Space and Time in Homer: Prepositional and Adverbial Particles in the Greek Epic 0405140428, 9780405140426, 0405140258

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SPACE

AND TIME IN HOMER Prepositional and Adverbial Particles

in the Greek Epic

This is a volume in the Arno Press collection

MONOGRAPHS IN CLASSICAL STUDIES Advisory Editor W.R. Connor

Editorial Board E. Badian

P.E. Easterling David Furley Michael H. Jameson W.R. Johnson Bernard M.W. Knox Jacqueline de Romilly

See last pages of this volume for a complete list of titles.

SPACE

AND TIME IN HOMER Prepositional and Adverbial Particles in the Greek Epic

Geoffrey C. Horrocks

wi ARNO PRESS A New York Times Company New York * 1981

Editorial Supervision: Steve Bedney

First publication in book form 1981 by Arno Press Inc. Copyright € 1981 by Geoffrey C. Horrocks Reproduced by permission of Geoffrey C. Horrocks MONOGRAPHS IN CLASSICAL STUDIES ISBN for complete set: 0-405-14025-8 See last pages of this volume for titles.

Manufactured in the United States of America

Library

of Congress

Cataloging

in Publication

Data

Horrocks, Geoffrey C. Space and time in Yoner.

(Monographs in classical studies) Revision of thesis (Ph.D.)--Cambridge,

1978.

Bibliography: p. l. Homer--Language--Grammar. 2. Greek langusge-Prepositions. 3. Greek language--Adverb. I. Title. II. Series. PAH2O1.HS 19801 883'.01 89-2655 ISBN 0-405-14042-8 AAC Re

SPACE AND TIME

PREPOSITIONAL

AND ADVERBIAL

GEOFFREY

IN HOMER

PARTICLES

IN THE

C, HORROCKS

GREEK EPIC

Copyright (C) Geoffrey C. Horrocks 1980.

No part

of this monograph may be reproduced,

retrieval electronic, without

system,

or transmitted

mechanical,

in any form

photocopying,

the prior written

permíssion

stored

in a

or by any means,

recording,

or otherwise,

of the copyright

owner.

For Amy

«ἢ»

Preface,

This

Ph.D.

monograph

is

a revised

thesis (1978).

the work

of

a Cambridge

of a Major State

to get under

of Downing College Cambridge

way, for

Studentship,

and to the Master

touches

linguistics University

Both course

during

with

are,

the

below,

and

I have benefitted

soholars

and

both

current

like

Studies

work would them

encouragement Allen

Thanks

are

many

a great

were

due

of

in

in the

ideas

always been more

debt

Without

invaluable

from

to oral and

ready

this,

the

But

that

to offer deficiencies

than

they

in particular whose

I

advice

and also my examiners,

who made many helpful

to Pat Easterling,

presentations

than

John Chadwick, throughout,

My

arguments

even more marked

of thanks.

supervisor,

and in the

end London,

listened

the

have been

and John Lyons,

also

have

work,

enormously

in Cambridge

and critioisa.

to thank my

Sidney

of

they have

comment

and I owe

should

it,

versions

constructive of

The

term as leoturer

and African

of the original

in both universities

preliminary

appear

to complete it.

during my first

of Oriental

the preparation

of revising

oolleagues

and Pellows

of London.

discussions

of

were added

at the Sohool

which

electing me to a Research

Fellowship, which gave me the time (almost) finishing

University

I am grateful to the Department of Education

and Science for the award enabled

version

who first

suggestions, suggested

that

the work might be revised

with

a view to publication

by Arno

Press,

Finally, putting being

up with

prepared

attendant would

I would

ever

lonely

to thank my wife,

evenings

and revised,

crises have

like

and weekends

and for all her

and frustrations, been

Gill,

Without

for cheerfully

while support

the

thesis was

during

it, I doubt

the

the work

done.

G.C.H. University August

of London.

1980.

iii.

CONTENTS.

Preface

INTRODUCTION:

THE

SCOPE OF THE WORK

FOOTNOTES

CHAPTER A:

I:

THE

SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS AND PREVERBS

Traditional

LP

2.

The

Treatments

comparative-historical

method

in Classical

linguistics

Chantraine's

analysis;

adverbs

analysis;

prepositions

and

preverbs

»

Chentreine's

he

Indeterminacy

of Chantraine's

oriteria

Bs

5.

Problems

The

Syntactic

1.

The

2.

Distribution

2.

Punctional

and

still

clause

to be

Roles

of the Particles

types

of

adverb

of Homerio

adverbs

phrases

parallelism

of

and prepositional phrases

Greek

‘independent’

prepositional

adverbs

solved

'independent' phrases;

and prepositional

partioles

18

iv.

Preverbs;

may be prepositional

mobility

of

compounded

5.

compound

Types

yet

25

verbs

phrasal

and

25

of particle-verb for

Extra-nuclear

9.

Nuclear

Prepositional

11.

Phrasal

12.

Compound

13.

Summary

combination;

distinguishing adverb

adverb

10.

between

them

32

phrases

phreses verbs

verbs

42 43

verbs of

Structures

Clauses

“ not

verbs

particles;

8.

The

particles

verbs

criteria

Cz

with

Prepositional

Adverbial

Te

nuclear

particles;

B and

Inter-relationships

containing

Particles

1.

Introduction

ὃς

Particle-verb combinations compounds)

of

(other than

and particle-noun phrase

combinations

as

phrasal

basio

structure

for

for

clause

3.

Rules

4.

Lexical

5.

Relationship

basic

constituents;

phrasal

verbs

49

patterns

insertion

prepositional

between

structures

particles

with

in pre-nominal

and pre-verbal

positions;

alternative

analyses 6,

Choosing between basio

structure

phrase .

57 the alternatives; for particle-noun

combinations

Relationship

between

61 structures

with

particles (prepositional or adverbial) in pre-verbal positions;

and pre-direct

particles

object

in clause-initial

position

72

8,

Formation

of compound verbs

9,

Summaryof C

79

8,

FOOTNOTES

CHAPTER

II:

WORD

85

ORDER AND THE COMPARATIVE-HISTORICAL

PERSPECTIVE Δι

The

History

of

Particles

and

the

Position

of

Homeric Greek

90

1.

Introduction

90

2.

Clause structure in Vedic

92

3,

Clause structure in Hittite

95

ἂς

Clause structure in Latin

96

5,

Clause

97

6,

Clause structure in Greek (cont.);

structure

postverbs

in

Greek

105

vi.

7.

Clause structure in Greek (cont.); pertioles

in enclitic

Positioning

109

position

of adverbial

particles

(discussed im 5-7) extended to nuclear prepositional

9. 10,

Clause

structure

Reconstruction based

112 112

particles

on the

in Old Irish

of pIB

clause

evidence

of 2-9

struoture 113

11.

The

development

of prepositions

117

12.

The

development

of verb

123

15.

The

position

of pIE

development

particles

in the historical

of prepositions

and verb

pertioles

the

The

125

stages

in

prepositions

the

development

and verb

of

particles

evidenced by the history

of Creek;

127

introduction

15.

Looative

expressions

in Mycenaean

128

16.

Ablative

expressions

in Mycenaean

131

17.

Goal

18,

Pa-ro phrases

19.

Positioning

20,

Positioning

expressions

155

in Myoensean

155

in Mycenaean

of prepositional

particles

136

in Mycenaean

Mycenaean

of verb particles

in

159

2.

Absence

of independent

pertioles

22,

than

of

particle

of Classical

to that

Conolusion;

advanced

in the prooesses

and verb

The position close

of 142

Mycenaean more

Greek

preposition

25.

uses

in Mycensean

Conclusion; Homeric

adverbial

development

Greek

- very

143

of Mycenaean

Homeric

14,2

Greek very

close

to

the inherited situation, Mycenaean and Classical The Antiquity

Greek much more

148

New

Evidence

1.

The possibility

poems;

Possible

lines

of descent

features

into Dark Age Epic

Epio;

6.

of Mycenaean

in the Homeric

Tmesis

some doubts

eliminated

formulas

Examples

of flexible

for inherited

151

formulas;

of tmesis;

motivation

for its retention

in the Epio; Bronse

of

152

dactylio

the

the metrical

inherited

conclusion

Age

in the

from Mycenaean

importance

example

148

155

Plexible

for

survivals

as an inherited feature already

Further

147

ef the Greek Epic Tradition:

Some

36

developed

in the Epic

155

features

- good poetry

evidence

161

16,

CHAPTER

III:

THE

ADVERBIAL Αι

SEMANTICS

172

Introduction

1e

The

2.

Componential

»

Polyseny

174.

ἂς

Polysemy (cont.)-

176

scope

of the Chapter

and Temporal

Dimensionality

2.

Relative

2.

Points

and

location

complex the

180

location

embedding

181

of

expressions

183

Directional

expressions

185

expressions;

oontaining

expressions

and

in locational

expressions

The relevance

of the

respect Locative

Particles

1.

180

direotionel

Extent

ἢ

and simple

of orientation;

location,

>

172

Relations

position

directional

Em:

172

analysis

1.

5e

i

AND

PARTICLES

Spatial

i"

OF PREPOSITIONAL

and

é πὶ

direction to temporal

186

concepts and

oontained

of

extent with

relations

187

Expressions

expressing

187

simple

locatica

>

Ev

plus

dative

187

1i:

2,

ἐπι

plus dative (oont.)

3.

tm;

plus dative (oont.)

he

£r)

plus

dative

in temporal

5.

ἔχ)

plus genitive

6.

(cw!

plus genitive (cont.)

T

én

plus genitive (cont. )

ὃ.

ἐσ

plus genitive

9,

£v

plus

expressions

in temporal

expressions

dative

10.

£v

plus dative (cont.)

11.

iv

plus

dative

in temporal

expressions

πρὸς 1e

πρὸς

bs

Particles

is

περὶ 1.

plus

dative

expressing

complex

location

202

and “μετά Contrast

between

simple

and

complex

location

ii:

2.

παρα

and n

3.

pert

plus

dative

genitive

stp and S70 1e.

111:

pius

ὕστερ

plus genitive

2,

ὑχό plus dative

3.

ὑπὸ

ear

and

plus genitive wep!

1,

&ugy plus dative

2.

περ!

plus

dative

211

3e

περ!

plus

genitive

212

ivi

dvd 1.

dvd

Direotional

is

1i:

111:

dative

212

Expressions

21h

plus

Partioles

in goal

ἐπί

£/5

amd

expressions

1e

£i

plus accusative

21}.

2e

ἐπὶ

plus

215

3.

£75

plus accusative

216

he

££.

plus accusative (cont.)

217

5.

cf

plus accusative (cont.)

219

6.

εἰς

plus

genitive

accusative

in temporal

219

expressions

vods 16

mpos

plus

accusative

221

2e

moos

plus

genitive

222

πρό 1.

"po

plus

genitive

2e

πρὸ

plus

genitive

225 in temporal

225

expressions ivi

περά 1ς

v1

and To(pot

ἐγώ a

pes

plus

acousative

225

ὑπό 1,

ὕπο

plus accusative

226

«(JA » 4.

eta $/ plus accusative

227

vii:

ave

ὔ

1.

and

κατά

dvi

plus accusative

lve

plus

eve

plus accusative (cont. )

genitive

κατοὶ

plus accusative

K«Taà

plus accusative (oont.)

KoT4 plus genitive Te aro

1.

Kara and

plus genitive (cont. ) £x

chro

and

ew

as goal

expressions

otro

plus

dro

plus genitive (oont.)

233

genitive

253

Ex plus genitive Ex plus genitive (cont. ) vro

>

oro

255

and

ἐκ plus genitive (cont.)

and

ἐκ

plus

genitive

in

temporeJ

expressions bs is

Partioles ent

1e

and

in path

expressions

πρὸς

ἔπι

plus

accusative

ἔπ,

plus acousative (oont.)

£f!

plus accusative (cont, )

Em

plus accusative (cont.)

ἔνι

plus accusative expressions

in temporal

2.5

exii-

ἐπί

plus

2,5

genitive

mpos

plus accusative

Tas

plus genitive

Virtual synonymy of ἐπ, and xpo: im certain

245

contexts

10.

πρός

plus accusative (cont. )

11.

πρὸς

plus

acousative

in temporal

27

expressions

44:

iii:

παρά end LET

’

1.

TD

pius

26

περ

plus accusative (cont.)

2.

παρά

plus accusative (cont.)

Le

“μενα

plus accusative

5.

Jura

plus accusative (cont. )

xui

and 2

1. 2.

περι ’

xJd,

acousative

252

plus accusative

T£»

plus

accusative

i

ivi

Six

’

>

» eve

ἢ

and

,

Ara

)

1.

Sid

plus acousative

2.

" ix

plus

accusative

in temporal

expressions ó»

plus

genitive

ove

and

KT

plus

acousative

wa

and

κατ

plus

accusative

A Tel plus accusative (cont. )

(oont.)

-Xiii-

vi

c

!

ὕπερ amd

ὕτο

/

1.

ὕπερ

plus accusative

2,

ὑπέ,

plus

»

UFo

plus

accusative

be

ὑπό

plus

accusative

genitive

in temporal

expressions o:

Particles

ἃ:

ψωροΐ

19

2. ὕπο

1.

expressions

Tol pel

plus

genitive

παρραί

plus genitive (oont.)

/

ὕπδ

Summary

E:

source

ef

plus genitive Sections

C

and

D

The Adverbial Partioles 1.

Idiomaticity

2.

Types

vro and

senses

and

between

literal

developed

(metaphorical or aspeotual) particles 3e

ore

in phrasal

he

cx»

im compound verbs

5.

£m!

in phrasal

6.

em

in compound

7.

Conolusion

FOOTNOTES

270 270

of relationship

spatial

£m;

verbs

verbs verbs

senses of

ἃ αὶ ὃ ὃ 8 5

111

im

xiv,

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES

Note:

References

292

in the text

are given

in the following

abbreviated formi: Author's

meme,

page numbers Full

date

of publication

ef the work involved,

involved,

details may be found

in the Table,

p.

292 ff.

aia

INTRODUCTION:

1.

This

THE

SCOPE

monograph the

investigates

aspects

of

grammar

as

they

appear

in

display

a wide

range

constructions later

dialects

forms.

This

features

of

to

investigate

be

a more the

the

many

of

Greek

other

the

is

in

and and

from

a

the

more

and

consistent

with

a

and

sophisticated

oral

to use

as a coherent

and

put

singers, of

the

without history

grammatical

the

one

origins

more

of

the

can

be

of

be

have

if

the

is

the

poems thet

self-contained the

mcterial

new and I

this

preverbs

argue

to

that of

be

say,

origins

as

criteria

language

to

I teke

deficient

attempted

dialect

That

etc.,

on

be

particular,

unitary

tradition,

the

literary

establish

disparate

of

to

prepositions

view,

forms,

the

I

achieved a

in

noteworthy

shown

to

In

as

and preverbal

artificial most

and of

poems

reappear

chapter

roles

preverbs

the traditional

can

first

knowledge of

Homeric

not

However,

interpretation

assuming

and

do

geographically

items,

long

which

closely

point

and

of prepositional

regarded

vocabulary

the

The

distinguished.

is

interesting

prepositions

terminology in

synchronic

chronologically

fact

analysis

Odyssey

of

than

syntactic

adequately

and

of

of the more

Odyssey.

dialect.

facts

illuminating

Iliad

treated

uses,

different

more

and

and

respects,

the

meaning

Iliad

framework

certain

some

and variety

freedom

in

can

the

and

the Homeric

descriptive

whereby

OF THE ‘ORK,

despite of

the view, vroducts

of

amalgam

was

system by individual part

of

those

employed,

singers

-2-

2,

This,

of course,

of diachronic provide the

the

is

and

the

foundation

for

Chapter

set

and

In

Homeric

poems

of

how

far

and

regularisation

can be it

in

emerge

accepted Age

has

been

progressed of

which

As

even

important,

hitherto

tne new evidence

with

in

the

greatly

35.

into

and

of

most, to

an

Age

the

if not

ancient evidence

shown

of

the

the

question

simplification usage

which

languages

B

only

the

if it is

the Bronze

tablets,

of

a

the

This

evidence

position

has

to be,

at best,

In

light

of the

the

other

III

provides

a brief

of

supposed

survivals actually heving the

medium

of

poetry

is

clearly

increased.

Cnapter

are

of

certain

into

all,

such

interpretation.

via

in

comparison,

Linear

the probability

Epic

of

explained

and

preverbs other

languege

goes back

the

of

as regerds

of

support

criticism

the

I

analysis

Mycenaean

preveroval

of this

adduced

presented,

Dark

of

and the

processes

tradition

Mycenaean (and even pre=Mycenaean) descended

the

development

because

such

of

at least

period

to intensive

consistent

of

satist'actorily

the

been

the

which

position

a result

can be

in

and

prepositional

the Greek Epic

subjected

merely

the

historical

anted2tes

is crucially which

way

in Chapter

prepositions

general

and interest

outlined

background

established,

family.

that

and

has

the

Indo-European facts

this

in

II,

of

broader

languages

particular,

manifested

the

the importance

results

functioning

against

Indo-European in

to deny

studies,

positioning

Homer

is not

introdiction

to

e number

of

techniques

of

semantic

analysis

account

the

literal

spatial

of

prepositions, is

beyond

the

instances

oan

are

detailed

scope

of

the

more

that

preverbs

4.

A

function

discussed grounds

;

only

also the

that

as

less

shared

form

coherent

set

employed where

I

throughout wish

particular

to

instance, analysis

avoid

examples,

(*preposition’,

as

A rather proceeds,

general

Otherwise

and

different

basic

label

the

excluded

terminology

term

these

and

is

which

the of

by

characteristics, properties.

‘particle’

items

syntactic

customary

‘adverb! >)

on

prepositions,

the

specific

senses,

are

interesting

for

as

spatial

distributional

senses

specific

used

restricted’,

that

two

adverbs,

are

and

Homerio

prepositions,

‘proper*

and

complex

attributing

'preverb'

is

in

particles

these

comprehensive

developed

show

independent

at the outset a

is

a of

more

‘proper’

The

functional

senses

of

to

range

displaying

worth mentioning

it

prepositions

interest,

provide

their

senses

so-called

functional

of their

of

but

and

to

temporal

related

preverbs

correspondingly

It is

work,

abstract

the

virtue a

this

‘improper’

their

and

seeks

treatment

systematically

Throughout,

and

in

roles

is

contexts to

terminology

employed

is developed

in the first as the

FOOTNOTES.

Cf.

Sohwyser/Debrunner (1950, Vol, II, pp. 420-1):

beliebte

geschichtliche

Verb

Nomen

und

Soheidung

gebrauchten...und

gebrauchten..."

(Emphasis added),

".eeprépositions

proprement

swisochen...echten, unechten,

d.h,

nur

"Die

d.h. bei

bei

Nomen

Humbert (1960, p. 292):

dites

et

prépositions

improprement

dites,"

E.g

they

function

often

display

compared

with

proper

3

Por

the

cannot

function

as

preverbs,

peculiarities

of

and

usage

or

even

in

prepositional

positioning

when

prepositions,

terminology

cf.

Schwyzer/Debrunner

(1950,

Vol.

II,

pp. 417-53), Humbert (1960, pp. 291-334), Chantraine (1953, Vol. II, pp. 82-149),

etc.

CHAPTER

A:

I:

THE

Traditional

1.

The

method

in

language

Classical

up

the in

illustrates any

method are

more

be

that

also

the

to

is

study’,

under

stem

as

its present

of

confusing setting

the

not

up

This

examples

the

explain

how

a language

state,

but

it cannot

communication

aspects

developments

of

of language motivated some

considerations headings

always

it may

that

the

inappropriate, has

evolved

explain

at

how

that

a particular

use may not fall

heading

earlier

to

The

cannot

fact

are

to

fails

circumstances

from

of

procedure

descriptive

the headings

and

contextual

historical

of

less

designed

inter-relations.

so much

of

form

generally

when

or

groupings

of

way.

but

In such

that

with

spectrum

particular

these.

system

some

their

& more

subtitles

convenient

of

in

language

presented

under

any historically

may not be direct

resulted

continuous

as

with

a

are

the

approach may

as

has

comparative-historical

constructions

influence

used

the

listed

potentially

Consequently

obviously

we

acoount

problems

so as to reach language

AND PREVERBS,

discussion

less

are diffioult

A diachronic

tine.

or

correlated

examples

the

a pedagogically

in a synchronic be fully

for

the various

allowed

on

linguistios

usages

satisfying

is

reliance

Typically,

or related

wariation

give

format

uses

similar

OF PREPOSITIONS

Treatments,

traditional

stendardised

divide

SYNTAX

- e.g.

they

or supposedly

-6-

‘original’

use.

intractable

under

Nevertheless, amassed

consequence

residue

classified

point

The

the

many

following

examples

which

subtitles

treatment

of

to

collections

approach,

analysis

a more

cannot

designed

invaluable this

for further

traditional

of

is often

and

to give

it

satisfactorily

explain

then.

of data bave been

will

& broad

prepositions

be

or less

and

be

a useful

outline preverbs

in

Homer,

The fullest account is that of Chantraine (1953, Vol. which

deals

relies

exclusively

heavily

on

the

with

more

(1950, Vol. II, Ch. V,2)

the Homeric

general

material,

work

of

starting

of the

II, Ch. VIII),

though

it

Sohwyzer/Debrunner

and the works cited in the latter's

bibliography.

2.

The

"Des

following

les

plus

qui précisent calque

extract

anciens

la valeur

sur le grec

Il stagit,

qui viennent

préciser

autonomes,

à cóté d'un verbe

Chantraine

textes

greos

concrate

des

MPOGE S'S , est,

mal choisi,

sont

from

Ils

en realité, 1'idee

peuvent

comme

archa$que, souplesse

comme

scene:

les

prépositions

Le terme preposition, on 18

deja

observe,

de petits mots invariables et qui,

s'employer

cóte d'un nom comme prépositions.

the

apparaissent

cas,

exprimée,

adverbes,

sets

soit

ou comme

originellement, absolument,

préverbes,

soit

soit

à

Le texte homérique, fort

permet particulibrement bien de montrer avec quelle s'emploient

ces mots

et comment

leur

emploi

dans

la

phrase

peut varier," (1955,

Chantraine

explains

evolutionary adverbial

Aut?

there

process,

use

is

Gra:

are

variety

Thus,

clear

in

examples

also

πῶσα

δὲ

of

while

δέ τε κόμπος

ἤέλασσε

T 362

this

‘adverbial’

usage the

as

the

original

such

result

p.

of

82)

an

independent

as:

>

5

ὀδόντων

yg

ren

περὶ χϑών.

uses

of a different

character,

as he

explains:

5.991}

arrive

que nous

ayons

affaire,

non ἃ un adverbe,

mais

& un préverbe séparé du verbe, o'est à dire que le mot porte d'une maniére définie sur l'action verbale,"

(1955, p. 85)

For

example:

«x 8

e

108

This

κατὰ /

οὗ

For?

development

particle

results

Pad

ffovs

an”

€

Yrepto »

A'v£ lav

of ἃ specially ultimately

in

Vos...

/

| ἤσθιον

.

ἑλόμην.

close

tie between

'univerbation!,

verb

whereby

and verb

and

*

preverb

of

come

still

together,

discrete

sometimes

with

constituent

3.

elements,

a new

parts,

and

so

with

l'

préposition,

but

meaning

hand,

as

syntactic

ultimately

over

and

the adverb

a nominal

ultimately

"Lorsque

perhaps

collocations

to form

above

the

compounds,

meanings

of

their

^

On the other

association

first

become

form

can also

inflected

s'associe

Dans l'expression

a close

in a particular

a preposition.

‘adverbe’

develop

Chantraine

avec un oas,

case,

elaborates:

il devient

une

ἤλυθον és 7ροίγν(Κ 28),

l'aocusatif Óteit originellement le régime de ἤλυθον, et ἐς apportait a

ete

une

sentie

précision comme

aocessoire,

indispensable

Mais

avec

bientot

la

preposition

l'accusatif."

(1953, p. 8A)

Thus case

4,

the

preposition

usage

to

become

| Chantraine

prepositional

"Le

texte

ἃ

in fact

homérique est

si nous

from

particle

is

offre

en train avons

being

& particle

that

an

the

de

affaire

development

on-going

de nombreux

process

exemples

se constituer à une

explaining

7 & case,

governing

suggests

constructions

prépositionelle se demander

develops

of

in Homer:

ou la construction

et ou l'on peut

preposition,

ou ἃ un adverbe,

ou un préverbe," (1953,

To

resolve

this

indeterminacy

"La connaissance permettent

souvent

préposition

In the

with us

du vocabulaire, de deviner

the

following

des formules,

ou de déterminer

of any further

solution

labels

Let

offers

8h)

solution:

du mouvement,

s'il

agit

d'une

(1953,

p.

ou non,"

absence

this vague

he

p.

take

1)

O266-7

11)

Y150

18

assigned some

discussion

clearly simply

specific

by

84)

of its application

unsetisfactory. reference

to

Examples these

are

given

unanalysed

notions.

instances:

Tw . ἀμφὶ δὲ χαΐγωιν | ὥμοις ai Kov ἀμφ! δ΄ ἄρ᾽ ζρρηγκτον vepe av ὦμοισιν ξέχντο.

111) Λι,82-5

Os pw τότ᾽ das! OS v6 Go wel 7ρῶες

iv) 2348

yíéreyv

v)

dud

[334

Considerations

pev

πρίποδος

ve

ὄμφεπε.

$' dp’ ὦμοι δν fers

of rhythm

and

sense might

ξπον.

Eidos.

lead

us to argue

that

/

qué! in i) and ii) is functioning as an adverb but with prepositional tendencies, since

the

In iii) adverb,

we perhaps

despite

have

a case

its prepositional

of a preverb position,

‘in tmesis!

occurs

«10»

univerbated

in

iv).

Similarly,

the

prepositional

tendencies

of

i) and ii) are perhaps confirmed by the otherwise parallel but more

obviously

anything

but

conclude

that

adverb, least

clear-cut, the

preverb for

"Si

prepositional

the

l'on

and

which

and preposition)

des

des deux poemes,

donner

toujours

a

distinction

entre

essentielle

pour

ces

of

préposition,

forced

traditionally

to

drawn

(vis.

at

berds:

dans

lesquelles

de

qu'il n'est solution

adverbe

les premiers

eventually

are

nous

a

et du caractére originellement

on estimere problemes

boundaries

probably meaningless,

conditions

ete transmis le texte homérique,

the

is are

were

generations

souvient

‘oral’

However,

Chantraine

distinctions

earliest

se

v).

et

pas possible

tranchée,

preverbe,

et

de

que

n'était

la pes

acdes,"

(1953, p. 85) 5.

Chantraine's

analysis

the

subject;

similar

and

works

reference,

of

to be answered, particular

way,

and

secondly

which

they

view,

The

under

the

appear fact

accounts But

First,

examples

of

we are

that

traditional

is typical appear

these

to

be

these

in

a number

we are

still

of the

still

of

headings

standard

important

how

from

the

the

cannot

suggests

that

view

of

grammars

questions

remain

how to classify

particles

do not know

particles

the

uncertain

adverbial

related

all

traditional

in

an

constructions

synchronic be

unambiguous

properly

these

point

in of

olassified

are not

«1.»

appropriate

to the desoription

of the reolassification As regards

the

of the faots

of particles

second point,

of usage;

is taken

the

question

up in Seotion B below,

it is interesting

to note

that

the

relationships between examples such as 1) - v) above are generally discussed

in terms

some instanoes respect

of linguistio

as illustrating

evolution.

Thus Chantreine

prepositions

in the making,

takes With

to:

robbov ἐγὼ περί r'eni θεῶν, weer 7! ei’ ἀνθρώπων.

Oz)

he remarks:

"Un

tel passage..e,

supériorité, et les

annonoe

composés

ou περί

adverbial

à la fois

du type

est

suivi

la construction

mepi Eye!

d'un

however,

he talks

de

prépositionelle, ee

eco Ou Tei y νομοι! e" (1953,

Blsewhere,

genitif

of fully

developed

"Comme prép osition aveo le datif-locatif Tapa

Pe

126)

prepositions:

a ate enployé, , e"

(1953, Pe 121) Now

while

periods oral

it is olear

of development

tradition

that

constructions

oan be

at different

belonging

incorporated

times,

and that

into

the

to different language

the parallel

of an

presence

«12.

of these it

in a single

is

also

clear

time,

both

in

unlikely

their

that

that

the

bards

and in

before

they

all

were

question,

others,

tructions, The facts

to

&

of

these

but

did

regard

and how

are

formulaio

use

of the

poetic

Thus

while

it is

single

highly

aware

of

the

the

seminal

to

of the

organisation

of

In view

of the fact

the

that

details

of

work of Parry

stock

particular

system

level

view

seem

II, A, 15-22), to

talk

of

are

the

was

the

various

conse

terms?

to do with

of the

tells

The

for him a

the bard's in his

language,

constructions

they

the

established,

as reflected

this

working

entered

once

what

the history

to which

prepositions

bards

in synchronic

knowledge

of development,

formulas

occasion.”

between

them

not with

by

that,

employing

at this

from

obviously

remains

any

as works

shared

features

on

chronologically

performance

relationships

formed in Mycenaean (see Ch. of

each

say that different

periods

point

but

the fact

for

language, true

‘sources’,

common

and metrical

to different

synchronic

a

is

from

we to explain

belong

a

at

terms,

it

excerpted

the bard,

the

to be accounted

linguistic,

episodes

available

is how

dialect,

freely

and

were

since

afresh for

Some

equally

then,

them

established

belonged

tradition,"

tradition

unitary

with

composed

that

equally

performance,

Ever

in historical

it has been possible to view the poems not as

and canonically

themes the

and

explained

used

employing

patchworks,

synchronically

were

origins.

(e.g. 1928, 1932),

diverse

can be

these

composition

chronological

historical

dialect

9

may

us nothing

all equally belong.

already

to be fully

it makes no sense from evolution

of

prepositions

-15-

&s ἃ process progress

which

in Homeric

illustrated it was was

is simultaneously both

in

still

ΘΖ)

in

concerned,

centuries,

use

Greek, above in

fully

From

Doubtless entered

the bard's

'half-formedf*

prepositional

manifestations

of the more

of his

stock in trade,

apprenticeship, apparently language despite

parallel

their position,

careful

as

far

as

the

everyday

prepositions

had

been

when,

point

of view,

phrases ‘normal’

were

viewed

but

phrases,

between

in the

Clearly

different

investigation;

course

of the

diachronic

this

inherited

phrases

problem

of the

of the

layers

as part

in groups ordinary language, type

1.

The

Syntaotio

Roles

It is possible

Homerio

Greek,

of

the

of the

is tackled

system

in Section

Particles,

to distinguish

as represented

six basic

in Table

1:

clause

used

synohronio

below,

B:

the

of his

in the poetio

the nature

many

as variant

partioles

were rather variants

language

for

either

that

prepositions

but

norm

simply

construction,

the knowledge

formed

the

therefore,

alternatively,

in

of construction early,

to the prepositional

were not fully

relationships

type

still

very

he acquired

in *half-formed*

merits

or,

the

the

and

tradition

a period

formed

complete

types

in

C

“the

=

object

"

subjeot

d

=

cO

mM

1.

o

Table

=

verb complement

1 ) Nominal

Clause

: βζοι,

3 + C eub) eot S

2)

: A515 (ἐπεὶ οὔ τοὺ Ev? δέος.

