Space, Hierarchy and Society: Interdisciplinary Studies in Social Area Analysis 9780860540601, 9781407349022

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Contributors
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Section 1: The Individual and The Group
The Group and The Individual in History
Inferring Status from Burials in Iron Age Europe: Some Recents Attempts
Who's Who in the Northern British Bronze Age
The Social Identity of the Individual in Isolated Barrows and Barrow Cemetaries in Anglo-Saxon England
An Anthropological Contribution to the History and Archaeology on an Ethnic Group
Social and Cultural Patterning in the Late Iron Age in Southern England
Glastonbury Ware: An Alternative View
Summary
Section 2: Section Groupings in the Urban Environment
Urban Structures in the Pre-Roman Iron Age
Pompeii - Planning and Social Implications
Medieval Winchester: Its Spatial Organization
Residential Differentiation in the Nineteenth-Century City
Towns and Typologies: Forms and Processes
Section 3: The Interaction of Ethnic Groups
Three Types of Ethnic Interaction Among Maasi-Speaking People in East Africa
Migration, Ethinc Differentiation and State Formation in the Iron Age of Bantu Africa
The Archaeological Recognition of Religion: The Examples of Islam in Africa in 'Urnfields' in Europe
Romano-British Interaction
Discussion of Section 3
Discussion
An Historian's Comments
Dialogues of the Deaf

Citation preview

Space, Hierarchy and Society Interdisciplinary Studies in Social Area Analysis Edited by

Barry C. Burnham and John Kingsbury

B A R International Series 59 1 979

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GE :\'"ER ..\L EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., :\I.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, :\I.A.

B. A.R. -S59, 1979: "Space, Hierarchy and Society. Interdi.3ciplinary Studies in Social Area Analysis". © The Individual Authors 1979.

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860540601 paperback ISBN 9781407349022 e-book

DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540601 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

Page L ist o f Con tr ibu tors A cknow ledge men ts I n troduct ion : S ect ion 1 .

B arry B urnha m a nd J ohn K ingsbury

THE I NDIVIDUAL AND THE GROUP

A . Macfar lane

The G roup a nd t he I nd iv idua l i n H is tory

F . R . H odson

I n ferr ing S ta tus f ro m Bur ia ls i n I ron Age E urope :

s o me r ecen t a t te mp ts

S . J . P ierpo in t

Who 's who i n t he N or thern B r i t ish B ronze Age

J . F . S hephard

The S oc ia l I den t i ty o f t he I nd iv idua l i n I so la ted B arrows a nd B arrow C e me ter ies i n Ang lo-

J . O ke ly

1 . 1 5 1 7

K,3 1

S axon Eng land

4 7 -

An An thropo log ica l C on tr ibu t ion t o t he H is tory a nd Archaeo logy o f a n E thn ic G roup

8 1

C . B lack more ,

S oc ia l a nd C u l tura l P a t tern ing i n t he l a te

M . B ra i thwa i te a nd

I ron Age o f S ou thern B r i ta in

9 3

I . R . H odder D . P . S . P eacock

E . R . L each S ect ion 2 .

G las tonbury Ware :

An A l terna t ive V iew

( being a r eply t o B lack more e t a l .)

13

S U M MARY

1 19

SOCIAL GROUP INGS I N THE URBAN ENVIRON MENT

1 27

J . R . C o l l is

U rban S tructure i n t he P re-Ro man I ron Age

1 29

R . A . Raper

P o mpe i i :

1 37

D . J . K eene

Med ieva l Winches ter :

C . G . P oo ley

P lann ing a nd S oc ia l Imp l ica t ions I t s S pa t ia l O rgan isa t ion

R es iden t ia l D i f feren t ia t ion i n t he n ine teen thc en tury c i ty

B . T . R ob s on

1 49

SU M MARY .

1 61 T owns a nd T ypo log ies :

F orms a nd P rocesses

1 87

P age

S ec t ion 3 .

1 93

THE I NTERACT ION OF ETHN IC GROUPS

P . S pencer

Three T ypes o f E thn ic I n teract ion among Maasa i-speak ing p eop le i n Eas t A fr ica

D . W. Ph i l l ipson

M igra t ion , e thn ic d i f feren t ia t ion a nd s ta tef or ma t ion i n t he I ron Age o f B an tu A fr ica

J . A . A lexander

1 95

I s la m i n A fr ica :

2 05

t he Archaeo log ica l

R ecogn i t ion o f R e lig ion

2 15

R . R eece

R o mano-Br i t ish I n teract ion :

aS u m mary

2 29

J . G . D . C lark

SU M MARY

2 41

E . J . H obsbaw m

An H is tor ian 's C o mmen ts

2 47

A . C . R en frew

D ia logues o f t he D ea f

2 53

D iscuss ion

L IST OF CONTR IBUTORS

Dr . J . A . A lexander , Dep t . o f Archaeo logy , U n iversi ty o f C a mbridge . Mr . C . B lack more , Dep t . o f Archaeo logy , U n iversi ty o f L eeds. Miss M . Bra i thwa i te , Dep t . o f Archaeo logy , U n iversi ty o f Cambridge . Prof . J . G . D . C lark , P e terhouse , Cambridge . Dr . J . R . C o l lis, Dep t . o f Prehistory a nd Archaeo logy , Un iversi ty o f S hef f ie ld . Prof . E . J . Hobsbaw m , B irkbeck Co l lege , U n iversi ty o f L ondon . Dr . I . R . Hodder , Dep t . o f Archaeo logy , U n iversi ty o f C a mbridge . Prof . F . R . Hodson , I nst i tu te o f Archaeo logy , L ondon . Dr . D . J . K eene , I ns t i tu te o f H is tor ica l R esearch , L ondon . P rof . S ir . E . R . L each , K ing 's C o l lege , C ambridge . Dr . A . Macfar lane , Dep t . o f S ocia l An thropo logy , U n iversi ty o f Cambr idge . Dr . J . Oke ly , Dep t . o f An thropo logy , U n iversi ty o f Durha m . Dr . D . P . S . P eacock , Dep t . o f Archaeo logy , U n iversi ty o fS ou tha mp ton . Dr . D . W. Phi lUpson , G lasgow Museu ms a nd Ar t G a l leries, G lasgow . Mr . S . J . P ierpoin t , Dep t . o f Prehistory a nd Archaeo logy , Un iversi ty o fS hef f ie ld . Dr . C . G . Poo ley , Dep t . o f G eography , U n iversi ty o f L ancaster .

Mr . R . A . R aper , 1 1, B ever ley Dr ive, Dewsbury . Dr . R . R eece , I nst i tu te o f Archaeo logy , L ondon . Prof . A . C . R en frew , Dep t . o f Archaeo logy , U n iversi ty o f S ou tha mp ton . P rof . B . T . R obson , Dep t . o f G eography , U n iversi ty o f Manchester . Mr . J . F . S hephard , Dep t . o f Archaeo logy , U n iversi ty o f Cambr idge . Dr . P . S pencer , S choo l o f O r ien ta l a nd A fr ican S tud ies, L ondon .

1

AC KNO WLEDGE MENTS

Th is v o lu me r epresen ts t he t hird i n as er ies o f i n terdiscip linary c onfere nces h e ld i n Cambr idge o n t he 1 0 th-12 th March 1 978 . The E di tors wou ld l i ke t o e x tend t heir t hanks t o a l l t hose who p ar ticipa ted , whe ther f or ma l ly a s c ha irmen o r s peakers, o r i n for ma l ly i n t he l i ve ly d iscuss ions t ha t f o l lowed t he s ect ions.

We a re e specia l ly g ra tefu l t o t hose c on tr ibu-

t ors who h ave c o mp le ted t heir t ex ts f or p ubl ica tion a nd a re i ndebted t o t he i nd ividua l c ha ir men a nd P rofessor H obsbawm f or p ermi t ting t he i nc lusion o f t heir r evised r eviews.

T hese we h ope , w i l l p rove a b enef icia l a dd i tion t o t he

f orma t o ft he v o lu me .

T he c on t inued s uppor t a nd v a luab le a ssistance p rovided

b y P rofessor Renfrew h ave b een e ssen tia l t o t he p repara t ion o f t he v o lu me . We a re g ra tefu l f or t he f aci li ties p rovided b y t he s taf f o f S t . J ohn ' sC o l lege , which e nab led t he c on ference t o r un smoo th ly .

I n a ddi tion we owe a s pecia l

d ebt o fg ra t i tude t o t he Master a nd F e l lows o f P e terhouse who p rovided v a luab le f i nancia l s uppor t i n t he i n i t ia l s tages o ft he v en ture a nd t o o ur s ponsor w i thin t ha t C o l lege , Ma jor-Genera l C rookenden .

The g enera l s uccess o f t he c on fer-

e nce o rgan isa t ion owes much t o t he c onstan t a ss istance o f Mark H or ton , Anders B ergquist a nd H e len J ohnson , whi lst t he smoo th r unn ing o f t he p ro jection a nd c a ter ing was t he work o f n u merous i nd ividua ls i nc lud ing C aro le C hapman , Mike G orman , P au l L ane , G lenys P u tna m , A lison S her idan a nd L yn Webster . O thers t oo n u merous f or i nd ividua l men t ion h elped i n o ne way o r a nother t o l i gh ten t he l oad f or t he o rgan isers. T he d raw ings f or D erek K eene ' sp aper were p rep ared t o h is s peci f ica t ion s b y o ne o ft he e d i tors ( B .C. B .) . The t ask o f p repar ing t he f i na lised v ersion h as b een

t he r esponsibi li ty o f

t he e di tors, t hough t hey wou ld l i ke t o a cknow ledge t he v a luab le h e lp a f forded b y H e len J ohnson . An thony H ands a nd David Wa lker o f B ri tish Archaeo log ica l R epor ts h ave a lso b een l ong-suf fer ing a dvisers.

Any f au l ts r emain ing i n t he

p roofs, h owever , r est f a ir ly a nd s quare ly o n t he e d i tors ' s hou lders.

S t . J ohn ' sC o l lege , Cambr idge .

B arry B urnha m

J une 1 979 .

J ohn K ingsbury

L II

I NTRODUCT ION Barry B urnha m a nd J ohn K ingsbury I

P andora ' sB ox ' was o pened o nce a ga in f ro m 1 0 th t o 1 2 th March 1 978 , a t t he S choo l o f Py thagoras, S t . J ohn ' sC o l lege , Ca mbr idge , o n t he o ccasion o f t he t hird C a mbr idge I n terd iscip l inary C on ference . C on t inu ing t he ' infor ma l s er ies ' which b egan w i th t he a ppearance o f

Archaeo logy a nd An thropology :

Areas o f Mutua l I n terest ' ( Spr iggs 1 977 ) a nd o f ' Socia l Organ isa t ion a nd S e t t lemen t :

C on tr ibu t ions f ro m A n thropo logy , Archaeo logy a nd G eography ' ( Green ,

H ase lgrove a nd S pr iggs 1 978 ) , t he e ven t b rough t t ogether n o t o n ly t hose d isc ip l ines which h ad f eatured i nt he p revious mee t ings, b u t a lso , f or t he f i rst t ime , s aw t he we lco me f orma l i nclusion o f h istorians.

2

F ar f ro m b eing ' a l l t h ings t o a l l men ' ,t he r esu lts o f a ny i n terd iscip l ina ry c onference p erhaps i nev i tab ly r un t he r isk o f c r i t icis m f or f a l l ing b etween al arge n u mber o f d iscip linary s too ls ' A s S la ter ( 1975 p age 1 69) h as p u t i t , " a l though a t ten t ion h as more r ecen t ly b een f ocussed o n i n terdiscip lina ry s tudies, t hese t end t o r esu lt i n a n ama lgam o fv ary ing ' segmen ta l ' v iewp o in ts, b e ing ma in ly c harac ter ised b y ad is jo in ted e clect icis m r a ther t han b y a ny u n ify ing t heore t ica l f ramework ." The e di tors wou ld n o t c la im t ha t t he p resen t v o lu me c on ta ins j ust s uch a ' uni fy ing t heore t ica l f ra mework ', o r t ha t t h is was t he o b ject ive o ft he e xercise . N e i ther d oes i tr epresen t as earch f or an ew ' pan- me thodo log y' f or t he f our d iscip lines, wh ich h ave i ncreasing ly e xperienced a d ivergence f ro m t heir t radi t iona l s ource b ases, whe ther ma ter ia l , d ocu men tary o r o ra l , i n t he s earch f or b o th n ew q uest ions a nd a nswers. Ra ther , a s t he c on ference i t se lf p rogressed , a nd a s ar ead ing o ft he p apers p resen ted h ere s hou ld s how , t he t hree d om inan t t he mes o fS pace , H ierarchy a nd S ocie ty , f ro m which t he t i t le o ft he v o lu me i s u l t i ma te ly d rawn , n o t o n ly o ccurred w i th g rea t f requency , b u t a lso s ee med t o p resen t t heir own i n terr e la ted p rob le ms o f e xamina t ion a nd e xp lana tion .

On t his b asis, a s ymbio t ic

d ia logue b e tween a rchaeo logy , a n thropo logy , g eography a nd h istory e xpressed i t se lf a s ap o ten t ia l ly p roduc tive a nd wor thwhi le e n terprise. The c heck list o f p ossib le o b ject ives wh ich a ny s uch c on ference c ou ld s et i t se lf c an i ndeed b e v ery l ong . I t may i nclude t he a t te mp t t o a void s tereo typed me thodo logies w i th in i nd ividua l d iscip l ines, o r t he d esire t o g uard a ga inst t he d angers o f i deo log ica l ly d om ina ted o r s ource-dicta ted r esearch s o t ha t n o ' pr iv i leged p osi tion ' i s g iven t o as ing le t heory , s ource o r d iscip l ine i n r es earch t rends.

T here may a lso b e t he n eed t o i nvoke a s ounder a pprecia tion

o ft he p oten tia l

a l terna tives ' f or a na lysing t he r ange o f p henomena a nd p rob-

l ems u nder i nvest iga t ion , o rt o p ro mo te a ' convergence o f i deas ' i n t heir d iagnosis, o r e ven t o f aci li ta te t he f or mu la t ion a nd t est ing o f e xp la:a tory mode ls o f r ea li ty which may b e a ired b e tween d iscip lines. The q uest ion o f t he d angers o f r educt ionis m o r ' precipi ta t ive g enera l isa tion ' may 1 . so f igure a s ap o ten t ia l o b jec t o f d iscussion , p ar t icu lar ly i nv iew o ft he f act t ha t t here i s ag row ing i n terest i n s uch a pproaches. 1

Ano ther a rea i n which a c onference o ft his k ind may h ope t o make a c ont r ibu t ion o f s o me r e levance i s t he n ecessi ty o f i nsur ing a ga inst t he p ossible d rawbacks o f of ten a dmin istra t ive ly-d icta ted d ivisions b etween s ub jects i n h igher e duca t ion . The n eed f or i nsurance a ga inst t h is s pecies o f ' discip l ina ry e xcep t iona lis m ' 3 was p o in ted o u t i n g eography , f or e xamp le, b y L anday ( 1971) i n h er d iscussion o fI s lamic c i ties a nd t he c oncep t o ft he 'E thnoc i ty ' ,where s he d rew a t ten t ion t o t he c oun terproduct ive " tendency o f s ocia l s cience t o c rea te d icho to m ies a nd a ssu me a s ing le p o in t p erspect ive" . I n t h is v o lu me t oo , P hi l lipson ( page 2 05 ) r efers t o t he c on t inu ing p resence o f a n u nfor tuna te p arochia lis m ' w i th in many a spects o f p reh istor ic s tud ies. One s trong p o in t , i ndeed , o ft he p resen t c on ference v o lu me i s t he u se b y many o ft he c on tr ibu tors o f i deas, d a ta a nd t echn iques d rawn f ro m d iscip l ines o ther t han t heir own , t owards t he f ur therance o ft heir p ersona l r esearch a i ms. T his was a p oin t emphasised p ar t icu lar ly i n P hi l lipson ' sc ase b y Professor Hobsbaw m ( page 2 49 ) , b u t o ne migh t a lso c i te t he u se o fn ot ions f ro m s ocia l p sychology ( Pierpoin t ) , t he i n tegra tion o f h istor ica l a nd a rchaeo logica l d a ta ( Keene) , t he u se o fs pa tia l a na ly t ica l t echn iques ( Black more e t a l .) a nd t he u se o f s ta t ist ics a nd c o mpu ters ( Shephard ) .

Archaeo log ists h ave a lso b eco me much more

aware r ecen t ly o ft he v a lue o f 'e thnoarchaeo logy ' a s at echn ique i nt he s tudy o ft he p ast ( Gou ld 1 978 a nd Ye l len 1 977 ) . S uch i n teraction wou ld s ee m t o r ep resen t t he

f i rst l eve l ' o f i n terdiscip l inary s tudy i nt ha t meet ings o ft his k ind

may h opefu l ly b e o fp o ten tia l b enef i t i n e ncourag ing r eciproca l d iscussion b e tween t he p ar t icipan ts o fd if feren t d iscip lines. I ndeed t he v ery v a lue o f t heir c on trast ing t ypes o f e vidence a nd a venues o f i nvest iga tion l i es i n d evising , f or e xa mp le , t he means o f a na lysing c o mp lex s pa t ia l d ata , a nd a lso i n s upp lemen t ing a nd e ncourag ing p ersona l a t temp ts a t a cademic work i nvo lv ing c rossd iscip l inary a t t i tudes a nd a cu men . Th is f orms a n i mpor tan t e le men t i n a reas where v ary ing k inds o f e vidence a re a va i lab le a nd where t he d i f feren t d iscip l ines may h ave o ver lapp ing s pheres o f i n terest . I n t he c ase o f a rchaeo logy p er s e , where o n ly ma ter ia l e v idence i s a vai lab le , i n terd iscip linary c onferences a re e specia l ly b enef icia l t o p ract i tioners ' a t temp ts t o d ef ine "a dequa te p rocedures f or t he s tudy o f c o mp lex s ocie ties" ( Hase lgrove 1 977 , p age 9 1) . I nt he l ong t erm t h is w i l l a l low a rchaeo log ists t he c hance t o u se t heir i m mense t imed ep th t o t est t he a pp licabi li ty o f i deas d rawn f ro m c ross-discip linary c on tact a nd d iscussion . N eed less t o s ay , s uch a ctivi ties h ave t heir d angers a s we l l :

a s e ach d is-

c ip l ine e x tends i t s s cope i n to o ther d iscip l ines i n s earch o f i deas, mode ls a nd t echn iques wh ich may c o mbine t o p rovide e xp lana tions w i th in t ha t d iscip line 's r esearch p ro jects, t hey r un t he r isk o f g a in ing o n ly ' fi l tered i mpressions ' ,o r i ndeed o f l osing a l toge ther t he c r i t ica l a ssess men ts t o which s uch i n for ma t ion wou ld n or ma l ly b e s ub jec t i n i t s o r igina l d iscip l ine . Archaeo logy h as i n t he p ast b een c ast iga ted b y David C larke f or u sing a n thropology ' s' d ir ty li nen ', whi le , p ace P ierpo in t

( page 3 2 ) ,

t here i s a lways t he d anger o f

r um maging

i n t he waste-bins o f o ther d isciph i les ' . H ence t he d i f feren t ia l c r i t iques o f b ehavioura lis m ( see C ox a nd G ol lage 1 969 , P red 1 967 , 0 1 1son a nd Ga le 1 968 a nd S chif fer 1 976) a nd c en tra l p lace t heory ( 0 1 1son 1 965, Berry a nd Pred / 961 a nd Smi th 1 976) i n g eography a nd a rchaeo logy , f or e xa mp le , c an b e s een i n p ar t t o b e t he p roduct o fj ust s uch a t imelag i n t he f l ow o f i nfor ma t ion b etween o ne s ub jec t a nd a no ther . 2

There is also a continuing need and value for each participating discipline to stop and look back, to consider its own position, objectives, ideas and methodologies, a kind of 'empirical and conceptual stock-taking' frequently at risk of being missed in the ongoing process of institutional teaching and personal researches. In their survey of changes in geography and archaeology, Green and Haselgrove (197 8 page xiii) noted how, in the case of the latter, n in the last twenty years, more and more archaeologists seem to have turned to a consideration of the development of their own thought, and that of the discipline as a whole" . It could be argued that conferences of this kind provide a useful opportunity to indulge in disciplinary self-examination and reflection, aided (and occasionally tormented�) by opinions from other quarters. Certainly a brief review of recent writings on methodological and ideological develop­ ments within one discipline, and its independent cross-referencing with that of another, may indicate some interesting conclusions for comparison. Similarly, the conference itself produced a number of appraisals and pronouncements on the theory and practice of one discipline by practitioners from other fields, which themselves proved to be somewhat controversial. From archaeology, Collis, for example (page 131), asserted that "if geographers have had to define towns, it is within the present day rural-urban continuum, with little concern (for) the difference between urbanised and non-urbanised societies", whilst some geographers would, perhaps, tend to disagree with the historian, Professor Hobsbawm' s opinion (page 250) that " geography faculties have become essentially the vocational training-ground for town- or town-and-country planning, reflecting to some extent the idea that the geographer can somehow tell us how to mould the environment and the humans in it". (Indeed, many may go so far as to question the vocational qualities of most geography degrees at present offered in British universities�) Thus it is, we feel, always inter­ esting, and potentially important, to find out not only how other disciplines view our own, or how these attitudes and impressions change over time, but also· the reasons for such modifications or alteration.s. Few could deny that interdisciplinary studies of one sort or another have already to date produced a number of 'hybridisations' of benefit both to research and to the more 'applied' directives of planning. Chombart de Lauwe and M. Sorre demonstrated the potential advantages to be achieved by cooperation between geographer and sociologist in the study of social mobility and migrations (cf. Buttimer 1969 pages 418-20); the methods of urban analysis which emanated from the so-called 'Chicago School' were the product, in part, of the close physical and social proximity of geography and sociology within that university (Robson 1969, Burgess 1927 and Park 1929); even the concept of 'social area analysis' used by Shevky and Bell (1955 ), and referred to in this volume by Pooley (page 166) was itself based in no small measure on the work of American social anthropologists in the late 1940s and early '50s. One of the present contributors (Pierpoint, page 3 2) drew attention to the fact that "one of the advantages the present-day archaeologist enjoys is the use of well developed techniques of spatial analysis" , a situation which, if not entirely the product of closer> collaboration with geography in recent years, was certainly enhanced by such contact. In turn, many of these techniques had been adopted by geo­ graphy from the realms of quantitative plant ecology (see Clark and "Evans 1954 and Greig-Smith 1964). Further, systems and ecology may claim to be the fertile offspring of interdisciplinary work in the past, wh_ilst today, zoologists, 3

b o tan ists, h i storica l g eographers a nd a rch iv ists a re i ncreasing ly c o mbin ing t o mee t t he n eeds o f modern c onserva t ion p o l icies. ( Shea i l a nd We l ls 1 969 , We l ls e t a l . 1 976 a nd K ingsbury 1 979 .) Wi th in a rchaeo logy a lso t here h as b een f rui tfu l i n terd iscip l inary c on tact i n t he p ast ; t he r e la t ionsh ip i n p ar t icu lar w i th t he n a tura l s ciences h as b een o f i m mense i mpor tance i n ma jor a spects o f t he s ub jec t . The r ad iocarbon r evo lu tion i s p erhaps t he b est k nown e xa mp le ( Ren frew 1 973a ) , b u t n u merous a na ly tica l t echn iques h ave a chieved p ro m inence i n c onnect ion w i th t hree p ar t icu lar a spects, n ame ly d a t ing , e ar ly t echno logy ( Bro thwe l l a nd H iggs 1 969 , Hodges 1 976) a nd e nvironmen ta l i nforma tion ( Bu tzer 1 972) . The p o ten t ia l r e la t ionship o f a rchaeo logy a nd h istory h as b een e xam ined i n Dymond ( 1974) , where t he i mpor tance o f d ocu men ts a nd e xcava t ion i n q uest i ons o fv ernacu lar a rch i tecture , d eser ted med iaeva l v i l lages a nd i ndustr ia l a rchaeo logy h as b een s tressed .

E ven w i th in t he c onf ines o ft his c on ference , i t

h as a lready b een d emonstra ted t ha t many p apers p o in t t o t he p rospect ive s ucc essfu l i n tegra t ion o fd if feren t t ypes o f d a ta a nd t he s ubstan tia tion o r o therw ise o f aw ide v ar ie ty o f work ing h ypo theses.

I n o ne c ase , Co l lis ( page 1 30 ) , j ux ta-

p osing a rchaeo logy a nd h istory , a r tefactua l a nd d ocu men tary e vidence, p refaced K eene i n r ecognising t ha t t he med iaeva l c i ty ' r epresen ted c onsiderable p o tent ia l f or p rof i table i n terdiscip linary o ver lap a nd e nquiry , whi lst t he l a t ter ( page 1 55 ) s tressed d ocu men tary s ources a s "a n e ssen tia l p rerequisi te f or t he f u l l i n terpre ta tion o ft he a rchaeo logy o f med iaeva l Winchester". Thus, d esp i te t hese

a ch ieve men ts ' ,i t wou ld a ppear t ha t t here r e ma ins

p len ty o f s cope f or f ur ther r appor t b etween t he d iscip lines.

I n a dd i t ion t o t e m-

p ora l a nd s pa tia l c onsidera t ions, t here s eems t o b e ac on t inu ing n ecessi ty f or t he a pprecia t ion o f c on trast ing v a lues, a sp ira tions a nd c u ltura l t radi tions c ont a ined w i th in h u man s ocie t ies, a nd f or which f u ture l i ason b e tween t he d iscipl i nes c ou ld b e b enef icia l ( Brookf ie ld 1 963, Brown 1 963) .

Those who h ave r ead

t he p reced ing v o lu mes w i l l r ecogn ise a n umber o f t he mes a nd i ssues t here wh ich h ave , i n p ar t , b een t aken u p a ga in a nd d eve loped h ere , s uch a s t he n ature o f ' urbani sm ', 's tatus ' ,f orms o f i n teract ion b e tween p opula t ions, a nd o thers men t ioned i n t he i nd ividua l s ect ion i n troduct ions. A s t he t hird i nt his s er ies o f 'mu l t i-d iscip l inary ' d e l ibera t ions, t his v o lu me n o t o n ly e ndorses a nd e xpands many o ft he p o in ts made b y e ar lier a u thors, b u t c onsequen t ly may a lso s erve t o h igh l igh t c on t inu ing p roble m a reas where f ur ther i n terdiscip l inary a t ten tion a nd c onsidera t ion wou ld b e we l l f ounded . I n r eview ing t he h istory o ft he C ambr idge c on ferences a lone , o ne b ecomes aware o f c er ta in r ecurren t q uest ion s wh ich c on t inue t o c ause c oncern w i th in t he v ar ious d iscip lines.

A s S la ter ( 1 975, p age 1 63 ) h as p oin ted o u t , " the a pparen t

i nabi li ty o f many g eographers t o e xp la in t he u nder ly ing p rocesses t ha t g ive r ise t o t he s pa t ia l f or ms a nd p a t terns wh ich a ppear t o b e o f s uch p redom inan t i mport ance i n c on te mporary r esearch , c onst itu tes a w idespread a nd f undamen ta l d ef iciency".

I ndeed t he l i nk b e tween

s pa t ia l f orm ' a nd s ocia l p heno mena i s

a s e viden t i n R aper ' sc a l l ( page 1 39 ) f or " socia l i n terpreta tions o ft he a rchaeo logy ...an i n terpre ta t ion o ft he p hysica l f ea tures i n t erms o f t he p eop le who p roduced t hem" a s i ti s i n P ierpoin t ' sa t ten t ion t o t he i mpor tance o f e stab l ishi ng whe ther t here were c lear s pa t ia l p a t terns o f a r ti fact s ty le i n h is s tudy a rea which migh t i ndica te g roup/socia l c on for m i ty ( page 4 1) ; t he t heme o f s ocia l a nd s pa tia l s egrega tion i s a lso e viden t i n O ke ly ' sc on tr ibu tion ( page 8 1 ) . T he p ersisten t p rob lem o f r educing t he c red ibi l i ty g ap b e tween 4

f orm ' a nd ' process '

h as b een r ecogn ised b y a rchaeo log ists ( e .g . H odder a nd Or ton 1 976 p ages 6 a nd 8 , C larke 1 977 ) a nd g eographers, a nd , a s b o th P rofessors L each a nd R obson c o m men ted ( page 1 23 a nd 1 89 ), was a n u nder ly ing f ea ture i n t he p roc eed ings o ft his c onference a s we l l . Ano ther e xamp le o f at he me c onducive t o a dd i tiona l i n terd iscip linary e xam ina t ion i s t he r o le o f

s tress ' a nd

c onfor m i ty ' i n h u man b ehaviour a nd

t he ir p ossib le a t tendan t s pa t ia l a t tr ibu tes.

Much o f t he a rgu men t a nd t he e x-

p lana t ion o ft he o bserved d istr ibu t ions p resen ted b y B lackmore e t a l . a nd P ierpo in t , were d ependen t o n t he v a l idi ty o ft he s tress h ypo thes i s ' i nvoked , ( s ee a lso L each , p age 1 21-2 ) , a nd t he p os tu la ted c onsensus o f i nd iv idua l a nd g roup b ehaviour .

The e vidence f or s uch s pa t ia l a rrays may i ndeed b e p osi-

t i ve ly c orre la ted w i th t he d egree o f ' stress ' b e ing e xer ted , a nd i fs o , c onf orm i ty may b e " so me th ing we c an u se p red ictive ly" ( P ierpoin t , p age 3 3) i n t he a na lysis o f h u man s ocie t ies, b u t e qua lly " one o ft he p rob le ms w i th ( such) s oc ie t ies i s t ha t p opu la t ion a nd s tress ' may b e l ow , a nd t herefore s pa t ia l e n t i t ies may b e d i f f icu l t t o r ecognise" ( Pierpoin t , p age 4 1). F ina l ly, t here i s t he q uest ion o f r egions, b oundar ies a nd f ron t iers, a no ther p roble m s hared a t l east b etween g eography , a rchaeo logy a nd a n throp o logy . I n g eography , t he c oncep t o ft he r eg ion ' i t se lf was a ffected b yt he q uan t i ta tive r evo lu t ion ', a nd c ame t o b e d escr ibed , f or e xamp le , i n s ta tistica l t erms, a s d isp lay ing , f or g iven p arame ters,

min imu m w i th in-var ia t ion ' a nd

max imu m b etween-var ia t ion ' ( Grigg 1 965, B erry a nd Marble 1 968 ) . I n l ess a bstract t er ms, t he a n thropo-geographica l d i f f icu l ties o fg roups a nd b oundaries a re p resen ted b y S pencer ( page195 ) , who r ef lec ted h ow " tr iba l maps o f A fr ica ( and , o ne may a dd , o ther a reas....) h ave t heir u ses, b u t b y i nd ica t ing c lear ly d e linea ted b oundar ies f or e ach g roup , t hey t end t o g ive a f a lse i mpress ion o f p ermanen t a nd u na mbiguously d ef ined e thn ic g roups a nd t o o versimp l ify —even t r ivia lise —an a l toge ther more c o mp lex a nd i n tr igu ing p a t tern". I n a rchaeo logy t oo t he l ast d ecade o r s o h as s een a move away f ro m s i mp list ic v iews o fg roups a nd b oundar ies a s e nvisaged i n t he ' cu lt ures ' d ef ined b y C hi lde ( 1 925) . The i mpu lse c ame i n i t ia l ly f ro m t he wor ld o f Amer ican a rchaeo logy ( B in ford 1 962) , b u t t he mos t i n f luen t ia l d r ive t owards more s oph is t ica ted a r t if ac tua l a nd a sse mb lage a na lysis was p rovided b y C larke ( 1968 ) a nd t he v o lu me o n e xp la in ing c u lture c hange ( Renfrew 1 973b) . The r ecen t i n terest l i kewise i n e thno-archaeo logy h as d emonstra ted t he c o mp lexi ty o ft he q uest ion a s we l l a s t he p rob lems o f mapp ing a nd i n terpret ing a r tefactua l d a ta ( Hodder 1 978 ) .

The

d eba te o n t hese ma t ters i s s t i l l v ery much a p ressing i ssue a nd a ny c oopera t ive d iscussion w i th o ther d iscip l ines w i l l b e o f i m mense v a lue . N o d oub t o ther i nstances o f c o mmon p rob le ms a nd c ha l lenges c ou ld b e c i ted , b u t s uf f ice i th ere t o s ay t ha t t here r e ma ins p len ti fu l o ppor tun i ty f or f u ture i n terd iscip l inary c on ferences wh ich s eek t o p rovide a v a luable f oru m o f d eba te f or a ny d iscip lines w i th s uch c harac ter is t ics i n c o m mon . Wh i ls t i tw ou ld b e o ver t ly p rema ture t o d ec lare t ha t t he d iscip lines c an s urmoun t b as ic p roble ms o f mu tua l i n terest , o r o verco me t he c o m mun ica t ions b arr ier ' ( Green a nd Hase lgrove 1 978 , p age x xvi i ) , we a gree w i th o ur p redecessors t ha t h erein , p erhaps, c o l loquia o ft h is k ind f i nd t heir u l t ima te p urpose a nd j ust if ica tion . T he t hree s ect ions i n to wh ich t he c on ference p roceed ings a re d iv ided , n a me ly T he I nd iv idua l a nd t he Group ', ' Socia l Group ings i n t he U rban Environmen t '

5

a nd

The I n teract ion o f E thn ic Groups ' were f or mu la ted i n t he h ope t ha t t hey

wou ld mee t an u mber o f i mpor tan t r equ iremen ts, a s we l l a s t o p rovide f ru i tf u l f ra meworks a round wh ich c ross-discip l inary e xchanges c ou ld p o ten tia l ly t ake p lace .

T hey were i n tended t o c over a spects o f c o m mon g round s hared b y

t he d if feren t d iscip lines, f or e xa mp le main ly a rchaeo logy a nd a n thropology i n S ect ion One, r egard ing s ta tus a nd b ur ia ls, a rchaeo logy , g eography a nd h istory i n S ect ion Two , r egard ing p rehistor ic t o h istor ic u rban s tud ies, a nd a rchaeo logy , a n thropo logy a nd g eography i n S ect ion Three .

I t was a lso e v i-

d en t t ha t t he d ef in i t ion o f t er ms a nd t erms o f r eference , whi lst i n many ways t he l east i n terest ing p ar t o f a ny d iscourse , i s f requen t ly a n i mpor tan t o r e ss en t ia l p rerequisi te t o e nsure t he i n tegr i ty o f e nsu ing a rgu men ts.

P rofessor

H obsbaw m n o ted ( page250 ) o ne s uch c ase when h e s ugges ted t ha t" t he q uest ion 'wha t i s S oc ie ty?' h as n o a nswer , a nd y e t we a l l o pera te i n c er ta in u n i ts o f t his k ind" ,wh i lst n o t o n ly d i f feren t d iscip lines, b u t a lso d i f feren t t imes a nd p laces ( see a lso Macfar lane, p age 1 7 ) , may s erve t o a l ter r ad ica l ly t he c onn o ta t ions a t tached t o s uch t er ms a s

c o mmun i ty ' .4 I fi n terdiscip l inary c on fer-

e nces d o n o t , o r c anno t e xpect t o a ch ieve a n

E speran to ' t o c over n o t o n ly t he

p rob le ms a nd c oncep ts b u t a lso t he t echn iques t o s tudy t he m , t hen a t l east t he c lari f ica t ion o f t he mean ing o f words a nd t erms s uch a s t hese s hou ld b e p art i cu lar ly i mpor tan t .

E ven o nce d ef ined , a s Professor Robson e xp la ins d ur ing

ad iscussion o n S ect ion Two , t here a re t he d i f f icu l t ies o f measur ing , f or e xa mp le , t he a l leged g row ing i mpor tance o f ' co m mun i ty ' i n N ine teen th Cen tury Eng land .

Ano ther i mpor tan t p oten tia l ' sp i n-of f ' f ro m i n teract ion a nd e nhanced

i n terchange b e tween d iscip lines may b e t he p lac ing o f t he c o mpara tive method o n af irmer f oo t ing .

Tha t i nsuf f icien t e xp l ici t a t ten tion was g iven t o t his i n t he

c on tex t o ft his c on ference was made c lear b y Professor Hobsbawm ( page 2 50 ) . ( For a d iscussion o f t he c o mpara t ive me thod i n a n thropo logy , s ee A ckerknech t 1 954 .) The e xa m ina tion o f r e la t ions b etween i nd ividua ls, a nd t he c o mpara tive i mpor tance o f t he i nd ividua l v is-ä.. vis t he g roup , a l though b y n o means n ecess ari ly c onstan t o ver s pace a nd t hrough t ime , c an b e e xpanded o n t he b roader l eve l b y c onsider ing g roups a nd i nd ividua ls i n ' a s ocie ty ' a nd , i n t urn , t he i n terac tion o f c on trast ing s ocie ties, whe ther c once ived i n t er ms o f e thnici ty o r n a t iona l i ty .

I t i s a lso p ossib le t ha t a ny d ef ined r e la tionsh ips b e tween t he

i nd ividua l a nd c o mbina tions o f i nd ividua ls o ugh t t o h ave n ot o n ly s ocia l b u t s pa t ia l a t tr ibu tes a nd t ha t s ca le f actors w i l l b e c o m mon t o b o th .

T he p ro mo-

t ion o f d ia logue i n t his r espect b e tween g eographers a nd a n thropo log ists, f or i nstance , may b e p ar t icu lar ly b enef icia l i fo ne a grees w i th t he Swedish g eog rapher H ägerstrand ( 1970 p age 9 ) t ha t "i t i s u nquest ionable t ha t t here a re f unda men ta l d irect l i nks t o b e e xp lored b e tween t he micro-si tua tion o f t he i nd iv idua l a nd t he l arge-sca le a ggrega te o u tco me" ,o r t ha t ( i bid . )" there i s ap ure ly t heore t ica l c ase f or t ak ing a c loser l ook a t t he i nd iv idua l h u man b e ing i n h is s i tua t iona l s et t ing .

To d o s o wou ld i mprove o ur a bi l i ty t o r e la te t he

b ehaviour o f sma l l s ca le e le men ts a nd l arge s ca le a ggrega tes.

F a i lure i n t his

r espect i s ac o m mon , f unda men ta l weakness o f a l l s ocia l s ciences."

The c ase

f or t he r einsta te men t o f t he i nd ividua l i n p rehistory h as a lso r ecen t ly b een made ( H i l l a nd G unn 1 977 ) . The q uestion o f

s ta tus ' a s a n i n f luen t ia l a t tr ibu te ( however d ef ined a nd

p roduced ) med ia t ing i n t he i ndividua l-to-group r e la t ionship t hrough t ime a nd

6

s pace , i s t ack led b y an u mber o f a rchaeo log ists i n t his v o lu me .

( W i tness i n

p ar t icu lar , Hodson a nd S hephard .) I n h is c o m men ts o n S ection Three , C lark a lso d rew a t ten t ion t o t he i mpor tance o f ' h ierarchy ' ,i t se lf d ependen t a t l east i n p ar t u pon t he p roduction a nd main tenance o f d i fferen tia l s ta tus b etween i nd iv idua ls w i th in t heir a ssocia ted s ocie ties. c ussing

R obson ( 1975 p age 2 3) , i n d is-

U rban S ocia l Areas ', h as g one s o f ar a s t o s ay t ha t "i ta ppears t o

b e s ta tus r a ther t han s i mp ly i nco me" which d e ter m ines s ocia l s egrega t ion i n t he modern Western c i ty .

I n s pi te o f t h is r ecogn i t ion o f t he p o ten t ia l a nd

a ctua l i mportance o f ' sta tus ' ,i t s l inks w i th h ierarchy i n s ocie ty a nd t he o bs er ved s pa t ia l p a t terns, t here r e ma ins a s ubstan tia l l ack o f a greemen t o n t he s ub ject b o th w i thin a nd b etween d iscip l ines ( c f . S hephard p age 5 2 , o n a rchaeo logy ) .

P ierpoin t a lso ( page 3 5 )s uggests t ha t "s ta tus i s ac ogn i t ive t h ing ;

i td epends o n who r ecogn ises i t " ,a nd , a s s uch , p oses d if f icu l ties a s e qua l ly w i th in n ew c u ltura l a n thropo logy a s i n a rchaeo logy . A s ac on tr ibu t ion t owards t he u l tima te p rob le m o fu nderstand ing h u man b ehaviour a nd i t s mu l t ifarious r esu l ts, S ection One a t te mp ts t o o f fer s o me f ounda t ion i n t he i n terpre ta t ion a nd mean ing o f t he i nd ividua l a nd t he g roup . L ike t he o ther s ect ions, i t was d esigned l ess t o c on ta in e qua l r epresen ta tion o f t he f our p ar ticipan t d iscip lines, more t o e xa m ine s o me b asic c oncep ts a nd i ssues where in v ary ing c o mb ina tions o f s uch d iscip lines migh t f i nd n o t o n ly mu tua l i n terest , b u t a ct ive a ids t o t he e xp lana t ion o f p rob le ms c o m mon ly e xper ienced b y t he m .

I ft he n o tion ' soc i a l ' h as i t s own i nheren t s ca le v a lues,

r unn ing f ro m t he micro t o t he macro , a nd a pprox i ma t ing p erhaps t o t he c oncep t o f ' socia l s pace ' w i th c onsequen t s pa t ia l a rrays i n ' geographica l s pace ', t hen , t o c a tegorise t he c onference s ections o n t his b asis, t he f i rst , a t t he micro l eve l , wou ld r epresen t t he r ela t ions o f i ndividua ls t o g roups; t he s econd , a t a n i n termed ia te l eve l , sma l l g roups i nthe u rban , o r ' bui l t ' e nviron men t ; a nd t he l ast , a t t he macro l eve l , e xa mp les o f 'macro-groups ' s uch a s t r ibes o r n a tiona li ties '

i n teract ing i n aw ider h u man s ocie ty .

p ro to-

I n t his l igh t S ect ion One i s

b o th i ndependen t i n i t s own r igh t a nd a lso t he f ounda t ion f or t he s ections t o f o l low .

I n a ddi tion , Macfar lane, P ierpoin t , Oke ly , Poo ley a nd Reece , i n p ar-

t icu lar , a l l r ef lect t he n o t ions o f i n ter- v ersus i n tr a-group mechan is ms, t he c oncep ts o f ' us ' a nd

t hem ' a nd s ta tus a nd t he g roup , a l l o f which s ubstan t ia te

i deas o f s ocia l a s we l l a s s pa t ia l a reas. T he p apers p resen ted i n t h is v o lu me a re l arge ly t hose a ctua l ly p resen ted d ur ing t he c onference p roceedings, a lbei t w i th s o me mod if ica t ions, a nd a s s uch , i th as g rea ter a f f in i t ies, p erhaps, w i th t he 1 978 p roduct ion t han w i th t ha t o f 1 977 .

I n c on trast w i th l ast y ear , h owever , t he p apers h ere were i ncluded i n t he

t hree p re-arranged s ect ions d escr ibed a bove , r a ther t han s ubsequen t ly g rouped a nd l abe l led i n to s ect ions a f ter t he c on ference h ad t aken p lace .

A smal l n u mber

o f p ar t icipan ts p referred n o t t o i nclude t heir c on tr ibu tions i n t he f i na l p ub licat ion , b u t , w i th t he a dd i t ion o f t he p aper b y J ohn S hephard , t he o n ly a u thor who d id n o t a ppear a s as peaker , a nd a c o m men t b y David P eacock , t he e nd r esu l t was a d istr ibution , i nclud ing c ha ir men , o f n ine a rchaeo log ists, f our a n throp o log ists, t hree g eographers a nd t wo h istor ians. The a pparen t ' over-repres en ta t ion ' o f a rchaeo logists, a t l east i n t er ms o f p ersona li ty-coun tc a nd d epar t men ta l a f f i lia t ions may , h owever , b e s o mewha t d i lu ted b y t he f act t ha t s o me o f t heir n u mber were f ound t o b e work ing i n a n e xp lici t ly h istorica l f ra mework , ap oin t p icked u p b y Professor Hobsbaw m ( page 2 49 ) . 7

P apers f ro m t he c on tr ibu tors, t oge ther w i th t heir a t tendan t r eferences a nd b ib liograph ies, h ave b een a ccep ted w i thou t ma jor r evision , l eav ing i nd ivi dua l a u thors r esponsible f or t he v iews a nd c onclusions h e ld .

T he e di tor ia l

h as n o t a t te mp ted t o s u m marise t he c on ten ts o f t he v o lu me , ap rocess wh ich , i fn o t r e la tive ly s uperf luous, may h ave b een i nv id ious t o t he i nd iv idua ls c onc erned . H owever , e ach a r tic le i s p receded b y ä-s um mary , a nd , a s was t he c ase i n 1 978 , as hor t i n troduc t ion h as b een i nc luded f or e ach o f t he t hree c onf erence s ec t ions . We h ope t ha t r eaders w i l l f i nd t he p apers a nd t he c o m men ts t hey p roduced , wh ich a re f ea tured h ere , n o t o n ly i n terest ing a nd i n forma tive i n t hemse lves, b u t c o l lect ive ly a s r epresen t ing a c on tr ibu t ion , h owever sma l l, t o t he f a i th t ha t i n terd iscip linary d ia logue h as a r o le t o p lay i n f ur ther ing k now ledge i nt he s ocia l s ciences. I f , o n r ef lect ion , t hey c onc lude t ha t t he who le ' d oes, i n f act , c o mpr ise more t han t he s um o f t he c onst i tuen t p ar ts, t hen t h is g oa l w i l l h ave b een a chieved .

N otes 1 .

The a u thors wou ld l i ke t o t hank Professor Ren frew f or r ead ing a p re l imi nary d raf t o ft his i n troduction .

2 .

S pr iggs ( 1 977 , p ages 4 -5) men t ions h istory a nd a rchaeo logy t oge ther when d iscussing s truc tura lis m , a nd ( i bid . p ages 7 5-7 ) when Radc li f fe-Brown i s q uo ted a s c laiming t ha t a n thropo logists a dop ted a n

a n t i-histor ica l s tance '

ma in ly a ga inst c on jectura l h istory ; h ere a spects o f h istorica l me thodo logy a re r eviewed e xp lici t ly , b u t n ei ther i nt his, n or i n t he e nsu ing v o lu me , were h istor ians g iven a n i ncorpora ted

r igh t o f r ep ly '.

3 .

F or a n e xpanded , i fs l igh t ly o utdated d eba te o n ' Excep t iona l ism ' i n g eog raphy , s ee S chaefer 1 953 a nd H ars thorne 1 955 .

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This was i nheren t i n t he p aper p resen ted t o t he c onference b y Dr . Pa tr ick J oyce , e n ti t led

F a mi ly , C o m mun i ty a nd C lass i n N ine teen th-Century

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1 1

Mode ls f or Recons-

S ECTION 1

1 3

S ECTION 1 THE I ND IV IDUAL AND THE GROUP

The f i rs t s ec t ion may a ppear a t f i rs t g lance a n e x tre me ly w ide t op ic f or c overage i n s o l im i ted a s pace . N ever the less t he p roble ms a ssoc ia ted w i th t he i nd iv idua l a nd t he g roup mus t b e s een n o t o n ly a s ar e levan t s ect ion i n t hemse lves , b u t a s af undamen ta l i n troduc t ion t o av o lume where ' groups ' whe ther i n t er ms o f a n u rban s et t le men t , o r ' soc iet ies ' a t l arge , f orm t he b as is o f t he s tudy . Tha t t he s e lec t ion h as n ecessar i ly b een s o mewha t e c lec t ic i s o bv ious a nd e xp lores t o s o me e x ten t i n t he p apers o n b ur ia ls , t he b e lief e xpressed b y C hap man ( 1 977) , t ha t h erein l ay a n impor tan t a rea o f mu tua l i n teres t b etween a rchaeo logy a nd a n thropo logy , i fn o t t he o ther d isc ipl ines a s w e l l .

