to the reader. Finally, indirectness is a linguistic resource by means of which the writer avoids any kind of imposition on the letter, such as requests or orders, especially when he/she is asking for action. Some polite formulas by means of conditional sentences type II are commonly found in letters of complaint. Examples of positive politeness strategies in letters of complaint are not very frequent (Marcén Bosque 1999). Most of them serve as a device to maintain a good business atmosphere, presupposing a positive answer or reaction from the reader. Trosborg (1995) introduced eight complaint strategies used to express that feeling of discontent in communicating (orally) with others. Trosborg’s taxonomy further splits the degree of offence into indirect complaints (hints, annoyance, ill consequences, and indirect accusation) and direct complaints (direct accusation, modified blame, explicit condemnation of the accused’s action, and explicit condemnation of the accused as a person). For the purposes of this chapter, we are not following these strategies in a strict way, but rather as a general guideline.

2.2. Apologies in the business context As stated above, apologies are the outcome of a previous complaint. As was also the case of business written complaints reported in the previous section, there are certain elements that can be taken into account for the analysis of email messages of apology. Firstly, as for the macrostructure, especially the second structure, to our knowledge, there is no previous proposal for this kind of written texts, except for the case of Trosborg’s (2003, 259) study, in which she equates recommended speech acts to recommended moves. This author relies on Barlow and Møller’s (1996) golden rules for processing verbal complaints resulting in the following: (i) say Thank you, (ii) explain why you appreciate the complaint, (iii) apologise for the mistake, (iv) promise to do something about it immediately, (v) ask for the necessary information, (vi) correct the mistake–promptly, (vii) check customer satisfaction, and (viii) prevent future mistakes. Another element that can be taken into account is the language used, in particular, politeness strategies. Some authors (e.g. Fraser 1981, Olshtain and Cohen 1983) already proposed some potential semantic formulas to perform an apology, such as expressing regret (I am sorry), requesting

108

Chapter Five

forgiveness (Excuse me/Forgive me), acknowledging responsibility (It was my fault), offering repair (I’ll pay/Let me help you) or promising forbearance (It’ll never happen again), among others. Trosborg (2005, see also Trosborg and Shaw 2005) further claims that several speech acts are related to apologies in customers interaction. This author identifies eight speech acts, which perfectly match with the previously listed golden rules, though in this case, focusing on the functions of the language. There are two obligatory functions, thanking for the complaint and direct apologies. The recommended indirectness in complaints works differently in apologies. As indirectness mitigates the illocutionary force, apologies must be expressed directly, often intensified by upgraders. Direct apologies convey sincerity to set things right (Trosborg 2003). A third speech act, explanation, can also occur, but always related to thanking. Then two general strategies follow: attending to the complaint and amending the mistake through remedial acts. The first strategy involves promise of immediate attention/correction and asking for information; the second includes remedial acts such as offer of repair, check customer satisfaction, and prevent future mistakes. This author further explains that although responsibility must be taken, acknowledgement needs not be expressed explicitly. Similarly, rejections and evasive strategies tend to be “outlawed in the prescriptions for business interaction” (Trosborg and Shaw 2005, 199).

2.3. Rationale and purpose of the study Before moving to the analysis of complaint and apology messages, it is worth assessing whether or not current business EFL textbooks include any information related to complaints and apologies, especially written ones, and, if so, how these genres are approached pedagogically. Here, we understand the term ‘business’ in the broader sense and regard the tourism industry as a kind of business context. The Appendix at the end of this chapter includes a table with the chapters, sections or some references to complaining and apologising that tourism textbooks include. Other textbooks were not included since no references to complaints and apologies were found. Generally speaking, it can be argued that many business EFL textbooks directly related to the tourism industry tend to emphasise the important relationship with customer in this business context and therefore include full chapters or sections dealing with complaints and apologies. Unfortunately, only two of the selected sample of business-related textbooks (Naunton 2000, Emmerson 2004) include information on written

Complaining in the Business World: Complaint and Adjustment Emails 109

correspondence of complaint/apology; Naunton (2004) only approaches how to write apologies. Most of the books on the list include written models, suggestions, practice, etc. of this type of correspondence. However, there is a general tendency to focus more on the spoken complaint/apology rather than on the written oneʊe.g. Revell and Scott 1998, Harding 1998, Baude et al. 2002, Dubicka and O’Keeffe 2003. This aspect, then, does not match with the current email practices and professional procedures of the community of practice analysed in this chapter. In addition, the analysis of the sample of textbooks showed that the main contents dealt with in all these textbooks basically concern with vocabulary and activities for putting into practice some formulaic sequences. Some also offer some examples of written messages or oral situations which students can simulate or imitate in order to develop their own texts. However, essential rhetorical and pragmatic aspects of email communicationʊnamely, moves and politeness strategiesʊappear to be neglected in these textbooks. Although these generic aspects could be inferred from the examples and the activities proposed for classroom work, no explicit language awareness is raised so that students become acquainted with these fundamental features of communication. Advocating the pedagogical advantages in raising students’ awareness of rhetorical and pragmatic aspects of specialised communication, we compiled a corpus of email messages that were received and sent by a car rental company based in Spain in a one-year span. With this sample of authentic texts, in this chapter we first provide an exploratory analysis of email interactions in order to identify both the sequences of rhetorical moves they are divided into and the recurring linguistic features. Secondly, relying on the data from the textual analysis we provide several pedagogical implications, with a special focus on the teaching/learning of business pragmatics in the ESP classroom.

3. Customer-company complaints and apologies The corpus of analysis is made up of 44 messages embedded in 10 emails between the customer care staff from a Spanish car rental company and some customers who have problems in the hiring process. The four staff members involved in these email exchanges were from Spain whereas the customers were from two different European countries, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. The embedded messages ranged from 2 to 9, being the most common ones the exchanges of 4-5 messages each. All the interactions were started by the customer. As for the length, the

110

Chapter Five

number of words of each email chain ranged from 312 to 1638 words, and the average was 724.1 words. As for the issues raised in the complaints, the following were identified: wrong category of rented car, poor conditions, poor customer service, and overcharge. Only three of them referred to the complaint in the subject line of the email while the fourth one used the previous booking confirmation emails as the subject line or used a subject line referring just to the car rental. Eight out of the ten mails had satisfactory outcomes, although there was a customer who mentioned the lack of probability of using the discount offered as compensation. Another customer was invited to contact another service provider which was suggested to be responsible for one of the problems that remained unsolved. The only obvious unsatisfactory outcome appeared in the longest email interaction analysed, even if this interaction involved two consecutive emails from the customer complaining about not receiving prompt and appropriate answer to his/her demands. In the subsections below, we will focus only on the first and second messages of the email chain (20 messages in all), the complaint and the apology, which are common to all the exchanges analysed in the corpus.

3.1. First message: Complaints1 From the primary structure, we will first focus on the greetings. Eight out of ten initiators include an opening salutation; six use a formal style (Dear Sirs, Dear Sir/Madam), one of them uses the formula Dear, and the remaining one uses an informal salutation (Hello). The closing salutation of the message shows a range of possibilities: from the formal formula (Yours sincerely), other less formal expressions such as (Kind) Regards, Thank you, Many thanks, or Yours, etc. to the absence of closure. Regarding the secondary structure (i.e. rhetorical moves) of complaint messages, nine emails started with an introduction but only five of them included the complaint in this move. This means that only one email had no introduction. A detailed explanation of the problem was included in all the messages analysed. However, surprising as it may be, two of them showed no requesting action move and only expressed their dissatisfaction towards the service received. Interestingly, in addition to these moves, other moves were also identified: emphasising the fact of being a good/regular customer (2 samples), praising the company (2 samples),

1

The corpus examples provided in this chapter are unedited and show individual variation regarding language proficiency.

Complaining in the Business World: Complaint and Adjustment Emails 111

stating further justification of the request (2 samples) and threatening (1 sample). To illustrate the language used in the sample of complaint emails, below we provide exemplification of expressions that appear in each move. We specifically highlight the recurring politeness strategies (Brown and Levinson 1987) and complaint strategies (Trosborg 1995) involved in the writers’ linguistic choices. Some examples of lexicogrammatical expressions found in each move are the following: a) introduction–registering a complaint: (1) We were MOST DISSATISFIED with our hire car (message 15) (2) I have had a series of problems this time, which I would like you to consider for compensation: (message 17) (3) I wish to complain to you about a car that I have hired below Which we have now in [city] (message 23) (4) I am writing to express my dissatisfaction with the service I received and would list the following complaints. (message 24)

b) giving detailed explanation of the problem: (5) it had clearly never been cleaned (message 15) (6) Unfortunatly I did not have a copy of this email […] (message 20) (7) when i picked up the car i was given a renault scenic. (message 22) (8) the size of the vehicle was totally impractical for the purpose required (message 24)

c) requesting action: (9) We would appreciate a response to the above. (message 3)

112

Chapter Five (10) [I] would appreciate a response before I return to [city] (message 17) (11) would like an explanation on the increase in price and a refund. (message 20) (12) please refund my deposit and also compensate for car that you supplied which was to small. (message 22)

d) emphasising the fact of being a good/regular customer: (13) We have been using car hire from Malaga for the last 5 years, with approximately 8 individual hires per year, of varying durations from 4 days to 17 days. (message 3) (14) I thought you might be interested to hear of the experiences of a regular customer who hires from you for 12 to 13 weeks every year. (message 8)

e) praising the company: (15) The above issues […] have never been an issue in 5 years of car hire in [city] (message 3) (16) I have always been happy with [company] when I have hire directly or via [another company] but… (message 23)

f) stating further justification of the request: (17) I have made pictures to prove my point. If you want I can send you these. (message 19) (18) As I have worked in the Motor Industry for a Renault Main Dealer for over 40 years I feel justified in making these complaints and [...]. (message 24)

g) threatening: (19) Needledss to say we will not be using you again and will not be recommending you to anyone. (message 15)

Complaining in the Business World: Complaint and Adjustment Emails 113

As explained above, politeness is regarded as an essential element in order to save face in communication. Examples 5 and 7 above illustrate the strategy of impersonalisation by means of the passive voice. Example 1 is a direct complaint, although nominalisations are not found. Politeness is also expressed through hedging devices such as the use of the conditional would (examples 2, 4, 9, 11), might (example 14), or please (example 12), and the use of attitude markers like unfortunately (example 6). Some of these hedges are used by writers to ask for something or to make suggestions. By this means, they help writers make the expressions more tentative. Other hedges simply seek to mitigate the obligationʊhence the implicit directnessʊof the verbs that hedges precede (see Wilamová 2005). Instances of indirectness and indirect complaints strategies can be found in examples 9, 10, 11, as well as in 13 and 14. These examples bring to the fore that the fact of being a good/regular customer may be regarded as an indirect pressure strategy to convince the company to accept the customer’s request. Direct strategies also occur in the corpus, as in examples 2 and 5. As stated above, positive politeness strategies do not seem to be very frequent in complaints; nevertheless, there are some instances in the corpus of praising the company, as examples 15 and 16 illustrate. As for lexical words, in the first move section where the complaint is usually registered, negative evaluative words like dissatisfied, problems, or complaint, showing the negative connotations involved in the complaint, tend to occur in the corpus texts. This evaluative lexis can also be found in other moves such as impractical, which appears in move b (giving detailed explanation of the problem). However, its frequency of occurrence is lower than that found in move a (introduction–registering a complaint). Co-occurring with evaluative lexis, intensifiers like most (example 1), clearly never (example 5), or the use of capital letters (example 1) can also be found.

3.2. Second message: Apologies2 The fact that the four writers of the apologies belong to the same company was expected to yield certain homogeneity in the way of writing their replies to the complaint emails, following the company policy. This is what happened with the use of greetings. In all the apologies analysed, the 2

Examples are unedited. Mistakes vary from one email to another and do not tend to be frequent in the second message of the pairs analysed. Most of them are mispellings.