+ Cplace

Copuler

Clause

S + Caubjeot * "oop δ:

(οὔκ) ὠγεϑὸν πολυκοηραιν "ἡ.

Cplace

*

V

cop

: 29

CF") of" MpoyeveSrepet

£f.

: A63

(rJevap ἐκ Aves Etrw.

3) Intransitive Clause

S * Vinirans

:0101 ἡ (SE) yb Au bE .

4) Simple Transitive Clause S + Oss cot * Vtrans 5)

Comvlex

Transitive

: 0328 dvo, dev ἄνδρε. Clause

S + Oaireot * Copjeot * lo-trans ! 820

S + On root + Üplace * Vo-trans 6)

Ditransitive S

+0,

éirect

* Ο

μῶν μμοικρότερον... Osxtv.

*O Mf Spscere (5 Dope foot γήϑει.

Clause ndir

+V ditrans

; P287

fie

Kel κ᾽ ὠνθρώπι,δ,

$$

oc».

In each

case

only

is obligatory

'nuclear!

for

&

elements

clause

of

the

(i.e.

relevant

complete and semantically interpretable) material

in the

olauses

are

complement Copular

examples

simply or

complement

clauses

such as be,

is enclosed

clauses

are

parallel

become,

πέλεσ Du, , eto.

place

grow,

in Greek,

to

be

of

a subject

for

an

irrelevant

the

£ivai

the

a

verb

presence

in English,

As regards

Nominal and

overt

presence

syntactically

are included;

without

except

etc.

type

whose

in parentheses,

consisting

of

elements

subject fom,

of

a

‘copula’,

, Qa vt

difference

|

Oni

between

nominal and copular clauses, Chantraine suggests (1953, Vol. pp.

1-211)

that

the former

considerations

of time

express

general

and place,

This

truths

argued

that

the

superficial perticular

Emi

omission

phenomenon, sentence

6" (pe 452).

relationship

7 315

Tor

If Kahn's

of

and

form

or general

that

nor

"it

any

‘to

be’

does

particular

Kahn (1973) has

in

not

only partly

Greek

is

a very

characterise

use

or

any

meaning

of

truth in the following:

δ΄... [ xo

analysis

is

dep

correct,

copular

clauses

is trivial,

clauses

as a variant

happens

verb

of

Thus there is no suggestion of any essent:2l

nominal which

the

II,

independently

is clearly

true (consider, for example, Α 515 in Table 1).

,

not

to

have

/

Stwrrovsiv

the

vate Brev,

distinction

between

and in what follows

an

form overt

of copular copular

>

eut.

nominal

I shall

clause,

verb,

»

οὐδ᾽ £x:

viz.

simrly

ond cless

as a form

Returning

to

the

-16-

remaining are

clause

types,

intransitive

self-explanatory.

verb

which

requires

object

complement

a hero,

she put

contain

a verb

2,

most

or

in a variety

K176

Φη10

only

complement

bpp’ Ev

^

Gon

>!

iv)

77315

οὐδ᾽ ἐπὶ

i)

and

δὲ

ii)

φρένες:

&

clauses

with

an

also

either

(cf.

they

made

Ditransitive

clause

types,

of their

but

the

distribution.

Thus

clauses:

feats

TE

πος

TE.

βΘῴώνωτος καὶ μοῖρα

ρα τῳ}.

ἐσϑλᾳ΄ί.

$ed.

prepositional

phrase

as

overt

verb

complement,

Similarly,

form:

ἀφλοιδμὸς δὲ περὶ ὀτόμα γήνετο.

vi)

£729

τοῦ 5’ ἐξ Mey vpeos Ln

vii)

Y 248

πολέες

ἔνθα

him

clauses

phrases

O60!

viii) ὦ 343

an

and prepositional

v)

.ο

a

but

in iii) and iv) an adverb in the same fumction, copular

contains

object.

in these

oopular

clauses

and an indirect

21V ἐπί τοι καὶ ἔμ! ἔν,

in

adverbs

v7

A367

is

place,

is the parallelism

'verbless'

441)

there

of

transitive

clause

object

on the table).

of ways

simple

transitive

a direct

‘independent’

striking fact

11)

a

complex

requiring both a direct

in the following

1)

not

the book

So-called

function

A

and

5’ ἐνὶ Αὔϑοι /

δ᾽ ave

πέλεν.

| wavrores...

ὅταῴφυλα,

Y

—-

Ταντοιώ,

ἐών. of

EXON.

and

in

“17.

there

are prepositional

in vii)

phrases

in v)

and vi),

and

simple

adverbs

and viii), functioning side by side as verb complements,

This parallelism

extends

and prepositional complements but can be added

even further,

phrases also as

since both

may appear not

clause

adverbs

only as obligatory

'extraenuclear!

to any of the

simple

optional

types

listed

adjuncts,

in Table

1.

which For

example:

ix)

B19

εὗὕϊξοντ᾽ £v Krbiy-

x)

$262

πολλοὶ

xi)

Bh

ολέσ»

Ln

xii) A2

δὲ

πολέ«ς

T

δ᾽

xiv) $122

«u$;

δὲ gaiav

xv)

θεοὶ

«275

the

clause

type

an adverb oocurs

ἔτω

appears

Eva ke.

a prepositional

in the

same

Teper

Tod eriv.

phrase

is

δέ δῴ,

added

of place,

role,

Exaotly

phrase

transitive

ἔχων.

ἦλϑε

adjunct

the prepositional

in complex

xvii) ó 58

l εὗδον.

κτύπος

as an optional

where

complement

set

vyvéiv .

δ᾽ ἐπὶ καῴτνροι

περί τε

first

ἐπὶ

.

πότνικ Hor | νέκτωρ ξῳνοχόει

f£ $161

xi11) ΚΊ 51

xvi) 776

In

Ἀχανῶν | év Tpoim otro ovTo

to

the

and in the the

or adverb

same

XP

4€ ret

second

set

parallelism

functions

clauses;

γίθε,

basic

κύσελλ«.

as a

-18-

xviii)

3,

$36,

This

situation

particularly adverbs.

a dependent

suggests

Ky

some

to note

contexts

in which

7pweti

αὔριον

εἰς

In other words essentially

ds

independent

as anaphoric

Thus

are

ὑψηλῷ,

SAT,

prepositional

is clearly

desirable

that a uniform

is accompanied certain

The

the presence ‘head’

of

first

by an inflected

that we are

phrase,

latter, '>

dealing

essential

its phrase;

fact

the

phrases,

between

Given

account that

that

rather

even when

noun phrase

thereto,

the former

this

is

so,

it

of both

the partiole

it is by no means

about prepositional is obligatory,

inflected noun

like

independent

be given

with a fully developed

of the preposition

wd

to funotion

is entirely natural;

of the

Notice

Ayaiers |

seem

of distribution phrases

imply

δὲ

or the English thereon,

pro-forms

of expression.

always

Cube] pner vpn £ rov.

adverbs

simply

types

πέρ;

Pow

pro-prepositional

the parallelism

and

almost

example:

wae ) ϑεοὶ $' ἐπὶ

these

It is

.

PV

the German type davon, dadurch, eto.

For

Ep

conclusions,

played by independent

these appear

64v

oyep nv

K£7ru: .

interesting

the role

δ᾽ £x yave | πυργῷ

[vór3]

πέφραδε

adverbs

Kt vs

noun for the particle.

τὴν

& 273

re ξύλα

important

The

[ 381,

Dro

phrase

prepositional

phrases since

is that

it is the

is its

dependent.

«19.

Yet it is ἃ well-known in

adverbial

in Homeric

A2.

function

Greek,

(locative)

stand

ἔρχεσθον

alone

suggests

πρῶται

that

phrase

O

in

the functional

the presence

the

burden

ἀμιφὶ

This kind of head

that

the

the

noun

phrase

δὲ

χαῖται,

partiole

since

a situation

have developed essentially

an optional

certain

adverbs,

optional

separated

ending

it

from

the

modifies:

if the particle leave

were

the

a prepositional

Thus it is the infleoted

as the head

specifier

of its

of these case

the old adverbial

preposition-like

even when

be

case

would

head.

in which

still

ὠΐσοντω:.

its removal

which must be regarded

as merely

dealing with

may

whose

»7)

is

case

This optionality is

partiole

ἢ ὥμους

phrase without its (obligatory) noun phrase

is carried by the

separation would be impossible

of its phrase,

ἐχώρησεν.

of the partiole

fact

containing

266-7

support

κορύσεετα!.

νεῶν μιὲν

(though, in fact, generally preferred), reflected

particle

κέλενθα.

δὲ

Apysies

and that

without

expressions

κλισίην.

πλεῖθ᾽ bypa

(path)

ending

inflected nominal

πόντῳ μὲν TÉ

0 655 (source)

This

may

that

as in:

A 322 (goal) y7

fact

tendenoies

in construction

with

phrases,

ending,

the

We are

particles but are

still

a noun phrase,

«20-

As such they say behave

optionally

like

independent

edverbs,

and

stand separated from the modified noun phrase, as in () 266-7 above. Since

it is the noun

phrase

kind,

and since

is clearly

directional as adverb

this

adverbial,

phrases,

we may

They

of an inflected mown

which

is the head

functioning

phrase

in the

whose

case

to refer

I shall use

the term

prepositional

sort where

the

an inflected noun

phrase.

But note

that

are also

implicitly

of particles phrase

&dverb

can,

phrases

as pro-forms

in principle, oonsisting

particle the

phrases,

independent

prepositional,

particles

i.e.

is qualified by the partiole

as co-referential

with

phrase.

They differ

identity

of the

though

& noum

phrase,

particles are

from

location

noun phrase but has Thus,

some

to be

independent these

in terms

‘prepositional’

full adverb in question

mentioned phrases

is not

can be

sense

regarded

of their basic in the

sense

that

are

a

only in thet

noun the

specified by an overt to the

as parallel

they

interpreted

adverbial

of not ooourring

semantio

a

anaphorically

supplied by reference in the

since

In other words,

'here' / ‘there’

and construed

previously

with

adverbial

as incorporating

covert adverbial element meaning something like which

particle co-ooours

always be supplied.

of independent

of full adverb

phrases

consideration

that also appear

of this

uses

to such

under

or

ending may be optionally

to cases

noun

refer

cases

specified by one of the set of particles independently.

of this

as ἃ locational

conveniently

consist

of phrases

with

to prepositional

properties; are

context.

both

functioning

as

«21

modifiers

or specifiers

may be overt

“»

of an adverbial

or covert,

Syntactioally,

element,

though

independent

the

latter

particles must

be treated as the head of the adverb phrase (i.e. as obligatory in the absence of an overt adverbial), but since these are themselves adverbial

4.

elements,

X Turning

to

this

so-called

also prepositional, Notice

first

that

as complements

w3h3

ἀνὰ

0899

ἐκ

Verbs

such

is entirely naturel,

i.e.

preverbs, qualify

independent

we find

an overt

that many

or covert

prepositional

of these

adverbial

particles

are element,

may function

to copular verbs:

Gre vti δὲ

M

παντοῖα,

καὶ wero!

as fuive

may

directional contexts;

be

of

Eas.

eivev.

regarded

as

dynamic

copulas

in

motionaY

i.e. just as be is to become in pairs such as:

John is 111 / John became 111,

so be (locative)

is to come/go (directional)

John is in London / John came (went)

Where

an

independent

complement

prepositional

in this way,

it may also

in pairs such as:

to London,

particle

stand

is

functioning

in immediately

as

a

pre-verbal

position:

»/

K142

Notice

^,

ἔνθα

that

separated

the

the

the

of the

adverb

distribution

phrase

placing

illustrated

compounds,

the

ξξῆλθε

clear

be

interpreted

oocurrent partiole

noun

yet ἃ fully pre-verbal

from

pairs

even when as

the

of

Presumably of

the

noun

still adverbial

developed position

a case

as

specifier

phrase,

of its

such

it stands

&s

preposition those

obviously not prepositional specifying

A1h2

position plus

verb

are not yet true

may

we

find

the

stand

before

the

particle

same

the

noun

δόμων.

independently

reflection

a

the verb:

υ 571

seems

in

particle

material

particle

πάϊς ἐκ ΓΙύλου ἦλθεν.

It

in

lexioal

7337

prepositional

partiole that

Where the noun phrase position

contains

elements;

or before

the

demonstrates

sort

phrase of

of

verb

(i.e. inseparable) in

/

ExBol VTES

option

from

combinations

5»

Tor

ending.

this

the

For

case

i.e.

ending

the possibility phrase

is

onoe

character. ít can

adverbial

and

that

pre-verbally;

still

still

of

the

co=

of placing again

Because oocupy

particles

cannot be example:

still

is

it oan

whioh

interpreted

the

ἃ

it is not the are

as

seme

225

4

Y96

A»

»

ωὐτὼρ ἔχω ro: ] πωώντα JA

Exre M.

(Por further discussion of this type, paragraph 6.) freedom

It is worth stressing at this stage that the

of positioning

far is confined

see on phrasal verbs below,

of particles which we heve

to cases where

the adverb

phrase

particle is a nuclear constituent (complement). phrase with

is an extra-nuclear

its

A570

assooiated

oy Dy bly

there

are,

poems,

no

noun

adjunct

phrase,

£' ὠνὰ

containing

the

can only

stand

beside:

δῶμα ... 8£o/..

as far as I can determine examples

so

If the adverb

the particle Thus

observed

from

a careful

study of the

such as:

wi 8... ὥχθηῶιν δῶμν bee. ἀνώχθησαν δὲ δεοὶ.... δῶμν. 56,

Prepositional

of what may be

particles

called

Δ180

oocur

prepositional

as a oonstitutive

verbs, |*

These

transitive (i.e, notionally involve an ‘agent’ on the one hand and a 'patient! taking

ἃ simple

direot

objeot

logically

or 'experiencer'

on the other), but rather than take

a complement

prepositional partiole plus noun phrase (i.e. English has

are

part

similar verbs which

of the form

adverb phrase),

take a prepositional

phrase

-2h-

complement,

suoh

as look

(at),

rely

(on),

eto,

In Homer we

find groups like περιμύχ Opt! » "pofi ἔειπον,

eto.

number

of differences

the

in

preceeding

the

ἃ copular

verb,

non-literal phrase verb the

is

of

by the fact indeed

contrast

particle

in

the

the

is

the

often

adverb

almost

of

case

choice

the

choice

of

particle

is

not

here form

a single

semantic

quite

types

to

the

are free,

verbs,

and

in

since

verb

and

where

The verb

is

demonstrated

restricted,

question.

By

to

verbs

and

Consider

adverb

partiole

is severely verb

not

an

unit,

complements

whole.

is

take

particle

former

discussed

a special,

between

semantic

between

which

has

prepositional a

of the

type

element

always

both

of

idiosyncratic phrases

verb

cohesion

constitute

relationship

and

the

though

degree

generally

that

in

the

type

First,

Secondly,

greater

items

closeness

and

and the

sense.

much

this

paragraph.

complement,

two

between

There are a

oopular

particle

do

the following

examples:

Bez

~

δι

erm

>»

ἃ

E16

ἐν,

N

Kin

[4

»

5

δ

/

... STO

κλ)»διαων. EY

eee

Ignoring

the

question

almost

any

In

following

the

υ 128 πρὸς

locative on

of

metre,

particle the

other

it

that

is

ποίρι

possible

gives

an

7

KN

here

S$

to

appropriate

.

substitute sense,

hand:

> . δ΄ Εὐρυκλείαν ἔξιπεν

(*dv« ...,.. διὰ ...5 ryan vee)?

-25-

there

is

no

intimately

such

free

choice.

associated

important

to note,

adverb

phrase

before

the verb

ending

it

than

The

particle

however,

that

is a oomplement, and

verb

seperated

and

and

noun,

in both

It

types,

the particle from

particle

the noun

is

are

particularly

because

may

stand

phrese

more

the

immediately

whose

case

qualifies:

KL5

ἄργυρος ἀσκῷ ἔνεστιν.

(complement to copular verb)

A206

rov δ᾽ «τε

(complement

The

particle

noun

phrase:

δ 65

Kets

/

may

Shiv

προόξενπε.

also

stand

independently

ν Τα

Boos

πρὸ

NEP

J

-|

Wiove

to prepositional

of

both

-—

θῆκεν

the

verb

verb)

and

.

(complement to complex trans. /

5 803 Kas je Yos μινθον &E/TEv. (complement

This

latter

possibility

is

perheps

tmesis provided by adverbial

Aro 6. are

with

J

’

dependent

the

to prepositional

upon

the

model

verb) verb)

of

particles (see paragraph 6):

\

εἰ Sy wore το, Kerra wiove wp!’ Exge. Beside

also

the prepositional

particles

an inflected

which

noun

occur

phrase,

'preve-bs!

already

pre-verbally

overtly

considered

which

or covertly,

never

there

oo-ocour

These

fall

«26-

into

two groups,

a true these

according

compound types

the verb.

is whether

the following

E758

with

pairs

moet

44 609

Te

ξ 49

bap

to whether

the

The crucial

particle

λωὸν

stand

in distinguishing

in tmesis.

Compare

re

πάντως

δλεόσων.

δ᾽ ἀπε θωυμιοδ' ° ὄνειρον.

of the first

is perfeotly

regular,

combinations

of

however,

this

pair

thus type

the result

an ungrammatical evidence.

test

forms

Ἀχνιῶν.

“Sohal p 8? ἀπ (v (pov

pair,

can

the particle

of examples:

δ' Soa...

In the oase

or not

That

sentence is to

E Oa yuu ᾿

the placing

demonstrating are

not

of the partiole that partiole-verb

genuine

compounds,

of performing

suoh

as far as one

can judge

say,

there

are no

in tmesis

In

the

an operation

examples

from

second

is

the

available |

in the Homeric

oorpus that I am aware of where ὥπό in intensive function (= 'greatiy!, 'oompletely!) for

the use

suggests

is

from

its verb,

of such a oonstruotion

that

compounds,

seperated

in oases

Where

such

separation

despite

if it were

as this we are is possible

available,

dealing

with

opportunity This inseparable

we are dealing with

phrasal

verba! o, where

yeros.

The partioles in both types may be called adverbial particles,

since

they are never

separation

ample

used

is impossible

to modify

a oase

we have compound

ending,

Thus

the category

partigleis an essentially

'adverbial!

category with

two

subcategories,

prepositional (aotually or implicitly qualifying a case ending) and adverbial (never modifying a oase ending). two types in pore

of particle-verb

detail,

Phrasal

combination

Let us now examine the

involving

adverbial

verbs must be distinguished

from

partioles oases where

independent prepositional partioles appear as locational/directional complements

to copular

or complex

transitive

verbs,

as in:

«319. 4/25 γλαυκῶπις ᾿Αθήνη. K72

Phrasal verbs is not

aézM sov.

ere vera

differ from

apparently

oopular

paragraph 11, below). its complement rather

than

in the

examples

examples

of this

or complex

type

in that

the verb

transitive

(though

see

In addition the partiole which functions as

has & non-literal

the new looation above

sense,

expressing

of the person

the person

affected

or thing affeoted, beoomes

complement of place), whereas in an example

J 230

ὁ μὲν... νεβοὸν

the fawn becomes developed

sense

are resultative, resultant

'away! of

as a result

one

condition,

It

'away!

Thus

(a

such as:

dry χων.

‘removed

the

the new state

from

of being

life’,

expressing

resultant

should be noted

throttled,

‘dead’.

that

but

Thus both looation, the

choice

in the types

the other of particle

“28-

in phrasal verbs the

permitted

verbs,

the

severely

combinations;

a very

between

is

close,

two

restricted, i.e.

sometimes

there

$ *Em-

discussion

see Chapter III, E), as we have

phrasal verbs

Most

nuances

verb

the particle

commonly such

duration, inception, eto, the

following

the

action

examples

described

intensively,

or

or thing by the

ἀπομγν

to

semantics

is inseparable,

in that

to

of the

a

it as

such

bears

differ

resultative

aspectual

in

sense,

(including

fron

imputing

thoroughness),

Por example, the function of «wo in to

be

by the verb high

an

constructions,

the particle

They also

is not

completion

seems

affected

degrees;

undergoes

to

emphasise

is carried it

is

Ἀγωμέμινον!

not

.

psp δ᾽ πε Dali ὄνειρον.

the

fact

out fully, the

a transition

particle:

4S

of

Turning to compound verbs,

seen,

character,

ξῳ

-ὄλλυμ. !.

9 atT-

(For a fuller

PT?

prepositional

relationship

é£-Ü vod κω.

*a va —

expressed

with

specify

elements:

-

person

as

to

ὧπ--

Kure *éy1-

the

is,

idiosynoratio,

ὥπο--

here,

and we have

case

that

thoroughly, that

to a new

the

state

(However,

a great variety of special senses develop for certain

partioles

in

combination

with

particular

verbs

or

verb

classes,

and some of these are considered more fully in Chapter III, E). Once

again

property

the

of

7.

These

Five

different

in Table

choice

results

2,

*

or

of

and these are

of each

particle

is

or

summarised

particle-verb

are

less

idiosyncratio

in tabular

combination

listed vertically.

listed

type

a more

verbs.

can readily be

types

differentiation behaviour

of

individual

along

The

the horisontal

in relation

to these

are

form.

distinguished

criteria

axis,

of

and the

oriteria

is marked

as

-e

Table

2,

1, P/P4N

2,prep'*li3.adv'l

onissible,|P.

1. extra-

form.

Q|h.pronom.|5. Q form.

free

jchoice

{6.P pre-!7.P P.J/V.

+

+

+

-

+

-

-

-

+

+

-

+

+

+

3. prep'1 V.

-

+

-

*

-

+

+

kl. phrasal| Ve

-

-

-

+

-

+

+

5. comp-

-

-

-

+

-

$

-

mao.

Adv. 2.

P.

nuo. Adv.

ound

P,

V.

in

tmesis.

= partiole z

noun

= verb

AdwP

= adverb

phrase

- question

The

seven

tests

are

to

be

1) Is P or P4N omissible, the If

sentence so,

there

interpreted

leaving

otherwise

as

the verb

syntactically

is no close

follows:

in the

same

sense

and

complete?

connection between

P and V,

and P4N

is an optional sentence adverbial (adjunct). If not,

then

there

and P or P4N are

2)

Is

3)

Given

the

particle

a

sentence

co-occurrent

is some

degree

of cohesion between

in some way integrated

in

the

relevant

o..taining

NP,

a

can one frame

into

construction

particle

with

a question

the

P and V,

clause

structure,

prepositional

or

without

about

or

a

P or PN

using the adverbial question forms: where? / when? If so, P/P4N may be either an optional adjunct or a complement of place/time If not,

to a copular

then P/P4N

or complex

is tightly bound

to the verb

with a special (perhaps idiosynoratio) P and V,

transitive

verb. in some way,

relationship between

not?

4) Given a sentence containing a partiole with or without a oo-ocourrent

noun

phrase,

oan

one

frame

a

pronominal question forms (who?/ what?) in the adverb

phrase

or about

question

using

the

either about the noun

the noun

in the verb

phrase

(if P is an adverbial particle)? If so,

then

complement

the nominal of

a

prepositional

of a phrasal verb; nor a complement there

questioned

or

a

part

simple

of the

direct

object

1.0. P/P4N is neither an optional adjunct to a copular

is a very

verb

is either

close

or complex

connection

transitive

verb,

and

between P and V,

If not, then P/P4N is either an optional adjunct or a complement

5)

Is there

to a oopular

a free

choice

or complex

transitive

of P in the relevant

verb.

construction?

If so, P/P4N is an optional adjunct or a complement to a

6)

copular

or complex

If not,

there

If the particle verbal

and

verb.

relationship

does not already

position,

unchanged

transitive

is a special

the

stand

oan it be placed sentence

there

between

P and V.

in immediately leaving

the

pre~

sense

well-formed?

If so, P/P4N is not an optional adjunot, but is integrated in some

way

into

the

structure

of

the

clause,

If not, then P/P4N is an optional adjunct,

7) If the particle is not already in tmesis (i.e. neither preverbal nor pre-noun

phrase),

the

and

sense

unchanged

If so, P/P4N

oan it be plaoed

the

is to some

sentence

degree

there

leaving

well-formed?

integrated

into

clause

structure, If

not,

P

is

either

an

optional

adjunct

or

part

of

a

compound

verb,

Obviously all

five

one

types

at Table seven

no

of

2 will

tests

more

8,

Let

that,

alone one

us

is

capable

from

now

the

consider

of

another,

in combination,

distinguish

extr&-nuclear

the

various each

adverb

phrase

it

not

adjunot;

structure

distinguishing

But

a glance

results

of all

constructions

type

of

construction

of

is

sentences

(type

an

1)

functions

essential

of which

part

of

as

a

the

it is a constituent,

example:

\ oj Mtv

A 318

ὡς

A 570

ὥχθεγδαν

In

construction

together

optional

syntactic For

tests

detail.

The

simple

these

show

unambiguously, in

of

each

case

we

syntactically

1 Te

Wevovre

5’ awa

can

omit

complete

b Kel Tot

(rperov

!

.

δῶμα ... θεοι.

the

with

adverb

the

phrase

sense

and

leave

of the verb

the

sentence

unchanged.

-3»

As

regards

The

same

test

would

to

such

δ

βωννονν’

phrase

>

clearly

examples

o/

2

phrases

cannot

and

be

as:

/

£v

-.- | over

ds,

ἔν

»\

4

>

g

»

>

ef

Efwovr'’

os

ἔχω

wp Xov

«t | Μέντοραι .

as a whole

can be

questioned by where?

each case, while the nouns (overt or implied)

unnaturally

prepositional,

we rEpix Ory | £yxt5s . fc

ἔνθη

are

>/

l ot

vee

here

‘independent’

δόρυ

ἐξόπιϑεν

κοῦροι

The adverb

particles

δ' supiaxos

ém $653

the

apply

δ᾽

τὸ

llé2

2,

questioned

in a sense

by

what?

exactly

-

in

in the adverb

except,

equivalent

perhaps,

to the

rather

adverbial

question form (in what? = where?).

There is in each case a

fairly

it

case

free

to

equally

choice

move

P

to

impossible

of

particle,

immediately

ana

to be

supplied

position; by

ὁ 655 above,

i.e.

connectives).

therefore:

P and The

N

its

impossible

pre-nominal

stand could

total

only not

be

reading

that after

It

each is

position

such as

if a noun phrase the

connective

separated for

in

position.

(In the case of examples it is clear

it could

is

pre-verbal

to move P from

to a position of tmesis, [1612

and

all

except

seven

were in second

trivially

diagnostics

is

-"»

The + reading for 1 shows that P (4N) is not a verbal complement of any kind,

and that P does not form

part

The particle

is clearly

in these

and

the

not

have

its

dependent N either

to

&

the

+ reading

3 and

the

& speoially

close

connection

oopular

result

or

complex

Similarly

with

the

the “ readings

assooiation

reading

transitive

as an optional

5 in oonjunotion

—

as an optional

for test 1, P (+N)

be functioning

close

prepositional

in

with V;

adjunot,

4 reading for

in &

tests

cases show

verb,

(test

that

2),

P does

with V, but functions adjunct

verb,

in these

of & compound

In

or as a complement conjunction

oases must, The

with

with

therefore,

+ reading

for 1 oonfirms

for test

this,

6 and 7 show that P has no

obviously

the possibility

of P being

part of a compound verb (allowed for by the = reading for 7) is precluded

by the

9,

2 the adverb

In type

since

it forms

In these

cases

incomplete

*She

Let

us

Y’s10

results

part

for

the

phrase

of a copular

omission

structure,

other

is an obligatory or complex

of the adverb Compare

tests,

phrase

the English

leaves example:

put the book,

take

two

Kel Shiv

comclex

transitive

Satr’ yu Onv

complement,

transitive

instances:

Trappe D) Some v .

clause,

a syntactically

I90

πέραι

If there

δέ όφ,

σχίθει μενοεικέα

is no overt now

ὁ 55

ὅϊτον

δ᾽ aider»,

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Tap δὲ

τίθει

The diagnostie

phrase,

Taping

dara.

the particle

Tape OnKe

is still prepositional:

.

δίφρον TE AEquv.

readings for this

type are

as follows:

The — reading for test 1 shows that P (4N) is te some degree integrated

into

prepositional

the

clause

in all cases.

3 and & show that

shows

The

P is itself

+ and ~ readings

clearly for tests

P (4N) 1s either & complement to a copular or

complex transitive verb test 1

structure.

or an optional

adjunct;

that it must be a complement.

test 5 again confirms this.

he

the result result

for

for

The + readings for tests 6 and 7

show that P (4N) is integrated in some way into olause structure, end we know from previous

tests

(te a complex transitive verb). fer cepular

ΒΖ

clauses

~

γυναῖκες

that

it is in fact

The same results are obtained

sush as:

»

Av

l E£idiv

»

ἐνὶ

a complement,

κλισς.

-36-

Some

type

to

clause

a

copular

type

that

clause.

1711. E323

We

2 oonstruotions,

distinct

seem from

Ena A fus

ἥσπους.

associated

Ko ‘rp yas

to

be

with

into

has

been

dealing

with

copular verbs,

a verbal

and the

complement

integration

the

structure

of the

fact

that P may

stand not

only pre-nominally but

But,

unlike

situation

in oopular

the whole complete

the

adverb

phrase

ἴίλλογε

K495

To:

and only

is,

the

with

means

δὲ

termed

a

clause

of

the

of the

is demonstrated

clauses

may be omitted

also

adverb

by the

pre-verbally.

considered

leaving

sort

so far,

a syntactically

OK iai

examples

earlier

the

δ᾽ (sppare) ἀΐξωσκε PETG son -

however,

a simple

In the

to belong

structures

W369

There

sight

Consider:

» αὔξωσαι.

here

at first

what

>! Ew» »5/ὡὠμοιξών Εὔτριχον

seem

phrase

is

however,

goal

by which

ὠϊφσουών.

& crucial difference already

action,

vis.

examples of

the

the

considered,

movement

change

is also

manner

a change

expressed

of position

this

in that here

a partioular

there

between

by

the

last pair

the verb

expresses

of locomotion, of position adverb

is achieved

involved,

phrase,

is expressed

the verb which in ¥369/ « 495 desoribed a simple action,

The

by

Thus

the verb in ()711/£ 323 expresses both the fact that a change of position

is

involved

and

the

manner

in

which

this

is

achieved,

So even though the whole adverb phrase may be omitted (as in V 369/495)

leaving a syntactically complete structure,

sense

of the verb

cases

which

include

phrase

involve

adverb

phrase

despite why

they

is in fact an

adverb

a simple are

require

from

phrase.

The

intransitive

directional

appearances

different

to the

the

and require

complementation

is

without

examples

test 1. they

component

of

meaning

expressing

the

are

manner

an

with

adverb

an

i.e,

The reason in

effeot

variants of the dynamio-direotional copula (='oome/go') extra

in

oomplementation;

fail that

involved

examples

verb,

contrary,

that

the

of

with an

locomotion.