The p apers b y B lackmore e t a l , a nd more p ar t icu lar ly O ke ly , f ind

ap lace b o th i n t h is s ec t ion a nd l i kewise a s i n troduc t ions t o s ec t ion 3 where t he d om inan t t he me l i es i n t he i n terac t ion o f E thn ic G roups . Th is t o s o me e x ten t r ef lec ts t he i nev i tab ly s o mewha t a rbi trary b oundar ies o f t he s ec t ions , a s w e l l a s t he i mp l ied c onnec t ions b e tween t he m .

The t ex t , a long w i th P ro-

f essor L each 's c r i t ic is ms , c lear ly d e mons tra tes t he c o mp lex i t ies o f t he s ubj ec t a nd h igh l igh ts t he n a ture o f t he ' co m mun ica t ions b arr ier ' b e tween t he d isc ip l ines : i n p ar t icu lar t he d i f fer ing u ses o f ' i nd iv idua l ' a nd ' group ' w i l l r equ ire c arefu l c ons idera t ion i n a ny f u ture c oopera t ion . A s a n i n troduc t ion , Macfar lane 's p aper s eeks t o d e mons tra te t ha t t rad it i ona l v iews o n t he p lace o f t he i nd iv idua l i n t he g roup h ave b een d ras t ica l ly o vers i mp li f ied a t l eas t i n t he c ase o f Eng land .

Wh i ls t t here i s t he s ugges t ion

o f a n ' i dea l— type ' c onstruc t i n h is o pposed p o les , where p erhaps a more g enera l ised c on t inuu m m igh t h ave b een more a ppropr ia te , h is r es ta te men t o f t he p o ten t ia l r ange f ro m ' soc iet ies where t he g roup d o. m ina tes ' t o t hose where ' t he r igh ts o f t he i nd iv idua l a re s tressed ' , p o in ts t o t he r ange o f p oss ib i l i t ies t ha t a rchaeo log is ts a t l eas t s hou ld b e c ons ider ing i n t he p as t . The s ubsequen t p apers f a l l b road ly i n to t wo g roups , t he p r i mar i ly a rchaeo log ica l o nb ur ia ls , s eek ing t o d iscuss s oc ia l a spec ts a nd s ta tus , a nd t he p apers b y B lackmore e t a l . a nd O ke ly o n t he a rchaeo log ica l a nd a n thropo log ica l a sp ec ts o f ag roup . O verr id ing a l l o f t hese i s t he n o t ion o f s pace . The t hree p apers o nb ur ia ls , ( Hodson , P ierpoin t a nd S hephard ) a l l h ave v ery l i t t le s e t t le men t d a ta f or c orre la t ion a nd t he a na lyses a ssu me t ha t t he s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n s o me way r ef lec ts t he r ea l i ty o f t he s oc ia l wor ld . The b r ie f c o m men ts i n p ar t Io f O ke ly 's p aper d e mons tra te t ha t G ypsy b ur ia ls , f ar f ro m b e ing t rue images o f r ea l i ty a re i n f ac t i nvers ions .

The t es ting o f

t h is r e la t ionsh ip wou ld s ee m wor thy o f f ur ther c ons idera t ion t han i s p oss ible h ere . The mos t c on trovers ia l p aper b y P ierpo in t d raws h eav i ly o n i deas f ro m s oc ia l p sychology f or i t s e xp lana tory models a nd c oncep ts : wh i ls t f raugh t w i th p i t fa l ls a s t he a u thor a cknow ledges , t here may b e r e levance t o u s ing s uch h igh l eve l g enera l isa t ions i n t he p as t . B o th P ierpoin t a nd B lackmore e t a l . 1 5

a lso s hare a n i n teres t i n t he i dea o f ' s tress ' a s a ma jor f ac tor i n e ncourag ing w i th in-group c on for m i ty :

wh i ls t t he s u m mar ies b y L each a nd H obsbaw m

d i f fer o n t he v a lue o f t h is , i ti s i n teres ting t o r ef lect t ha t i n t he c on tr ibu t ions b y Oke ly h ere a nd S pencer i n s ec t ion 3 , i ti s n ot s o much ' s tress ' a s t wo d ist inc t c u l tura l t rad i tions ma in ta in ing a dvan tageous ly o pposed e cono m ic , s oc ia l a nd i deo log ica l s tandpoin ts .

The v a lue o f i n terd isc ip l inary c on tac t h ere s ug-

g es ts t wo p ropos i t ions r equ ir ing a dequa te t es t ing . i s a lso i nc luded f ro m Dav id P eacock .

A r ep ly t o B lack more e t a l .

D esp i te t he p roble ms o f t er m ino log y o u t l ined a bove , t here a re c lear g rounds f or a t l eas t a rchaeo log ica l a nd a n thropo log ica l c o m mun ica t ion , wh i ls t t he r e la t ionsh ips o f i nd iv idua ls b o th t o i nd iv idua ls a nd t o g roups w ou ld s ee m t o l i nk w i th a reas o f h is tor ica l a nd g eograph ica l s tud ies .

The r ea l isa tion b y

a l l d isc ip l ines t ha t t here a re a n umber o f b road r egu lar i t ies i n s pa t ia l p a tt ern ing , whe ther i n b ur ia ls o r g roup c on for m i ty , o ugh t t o o pen f ru i t fu l l ines o f r esearch a t ag enera l e xp lana tory l eve l .

I n t h is r espec t , t he e ssen t ia l ly

n ega t ive c r i t ic is ms o f t he t ype o f fered b y P ro fessor L each , ( see a lso Leach 1 977) p rov ide l i t t le p os i t ive a ss is tance i n t he c ons truc t ion o f p o ten t ia l l inks b e tween d isc ip l ines . I ndeed i fa rchaeo log is ts a nd t he o ther d isc ip l ines r epr esen ted c anno t g enera l ise a n umber o f t es tab le h ypo theses b o th f or modern a nd p as t s oc ie t ies , t here wou ld s ee m t o b e l i t t le h ope o f mean ing fu l a dvance i n t he f u ture.

C hap man , R . W., 1 977.

' Bur ia l P rac t ices , a n Area o f Mu tua l I n teres t '.

i n S pr iggs M . ( ed .) , 1 977 , Archaeo logy a nd An thropo logy : Mu tua l i n teres t . L each , E . R ., 1 977. 1 61-76.

1 9-23.

a reas o f

B .A .R . S 19 .

' A v iew f ro m t he B r idge '.

1 6

S pr iggs M . ( ed .) , 1 977 ,

THE GROUP AND THE I ND IVIDUAL I N H ISTORY A lan Macfar lane

ABSTRACT S oc ia l s cien t is ts h ave s ugges ted t wo c on tras ted mode ls o f h uman s oc iet ies , t hose b ased o n t he ' group ' a nd t hose o n t he ' i nd iv idua l '. P easan t a nd t r iba l s oc ie t ies a re e xa mp les o f t he f or mer , H un terG a therers a nd modern p os t-indus tr ia l s oc ie t ies o f t he l a t ter . I n t he f or mer , t he i mpor tan t b oundar ies a re b e tween l arge u n i ts—c lans , c as tes , v i l lages e tc.

I n t he l a t ter , t he b oundar ies a re b e tween t he

i ndiv idua l s e lf a nd t he o u ts ide wor ld . T he ma jor t heor ies o f s oc io logy s ugges t ac hange f ro m g roup t o i nd iv idua l ( De T ocquev i l le , R ies man ) . The c hange i s e xpressed a nd c aused b y many o ther c hanges : f ro m s ta tus t o c on trac t ( Ma ine ) , f ro m c o m mun i ty t o S oc iety ( Tönn ies ) , f ro m p easan t/ feuda l t o c ap i ta l is t ( Marx , Weber ) , f ro m h ierarchy t o e qua l i ty ( Du mon t ) . I n many o f t hese t heor ies t he t urn ing p o in t h as b een e i ther t he i ndus tr ia l/urban r evo lu t ion o f t he C 18-19 , o r t he e ar l ier P ro test an t/Cap i ta l is t r evo lu t ion o f t he C 16-C17. B u t a l l t he t heor ies s ee s ociet ies mov ing a long a n e volu t ionary t ra i l f ro m a . t o b . Th is p aper w i l l c ons ider t he p ropos i t ion t ha t t h is i s a n o vers i mp li f ica t ion a nd t ha t wh i le s o me s oc ie t ies move i n t h is way , o thers r ema in p redo mi nan t ly o f t he ' group ' o r ' i nd iv idua l ' b ased

k ind f or a l l o f r ecorded

t ime. S ince Eng land h as , a bove a l l , b een t aken a s a n e xa mple o f t he t rans i t ion f ro m g roup t o i nd iv idua l i n t he wr i tings o f Ma ine , Marx , Weber , T önn ies , D e T ocquev i l le a nd o thers , t he p aper w i l l p rov ide av ery b r ie f e xam ina t ion o f t he h is tory o f Eng land f ro m t he t h ir teen th t o e igh teen th c en tur ies . I tw i l l s ugges t t ha t t here h as b een n o s uch t rans i t ion a nd t ha t Eng land h as r e ma ined e ssen t ia l ly i nd iv idua l is t ic i n i t s s oc ia l s truc ture a s man i fes ted i n e cono m ics a nd k insh ip t hrough t he B lack D ea th , C iv i l War a nd I ndus tr ia l R evo lu t ion . C onsequen t ly t he b oundar ies b e tween t he i nd iv idua l a nd o ther i nd iv idua ls h as b een o vere mphas ized a nd t here h as b een a s ingu lar a bsence o f a ny p ermane n t g roup ings b ased o n s ocia l o r g eograph ic c r i ter ia . T h is h as imp l ica t ions f or t he e xp lana t ion o f t he o r ig ins o f P ro tes tan t is m , I ndust r ia l isa t ion , C o lon ia l is m e tc .

A t av ery g enera l l eve l i ndeed we may d is t ingu ish b e tween t wo ma jor t ypes o f s ocia l/econo m ic/po l i t ica l/re l ig ious s truc ture.

Tha t i s b etween t hose s oc ie-

t i es where t he g roup , aw ider s e t o f i nd ividua ls r ecru i ted o n k insh ip o r o ther c r i ter ia , d om ina tes t he i nd iv idua l , a nd t hose where t he i nd iv idua l s tands a lone . I n t he a n thropo log ica l l i tera ture t hese t wo e x tre mes a re r epresen ted b y t he f o l lowing i ns tances . The ma jor c lass o f s ocie t ies where t he g roup 1 7

d om ina tes t he i nd iv idua l a re t hose t ermed ' t r iba l '. O f ten t hese a re c orpora te , p roper ty-own ing g roups d ef ined i n t erms o f k insh ip , f or e xamp le t hose d esc r ibed b y A fr ican is ts .

The ' group ' i s t he t r ibe o r l i neage .

Ano ther c lass

i s p easan t s ocie t ies . H ere t he i nd iv idua l i s p ar t o f aS ta te s ys te m , b u t l arg e ly s ubord ina ted t o ad o mes t ic g roup , wh ich a c ts a s ap roduc t ion , c onsumpt i on a nd o wnersh ip u n i t .

The i nd iv idua l a lso b elongs t o at err i tor ia l g roup ,

av i l lage c o m mun i ty. T he o bv ious e xa mp les a re t rad i t iona l I nd ia a nd C h ina , t hough t here a re many o thers . The s econd ma jor t ype i s where t he ' f ree ' ; t he s oc ie ty i s c o mposed o f l oose o f t he o r ig ina l s ta te o f n a ture , b u t l a ter , d ua ls c o me t o a ccep t c er ta in l im i ta t ions

i nd iv idua l i s l arge ly a u tonomous a nd a toms , much a s i n H obbes ' v ision t hrough t he s oc ia l c on trac t , i nd iv ii mposed o n t he m b y t he ' S ta te ' o r

s oc ie ty . The t wo ma jor e xa mp les o f t h is a re , s trange ly , a t t he t wo p o les o f h u man s oc ie t ies : c er ta in H un t ing-Ga ther ing b ands i n A fr ica , ( Hadza , Mbu t i , I k ) a re o ne e xa mp le ; t he i ndus tr ia l d e mocrac ies o f t he Wes t a re t he o ther . I n t h is s i tua t ion t he r igh ts o f t he i nd iv idua l a re s tressed . P eop le a re n o t c on ten t mere ly t o e labora te t hese a s e nds o f ac on t inuum i n s pace ;

t he h is tory o f mank ind i s o f ten wr i t ten a s a move men t i n t ime f rom

g roup t o i nd iv idua l . T h is i s p erce ived b y t he ma jor t h inkers i n many d i f feren t ways , b u t t hey a re u nan i mous i n s ee ing a n e vo lu t ion , p ar ticu lar ly i n w es tern c iv i l iza t ion , f ro m g roup t o i nd iv idua l b ased s ys te ms .

We n eed o n ly t o r e mem-

b er a f ew o f t he mos t f a mous f or mu la t ions . A lex is D e Tocquev i l le i nb oth De mocracy i n Amer ica a nd Anc ien R eg i me a rgued t ha t t he f lu id s oc ia l s truc ture b ased o n i nd iv idua l r igh ts a nd t he c o l lapse o f h ierarchy a nd c as te was a n ew p heno menon i n wes tern E urope , o ccurr ing a t s o me t ime b e tween t he f i f teen th a nd e igh teen th c en tur ies i n Eng land a nd s pread ing t hrough t he wor ld f ro m t here. S ir H enry Ma ine i n h is many works s aw t he g radua l p rogress ion o f a l l h uman s oc ie t ies f ro m c o m muna l , t r iba l u n i ts b ased o n impersona l ' cont rac t ': " Anc ien t L aw ...knows n ex t t o n o th ing o f I nd iv idua ls . I ti s c oncerned n o t w i th I nd iv idua ls , b u t w i th Fa m i l ies , n o t w i th s ing le h u man b e ings , b u t g roups" . 1 Kar l Marx mass ively d ocumen ted i n C api ta l a nd e lsewhere t he t rans i t ion i n wes tern Europe f ro m a f euda l/peasan t c iv i l iza t ion , i n wh ich t he i nd iv idua l l i ved embedded i n al oca l c o m mun i ty , where r esources w ere c o mmuna l ly o wned b y t he h ouseho ld , where p r iva te p roperty h ad n o t d eve loped a nd i nd iv idua ls h ad n o t b een ' se t f ree ' f ro m t he l and , t o t he modern c ap i ta l is t ic s ys te m where e ach man was a lone , af reef loa t ing a to m s ub jec t t o t he p ressures o f t he marke t .

The t rans i t ion , h e a rgued , o ccurred i n t he l a ter f i f teen th

c en tury a nd e ar ly s ix teen th c en tury. 2 Max Weber a ccep ted much t he s a me c hrono logy a nd d escr ipt ion a s Marx , b u t i nves t iga ted more c losely t he r el ig ious a nd i n te l lec tua l r oots o f a cqu is t ive i nd iv idua lis m , p ar t icu lar ly i n a sce t ic p ro tes tan t is m . F . T önn ies i n h is f amous w ork o n C o m mun i ty a nd S ocie ty d escr ibed t he c hange f ro m a c iv i l iza t ion b ased o n ' Co m mun i ty ' , t ha t i s b onds o f B lood ( k insh ip ) , o f P lace ( n e ighbourhood ) o f M ind ( f r iendsh ip ) t o t he modern ' Soc ie ty ' where i nd iv idua ls were s e t l oose a nd o n ly l i nked i n a ssoc ia t ions c onn ec ted i n t he market b y money a nd c on trac ts . Th is o ccurred f ro m t he s event een th c en tury o nwards .

Marc B loch i n h is s tud ies o f r ura l F rance a nd t he

f euda l s ys te m a rgued t ha t , e ar l ies t i n Eng land , t he i nd iv idua l g radua l ly s epa ra ted h i mse l f f ro m l arger k in g roupings a nd c o m muna l t ies ; " Ear ly s oc ie t ies were made u p o f g roups r a ther t han i nd iv idua ls . A man o n h is own c oun ted

1 8

f or v ery l i t t le" .

3

H e a greed w i th t he Marx/Weber c hrono logy ;

t he ma in

c hange o ccurred w i th t he i n troduc t ion o f p r iva te p roper ty i n l and wh ich d eve lo ped i n Eng land i n t he s ix teen th c en tury. A l though t here h ave b een m inor d issen ters , t he s equence a ppears s o s el fe v iden t a nd t he we igh t o f s uch n a mes a nd t he d ocu men ta t ion s o g rea t t ha t t he c ase a ppears t o b e e s tab l ished .

The ma in q ues t ions t o a nswer a re t hose

wh ich a l l s ubsequen t wr i ters h ave a sked :

why t he b reak-down o f g roups , why

t he r ise o f i nd iv idua l is m , why d id t h is h appen f irs t i n Eng land , a nd why d id i th appen i n t he s ix teen th t o e igh teen th c en tur ies?

T hus , whether we e xa m ine

t he w ork o f modern a n thropo log is ts who h ave c ons idered t he h is tory o f west ern s oc ie t ies , f or e xa mp le L ou is Du mon t i n H o mo H ierarch icus , o r t he work o f s oc io log is ts , f or i ns tance Dav id R ies man i n T he L one ly C rowd , o r o f s oc ia l h is tor ians , f or i ns tance t he w ork o f R . H . Tawney a nd h is f o l lowers i n t he e ar ly modern p er iod , o r o f p o l i t ica l t heor is ts s uch a s J . G . A . P ocock o r C . B . Macpherson i n t he ir w ork o n t he o r ig ins o f modern p o l i t ica l a nd e cenomic i nd iv idua l is m , w e f ind t he m a l l b ased o n t he s a me d eep a nd o f ten u ne xam ined model o f ac hange f ro m c o l lec t ive , g roup , c o m muna l , k insh ipd om ina ted , p easan t s oc ie ty , t o i nd iv idua l ised , p r iva te , e cono m ic-do m ina ted , i ndus tr ia l s ocie ty , w i th t he k ey t rans i t ion i n t he s ix teen th c en tury.

Th is

mode l a f fec ts t he v iews o f a rchaeo log is ts a nd p re-h is tor ians a nd a l l t hose who w ork o n ap er iod b e fore 1 600 , a s we l l a s t hose who work i n c on te mporary n onindus tr ia l s oc iet ies . T he c lass ic c ase i s Eng land , c lass ic b ecause i ti s t he b es t d ocumen ted med iaeva l s ocie ty , a nd b ecause i t was t aken a s t he c en tra l e xamp le o f t he t rans i t ion ( s ince i t was t he f i rs t ) b y mos t o f t he g rea t t h inkers who m we h ave men t ioned . b r ie f ly .

L et u s t here fore e xa m ine t he e v idence c oncern ing Eng land v ery

We may i so la te t hree c en tra l i nd ices , ' m irros ? o f t he s upposed c hange

f ro m o ne s ys te m t o a no ther . These a re p roper ty i n l and , t he d egree o f t he u se o f money , wage l abour a nd t he u se o f n onfam i ly l abour . I ti s n o t u n fa ir t o a l l t hose t h inkers t o who m we h ave r eferred , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f Ma ine , t o s ummar ize t he ir p os i t ion a s f o l lows . P r iva te p roper ty i n l and was a bsen t b e fore t he f i f teen th c en tury. I n t he p easan t/ feuda l/ med iaeva l p er iod i n Eng land , t he p roper ty-own ing u n i t was n o t t he i nd iv idua l b u t t he f am i ly a nd , f ur thermore , t he C hurch a nd t he L ords h ad r igh ts i n l and . Land c ou ld n o t b e c onceived o f a s i n t he h ands o f a n i nd iv idua l o wner , t o b e b ough t a nd s o ld a s ac o m mod i ty . Many p eople , i nc luding t he v i l lage c o m mun i ty , h ad r igh ts i n l and , t he ' bund le o f r igh ts ' h ad n ot b een b rough t t ogether i n to a s ing le p erson 's h ands . Thus t here was n o l and marke t , p aren ts c ou ld n o t d is inher i t t heir c h i ldren , t he f am i ly s tayed o n t he s ame p lo t f or g enera t ion a f ter g enera t ion , k eep ing ' t he n ame o n t he l and ' . T he w idespread u se o f c ash a nd t he p rese .nce o f a n i n tegra ted marke t was a ga in a bsen t b e fore t he f i f teen th c en tury ; E ng land was a ' na tura l ' o r s ubsist ence e cono my. Where r en t p ay men ts w ere made t hey were n o t i n k ind . P eop le c onsu med mos t o f wha t t hey p roduced a nd p roduced mos t o f wha t t hey c onsumed .

Thus t here was l i t t le c ircu la t ion o f c o m mod i t ies , l i t t le b uying

a nd s e l l ing . The r ise o f a money e cono my wou ld d es troy t h is s i tua t ion ; t he o n ly p ockets o f marke t ing a nd c ash were t he t owns . T he c oun trys ide was a r ura l , n on- monet ized c iv i l iza t ion s im i lar t o t he l arge a grar ian c iv i l iza t ions o f t rad i t iona l As ia . 1 9

A l mos t a l l l abour was f am i ly l abour ; l abourers b e fore t he l a te f i f teen th c en tury .

t here were v ery f ew l and less Those who d id work f or c ash o n ly

d id s o o ccas iona l ly , i n o rder t o s upp lemen t t heir ma jor i nco me f ro m t he l and . The e xpropr ia t ion o f t he ' peasan ts ' l a id t he f ounda t ions f or t he i nd iv idua l is t ic c ap i ta l is t ic s ys te m . Aga in i to ccurred i n t he s ix teen th t o e igh teen th c en tur ies . The sma l l p easan t p ropr ie tors w ere o us ted a nd b ecame t he workforce f or t he l a ter f ac tor ies . A l though t h is i s ah igh ly c o mpressed p ic ture , i tc on ta ins t he c ore o f t he g enera l t heor ies . O n t op o f t hese f ea tures were Many o thers ; f or e xa mp le , s ince l and was o wned b y t he f am i ly , s ince t here was l i t t le mobi l i ty o f l abour , s ince t here were f ew o ccupa t ions o ther t han a gr icu l tura l o nes , c om mun i ty b oundar ies were s trong .

V i l lages t ended t o b e f i l led w i th k in .

T he g roup

o f t he f am i ly a nd t he k in , t he v i l lage c o mmun i ty , a l l t hese d om ina ted t he i nd iv idua l . R i tua l a nd r e l ig ion c on f ir med a nd r ef lec ted t h is g roup-based wor ld . A l l t h is was t o c hange i n t he s ix teen th c en tury a nd o nwards . B e fore we a ccep t t h is who le mode l , l e t u s l ook a l i t t le more c losely a t t he e v idence . Dur ing t he l as t f our teen y ears Ih ave b een e ngaged o n av ery d e ta i led i nves t iga t ion o f t wo p ar ishes i n t he p as t . U s ing a c o mpu ter a s w e l l a s h andi ndex ing s ys te ms , my c o l leagues , C har les J ard ine , S arah Harr ison , T im K ing a nd J ess ica S ty les a nd Ih ave b een p iec ing t oge ther t he e cono m ic a nd s ocia l h is tory o f t he p ar ish o f E ar ls C o lne i n E ssex a nd K irkby L onsda le i n Wes tmor land b e tween 1 500 a nd 1 750 .4 T he r esearch s ugges ts t ha t t he g enera l mode l wh ich h as b een u sed t o d escr ibe wha t h appened i n Eng land d ur ing t he p er iod 1 200-1750 i s p robab ly i ncorrec t . I n c on junc t ion w i th a n u mber o f d e ta i led monographs wh ich h ave o n ly a ppeared i n t he l as t t we lve y ears - a s we l l a s o ther work o n s ix teen th c en tury s oc ia l s truc ture a nd d emography b y P eter Las le t t a nd T ony Wr ig ley , i tl ooks a s i fw e w i l l h ave t o r ev ise o ur p ic ture o f t he s upposed t rans i t ion f ro m o ne s ys te m t o a no ther .5 L e t me e nd b y b r ief ly i nd ica t ing why t h is i s s o . Ar e-exa m ina t ion o f med iaeva l Eng l ish C o m mon L aw s ugges ts t ha t f rom a t l eas t t he t ime o f B rac ton i n t he m idd le o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury , Eng l ish f reeho ld t enure , wh ich c overed p erhaps a t h ird o f t he c oun try , was a f orm o f a bso lu te , i nd iv idua l , p roper ty . There was n o w ider g roup t han t he i nd iv idua l , e xcep t i n t he c ase o f e n ta i led p roper ty ( and e n ta i ls c ou ld f a ir ly e asi ly b e b roken i n a ny c ase ). P eop le c ou ld b uy a nd s e l l l and a s i nd iv idua ls , t hey c ou ld d isinher i t t heir c h i ldren . L and was l ega l ly a c o mmod i ty , a nd t he l arge l and marke t s hows t ha t i t was t rea ted a s s uch . Another t h ird o f t he l and , t he l ord 's d e mesne , was a lso h is o wn .

The l as t t h ird , where o ne wou ld e xpec t t o f ind

c o m muna l a s o pposed t o i nd iv idua l r igh ts , was t he c us to mary , l a ter ' copyho ld ' , l and . Many med iaeva l is ts ,i nc lud ing G . C . H o mans i n h is work i n t he Eng l ish V i l lagers o f t he Th ir teen th C en tury a rgue t ha t s uch l and b e longed t o t he f am i ly, a nd n o t t o t he i nd iv idua l . Ar e-exam ina t ion o f med iaeva l c our t t rans fers a nd l ega l t ex ts s ugges t t ha t t h is was n o t s o . I ta ppears t ha t al andho lder , ma le o r f e ma le , t hough h o lding o f t he l ord , h ad s trong , f u l ly a l ienab le , r igh t i n t he l and . Dur ing h is o r h er l i fe , h e o r s he c ou ld s e l l t he l and a nd t here was n o th ing a n h e ir c ou ld d o a bou t i t . I n o ther words , t he t enur ia l r evo lu t ion wh ich h is tor ians b e l ieve h appened i n t he f i f teen th t o s ix teen th c en tur ies a nd u shered i n modern c ap i ta l is m , n ever t ook p lace.

The d es truc t ion o f t he

' f euda l s ys te m ' i n r ela t ion t o l and l aw i s l arge ly a i ny th , - af ac t wh ich c ont e mporar ies s uch a s t he g rea t C o m mon L awyer S ir E dward C oke r ea l ised .6 2 0

I n r e la t ion t o c ash a nd marke ts , i th as b een k nown f or s o me t ime t ha t t he i dea o f a' na tura l e cono my ' i n med iaeva l E ng land i s l arge ly a my th . K os m insky a nd l a ter P os tan h ave s hown t ha t f ro m a t l eas t t he t we l f th c en tury al arge p ropor t ion o f t he r en ts i n k ind were c o m mu ted t o money .

An e xam i-

n a t ion o f a ccoun t r o l ls a nd manor ia l r o l ls s hows t ha t c ash p layed a v ery l arge p ar t i n t he e cono my. A t t he v i l lage l eve l t here was w idespread b uy ing a nd s e l l ing , b orrow ing a nd l end ing ; a l l p roper ty was marke table a nd h ad a p r ice w e l l b e fore t he B lack D ea th . Aga in , t h is was t he c ase t wo c en tur ies e ar l ier t han s hou ld h ave b een t he c ase . Turn ing t o t he q ues t ion o f l abour , d e ta i led s tud ies a re c on f irm ing K osm insky 's e ar ly f ind ings t ha t s ervan ts a nd wagelabourers were n o t merely a marg ina l c a tegory i n t he t h ir teen th c en tury .

P os tan's w ork o n e s ta te

l abourers , t he f a mu l i , a s w el l a s r ecen t a na lyses o f t he l a ter f our teen th c en tury P o l l T ax s ugges t t ha t t he h ir ing o f l abour f or c ash was w idespread , n onf am i ly s ervan ts w ere c o m mon . I tl ooks a s i fb y t he l a ter f our teen th c en tury , i n many p ar ts o f E ng land , o ver h a l f t he a du l t ma le p opu la t ion were s ervan ts o r l abourers .

I ti s a rguab le t ha t t here was a s much wage l abour f or c ash i n

1 300 a s t here was i n 1 600 . R ecen t s tud ies h ave a lso i nd ica ted t ha t t here was v ery c ons iderable g eog raph ica l mobi l i ty ;

t ha t t he i dea o f t he c losed med ieva l c o m mun i ty i s l arge ly

a my th . Fur thermore , i ti s c lear t ha t f am i l ies moved a nd d ied o u t , s o t ha t v i l lages were n o t f i l led w i th k in g roups . Any a na log ies we migh t b e t e mp ted t o d raw w i th p easan t s oc ie t ies e lsewhere n eed t o b e v iewed w i th c ons iderab le s cep t ic is m . T he ' c lass ic ' c ase t urns o u t t o b e d oubt fu l ; many o f o ur d eepes t a nd b as ic p re m ises c oncern ing t he t rans i t ion f ro m g roup t o i nd iv idua l n eed t o b e r e-exa m ined . P erhaps Imay e nd my warn ing a ga ins t t he ' i do l o f t he mind ' wh ich t ends t o make u s t h ink o f ag enera l a nd u n iversa l e vo lu t ion f ro m o ne t ype t o a no ther b y r epea t ing t he words o f t he g rea t med iaeva l h is tor ian , F . W. Ma i t land : " To s uppose t ha t t he f am i ly l aw o f e very n a t ion mus t n eeds t raverse t he s ame r ou te , t h is i s a n u nwarran tab le h ypo thes is . T o c ons truct s o me f a ted s che me o f s uccess ive s tages which s ha l l c o mpr ise e very a rrange men t t ha t may y e t b e d iscovered among b ackward p eop les , t h is i s ah opeless t ask ." S o me s oc iet ies d o i nd iv idua l t o g roup .

move f ro m g roup t o i nd iv idua l , o thers , n o d oubt move f ro m Eng land f ro m t he t h ir teen th c en tury o nwards , i ti s a r-

g ued , moved f ro m i nd iv idua l t o i nd iv idua l . NOTES 1 .

S ir H . S . Ma ine , Anc ien t Law ( 1 3 th e dn ., L ondon , 1 890 ) , p . 2 58 .

2 .

There i s af u l l d iscuss ion o f t he v iews o f Marx , Weber a nd o ther a u thor i t ies c i ted i n t he n ex t f ew p aragraphs , w i th d e ta i led b ib l iograph ic r eferences , i n A lan Macfar lane , T he O r ig ins o f Eng l ish I nd iv idua l is m ( Ox ford , 1 978 ) , c h . 2 .

3 .

Marc B loch , F rench R ura l H is tory ( London , . . 1 966) , t rans . J . S ondheimer , p . 1 50 . 2 1

4 .

Ap re l im inary d escr ip t ion o f t he ma ter ia l a nd t he me thod i s i n A lan Mac far lane , S arah Harr ison a nd C har les J ard ine , Recons truc t ing H ist or ica l C o m mun i t ies ( Cambr idge , 1 977) .

5 .

The r ecen t work b y L as le t t , Wr ig ley a nd o thers i s s u m mar ized i n Mac far lane , Eng l ish I nd iv idua l is m , c h . 3 .

6 .

T he d e ta i led ma ter ia l t o s uppor t t h is a nd t he f o l low ing p aragraphs i s c on ta ined i n Macfar lane , E ng l ish I nd iv idua l is m , c hs . 4 , 5 , 6 .

7 .

S ir F . P o l lock a nd F . W. Ma i t land , T he H is tory o f Eng l ish L aw ( 2nd e dn ., C a mbr idge , 1 968 ) , i , p . 2 55.

2 2

I NFERR ING S TATUS FROM BUR IALS I N I RON AGE EUROPE ; S OME RECENT ATTE MPTS P ro fessor F . R . H odson

ABSTRACT The I ron Age o f C on t inen ta l Europe i s n o tor ious f or i t s many l arge c e me ter ies wh ich h ave b een s acked f or p r iva te a nd museu m c o l lections.

F or tuna te ly , s o me o ft hese c e me ter ies were r easonab ly

we l l e xcava ted a nd r ecorded , a nd f resh e vidence i s b eco m ing a vai la b le f ro m r ecen t c e me tery e xcava t ions.

R enewed a t te mp ts a re b e ing

made t o e xp loi t t his e vidence a t v ar ious l eve ls o f i n terpre ta t ion s o a s t o e stab lish t he s ta tus o f i nd ividua ls b ur ied , t he p a t tern ing o f s uch s ta tuses w i th in s ing le c e me ter ies a nd r e la t ionsh ips b etween r eg iona l g roups o f c e me ter ies a nd s e t t le men ts.

S o me o ft hese a t te mp ts a nd

s o me r esu l t ing me thodo log ica l p rob le ms w i l l b e d iscussed . The s i mp lest s ta tus i n terpre ta tions s ee m u ncon troversia l a nd h ave b een v a lida ted b y i ndependen t e vidence : d ist inguish ing ma le f ro m f e ma le o r c hi ld f ro m a du l t b y a r tefac t t ypes a lone ( o f ten n ecessary w i th c re ma t ion c e me ter ies) .

More e n terprising a nd c on troversia l a re

a t te mp ts t o d ist inguish i ndividua ls a s marr ied o r u nmarr ied o r a s h eads o f f a mi lies, o r t o d ef ine s ocia l s tra ta b y t he f unct iona l c o mp lexi t y , r ichness o r h era ld ic c haracter o fg rave g oods.

A t a more g enera l

l eve l o f a na lysis, i ts eems f easib le t o d ef ine c eme tery ' types ' wh ich , i ti s h oped , w i l l r e la te i n s o me way t o v ar ia t ions i n s ocia l o rgan isat i on :

c e me teries where d if feren t a reas a re r eserved f or ma les, f e-

ma les a nd c hi ldren ; c e me teries where sma l l g roups o fg raves s ee m t o r epresen t (f ami ly ' mix tures o f ma les, f e ma les a nd c h i ldren ; c e meteries where a s ing le p ro minen t g rave i s s urrounded a t ad istance b y o ther g raves a l igned u pon i t ; c e me teries r eserved e n t ire ly f or a pparen t ly h igh s ta tus ma les. I ti s c lear ly d if f icu l t t o i n terpre t t his k ind o fp a t tern ing , b u t i s p erhaps wor th n o t ing t ha t a l l t hese a nd o ther t ypes o f c e me tery h ave b een i den t if ied a s c on te mporary o ver a r e lat i ve ly sma l l a rea n or th o ft he A lps, a nd t ha t a l l wou ld b e a t tr ibu ted b y many a rchaeo log ists t o e ar ly C e l ts, a nd s ocia l s tructure .

w i th a s tandardised r e l igion

I ti s s t i ll u ncer ta in h ow p rof i table s uch c e me tery s tud ies may p rove t o b e ; t his c ou ld we l l d epend o n t he s y mpa the tic c oopera t ion o f s ocia l a nd c u ltura l a n thropo log ists.

T he I ron Age o f Europe i s n o torious f or i t s many l arge c e me teries t ha t h ave b een s acked t o f urn ish a n t iqui ties f or museu ms a nd p riva te c o l lections.

2 3

0

kms

50

Location of principal sites: 1. Grosseibstadt 2. Erbenheim (Wiesbaden) 5. Hirschlanden 6. Nebringen 7. Giengen 10. Andelfingen 11. Mftnsingen Figure 1

24

3. Mtlhlacker 4. Asperg 8. Heuneburg 9. Villingen

F or tuna te ly , s o me o f t hese c e me ter ies were r e la tive ly we l l e xcava ted a nd r ecorded a nd f resh b uria ls a re s ti l l r egu lar ly c om ing t o l i gh t .

R enewed a t-

t e mpts a re b e ing made t o i n terpre t t h is f unerary e v idence a t d i f feren t l eve ls o f c o mp lex i ty t o i nfer t he s ta tus o f i ndividua ls b ur ied a nd t he p a t tern ing o f s uch s ta tuses w i th in s ing le c e me ter ies. En terpr ising r esearch o f t his k ind h as b een p ub lished d ur ing t he l ast d ec ade b y a rchaeo log ists work ing i n S outh G er many a nd Sw i tzer land , a n a rea t rad i t iona l ly c onsidered t o b e a t t he c en tre o f t he d eve lopmen t o f e ar ly C e l tic s ocie ty , a nd t his p aper w i l l p resen t av ery b r ief i n troduct ion t o t his work . S o me i n terpre ta t ions r esu l t f ro m t rea t ing b uria ls a s d istinct i ndividua l a sse mb lages, b u t t he more i n terest ing d eve lop men ts, a nd t hose most r e levan t t o t h is c onference , d ea l w i th t he l ayou t a nd o rgan isa tion o f who le c e me ter ies a s s uch . A f a mi liar s pa t ia l e f fect , n ow r ecogn ised a t a l most a l l l arger c e me ter ies, i s t he p a t terning t ha t r esu l ts f ro m t he g row th o f ac e me tery t hrough t ime . The p a t tern v ar ies a ccord ing t o t he t erra in ; u sua l ly i ti s l inear ( f or e xa mp le a t Mensingen , H odson 1 968 ) , b u t more c o mp lex p a t terns c an r esu l t a t h i l ly l oca t ions, l i ke Ve ii , where a c en tr ifuga l z on ing may b e s een ( Close-Brooks 1 965 ) . H owever , o nce s uch c hrono log ica l e f fects h ave b een r ecogn ised a nd a l lowed f or , f ur ther s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i s s t i l l s o me t imes e viden t a nd t his i ts ee ms r easonab le t o r e la te t o t he s ocio-re lig ious s tructure o f t he c o m muni ty c oncerned . O f c ourse , a s f or a l l p rehistor ic c on tex ts, t he d egree o f r e la tionship b etween t he d isposi t ion o f mater ia l r ema ins a nd s ocia l s tructure must r e ma in a ma t ter o fj udge men t . F or tuna te ly , t he s i mp lest s ta tus i n ferences a re r easonably u ncon troversia l a nd h ave, i n a ny c ase , b een v a lida ted b y i ndependen t e vidence :

d isti nguish ing

ma le f ro m f e ma le o r c hi ld f ro m a du lt b y a r tefacts a lone —of ten n ecessary w i th c re ma t ion b uria ls.

O ft he many a u thors who h ave d iscussed t his r e la tive ly

s tra igh tforward p rob le m , r eference n eed o n ly b e made t o a sma l l s a mp le :

f or

t h is a rea o f s pecia l i n terest t o Pau l i ( 1973 ) , P o lenz ( 1974) a nd S p ind ler ( 1975a ) , a nd f or I ron Age s i tes f ur ther e ast t o D ugek ( 1966) a nd Hodson ( 1977 ) . Aga in , i ts ee ms r easonably s tra igh tforward t o i n terpre t s o me i nd iv idua ls a s o u tcasts ' f ro m t he b asic s ocio-re ligious c o mmuni ty b ecause o f t heir b uria l o u tside a main c e me tery , e specia l ly i ft his i s a cco mpan ied b y a n a berran t b ur ia l r i te o r g rave g oods, o r b y u nusua l s ke le ta l p a tho logy .

S uch a n i n terpre-

t a t ion was p u t o n t he d oub ly t repanned i ndividua l f ro m g rave 1 52 a t Mensingen ( Hodson 1 968 , 2 2 ) a nd many s i mi lar c ases h ave b een c i ted b y Pau l i ( 1975) . Pau l i ( 1977 ) h as a lso c a l led a t ten tion t o ab ur ia l n ear Wiesbaden-Erbenhei m where e xo tic j ewe l lery a cco mpan ied a f l exed s ke le ton—an u nusua l r i te f or t his a rea .

Pau l i i n terpreted t his a s t he b ur ia l o f af ore igner n o t i n tegra ted i n to t he

l oca l c o m muni ty . E xcep t iona l a t t he o ther e nd o f t he s ta tus s ca le a re t he s o-ca l led F f irsteng r ner o r Ade lsgrf tber ( "Pr inces ' g raves" )w i th h earses, g o ldwork a nd i mp or ted w ine s erv ices. a t ten t ion :

N o t u nna tura l ly t hese h ave r eceived a g rea t d ea l o f

t hey h ave g enera l ly b een a ssocia ted w i th e cono mic d eve lopmen ts

n or th o ft he A lps, t he g row th o f t rade w i th t he Med i terranean a nd t he n eed t o 2 5

o rgan ise a nd p ro tect t rade r ou tes b y s uch "F ürstensi tze" a s t he H euneburg o r Mon t L assois ( see , f or e xamp le , K imm ig 1 975) .

H owever , i td oes n o t

s ee m v ery h e lpfu l t o t rea t a l l s uch r ich b uria ls wherever t hey o ccur a s as ing le p heno menon o r t o a ccoun t f or t heir d eve lopmen t b y a ny s ing le e cono mic a rgumen t ( c f . Haffner 1 976) .

N o t o n ly i s i td i f f icu l t t o d raw a c lear l i ne b etween

wha t may o r may n o t b e a ccep ted a s a 'Pr ince ' sg rave ' b u t t he r e la tionship b e tween h igher a nd l ower s ta tus b ur ia ls d oes s ee m t o d i f fer w ide ly o ver r e lat ive ly sma l l a reas.

An i dea o f t h is v ar ia t ion may b e g iven b y c onsidering a

f ew c o mp le te c eme ter ies i n S ou th G er many where s uch h ighest s ta tus b uria ls h ave , o r h ave n o t b een f ound .

I ta lready s ee ms r easonab le t o s uspect d istinct

t ypes o f c e me tery t ha t o n t he f ace o f i ts hou ld r ef lect q ui te d i f feren t s ocior e l ig ious s tructures. F irst , t here a re c e me ter ies c lear ly r eserved f or o ne smal l s egmen t o f s ocie ty .

A r e markab le e xa mp le i s p rov ided b y Grosse ibstad t n or theast o f

Würzburg ( Kossack 1 970 ) .

H ere e ach o f t he s ix b arrow g raves mak ing u p t he

c e me tery was s i mi lar i n c onstruc tion a nd e ach i ncluded h orse t rapp ings a s g rave g oods.

Where t he s ke le tons c ou ld b e b o th a ged a nd s exed ( f our c ases)

e ach was o f a l l a du l t ma le .

The s ix g raves c ou ld we l l s pan a c en tury ( rough ly

t he s even th B .C.) a nd K ossack ( 1970 , 1 19 ) s uggests t ha t t hey may r epresen t t he s uccessive h eads o f o ne l i neage.

T he b arrow c e me tery a t Oberw iesenacker

n ear P arsberg , f ur ther t o t he e ast , i s n o t a s we l l d ocu men ted , b u t a ppears t o s how a s i mi lar e xc lusivi ty a t as i mi lar t ime ( Geupe l 1 975) .

Th is t ype o f c e me-

t ery may p rove t o b e e specia l ly c haracter istic o ft his e ar ly p hase o ft he I ron Age i n west c en tra l Europe a nd e ven f ur ther west .

B u t af ew c en tur ies l a ter ,

a t l east s o me e xclusive c e me ter ies s ti l l o ccur , f or e xa mp le a t G iengen , n or the ast o f U lm , where t o j udge b y ap re l i minary r epor t , n ine o f t h ir teen Midd le L a T ene g raves were o f sword-bear ing ma les ( Bie l 1 974) . As econd , q ui te d if feren t c e metery c oncep t i s s uggested b y t he r ecen t ly r e-excava ted b arrow a t Magda lenenberg n ear V i l l ingen ( Sp ind ler 1 975a ) .

H ere ,

ac en tra l h earse b uria l , r obbed i n a n tiqui ty b u t d a ted t o t he 5 70s B . C. b y d endrochrono logy ( Ho l lste in 1 973 ) was s urrounded b y 1 26 p oorer , b u t s ti ll we l l p rovisioned , g raves r ecognised b y t heir g rave g oods t o b e o f men , wo men a nd c hi ldren .

The most r e markab le f ea ture o ft he c e me tery ( en t ire ly c on tained

w i th in t he o ne v ast b arrow ) i s t he a rrange men t o f t he s econdary g raves a t t he p er iphery f orm ing c oncen tr ic b ands a round t he c en tra l g rave ( Sp ind ler 1 975a , f i g . 3 6) . D irec t ly c o mparab le a rrange men ts i n l arge b arrow c e me teries a re n o t y e t k nown e lsewhere i n west c en tra l Europe , a l though a s i mi lar c on trast b etween h igher s ta tus, c en tra l b ur ia ls a nd f ur ther s econdary b ur ia ls s ee ms q ui te r egu lar .

Th is c on trast i s e specia l ly c lear a t Hoh miche le n ear t he Heuneburg

( R ick a nd H und t 1 962 ;

Mansfe ld 1 973, 9 5 ; S p ind ler 1 975b) a nd a t t he "Grafen-

b üh l" ,A sperg ( Zürn 1 970 ) .

A t H irsch landen a s imi lar c oncen tric l ayou t o f

s econdary g raves, p erhaps i n t wo t iers, may b e s een o n a sma l ler s ca le i n t he b arrow t ha t p roduced t he f a mous warr ior s cu lp ture ( Zürn 1 964 , 1 970 ; Pau li 1 973 , 4 9) . At h ird c oncep tion , o r a t l east a c on trast ing v aria tion o n t h is t he me, i s s een a t t he b arrow c eme tery o f t he l a ter 6 th a nd 5 th c en tur ies B .C . a t Müh lacker n ear Va ih ingen , where t he sma l l b arrows c on ta ined ma les, f e ma les a nd 2 6

j uveni les, p ossib ly r epresen ting f am i ly g roups (V i m 1 970 ) .

The most n ote-

w or thy f ea ture o f t his c e me tery i s t he p r ide o f p lace e viden t ly a ssigned d ur ing t he c onstruct ion o f b arrows t o s en ior f e ma les ( Pau l i 1 973 ) .

The e vidence h as

n o t a ppeared e n t ire ly c learcu t , a nd a r a ther d if feren t i n terpre ta t ion was o f fered b y K i lian D ir l meier ( 1974) .

S o me o f Pau li ' s more d e ta i led i n terpre ta t ions may

b e o pen t o a rgu men t , f or e xa mp le t ha t t he b arrows r epresen t o ne f a mi ly o ver e igh t g enera t ions r a ther t han a n u mber o f more o r l ess c on te mporary f a mi lies, b u t h is b asic a sser tion o f t he i mpor tan t s ta tus a ssigned t o f e ma les a t Mt lh lacker s ee ms we l l f ounded , a s t ab le 1 , mod if ied f ro m h is p ub lica t ion , s hows .

Here

t he e vidence f ro m t h is c eme tery a lone i s i ncluded a nd a na to mica l s ex ing i s c on f ined t o t he f ew c on f iden t i den t if ica t ions.

O ft he 1 2 b arrows, n u mbers 3 a nd

7a re e xc luded b ecause o f s er ious d isturbance , b u t b arrow 6 was a lso b ad ly d isturbed a nd t he p osi t ion o ft he o ne i n tact b uria l r e la t ive t o t he b arrow c en tre c ou ld n o t r ea l ly b e a scerta ined . 2 , 5a nd 8 h ad b een r obbed .

I n a dd i tion , t he c en tra l g raves o fb arrows

N ever the less, t he r egu lar o ccurrence o f ac har-

a c ter istic g rave i nven tory w i th t he k nown c en tra l b ur ia ls s ee ms c lear .

This

c onsists o f a ma tch ing p a ir o f f i bu lae o n t he s hou lders, p aired b race lets a nd a nk le ts.

S uch g raves make u p Pau l i ' sg roup I . Their a t tr ibu tion t o s en ior

f ema les ( 'marr ied ' i n Pau li ' si n terpre ta t ion ) s ee ms we l l f ounded.

H is g roup

I I i s a ssigned t o ma les a nd h is g roup I t o c hi ldren a nd t o s o me a dul t f e ma les o u tside t his s en ior ( 'marr ied ' )s tatus.