114

Chapter Five

same formal salutation is used (Dear Mr/Mrs + [customer’s surname]). Concerning the closure, two formulas are employed: Sincerely + [first name] (4 samples) and Kind regards + [first name] (6 samples). Regarding the secondary structure, homogeneity can be observed not only in the moves but also in the linguistic realisations. As exemplified below, there are even complete fragments repeated in several apologies that can be considered to be clichés used in the company when dealing with complaints. All the apologies begin with the introductory move thanking for the complaint. Then, the subsequent move, giving explanation of the reasons why the company appreciates the customer’s complaint, follows in eight of the texts. As already expected, apologising on behalf of the company also appears in most of the emails (8 of them). A fourth move, which can be defined as a mixture between the ones termed by Barlow and Møller (1996) as promise to do something about it immediately and correct the mistake, is stating action taken/to be taken– that is, offering compensation, solutions, alternatives or suggestions, was also identified in the corpus. This move appears in eight out of the ten texts. There are only two examples of move five (asking for the necessary information) and five examples of move seven (checking customer satisfaction), but no samples of move eight (prevent future mistakes) occur. Other moves which are not considered for the specific goals of this chapter are the following, ordered from most to least common in terms of occurrence in the corpus: offering further help (9 examples), expressing sympathy towards customer’s problem (6 examples), giving reasons to justify problems (4 examples), thanking customer for his/her loyalty (4 examples), and refusing customer’s request or company’s responsibility (4 examples). We illustrate below the linguistic realisations that tend to be recurring in each move. In some of them, some fragments appear exactly the same in several messages as indicated in brackets. This confirms the idea of established clichés in writing business emails that we commented on above. The following are the expressions which illustrate the language used in each move: a) introduction - thanking for the complaint: (20) Thank you very much for contacting our Customer Service Department. (messages 15, 17, 19, 22)

Complaining in the Business World: Complaint and Adjustment Emails 115 (21) Thank you very much for your e-mail sent to our Reservations Department with reference to your rental and the service provided by [airport’s name] pick up location. (messages 8, 23, 24)

b) giving explanation of the reasons why the company appreciates the customer’s complaint: (22) [company] devotes both, human and material resources to improve at every stage the attention and the service provided to our clients. However, in spite of all our efforts and the improvements we have achieved until now, there are still isolated incidents like the one you have described. (messages 3, 8, 15, 17, 23)

c) apologising on behalf of the company: (23) Please accept our sincere apologies for all the inconveniences caused to you as well on behalf of our provider. (messages 3, 8, 23, 24) (24) We are really sorry for the mistake. (message 3, 24)

d) stating action taken/to be taken: (25) Our company would like to offer you a special discount for your next reservation. (messages 8, 17, 23) (26) Let us suggest you to contact this company for further explanations. (message 22) (27) We have forwarded your comments to the airport office responsible in order to enhance our service. (message 23) (28) I can offer you a solution. Please, make certain to […]. As soon as you contact them, they'll arrange a vehicle change. (message 23)

116

Chapter Five

e) asking for the necessary information: (29) Please, make certain to send your pictures to us so that we can contrast whether or not this was your responsability. (message 19)

f) checking customer satisfaction: (30) we hope to have you among our clients (messages 3, 23, 24)

g) offering further help: (31) In case of any further questions or doubts, please do not hesitate to contact us again. (messages 3, 8, 17, 20, 24) (32) For further information, please do not hesitate to contact us again. (messages 15, 17, 19, 22)

h) expressing sympathy towards customer’s problem: (33) We can imagine your disappointment about whole incident. (messages 8, 15, 17, 23, 24)

i) giving reasons to justify problems: (34) We can only imagine that upon exchanging the vehicle as quickly as possible, our staff might not have had sufficient time to prepare the vehicle to standard it should be. (message 17)

j) thanking customer for his/her loyalty: (35) We would like to thank you for your confidence (messages 3, 8, 23, 24)

k) refusing customer’s request or company’s responsibility: (36) Please note that all our hire vehicles are carefully revised and cleaned before they are given to the clients. If you are not satisfied with the state of the vehicle provided, you can address our staff at any time, they will provide you

Complaining in the Business World: Complaint and Adjustment Emails 117 with a quick solution or exchange the vehicle. Unfortunately, you did not contact us during your hire period. (message 20) (37) Therefore, we cannot authorize any refund. (message 20)

All in all, it can be tentatively concluded that in the apologies above the linguistic realisations to reproduce face-saving strategies outnumber the expressions of directness. Of course, the staff members handling the complaints try to satisfy their customers’ requests but there are few instances in which they acknowledge mistakes or accept responsibility openly and no illustrations of promising forbearance occur. Furthermore, the corpus texts do present some examples of rejections and evasive strategies (e.g. examples 36 and 34), even if these are considered outlawed in business interactionsʊas also argued by the literature. As for the language representing face-saving strategies the corpus shows the use of intensifiers as special (in example 25) or carefully in example 36, as well as downgraders as isolated in example 22. Before dealing with the reason for the customer’s dissatisfaction itself, the staff member implicitly refers to the company with lexical items such as improve, efforts, improvements, or achieve as illustrated in example 22 above. A range of hedging devices across lexical and grammatical categories (nouns, modal verbs, and adverbs) to support the company’s image are common in the corpus, for instance, the use of please in example 29 for requests, the modals might and should in example 34 to justify the problem, and the adverb unfortunately in example 36 to avoid responsibility. Other common indirect linguistic realisations are the use of the passive voice (29 cases) as in example 36, the use of exclusive first person plural pronouns to report on a course of action taken when writing on behalf of the company (146 cases) as in examples 25, 26 and 27, and the polite expression would like (14 cases) as in example 25. Direct strategies to express apology, request forgiveness or acknowledge responsibility are realised by the use of the intensifiers (e.g. very much in example 20 or sincere in example 23) linked to thanking and apologising speech acts, as well as to hedging devices (e.g. please in 23 or we hope in 30) related to the moves of apologising on behalf of the company and checking customer satisfaction. Another linguistic feature that writers use to express directness used in the sample of apologies analysed is the modal will in time clauses or conditionals type I related to offering possible solutions. This can be illustrated in example 28 (As soon as you contact them, they’ll arrange...) and example 36 (If you are not satisfied with the state of the vehicle provided, you can address our staff at any time, they

118

Chapter Five

will provide you with a quick solution or exchange the vehicle). Lastly, some lexico-grammatical formulas used to perform apologies also occur in the corpus: Please accept our sincere apologies for all the inconveniences caused to you in messages 3, 8, 23 and 24; We are really sorry for the mistake in messages 3 and 24; We are really sorry for the inconveniences in message 10; we would as well like to offer our most sincere apologies in messages 15 and 17; and We apologize for the inconvenience this may have caused you in message 20.

4. Conclusions The sample of email messages selected for the present study shows that their structural as well as their pragmatic features appear to be determined by the particular professional context in which they have been written as well as by their specific communicative goal. The primary macrostructure presents formal and informal greetings, illustrating a common aspect that most literature dealing with email writing contends (Baron 1998, Yus 2001): the variety of formality that reflects the blend of formal and informal language in parallel with written and spoken discourse characteristics. In complaint messages, a wide variety in formal and informal introductory and salutations occur, whereas in the bulk of apologies, most formulas used are placed in the more formal end of the line, showing little variation in the expressions used. As for rhetorical moves, the corpus has shown expected and unexpected traits compared to the ones described previously (Cortés de los Ríos and Cruz Martínez 2001, Saorín Iborra 2003). Most messages in complaint emails include the three expected moves (registering the complaint, explaining the problem, and requesting action). That said, an interesting area of enquiry for further research is the fact that four new rhetorical moves have been identified: emphasising being a good/regular customer, praising the company, stating further justification of the request, and threatening. Although they only occur in two messages, it is interesting to note that the move praising the company includes positive politeness strategies, which seem to be very uncommon in complaining acts according to the literature (Marcén Bosque 1999). One move, that of threatening, involves direct threatening, which generally speaking is not advisable in business complaints. Likewise, all the moves identified by the literature (Barlow and Møller 1996, Trosborg 2003) have been found in the analysis of apologies except for one, preventing future mistakes, which was not used in the messages analysed. On the contrary, the corpus tentatively revealed five new moves

Complaining in the Business World: Complaint and Adjustment Emails 119

not previously mentioned by the literature: offering further help, expressing sympathy towards customer’s problem, giving reasons to justify problems, thanking customer for his/her loyalty, and refusing customer’s request or company’s responsibility. The most common ones are offering further help and expressing sympathy towards customer’s problems. The remaining moves occur frequently and can represent interesting aspects for further research since they include some strategies which seem not to be the most usual ones when apologising (such as rejections and evasive strategies, among others). We also think that these adjustment messages have a very homogeneous pattern and include some kind of pre-established structures and expressions the company staff uses. This might account for the company policy, as also corroborated in informal conversation with the person in charge of the customer care service. In the light of the findings reported in this chapter, pragmatics, especially politeness, appears to play a central role in the accomplishment of communicative effectiveness. In the case of complaint emails, as expected, many linguistic realisationsʊnamely, impersonalisation, hedging and indirectnessʊfunction as mitigating devices of the face-threatening act. The only outstanding case that is not approached in the literature review for the present study is that of positive politeness strategies. These, as stated above, also appeared in some messages of the selected corpus. In any case, neither the scholarly literature revised here nor the corpus analysed can lead to conclusive results. Concerning the second messages, that is, the apologies to the first complaints, face-saving strategies have shown to be common. Their linguistic realisations further indicate that they are mainly related to the function of helping the car rental company to justify or avoid direct responsibility for the facts. In general, they are remarkably homogeneous to the point of being regarded as clichés used in the company as part of their policy when dealing with customer complaints. Together with some direct strategies to express regret or acknowledge responsibility, it is worth pointing out the considerable number of examples of indirectness, which does not seem to be the standard criterion according to the literature (see, e.g. Trosborg 2003). All of them seem to play a defensive role to save the company’s own face. Comparing the findings above and the way some EFL textbooks handle this genre, pragmatics becomes a gap that should necessarily be filled in when teaching/learning this particular genre of business interaction. Apart from the activities focusing on the variety of vocabulary and expressions appropriate for these written texts, it would be advisable

120

Chapter Five

that material used in the EFL business classes include exercises for students to focus on common rhetorical moves, recurring politeness strategies, as well as their linguistic realisations so as to teach students how to handle complaints in an effective way. These recommendations would be part of the pedagogical implications resulting from the present chapter as genre awareness alongside business pragmatics can greatly contribute to effective students’ writing. Focusing on the recurring lexico-grammar alongside the politeness devices used in the different moves can be a useful pedagogical approach to raise students’ genre and pragmatic awareness of how to write complaint and apology emails successfully to get a satisfactory outcome; that is to say, being tactful and maintaining good rapport between interlocutors. Furthermore, many of the traits relevant in this type of business correspondence can be transferred to speaking skills when handling customer complaints in oral communication. All in all, both pedagogical approaches can equip the students with effective communication strategies when they get involved in the real professional context. As a pilot study, these suggestions have already been implemented in the Master’s Degree in English Language for International Trade at Universitat Jaume I (Castelló, Spain). Within this master degree, we have been piloting pedagogical material in which we have taken genre theory and pragmatics into account. For dealing with complaints and apologies we created or adapted writing activities to work on the different rhetorical moves, politeness strategies and relevant linguistic realisations to better teach how to write this type of business correspondence. To date, we have obtained very satisfactory outcomes and students’ writings have been improved significantly in terms of effective communication. Also, students have shown to be able to apply their knowledge on written correspondence to similar spoken professional situations. Needless to say, though, further experimental research is necessary to enquire into the extent to which business English students learn to communicate effectively in the professional context. From a theoretical standpoint, in future studies we plan to examine the frequency of occurrence and the discoursal functionality of the new moves of both complaints and apologies reported in the present chapter. We believe that an in-depth study of the range of politeness strategies identified in this chapter and their diverse linguistic realisations is also a motivating field for further enquiry, especially CMC interaction in the international business context. Undoubtedly, the current globalised world requires the use of English Lingua Franca as its main communication tool across people from different countries (see also Ferguson’s and Watson’s chapters this

Complaining in the Business World: Complaint and Adjustment Emails 121

volume). This chapter has illustrated how Spanish companies need to interact in English with foreign customers within an international professional context. Results, though tentative, instantiate how the individual characteristics of customers’ messages and the more regular and common patterns that company’s messages follow as part of their corporate identity intertwine in a daily professional setting.