Thus:

He ran/walked/drove/....eto the station,

all

entail;

He

went

to

the

station,

The only difference

is that

specify

a manner

‘going’,

complex

transitives

essentially

of

the former

require

causative

copular

We might

set

add here

complementation verbs,

involve

‘Thus:

verbs

that

is that

the these

whioh reason are

why

He put

oan

be

the book

on the table.

paraphrased

more

or

less

as:

He caused the book to be(come)

These

causative

meaning

state

describing

or location

He

can

copulas

threw

be

the

the

may also manner

affecting

ball

on the table,

into

or means

the

the

incorporate

direct

change

of

is achieved:

into the garden, by throwing (it).

In prepositional verbs (type 3) P and V are intimately That is to say, P (4N) functions as a complement

to the verb but

the verb

and the noun phrase of view,

a semantic often

object

the

of

paraphrased:

associated,

point

whioh

element

garden.

He caused the ball to be(come)

10,

by

an extra

itself

within

an affected

is not

the adverb object.

unit and as a reflection

idiosyncratic

to the

verb go as an example, prepositional

verb

oopular phrase

in character,

is,

from

the logical

Thus P and V together of this

the

in question,

choice

Taking

the

difference

between

copular

verbs may be

summarised

as in Table

3:

form

of P is

the English verbs

and

-39-

Table syntactic

go:

|

o

Lo

PP

=

NP

α noun

frame

semantio

+ [——]

NP,

+

NP,

—

[inte v] PP

prepositional

functional

GO

structure

GOAL

GO-INTO NP, to (» investigate)

phrase

phrase

Go may have both

literal

and figurative

senses,

If literal

(case (1) ), it occurs with a prepositional phrase complement, and from

the

semantic

is interpreted

point

as the

logical

and the prepositional

of the movement.

of view,

the

subject,

phrase

grammatical

i.e.

as doing

is interpreted

subject the

as denoting

(NP, )

'going', the goal

(Obviously other interpretations are possible

but the example is only illustrative).

If go hes a figurative

sense (oase (2) ), it again occurs with a prepositional phrase complement, into.

rom

though

the

es before,

but here the

the

semantic

grammatical the

as a complement

choice point

subject

prepositional

of preposition of view,

however,

is interpreted

phrase

to 8 oopular verb,

in

is restrioted

this

Rather

it is clear

as the case

is

the verb

logical not

to that, subjeot

functioning

and the

preposition are interpreted as a single semantic unit (GO-INTO) whieh takes

a logical

object

identified

as the noun phrase

governed

by

into;

i.e.

what

from

of the preposition, object is

this in

after

usually

a transitive

is

in

looked

The

into

problem

Obviously entries

can

be

readily

case

account

into

interpreted

as

for

the

room,

He

went

into

the

problem.

and

the

like

second

require

a logical

why

passivisation

verbs,

since

logical

object

have

8

From

the

phrase

denote of

verb

that

the

to the object

an entity which

a movement;

is done,

with

prepositional

syntactic

case

verb

point

complements,

in the

information

i.e.

it

we can then

between:

we

is restricted

not

If this

a copular

prepositional

a

objeot

carefully).

goel

we have

'investigate!,

preposition

the

difference

the

case

of

to guarantee

does

in character.

into

first

explains

to add further

(2)

went

in

(very

3 in order

He

In the

of view

prepositional presence

the

sentence:

in case

‘abstract’

is

problen.

for go in Table

be

of view

point

This

of

the

it will be necessary

readily

must

semantic

upon

looked

of the preposition

point

predicate.

active

the

was

the

the

dependent

corresponding

He

syntactic

is from

possible

process

the

the

a complement meaning

something

of view both

though

the

of prepositional

of place,

choice

types of

verbs.

From the as the

semantic

entries

Examples Greek,

for

the

of view,

though

here

of προδΈε,)πῈ

.

object

verbs

of course

containing It

are

they

are

readily

the verb

takes

a prepositional

is

quite

distinct,

clear

&lone

cannot

take

a

personal

The sense ‘speak to’ / 'address! by πρὸς Thus

+

in

A206

ξειπε,

the

very

X

T

accusetive

where The

case

N

results

by

type

simple

illustrated

mob bb ime

$

ending

^

77?

E Dev X

particle of

on

the

stands

/

Tov,

/

εἴων

88

as

its

is

object."

is always expressed

Lm

This

the

or

dative.

9

by:.

A

i.e.

case

8

direct

accusative

θεοί gemmis

“"

a specifier confirmed

/

A8byv>-

by

of the such

cases

as:

»/

ἔδ,πὲν.

immediately

diagnostic

noun

(a person) 8

must be prepositional,

"pos

the

never

common

Tov Sabre

the particle

v 128

and

such

the

govern

In

never

forms

phrase

Consider

cognate Eros (together with synonyms such as MvOov )) may

pronominal

an adverb

particle.

£t

in Homeric

and

it

than

that

found

Τῇ,

particular

other

however,

two verbs go indicate.

of prepositional

complement

direct

point

tests

before

for

tnis

the verb

inflectod are

as

noun,

follows:

ah.

Of

partioular

question sure

importance

using

since

Since

the particle

it is possible

for

These

possibilities

11,

Type 4,

in these

phrase. choice

It is, of

have

is

is clearly

is

verb,

is also very

'resultative! never

in

qualifies

an adverbial

restricted

to be listed

as

for

we

framing

3).

This

we must be

or compound

each verb,

between and dealing

verb.

2 and 7 respectively.

common,

case

The

seen,

(i.e.

ending

particle, have

is a

prepositional,

character

the

a

relationship

in tmesis,

eliminated by tests

therefore,

particle

combinations the

are

and

idiosyncratic, here

of

(test

and not a phrasal

the phrasal

state),

form

it to stand

verb

combinations

resultant

impossibility

question

of a special,

with a prepositional

ἃ

the

an adverbial

indication

P and V.

is

particle expresses

of

a noun,

Furthermore and

the

Consider

the

possible

again

examples:

E758 ἀπώλεσε )uov Ἀχαιῶν. N69

The

Agein

rw

results

the

δ᾽ ὥρα... ὑπὸ πάντως ὀλεσόων.

of

the

diagnostic

impossibility

of

tests

framing

for

&

verbs

cuestion

of

this

using

sort

the

are:

edverbial

x

question form where?

(test 3) and the restrictions on the choice

of P (test 5) confirm that there is ἃ very close relationship between P and V,

verbs (of.

Since

they are

obviously not

prepositional

the = reading for test 2) or compound verbs (the particle

may stand in tmesis, of. test 7), they must be phrasal verbs, Notice

that

though P is a complement

directional new

state

(vis.

complement,

of

*away'

'finished',

the

entity

as a type

the

by

are dup! >

denoted

by

complement

the

direct

expressing

object

noun

the

phrase

which

The verb in examples of this kind may thus of causative this

change

copular

of

state

verb which is

also

expresses

effected:

>

Consider the following examples of type 5 (compound verbs):

«f

P

4

N15

οὕνεκ᾽ ofw777 pa

f M5

To

As far of this

as

OE

ποδώκεκ

δέ 4* arn Ex Opes

I

can

kind,

it

determine is

quite

The choice

of particle

it conveys

is invariably

results

object

a

= "cause x to become dead (ὥπό), by destroying (him).

!

12.

an

it is not

in the developed sense of 'removed (from life)’, 'dead').

be viewed means

but

to the verb,

on

ὡς

the

impossible

of

to

severely

abstract tests

ἔκπῳ

basis

is again

of the diagnostic

"“7ηηλεΐωνκ .

νῶν

M

φ΄λησα

attested

separate

examples

particle

restricted

.

and

of

and

the

this

type

verb.

sense

(non-locational/directional),

for

verbs

are as follows:

The

The - results confirm -

for

that

result

tests

there

for

test

is clearly not

1 and

5, and the

is & close 5 points

+ result

relationship

to

prepositional

the

same

(test

2),

for test |.

between P and V.

conclusion,

and,

The

though

The

particle

it oan

stand

in immediately pre-verbal position (test 6), it cannot stand in tmesis (test 7). can

In other words,

stand is before

whether the

prepositional

structure

which

the verb,

place

conclusion

not with

of

the

can

13. in

to

recognise

is

collocation

which

Greek

that

a

single

subcategories prepositional case

modifying).

an

integrated

&djunot),

dealing

true

the

Thus in

of two discrete where

particle,

degree

to apply.

the resulting

analysis

traditional

and adverbis not very instead

are

some

the

rules

the

these

only

cases

elements,

but

compounding

structures are

constituents,

this

the

not

we

- i.e.

reorder

from

is

that

compound

It is evident

preverb,

to

where

is to

are free

has taken rlace,

rules

Homeric

(i.e.

in tmesis

a syntactic

(univerbation) immune

clause

come

with an inseparable

Ordinarily,

or adverbial,

partioles we

the only position in which it

of the

terminology

illuminating.

category

partiole,

(case modifying)

Prepositional

roles

particles,

of particles

of

preposition,

I suggest divided

that we

into

two

and adverbial (nonwith

or

without

a

into

=1.5=

co-occurrent

noun

phrase,

locational/directional verbs, with

They

also

certain

Adverbial combine

particles

with

the

ἃ soale

of

degrees

are completely directional

more

verbs

verbs

with verbs

force of

in

to

adjuncts

to copular less

form

as

particle

is

not

of

cohesion

between

extra-nuclear.

complements

are

to

verbs.

In

degree

is

verb.

Locational integrated

cases

though

There

and

state

other

compounds,

particle

and

transitive

combinations

resultant

resultative,

optional

some

of

verbs,

indissoluble

as

and complex

prepositional

phrasal

the

and

idiosyncratio

complements

form

to form

ovtional

or

to

functioning

certain

as

complements

appear

non-oopular

they combine here

appear

thus

Adjuncts

and into

the

structure of the clause (nuclear), but there is no special relationship choice

of

between

particle

and phrasal

verbs

particle

remains

there

and

free.

In

is a very

two elements,

such that

the

choice

idiosyncratic

to particular

verbs,

and verb

are

inseparably

verb

the

close

complements

conjoined,

to phrasal verbs), free,

to

sense of

that

prepositional

relationship

In oompound Where

the

between

the

may well be verbs

the

the particle

particle

is nuclear

( as in locational/directional verbs

and

complements

the positioning of the particle is relatively

verbally or in tmesis (i.e.

A variety

case

prepositional

If it is prepositional

If it is adverbial

the

of particle

but still an independent constituent complements,

in

it may

of positions

are

it may

stand

pre~nominally,

pre-

independently of both noun and verb), stand

either

available

pre-verbally

for particles

or in tmesis, in tmesis,

and

these of

will

any

The

considered

particular

reference

C:

be

to

in

particle

the

the in

diagnostic

Structures

and

next

section.

context

tests

can

in

The

always

Table

Inter-relationships

actual

be

role

determined

by

2.

of

Clauses

containing

Particles,

1.

In this

account

for

the

positioning determine

section

which

One

of

particles

modern

of the

some

the

verbs

>

ἀλλ

>

>!

texts,

of partiole-verb

available

as complements

~

and

particles

particle

and

to 'basic'

distribution.

‘independent’

to ccpular

before

are

to

Let us begin by about

to

function

it is necessary

containing

facts

a set of rules

particle

(marked).

immediately

νῦν

there

concerning

of the basic

is

to provide

In particular,

structures

positions

4

particle

facts

'derived!

functioning

transitive

Although

of

above,

and which

recapitulating

Ζ55,

range

discussed

(unmarked)

2e

I will attempt

the

and

verb,

prenositional

complex

For

example:

“ἡ.

εἰφελθε.

verb

are

is in fact

combination

is

always

written

as

abundant

evidence

still

essentially

a

single

that

this

word

in

type

a ccllocetion

of

-J-

disorete

elements.

regularly

occupy

separate

447

The

an

ἐς

type

also

First, second

initial

occurs,

is

»

its

and these

normally

verb:

\

verb

both

precede

such

ἃ

connective

19 rare:

rather

«4

are

from

and

/

ἄχνην.

δ᾽ ἅλος

ἀποπτύε,

A426

in a sentence,

whioh

Πρινμμον.

particle

but

connectives

,

οἰγοὰ E

where

are many

position

particle

,

§

there

These

examples

that,

even though particle and verb do not form a compound (of.

42 447 above),

nevertheless

which

unit.

usually,

combinations

are

such particles variety

important,

they do, when adjacent,

constituent

More

very

can

occupy

first

however,

still discrete,

are free

of positions,

to

stand

inoluding

they

confirm

form a single phrasal

vosition

because

since

the

in

sentence

elements

oonnectives

as

Secondly,

of the verb

object

a

of these

intervene,

independently pre-direct

a

and

in a

clause

initial:

K 466

δέελον

πό

"£pi

Since

initial

TE

Sapa

ó' ἐπὶ

ἤλθε

κτύπος

position

of

&

7’ ἔθηκε. Todotiv .

constituent

is

generaliy

teken

to

be

a ‘marked’

position

presumably

not

(cf.

the

e.g.

most

Watkins

basic

1964),

type.

The

the last

question

of

of these whioh

other two possibilities (pre-verbal and pre-direct objeot) basio

can

be

left

of particles since

both

handled While

there

seems

less

until

oo-occurring

types

are

is

idiomatic

with

some doubt

that

have

considered

overt noun

fashion,

prepositional clear

we

prepositional,

in a parallel

involving it

open

phrase,

This

the

is

to

be and

verb

such

1609

τὼ δ᾽ ῥα s. ἀπὸ

the type with

particle

basic,

Since

the

because

of the

and

verb

way the

and

since

as

they

be

taken up below,

as

more

basic,

a more

is adverbial

or

(i.e,

as in phrasal

δλείζων.

of particle

in the

combinatorial

position must be treated is not free

idiosyncratic

as a consequence

basically

items,

πάντως

in pre-verbal

choice

somewhat

specified

on adjacent

obviously,

that

᾿Αχωῶν.

dwov

ὥπώλεσε

must be

is more

as:

E158

elements,

but

form

does not qualify a case ending even implicitly), verbs

the

structures

taken

the particle

of

distribution

desirable

of these

particle

and where

phrases,

is

issue will be

as to which

particles

where

it

the

is

lexicon,

forming

a

and we avoid

relationship the

it is single

restrictions

in phrasal

permitted simplest

phrasal

can be

the need

between

to have

the

combinations

to regard

oonstituent,

stated

as

verbs

partiole In

this

straightforwardly such co-occurrence

-i9-

limitations

specified

quite widely

over discontinuous

elements

separated,

Just as partiole (prepositional or adverbial) may form a single

constituent,

phrase (when adjacent) adverb find

phrase,

This

examples

so particle

plus verb

plus

infleoted noun

form a single constituent, namely an is demonstrated

of partiole

initial position before second

which may be

and noun

by the fact

that we occasionally

phrase

occurring

together

that

regularly

oooupies

a connective

in

position:

A 699-70

περὶ τρίποδος Ye Exe Mov

θεύσεσθα;.

This distribution of elements indicates that the partiole and noun phrase are regarded as a single (phrasal) pertiole-verb particle

3.

combinations,

separating

Having

to define

Table ἃ below

to find

that partiole-noun

constitute phrases,

the basio

each rule

clause

phrase

the items items

enolosed,

listed,

Brackets

ourly braces

I ignore

here

the

indicate

an exolusive question

to write

so far discussed,

is to be interpreted

of the arrow,

and partiole-

we may attempt

patterns

as follows:

on the left of the arrow has as its constituent on the right

the connective

the two items,

established

verb combinations rules

it is more usual

unit, though, as with

members

the item the

items

the optionality ohoice

between

of oonnectives

some

^ In

of the

and other

suoh particles,

since

these

are not

relevant

to the issues

(but see Chapter II, A, for some discussion), (1964)

at hand

Following Watkins

and Aitohison (1979), I assume that Homerio Greek has a

basic constituent order subjeot + objegt + verb, though the issue is a very complex one (of. Dover (1960) for a general discussion

of the problem, and Friedrich (1975) for a contrary view). number Rules

of other of this

possible

type

ere

orders

are

oalled Phrase

considered

A

in Chapter II, A,

Struoture Rules,

Table ἐν, ὴ

S

-—»

2)

v

——

3)

—

NP

(aawp)*

AdyP-——

Y

—

(NP)

Ww

V (ὙὙ bar!)

P lo

j)

(AawP)™

—

(»)

s.

v

S

= sentence,

NP

= noun

AdvP

x adverb phrase,

VP

= verb

V

= VP constituent dominating (optional) P and V,

phrase.

(& = optional multiple appearance).

phrasee

P

zx partiole.

NP,

«x adverbial noun phrase (inflected in an oblique case).

V

z verb,

5-7.

If applied

systematically,

corresponding Por

to

all

the

these basic

rules

clause

provide patterns

structures so

far

introduced,

example:

lus

πολλοὶ

{ yip)

περὶ)

a rv pé

Πηριώμοιο jatixevreti

1 V |

P

|

"To Mo?

'Treo!*

περὶ

diagrams

subject

of this

is the NP which

& direot

objeot,

or

Wore rs)

sort are

ptio

called Phrase

is directly

subject

lp

dominated

complement

after

this would be dominated by VP (of, rule 2) ), of

a P

and

in rule 3). ἃ fact

an

adverbial

as

allowed

by

the

Markers,

The

by S8; if there were & copular

verb,

The AdvP consists second

of

the

options

The internal structure of the NP, is irrelevant here -

indicated

functioning

NP,

jupe:

as

by

an

the

use

optional

of

the

adjunot,

triangle. and

so

The is

AdvP

itself

extra-nuclear

is

in

now preoise sense that it stands outside the VP (i.e. is nota complement to the verb). must

be

allowed

for

The possibility of more than one AdvP

because

of

examples

such

as:

the

“52.

Notice

that

this kind; and this

I

take

pre-VP

position

to

is oonsidered

be

basic

example

above

the

is present,

(when adjacent)

since,

for

adjuncts

initial position,

category V serves oomplex

as we have

seen,

no real

in the

oase

of phrasal

purpose,

cases where

a verb

particle

and verb

form a single phrasal constituent.

obviously required

of

below,

it must be allowed for in the more particle

> \ ἊΝ xo v Tan. ἔπι νηνδι pes

they may also oocur in (marked) option

In the

/ Kerlys

πόλιος

Eas

νῦν δὲ

F791

but

This is most

verbs which

it has been

argued have the basio form partiole + verb (of. paragraph 2 above), Considers

Y 96

(drape)

ἐγὼ

5 The

basio

positioning

of

\

Ρ

rawr

ἐκ

P in

(1.6. complements within the VP) determine,

The rules

(μάλ᾽) ἐκτελέφσω.

(τ οὐ) l πώντω

examples

p

involving

V

re nuclear

AdvP‘'s

is rather more difficult to

of Table 4 allow for an AdvP

in initial

position within the VP (i.e. before the direct objeot or subject complement

the rule might

1f

there

is

one),

expanding V also

treat

either

Consider

the

«155

Xov

«275

θεοὶ

and

allows

or both

this

may

contain

for an optional

of these

positions

P,

In

addition

Thus we

for P as basio.

following:

($3 ἐν Xtpé'v

Kido

(5°) ἐσ) pepruper

. .. θῆκε.

ES Ten.

Adv

NP

Kapu$

év

X&pdiv

θεοὶ

ἐπὶ

—

A aot

(zw)

« 141

«pas

J

δὺ (μὲν νῦν) (52)...

Vové;

X jv el Ko

Ϊ |

Λ

oe.)

1

a P.

κίθαριν user

Wepy MEVES

θῆκε |

ἐζγων

upo!

.

Tap£ On x Ev.

8

"Y (v

|

δ «»7ροξ

/\

νηυσὶ / 77 ναί ioi 5

--4,

ἥμενος

Walp

ἔθηκεν

The

problem

of deciding between

of the nature paragraphs

lh,

For

Table

these

alternatives

of the relationship between

them are

the moment

the moment,

it is

the full

sufficient

range

now

consider

into

the

Phrase

information

the

Markers

which

must

for

question

of

the by

given

in

terms

of syntactio

Table

5.

Intransitive Transitive

'frames*,

verb

verb

For

rules,

Kréives

Marker

Por

case in

the

which

object

for

phrases,

We

lexical

for

of

each

items

the word

of ocourrenoe in

)

2

+

2

+

——JBz] [iS

—

————]XZz]

) : + [AdvP ΝΡ--τττ

sentence boundary,

intransitive

direct

of

example:

Complex transitive verb (e.g. 77854: - (final)

of

rules

allowing,

Part

lexicon

(e.g. TpÉXc) )

(e.g

the

adverb

insertion

the the

that

is a specification of its permitted context(s)

each

dealt with in

structures,

complement

provided be

to note

of basic

two alternatives

must

In

question

5 and 6 below,

4. define

Jt

and the

dotted a verb

verbs

noun

line of

the

this

phrase;

represents relevant

context for

is

the

position

subolass

simply

transitive

can

in be

a Phrase inserted,

the absence

verbs

it

is

the

of a presence

-55-

of

a direct

of an AdvP to

regard

defining

the

with

items

are

where

the

following

Table

the

that

-

object

transitive

object.

of

transitive phrase,

subcategorisation

item

in

occur

in

it

Obviously

contexts

noun

verbs

that

question

in

as

verbs

are

etc,

Features

presence

features

those of

this

and must

cruoially

& Phrase

the

it is possible

insertion

features,

elements

is

condition

Marker,

They

to

the

question

choice

of

the

immediately

prepositional

of P is restrioted,

surrounding

context

these

and

phrasal

verbs,

can be handled

in the

way:

6,

verb

frame

context

of

for

specifically

in

that

oomprising

this

listed)

(xpos γέειπον

(ἔκ γτελέω

>/ £t/Fovsays

an AdwP

inserted

(e.g.

context

are,

in the sense that the conditioning

involved,

Phrasal verb (e.g.

when

verb

structural

of

those

Prepositional

The

of

flocal! in character,

of the word Turning

of

(strict)

only those

appearance

complex

and a direct

a direct

called

therefore,

for

specifications

subcategories

are

contain

and

complement these

oocurring

sort

object;

):

)

it

relationship

ap

:

this the

+ IS

verb

P mes

+ [£4

may and

contracts with

the

be an

a

NP

"9

1.--

4]

inserted accusative

special

particle

in

the

NP;

i.e.

(because 77005 6

Any

-56-

special

or

idiosyncratio

combination

of

elements

meaning oan

be

associated

listed

with

alongside

the the

particular specification

of the syntactic context (cf. the English example go into in Table 3

above, pe 79.)

the particle

X 329

and

to

How

that

Notice that prepositional verbs also allow stand

7h μὸν

in pre-verbal

"oor! £/roi.

the insertion

frame

does not

In other words I am treating as the basio

context

prepositional

verbs

treated apparent AdvP

into are

as 'derived'!', in the

peragraph ὅ,

to

the particle particles The

pre-verbal

for

this

reasons

of the

copular

forming

discussion

and

is inserted

part

of

position

choice

will

is

become

of locational/directional

complex

transitive

As with prepositional verbs,

the verb TEM

possibility.

position within AdvP

which

the choice of P is restricted, when

allow for this

inserted,

The

course

complements

position:

verbs

in

so with phrasal verbs

Thus Table 6 makes the claim that immediately

after

the particle

£X ,

(i.e. when both elements are within V), it contracts a special relationship

with

the

partiole

verbs

are

something

and may

also

develop

& specialised

sense, Compound

of a special

cese,

since,

as I argue

below (paragraph 8), these must be listed in the lexicon as syntactic

units

node V just

like

which

are

simple

entered

verbs,

into

Phrase

They may,

Markers

of course,

under

the

be transitive

or intransitive,

but

in terms

of the type

5,

us

Let

now

relationship by

peirs

this

return

that

distinction

of syntactic

to

holds

the

question

between

oan be handled

frame

illustrated

of

the

structures

of

πώς ἐκ Πύλου ἦλθεν.

ν 571

EEA bE

»

En >

«ἢ γη41

forms

the illustrated

»

δόμων.

otv... att E ot Sets /

»Ἅ7

A

euet

Enat Gas...

E 523

ὅὕπσπουξ.

Σ un

χυλκὸν (δ) ἐν πυρὶ fev.

$up

μων... eph... ϑεὸς Eufadev. cases

wherever

the

of

5.

like:

π5}

From

nature

satisfactorily in Table

we

such have

ec oP NPL coe¥

as a

these

it

structure

seems of

legitimate

the

ἴο oonclude

that

form:

(where AdvP is nuclear,

and ignoring for the

moment the question of variable word order)

there

is

&

corresponding

ec eNP ee SP V

structure

of

the

form:

(where the case of NP remains constant)

That the

is to say, required

(i.e.

form,

we

there

may

are no actual

assume

that

the

examples

following

of precisely

are

'gramuatical'

conform to the rules defining the set of well-formed

sentences);

I ignore here the question of metre:

πώς Πύλιυ ἐξῆλθεν

(related to 77337, cf. ὦ 571)

o aet ξον

(related to .2711,

cf.

£ 323)

(related

to X A7h,

cf.

$47)

types

structure

are

allowed

ἐπωΐξωσωι

Xe A wow

We

although

have

up:

already

by the rules frames

YS

noted

of Table

for particles

structures

provided

& lexical rule

that

also

appear

in the

that

the

would

two

have

P:

shifted

position,

h,

both

Ve could,

in the

particles

other,

This, are

can

stating appear

that in

basic,

two

to

rules,

of course,

ecually

provide

corresponding

Structure

thom by that

of

therefore,

lexicon

relatos

structures

one

syntactic

tho two

and it

for

then write

is

entirely

position

can

constitutes

a claim

The

.westion

rule

in

the form:

+ [---- οὐ]

Alternatively, as basio,

that

by the Phrase

that

predictable

v

we

could

and derive the

particlo

Although

«--»

take

the

one

P:

+ [or

or other

other from

of

the

it by means

from

its

original

position

there

are

co-occurrence

(ve)

two

—v]

structures

of a rule to

its

that

new

restrictions

holding

between partioles and the oase endings of noun phrases (i.e, not all particles oan oo-occur with all case endings), noun phrase we

ensure

is in faot the that

structure

partiole

is taken

automatically

structure,

come

same

and

in both

oase

are

structures,

compatible

as basio,

the oase

out right

in the

in

of the noun

that if this

option were

a)

Ὁ

would be straightforward,

taken,

structures

we would

be claiming

is taken

X-

VP

[

AdvP

that

the

structureAccording to

the rule may have

one

[p-x]-x-v]-x

1

2

5

&

1

9

3

à25

x-

at sagt

by the Phrase

eaoh

of

6

==>

(Opt.)

===>

(Cn)

a Phrase

Marker

6

5

&

5

6

5

ὅ

5

6

l2

take

5

x-P-v]-x

2

1

us

as basic,

Notice

forms:

1

Let

whichever

derived

one rather than a lexical one as before,

of the

two

provided

phrase will

oorresponding

relationship in question was a grammatioasl (1,6. dependent)

of

Thus

Thus the writing of such a movement rule (called a

Grammatioal Transformation)

which

the oase of the

these

Structure

in

rules,

turn,

suck

Given

as:

provided

=

o

=

“Ὁ

=

ewe

ee

*Ü

m

—

o

lines

one and

into the string

AdwP

six

of

Marker

-

is to be interpreted

two constitute an instruction

elements

if the tree

of the rule

specified

and items

Phrase

Md

formulation

£

ewe

we om

the first

elements;

including

2 to 5 a VP. above.

has

the

If

the

correct

to factorise

X is a variable

nothing,

items

the

over

any

3 must

form

an

2 and

carried

factorisation

can

be

properties),

out in the carried

the

2 is moved from its

original

position

out

and becomes

i.e. a left

'sister!

of the fifth element (so that 2 and 5 are ‘daughters’

the

superordinate

‘mother’

the

as

is

same taken

result

is

node).

follows:

If the

option

(i.e.

elements

may optionally ('Opt.') be reordered as in the third line; element

‘tree‘

ranging

This has been

structural

as follows:

of

of reordering

«61-

The second formulation reverse,

taking

the

of the rule

previously

performs

derived

this

operation

structure

as

basio

in and

converting it into the original Phrase Marker (which is now treated as a derived structure).

6,

Obviously

between

the

if there between on

lexical

are reasons

principled basis must be found

for

choosing

and transformational

and

indeed,

for

preferring

the two formulations,

these

1)

some

the

A number

accounts, latter,

we must

of factors

have

choose a bearing

issues:

Recall that lexical rules are stated in the form of a

relationship

& class

between

of lexical

those items

that

items,

analysis

P:

[—

was

syntactic

and that

condition

in Phrase Markers, under

different

The lexical

rule

«-—»

particles

overt

particles

co-occurring

are

with

prepositional

the

must

of

include

the words

stating

EB

of two

The first makes

frames

the

with

only

in question

relationship

as follows:

02]

independent

associated

the appearance

This is really a conflation

for

these

frames

correct

(overtly)

ΝΟΣ

rules,

one for

adverbial

particles.

prediction,

prepositional

(wp) ——v]

noun

Let

us

namely only when

prepositional phrases take

that

and one

each

in

pre-verbal

there

is a

turn,

co-ocourrent co-occur

may

NP

with

precede

genitive

inflected

when

in

ἃ dative

noun

in

a

case

pre-nominal

which

the

particle

f

position.

or an accusative

same

Thus &v«,

noun phrase,

for

can example,

but not a

phrase:

/

acc Thus

we

do

not

find

οἱ

*eSu

though,

>!

l

however,

neither with

a

of

Consequently

the

prepositional,

do

c

QoS

accounts the

genitive,

particle It

must,

find

/

examples

above rule

state

allows

simply

in a sentence therefore,

with to

of affairs

for

cannot

be

independent of the genitive noun phrase; literal)

like:

.

for this

frames the

as:

ὥλος.

we

πολ τς

such

ἤ

Wo

e^

avedv

rule,

Since ἄνα

structures

surprisingly,

A359

The

vy

aco

such

the

oocurrence

apply

as

adverbial

correctly.

in

A359 and

this

of case,

cannot be be

completely

i.e. we have (an unusually

phrasal verb, with P inserted pre-verbally in accordance

the frame

co-ocourrent

for adverbial noun

phrases:

particles

which makes

no reference

-65-

/ ἄνα:

7]

εἰ

The second

rule,

however,

particles,

fails

to make

look

like

frame

on

the

(i.e,

provided

is no NP The

correct

left

in ἃ position where context

the

with

independent

by

k

$

there

within the

the

Phrase

i.e.

predictions,

the

particles

in

pre-verbal

right

factor

says

that

same

phrase).

Structure

The

rules

particles

also

allows

particles

in

RP.

oould

P

preeverbal

transitive,

should be

be

Here,

or absence

is of

But

removed

identical at

between

to the the

position

however,

by

where

no NP,

that

for of

the the

types,

insertion

and

as

Thus a

inserted

immediate

such

position

AdvP

when

this

sort

that

of V,

to

are

the

The

crucial

optional NP

prepositional

if

the the

is involved,

no

prepositional.

only

express

objeot

of

there

prepositional

But if this

page.

be

only

object NP is irrelevant, the frame,

two

order

a direct

fram

top

in

may

within

note

is the presence

separated

of a direct

illustrated drawn

rule would

in their

independent

position.

here

particles

had to be allowed for in the rule for (overtly)

then

The

(m——v]

is no other material

independent

on

conditioning

e

simply

frame

and

prepositional

this:

BoÉ4q[T—] The

dealing

This

verb

item,

the

was

therefore,

the frame

is

particles

distinction

consequence

that

the presence

is done

adverbial

fact

can

claim

be is

made

that all pre-verbal particles (without a co-occurrent NP, in the VP) are

adverbial.