T he s igni f icance o f c har ms w i th s o me

o ft hese g roup I b ur ia ls i s d iscussed b y Pau l i i n d e ta i l i n af ur ther monograph ( Pau l i 1 975) . A l though Müh lacker i s s t i l l i n many r espects u n ique , ' fami ly g roups ' o f f l a t g raves w i th men , wo men a nd c hi ldren were c la i med a s e ar ly a s 1 964 b y K rä mer a t t he n earby , a nd o n ly s l igh t ly l a ter , L a Tene c e me tery o f N ebr ingen ( Krä mer 1 964) . This c on trasts y e t a ga in w i th o ther Ear ly L a Tene c e me ter ies n o t f ar d istan t i n Sw i tzer land , where a f our th c e me tery c oncep t ion h as b een r ecogn ised b y S chaa f , w i th men , wo men a nd c h i ldren s egrega ted i n to d if feren t z ones o f t he c e me tery .

Th is d isposi t ion s ee ms e specia l ly c lear f or Ande lf ingen a nd

M i insingen ( Schaaf 1 966 ;

c f . a lso P au l i 1 975, 3 6 n . 1 8 ) .

I t i s c lear t ha t t he c e me tery s tudies c i ted h ere r epresen t j ust t he f irst s tage o f r esearch i n to a p o ten t ia l ly f ru i tfu l b u t c o mp lex f i e ld , a nd i t wou ld b e p re ma ture o n t his b asis t o c on te mp la te a ny g enera l i n terpre ta t ion o f t he d ev e lop men t o f "Ear ly C e l t ic S ocie ty" . H owever , s o me p re l i minary c onclusions may b e s uggested .

I ti s c lear t ha t h i ther to u nsuspected p at tern ing d oes o ccur

i nt he l ayou t o f many I ron Age c eme ter ies a nd i ti s d if f icu l t n o t t o s ee t his a s amore o r l ess d irec t r ef lec t ion o n t he s ocio-re l ig ious o rgan isa t ion o f t he c o mmun i ties c oncerned .

The g enera l a bsence o f d etai led s et t le men t e vidence t o

c o mp le men t ag iven c e me tery i s u n for tuna te, b u t t his l ack may h ard ly b e h e ld t o t o i nva lida te i n a ny way s uch c lear e vidence a s ac e me tery may p rovide .

I f

t h is i s a ccep ted , t hen t he p a t terns r evea led a lready s uggest w idely c on trast ing t ypes o f s ociety w i th in t he a rea d iscussed :

Grosse ibstad t , where h igh s tatus

ma les a re c o mp le te ly s egrega ted f ro m t he r est o f t heir c o m mun i ty, ma le a nd f e ma le ;

V i l l ingen , where a s ing le ' hero ' i s a ccorded s pecia l r i tes, b u t where

b ur ia ls o f l ower s ta tus, ma les, f e ma les a nd c h i ldren , a re p laced i n t he s a me b arrow ;

Meh lacker , where c e me tery o rganisa t ion c en tres u pon s en ior f e ma les;

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O A E . 1 9

G raves a t M t lh lacker ( af ter Z orn a nd P au l i)..

s e p

Ande lf ingen , where n o ' fa mi ly ' p r incip le may b e s een ( i n c on trast t o N ebr ingen ) , b u t where a ge a nd s ex d icta te b uria l a ssocia tes. E ven s uch p re liminary i n terpre ta t ions a s t hese make i td if f icu l t t o b e lieve t ha t a ny s tandard f or m o f s ocia l o rganisa t ion e xisted , whe ther we c a l l i tC e l t ic o r n o t , i n t h is a rea a t t his t ime . References B ie l , J . 1 974 .

E in mi t te l la tenezei t liches Brandgräberfe ld i n G iengen a n d er

B renz , K reis Heidenhe im . C lose-Brooks, J . 1 965.

Archäo log isches K orrespondenzb la t t 4 , 2 25-27 .

V e io : p roposta p er u na s uddivisione i n f asi .

No t izie

d eg li S cavi 1 9 , 5 3-62 . Dugek , M . 1 966.

Thrak isches G räberfe ld d er Ha l lstat tzei t i n C ho tf n .

Archae-

o logica S lovaca F on tes 6 , Bra tislava . G eupe l , F . 1 975 .

Ha l lsta t tzei t liche G abhüge l v on O berw iesenacker , L dkr .

P arsberg ( Oberpfa lz) .

S y mbo lae Praehistor icae ( ed . J . Preuss) , 1 61-82 .

B er l in : Acade mie-Ver lag . Haffner , A . 1 976 . D ie west l iche Hnnsrück-Eife l-Ku l tur . F orschungen 3 6. B er l in : Wa l ter d e Gruy ter . Hodson , F . R . 1 968 .

Rö m isch-German ische

T he L a T ene c e metery a t Münsingen-Ra in .

B erne :

S tämpf li ( Acta B ernensia 5 ) . Hodson , F . R . 1 977 . Q uan t ifying Ha l lsta t t : An t iqui ty 4 2 (3 ) , 3 94-412 . Ho l lste in , E . 1 973 . 3 6 , 3 7-55.

s o me i n i t ia l r esu l ts.

J ahrr ingkurven d er Ha l lsta t tze i t .

Amer ican

Tr ierer Z ei tschrif t

K i lian-D ir l meier , I . 1 974 . Z ur s pA tha l lsta t tzei t l ichen N ekropo le v on Müh lacker . G erman ia 5 2 (1) , 1 41-46 . K im m ig , W. 1 975 .

Ear ly C e lts o n t he U pper Danube : t he e xcava t ions a t t he

H euneburg . R ecen t Archaeo log ica l e xcava t ions i n Europe ( ed . R . BruceM i tford ) , 3 2-64 . L ondon : R ou t ledge a nd K egan Pau l . K ossack , G . 1 970 . S aa le .

Gräberfe lder d er Ha l lsta t tzei t a n Ma in u nd F ränk ischer

Ma ter ia lhef te z ur Bayerischen Vorgeschich te 2 4.

Krämer , W. 1 964 .

K a l lm t ln .z .

Das K e lt ische Gräberfe ld v on N ebr ingen f Kreis B öbl ingen ) .

V eröf fen t lichungen d as s taa t lichen Amtes Mr Denkma lpf lege S tu t tgar t , R e ihe A , 8 . Mansfe ld , G . 1 973 . D ie F ibe ln d er Heuneburg _ 1 950-1970 . F orschungen 3 3 . Ber l in : Wa lter d e Gruy ter .

Rö mische-German ische

Pau l i , L . 1 973 . U n tersuchungen z ur S pä tha l lsta t tku ltur i n N ordwart te mberg . H a mburger Be i trUge z ur Archäeo log ie I , 1 972 ( 1 ) . Pau li , L . 1 975 .

K e l tisher V o lksg laube .

F rühgeschich te 2 8 .

Mun ich :

Münchner B ei träge z ur Vor- u nd

C . H . B eck 's che Ver lagsbuchhand lung .

Pau li , L . 1 977 . Z ur Ha l lsta t tku ltur i m Rhe in- Ma in-Gebie t . a us Hessen 1 5 ( 1975) , 2 13-27 . 2 9

F undberich te

P o lenz, H . 1 974 . Gebie t .

Z u d en G rabfunden d er S p e t tha l lsta t tzei t i m R he in- Ma in-

B erich t d er Rö misch-German ischen K o m mission 5 4 ( 1973) , 1 07-

2 02 . R iek , G . a nd Hund t , H .-J . 1 962 .

Der Hohmiche le .

s päten Ha l lsta t tzei t b ei d er Heuneburg . 2 5 .

E in F t trstengrabh f ige l d er

Rö misch-German ische F orschungen

B er lin : Wa l ter d e Gruy ter .

S chaaf , U . 1 966 .

Z ur B e legung l a tenzei t l icher F r iedhofe d er S chweiz.

J ahr-

Buch d es R ö misch-Ger manischen Z en tra l museu ms Ma inz 1 3 , 4 9-59 . S p ind ler , K . 1 975a . G rabfunde d er Ha l lsta t tzei t v o m Magda lenenberg b ei V i l l ingen i n S chwarzwa ld . Ausgrabungen i n Deu tsch land 1 950-1975. Monograph ien d es Rö m isch-German ischen Z en tra l museu ms Ma in

1 ( 1) ,

2 21-42 . S p ind ler , K . 1 975b . Z um B eg inn d er Ha l lsta t tzei t l ichen Besied lung a uf d er Heuneburg . Archäo logi sches K orrespondenzb lat t 5 , 4 1-45 . Z um, H . 1 964 .

An a n thropo morphic Ha llsta t t s te le f ro m Ger many .

An t iqui ty

4 8 , 2 24-26. Z i trn , H . 1 970 .

Ha l lsta t tforschungen i n N ordw t trt te mberg .

Veröf fen t l ichungen

d es s ta t t lichen Amtes Mr Denkma lpf lege S tut tgar t , Reihe A , 1 6.

3 0

WHO 'S WHO I N THE NORTHERN BR IT ISH BRONZE AGE S . J . P ierpo in t

ABSTRACT T heory :

U sing t heor ies d rawn f ro m t he f i e ld o f s oc ia l p sycho logy ,

p ar t icu lar ly f ro m c on for mi ty a nd o rgan isa t iona l mode ls, i ti s p oss ib le t o p rovide a r igorous a nd p redict ive f ra mework .

These t heor ies

s uggest t he l i ke lihood o f c er ta in b ehavioura l r esponses t o t he p rob lems o fg roup ma in tenance a nd o rgan isa tion . i nclude :

The g roup f ea tures e xpected

s y mbo lis m , c on for m i ty , t ask-or ien ta t ion a nd s tress-caused

f or ma t ion .

The mechan ics o f ma in tenance c an b e d ivided i n to t wo

g roups: I n tra-group mechan ics ( t he c oncep t o f ' us ') a nd i n ter-group mechan is ms ( t he c oncep t o f ' the m ') .

B y i den ti f ica t ion o ft hese f ea-

t ures a nd mechan is ms i ts hou ld b e p ossib le t o i den t ify g roups f ro m a rchaeo log ica l d ata .

One o ther a spect o f g roup o rgan isa tion o f g rea t

i mpor tance i s t he i dea o f w i th in g roup s tatus.

I n t he c ase o f b uria ls

i ti s p roposed t ha t t his c an b e r ecogn ised b y r esource a l location , e nergy e xpend i ture a nd

s tatus c on fo r m i ty '.

Me thod : The c onsidera t ion h ere i s o f Bronze-Age p ot tery p ar t icu lar ly t he F ood Vesse ls, t o p rovide a n e xa mp le . i ) Cod ing o f v esse l ' qua l i ty ' f or mu l tivar ia te a na lysis t o e xa mine s ta tus. i )

Coding o fv esse l

s ty le

f or mu l tivar ia te a na lysis t o r ecogn ise

g roup d i f feren t ia t ion . i i )

Co mpar ison w i th a l arge s e t o f b ur ia l d ata , i nclud ing a ssocia ted g rave g oods, me thod o f d isposi t ion a nd s ex a nd a ge g rad ing o f t he b uria l p opu la tion .

The a na lysis was c o mpu ter -based u sing a v ar iety o f t echn iques. Resu l ts :

I n p rac t ice t he measure men t o f s tatus was e asier t han t ha t

o f g roups.

I t was p ossib le t o r ecogn ise

a ch ieved s ta tus ' ma le

d om ina ted s ocie ty w i th n o g rea t s ocia l d if feren t ia t ion a ssocia ted w i th b o th B eakers a nd F ood Vesse ls i n Yorksh ire .

A s f ar a s g roups a re

c oncerned , i ts ee med l i ke ly t ha t g roup i den t i ty was n o t v ery s trong , p ossib ly i nd ica t ing a ' stresslack ing e nviron men t '

N ever the less i t

was p ossib le t o s uggest t ha t ma jor s ty listic d ivisions d o e xist a nd i n l imi ted a reas i t was p ossib le t o s uggest t ha t g roup f or ma t ion a nd a ct ivi ty was t ak ing p lace . I n t he p ast a rchaeo logists h ave s hown c onsiderab le i n terest a nd a cu men i n o rganising t heir d a ta i n to ' b locks ', which a re of ten t ermed

c u l tures ' o r

t ypes, b u t wh ich s ee m t o h ave a n u ncer tain s ign if icance e xcep t p ossibly t o t he s ing le a rchaeologist c oncerned . o f d a ta migh t h ave

I th as b een s uggested t ha t s uch a rrange men ts

a rchaeo log ica l si gni f icance '. 3 1

This p aper s uggests t ha t

s uch c onsidera t ions a re n o t a s i mpor tan t a s r ecogn ising e n t i t ies w h ich f unc t ioned i nt he p ast . O ne o ft he a dvan tages t he p resen t-day a rchaeo log ist e n joys i st he u se o f we l l d eve loped t echn iques o f s pa t ia l a na lysi s ( Clark 1 977 ; D avis a nd McCu l lagh 1 975 e .g .) . I ti sp erhaps i nt he s tudy o f s pa t ia l p a t terns t ha t t he b est o ppor tun i t ies f or e xam in ing s uch f unc t ion ing e n t i t ies e x ists . T his p aper w i l l e xam ine t he p ossibi l i t ies f or s tudy o f h u man g roup o rgani sa t ions i nt he B ronze A ge o f N or thern B r i ta in .

A s t he h u man g roups t hem-

s e lves n o l onger e x ist , t he a rchaeo logist must l ook a t t he r esidues o f a ct iv i ty , w i th t he h ope o f r ecogn ising f ea tures wh ich a re c o mmon t o h u man g roups. T he f i rst p ar t o ft h is p aper p resen ts s uch a t heory ; t he s econd p ar t e xam ines w ays i n w hich s uch f ea tures may b e r ecogni sed i nt he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord ; t he f i na l s ec t ion l ook s a tt he d a ta t he mse lves. 1 .

a nd

T heory My a pproach h ere i s ap ragma t ic o ne ; many o ft he i deas a re b orrowed

f ro m t he r ea l ms o f s ocia l p sycho logy , r a ther t han s ay s ocia l o r c u l tura l a n throp o logy . T hi s may a ppear t o b e ' ru mmag ing i nt he waste b ins ' o fo ther d isc ip l ines, b u t t he i n ten t ion i st o b ui ld a mode l t ha t i su sefu l a nd i ti sn o t o ft he g rea test i mpor tance h ere , f ro m w here t he b ui ld ing b locks f or t ha t mode l a re d rawn ( desp i te B in ford ' swarn ings t ha t w e c anno t b e p a laeopsycho log ists) . A l arge p ar t o f s ocia l p sycho logy i s c oncerned w i th t he s tudy o f h u man g roup o rgan isa t ions wh ich wou ld s eem t o h ave f eatures i n c o m mon . Iw i l l b eg in b y a sser t ing t ha t man i s as ocia l a n ima l a nd t ends t o i n terr e la te w i th o thers o f h is s pecies ; t hese i n ter-re la t ing o rganisa t ions may b e t ermed g roups . T hese g roups t end t o g ive t he i nd ividua l a n i den t i ty , b u t a n i nd ividua l may b e a member o f many g roups a t t he s a me t ime a nd i ti st he f unc t ion ing o r r eference g roup t ha t i s i mpor tan t . Iw i l l t ouch u pon an u mber o f r e la ted f ea tures o fg roups i nt he r est o ft h is s ec t ion .

Iw i l l a t temp t t o i l lus-

t ra te t hese ' concep ts ' b y an umber o f e xamp les f rom d i f feren t f i e lds, i n t he h ope t ha t Ic an c lar i fy t he u se o ft hese t erms, more f a mi l iar t o t he s ocia l p sycho log ist t han t o t he a rchaeo log ist . p ar ts f or t he p urposes o f d iscussion .

T he s ect ion w i l l b e d ivided i n to e igh t

i . C onform i ty B ehaviour : A t v ar ious t imes, i nd ividua ls w i l l c on form t o t he r u les a nd s tandards o ft he ir r eference g roup . B u t wha t d o we k now a bou t c on form i ty? D o p eop le r ea l ly c on form t o g roup c onsensus? T he w ork o f many s ocia l p sycho log ists wou ld s eem t o c on f irm t ha t 2 0 th c en tury man c er ta in ly d oes c onform . T he c lassic a nd w e l l k nown e xper imen ts b y A she ( 1 952 ) a nd C ru tch f ie ld ( 1 955) a re amp le t est imony t o t h i s.

T he b asic i dea b eh ind b o th

t hese g roups o f e xper imen ts was t o g e t p eop le t o a gree t o a f a lse ' c onsensus. T hus i n t he A she e xper imen ts s ub jec ts w ou ld a gree t ha t o ne o ft he s horter l i nes o n ac ard w i th 3 l i nes o fd i f fer ing l eng ths was t he l ongest , a nd i n t he C ru tchf ie ld e xper imen ts, t hey wou ld a gree t o s ta temen ts .

o u trageous ' s ocia l a nd p o li t ica l

T he s ign i f icance o ft hese e xper imen ts t o a nyone i n terested i nt he s tudy o f g roups may b e r ead i ly a pparen t . I ft he e xper imen tor i n t he l abora tory c an a ch ieve 3 0-70% l eve ls o fc onformi ty i n a3 0 minu te e xper imen t , h ow much more w i l l p eop le c onform f o l low ing y ears o f s oc ia l p ressure w i th r ecogn i sed p un ish3 2

men t s ystems f or f a i lure .

Iw i l l n o t l abour t he p o in t ( as er ies o f a u thors d is-

c uss t he p rob le m t horough ly : J ahoda 1 975 ; Mehrab ian a nd K sionsky 1 970 ;

L ambert a nd L a mber t 1 973 ;

Moscov ici a nd Z ava l lon i 1 969 ; C o l le t t 1 970 ) .

C on f orm i ty i s n o t as urpr ising f ea ture o f h u man b ehaviour , b u t i ti s s o me th ing we c an u se p red ict ive ly a s s hown b e low . i . S tress a nd i t s e f fec ts: T here i s n o u n iversa l d ef in i t ion o f s tress t ha t i sw ide ly a ccep ted b y w orkers i nt he f i e ld ( Mona t a nd L azarus 1 977 d iscuss t he p rob lem ) ; f or t he i nd ividua l i t may r epresen t p ressure a nd a dversi ty , b u t i t may b e v iewed a s h is/her r esponses t o t he s ame . B u t o ne man ' ss tress i s a no ther ' sc ha l lenge . T he measuremen t o f s tress may b e d if f icu l t , b u t i t s p resence i s of ten q u i te o bv ious. T he r a ther d ead ly e xper imen ts o ft he e xecu t ive monkey ' d escr ibed i n Harvey a nd Smi th ( 1 977 ) i s ag ood , i fh ideous e xa mp le . O ne o ft he p a t terns t ha t d oes s eem c lear i st ha t i nd iv idua ls s uf fer more u nder s tress ; g roups s eem t o b e a b le t o b uf fer t hemse lves a ga inst p ressure . This i sw e l l k nown f ro m t he wor ld o fs ieges a nd h ostagetak ing . I n 1 973 , f o l low ing a n u nsuccessfu l r a id o n aS tockho lm b ank , t he h ostages a nd r a iders w ere c onf i ned i n av au l t f or s evera l d ays, i n ad e ter iora t ing e nvironmen t , u nder p o l ice p ressure f rom o u tside .

T he h ostages a nd r a iders f ormed a u n i ted g roup ,

p erhaps most c lear ly i nd ica ted b y t he f avourab le t est imon ies g iven a t t he e vent ua l t r ia l a nd t he f ac t t ha t s ome o ft he h ostages w ere t he most f requen t v i si tors t o t he j a i led r a iders. G roups a lso r espond t o t he e x istence a nd c ompe t i t ion o f o ther g roups, a s i s d emonstra ted b y S heri f ' se xper imen t u sing wh i te p ro testan t Amer ican b oys a t S ummer C amp . B y a rrang ing c ompe t i t ive g ames e tc. h e was a b le t o i nduce t wo ' op p osed ' g roups t o f orm w i th in a c o m mun i ty o fb oys, a nd f i na l ly b y c rea t ing t he n eed f or c oopera t ive e f for ts i nv ar ious t asks, h e was a b le t o u n i te t hem ( S heri f 1 953 ) . S tress i s l i ke ly t o i nduce c on form i ty b ehaviour i n t he g roup , e ven f ro m i nd iv idua ls w ho a re g enera l ly n on-conform ists. H owever , i ti s a lso l i ke ly t o c rea te a n t i-con form i ty b ehaviour i n ' op p osed ' g roups . O ne c an d i f feren t ia te b e tween n on-con formi ty , wh ich i s n o t o bey ing t he g roup n orms, a nd a n t ic onform i ty wh ich i s d o ing t he o pposi te o ft he r eference g roup . T he e xistence o fg roup c eremon ies a nd c en tres, when a nd where p eop le g a ther t oge ther , may p u t p ressure o n t he i nd ividua l t o c onfor m e .g . t he C hr is t ian who a t tends c hurch a t E aster a nd C hr istmas o n ly . A t s uch t imes i ti sn ecessary f or t he i ndiv idua l t o s how h e i s o ne o ft he b oys ', wear h is S unday b es t ' e tc. ( see e spec ia l ly T iger 1 970 ) . ' Stress ' i s c lear ly a ma jor i fv ery c o mp lex f ac tor i n h uman b ehaviour . Ih ope t his s hor t s ect ion h as t hrown s ome l i gh t o n t he mat ter . i i . Task O r ien ta t ion : I ti s i mpor tan t f or t he g roup t o h ave at ask ; w i thou t o ne i t may b e weakened . I t may b e a rgued , a nd i sb y s o me , t ha t t he r eason f or t he p resen t c r isis i nt he L abour P ar ty o f ' where t o g o f rom h ere?' i s d ue t o s uch ad i le m ma . I ti s s ugges ted t ha t , t he b asic a ims o ft he g roup were a chieved b y t he 1 945 L abour G overnmen t .

T hus s o me members wou ld n ow l i ke t o ma in-

t a in t he s ta tus q uo ( t he a im i nt heory o ft he o pposi t ion ) , w hereas, o thers w ou ld l i ke t o g o f ur ther . Tasks c an t ake v ar ied f orms a nd members o f o ne g roup may

3 3

b e e ngaged o n v arious t asks a t t he s a me t ime ; t hus t he q uestion o f t ask o r ient a tion s hou ld n o t b e o vere mphasised ( af u l l d iscussion i s g iven i n K e l ly ( 1 974) ) . i v .

S y mbo lis m .

T he q uestion o f s y mbo lis m i sv ery l arge a nd c o mp lex

a nd c anno t b e a dequa te ly d iscussed h ere .

Most g roups u se s y mbo ls t o i nd ica te

p osi tion w i th in a nd me mbership o ft ha t g roup ( Tiger ( 1970 ) r eviews t he s i tua t ion q ui te we l l a nd g ives l o ts o f i n terest ing e xamp les) . One o f t he k ey f ea tures i s t ha t t he s y mbo l must b e r ecognisab le a nd t his i s n o t s o me th ing t ha t t he a rchaeo log ist c an r eadi ly c onsider ( Cherry 1 978 p ages 1 -8 , g ives s o me d iscussion ) . v .

I n ter-group a nd i n tra-group mechanis ms:

Ib e lieve t ha t ar ough d icho-

t o my c an b e made b e tween t hose f ea tures o f t he g roup t ha t work i n terna l ly a nd t hose t ha t work i n c onnect ion w i th o ther g roups. Ic a l l t hese t wo t ypes o f mechanis ms t he i n ter-group a nd t he i n tra-group a nd t hey a re l i nked t o o ur c oncep ts o f ' us ' a nd ' them '.

S y mbolis m may b e o ne o f t hese t ypes o f f ea tures,

b u t i tc an p ossess b o th a spects.

I n ter-group mechan is ms c an v ary f ro m w ar

a nd r aids t o t rade, i n ter- marr iage e tc.

I n tra-group mechan is ms migh t v ary

f ro m c ere mon ies a t g roup mee ting p laces t o l aws, r i tes o f p assage a nd k inship s yste ms.

I n tra-group mechanis ms may b e p ar ticu lar ly i mpor tan t where r egu lar

c on tact w i th o ther me mbers o ft he g roup i sd i f f icu l t a nd/or r are a s w i th t he c ase o ft he Austra lian A bor ig ines k inship s yste m . I t may b e v ery i mpor tan t t o d ist inguish b e tween t hese t wo d i f feren t , b u t c o mp le men t ing mechan i s ms when c onsider ing t he a rchaeo logica l r ecord .

v i .

r ransm i ssion a nd C o m mun ica t ion : O ne o f t he most i n terest ing a nd

p o ten tia l ly o ne o f t he most i n for ma tive a spects o f g roup s tructure i st he f l ow o f i n for ma tion , a nd n ecessari ly a lso i t s c on tro l . Al arge b ody o f ma thema t ic a l ly b ased t heory n ow e x ists — many o f t he more i mpor tan t r eferences a re i n C herry ( 1978 ) . I n a l l b u t t he s imp lest s ociet ies ( e .g . s i mp le ' face t o f ace ' g roups) t he f l ow o f i n forma tion , i n o ther t han p ure ly v erba l o rb ody l anguage t erms, i s l i ke ly t o b e c rucia l . The most i mportan t t h ing a bou t i n forma tion f l ow i sn ot t he t ransmission , b u t t he r ecep t ion b y t he i n tended r eceiver— the c ogn i t ive a spec t . A r ange o f d i f feren t t ypes o f i n for ma tion i s l i ke ly t o f l ow w i thin t he g roup a nd a d i f feren t s e t o u t f ro m i t . a nd s ta tus;

Th is may c oncern : g roup i den ti t ies; s ocia l c lass

p ossession e tc. ( and a mi l lion a nd o ne o ther t hings ; c f . Argy le

a nd S a l ter 1 970 ) .

A s s oon a s man s tar ts t o u se l anguage , make a r tefacts,

b ui ld f i e ld monu men ts e tc . h e i s t rans mi t ting i nforma tion t o o ther p eop le ; we a s a rchaeo logists may b e a b le t o r eceive t he message —bu t d o w e k now t he l anguage? Most o ft he p rob le ms h ere a re c onsidered i n B indra ( 1 977 ) , s o I w i l l n o t g o t oo d eep ly i n to t he s ub ject h ere . Wi th in o ur ' cu l ture ' ( which w e may d ef ine a s ag roup w i th in which t here i s ac o m mon u nderstanding ) we l earn r ap id ly wha t t h ings mean b y e xper ience . H owever , t here a re n o e asy r u les a s t o r ecogn i t ion .

Thus f or t he p eop le o n

t he g round i t may b e v i ta l t o s po t t he d i f ference b e tween t he H e inke l a nd t he S p i tf ire . The e xper t may b e a ble t o t e l l t he d i f ference b y t he f araway n oise o f t he a pproach ing a ircraf t : many may b e a b le t o r ecogn ise t he v isua l c lues o f s hape ;

f or o thers i t may n o t b e u n ti l t he b o mb d rops t ha t t he i n forma tion i s

t rans mi t ted ( t he ' i s-i t-one-of-ours-or-i s-i t-one-oftheirs ' c oncep t ) .

3 4

T hus

t he i n for ma tion t he i ndividua l r eceives d epends o n t he i n forma tion h e , a lready h as.

T he G eographers a nd P sycho logists c an g e t a round t hese p roble ms b y

a sk ing l i v ing p eop le , a nd s o t here a re t he i mportan t f i e lds o f men ta l mapp ing o r c ogn i t ive r epresen ta tion ( Gou ld a nd Whi te 1 974;

Downs a nd S tea 1 973 ).

A l though we c anno t s ee i nside p rehistor ic men ' s minds a s a rchaeo logists, I b e l ieve t here a re t hings we c an d o .

We c an mon i tor t he ' trans m ission p oten-

t ia l ' o ft he s t i mu l i a nd t he ' range ', t oge ther w i th t he i n for ma tion l oss r a te. F or e xamp le , as tudy o f r ad io- masts i n B r i tain wou ld q u ick ly p roduce a p a t tern o f l oca t ion o f t he most s ui tab le p oin ts f or t he t rans mission o f r adio s igna ls. There a re many o ther a reas wh ich may b e i n terest ing i n t his way : t he l oca tion o f h i l ltop ' defensive ' s e t t le men ts; t he c hange i n c o lour o f Bri t ish a rmy b at t le d ress i nt he 1 9 th c en tury ;

2 0 th c en tury mu lti- med ia a dver tising ;

e tc.

I n c onclusion i t must b e s a id t ha t many a reas o f i n forma tion moni toring a re c omp le te ly b eyond t he a rchaeo logist .

N ever the less t here a re a reas i n

which t he s tudy i s l i ke ly t o b e p rof i tab le . v i i . S ta tus a nd t he g roup : Wi th in-group s ta tus i s a no ther i mpor tan t f eat ure . H owever , i ti s t he o p in ion o ft he p resen t wr i ter , t ha t r a ther t oo much a t ten t ion h as b een p aid t o t hi s t op ic .

I ti s d i f f icu l t t o b e c er ta in h ow much

d e tai l a rchaeo logists c an o bserve , b u t b ur ia ls s ee m t he most p rof i tab le a rea o f s tudy .

Most work ( e .g . B inford 1 968 ;

C hapman 1 977;

a nd Ta in ter 1 977 )

h as f ocused o n an u mber o f f ea tures o ft he b ur ia l r i te : a .

T he l abour i nvested i n t he b ur ia l b y t he g roup i nvo lved , a nd p ar ticu lar ly t he s ize o f t he s ocia l g roup p resen t a t t he f unera l . The b asic p rincip le a dvoca ted i s t ha t t he more p eop le p resen t a t t he f unera l a nd t he g rea ter t he l abour i nvo lved , t he more i mpor tan t t he i nd ividua l i s l i ke ly t o h ave b een .

b .

C are t aken o ft he b ur ia l a t t he f unera l i s l i ke ly t o b e d irect ly p ropor t iona l t o t he i mpor tance o ft he i nd ividua l .

c .

T he r ichness o f t he g rave g oods ( c f . T a in ter 1 977 ) . If ee l t ha t b y t he u se o f ar ange o f t hese a nd s im i lar f ea tures o f a mu l t i-

v ar ia te a na lysis, ' profi les ' o f i mpor tance ' c an b e b ui l t u p , b u t t h is i s a lways g oing t o b e d iff icu l t w i thou t k now ledge o ft he r eference g roup . S ta tus i s a c ogn i t ive t h ing ; i td epends o n who r ecogn ises i t . One o f t he main p roble ms f or t he a rchaeo logist may b e i n e stab lishing a u sefu l s amp le o fb ur ia l d a ta . v i i i . A mode l : These f a ir ly l oose c oncep ts c an b e i n tegra ted i n to a p red ict ive mode l o f g roup i den ti ty . Thus we c an e xpect e vidence o f c on formi ty i n t he g roup a nd a n ti-confor m i ty h e igh tened b y s tress a t p laces o f i n ter-group mee t ing ( e .g . t err i tor ia l b orders) o r i n tra-group mee t ing ( cen tra l p laces, c eremon ies e tc.) .

We c an a lso e xpect s y mbo ls o f t he g roup i den ti ty t o b e most

p ro m inen t a t s uch p laces a nd t imes. We c an a lso e xpect d e l ibera te a t temp ts t o h e igh ten s tress b y t he u se o f p owerfu l i n forma t ion t rans mi t ters; t hese may a lso r e la te t o g roup ' cen tres '.

I f ag roup i s o r ien ta ted t owards a t ask ( a s

K el ly 1 974) whe ther i ti s b u i ld ing a f i e ld monu men t o r c arrying o u t t he n or ma l e conom ic r ound , t he g roup w i l l b e s treng thened b y i t s own i n terna l ly c rea ted s tress. T he r ecogn i tion o fs ta tus w i th in t he g roup may b e u sefu l . The h igh 3 5

s ta tus i ndividua ls s hou ld r e la te t o g roup c en tres a t d ea th a s we l l a s i n l i fe . These i ndividua ls s hou ld a lso b e i mpor tan t i n g roup o rgan isa tion a s we l l a s i n d irect ing t he g roup t owards a t ask . 2 .

Me thodo logy The f i rst s teps i n a na lysis were t o a ssemb le a l arge b ody o f a r tefactua l

d a ta , many f ro m f unerary c on tex ts i n Yorkshire a nd t he n or th o f E ng land . Work c oncen tra ted ma in ly o n Bronze A ge F ood Vesse ls, Beakers, P lanoc onvex k n ives a nd p ara l le l p erfora ted i mp le men ts ( t he t radi tiona l ly t er med b a t t le-axes a nd a xe-ha mmers) . Two o ft he ma jor a spects f or c onsidera t ion were : i )

S ty listic v ar iabi l i ty .

I t was i mpor tan t t o e stab l ish whe ther t here were

c lear s pa t ia l p a t terns o f a r tefact s ty le t ha t migh t i ndica te c on formi ty . Th is e n ta iled t he c lassif ica t ion o f d ecora t ive a nd f orma t ive f ea tures o f p o t tery t ypes i n p ar t icu lar .

Ac lear s ty listic b reakdown , w ou ld a lso a l low

t he c onsidera t ion o f a n e x tra d i mension ' when c onsider ing p o t c hoice f or d eposi t ion w i th b ur ia ls. i )

Q ua li ta t ive v ar iab i l i ty .

T here h as b een a t endency i n a rchaeo logy t o i gnore

t he q ua li ty ' o f i t e ms, b u t o n s uperf icia l e xam ina t ion a lone i tc an o f ten a ppear t o b e a n i mpor tan t f ea ture o f v ar iabi li ty . I n a ny c onsidera tion o f s ta tus o f i nd ividua ls i n as ocie ty , t he s i mp le a xio m t ha t t he most i mport an t i nd ividua ls w i l l o b tain t he i t e ms o f h ighest q ua li ty , c an s tand w i thou t f ur ther q ua li f ica t ion ( a l though n o t w i thou t c on troversy) . Ana lyses were c arr ied o u t f or t he f our t ypes o f a r tefacts men tioned a bove . Ia t te mp ted t o ' score ' e ach i t em w i th r espect t o t he r est o f t he s er ies s o t ha t t he o b jects t ha t e xh ibi ted t he most s k i l l , l abour i nvestmen t a nd c are o bta ined t he h ighest v a lues.

One o ft he a dvan tages o fb ur ia l d a ta i s t ha t i ta l lows a

c heck o n a r tefactua l c onsidera t ions a nd v ice v ersa .

Iwas a ble t o c o l la te a

g roup o f o ver 2 000 b ur ia ls f ro m Yorksh ire a lone , most ly f ro m 1 9 th c en tury e xcava t ions, b u t w i th t he u sefu l c heck o f more r ecen t d a ta . F or t he p urpose o ft he p resen t a na lysis, i ti s a lso n ecessary t o c onsider Bronze Age f i e ld monu men ts a s t rans mi t ters o f i nforma tion .

T hi s w i l l b e d is-

c ussed b e low . 3 .

Resu l ts A .

S ta tus

There was c lear e v idence o fd i f feren t ia l i mpor tance o f b ur ia ls f ro m t he Yorksh ire d a ta . S evera l f ea tures o ft he s ta tus o rganisa tion r ema ined c onstan t t hroughou t t he L a te N eo l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Age p er iod : i ) Adul t ma les, p ar t icu lar ly ma ture o nes, a ccu mu la ted t he v ast ma jor i ty o f t he ' va luab le ' i t e ms a nd g enera l ly h ad t he h ighest s ta tuses. i ) I n a l l p er iods t here a re f ar f ewer b ur ia ls t han c ou ld r epresen t a ny ' viable ' p opu la tion . i i ) There was a g ood r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he d if feren t f ea tures o f t he b ur ia ls i nc lud ing :

r ich g rave g oods, c are a nd l abour i nvest men t . 3 6

i v )

T here was n o e vidence o f r ich c hi ldren o r j uven i les d esp i te s o me i ncrease i n r ichness ' t owards t he e nd o ft he p er iod .

v )

A l though a du l t ma les d omina ted t he r anges o f a l most a l l t he a r tefact t ypes, i t was o n ly i n t he c ase o f t he r ea l ly ' va luab le ' i t ems t ha t d om ina tion was c o mp le te .

The a r tefacts T here was a v ery g ood d egree o f c orre la t ion o f a l l t he a r tefact q ua li ty v ar iab les. Thus, f or e xamp le , t he p o ts t ha t h ad t he b est d ecora t ion a lso h ad t he b est f abric. B y u t i l ising t he p o t tery a lone , Id iscovered Ic ou ld a chieve al arge measure o f d iscrimina t ion b e tween t he s ex/age a nd s ta tus p osi t ions o f b ur ia ls . i ) F ood Vesse ls: F ood V esse ls a re o ne o f t he most c o m mon B ronze Age p o t tery t ypes p laced w i th b ur ia ls ( t ogether w i th B eakers a nd c o l lared u rns) . The f i nest F ood Vesse ls w ere p laced e xclusive ly w i th a du l t ma les ( f ig . 1 D ) a nd t he v ery f i nest w i th t he r ichest o f t h is g roup . This g roup a lso o b tained t he s ty list ica lly e xo t ic ' p ot tery . Ag ood measure ( 80% ) d iscr im ina tion was p ossib le f or F ood V esse ls a ga inst a f our-par t s ex a nd a ge g rade s yste m ( chi ldj uven i le-adu l t f e ma le-adu l t ma le ) .

U sing a f actor a na lysis ( f ig . 1 ) a' score

p lo t ' c an b e p roduced o ft he p r incipa l f actors.

The t wo ma in f actors d escr ibe

q ua li ty ' a nd r e la te we l l , p roducing a f air ly l i near t rend f or t he ' score p lo t ' w i th t he f i nest v esse ls a t t he ' top ' o ft he s ca le a nd t he p oorest a t t he l ower e nd . A t t he t op ' o ft he s ca le a re t he v esse ls w i th ; l ugs ( par ticu lar ly p erforat ed o nes) ; h eavy b urnish a nd we l l f i n ished f abr ic ; r egu lar i ty o f f or m ; a ngu lar p rof i les ( i n Yorksh ire e specia l ly ) ; a nd e xo t ic a nd h eavy d ecora t ion ( f ig . I A a nd 1 C ) . T here i s s o me v ariabi l i ty f ro m a rea t o a rea , f or e xa mp le , i n Argy l l t here i s ag enera l l ack o f a ngu lar p rof i les a nd l ugs, b u t t he d ecora t ion i n t his a rea f or F ood Vesse ls i s r e markab ly p rofuse a nd t he b urnish h eavy . I n f i g . 1 B t he f ac tor p lo t i s c o mpared w i th a Wards Me thod C luster Ana lysis ( no r e-a l loca tion ) . i ) B eakers: The p a t tern f or B eakers was e ven c learer t han t ha t f or F ood Vesse ls.

The l eve l o f d iscr im ina tion f or t he 4 p ar t g rad ing s yste m was a l most

1 00% u sing a sma l l n u mber o fv ar iab les. a t b ur ia l w i th a du l t ma les, a nd t he v esse ls s t i l l .

A l l t he f i nest v esse ls h ad b een p laced

r icher ' i nd ividua ls h ad s ign i f ican t ly b et ter

Two f ea tures o ft he B eaker a re p ar ticu lar ly u sefu l f or a q ua l i ty '

e va lua t ion : t he q ua li ty o ft he f abr ic ( based o n 6v ar iab les) a nd t he h e igh t o f t he p o t . H owever , t hese t a l ler v esse ls a re a lso n orma l ly more e xo tica l ly d ecora ted , more r egu lar i n s hape e tc. F or ' ba t t le-axes ' a nd p iano-convex k n ives If ound s i mi lar p at terns, b u t f or b o th i t was a lso p ossib le t o d e monstra te s e lect ion p rocedures f or g rave d eposi t ion .

These a re j ust i n tended t o b e e xamp les o ft he t ype o f a pproach

p oss ib le h ere . One c ou ld e xamine a who le r ange o f a r tefacts i n s i mi lar manner . I n c onclusion t o t h is s ect ion o n s ta tus, i ti s p ossible t o s ay t ha t i n t he Bronze Age o f N or thern B r i ta in , t here were i nd ividua ls i n t he s ocie ty who were s een t o b e more i mpor tan t a t b ur ia l a nd who were o f h igher s ta tus —bu t wha t were t heir s ocia l g roups?

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G roup I den t i ty

O ne o f t he p rob le ms w i th t hese e ar ly s ociet ies, i s t ha t p opu la t ion a nd s tress ' may b e l ow a nd t herefore s pa t ia l e n t i t ies may b e d iff icu l t t o r ecogn ise .

Iw i l l t herefore b e l ook ing a t a n a rea where p opu la t ion may h ave b een

h igh— the Yorksh ire wo lds a nd E astern Yorkshire . i . I n tra-group mechani s ms —group c en tres: h ave i nt he p ast , t ha t af ew b ig

I ti s e asy t o c la im, a s s o me

r i tua l ' s i tes means a c en tra l p lace .

I n t hese

t erms, o ne c ou ld c er tain ly c laim R udston a nd Thornborough a s s uch s i tes. h ow i mpor tan t w ere t hese p laces i n t he N eo li thic/Bronze Age p er iod?

B u t

A ccord-

i ng t o t he t heory , t hese p laces s hou ld c ause ' stress ' f or t he i nd ividua l a nd h e w i l l b e more l i ke ly t o c onform t o t he g roup n or ms h ere , wear h is b est ' a nd p roc la im h is g roup i den t i ty . l ook a t a r tefact q ua l i ty h ere .

S unday-

F or t he p urpose o f t his a na lysis Iw i l l

U sing my f abr ic

s core ' v a lues, t he f i nest

B eakers a nd F ood V esse ls c oncen tra te i n t wo a reas, G ar ton S lack/Rudston a nd G arrowby Wo ld . There may a lso b e a c en tre ' a t Thornborough , b u t t here a re t oo f ew i t e ms t o b e c er ta in . Rudston p ar t icu lar ly , i s a lso t he c en tre f or t he h ighest q ua li ty N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age f l in t i t e ms. I n c o mpar ison K i lmar t in p ossesses t he l argest c oncen tra t ion o f h igh s coring p o ts i n western S co t land a nd , a s i s we l l k nown , i sa lso t he s i te o f a massive c oncen tra t ion o f 'r i tua l ' s i tes i nc lud ing t he L inear C eme tery ' S o i n Yorkshire a nd S cot land t here i s s een t o b e ag ood c orre la t ion b e tween monu men ta l c en tres a nd c en tres o f a r tefactua l q ua li ty . This i s p red icted b y t he mode l i .e . t hese a re t he p laces o f g rea t i n tra-group s tress. i .

S ty le —con for mi ty b ehaviour :

I fg roup f orma tion i s s trong , a r tefactua l

s ty le s hou ld s how d ist inct b locks, i fi ti s weak i ts hou ld f o l low g eographica l l imi ta t ions ( c f . t he p r incip les o f ' socia l p rox imi ty ' o u t lined i n Harvey a nd Smi th ( 1 977 ) ) . My s ty list ic map o f N or thern B r i ta in ( Fig . 2 ) , u sing a c on tour f orm , i s av ery g ood ma tch t o t ha t o f r e lief ( t he c loser t oge ther t he c on tours o n t he s ty le map , t he more r ap id t he c hange i n s ty le ) .

Thi s i n i t ia l map i s

b ased o n t he u se o f al arge t err i tor ia l g r id , b y t he u se o f a sma l ler g r id f ur ther d e ta i ls b eco me c lear ( Fig . 3 ) . T hree a reas s tand o u t a s s ty listica l ly d i f feren t : t he D erbysh ire P eak ; t he Eastern Wo lds ( Gar ton S lack/Rudston ) ; a nd t he Western Wolds ( i nc lud ing Garrowby ) a nd Tabu lar H i l ls. Thi s wou ld ma tch q ui te we l l w i th t he v esse l q ua l i ty c en tres a nd i ndica te c onformi ty t o g roup n orms. i i .

S tress a nd c ogn i t ion :

I ti s d i f f icu l t t o d e monstra te t ha t g roups e xist

w i thou t s o me e vidence o f c ogn i tion , o r mu tua l a wareness.

On t he wo lds i t was

n o tab le t ha t v ir tua l ly a l l t he ma les b ur ied w i th F ood Vesse ls i n t he western p ar t o ft he r eg ion were l a id o n t heir l ef t s ide a t b ur ia l a nd t he ma les i n t he e astern a rea were l a id o n t heir r igh t s ide .

The f ema les d emonstra ted a r e-

v erse t o t h is p a t tern , b u t t here w ere a f ew e xcep tions ( wh ich o ne migh t e xpect i fl ess c are was t aken a t b uria l o ver t hese l ess i mpor tan t me mbers o f s ocie ty ) . O ther m inor d e tai ls o f t he b ur ia l r i te t ended t o f o l low t his c lear p a t tern . Thus t here i s n o t o n ly mu tua l awareness o f d i f ferences, b u t s ty listic ( group i den t i ty?) p a t terns wh ich s pa t ia l ly ma tch ( see F igure 3 ) . d icted b y t he mode l .

4 1

A ma tching o f t his s or t i s p re-

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2 r i tua l(?) 3 d isp lay 4 b ur ia l

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-

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SMALL F INE

3

2

GROUPS TUNING

Con tours a s s im i lar ity c oeff ic ients o f

1 0

F ood Vesse l g roups

5 0

F ig . 3

km

S ty listic map o f F ood Vesse ls i n Yorkshire, Derbyshire a nd t he Nor th o f Eng land .

4 2

i v . S y mbo li sm a nd i n forma tion t rans mission : I n c onsider ing t his p robl em , t he l oca t ion o f p ro m inen t c ha lk b arrows i n e astern Yorksh ire i s i n tere st ing .

A t Rudston , t he b arrows o n t he s ou thern h or izon ( f ormed b y a massive

c ha lk r idge ) s eem t o b e l oca ted t o b e v isib le f rom t he Rudston Mono li th ( a massive s tand ing s tone ) , w h ich s tands o n ar a ised a rea a bove t he s tream. The t wo massive N eo l i thic b arrows a t Dugg leby a nd Wi l ly H owe c an b e s een o ver c onsiderab le d istances;

o ne l i es i n t he e astern a rea , t he o ther i n t he west .

Thus t here may b e c oncen tra tions o f t rans mission o f i n forma tion i n t hese t wo c en tra l a reas. t erms.

( Por tab le a r tefacts a re f ar more d i f f icu l t t o e xamine i n s uch

However , o ne e xper imen t h as b een c arr ied o u t b y t he wr i ter o n York-

s hire a nd Derbysh ire F ood V esse ls u si ng 2 0 th c en tury s tuden t r eact ions t o t his p o t tery a s a c heck ' a gainst t he Bronze Age c hoice ( ?) o f v esse ls p laced w i th t he ' socia l p rof i le a t b uria l ' ,a s i ndica ted f or e xamp le i n t he f ac tor p lots o f F igure 1 . There was a h igh l i near c orre la t ion b e tween t hose v esse ls t ha t s tood o u t t o t he 2 0 th c en tury e ye a nd b rain a nd t hose t ha t were c hosen f or t he h igher e che lons ' o f Bronze Age s ocie ty .) A s i ndica ted e ar lier t his p ar ticu lar a pproach i s ad if f icu l t o ne f or t he a rchaeo logi st ; n ever the less t here d oes s ee m t o b e s o me v a lue i n c onsidera t ion o f i n forma t ion t rans mission .

( One c an p er-

h aps c onsider F leming ' s( 1 972) c o m men ts o n ' vi sua l d isp lay ' i nt h is r espect .) v .

Task o r ien ta tion :

T here i s v ery l i t t le d a ta f ro m Yorksh ire c oncern ing

p reh istor ic s ubsistence p at terns.