References Barlow, Janelle, and Claus Møller. 1996. A complaint is a gift: Using customer feedback as a strategic tool. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Baron, Naomi S. 1998. Letters by phone or speech by other means: the linguistics of email. Language & Communication 18: 133-170. Bhatia, Vijay K. 1993. Analysing genre: Language use in professional settings. London/New York: Longman. —. 2005. Interdiscursivity in business letters. In Genre variation in business letters, eds. Paul Gillaerts and Maurizio Gotti, 31-54. Bern: Peter Lang. Bondi, Marina. 2005. People in business: The representation of self and multiple identities in business e-mails. In Genre variation in business letters, eds. Paul Gillaerts, and Maurizio Gotti, 303-324. Bern: Peter Lang. Booher, Dianna D. 1988. To the letter: A handbook of model letters for the busy executive. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Brown, Penelope, and Stephen C. Levinson. 1987. Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cortés de los Ríos, María E., and María S. Cruz Martínez. 2001. La metodología didáctica del IPA. Un caso práctico en el inglés de negocios: La carta comercial. In Methodology and new technologies in Languages for Specific Purposes, eds. Santiago Posteguillo Gómez, Inmaculada Fortanet Gómez, and Juan Carlos Palmer Silveira, 429439. Castellón: Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I. Extejt, Marian M. 1998. Teaching students to correspond effectively electronically. Business Communication Quarterly 61/2: 57-67. Fraser, Bruce. 1981. On apologising. In Conversational routine: Exploration in standardised communication situations and prepatterned speech, ed. Florian Coulmas, 259-273. The Hague: Mouton.

122

Chapter Five

Gains, Jonathan. 1998. Electronic mailʊA new style of communication or just a new medium? An investigation into the text features of e-mail. English for Specific Purposes 18/1: 81-101. Gillaerts, Paul, and Maurizio Gotti. 2005. Introduction. In Genre variation in business letters, eds. Paul Gillaerts, and Maurizio Gotti, 9-28. Bern: Peter Lang. Giménez, Julio C. 2000. Business e-mail communication: Some emerging tendencies in register. English for Specific Purposes 19: 237-251. —. 2002. New media and conflicting realities in multinational corporate communication: A case study. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 40: 323-343. —. 2005. Unpacking business emails: Message embeddedness in international business email communication. In Genre variation in business letters, eds. Paul Gillaerts, and Maurizio Gotti, 235-255. Bern: Peter Lang. Hatipo÷lu, Çiler. 2004. Do apologies in emails follow spoken or written norms? Some examples from British English. Studies about Languages (Kalbu Studijos) 5: 21-29. Levinson, Stephen C. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Louhiala-Salminen, Leena. 1999a. From business correspondence to message exchange: The notion of genre in business communication. Jyväskylä, Finandia, Centre for Applied Language Studies, University of Jyväskylä. —. 1999b. From business correspondence to message exchange: What is left? In Business English: Research into practice, eds. Martin Hewings, and Catherine Nickerson, 100-114. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Marcén Bosque, Carmen. 1999. Linguistic politeness in professional written communication: A cross-cultural study of British and Spanish business correspondence. In Enfoques teóricos y prácticos de las lenguas aplicadas a las ciencias y a las tecnologías, eds. Ana Bocanegra Valle, María C. Lario de Oñate, and Paloma López Zurita, 196-201. Salamanca: Tesitex, S.L. Nickerson, Catherine. 1999. The use of English in electronic mail in a multinational corporation. In Writing business: Genres, media and discourses, eds. Francesca Bargiela-Chiappini, and Catherine Nickerson, 35-56. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education Limited. —. 2000. Playing the corporate language game. Amsterdam: Rodopi.

Complaining in the Business World: Complaint and Adjustment Emails 123

Olshtain, Elite, and Andrew D. Cohen. 1983. Apology: A speech act set. In Sociolinguistics and language acquisition, eds. Nessa Wolfson, and Elliot Judd, 18-35. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Poncini, Gina. 2005. Constructing an international event in the wine industry: An investigation of emails in English and Italian. In Genre variation in business letters, eds. Paul Gillaerts, and Maurizio Gotti, 205-231. Bern: Peter Lang. Prachanant, Nawamin. 2006. Pragmatic transfer in responses to complaints by Thai EFL learners in the hotel business. PhD Thesis. Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand. Saorín Iborra, Ana Mª. 2003. Letters of complaint: A case in the tourist industry. In Linguistic studies in academic and professional English, eds. Inmaculada Fortanet Gómez, Juan Carlos Palmer Silveira, and Santiago Posteguillo Gómez, 107-123. Castelló: Publicaciones de la Universitat Jaume I. Swales, John M. 1990. Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Swangboonsatic, Compol. 2006. Text and context in international trade communication: A case study of email business communication among professionals in the Asia-Pacific region. PhD Thesis. Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. Trosborg, Anna. 1995. Interlanguage pragmatics: Requests, complaints and apologies. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. —. 2003. The teaching of pragmatics. In Pragmatic competence and foreign language teaching, eds. Alicia Martínez Flor, Esther Usó Juan, and Ana Fernández Guerra, 247-281. Castellón: Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I. Trosborg, Anna, and Philip Shaw. 2005. Acquiring prescriptive business pragmatics. The case of customer complaint handling. In Business discourse. Texts and contexts, eds. Anna Trosborg, and Poul E. F. Jørgensen, 185-223. Bern: Peter Lang. Wilamová, Sirma. 2005. On the function of hedging devices in negatively polite discourse. Brno Studies in English, 31: 85-93.

(accessed September 24, 2010). Yates, JoAnne, Wanda J. Orlikowski, and Kazuo Okamura. 1999. Explicit and implicit structuring of genres in electronic communication: Reinforcement and change of social interaction. Organisation Science 10/1: 83-103.

124

Chapter Five

Yus, Francisco. 2001. Ciberpragmática. El uso del lenguaje en Internet. Barcelona: Ariel.

Appendix Business EFL textbooks including issues on complaints and apologies Books including issues on complaints and apologies Baude, Anne, Montserrat Iglesias, and Anna Iñesta. 2002. Ready to order. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Dubicka, Iwonna, and Margaret O’Keeffe. 2003. English for international tourism (Preintermediate Students’ Book). Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Emmerson, Paul. 2004. Email English. Oxford: Macmillan. Harding, Keith. 1998. Going international: English for tourism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Harding, Keith, and Paul Henderson. 1994. High season: English for the hotel and tourist industry. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jacob, Miriam, and Peter Strutt. 1997. English for international tourism. Harlow, Essex: Longman. Mioduszewska, Marzena et al. 1992. Checkpoint. Madrid: Centro de Estudios Ramón Areces. Naunton, Jon. 2000. Head for business. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Revell, Rod, and Chris Stott. 1982. Five star English for the hotel and tourist industry, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Notes - chapter on complaints/apologies included - oral practice - sections on apologies/dealing with complaints included - oral practice

- chapters on complaints and apologies - written language - sections on complaints/apologies included - oral language; little on written language - chapter on apologies/dealing with complaints included - written and oral language - chapters on complaints/apologies included - written and oral language - chapter on complaints/apologies included (only about language functions) - oral practice - chapter on apologies/dealing with complaints included - written language; not oral language - chapter on complaints/apologies included - written and oral language

Complaining in the Business World: Complaint and Adjustment Emails 125 Revell, Rod, and Chris Stott. 1988. Highly recommended: English for the hotel and catering industry, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stott, Trish and Roger Holt. 1991. First class: English for tourism, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Strutt, Peter. 2003. English for international tourism (Intermediate students’ book). Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Varela, Raquel and Esther Bárcena. 2006. English in the tourist industry. (2nd edition). Madrid: Editorial Universitaria Ramón Areces.

- references to apologising/dealing with complains included - oral practice; no written language - chapter on complaints/apologies included - written and oral language - sections on complaints/apologies included - written and oral language - chapters on complaints/apologies included - written and oral language

CHAPTER SIX LINGUISTIC AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION FOR MARITIME PURPOSES: A SURVEY-BASED STUDY LIEVE VANGEHUCHTEN1, WILLY VAN PARYS2 2 AND ALISON NOBLE 1

UNIVERSITY OF ANTWERP AND 2ANTWERP MARITIME ACADEMY (BELGIUM)

Abstract. As an example of the globalisation process in the field of LSP, this chapter presents the first results of a research project on international communication for maritime purposes. Miscommunication in the maritime world often has serious consequences for safety. Therefore, central to this project is the ambition to determine the linguistic and intercultural features of maritime communication that hinder or aid the quality of work onboard a merchant ship (impediments, threats, facilitators, drivers). The goal of the project was to establish the possible connection between communication and levels of effectiveness during professional maritime activities by examining which factors characterise communication, be it successful or unsuccessful, in the maritime world. Initially, both a review of the existing research literature and consultation with maritime professionals allowed us to establish some possible variables that might influence communication. Subsequently, survey-based research in combination with selected indepth interviews determined the relative importance of these variables, establishing which variables were particularly dominant. To this end, three surveys at the first stage of this project were carried out exclusively amongst captains and deck officers: one on linguistic features, one on (inter)cultural features and one on the use of SMCP (Standard Marine Communication Phrases). This chapter describes the results of the first survey, examining the extent to which linguistic features influence the quality of communication in the maritime sector.

128

Chapter Six

1. Introduction A multi-ethnic crew is reality for 65% of the world’s merchant marine (Deboo 2004, Horck 2005), a combination of five or more nationalities in one crew being no exception. This situation can clearly give rise to communication problems, not only on board but also at the level of internship and ship-to-shore communication with, at times, significant consequences for safety—as proven by de la Campa Portela (2005, 2006). The IMO (International Maritime Organisation, ) became aware of this problem and in 2001 adopted the Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP), which replaced the Standard Marine Navigational Vocabulary (1977). The new SMCP serve as a more accessible language designed to facilitate safety and taking into account state-of-the-art innovation and conditions in the field of modern navigation. They contain external communication phrases (ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore) as well as on-board communication phrases (Short 2006). However, SMCP has proved of little use in practice, mainly because of its artificial nature (Bocanegra-Valle 2010, 163) leading to serious repercussions for safety if the high number of accidents caused by miscommunication is to be believed (see Squire 2006). Moreover, a multi-ethnic crew does not only create problems as a result of an insufficient command of the English, the maritime lingua franca, but also as a result of seemingly insurmountable intercultural differences. Deboo (2004) states that Latin American seafarers usually display subordinate tendencies on board due to the importance of hierarchical relationships in this particular culture. The authority of a superior must not be questioned, a belief which has a negative effect on levels of initiative within this ethnic group. Consequently, it is vital that superiors encourage crewmembers to be more assertive and enterprising. However, most often officers do not have the necessary knowhow to carry out these objectives, resulting in a lack of communication and cooperation which, in the worst cases, causes accidents and even fatalities. This chapter aims to present the first results of a research project 1 which analysed the aforementioned subject in a Belgian context taking into consideration both linguistic and intercultural components in maritime communication. The Belgian merchant fleet is distinctly international in character and is among the twenty largest fleets in the world. Since the problem under discussion is global, it is not surprising that it also manifests itself in the Belgian merchant marine. The latter, with more than 1

Funded by the University of Antwerp, 01/02/2009-31/12/2010.

Linguistic and Intercultural Communication for Maritime Purposes

129

200 vessels (merchant vessels, dredgers, sea tugs) and a total of 12,000 million deadweight tonnage (heretofore d.w.t.), is ranked amongst the twenty largest merchant fleets in the world. Since 2003 the number of ships flying the Belgian flag has increased considerably, as can be seen in Figure 6-1 below:

Figure 6-1. Evolution of the Belgian fleet (2000-2007)2 Moreover, the Belgian fleet has made a significant effort to comply with European requirements in terms of working conditions on board, the technical quality of navigation and, closely related, protection of the marine environment. These measures have meant that currently almost half of the Belgian fleet flies the national flag, as is shown in the following table:

2

Source: Antwerp Maritime Academy.