& structure there

The

rule

therefore

with an independent

is a corresponding

pre-verbal ought

position,

to involve

is not the

That

a shift

K 466

δέελον

δ᾽ ἐπὶ

A190

45° ἐπ, 0761

is a perfectly

considering,

yet

prepositional

ἀλλ᾽

o 17

δ

where

the

regular

in the

is

relationship

the

In

rule,

other

from

περ)

relationship

position

adverbial

the

particle

in

in question

of the partiole,.

This

examples:

of the

the

relationship

sense

that

in a pair

wre pet

we are

the particle

such

πυκνὰ

is

as:

Budevres.

Mov TAS | prre.

prepositional

involved,

words

in AdvP

the relationship

it is not at all

non-existent and

example

obviously

systematic

have

-

Conversely,

second,

particle

we

γ᾽ ἔθηκε.

Prepay

περι βάλλε;

partiole

adverbial

say,

wherever

an adverbial

subcategory

δῆμά

οἱωνο) Ι...

xe

with

the following

it is clear

in both,

A 45h

is to

in the

Consider

that

prepositional

structure

case.

This

predicts

contrary

rule

(between

particles

in

in

clear

predicts

to

the

first

and

that

there

is any

the

the

existence

prepositional the

other),

predictions of

particles while

predict the existence of the observed relationship

in

failing

(between

of a one to

-65-

prepositional particles in two different positions). conclude

that

the

prepositional

Let

lexical

us turn

our attention

formulation

particles

within nuclear

remain

movement

Notice

restrictions

are

when

the

particle

such

is

»

δὲ

wóros

are readily

or not there is

carried

case

to

account.

prepositional to pre-verbal

predicts

position

that

this

is a co-occurrent

NP,

such an NP. the co-occurrence over

is correctly

the

moved

Se

δ

into

inserted

ending

pre-verbal

ε

xvn ? 4 )

a

Φ«λὶ

explained.

genitive NP's but not automatically

ruled

it cannot

the particle

of independent

the

derived

before

a permitted

of the NP remains position,

This

constant

means

.

Keerat may oo-ocour dative NP*s,

out,

Sinoe

serve

as the

in the

VEE

κῴώππεσε.

second

Thus

the

with

accusative

the first

rules will not

source

for

the

sentence permit

second,

cannot be prepositional

and is

this

Consequently

and must be

adverbial (i.e,

it is completely independent of the dative NP).

other

first

words

that

as:

* a UroS

sentence

oorrectly

if there

if the particle

that

oan be moved

also

automatically

ending within AdwP,

£ 37h

it

too that

case

pairs

case

transformational

predicts

AdvP's

prepositional;

structure;

in the

now to the

oorrectly

is possible whether

in AdyP,

fails

then,

particles.

The first

and

account

We must,

the

formulation

of

the

transformational

rule

In

-66-

is designed

to operate

prepositional particles

particles

originate

distinction

on basic originate

withinV.

prepositional

positional

structures

distinction

In this

versus

in

within

in which

AdvP,

basic

and all adverbial

way the

adverbial

all

subcategory

correlates

structures,

Any

with

a

pre-verbal

particle that cannot be given a source in AdvP (like Kare in & 374)

is therefore

before V in basic adverbial

two

particles.

insertion

frames

B: PRO It

is

and must be inserted

in accordance

This

analysis,

for P,

one for

with

therefore,

each

directly

the frame

for

requires

only

subcategory:

(xP,)]

v ]

important

irdependently

to

of

relationship because

adverbial structure

notice

the

we are

there

are

thet

these

auestion

of

considering.

extra-nuclear

the

two

frames

correct

Thus

are

statement

the first

AdvP's

needed

(adjuncts)

of

the

is necessary whose

particles

cannot be shifted to pre-verbal position (cf. p. 23 above). configuretion

tnis to

type,

give

eralysis,

and

details

is needed encing,

perticle

for

end

the of

ph-&se

appropriate co-occurrence

acverbial

so have

+ noun

insertion

seen,

necessarily

frame

must

restrictions,

The

particles which

nothing

As we heve

is

to do with the first

never the

basic

be provided second

qualify

of the

frame

a case

relationship

version

‘The for

under

transformational

rule aeeounts fremes.

The

for al] the facts second versien

witheut

requiring

of the T-rule

additional

is less

insertion

satisfactory.

We

must make pre-V position basic for prepositional P's end distinguish these from adverbial P's

so that

enly the former move

One possibility

is to introduce

P's,

already used in the lexical

i.e.

those

prepositional versus & positional

adverbial

difference

the prepositional

type now has

there

rule

rule,

for prepositional

But

no longer

structures;

severel

frames

both

then the

correlates

eocur

with

pre-V.

insertion frames

Thus

and its

We might use a lexical rule to relate the

ναὶ then the T-rule

lexical

distinotien

in basic

wmity is not captured, frenes,

new insertion

into AdvP,

would be pointless.

and this version

is ne NP, in Δὰν

of the T-rule

it is impossible

In any case,

have

the seme

the

defect.

If

to draw the distinotion

between adverbial and prepositional P's (of. p. 65 ff.), and there is ne wayto prevent We might P was

instead make

oompatible

with

the

rule wrongly moving adverbia) P's

the rule itself the

sensitive

to whether

case of am adverbiel NP.

The

into AdvP. ἃ partioular

partiole would

then be moved only if the necessary conditions were met, (i.e. if it were prepesitional). duplication fremes

But this involves the undesirable and redundaat

ef the restrictions

of the form,

P:

already

[—2,]

stated for P's in insertion

» and,

more

importantly,

if no

ἘΡ k is present, we are again faced with the fact that the restrictions cannot be formulated essential again,

at all,

fer distinguishing

nothing would

prevent

since

the presence

prepositional the movement

of anm adverbial NP is

and adverbial of adverbial

P's,

P's.

Once

«68-

Even

if all

version

problems

could

of the transformational

Consider

Axa

these

the following

somehow be

rule has

solved,

a further

the

second

deficiency.

example:

(ἀλλὰ) δὺ (μὲν

νῦν)

νηυσὶ

παρήμενος.

NP

ANP, /

ow

»

P

CN.

the particle

position

within

into AdvP in the

AdvP,

even when

same

structure all.

is moved

way,

But

no P either,

Conseouently

In order

to get

from

if there there

there

around

structures,

to

the necessary AdvP

node,

Swrrpes (δὲ)... m/vuxas

to pre-NP,

a parallel

to have

provided

or allow Consider:

πωρέθηκεν.

movement

should be handled

in AdvP,

difficulty we must

nodes

« 141

is no NP,

is no reason

empty AdvP *build!

is

position

and both

is no position

this

in basio

there

18 no ΝΡ

|

μένος

MM

pre-verbal

Presumably

there

/

JUup

v9v6:

(..-------

Here

v

|

and in basio an AdvP

node

for P to move

either

allow

the movement

at into,

for rule

-69-

-——

Since

the purpose

struotures

rather

than to build

account

building would prepositional since, allow

In any oase,

of

the

movement

particles.

if we allow

we should

expanding

This

completely

ad hoo principle

empty,

then

only

if

oan

and

be

It

taken

latter

not

oase

structure

is not much better,

a nuclear AdvP there rules

to

to me that

seriously

and then

is no reason ‘optional’

only alternative just

is

of independent

Structure

going

option

allow us to give

since

not to apply,

are

seems

is to modify basic

option

allowing

very

«2

the

to introduce

this

they

=

rules

in the

to be the

of P from V.

proposals

so far,

seems

“

it would

The former

the rules

this way.

movement

-

process

not make all the Phrase

and

«Ὁ

new ones,

only be involved

the rules

ὦ.

of transformational

highly unattractive, & uniform

“-

LÁ

ἔθηκεν.

πὰρ

πίνακας

/

δα 005

to

setting

in up a

nuclear AdvP's

to be

be

a

‘filled’

neither

within

the

by

why

of these

framework

outlined

should be abandored,

Consequently we have relationship between

to conclude

pairs

such

as:

that

the

correct

account

of the

-70-

T 557]

πώϊΐς

Ex

MTodev ἦλθεν.

mais Πύλου ἐξῆλθεν. is provided since

it

basic

by the first version

makes

uniformly

and

the

in

(whether

necessary

which

all

correct

economically.

structures

under AdvP it

to

contain

whioh

all

or not

regard

the

rule

that

other

relates

words

way as the The

main

particles in

basic

particle the

2)

the

thrust

of

basio

appear

structures; appears of

particle,

the

from

pair can

on

inserted

This makes verbs,

where

the

partiole

be

(cf.

transformational

pp.

handled

in

55-6). exactly

locational/directional

simtly

and

the

claim

adverbial

construction

pre-verbally

is

a prepositional

in

which

in

the

same

complements.

prepositional

particles

secondary,

particle

that

In

appear

in V!s

a prepositional

since

it

involves

a basically

adverbial

position,

"le may now briefly

the

are

an NP,).

that

faots

operates

particles

this by the

above,

consider

a further

confirm the superiority of the (first) over

the

it

prepositional as

rule,

The form where the particle

involving

in AdvP's

of

handles

earlier,

contains

form

verbs

is

and

noted

prepositional

sentence

this

was

derived

prepositional

examples

placing

particle

is then

predictions

this also

a prepositional

the verb

of the transformational

ΑΒ

(and NP, ) appear under AdvP. precedes

— (of. v 371 ξξῆλθε δόμων)

lexical

rule,

It

was

noted

set

of facts whioh

transformational rule above

that

the

frames

in

terms

-H-

of whioh of

an

lexical

item's

Markers.

environment

local).

to

properties

Because is

no

of this

means

of

because

former

only

position.

the

Recall

of frame

on

the

before

information

particles

an

be

allow

the

approvriate &

NP

or

the

Marker,

distinction

of

hoc

rule:

in

between

Such

insertion,

an δ

preiicting

e relationship

device

in pre-verbal

a

transformations need

on lexical

P to

+{(w,)

and

phrase

not

be

rules

extrae

is crucial

pre-verbal

(np)———-v]

a particle

appearance

could be found,

context

lexical

so the

be illegitimate, items

of

Phrase

in this way,

distinction

movement

that

in

(i.e.

nuclear

this

features

may

be

containing

inserted no

other

It already contains all the contextual

conditions

constitute

to varticles

says

since

Markers

between

P:

those

'locally!

requirement

adverbiel

stated

seen,

the

only

appearance

analysis,

of the

simply

its

Phrase

as we have

in an AdvP).

that

would

lefining

left

in a Phrase

capture

AdvP*s

cannot

entire

the form

contain

condition

localness

(nP,)|

meterial (i.e.

to

must

distinguishing

But,

either

that

of

nuclear AdvP's,

The

stated

opt for a transformational

refer

there

are

If a relationship

we must can

rules

to

and

extra-nuolear

extra

items,

if indeed

not

they

serve

ought,

the

particles

position,

material

nuclear

prevent

between

prepositional

use of additional

would as

of

the

but

purpose

would

of

simply

rule falsely in

Clearly

extra-nuclear

this

is

AdvP's

entirely

the

wrong can

approach,

stand

since

pre-verbally

pre-nominally

is

whether

or

outside

the VP.

superior, the

this as

fact

or

AdvP

The

some

since

there

rule

refer

to

by

the

others

account

is

structural

stand

facts,

inside

only

namely

or

is obviously

is no difficulty AdvP's

particles can

structural

particle

to nuclear the

prepositional while

exclusively

containing

transformational

of the

kind

that

pre-nominally

determined

the

therefore,

of

Markers

TY.

not

application

rules

the

in constraining

given

the fact

properties

of

that

Phrase

wholes,

| We are now

in a position

to

consider

the following

sets

of

relationships:

i)

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Té μὲν

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6 δέρον

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καὶ Sw

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1)

Z387

111)

Wero

ἐσθλὸν

θυμὸν

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/

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Kai

7H

μιν

ὠπόλεσα.

pw

dhecéev.

πωριθήσομεν.

θείω. /

YpoT! εἰ ποι.

πρὸς

μῦθον

ἔειπε.

In 1) we are dealing with & phresal verb, where the basio position of the

particle

second

example

is before the

the verb,as

particle

stands

in

in the first the

example.

alternative

In the

pre-direct

-1-

objeot

position.

It

result

of & movement

might

at

first

be

rule whioh performs

just been considering for (nuolear) in reverse, moved

That

is to

to pre-verbal

can be moved could

stand

particles

say,

just

position,

into AdwP.

stand

so partioles

in adverbial

second

each

transitive

verb.

set is a derived

has been moved

structure;

in each

oase

NP κ᾿

0335

particle

stands

Given parallel

examples,

that we are

i.e.

since

NP,

and

i.e. NP. and P are not members

(AdvP).

particles

and adverbial position.

complement

that

the

first

and in the example

the prepositional position

object

in

particle

leaving

the

position,

but after

of the form:

dealing with

P may

position

In the second example in each

in pre-direot

not

in pre-verbal

position

be

postpositions

separated

of tho

ὥρσέν.

£v nns

ey $'ebr.is Tod e4q.w Ὀλύμπιος

it 15 olear

can be

prepositional

to pre-verbal

sentenoes

the

In the first we have

Notice

NP, (an enolitic pronoun) behind, set the

so,

verb with a locative

a prepositional

is

we have

in AdvP

in prepositional

But consider now sets ii) and iii). a complex

this

the operation

as particles

secondarily

that

prepositional particles, but

If this were

secondarily

could

thought

same

by

other

phrasal

in these

constituents;

constituent

Thus the movement involved here is from pre~verbal

position to pre-direot object (or subject complement)

position,

The

but be

not

into

AdvP,

pointless

verbal and

to

for P). stand

have

position

restored

This

is

a rule

to

and another

the

original

not

really move

rule

surprising,

particles

that

structure

out

simply

(apart

since of AdvP

reversed

from

it

would

to

pre-

the process

post-NP,

positioning

But why should prepositional particles be allowed to in this

position?

adverbial particles.

The answer

lies

in the faots

concerning

If the movement in set 1) were parallel to

that involved in sets ii) and iii), i.e. if it were a movement to pre-direct provide been be

the

modelg

to

their

treated

in

exactly

direct

He looked He

threw

the

'new'

way

The

shift

exactly

out

the

of

basically

parallels

emphasis

of

while is

on

each

pair

the

the

Presumably

of adverbial

the

shift

function.

If this

is

could

particles

the

the

direct

second

resultant

of course,

they

had then

pre-verbal to

phenomenon

the number

threw

(used idiomatically,

this would

pre-

of

the following:

/ He

in the

then

particles

position

adverbial

Consider

proposal

member

information,

similar

as

up the number / He looked

first

tho

same

in English.

not into AdvP, prepositional

pre-verbal

the

position

shift

but once

secondary

particles,

object

particle

and

position

moved

adverbial

In

object

necessary

up.

proposal

out.

object

is

it is treated state

expressed

given

as

as

‘given!’

by

the

particle

since these are phrasal verbs).

so,

particles

in Homeric

we can treat

the

Greek has

relationship

a

-15-

between

the

process,

first

and

operating

second

on

members

original

of

sets

adverbial

i)

-

iii)

particles

as

in

set

a

single

1)

and

derived (pseudo-)adverbial partioles in sets 11) and iii):

p.

[x-w-p-v]-x

1

2

1

2 μ᾿

The

5

treatment

of

Mh

5

6

g

5

6

prepositional

particles

is not

yet fully

developed

to

describe

particle such

Since

the

and

prepositions. less

down modifies

drove

down that

verb

They

Once

particles

entirely unnatural

or

case

as

given

if

they

that

English

were

adverbial

the former

Using Homeric

parallel

the

(or.)

Greek

examples,

terminology

the

ending from (= gen.)

are not

prepositional

in a sentence

as:

They

fact

more

—

in

the

is still it

drove

this to

down

a

down

the

single

the

position

from

essentially

modifies

under

moved

enemy

case

the hill,

an adverbial ending

it

may

be

despite combined

the with

node:

enemy from

down

pre-direct

from,

element

may

object

be

the

hill.

treated

position

as

part

outside

of

ΝΡ:

a phrasal

verb,

-76-

From

the

(Though

hill

they

in fact

drove

English

the

enemy

moves

such

down.

particles

to post-direct

object

position).

The

transformational

the correct

1)

one

for

account

the

of this

following

relationship

is clearly

reasons:

Since the Phrase Structure rules do not provide for particles

in pre-direct

object

impossible

provide

frame

to

in terms

position

outside

particles

of which

an

with

an AdvP, an

alternative

it would be

appropriate

lexical

insertion

account

could be

stated, 2)

Even

if

particles not

be

lexical

Phrase

Structure

in pre-direct

able

fashion.

the

to

account

Lexical items

object for

rules

are

were

position,

the

full

relate

inserted

rules

into

the

range

items

modified

besic

lexical

of

listed

to

facts

in the

structures

allow

rule would

in

a uniform

lexicon,

provided

Phrase Structure rules before any transformations apply. they

cannot

make

of their basic framed

which

any claims

positions

items

that

by transformation,

of

the

items

to be related

can be inserted,

cannot

lexical

for

satisfactorily

adverbial related

‘feed!

particles lexically

contexts

since

terms

positions

syntactic

in

rules,

could, (given

and by

the

Thus

have been moved

in

transformations

the

about

basic

for

the

rules

out are

structures

into

In other words Although

in principle, appropriate

the

two

be

additions

to

the Phrese Structure rules), involving samo way,

prepositional The

reason

of prepositional

for

such particles,

Thus

employing

partioles

treatment

of what

be

particles,

11)

114)

with

K15 Σ

could

88 we have

seen,

this

no lexical rule

position

rule to

prevent

is

the

ἃ single

consider

the marked

positioning

a derived

position

reference facts

our aohieving

is clearly

in the

slot must be handled

can make

handle

captured

that the

in the pre-verbal

Since

would

not be

to it,

concerning

& uniform

phenomenon,

and

this

option

rejected.

Finally we must

i

is,

ἃ lexical

adverbial

must

particles

partioles

transformationally.

it is clear that the same relationship

559

or without

clause

initial

for

ἃ co-occurrent NP, 3

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In the first

position

$y

ἔπειτῳ

Tor

set we have

nuolear AdvP's,

φῶτες

δ᾽ ἄξοσι

| EÉrirrov .

Beo!

extra-nuclear

and in the

third

φρένως

J Neeuv.

Moras... Narosev |... Ἑλένην. AdvP's,

set phrasal

in tke verbs.

second

set

It was noted

-78-

earlier (p. 25) that where an AdvP is extra-nuclear the partiole and

NP,

must

stand

independently moved

to

together;

1,6.

out of AdvP.

clause

initial

the

partiole

Consequently

position

in

cannot

be

moved

the whole AdvP has to be

these

cases.

In

the

first

example of set i) the AdvP consists simply of a partiole, while in the

second

there

independent concerned

some

is an NP,

partiole to

the

seems

previous

By

of sentence

placing

an NP, is also simply

to

be

present,

to

generally

to

noun

the

connectives,

The purpose

discourse

previously mentioned

particle.

as well,

phrase

AdvP

this

the

to

first,

pioking

up

in

the

at

the

sentence

parallel;

characteristic

is emphasised,

of fronting

expense

the whole AdvP has been fronted

the first (without NP, ) as a linking element, NP, ) for emphasis, move AdvP*s

into

the particle to weite have

to

initial

alone

a rule be

So far, therefore,

of

extracting

sufficiently

seems

other

constituents,

of extra-nuclear

a rule

with

is

their

in

fact

affected, AdvP's

particles

in initial

In

in

in the second (with

to

example,

however,

set

If we were

guarantee

independent

is prohibited.

unnecessary.

are

cases,

direotly from AdvP,

formulated

since

in both

leaving NP. behind.

the partiole

precisely

Where

only one rule is needed - to

In the third

has been fronted,

nuclear AdvP'!s were out

position.

to

anaphoric

The first two examples of set ii), involving nuclear AdvP's, exactly

an

& referenoe

a position

funotion

the purpose

AdvP

link

in the inherently

linking

however,

emphasise

by

be

of fronting

iii)

position.

movement

But we

it would that

of particles

the writing find

Since

only

phrasal

of

suoh

verbs

suoh adverbial

-19-

particles

are placed

we must write

in pre-verbal

a rule moving

in basic

them to initial

then be an exolusive

choice

that moves

to pre-direct

particles

position

between

position,

applying

object

structures,

this

position.

There

rule

and the rule

Having

such a rule we could also put it to work in set ii); i.e. operate

on

prepositional

pre-verbal

position.

to express

all the faots

partioles

In this

it is only nuclear independently would

first

been

set up

it would

moved

to

set up only two rules

fronting,

one for AdvP's

and one for pre-verbal particles

We would also explain automatically why

prepositional

of NP, into

look like

had

way we need to

of particle

(nuclear or extra-nuclear), (original or derived).

that

would

partioles

that

initial position.

can be moved

The rules

involved

this:

X = AdwP - X

1

2

3

241

g

3

SS

(ot.

Y-P-V-I

12 24

8,

§

5

&

5

4

This completes

of particles

Lor.)

the

and verbs

survey of combinations as independent

and collocations

constituents,

and we must

now

consider

from not

the

question

the discussion resultative,

particularly inception

of this

but

type

with

continuation,

reversal and requital, are

compound

verbs.

above

rather modifies

close way,

and

of

senses through

that

the

ranging

will

be

remembered

the particle

sense

here

of the verb

is

in a

from completion,

to notions

such

as negation,

‘The following examples of «Td compounds

representative:

N113

οὕνεκ᾽ durs Tig SE ΝΕ Πηλεΐωνι.

286

ἀποτινέμεν.

/

It

δ'

γὴν

w 387

Ἀρχεΐοις

εἰ δ᾽ wiv

ὅδε μῦθος

The produotivity

of the rules

according

choice

to

&d-verbs

the

('*pay

ἀφωνζάνε,.

forming

particle

such

and

baok*)

(*displease')

oompound

its

verbs varies

particular

function;

in the sense of 'oompletely/utterly do X' seem to be

fairly freely

coined,

for

is extremely

rare,

productive,

If these

from disorete expect

of

(*completely dishonour* )

them

But

example,

in no osse are

compounds

elements

while weno

asa

the rules

negative involved

prefix

completely

were formed by transformational

in a Phrase Marker,

to be freely formed without

we would,

restriotion,

rule

of course, sinoe

transformational rules are (at least in principle) gtruoturedependent

operations

of lexical compound

items

verbs

which

ought not to be

in a particular

sensitive

Phrase Marker.

are not freely formed,

it

seems

to the choice

Given at least

that likely

that

they are constructed by rules of derivational morphology (or word=

«81-

formation),

Such rules are characteristically only partly

produotive;

consider,

from activity verbs

for

example,

the formation

of agent-nouns

in English:

Table

play

:

player

—

sing

:

singer

Á—

talk

:

talker

—

write

:

writer

—

type

ἡ — ———

typist

oyole

3

oyolist

prey

eo

The choice and

there

-———

between

in Homer

particle

the -er and -ist

are accidental

fone who prays’, verbs

—

What is the

‘gaps’

complete

if we assumed

derivational morphology;

in the paradigm;

absence

the verb. that

The

of their

development

predictable,

a prayer is not

of examples

as genuine

compounds

(as

compound

where

This fact would

they were formed

oollocations of independent elements) any reordering

is not

is particularly interesting &bout

is separated from

automatically

suffixes

the

follow

by rules opposed

of to

they would not be subjeot to

elements by transformation,

of this

type

of compound may perhaps

be the

«82»

result of the fossilisation and subsequent (idiosynoratioc) semantic

development

combinations There

are,

fall

for

into

the

then provided

example,

a partially

completive complex

which

of certain

compounds;

transitive

compound,

and

a number regular

prepositional

to the adverbial

ΝΡ... re

aLP we]... 9l V

ΝΡ,

For

eoo

of complex

relationship

corresponds

corresponds

partiole-verb

a model for new formations.

the NP. within

verb the

high frequency

prefix

transitive

the AdvP

partiole

of

complement

to the direot

of the

verbs whioh

with a class

of

of the

objeot NP of

the

AdvP

compound:

Lb]

example:

P132

Aus

δ᾽ ὡμφὶ MevorriaSy δάκος ... xabwas

YA17

νεφέλη

.

δέ load ἀμφεκάλυψε.

(*the oloud around-wrapped him! / 'enoiroled him completely!)

This

relationship

confined

to verbs

is far from productive of ‘wrapping’,

Compare

the following:

£o 189

ἀπονίφναντες

and

‘oovering’,

μέλαινα foo rw.

seems

in fact

‘washing

(twash

and

away!)

to be ‘wiping’,

-85-

thoroughly!)

(*wash

é 17?

χρῶτ᾽ ὄστον" ψωμιέ v*] .

E416

aw Xo χε’ρὸς

ὀμόργνυ.

(‘wipe away')

6 200

ὡπομόρξοιτο woe

παρε ας .

(‘wipe

The

first

member

particle,

the

of

each

second

pair

member

involves

a

thoroughly’ )

a resultative

oompletive

prefix,

directional

Only

type may be separated from the verb (of.£ 416).

the

Since the rule

relating the types is obviously lexically governed (i.e. only a certain olass of verbs) we are rules

obliged

in the thus

lexioon,

correctly

The purpose the right element

and

pairs

|

entered

its immunity

into

trees

and became

of partial

regularities,

under

verb,

transitive

around

the

that P4V is a compound

processes such

thus providing

in this way

is naturally rules

It is at least verbs

—]

item to

the node V as a unit;

by

Ie

[rs]:

NP. —|

it will be interpreted

fossilised,

such

listed

the facts:

to transformational

of oomplex

the faots;

are actually

statements

is to indicate

same way as ἃ non-oompound & number

to express

that

of the label V on the brackets

of the arrow

since

rule

of items

so constitute

expressing

involves

and not simply structure dependent,

set up a lexical

MG

}} :

for,

to

can only relate

first

accounted

in exactly possible

were reanalysed

the that

in this way

ἃ model for further

compounding.

In any case verbs

in Homeric

combinations

9.

it is

of

clear

that we must

Greek

which

particle

and

are verb

recognise

formally

ἃ class

quite

considered

of compound

distinct

from

the

earlier,

Summary.

Basic

Structures;

1)

Adjuncts:

L NP M

2)

Complements: ^^

I NP

(AavP) αἰ

3) Phrasal Verbs:

[

(AavP) ot (AavP)

(NP)

NU

4)

I

(AavP) Jl

(NP)

[11]

Compound Verbs:

Derived

Prep'!1 P in nuclear AdvP:

2)

P (prep'l or adv'l)

AdvP:

ve |

aat

P (nP,)]

(AdwP)

(NP)

v]

Structures:

1)

3)

(wp, ))

—>

in pre-V —PA

pre-V position

pre-DO position

-—»

initial

position

—J»

initial

position

-85-

FOOTNOTES, The form standard

of presentation

handbooks

Introduction,

2

E.g»

case,

and grammars,

footnote

Humbert

lists:

(1960,

et d'objet spatiale

2

task

long

The

been

pp.

acousatif

de relation

eto.

of

those

213-57),

de verbes interne,

as

in

en fonction

description,

logically

prior

to

In this way

the

systems

can

be

established,

it is possible

to

ensure

strictly

4

comparable

Thus we

structural

that

of the

accusative

that

in

of

they

accusatif

theory,

has

historical

position so

accusatif

adverbial,

least

accusatif

of

that

elements

when

in

comparisons

are made between

items.

sometimes

uses, and ‘exceptional’

find

references

uses.

to

‘free’

uses,

E.g. Smyth (1956, paras,

Kffhner/Gerth (1898, para. 412), Schwyzer/Debrunner

p. 128), etc.

the

in the

de direction,

at

the

are made,

in all

transitive,

accusatif

comparison. language

cited

speaking

accusatif

et temporelle,

synchronic

regarded

e.g.

identical

5. _

d'extension &bsolu,

is virtually

'occasional'

1388, 1600),

(1950, Vol. II,

-86-

5

The

symbol | marks

6

Cf.

Sohwyser/Debrunner

wurde

als besonders

Bestandteilen

eine

(s. B. ὑπάρχον

7

the beginning

eng

(1950,

Vol.

empfunden,

einheitliche

or end of & hexameter

II,

wenn

p. 419):

sie gegenüber

Sonderbedeutung

des

wurde

aus

ihren hatte

.Yorbanden sein!*)."

Pr&positionsgebrauchs

ursprüngliche

"Die Gruppe

entwickelt

cf, Sohwyxer/Debrunner (1950, Vol. II, p. 433):

Zunahme

line.

VerhBltnis

wandelte

zwischen Kasus

sich

was

sich &uoh

bald

und Pr&position;

einem ursprünglichen Begleitwort,

su dessen Regens,

auch

"Mit der das

diese

das dem Kasus folgte,

in der herrschenden Voranstellung

ausdrüokt, "

8

See

especially Davison

analytical the

9

facts

argument of

oral

based

(1955) on

on the

supposed

incompatibility

echoes

or

of any

quotations

with

composition.

gee, for example, Dodds (1954/1968), Hainsworth (1968, 1969),

Nagler (1974) for reviews,

disoussions and elaborations of the

extensive

theory

time

10

of

work

done

on

the

of

oral

composition

since

the

Parry.

This,

of course,

is not

to

say that

a bard would

not feel

that

a certain

facts

1

usage

was

concerning

archaic,

only

that

he

would

not

be

12

discussion

of

the

its history.

Cf. Meillet (1906), Hjelmslev (1948), Benveniste

some

aware

of the

concept

of a 'nominal'

Por discussion of this type in English,

(1950) for

clause.

of. Quirk/Greenbaum/

Leech/Svartwik (1972, p. 38).

15

Independent

as pre-

adverbs

and prepositional

and post-modifiers

of nouns

7562

yéducce δὲ wien περὶ χθών.

whi8

τοὺς EF ἀλλάων

1s

Por

discussion

πολίων.

of a similar

phrases

also

function

or adjectives:

('the land all around!) (*those from other cities!)

type

of construction

in English,

see Kennedy (1920), Mitchell (1958), Palmer (1965), Bolinger (1971).

15

The

symbol

ungrammatioal to indicate

For

in Homerio

to indioate Greek,

reconstructed

interpretation

16

* is used

forms,

that

a sentence

It is also In all

used

cases

is

in Chapter

II,

B

it is clear which

is intended.

a discussion

of

similar

phenomena

in English,

see Palmer

(1965),

Potter

17

(1965),

Examples

Bolinger

such

cl

«502

’

γα

Tis

(1971).

as:

CF

Kets

12

7

Ow

»

yovwv

Ev

»"

£03.

clearly involve an idiomatic association (compound 7) of verb and adverb meaning

18

In

cases

7175

the

such

is

of'

/ 'praise*,

ξωδοτω

μῦθον

as:

πὼσν

δὲ

T0161

dative

complete

‘speak well

clearly a dependent

absence

elsewhere

of

EEIMEV.

of EuS ofel

datives

in view

constructed

of the

with

the

simple

verb.

19

By contrast,

Greek,

this

presumably

type

because

is absolutely here

regular

in Classical

all particle-verb

combinations

actually are compounds

(see Chapter II).