H owever , o n t he b asis o f h istor ica l e cono m ic

p a t terns, i ti s i n teresting t o n o te t ha t t he e astern wo lds h as b een a t rad i tiona l ly a gricu l tura l a rea , a nd t he w est i s b est k nown f or i t s p asture l and . I n t he 1 930s Best ( 1 930) d escr ibed a l i ne o f s oi l c hange c a l led h is whea t l i ne ' wh ich r an west o f Rudston a nd Gar ton S lack t o s epara te t he western wo lds f ro m t he e astern . This may g ive s ome i nd ica t ion o f d i f feren t p rehistor ic e cono m ic p ract ices i n t he a rea a nd p ossib ly d i f feren t ia l t ask o r ien ta t ion . S pecif ic a nd g enera l c onc lusions I n my c onsidera tion o f N or thern Br i t ish B ronze Age ma ter ia l Ih ave t r ied t o l ook f or c o m mon f ea tures o f h u man g roup o rganisa t ion ' r ecogni sable i nt he a rchaeo logica l r ecord . I n t he main e xamp le l ook ing a t t he Yorksh ire Wo lds ( F ig . 3 )t here d o s ee m s trong c orre la t ions b e tween v ar ious f eatures: v esse l s ty le ( g roup c onfor m i ty) ;

i n tra-group c en tres ;

i n for ma t ion t rans mi ssion

' cen tres '; mu tua l awareness ( buria l r i tes) ; a nd t radi t ion ( c on formi ty o ver a l ong p er iod ) . This c orre la t ion i s p red icted b y t he mode l s e t o u t a t t he b eg inn ing o ft he p aper . The t heory o f g roup a c t iv i ty s uggested h ere i s av ery s i mp li f ied o ne d rawn f ro m s ocia l p sycho logy i n t he main . My main j usti f ica tion f or t he u se o f a n ' a lien ' d iscip line i st ha t i td oes p resen t a mode l t ha t i s u sefu l . A l though t here i s s o me e le men t o f

c hecklist ' a rchaeo logy ( se t t ing d own a n u mber o f f ea tures

which c an b e c hecked o f f a ga inst t he a va i lab le a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l ) , i ti s p ossib le t o r ecognise many g roup f ea tures t ha t o ne wou ld e xpect o r p red ict ( f ro m t he mode l) i n t he a rchaeo logica l r ecord . v an tages ; t here a re a r ange o f f ea tures t o b e

The mode l a lso h as c er ta in a dl ooked f or ' a nd c orre la ted ,

which Iwou ld s uggest i s c onsiderab ly b et ter t han s imp ly l ook ing f or c onformi ty b ehaviour , f or e xamp le .

F ina lly a nd p erhaps most i mpor tan t o f a l l , g roup

4 3

i den t i ty r ecogn i t ion i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord i s s t i l l a t a n e ar ly s tage a nd w i l l b enef i t f ro m a v arie ty o f a pproaches a t p resen t f ro m wha tever d iscip l ine t hey a re d rawn . B ib liography Argy le , M ., S a l ter , V ., N icho lson , H ., Wi l lia ms, M . a nd Burgess, P ., 1 970 .

' The c o m mun ica t ion o f i nfer ior a nd s uper ior a t ti tudes b y v erba l

a nd n on-verba l s igna ls '.

Br i tish J ourna l o f S ocia l a nd C l inica l P sycho logy

( 1970 ) . A she , S . E ., 1 952 .

S ocia l P sycho logy .

Ba te man , T ., 1 848 .

Eng lewood C lif f s ( Pren t ice-Ha l l ) .

Vest iges o f t he An tiqui t ies o f D erbyshire .

Best , S . E . J ., 1 930 .

East Yorksh ire :

L ondon .

As tudy o f a gricu ltura l g eography .

L ondon ( Long mans G reen a nd C o .) . B indra , D ., 1 977 . B in ford , L ., 1 968 .

A Theory o f I n te l l igen t B ehaviour .

U SA ( W i ley) .

'Mor tuary p ractices: t heir s tudy a nd p oten t ia l '.

B in ford ( ed .) An a rchaeo logica l p erspec t ive p ages 2 08-251 .

I n

L ondon

( Se m inar ) . C hapman , R . W ., 1 977.

' Buria l p ract ices, a n a rea o f mu tua l i n terest '.

S pr iggs ( ed .) Archaeo logy a nd An thropo logy p ages 1 9-23 .

I n

B r i tish A rchae-

o log ica l R epor ts S upp lemen tary S er ies 1 9 . C herry , C ., 1 978 . c r i ticis m .

On Hu man C ö m mun ica tion :

ar eview , as urvey a nd a

L ondon ( M IT Press) .

C larke , D . L ., 1 970 .

B eaker P o t tery i n G rea t Br i ta in a nd I re land .

L ondon

( Un iversi ty Press) . C larke , D . L ., ( ed .) 1 977 . C o l le t t , R ., ( ed .) 1 970 .

S pa t ia l Archaeo logy .

L ondon ( Acade mic Press) .

S ocia l r u les a nd S ocia l Behaviour .

O xford ( Basi l

B lackwe l l) . C ru tchf ie ld , R . S ., 1 955 .

' Confor m i ty a nd C haracter '.

Amer ican P sycho lo-

ge v o l . 1 0 ( Feb . 1 955) p ages 1 91-8 . Dav is, J . D . a nd McCu l lagh , M . J ., 1 975 . Da ta .

D isp lay a nd Ana lysis o f S pa t ia l

L ondon ( W i ley ) .

Downs, R . M . a nd S tea D ., 1 973 . p ing a nd S pa t ia l Behaviour . F le m ing , A ., 1 972 .

Image a nd Environ men t .

C ogni tive

map-

C h icago ( A ldine ) .

'V ision a nd D esign ' . Man n o . 7p ages 5 7-73 .

G ou ld, P . a nd Wh i te , R ., 1 974 . G regory , R . L ., 1 977 .

Men ta l Maps.

E ye a nd Bra in .

New York ( Pengu in ) .

T he P sycho logy o f S ee ing .

L ondon

( Weidenfe ld a nd N ico lson ) . Harvey , J . H . a nd Smi th , W. D ., 1 977 . a pproach .

S ocia l Psychology — a n a t tributiona l

S a in t L ouis ( C . V . Mosby C o .) .

J ahoda , M ., 1 975.

' Confor mi ty a nd I ndependence —a p sycho log ica l a na lysis '.

I n Brown a nd S tevens ( eds. )S ocia l Behaviour a nd Experience p p . 5 89-616) . 4 4

K e l ly , J ., 1 974 . H omewood :

Organ isa t iona l Behaviour—an e xi sten t ia l s yste ms a pproach . I l linois ( R ichard D . I rv ing —revised e di t ion ) .

L a mber t , W. W. a nd L a mber t , E . E ., 1 973 .

S ocia l P sycho logy .

New J ersey

( Pren t ice-Ha l l ) . L ehrab ian , A . a nd K sionsky , S ., 1 970 . B ehav iour '.

'Mode ls f or a f f i l ia t ive a nd C onfor mi ty

P sycho log ica l B u l le tin n o . 7 4 ( August 1 976 ) p ages 1 10126.

Mona t , A . a nd L azarus, R . S . ( eds.) , 1 977 .

S tress a nd C op ing :

a n a n tho logy .

N ew York ( Co lu mbia U n iversi ty Press) . Moscovici , S . a nd Z ava l lon i , M ., 1 969 .

' The g roup a s ap o lari ser o f a t ti tudes '.

J ourna l o f P ersona li ty a nd S ocia l P sycho logy ( June 1 969) p ages 1 25-135. P ierpoin t , S . J ., 1 978 .

A spects o f S ocia l a nd E cono mic Prehistory i n York-

s h ire 3 500-750 B .C . ( Universi ty o f S hef f ie ld : S her i f , M ., 1 953 .

The P sycho logy o f Man .

Ta in ter , J . A ., 1 977 .

U npub l ished t hesis) .

New York ( Harper a nd R ow ) .

Mode l ling c hange i n ap rehistor ic s yste m '.

( ed .) F or Theory Bui ld ing i n Archaeo logy p ages 3 27-51) . T iger , L ., 1 970 .

Men i n G roups.

L ondon ( W i lson ) .

4 5

I n B inford

THE SOC IAL I DENTITY OF THE I ND IV IDUAL I N I SOLATED BARRO WS AND BARROW CE METER IES I N ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND 1 J ohn S hephard

ABSTRACT T his p aper a t te mp ts t o a na lyse t he s oc ia l s ign i f icance o f t wo o f t he more c o m mon f orms o f b arrow b ur ia l i n t he p agan Ang lo-Saxon p er iod , i so la ted b arrows a nd b arrow c e me ter ies , u s ing n umer ica l p rocedures where a ppropr ia te . A l though a ccura te i n terpre ta t ion o f mor tuary d a ta s hou ld i nc lude a l l a spec ts o f b ur ia l r i te , t he r epor t ing o f t he e ar ly a n t iquar ians was s e lect ive , a nd t he a na lys is i s c on f ined t o g rave-goods wh ich a re t he o n ly c ons is ten t ly r ecorded c orpus o f ma ter ia l . I n t he a bsence o f s ke le ta l r e ma ins , t he e xcava tors ' e s t i ma tes o f a ge h ave t o b e a ccep ted w i th d ue r eserva t ion b u t t heir s ex d e ter m inat i ons , b ased o n a ssoc ia ted g rave g oods , c an b e t es ted b y s ta t is t ica l t echn iques , a nd a re f ound t o b e r easonab ly r e l iab le .

Var ious me thods

o f d e f in ing s ta tus a re d iscussed , t hose wh ich p ar t i t ion t he e n t ire d oma in b eing p re ferred t o t hose wh ich s core i nd iv idua l g rave a sse mblages . The a ge-sex-s ta tus a re u sed t o c o mpare t he s ocia l f ea tures a nd s yst e ms o f t he p opu la t ions u s ing t he t wo f orms o f b ur ia l . I ti s a rgued t ha t i so la ted b arrows s y mbol ised t he s tabi l is ing o f t he s oc ia l s ys te m t hrough t he emergence o f ap aramoun t r ank , me mbersh ip o f wh ich was p robably a scr ibed r a ther t han a ch ieved . B u t w i th b arrow c e met er ies t he s ys te m was r egu la ted b y ah igher d egree o f o rgan isa t ion t han i s f ound i n t he e ar lier f la t-grave c e meter ies .

A l though g rea ter

r es tr ic t ions were p u t o n t he a t ta inmen t o f r ank , s oc ie ty was n evert he less o rgan ised o n e ga l i tar ian p r inc ip les . Th is i n terpre ta t ion i s s hown t o b e c ons is ten t w i th h is tor ica l e v idence f or t he a reas i n wh ich b arrow c eme ter ies a re f ound . B u t t he f unc t ion o f t he b ur ia l mound was t he s ame f or b oth t ypes ; i t emphas ised t i es t o a nces tors a nd s treng thened h ered i tary c la i ms t o r esources , t he s carci ty o f wh ich h ad p ro mp ted t he p rocess o f s oc ia l c hange .

1 .

I n troduc t ion One o f t he more n o tab le f ea tures o f mor tuary p rac t ice i n Ang lo-Saxon

Eng land i n t he l a ter 6 th a nd 7 th c en tur ies i s a n i ncreas ing d iversi f ica t ion i n t he f or m o fb ur ia l , i n p ar t icu lar a d eve lop men t f ro m f la t-grave c e meter ies t o b arrows a nd i n t urn t o g raves w i th a v ar ie ty o f s truc tura l f ea tures . B arrows c an b e s ubd ivided i n to a n umber o f t ypes , b u t o f t hose c ons tructed i n t he 4 7

o P ossb le b arrow c eme te ry • B arrow

c eme te ry

0

•

F ig . 1

••

•

00

• •

D is tr ibu tion o f Barrow Ce meter ies

4 8

Ang lo-Saxon p er iod , t he s equence b eg ins w i th a s ca t ter ing o f r ing d i tches i n p redo m inan t ly f la t-grave c e me teries i n t he midd le a nd l a ter 6 th c en tury .

I n

t he e ar ly y ears o f t he 7 th c en tury t hese a ppear t ob e r eplaced p ar t ly b y b arrow c e me ter ies , where mos t i n termen ts a re p laced b enea th sma l l i nd iv idua l mounds , a nd p ar t ly b y l arger b arrows c on ta in ing t he b ur ia l o f u sua l ly o ne p erson , e i ther c o mp lete ly i so la ted f ro m t he n or ma l b ur ia l-p lace o f t he c o m mun i ty o r i n g roups o f u p t o a bou t s ix teen b arrows . T he n umber o f mounds i n b arrow c e me ter ies v ar ies c ons iderab ly , mos t f a l l w i th in t he r ange 3 0-300 .

The a ge

a nd s ex d is tr ibu t ions s ugges t t ha t t hey r epresen t t he b ur ia ls o f e n t ire c o m mun i t ies . I ti s n o t e asy t o d ec ide whe ther a ny o ne s uch c o m mun i ty i s t o b e l i nked w i th a l oca l s e t t le men t o r whether a w ider c a tchmen t was i nvo lved , b u t c o mpara t ive d e mograph ic e v idence f avours t he f or mer .

The s ize o f t he

mounds i nb arrow c e me ter ies v ar ies b e tween 3 .5 a nd 1 2.0 m , t he a verage d iame ter b eing 5 .5 m , a nd t he d is tr ibu t ion i s c on f ined t o t he s ou th-eas t o f Eng land , e specia l ly K en t a nd S ussex , b u t t here a re a lso a f ew i n S urrey ( f ig . 1 ) . The s epara tion o f t he i so la ted b arrows f ro m t he r e ma inder o f t he c o m mun i ty h as s e ldo m b een e s tabl ished a rchaeo log ica l ly. Mos t o f t he m were o pened i n t he ' Ro man t ic ' b oo m y ears o f t he 1 9th c en tury ( Marsden 1 974 , 1 2 ) ; t he a rea a round t he mound may h ave c on ta ined f l a t g raves , b u t i n t he f ew i ns tances where t hey h ave b een f ound , a s a t S u t ton H oo , t hey a re p oor ly f urn ished a nd a re r egarded a s t he b ur ia ls o f r e ta iners ( Bruce M i t ford 1 975 , 3 2 ).

T he d ia-

me ters o f t he i so la ted b arrows a re n o t c ons is ten t ly r ecorded , b u t t he ma jor i ty a re b e tween 7 .5 a nd 3 0 .0 m . The a verage d iame ter i s a round 1 7.0 m a nd t he mounds a re t hus much l arger t han t hose i nb arrow c e me ter ies . A par t f ro m t he h eavy c oncen tra t ions i n D erbysh ire a nd Wi l tsh ire , t here i s n o marked p a t tern ing i n t he d is tr ibu t ion o f i so la ted b arrows , b u t i ti s n o t iceab le t ha t t hey a re v ir tua l ly a bsen t f ro m t he a reas o f t he s ou th-eas t i n wh ich t he b arrow c e me ter ies a re f ound ( Fig . 2 ) . G iven t ha t t he u se o f a mound i s c o mmon t o b ur ia ls i n e ach c a tegory , s o me e xp lana t ion i s r equired t o a ccoun t f or t he v ar ia t ion i n t he mode o f b arrow b ur ia l a nd a t ten t ion g iven t o t he p oss ibi l i ty t ha t t here a re d i f ferences i n t he s oc ia l i den t i t ies o f t hose i nvo lved . T he a rgu men ts i n s uppor t o f as oc ia l i n terpre ta t ion o f mor tuary p rac t ices h ave b een p resen ted i n B in ford 's we l l-known p aper o n t he s ub jec t ( B in ford 1 971) , a nd S axe h as t es ted v ar ious p ropos i t ions c oncern ing b ur ia l r i te a nd s oc ia l s truc ture a ga ins t e thnograph ic d a ta ( Saxe 1 970 ). S ince B in ford 's work , i ti s i ncu mben t o n t hose who p re fer t o a ccoun t f or t he a dop t ion o f a ny p ar t icu lar b ur ia l c us to m i nt erms o f c u l ture c hange , r e l ig ion o ri n f luence t o p rove t he ir p o in t b y s howing ( a ) " an i so morph ic d is tr ibu t ion o f c o mmun ica t ion" b etween o r ig ina tor a nd r ec ip ien t o f t he f or m o f b ur ia l i n q ues t ion a nd ( b )t he i den ti ty s y mbo l ( i n t h is c ase t he b arrow t ype ) a nd r eferen t ( t he f unc t ion o r s upposed mean ing o f t he s ymbo l ) . Th is n eeds t o b e s tressed i n t he c on tex t o f Ang lo-Saxon a rchaeo logy where t he h is tor ica l ly a t tes ted move men ts o f p opu la t ion h ave p ro mpted a d ispropor t iona te emphas is o n e xp lana t ions i nvo lv ing c on t inen ta l p ara l le ls . The e xp lana tory p ower o f t he s ocia l h ypo thes is , p ar t ic u lar ly w i th r eference t o b ur ia l s truc tures h as b een e xp lo i ted b y B u iks tra ( 1 972 ) , P eebles a nd K us ( 1 977 ) , a nd Ta in ter ( 1 973 ) .

4 9

0 I s o la ted b arrows + P oss ib le i s o la ted b a rrows A

I s a lu ted

b _-: r rows i n sma l l g roups

+ c x

0+ +

‹) '

F ig . 2

D is tribution o f I solated Barrows

5 0

I ti s a t t h is p o in t t ha t o ne h as t o r ecogn ise t he p oor q ua l i ty o f t he d a ta o n Ang lo-Saxon b arrows . As men t ioned , mos t i so la ted b arrows were e xcava ted i n t he y ears b e tween 1 803 a nd 1 860 b y v ar ious a n t iquar ians whose i n teres ts were c en tred more o n r ecovery o f t he g rave g oods t han r ecording f ea tures o f t he b ur ia l . D irec t e v idence o n a ge a nd s ex o f t he d eceased , s ke le ta l p os it i on , d e ta i ls o f t he s i ze a nd s truc tura l e le men ts o f t he g rave , a nd e ven t he s ize o f t he mound a re u neven ly r epor ted , i fn o ted a t a l l .

Wi th t he b arrow

c e meter ies , t he s i tua t ion i s d i fferen t . A l though mos t o f t he s i tes were i nvest iga ted i n t he y ears b etween 1 764 a nd 1 844 , t he ma jor i ty were e xcava ted w i th ac are i n a dvance o f t he ir t ime b y t wo l oca l a n t iquar ians - J ames D oug las a nd Bryan F ausse t t . Fausse t t 's work was s ubsequen t ly p ubl ished b y C . R . Sm i th ( Fausse t t 1 856 ) . I tc on ta ins a c ons iderab le c orpus o f ma ter ia l , a nd o bserva t ions o n many a spec ts o f b ur ia l r i te a re c ons is ten t ly r ecorded , i n a dd i t ion t o g rave g oods . H owever , Fausset t 's s ta te men ts c oncern ing t he a ge a nd s ex o f t he s ke le ta l r e ma ins a re r a ther c on jec tura l a nd i t wou ld b e a mist ake t o a ccep t t he m w i thou t q ua l i f ica t ion . 2 .

I n ferr ing Age a nd S ex

The l as t p oin t i s impor tan t b ecause s ex a nd a ge h ave b een s hown i n r ecen t s tud ies t o b e c ruc ia l e le men ts i n a ssess ing c o mp lex i ty i n t he c haracter o f s oc ie ty . B in ford ( 1 971 ) a rgues t ha t t he more c o mp lex t he s ociety , t he l ess l i ke ly t ha t p ersona l q ua l i t ies l i ke s ex a nd a ge w i l l b e man i fes t i n t he s oc ia l p ersona r ecogn ised i n t he b ur ia l r i te a nd t he more l i ke ly t ha t a bs trac t q ua l i t ies l ike s ocia l r ank w i l l b e r ef lec ted . Th is i s a lso t he s ubs tance o f S axe 's s econd h ypo thes is ( Saxe 1 970 ) . The i n for ma t ion g iven o n a ge a t d ea th f or t he " Fausse t t" c e meter ies i s i n ferred f ro m d en t i t ion a nd g rave s ize .

The s ke le ta l ma ter ia l was n o t p re-

s erved , a nd t here i s l i t t le t ha t c an b e d one t o c heck o r r ef ine t he r a ther c rude e s t i ma tes t hus p rov ided . G rave g oods h ave b een u sed n o t o n ly b y F ausse t t b u t a lso b y many o ther a rchaeo log is ts o f t he Ang lo-Saxon p er iod t o make s ex d e ter m ina t ions a nd i ti s i ns truc t ive t o c ons ider t he r e l iabi l i ty o f t h is p rocedure . H odson ( 1 977 ) s tud ied t he d icho to mous n a ture o f t he g rave g oods a t H a l ls ta t t b y u s ing s ing lel inkage c lus ter-ana lys is c o mbined w i th me thods t ha t a l lowed s e lect ion o f t he t ypes a t ah igher o r l ower l eve l o f g enera l i ty o r s peci f ic i ty. I t was d ec ided t o s ee t he e x ten t t o wh ich g rave g oods b e long ing more e spec ia l ly t o t he l a t ter t wo c en tur ies o f t he P agan Ang lo-Saxon p er iod were d iv ided a ccord ing t o s ex , b y s ta t is t ica l me thods . Two d a ta s ets were u sed . O ne was t aken f ro m s even c e meter ies - P eters f inger , B i frons , G i l ton , S arre , S iber tswold , Bar fres ton a nd E as try .

T he s econd a dded a l l r e l iab ly e xcava ted ,

i so la ted b arrows t o t he f irs t d a tase t t hus a l lowing s evera l t ypes o f g rave g ood s evere ly u nder-sa mp led i n t he c e me ter ies t o b e i nc luded . Un l ike H odson , n o a t te mp t was made t o ama lgama te t he t ypes w i th t he e xcep t ion ( a ) o f b uck les a nd k n ives wh ich a re s uch a r egu lar a cco mpan i men t o f p agan b ur ia ls t ha t t hey c an b e a ssumed t o i mp ly l i t t le more t han t ha t t he d eceased was b ur ied i n e veryday c lo th ing , a nd ( b ) o f amber a nd ame thys t b eads wh ich were t hough t t o b e i n tr ins ica l ly more v a luable t han c lay o r g lass b eads . H owever t he d a ta was s e lec ted i n s uch a way a s t o e nsure t he i nc lus ion o f o n ly u nd is turbed g rave a sse mblages , a nd t hose w i th t wo o r more a ssoc ia ted t ypes , t hough n o r es tr ict i ons were made o n t he a bso lu te f requency o f t ypes . At o ta l o f 3 41 a sse m5 1

b lages were i nc luded i n t he d a tase t b ased o n c e me ter ies a lone a nd 3 89 i n t he o ne w i th b oth c e me ter ies a nd b arrows . A ma tr ix o f J accard c oe f f icien ts ( Doran a nd H odson 1 975 , 1 41 ) was c o mpu ted a nd u sed ( a ) i n as ing lel inkage c lus ter -ana lys is , a nd ( b ) i n ap r incipa l c oord ina tes a na lys is . t he s ing le-l inkage c lus ter-ana lys is were d isappo in t ing .

The r esu l ts o f

The c ha in ing f re-

q uen t ly p roduced b y a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l o ccurred . A l though s o me s epa ra t ion c ou ld b e d e tec ted b e tween t ypes n orma l ly c ons idered t o b e ma le a nd f e ma le , s hared i t e ms were n o t c lear ly d is tingu ished a nd i t wou ld h ave b een n ecessary t o c o mbine p a irs a nd s e ts o f c lus ters i n ar a ther a rbi trary way t o a ss ign t he m t o t he r igh t s ex . N o d oub t c hrono log ica l a nd s oc ia l v ar ia t ion c on fused t he i ssue a nd t he a l terna t ive s tra tegy o f u s ing p r inc ipa l c oord ina tes a na lys is , wh ich a l lows f or ac on f igura t ion o n more t han o ne d i mens ion , i s much more e f fect ive . T he t wo d a tasets p roduced v ery s im i lar r esu l ts . T he s ca t tergram f ro m t he s econd d a tase t i s s hown i n f ig . 3 . The f i rs t c oord ina te o bv ious ly d is tr ibu tes t he t ypes a ccord ing t o s ex , t he s econd c oord ina te a ppears t o a rrange t he f e ma le t ypes c hrono log ica l ly — e ar ly a t t he t op o f t he f igure , l a te a t t he b o t to m . Ar t i fac ts l i ke s words , s pears a nd s h ie ld-bosses n orma l ly f ound i n ma le g raves a re c lear ly s epara ted f ro m f e ma le g rave-goods l i ke b rooches , u n ion s ets a nd c ha te la ines a nd a n umber o f a ssocia t ions a re s ugges ted w i th in t hese g roups . S hared i t e ms l i ke ' buck les ' ( i .e . b uck le a nd k n i fe ) , t weezers , u rn , p urse a nd c omb a re p laced a ppropr ia tely b e tween e ach c a tegory. R o man c o ins , s hears , p ouches a nd g lasses m igh t n o t p erhaps h ave b een e xpec ted t o h ave b een p u t i n t he f e ma le g rouping , b u t t hey a re p er iphera l t o i ta nd c an b es t b e e xp la ined a s af ea ture o f t he s amp le . T he p r inc ipa l c oord ina tes a na lys is d oes t herefore s ee m t o u pho ld t he v a l id i ty o f mak ing s ex d e ter m ina t ions b y means o f g rave g oods . 3 .

I n ferr ing s ta tus f ro m g rave g oods

B u t when i tc o mes t o d efin ing wea l th o r s ta tus t he d i f f icu l t ies a re n o t a s s imp le t o r eso lve . There a re v ary ing i n terpre ta t ions o f s ta tus i n a rchaeo log ica l t erms , b u t n o g enera l c onsensus h as b een a ch ieved . C lear ly s ta tus a nd wea l th a re n o t c o m mensura te . S ta tus h as n o more t o d o w i th s oc ia l p ersona ( s ensu S axe ) , a nd wea l th w i th t he i n tr ins ic v a lue o f p ersona l p ossess ions . I n r ecen t work ( Peeb les 1 972 , Ta in ter 1 975 , P ader u npubl .) , n ot o n ly g rave g oods b u t a l l a spec ts o fb ur ia l a re t aken i n to a ccoun t i n a na lys ing s ta tus , a nd t here i s n o d oub t t ha t b e t ter r esu l ts c an b e a ch ieved i n d oing t h is where g ood r epor t ing p rov ides t he d a ta r equ ired . B u t f or b arrows , a s a lready s een , t he i n forma t ion o nb ur ia l r i te i s n ei ther a ccura te n or c ons is ten t e nough f or i t t o b e u sed f or c o mpara t ive p urposes . Any a t te mp t t o d e f ine a n i nd iv idua l 's r e la t ive s oc ia l p os i t ion mus t o f n ecess i ty c on f ine i t se l f e i ther t o measur ing a nd r ank ing i nd iv idua l g rave a sse mb lages , o r t o p ar t i tion ing t he e n t ire d o ma in . The f i nd ings mus t b e r e la ted t o wha tever p a t tern ing c an b e i n ferred f ro m t he s urv iv ing e v idence o n o ther f ea tures o f b ur ia l a s as epara te e xercise. A s t o t he f irs t a pproach , v ar ious me thods h ave b een d ev ised f or meas ur ing r ank f ro m g rave g oods . The q uan t i f ica t ion i n t he o b jec t ive p rocedures i sb ased e i ther o n t he n umber o f i nd iv idua l i t e ms o r t ypes i n e ach g rave g roup , o r o n t he s treng th o f a ssocia t ion b e tween t ypes . A s t here i s c ons iderab le

5 2

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F ig . 3

Pr incipa l Coordina tes o n Grave-Good Types.

5 3

Tab le 1 Var iab les i n Ma le Graves -Scores S a mp le

S ta tist ic

Var iab le

s ize

S pear

1 93

0 .039

3 .05

1 0.3

3

1 7

0 .449

4 .35

6 9.1

4

S hie ld b oss

9 2

0 .083

4 .08

1 7 .5

4

Sword

4 7

0 .163

4 .70

2 6.8

5

S eax

1 1

0 .695

4 .09

5 9.8

5

0 .849

6 .22

6 1.9

9

S econd s pear

Po m me l Angon G i lded S tuds Buck le/kn ife Prest ige b uck le

9 4

1

2

3

4

1 .910

4 .75

7 8 .4

6

1 7

0 .449

5 .82

4 1.2

7

2 56

0 .030

2 .60

5 .2

1

2 3

0 .332

4 .74

2 6.8

6

6

1 .273

2 .50

9 6.9

2

Purse

3

2 .547

8 .66

7 0 ,1

4

Tweezers

4

1 .910

6 .50

7 1.1

2

S hears

2

3 .820

6 .50

8 1.4

2

Pouch

0 .212

3 .39

4 2 .3

2

G lass

U rn

3 6 6

1 .273

3 .17

9 5.9

6

C up r i ms

4

1 .910

6 .00

1 00.0

8

R o man c o in

6

1 .273

5 .67

7 5.3

4

Bucke t

7

1 .091

5 .57

4 3 .3

Bronze b ow l

2

3 .820

6 .00

9 9 .0

7

P lay ing c oun ters

5

1 .528

4 .60

8 5.6

7

1 0

Co mb

2

3 .820

3 .50

7 2 .2

5

P in

6

1 .273

3 .83

7 4.2

2

Sword r ing

6

1 .273

8 .00

6 3 .9

1 0

Tab le 2 Variab les i n F ema le Graves -Scores S a mp le Var iab le Buck le/kn ife Prest ige b uck le

1

2 04

0 .043

3 .16

6 .5

1

1 .267

3 .57

5 3 .2

6

1 8

2

3

4

s ize

7

Pouch

S ta tist ic

0 .493

4 .22

4 4.2

2

Purse

7

1 .267

5 .57

5 4 .5

4

Tweezers

8

1 .109

3 .87

4 2 .9

2

S hears

1 3

0 .682

5 .92

2 2 ,1

2

U rn

1 9

0 .467

3 .31

4 4.2

2

G lass

1 7

0 .522

5 .88

2 8 .6

6

R o man c o in

1 2

0 .739

6 .50

4 1.6

3

B ucke t

3

2 .957

5 .00

1 00 .0

Bronze b ow l

6

1 .478

7 .00

5 8 .4

0 .806

6 .82

4 1.6

7

F inger r ing

1 1

C o mb

8

P in

2 4

Brad ing

8

Beads

1 62

7 1 0

1 .109

4 .62

3 3 .8

5

0 .369

4 .62

3 9 .0

2

1 .109

9 .00

4 5.5

9

0 .055

3 .83

1 1.7

2

Ame thyst/a mber

5 5

0 ,161

5 .14

1 9 .5

3

S lid ing r ings

2 5

0 .355

4 .96

2 2 .1

5

4 .435

1 2 .50

5 4 .5

Ba ton

2

1 0

Bronze b rooch

3 0

0 .296

4 .07

3 1.2

4

G i lded b rooch

1 4

0 .633

6 .78

4 1 .2

8

D isc b rooch

2 3

0 .386

6 .60

3 1.2

8

2 .957

8 .00

4 9 .4

8

U n ion s e t

3

Bractea te

1 5

0 .591

6 .93

2 8 .6

7

Cabochon p endan t

1 0

0 .877

5 .40

4 5.5

8

Brace le t

1 4

0 .633

5 .21

4 2 .9

5

1 .109

3 .75

5 3 .2

3

4 8

0 .185

4 .95

1 5.6

3

Man icure

1 7

0 .522

5 .41

3 1 .2

3

K ey

6 0

0 .148

4 .70

1 3 .0

2

B ox

2 9

S p ind le whor l C ha te la ine

.

8

0 .306

4 .07

2 7 .3

3

Workbox

2

4 .435

4 .00

7 6 .6

6

C rysta l b a l l

5

1 .774

9 .20

5 3 .2

9

v ar ia t ion i n t he q uan t i ty o f a r t i fac ts i n ma le a nd f e ma le g raves i n t he Ang loS axon p er iod , i t was d ec ided t o s core f or e ach s ex s epara te ly . T he r esu l ts a re p resen ted i n T ab les 1 a nd 2 . S ta t is t ic 1 i s b ased o n p ercen tage r ar i ty o f o ccurrence i n t he s a mp le a s a who le , t he s amp le i n t h is c ase i nc lud ing n ot o n ly t he d a tase t f or c e me ter ies a nd b arrows u sed i n t he p r incipa l c oord ina tes a na lys is b u t e x tended t o b r ing i n a l l f urn ished g raves . Th is t echn ique h as b een u sed b y R a th je ( 1 973 , 7 45-6 ) . S ta t is t ic 2 i s t he " S ta tus s core" d ev ised b y H odson ( 1 977 , 4 06 ) i n wh ich a t ype i s s cored a ccord ing t o t he a verage n u mb er o f a r t i fact t ypes i n t he g raves i n wh ich i to ccurs . S ta t is t ic 3 i s a n e xper imen t t o s ee i f av iab le measure c ou ld b e o b ta ined u s ing mul t id imens iona l s ca l ing . T he f igures i n t he t ab les r epresen t t he r esu l ts o bta ined f ro m a s e lected c on f igura t ion f or e ach s ex . The p r inc ip le i s b ased o n t he f ac t t ha t t he t ypes o ccurr ing mos t f requen t ly a nd wh ich a re mos t c o m mon ly a ssoc ia ted , w i l l c onv erge t owards t he c en tre o f t he p lo t l eav ing t he more " exc lus ive" a r t i fac ts o n t he p er iphery . Measure men ts a re t aken f ro m t he t ype w i th mos t a ssoc ia t ions ( Buck le a nd Kn i fe ) , a n a rbi tary f igure o f 0 .5 b eing a dded t o a l low t h is mos t c o m mon t ype t o h ave a n on-zero s core a nd t he measure men ts a re e xp ressed a s ap ercen tage o f t he t ype w i th t he g rea tes t d is tance. T he s ta t is t ic i s t hus a c rude b u t o b jec t ive s core o f t he " exc lus iveness" o f e ach t ype. S tat is t ic 4 i s as ub jec t ive s core o f t he v a lue o f e ach t ype wh ich a t te mp ts t o r eprod uce t he ir r e la t ive wor th a s h i ther to r ecogn ised b y a rchaeo log is ts o f t he Ang lo-Saxon p er iod . The t ypes were a rranged i n r ank o rder a ccord ing t o t he v a lue o f t he ma ter ia l f ro m wh ich t hey were made , c omp lex i ty o f manu fac ture a nd s uch f ac tors a s whe ther o r n o t t hey were l oca lly p roduced . T he r ank ings were a rranged o n as ca le o f 1t o 1 0 a nd t ypes c o m mon t o ma le a nd f e ma le g raves h ave t he s a me s core i n e ach T able . S ta t is t ic 4 i s t here fore a g ood c r i ter ion o f t he e xt en t t o wh ich t he more o b jec t ive me thods a re l i ke ly t o a gree w i th a rchaeo log is ts ' ap r ior i e xpec ta t ions . S o me c o m men t i s n eeded o n t hese p o ten t ia l methods o f measur ing s ta tus t o a ssess t he ir u t i l i ty i n t he p resen t c on tex t . There a re t wo ma jor a nd d amag ing d rawbacks i n s ta t is t ic 1 . F irs t ly t he p r incip le t ha t t ypes o ccurr ing l ess f requen t ly a re more v a luable means t ha t t he measure i s e x tre me ly s ens it ive t o t he n a ture o f t he s amp le . I fi ts o h appens t ha t t weezers o ccur i n t he f e ma le s amp le a s r are ly a s g o ld b ra id ing , t hey w i l l h ave t he s ame s core . S econd ly , t he i n terva l b e tween t he h ighes t a nd l owes t s cor ing t ype i s s o g rea t ( af ac tor o f 1 27.3 f or ma le g raves , 2 06.3 f or f e ma le g raves ) t ha t s o me ' r ich ' g raves c on ta in ing a l arge n umber o f t ypes may h ave a c o mbined s core l ower t han g raves w i th o ne c hance r are t ypes . S ta t is t ic 2 i s , o f c ourse , c ircu lar i n i t s d e fin i t ion o f s ta tus , t hough n o t i n i t s d i mens iona l i ty . D iscrepancies i n r ank o rder b e tween S ta t is t ic 2 a nd S ta t is t ic 4 c an b e t o lera ted i fi ti s r e me mb ered t ha t t he f or mer i s measur ing n o t i n tr ins ic v a lue b u t t he l i ke l ihood o f a t ype o ccurr ing i n a' r ich ' g rave . T he r ange o f s cores i s much n arrower t han f or S ta t is t ic 1 , b u t i n ar a ther u nhe lpfu l way . Mos t o f t he v a lues a re b e tween 4a nd 5p o in ts , wh ich means t ha t f or s cor ing a sse mb lages t he S ta t is t ic h as l i t t le more i n t h is i ns tance t o c o m mend i tt han a r aw c oun t o f t ypes i n e ach g rave .

E ven s o , c o mbina t ions o f t ypes c an b eco me r icher t han s ing le h igh-

s cor ing t ypes , a nd t h is makes i t much more s a t is fac tory t han S ta t is t ic 1 . S ta t is t ic 3 i s a ga in v ery s ens i t ive t o t he s amp le , p oor ly r epresen ted t ypes c an b e misp laced i n a MDS c on f igura t ion b ecause o f u n typ ica l a ssoc ia t ions a nd

5 6

B ifrons

G ilton

L y minge

. P ercen tage

P etersfinger

f r equency . ( m easu remen ts i n i n te rva ls o f 1 O/ S ibertswo ld

B reach

B ekesbourne

h m Chart h am

2

3

4

5

6

i

\

7

8

N umbe r o f g rave F ig . 4

1 1

1

9 1 0 1

1

1

1

1 2 1 3

1

1 4

1

1 5

1

1 6

1 7

g ood t ypes

H is togra ms s howing Dec line o f G rave-Good Cus to m i n t he l a ter 6 th a nd 7 th c en tur ies .

The c e meter ies a re a rranged

i n a pprox i ma te c hronolog ica l o rder

5 7

t hus a ppear more e xc lus ive t han t hey s hou ld b e . D is tor t ions a r ise b ecause t ypes a re c o mp le men tary o r o ppos i te ( e .g . p urse a nd p ouch ) a nd a ssoc ia t ion c an b e c hrono log ic 1a s we l l a s s oc ia l . S ta t is t ic 4 i s t he mos t a ccep tab le f ro m a t rad i t iona l a rchaeo log ica l s tandpo in t , b u t i s o f c ourse s ub jec t ive . S ta t is t ic 2 t here fore s ee ms t o a ppear t o b e t he l eas t mis lead ing o f t he o b jec t ive me thods . H owever t here i s o ne a spec t o f b ur ia l p rac t ice i n t he p er iod d ur ing wh ich Ang lo-Saxon b arrows w ere b u i l t t ha t u ndermines t he who le p r incip le o f s cor ing a sse mb lages , n o tab ly t he d ec l ine o f t he g rave-good c us to m . I ft here i s af a l l ing o f f i n t he n u mber o f i t e ms d epos i ted i n t he g rave i ta f fec ts n o t o n ly t he v a lue o f t he t ypes b u t a lso t he a ggrega tes f or e ach a sse mb lage a nd r enders c o mpara t ive u se o f t he s core s uspec t .

Tha t t here was s uch a d ecl ine

i n t he 7 th c en tury c an b e s een i n t he h is tograms i n f ig . 4 .

T he f igure a rranges

c e me ter ies i n ar ough c hrono log ica l o rder a nd t he b ars i n t he h is togra m s how t he r e la t ive f requency o f t he n umber o f t ypes p er g rave . I fa ny th ing t he h is tog ram d oes n o t d o j us t ice t o t he e x ten t o f t he d ec l ine s ince t he c e meter ies i n t he S urvey were o f s o me d ura t ion a nd t hus mask t he r e la t ive s peed o f t he t rend i nt he l a ter p ar t o f t he 7 th c en tury ( c f . t he p oor ly f urn ished , l a te c e me ter ies a t R oche C our t D own a nd Winke lbury . R e fs . i n Meaney 1 964 ) . C er ta in ly t he l av ish s words , d r ink ing v esse ls a nd o ther i t e ms r eferred t o i n t he w i l ls ( V Vh i te lock 1 930 ; 1 4 , 5 1 ; H ar mer 1 914 , 4 1 ) , wh ich t here fore c on tinued t o b e made , d id n o t a cco mpany t he d eceased i n to t he g rave b u t were i nher i ted . Ye t s cor ing g rave a sse mblages i s n o t e n t ire ly w i thou t v a lue b ecause i td oes s ugges t a n i n teres t ing d i f ference i n t he o rgan isa t ion o f g rave g oods , o r i n t he c ons tra in ts a f fec t ing t heir s e lec t ion , a s b e tween ma les a nd f e ma les .

I n t h is

c o mpar ison t he t ime v ar iab le i s c o m mon t o b o th a nd d oes n o t c ause a ny s er ious d is tor t ion . A l l t he ma le a nd f e ma le g raves w i th t wo o r more t ypes , i n t he s even c e me ter ies s amp led , were s cored o n S ta t is t ic 2 a nd a rranged i n a scend ing o rder o n l ogar i th m ic g raph-paper ( d es igned t om in im ise t he i n terva l o n t he v er t ica l a xes f or t he f ew h ighes t-scor ing g rave-asse mb lages ) . T he n a ture o f t he g raphs t hus p roduced i s c o mple te ly d i f feren t ( f ig . 5 ) .

F e ma les s how a n

e ven c oncave c urve o n t he l ogar i th m ic s ca le b u t t he ma le g raph s hows t wo e x tended p la teaux c aused b y an umber o f a ssemblages w i th g rave g oods o f i dent i ca l s cores — c o mposed i n n ear ly e very c ase o f i den t ica l t ypes . Th is p henomenon was t hough t b y Ra th je ( 1 973 , 7 42 , 7 49 ) t o b e t ypica l o f s tra ti f ied s ys te ms i n wh ich t he p o ten t ia l f or s oc ia l mobi l i ty was c ons tra ined . I tu ndoub ted ly s hows t ha t ma les were d en ied t he s ame f reedom o f c hoice i n t he d epos i tion o f g rave g oods a s f e ma les a nd s ugges ts t ha t t he r es tr ic t ions o pera t ing o n t he f or mer h as more t o d o w i th s ta tus t han w i th w ea l th . An a l terna t ive s tra tegy t o measur ing t he wea l th o f g rave a sse mb lages i s t o e f fec t ap ar t i t ion o f g rave g oods b y c lus ter a na lys is .

The a dvan tage o f t h is ,

a t at ime when p erhaps o n ly o ne o r t wo t ypes a re d epos i ted i n t he g rave , i s t ha t i ft he i t e ms were s e lec ted t o s y mbo l ise r e la t ive wea l th o r s oc ia l p os i t ion , t hey migh t b e r ecogn ised b y t he ir a f f i l ia t ion t o t he r icher c lus ters . Un fort una te ly , t he a pp l ica t ion o f c lus ter ing me thods t o mor tuary d a ta , e specia l ly t o g rave g oods , i s f raugh t w i th d i f f icu l ty . a nd t he e nd r esu l t i s l arge ly a ma t ter o f b a lancing s ta t is t ica l v a l id i ty a ga ins t ar esu l t wh ich i s a rchaeo log ica l ly s ens ib le . Ac oncise b u t a ccura te d iagnos is o f t he p rob le ms i nvo lved i n c lust er ing b ur ia l f ea tures i s p rov ided b y T a in ter ( 1 975 , 1 3 ) , who r ecogn ises t ha t t he s uccess o f t h is t ype o f a pproach i s g overned b y t he " a moun t o f r edundancy

5 8

1 00

5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 S co re

1 0

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1 00

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S co re

1 0 -

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F ig . 5

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i n a t tr ibu te c o mbina t ions" o r t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he c o mbina t ions o f v ar iab les i n a ny o ne c lus ter a re n o t p resen t i n a ny o ther c lus ter . The c ons tra in ts a f fec t ing t he s e lec t ion o f g rave g oods a re n ei ther s trong n or c ons is ten t e nough t o a ch ieve c lear p a t tern ing o f t h is s or t . I n o rder t o o b ta in r esu l ts o f a ny v a lue t he g rave g roups f ro m t he s i tes u sed i n t he p r inc ipa l c oord ina tes a na lys is were c oded i n a way wh ich was d es igned t o i ncrease t he p a t tern ing i n t he more s ocia l ly s igni f ican t t ypes . B rooches a nd p endan ts i n wo men 's g raves f or i ns tance were c oded n o t o n ly a ccording t o t rad i t iona l t ypo log ica l c a tegor ies s uch a s , d isc b rooches , a nnu lar b rooches e tc . b u t a lso a s " brooches made f ro m g o ld" , ' brooches made f rom b ronze" e tc. Th is emphas ised p oin ts o f s im i lar i ty b e tween t ypes wh ich wou ld h ave s ee med t o ta l ly •d iscre te i n ap urely n umer ica l c lassi f ica t ion . I ti s r a ther l i ke t he h ierarch ic t rea t men t o f t ypes u sed b y H odson i n h is s er ia t ion a na lys is o f t he Müns ingen-Ra in ma ter ia l ( Hodson 1 968 , 4 ) s ince o ne a nd t he s ame o b jec t i s c ons idered a t t wo d i f feren t l evels o f g enera l i ty . I n a dd i t ion t o t h is t hree o r f our o f t he h ighes t s cor ing t ypes o n S ta t is t ic 4 were d ouble c oded s o a s t o emphas ise o ther s oc ia l ly i mpor tan t b u t o therwise d iss im i lar a r t i fac ts l ike weav ing b a tons a nd r ingswords . T o " we igh t" i t e ms i n t hese ways s ee med p re ferab le t o t he a l terna t ive s tra tegy o f om i t t ing t he more mundane v ar iab les , t he p resence o r a bsence o f wh ich s ee m t o b e l argely a ma t ter o f c hance , b u t wh ich u ndoubted ly d is tor t a n a rchaeo log ica l ly s ens ib le r esu l t . Th is a pproach may a dm i t ted ly p re jud ice t he s tr ic t o b jec t iv i ty o f t he r esu l ts , b u t g iven t he n a ture o f mor tuary d a ta i ts ee ms t he o n ly s o lu t ion a nd t he e nd p roduc t i s a t l eas t mechan ica l . S evera l c lus ter ing a lgor i th ms were t r ied , b u t t he mos t e f fec t ive method was t ha t a dvoca ted b y Ta in ter ; Mono the t ic D iv is ive a na lys is u s ing t he i n forma t ion s ta t is t ic ( Ta in ter 1 975 , 1 1 ) . G rave g roups f ro m a l l t he s i tes were s p l i t a ccord ing t o s ex a nd , a s b e fore ,t wo d a tase ts were u sed , o ne d rawn f rom c e me ter ies a lone wh i ls t t he o ther i nc luded a l l r e l iab ly e xcava ted i so la ted b arrows . There was a l arge measure o f a gree men t i n t he o u tpu t f ro m t he s amp les w i th a nd w i thou t b arrows e xcep t t ha t w i th ma les a f ur ther f our v ery r ich c lus ters w ere p roduced f ro m t he a na lys is i ncorpora t ing b arrows . The b ar c har ts i n f igures 6 a nd 7 s how t he make u p o f t he c lus ters , s ome o f wh ich h ave b een c ombined e specia l ly where t he s p li ts i n t he d endrograms a re b ased o n t r iv ia l a t tr ibu tes ( c f . P eeb les 1 972 , P eebles a nd K us 1 977). T he f us ions b e tween c lus ters a re t hose wh ich o ccur f i rs t i n C lus tan 's r eloca te p rogramme when u s ing t he a rray f ro m t he mono thet ic a na lys is a s i npu t . B ecause t he d a ta a re d rawn f ro m c eme ter ies c overing a w ide r ange o f t ime i ti s p oss ible t o s ee i n t he c lus ters n o t o n ly s oc ia l b u t c hrono log ica l v ar ia t ion a nd t h is h as c ons iderable b enef i ts when c o mpar ing t he n a ture o f s oc ie ty b o th b e fore a nd d ur ing t he t ime when b arrow b ur ia l was p rac tised . S oc ia l d i f ferences i n t he c lus ters a re r ecogn ised b y d es igna t ing t he m b y l e t ters A ( t he r iches t ) t o E ( t he p oores t ;

u sua l ly t he c o mp le te ly u n furn ished )

a nd t he c hrono log ica l s equence where i den t i f iable b y t he n u mbers 1 ( t he e ar l ies t ) t o 3( t he l a tes t ) . I n s um mary , t he ma les i n c a tegory Aa p ar t ic ipa te i n av ery w ide r ange o f t he r icher t ypes , t hose i n A l a l l h ave r ingswords , t hose i n A 2 a re c haract er ised b y s words a nd b ronze b ow ls wh i ls t t he t ypes mos t c o mmon t o A3 a re s eaxes a nd b ronze b ow ls .