130

Chapter Six

Number of ships 1000 dwt total 1000 dwt Belgian flag 1000 dwt foreign flag

2008 233 12,154 6,017 6,068

2009 240 13,447 6,283 7,164

Table 6-1. Number of Belgian ships and their flag3

2. A literature review on maritime communication The most recent large-scale research project on maritime communication ʊinternal and externalʊwas the MARCOM project, financed by the European Commission Directorate General VII section (Waterborne Transport) and coordinated by The Seafarers International Research Centre at Cardiff University in the late nineties, that is, more than 10 years ago. The main results of the project revealed that, due to the globalisation process, approximately 80% of the world’s merchant ships had become multilingual and multi-ethnic in terms of crew composition (MARCOM 1998). The most difficult communication problems were identified at the levels of understanding English i) when used between ship and shore under critical conditions, ii) between ship and shore in close and congested circumstances when there was little time or space to rectify initial misunderstanding and iii) in passing orders between different language speakers on the bridge of a vessel and during emergencies. The study unequivocally signalled that language was not the only problem. Cultural differences in a mixed crew involving, for example, different meanings and emphasis being applied to the same words and ways of communication were also shown to cause friction and lead to accidents (ibid.). In the field of LSP in general, the literature confirms these results. Specifically, in the field of business communication, scholarly work draws on Bourdieu’s (2001) concept of ‘linguistic capital’—defined as the knowledge of and fluency in institutional discourses and bureaucratic languages—to show that there is also an opposite factor which should be taken into consideration, that of ‘linguistic penalty’. A clear example of this would be job interviews conducted in English, where native speakers are clearly at an advantage (Roberts and Campbell 2006). It therefore follows that within any given culture a participant in a specific kind of communicative event can only be considered competent if he/she 3

Source: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).

Linguistic and Intercultural Communication for Maritime Purposes

131

possesses knowledge not only of the corresponding language system but also of the culture-specific characteristics of that communicative event (see also Ferguson’s and Stadler’s chapters this volume). Several studies foreground the importance of communicative and intercultural competences in the business world (Cunningham and Spiegel 1971, Turnbull and Welham 1985, Schlegelmilch and Ross 1987, Schlegelmilch and Crook 1988, Ursic and Czinkota 1989, Davis 1995, Swift 1990, 1991, Walters 1990, Enderwick and Akoorie 1994, Lautanen 2000). According to these studies, there undoubtedly exists a positive correlation between knowledge of foreign languages and successful internationalisation. Knowledge of languages can be regarded as human capital as it offers significant competitive advantages. Moreover, a good command of foreign languages and major intercultural openings go hand in hand. Similarly, these studies indicate that a knowledge of languages combined with international experience at a managerial level may indeed exert a greater influence on investment decision-making and development opportunities than other factors such as training, professional experience or age. A good linguistic team also appears to facilitate information flows extensively and promote innovation (see, for instance, Leonidou et al. 2001, Williams and Chaston 2004). Given that a clear link between linguistic and intercultural competences has been largely proven to exist by the current research literature we have opted to elaborate these aspects in a three-part survey: the first part deals with linguistic features; the second part deals with (inter)cultural features and the third part, with the use of SMCP (Standard Marine Communication Phrases). This chapter focuses on the results of the first survey, examining the extent to which linguistic features such as insufficient knowledge of vocabulary and/or grammar in general, insufficient knowledge of technical vocabulary, poor pronunciation and weak oral skills, listening problems (misinterpreting oral information/ statements/instructions/orders), poor reading skills (misinterpreting written materials), writing problems (writing errors leading to unreadable reports/notes/instructions) etc., influence the quality of communication in the maritime sector. At this stage, the comments will thus be limited to an exploratory data analysis, with a view to familiarisation with the data.

132

Chapter Six

3. Methodology To investigate maritime communication in the Belgian shipping industry, the authors conducted a cross-section descriptive survey, 4 regarding the latter as an appropriate tool to understand the relevance of communication problems (see Baarda and de Goede 2006). The first part of the survey addressed general respondent information such as employer, shipping experience (years of experience, vessel type, trade type and geographical area) and on board function, as well as more specific questions on the linguistic aspects of communication problems in the maritime world, their causes and possible solutions. The second part of the survey examined the extent to which (inter)cultural features such as verbal and non-verbal communication, intercultural factors (ethical and social norms, thinking patterns, turn taking, cross-cultural prejudices), gender issues and organisational factors influence the quality of communication in the maritime sector. The third part enquires into the use and usefulness of SMCP. In October 2009, the authors devised a draft questionnaire, which was first discussed with a focus group of three maritime experts, all former captains with a leading function in a shipping company. Focus groups are known to be a useful tool in developing surveys as a guarantee of their validity (Flink 2003). The Royal Belgian Shipowners’ Association () assisted in contacting the Belgian shipping companies which in turn sent our survey to all their captains and officers. In addition, the survey was sent to all the alumni of the Antwerp Maritime Academy. Therefore, also non-Belgian shipping companies were contacted. This will allow us in future research to differentiate between Belgian and nonBelgian communication issues in the maritime world, and validate our results through data reduction procedures. These procedures will consist in selecting groups of respondents and their data and, eventually, in triangulating our survey data by proceeding to in-depth interviews with the selected respondents. Restricting the scope of the survey to officers only was designed to ensure that all respondents were sufficiently knowledgeable (Kumar et al. 1993). Of the 127 respondents, 21 were captains (16.5%), 17 second officers (13.4%), 8 third officers (6.3%), 19 chief officers (15%), 4 apprentice officers (3.1%), for 58 respondents (45.7%) no function was specified, most likely due to the fact that they are now employed ashore. 4 Since the findings presented in this chapter are part of unpublished doctoral research, the survey remains confidential until the doctoral thesis is eventually published.

Linguistic and Intercultural Communication for Maritime Purposes

133

High ranking crewmembers—captains, officers, and engineering officers —form a homogenous group in terms of profile. Low ranking crewmembers form by contrast an extremely heterogeneous group certainly in terms of native language, rendering a survey more difficult, especially when combined with other factors such as lower levels of education. Staff working would appear to be less familiar with onboard communication.

4. A basic characterisation of the respondents group 4.1. Information on the types of vessels and the types of shipping Captains and officers from 28 different shipping companies responded to the survey. From the total, 32% sailed on gas tankers, 7% on chemical tankers and 7% on dredgers, the remainder being divided 54% over bulk carriers, container ships, general cargo vessels (break bulk carriers), oil tankers, passenger vessels (cruise ships, ferries and ro-ro vessels, coasters, tug boats and ocean-going tugs, 28% of the respondents were also currently engaged in long-distance shipping. Figure 6-2 below represents the areas/continents they operated in:

Figure 6-2. Long-distance shipping areas/continents

134

Chapter Six

4.2. Information about the respondents From the 127 respondents, a total of 84 provided their current or former function. While 20% reported that they did no longer hold an active sailing post, the remaining 80%, who were still sailing, 57% indicated that he/she was captain or chief officer, and 43% that he/she was second, third, fourth or apprentice officer. The figure below is a box-plot that shows the experience of the respondents. The group left was no longer sailing and showed a mean of 153 months of experience for 75%. The ‘still-sailing’ group on the right side showed a mean of 40 months of experience for 25%. It is also important to remark that 95% of the observations lie between the ‘whiskers’. The respondents situated outside the whiskers ȅ represent exceptions to the majority and are limited to 5% (‘rogue’ cases).

Figure 6-3. Experience of the respondents

Linguistic and Intercultural Communication for Maritime Purposes

135

5. Descriptive analysis of the data 5.1. Linguistic variation aboard Concerning the nationalities aboard, a distinction was made between the group encompassing the captain, deck officers and engineer officers and the other encompassing other crewmembers (e.g. in the deck department, in the engine room department and in the catering department). For the first group, 10% of the respondents stated that it was composed exclusively of Belgians, 19% stated there were no Belgians in this group, and almost 71% stated it was a mixed group with Belgians included.5 Captains and officers 10% 19% 71%

Only Belgians No Belgians Mixed

Other crewmembers 1% 75% 24%

Table 6-2. Nationalities aboard Spoken Captain and Others officers English only

Written Captain and Others officers

42.5%

68.5%

79.4%

88.2%

English and other

53.4%

27.4%

20.6%

11.8%

No English

4.1%

4.1%

0%

0%

6

Table 6-3. Languages used by the respondents for professional written and spoken communication (total %) 5

The nationalities of the captains were the following: Belgian, Chinese, Polish, Zairian, Lithuanian, Spanish, Bulgarian, Indian, and Croatian. The nationalities of deck and engineer officers were the following: Congolese, Turkish, Bulgarian, Pakistani, Filipino, Croatian, German, Burmese, Russian, Indian, Ukrainian, Canadian, Finnish, Polish, Lithuanian, Argentine, Moroccan, and Senegalese. 6 English mostly, some Dutch, French and Polish. Comments of some of the respondents: “Everybody present to understand the conversations / Working language is English / Common sense is the rule. When everybody present understands, I do speak Netherlands to Flemish/Dutch team members and French to French speaking persons. You know, ship board language might be a kind of ‘melting pot’. Example: ‘Stand-by kurkezak à l'avant!’ three words, three different languages, and everybody understands”.

136

Chapter Six

As shown in Table 2 above, in the group of the other (lower) crewmembers,7 the absence of Belgians was shown to be more noticeable: almost 75% stated there were no Belgians in this group, in 24% of the cases this group was mixed, and in 1% this group of crewmembers was formed only by Belgians. For informal (i.e. non professional) communication purposes, the combination of English with other languages 8 was shown to be more significant, as is shown in Table 6-4: English only

17.6

English and other

75.7

no English

6.8

Table 6-4. Languages used by the respondents for non-professional written and spoken communication (total %)

5.2. Effectiveness of communication Several questions in the linguistic part of the survey addressed the effectiveness of internal as well as external communication with respect to the different groups of crewmembers. Figure 6-4 below illustrates that problems related to on board were non-existent in communication with the captain and rare with the engineer and deck officers. It thus seems that communication problems on board are either with the pilot, although only according to 8% of the respondents, and with the remaining crewmembers. Between 10 and 20% of the respondents felt that there were rather often to (very) often communication-related problems or conflicts with crew members other than officers. When asked in what situations these communication-related problems proved more significant, 15% of the respondents referred to navigation and manoeuvring activities, 12% to maintenance activities, and approximately 10% to loading and discharging, mooring and letting go, operation of deck gear and security and emergency drills.

7 The nationalities of the other crewmembers were the following: Belgian, Chilean, Ecuadorian, Lithuanian, Polish, Filipino, Indian, Croatian, Spanish, Burmese, Portuguese, Indonesian, Australian, Uruguayan, and Ukrainian. 8 Dutch, French, Spanish, Russian, Filipino/Tagalog, Polish, Ukrainian, Croatian, Bulgarian, Moroccan, Indian and Hindi.

Linguistic and Intercultural Communication for Maritime Purposes

137

Figure 6-4. Frequency of on board communication-related problems With respect to external communication ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore, Figure 6-5 below shows that it is mainly communication with other vessels that is considered to be problematic by almost half of the respondents. Survey data also showed that communication ship-to-shoreʊnamely communication with the port authorities and with organisations on shoreʊalso left room for improvement. This was confirmed by informal reports from cadets at maritime academies returning from onboard training that often reveal that external communication tends to differ according to the area in which the ship sails. It is frequently the case that diminished linguistic ability and difficulty in using English as the working language appear to be greater amongst shore side authorities in some parts of the world as opposed to others, indicating the potential need for more intensive training in English as this is the maritime lingua franca in the shore side sector.

138

Chapter Six

Figure 6-5. Frequency of external communication-related problems

5.3. Causes of miscommunication Figure 6-6 below provides an overview of both internal and external communication-related problems that the respondents held responsible for miscommunication between officers. Apart from reading and writing skills, all the following aspects proved to cause problems now and then according to at least 50% of the respondents.

Figure 6-6. Causes of miscommunication between officers

Linguistic and Intercultural Communication for Maritime Purposes

139

As shown in Figure 6-7 below, when asked the same question with respect to communication with crewmembers other than officers, at least 60% of the respondents replied that all aspects were considered to cause miscommunication on some occasions, listening, pronunciation, grammar and (technical/nautical) vocabulary proving the most significant ones. The data presented in sections 5.2. and 5.3. of this chapter clearly show that, although the frequency of communication-related problems on board is not very high, various linguistic factors do influence in a negative way and on a continuous basis, since all the skills are involved, the quality of the communication between officers as well as in the communication with the other crewmembers.