20

The

analysis

the

framework

discussion

Grammar

(106),

minimum

and

of

and one

though

there

are

version

of

technical places

whioh

follow

are

oonducted

Transformational terminology

where

the

has

theory

within

Generative been

has

kept

been

to

ἃ

slightly

-89-

simplified nothing af

and misrepresented

crucial

grammatical

interesting

solutions

hinges

proposed

framework;

that

this

and

interested development

can

for

formulated

those

this.

description

cuestions

meets

on

was

them,

of

this

sake

dictated

one

of

of

choice

really

within

TGG'is

pursuing

the The

only

requirement in

for

by

be

clarity,

of

this

the

fact

posed,

and

a reasonably

particular that

available

precision

and

explicitness,

approach,

the

of

following

have

precisely

few

understanding

model

many

indeed

the

an

of

though

the would

options For

origins be

useful:

Chomsky (1957, 1965, 1972, 1976, 1977), Lyons (19772), Smith/ Wilson (1979).

?1

See Wasow

implications

(1977) of

the

structures,

and

22

copular,

I.e,

to

of

for

a thorough-going

availability criteria

complex

for

of

these

choosing

transitive

discussion two

methods

between

and

of of

the relating

them.

prepositional

verbs.

1i.

Questions

ἃ great

of word order

deal of attention

and word order

change

in recent years.

have

The impetus

attracted for this

perhaps derives from the early work of Jakobson on typology (1962), where he clains

“Typology phonological

languages;

that:

disoloses

laws of implication

and apparently

which

the morphological

underlie

structure

the

of

the presence of A implies the presence (or on the

contrary the absence)

of B.

In this way we detect in the languages

of the world uniformities or near uniformities."

(1962, p. 527) Greenberg followed up this claim with an article (1965) which sought to establish concludes majority

implicational

on the basis of the

following basio

wiversals

of a sample

languages

with regard

of thirty

of the world fall

word order patterns:

4)

subject = verb = objeot

2)

subject - objeot - verb

5)

verb = subject “ object

to syntax.

languages into

He

that the

ome of the

Each

of these

likely

types

has

certain

to be associated

languages

will

with

tend to have

lenguages,

prepositions,

tendencies

are

likely

it.

to constitute

is in a transitional This work has led

association

e.g

has been

subject-cbject-verb

to these

deal

Lehmann (1975), Venaemana (1974).

language

pattern

of research

to establish with

general

that the

phase from one basic

constructions

statistically

subjeot-rerb-object

evidence

to a great

the desire

of certain

which are

example,

Counter-examples

question

force

For

postpositions,

another. driving

constructions

to

whose

a rationale

particular

in

word

for this orders;

There have also been

critiques of Greenberg's origins] position;

e.g. Priedrioh

(1975),

Li (1976), and extensions of Greenberg's list of constructions associated with certain word orders; (1976). the

e.g. Ross (1970), Jeffers

Of more immediate importance in the current context is

stream

of diachronic

work which has followed

Greenberg's

analysis; e.g. Lehmann (1973, 1975), end Miller (1975) attempt to reconstruct elements of proto-Indo-European

(henceforth pIE) on the

basis

have

of typological

questions

probabilities.

of why and how languages

Others change;

e.g.

concentrated

Li and Thompson

(1974), Vennemann (1974), Hyman (1975) and Li (1977). have

centred

change

in one

harmony with

their attention area leads

to changes

the implicational

of the reconstruction

Watkins

on the ways

of pIE

sentence

Many of these

in which word order

elsewhere

umiversals.

on the

in order

From

structure

(1964, 1976) are of particular interest;

the

to maintain

point

of view

and word order,

(for a different

-92-

view, of. Friedrich, 1975).

Watkins (1964) provides the foundation

for much of what follows,

2, who

The situation in Vedic has been examined by Gonda (1959), conoludes:

"In the majority of the works examined,

of the verb, G.C.H.) is most usual, hes never been

predominant,

ooour at the beginning

the final position (i.e.

Although the initial position

the verb may,

in a well

generally

defined number

speaking,

of cases."

(1959, Pe 7) Gonda

also

shows

that where

the verb final

rule

does not apply,

(other than in oases where the verb is in initial position), sentence

concerned

contained

is generally

subjeot-object-verb

of some part of this segment.

composed

segment,

of two

and then

Kurylowios

parts,

the

ἃ self-

an enplification

(1936) has described the

range of positions oooupied by adverbial particles (i.e. in phrasal verbs); verb,

or else

alternatively,

they oocur either initially, immediately V may

precede

it.

stand in initial

(except for post-verbal expansions). however,

even

their verbs, compounded

in the Rig Veda, though

We may add that, position

leaving P final

In subordinate clauses,

particles

it is unlikely

separated from the

that

in view of the possibility

always the

immediately

elements

of separation

are

precede

actually

elsewhere,

93

This

restrietion

en the position

of P gredually

extends

to mein

clauses tee, and so-called tmesis is progressively eliminated, Nonetheless,

it is clear

an idiomatio

wit,

that

Wackernagel’s

enelitios,

whether

position,

This observation,

ellews

us to make

ef the Velie

Zable 8,

even in tmesis,

particles

P and V may form

Lew established

or pronouns, together with

some generalisations

long ago that

regularly

oeoupy

those made

eoncerning

seccad

abore,

the

structure

clause:

1

ainple verd Type 1) V (Β)..ω... (marked)

dhéranti van

1,151.8

Type 21) {%(z)...07 (umarked) in... jebhüra

heZ7 oh

phress)_ver> fype 111) P (B)....¥ V (Ε)...Ὁ

marked)

fype iv) fero... (umarked)

pré vie... bharante ,

,

badhente,..ebhimátinam apa

1.85.3

te... pré bharámasi

8.66.11

B

» ene or series of enolitios (eonnectives or pronouns).

O

we sentence

e.

- space

οοο

space

initial

comnective

T. 72.4.

or pronoun.

to be filled by a single

constituent.

to be filled by one or more

constituents.

() = optionality of elements enclosed, i } = exclusive choice between elements enclosed,

There are taking

also

second,

by P in initial

cases

of V, whieh

enmelitio,

is unaecented in mein clauses,

position,

Im this

case

position and also by sentence

the pronom δῷ.

it can be preceded

connectives

such as

Notice that enolitio promowas follow emolitio

particles:

* * part dyáné

Bron

TIT

ἐγᾶ,

..“..ὁ

oa

and that enclitio

(3.6.5)

pronous

precede

the

enclitio

verb

(see

the examples

in Table 9):

Zable 2, Type v)

2

P

entah pasyenti vrjina

,

2.2763

°

sá veda yajien

3.11.1

etd vo vaéni ddyatea

2.31.7

δίων...

e

L

In addition to the types already illustrated, type where P precedes position,

the direct

this may result

object;

there 16 finally the

where V occupies

in a post-verbal

a marked

position for P, and

material may intervene between V and P in such cases:

«95»

C

type vi) (mj) (v) (soe) PEL. οὐ). (ooo) (ἢ (ene ef the V positions is ebligatory)

iavvretün dpe jüyhm arodhma

10,54.2

ἃ dani ériyo 'dhita

10,127.1

ápratito jayati ság ἀμάπξη! ...50.9 yís tasténbha sáhaskvi jad éntàn —— 4.50.1

We may

oonolude,

the verb,

then,

or before

position,

that P may

the direct

stand either

object,

immediately before

or in olause

initial

It may also stand olause finally (ignoring post-verbel

expansions) when V is moved to ἃ marked position (Table 8, Type 111) ).

3$,

Im ecmparison with Vedio, Hittite is considerably more rigid

in the order of elements. again

initial position

are invariably

second,

element

sentence,

in the

separately,

V is usually

is available

final,

expect

as one word with

it is clear

position,

unit.

in view

that once

P normally

though

though

variant.

Though P and V are always

dealing with an idiomatic before V in final

as ἃ marked

and are written

as indeed we might

P may stand in tmesis,

sentence

nolitiocs the first

written

of the fact

that

again we are usually ocours

it may also

immediately

ocour initially

-96-

with V final

as expected:

Teble 11, Itype 1) Type

44)

V (Β)..... 1402)...

kuensi-ma-an LUGAL-us

Laws, II.7&

("but the king can kill hia’) nu-gu

AT ERAR,

,

kaniSien

harta

Hatt.,

(‘and Ishtar held me in favour’) tepu-3i ikbiyensi (‘they bind little on him‘)

Type 111) P (B)....V fPype iv) i] (2)...PV

he.

The final

and the older of,

Rostrata.

bér-wa-bi Sarnikei

of V has

long been

the more

regular

S.

C.

regarded

final

de Bacohanalibus

as basic

position

in Latin,

of V becomes;

and the Columa

Again, initial position exists as a marked varient (cf.

Kroll, 1918).

As regards enclitios, it is worth noting that in

earlier Latin we regularly Por

Laws, I.95

nwe-kín tamedani kuedanikki andan paitteni (of. Sehuler, 1957, p. 19) (and you go in to someone else!)

position

the

Laws, I.9%

("I shall make restitution for hin’)

the text,

for example,

get

the order:

particle

+ pronoum.

example:

dantque

By the time

1.66

eum.....

of the earliest

(Ennius,

records

Buhea.

)

of any length,

P and V seen

already

to be fully

compounded,

ef V include PY also. perhaps

Table

remain

so that

But traces

in examples

initial

of the

and final

situation

position

which preceded

such as:

12,

Type 111)

[Type iv)

P (B)....Y

. (B)...PV

It is interesting

pree tet tremonti

(Carm. Sal.)

$-nU0s Lass iwsite

(Carm, Arv.)

manu endo iscito

(XII Tables)

im particular

to note

the

almost

universel

use

ef -queas enolitio om the first word of ἃ clause as a sentence eonnective

in early Latin,

This is oonstent,

5,

not as ἃ copulative

for exemple,

Greek has possibly

conjunction

as later,

on the Columna Rostrata.

gone further

than other I.E.

languages

in elaborating a se-called ‘free’ word order (cf. Dover,

1960),

though

position

again basic

tendencies

emerge.

Thus

for V,

final

is perhaps basio (ef, Watkins, 1964), as was assumed in Chapter I. There

are,

however,

the further

possibilities

of V occupying

either initial position (though, unlike in Vedic, P may not be stranded sentenoe finally), P may

or second, enolitio,

stand initially.

feature

of Mycenaean

Enolitic

position;

position

after a sentence

in the latter case

is in fact

connective:

a notable

o-de-ka-sa-to

There

is also

promeuns

(PY Pn O1)

the

(CV... cee)

type with

and promouns

am enclitic

preceding verbs,

da-mo-de-mi pa-si

series,

particles

as in Vedio:

(PY Bp 704)

(+ Bart, Ppron. Veo)

It is particularly important to mote that (adverbial) in phrasal

verbs

may stand

far as we can determine elimination

of tmesis

far as the everyday

a-pe-do-ke

Whether

separate

position,

the verb,

evidence;

i.e.

the Mycenaean period,

as

the

at least es,

is concerneds*

elements

sincein some

are actually

compounded

cases P and V ere

still

in Mycenaean written

as

words:

even here

the verb.

particles

(ΡῚ Fr 1184)

a-pu ke-ka-u-me-no

But

before

from the available

language

or not these

is uncertain,

only immediately

antedates

preceding

(PY Ta 641)

the only possible

Perhaps,

then,

and is well

position for P is immediately before

P is a proolitio

on the

confined

way to becoming

part

to preverbel

of a compomé.

Though its positioning be that

it is a proolitio

to pre-verbal appear other

in Homer

position;

is obviously more

element

if so,

there

too,

this would

at the end of sentences by itself, constituent.

V in phrasal

verbs

In Homer, are

it could

though not yet

confined

explain why it cannot but only before

at any rate,

not compounded,

flexible,

it is clear

that P ané

though they may form a

single constituent when adjacent (of. Chapter I, C, 1). has

often

been observed

that

occasionally

oaesura between P and V where find an inseparadle

¥159

in Classical

compound,

the

question

"Von alters sugleioh

of partioles

her tritt Tnesis

en der Spitse

des

in Homer

Indeed it

we find

ἃ

Greek we would

expect

| Ky δέος £r)

véuus.

in tmesis,

em ehesten

Satses

ein,

Wackernagel

wenn

observes:

das Prüverbium

steht."

(1926, p. 174) This is exactly Type iii).

Ab

A

κατὼ

Greek also direct

/

Wioved Pre?

exemplifies

object:

^»

Por exemple:

al

£a

the

to

For exenple:

γώδε δ᾽ dad; i πονησόμεθ᾽ οὗ, Ma

As regards

some

possibility

of P standing before

the

-100-

δάκρυ XEoutee .

κωτὰ

Z 496

θαλερὸν

[182

φίλον

7 316

αὐτὸς... Aupov παρὰ δεῖενον

Examples

éwe H κ᾿ ἀτὸ

Ath&

XEveds dro Sei

É 49

βδ'οτον

wes

δ᾽ ἀπὸ

counter-examples

below for

some

see below

the

no material

6),

direct

cases

and adverbs but

other

than

a marked

these

object

enolitio

cases.

'postverbal'

position,

object

and

as we shall

constructions character

particles.

P

though,

connectives

In fact,

are of a different

of pre-direct

seem to

see paragraph 7

object but after the verb,

separate V and P in such

the

ordinary

generalisation, If V occupies

direot

(paragraph

P precedes

ὀλέσσε /-

other NP constituents

to this

the

in Vedio,

pronouns may

na gfes.

discussion,

stand before

unlike

Bho res .

τώμιπων

where P stands before

may

ξθηκας.

suoh as:

A 764

be

devra.

v6 Tov

δ᾽ are

where from

As an example,

consider:

27

Ket

Finelly, ocoupy

Ν

J

Loven

we also initial

»

avo

X

Aperey

w jas To Ev Tol .

find in Homer

a few examples

position before

an enolitio

where P and V jointly

connective

particle,

and

«“101-

exemples

where

they occur

enolitico

series:

A26

ἀποπτύε,

A182

os

£n

δ᾽ &^os

as the

Χρυδήη"δκ

elements

in an

Φορος.

of P and V with respect

may be

last

ὥχνην.

ἀφαιρεῖται,

The distribution eonstituents

together

summarised

to other major

clause

as follows:

Zable 17.

Type 111) P (E)....Y

ἂν δὲ δυβώτημ Vifrero

(£432)

fype iv)

ὀψὲ δὲ δὴ Mevédaos &viéraro

(4/94)

«xo δ' ὥλετο λωούς

(42428)

(a... m

ltype v) fype vi)

P (E... Choc...» wi

fype vii)

ἾὟ

PY(E).....

Type viii)f

amv...

Notice that types vii) and viii)

5 "dw (μὲν) STrev ἥρεον

(τ 61)

ἀπέκρυψεν δέ μοι ἵππους

(A718)

δὺ μὲν γῶν of σῴρω OES ξεινγγκ

(Σ 408)

simply make available to P and V

as ἃ single constituent (V) those positions which are available to simple verbs (clause initial and enolitic) when in marked constructions. The treatment in the

as a phrasal

development

constituent

of phrasal verbs

is perhaps

into

genuine

the first compounds,

stage Since

Classical Greek does seem to treat phrasal verbs as compounds (see

«102»

paragraphs 12 and 25 below), phrasal

element

have been

must at some stage

reinterpreted

lexical item. phrasal

the groupingof P and Y into a single

as the

compounding

of the language

of P and V into a single

Vedio too offers some evidence that P and V form a

constituent,

in that

as a unit

in enclitic

together

in the history

there

are

examples

where

they

stand

position:

tá & gata évasa éímtanene

(10.15.4)

("so come with most beneficent aid‘)

The fact that

that P and V form a phrasal

they can be moved as a unit

item,

If this

is clause

initial

constituent

to a marked position,

in Homer means

position

enolitic

may then appear after the whole V; alternatively,

as a single

connectives

since the elements

of V are still disorete, the enclitic connective may appear after P,

in which

after

the

compound,

case V is automatically

connective.

as in Classical

and enolitio Homerio

is iv).

Greek

relegated

But once P and V were

connectives

Greek,

they

could

to

enolitic

felt

only be moved

automatically follow both.

is concerned,

the besio

struoture

position

to constitute

ἃ

as ἃ unit

As far as

for phrasal

verbs

The particle may be moved independently to clause initial

position (Type i11) ), or to pre-direct object position (Type vi) ). Alternatively the whole V may be moved to clause initial position (with B following either V or P), or to enclitio position (Types v)/vii) anà viii) respectively).

In this way the movements of simple

«105»

and phresal

verbs

to marked

positions can be handled by the seme

set

of rules; whether P is present or not, V can be moved to initial or enolitio

position.

6,

turn now to the type where V is im enolitio

We

may

and P follows

Z7

«4

It might

in pre-direct

Mfg

4 fperov WP

seem at first

the former

to pre-direot But

object

First,

anomalous

the

latter to enclitic

of reasons

for thinking that this V alone

would

in the light of the observation made involved in movements

this is necessarily

cannot be left

position,

the rule for moving

it is V that is ordinarily In fact

TAE VT .

there are a number

is not the case.

position

position:

that P and V have been moved independently,

position.

somewhat

object

stranded

the case,

since,

at the end of a clause

above

to marked

unlike when

be that

positions.

in Vedio,

P

V is in a marked

position:

* νύμφη

£196

6" é7/be,

Ye fav Zíobye

Ta ul .

νύμφη δ᾽ ἐνίϑε, rape πῶρων ἐδωδήν.

Furthermore,

since P and V form

constituent,

is the verb,

Y independently

a phrase whose

head,

or obligatory

it is impossible by definition

from the phrase by a grammatical

to remove

transformation,

«Ἵ 0,»

since

the residue would no longer be a verbal

would follow

automatically

if it were V,

in the movement.

In addition,

enolitio

may intervene between

elements

be adjacent, operations, The fact

If the movements

only enclitios

end mot V,

These facts

that was

where P follows V in Homer, them;

otherwise

of P and V were

it would be very difficult

that

category.

quite

to guarantee

may intervene

suggests

involved

only

they must

independent this

result.

that V + P

sequences are stil) in fact ἃ single phrasal constituent (V), but with

a permutation

interesting

to compare

of the

order

the movement

of its

elements.

of AdvP's

It is

to marked

positions

discussed earlier (Chapter I, C, 7); only the whole AdvP could be moved

to clause

independently P cannot be

initial

position,

of P because

and RP,

could not be moved

it is the head of its phrase.

stranded by independent

movements

Thus

of NP. or V,

ana

P may only follow NP, or V if nothing @part from enclitics) intervenes between

them,

still

their original

to be within

positioning being

A 505

where P does

postpositions phrasal

due to a permutation

provided by examples

[1805

Thus

and postverbs

categories,

rule.

Purther

seem

their evidence

is

such as:

λύθεν δ᾽ bro φαίδιμα guid. Xd

(av $^bm

we have not

the

precede

τε

προμοχοι.

same V « P configuration a direct

object.

If all

as before, such

except

sequences

that

are

to

«105»

be handled a direct

ofP.

in a uniform manner,

object

camot

be

the

it is clear crucial

the presence

in explaining

of

the position

The theory that we are dealing with a movement of V to a

marked position followed by a permutation to all the examples explanation for

B699

τίτε

position,

§ ᾿ 369

ἔχεν

sentence.

This

to the

ἃ neat

.

ἃ direot

is a specification

then,

to be an example

post-verbal

in this

effect.

sort,

provides

expansions

object.

of the

What

subject

of the

of the Homeric

of Vedio

mentioned

above

A wide variety of basically pre-verbal constituents

can be postposed stylistic

generalises

position nor in its basio final

P does not precede

seems,

(peregraph 2).

διὰ also

κάτα gues μέλαινα

the V + P sequence

equivalent

of elements

such as:

in a marked

and where

follows

involve

so far considered,

cases

where V is neither

this

that

factor

unlike

Notice

way, that

genuinely

the removal

presumably purely

gremmatical

of a head from

its

for

emphasis

stylistio

reorderings

processes, phrase.

or special

may

of

sometimes

Consider

the

following:

Head or whole 2.555

3v

Μ175

ἄλλο,

of AdvwP δ΄

μη

8’ Jag?

μάρναντο

[πρὶ

Dry δ pere

Ze

Mi

ἐμάχοντι

πυληδι].

[ πύλη δ].

«106-

Head or whole

of subject NP

A5

Aids

$' drederero

A 11

οὕνεκ

[ βουλή . τίμωφεν ... | [Ἀνγρεΐη 4] .

Χρνυδην

τὸν

Specifier or whole of direct object ET A 98-5

[κακήν].

6 yap ...] νοῦσον dvi δηρατὸν dt

A 9-10

Ip

y

7?

πωτρὶ

φίλῳ

δόμεναι

[ἐλικώπιδω

κούρην].

Dependent gepitiveg, datives, oto, A»

Wod\xs

Ang

δεινὴ δὲ κλῳχὴ

Ah

αὐτοὺς

It is clear the

1p

θίμονς

cases where we have a single

consisting

genitive,

we

reflected

the fact

that

of the noun

and that

oonstituent

interpreted

outside

it is olear

rtux

a splitting phrasal

the NP,

would

iS,

[ἡρώων]

constituent.

.

they

in and

we have

or of a noun and a

a basio

combination as & unit,

is involved

Thus where

and a noun,

require

as when

position

up of what is semantically

the adjective

the

προϊωψενὶ

[ Kovetér | οἱωνοσῖσί TE πῶσ.

to post-verbal

of an adjective

dependent

appear

ψνυχὰς

χένετ᾽ [apyupcore Biee).

EM

δὲ

that a movement

ayntactically WP's

δ᾽

structure

or genitive

was

which a modifier

of elements was a phrasal Where

such modifying

stand postposed

that we are dealing with a deformation

elements

after the verb, of a basic

structure effected by ἃ movement rule (which is probably stylistic rather than grammatical in character).

Since we require a postposing

-107-

rule for these

cases,

postpose

phrasal

handle say,

whole

the full range

where

we may as well

allow

constituents

as well

as their

in a uniform

fashion,

of facts

the verb does

not

stand

in one

the

same rule

of the

to

parts,

and

That is to

two designated

marked positions (clause initial and enclitio), and is not eotually follow

clause

final

the verb

either,

in such

we may assume

cases

have been

that

placed

there

postposing rule which operates on any (non-olitio) element

in basic

to B699

that

whioh

by the

pre-verbal

is to be emphasisied,

Returning

(p. 105), it is clear that the subject NP has here been

postposed, it has

structures

the elements

This means

that

not been moved,

But

the verb since

is no longer final

as a result

even

though

of the postposing

something now follows V, the rule which effects the permutation of its

elements

clause

finally

covering

is free

to apply;

if it is allowed

all V + P combinations

constituent

follows

i.e.

P will not be

to operate. seems

to be

a P + V combination,

stranded

Thus the generalisation as follows:

whether

when

as a result

some of

moving Y to a marked position or as a result of postposing some element to post-¥ position, then the elements dominated by V may be permuted,

We may assume

(nce-grammatical)

that

operation,

elements

in AdvP's

ΛΖ),

| νηνῶν

ἔτι

η 279

|

πρὸς pt

πέτρης

as well,

this

is a metrioally motivated

We find a similar permutation of for

example:

pete

ἐλωυνέμεν. ffov.

«108-

Especially at the beginning οὗ a verse, though also in the last *Xj feet,

the permutation

& very two

convenient

light

to find word

rule

way

of incorporating

syllables,

“With

diayllabic

It is interesting

postpositions

order.

affecting V and AdvP must

in a language

According

with basio

to Greenberg's

overwhelmingly

greater

with normal SOV order are

to note

than

fourth

chance

have

provided

particles

that we would

with expect

subjeot-objeot-vrerb

universal:

frequency,

languages

postpositional."

(1963, pe 110)

Postpositions

are

in fact regular

in Hittite,

Vedio (though prepositions also occur), ^ of postverbs finally,

in Vedic,

unlike

though

here

the

and very

may

then,

early

in late pIE;

olearly not

stand

clause

in Homer:

("extend them (i.e.

situation

in

We also find exemples

particle

at 4 tridhitini d&suse yachatadhi

Perhaps,

common

absolute

shelters)

Greek

1.85.12 three-fold to the worshipper’)

and Vedio

sinoe to judge

reflect

the verb from

the

final

a somewhat character

evidence

confused

of pIB was

of its

daughter

languages (a variety of marked positions being available for the verb, perhaps

together with the possibility of post-verbal expansions),

both prepositions

and postpositions

were

in use,

Homeric

«Ἷ 09.

Qreek,

δὲ any rate,

postpositions,

of the

which

to be moving

perhaps

subjeot-objeot-verb

ἃ tendency gradual

in

word

turn

standardisation

of hitherto

in nom-final

prepositional

than postpositions,

particles would

are

expect

postposed,

element standing still

we would

they retain

rather

them

than a following

clause finally

require material

in,

structures

these

to follow

involving

emplifications.

that

If these

this

even when these

quality we

a preceding

capable

is not

even when postposed,

applies to adverbial particles within V.

far

were genuine

onto

and so be

But

with

are numerically

to clitioise

as in Vedio.

character

in Homer is

the proolitic

element,

basic

of

possibly via the

the norm

particles.

expect

the

or post-verbal

that

elimination

pressure,

but also by the fact

of prepositional

postpositions

the that

setting

are already

demonstrated not only by the fact greater

implies

marked

position,

particles

towards

order was under

towards verb medial order

either verbs That

seems

so;

of they

and the sane

Clearly, then, the rule

fronting NP, and V within AdvP and V only partially reflects a very ancient

state

postpositions everyday

of affairs which, in Mycenaean,

language,

but which was

Epio because

of its metrical

7.

we must

Lastly,

consider

initial nor in pre-verbal example:

to judge

had long

from

since

retained

the absence

disappeared in the

of

from the

language

of the

usefulness.

the type where

or pre-dirsot

P is neither

objeot

position.

clausePor

“110.

Α98-9

ap γ' σὲ πωηρὶ φίλῳ δόμεναι, ἐλικώπιξα κούρην.

ATG.

ἐκεί κ᾽ dvo Aads Deren.

AU46

χεῖρες ἀπὸ ξιφεῖ munus.

fp .9

Brorov δ᾽ ἀπὸ

In all This

cases

of this

is unlike

wey av besser.

sort,

P stands

the pre~direot

in second,

object

cases,

enolitio,

where

P pay stand in

«nolitio

position but does not have

to.

position

in a sentence

ocoupied by conjunotions,

(non-enolitic) Where

none

is regularly

connectives,

of these

In other words, for focussed

both

elements.

initial

position

of constituents

initial

first that

initial

and relative pronouns and adverbs.

is present,

be occupied by a variety

Notice

position.

is free

that are

and post-verbal

As far as initial

to be

positions

position

and may emphasised,

are available

is concerned,

we have already seen examples involving P, AdvP, and V.

Compare

the following noun movements:

d 185

[ Mupus δέν ων] δ᾽ Ev) τε κλισίως

1211

[ ri]

$55

[e7rov] δ᾽ αἱό οἱ») Tayi

δὲ

Μενο:τιάδης

δωῖεν μέγοι.

orucial

thing

to note

oooupied by a conjunction turn up in enolitio

is that where or connective,

position

after

(+ postposing of adj.)

πωρέθηκε.

A163 ['Exrop«] δ᾽ ἐκ “βελέων ὕχωγε Ζεύς. The

Ov.

καὶ νῆας i£

initial

(+ postposing of subj.) position

such preposed

the particles

is already

elements

and pronouns:

“111.

δ65

κωΐ ὅφιν [νῶτα Bods] πωρὰ πίονι

Ax

H7

6t,

Similarly,

(yépov),

if initial

constituent,

Γ Kerhr6n]

position

or by the

Eyes

θῆκεν.

Wap

Vayu ; κιχεί.

is already filled by a focussed

subject,

other

constituents

to be emphasised

appear in enclitio position (or, alternatively, post-verbally):

> 408

δὺ μὲν

vov

oi πώρωϑθες

ξεινήγα.

(V in enclitic position, since subject in initial position)

A163

Ἕκτορα

$? ἐκ βελέων

ὑπιὴε Ζεύς.

(Subject in post-Y position,

Hotice

that in the absence

conjunctions and that when the

the

of clause

subjeot will

something

since object in initial position)

initial

automatically

other

than the

subject will automatically

appear

connectives

stand initially,

subject

A163.

they must be reordered

initially

position.

Thus

and if emphasis is

post-verbal

position

as in

We may assume, then, that enolitio position is available

es en alternative not normally many

into

stands

in enclitic

these cannot be marked positions for subjects, required

or

to initial

appear there

of these, post-verbal

position for constituents

and which need position

this is met the case for proclitic and adverbial

particles,

to be

is also

emphasised.

available,

elements

Consequently,

when

that would For

but obviously

such as prepositional an adverbial

particle

«112»

is fronted independently of its verb, and when initial position is already

ocoupied,

position,

This

is the

particle

in the

position

is filled

a focussed

8.

This

and

it will necessarily explanation

examples

appear

for the positioning

at the top of page

in each

case,

110,

completes

the survey positions

of word order in Homerio of particle

amd verb

that,

concerned

adverbial particles

exolusively

same positions originate

pre-verbal

9,

initial or

element,

of the relative

which

of the

where

whether by a conjunction

It should perhaps be noted

the

in enclitic

are

with

available

although

once

in particular,

the discussion

these

has been

in phrasal verbs,

for prepositional

in nuolear AdvP's,

Greek

particles

have been moved

to

position,

Finally we may consider

the

evidence

of 014 Irish.

Watkins

(1964) points out that in Classical 014 Irish Y is sentence initial, as is the

cospound PY,

and ocour

infixed

and

and

infixed B between

Pronominal suffixed, P and Y,

objects

are always

Suffixed B ooours

unstressed,

after

simple V,

Thus:

v(£) eccce P(E)V.. ee

B is consistently

second

in the sentence

in accordance

with

«115

Wackernagel's two

earlier

Lew,

Additionally,

sentence

patterns,

archaio

which

im the other early I.E. languages.

Old Irish

exactly

recover

initially,

with V sentence

Bergin's

Lew simple

from

comparative material

the

inherited. the

This

earliest

V and PV

sentence

final.

ocour

situation

In tmesis P(E)

In cases

sentence

that initial

observation,

the

Watkins (1964) refers to these

as Bergin's Law (of. Bergin, 1936) and tmesis, oocurs

preserves

involving

final,

It is clear

position

of V is

plus Bergin's Law and tmesis,

petterns

give

for 014 Irish:

Type 1) —— V(B).....-. ype 11) — .......... V — (Bergin's Law) [Type 113)

P(E)......V — (tmesis)

fype iv)

— e... PY — (Bergin's Law)

The Classioal 014 Irish type late development,

10,

positions

early Indo-European

It is clear influence

that

is apparently a rather

representing the ‘univerbation'

The relative

in five

P(E)V.....

there

of four basic languages

is no question

of any one on the others,

clause

of type iii).

constituents

have now been

considered,

of any prolonged

period

and for this reason

the

of

-11k4-

remarkable

identity

in structure

must point to a direct clause

1)

types

inheritance

can be reconstructed

with

and sentence final position,

of E in second

pIB.

The following

confidence:

V(5).. ...-.

Type

(E)...

11)

latter was

'marked!'

2)

a permissible

B or series

V

evidently

‘normal’,

and the former

the

stylistically

member of the opposition.