I ti s p erhaps a rguab le whe ther t he ma le c a tegory 6 2

l abe l led A a , t he me mbers o f wh ich a re S u t ton H oo I , T ap low a nd Broo m f ie ld , s hou ld b e p u t o n ap ar w i th t he o ther ' A ' g roup ings , b u t i t makes l i t t le d i f ference i n t he c o mpara t ive a na lys is t ha t f o l lows . C a tegory B ma les h ave s words s h ie ld b osses a nd s pears , o r l a ter , s eaxes a nd s pears . B oth s pears a nd b osses d e f ine g roup C , b u t g roup D h as o n ly s pears a nd o ne o r a t mos t t wo o ther a r t ic les .

T he e ar l ies t c a tegory A f e ma les were mos t ly b ur ied w i th

g old b ra id ing , g i lded b rooches , c rys ta l b a l ls a nd b rac tea tes .

B ronze b ow ls

a nd d isc b rooches a re f ound i n A 2 b ur ia ls , wh i ls t t hose i n A 3 h ave u n ion s e ts , c abochon g arne ts a nd b icon ica l g o ld b eads .

G roup B i s made u p o f b ur ia ls

w i th p oorer v ers ions o f t hese c o mbina t ions , ag i lded b rooch , d isc b rooch o r p endan t r espect ive ly a nd s evera l t ypes s cor ing f a ir ly h igh ly o n S ta t is t ic 4 , b u t n o t c ons is ten t ly a ssocia ted . The f ac t , a s s hown i n f ig . 6t ha t f e ma le wea l th a scends a s ac on t inuum makes i td i f f icu l t t o d is t ingu ish b e tween c a teg or ies C a nd D , a nd i t wou ld b e b es t n o t t o a t te mp t

ac loser p ar t i t ion .

T he

c lus ters c oncerned s p l i t o f f a ccord ing t o t he p resence o r a bsence o f b ronze b rooches , amber o r ame thys t b eads , p la in b eads , k eys a nd c ha te la ines. There i s n o o bv ious r eason why a ny o f t hese s hou ld b e more p res t ig ious t han t he o thers . G roup E f or b o th ma les a nd f e ma les i s made u p o f u n furn ished , o r c lo thed b ur ia ls — i .e. t hose w i th n o more t han a k n i fe o r p la in b uck le , o r w i th b o th . 4 .

S ocia l Ana lys is o f g rave g oods

C lus ter a na lys is o f t he a sse mb lages w i th g rave g oods s u i tab ly c oded , c an d e f ine t he s oc ia l i den t i ty o f t he i nd iv idua l a long a t l eas t o ne d i mens ion , t hough i t wou ld b e m is lead ing t o r egard t h is a s a n a bso lu te c lass i f ica t ion t ha t c ou ld b e a pp l ied i nd iscr im ina tely t o c e me ter ies o u ts ide K en t ; t he f urn ish ings i n t he g raves o f t hose i n t he p ara moun t g roup c an o bv ious ly v ary f ro m o ne r eg ion t o a no ther . B u t i td oes p rov ide a r ough f ramework f or t he n ex t s tage o f t he a na lys is — c o mpar ison o f t he s tructures o f t he s oc ie t ies u s ing t he v ar ious f or ms o fb ur ia l , a nd t he amoun t o f o rgan isa t ion i nheren t i n t he m . T ha t t he s ocia l i den t i ty o f t hose i n i so la ted b arrows i s o f at o ta l ly d i f feren t c haracter t o t hose i nf la tg rave o r b arrow c e me ter ies c an b e s een f ro m t he d is tr ibu t ion o f g roup A b ur ia ls .

I n o rder t o t ake i n to a ccoun t t hose p oor ly e xcava ted ,

p ar t ia l ly r obbed o r c re ma t ion b arrow b ur ia ls n o t i nc luded i n t he o r ig ina l c lus ter e xerc ise , t hese d is turbed a sse mblages were a ss igned t o ac lus ter b y s u m ming t he p robabi l i t ies o f t he r e ma in ing g rave g oods b e long ing t o a ny o ne g roup. T he r esu l t ing f requenc ies a re s hown i n t he b ar c har t i n f ig . 8 . There i s v ery l i t t le d i f ference b e tween t he K en t ish f la t g rave c e meter ies ( B i frons , S arre , G i l ton a nd L ym inge ) a nd t he K en t ish b arrow-ce me ter ies ( S iber tswo ld , Bar fres ton , K ings ton a nd C har tha m ) . The r e la t ive f requency o f g roup A g raves v ar ies b e tween 1 .9% f or S arre a nd 3 .7% f or C har tham , w i th a r a ther e xcept i ona l v a lue o f 8 .2% f or B i frons .

Bu t i n i so la ted b arrows n o f ewer t han 2 8 .9%

o f t he b ur ia ls a re i n g roup A . E ven t h is f igure may b e t oo c onserva t ive a r e f lec t ion o f s ta tus . Many o f t he s parse ly e qu ipped o r u n furn ished b arrows i n Wi l tsh ire a nd D erbysh ire mus t b elong t o t he l a te 7 th o r e ar ly 8 th c en tury when g rave g oods c ease t o p rov ide a r e l iab le g u ide t o s ta tus o r wea l th .

E ven

s o , t he d iscrepancy b e tween i so la ted b arrows a nd b o th t ypes o f c e me tery b ur ia l i sb ig e nough t o s how t he d i f ferences i n s ocia l p os i t ion o f t he p opu la t ions i nv o lved .

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Bar Char t s howing t he R e la t ive Frequencies o f C a tegory A Bur ia ls i n I sola ted Barrows a s c o mpared w i th F la t-Grave a nd Barrow C e meter ies .

B i frons , S arre , G i lton a nd L ym inge

a re f la t-grave c e meter ies .

S iber tswold , Barfreston , K ingston

a nd Char tha m a re b arrow c e meter ies .

6 4

a n i so la ted b arrow b e longed t o as uperord ina te r ank , c o mparable i n s ta tus t o t he r iches t i nd iv idua ls i n t he K en t c e meter ies , t he me mbersh ip o f wh ich may h ave b een a scr ibed r a ther t han a cqu ired ( c f . t he c a tegory o f c h ie fdom i n P eeb les a nd K us , 1 977) , whereas t hose i n c e me ter ies w ere more e ga l i tar ian i n c haracter . F o l lowing u pon t he work o f S axe a nd B in ford ( Saxe 1 970 ;

B in ford 1 971) ,

t here i s al arge measure o f c onsensus o n t he r ecogn i t ion o f a rchaeo log ica l f ea tures wh ich s erve t o d is t ingu ish e ga l i tar ian f ro m n on-ega l i tar ian s oc iet ies . B in ford f or i ns tance h as a rgued t ha t i n s oc ie t ies d ef ined o n t he b as is o f t heir s ubsis tence a s c o mp lex , mor tuary p ract ices s how l i t t le r egard f or s ex a nd a ge d i f ferences , b u t r espond much more t o a bs tract

q ua l i t ies o f t he s oc ia l

p ersona s uch a s r ank . Au se fu l t es t t o s ee whe ther t he c o m mun i t ies u sing t he v ar ious f or ms o f b ur ia l a re e ga l i tar ian wou ld t herefore b e t o measure t he e x ten t t o wh ich s ex d i f ferences a re r e f lec ted i n t he p rov is ion o f g rave g oods . The p r inc ipa l c oord ina tes a na lys is h as s hown t ha t v ar ious a r t i fact t ypes d o s epara te a ccord ing t o s ex , a nd t he s cores o f i nd iv idua l g rave a sse mb lages i n f igure 5 i nd ica te t ha t i n Ang lo-Saxon t imes , a s a pparen t ly a lso i n t he B ronze Age ( Sherman 1 975 ) , f e ma les e n joyed f ar g rea ter f reedo m i n t he p rov is ion o f g rave g oods . N o t o n ly d o t hey h ave a g rea ter q uan t i ty o f g rave g oods , b u t t here s ee ms t o b e l ess c ons tra in t i n t he c o mb ina t ion o f p ar t icu lar t ypes . Af ur ther s er ies o f p r inc ipa l c oord ina tes a na lyses were c arr ied o u t o n ma le a nd f e ma le g raves a sse mb lages i n f l a t g rave c e me ter ies , b arrow c e me ter ies a nd i so la ted b arrows t o s ee i ft he a dvan taged p os i t ion o f t he f ema les was c ons is ten t . The b enef i t o f u s ing p r inc ipa l c oord ina tes a na lys is i s t ha t i tn o t o n ly p rov ides a c on f igura t ion , b u t measures t he p ercen tage o f t he t o ta l v ar iance a ccoun ted f or b y e ach c oord ina te. Th is s erves a s ag u ide o f t he amoun t o f o rgan isa t ion o r c ons tra in t i n t he r aw d a ta . I n c ompu t ing t he J accard S im i lar i ty Ma tr ices , a l l t ypes were c oded a t t he mos t s peci f ic l eve l . T he r esu l ts a re t o b e f ound i n f ig . 9 , where t he c u mu la t ive p ercen tage v ar ia t ion f or t he f i rs t s ix c oord ina tes i s p lo t ted a ccord ing t o b ur ia l r i te a nd s ex . T h is s hows a n i n terva l o f a nyth ing b e tween 1 7.0% a nd 3 9 .4% a s b e tween ma le a nd f e ma le i nb o th f l a t a nd b arrow c e me ter ies ; t he f e ma les c ons is ten t ly s how ing l ess p a t tern ing . B u t w i th i so la ted b arrows t he i n terva l i s much n arr ower a nd t he l i nes o n t he g raph c onverge a t t he s ix th c oord ina te . O ne d i f f icu l ty i n t h is a pproach i s t ha t m is lead ing r esu l ts c an b e o bta ined b ecause o f v ar ia t ion i n s amp le s i ze a nd i n t he n umber o f t ypes u sed i n e ach a na lys is .

H owever t here i s g ood r eason f or s uppos ing t he g raphs d o i n t h is

i ns tance p o in t t o ar ea l d i f ference b e tween c e meter ies a nd i so la ted b arrows . The g rea ter s truc tur ing o f t he d a ta f or ma les i n c e meter ies s ugges ted b y t he h igher l eve ls o n t he c u mu la t ive p ercen tage g raphs i s a lso r e f lec ted b y t he p la teaux i n t he s cores f or ma le g raves i n f ig . 5 . T hese p la teaux a ppear b ecause t he s ame c o mbina t ions o f g rave g ood t ypes a re r epea ted i n many a ssemblages ( one migh t p erhaps l oose ly r e fer t o t hese a s ' s ocia l u n i forms ') . Bu t t he c umu la t ive p ercen t v ar iance i s much l ower f or ma les i n i so la ted b arrows . T hey a re r icher b u t t he u n i for m i ty h as g one . T he s truc tur ing h as s u f fered b ecause many more o f t hese b ur ia ls b e long t o c lus ter c a tegory A a nd a s s een i n f ig . 6t here i s r e la t ive ly l i t t le r es tr ic t ion o n t he c ho ice o f g rave g oods f or me mbers o f t h is g roup . l ike f e ma le a sse mblages .

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I ts ee ms l eg i t i ma te t here fore t o i n fer ( a ) t ha t t he ma les i n i so la ted b arr ows a re l ess c ons tra ined i n t he c ho ice o f g rave g oods t han t he ma les i n c e meter ies , a nd ( b ) t ha t s ex d i f ferences c oun t much l ess i n t he p rov is ion o f g rave g oods f or t hose i n i so la ted b arrows t han f or t hose i n c e me ter ies . The l a t ter p o in t c ou ld b e t aken a s e v idence i n s uppor t o f t he h ypo thes is t ha t t he p opu la t ion i n i sola ted b arrows was n o t o rgan ised i n a n e ga l i tar ian way . I ti s a t t h is p o in t t ha t o ne m igh t w ish t o s tudy t he a ge d is tr ibu t ions t o c orrobora te t he f indings . U n for tuna te ly t h is i s p oss ib le o n ly f or b ur ia ls i n c e meter ies . The a ges o f t hose i n terred i n i so la ted b arrows a re s e ldo m r epor ted .

I t wou ld a ppear h owever t ha t t here a re n o c er ta in i ns tances o n

r ecord o f i n fan ts o r j uven i les a s t he s o le o ccupan t o f a n i so la ted b arrow .

Th is

m igh t b e t hough t t o s uppor t t he i dea t ha t t he e leva ted s ocia l p os i t ion o f t hose i n i so la ted b arrows was a cqu ired r a ther t han a scr ibed , b u t a l terna t ive e xp lanat i ons a re more p robable . I t may we l l b e d ue t o a n a bi l i ty o f t hose i n t he h igher l eve ls o f s oc ie ty t o s urv ive i n fancy b e t ter t han t he p oorer e le men ts .

I ti s

n o t iceable t ha t P eebles , i n h is C lus ter b y S egmen t a na lys is o f t he Moundv i l le b ur ia ls , a lso f ound o n ly a du l ts i n t he p ara moun t c a tegory ( Peeb les a nd Kus , 1 977, f ig . 3 ) , a nd i ti s n o t u n l ikely t ha t a t ta inmen t o f a du l thood ( or t he p o ten t ia l t o b e a n a nces tor , p erhaps ) was a s ine q ua n on f or me mbersh ip o f t h is s upero rd ina te c lass . I n t he f la t-grave a nd b arrow c e meter ies o f K en t , h owever , t he a ge-sexw ea l th d is tr ibu t ions c on for m much more t o t he c onven t iona l mode l o f as ocie ty b ased o n e ga l i tar ian p r incip les ( s ee f ig . 1 0 ) .

I n a ny a na lys is i t mus t b e

r e me mbered t ha t t he a ge c a tegor ies u sed a re v ery c rude . The d is t inc t ion b e tween ' i n fan t ' a nd ' young p erson ' c anno t b e q uan ti f ied a nd i n r ead ing e ar ly e xcava t ion r epor ts i ti s n ecessary t o work o n t he a ssump t ion t ha t t he e xcava tor men t ions a ge ' by d e fau l t ' , i .e. t ha t a du l ts w ere d isin terred u n less o therw ise s ta ted . O ne f ur ther l im i ta t ion i s t ha t i ti s n o t p oss ible t o s ex u n furn ished o r s parse ly f urn ished g raves , a nd i n o rder t o g a in s o me impress ion o f t he ir e f fec t o n t he d is tr ibu t ions , i ti s n ecessary t o a ppor t ion h a ll t he g raves i n e ach a ge c a tegory t o e ach s ex . Th is e xp la ins t he d ashed l ines i n f ig . 1 0 . B ear ing i n m ind t ha t t he d a ta c an o n ly t herefore r evea l v ery g enera l t rends , i ti s c lear ly r e f lec ted i n t he d is tr ibu t ion t ha t ( a ) wea l th o r s ta tus i s a ch ieved a cco rd ing t o a ge , a nd ( b ) f e ma les a ga in s ee m t o b e l ess r es tr ic ted i n t h is r espec t t han ma les . A t G i l ton , S arre a nd S iber tswo ld f or i ns tance , f e ma le i n fan ts e x tend a s f ar a s g roup B , whereas ma le i n fan ts s eldo m e ven a ppear i n g roup D ; a nd when t hey d o o ne s uspec ts i ti s d ue t o ab lurring i n t he d is t inc t ion b e tween c h i ld a nd j uven i le. T he g rea tes t d i f ference b e tween t he b arrow a nd f l a t-grave c e me ter ies i s t he g rea ter p ropor t ion i n t he f ormer o f g roup E , i .e. u n furn ished b ur ia ls . O therw ise t he d is tr ibu t ions o f a ge a nd s ocia l p os i t ion b y s ex , l i ke t he r esu l ts o f t he p r inc ipa l c oord ina te a na lys is o n t he v ar iabi l i ty o f ma le a nd f e ma le a sse mb lages , s ugges t t ha t b o th f la t-grave c e meter ies a nd b arrow c eme ter ies a re s truc tured a ccord ing t o a ge a nd s ex a nd a re , i n t h is r espec t , more e ga li tar ian t han i so la ted b arrows . I ft he s oc ia l c ons t i tu t ion o f f l a t-grave c e me ter ies a nd b arrow c e me ter ies i s s im i lar i n a l l e ssen t ia l r espec ts , b u t d i f ferences i n mor tuary r i tua l a re t o b e e xp la ined i n s ocia l t er ms , wha t i s t he n a ture o f t he s oc ia l d i f ference b etween t hem? T o a nswer t h is q ues t ion i ti s n ecessary t o d iver t t he e nqu iry a way f ro m t he s tudy o f s oc ia l f ea tures , a nd o n t o t he s tudy o f s oc ia l s ys te ms ( t he d is t inc t ion 6 7

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B u t why d id t hese s ocia l c hanges r esu l t i n t he b u i ld ing o f b arrows a nd wha t a ccoun t c an b e g iven f or t he g roup ing o f s o me i n to c e meter ies a nd t he r e la t ive i so la t ion o f o thers?

The a nswer , Ib e l ieve , l i es i n a n e x tens ion o f

Megg i t t 's a n thropo log ica l o bserva t ion t ha t g roups w ish ing t o p ro tec t r esources t o wh ich t hey h ad a h ered i tary c la im p ract ised a s ys te m o f l inea l d escen t i n wh ich t i es t o a nces tors were c lear ly d e f ined i n t he b ur ia l r i te ( Megg i t t 1 965 ) . There i s n o th ing i mp laus ib le i n t he s ugges t ion t ha t t he d ef ined d isposa l a rea migh t t ake t he f or m o f a \monu men ta l s tructure l i ke a b arrow.

I ncreas ing c o mpe t i t ion

f or s carce r esources c ou ld c rea te t he i ns tabi l i ty i n t he s oc ia l s ys te m t ha t l ed o n o ne h and t o as pec ia l ised h ierarchy a nd o n t he o ther t o at igh ten ing i n s ocia l o rgan isa t ion .

T he c oncep ts o f r es tr ic ted r esources , i nher i tance , a nd a n em-

p has is o n t he c orporea l i ty o f t he d ead a nces tor a s s y mbo l ised i n t he b ur ia l mound a re a l l a na lysed w i th s uppor t ing a rchaeo log ica l h is tor ica l a nd l i terary e v idence e lsewhere ( Shepharä , f or thco m ing ) . B u t i f Megg i t t is h ypo thes is i s v a l id i n t h is c on tex t i t s ugges ts t ha t t he g roup p ro tec t ing i t s r esources b y b urying i t s d ead i n i so la ted b arrows i s v ery d i f feren t f ro m t ha t b urying i t s d ead i nb arrow c e me ter ies , n o t o n ly a s r egards i t s s oc ia l i den t i ty b u t i t s h ist or ica l i den t i ty .

I n t he l a t ter c ase , where a n e n t ire c o m mun i ty i s a pparen t ly

a ccorded t he p r iv i lege o f b arrow b ur ia l , t he i mp l i7 -

0 -

i on i s t ha t t he r esources

were b e ing c la i med a nd p ro tec ted n o t b y a n i r 'iv ic i ' 2:1 o r f am i ly b u t b y ac o mmun i ty o f c o-owners . I ti s a t t h is p o in t t ha t t he h is tor ian c an [ , _ov ,ue

« ha t s ee ms t o b e s trong

c orrobora t ing e v idence . J o l l i f fe , i n h is a na lys is o f t he o r ig ins o f t he manor ia l s ys te m p ecu l iar t o p recise ly t hose r eg ions o f K en t a nd t he S ou th-Eas t where b arrow c e me ter ies a re d is tr ibu ted , s hows t ha t i n i ns t i tu t ions l i ke g avelk ind , t he l and h o ld ings a re s hared j o in t ly b y e ach g enera t ion o f h e irs ( Jo l li f fe , 1 926) . The ma in e le men ts o f K en t ish p easan t c us to m r ecogn ised b y J o l li f fe a re : " ...the s anc t i ty o f t he b ir thr igh t a nd t he c onsequen t p redo m inance o f t he k in , f unda men ta l i ndependence o f s e igneur ia l a u thor i ty , f reedo m f ro m p red ia l s erv ice" .

( I bid ., 1 9 .)

The i ta l ics a re mine .

L ega l d ocumen ts o f t he r eign o f E dward Ir evea l t ha t t wo t h irds o f t he l and a t C har tham ( t he s i te o f ab arrow c e me tery ) was h e ld b y h eredes , f ra tres , s oc i i o r p ares .

T h is i s i n s tark c on tras t t o t he s trong ly c en tra l ised manor ia l s ys te ms

o f s ay t he M id lands .

I t may n ot t here fore b e s tretch ing c red ib i l i ty t oo f ar t o

s ee r e f lec ted i n t he d i f feren t ia l b ur ia l c us to ms o f t he 7 th c en tury t he f reedo m a ssoc ia ted w i th t he K en t ish p easan try a nd t he o r ig ins o f a ma jor d is t inc t ion i n t he manor ia l s ys te m , t he v es t iges o f wh ich r e ma ined t o t he e ar ly p ar t o f t he p resen t c en tury .

A cknowledge men ts Is hou ld l i ke t o e xpress my g ra t i tude t o P ro fessor F . R . H odson who was k ind e nough t o c o m men t o n my u se o f n u mer ica l p rocedures a nd t o s ugges t a reas where f ur ther c lar i f ica t ion was r equ ired .

My t hanks a lso g o t o Mr .

J a mes G raha m-Campbe l l who r ead t hrough t he p aper , a nd t o Dr . I an H odder f or much h e lp a nd e ncourage men t d ur ing t he t ime h e s uperv ised my r esearch . Iam g ra te fu l t o Mrs . S on ia H awkes a nd Dr . C a ther ine H i l ls f or g iv ing me 7 7

a ccess t o u npublished ma ter ia l a nd t o Dr . B . Hope-Taylor who f irs t a roused my i n terest i n Ang lo-Saxon b arrows. Re ferences B in ford , L . R . 1 971.

Mor tuary p rac tices :

Their s tudy a nd t heir p o ten t ia l .

I n Approaches t o t he S ocia l D i mens ions o f Mor tuary p ract ices , e d i ted b y J a mes A . Brown , S oc iety f or Amer ican Archaeo logy Me moir 2 5 , 1 971 , p p . 6 -29. Bruce Mi t ford , R . 1 975 . Bu iks tra , J . E . 1 972.

The S u t ton H oo S h ip Bur ia l .

Vo l . I .

L ondon .

H opewe l l i n t he L ower I l linois R iver Va l ley:

A r eg iona l

a pproach t o t he s tudy o f b io log ica l v ar iabi l i ty a nd mor tuary a ct iv i ty. Unpublished d octora l d isser ta tion , U n ivers ity o f Ch icago .. Doran , J . E . a nd H odson , F . R . 1 975. Archaeo logy. Fausset t , B .

E d inburgh .

1 856.

I nven tor iu m Seu lchrae.

Har mer , F . E . 1 914.

e d i ted b y C . R . Sm i th .

S elect Eng l ish H is tor ica l Docu men ts o f t he N in th a nd

T en th C en tur ies . H i l ls , C . 1 977.

Ma the ma t ics a nd C o mpu ters i n

C a mbr idge.

Cha mber g rave f ro m S pong H i l l , N or th E l mha m , Nor fo lk .

Med ieva l Archaeology XXI , 1 977, p p . 1 67-176. H odson , F . R . 1 968.

The La n ne c e me tery a t MUns ingen-Ra in .

A cta

Quan ti fying Ha l ls ta t t :

Amer ican

B ernens ia V . H odson , F . R . 1 977.

S o me i n i tia l r esu l ts .

An t iqu i ty 4 2 , N o. 3 p p. 3 94-412. J ol li f fe , J . E . A . 1 926. Marsden , B . M. 1 974 . Meaney , A . 1 964.

The F euda l Eng land .

L ondon .

The Ear ly Barrow D iggers .

A G azet teer o f E ar ly Ang lo-Saxon Bur ia l S i tes .

Megg i t t , M. J . 1 965.

L ondon .

The L ineage S ys te m o f t he Mae Enga o f N ew G u inea .

Ed inburgh . Pader , E -J . 1 978 .

I den ti fying t he S tructure o f S ta tus Re la tionsh ips f ro m

Mor tuary R e ma ins . P eeb les , C . S . 1 972.

Unpubl ished p aper .

Monothet ic-d iv is ive a na lysis o f t he Moundvi l le b ur ia ls

—an i n i t ia l r epor t .

N ews letter o f C o mpu ter Archaeology 8 ( 2 ) , p p . 1 .13

P eeb les , C . S . a nd Kus , S . M. 1 977. Ranked S ocie t ies . Ra th je , W. L . 1 973.

Un iversi ty o f Ca mbr idge.

S o me Archaeolog ica l c orre la tes o f

Amer ican An t iqu i ty 4 2 , N o. 3 p p. 4 21-448 . Mode ls f or Mobi le Maya :

av ar iety o f C ons tra in ts ,

I n The Explana t ion o f C u l tura l Change , e d i ted b y C . Ren frew p p. 7 31-757. S axe , A . A . 1 970 .

S ocia l D i mensions o f Mor tuary Pract ices .

d octora l d isser ta tion . S hennan , S . 1 975. 2 79-288 .

Unpubl ished

Un iversi ty o f M ich igan .

The S ocia l Organ isa t ion a t Branc .

7 8

An t iqu i ty XLIX p p.

S hephard , J . F .

Ang lo-Saxon B arrows o f t he l a ter 6 th a nd 7 th c en tur ies A .D .

F or thco m ing P h .D . Thes is . T a in ter , J . A . 1 973.

Un ivers i ty o f C a mbr idge .

S ocia l c orre la tes o f mor tuary p a t tern ing a t Ka loko ,

N or th K ona , H awa i i .

A rchaeo logy a nd P hys ica l An thropo logy i n Ocean ia ,

8p p . 1 -11. Ta in ter , J . A . 1 975.

S oc ia l i n ference a nd mor tuary p rac t ices :

i n n u mer ica l c lassi f ica t ion . Ta in ter , J . A . 1 978 .

Wor ld Archaeo log y 7( 1 ) p p. 1 -15 .

Mode l ing c hange i n p reh is tor ic s oc ia l s ys te ms .

Theory Bu i ld ing i n Archaeo log y e d i ted b y L . R . B in ford . Wh i te lock , D . 1 930 .

a n e xper i men t

Ang lo-Saxon Wi l ls .

7 9

C a mbr idge .

I n F or

p p. 3 27-351.

AN ANTHROPOLOG ICAL CONTR IBUT ION TO THE H ISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY OF AN ETHN IC GROUP J ud i th O ke ly

ABSTRACT S oc ia l An thropo log is ts h ave s o me t i mes b een a ccused o f a n i ndi f ference t owards t he h is tory o f t he p eop les t hey s tudy .

Is ha l l e xp lore h ow a

s oc ia l a n thropo log is t c an c on tr ibu te t o t he h is tor ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ion o f a n e thn ic g roup . i n t he Br i t ish I s les .

My e xa mp le w i l l b e t he G yps ies

T o t he a ccumu la t ion o f p r in ted word a nd t he

r e mnan ts o f ma ter ia l o b jec ts , t he s ocia l a n thropo log is t b r ings k nowl edge f ro m p ar t ic ipan t o bserva t ion . w i th t he p eop le c oncerned ,

A f ter many mon ths o f l i v ing

t he i nher i tors o f t he g roup 's t i t le , t he

f ie ldworker s low ly a cqu ires a n u nders tand ing wh ich c an a lso b r ing c oherence t o t he r ecords o f t he p as t ( 1 ) . i s u sed f or r etrospec t ive a na lys is .

Exper ience o f t he p resen t

The f irs t p ar t o f t h is p aper e x-

am ines q ues t ions c oncern ing t he i den t i ty a nd h is tor ica l o r ig ins o f a n e thn ic g roup .

The s econd p ar t f ocuses o n t he s y mbo l ic f a te o f t he

i nd iv idua l a nd g roup i den t i ty a t d ea th .

T he u nder lying mean ing o f

t he mor tuary r i tes e xp la ins t he f or m a nd l oca t ion o f G ypsy g raves . I n a ccord w i th o ne o f t he i n teres ts o f t he c on ference , b o th p ar ts w i l l b e a ddressed t o n o t ions o f s pace .

G yps ies , a s a n e thn ic g roup , c anno t b e c ons idered a s as epara te a nd i sol a ted s oc ie ty .

N or c an t hey b e l oca ted i n as pec i f ic t err i tory .

d ar ies a re c oncep tua l r a ther t han g eograph ica l .

Their b oun-

We a re d ea l ing w i th a g roup

wh ich s urv ives w i th in t he c on tex t o f al arger s oc ie ty a nd e cono my . a nd t err i tor ia l i ndependence i s n o t v iable .

N a t iona l

The g roup i s d irec t ly d ependen t

o n al arger e cono my o f t he s ame t err i tory , a nd w i th in wh ich G yps ies c ircu la te s upp lying o ccas iona l g oods a nd s erv ices , a nd o f ten e xp lo i t ing t heir mobi l i ty. ( Oke ly 1 975b ).

Those p ersons i n t he B r i t ish I s les who h ave b een i den ti f ied

a nd who h ave i den t i f ied t he mse lves a s G yps ies , h ave t ended t o b e g eograph ica l ly mobi le o r n o mad ic .

They o nce t rave l led w i th p ack h orses , l a ter w i th h orse-

d rawn c aravans ( 'waggons ' ) a nd t oday w i th mo tor v eh ic les a nd c aravans ( ' tra i lers ' ) . A l though f am i l ies may c ease t ravel l ing f or s hor t o r l ong p er iods , a nd i n s o me c ases move i n to b ouses , t hose who c on t inue t o i den ti fy t he mse lves a s G yps ies r e ta in a n i deo logy o f n o mad is m .2

I ti s s ign i f ican t t ha t G yps ies

t oday o f ten p re fer t o c a l l t he mselves T rave l lers , e spec ia l ly i n c on tact w i th o u ts iders who h ave a t tached s t igma t o t he n a me o f G ypsy . N o t a l l G yps ies c ou ld b e c a l led n o mad ic e ven i n t he b roades t d ef in i t ion . H owever , when G ypsy

8 1

i nd iv idua ls a nd f am i l ies s e t t le i n to h ouses t hey t end t o b e i nv is ib le t o n onG yps ies o r G org ios , a s G yps ies c a l l t he m .

G yps ies a re v is ib le i n s o f ar a s

t hey c hoose t o b e d i f feren t . A s n o mads , t hey w i l l s eek i n term i t ten t a ccess t o l and r a ther t han p er manen t o ccupa t ion a nd o wnersh ip. I ti s i n t h is a rea o f c on f l ic t w i th t he l aws a nd e xpec ta t ions o f as eden tary s ocie ty t ha t t hey w i l l b e mos t i den ti f iable . The G yps ies p ose p rob le ms a s p ersons o f ' no f i xed a bode ' , r equ ir ing d i f feren t l and u sage , a s we l l a s a vo id ing w agelabour employ men t . The d ominan t s eden tary s oc iety h as t r ied t o c on tro l G yps ies a nd d e f ine t he m i n i t s o wn t er ms a nd l aws . T hese l ega l d e f in i t ions a re t he ma jor s ource o f wr i t ten r ecords o f G ypsy h is tory ,

a t l eas t u n t i l t he f o lk lor is ts o f t he n ine teen th

c en tury . The n on-Gyps ies ' d e f in i t ions a nd s tereo types o f G yps ies c an b e t rea ted a s a r tefac ts t o d ec ipher . T hey a re w i tness t o t he s trugg le b e tween t he e nco mpass ing s eden tary , l i tera te s oc ie ty a nd t he t rave l l ing n on-l i tera te g roup . The s eden tary s oc ie ty s ee ms t o n eed t o i den ti fy G yps ies i n t erms o f s pa t ia l l oca t ion . D e f in ing p ersons who t rave l i s among o ther t h ings a n a t te mpt t o p in t he m d own i n s pace . s pace . g roup .

i

T he t rouble i s , G yps ies a re mov ing t hrough

There i s ar e la ted p rob le m i n i den ti fying a s t igma t ised t rave l l ing O u ts iders w i l l t end t o r ecord o n ly i n for ma t ion wh ich t he G yps ies

c hoose t o p resen t ;

u sua l ly d is tor t ions .

T he G ypsy w i l l a cqu ire max i mum

manoeverabi l i ty i f h e/she g ives t he o u ts ider t ha t wh ich p leases a nd r ese mbles t he o u ts ider 's p re jud ices . T he G yps ies a ppear t o c on for m wh i le r eta in ing ac er ta in i ndependence .

Y et t hey a re n ever who le ly f ree o f t he d om inan t

s oc ie ty 's d e f in i t ions . F or i ns tance , s ince a t rave l l ing p eop le a re s een t o d e fy t he d om inan t s oc ie ty 's b as ic r equ iremen t o f af ixed a bode , t hey a re c ons idered ' w i ld a nd f ree ' a nd e nd less ly f asc ina t ing . I n t urn , t he G yps ies h ave t o b e f ascina t ing . Thus we f i nd t ha t s tereo types o f G yps ies a nd s t or ies f ro m t he m , whe ther ' l ies 'o r ' t rue ' a ccoun ts , c an b e u sed a s a way o f g e t t ing a t t he ir h is tory . They may n o t b e d irect r e f lec t ions o f ' rea l i ty ' , b u t i nvers ions . I th as s o me t i mes b een a sser ted t ha t l i tera te p eop le h ave h is tory , wh i le n onl i tera te p eople h ave my th . I n t he c ase o f G ypsy-Gorg io h is tory we h ave af us ion o f t he t wo .

The l i tera te s oc ie ty i s j us t a s g u i l ty o f c rea t ing my ths

a bou t G yps ies . One s uch my th i s c oncerned w i th t he G ypsies ' my th o f o r ig in . F or a n o mad ic g roup , p lace o fb ir th may b e l ess s ign i f ican t t han f or me mbers o f as eden tary s oc ie ty . N e i ther p lace o f b ir th n or p lace o f r es idence a re l i ke ly t o b e p r i mary markers . B y c on tras t , i n t he i deo logy a nd l aws o f a s eden tary s oc ie ty , p lace o f b ir th t ends t o b e ap r i mary s pa t ia l marker , a nd

b ecomes wha t Ma l inowsk i c a l led a ' my th ica l:char ter ' f or t he i nd iv idua l 's a nd g roup 's c la i ms f or c i t izensh ip a nd r igh ts a nd o bl iga t ions w i th in a s pec i f ic t err i tory . 4 Where ambigu i ty a r ises , p lace o f r es idence may b e s ubs t i tu ted f or p lace o f b ir th . T oday , a s i n t he p as t , t ravel l ing G yps ies h ave b een p ros ecu ted p rec isely b ecause t hey h ave n o p ermanen t p lace o f r es idence . I ndeed i n t oday 's l aw t hey a re d ef ined t h is way . r u led t ha t a 'G ypsy ' i s :

I n 1 967 t hree H igh C our t J udges

.. a p erson l ead ing a n o mad ic l i fe w i th n o f ixed emp loymen t a nd w i th n o f ixed a bode . 9 March 1 967) .

( M i l l v . C ooper , Queens B ench D iv is ion ,

8 2

F or t he t rave l l ing G yps ies , d i f feren t c r i ter ia o pera te a s markers o f i den t i ty w i th in t he g roup .

I n a sser t ing c la i ms t o me mbersh ip , aG ypsy

w i l l o f ten s ay , ' I 'm r ea l G ypsy ;

Iwas b orn o n t he s ide o f t he r oad .. i n at en t '

o r ' we were l i v ing i n a waggon , when Iwas b orn '.

I t s ee ms impor tan t t here-

f ore f or G ypsies o r T ravel lers t ha t t hey a re b orn e n r ou te r a ther t han i n a n a med c iv ic z one. I n a dd i t ion t o t he i nd iv idua l 's p lace o f b ir th , t here i s t he p rob le m o f t he g roup 's p lace o f b ir th .

T o as eden tary s oc ie ty , an o mad ic g roup w i th in i t s

mids t c an b es t b e e xp la ined b y a t tr ibu t ing t he g roup ab ir th p lace wh ich i s ' so mewhere e lse '.

An u mber o f p laces o f o r ig in h ave b een a t tr ibu ted t o

G yps ies i n t he B r i t ish I s les , a s a lso t o G yps ies i n t he r es t o f Europe. p lace o f o r ig in f or B r i t ish G yps ies was f i rs t s a id t o b e Egypt .

The

The G yps ies

a ppear t o h ave c o l labora ted i n t h is f ac t ' , p erhaps b ecause i tp leased t he e nc o mpass ing s oc ie ty.

Egyp t , a s ap lace o f o r ig in was l a ter f a ls i f ied b y s cho lars

a nd o f f ic ia ls , b u t t he n a me G ypsy f ro m ' Egyp t ian ' h as r e ma ined . p lace o f o r ig in was ' d iscovered ' b y G org io s cho lars ; The G yps ies t he mse lves h ad n ever made s uch c la i ms .

N ex t a

t h is p lace was I nd ia . B u t r ecen t ly , I nd ian

o r ig in h as b een u sed b y European G yps ies i n t he ir r eques t f or s pec ia l e thn ic s ta tus i n t he Un i ted N a t ions . L e t u s e xa m ine t he my th ica l Egyp t ian o r ig in .

P ersons c a l led ' Egyp t ians '

were f i rs t r ecorded i n t he B r i t ish I s les i n 1 505 i n S co t land ( see V eseyF i tzgera ld , 1 973 :21) . Eng land i n 1 514.

T h is s a me c a tegory o f p ersons was l a ter r ecorded i n

One e xp lana t ion f or t h is l abe l i s s upp l ied b y C ltber t who

n otes t ha t a t t ha t t ime mos t moun tebacks a s we l l a s p ersons v ague ly f ro m t he Eas t w ere a l l c a l led Egyp t ians ( 1967:27) .

The t i t le h as c on t inued t o b e u sed

f or a s e l f-perpe tua t ing g roup , a s d is t inc t f ro m s ca t tered way farers a nd mig ra t ing i nd iv idua ls .

The Egyp t ian c onnec t ion was f ur ther e labora ted i n s tor ies .

I t was s a id t ha t G yps ies h ad t o l eave w i th J oseph a nd Mary i n t he f l igh t f ro m Egyp t .

There i s n o e v idence t ha t G yps ies e i ther o r ig ina ted f ro m Eg yp t o r

p assed t hrough i to n t he way h ere .

When I e xpla in t o Egyp t ians t oday t he

d er iva t ion o f t he word G ypsy t hey a re a s tounded . W i th in a f ew d ecades o f t heir f i rs t b e ing r ecorded i n t he B r i t ish I s les , ' Egyp t ians ' were o rdered t o l eave t he c oun try a nd d epor ta t ions were c arr ied o u t .

T h is t rea t men t i s c o mparab le t o t ha t meted o u t t o t he mad i n t he 1 5 th

c en tury . ( Foucau l t 1 971 ). B y 1 554 Egyp t ians were c lassed a s f e lons t o b e e xecu ted . B u t t he p roble m f or t he a u thor i t ies was t ha t t he G yps ies were c la im ing t ha t t hey h ad b een b orn i n Eng land a nd S co t land .

I n 1 562 t he d ea th

p ena l ty was a pp lied n o t o n ly t o t hose ' i n a ny c o mpany o r F e l lowsh ip o f Vagab onds , c o m mon ly c a l led o r c a l l ing t he mselves E gyp t ians ' b u t a lso t o p ersons ' coun terfe i t ing , t rans forming o r d isgu is ing t he mse lves b y t he ir A ppare l , S peech o r o ther B ehav iour ' ( Tho mpson , 1 923 ) . Th is a lready s ugges ts t ha t t he Egyp t ian t i t le was merely a n a ssu med i den t i ty f or p ersons w i th n o f ore ign o r ig in .

S ince i n many i ns tances , v agran ts were s ub jec t t o t he s a me h arsh

t rea t men t a s s o c a l led Egyp t ians , t here was n o a dvan tage i n d ropp ing t he t i t le i n o rder t o e scape t he a u thor i t ies . The t er m ' Egyp t ian ' o r ' Gypsy ' r e ma ined a s a means o f s el liden t i f ica t ion a nd was n o t mere ly a s t ig ma i mposed b y p ersecu ting o u ts iders . Is ugges t t ha t l ike t oday , ( and h ere Ib u i ld f ro m my e v idence o f f ie ld work ) , p ersons c a l l ing

8 3

t he mse lves G yps ies w ere a n e thn ic g roup u s ing t he p r incip le o f d escen t a nd i deo logy o f ' pure b lood '. E xp loi t ing k insh ip l inks , t hey were t hus a ble t o monopo l ise more e f fec t ive ly t he ir e cono m ic n iche a s s el f-e mp loyed n o mads . B y t he e nd o f t he e igh teen th c en tury , t he n ex t p lace o f b ir th o r o r ig in f or t he G yps ies a s ag roup was i den ti f ied b y G org io s cho lars a s I nd ia . The b as is f or t h is c la i m was t he e v idence o f l ingu is t ic c onnec t ions b e tween af or m o f S anskr i t a nd t he v ar ious G ypsy d ia lec ts o r ' l anguage ' g enera l ly c a l led R omany. Many G ypsy g roups t hroughou t E urope d o i ndeed s hare s o me c o mmon words i n t heir f or m o f R o many . B u t o thers a re mu tua l ly u n in te l l ig ible . These d i f feren t ' secre t l anguages ' h ave words a lso f ro m many European a nd midd le Eas tern l anguages .

These o ther i ngred ien ts h ave b een p erce ived b y s cho lars

a s mere ly ' c orrup t ions ' o f ao nce p ure G ypsy I nd ian l anguage . M igra t ion r ou tes h ave b een d ubious ly r econs truc ted a ccord ing t o v ocabu lar ly c on ten t , a s i f G yps ies moved i n al i near d irec t ion . L anguage h as b een t aken a s s yno ny mous w i th ' cu l ture ' a nd i n t urn e qua ted w i th ' race '. I ti s s o met i mes s ta ted t ha t t hose G yps ies who u se t he mos t R o many words w i th t raceable S anskr i t ' roo ts ' h ave t he p ures t I nd ian g ene t ic l i nks . Any c us toms wh ich c on tras t w i th t hose o f t he G org io o bserver a re e xpla ined , n o t i n t erms o f t he ir c on te mporary mean ing , b u t a ccord ing t o ad i f fus ion is t t heory o f I nd ian o r ig in a nd e ven t he c as te s ys te m. A s Ih ave i nd ica ted a bove , I nd ian o r ig in h ad n e i ther b een i nd ica ted n or u sed b y G yps ies u n t i l i t was g iven t he m b y G org ios . F or n ineteen th c en tury s cho lars a nd s t i l l many G org ios t oday , e xo t ic o r ig in s evera l c en tur ies b ack , b eco mes a my th ica l c har ter f or a ccep tance o f ap o ten t ia l ly t hrea ten ing g roup . I t may b e t he c ase t ha t n umbers o f p eop le o n t rade r ou tes b e tween I nd ia a nd Europe u sed l anguages w i th s o me s imi lar i ty t o S anskr i t , b u t i td oes n o t f o l low t ha t G yps ies i n t he B r i t ish I s les a re t he ir g enea log ica l d escendan ts . The ' Ceps io log is ts ' make t he s a me m is takes a s t he n ine teen th c en tury a n thropo log is ts d id i n t he g enera l s tudy o f r acia l d is tr ibu t ion a nd l anguage. Max Mu l ler , f or e xamp le , b e l ieved i n t he e x is tence o f au n i ted I ndo-European r ace w i th a ' r ea l l anguage ', o f wh ich many E uropean a nd A s ian f orms w ere s a id t o b e mere f ragmen ta t ions .

5

S im i lar ly , G ypsy l anguage o r c u l ture h as b een l oca ted a s s ome-

t h ing o nce i n tac t i n I nd ia a nd ' corrup ted ' t o ag rea ter o r l esser d egree i n t he c ourse o f m igra t ion .

T he t heor ies o f r ace a nd t hose c oncern ing R o many a nd

I ndo-European l anguages a l l r es t o n t he p resu mp t ion o f as ing le o r ig in i n s pace a nd t ime .

T he s cho lar ' Gyps io log is ts ' were n o d oub t i n f luened b y t he more

g enera l I ndo-European t heory , b u t a l though t he l a t ter h as b een l arge ly d isc red i ted , t he s ing le ' b ir th p lace ' f or G yps ies i s s t i l l u phe ld b y c on te mporary r esearchers , g overnmen t o f f ic ia ls a nd s o me me mbers o f G ypsy o rgan isa t ions . The my th ica l I nd ian o r ig in , f i rs t g iven b y G org ios t o G yps ies , s ee ms l ess e xp lana tory t han c om for t ing , i n u nders tand ing t he p resence o f an omad ic g roup w i th in a s eden tary s oc ie ty . N o mad is m o r t rave l l ing c an b e d en igra ted a s a ' hang o ver ' f ro m t he p as t a nd a n e ar l ier s tage i n s oc ia l ' evo lu t ion ' . L ess i n teres t h as b een s hown t owards t he c apaci ty f or a s eden tary s oc ie ty o r i nd us tr ia l ised e cono my t o g enera te i t s o wn n o mads , w i th in i t s o wn s pace. T hese n o mads a re s us ta ined b y e cono m ic o ppor tun i t ies a va i lable t o p ersons who a re mobi le a nd s e l f emp loyed , a nd p recise ly b ecause t he ma jor i ty p opu la t ion a re im mobi lsed i n wagelabour a nd a f ixed a bode .

I ts ee ms n o c oinc idence t ha t

t hroughou t E urope , ' Egyp t ians ' , T ziganes , G i tanes , o r ' Tar tars ' a s t hey a re

8 4

c a l led i n S weden , ' arr ived ' o r r a ther a ppeared a t t he t ime o f t he c o l lapse o f f euda l is m . S o f ar , t h is a ppearance o f G yps ies h as o n ly b een e xp la ined i n t erms o f waves o f n o mads m igra ting i n l i near f ash ion f ro m t he s ing le d is tan t l oca l i ty .

S cho lars , p ar t icu lar ly o f t he G ypsy L ore S ocie ty , h ave t r ied t hen

t o f ind t he l os t ' cause ' o f t he G yps ies 'd eparture f ro m I nd ia . U s ing e v idence f ro m my f i eld work i n E ng land a nd t ha t o f o thers e lsewhere i n t he B r i t ish I s les , Is ha l l o u t l ine h ow a n e thn ic a nd n o mad ic g roup c an b e s us ta ined , i n t h is c ase i n a n a dvanced c ap i ta l is t e cono my. T rave l l ing G yps ies h ave amu l t ipl ic i ty o f o ccupa t ions i n t ime a nd o ver t ime . c ons idered d egrad ing .