Figure 6-7. Causes of miscommunication with crewmembers other than officers

5.4. Solutions for effective communication Given that a breakdown in communication at sea may result in catastrophic losses and damage, not only at a financial level but also at a human level, the maritime sector demands fluency in the English language. The potential risks are too great to allow the shipping industry to ‘skimp’ on communicative competence. However, as indeed is the case in other professions, the use of English at sea is defined by and clearly matched to occupational functions (Mead 1990, 220). With a view to elucidating the

140

Chapter Six

value respondents place on specific linguistic components and skills, the survey included several questions about course units and whether respondents considered they received sufficient training in these units to allow them to perform their jobs to the most competent level in terms of English. Figure 6-8 below illustrates that most of the respondents considered the following language aspects to be particularly important for their work on board a ship, and therefore necessary in maritime education courses:

Figure 6-8. Importance of the teaching of language contents Apparently, language skills are equally considered important to very important for recruitment and assessment, as seen in the graph below:

Linguistic and Intercultural Communication for Maritime Purposes

141

Figure 6-9. Importance of language skills for recruitment and assessment This explains of course why the majority of the respondents (more than 70%) considered in-service training organised by their shipping company important, as is shown in Figure 10 below. It is remarkable that, although the SMCP are considered less important than knowledge of technical/nautical vocabulary in general (cf. Figures 6-8 and 6-9), they are considered to be as important as training in English as a foreign language in general.

Figure 6-10. Importance of in-service training of language skills

142

Chapter Six

Nevertheless, as shown in Figure 6-11 below, a score of only 20 to 30% of the total indicated that this kind of training was offered by their shipping company in the last five years. Some of them indicated that computer programmes were available aboard, and that their knowledge was tested every 36 months. Others stated that there was no training whilst mentioning that insufficient knowledge can result in crewmembers being dismissed. Clearly, this needs further examination by way of detailed interviews, and by asking the shipping companies for the content of these computer programmes (see limitations in the Conclusion section of this chapter).

Figure 6-11. Training offered by the shipping company in the last five years

6. Further research As stated earlier, the results presented in this chapter are part of the first survey of the research project. The second and third surveys are expected to provide further insights into the details of maritime communication, the second concentrating on the relationship between linguistic and intercultural elements and the third examining the use of SMCP onboard and assessing their value as a standardised communication system. Although the data relating to the second and third surveys are at present work in progress, this section of the chapter provides an overview of their content and sets

Linguistic and Intercultural Communication for Maritime Purposes

143

out our research goals within the framework of intercultural and maritime communication issues. The second survey mainly focuses on linguistic and intercultural elements and their potential influence on the type of international communication current amongst crew onboard merchant marine vessels. The multi-ethnic crew of the 21st century does not only pose challenges as a result of an often insufficient command of English but also as a result of what might, at first, seem insurmountable intercultural differences. Deboo (2004) states that, for example, Latin American seafarers usually display subordinate tendencies on board due to the importance of hierarchical relationships in this particular culture. Hence, the authority of a superior must not be questioned, a belief which may have a negative effect on levels of initiative within this ethnic group. Consequently, it is vital that superiors encourage crewmembers to be more assertive and enterprising. This may be a valid observation yet when tackling the issue of communication on board it is vital to be aware not only of the dangers of stereotyping (wherein statements exist that, for example, Latin American or Filipino crews display subordinate tendencies) but of a multitude of multi-cultural issues. Earlier in this chapter we referred to the Cardiff study which examined diverse cultural aspects under various headings, including cultural differences and stereotypes, initiative and rulefollowing, teamwork, nationality and social order, social integration and ‘story-telling’, hierarchy, nationality and social space and discrimination, and racial prejudice (Kahveci et al. 2002) The questions included in the second survey shed additional light on these as well as other related aspects and issues. The range of questions planned for each of the surveys was devised with a view to elaborating various areas of research. Naturally, concerning the second survey, it is important to first establish whether seafarers actually perceive that culture-related problems exist and, if so, their causes, the frequency with which they arise and the domain on board where they exist (e.g. amongst officers/amongst other crewmembers/ overall). Given that by its very nature current day seafaring demands that the individual learns to operate within a multinational crew, the questionnaire also aims to ascertain the advantages and disadvantages associated with working in a multinational team. We are confident that the results of the survey will be of help not only to the (Belgian) shipping community but also to lecturers in MET (Maritime Education and Training) institutions. Thus, with pedagogic objectives in mind, the final part of the questionnaire elicits whether respondents feel that possessing intercultural sensitivity and awareness is an asset in their profession and

144

Chapter Six

whether they believe they are given sufficient training in these issues, both prior to and during their career at sea. The third part of the survey focuses on SMCP. The questions included aim to establish whether the respondent feels confident in his/her use of SMCP, how often and in which situations he/she uses SMCP and to what extent the respondent perceives the SMCP as being a useful asset, in other words effective and valued in its role as a standardised maritime communication system. The survey also asks the respondent to what extent he/she agrees with specific suggestions regarding, for example, the volume of SMCP, the teaching methods related to SMCP and the content of SMCP. It should also be noted that champions of Spanish and French have from time to time attempted to elevate these languages from their lower ranking and to present viable arguments as to why they should be more greatly valued as a means of international maritime communication. To this end the questionnaire also includes a question about the perceived usefulness of a French and/or Spanish SMCP as a standardised maritime communication system. In his first extensive analysis of IBM’s 1967-1973 international employee attitude study, Culture’s consequences (2001, 73), Hofstede remarks that the methods and approaches used elicited mixed reactions from his readers, raising some academic eyebrows and producing often critical reviews of his methods and approaches. One criticism was that surveys were not a suitable way of measuring cultural differences. To this, Hofstede replies that surveys should not be exclusive of other ways. Indeed, surveys should be complemented by other approaches in order that the resulting analysis and research are conclusive and valid. To this end, using data reduction procedures, we aim to select groups of respondents and their data and, eventually, to triangulate our survey data by targeting at in-depth interviews with the selected respondents. It should be noted here that all three questionnairesʊi.e. the first, second and third surveysʊwere addressed to the alumni of the AMA in addition to Belgian shipping companies, and thus non-Belgian shipping companies were contacted. This will offer a wider scope of the linguistic and cultural diversity and will allow for a differentiation to be made between Belgian and nonBelgian communication issues in the maritime world. The observations of cadets at AMA returning from onboard training reveal, for example, that some nationalities tend to use SMCP more readily and more accurately than others. Individual interviews with survey respondents representing specific nationalities or cultures, linked with data analysis, may assist in validating such observations. Or, as previously mentioned, a combination of interview techniques with data analysis—in other words, a combination

Linguistic and Intercultural Communication for Maritime Purposes

145

of qualitative and quantitative research—may render it possible to highlight those areas of the world where communication with shore side authorities experiences greater linguistic hindrances as a result of difficulties with the English language than other parts of the world.

7. Future directions This chapter has explored the results of the first part of a survey on communication for maritime purposes. These results, though provisional and in need for extended research, do none the less corroborate the present multi-ethnic nature of crews in the maritime industry, and indicate that this is essentially a characteristic of crewmembers rather than officers. There is also little doubt that linguistic factors such as insufficient knowledge of vocabulary and/or grammar in general, insufficient knowledge of technical vocabulary, poor pronunciation and weak oral skills, listening problems (i.e., misinterpreting oral information/statements/ instructions/orders) and, to a lesser extent, poor reading skills (i.e., misinterpreting written material) as well as writing problems (i.e., writing errors leading to unreadable reports/notes/instructions) hinder internal and external maritime communication. Therefore, the respondents consider specialised maritime language training a necessary component of their education and training. Finally, although linguistic competences were systematically tested in recruitment and assessment procedures, the respondents stated that few efforts are made by the maritime industry with respect to supplementary refresher courses. In a further stage of the research, in-depth interviews with a selection of the respondents should give more details about the above stated findings. Also, it is our intention to link the areas in which the respondents sail to the data produced by the survey, in order to be able to draw more specific and significant conclusions. Extended research in the subject, based on both quantitative and qualitative methods, will clarify and validate hypotheses and conclusions drawn from the initial data. There is a real intention and desire to make a sustainable and valid contribution to the achievement of successful professional communication for maritime purposes, by rendering the results and conclusions of the research accessible and applicable to those professionals working in the industry. As far as the survey itself is concerned, it should be acknowledged that there are numerous other cultural and linguistic issues related to the survey which invite research using qualitative as opposed to quantitative methods and, as previously stated, the one should not be exclusive of the other. Indeed, the attraction of initiating research with survey-based methods is

146

Chapter Six

that the data collected can act as a springboard for future qualitative forms of research. Thus, the intention to move forward from the initial quantitative analysis of the survey data to qualitative research based on indepth interviews with selected respondents could, potentially, invite a diverse range of approaches. Qualitative research is often described as undisciplined or ‘messy’. This description may be justified but should not deter the researcher; on the contrary it should motivate him/her to explore and use a variety of analytical methods including ethnography, discourse and/or sociolinguistic analysis. Our three-part survey will act as the basis for research into the influence of linguistic and cultural factors on onboard communication and it is the intention to employ a range of approaches and methods. These methods are yet to be confirmed and will ultimately depend on the results of the data analysis of the second and third surveys. It remains to be seen whether linguistic or intercultural factors play the greater role in shaping communication onboard and it is only once this has been established that the true focus of the research may be fine-tuned. Potential methods and approaches offer the opportunity to draw on Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), nexus analysis as proposed by the Scollon partnership (Scollon and Scollon 2006) and ethnographic investigative techniques to name but a few. Concerning the implications of the survey results, it seems clear that research into linguistic and social interaction or research into the use of language should not only be executed from a linguistic perspective but by employing and merging aspects from various disciplinesʊincluding philosophy, anthropology, organisational sociology and psychology. In addition, the results reported in this chapter lend credence to the fact that research in linguistic communication is not only concerned with language itself but with an analysis of non-linguistic features and additional parameters which language users assume when communicating. In order to achieve the status of a competent participant in a particular type of communicative event within a specific organisation—i.e. professional environment—it is absolutely necessary to possess knowledge, on the one hand of the language system in question and, on the other, of the specific culture-related characteristics of the communicative event. A professional organisation can be examined from a myriad of perspectives and each of these will shed light on a different aspect. Traditionally, perspectives have been divided into those associated with the individual in contrast to those associated with the system. As shown in this chapter, a system-related perspective interprets an organisation as a sum of structures comprised of individual participants. An individualrelated perspective prefers to study the individual’s position as member of

Linguistic and Intercultural Communication for Maritime Purposes

147

an organisation in order to arrive at an interpretation of the whole. Within the latter perspective, researchers choose to employ different theoriesʊthe rational theory of choiceʊwhich explains the behaviour of an organisation through the choices made by individual players, based on the assumption that everyone strives for maximum profit and makes rational decisions using the information available; or the psychodynamic perspective that examines the commitment and unconscious motives of players, but the individual subject in question still dominates the interaction with others. An attempt to integrate both perspectives can be found in Parker (2000), who speaks of duality. Parker’s theoretical model is based equally on anthropological, sociological and linguistic findings. According to this model, individual members of a group create the structure of an organisation whilst the structure, in turn, shapes the individual members. Dual treatment suggests that individual and structure form a whole. Individual members ensure the reproduction of the structure but the structure provides the stage for the players and sets the parameters. This behaviour is possible or even desired within some (organisation) cultures whilst within others it is not. Organisation, as well as culture, is an open process shaped by negotiation and coalition forming. Processes are therefore not static but are continually adjusted. In these processes structure and culture are linked to each other. Parker therefore prefers not to speak of ‘core’ and ‘peripheral’ organisation cultures but of a variety of juxtaposed cultures, which dissect an organisation and which, at certain points, oppose each other and at other points do not, but which remain, at all times, the source of ongoing negotiation and conflict. To this end, Parker presents the concept of culture as the continual process of articulating conflicting views concerning how an organisation should be (Parker 2000, 226). In the global context, culture can, under certain circumstances, contribute to change in an organisation, but it can just as easily hinder change. In order to understand the role of culture Parker introduces the concept of ‘identification’, describing this as “a sort of padding, lying between generalised assumptions about the organisation and specific interpretations of and anecdotes about the organisation of individuals within the organisation” (Parker 2000, 217). Identifications are linked to the ways in which individual players distinguish ‘we’ and ‘they’ situations and thus also to ‘we’ and ‘they’ cultures. Organisation cultures are thus shaped by identification processes. Parker further distinguishes between the following dimensions or ‘domains’: a geographical and functional dimension (us here, them there: physical and/or in terms of function. Watson (2001) refers to it as ‘segmentation’, namely, the introduction of