Yor the phrasal verb, final position of V, and an opposition

of initial B or series

Type

with

position:

Type 1)

111)

Type iv) 3)

from

languages

For the simple finite verb, an opposition of sentence

initial

The

displayed hy these

and pre-final

position

of B in second

of P,

again with ἃ permissible

position:

P(B)......V

(E)...PV

For sentences in continuous or narrative style, ὁ

connective

particle may appear

in initial

position,

a permissible B or series of E in second position; preceded by P in the

case

of phrasal verbs;

followed ty

V is final,

-115-

7}{0)...0ὕ0Ὲ7 {{(}....:ΚὉ

type 11) wee iv) We may add

that most

of the

languages

examined provide

that P and V when adjacent

formed

Greek

evidence for the

and Vedio

also

V, for pre-direot is difficult likely that

offer

objeot

to determine

to be inherited,

clearly belongs

some

sort

position

of P,

which,

if any,

Much

of the

to a long and

of phrasal enclitio

evidence constituent.

position

and for postverbs.

It

of these features

evidence

of

is

comes from poetry

sophisticated

oral

tradition,

As we shall see below (Section B), it is a characteristic of such traditions after

that

they

preserve

they have disappeared

thay facilitate As regards the order

the

from

the process enolitio

of elements

features the

of great

everyday

of composition

position

in enclitio

of V,

the

series

exact

exact

the Greek and Vedic

the frequent

presence

highly unlikely

that

position for P,

of a preposed this

language because

paralleliem

is striking.

object

between

long

in a fixed metre.

in the case of pre-direct parallelism

antiquity

there

types,

adjective,

in

Similarly is an

even down

and it seems

could be due to independent

in the two languages!

Ánuvretam ápa jayüm arodhem

10,54. 2

pirov (δ᾽) emo νόστον $ ov Tati

fl 82

innovation

to

-116-

Note

too that

this

common patterning

of elements

supplements

the

use of postverbs and postpositions (cf. p. 108) in providing convenient

ways

of introducing metrically

difficult

diayllabic

particles at the beginning of a verse and in the last 5j feet:

A25

Ke TÉ pov $? ἐπὶ μῦθον

K 466

δέελον δ᾽ ἐπὶ 6j

A505

| χώρην

6257

λιχὼν

δ᾽ ὕπο

ware

TE

ἐτελλενῚ)

τ' ἔθηκε!

pep

exe!

warp Sat gare

|

O435 |vyos ro πρύμνη η 219 | vérox5 πρὸς petri Postpositions end Hittite

are

almost

certainly

The

other types

facts.

inherited

in view

are paralleled

of the Vedic

so closely

in Vedio that independent innovation seems somewhat unlikely, and even if they were language,

they have

their retention regard The

these

generally

in the Epic.

early

My inclination,

too as genuinely

question

lost very

in the ordinary

strong metrical motivation which

of whether

would

therefore,

explain

is to

ancient,

the grouping

of P and V into

a phrasal

constituent (as evidenced by several of the languages investigated) was

also

a feature

affirmative.

of pIE

It is clear

can almost that

all

certainly

be answered

the daughter

languages

in the eventually

«117.

developed

genuine

the beginnings unity,

compounds

of P and V,

of this process

The

took place

question

in the period of IE

or whether we are dealing with a case

ell the historical

languages

at a later date,

In view

languages

examined

provided

evidence

partially

idiomatic

semantioally likely

into

to be am inherited

it is almost

certain

that

to group P and V together ef their of meny

semantic of the

independent

movement

‘drift’,

of the fact

units,

as a phrasal Certainly

of P was

same

that all the

this,

at least,

Given that

there was already

languages

in the

whereby

that P and V had developed

oharacteristic.

coherence.

daughter

of

moved independently

üireotion

is whether

the

provide

this is so,

a tendency

constituent

still possible,

in pls

as a reflection

earliest

evidenoe

seems

records

for this,

of course,

The

because,

though P had developed a somewhat ‘bound’ status vis-a-vis the verb,

it was

11,

The

evidence

development adverbial

certainly not yet

compounded with

that P had already begun

from an ‘independent’

partiole

adverb

it.

the process

towards

in pIB is very important,

of

a more bound

because Kurylowios

(196k, p. 171 ff.) suggests that this process (and indeed that of the development of prepositions) external pressures adverbial

forms

the following

resulting

depends for its initiation on

from the formal

in their primary

‘independent’

examples from Vedio

and Homeric

renewal

of the old

function, Greek:

Consider

“118

ud

;

υοοῦ

ni

:

4

ebhí These

/

»

ἀμφὶ

:

Spore

nica

Ex »

τ

éxros, Exro(6) bev, Exrost.

: ebhiteh

ἐν

ot ἔνθα, ἔνϑεν, évouse, ἐνθένδε.

pressures

division

come

about

under

in the use of these

adverbial

use on the

one hand,

and

dj poreps £.

»

»/

>

the influence

adverbs

pw Ev,

of a functional

between

'independent'

‘prepositional’

and

'preverbal'

use on the other (i.e. as prepositional and adverbial partioles). Once formally

renewed

oould be specialised

in their

in their hitherto

specifiers

of case

functional

and categorial

Since

we have

developed

in pIB,

developed,

endings

seen

primary function,

and verb

The first

stage

functions

ultimately

prepositions

that verb particles it seems

secondary

senses,

split into

the old adverbs

and verb particles,

are already

that prepositions must in the development

as

with a

partially also be partially

of prepositions

is presumably one in whioh the adverbial elements are freed (by formal renewal) consisting genuine

to be used as specifiers of adverb phrases

of inflected

prepositions

P and NP,.

nouns,

involves

The

subsequent

a shift

development

of

in the relationship between

The particle becomes the head of the phrase (which must

now be regarded as a prepositional phrase),

and the infleoted noun

becomes

That

the complement

functional

burden

preposition;

where

preposition,

the

of the preposition,

is transferred more ending

than one of the

from

the

case

ending

case

is to say,

ending

ocours

case form functions

the

to the

with

the

same

as a determinant

/

-119-

of the preposition, oase

form follows

rendering

its value precise,

the preposition,

the

case

and where

only one

ending becomes

a

redundant feature entailed by the preposition (though the status of the

case

form

as

such may be maintained by its

occurrence

in other contexts, vis. without an accompanying preposition). There

are

1)

three kay stages

Adverbial

endings;

at this

semantically the

particles

case

stage

develoment:

are used

to specify

it is presumably

compatible

designating

in this

pair

notions

the value

possible

of particle

and

for any

case

such as location,

of case

ending

goal,

to co-oocur,

source,

path,

and the particle adding further information - e.g. down at/to/from/ vie X, noun since

eto.

phrase

There

is no reason

form any very

the association

close

particles

Em

*4ndependent'

in basio

partiole

than

within

and stages, syntactic, either

‘That is to say, the

suoh as the following:

w^

could

early

rather

constituents

structures

to be an adverbisl

the particle

link in the

semantic

separate

w

If there happened

that

or VP (for complements).

appeared

Y

phrasal

is essentially

In other words P and NP. are

S (for adjuncts)

to think

s ab

noun phrase

optionally

v

Y

present,

stand before

it,

the as a

«120.»

reflection

of its modifying

function:

P

This

stage

of development

the historically It does,

development

2)

y

(NP)

is completely hypothetical,

attested

however,

NP

languages

provide

have

ἃ plausible

of independent

adverbs

olearly

starting

sinoe all

gone beyond

point for

the

into bound prepositions.

At some point the semantic association of particle and

adverbial noun association;

phrase

i.e.

phrase node,

purely

syntactio

and various

case

is reflected

the two

single

One

reason why Karel

elements

are grouped

consequence

of this

restrictions

endings

independent

quite

should not

anomalous

syntactic

together

under

is the development between

of the restrictions

appear with nouns

about

inflected

with the dative;

the association

of the

about the association of ‘up’ and 'at/in'.

>»

M

δὲ

i]

Si

of

the particle of

sense

in the

there is 'down!

the sense ‘at/in', any more than there is anything anomalous

voros

a

There is, for example, no semantic

dative, parallel to the use of {va nothing

in a corresponding

oo-oocurrence

semantio compatibility.

E3th

it.

4

Urat

Consider:

with

where but

the particle

oo-oocurs

only when in pre-verbal

which

position,

Thus

oan be associated with eny particular

is determined by what and particles the

with a dative noun phrase

have

cases whioh

seem to be purely

to be

they

partiole

accidental

subcategorised

can be associated

the range

successfully, of cases

within

en AdvP

ayntactio

facts,

in the lexicon with.

That

is to

development

of a syntactio bond between P and NP, leads

development

of idiosyncratic

of elements which stage

can occur

of development

fhe particle

syntactic together,

restrictions This,

is now closely

associated

with

the

say,

noun phrase both semantically and syntactically,

the

also to the

is the

in Homerio case

to

on the choice

presumably,

of late pIE and is attested

acoording

ending

Greek. of the

though the head

of the AdvP to which both belong is still the NP_:k

v

3) forms,

wo

Ultimately, with the formal renewal of the old adverbial these prepositional

pre-aominal

position,

of independent WP,'s goal,

NP

etc.

particles

This

is associated

expressing

The particles

beoom inoreasingly

adverbial

no longer have

with

fixed in

the disappearance

notions

such as location,

independent

adverbia)

uses,

«122.

and

so can now appear

other

element,

i.e.

the particle ayntactio

in sentences

an overt

only if associated

inflected noun phrase,

and the adverbial noun phrase

autonomy,

the appearance

the appearance

of the other.

lose

of one being

At this

stage

with

some

Thus both

their former conditioned by

the partiole becomes

the functional term (since the case ending of the NP is conditioned by the presence

status),

the partiole

becomes

be classified true

as a prepositional

are

prepositional position

since

to pre-NP

of the

of movement this

is

phrase,

now between

and verb

as specifiers

being members attested

confined

phrase,

any possibility another,

and no longer has independent

the head of its phrase,

category distinction

Prepositions

M

of the particle

and in effect becomes ἃ full preposition.

sense

on

There

position

is,

are

and verb

confined There

in both

is the

a

particles.

of a

to pre-V is no longer

from one position

particles

This

therefore,

as the head

of a verb,

of particles

dependent

and the latter must now

prepositions

particles

of the sage category.

in Classical

k

In other words,

to

positions

situation

Greek prose:

p

m^ — —»

23

x

om

«125»

12,

The development

adverbs

1)

follows

more

of bound verb or

the

same

from

independent

course:

Just as an independent adverb oan modify an independent case

ending,

so an independent

(as its complement). was

less

particles

allowed

adverb

Again,

to stand

can modify

an independent

verb

as a reflection of this, the particle

pre-verbally:

EO

αὖ

x

V--- (ptu) -7 It

is interesting

funotion modifying

the case

1s neither

particle,

that a single

particle

1f an independent πρὶ is also present,

possible because that

to note

ending

and complementing

the particle exolusively

In other words,

is

still

the verb.

nor

a dual

simultaneously

an independent

ἃ preposition it

can have

This

exclusively

simultaneously fulfils

is

constituent ἃ verb

the

same sort of function as the word down in the following two examples, its freedom of positioning (independent, reflecting

its double

He went-down He went

funotion:

-

to

the

ships.

down-to

the

ships.

pre-NP,

pre-V)

This

again

is a hypothetical

of the historical plausible

languages.

starting

stage which But

once

point for the later

is not attested

again it provides developments

in any the most

that are

attested,

2) leads

Subsequently,

the possibility of placing P in pre-V position

to the possibility

between

them,

of an idioaynoratio

whioh in turn

encourages

semantio

ἃ syntaotio

relationship

grouping

of P

and V within & single phrase (V). In this way phresal verbs originate.

In some

high frequenoy

cases,

perhaps,

if the association

the collocation

of P and V was of very

of elements might be

reanalysed as a genuine compound (cf, Chapter I, C, 8). however,

because

of the

distinction between

laok at this

prepositional

stage

In general,

of any category

and adverbial

particles,

P can

still shift from place to place as a reflection of its (now diminishing) This

is the

reflects

3) verb

the

independence and double function (as discussed above). state

of affairs we find in Homer,

situation

Once we get the real category split between prepositions end partioles,

adverbial

uses

with

the attendant

of P and of MP»

an overt NP. must now appear since

and presumably

in late pIE.

prepositions

such ἃ dependent

of the independent

any particle which does

in pre-V position,

must now govern

noun

loss

a noun

phrase,

phrase must be a verb

not govera

even in basic amy particle

particle.

structures; without

In this way

«125.»

'independent! prepositional partioles (i.e. ones whioh do not govern an overt MP, ) are assimilatedto the model providedby phresal verbs and beoome bound to Y (just as prepositions ere

bound to uP).

Later still, it seems likely that all these

forms were reanalysed as compounds (whether P was a looational/ directional complement or part of ἃ phrasal verb). the already

existing

be utilised

as rules of reanalysis,

P and V in the

rules

oompound

Presumably

of compound verb formation

category.

placing

all combinations

If this were

the case,

explain why in Classical Greek it is no longer possible P independently Greek

to

position,

'foous'

of V.

constituents

it is obvious

independently

Thus while

it ig still possible

by moving

them

that prepositions

out of prepositional

could

to clause

also of

it would to move

in Classical initial

cannot be moved

phrases,

since

the preposition

is now the obligatory head of its phrase; but it is not immediately ebvious why verb partioles cannot be moved out of V, since in this oase V is the head of the phrase. shifted,

and

the

that P and V invariably

case

we would longer

enolitios may not

then bave & neat

In fact only the whole V may be

separate formed

explanation

dealing with a phrasal

its

elements.

If it was

an inseparable

compound,

for these facts;

we are no

category

dominating

two independent

elements, but rather with & simple lexical category (V), dominating

ἃ single lexical item (a compound verb). 13.

Obviously we can only reconstruct

features

for pIE whioh

-126-

are attested

in its

daughter

languages,

so it is olear

that

stage

1) in the development of prepositions and verb particles is very early indeed,

and that pIE had,

characteristics

to stage 2). adverbial already

This

already

developed

either NP, or V.

towards

their

the beginnings

later

as confirmed by the fact

languages oategory,

under way and their independent in turn allowed

of these forms

partioles,

daughter

some of its

That is to say, the formal renewal of the old

on the wane.

and verb

at which

can plausibly be reconstructed,

forms was already

development

unitary

at the stage

provide

evidence

it tended We may

that,

though P was

then,

of the

as prepositions

that many

to form a phrasal

oonolude,

status

use was

of the still a

constituent

with

that pIE had phrasal

verbs and AdvP's comprising a particle and an infleoted NP (though with their relative order still free, perhaps).

The chief

characteristics of a stage 2) situation may be summarised as follows:

1)

Independent use of the old adverbial forms still attested, but

on the wane,

The

uses

as prepositional

that

these

possible,

sinoe

of their hitherto

and adverbial partioles,

tend to form phrasal

Independent movement still

development

constituents

of prepositional the continued

adverbial uses reinforces

their

with

existence

evidence

with MP's

and adverbial

ayntaotio

secondary

and V's,

particles

of independent

autonomy.

«1 27-

11)

Lack of a category distinction between basically pre-HP, and basically nuclear

pre-V particles,

instances

istically

of the first

ecoupied by the

VP-internal

particles

qualifying

& case

with the free movement

second

have

ending

type

into positions

and

character-

type as a corollary;

a double function, complementing

of

i.e.

simultaneously

the verb,

444) Independent uses of adverbial MP's still attested to express notions

such as location,

prepositional

particles

goal, are

source,

optional

path,

i.e.

specifiers,

the head

of AdvP's being the ΚΡ

It is importent reconstruoted have

for ΡΒ

indeed

of prepositions

that

in Homeric

in terms

characteristios

It will be useful

the

which

charaoteristios

Greek,

The

of its position

and verb

Greek in isolation,

the

are precisely

elready observed

archaic

41...

to note

latter

as regards

oan be which we

is thus very the development

particles.

at this

stage

to consider

and to place Homerio

the history

of

Greek in its proper

position diachrenically,

We may begin with an examination of the

Linear B facts.

in handling the language of the

Myoenaean

tablets,

it provides pertioles,

As usual

answers, however,

the material

raises

In the matter enough at least

nearly

as many problems

of prepositions is clear

to make

as

and verb out a case on

«128»

the basis

of strong

do is to determine

probabilities. whether

there

What we are really is any evidence

concerned

that Mycenaean

to has

evolved towards a stage 3) situation,

15.

There have been

ἃ number

question

of

‘prepositions’

but none

is immediately

conneoted

However, Ilievski (1961), instrumental, relevant,

looative

Clearly,

of studies

and case

with

in Mycenaean,

the present

on the

6

problem.

on the formal means of expressing the

and ablative

if looal

expressed by oase forms

in recent years

usage

case

without

relations,

relations

is indirectly

can

prepositional

still be routinely

support,

this would

be compatible with the view that Mycenaean is still in stage 2), pertioularly

if further

evidence

concerning

the function

and

distribution of partioles oan be found to tie in with this conclusion, is already stems

Ilievski complete

in the

the partial

that

in the plural,

singular, formal

concludes

though

union,

Let us examine

'locatives! examples whether

used

(dative

of perfectly they are

the loocative

these

cases

not

synoretim

in consonant

in vowel

function,

case forms

in order

in form,

regular

special

and has begun

probably

still be expressed by unsupported contexts,

locative-dative

stems.

he

suggests,

in a variety

to determine

at least

rules

representing

a more

can

of

whether

in the plural)

and productive

Despite

the

are

of syntax, or less

type.

PY Cn 606 has nine place names listed after the heading:

or

residual

«129.

jo~e-se-so-si

si-e,-ro

o-pi-da-mi-Jo

Some

of the names

in the

list are undoubtedly

locative,

as

pe-ki-je-si in line 6, beside pe-ki-ja-ne in PY Vn 19, and e-ra-te-i

in line 9, beside

e-ra-to-de

in PY Vn 20,

that all the other names must be loostive script fails independent ooourring however, stems

to differentiate locatives

in contexts

that

s-stems

is appropriate, ^ marked by the

name

are

script,

there

in “δ

the

locative

plaoe name

case

endings

place

names

seems

in -o-i,

to be locative

The only

clear place

is certainly

locative

it ooours,"

Thus

which

a more

16 precisely

looatives

locatives

are

the

or less fossilised

are

sort

in most,

even in the

of area in which

ayntactio

case form

to be

rule permitting preserved,

quite rere,

equally

pe-ki-jJe-ni-jo-i

specialised,

pe-ko-

Qre)

For

to

are better

and this

to be specified by a simple

1216

where

is,

sense

in whioh

looation

Fr

locative

is pe-ki-ja-si, contexts

usually

There

even where

in KW E 670.1.

expect

PY

names,

place names belonging

in -a-i which

we would

Other

of

of the

of place names,

independent

place

locatival value.

singular

the

The majority

are no definite

namely da-*85-ja-i

if not all, case

oonfirm that

Even in the plural,

and only one possíble im force,

endings.

even where

of this type are in fact

no way of proving

other than

case

also,

which means

example,

eccce

in:

«150»

PY Fr 1219

wa-no-so-1

we may have case

temporal

is the name

Δελφοῖς ). phrases

Classical

locatives,

as

general

L1

Greek,

ry

(cf.

the first

Thuo.,

type,of the

νυκτί,

and would

....e

if indeed

of a festival,

The more

such

po-se-da-o-ne

thus be

in each

I. 1433 Odgumativ

sort

persists

word

as

expected

exemplified a regular

3

in

feature

in Mycenaean,

in

There

is the form we-te-i-we-te-i in PY Es 644, which, to judge from

the Sanskrit type dyavi-dyayi, is an ancient formation, this

is clearly

specialised

semi-adverbial

PY An 7, which

qa-ra , 18 pa-ka

not a simple

lists

ο» [pi-me-ne]

an adverbial are

otherwise

in view All

seems

example:

to consist

in the

compound.

probable

to compare

rations:

of the particle o-pi plus

dative,

Apart

though

the fact

word

suggests

from

these

in Mycensean,

of the Classical other

It is interesting monthly

a

eeoce

as a single

absent

but rather

cecece

noun pe-ne inflected are written

of time,

cocce

O-pi-me-ne

The form g-pi-me-ne

items

form.

individuals!

o=-pi-me-ne

pe-te-ko-to

looative

But

Greek

locatives

though

that

thet we are

examples, this

time

the

after

locatives

is certainly

particles.

two

dealing with

facts. occur

the

For

acoidental

-213-

PY An 129.7

pe-ro

PY An 129.1

pe-ro

ti-ki-Jo

XN X

o-pi

po-po

567

ks-ke-u-si ?

EN As 1517.11

o=pi

PY Um 2.1

NüUejO-Mo-nO

It is clear from in contexts

(probably) pius noun

16,

e-se-ra-we

examples

outside

to-ro-no-wo-ko

e-pi

such as these

the restricted

that

areas

10

the looative

of place

names

relation,

and

time expressions, was realised by a sequence of particle phrase,

Ilievski also examines the question of the ablative case

relation,

and conoludes

be moved,

the ablative

at least

some

demonstrably relation

ablative

is required,

instrumental

form

used to express relation,

that

in so many

relation

contexts,

and it is suggested

even

in character,

If

that Mycenaean has

context

expression

only

preserved

the instrumental disputed

us here,

account,

to take

the view

either by the

endings

-api,

to

in

is

of the ablative to express

it,

an independent and that

this

is

but also

the

ablative

question,

|

the details

Taking that

goods

to appear

anf declensions,

concern

I prefer

certain

there must be the formal means

This has been a hotly

expressed

listing

though no individual

in all numbers

not

tablets

is almost

of which need not

was

wa-na-ka-te

all the

the

evidenoe

instrumental

-o and -pi

into

function

in the

-132-

plural,

or by the forms

with which This

of the dative-locative

the old instrumental-ablative

aynoretism means

that

expressed by the forms since Ilievski

is probably

instrumental-ablative Mycenaean

rather

right

though

than in Mycenaean

followed

the

expression

of the ablative

function

pattern

relation,

the

singular,

existence

in the ancestor

itself,

of the

synoretised,

also was

in the

in assuming

singular,

had been

dative-locative

synoretism,

eventually

forms

the ablative

of the

in the

7

Assuming

singular

of

of

that

the plurel

in the matter

this must

have been

of the

expressed

by dative-locative forms there too, though a few ‘fossilised’ ablatives (instrumental in form)

seem to occur in place names.

For exemple, po-ra-pi (PY An 14), i-na-pi (PY An 5), the list of names

in PY An 1, and

quite

series (especially 262,

possibly

the

places mentioned

296, 523, 570, 92h and 1009)

to be ablatives.

Parallel

to these we have many

(e.g. me-te-pa,

ka-ra-do-ro,

&-po-ne-we,

in the Na

seem likely

singular

forms

eto.) which may equally

be ablative in function (and possibly instrumental in form), though only place

the

soript

fails

other

likely

ablative

names

probably cases

involve

inflected

following

for

the mcment

the

domain

contexts

outside

names, has

The

the to be

to note

that,

ablative

case

expressed

The

set involving

with

is discussed below

sufficient

distinotions,.

the

particles,

in the dative-locetive,

it is

at all,

the necessary

prepositional

particles

of place

is expressed

to make

the noun phrase

question

in more once

of the

detail,

again,

relation,

by a sequenoe

but

outside

if indeed

it

of particle

-133-

plus

inflected

17.

noun

phrase.

The accusative

of goal with

place

names

never

occurs

with

certainty in Myoenaean without the suffix -de, ^ This is illustrated

0-4,

in PY Vn

20:

e-pi-de-da-to

pe-ra-re-wo

wo-no

pi-*82-de

50

ne-ta-pa-de

50

pe-to-na-de

100

eto.

This

regular

obscurity

use of -de may well have been

of the soript

in potentially independent

and

ambiguous

accusatives

the

consequent

contexts,

dictated by the need for

To this

it may be noted

again,

place

come

constructions

we

prepositional

KN V 114

18,

against

particles.

pe-da

In general,

the field

up

explicitness the

absence

of goal may be non-significant.

if this is so, names

extent

For

wa-tu

therefore,

of place names

to

that

outside

inherent

But

the area

of

even of

involving

example:

14

there is virtually no evidence outside suggest

that

case forms

could

regularly

«13,»

be used

independently

spatial

relations

decisive,

but

construotions, developed

in Mycenaean,

it does

already bearing

suggest

the brunt and indeed

to the

by an examination a number

of prepositional

status

very

evidence

strongly

that

however,

demonstrates

the twenty

have

prepositions. 2 ‘prepositional’

ablative

contexts

that pa-ro

already This

uses.

is supported There

are with

Householder (1959),

cannot

or so syntactically

are

where pa-ro appears

a noun {inflected in the dative-loostive,

Among

is by no means

load in P + NP.

the particles

of full

to express

that particles

of the functional

of specific

of potentially

This

particles

always

distinct

have

ablative

passages,

foroe.

pa-ro plug

inflected noun is paralleled by dative-locatives (e.g. KN Ai 115 v. Ai 739), by possessive genitives (e.g. KN Αἱ 115 v. Ai 63), and even by lists of nominatives (e.g. KN Dk 945 v. Dk 107k). Furthermore, most of the cases where pa-ro is followed by a personal

view

name

of the

occur

alongside

customary

clearly

parallelism

("to man X to place Y', etc.),

locative

of Greek

place

local

names,

In

constructions

this tends to confirm the locative

value of the pa-ro phrases in these contexts,

But there remain a

number of possible ablative contexts involving pa-ro phrases, Clearly and

the ablative

since

relation

the dative-locative

is not

expressed by genitive

is already

used

in locative

foras, '° function

with the particle pa-ro, Householder ooncludes that it is not likely

to be used

in ablative

instrumental-ablative

function

is used in these

as well

and

suggests

oases.

But given

the

that

an

-135-

difficulty

of reconstructing

in all numbers that

the

certain

a fully-fledged

and deolensions,

evidence

ἢ this

for the locative

in at least

some

contexts,

instrumental-eblative

seems

value

unlikely.

So,

of pa-ro phrases

it seems

granted

is

that Mycenaean must

indeed have used pa-ro with the dative-locative (with which the instrumental-ablative had been syncretised)

in ablative function

as well,

of context

The following

ablative meaning

PY Eo

illustrate

the sort

is at least

possible:

ko-to-na

Kki-ti-me-na

in which

211

wa-na-ta-Jo-Jo &-tu-ko

e-te-do-mo

e-ke-ge

o-na-to

GR2

[vi

pa-ro

wa-na-ta- [30]

cR i-ni-Ja

te-o-jo

do-e-ra

e-ke-qe

o-na-to

paero

[m wa-na-ta-jo

ca

8,

wv

PY Ep 501 ke-ke-me-na

ko-to-na

a,-ti-J o=-qgo

o=-na-to

a-no-no / to-so-de e-ke

pa-ro

*ko-to-no-o-ko! wa-na-ia-Jo

o-na-to

e-ke

de-mo to=s0

pa-ro

da-mo

to-so-de

pe=-mo

[ont

kXke-ke-me-na [pe-nc]

GR1

ke-ke-me-na pe-mo

GR

T ko-to-na Ti.

v3

ko-to-na T5

PY Ep 613.12 [ρο- δο-] re- [se

te-o-] Jo

do-e-ra

e-ke

o-na-to

to-s0

pe-mo

pa-ro

GR

pa-ra-ko

Ti

V3

-136-

No

other prepositions

contexts.

are

attested

If it is accepted

deal with

the

source

that

of goods

in potentially at least

or payment,

some

ablative

of the tablets

it must be concluded

that the ambiguity of pa-ro phrases (locative or ablative)

was

tolerable,

at least for the

the

situations

they were recording.

of pe-ro,

it is clear that

use of particles This

An examination

case

the area

order

lends

the

before

only

possible

an inflected

even when

they

position

noun

phrase;

of place was

the value

names

in peragraph

support

the

compulsory, 19.

to the view

that

It is clear at a glance

for prepositional they

with

whatever

introduced

Mycenaean has moved away from stage 2). that

familiar

inflections

examples

of word

who were

In any case,

outside

to support

is confirmed by the

19,

scribes

cannot

particles

appear before

is the verb,

are nuclear: 4

PY Ep 613.8 s&-5&-WO

PY Un

o-na=-to

e-ke

ka-ma-e-u

e=-pi-ge

to-me

te-ra-pi- [xe] coo

2

pa-ki-Ja-si

mu-jo-me-no

e-pi

wa-na-ka-te

.....

PY Ae 134 ke-ro-wo

po-me

a-si-Ja-ti-ja

o-pi

ta-ra-na-(ta-) Jo

ge-to-ro-po-pi

'o-ro-me-no'

“137.

PY An 519.15 pi-ru-te

ku-re-we

VIR

50

meterge

pend e-ge-te ro-urko™”

ku-se-ne=-ni-jo

EN V 114 pa-se

a-mi-ni-so / pe-da

wa-tu”

PY Un 138 pu-ro

qe-te-a,,

pe-ro

du-ni-Jo

(and many more examples of pa&-ro, some of which have been discussed above).

An interesting

example

is:

KW Dk 945 Jku-mo-no pe-ro OVIS" 110 where pa-ro apparently namo,

In all other

after a noun,

ocours

cases

LANA 8

after a noun,

where

XN C 914

a-ka-wi-ja-de / pa-ro

ovis"

50

CAP"

50

19

perhaps

a prepositional

as in:

pa-ra-ti-jo

LARA

a personal

partiole

appears

-138-

it seems

simply

to have been

as an afterthought, But

there

is no

epigraphic

case in Dk 945.2! of the verb

perhaps

to clarify evidence

into

an available

the particular

to suggest

This may well be a case,

‘to be’,

and unexplained

inserted

given

anomaly.

that

it would

P would

that

then,

otherwise

this

is the

be a unique

particle,

such its position

would not

particles

their associated

noun phrases.

There

examples

particles

without

fact,

precede

a number

'to be!

of

in Mycenaean,

For

of verb

the rule

context.

of the omission

then be a verb

contradiot

space

that

used

and as

prepositional are,

in

the verb

example:

EN Sd 4402 }i-qi-da

/ 9-ra-ro-mo-te-me-na

po=-ni-ki-ja

o-u-qe

a&-ni-ja

po-si

e-e-si

po-si

beeide:

ΚΝ Sd 14,22 15] qi-j& / &-ro-mo-te-me-na

Compare

o-u-qe

a-ni-Ja

also:

PY Ub 1318.6 &-pe-i-j&

There

u-po

is thus no

ka-ro

we-]

]pe-Ja

E1

evidence

from

the attested

examples

of prepositional

-139-

particles

in Mycenaean

other position

except

to suggest

that

immediately

they

before

could

their

stand

associated

phrases (with the exception of connectives and dependent genitives, whioh may intervene).

20.

Compare

now

the positioning

of verb

particles:

PY Aq 218 o-da-a&,

a-pa-ke-e

o-pe-ro-te[

PY Fr 1184 ko-ka-ro

&-po-do-ke e-ra τὼν

ἴο- 80

e-u«me-de-i

PY An 18 te-re-ne-we

to-ko-do-mo

a-pe-o

VIR

1

PY An 72. ro-o-wa

o-re-ta

a-pe-o-te

PY Un 2 pewkieja-si

&-pl-e-ke

mu-jo-me-no

o-pi-te-ke-u

e-pi

wa-na-ka-te

in any noun

«“10-»

PY Vn

20

o-8,, 2 e-pi-de-da-to pe-ra-re-WO

WO-nO

cceoe

KN Sf 4428

1-] gi-Ja / po-ni-ki-ja

ge-ta-ke-ku-me-na

CAPS 1

PY Aa 686 pu-ro

ke-re-sa

ra-wi-ja-ja-o

ko-wo / o-u-pa-ro-ke-ne-ko|

PY Ta 641

ti-ri-po

ke-re-si-jo

In all these

examples

evidence

that

that while

we-ke

cpu

P immediately

any other

position

for the most

ke-ke-u-me-no / ke-re-e,

precedes V,

is possible.

and there Notice,

part P and V are written

however,

as a single word,

in the last example they are written as two separate words po-si

e-e-si

period

when

to the

stage

by a stage element

in KN 8d 4422).

the

partiole

at which

in which

they were

inseparably

the particle,

though

acquired

proclitic

to pre-verbal

position

through

(of.