Wagelabour i s

Many o ccupa t ions a re t hose wh ich me mbers o f t he

l arger p opu la t ion a re e i ther u nw i l l ing o r u nab le t o p er form , a nd where a f ixed b us iness w i th l arge o verheads wou ld b e u necono m ic . G yps ies a re , f or e xamp le , r espons ible f or a c ons iderab le p ropor t ion o f t he s crap me ta l b rough t i n to t he y ards f or r e-cyc l ing .

They a re a ble t o c o l lec t s crap meta l i n sma l l

q uan t i t ies o ver a w ide a rea a nd c an q u ick ly a d jus t t o c hanges i n d emand a nd s upp ly . O ther o ccupa t ions i nc lude s easona l c on tract f ar m work , a n t ique d ea l ing , r ag c o l lec t ion , t armac l ay ing o f sma l l d r iveways , h awk ing o f sma l l ' hand made ' a nd manu fac tured g oods , c arpet a nd l inen s a les , h orse d ea l ing , l andscape g arden ing , f or tune t e l l ing a nd k n i fe g r ind ing ( Oke ly 1 975b ) . I t s ee ms n o l ess l i ke ly t ha t ag rea t v ar ie ty o f o ccupa t ions was a lso e xp lo i ted i n t he p as t . N ine teen th c en tury r ecords i nd ica te t h is . Many o f t heir o ccupa t ions may n o t h ave b een r ecogn ised a s ' t yp ica l ly G ypsy ' b ecause t hey were n o t e xo t ic , l ike f or e xamp le , f or tunete l l ing .

The G yps ies may h ave h ad t o d isgu ise

t he mse lves i n s o me c on tex ts , j us t a s t hey d o t oday ( Oke ly 1 979 ). T he G yps ies a s ad is t inc t a nd n o mad ic g roup , a re s us ta ined p ar t ly b y e cono m ic o ppor tun i t ies . They d o n o t c on tinue t o e x is t s i mp ly b ecause o f a my th ica l migra t ion many y ears a go . Whe ther o r n o t G yps ies h ad f ore ign a nces tors , t hey ma in ta in t he ir e thn ic s epara teness t oday a s f o l lows :

t he p r inc ip le o f d escen t i s u sed a s as el f

a scr ip t ive mechan is m f or c on t inu i ty .

A Trave l ler o r G ypsy mus t h ave a t

l eas t o ne Trave ller o r G ypsy p aren t t o c la i m me mbersh ip . I dea l ly b o th p aren ts s hou ld b y G ypsy o r T rave l ler . G yps ies mark t he mse lves o f ff r om t he G org io , o r i n t he c ase o f t he S co t t ish a nd I r ish Trave l lers , f ro m t he F la t t ie o r B u f fer ; p e jora t ive t er ms f or h ousedwe l lers . A G org io marry ing i n c an n ever c la im f u l ly t o b e aG ypsy , b u t h is o r h er o f fspr ing h ave t ha t r igh t .

AG ypsy 's i den t i ty i s a scr ibed a t b ir th , n o t a ch ieved l i ke t ha t o f

t ra mps o r v agran ts .

D escen t i s an ecessary b u t n o t as u f f ic ien t c ond i tion .

I den t i ty i s c on f ir med b y ac o mm i t men t t o t he v a lues o f t he g roup . D escen t i s d i f feren t f ro m r ace , a nd i s n o l ess a s el f a scr ip t ive mechan is m b ecause o f i t s a ssocia tion w i th b io log ica l i nher i tance . G iven t he p rac t ice o f an umber o f G ypsy-Gorg io marr iages , ( a l though a m inor i ty ) , o f fspr ing o f s uch marr iages c an c a l l t hemselves G yps ies .

I ti s a lso t he c ase t ha t an um-

b er o f i nd iv idua ls h ave o p ted f or a ss im i la t ion i n to n on- G ypsy s ocie ty , ( o f ten b y marry ing G org ios who h ave n o t s ough t c o-op t ion i n to t he g roup ) . a nd t he ir o f fspr ing h ave ' passed ' a s G org ios .

They

T hus G yps ies h ave p rocedures

f or r e leas ing o r a bsorbing i nd iv idua ls w i thou t weaken ing t heir e thn ic 'boundar ies , ( see a lso B ar th 1 969 a nd O ke ly 1 975a ) .

8 5

I ti s p oss ib le t ha t p ersons f i rs t r eferred t o a s ' Egyp t ians ' a ppropr ia ted t he t i t le a nd s us ta ined a n a bs truse ' secre t l anguage ' i n o rder t o s epara te t he mse lves f rom , n o t o n ly t he s eden tary p opu la t ions , b u t a lso f ro m v agran ts . The l a t ter , Id e f ine h ere a s i so la ted i nd iv idua ls who h ave d ropped o u t o f t he d om inan t s eden tary s oc ie ty i n a du l thood . B y c on tras t , t he g yps ies move a bou t a s f am i l ies , a nd h ave b een b orn i n to t he t rave l l ing c o m mun i ty a nd h ave l earn t a nd l i ved i t s s k i l ls f ro m c h i ldhood .

S im i lar ly , n u mbers o f i nd iv idua l

v agran ts who r ando m ly t ook t o t he r oads i n t he p as t c ou ld e ven tua l ly h ave b een a bsorbed b y marr iage i n to t he g roup (s ) . r evea ls t h is a s o ne p oss ibi l i ty .

E v idence f ro m my f ield w ork

H owever , a n i nd ividua l o r e ven a c o mp le te

f am i ly c anno t c a l l t he mse lves G yps ies a nd b e a ccep ted a s s uch , s i mp ly b y b eco m ing n o mad ic o r b y l i v ing a longs ide G yps ies .

The g enea log ica l c on-

n ec t ion mus t e x is t o r b e c rea ted e ven tua l ly t hrough marr iage . The p r incip le o f d escen t o pera t ing i n t h is way h as b een c on fused w i th r ace , more e specia l ly i n t he s ub c lassi f ica t ion o f g roups o f G yps ies o r Trave l lers w i th in t he B r i t ish I s les . b een i nvoked ; t he ' T inkers '.

Aga in t he my th ica l I nd ian o r ig in h as

i n t h is c ase t o d iscr im ina te b e tween t he ' rea l R o man ies ' a nd The Eng l ish , a nd e spec ia l ly t he We lsh G yps ies , a re g iven

t he e xo t ic I nd ian o r ig in , wh i le i ti s s a id t ha t t he I r ish a nd S co t t ish Trave l lers o r T inkers a re mere ly d escendan ts o f v agran ts a nd v ict i ms o f t he G rea t F am ine o r t he H igh land C learances .

I ti s c onven ien t ly f orgo t ten t ha t t he

f irs t ' Egyp t ians ' w ere r ecorded i n n ei ther Eng land n or Wa les , b u t i n S co t land. S o me t i mes , t he e v idence p resen ted f or t h is c lass i f ica t ion i s l i ngu is t ic .

T he

T inkers f requen t ing I re land a nd S co t land h ave t he ir own Can t o r ' secre t l anguage ' wh ich l ingu is ts h ave s o me t i mes c on tras ted w i th ' Ro many ' o r ' Ang loR o many ' .

B u t whenever R o many words a re f ound i n t hese o ther ' l anguages '

t hey a re d is m issed a s t he r esu l t o f Eng l ish i n f luence .

S o me G yps ies l i v ing

i n Wa les h ave b een f ound t o u se more R o many v ocabu lary t han o thers e lsewhere . I nd ians .

Bu t t h is d oes n o t p rove t ha t t hey h ave more t ang ib le l i nks w i th L anguage u sage i s g overned b y f ac tors q u i te i ndependen t o f g ene t ic

i nher i tance. My o wn e v idence i nd ica tes t ha t t he u se o f R o many v ocabu lary v ar ies w i th in e ach g roup , a nd t ha t t here i s b o th s hor t a nd l ong t er m move men t o f a l l Trave l lers o r g yps ies b e tween t hese t err i tor ies . b een c ons iderab le i n ter- marr iage .

O ver t ime , t here h as

Moreover , t he i ncorpora t ion o f G org ios

o r Tla t t ies t o ccurs i n a l l g roups . The T rave l lers o r G yps ies d o t end t o i den t i fy t he mse lves a ccord ing t o o ne o f t he f our n a t iona l d iv is ions o f t he B r i t ish I s les , b u t t h is d oes n o t mean t ha t o ne i s more ' I nd ian ' t han t he o ther . N a t iona l l abe ls a re man ipu la ted a ccord ing t o c on tex t , a s i s t he ' rea l R o many ' i den ti ty.

E ven t he t i t le ' Ro many ' i s n o t g enera l ly i n terpre ted a t t he l oca l

l eve l a s o f I nd ian o r ig in .

The mos t f requen t e xp lana t ion wh ich Iwas g iven

b y Gyps ies was : ' We 're R o man ies ' cos w e a lways r oa m '. An o madic t rave l l ing i den t i ty was t hus g iven p r ior i ty o ver a ny e xot ic p o in t o f d epar ture.

I G yps ies ma in ta in t heir s epara teness f ro m G org ios n o t o n ly b y t he ir c hoice o f o ccupa t ions , g eograph ica l mob i l i ty a nd i deo logy o f d escen t , b u t a lso b y 8 6

p o l lu t ion b e l ie fs r e la t ing t o t he s y mbo l is m o f t he b ody .

T h is i s d iv ided i n to

t he i nner a nd o u ter b ody . The o u ter b ody s y mbo l ises t he p ub l ic s e l f a s p res en ted t o t he G org io a nd i s ap ro tec t ive c over ing f or t he i nner b ody , t he s ecre t i nner s el f , wh ich mus t b e k ep t p ure a nd i nv io la te . Anyth ing t aken i n to t he b ody mus t b e r i tua l ly c lean . T here a re s pec ia l o bservances c oncern ing e a ting a nd wash ing h abi ts a nd wh ich a re a means o f d i f feren t ia t ing G yps ies f ro m G org ios who a re c ons idered p o l lu t ing . T he i nner/ou ter d icho to my i s e x tended t o n o t ions o f s pace ; n o tab ly t he t ra i ler a nd t he c amps i te . T hese b e lie fs a nd p ract ices mark a n e thn ic b oundary b etween G ypsy a nd G org io. 6 The d ea th o f ag ypsy i s ap o l lu t ing e ven t a nd t he i nner/ou ter d icho to my i s t hrea tened . G org ios a nd G org io t err i tory s uch a s t he h osp i ta l a nd c hurchy ard , a re u sed i n p o l lu t ing c ircu ms tances . The d ea th r i tes a nd t he G ypsy g raves a l l p o in t t o al oss o f G ypsy i den t i ty f or t he d ead i nd iv idua ls . The G ypsy d ead h ave c rossed t he e thn ic b oundary . T hey a re b ur ied i n G org io h a l lowed g round a nd , a l though t he g raves may c on ta in t he b ones o f i nd iv idua ls who l i ved a s G yps ies , f or t he l i v ing G yps ies , t hese g raves a re c oncep tua l ly o u ts ide t heir s oc ia l s pace a nd c o m mun i ty . T he G ypsy d ead d o n o t e n ter a n h onoured a f ter l i fe , b u t a ppear t o t ake o n t he a t tr ibu tes o f ma levo len t G org ios .

La id

i n c hurchyards , t hese d ead mus t f ina l ly b e s eden tar ised a nd p inned d own i n G org io s pace . Thus a n a rchaeo log is t e xa m in ing g raves , n eeds t o b e a ler t t o t he p oss ibi l i ty t ha t t he i den t i ty , s oc ia l s truc ture a nd i deo log y o f t he l i v ing may h ave b een i nver ted o r d isgu ised i n d ea th . There i s e labora t ion o f c ere mony a ssoc ia ted w i th G ypsy d ea th .

F or many

f ea tures o f t he mor tuary r i tes , t here i s h is tor ica l c on t inu i ty , b o th i n t he d a ta f ro m t he n inetee : th a nd e ar ly t wen t ie th c en tur ies c o mp i led b y Tho mpson ( 1924 ) , a nd f rom my f i eld work . E ar l ier , t here a re s evera l men t ions o f as pecia l ' dea th t en t ' d es troyed a f ter b ur ia l ( Tho mpson , 1 924 ) . D ea th s hou ld o ccur i dea l ly i n al im ina l p lace , o u ts ide t he c a mp. T oday , t hanks t o t he N a t iona l H ea l th s erv ice , d ea th s hou ld o ccur i n aG org io h osp i ta l .

O nce i n h osp i ta l ,

t he d ying s hou ld b e v is i ted a s o f ten a s p oss ible , a nd d ea th s hou ld b e w i tnessed b y k in a nd s pouse . G org ios a re g iven t he p o l lu t ing t asks o f h and l ing t he c orpse . F or mer ly t he c orpse was g uarded n igh t a nd d ay i n t he t en t a nd o n t he e dge o f t he c amp . Today t he c orpse i s b rough t b ack f ro m t he h osp i ta l t o t he c a mp f or a s im i lar v ig i l t he d ay b e fore t he f unera l . Many a sse mbled T rave l lers w i l l s i t u p n igh t a nd d ay a round a f i re wh ich i s t o ward o f f t he mu lo ( ghos t ) . T he c orpse i s d isp layed i n a n o pen c of f in a nd d ressed i n n ew c lo th ing , p u t o n i ns ide-ou t . The c o f f in i s p laced i n t he d eceased 's t ra i ler . Th is i s t he l as t t ime t he d eceased i s p er m i t ted s uch a ccess t o t he G ypsy c o m mun i ty . Mourners r efra in f ro m s leep , c ooked mea ls a nd f ro m wash ing .

E very-

o ne s hou ld wear d ark o r b lack c lo th ing . They w i l l h ave d ona ted e labora te wrea ths wh ich t ake many f or ms ; a n im i ta t ion c ush ion , ah orse a nd wagon , al orry , ah orse s hoe , am in ia ture c ha ir , af l ora l t e lev is ion .

S o me a re

r ep l icas o f t he t h ings mos t l i ked b y t he d ead p erson . There i s h is tor ica l e v idence f or t he p rac t ice o f p lac ing t he f avour i te p ossess ions o f t he d eceased i ns ide t he c o f f in ( Tho mpson 1 924) .

I ti s f eared t ha t t he d ead p erson w i l l

o therw ise c o me l ook ing f or t hese p ossess ions among h is/her f am i ly o r f or mer c a mp s i tes .

8 7

A f ter a l as t t r ibu te , t he d eceased 's c o f f in i s c losed a nd t rans ferred f ro m t ra i ler t o h earse . H is tor ica l e v idence i nd ica tes t ha t t he c ar t u sed f or t ransp or ta t ion t o t he b ur ia l p lace was l a ter b urned ( Tho mpson 1 924 ) . Today t he G yps ies h ire a h earse a nd s evera l c ars f or t he c h ie f mourners , s o t ha t t he p o l lu t ion a ssoc ia ted w i th t hese v eh ic les r e ma ins w i th G org ios . t hey may h ire a marquee a nd c ha irs f or t he d ea th v ig i l .

S im i lar ly

T o t he G yps ies , t he mos t me morab le s tage o f t he f unera l r i te i s t he j ourney t o t he c hurchyard . I ti s t he l as t t ime t he d eceased t rave ls . When I a sked why t he f ee t mus t b e f ac ing o u t f ro m t he c amp , Iwas t o ld ' Tha t 's b ecause h e 's g o ing o u t '.

The p res t ige o f t he d eceased i s measured b y t he

n umber o f l orr ies ' f o l low ing '. A f ter t he a rr iva l o f t he p rocess ion , o f ten s o l ong t ha t ap o l ice e scor t i s p rov ided , t he c hurch s erv ice i s t he l eas t s ign i f ican t r i te . T he ma jor i ty o f Trave l lers d o n o t a t te mp t t o j o in t he k in i nside . T he s erv ice i s t rea ted a s G org io mu mbojumbo , b u t wh ich e nsures t he G ypsy 's r igh t t o b ur ia l i n t he c hurchyard where t he b ody i s s a fes t . T he c of f in i s t hen c arr ied o u t a nd f o l lowed b y e veryone , a ga in i n p rocess ion . T he G org io p ars on i s c on fron ted b y e x traord inary a nd s ee m ing ly h ys ter ica l d isp lays o f s obbing a nd wa i ling . When t he c of f in i s l owered , s o me r ela t ives may h ave ' f i ts ' a nd h ave t o b e c arr ied f ro m t he s cene . I ti s s a id t ha t p eop le h ave t o c ry , t o ' pu t o n as how ...ou t o f p i ty f or t he d ead , e ven i ft hey d on 't f ee l i t .' I n t he p as t r e la t ives k ep t wa tch o ver t he g rave , when g rave r i f l ing a nd b ody s na tch ing were t hough t t o b e at hrea t . R e mova l o f t he who le o r p ar t o f t he b ody i s d angerous , b ecause t hen t he mu lo w i l l n o t r es t . T oday t he ma in t hrea t i s n o t t he f t f or d issec t ion i n med ica l s choo ls , b u t r e mova l f or t ransp lan ts . F or mer ly t he G yps ies t r ied where p oss ib le t o o bta in i n ter men t n o t merely i n aG org io c hurchyard , b u t i ns ide t he c hurch i t se l f , ' n o t o n a ccoun t o f a ny n o t ion o f s anc t i ty .. . bu t f or i t s s ecur i ty ' ( Tho mpson 1 924 ) . B ur ia l o n u nsanc t i f ied g round was v ery r are .

S ince t he e ar ly n ine teen th c en tury ,

i n ter men t i n c hurches h as b een d i f f icu l t t o o bta in , b u t G yps ies c on t inue t o p refer b ur ia l i n c hurchyards . i ni t '.

They r e jec t c re ma t ion .

' We d on 't b e l ieve

The f unera l o ver , t he p ersona l p ossess ions o f t he d eceased mus t b e d es troyed a s t hey a re b o th p o l lu ted a nd a magne t f or t he mu lo. C loth ing , b edding , p ersona l c rockery , work t oo ls a re b roken u p a nd b urned o n t he p er i me ters o f t he c amp . P ar ts may b e b ur ied a d is tance a way o r d ropped i n d eep wa ter .

I dea l ly a n t ique c h ina a nd j ewe l lery s hou ld b e d es troyed .

p rac t ice t hese may b e q u ie t ly s o ld , u sua l ly t o G org io d ea lers . a n i ma ls , d es troy.

I n

The d eceased 's

h orses a nd d ogs s hou ld a lso b e k i l led o r g iven t o G org io v e ts t o A s i mpor tan t a s t he d es truc t ion o f t he p ersona l e f fec ts , i s t he

d es truc t ion o f t he f or mer h o me ; t he t ra i ler where t he b ody was l a id f or t he f ina l v ig i l a nd t o wh ich t he mu lo i s mos t l i ke ly t o r e turn . F a i lure t o d ispose o f t h is t ra i ler w i l l b r ing b ad l uck , d isease , c on t inu ing p o l lu t ion a nd f ur ther d ea th .

T he d es truct ion o f t he h orse d rawn waggon i s a lso r ecorded i n t he

n ine teen th c en tury . T oday t he wea l thy f am i l ies may l ay t he c orpse i n a c heaper t ra i ler , l a ter d es troyed , o r ah ired marquee wh i le t he ma in t ra i ler , wor th h undreds o f p ounds ,i s d iscree t ly s o ld i n ad is tan t l oca l i ty .

• A f ter t he d isposa l o f t he t ra i ler a nd e f fec ts , i dea l ly a l l c amp me mebers

s hou ld l eave , i fo n ly f or a wh i le .

The s ures t way t o a vo id t he mu lo i s t o 8 8

t rave l . The c lose f am i ly a re mos t l i ke ly t o b e h aun ted . They may r e turn a f ter s o me mon ths o r maybe n ever . I ti s i mpor tan t whe ther t he d ea th a ctua l ly o ccurred i n t he c amp o r s a fely i n t he G org io h osp i ta l .

I ft he f ormer , t he

G ypsy c amp i s e spec ia l ly p o l lu ted a nd d angerous . Mourn ing i s o bl iga tory f or t he s pouse a nd c lose c ogna tes f or a y ear o r more.

T he f avour i te f ood o r h obby o f t he d eceased may b e a bs ta ined f ro m

( c f . L e land 1 893:49-55 ) , a ga in t o a ppease t he mu lo . The n ame o f t he d eceased mus t n ever b e u t tered a s t h is i s e qu iva len t t o ' ca l l ing u p ' t he mu lo . N e i ther t he n ame n or t he i mage o f t he d ead s hou ld b e g iven s ta tus i ns ide G ypsy s oc iety . P hotographs s hou ld b e d es troyed , o r a t l eas t n o t d isp layed i ns ide t he f am i ly t ra i ler . H ere Ic o me t o t he c en tra l f ocus o f t he G yps ies ' r esponse t o t he ir d ead . T he mu lo i s a lways a p o ten t ia l t hrea t t o t he l i v ing , a t l eas t f or t he g enera t ions who k new t he d eceased .

T he d ead mus t b e a ppeased i n e very way p oss ib le .

An e s tors a nd k in may f ea ture i n s tor ies , b u t t hey d o n o t a ssume a n e nv iab le s ta tus a s h onoured d ead i n ah igher o rb e t ter r ea lm . F unera l r i tes a re a t te mp ts t o d ispa tch t he d ead , n ow d angerous i fw i thou t as ing le f i xed l oca t ion , o u tside t he G ypsy e nca mp men ts a nd c o m mun i ty .

The b ody h as c eased t o

t rave l a nd t he mu lo mus t b e s eden tar ised . S ign i f ican t ly , t he d ead p erson 's n a me i s wr i t ten c lear ly o n t he g rave . I n l i fe t he G yps ies a re c au t ious a bou t r evea l ing t he ir n ames , e spec ia l ly t o G org ios . e xposed ;

O n t he g raves tones i n G org io c hurchyards , t he n ames a re f ina l ly t he mu lo mus t r es t w i th i t s b ody , i t s l as t i mage a nd n ame . I n

an onl i tera te c o m mun i ty t h is i s t he o n ly c on tex t when wr i t ing ,

( s o me t i mes

d is m issed a s aG org io a t tr ibu te ) , i s f ree ly c hosen t o i ndica te i den ti ty .

I den t i-

f i ca t ion b y n am ing i s p ara l le led b y t he mark ing o f f l ora l ( wrea th ) l orr ies w i th t he c orrec t n u mber p la tes o f t he d eceased 's l as t v eh ic le , s o i den t i f ied a nd b rough t t o ah a l t . Th is c on tras ts w i th t he measures t aken b y T rave l lers t o p reven t G org ios t ak ing p ho tographs o f t he ir v eh ic les i n v iew , a nd c on tras ts w i th t he ir r egu lar t urnover o fv eh ic les , c hopped a nd c hanged t hrough l i fe. The mu lo n eeds a f ixed a bode .

Thus g rea t a t ten t ion i s p a id t o t he g rave.

C os t ly h eads tones a nd u rns a re s e lec ted a nd j o in t ly p urchased b y k in a nd a ssoc ia tes . Wrea ths mus t b e r egu lar ly l a id . Many o f t he wrea ths a t t he f unera l h ave , a longs ide t he c on tras t ing t he me o f t ravel l ing , t ha t o f s eden tar is a t ion , o f b e ing r es ted a nd s ea ted , f or e xamp le t he c ha irs , c ush ions , p i l lows a nd t e lev is ion s ets .

F or t he d ead g ypsy 's s ake , t he g rave i s af ocus o f

c lean l iness a nd o rder , j us t l i ke t he i nner s pace o f t he t ra i ler . Bu t t he g rave i s o u ts ide t he G ypsy c o m mun i ty . G raves mus t b e r egu lar ly t ended a nd v is i ted l es t t he ir i nhab i tan ts r eturn t o t he G ypsy c a mp .

I n a dd i t ion t o a nn iversar ies ,

wrea ths a re l a id a t C hr is t mas a nd b efore t he G ypsy Fa irs , i n o rder t o a ppease t he mu lo wh ich migh t b e a t trac ted t o t he f es t ive g a ther ings o f t he l i v ing . A t aG ypsy 's d ea th t he i ns ide h as c o me o u ts ide . T he s epara t ion b e tween i nner a nd o u ter b ody i s n o l onger d is t inc t . Tha t i s why t he c orpse a nd mu lo a re p o l lu ted ( mochad i ). The c lo thes t urned i ns ide-ou t o n t he c orpse a re a s ymbo l ic e xpress ion o f t h is e xposure . The t hrea t f ro m t he mu lo i s e labora te . I ti s n o t mere ly t ha t i ti s p o l lu ted . Wha t o ther c haracter is t ics d oes i tp ossess? I t s i n ten t ions c anno t b e k nown . I ti s u npred ic table .

I t may h ur t o u t o f c apr ice .

t he G yps ies a nd may a s s udden ly d isappear . 8 9

I t may s udden ly a ppear t o

The mu lo b r ings d iseases a nd

may try to lure Gypsies to their death. Gypsies can more successfully outrun the mulo by travelling and avoiding places liked and frequented by it. 7 I conclude that the mulo of a dead Qypsy has become like a Gorgio. Death is equivalent to assimilation. When the Gypsies express their fear of the mulo they are reaffirming on a symbolic level their fear of the Gorgio • The Gorgio is unpredictable and may suddenly enter a campsite and as quickly disappear. The Gorgio may hurt or prosecute out of caprice. The Gorgio is polluated (mochadi), brings diseases and lures Gypsies to their death. Just as they avoid the favourite campsites of the deceased, the Gypsies must avoid land which Gorgios have regularly frequented. Gorgios must be dis­ couraged from entering the trailer, and as with the mulo, elaborate devices are used to prevent the stranger's intrusion. If the Gorgio cannot be kept at a distance, the Gypsies keep travelling. In some discussions, the Gypsies associate assimilation with death. Also when a Gypsy is formally banished from the group he or she is _treated as dead. Concerning the symbolism of mortuary rites, I am suggesting also the inverse; that death is equated with assimilation and sedentarisation, for this people with a travelling ideology and practice. Thus the Gorgio church·service becomes a rite de passage from the living and from the Qypsy community to one more Gorgio and settled. The grave in Gorgio hallowed ground is the necessary placing of the �' ideally sedentarised, It must not travel. Neither the body nor parts of it must be allowed indecisive location. Hence the measures to prevent body snatching and dissection in the past, and transplants today. The dead body must be pinned down in space, just as Gorgios would pin down Gypsies in their laws and definitions. The Gypsies' use of Gorgio churchyards is not evidence of conversion to the Gorgio brand of Christianity. The Qypsy mortuary rites are not admirable piety. That which might please a Gorgio observer at a funeral is ironically a rejection of this kind. The ultimate boundary between life and death is used to make symbolic statements about another, ethnic boundary. The rites affirm the Gypsies' separation from Gorgios, and fear of becoming one of them. The place of death, (the Gorgio hospital) and the burial place (the Gorgio graveyard), are significant in Gypsy identity, but not as symbols of continuity. The individual dead person is dispatched from the living and from the Gypsy group. The property associated with his travelling life is smashed or burned to ensure his ghost does not return. He now takes only personal emblems in the fo:r:m of wreaths. Formerly, some personal possessions were also interred in the coffin. As a revengeful and unpredictable ghost (mulo), the individual has lost Gypsy or Traveller identity and like a Gorgio must finally have a fixed abode. I n the graveyards alongside the Gorgio dead, there are monuments placed by Gypsies. The names of individual Gypsies are written on the graves, using the medium of the encompassing literate society. 8 But the dead are no longer classified as Gypsy. The Gypsy group continues elsewhere, in another place.

90

NOTES 1 .

My ma in p er iod o f f ie ldwork t ook p lace b e tween l a te 1 970 a nd 1 972 , when Il i ved o n G ypsy c a mps f or p er iods amoun t ing t o t we lve mon ths .

2 .

S u ther land 's s tudy o f G yps ies i n C a l i forn ia ( 1 975 ) , r evea ls t ha t many a re h oused b u t n o t s eden tary , a s t hey t rave l ac ons iderab le p ar t o f t he y ear ;

3 .

s tay ing i n h o te ls o r w i th r e la t ives a nd a ssoc ia tes .

Iam g ra te fu l t o Dav id B rooks f or o ur d iscuss ions o n n o mads a nd f or t he u se fu l c o mpar isons

4 .

a nd c on tras ts w i th h is ma ter ia l o n

o f . Durkhei m a nd Mauss , P r im i t ive C lassi f ica t ion ( 1963 ) where t he l inks b e tween a s peci f ic s ocie ty a nd i ts

5 . 6 .

omads i n I ran .

n o t ions o f s pace a re e xp lored .

S ee C r ick 1 976. T he G yps ies ' p o l lu t ion t aboos a nd n o t ions o f t he b ody e tc . c anno t b e f u l ly d escr ibed h ere .

S ee O ke ly 1 977 a nd f or thco m ing monograph , a lso f or a n

e xpanded d iscuss ion o f mor tuary r i tes . 7 .

The c on f l ic t b e tween G yps ies a nd t he s eden tary s ocie ty c oncern ing l and a ccess a nd t rave l l ing h as b een d ocu men ted e lsewhere .

8 .

( Oke ly 1 977).

B e tween t he mse lves , t he T rave l lers a re l ess l i ke ly t o u se t hese f or ma l n a mes , b u t n ickna mes wh ich d o n o t a ppear o n t he g raves .

B IBLIOGRAPHY Adams , B ., Okely , J ., e t a l . 1 975 . E ng land .

L ondon :

B ar th , F ., 1 969.

G yps ies a nd G overnmen t P o l icy i n

H e ine mann .

E thn ic G roups a nd B oundar ies ( I n tro .) .

L ondon :

A l len

a nd Unw in . C ldber t , J . P ., 1 967. C r ick , M ., 1 976. a n thropo logy.

The G yps ies , L ondon :

P engu in .

E xp lora t ions i n Language a nd Mean ing : L ondon :

t owards a s e man t ic

Ma laby .

Durkhe im , E . a nd Mauss , M ., 1 963 .

P r im i t ive C lass if ica t ion .

L ondon :

C ohen a nd Wes t . ( Trans l . N eedha m , R .) . F oucau l t , M ., 1 971. L e land , C ., 1 893. L ondon :

Madness a nd C iv i l isa t ion . ( 4 th e d .) .

L ondon :

T av is tock .

T he Eng l ish G yps ies a nd t heir L anguage .

K egan P au l , T rench a nd Trubner .

Oke ly , J ., 1 975a .

'G ypsy I den t i ty ' C h . 2i n A da ms , B ., Oke ly , J . e t a l ( above ) .

Oke ly , J ., 1 975b.

' Work a nd T rave l ' C h . 5i n A da ms , B ., Okely J . e t a l .

( a bove ). 9 1

Oke ly , J ., 1 977.

' The Trave l lers ;

aS tudy o f s o me G yps ies i n Eng land '.

u npub lished D . Ph i l . t hes is Ox ford U n ivers i ty. Oke ly , J ., 1 979. S . L ondon ;

' Trading S tereo types ' i n E thn ic i ty a t Work .

E d . Wa l l man ,

Mac m i l lan .

S u ther land , A ., 1 975.

G yps ies :

Tho mpson , T . W., 1 923.

The H idden Amer icans .

Tav is tock .

' Consor t ing w i th t he C oun ter fei t ing G yps ies '.

J ourna l o f t he G ypsy L ore S ocie ty . Tho mpson , T . W., 1 924.

L ondon :

Th ird S er ies , Vo l . I ( 2 ):81-93.

' Eng l ish G ypsy Dea th a nd Bur ia l C us to ms .'

J ourna l o f t he G ypsy L ore S ocie ty .

Th ird S er ies , Vo l . I I ( 1-2 ) :5-38 ;

6 0-93 . Vesey-Fi tzgera ld , B ., 1 973. A bbot :

G yps ies o f B r i ta in ( 1s t e di t ion 1 944 ) .

Dav id a nd C har les .

9 2

N ewton

S OCIAL AND

CULTURAL PATTERNING AGE

I N THE

LATE

M ON

I N S OUTHERN ENGLAND

Charles B lackmore , Mary B ra ithwa i te a nd I an H odder

ABSTRACT The s tudy b eg ins w i th a n a nalysis o fb ur ial a ssoc iat ions i n t he l ate I ron Age i n D orset . The v iew g a ined o f I ron Age s oc ial o rgan isat ion i n t hese b urials i s d iscussed .

I n a dd it ion t he s ign if icance a t tached

t o p art icu lar a r t i fac t t ypes i nb ur ia l c on tex ts i s d e term ined . For e xa mp le, s o me p ot tery f or ms o ccur more c o m mon ly i nb ur ials t han i n s et t le men t s ites. The r eg ional d is tr ibu t ions o f t he a r ti fac ts f ound i n t he b ur ia ls a nd s et t le men ts i s t hen c ons idered .

I ti s s hown t ha t t he a r tefac ts w ith

as pec ial s ign if icance i nb urial c on tex ts d ef ine a n i nner Durotr ig ian a rea. The d istr ibu t ions o f Durotr ig ian c o ins s how marked f a l l-offs a t t he b oundaries o f t h is i nner a rea. On t he o ther h and , many a r tif act t ypes a nd s tyles c ross t he b oundary a nd s o t he d ist inc t ive c haract er o f t he i nner a rea i s n ot t he r esu l t o f al ack o f i n terac t ion w ith o u tside g roups. I ti s s uggested t ha t t he c ore Durotrig ian a rea d ef ines a n i den t ity c onsc ious i n terest g roup i n r eference t o o u tsiders a nd t ha t s o me a r t if ac ts a re h eld b ack f ro m w ider d ispersal b ecause t hey s ymbol ise t h is g roup .

Th is h ypothesis i s f urther e xa m ined b y d iscussing t he

n a ture o f c u l tural p a t tern ing i n t he n eighbouring S o merset a rea. The d istribu t ions o f p ot tery d ecora t ive t ra i ts a nd f or ms a re e xa m ined a nd r elat ionsh ips w i th t he Duro trig ian a rea a re c onsidered. The s y mbol ising o ft he g roup t o wh ich o ne b elong s i s s hown t o h ave b een more importan t i nt he s ou thwest o f England i n t he l a te I ron Age t han i n t he s ou theast . Th is i s s een a s o ccur ing f or t wo c onnec ted r easons —less c en tra l ised p ol i t ical s truc ture i n t he s ou thwest o f B r ita in a nd g rea ter c o mpet i t ion b etween g roups.

Accord ing t o C ohen ( 1974 , p . 2 3 ) " the t er m e thn ic ity r efers t o t he d egree o f c on for m ity t o t he c ol lec t ive n or ms [ o f s oc iety ] i n t he c ourse o f s oc ia l i nt eract ion". We a l l p robably f eel t ha t w e b elong t o o ne o r more e thn ic g roups, b u t t h is f eel ing o n i t s own i s n ot e thn ic ity a ccord ing t o t he d ef in i t ion p referred h ere.

E thn ic ity o n ly o ccurs i fw e u se o ur e thn ic g roup a ff il ia t ion a nd o ur

c u l ture a s af ra mework f or s oc ial i n terac t ion a nd a s a mechan is m f or s upport ing e cono m ic a nd p ol i t ical s trateg ies a nd c o mpet i t ion . As c o mpet i t ion o ver r esources o r i n terests i ncreases , s o i ti s more l ikely t ha t c u l ture w i l l b e u sed t o r einforce o ur w i th in-group d ependenc ies a nd b etween-group r ela t ions.

9 3

S o t he h istory o f ac u l ture t ra it may b e i r relevan t t o i t s u se i n a ny p art icu lar c on tex t .

I n ac onf l ic t o f i n terests, w e may p ick o u t p art icu lar t ra its f ro m

t he p ool a va ilable t o u s a nd u se t he m t o s upport o r j ust ify t he c onf l ic t. Wh ile s o me t ra i ts may b e u sed i n e thn ic ity , o thers a t t he s a me t ime may n o t. E thn ic i ty o f t h is f or m i s u sual ly s een a s o ccurr ing b etween t erritorial g roups. S im ilar mechan is ms when t hey o ccur b etween s tatus g roups w ith in s oc iety a re s o met i mes c a l led e l i t is m ( Cohen 1 974 ).

Co mpet i t ion o ver s carce

r esources ( whether t hese b e l and , c a t t le ,p ol i t ica l p ower e tc.) b etween a ge g roups o r b etween t he s exes, o r b etween p eop le i n d if feren t e cono m ic n iches, may s im ilarly l ead t o g reater c u l tura l d ist inc t ions a s t he g roup s u se c u l ture t o r e in force a nd c oord ina te t heir a c t iv it ies.

The more t here i s c onf l ic t o f

i n terests b etween g roups o f t hese v ar ious f or ms, t he more c learly w i l l c u l tu ral d ist inc t ions b e s tressed— the more l i kely w i l l c u l ture b e u sed a s p ar t o f as tra tegy f or ma in ta in ing w i th in-group c oord ina t ion a nd b e tween—group c o mp et i t ion .

Thus t he more c o mpet i t ion o ver s carce r esources, t he more l i kely

w i l l mater ial c u l ture s how d iscrete d if ferences.

Bu t t h is i s n ot s i mp ly a

mat ter o f d ecrees o f d iference b etween s oc iet ies — i t 's r a ther a mat ter o f d i f feren t s tructures o f c u l tural p a t tern ing.

F or e xa mp le, i n as i tua t ion o f

c o mpet i t ion b etween s pa t ial g roups, p la teaus o f s im ilar mater ial c u l ture may b e f ound w i th s harp f a l l-of fs a t t he e dges o f t he g roups, a s o pposed t o g radual a nd smooth s pa t ial v ariat ion i n c u l tural c on ten t. D if feren t s tructures c an a lso b e e xa m ined i n t he p a ttern o fa ssoc iat ion a nd n on-overlap b etween t ra i ts. S uch s tud ies a re r elevan t t o b oth e xchanged a nd n on-exchanged i t e ms, s ince b oth may b e u sed i n w i th in-group a nd b e tween-group r e lat ions , a nd i ti s i mp ossible t o d eter m ine a p riori wh ich t ra i ts w il l d ef ine i n terest g roups a nd wh ich w il l n ot .

However , i t may o f ten b e u sefu l t o c o mpare t he d istribu t ions

o f e xchanged i t e ms w i th t hose t ra i ts wh ich c annot p hysical ly c hange h ands s uch a s b urial r i tes. The d anger o f t h is t ype o f a pproach i s t ha t i ti s of ten d if f icu l t t o d eter m ine t he n ature o f s uch s truc tures i n a rchaeo log ical e v idence, a nd t he s truc tures may b e i n terpretable i n o ther ways.

I ti s t herefore n ecessary t o p rov ide l arge

amoun ts o f i ndependen t e v idence t o s upport a ny s upposed d isp lay o f e thn ic i ty. F ortuna tely , t he o ne t h ing o f wh ich t he a rchaeo log is t o f ten d oes h ave a l o t i s ma teria l c u l ture , s o t h is i s a n a pproach wh ich i s o f ten f easible. The a rchaeol og ist i s a lso of ten a ble t o i den t ify s tress i n e cono m ic s yste ms ( Cohen 1 977 ) wh ich may h ave l ed t o c o mpet it ion a nd c on f l ict. F or e xa mp le, s i tes may move i n to l ess g ood s o ils o r t he e nv iron men t may b e s everely d egraded .

The a rch-

a eolog ist c an t hus a t te mp t t o e xa m ine t he r elat ionsh ip b etween t he b u ild-up o f t ension a nd s tress o n t he o ne h and , a nd t he u se o f ma ter ial c u l ture t o s upport c o mpet i t ion o n t he o ther.

The a pproach i s n ot , t herefore, d eter m in ist ic.

I ts i mp ly s uggests t ha t t he a rchaeolog ist c an e xa m ine t he r ela t ionsh ip b e tween c u l tural p a t tern ing a nd s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic s tress , u sing t he u nderly ing c onc ep t o f e thn ic i ty. The D orset l a te I ron Age A s a n e xa mp le o ft h is a pproach , t he ma ter ial c ul ture o f t he l a te I ron Age i n D orset a nd a d jo in ing a reas w i l lb e d escr ibed .

The s tudy b egan w ith a n

a nalysis o f l a te I ron Age b urials i n D orset—for e xa mp le, t hose f ound i n Ma iden 9 4

9 5

D u r o t r i g a n b u r i a l s i t e s o f t h e L a t e P r e R o m a n I r o n A g e .

C as t le War C e me te-r y. -Three h undred s uch b ur ia ls a re k nown i n Dorse t , b u t o n ly a bou t o ne h undred h ad a dequa te r ecords t o a l low d e ta i led s tudy . ( For d is tr ibu t ion s ee F igure 1 ) . Many o f t hese w ere e xcava ted s ome t ime a go , f or m ing a sma l l s amp le , a nd t here i s s ome d egree o f c hrono log ica l i mprecis ion . T he d a ta a re , t here fore , n o t h igh ly r e l iab le , a nd t he i mpor tan t b ur ia ls f ro m t he Ma iden C as t le War C e me tery may h ave b een d epos i ted q u ick ly a nd u ncharac ter is t ica l ly , a l though g rave g oods were p laced i n t hese b ur ia ls a nd t hey were p laced i n c are fu l ly a nd s ign i f ican t ly , a s w i l l b e s hown l a ter . A l though t he D orset b ur ials c o mprise a sma l l s a mp le o f r a ther p oor d ata , a nalysis was c arr ied o u t i no rder t o d eter m ine t he n a ture o f a ny c lear p a t tern ing. The b uria ls s tud ied c on ta ined g rave g oods r ang ing f ro m a l arge amoun t o f p ot tery t o a n i mal oferings a nd p ersonal o rna men ts i nc lud ing b rooches , b ronze o r s hale b racelets a nd r ings. On ly 8 0 i nhu mat ions w ere s uf f ic ien t ly r ecorded t o a l low e xa m ina t ion o fw eal th a nd s tatus d ifferences. The g raves w ere d iv ided i n to f our w ea l th o r s ta tus g roups.

The f i rst

a nd r ichest g roup c on ta ined a n u mber o ff iner metal o b jec ts , o rna men ts a nd w eapons, f e ma les w i th b ronze m irrors, a nd t he b ur ials a lso c on ta ined b ronze b racelets, b ronze ' ear-scoops ' , i ron k n ives a nd a xeheads a nd b ronze b rooches. On ly 7g raves o ccur i nt h is g roup .

However , i ti s o f i n terest t hat o ne o f t hese

g raves c on ta ins a c h i ld o f 5y ears o ld a t L i t ton Cheney. Th is w as a cco mpan ied b y ab ronze p enannu lar b rooch , ab ronze b racelet , ah inged b rooch o f t inned b ronze, a nd a Durotrig ian b ow l o f B ra i lsford 's c lass 1 . The s econd g roup h ad 2 8 b urials w ith j ust o ne i t em o fb ronze ( usual ly a b rooch ) w ith p erhaps s o me s hale, p ot tery o r a n i mal o f ferings. F ew h ad p ot tery , a nd p ot tery was a lso e x tre mely r are i n t he r ichest g roup . I nb oth t he f i rst a nd s econd g roups a l l t he b rooches w ere f ound w i th males. O f t he f e male g raves, o n ly t hree h ad metalwork o f a ny f or m—a b ronze n eed le , ab ronze s p iral r ing a nd a d ouble i ron r ing — the r e ma inder h av ing n eck laces o f g lass a nd amber b eads. The t h ird g roup c onsisted o f4 5 i nhuma t ions w i th j ust p ot tery a nd s hale, o r a n i ma l oferings. N o metal a rt ifac ts o ccurred . I n t h is g roup , u n l ike t he f i rst t wo , p ot tery i s c o m mon a nd u p t o 6v essels were f ound i n t he g raves. Af ourth g roup c onsisted o fb ur ials w ith n o g rave g oods a t a l l. I n s p i te o f t he sma l l s a mp le, i ti s c lear t ha t male-fe male d ist inc t ions a re marked b y t he a rt ifac ts a ssoc ia ted w i th t he d iferen t s exes. What i s a lso c lear i s t ha t t he weal thy g raves o fe ach s ex o ccur i n d ifferen t a ge g roups. The w eal th ier male g raves a re o f men u sua l ly a ged 3 0 o r o ver. On t he o ther h and , t he w ea l th ier f e male g raves a re u sua l ly o fw o men a ged 3 0 o r u nder ( Figure 2 ). S im i larly , a n e xa m inat ion o f t he u nacco mpan ied , a nd t here fore p robably p oor , b urials , s hows t ha t many o f t he f e males w i thou t g rave g oods a re o ver 3 0 , wh ile t he males w i thou t g rave g oods a re a l l u nder 3 0.

S o , g en-

e ra l ly , i ti s t he o lder men a nd y ounger w o men who d e monstra te w eal th . To a dd t o t h is, 5 g raves c on ta ined o x-bones. I n e ach i nstance t he b ones a re w ith a n a du l t male o f 3 0 o r o ver ( a l though o ne c ase o ccurs o f a n o x b one w ith a n i n fan t ).

The o xb one i s a lways l a id a t t he h ead o f t he man .

more o f ten h ave p ig a n i mal ofer ings. 9 6

Wo men

I ti s o f i n terest t ha t e arly I r ish t ex ts

1 00 9 0 • 8 0 •

• *

7 0 6 0 •

4 1 * •

5 0 •

•

•

4 0

••

3 0 -

•

2 0

•

1 0

• •.• •

• •

2 5

4 0

1 0

1 5

2 0 a ge

Ma le

a ge

a nd

i n

3 0

3 5

4 5

• 5 0

5 5

y ears

w ea lth

1 00

•

90

•

8 0 7 0

•

• •

•

4 0

• •

3 0

•

2 0 -

•

•

• •

1 0 •

5

1 0

1 5

2 0 a ge

F ema le

a ge

a nd

2 5 i n

3 0

3 5

4 0

4 5

5 0

5 5

y ears

w ea l th

F ig . 2 S ex a nd wea l th i n t he l a te I ron Age b ur ia ls o f Dorse t

9 7

i

l o r

r

-1 =

1

4

0

I

I

I

i ns

. i ns

.

/ w

I2

F ig . 3 B ra i ls ford 's Duro tr ig ian p o t tery Types ( 1-9 ) a nd a ssocia ted f orms ( 10-12 )

9 8

s uggest t hat p art icu lar j o in ts o f meat may h ave b een r ela ted t o p art icu lar i den t i t ies.

F or e xa mp le, i n at ex t d eal ing w ith C or mac mac A irt i n t he t h ird

c en tury , " h is p roper p ort ion t o e ach , v iz., a t h igh ( l aarg ) t o ak ing a nd a p oet : a n u pper t h igh ( c roche t ) f or a l i terary man : y oung l ord : h eads ( cuc id ) f or c harioteers : d ue s hare b es ides".

as h in b one ( colpa ) f or a

h aunch ( l es ) f or q ueens, a nd e very

Aga in i n at ex t r eferr ing t o D iar ma it mac C erba i l l i n

t he s ix th c en tury , " h is p roper p ort ion .. t o e ach o ne , f ru i t a nd o xen a nd b oars a nd f l itches f or k ings a nd o l laves a nd f ree-noble e lders .. r ed mea t f or w arriors, h ead .. f or c har io teers a nd j ugglers .., v eal , l a mb , p ork f or y oung men a nd ma idens".

These t wo t ex ts i nd ica te t hat t here i s s o me

f or m o f s tatus wh ich may b e a t tached t o t he p ort ion o f a n i ma l o f fered , a l though e t iquet te u ndoubted ly v aried f ro m r eg ion t o r eg ion a nd o ver t ime. The l a te I ron Age i n s ou thern Eng land s aw a warr ing , c o mpet i t ive s oc iety i n wh ich t here c ou ld h ave b een c o mpet i t ion b etween t he y ounger , f i gh t ing men , a nd t he e lders who c on trol led t he f unc t ion ing o f s oc iety , c ou ld g a in a ccess t o weal th a nd s tatus, a nd c ou ld t hus marry a nd p roduce c h ildren . The c o mpeti t ion b etween y oung a nd o ld men i s s een i n s y mbol ic d if ferences. A s a lready n oted , o xb ones a re a ssoc ia ted w ith o lder men a nd i ti s ma in ly men a ged 3 0 a nd o ver who a re b ur ied w i th marked w ea l th . t he o pposite.