148

Chapter Six

structural and cultural differences by means of splitting clusters or groups within an organisation. This can lead to tension ultimately persuading the staff to bring about reorganisation); a generation dimension (us contemporary, them former) and a professional dimension (us doing this, them doing that). Thus the cultural dimension, namely the cultural background of each individual or player, should eventually be applied. Parker (ibid.) refers to it as ‘ethnicity’. He describes another potential ‘identification dimension’ as gender, illustrated, for example, when exclusively male ratings are confronted with a female officer. Sometimes two or three kinds of identification combine and professional aspects will by and large coincide with dimensions of age and possibly even with geographical, functional and ethnic dimensions. An individual associates him or herself with a specific culture and this, in turn, influences his or her view of an organisation and often an individual identifies with several different cultures. In relation to intercultural factors, sociolinguist Gumperz (1982) stated that misunderstandings in intercultural and inter-ethnic communication were often caused by contextualisation problems. Gumperz further explains how misunderstandings can arise between people of different backgrounds, such as members of different ethnic and cultural groups, as a result of variations in language, which in turn serve to (re)confirm the division between these groups. Gumperz’s contextualisation theory examines how people lend meaning to linguistic expressions. The theory reveals how people use language not only in daily communication and daily interaction but how they also use signals to explain how their linguistic expressions must be interpreted. Given that the meaning of linguistic expressions is not unambiguous (although a standard language such as SMCP attempts even this) these signals are essential when communicating with language. The complex interpretation of linguistic expressions is actively brought about by those taking part in the conversation. Gumperz refers to this as the reflexive relationship between language and context. Linguistic expressions can therefore be interpreted in various ways and those taking part in the conversation decide on a particular interpretation according to the definition of the activity taking place at that moment or that is known to them. This knowledge of activities is referred to by many researchers as frame, script, scheme or activity type. Gumperz deals with frames. According to Hymes’ contextualisation theory (Hymes 1974), participants in a conversation base themselves on either the linguistic expression itself or on the frame. Hymes’ speaking components can be considered a frame from a knowledge-oriented interactional sociolinguistic perspective. Moreover,

Linguistic and Intercultural Communication for Maritime Purposes

149

the combination of the two types of information is not arbitrary; speakers use contextualisation cues as non-verbal or verbal signs to indicate which frame is relevant and its corresponding interpretation. It is, however, not enough for the speaker to indicate the interpretative frame. The conversation partner must also be in a position to share the interpretation frame. Thus the other conversation partners have to be able to recognise the signs and, moreover, prove from the way in which they participate in the interaction that they have recognised them. Participants in a conversation can use contextualisation cues which are not recognised by other participants, or which point to an interpretative frame of which the latter are not aware. Thus the participants will construe meanings based on various frames, leading to different meanings and consequent misunderstandings. Gumperz remarks that participants are often not aware of the cause of the misunderstanding or even that a misunderstanding has occurred at all. In many cases communication problems are attributed to another’s personal traits or attitudes. The reason may be that participants in a conversation assume that their fellow participants share the same interpretative frames or that they are, at least, able to activate these. This, however, is not always what happens and certainly not in intercultural communication. Participants in intercultural communication are, by definition, aware of the fact that other participants possess a background which differs from theirs. Thus, operating from their frames cannot be avoided. They are aware of the fact that other participants possess other frames but do not know how these differ (see also Stadler’s discussion in Chapter 12 this volume). They, therefore, have the expectation that the other participants will think and act the same as well as the expectation that they will think and act differently. Recent research focuses on the role of such expectations in the intercultural interaction process, ranging from expectations related to language skills to expectations which might be termed prejudice or racism. In relation to this Claes and Gerritsen (2007, 131) note that someone who masters a foreign language grammatically has scant understanding of mistaken usage of certain linguistic elements in a specific context and situation, since it is difficult to accept that such errors are dependent on culture—aspects such as the use of names, titles, the use of formal/informal second person pronoun, politeness markers, turntaking, thought patterns, opinion giving and oral presentation techniques.

8. Conclusion Having examined associated concepts of communication as described in the literature, this chapter has reported on the first results of survey-based

150

Chapter Six

research into those linguistic and intercultural features of maritime communication which may impact on the quality of work onboard vessels of the merchant marine in a Belgian context. Having established that the current multi-ethnic nature of merchant marine crews forms a major and growing trend, the data also corroborates that this characteristic leads to miscommunication onboard. It is clear from the results gathered that miscommunication arises from a number of linguistic aspects, ranging from difficulties with pronunciation through inadequate knowledge of technical and nautical vocabulary and inability to interpret information to weak oral skills in general. Consequently there would appear to be a need for more thorough training of seafarers in the areas listed. Analysis of data from the second (intercultural) and third (SMCP) parts of the survey will reveal whether intercultural features and/or use of a standardised language (SMCP) similarly aid or hinder communication onboard. A study of the literature suggests that language and culture are closely linked; that the former enables the latter and the latter shapes the former. Thus individuals from different cultures, when working in a team, for example a crew, form a multi-ethnic group which, in turn, through ongoing processes of negotiation and conflict, tends to shape the organisation itself and, as a result, the way in which it functions. An imposed standardised language, such as SMCP, also influences the nature of an organisation. Future research should confirm to what extent inter(cultural) aspects of communication and the perceived need to impose linguistic standardisation contribute to or detract from levels of efficiency on board vessels of the merchant marine.

References Baarda, Ben, and Martijn P. M. de Goede. 2006. Basisboek methoden en technieken: handleiding voor het opzetten en uitvoeren van kwantitatief onderzoek. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff. Bocanegra-Valle, Ana. 2010. Global markets, global challenges: The position of maritime English in today’s shipping industry. In English in the European context: The EHEA challenge, eds. Ángeles Linde López, and Rosalía Crespo Jiménez, 151-174. Bern: Peter Lang. Bourdieu, Pierre. 2001. Langage et pouvoir symbolique. Paris: Seuil. Claes, Marie-Thérèse, and Marinel Gerritsen. 2007. Culturele waarden en communicatie in internationaal perspectief. Bussum: Coutinho. Cunningham, Malcolm T., and Rose I. Spiegel. 1971. A study in successful exporting. British Journal of Marketing 5/1: 2-12.

Linguistic and Intercultural Communication for Maritime Purposes

151

Davis, Wilham. 1995. Second language skills are vital to business. Marketing Business 45: 7. Deboo, Kersi M. 2004. Maritime resource management. Alert (accessed September 18, 2010). de la Campa Portela, Rosa. 2005. Problemas de comunicación derivados de la lengua en el ámbito marítimo. Language Problems and Language Planning 29/1: 31–45. —. 2006. El inglés como lengua de comunicación en el ámbito marítimo. Un reto pendiente para los marinos españoles. Marina Civil 81: 45-49. Enderwick, Peter, and Michele E. M. Akoorie. 1994. Pilot study research note: The employment of foreign language specialists and export successʊThe case of New Zealand. International Marketing Review 11/4: 4-18. Flink, Arlene. 2003. The survey kit. How to sample in surveys. California: SAGE Publications. Gumperz, John. 1982. Language and social identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hofstede, Geert. 2001. Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviours, institutions, and organisations across nations. London: Sage Publications. Horck, Jan. 2005. Getting the best from multi-cultural manning. Paper presented at the BIMCO 100 years and GA 2005 in Copenhagen. Hymes, Dell. 1974. Foundations of sociolinguistics: An ethnographic approach. London: Tavistock. Kahveci, Erol, Tony Lane, and Helen Sampson. 2002. Transnational seafarer communities. Seafarers International Research Centre. Cardiff University. Kumar, Nirmalya, Louis Stern, and James Anderson. 1993. Conducting interorganisational research using key informants. Academy of Management Journal 36 /6: 1633-1651. Lautanen, Timo. 2000. Modelling small firms’ decisions to export: Evidence from manufacturing firms in Finland, 1995. Small Business Economics 14/2: 107-24. Leonidou, Leonidas C., Constantine S. Katsikeas, and Nigel F. Piercy. 2001. Identifying managerial influences on exporting: Past research and future directions. Journal of International Marketing 6/2: 74-102. Lloyd, Michael. 2006. Why ships really collide. Seaways 10: 10-12. MARCOM project. 1998. The Seafarers International Research Centre. Cardiff University. Mead, Richard. 1990. Cross-cultural management communication. Chichester: Wiley.

152

Chapter Six

Parker, Martin. 2000. Organisational culture and identity. London: Sage. Roberts Celia, and Sarah Campbell. 2006. Talk on trial. Job interviews, language and ethnicity. Leeds: Corporate Document Services. Schlegelmilch Bodo B., and A. G. Ross. 1987. The influence of managerial characteristics on different measures of export success. Journal of Marketing Management 3/2: 145-158. Schlegelmilch Bodo B., and J. Crook. 1988. Firm-level determinants of export intensity. Managerial and Decision Economics 9: 291-300. Scollon, Ron, and Suzie W. Scollon. 2006. Nexus analysis: Discourse and the emerging Internet. Journal of Sociolinguistics 10/1: 127-131. Short, V. 2006. Maritime English valuing a common language. Nautical Briefing, Supplement to SEAWAYS, the Journal of the Nautical Institute. October 10: 1-12. Squire, David. 2006. The importance of effective communication. Alert. (accessed September 18, 2010). Swift, Jonathan. 1990. Marketing competence and language skills: UK competence in the Spanish market. International Business Communication 2/2: 21-6. —. 1991. Foreign language ability and international marketing. European Journal of Marketing 25/12: 36-49. Turnbull, Peter W., and G. F. Welham. 1985. The characteristics of European export marketing staff. European Journal of Marketing 19/2: 31-41. Ursic, Michael, and Michael Czinkota. 1989. The relationship between managerial characteristics and export behaviour. Developments in Marketing Science 12: 208-11. Walters, Peter G. 1990. The significance of foreign language skills for initial entry positions in international firms. Journal of Teaching in International Business 1/ 3-4: 71-83. Watson, Tony J. 2001. In search of management: Culture, chaos and control in managerial work. London: Routledge. Williams, Jasmine E. M., and Ian Chaston. 2004. Links between the linguistic ability and international experience of export managers and their export marketing intelligence behaviour. International Small Business Journal 22/5: 463-486.

PART III. DISCOURSE PRACTICES, DISCIPLINARY COMMUNITIES AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF PROFESSIONAL IDENTITIES

CHAPTER SEVEN BEYOND CUPCAKES AND COMPUTERS: FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP MAIDA WATSON FLORIDA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY (USA)

Abstract. As also argued in several chapters in this volume, the language barrier has been reported to be an important obstacle in the professional milieu in general and in the way of increased business ownership in particular. The many possibilities for creating start ups related to foreign languages to meet the growing demands of a globalised market have barely been studied and in many cases are largely unknown outside of ethnic enclaves. Their existence and growth during the last twenty years is a reflection of the globalisation of many aspects of business, commerce and education. Drawing on Stevenson’s (1986) concept of entrepreneurship as a response to discontinuous change, this chapter examines several foreign language start ups that fill the needs of specialised industries. The chapter concludes by arguing that foreign language start ups are not only a reflection of globalisation, they have also played an important role in stimulating the development of this globalisation and giving it a particular flavour.