Presumably the transition from the

and the verb were

in V,

is no

status the

loss

independent

constituents

compounded was mediated

still and was of the

an independent eventually rules

confined

allowing

particles in tmesis (the latter conditioned by the loss of the independent

adverbial

uses

of partioles

and the

category

split

-1h1-

leading

to the

paragraph

creation

12 above,

discussion).

and verb

and see paragraphs

Perhaps,

of this middle

of prepositions

23 and

particles

= of,

2) below for further

then, Mycenaean exemplifies the last stage

period,

with partioles

already

tending

to form

compounds with verbs (or at least combinations of positionally bound partiole and verb), but with a feeling for the original word autonomy whatever

the

still manifesting explanation,

are no examples

itself

the most

in Mycenaean

is,

seen

is that

actually

there

separated

in:

It might be argued

to be expected,

type would

for the absence

but is far less

convinoing

in pre-direct

between

the

variants

English

peirs

given

that

This

seems

to

He chopped down the tree

/

position, be

as

a plausible

in initial

as an explanation

object

for

where

trivial

the absence

in the prosaic

is perhaps

of particles

that

such a marked

hardly be appropriate

of the Linear B tablets.

explanation

examples

The type

a preposition.

is only

construction context

point

But

Q-pi te-ra-ma-(ta-) o qe-to-ro-po-pi o-ro-me-no

of course,

of tmesis

important

of a verb particle

from its verb by other words.

PY Ae 134

in a few cases.

as

the

position,

the absence difference

that

between

suoh as:

He chopped the tree down

of

-142-

But

even though

involve

several

direot

objeot

partiole before

them

then,

is

Mycenaean

perticles

21,

to be

partioles in the

noun phrases, is never

exactly

separated

In the light

surprising

of the Mycenaean

used

able

to find

‘independently’;

surviving

tablets.

already

to Classical

confined

the model

disappeared

and verb to note

are

fulfilled

invariably

whioh

supports

PY Va 15

forms,

this

that

of

absence

stage

order,

it would be

of the old adverbial

there

given

are no

positions,

a categorial

of the Classical

are

suggests

uses

has

split between Greek

adverbial

forms

examples

of the paucity

which

by independent

by new adverbial

such

that particles

such independent

sort.

It

functions

in Mycenaean,

conclusion:

e-te

In conclusion,

properties

provided

a-po-te=-ro-te

EN Am 600

22,

Greek

particles

is interesting

in not allowing

could be a funotion

it is unlikely,

of autonomy

Greek

examples

and that we already have

prepositions

In all probability,

of word

in fact

This

but

the

their verbs.

evidence

of the material,

that

exploited.

from

cited above

the option of placing

like Classical

of the

if we were

examples

(ὠμροτέρωθεν )

(ἐνϑεν )

Mycenaean 2), nemely

of a categorial

exhibits

none

independent

of the charaoteristio

uses of the

distinction betwoen

old adverbial

prepositional

εἰι»-

and adverbial particles,

and independent

phreses in adverbial function, contrary,

it seems

prepositions

of inflected noun

(except for place names).

On the

that we are dealing with fully developed

end verb

and pre-verbal

uses

partioles,

positions

independent

adverbial

of a genuine

category

which

are

confined

respectively because

uses of these difference

particles

between

to pre-nominal

of the loss

of the

and the development

the two types.

In other

words, Myoenaean is exactly like Classical Greek and quite unlike Homeric

Greek in the matter of the distribution

prepositions

3),

and verb

particles;

it has already

and function developed

of

to stage

The reasons why Homerio Greek (with the poems in their

present form originating in the Dark Age) shoulà have preserved the inherited situation, while Mycenaean (dating from the Bronse Age) has not,

23.

will be investigated

in detail

When we turn to Classical

that

observed

im Mycenaean,

constructions merely

Greek,

The

case

in Section B below.

we find a situation very like endings

discriminate between

of NP's

different

in local

senses

of the

same preposition (e.g. Cw! + dative = 'on', + accusative a 'onto'/ 'over'/eto,), one

case,

function WP,'s

are entirely at best

redundant,

as determinants

ean mo longer

is rather latter,

or, where the preposition may be followed by only In other words, of prepositions,

ocour freely without

conditioned by the presence

as the head of its phrase,

support.

case

Their appearance

of a preposition,

is always

endings

and adverbial

so that

the

positionally bound

to

“Ἰἰμμ»

its NP.

Thus

it is clear

category

split

contingent

of partioles

that

we are dealing

upon the loss

and the development

with

a case of

of independent

of a dependent

adverbial uses

status for WP," Be

While in Homer there is a single category, partigle, whose members may be inserted

into Phrase Markers before

an adverbial noun

phrase

or before a verb, we now have two separate categories, preposition and yerb partiole.

The lack of such ἃ distinotion in Homer is

demonstrated by the fact simultaneously

qualify

particle

in pre-NP,

a change

of functions

moved to pre-direot whether

because

a case

nuclear

similarly, object

of positioning

prepositional

ending and complement

position may be moved

it is basically

the facts

that,

or initial

prepositional reflect

the verb,

to pre-V

any pre-verbel

partioles a

position without

particle may be

positions,

regardless

or adverbial,

the unity of the

of

In other words, category

and

the syntactio autonomy of particles vis-a-vis adverbial noun phrases and verbs,

In Classical

distinotion between & true

category

because

case

Verb

phrases make

ending,

to stand

particles

clear:

prepositions

the subcategory

particles

has become

and verb

partioles,

appearing before NP, beoause

and the of their

latter

always

syntactic

as verb

of the dependency

appearing before V

autonomy

and their

in isolation when not governing

do not govern

function

this

and adverbial

distinction between

of the loss

inability

on the other hand,

prepositional

the former now always of the

Greek,

a noun

0230344 and only whole

complements,

Some

examples

consequent phrase,

prepositional will help

to

«1..5-

ἀπέδρωσων

εἰς Khe ξομενώς,

ἐκ “δεν

εἰς Ἑλλήδηποντον

The appearance

of prepositions

(Xenophon, Hell, I.1.10) ét m

.

in local

(Xenophon, Hell, 1.1.2)

constructions

obligatory (except for certain place names).

is now

Verbs may have

locational /directional complements consisting of a verb particle, but

this is never

In other words,

the result

of movement

such partioles

is demonstrated by the second

from some other position,

originate exemple,

in pre-V position, Whereas

This

in Homer a single

ooourrenoe of £/s in one or other position would have been the norm, in Classical Greek we find both a verb even where only,

these

whereas

Homeric

qualify a case

or clause

initially

differentiation olassified

as prepositions

pertioles,

the

single, domain

rules

undifferentiated, of application

Once

consequence

in pre-Y

which

the direct

object

of the categorial position

position

simply make

redundant,

of the

to stand

in pre-NP,

category partiole,

and become

The loss

partioles

items

and items

concerned,

simultaneously

to stand before

is an automatio

of particles.

and a preposition, each bas one function

the verb,

allowing pre-NP,

and pre-V particles

— i.e.

particles

and complement

rules

particle

identical

prepositional

ending

transformational pre-verbally

are formally

are

as verb

reference

are

deprived

The

loss

to the

of their

would

presumably be gradual, since the rules would remain functional until In the

such

time as the reclassification

case of prepositions,

of particle was

the reclassification

complete.

depends

upon the

“1.μ6.

shift once head, verb

of the functional this

has

place we have

the preposition, partioles,

similarly

as we have

δὲ

the

case

to the particle;

ἃ prepositional

seen,

the possibility

phrase whose In the

of autonomy

particles has disappeared,

case of

of tmesis

and tbe only order of elements

ἀπέπλενιωιν.

the model

ending

cannot be removed by rule.

disappears,

A» vaso:

Sinoe

taken

load from

is P 4 V:

(Xenophon, Hell. 1.1.7)

provided by independent

uses

of

any non-prepositional partiole (i.e.

any partiole not governing an overt noun phrese) must now appear pre-verbally. combinations

As

suggested

of particle

earlier,

and verb

it

seems

(whether

that all

the

such

particle

is part

of

a phrasal verb or ἃ locational/directional complement) were reanalysed

as compounds by the

formation (cf. Aronoff, & secondary function

detail).

tend to fix verb

particles

the process

evidenoe

syntactio

rules

for the

circumstances,

Once

adverbial

is discussed

of tmesis

to operate

of reanalysis

discreteness the elements

om,

uses

in pre-verbal

there would no longer be a separate rules

of compound verb

2, where the possibility of such

formation

of independent

would facilitate

such

ch,

rules

in some

This would render verb particles immune to separation.

The disappearance would

1976,

for word

existing

of partioles position,

since

there

of particle were

actually

category

and this would be no

and verb

18

compounded,

particle

for the

and these would disappear.

-th7=

2%.

— If all

compounds

combinations

of partiole

in Classical Greek,

and verb

we have

are

in fact

a simplification

process

in

which three types of particle-verb construction in Homer (besio, transformationally derived and compound) The attested process

history

are reduced to one (compound).

of Greek illustrates

of development beginning

the latter

part of a

with transformationally

derived

partiole-verb oollocoations (independent complement adverbs moved optionally to pre-verbal position),

passing through a stage in which

these become inoreasingly bcund to the verb (as in Homer), and ending

up in a situation

in which

(as probably in Mycenaean, The transformationally

they are all

treated

as compounds

and almost certainly in Classical Greek).

derived

particle-verb

combinations

of

Homeric Greek (where nuclear prepositional particles are moved to pre-verbal position) are a very temporary phenomenon resulting from the inoomplete

differentiation

(case-governors) process

also

and verb particles,

is complete,

disappears.

disappears

once these

compound verbs,

in the

combinations

development

are

analysed

attested in Homer

analysis

above.

combinations in tmesis

part of

Notice finally, I,

of development

that tmesis of partiole

and by the stage

the pre-verbal one,

a

of Chapter

early indeed,

as the basic

particles

as forming

discussed

The process

begins very

particles must be taken

‘transformational’

of placing verb

aynchronic

in Homer.

Once the reclassification

forming

for the reasons

really is tmesis verb

the rule

The possibility

as was implied

of partioles into prepositions

of

position for adverbial

This

conflicts with

the

el

traditional

view that

in the Homeric language, 25

such combinations

poems,

but is well

Perhaps

are derived

and not basic

supported by the facts

the most interesting

conolusion

of the

to come

out

of this historical analysis is that Mycenaean end Classical Greek are very much

alike in the matter

prepositions

and verb

and reflected

partioles.

very olosely

in Homer,

was termed ‘stage 3)" above. Greek

which had long

ego disappeared

The

1.

Antiquity

Since

argued

on

poens

that

from

the the

should have

of

the

basis

of

the Greek

towns

the directness

the Mycenaean Age, development

retained

everyday

Epio

Tredition;

Mycenaean

poetio

of the Epic

from pIB,

towards

the Dark Age,

down

and eighth

such

what

existed,

of ayntax

language.

Some

New

Evidence,

of scholars in

the

have

Homeric

ren continuously to the

singers

centuries, ^*

the narrative

in Greece has been

fhus Shipp (1961), for exemple,

rules

survivals

tradition

connection between

if indeed

archaio

the

in the ninth

of the

evolved

from

supposed

through

rapidly

of

inherited

of Linear B a number

legendary

the Bronse Age,

of the Ionien

Greek

decipherment

situation

We must now turn to the question

of why Homeric

Bi

of the distribution The

and the called

However,

poetry of

subsequent into

question.

argues that most of the items listed

by Chadwick (1958) as Mycenaean elements in the Homerio dialect in

2149-

fact

left

their mark,

than

that

of the Epio,

in post-Mycensaean poetical been

ἃ series

from

by Kirk,

poems,

handling They

the Bronse Age.

of publications,

Homeric

enable

Consider

oriteria

certain

less

than

elements

into

Bronse Age

poetry.

Mycenaean nothing Epic

words

- sinoe

still

in the

The

not

that

that this

available,

post-Myoenaean

require

quality further

the

careful

as having

existed

prove

that

study,

but

relatively

seems early

great

of the Dark Age

emphasis

and linguistic

not necessarily the Dark Age

in a more

is placed upon recent work:

these

to be in the in

information

in poetical

form,

in fact."

(Kirk, 1960, p. 205) Similarly,

as

of late

is directly Mycenaean

oultural

period,

in

of detectable

they belong tradition

a direct

for thea,

tradition by the medium

requires

certain Mycenaean

have been

early

Epic

it shows

within

but do not necessarily

formular

in Homer

unusual;

tradition,

origin must

the Ionian

through

quotations:

claimed

to be recognised

tradition

forcefully

elements

and language,

this

other

conclusion has

the following

is generally

early as the late Bronse Age, all passed

than

his views

for dating

of Greek

entered

A similar

expressed

namely archaeology

and reveal

on forms

and in some other way

who has

"The two objective

at least,

and so could well have

times

ourrent

reached

for a time

the

poetical

creativity

«1

"What I have Mycenaean Greek

epio

poetry

tried

period

to do is to rehabilitate

as a possible

tradition,

The

cannot be rejected

strongest

argument

go back

possibility and

some

still of

played

preoarious

the

Dark

Age

interrupted;

even

been

campaign

obsolete

narrative

tradition.

that

communal

life

oral

The

formulas

prominent

the was

early

not

aware...that

composition

in the isolation

that

Certainly

about which

however,

to remain

in the

hexaneter

How

is something

At least,

then for informal

as the heroic

the dactylio

tradition,

signs

important

narrative

way in the

to conjecture.

particularly

of Mycenaean

in apparently

and it is important

opportunities

early postphases

that

therein by poetry

reveals

the

for important

should not be undervalued.

considerable

there was a strong Mycenaean & part was

setting

for it is still

appears fully-developed must

δ0.»

it is part

entirely

there were

- which may have

of the Trojan

endeavour par excellence

- even outside

Athens."

(Kirk, 1976, p. 39) The

kind

purpose

that

before, part

of

there

this

section

was

dactylic

the Myoenaean

in the lator

retention

of archaisms

Mycenaean.

If this

set of facts,

then

period,

development which

is

to

provide

poetry

during,

and that

this

of the Epic, have

likelihood

of all

of

a new

and probably

even

did play an important thus

already been

can be demonstrated the

evidence

explaining eliminated

successfully for the other

the from

one

supposed

«151-

Myoenaean poetic

survivals

tradition

emphasised

that

the

importance

for

the Epic,

again in

2,

actually having

is greatly this

Epio

that

seriously

first

consider

for demonstrably

Kirk's

a continuous

however, thesis

of radical

the Bronse Age

as a setting

experts

that there was

considerably

than

the

question

inherited

agreed by most

period

It should,

of the Dark Age as a period but it does mean

through

be

concerning

development

too has

onoe

for important

phases

tradition.

We must

descent

increased.

in no way undermines

to be considered

the

descended

features.

in the field less

In fact

lines

in the

dialectology

diversity

Classical

it seems

of

It is now generally

of ancient Greek

dialectal

the array of dialeots

lead us to suppose. 25

of possible

that

there

in the Mycenaean

period might were

only two

basic dialect types, an Bast Greek one (namely Mycenaean)

and a

West Greek one (for which there is some evidence in ἃ handful of lexical alternations in the extant Linear B tablets). uniformity

of the Linear B material,

chronological

and geographical

All

the

evidenoe

are

post-Myoenaean

admixture period

points

likely

to the fact

of East and West

only Aroado-Cypriot to be more

soatter,

developments

of breakdown

Greek

or less

direct

that most

quite

from various

following ‘purer’

descendants

remarkable,

of the later

characteristios

of the

its wide

is in fact

resulting

and migration and some

considering

The

degrees

in the

of the

of

confused

the Myoenaean Dorian

dialects

collapse;

dialects dialects

are of the

“152.

Mycenaean

period

itself,

inherited

feature

turns

This means

that

if some

up in Homer,

that

feature must have

down via an East Greek line of descent,

demonstrably come

(since there is little

or no evidence for West Greek features in Homer); but there was only one Bast Greek

dialeot

determine

from

the

inherited

features which have

oan only have

in the late Bronse Age as far as we oan

existing

entered

evidence,

namely Mycenaean.

already

the Epic

disappeared

tradition

Thus

in Mycenaean

at a time when

th@were

ourrent in East Greek (i.e. in & period prior to that of the tablets),

and have been carried down to the Dark Age vie that

tradition (presumably beoause of their inherent usefulness in terms of compositional technique in the special language of the Epic). There

is no plausible

features dialeot

since before was Mycenaean

and the development the Epio. descent,

Shipp's would

dialectal

no

evidence,

ὅς

post-Mycenaean

the Mycenaean itself,

of West view,

source

there

were

if there

eliminated

in the Mycenaean

some

them,

on the history

alternative were

for such

the only East Greek

Greek has no bearing

that

diversity

break-up

whioh had elresdy

only be tenable

greater such

non-poetio

lines

evidence

period;

but

for there

With this in mind, we can turn to the evidence provided by

the distribution

of adverbial

possibility

of placing

but,

as

as

far

we

can

these

particles, in tmesis

determine,

this

As we have is an inherited

option

has

seen,

the

feature;

already

of

of

been

is

-155-

eliminated

from

while being

preserved

of feature

a feature

of

the

long after

plausible

non-poetio

tradition

in

of this

its

loss

source

for the

that

1ts

retention

many

aspects

construction

of the language

and analytically

the

into

the

elementary

studies This

have

there

this

was

the

of extension

of

of

retained

is certainly

reasons

the fact

absolutely

no

entered

the

verse.

that

are

It was

the

concepts

of formulaic

discuss

verbal

and economy.

the option

for

One

the

stereotyping

most

fron is that of

(1968).

area

that

of the of

to emerge

the familiar

systems

to olaim

produot

Thus for

so

of formula

composition

this

to

in fact

It 15 nothing new

of Homer

useful

for the preservation

fundamental

and development

surprising,

degree

placing

been

oould have

in a fixed metre. 27

of formulas

is not

a remarkable

properties

(i.e,

techniques

at ἃ time when

and

flexible formula as developed by Hainsworth

groups, ^P shows

that

was guaranteed,

interesting

tradition

elsewhere;

in dactylio

of composition

sort

times.

in tmesís

requirements

the

The

the

from which

is precisely

vintage,

language

syntax have to do with

particles

art of composition

researoh

then,

entered

ordinary

post-Mycenaean

archaic

important

of the Linear B tablets,

This,

It can now be demonstrated

of placing the

in Homer.

in tmesis must have

was

in the Epic

4h.

language

which must be of pre-Myoenaean

particles this

the everyday

name

Most + epithet

of vocabulary and

exceptional

each formula

grouping of expressions of a particular metrical shape)

type

there

«15.»

are

large

numbers

of

names

plus

epithets,

and

in

each

formula

system (i.e. groups of expressions of the same or similar sense but varying in shape) with

a minimum

of duplication.

reourrent notions system

the bard

of formulas

contingenoies,

Epic

reveals

exceptional. unique, ^

that

a

In fact, they

development

in which

participate,

This high

the name

plus

represent

the

point

oocurrence

but rather

system, Thus

random

collocations

into

regular verbal

name

plus

and metrical

variety which

and & broad

coverage

of the less

developed

automatic be able

coverage

that

display

of required metrical

to manipulate

his material

are

practically

only begun

suggests

The more

of to

on an that

a formula

frequent

the assooiated

its verbal

development, little

evidence

clearly,

with lower shapes,

should

formula

ranging

of the

expression in the

degrees

the bard

an already

from

of falling

to collocations

Now

the

realisation.

rigid verbal

shapes.

systems,

quite

of a particular metrical

patterns,

of metrical formula

show

the

in ἃ process

have

of ideas.

of formulaic

is

of

its attainment

extended becomes

of items

groups

Hainsworth

of words

language

coverage

end point

stereotyped becomes

is a continuum

epithet

group

the more

and the more

there

rate.

the

epithet

for

constrained

all metrical

of

systems

depends

an association

idea association,

almost

of automatic

other formula

end

that for the most

a tightly

examination

degree

is not merely a repeated shape,

to oover

closer

this

This means

had available

designed

But

in that

exceedingly

there is & wide range of metrioal shapes

case

of had to

available

-155-

shape be inappropriate for

example,

to a particular metrical

be able

to change

the case

of a formula,

prepositional

particle,

make

just

and metre

dictate.

Hence

a regular

association

as sense

flexible

formula

as ἃ fairly

“ i.e.

regular

set of lexical

for contextual modification, the line,

by expansion,

by division

slots, ^)

5,

this

With

in tmesis,

in mind,

The

or shorter,

of tears’

in Homer,

and it is interesting

expressed

in

of

of the

of ideas verbalised always

allows

whether by a shift of position

parts

to the

is something

to observe

contexts,

in

with another formula,

let us now return

a variety

add a

the development

of the resultant

‘shedding

He must,

and so on,

items but which

hy conflation

and location

metrical

it longer

context.

In

or

in discrete

question

of particles

of a commonplace

how this notion

the

following

is

list

numbers

1) - vi) have & nominative masculine singular participle, vii) - ix) en accusative masculine singular participle, x) and xi) a nominative masculine plural participle, xii) - xv) a feminine singular participle,

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formula;

type,

is that we have

formi ^!

yt

καὶ

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as a participial

is an ad hoc modification important

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κατὰ ΚΎΆΤῳ

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the beginnings

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all the variants

are

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feble 15, 1

2

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ol

i

Clearly involved

& certain here,

but

degree

of verbal

nevertheless

stereotyping

& number

of

the

is already variants

(e.g.

Sw’ Sfpvs) in 444) and 75pev in xii) ) have the appearance of

-158-

being

special

developments

is charaoteristio stereotypes

of such partially

do not

oover all

necessary flexibility movement

&rosep

of the formula's

χέονδαι

by

position

in the first

three feet,

by a shift

direct

objeot,

also

provides

since

adjective, allowing

of the modification that

language

this fact

of the Bpic

fundamental that

the

in e large number following

is to say,

alone

long after

such as

and

In the

so on,

is that

particle before the basic

the

formula but

in the form of

the usefulness in tmesis,

of formula

its loss

θερμὰ

of position

systems,

elsewhere,

of the

in the context

explains why it was retained

was

80

in the

The

of this rule is oonfirmed by the fact

patterns

which

of developing

examples:

to stand

and development

importance

structural

That

if need

δώκρνε

of modification

only extends

particles

by

It is not

such

the basis for further modification

ancient

great

type

of an adverbial

this not

ἃ 'preposed! rule

elements

The

and by the addition

form,

and third feet,

the most important the presence

alternation,

as

of

involves

ground.

extended

combination

which

the

could be further

a new

context

of course,

systems;

in the line,

to the basic

system

διίκρυ xéovr(«) in the second present

developed

This,

the necessary metrical

elements

to see how this

e.g.

the context.

is achieved by lexical

of various modifying difficult

to suit

it defines

formula

are deeply

systems,

embedded

Consider

the

Sable 16, 1

2

3

,,

5

Ils [ —fo | 6].

—— [^

Με]

__ jaa | [|οἱδ

AA, AS

AL

en].

»9|

ὦ

ό ^^l..

«a

02 λύννο δὲ] γνῖα

e.

θεν $i

δὲ guia

75,

yov

(1341)

7.

80

n go)

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/ Tw δ᾽ ὑπὸ y"

| (77808)

| (E50

Nd

(4 6)

E

x

>”

£nt|Avvro

(4/16)

The third and fourth examples here (//805 and 2. 31) illustrate the importance

(paragraph 6).

of the permutation

rule

discussed

in Section A

Again we must assume that the retention of

postverbs (in a restricted way as governed by the operation of the permutation rule) is a direct consequence of their importance

in terms

developing

old ones.

examples rule

of constructing new formula

illustrating

placing

adverbial

Finally we may provide the importance particles

of the

in tmesis:

systems

and

one more

set of

retention

of the

‘

-160-

Table

1

1

“BA he] 8) teat anf a 2

3

4

5

A

Ay Δ, Ay

AY

B. 82

1.0 ξκαιδν

( 7397)

Kei) μηρί

Bena

(© 240)

ἐπὶ

ye!

€Kalsov

(y 9)

Bo óv

ἔπ

JA P!

f^ ov

ἔνι! yp

(pepe

(βοῦν

Tod

5 Boss

δῆος

Jemen

ἔκαιον

ppp

ἔκνγε

πολλὴ dz |y"

ἔκηε

πίον

Shere

' én

μιηρῖ > Ya 701

In each to

stand

6

A

4)

in tmesis

δημὸν

empl

κατὰ)

puer

πίονα

ἔ

^

av

(x 336)

ȣv

(X170)

€ Kad

(A40)

ἔμκηξν

( § 764) (ι 153)

|

(021) (y 273) be es

£x »ye

cases

ampi?

κατὰ | πίονα

af

of the three

μένα.)

f*

i

wy

considered,

is crucial

to the

(A773) as

2

΄σι

yov

TE

7

the rule allowing satisfactory

(Ω 534)

To

particles

development

of

«161-

the formula

system

concerned.

from one generation their repertoire since

and

of bards

since

pert

we must

Since

certainly

disappeared from

that dactylic

in the Bronse Age oultural

have been neither preservation pre-direot seen,

tradition,

the motivation

of the ancient

poetry did

for adverbial

is no plausible

post-Mycenaean

there

no plausible

alternative

indeed play a there would

to ensure

the

alternation between pre-verbal

object positions

line

of descent

prose due

techniques

Otherwise

nor the means

particles.

and

As we have

source because

there is

for them from Common

Greek down to the Dark Age.

6. the

This flexibility of particle positioning 1s not, of course, only example

of features

language while being Consider,

{1857

1X

preserved

require

in the

extinot

poetic

in the

language

everyday

of the Epic.

for example:

363

λιποῦσ᾽

(ale

The form

which became

av δρότηγτω a light

ὧν

δρότητω

a

ED

is metrically

initial

syllable.

καιὶ

ἥβην.

al_

Ὁ

anomalous, The form

in

feature,

is clearly

compositional

down

element

the Mycenaean

in the Epic

certain basic

conclude

as en essential

it is an inherited

its preservation

to the need to maintain intact,

rule must have been handed

to the next

of skills.

it has almost

language,

This

since we clearly is presumably

related

2162-

to ἀνήρ, and so derives from *aro- or *nr-.

The former should

give «po-, which is metrically correct, but would be isolated

and so subject to anslogical substitution by «vóo-, as in av Sper , eto.

The latter could, at an early stage, have given

&vp-, with ayllabio -r- retained (cf. Sanskrit nrgu «= ἀν οὐ €! Ρ, whioh

thus would also permit

light;

the subsequent

consonant «ὁ, formula

even

of whether disputed,

earlier

syllabic

existence

acoept

of Bronse Age

phenomena

poetry.

established

the

simplest

surely

that

the ninth Although

these

and

As with

the

implies

a state

preserved

likely

dactylio

otherwise

eighth

of linguistic

though

the

in Mycenaean

that we must

accept

we have no account vintage

question

is

the

of how

survive.

embedded

If we must

poetry in the Mycenaean Age

explanation

the

turn up in Dark

they are deeply

that they

of dactylio

of the apparent

lexical

and

reflexes

as discussed by Chadwick (1958), is carried

centuries

the possibility

oase of vert

poetry if we are to explain

tradition

too were

of the

that it had already developed

of pre-Myoenaean

of Mycenaean words in Homer,

and of the glide

that of Myoenaesn;

still

to remain

to the fixation

It oan only be because

the existence

earlier,

than

-r- was

satisfactorily;

in a long

solution

So once again it seems

linguistic Age Bpio

subsequent

it is perhaps most

to -ro-,"*

facts

this

syllable

of -p- to som,

the word ooours.

in tmesis,

development

development

would then be

in which

particles

the preceding

down

through

in a direot

of some

the Derk Age

poetical

at least of these

to

current. items

entering

«165

the tradition exoluded,

in post-Mycenaean

such ἃ hypothesis

complication.

I conolude,

evidence for Bronse Age Shipp must

be

resolved

in

therefore,

daotylic

controveray mentioned now

times

cannot be conpletely

surely represents that

poetry,

there

and that

at the beginning

favour

of

the

an unnecessary

former.

is compelling the Chadwick=

of this

section

-16l-

FOOTNOTES,

1

All

Veda.

the Vedic

examples

Translations

of the

in this

section

examples

come from

the Rig

in Table 8 are as follows:

"they bring...to you’ 'I have brought...to

him‘

"they

are brought forth...to you’

"they

drive

πο

bring

off,..adversaries'

forth...to you'

Translations:

*they

see into

evil’

'(and) he knows the sacrifice 'I wish you these proferred

2

(words)'

Translations:

ἮΙ have

driven

away

a devoted

wife!

*she has put on all glories’

‘irresistible, ‘who has

he wins (together)

propped

apart

the

ends

wealth’ of the

earth

with might’

-165-

M

See paragraph

5

priedrich (1960, Vol, I, p. 129) observes:

Postpositionen, outlining

nicht Prüpositionen."

the Vedio

prepositions

6

20 below for further

(sic)

position, follow,

discussion.

MacDonnell (1916, p. 208),

comments:

but

also

“Das Hethitische hat

"As ἃ rule

often preoede,

these their

case."

E.ge Lejeune (1958), Householder (1959, 1972), Ilievski (1961),

Morpurgo-Davies (1966), and Ventria/Chadwick (1974, p. 90). 7.

wg. in PY Ad 380, pu-ro could be a rubrio in the nominative.

8

In PY Tn 316.2, it might just be allative.

9

The

question

of pa-ro

taken up in paragraph

10

The view

preposition

that

this

and its

cases

is problematical,

and is

18 below.

represents

an example

has been attacked by Bader

"La Subordination en Mycénien'

of an

in & paper

'infixed' entitled

presented to the Colloquium

on Mycenaean Studies held at Neuchatel in 1975, principally on the grounds

that

little material

the order of elements to work with

is

‘unnatural’.

it is difficult

to make

With

so

any serious

-166-

Judgement, is

but

the parallelism with

the very

common Homeric

type

striking.

1

See

especially

the Householder / Morpurgo-Davies

debate

(works oited in note 6).

12

Morpurgo-Devies (1966)

of a fully-fledged I disagree

rejects, I think rightly, the possibility

instrumental-ablative

with her conclusion

was δ general

proto-Greek

case

in Mycenaean,

that ablative-genitive

feature,

The assumption

synoretism (followed by a dat.-loo.-inst.-abl,

though

synoretism

of an inst.-abl.

synoretism), made

also by Householder (1959), explains the apparent dat,.-abl, aynoretisa Myoenaean adopted

in Aroado-Cypriot, and is probably

Greek feature, as part

construct

simplification,

case,

shifted

and

case.

constructions

the

There

ablative

are

all attested

in late

be

due to external

which

Greek process to

drop

of

in related

after

syncretism

or to the

support

of prepositional

gen.

as

a prepositional

prepositions

this

from Tegea, influence

constructions

as

that Arcadian

non-prepositional

might

inscriptions

influence

the

to

The alternative,

abl.-gen.

the assumption

function

a number

is very close

descendant.

accepting

tended

in Aroadian

as used

of

of the general

are

genitive

closest

involves

speakers,

dative

its

by Morpurgo-Davies,

a Common

since Aro.-Cyp.

to

the

ab1l,.-gen.

view.