Bu t , a lso a s n o ted , wo men s how

They h ave l ess w eal th a s t hey g et o ver 3 0.

Th is c an b e e xp la ined

i f wo men w ere o n ly o fv a lue a s y oung p roduc t ive s ubs istence w orkers , a s p rod ucers o f c h ildren , a nd a s as ource o f w eal th f ro m d owries.

Thus, wo men

e xh ib i t g reatest s tatus a nd i mportance d uring t he t ime t hey a re marriageable a nd a re most p roduc t ive. A s t hey g row o lder t hey a re , u n l ike t he men , n o l onger o fg reat v a lue a nd h ave l ess s ta tus. Thus t here i s e v idence o f ap at tern o f s oc ial s tra ins w i th in Dorset s oc iety wh ich r ela tes t o t he o u tside c onf l ict a nd t he n eed t o ma in ta in a b ody o f y oung f igh t ing men . There i s ac on f l ic t o f i n terests b etween t he y oung a nd o ld men i n t hat t he o lder men p reven t t he y ounger men f ro m g a in ing a ccess t o weal th , s tatus a nd p erhaps w ives a t t oo e arly a n a ge a nd y et t he e lders d epend o n t he y oung men f or s ecur i ty. There i s a lso a c on f l ict o f i n terests b etween wo men a s t he ma in p roduc t ive a nd r eproduc t ive f orce, a nd t he men a s t he ma in warri or a nd o rgan isat iona l g roup .

I tw il l b e s hown b elow t ha t t hese s tra ins w i th in

s ect ions o f t he s oc iety a re r ela ted t o ah igh d egree o f c on for m ity a nd i den t i ty awareness w i th in t he s oc iety a s a whole. The b urials c an a lso b e u sed t o g ive s o me i nd icat ion o f t he s ign if icance o r v alue a t tached t o p art icu lar a rt ifact t ypes a nd t h is w il lb e s hown i n t he f ol low ing d iscussion o f t he c on te mporary l a te I ron Age p ot tery t ypes i n D orset . The c o m mon ly u sed p ot tery f or ms i n t he Dorset l a te I ron Age a re b ased o n Bra i lsford 's ( 1958 ) g roup ings ( Figure 3 ). There a re many p roble ms i nv olved i n a ny s tudy o f t he d istr ibu t ions o f t hese t ypes.

These d if f icu l t ies i n-

c lude t he p ossib il i ty o f c hronolog ical c hange a nd l ack o f p rec ise c on te mporane ity , a nd a l ack o f c lear d ef in i t ion o f s o me t ypes ( espec ial ly t he ' bead-ri m med j ars ' ). These p roble ms w il lb e r eferred t o* l ater i n t he i n terpreta t ion o f t he d istribu t ions. The d i f feren t t ypes o f p o t tery a re s pread more o r l ess w idely i nt he Dors et a rea ( Figure 4 ). The d egree o f s pread o r d ispersion o f e ach p ot tery t ype was a ssessed u sing a d ispersion i ndex ( Hodder a nd Orton 1 976 ,p .208 ). 9 9

A v ery

s e t l e m e n t s

1 00

c t . . , CO0 EZ

O D O t 0

c r e m a t i o n

r , 0 _ .

D i s t r i b u t i o n s o f B r a i l s f o r d ' s C l a s 1 ( R i b e d o r P l a i n ) a n d C l a s 6 ( C o u n t e r S u n k L u g J a r s )

4. 11

Table 1 . The d ispersion i ndex a nd p ercen tage i nb ur ials f or t ypes o f Dorset p ot tery. Bra ilsford 's c lasses

D ispersion i ndex

Percen tage i n b ur ials

7

4 2

6 9

8

4 5

3 9

1

4 6

5 8

2

4 8

4 2

3

5 3

9

5 3

3 0

4

5 5

1 7

5

6 0

4

6

6 4

3

1 01

0

close relationship can be identified (table 1) between the distance-spread by a pottery type and the percenta_ge of that type in burials as opposed -to settle­ ments. For example, the War Cemetery bowls (type 1 and 1a) occur often in burials and are not widely spread, and types such as the countersunk handles (6) occur little in burials and are most widely spread. The interpretation of this relationship which is to be preferred here is that the pot types found most in burials had a special significance relative t:o other pot types which resulted in their being used to symbolise a territ:orial unit (the Durotriges) while other pots were traded or copied outside this unit. This interpretation is possible whether,, the pots were made centrally or not. Before going on to test the hypothesis against other evidence, and to explain the relationship, some alternative hypotheses will be considered. The first alternative is that the pot forms which occur in burials appear to have less wide regional distributions because of chronological change. The widespread countersunk handles, for example, may have covered a longer period of time than the graves and may have been spread more widely at a phase different from the majority of the graves and the more localised types. Even if this does prove to be the case, it is still possible to discuss why an inner, more we 11-defined area existed at one time. A second alternative is that the commercial or exchange value of a pot type or its contents, varied, and that this value determined both the distance spread and the placement in graves. We would thus have to say that the War Cemetery (1) bowls were of lower value so that they were put in graves and were less widely traded or copied. In fact such pots, for example, would normally be considered of higher value than the more widely spread and coarser jars with countersunk handles. Yet this alternative hypothesis is possible and reasonable. The onus remains with the writers to provide further supp­ orting evidence for the reflection of 'ethnicity' in this material. Some other artifact evidence from the Dorset area will be me}.ltioned be­ fore examining a neighbouring area. Cunliff e (1974. p. 97) bas toted that in the Dorset area, the late Iron Age Durotrigian culture "exhibi�s a consid­ erable degree of cultural unity with marked dissimilarities to the neighbouring A trebatic culture". This unity is seen not only in pottery which has different forms in Dorset and Atrebatic Hampshire with a sharp boundary between, but also in coin distributions and in burial practices. Inhumation is found in Dor­ set while cremation was adopted in the Atrebatic area. It is extremely difficult to use the late Iron Age coins as reflections of relationships in the late Iron Age since a large number of them continued in use well int:o the Roman period. Analysis of the structures of these distri­ butions has shown a relatively abrupt boundary in the Dorset coins at exactly the edge of the main core of pottery distributions (Hogg 1971, Hodder 1977). Both Allen (1962) and, Cunliffe (1974, pp. 96-:7) have noted the clarity of the coin distinctions between Dorset Durotriges and Somerset Dobunni. It is suggested, then, that in the Dorset area a number of cultural traits were retained by a territorial group such that they symbolised and identified that group. This is claimed because of the structured patterning and associ­ ations discovered. The patterning· is seen in customs and traditions (burial

102

r i tes a nd n on-Belg ic s tyles o f p ot tery ), a nd i n e xchanged i t e ms ( coins a nd p erhaps p ot tery ).

Bu t , a s a lready n o ted , n ot a l l t ra i ts s how t hese d ist inc t ions.

A s w el l a s s o me p ot f or ms , s ty les o f w eav ing c o mbs, i fa ny o f t hese p rove t o b e c on te mporary w i th t he p eriod d iscussed h ere , s how l oca l ised c on tac ts r ead i ly c rossing t he b oundar ies ( Hodder a nd H edges 1 977 ) , a nd h igh ly v alued f ine p ot tery was t raded w idely ( Cun l i f fe 1 974 ) . I n a dd it ion , t here a re c hronolog ical p roble ms wh ich , when s olved , a re l ik ely t o d isturb t he p ic ture p resen ted a bove. I n p art icu lar , t he maps i n F igure 4 d o n ot i nc lude e xa mp les o ccurr ing i n t he S o merset l evels a nd d isc ussed b y Mi les a nd Mi les ( 1969 ).

These e xa mp les h ave n o t b een i nc luded

h ere b ecause t he e v idence s uggests t hat p robably a l l t he Durotrig ian material i n t he S o merset l evels i s c on te mporary w ith Ro mano-Brit ish ma terial ( i bid ., p p . 2 5 a nd 5 1).

I n c onsider ing t he l a te I ron Age s i tua t ion t hese e xa mp les

h ave b een d isregarded a l though t here a re f ew g ood a ssoc iat ions a va ilable a t p resen t . These p roble ms d o n ot afec t t he d ist inc t iveness o f t he Durotrig ianA trebat ic b order. G lastonbury p ot tery Ar ela ted s tudy h as b een c arr ied o u t o f n eighbour ing I ron Age wares i n S o merse t an d s ou thwest Eng land . ' Glastonbury ware ' i s r ather a n ebulous t er m u sed t o d escribe s o me d ist inc t ively d ecora ted p ot tery o ccurr ing i n t hese a reas. The d at ing o f t h is t ype o f p ot tery i s e x tre mely d i f f icu l t. Avery ( 1973) a nd C un li f fe ( 19 74 ) s uggest a t l east t ha t i tb egan b efore 5 0 B .C., a nd a ssoc ia t ions w i th Ro man material ( e .g. a t Gough 's O ld Cave, Cheddar , l ayer 3 ) i nd ica te c on t inu i ty u n t il t he Ro man c onquest a t l east i n s o me a reas. A l though i tw ou ld b e u nw ise t o d raw a ny c lear c onclusions a bou t t he d a te o fG lastonbury p ot tery , t here i s s o me s uggest ion t hat i tc ou ld h ave b een p art ly c on te mporary w ith t he D orset ma terial a lready d iscussed . b e f ur ther men t ioned b elow.

Th is c hronolog ical p roble m w il l

S ince P eacock 's ( 1969 ) w ork o n t he p etrology o f t he i nc lus ions i n G lastonb ury p ot tery , i th as of ten b een a ssu med t ha t G lastonbury p ot tery i n t he S o merset a rea w as p roduced a t an umber o f c en tres b y s pec ial ist p ot ters. I th as t hus b eco me u n fash ionable t o t alk o f ' t ribal ' o r ' cu l tural ' e xp lana t ions f or t h is a nd o ther I ron Age p ot tery g roup ings a nd , i nstead , ' co m merc ial ' f actors a re of ten i nvoked t o e xp la in t he d istribu t ions. The c o m merc ial i n terpreta t ion h as r ema ined p opu lar e ven t hough P eacock 's w ork c ou ld n ot b e r e la ted t o t ypolog ical s tud ies.

Avery ( 1973) , f or e xa mp le, f ound i te x tre mely d if icu l t t o r ela te

Peacock 's p etrolog ica l g roups w i th s ty l ist ic t ra its a nd t heir d istr ibu t ions. The a im o f t h is p art o f t he s tudy was , t herefore, t o e xa m ine i n g reat d eta i l t he d istribu t ions o f s pec if ic mo t ifs o n G lastonbury p ot tery , a nd t o s ee wha t l i gh t t hese c ou ld t hrow o nt he p roduct ion a nd d ispersal o f t he p o ttery. The ma in emphasis o f t he s tudy was a n a na lysis o f t he 3 4 d ecora t ive d esign e le men ts a nd t heir r eg ional d istribu t ions. Av ariety o ft echn iques o f s pat ial a nalysis w as u sed t o p rov ide i n for ma t ion a bou t t he s pa t ial p a t tern ing a nd a ssoc ia t ions b etween t he d if feren t d esign e lemen t d istr ibu t ions.

The a na lyses s howed t hat t here were n o d iscrete d istr i-

b u t ions , n o t wo t ra i ts c overing t wo d ist inct ly s epara te a nd n on-overlapp ing 1 03

a reas.

On t he o ther h and , t wo t ypes o r s truc tures o f d istr ibu t ions w ere

c learly i nd ica ted ( t able 2 ).

The f irst c onsists o f l ocal ised d istribu t ions i n

t he c ore a rea o f s ou th S o merset ( e .g. F igure 5 a ), t he s econd o f more w ides pread d istribu t ions h av ing t he s a me c en tre, b u t s pread ing f ro m S . Wa les t o Ma iden C ast le a nd Heng istbury H ead ( e .g. F igure 5 b ).

I ti s n oteworthy

t ha t t he more w idespread d istr ibu t ions a re ma in ly o f s i mp le g eo metric r ect il i near d esign e le men ts.

The more l ocal ised g roup i ncludes many c urv i l inear

d esigns — the t rad i t iona l h a l l mark o f t he G lastonbury s tyle. Cou ld t hese t wo t ypes o f d istr ibu t ion b e d ue t o c o m merc ia l f ac tors , w ith l ocal ised l ow v alue wares ( bu t h igh ly d ecora ted w i th c o mp lex c urv i l inear d es igns ) a nd more w idespread t rade o f h igh v alue wares ( bu t w i th s i mp ler g eometr ic d esigns )? The f i rst r eason why c o m merc ial v alue may n o t b e a n a de quate e xp lana t ion i s t ha t n o c orrespondence c ou ld b e f ound b e tween d esign e le men ts a nd Peacock 's p etrolog ical g roups. s tyle a nd p etrology was f ound ( Figure 6 ).

C o mp lete c ross-cu tt ing b e tween

Th is e v idence d oes n ot l end s upport

t o t he i dea t ha t af ew s epara te p roduct ion c oncerns were mak ing t heir own t ypes o f p o t tery a nd d istr ibu t ing t he m t o d if feren t mark et ing a reas. S econd , P eacock 's d istribu t ions o f p etrolog ica l g roups d o n o t s how c ore a nd w ider d istribu t ions. Th ird , i n many c ases , v ery l ocal ised a r id d ist inc t ive d es ign e le men ts o ccurred a t o ne s i te o n ly , o r a t t wo o r t hree n eighbouring s i tes.

I ti s d if f icu l t

t o e xp la in t h is t ype o f l ocal ised d istr ibu t ion o f d ist inc t ive t ra its b y c en tral ised p roduct ion a nd d ispersal. F ourth , Peacock s uggested c en tral ised p roduc t ion f or a t l east s o me o f t he p ot tery " s ince i ti s u n l ikely t hat t he d istribu t ions i nvolved c an b e a ccount ed f or b y t he t ran sportat ion o f r aw ma terials" ( 1969 , p .41). I n f act t here a re s everal e thnograph ic e xa mp les ( e .g. B ohannan 1 968 , p .111) wh ich d e mons tra te t hat i nd iv iduals a re o f ten w il l ing t o t ravel c onsiderable d istances t o o bta in g ood p ot t ing c lays a nd ma ter ials. The s tyl ist ic e v idence c ou ld b e s een a s s uggest ing a l esser d egree o f c en tral isat ion i n t he p roduc t ion o f G lastonbury p ot tery t han h as r ecen tly b een a ssu med.

Bu t whether t he d istribu t ion o f t he p ottery was c en tral ised o r n o t ,

i tr e ma ins n ecessary t o e xp la in t he d i f ference b e tween a more c en tra l c ore d istribu t ion o f s o me t ra i ts i n s ou th S o merset a nd a w ider d istr ibu t ion o f o ther t ra i ts. Ap oss ible e xp lanat ion i s t ha t t he c ore/w ider d if ference i s t he r esu l t o f t he way i n wh ich t he d esign e le men ts h ave b een d ef ined .

The l evel o f d ef in i-

t i on p ossible f or c o mp lex a nd s i mp le d esigns o bv ious ly d ifers a nd i t may b e f or t h is r eason , r a ther t han a ny o ther, t hat s o me d esigns a ppear more l ocali sed t han o thers.

Bu t i ti s o f i n terest t ha t t here a re n o p er iphera l d ist inc t ive

l ocal isat ions o f G lastonbury p ottery i n D orset , n orth S o merset a nd s ou th Wales.

The l ocal ised d istr ibu t ions a re c onf ined t o s ou th S o merset.

A lso o f

i n terest i s t ha t s pec if ic d es igns a lways o ccur n ear e ach o ther o n n earby s i tes. The e v idence s uggests t ha t o n ly s o me a spec ts o f t he G lastonbury c ore r epert o ire — the l ess d ist inc t ive o f t he d esign e le men ts —were u sed p eripheral ly. S o i ti s s t i ll n ecessary t o a sk why t he s ou th S o merset c ore a rea ma in ta ined

1 04

Table 2 .

Crosses mark p a irs o f d esign e le men t d istribu t ions w i th s ign if ican t ly d if feren t d ispersions a s measured b y t he d ispersion r at io. l arger s a mp les a re c onsidered.

On ly t he

For t he d istribu t ion o f d es ign e le-

men ts 1 a nd 1 4 s ee F igure 5 . d esign e le men ts 1 5

2 0

1 3

1 6

2 1

2 7

1 4

1 8

1 5

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2 2 4

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G las tonbury ware d es ign e le men t G roup 1 4.

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1 .
ut programme, finally completed after more than fifty years when New Minster was removed to a new site at Hyde in the northern suburb. After this and the decay of the royal palace which quickly followed, central Winchester achieved essentially the form which w e know today. In purely spatial terms later­ medieval foundations, such as the four friaries and Winchester College, were peripheral and, although each made a special contribution to the character of he city and to the life of their immediate neighbourhoods, their precincts were accommodated without fundamentally altering the established topography. , Early medieval Winchester was far more than a centre for political and ·religious ritual and pilgrimage, although its character as such undoubtedly attracted a greater concentration of wealth and population than the 'natural' resources of its hinterland would normally have sustained. In the twelfth century it had a permanent population of perhaps between eight and ten thousand and it was among the four or five great cities of the kingdom. The annual fair was of European importance and for a hundred and fifty years or more the city had been a centre for specialized manufactures and services. Its inhabitants formed a society whose day to day business was fuelled by money and whose hierarchy, below the ranks of the military and landowning aristocracy and of the clergy, was in large part defined by personal wealth. Usurers were among the most well-known citizens and both private and institutional landlords had ent-rolls of urban property, from which they received incomes rarely matched, even in purely nominal terms, by those of their successors of the later Middle ages. From the early twelfth century onwards the city endured a steady decline, certainly in relation to other centres and perhaps also in absolute terms. This may be attributed primarily to the slackening link between Winchester, the monarchy, and national government, but even in 1400, when the rupture had been virtually complete for more than a century, Winchester was a major provincial centre with an important clothing industry and a wide range of other

151

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- P ub l ic L ane

Wa l ter B o lou r 's P rope r ty R i chard Bos ing tce 's H ouse

P r ivate L ane — II

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0

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1 00

B .C .B .

F ig . 2

The l oca l t opography o ft he n or th e astern q uar ter o ft he wa l led a rea o f Winchester i n t he f our teen th c en tury .

1 52

t rades.

I t s l a ter d ecay was b y c o mpar ison more s evere a nd i t s p ost- medieva l

c harac ter a s a n

a ncien tb ody w i thou t as ou l ' h as made i t ap ar t icu lar ly a p-

p ropr ia te s ub jec t f or a rchaeo log ica l a nd t opographica l e nqu iry . Med ieva l Winchester was u n ique , b u t t he p r incip les e vo lved i n i t s s tudy may c erta in ly b e a pp lied e lsewhere a nd many o ft he c onc lusions t o b e d rawn a bou t i t s n a ture a s a nu rban c o mmun i ty a re a tt he v ery l east a s ound b asis f or c o mpar ison w i th o ther med ieva l c i t ies. A s a lready s uggested , t he d e l ibera te o rgan iza t ion o ft he u rban s pace o n a l arge s ca le was a n e xpression o f p o l i t ica l r a ther t han l oca l ly-based a u thor i ty . We may s uspect t ha t i nt he s uccessive r ebui ld ings o ft he g rea t minsters a nd i n t he o rgan iza t ion o ft heir p recinc ts i n r e la t ion t o t he r est o ft he c i ty , t here was d isp layed a c oncern f or p rac t ica li t ies, f orma l a ppearances, a nd e ven s ocia l c on tro l , s i mi lar t o t ha t o ft he modern t own-p lanner . I n terest i nt hese ma t ters was w idespread d ur ing t he Midd le Ages a nd a c o mparab le , a l though p robab ly more e labora te a nd a esthe t ica l ly s oph ist ica ted , c oncern f or t he l ayou t o fp ub l ic s pace a nd b u i ld ings c an b e d e tec ted i nt he p lann ing o f T uscan c i ties b e tween t he e leven th a nd t he t h ir teen th c en tur ies. B y c on trast , t he c i t izens o f W inchester a s ab ody e xercised n o more t han a marg ina l c on tro l o ver t he b roader s pa t ia l o rgan iza t ion o f t heir c i ty b y a pp lying r ud imen tary s an i tary a nd b u i ld ing b ylaws a nd i nt he r egu la t ion o f s tree ts a nd marke ts. Mun ic ipa l e n terpr ise , e xpressed i n s uch b ui ld ings a s t he g u i ldha l l wh ich w as h ard ly more s pac ious t han a modera te ly-sized p r iva te h ouse , h ad a min ima l p hysica l i mp ac t , p r incipa l ly b ecause i nt he p er iod o f Winchester ' sp rosper i ty , c o m muna l a sp ira t ions a nd r esources w ere b o th sma l l . A t t he p r iva te l eve l , t he v ery i nt ensi ty o f s e t t le men t was a n i mpor tan t b arrier t o sweep ing p hysica l c hange . There were r ap id c hanges i n p at terns o f l and-use a nd i n t he o ccupa t ion o f b ui ld ings, b u t t hese t ook p lace w i th in a f ramework o f s tree ts, s tand ing s truct ures a nd p roper ty b oundar ies wh ich b y c o mpar ison r ema ined s ta t ic . On ly i n a reas s uf fer ing d epopu la t ion a nd f a l ling r en t v a lues were p r iva te l and lords a b le t o a cqu ire l and o n ag rand s ca le a nd o n af reeho ld b asis, u sua l ly w i th a v iew t o c rea t ing s ubstan t ia l dwe l ling h ouses w i th e x tensive g ardens. The more n orma l p rocess i n a reas wh ich r ema ined p rosperous, was f or a l and lord t o a dap t e x ist ing s tock b y c ombin ing p roper t ies i n t he s hor t t erm , u s ing s uch mean s a s t enure-a t-w i l l , l easeho ld , a nd marr iage . I n t he 1 370s f or e xamp le , Wa l ter B o lour , al ead ing c i t izen who was mayor o n s evera l o ccasions , b ui l t u p as ubstan t ia l b lock o f p roper ty b etween Wongar S tree t a nd Tanner S tree t , c on ta in ing h is r esidence , h a lf a d ozen o ther h ouses, c o t tages a nd w orkshops, g ardens, a nd c ourtyards ( F ig . 2 ) . P ar t o ft h is h e h e ld i n f ree b urgage a nd p ar t h e a cqu ired b y aj ud icious marr iage , b u t h is dwe l l ing-house , wh ich c ont a ined a n i mpressive t i led f l oor p robab ly s a lvaged f ro m a r edundan t p ar ish c hurch i n t he n e ighbourhood , h e s eems t o h ave h e ld a s t enan t o f al esser c i t iz en . B o lour ' sw i fe d ied b efore h im , b u t d id n o t l eave h er p roper ty t o h er h usband , a nd s oon a f ter h is d ea th t he who le b lock was o nce more i nt he owners hip o ft hree o r f our s epara te l and lords. I nt he n ex t g enera t ion t he g rea test merchan t o ft he c i ty l i ved i n ah ouse wh ich h e h e ld a s t enan t o f af ormer merchan t f a mi ly wh ich h ad r a ised i t se lf t o t he s ta tus o f c oun try g en try . I tc an h ard ly h ave c on formed t o as ty le more u p t o d a te t han t ha t o ft wo g enera t ions b efore h is t ime . I n ad ec l in ing c i ty l i ke Winchester b ui ld ings a re l i ke ly t o h ave r e ma ined i nu se l onger t han i n a 1 53

prosperous one, but this longevity in t�e atock of substantial houses, of which only a small minority were built of stone, s�ems in fact to have been common in medieval towns and played an important role in the fossilization of their physical framework. The citizens had an acute sense of place and neighbourhood which reflected their religious, social, and economic preoccupations. In the thirteenth centur) they were clearly aware of one of the chief characteristics of their street plan, when they distinguished the market tolls to be levied in High Street from the lesser sums due in the 'blind streets' leading out towards the walls. In the eleventh century the men living outside the city's West Gate were especially concious of their own identity, which they expressed in a guild named the 'Easter Guild' in commemoration of the part which their suburb played in the Palm Sunday processional liturgy. At the end of the Middle Ages a new sense of local community seems to have emerged, which found expression in the marked increase in popular devotion centering on the city's parish churches. This was a powerful development which among other things altered the basis for the collection of taxes. The great religious institutions of the city were for the most part self­ supporting and had little more than a marginal effect on the lives of the citi­ zens as an urban community. Each of the religious houses provided special­ ized employment for laymen and so affected the character of the areas around them, particularly in the suburbs. But these nuclei came to have a really marked effect on the physical pattern of settlement only towards the end of the Middle Ages as the city lost its population. In accordance with their rule the religious kept apart from the secular community. They thereby reinforced the generally accepted view of a social order in which even the more prosperous townsmen occupied a lowly position. �or the monarchy and its attendants, however, supplies had to be purchase in the' market-place and this brought prosperity to the whole body of citizens. In the twelfth century there was some concentration of houses belonging to magnates and royal officials in the neighbourhood of the royal palace, while the western suburb clearly owed some of its prosperity to its association with the castle, the main gate of which opened into it. But even these two royal residences had no more than a slight influence on the settlement pattern. The town lodgings of the chief men of the kingdom were not confined to any one quarter of the city. Many of them had houses in the less populous streets or in the suburbs, presumably because they contained room for spacious and secluded residences. In the days of its prosperity therefore, the life of the permanent popula­ tion had a self-contained vitality of its own and in purely spatial terms was largely independent even of those institutions which brought it business. Since before the tenth century the activities of the citizens had centered on High Street, where the great commercial transactions and most daily trading took place. After High Street there was a hierarchy of other streets and areas subject to a continuous process of evolution, which reflected the chan ging for­ tunes of the city as a whole. The final part of this paper will be concerned with some of the ways in which we can study this process.

154

Medieva l Winchester i s p ar t icu lar ly r ich i n i t s d ocu men tary s ources, which i nclude a f i ne s eries o fs urveys a nd a ssess men t l i sts.

The s urvey o f

t he r en ts d ue f ro m a l l t he p roper ties i n t he c i ty c arr ied o u t f or t he b ishop i n 148 p rovides n o t o n ly a d e tai led p icture o f t he midtwe lf th c en tury c om mun i ty , b u t a lso a n i nsigh t i n to i t s e vo lu t ion o ver t he p revious t wo h undred y ears. T he p at tern o f ownership o fg round r en ts, f or e xamp le , e nab les u s t o d ef ine i mpor tan t s tages i n t he c i ty ' se x tra mura l g row th .

Wi th in t he wa l ls we c an

c haracter ize i ndividua l s tree ts a ccording t o t he s ize a nd v a lue o f p roper ties — s o me thing a pproach ing a modern r a t ing v a lua tion —as we l l a s b y t he t rades a nd s ta tus o ft he p roper ty owners. i t y.

Th is r evea ls a c i ty o f r e markab le d ivers-

T he l ow mean f ron tage w id th o f p roper t ies i n t he s tree ts l ead ing t o t he

c i ty g a tes s hows t ha t t he movemen t o ft raf f ic h ad a k ey r o le i n p ro mo t ing d eve lopmen t . We c an c on trast a reas o fh igh-densi ty s et t le men t a nd h igh p rope r ty v a lues, s uch a s H igh S tree t , n o t o n ly w i th a reas where p opu la tion w as s parse a nd v a lues l ow , b u t a lso w i th o ther q uar ters where p roperty v a lues a nd d ensi ty o f s e t t le men t i ndica te t ha t t he i nhabi tan ts l i ved i n c lose ly-packed h ove ls, which p roduced l i t t le r en t i nco me f or t heir l and lords, o r i n s pacious, d esirab le r esidences which wou ld b e l e t f or h igh a nnua l s u ms.

F ro m l a ter

r ecords, s uch a s i t em ised t axa t ion r eturns, we c an t race t he s ubsequen t e vo lu t ion o f e ach o ft he d ist inc tive a reas o ft he t we lf th-cen tury c i ty . One s tr ik ing e xa mp le o ft h is i s t he way i n which t he r e la t ive ly p oor s tree t w i th in N or th G a te , k nown a s t he s tree t o ft he s hoemakers, c ame t o b e t he c en tre o f t he J ewish q uarter o ft he c i ty . A t t he e nd o ft he t hir teen th c entury , when t he h ouses o ft he e xpe l led J ews c ou ld p resu mab ly b e a cquired o n t he c heap , t he l ead ing woo l merchan ts o f Winchester b ui l t s ubstan tia l r esidences t here , b u t i n t he l a ter f our teen th c en tury , when t he manufacture o f c lo th r a ther t han t he e xpor t o f woo l was t he p r incipa l b usiness o f t he c i t izens, t he a rea was o nce more r educed t o i t s f or mer p over ty . Bu t e ven i n d escr ib ing t his r e la tive ly s tra igh tforward d eve lop men t t here i s ad anger o f o ver-simp li f ica tion , f or i n t he s ix teen th c en tury , J ewry S tree t , a s i t was n ow c a l led , i ncluded a t l east o ne s ubstan tia l g en t le man ' sh ouse a s we l l a s r ows o f d ere l ic t c ot tages i nhabit ed b y t he p oor . These a nd o ther a na lyses s how t ha t i ti s o n ly when we c an c o mb ine e vidence f or av ar ie ty o f c haracter ist ics o f i ndividua l a reas t ha t we c an a ch ieve a r ea list ic i nsigh t i n to t he l i fe o f a medieva l c i ty . The d ocu men tary s ources f or Winchester e nab le u s t o g o e ven f ur ther t han t h is, f or i ti s p ossib le b o th t o r econstruct t he s uccession o f owners a nd o ccup iers f or a h igh p ropor t ion o f p roper ties, f ro m C . 1 300 o nwards a nd t o p lo t t he l oca tion a nd of ten t he p recise b oundaries o ft hose p roper t ies a nd t he c hanges w hich t ook p lace i n t he m .

The f unct ion o ft he c i ty a s ap hysica l o rgan is m c an

t hen b e e xa mined f ro m h ouse t o h ouse a nd f ro m s tree t t o s tree t , b y i nvest igat i ng s uch ma t ters a s t he d istr ibu tion o ft rades ( i n which t here were we l l-def ined a nd c hrono logica l ly v ary ing p at terns) , d istr ibu t ions o f wea lth a nd o f f ice-ho ld ing , p a t terns o f l and-use , t he i den ti ty o f n e ighbourhoods a nd l oca l c o mmun i t ies, a nd t he p ar t wh ich i ndividua l c i t izens a s we l l a s g roups o f which t hey were p ar t , p layed i n a l l t hese a spects o ft he g row th a nd d ec l ine o ft he c i ty . The s tudy o ft his e vidence i s a n e ssen tia l p rerequisi te f or t he f a l l i n terpret a t ion o ft he a rchaeo logy o f med ieva l Winchester . This a pp lies b o th t o p ar ticu lar s i tes a nd t o t he e stablish men t o ft he b roader c on tex t w i th in wh ich t hey mus t b e s tudied .

Excava t ion c an r evea l n o more t han a sma l l f raction o f wha t s ur1 55

C hurchyard 0 0 C O

R ichard B os ing ton 's H ouse

Twe l f th C en tury a nd l a ter P roperty B oundar ies . T h ir teen th a nd F our teenth C en tury P rope r ty

NNN N

B oundar ies .

T we l f th C en tury S t ruc ture M e tres

T h ir teen th a nd F our teen th C en tury S t ruc tures

5

1 0

1 5 BC B

F ig . 3

Excava ted s truc tures a nd p roper ty b oundar ies i n f our teen th c en tury Winchester . The R o man n u mera ls I , I X a nd X a re h ouse n u mbers a ssigned d ur ing e xcava tion .

1 56

v ives b e low g round .

Thus i n W inchester , d uring o ne o f t he most e x tensive

p rogrammes o f a rchaeo logica l i nvest iga tion y e t u nder taken i n a ny European c i ty i th as b een p ossib le s ystema t ica l ly t o e xcava te a s many a s o ne p er c en t o ft he t o ta l n u mber o f medieva l h ouse s i tes.

I ti s a l l t he more i mpor tan t ,

t herefore , t o u nderstand t he t rue s igni f icance o ft he e xcava ted a rea a s a s amp le o ft he c i ty a s a who le . I n a ddi t ion t o b e ing t he s o le h istorica l s ource f or much o f t he e ar ly Midd le Ages, t he a rchaeo logica l e vidence f ro m Winchester p rovides a c oncre te meas ure o ft he s ca le a nd s ophist ica tion o f h u man a ct ivi ty , whe ther i tb e i nt he p rec onquest c a thedra l ( one o ft he g rea t c hurches o f western Europe ) , t he t we lf thc en tury b ishop 's p a lace ,o r at h ir teen th-cen tury r ow o f c o t tages i n Tanner S tree t .

T he e xamp le o f a n e xcava ted h ouse s i te n ear t hose c ot tages ( Houses I ,

I X , a nd X i n t he L ower Brook S tree t e xcava t ion , F ig . 3 ) , s hows h ow t he c o mb ina t ion o ft he writ ten r ecord a nd t he p hysica l r e ma ins c an b e u sed a s ap owerf u l t oo l f or h istor ica l e nquiry a nd i l lustra tes a n u mber o f f ea tures i mpor tan t f or u nderstand ing medieva l u rban d eve lopmen t a s a who le .

I n t he t we lf th c en tury

t h is p roper ty h ad b een o ccup ied b y as ubstan t ia l r esidence whose o ccupan t e viden t ly h ad d irect o r i nd irec t c on tact w i th t he L evan t . The h ouse was l a ter d ivided i n to t wo a nd f ro m t he l a te t hir teen th c en tury o nwards b o th h a lves were i nhabi ted b y f u l lers e ngaged i nt he c loth-f in ish ing i ndustry . I n t he l a ter f ourt een th c en tury R ichard Bosington , who i nhabi ted a nd may h ave s ubstan tia l ly e n larged t he more n or ther ly o ft he t wo p roper ties, r ose t o s o me p ro m inence i n t he c i ty o n t he wave o f p rosper i ty e n joyed b y i t s c lo thing i ndustry . A s a n a lder man h e was a l eader o fh i s s tree t c o m muni ty , a s o n t he o ccasion when t he i nhab i tan ts o f T anner S tree t b locked u p an earby p ostern i n t he c i ty wa l l f or f ear o f aF rench i nvasion , a nd h e a chieved a p osi t ion o f s o me i n f luence a s a n o f f ice-ho lder . This was a c lear i nfr inge men t o ft he s ocia l h ierarchy which h ad p reva i led a c en tury b efore , when n o f u l ler c ou ld b e af ree c i t izen . F ro m t he wr i t ten r ecord we a lso l earn t ha t Bosing ton ' sh ouse i nc luded a t l east o ne s hop o r workshop o n t he s tree t f ron tage , t ha t as ubstan t ia l p ar t o ft he e xc ava ted s tructure was s tand ing i n 1 407 , a nd t ha t b eh ind t he h ouse was a g arden c on ta in ing a r ack f or d ry ing c lo th . The e xcava t ion o ft he s tructure s howed t ha t Bosing ton ' sp roper ty i nc luded a d ye-house a nd f ro m t he s pec ia l ized t ools r ecovered i t was c lear t ha t t he s ur face o ft he f i ni shed c lo th was b eing c ropped n earby .

B osing ton was n o t j ust a n a r t isan f u l ler , b u t af u l l-sca le e n trepreneur

i nt he c lo th ing i ndustry , w i th e x tensive i n terests i n marke t ing a nd s upp ly . This h ouse , which was n ex t t o t he p ar ish c hurch o fS t . Mary , l ay a t t he c en tre o f av ar ied c o m mun i ty w i th c o mmon e cono mic i n terests. The r ow o f c o t tages o n t he o ther s ide o ft he c hurch , owned b y ar e ligious f ra tern i ty , was p robab ly i nhabi ted b y workers i nt he c lo th ing t rade .

On t he o pposi te s ide o f

Tanner S tree t t here were s im i lar c o t tages i n p r iva te ownership a nd a h ouse o ccupied b y a man o f s i mi lar s tand ing t o B osing ton .

Three d oors away t o t he

s ou th was t he s ubstan t ia l r esidence , a lready men tioned , o f Wa l ter B o lour , who was a d yer a nd c lo th merchan t . The s treet f ron tage h ere was d ense ly b ui lt-up a nd a f ea ture o f many o ft he l arger h ouses were t he g a tes p rovid ing r ear o r s ide a ccess f ro m o ther s tree ts e nab l ing men l i ke Bosing ton a nd B o lour t o b r ing c ar ts a nd p ack-horses i n to t heir p roper t ies.

There was a lso

an etwork o f minor p ub lic l anes a nd f oo tpa ths l eading t o p ar ish c hurches, t o wa ter c ourses, a nd t o t he c lo th r acks i n t he n earby meadows ( F ig . 2 ) . This 1 57

pattern in the organization of both public and private space provides a vivid insight into the daily lives and business of the inhabitants of the are a and en­ ables us to define some of the ways in which common interests and local top­ ography influenc ed the evolution of the many inte rlocking communities and n eighbourhoods which mad e up the city as a whole. In spite of certain broad difference s, a predominance of rich or poor or of a particular trading interest, this heterogeneity which we have s een in four­ teenth-century Tanner Street was charact eristic of all the inhabited areas of Winchester. In this the m edieval city stands in sharp contrast to its late Victorian and modern successor. This characteristic highlights one of the difficulties in the process of describing and understanding a complex medieval urban society. We may begin to define the questions to be asked by means of broad general analyses, but in the last resort are brought inevitably face to face with the unique actions, beliefs, and prejudices of individual citiz ens. Bibliographical Note This paper attempted to summarize some of the conclusions of the long­ term interdisciplinary' programme of research into the development of Winches­ ter, undertaken for the Winchester Excavations Committee in a way which might strike chords with other papers given at the conference. The results of this research are being published by the Oxford University Press in the series Winchester Studies. Preliminary accounts of the major excavations in the city will be found in the series of 'Interim Reports' by Martin Biddle in Archaeo­ logical Journal 119 (1962) and Antiquaries Journal 44-50 (1965-70), 52 (1972) and 55 (1975). The bas is of much of the first part of the paper will b e found in the first volume of Winchester Studies: Frank Barlow, Martin Biddle, Olof von Feilitzen and D. J. Keen e (ed. Martin Biddle), Winchester in the Early Middle Ages: an edition and discussion of the Winton Domesday (Oxford, 1976). The second volume, my own Survey of Medieval Winchester (forthcoming) dealing with the topography, society and economy of the later medieval city will cover the topics raised in the second part of the paper. Other volumes will cover individual sites and other categories of archaeological evidence. The reference to Tuscan town-planning was inspired by E. Guidone, Arte Urbanistica in Toscana 1000-1315 (Roma, 1970) and the parall el is restricted to the great public works of early medieval Winchester. There can be no com­ parison between the me agre scale of the civic buildings of later m edieval Winchester and those of, say, Siena in the same period; but for what could be achieved in a prosperous English city, cf. Caroline M. Barron, The Medieval Guildhall of London (London, 1974). For further light on the part played by the grouping of major religious buildings in European cities of the early Middle Ages, see the numerous works of Jean Hubert (e.g. 'Evolution de la topographie e et de l' aspect des villes de Gaule du v au xe siecl es' in La Citta n ell' altro medioevo: Settimane di Studio del Centro Italiano di Studi sull' altro medioevo, vi (Spoleto, 1959). Pierre Lavedan and Jeanne Hugueney present much valuable information on the form of medieval towns, essentially those of rectilinear plan, in L' Urbanisme au Moyen Age (Bibliotheque de la Societe Francaise d' Archeologie 5, Geneve, 1974). For Germany, see H. Planitz, Die Deutsche stadt im Mittel­alter. (4th edn., Cologne, 1976). f e

158

T he i dea t ha t ad e tai led t opograph ica l r econstruction o f medieva l Winchester migh t b e p ossib le a rose f ro m s tudy o f H . E . S a l ter ' s monu men ta l S urvey o f Oxford ( ed . W. A . P an t in a nd W. T . Mi tche l l , Oxford H istor ica l S ociety , n ew s er ies, 1 4 ( 1960 ) a nd 2 0 ( 1969 ) ) . s ee M . R . G . Gonzen

F or t he t own p lan a s a n h istorica l s ource ,

The U se o f Town P lans i n t he S tudy o f U rban H istory '

i n H . J . Dyos ( ed .) The S tudy o f U rban H istory ( London 1 968 ) , as tudy which e xe mp l if ies s o me o f t he h istor ica l u ncer ta in t ies i nevi tab ly a ssocia ted w i th t he method .

F or a r ecen t a pp lica tion o f t he s ame a pproach , s ee N . P . Brooks

a nd G . Whi t t ing ton , ' P lann ing a nd Grow th i n t he Medieva l S cot t ish Burgh : t he e xa mp le o f S t . Andrew ' s ' ,Transact ions o f t he I nst i tu te o f Bri t ish G eographers, N S 2( 1 977 ) , 2 78-95.

The s a me j ourna l c on ta ins a g ood e xa mp le o f h ow a

med ieva l d ocu men t a rranged , l ike s o many med ieva l u rban r ecords, o n at opog raphica l b asis c an r eadi ly a nd w i th p rof i t b e s ub jected t o g eograph ica l me thods o f a na lysis: J ohn L ang ton ,

L a te Med ieva l G loucester :

r en ta l o f 1 455 ' .I bid . 2 59-77 .

s o me d a ta f ro m a

F or s o me v ery d i f feren t i nstances o ft he e x tra-

o rdinari ly p recise p icture o f t he l ayou t o f s tree ts, h ouses, a nd g ardens which may b e o b ta ined f ro m medieva l wr i t ten r ecords, s ee H . M . C hew a nd M. Weinbau m ( ed .) The L ondon E yre o f 1 244 ' ( London R ecord S ocie ty , 6 , 1 970 ) , e specia l ly p p . 1 36-53 ; Nu isance 1 301-1431: Mar t ine l li ,

H . M . C hew a nd W. K e l laway ( ed .) L ondon A ssize o f

a Ca lendar ( London Record S ocie ty , 1 973 ) ;

a nd L i liana

B or mio Medioeva le, V ie d i c o m mun icazione e s tru t ture u rbane ',

Nuova R ivista S tor ica 5 6 ( M i lan , 1 972 ) , 3 15-35.

1 59

RES IDENTIAL D IFFERENTIATION I N THE N INETEENTH-CENTURY C ITY C o l in G . P oo ley

ABSTRACT D esp i te c onsiderab le r ecen t r esearch , t here i s as urprising l ack o f a gree men t a bou t t he f unda men ta l s pa t ia l s tructure o f t he V ictor ian c i ty . Whi le s o me s tud ies h ave s uggested t ha t t he n ine teen th-cen tury c i ty e xh ibi ted e ssen t ia l ly 'modern ' c haracter istics —w i th we l l-dif feren t ia ted r esiden tia l a reas —o thers h ave a t te mp ted t o s how t ha t i t s i n terna l s tructure was p redo m inan t ly t ransi t iona l b e tween t he ' pre-industria l ' a nd t he 'modern ' t own .

A s s uch i tc rea ted a me l t ing-po t where c lear

s ocia l a nd s pa tia l s egrega t ion was f ound o n ly a t t he e x tre mes o f s ocie ty . T his p aper d i scusses t hese v iews a nd s uggests t ha t many o f t he d i f ferences s tem f ro m t he way i n wh ich d a ta h ave b een h and led . C ensus e nu mera tors ' b ooks a l low s ophist ica ted e co log ica l a na lyses o f n ine teen th-cen tury c i t ies t o b e u nder taken b u t b y c oncen tra t ing o n a ggrega te s tud ies many s pa tia l p a t terns a pparen t a t t he s tree t o r b lock l eve l h ave b een o bscured o r i gnored . Ana lyses o f l arge a nd sma l l t owns i n 1 851 a nd 1 871 h ave d e monstra ted t ha t r esiden t ia l d if feren tiat i on r esu lted f ro m v ary ing m igran t , s ocio-econo m ic a nd o ccupa tiona l c haracteristics; t hough t he s a me l eve l o f a na lysis i s n ot a pp licab le t o a l l u rban a reas. I n s eek ing e xp lana tions o ft he p rocesses c ausing s uch r esiden tia l d if feren tia tion a n u mber o f f actors must b e c onsidered : c onstra in ts o ft he h ousing a nd l abour markets;

e cono mic

c onstrain ts o f r e l igion

a nd c o m mon c u l tura l o r igins; o cupa tiona l c onstrain ts s uch a s t he n eed f or a s hor t j ourney t o work a nd t he i n f luence o f r esiden t ia l p rop inqui ty o n t he f or ma tion o f n e ighbourhood c o mmun i ties. F ur thermore , i fr esiden tia l a reas a re t o b eco me e stab lished a nd g a in a d egree o f s tabi li ty o ver t ime , i n tra-urban mobi l i ty a nd i n- m igra t ion must o pera te i n s uch a way t ha t t he c haracter o f a n a rea r e ma ins u nchanged e ven t hough i ndividua l a ctors a re moving f requen t ly . B y s tudy ing t he i n teract ion o fv ar iab les s uch a s t hese , i ti s s uggested t ha t we c an i den ti fy a nd e xp la in t he p rocesses o f s ocia l a nd s pa t ia l c hange wh ich were o pera t ing a t d i f feren t l eve ls i n a l l n ine teen thc en tury t owns c ausing d istinctive r esiden t ia l a reas t o emerge .

The s tudy o f u rban s tructure a nd t he i den ti f ica t ion o f s ocia l a reas i n c i ties h as b een a n i mpor tan t p ar t o fu rban g eography f or a n u mber o f y ears ( Robson , 1 969 ; T im ms, 1 971 ; R ees, 1 970 ; B erry a nd Smi th , 1 972 ) . Dur ing t he f i rst h a lf o ft he t wen t ie th c en tury most r esearch o n t he i n terna l d if feren tia t ion o f c i t ies s tem med f ro m t he e ar ly w ork o f Amer ican s ocio logists s uch a s P ark

1 61

( 1925) a nd B urgess ( 1925) i n C hicago . T he t he mes wh ich t he C hicago S choo l ' f i rst b egan t o s tudy h ave s ince b een f ur ther d eve loped b y u rban s ocio log ists s uch a s S hevky a nd B e l l ( 1955) a nd b y u rban g eographers s uch a s Rees ( 1 970, 1 972 ) , Robson ( 1969, 1 975) a nd J ohnston ( 1971) .

S ince t he 1 950s t here h as

b een d eve lopmen t b o th o ft he t heories u sed t o e xam ine u rban s tructure a nd o f t he me thodo log ies emp loyed t o d escr ibe s ocia l a reas i nc i t ies. T oday , most s tud ies o f r esiden tia l d if feren tia t ion u se sma l l-area c ensus d a ta i n s oph ist icat ed mu l tivar ia te a na lyses o fu rban s truc ture , which a t te mp t , f i rst , t o p roduce o b jective a ggrega te d escr ip tions o f s ocia l a reas w i th in c i t ies a nd , s econd , t o r e la te t he s pa t ia l p at terns t o ar ange o ft heories o n u rban d eve lopmen t ( Murdie , 1 969 ; Dogan a nd R okkan , 1 969 ; S chw ir ian , 1 974) . R ecen t ly t he a t ten tion o f h istorica l g eographers h as f ocused o n t he i n terna l s tructure o ft he n ine teen th-cen tury c i ty a nd t here h ave b een a n u mber o f a tt e mp ts t o a pp ly c on temporary t echn iques a nd t heor ies

t o t he a na lysis o f h is-

t or ica l ma ter ia l . Two r e la ted q uestions h ave b een p ro minen t i n h istor ica l a na lyses o f u rban s tructure . F irst , t o wha t e x ten t h ad r esiden t ia l ly-d if ferent i a ted s ocia l a reas emerged i n t he n ine teen th-cen tury i ndustr ia l c i ty o f B r i ta in a nd Amer ica?