1. Introduction Funding for entrepreneurial activities has grown during the last few years, sometimes supported by private foundations such as the Kaufman Foundation in the United States and will probably receive more government aid in the future as part of economic stimulus packages in view of the present worldwide economic crisis. In 2003 the European Association for the Education of Adults (EAEA) General Assembly produced a document that outlined basic competencies needed for the

156

Chapter Seven

future EU citizens. Among these basic skills were the need to develop entrepreneurship abilities and foreign languages. In addition to the need to develop basic competencies in mathematics, science and technology, these two areas were also considered important. The publication ensuing from this meeting stated as follows: [...] education and training should provide an understanding of the value of enterprise, as well as models of successful entrepreneurship, of the value of risk-taking and of the need for everyone to have a sense of initiative. The changes in society and the economy that the knowledge society will bring, and the existing trend towards a services-based economy, will give the opportunity to millions of individuals to start their own business, and this should be seen by students as a viable career option.

The same document stresses the importance of foreign languages in professional contexts and hence the need for language teacher training in this regard: Europe’s diversity is nowhere clearer than in its languages. But if it is to benefit from that diversity, its citizens have to be able to communicate with each other. Knowledge of languages is part of the basic skills that the Europe of the knowledge society requires; everyone should, as a general rule, be able to speak two foreign languages. Foreign language learning, including where appropriate at an early age, must be improved; and this means improving the ways in which foreign languages are taught, and increasing contact between teachers and learners and the foreign languages they are working on. The training of language teachers is therefore central to this objective.

In my research on entrepreneurship funded partly by a grant from the Kaufman Foundation in the US, I discovered that despite the existence of over 500 books and articles on the topic of entrepreneurship, articles that examined entrepreneurship in the area of foreign languages were conspicuously absent. Most of the case studies examined in these studies concentrated on the development of entrepreneurial activities in the field of computer science or in home industries. It could be said that from the vantage point of the studies of entrepreneurship, which included research on comparative international entrepreneurship, entrepreneurship among immigrant groups, gender-based studies of entrepreneurship and studies of entrepreneurship personalities, self-started companies began usually in the kitchen (cupcakes) or in the garage (computers). The growing billion dollar business in communicating between parts of the world that speak different languages, either by offering translating or

Beyond Cupcakes and Computers

157

interpreting services, foreign language editorial companies or second language instruction, face to face or on line, was usually not the focus of studies of entrepreneurial activities. Nevertheless, these companies not only exist but they flourish in many parts of the world. I believe that opportunities for entrepreneurs will be found in this new field. Thus the rationale for calling this paper “Beyond Cupcakes and Computers: Foreign Languages and Entrepreneurship”. An example of this is a company called SDL which works with international corporations, allowing them to translate brochures, manuals and other publications quickly and cost-effectively. It creates websites that say the right things in the right language to customers. SDL is operating in a growing market with massive potential. More and more companies need to manage their websites effectively, not just in their native language but also in other languages. And as the Internet use grows, the need for SDLs services and products should grow as well. Consider, for example, the success of the language instruction company, Rosetta Stone, which went public and offered shares of its stock for sale on Wall Street. Rosetta Stone says its market is mainly influenced by several factors in a worldwide market worth US $ 83 billion in 2007: • individuals seeking the enjoyment and enrichment brought by learning a language; • professionals seeking business in a global economy and companies training their employees (the only real synergies with globalisation firms); • schools seeking to educate students; • leisure travellers seeking language proficiency for independent international travel; • armed forces training soldiers to communicate in foreign languages; • immigrants and expatriates seeking to sucessfully function in their new environment. Its product, the Rosetta Stone immersion teaching method, is not too dissimilar from several others with better brand names on the market ʊPimsleur (later sold to Simon & Schuster), Syracuse Language Systems (later sold to the Learning Company, part of the Disney Empire) and then of course Berlitz, which was the supermarket of the language businessʊ having its foot in language learning, publishing and localisation. The competitors, after being bought from their founders, were submerged in the corporate bureaucracies that bought them, and were managed by

158

Chapter Seven

corporate product manager types with little innovation and marketing muscle put behind them, unlike Rosetta Stone (Gregory 2009). Historic studies of entrepreneurship have examined entrepreneurship and its relationship to national identity, have examined common qualities found in entrepreneurs in various countries and fields, have debated over the question of whether entrepreneurs are born or made and have agonised over everything from how to write a business plan to whether too much outside funding is good or bad for a start-up company. A number of authors proposed frameworks for analysing the process of new venture creation (Gartner 1985, Greenberger and Sexton 1988, Katz and Gartner 1988, Van de Ven et al. 1989, Vesper 1990). Shane (2000) argues that research dealing with the discovery of entrepreneurial opportunities fall into three categories. First, neoclassical equilibrium theories are based on assumptions related to profit-maximising agents and equal access to knowledge and information. Hence, entrepreneurship is explained not by an individual ability to identify unique opportunities, but by those who have a preference for becoming entrepreneurs (Khilstrom and Laffont 1979). Second, psychological theorists argue for a stable set of characteristics including: need for achievement, propensity for risk-taking, self-efficacy and internal locus of control (McClelland 1961). In this case, researchers concentrate on the decision to exploit opportunities rather than their discovery. Third, equilibrium is rejected in favour of a system in which markets are composed of individuals who possess idiosyncratic information (Hayek 1945). In this perspective there is much greater emphasis on information about opportunities rather than the attributes of individual entrepreneurs (Shane 2000, 449). Shane and Venkataraman (2000) claim that their framework, which concentrates on the discovery of entrepreneurial opportunities, is different to other approaches which focus on either the individual’s psychological/cognitive attributes or the external environment typified by economic perspectives. For example, Shane (2000, 465) demonstrates that entrepreneurs have ‘prior knowledge’ which gives them the ability to recognise new opportunities. Consequently, individuals who have developed particular knowledge through education or work experience will always be more likely than other people to discover entrepreneurial opportunities. A number of authors are critical of Shane’s view that entrepreneurs recognise new opportunities by suggesting that opportunities do not preexist entrepreneurial identification; rather opportunities are actually created by entrepreneurs (Sarasvathy 2000, Sarasvathy et al. 2000, 2003). Sanz-Velasco (2006) agrees that the concept of opportunity is the key to

Beyond Cupcakes and Computers

159

understanding entrepreneurship but makes a distinction between opportunity discovery and opportunity development. As Sanz-Velasco (2006, 252) goes on to say, there is very little empirical work that focuses on “how, why and when opportunities are discovered”. As also argued by SanzVelasco (2006, 255), “action can come before the perception of an opportunity because sense-making often follows action” (Weick 1979). Hence, opportunities are idiosyncratic to individual entrepreneurs rather than existing in some objective reality (Stevenson 1986, Sarason et al. 2006).

2. Entrepreneurship companies in the foreign language field The shelves of bookstores in many industrialised countries are full of books on how to start every kind of business and how to make a million dollars. Most of these books make money for the authors more than for the readers. According to Virkkunen (1996, 272) most attempts to theorise these activities are based on the assumption that entrepreneurs undertake a set of rational and repeatable activities. New business actually emerges from a contested set of relationships within which the entrepreneur plays a critical, creative, but far from solitary, role (Jones and Holt 2008).

2.1. Translation Companies Entrepreneurship companies in the foreign language field often include translation-interpretation companies that begin as a one or two person enterprise. They can concentrate on one or two commonly used languages in one field and can expand to include many languages, including lesser taught ones, many fields and even employees in other countries through the use of web communication and phone hook ups such as Skype. The language-management industry refers to the consolidation of the worldwide translation trade, which had been a huge but disparate, $20 billion cottage industry until just about 2007. Kathleen Diamond, the President/CEO of Language Learning Enterprises, Inc. (LLE(R)), a fullservice language company with headquarters in Washington, D.C. and Technology Center in Winchester, VA is an example of this. The company has grown from a sole proprietorship to a dynamic corporation serving thousands of government, business and non-profit organisations around the world. In addition to English, she speaks both Spanish and French, and has earned a Bachelor’s and Master’s Degree from the University of Florida. Utilising an integrated community of over 3,000 experienced

160

Chapter Seven

linguists specialising in over 150 different languages managed by dedicated language professionals, LLE delivers accurate and reliable telephone and face-to-face interpretation, document and email translation, language instruction, and proficiency testing and fluency assessment (The Spokesman-Review delivered by Newstex, MSwain Feb. 29, 2008). Entrepreneurship companies in foreign language translation sometimes meet the needs for lesser known languages. One such company, founded in l992, is Exotic Language Agency in Los Angeles, California which has an on-call roster of 2,900 interpreters and translators adept at nearly 200 languagesʊfrom Abruzzesse, an Italian dialect, to Zulu. A total of 11% of Americansʊ30.5 million peopleʊare foreign-born, a percentage that is even higher in California. In Orange County, California public schools, for example, 28 percent of students speak limited English. Courts, medical clinics and other agencies that receive federal funding are required to furnish translators for defendants, patients and other clients. Another company, Language Connection, a Laguna Beach, California translation agency founded by Arturo Valdivia, an associate professor at the University of California (Irvine), specialises in translating and dubbing videos, especially from English to Spanish. One specialised market for translating-interpretation starts ups is bridging the language barrier for on line businesses. EuroMarketing.com has said that 42 percent of the total online population does not speak English, and IDC has forecast that 30 percent of the world’s online population will eventually live in Europe, a larger percentage than the U.S. Lernout & Hauspie, one of the world’s largest developers of speech and language technology, has signed a letter of intent with Glides, Inc to integrate and cross-promote Glides’ UniSite management software and Lernout’s iTranslator online translation service. UniSite allows companies to create multilingual websites so that text elements and links remain consistent on all of a company’s multilingual pages. iTranslator, along with Lernout & Hauspie’s network of human translators, will allow companies to make sure that changes made to one page in one language are accurately translated. Glides is primarily targeting mid-market companies with between $10 million and $500 million in annual revenue. There are 100,000 of these smaller firms in the USA, which, as they grow and expand into foreign markets, will drive demand for multilingual services. Businesses in California and Florida are already launching sites targeting the local Spanish-speaking populations (Schwab l997). Localisation is an important aspect of the translator/interpretation businesses. Lyric Labs is an example of this. The company has over 3,000

Beyond Cupcakes and Computers

161

translators registered on its rolls and is engaged in offering Net-enabled translation services (India Business Insight, March l4, 2006). ELance Company allows independent contractors like graphic designers, editors, translators and even lawyers to offer their services to the world. Independent contractors, rather than full-time employees in big companies, perform most work. Such networked ‘e-lancers’ will join fluid and temporary webs to design, produce, market and support goods and services. Corporate IT systems will have to be flexible enough to enable highly functional and secure links among a constantly changing cast of outside contractors. ELance.com shows how the Internet collapses transaction costs between different entities. Potential purchasers can issue requests for proposals (RFP) for the jobs they want done. Examples would be a company wanting a new logo or a sales brochure translated into a foreign language. Companies post their requirements on eLance and wait for bids to come in. You can have specialists around the world bid for the job. The cost to issue the bid is essentially zero. Another example of the localisation industry as part of foreign language start ups is International Language Engineering Corp. Writer Bernard Gateau founded this company, a pioneering company in the $1.5 billion industry that writes software for computers into the languages of countries where the programming will be used. American computer hardware and software companies once marketed their wares to foreign countries by changing the language of their advertising. Now, they change the language of the entire computer so the machine fits properly into the culture of the country where it is used. The translations are actually done by computers as well: whole texts or programmes written in English translated to German to Japanese, even to Latvian. A few years ago, Pepsi attempted to translate its motto “Come Alive: You’re in the Pepsi Generation” into Chinese. The result came across as something like “Pepsi brings your ancestors back from the dead”. Unfortunately, these kinds of language disconnects are hardly anomalies. Microsoft’s new operating system, Vista, turns out to be a disparaging term for a frumpy old woman in Latvia. And Motorola’s Hellomoto ring tone sounds like “Hello, Fatty” in India. Certainly there are examples of successful localisations of slogans into other languages. When McDonald’s decided to localise its tagline, “I’m lovin’ it”, it had a pretty good idea of the potential pitfalls. Its localisation options were narrowed to translating the phrase literally, leaving it in English, or adapting it to local cultures. After collaborating with and soliciting buy-in from local market representatives, the company opted for a strategy in which each country would deal with the slogan in its own