S econd , was t he i n terna l s tructure o f t he V ictor ian c i ty e ssen-

t ia l ly s imi lar t o t ha t f ound i n t wen tie th-cen tury t owns, o r was i tt ransi tiona l , f a l l ing b e tween t he s upposed ly more c lear ly-def ined s tructures o f ' p re-industria a nd

modern ' t o w ns?

1 970 ; Warnes, 1 973 ;

( S joberg , 1 960 ;

L ang ton , 1 975 ;

T im ms, 1 971;

G oheen ,

Ward , 1 975.) A t h ird , b u t of ten u nanswered , q uest ion

r e la tes t o t he e x ten t t o which n ine teen th-cen tury u rban s tructure was b e ing f ashioned b y p rocesses s i mi lar t o t hose f ound i n e i ther t he p re-industria l o r modern c i ty ( Poo ley , 1 978 ) . This p aper a t te mp ts t o a dvance d iscussion o n t hese q uest ions, f irst , b y o u t l in ing s o me o ft he p rob le ms e ncoun tered i n t he s pa tia l a na lysis o f n ine teen thc en tury t owns;

s econd , b y d iscussing t heore tica l a nd empir ica l e vidence f or

t he i n terna l d i fferen tia tion o f n ine teen th-cen tury c i ties a nd , t hird , b y a t te mp ti ng t o r econci le t he a pparen t ly c onf l icting v iews wh ich emerge . A t e ach s tage t he d iscussion w i l l b e i l lustra ted b y s e lected e xamp les o f r esiden t ia l d i f ferent ia t ion t aken f ro m a n a na lys is o f mid-Victorian L iverpoo l ( Law ton a nd P oo ley, 1 976) . 1 I ti s n o t a ppropr ia te f or t his p aper t o e xp lore t he p recise f orm o f ' prei ndustr ia l ' a nd

modern ' u rban s tructures w i th wh ich t he n ine teen th-cen tury

c i ty i s of ten c o mpared . The i n terna l a rrangemen t o f p re-industr ia l c i t ies i s ac o mp lex a nd a s y e t o n ly p ar t ia l ly-researched t op ic e xp lored i no ther e ssays i n t his v o lu me ( Keene , 1 979 ;

Raper , 1 979 ) a nd e lsewhere ( S joberg , 1 960 ;

L ang ton 1 975, 1 977 ) ; whi le t he i n terna l s tructure o f modern t owns i s amp ly d ocu men ted i n t he g eograph ica l l i tera ture ( Johnston , 1 971 ; C lark a nd G leave 1 973) .

Herber t, 1 972 ;

I n t his p aper i ti s s i mp ly a ssu med t ha t p re-industria l

a nd modern t owns were d i f feren t i n t heir u rban s tructures a nd t ha t p rei ndustr ia l t owns e xh ibi ted l i t t le c lear r esiden tia l s egrega t ion ( e xcep t b etween t he e x tre mes o f s ocie ty w i th , i n s o me c ases, a t endency f or t he r ich t o r eside a t o r n ear t he t own c en tre) whereas modern t owns h ave a c lear p a t tern o f r esiden tia l s egrega t ion w i th t he r ich t ending t o l i ve t owards t he p eriphery . This p aper a ssesses t he i n terna l s tructure o f n ine teen th-cen tury t o w ns w i thin t he c on tex t o ft hese t wo s o mewha t i dea li sed a nd s i mp li f ied mode ls o f u rban s pa t ia l s tructure .

1 62

P roblems i n t he a na lysis o fn ine teen th-cen tury u rban s tructure B o th t he r ange o fv ar iab les u sed a nd t he s pa t ia l f ra mework w i thin which a na lysi s i s u nder taken a re d e termined t o ac onsiderab le e x ten t b y t he f or m i n which c ensus s ta tistics a re made a va i lab le .

I n s tud ies o f modern t owns a

w ide r ange o fv ariab les c an r eadi ly b e c o mpu ted f or c ensus e nu mera t ion d ist ricts a nd t hus t hese a re t he most f requen t ly-used s pa tia l u n i ts ( 0 .P .C .S . , 1 975 ). S tud ies o f n ine teen th-cen tury t owns h ave a lso u sed c ensus d a ta , b u t t here a re n o c onven ien t t abu la t ions o f sma l l-area s ta tist ics. C ensus-tak ing i n G rea t B r i ta in b egan i n 1 801, w i th s uccessive e nu merat ions a t d ecenn ia l i n terva ls t hroughou t t he n ine teen th c en tury .

F o l low ing t rans-

f erence o f r esponsibi l i ty f or c ensus-tak ing t o t he R egistrar G enera l i n 1 837 , t he 1 841 a nd s ubsequen t c ensuses were b o th i n forma tive a nd a ccura te ( Drake , 1 972 ; G lass, 1 973 ; T i l lot t , 1 972 ) . U n for tuna te ly , p ubl ished s ta t istics f or n ineteen th-cen tury c ensuses n ever u sed a s pa t ia l u n i t sma l ler t han t he ward , a nd most v ar iab les a re o n ly a vai lab le f or t he r egistra t ion d istr icts o r s ubd istr icts d ef ined b y t he R egistrar G enera l . These l arge u n i ts, t hough u sefu l f or n a t iona l a nd r egiona l s tud ies o f p opu la t ion c hange , a re q ui te u nsui table f or t he d e ta i led a na lysis o fu rban s pa tia l s truc ture, s o t ha t r ecourse h as t o b e made t o i nforma tion a vai lab le i n t he u npub lished c ensus e nu mera tors ' b ooks. These a re a va i lab le a t t he P ub lic R ecord O f f ice f ro m 1 841 o nwards, a l though a 1 00 y ear c onf iden t ia li ty r u le i n Eng land a nd Wa les c urren t ly p reven ts t he ir u se af ter 1 871 .

2

C ensus e nu mera tors ' b ooks, c opied u p b y e nu mera tors f ro m t he

o rigina l h ouseho ld s chedu les, c on tain , f ro m 1 851 o nwards, d e tai ls o f n ame , a ddress, a ge , mar i ta l s tatus, p osi t ion i n h ouseho ld , o ccupa t ion a nd b ir thp lace f or e very i nd ividua l i nc luded i nt he c ensus. The 1 841 s chedu les i nclude r a ther l ess i n forma t ion 3 s o c anno t e asi ly b e u sed i n c o mpara t ive a na lyses ( Drake , 1 972 ) .

A s w i th a l l h istor ica l s ources, n u merous p rob le ms may b e e ncoun tered

i n i n terpre ta t ion a nd a na lysis. T hese a re amp ly c onsidered e lsewhere ( Wrig ley , 1 972 ; L aw ton , 1 978 ) ; h owever , f or t he s pa t ia l a na lysis o f V ictorian u rban s tructure t wo p roble ms a re o f p ar ticu lar i mpor tance a nd r equire f ur ther c onside ra t ion i nt his p aper . a ) S pa t ia l F ra meworks :

B efore a ny s pa t ia l a na lysis c an b e u nder taken t he

i ndividua l i n for ma t ion a va i lab le i n t he e nu mera tors ' s chedu les must b e a l locat ed t o t he t opographic u n i t r equired f or a ggrega te s pa tia l a na lysis. C arefu l c onsidera t ion must b e g iven t o t he s ui tabi li ty o f t he s ub-area l f ramework f or s pa tia l a na lysis, a s t he s ize a nd s hape o f s ub-areas w i l l a ffect e co log ica l c orr e la t ions b e tween v ar iab les wh ich may b e u sed i n s ubsequen t mu l t ivaria te a na lyses ( Dogan a nd R okkan , 1 969 ) .

I dea l ly s pa tia l u n i ts s hou ld b e o f a pprox-

i ma te ly e ven p opu la tion s ize a nd a rea l e x ten t , r egu lar i n s hape , o b jective ly d ef ined a nd c onstan t b e tween s ources. I n p ract ice i ti s n o t p ossib le f or a l l o f t hese c r i ter ia t o b e me t . A s w i th p resen t-day s tudies t he c ensus e numera t ion d is tr ic t i s t he mos t c onven ien t s pa t ia l f ramework a s i ti s t he u n i t w i th in which t he c ensus was c o l lected a nd b y which e n tr ies i n t he c ensus e nu mera tors ' b ooks were g rouped . N ine teen th-cen tury e nu mera tion d istricts were d esigned , u nder t he Reg istrar G enera l ' si nstructions, t o b e ( i n t heory ) o f a pprox i ma te ly e qua l p opu la t ion s ize ( around 2 00 h ouseho lds i n 1 871) , a nd t hus ( g iven a n u neven p opu la tion d istr ibut i on ) o fv arying a rea l e x ten t .

They were mean t t o b e l arge ly c on t iguous i n 1 63

cover, and ,.,, in a continuously built-up area, they should be small enough to have some degree of internal homogeneity and thus allow spatial differences in urban structure to emerge clearly. However, in practice they present a number of problems for spatial analysis. First, the range of population sizes between enumeration districts is often large. This situation is partic­ ularly common in an expanding city where the enumeration framework failed to keep pace with changes in population distribution; for example, enumera­ tion districts on Merseyside in 1871 ranged from 78 to 696 households. Al­ though the majority fell within a range of 200-400 households, some would have produced a sample population which was too small for statistically-valid inferences to be made about the total population, while large enumeration districts would have concealed considerable internal variations. Secondly, the occurrence of non-contiguous and irregularly-shaped enumeration districts, which were quite common in some parts of Liverpool, made the delineation of reasonably regular and homogeneous social areas difficult. Thirdly, we have no effective means of assessing whether enumeration districts were constructed with some preconceived notion of the internal social structure of the city in mind, and thus they may not provide a sufficiently objective basis for spatial analysis. Several alternative frameworks may be used for the spatial analysis of nineteenth-century cities. An arbitrary grid gives objectively-defined units of equal areal extent, and facilitates easy comparison over trme (Goheen, 1970; Tansey, 19 73; Carter and Wheatley, 1975 ), but two logistic problems often militate against its use. First, a lack of contemporary large-scale plans may make it difficult to locate sampled households within a grid framework and, second, variations in population density over the study area may cause large variations in the population of each cell, necessitating stratification of either the spatial framework or the sample in order to achieve units of approximately equal population size. This procedure may, in turn, destroy the objective nature of the grid. Other possible methods of geocoding, such as the use of street coordinates or block fronts, also have drawbacks, especially when (as is often the case) a sample population is used. The main problem is that these units, as with small enumeration districts, provide too fine a mesh with too few occurrences in each cell for statistically-valid inferences to be made about the total population of each area. Streets or other very small units may, however, form a valuable spatial framework when the total population of a town is used and thus the problem of small sample size is avoided . The solution adopted in the study of Liverpool was a compromise. First, the original enumeration district framework was modified by amalgamating all enumeration districts smaller than 200 households with part of an adjoining enumeration district to maintain an acceptable minimum ten per cent sample population of 20 households in each area and, second, all non-contiguous, exceptionally irregular or very large enumeration districts were divided or adjusted to form contiguous and more regular shapes. The spatial framework in effect tried to reconcile the conflicting demands of equal areal extent and equa population size, whilst attempting to create a reasonably regular and objective framework without the problems of household relocation which occur with a superimposed arbitrary grid. This revised framework was, however, restricted 164

i n t ha t e nu mera tion d istrict b oundar ies c hanged o ver t ime a nd , where t wo o r more c ensus y ears a re c o mpared a r egu lar a nd c onstan t g rid f ramework i s p robab ly p referab le ( Shaw , 1 977 ) .

Thus, t he ma in c ri teria t o b e c onsidered

i n c onstruc ting a s pa t ia l f ramework f or t he a na lysis o f n ine teen th-cen tury u rban s tructure a re t ha t t he f ra mework s hou ld b e o b jective, t ha t i ts hou ld b e o f as a t isfactory p opu la t ion s ize af ter s amp ling , t ha t i ts hou ld b e r e la t ive ly e asy t o o pera tiona l ize , a nd t ha t i ts hou ld f orm sma l l h o mogeneous u n i ts o f a pprox ima te ly e qua l a rea l e x ten t wh ich c an s uccessfu l ly b e u sed a s b ui lding b locks t o p roduce c lear a nd mean ingfu l p a t terns o f s pa tia l v ar ia tion o ver t he c i ty . b ) S e lect ion o f Var iab les:

As econd i mpor tan t d ecision t o b e t aken i n t he

mu l t ivar ia te s tudy o fn ine teen th-cen tury u rban s tructure c oncerns t he p recise n a ture o ft he v ar iab les t o b e u sed i n t he a na lysis.

S ix ma in g roups o f r e levan t

v ar iab les a re a va i lab le f ro m n ine teen th-cen tury c ensus d a ta a nd r e la ted s ources: s ocio-econo m ic s truc ture a s r e la ted t o o ccupa t ion a nd s oc io-econo m ic g roup ; s oc io-econo m ic s truc ture a s r e la ted t o h ous ing c harac ter is t ics ;

f am i ly s truc-

t ure a s r e la ted t o h ouseho ld s ize a nd c o mposi tion ;

f a mi ly s tructure a s s een

t hrough a ge s tructure ; migran t a nd e thn ic s ta tus ;

a nd v ariables r e la t ing t o

l oca t ion w i th in t he c i ty a nd s ca le . I n f act t he l i st o fv ariab les a va i lab le f or t he a na lysis o f Bri tish mid-n ine teen th c en tury c i t ies c o mpares f avourably w i th l i sts o ft hose v ar iab les c o mmon ly u sed i n f actoria l e co log ies o f modern t owns ( Rees, 1 972 ) : most o ft he i mpor tan t g roups o f v ar iab les a re c overed , a nd a s a tisfac tory b a lance b e tween d e mograph ic , s ocio-econo mic a nd p hysica l v aria b les c an b e o b tained . The ma in d ef iciencies i n n ine teen th-cen tury d a ta —as w i th many modern p opu la tion s tudies —re la te t o sma l l-area s ta tistics o n h ous ing q ua li ty a nd v a lue , d emograph ic v ariables i ndica ting v i ta l t rends, r esiden t ia l mobi l i ty , h ea lth , e duca tion a nd i nco me . A l though d a ta a re n o t a vai lable e i ther o n s peci f ic h ouseho ld f aci l t ies o r t he d egree o fo vercrowd ing a s measured b y t he n u mber o f p ersons p er r oo m , q ui te d e ta i led i n forma tion o n h ousing t ype , p opu la tion a nd h ousing d ensi t ies, a nd t he e x ten t o f mu lt ip le o ccupance c an b e o b ta ined f ro m map a nd c ensus e vidence , whi le i n many c i ties r a teab le v a lua t ion l i s ts g ive i n forma t ion o n c o mpara t ive h ouse v a lues ( Robson , 1 969 ; G ordon , 1 971 ; Ho l mes, 1 973) . 4 The a va i lab le v ar iab les t hus g ive a r easonab le a ssess men t o f h ousing q ua l i ty i n s pecif ic a reas o f ac i ty . V i ta l p opu la t ion s ta t istics a re a vai lab le a t as ub-d istr ict l eve l f ro m 1 838 o nwards i n t he R egistrar G enera l ' sa nnua l r eturns, t hough r epor ts o f Med ica l O f f icers ' o f H ea l th of ten g ive mor ta li ty f i gures f or wards o r e ven sma l ler u n i ts. A l though n o t s uf f icien t ly c o mprehensive f or mu l tivar ia te a na lysis, s uch sma l l-area d e mographic i n for ma tion c an p rovide i mpor tan t b ackground ma ter ia l t o which v ar ia t ions i n a ge a nd s ex s tructure o ver sma l l a reas ( derived f ro m t he c ensus) c an b e r e la ted . I n forma t ion o n r esiden t ia l mobi li ty i s l imi ted f or t he n ine teen th c en tury . T urnover a nd p ersistence o f p opu la t ion w i thin a n a rea c an b e c a lcu la ted b y l i nk ing c ensus, d irec tory a nd o ther s ources t o t race i ndividua ls o ver t ime ( Dennis, 1 977 ;

Pri tchard, 1 976 ; Poo ley , 1 979) , b u t s uch l i nkages s e ldo m

y ie ld a s uf f icien t ly c o mp le te s e t o f t urnover r a tes f or u se i n a ggrega te mu l tiv ar ia te a na lyses.

I n s tudies o fn ine teen th-cen tury c i ties mobi li ty v ar iab les

u sua l ly r efer o n ly t o migran t s ta tus d er ived f ro m c ensus b irthp lace i n forma tion ( Poo ley , 1 977 ) wh i le more d e ta i led i n for ma t ion o n move men t p a t terns c an o n ly 1 65

b e g a ined f ro m microleve l s tudies ( Law ton a nd P oo ley, 1 979 ) .

S i mi lar ly ,

c o mprehensive sma l l-area d a ta o n h ea l th a nd we lfare i s l ack ing , t hough r ep or ts o f Med ica l O f f icers ' o f H ea l th p rovide a wea l th o f i n forma t ion f or l arger u n i ts a nd s e lected p ar ts o ft owns ( Woods, 1 978 ) . F ina l ly , l eve ls o f e duca tion a re a lso i mpossib le t o c a lcu la te d irect ly f ro m n ine teen th-cen tury d ocu men ts . E st ima tes o f t he p ropor tion o f c hi ldren i n s chool h ave b een b ased o n s cho lars l i sted i nt he c ensus e nu mera tors ' b ooks, t hough t here h as b een l i t t le t est ing o f t he r e liabi l i ty o f t his r e turn ( Co leman , 1 972 ;

Marsden , 1 977 ) .

O therwise , e duca tiona l a t tainmen t among a du l ts i s

p robab ly b est r ef lected b y t he ir o ccupa t ion , whi le t he l ack o f p ersona lized i n forma t ion o n i nco me means t ha t o ccupa t ion must a ga in b e u sed a s as urrog a te .

5

S evera l o f t he v ar iab les which may b e i nc luded i n a na lyses o fn ine teen thc en tury t owns p resen t p rob le ms o f i n terpre ta t ion t hough t hese c an o n ly b e b r ief ly men tioned i n t h is p aper .

A s w ide ly d iscussed e lsewhere ( Co le , 1 955 ;

P ark in , 1 974 ; Dahrendorf , 1 959 ) s ocio-econo mic s ta tus a nd c lass a re e lusive c oncep ts. I n n ine teen th-cen tury s tud ies s ocio-econo mic s tructure i s u sua l ly d er ived f ro m c ensus o ccupa tiona l d escr ip t ions ( Armstrong , 1 972 ) , t hough o ther i ndica t ions o f s ocia l s ta tus i nclud ing s ervan t-own ing , t ype o f h ousing a nd c ond i tions o f o ccupancy may a lso b e u sed i n t he a na lysis o f n ine teen thc en tury t owns ( Foster , 1 974 ; C ow lard , 1 975) . I n t his s tudy s ocio-econo m ic g roup i s b ased o n as i mp le r anking o f o ccupa t ions ( Ar mstrong , 1 972 ; G o ldt horpe a nd H ope , 1 974 ; R oy le , 1 977 ) ;6 t he i mp lica tions which t h is h as f or n ine teen th-cen tury c lass s tructure a re n o t d iscussed ( Foster , 1 974 ; N ea le , 1 972 ) . O ther p roble ms a r ise i n t he a na lysi s o f f a mi ly c o mposi tion , w i th l odgers b e ing p ar t icu lar ly d if f icu l t t o i so la te d ue t o i nconsistency b etween c ensus e nu mera tors ( Anderson , 1 971 , 1 972) , whi lst t he i nvo lve men t o f wo men a nd c h i ldren i n t he work f orce was u ndoubted ly =der-represen ted i nt he c ensus ( Hew i t t , 1 958 ) . F ina l ly , e thn ici ty a nd m igran t s ta tus i s a lso d i f f icu l t t o i n terp re t a s we o n ly h ave b ir thp lace d a ta g iving i n forma t ion o n t he l i fet i me migrat i on o f f i rst g enera t ion migran ts. Thus E ng lish-born c hi ldren o f migran t p aren ts were e nu mera ted a s E ng l ish t hough t he ir c u l tura l a f f i lia t ion may h ave r e ma ined w i th t heir p aren ts ' a rea o f o r ig in ( Poo ley , 1 977 ) . Though t here a re g aps i n t he v ar iab les a vai lab le a nd p roblems o f t he ir i n terpre ta t ion , n one o ft he omissions wou ld a ppear t o p rec lude mu l tivaria te s pa t ia l a na lysis o f n ine teen th-cen tury c ensus d a ta .

I n i n terpre t ing r esu l ts,

h owever , a nd e specia l ly when mak ing c o mpar isons w i th o ther s tud ies, t he l imi ta t ions o ft he i npu t o fv ar iab les must b e c on t inua l ly k ep t i n m ind , t hough t he a dd i t ion o f av ar ie ty o f l oca l q uasi-sta tist ica l a nd d escrip tive ma ter ia l c an of ten a id o ur d e tai led i n terpre ta t ions o f t he a ggrega te c ensus v ar iab les. S ocia l a rea a na lysis a nd t he n ine teen th-cen tury c i ty Ear ly a t te mp ts a t s ocia l a rea a na lysis s uggested t ha t t he t hree d i mensions o f s ocio-econo mic s ta tus, f a mi ly s ta tus ( or u rban isa tion ) a nd e thn ic s ta tus were u n iversa l ly i mpor tan t i n t he f orma t ion o f s ocia l a reas w i th in c i ties ( Shevky a nd Wi l lia ms, 1 949 ; S hevky a nd B e l l , 1 955) .

A l though t here h as b een

c onsiderab le c r i ticis m o ft he s ub ject ive a pproach a nd a pparen t l ack o f as ound 1 66

t heore tica l b asis t o t hese s tud ies ( Haw ley a nd Duncan , 1 957 ;

R obson , 1 969 ) ,

most r ecen t r esearch —e mp loy ing a w ider r ange o fv ar iab les a nd more o b ject ive t echn iques —has c onf ir med t he g enera l p a t tern f ound i n e ar lier s tudies. This i sp ar t icu lar ly t rue i n Amer ican t owns ( Murd ie , 1 969;

S wee tser , 1 962 ) ,

s ince t he s tructure o ft wen t ieth-century Br i t ish c i t ies i s i nf luenced b y t he p resence o f al arge p ub lic h ousing s ector ( Herber t , 1 968 , 1 970 ; R obson , 1 969) . However , o n t he e v idence o f an ow c onsiderab le n u mber o f s tudies o f modern western u rban s tructure ( Evans, 1 973 ; J ohnston , 1 973 ;

Davies a nd L ew is,

1 973 ; N orman , 1 969) , t he f unda men ta l d imensions o f s ocia l s ta tus, f a mi ly s ta tus a nd migran t s ta tus a ppear r e markab ly s table .

Hence , t he a t ten tion o f

u rban g eographers h as n ow moved f ro m t he s i mp le d escrip tion o f s pa t ia l p a tt erns t owards t he i n tegra tion o f mu l t ivar ia te a na lysis o f s pa t ia l s tructure w i th b ehav ioura l a nd i nsti tu t iona l s tudies o ft he p rocesses c ausing c hange i n t he s ocia l g eography o ft he c i ty ( Robson , 1 973 ; P a l im , 1 973 ; Herbert a nd J ohnston , 1 976 ; J ohnston , 1 977 , 1 978 ) .

S tudies o f n on-western t owns, h owever , s how

impor tan t v aria t ions i n c i ty s truc ture .

I n h er a na lysis o f Ca iro , J ane t Abu-

L ughod ( 1 969) f ound l i t t le e vidence o f ac lear r ank ing s yste m b ased o n s ocioe conom ic s ta tus, whi le B erry a nd R ees ( 1969) s howed t ha t i n Ca lcut ta t he ' norma l ' d imensions were a l most t o ta l ly a bsen t a nd

e thn ici ty ' h ad a n o ver-

r id ing e f fect o n t he s ocia l s tructure o ft he c i ty . I th as b een s uggested t ha t t hese d if ferences b etween western a nd n on-western ( or ' pre- i ndustr ia l ') c i t ies a re mani fested i n t he d egree t o wh ich t he d i mensions o f u rban s tructure a re i ndependen t o fe ach o ther . On ly i n t he modern c i ty d o e conom ic s ta tus, f a mi ly s ta tus a nd migran t s ta tus b eco me d iscre te d i mensions ( Tim ms , 1 971 ;

R ees, 1 970) a nd A bu-Lughod ( 1969) i den ti f ied a s er ies o f ' ne-

c essary c ond i t ions ' which , s he s uggested , a l lowed t hese i ndependen t d i mensions, a nd h ence d istinct s ocia l a reas, t o emerge i n modern western t owns.

These

c an b e s u mmar ized a s r ank ing b y s ocio-econo mic s ta tus, d ist inct s tages i n t he l i fe-cyc le , ah ousing marke t c a ter ing f or e ach p ossib le c o mb ina t ion o f t hese c harac ter ist ics i n d ist inct ive s ub-areas, a nd a p opu la t ion c onsisting o f i ndependen t h ouseho ld u n i ts w i th c onsiderab le mobi li ty w i th in t he c i ty .

O ther r esearchers

h ave a l so a t te mp ted t o d eve lop a g enera l mode l o f c hang ing u rban s tructure b o th b etween c u l tures a nd o ver t ime ( T i m ms, 1 971 ; J ohnston , 1 972 ) , a nd r ecen t ly , s evera l s tud ies t ried t o p lace n ine teen th-cen tury c i ty s tructure w i thin a s i mil ar t heore tica l f ra mework . I n p ar t icu lar t hey h ave a ssessed t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he V ic tor ian t own was t ransi t iona l b e tween t he ' non-western ' o r

p re- i ndus-

t ria l ' mode l a nd t he modern western c i ty where s ocia l a nd s pa t ia l d i f feren t ia t ion r ef lec t t he t hree i ndependen t d i mensions o f s ocia l s ta tus, f a mi ly s ta tus a nd migran t s ta tus.

I n as tudy o f V ictorian T oron to , P e ter G oheen ( 1970 ) a t te mp ted

t o c har t c hanges i n u rban s tructure o ver t ime . U sing a v ary ing a rray o f d a ta h e c onducted f i ve f actor a na lyses a t d ecenn ia l i n terva ls f ro m 1 860 t o 1 900 a nd s uggested t ha t T oron to u nderwen t ap rocess o f 'modern isa tion ' d ur ing which t he ma in d i mensions o f s ocia l r ank , a ge s tructure a nd e thn ici ty ( i den t if ied t hrough r e lig ious a f f i lia t ion ) emerged a f ter 1 880 . The r esu l ts o f h is s tudy s ee m i n conc lusive , h owever , a s t he i npu t o fv ar iab les c hanged b e tween s tudies a nd, e specia l ly f or t he e ar l ier y ears , was h eav i ly we igh ted t owards t he p hys ica l s tructure o ft he t own . Moreover , e ven i n mid-cen tury s o me measures o f s ocio-econo m ic s ta tus ( seen t hrough i nco me a nd t enure) a nd o f a ge s tructure emerged q ui te c lear ly .

1 67

Warnes (1973) described nineteenth-century Chorley, Lancashire, as an 'emerging industrial town' in which the two leading components of urban structure were socio-economic status and f amily /age structure. Though these were not as independent as might be expected in a modern city, segregation due to social status increased in importance in Chorley during the first half of the nineteenth century. Warnes attributed this to a changing employment structure as individual occupational groupings became less dominant and fac­ tors other than occupation began to influence residential location. This more diverse economic structure allowed the separation of home from workplace and the formation of distinctive social areas. The problem was perhaps most clearly posed in David Ward's question, 'Victorian Cities. How modern? ' (Ward, 1975). While admitting that there is still much empirical research to be done, Ward suggested that the mid­ Victorian city was in a transitional state, with a less well-defined social and spatial structure than either its pre-industrial predecessor or the 'modern' city identified in twentieth-century models of urban structure. Though ad­ mitting that the extremes of society were clearly spatially segregated, he argued that the nineteenth-century city (in both Britain and America) formed a melting-pot in which there was a high degree of social intermixing among the mass of the skilled and unskilled working population. Ward also suggested a number of processes important in the creation of a residentially-differentiated city, and hence in the emergence of 'independent' dimensions of social status, family status and ethnic status in studies of urban structure. Like Warnes, he placed particular emphasis on, first, the centralisation and extension of em­ ployment opportunities within the process of industrialisation and, second, the associated improvement of urban transport systems allowing the separation of home and workplace. Ward argued that these changes did not occur until the late-nineteenth century so that extensive residential segregation could not have occurred in mid-Victorian towns. Other studies present a less clear-cut point of view. Doucet's analysis of amilton, Ontario in 1851 (Doucet, 1973) found a high degree of stratification H by social status and the four principal components of urban structure emerged as socio-economic status, family status, ethnic status and tenurial condition. The spatial structure of Hamilton did not completely parallel twentieth-century models of urban development, however, and instead it was classified as a 'North American commercial city' with complex residential patterns that could only be properly understood at a microscale (Katz, 1975). In a study of Hull in 1851, Tansey (1973) found dimensions of urban structure which conformed quite closely to those in modern towns although he still classified the urban structure of Hull as 'transitional', while Cannadine (1977), taking a rather different approach, argued that Victorian British cities were residentially dif­ferentiated and that their patterns of segregation were similar to those found in twentieth-century towns in Britain and America. Most recently Shaw (1977) has attempted to chart changes in the urban structure of Wolverhampton from 1851 to 1871, finding that even in 1851 some 'modern' dimensions were present and that by 1871 they had emerged with a considerable degree of independence. These studies, and results from the analysis of mid-Victorian Liverpool (out­ lined below), suggest that rather than trying to define the internal structure of nineteenth-century towns as a special case, transitional between the pre168

i ndustr ia l a nd t he modern c i ty , t he s imi lar i ties t o t wen tie th-cen tury t owns s hou ld b e s tressed i nstead . We c an a lso a t temp t t o a ssess t he e x ten t t o which s pa tia l p a t tern ing i n n ine teen th-cen tury t owns c oincided w i th t wen t ie th-cen tury t err i tor ia l mode ls o fu rban d eve lopmen t .

S uch s pa t ia l mode ls o f u rban s truc ture h ave b een r e-

v iewed i n s evera l r ecen t works ( Johnston , 1 971 ; Murd ie , 1 969 , 1 976) i n which i ti su sua l ly s uggested t ha t e ach c onven t iona l mode l r ef lects d i f feren t a spects o f ac i ty ' ss ocia l c haracter ist ics: t he s ectora l mode l e cono mic s tatus, t he z ona l mode l f a mi ly s ta tus a nd t he mu l tip le-nuc lei mode l e thn ic s ta tus, t hough e ach i s , o f c ourse , ag ross o versimp li f ica t ion o f r ea li ty . The c oncen tric z one mode l ( Burgess, 1 924) i s p erhaps most a pp licab le t o ar apid ly-expand ing c i ty , emphasising a c en tre-periphery d ichoto my whereby , a s t he o lder c en tra l a reas d ecay a nd a t tract a p redo minan t ly l ow-inco me p opu la t ion , s uburban a reas e xpand r ap id ly , a t trac ting t he u pward ly-socia l ly mobi le a nd d eve lop ing d ist inct ive s ocia l c haracterist ics.

I ti s l i ke ly t ha t t his was a lso o ne o f t he d o minan t

s ocio-spa t ia l p rocesses w i thin t he r apid ly-expand ing mid-Vic tor ian c i ty , a nd a s B urgess ' s mode l was d eve loped i n t he 1 920s i ti s p robable t ha t i tw i l l a pp ly e qua l ly we l l t o n ine teen th- a nd t wen t ie th-cen tury t owns. S ec tora l g row th ( Hoy t , 1 939) c u ts a cross t his g enera l z ona l p a t tern , f or e xa mp le , i n t he f orm o f i ndustr ia l g row th a long d ocks a nd r outeways w i th a ssocia ted work ing-class h ousing , o r b y midd le- a nd h igh-sta tus s ectors r eachi ng o u t f ro m t he b usiness a nd p ro fess iona lq uar ter o f t own .

S uch s ectora l

d eve lopmen ts a re , i nt he f i rst i n stance , c lose ly r e la ted t o u n ique f actors o f u rban d eve lopmen t ; b u t o nce a c i ty-sector h as a cqu ired a c er ta in s ta tus, i t w i l l t end t o c on t inue t o a t tract a p ar t icu lar t ype o f p opula t ion t hus r ein forcing i t s e x is t ing c haracter .

On ly l arge-sca le u rban c learance a nd r edeve lop men t ,

o r e x treme p ressure f ro m a n i n-co ming p opu la t ion o f ad i fferen t s ocia l c hara cter , w i l l a l ter s uch s ectora l p at terns.

I n t he n ine teen th-cen tury c i ty , w i th in

t he o vera l l c onstra in ts o f p ower fu l c en tre-per iphery d i f ferences g iving p redo mi nan t ly z ona l d eve lopmen t , s uch d ist inct ive s ectors a re a lso l i ke ly t o b e f ound . T h ird ly , n uclei o f i ndustr ia l d eve lop men t , o r migran t c oncen tra t ions f ormi ng i n r esponse t o v o lun tary o r i nvo lun tary p ressures o n a n i nco m ing p opu la t ion , c an d eve lop i n a ny p ar t o f ac i ty ( Harr is a nd U llman , 1 945) .

T he e xact l oca tion

o f s uch a reas w i l l d epend o n t he p ar t icu lar e cono mic, s ocia l a nd h ousing c ondit i ons f ound i n i ndividua l c i t ies, b u t s uch s pa t ia l s egrega tion i s l ike ly t o o ccur wherever t here i s al arge a nd d istinctive migran t p opu la tion . The e x ten t t o which t hese t heories o fu rban s tructure a nd mode ls o f s pa tia l d i fferen tia tion a ctua l ly a pp ly t o aV ictor ian c i ty w i l l n ow b e d iscussed i n r e la t ion t o midV ictor ian L iverpoo l . R es iden t ia l a reas i n n ine teen th-cen tury L iverpoo l The t echn ique u sed t o s tudy t he u rban s tructure o f mid-V ictorian L iverpoo l was a p r incipa l c o mponen ts a na lysis o f 3 5 v ariables s ub jected t o o r thogona l ( Var imax ) r o ta t ion . P r incipa l c o mponen ts a na lysis i s o ne o f af am ily o f t echn iques w h ich c o me u nder t he g ener ic t erm f actor a na lysis . A l l a re me thods o f mu l t ivar ia te d a ta man ipu la t ion which a im a t d a ta r eduction a nd e x trac t c o mp onen ts o r f actors i n o rder o ft he ir c on tr ibu t ion t o t he o r igina l v ariance . The f i rst f ew p r incipa l c o mponen ts s hou ld a ccoun t f or t he ma jori ty o f t he v ar iance

1 69

in the original data matrix and these are the dimensions which are interpreted. Rotation simplifies the component matrix, separating out significant clusters of variables loading on each component, and thus aids interpretation. The technique is amply described in several texts (Daultry, 1976; Harman, 1960; Rummel, 1970) while many appraisals of its use in urban geography are also available (Hunter, 1972; Berry, 1971; Clark, Davies and Johnston, 1974). Variables used in the Liverpool study were mostly census-derived (Table 1) and were computed from a ten per cent systematic sample of households in the 1871 census enumerators' books. Where necessary they were transformed to normality prior to analysis and a summary of component-loadings is given in Table 2. 7 The most important component, accounting for 24. 6 per cent of variation in the data matrix, is the most difficult to interpret precisely. It loads highly on measures of high density and centrality, on sub-standard housing and crowding, on non-English migrants (especially the Irish), and on low socio­ economic groups. E ssentially, component one is a mea sure of socio-economic status, separat:ing areas of high occupational status, good-quality low-density housing, low-density occupancy, servant-owning and English-migrant origin, from those areas, mainly in the town centre, typified by poor-quality high­ density housing, over-crowding, l0w occupational status and high proportions of Irish migrants. It also serves to emphasise the complex range of variables which comprise such a status measure, each of which would repay more de­ tailed study. Component 2, accounting for 13. 6 per cent of variation, is more easily identified since it clearly isolates a working-class and ethnic dimension. Basically, the unskilled and, to a lesser extent, the semi-skilled working population (a large proportion of which was I rish) is separated from the skilled working-class population which, in turn, is associated with Welsh and Scottish minority groups. There seems to be no specific link between unskilled workers and the worst housing conditions, but the interdependency of social status and ethnicity is shown to be important: neither can be considered without the other. This component also separates unskilled workers from those in managerial and professional occupations, but the division is less clear than that within the 'working class' since large numbers of servants reside in professional house­ holds and confuse the spatial pattern associations. Component 3, associated with age and family status, accounts for 9. 3 per cent of variation in the component analysis. It distinguishes families of more mature age structure, in which the economically active age groups were dom­ inant and in which there were many co-resident lodgers and servants, from families at an earlier stage in the life-cycie, consisting primarily of nuclear families with children. This is an easily identified and largely independent dimension, suggesting that in mid-Victorian Liverpool most families were able to choose their residence to suit their composition and life-cycle stage. Several other components had an eigenvalue greater than 1, 8 but they are much less significant and less easily identified than the first three. They include a second mdex of household composition, separating large households with extended family elements from smaller nuclear families, an index of housing which loads on multiple-occupancy and occupied cellars, a component 170

Tab le 1 .

Variab les u sed i n p r incipa l c o mponen ts a na lysis:

L iverpoo l 1 871

S ocio-Econo mic S ta tus a nd H ousing 1 .

S ocio-econo m ic g roups 1a nd 2 ( professiona l a nd manageria l ) a s p ercen ta ge o f e cono mica l ly a ct ive

2 . 3 .

S ocio-econo m ic g roup 3 ( sk i l led) a s p ercen tage o f e cono m ica lly a ctive S ocio-econo mic g roup 4 ( s emi-sk i l led ) a s p ercen tage o f e cono m ica l ly a ct ive

4 .

S ocio-econo mic g roup 5 ( u nski l led ) a s p ercen tage o f e cono m ica l ly a ct ive

5 .

S ocio-econo mic g roup 4 a nd 5 a s p ercen tage o f e cono m ica l ly a c t ive

6 .

S ervan t-own ing i ndex : n u mber o f s ervan ts t o t ota l n uclear a nd e x tended f a mi ly

7 .

H ouseho lds i n mu lt ip le o ccup ied dwe l l ings a s p ercen tage o f a l l h ouseho lds

8 .

H ouseho lds o ccupy ing c our ts a s p ercen tage o f a l l h ouseho lds

9 . 1 0 .

H ouseho lds o ccupying c e l lars a s p ercen tage o f a l l h ouseho lds N et p opu la t ion d ensi ty

1 1. 1 2 .

N e t h ousing d ensi ty Mean p ersons p er h ouseho ld

1 3 .

Mean p ersons p er h ouse

F a mi ly S ta tus a nd Age 1 4. 1 5.

P opu la t ion a ged 0 -4 a s p ercen tage o ft ota l p opu la t ion P opu la t ion a ged 0 -14 a s p ercen tage o ft ota l p opu la tion

1 6.

P opu la t ion a ged 1 5-64 a s p ercen tage o ft o ta l p opu la t ion

1 7 . 1 8 .

P opu la t ion a ged 6 5 a nd o ver a s p ercen tage o f t ota l p opu la tion N uc lear f a mi ly a s p ercen tage o ft o ta l p opu la tion

1 9.

E x tended f a mi ly a s p ercen tage o ft o ta l p opu la t ion

2 0 . 2 1.

S ervan ts ( residen t d o mest ic) a s p ercen tage o ft o ta l p opu la tion L odgers a s p ercen tage o ft o ta l p opu la t ion

2 2 . 2 3 .

V isi tors a s p ercen tage o ft o ta l p opu la t ion O ne p erson h ouseho lds a s p ercen tage o f a l l h ouseho lds

2 4. 2 5.

W idowed h ouseho ld h eads a s p ercen tage o f a l l h eads S ex r a t io . F e ma les p er 1 00 ma les

2 6.

Wo men i n t he l abour f orce a s p ercen tage o f e cono m ica l ly a ct ive

2 7 .

C h i ldren i n l abour f orce a s p ercen tage o f e cono mica lly a ctive

Migran t S ta tus 2 8 .

I r ish-born a s p ercen tage o ft o ta l p opu la t ion

2 9 .

We lsh-born a s p ercen tage o f t o ta l p opu la t ion

3 0 .

S co ts-born a s p ercen tage o ft o ta l p opu la tion

3 1. 3 2 .

F oreign-born a s p ercen tage o ft o ta l p opu la tion T hose b orn i n Eng land o u tside t he s tudy a rea a s p ercen tage o f t o ta l p opu la t ion

S ca le 3 3 . 3 4.

R esiden t ia l l and a s p ercen tage o ft o ta l a rea D istance f ro m c i ty c en tre

3 5.

O r ien ta tion f ro m r iver 1 71

Tab le 2 S u m mary o f c o mponen t l oad ings. 1 Pr incipa l c o mponen t a na lysis ( Var i max r o ta t ion ) , L iverpoo l 1 871 C o mponen t Var iab le 2

1

2

3

P ercen t a ge 0 -4

.76

P ercen t a ge 0 -14

.92

P ercen t a ge 1 5-64

. 89

P ercen t S .E. G . 1a nd 2

.49

P ercen t S .E. G . 3

.92

P ercen t S . E. G . 4

.43

. 53

P ercen t S .E .G . 5

. 43

. 75

P ercen t S .E .G . 4a nd 5

. 95

P ercen t i n n uc lear f am i ly

.59

P ercen t s ervan ts

.49

S ervan t-own ing i ndex

. 33

.47

. 38

P ercen t l odgers

. 33

. 51

P ercen t I r ish

. 64

Percen t S co ts P ercen t We lsh

. 41 .36 .37

P ercen t Eng l ish migran ts

.74

P ercen t wo men i n work force

. 33

P ercen t w idowed h eads

. 31

P ercen t i n mu l t ip le o ccup ied h ousing

. 64

P ercen t i n c our ts

. 68

Popu la t ion d ensi ty

. 78

Housing d ensi ty

. 43

. 75

Househo ld s ize

.33

Housefu l s ize P ercen t l and i n r esiden t ia l u se D istance f ro m c i ty c en tre

. 46

. 37

. 70

.39

.78

P ercen t o fv ar iance e xp la ined E igenva lue

2 4.60

1 3 .60

9 .30

8 .60

4 .70

3 .20

1 .

L oadings o f 0 .3 a nd a bove o n ly a re s hown

2 .

F or f u l l d ef in i t ion o fv ar iab les s ee T ab le 1 .

1 72

i so la ting a reas w i th a n o ld a ge s tructure a nd a h igh p ropor t ion o f w idowed h ouseho ld h eads, a no ther e thn ic c o mponen t l oad ing o n t he We lsh , S co ts a nd f ore ign-born , a nd , f i na l ly , af a mi lyl inked c o mponen t r eferr ing t o c hi ldren i n t he w orkforce a nd t he s i ze o ft he e x tended f a mi ly .

Each o ft hese c on tr ibu tes

o n ly a sma l l p ropor t ion o fv ar iance t o t he s o lu t ion a nd a dds l i t t le t ha t i s n o t i nc luded i n t he t hree c o mponen ts a lready i den ti f ied i n d e tai l . L oad ings o n t he f i rst t hree c o mponen ts were a lso c onver ted t o c o mponen t s cores, 9 which c ou ld t hen b e a ssigned t o e ach o ft he 3 94 s ub a reas u sed i n t he s pa t ia l a na lysis o f L iverpoo l . Each c o mponen t s core was mapped i n o ct i le d evia t ions f ro m t he median v a lue .

1 0

T he r esu l t ing maps p er mi t a n a ssess-

men t o ft he e x ten t t o wh ich r esiden t ia l d if feren t ia t ion e xisted w i th r espect t o t he f i rst t hree c o mponen ts a nd o f t he d egree t o which t he s pa tia l s tructure o f L iverpoo l i n 1 871 c on formed t o c onven tiona l t err i tor ia l mode ls o f u rban s truct ure ( F ig . 1 ) . C omponen t 1i s s pa t ia l ly most s trong ly a ssocia ted w i th p opu la t ion d ensi ty a nd l and i n r esiden t ia l u se , p resen t ing a c lear c en tre-per iphery c on trast b et ween t he l ow-scored C .B .D . a nd d ockside a reas, t he h igh-scored o lder r esiden t ia l a reas a round t he c i ty c en tre , a nd l ow-scored p er iphera l a reas o f l ower d ensi ty , s uburban h ousing . I tt hus s epara tes o lder h igh-densi ty h ous ing a reas f ro m n ewer l ow-densi ty d eve lopmen ts wh ich f or m ab road c oncen tr ic r ing a round t he i nner c i ty . T he s econd c o mponen t , s trong ly a ssocia ted w i th s ocia l s tatus a nd e thn ici ty , l oads h igh ly o n a reas c on ta in ing c oncen tra t ions o f u nski l led , ma in ly I rish , workers, s epara ting t hese f rom s k i l led a nd h igher c lasses i n o ther a reas o f t he c i ty .

S pa tia l ly , t his c o mponen t t ends t owards a s ectora l p a t tern , f ocusing

o n t he l arge l ow-sta tus s ector i n n or th L iverpoo l a nd o n a sma l ler s ector o f s i mi lar c haracter t o t he s ou th . Al ow-scored h igh-sta tus s ector r uns f ro m t he c en tra l c i ty t hrough s ou th-east L iverpoo l , b u t t owards t he u rban f r inges a z ona l p a t tern r eappears, a s t he o lder p ar t o f t he c i ty i s s urrounded b y az one o f h igher-sta tus s k i l led work ing-class a nd midd le-c lass s uburban h ousing . C omponen t 3 , l oad ing o n e lemen ts o f f ami ly c o mposi t ion a nd a ge s tructure, p resen ts a s pa t ia l p at tern wh ich i sb road ly s ectora l , b u t which c on ta ins a spects o f t he d istr ibu t ion o fb o th c o mponen ts 1a nd 2 .

E ssen t ia l ly , t his c o mponen t

s epara tes work ing-class a reas, d o mina ted b y n uc lear f a mi l ies a nd a y oung a ge s tructure , f ro m a reas w i th a more d iverse f a mi ly c o mposi tion a nd a n o lder a ge s tructure , i nc lud ing b o th l odg ing-house d istr icts a long t he d ockside a nd t he o lder h igh-sta tus a rea t o t he s ou th e ast . A t t h is a ggrega te s ca le t he c o mponen t a na lysis h as s hown t ha t r esiden tia l a reas w i th d ist inct ive c haracter istics c an b e i den ti f ied w i thin t he u rban f abr ic o f mid-n ine teen th c en tury L iverpoo l . 1 Moreover , t he u rban s tructure a nd r esiden t ia l d i f feren tia t ion t ha t e xisted c lose ly r esembles t ha t f ound i n t wen t ie thc en tury t owns.

S ocia l s ta tus a nd f a mi ly s ta tus emerged a s i mpor tan t a nd

l arge ly i ndependen t d imensions whi le migran t o r ig in was a lso i mpor tan t , b u t was c lose ly r e la ted t o s ocia l s ta tus. The a na lysis a lso emphasises t he s ign if i cance o f h ousing a nd d ensi ty c haracter ist ics, whi le e ach c o mponen t h ad a d ist inc t ive s pa t ia l d istr ibu tion which c on ta ined e lemen ts o f t he t hree ma in t err i tor ia l mode ls o fu rban d eve lop men t .

Though a l l s et t le men ts a re i n s o me

s ense ' transi t iona l ', a nd V ictor ian L iverpoo l was c er ta in ly u ndergoing c hange , 1 73

•' •

,• —

1 74

B u i l t u p a r e a 1 8 7 1

L i v e r p o l B o r o u g h b o u n d a r y

s e c o n d o c t i l e

L

y ". . 1\

o

-o

• \ . ,