162

Chapter Seven

way. In the end, some countries kept the English version, others chose to translate it literally, and a few went with more liberal adaptations. In Spanish, the slogan was rendered “Me encanta”. China is currently one of the hottest markets for advertising localisations. Given the growing sophistication of Chinese consumers, any marketing localisation there must be done extremely well. The days of being able to successfully localise a product in China by adding a dragon and a few Chinese characters to the product are now long gone. Kotler and Armstrong (2010, 597) explain that “[y]ou can’t uproot a concept and just translate it and put it into another market. It’s not really about translating word for word, but actually adapting a certain meaning. You have to understand the meaning of the concept before you can develop the copy”. They add, “[t]here are tons of things other than meaning, nuances, and associations [to consider] when launching a marketing programme or promotion. There’s phonetic appeal. There may be associations with Asian cultural patterns” (2010, 597). New and innovative methods of translation include the use of court translators who now work by phone in a separate room when they are translating for lawyers and witnesses. An example of this is the Broward County Court in Broward County, Florida which now has all of its l5 translators based in a central office in the main courthouse and plugged into a system via headphones and a computer. This allows them to handle work at three satellite courthouses in Plantation, Deerfield Beach and Hollywood. Martin Galarce, founder of Martin Galarce International is an example of foreign language start ups in the area of translation. He began his company in a coastal city, Miami, Florida and he now manages a team of 50 professionals (between permanent staff and regular freelancers) that not only deliver translation services in different fields and languages, but also subtitling, voiceovers, and DTP services, in any format. He began his company by translating web pages and built it on his solid background of editorial and newspaper work in Spanish. Like many other foreign language entrepreneurs he kept the company small. Marilyn Zeledon founded a language academy and also a translation company. She is presently a graduate student in the doctoral programme in Spanish at Florida International University and teaches Translation courses on line for Florida International. She combines her intimate knowledge of translation with an ability to adapt her teaching methodology to a new on line format. Her company is also an example of foreign language start ups that are based in coastal cities and serve to bridge the language and

Beyond Cupcakes and Computers

163

cultural barriers that exist in cities that serve as points of entry between different countries and cultures.

2.2. Language academies Besides translation, second language instruction forms an important part of the language business. It includes companies as varied as traditional second language academies that impart instruction in a normal face to face setting and also those that impart second language instruction partially through the use of the Internet to those that use Internet techniques or Skype phone connections to establish totally virtual classrooms in other countries. One recent example of this is the use of Second Life to teach second language instruction with the creation of avatars who represent students in business situations in all parts of the world and who communicate with people of other cultures and nations. Even long established companies such as Berlitz and Inlingua use web instruction more and more. One company, Interlingua, uses native speaker instructors who communicate with students in other countries. Another growth area in the language business is start up companies that develop special software to teach second languages. They are meeting the new needs in language instruction as businesses and government agencies worldwide struggle to find workers able to communicate in foreign languages, especially little taught languages such as Arabic, Farsi and Russian. With globalisation, the focus is now to speak and listen instead of just reading, writing and grammar. Carnegie Speech licenses artificial intelligence and speech recognition technologies which diagnose errors at a very detailed level. English Language Center is another foreign language start up which provides web-based conversation English language learning tools and has offices in Lexington, Mass and Tokyo. Users select from a database of videos and then record themselves speaking. The site employs speech recognition technology to “listen to” user’s speech and score it based on pronunciation and syntax (Glasner 2009). Another interesting niche is after school programmes for children that feature second language learning. Many parents have to pay for after school care for their children anyway and the possibility of combining this with second language instruction makes it more attractive, particularly to upper middle class parents. Two recent graduates of University of St. Thomas have opened an after school language programme in Minnesota called Passport Pals Language Programme which they hope will be a multistate operation in five years and become an integrated part of some

164

Chapter Seven

school district’s extra-curricular offerings. Passport Pals offers two Spanish classes and one in Mandarin Chinese. They hired three qualified teachers who work part-time to teach three classes with an average of five students per class. Through the use of activities, stories, songs and games, children learn a new language. Like most entrepreneurs, they funded their company with their own savings (Myths of Entrepreneurs). Reluctant to taking a bank loan, which would mean more risk, they pooled $10,000 in savings, just enough to cover some start up expenses such as curriculum development, market research, direct marketing materials and rent. After they decided they wanted to develop a business around global cultures and language, they conducted research into demographics and the education systems in the state. They concluded that there was a lack of programmes through the public schools for early foreign language learning. Plus, they found that the parents in the Western suburbs generally had the money to enroll their children in after-school activities (Forster 2007). One foreign language entrepreneur, Julia Pimsleur Levine, daughter of the renowed linguist Dr. Paul Pimsleur who was the brains behind a language learning system that bears his last name, developed a special software to teach her first son to speak French. She developed a special audio called Little Pim which features a panda instructor and is intended to be as entertaining as any children’s TV. Little Pim has won numerous awards and is available in DVD in 10 languages and will soon be available via two IPhone apps. The seven person start up will bring in $500, 000 in revenue in 2009 and expects about $1.2 million in 2010 (Leiber 2009). A foreign language start up, Lingt Language, was started by two MIT students who developed Lingt Editor, a software application that lets teachers create custom assignments with audio, images, text, and video, in order to help teach Chinese pronunciation. Unlike other software on the market, which focuses on self-learning, theirs would be designed for use in the classroom. It includes a tool that allows a student to record and submit an audio of himself or herself directly through a web browser1. Another specialised niche is instruction in business languages and business culture totally on line. SeaHarp Learning Solutions, founded by Dr. Chris Grosse in 2006 is one of these companies (see Grosse’s chapter this volume). SeaHarp serves business, education and government through intercultural and communication training. They help people to gain a competitive edge through cultural understanding, foreign language and 1

“Nine cool college start ups”, (accessed February 16, 2011).

Beyond Cupcakes and Computers

165

communication skills. SeaHarp’s intercultural training encourages people to build trust, friendship, and long-term business relationships. It offers cross cultural education for business executives who are planning on visiting or working in a foreign country and at the same time offers them business language coursework through an on line mode. With the use of special software such as Skype and interaction language modules, executives can receive instruction from native speakers specialised in teaching business languages without ever leaving their offices. Based on the owners’ many years of experience teaching cross-cultural communication to MBA students in Thunderbird University’s graduate business programme in Arizona, Mexico and Europe, the company is a perfect example of foreign language start ups that fill the needs of specialised industries.

2.3. Foreign language instruction and social networking A new and innovative development in the field of foreign language start ups is companies that combine aspects of social networking with second language instruction. Vox Swap is a social language learning community start up that through instant messaging and groups provides voice exchange language learning for its members. If you are English and learning German, for example, the companies match you up with someone who is German and is learning English. You can then send each other VoxSwap emails on the site and soon actually talk to one another across the web via Vox Swap. The site provides videos as well as forums where you can ask the Vox Swap public a question, tell them your views and add your comments to their posts (). Many entrepreneurs in the foreign language field are immigrants. Saul Arteaga and Beverly Rappolda own an agency called Southern Wisconsin Interpreting and Translation Servicesʊknown as SWITSʊwhich offers interpreting and translation services in Walworth, Rock and Jefferson counties. Saul Arteaga exemplifies one of the characteristics of foreign language entrepreneurs. They tend to be immigrants or live in coastal communities in the United States where many immigrants live. Arteaga grew up in Lima (Peru) and he immigrated to the United States when he was 19 where he went on to earn a bachelor’s degree in human resources from Louisiana State University. Many of these entrepreneurs that start foreign language start ups lack the basic business training needed to run their own companies. Nelson Soler, the founder and president of the Multicultural Entrepreneurship Institute, a non-profit organisation that provides bilingual training,

166

Chapter Seven

business coaching and technical assistance primarily to Hispanic entrepreneurs has developed a business to teach these skills to new immigrant entrepreneurs, many of whom create start ups in the foreign language business (Johnson-Elie 2007). The Houston Hispanic Chamber of Commerce and the University of Houston Small Business Development Center hope to meet this need with their free 12-week, Spanish-language programme for budding entrepreneurs. According to a recent nationwide study of immigrant entrepreneurship by New York’s Center for an Urban Future, the language barrier was an important obstacle in the way of increased business ownership in Houston. The organisation decided last year Spanish-language business classes were needed. The Aetna insurance company has underwritten the last three sessions. Aetna’s funding pays for a free lunch for the participants and foots the bill for instructors like Juan Manuel Álvarez, a Mexican immigrant who owns Houston’s CNS Computer and Network Services. Students receive instruction in developing a business plan, securing a loan, marketing, bookeeping and other skills (Moreno 2007). Location is important to companies founded by foreign language entrepreneurs. Foreign language entrepreneurs often are located in cities that have attracted many inmigrants or are border cities between one culture and another. Harrisonburg, Virginia where Rosetta Stone got started is in the Shenandoah Valle perhaps two hours driving time to Washington DC. This enabled Rosetta Stone to make frequent trips to US government agencies (which provides about 4% of its sales). It also enabled Rosetta Stone to bring these agencies out to Harrisonburg for seminars on languages. But to really expand their companies foreign language start ups usually need to move out of these enclave cultures and find customers and employees in the hegemonic culture. This is what happened in the case of entrepreneurs in other fields, such as as entrepreneurs in Chinese enclaves all over the world and Turkish entrepreneurs in England (Altinay 2008). Recent studies showed that if ethnic businesses stay within their community, then their business growth is limited. Inability to attract customers from outside of the ethnic market, heavy reliance on unskilled co-ethnic labour, poor advice and limited capital are the key constraints limiting the growth of ethnic businesses. Therefore, to enable the growth of a business, a strategic breakout “into the mainstream markets is needed (Altinay 2008, 111). Breaking out of the ethnic enclave can help ethnic minority entrepreneurs both to integrate with the wider community and also to exploit the skills and mindsets of those outsiders. “People of different nationalities possess different skills including communication,

Beyond Cupcakes and Computers

167

negotiation, and critical thinking skills and also have an accumulated wealth of experience” (Altinay 2008, 115).

3. Conclusion The many possibilities for creating start ups related to foreign languages have barely been studied and in many cases are largely unknown outside of ethnic enclaves. Their existence and growth during the last twenty years is a reflection of the globalisation of many aspects of commerce and education and elsewhere (see, e.g., in this volume Gotti’s discussion on internationalisation of arbitration practices). As reported in this chapter, foreign language start ups include translation/interpretation companies who in some cases can offer an infinite range of languages through the availabilitiy of the Internet, companies that translate from English and publish foreign language books to meet the growing demands of a globalised market, and a wide variety of second language academies, whose methods include the traditional face to face method of instruction as well as innovative uses of instruction through Skype, on line chatting and even phone communication. Foreign language start ups are not only a reflection of globalisation, they have also played an important role in stimulating the development of this globalisation and giving it a particular flavour. The availability of a variety of foreign language translation/interpretation services, for example, provides a needed stimulus for small and medium companies to create globally oriented businesses. At the same time the creation of these companies leads to the growth in the demand for a wide variety of foreign language translation.

4. References Altinay, Levent. 2008. The relationship between an entrepreneur’s culture and the entrepreneurial behaviour of the firm. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development 15/1: 111-129. Forster, Julie. 2007. Ambitious in any language: Though they’re starting out small, two St. Thomas graduates have big plans for their earlychildhood foreign-language programme. http://www.allbusiness.com/education-training/teaching-teacherscollege/11897238-1.html> (accessed January 30, 2011). Gartner, William B. 1985. A conceptual framework for describing the phenomenon of new venture creation. Academy of Management Review 10/6: 696-705. Glasner, Joanna. 2009. Language learning start ups speak to VC’s. Private

168

Chapter Seven

Equity Week (accessed January 30, 2011). Greenberger, Dadvid B., and Donald L. Sexton. 1988. An interactive model of new venture creation. Journal of Small Business Management 26/3: 107-18. Gregory, Sean. 2009. Rosetta Stone: Speaking Wall Street’s Language. Time Magazine. (accessed April 25, 2009). Johnson-Elie, Tannette. 2007. Translating to success. Milwaukee Journal Sentinel.