But

and could

these

easily

of the partitive

(see Householder,

1959,

for details). to

choose

facts

With so little evidence to hand it is difficult

between

which

dat.-abl.

the

tend

to

oompeting

support

syncretism.

the

theories,

but

view

we

that

Since Arc.-Cyp.

retains

certain prepositions (5:4, wvr/ , κατ, e.g.

Attic,

oases number

the most natural

is original. of cases

be excluded,

explanation

Why in a general

used after

later generation

are

some

dealing

the gen,

with

after

£v) ), in line with is that the gen.

process

prepositions

and only abl.-gens.

there are

in these

of reducing

should just

the

these

be expressed by the dat.?

of Aroadians was not

capable

of making

gens. A

such fine

distinctions; in attempting to write the Doric Xo/v»), the author of the following

substituted

gens.

ἐπὶ AeyMotes 4Uv DtqoGv. In any case

the

construct

simplification of the

all the other

15

$

This

0

7 187

offers

simplification

dialects,

is optional

in Homer:

Asa vov ...

Emto

7ροΐνν δε...

64€

indiscriminately:

(BMC.H., 1915, p. 467)

explanation based

direction

for dats.

on the

effects

no account in Arc.-Cyp.

of prepositional

of the peculiar in comparison

with

-168-

1h Mera and esa than Mycenaean, but

are mutually exclusive in all dialects other Possibly Mycenaean

in any case

the document

is a conflation

in question makes

of two dialects;

little

sense,

and

it has been suggested to me by J, Chadwick (personal communication) that

15

it may

even be & writing

exercise.

cf. Ventris/Chadwick (1974, p. 90):

prepositions

is already

complete,

"The development of

as might be expected

from

comparative evidence,"

16

The apparent gen, at Cn 45.6 (do-ro-jo-jo)

of dittography, be genitive,

since

no other

and there

are

entry

is certainly a case

on the tablet

clear dat.-locs.

can

possibly

in -e.

17 see Morpurgo-Davies (1966) for details, 18

It should be noted,

gens.

13

and

connectives

however,

may

that,

intervene,

PY Ae 134

o-pi ta-ra-ma-(ta-)o

PY Ep 613

e-pi-qe

ot.X254

pera

to-me

δ: Qu

as in Homer, For

possessive

example:

qe-to-ro-po-pi

o-ro-me-no

te-re-pi- [ke]

ποδώκης

ewer’ Ἀχιλλεύς.

-169-

70 Pe-da may mean 'to(wards)', of. Ventris/Chadwick (1974, p. 569). Though

see note 1h.

21

1 em grateful to Jobn Chadwick for examining this dooument

for

me.

22

The

which

exceptions

to this principle

in Classical

preposition they are, rules;

Greek

and a verb,

of course,

it is not the

pre-NP,

»7

2

o1oSs TEs

all prepositional

seem to be genuine usually with

the result case

to pre-V position

al

£T)

are

gone

that

compounds

a speoial

sense,

of the operation the particle

as in Homer,

Sugyryvec Da 5

verbs,

of ἃ As

compounds

of word formation

is moved from

As an example,

(Plato,

Rep.,

consider:

3290)

(= *make love to*)

25

Cf.

Stanford

(1959,

is so far misleading been

p.

lxxv):

that it seems

"The

tera

to imply

TLYOS » severance, that

a compound verb

has

divided."

2h gig. Chadwick (1958), Durante (1958, 1960, 1962), Householder/ Nagy (1972, pp. 19-23), Page (1959, ch. 6), Pagliaro (1970), Puhvel

(196%),

Ruijgh

(1957).

25

cs. 6.1. Risoh (1955), Chadwick (1956), and more recently,

Gercía-Ramón (1975).

26

Cf. Chadwick (1976).

27

I assume

the the basio

correctness

of the Parry-Lord

theory

of oral composition without further comment (see e.g. Parry,

1928, 1932; Lord, 1960).

26

This formed

the centrepiece

of Parry's

early work,

taken up, for example, by Kirk (1962, pp. 59-68). specialist

work has

tried

in more general terms;

to explain

1968)

the techniques

Bpithets

objects,

of composition

Hainsworth's approach

is particularly valuable from the point of view

of the present

23

More recent

6.8. Notopoulos (1964), Hoekstra (1965),

Kirk (1966), Russo (1966), Nagler (1974). (1962,

and is

work,

are,

and

of course,

there

are

Tov

δ᾽ crews

Tov

&’ peer’

τὸν

Ó6 ὠὐτε

4^

highly

many

βόμενος

fixed

Tos

Pra /

τροδέενσε.

standardised

verb-form

hy.

for many familiar

expressions

such

as:

«ἵ 71.

J0 ce, Hainsworth (1968, pp. 62-9, 77-9, 92-8). J!

e tetracolonio division of the line is that of Prünkel

(1955/1960,

pp.

fit naturally

22

100-156).

into

Qn the question

The

one or more

elements cola,

of this formula

of these

formula

systems

as expected.

see Allen

(1973,

pp.

215-6).

On the reflexes of original -p- in Mycenaean see Ruijgh (1970) and Heubeck (1970/1972).

-172-

Δι. Intpoduotion,, 1.

After first discussing

general

spatial

and tempore)

relations

terms in Section B, I shall be concerned

C and D below with partioles

the

in Homeric

spatial

Greek,

and temporal

in

in Sections

uses of prepositional

In Section B I discuss

the

senses

of

the adverbial particles ws and ἐν

as used in phrasal and compound

verbs,

though

and I try to show that these,

character,

bear a close

relationship

senses when used as prepositional study of adverbial uses

of prepositional

but a basic

are beyond

framework

for further

The approach

particles.

adopted

A more

and an examination

particles

descriptive

the foundation

2,

partioles

‘abstract’

in

to their literal

the

spatial extensive

of the scope

of this work,

is established which

that

is to

into more we have

I employ say,

I assume

elementary

a very

the

in this

technique that

between

if we analyse

the

the

components

straightforward

relationships

different

sense

provides

study and analysis.

chapter

owes its

inspiration

to the work of Bennett (1975) on English prepositions, particuler,

‘developed’

of componential senses

of words

of meaning.

vocabulary

of the word kill

analysis; oan be analysed

If this

way of expressing items.

as:

In

the

is done, semantic

For

example,

«17»

(CAUSE(BECONE(NOT(ALIYE x))))! (informally = *cause x to become not alive’),

and if we assume that

die is analysed as:

(BECOME(NOT(ALIVE

x)))

then we automatically have an account

John killed Bill,

The

fact

clause

the

second

source

of the

contains

contradiction

the negation

sense 1s contained in the sense of kill. sentence course,

simultaneously componential

it simply makes and provides that

camot

consistently

analysis.

analysis

conjoining

In other words,

and denies

that Bill died.

does not actually

assert

a test for the

with

but

the first

correctness

If the negative

element

for

of

lies

two

explain

the Of

anything,

to be the case,

expressing

the facts.

sentences,

and deny the

of a proposed

in the

of a word whose

explicit what we know intuitively

Notice

us with

asserts

ἃ clear formal machinery the

that:

but Bild did not die.

is a contradiction, that

of the fact

such

second,

that

one

provides

componential

is removed from

the

second

clause in the sentence above, this is then an enteilmept of the first clauses

i.e, in asserting the first (John killed Bill), we

necessarily commit ourselves to the truth of the second (Bill died).

εἴγῳ-

Thus the

1f we oonstruct second

ἃ conjunction

is a denial

of two sentences,

of one of the

entailments

such that

of the first,

and if (apart from the negative)

the two sentences differ only

in one key word,

that

we may

conolude

in the

second is contained

Taking

& very

sense part

in the

simple English

the

sense

example,

the fact

that

suppose

and that this

of the preposition in.

the

of the key word

of the key word

we might

of the preposition at is LOCATIVE of the sense

sense

1n the first. that

the

is also

This is confirmed by

sentence:

John is in the churoh,

is contradictory.

The

but John

components

is not at the church,

used

in the following

seotions

oan all be checked by this test (though it is not claimed for any of these a finer

that

they

analysis

In analysing

are

semantically

is possible,

the meanings

I set up five basic

‘primitive’

though

for our purposes,

of Homeric

semantic

- in all probability

prepositional

unnecessary),

particles,

components:

LOCATIVE, SOURCE, PATH, GOAL, EXTENT.

Other

components,

introduced

3,

Before

as

the

with

acoompanying

discussion

passing

definitions,

will be

prooeeds,

on to the Homeric

material,

it is necessary

-175-

to outline

the position

taken

on the question

of polysemy.

In his

discussion of the uses of English prepositions Bennett (1975) observes:

"Por almost in the number

any preposition of sense

there

is considerable

listed by the different

disorepanay

dictionaries." (1975,

But

in fact he suggests

than

is often

as opposed

supposed.

to genuine

that

the incidence

In the first place polysemy

p.

of polysemy cases

5)

is far less

of vagueness

can be eliminated.

As Weinreich

observes:

"Most dictionaries at the

expense

vastly

of vagueness

exaggerate

the incidence

or generality." (1966,

Bennett suggests that Lindkvist (1950), for example, of identifying

polysemy where none

motion reaching a goal

44) motion entering into the interior of an object.

He notes

Pe

203)

is guilty

exists when he sets up two

senses for the preposition to:

4)

of polyseay

that it would be appropriate

to say:

-176-

John has

gone

to the

study and

even 17 one were

inside

the

it is not necessary

study,

Thus

and the

so has James,

part

it

is

who visit, mixed the

case

that

for

are

is genuinely

of the

More

sort

importantly,

contexts

itself, depends meaning.

in the

and

same

both

so does Max.

Mary

and

Max

like

to visit

relatives

relatives;

impossible,

and we may conclude

ambiguous,

In what follows

disoussed

Only

are not viewed

that

cases

of

as constituting

polyseny.

reduced by attributing the

either

to

example:

or that both Mary and Max like

sentence

evidence

For

relatives,

interpretations

vagueness

lk.

involved.

visiting

the

according

of such a sentence mustbe interpreted

way is ambiguity

of sentence

is a mark of vagueness rather than ambiguity.

Here

and this,

of the

in exactly

Mary likes

way,

each

entrance

Lakoff (1970),

two parts

same

that

at the

be interpreted

if the

the

other merely

the amount certain

of occurrence

The demonstration crucially

upon

Bennett's

the

account

of polysemy

apparent

of an item that

this

differenoes rather

is both

componential is worth

oan further be

than

to the

possible

analysis

quoting

of meaning item

and correct

of lexical

in full:

to

«177.

"Let us senses,

suppose

that

some

lexeme L seems

Initially we represent

tb

the facts

to have

two distinot

as:

[s, Y 5]

(2)

- in which g stands for sense and Y means ‘or’... We can then carry out ἃ componential of the reach 04»

analysis

set of contrasts the

conclusion

95 and 55

of the two

the lexeme

enters

(we will assume)

whereas

8. contains

on the basis

into in each

that

64»

senses,

5,

oontains

95 and o e

case,

and

the components

We therefore

replace (2) first of 411 by:

L

[(e, * 0, * o)

- in which o. are

ἃ raised

present

economical lexeme,

L

[o,

instead

‘and’.

in L whichever

of the

of (3).

So far,

only in L but

lexeme

Since sense

only once

the components ocours,

in stating

* 0, * (o; v e,)]

the meaning

nothing

the meaning

the

that L appears

that we have of polysemy B4»

and

it is more the meaning

of the

Bo»

the component

analysis

oontaining

appears

to have

o,

lexeme;

a situation

there

can be

simplified.

8,

Cx,

environment

in the

and

3

is present and that when

is an obvious

is the meaning

environment

8, is the meaning

of ἃ lexemo

Suppose

in some neighbouring

In such

the component

in the

recognised...

o, 4 is present

to have when it oocurs

lexeme

done has brought

the component

also in some neighbouring

as well as in L.

way in whioh

e

(4)

in the amount

that whenever L has not

to them

(5)

us:

about a reduction

L has

(ο, © 0, ° .,)}

dot means

to refer

giving

V

containing

of a 11 0e

-178-

Since A

we are

in the

in any case

environment

as containing

recognising

of L,

a distinction between

it is unnecessary

either 9; or 0,

Thus we

9; and

to regard L itself

eliminate

the disjunction

from (4) and are left with: L

e,

. e^]

(5)

L is now no longer

analysed

as being

polysemous." (1975,

Ppe

7-8)

Turning to an actual example, Bennett cites Wood (1967, pp. 44-5) who identifies of sentences

two separate

senses

of the

preposition in on the basis

such as the following:

Brighton is in Sussex,

(6a)

Some people have their main meal...in the evening.

(6d)

The first

is said

particular place, of

time,,..within

to express

‘position

area, or object...’ which

analysis

in may be said

temporal

meaning.

something

to have

But Bennett

or enclosure

within

a

and the second 'a period

takes

place."

Thus

a spatial meaning

under

this

and a

observes:

".eethat the environment of in is spatial in (6a) (Sussex) and temporal in (6b) (the evening). spatial meaning temporal

context,

in a spatial I prefer

Rather than saying that in has a

context

and a temporal meaning

to say that in itself

is neutral

in a as

“179.

between space and time, thet

something

In both (6a) and (6b) it indicates simply

is at the interior

dealing with only one

sense

of something

rather than

else,

and we are

two."

(1975, p. 8) In arguing for the analysis lines,

Bennett

result

are

suggests

essentially

Jakobson (1932, 1936). of an item

that

the rather

similar

while

to have more

in more

This

approach

of course,

than

one

given

the

senses

of

to an item 1f this

of neighbouring

preclude proves

contexts

the

(Sonderbedeutungen) items.

the assignment

to be necessary,

sitting by the fire. 11 to me by Monday.

it is olear that once the contribution of context has been stripped away, the residue of each of the senses of by is different.

these

whioh

two exemples:

She was Return

specific

restricted meanings

of the meanings

sense

general

along

to the Gesemtbedeutungen

due to the contribution does not,

meanings

These may be taken as the general meaning

in isolation,

item appears

of prepositional

of more Thus,

-180-

; Spatial

1.

T

ral Relati

I begin with

of place,

a rather

Of obvious

relevance

Objects may be related dimensional is cruoial

general

property

discussion

here

to locations

is the

in determining

the

concept

to which

is ascribed by the choice

of the semantios of dimensionality.

ἃ particular

speaker,

This

of preposition

used to

express the relationship (of. Leech, 1969, pp. 159-61). is illustrated

in the following

English

property

This

examples:

O-dimensicnal (point in space)

:

The man is at the door.

1/2-dimensíonasl (line or surface)

:

The notice is gn the door.

2/3-dimensional (enclosed area or volume):

Obviously fixed in

the

door

dimensional

different

ways

when it is used of preposition definition

itself

is,

properties, by

a

speaker

t identify varies

of these

at:

L

on:

L( SURFACE)

in:

L( INTERIOR)

objectively, but

a piece

it may be viewed

according

the location

accordingly. ^

three

The nail is in the door,

to

subjeotively

circumstances,

of some

object

Let us suppose

prepositions

of wood of

the

and

choice

& oomponentiel

as follows:

(= LOCATIVE)

(Cf. Bennett,

1975, p. 65 ff.)

2181-

That

is to

say,

I assume

to whioh no particular when

the

location

that at is used

dimensional

is viewed

simply

to speoify

& location

properties

are

ascribed

as a point

in space.

-

The

component SURFACE in the definition of on reflects the faot that the

object

component that

the

in

question

INTERIOR object

that SURFACE

expressions

conceived

of

in the

definition

viewed

as

and INTERIOR

they represent particular

is

is

the way

an

88

enclosed

the object The

in the

examples

semantic

or

plane,

of in represents

are not names

occasion.

& line

area

of parts

is looked structure

above might

or

and

the

the fact

volume,

of the

at as a wh

Notice

object; on ἃ

of the locative

then be represented

as

follows:

at the door:

L( door)?

on the door:

L(SURFACE=door)

in the door:

L(INTERIOR-door)

2,

Thus far objects

forward location

fasbion,

have been

There

in a rather

are,

example,

the

The policeman

however,

different

according to their relative Por

preposition

related

way,

to locations

prepositions

by

in

stood by the bank,

which

by connecting

position (of. Leech, a

sentence

in a straight-

a pair

express of objects

1969, pp. 164-73).

such

as:

-182-

can

be

defined

as:

L(PROXIMITY)

and the phrase by the bapk can be represented:

L(PROXIMITY (OF) the bank)

The policeman medium

but which of

and

the bank are

of a location

some

is not itself

object

is

is the name which

defined

as

is designed

the

of it.

space

to represent

of it.

adjacent

the fact

in relation

We may compare

If

on

is

defined:

L(SURPFACE-top)

then

on top of the building

can be

to

some

represented:

side

The use of (OP) that PROXIMITY object but

the definition

is on top of the building.

top

the

The proxinity

to some

on top of in a sentence such as:

John

through

to the latter,

1975, pp. 60-61).

of an area defined

is not a part

related

reference

the bank nor a part

of that object (cf. Bennett, in parentheses

spatially

specified with

of

-185»

L(SURFACE-top(OP(the

where of

3.

building)))

the use of OP without

some

object

is

a part

In the desoription

necessary

Consider

of orientation

where

in reality

first

He drove

a

indicates

meaning and

Leech,

1969,

or imagination such

that

the top

object.

to objects

(of.

sentence

through

that

of locative

to refer not only

to a point a point

of

parentheses

the

it is

sometimes

locations, pp.

but also

180-87),

speaker

is

i.e. standing.

as:

the park.

This is a straightforward example of ἃ PATH expression, through being defined:

P( INTERIOR)

(cf. Bennett,

and the phrase

through

the

1975, p. 84 ff.)

park being

represented:

P(INTERIOR-the park)

where P(ATH)

can be peraphrased

following use of through:

roughly

as

'via',

Compare

now

the

The palace

is through

Here

we

what

is basically

whole

seem

to

be

the park.

dealing

with

a locative

a directional

expression

preposition.

The

sentence

is at the

end of a path

of the park from here.‘

element

of meaning.

an object

Exemples

in & rather

that

leads via

(Cf. Gruber,

The point of orientation (here)

expression

semantic could

('from

of this

within

of the

interior

introduces a subjective, sort

complex fashion,

here’)

structure

the

1976, ch. 3)

identify

involving

a LOCATIVE

locative

deiotio

the location

the

ἃ PATH expression (‘via the interior of the park!)

embedding

in the

of

and a SOURCE

expression.

phrase

of

The

example

above

thus be represented:

L( P(INTERIOR-the

must

amount

assume,

in

of polysemy

park) S(here)

accordance

discussed

representation

context,

of the

Thus

the

are

with

contained

notion

stative~locative

of

)

the

principle

in Section A,

of through is still P(INTERIOR), this

as a

oan be roughly paraphrased:

"the palace

We

containing

of

reducing

the basic

the

sense

and that the other elements in in

or

‘location’

verb be.

that

As for

conditioned is

by

conditioned

the

notion

of

the by

general the

use

‘source’,

-185-

it may be observed about

the

point

point

is said

that,

necessary

so as to be aware

hence

otherwise

lexically general

4h.

now

point

Having

to the

components

basic

with

question SOURCE,

and since

leading

8 point

of the

in which

of orientation, ‘here

the park,

is assumed

and

and the

absence

it may be

and now!’

in mind

this path

unspecified, In the

that

the park,

of orientation

uninformative,

the

through

path through

remain

the

specification

PATH and GOAL,

of

of a

taken

as a

as a

location,

expressions I assume,

we

may

involving

the

turn

following Bennett

yis and to respectively,

directional

other

components

prepositions.

components

We have

could be defined as G(INTERIOR), directional

expressions

already

material below (Section D).

the

oase

combined senses

seen

the

of

with

these

of other case

of through

In a similar fashion ipto

and so on.

in the

As in the

may be

to represent

defined as P(INTERIOR), for example,

about

is located,

direction

of directional

prepositions,

direotional

information

that these represent the senses of the English

prepositions from, locative

point

that

provides

in such cases,

dealt

(1975, p. 130)

to have

of the palace,

specified

principle

reference

end of a path

the direction

would be largely

sentence

the palace

of the general

the location

sentence

the

in space where

to be at the

it is obviously

leads;

since

More will be said

disoussion

of the Homeric

-186-

5,

Pinelly ἃ word

expressions,

should be

These

said on the

oocur in sentences

The fog

stretched

The fog

stretohed from London

subject

suoh

of EXTENT

as:

for three miles. to Brighton.

Following Bennett (1975, p. 42), we may call the first type ‘measured extent

extent

expressions’,

expressions’,

of some

object

since

seems

and

the

second

type

here

the

specification

to involve

the

embedding

‘directional of the extent

of directional

expressions (SOURCE and GOAL) within an EXTENT expression, first

example

the preposition

for realises

the

In the

component EXTENT:

E(three miles)

In the second component, which

example

though

there

is no overt

this is predictable

is not directional

realisation

from

the sense

of the EXTENT of the verb

in character:

E( S(London) G(Brighton) )

It should be noted means

of specifying

The Mall

goes

that

the

second

a location.

from Buckingham

type may also be used

A sentence

Palace

as ἃ

such as:

to Trafalgar

Square.

-187-

can be used

to answer

seem to be dealing within

an EXTENT

LOCATIVE

the

with

question

SOURCE

‘Where

and GOAL

expression which

is the Mall?!

expressions

is in turn

- i.e,

we

embedded

embedded

within

a

expression:

L(B( S(Buokingham Palace) G(Trafalgar Square) )) 6,

The question of the relevance of the concepts of location,

direction

and

extent

dealt with below prepositional well

in connection For

framework

with

material.

of what follows

informal,

respect

particles.

developed

Homeric

with

It

to temporal

with

the

temporal

uses

of particular

to

begin

upon

the

out here

the admirably

analysis

that

Looative

Expressions,

a;

Particles

Expressing

1,

Consider

first

Simple

Location,

the following

examples:

of

a great

comprehensive,

treatment of Chantraine (1953, Vol. II, oh. 8).

C1.

will be

the moment we now have a sufficiently which

should be pointed

is dependent

relations

the

deal though

«188-

[153

Toro!

These

illustrate

Chapter I,

7ρώων ej

δ᾽ ἔφαν

évbu

3.512

have

ὥρα

o/

the

the basic cases

an independent

dative

ending must

of

particle

the

since

the

locative

x

dat

ἡγήτορες

semantic realise

translation phrases

represents

locative

associated

15 to

of ἐπὶ

any noun

with

such

be

phrase

> ém

ἐπ’.

here,

perticles

then,

the

LOCATIVE. of the

examples

representod

inflected

ὠκροτάτῳ.

As was noted

prepositional

the value

may

πύρχῳ.

>

component

in

&m

....| of»

use of

function; the

specify

involved

2vr'

vectSo

STpev 8010

locative-

ending,

is ‘on',

and

the

follows

in the

still

The function

case

as

in

(where

dative):

L(SURFACE-x,.)

This

is

to be interpreted

is viewed analysis

as a two further,

»

Α

462

ἔπ,

Here we have

Y

dimensional compare

>/

§

as meaning

of (Üore

surface,

examples

5

the location Before

such

in

question

pursuing

this

& dependent

noun

as:

^

οἶνον

a prepositional

that

λῶϑε

particle

.

without

phrase:

L(SURPACE-pro)

where pro represents interpretation

some

unspecified

is to be inferred

from

NP whose context.

-189-

Clearly

here

LOCATIVE.

there

is no overt

Yet we

of the particle

cannot

case

assume

either,

since

Z3

ἐπὶ

TAtwv

It

TUpyov /

seems

ἐπ;

to be

the

to a large

phrase,

as we would

(1.6. take

component

this

is part

of the meaning

it can

8180

appear,

for

example,

in

and ‘over'):

af

owoX«

Tovrov.

that

extent

the

on the

expect

interpretation case

ending

in a situation

have independent semantic function, ἐχί

the

22.

M!

case

depends

realising

that

GOAL and PATH expressions (= 'onto!

Hes

ending

of ἔπι "phrases

of the following noun

in which

the

cases

still

Notice now that in A462

might equally well be interpreted as meaning 'onto-pro' as a GOAL

expression),

either LOCATIVE

because

or GOAL

‘directional'

expressions

after

verbs may

them.

Compare

the followings

2

1

o499

ἔκ

X?

> wATo

where

the dative

δὲ

»

N

“-

καὶ αὐτὸς βαῖνον » 2 \ >

δ᾽

ἔπι Pigav

presumably

Ed

c

ἐπὶ fpem

emphasises

the resultant

the new location of the person or thing involved), accusative

simply

Returning to A462,

identifies

B.M

ss.

ovdov.

the

end point

state

(i.e.

while the

of the movement.

it is clear that in the absence of an overt

adverbial NP the interpretation

of the

expression

is indeterminate

-190-

between LOCATIVE endings; the

case

phrase.

and GOAL.

<hough ending

the

partiole

itself

The meaning

This

which

of ἐν

confirms

the

significance

specifies

the

case

establishes

the

basic

in isolation,

ending,

of case it

is

character

of

therefore,

the

is best

analysed as a combination of an unspecified locational/directional component K,

plus

the

component

SURFACE:

K(SURFACE)

The

particle

value of

can

only

for K has been

independent

incorporated

be

given

supplied,

prepositional

determines

the value

that

the range

of possible

to particle;

since

combinations

of particles

particle

co-occurring

2,

case

Continuing

in which

X97

(i.e.

ἐπί

j

up)

the

our

might

»

ἔχ,

is

analysis,

well be

»/

a

endings,

may

note

o

2

fay

case

being

realised

Note

particle

on possible

the range

of K for

interpretations

of

determined.

that

there

'against!

Qém 4

a

is involved,

as LOCATIVE.

restrictions

semantic

translated

ZpoUxovT!

of

expression phrase

when

in the

result

noun

automatically

we

context

for K will vary from

case

possible

endings)

as

ἐπί -phrase

syntactic

and

or

a dative

values

are

the

or directional

say, of the

there

interpretation

from

particles,

Where,

this

specific

either

into a locational

as an adverbial NP,

each

a

2

EPE

are

rather

/

OAS

.

examples

than

‘on!:

^

The

Ἁ

&m

παῖδ᾽

400

Ζ

essential

point

interpretation

is that English op generally favours

‘at

the

an interpretation

2/

ἔχουσ᾽.

Ke) To

(top)

surface!',

‘at the (side)

the bottle

on the wall,

He

the bottle

against

In Homeric

Greek

ἔπ

against

favours

surface':

He placed placed

while

an

the wall.

is neutral between

these

interpretations,

as the use of the same particle in both X 97 and / 153 makes olear:

X 97

Tupy

[ 155

ojo!

2/

EM Ape

In other words, walls

something

is

different

sense

3.

7ρώων

since

of a tower,

Compare

for

located, for

now the

B788

οἵ

Z

ὧδ δ᾽ ὅγξ

506

H 133

7

5’

ἐπ᾽

2

mpoUxovT! e

£5

»

2

£oe

avr’

is nothing

being viewed

it

to

seems in

of

>

ὅπ)

7

ér«TOS

ἐπὶ

TVA

-

to prevent

as a surface

unnecessary

to

set

the

up

ἃ

in:

én;

(Ties

Kehedovr:

[praprcto LK OOTY SAS μιάχοντο .

7254. £r

side

on which

cases,

wy spe vov

6 Kupew

be

these

as .

logically

example,

use

ris

"Top

there

» ^ gy;

σοὺς

vmi ὅ

.

φώτνη.

-192-

Here

it makes

Apparently

little

sense

to translate

it oan also be used

some

object,

without

that

in examples

suppressed,

such as these ἔπι

of the dative

been

of

realise

the

in Homer,

LOCATIVE

to note

though well the

Epic

has

that

It

is to say,

content

and

of the

is in fact a language

containing and where

for locational

a particle, the

without

syntactic

If this is so,

particle,

LOCATIVE,

GOAL,

in

& case

ending

fulfil

the new function.

one

stage

in

alone,

etc.

the

ending to the particle to

preposition

a marker "by

status

and for

of locativeness

is readily

explained,

indeed P.

in which there

there

If

in the

rule,

expressions

was no immediately

containing

previously

particle

was

semantio

by

reinterpreted

to

burden

is presumably

from

in the transition Eni

only

realised

kind of development

the

rare.

of both P and NP. is on the wane.

which were

of

endings

transition

a general

that where

This

transfer

case

this yet being

an existing

to

ending.

expressions

as in simple

SOURCE,

oase

used

or directional

autonomy

it is possible

available

is

it has

comparatively state

between stages 2) and 3) (see pp. 120-22 above) is a preference

then,

has been

the use of unsupported

attested,

seems,

SURFACE

That

in support

preserved

or 'by'

than a redundant

ending.

semantic

as ‘on’, ‘at’

of contact.

the component

case

inherent

component

It is important

Perhaps

its

location

is little more

reinforcement stripped

to express

any implication

and that

the particle

the

case

from particle

15

indeed

no

examples

above,

then the interpretation

In general

more

to be located

'at!

than

something

-19»-

is neutral between

a contact

and ἃ non-contact

Por example,

if someone

the building

or merely

close by it.

the

vagueness

of the component LOCATIVE

inherent

is at the post

interpretation.

an interpretation very

close

4.

to compare

It is interesting

Nox,

és

ns

Θ529

ὅτι;

ἕν᾽ petri

£v!

he may be inside contexts, may

therefore,

enoourage

to ‘by’.

τῷδε

vvxri

office,

In certain

the temporal

ἕκων

μεθ

φυλάξομεν

use

of

ἐπὶ 1

ηδι μοζχεόθῳ»-

peas

Ur ovS .

While it is reasonable to argue that units of time have 'interiors'" within which

1643 Sen

events may be

‘located’,

ἐν £u

as in:

assuming fv = K(INTERIOR), see paragraph

the notion In these én)

‘surface’

temporal

rather

namely

clearly

contexts,

similar

then,

to that

a semantically

applies

9 below.

only

to physical

we must be dealing

just discussed

redundant

for

reinforcement

B»

without

partiole

$5 Pe δ΄ y ops

with

spatial

a use

contexts,

of a dative

ending (with suppression of the component SURFACE). following

objects,

case

Compare the

support:

εν

Πριώμον

Tow

yper

κείνω.

of

The use of ἐπί temporal the

is presumably

contexts

amount

of

in accordanoe

polysemy

It is interesting temporal

require

a free

Θ 529

£n

νυκτὶ.

2

ἕν

νυκτί.

This where

months

units

of time

5.

"En,

location.

the principle

possible

(see

of time

and

of reduoing

Section

that where a particle

some units

in some

require

are

in

respects and

apparently

of as possessing

distinction

spatial

A,

4).

is used

require

ἐπὶ

in a

while

others

Others still seem to

choice:

is parallel

conceived

with

in both

; see V23, and /76,53 above.

allow

251

where

to note

expression,

ἔν

constant

remains

days

of

viewed

the

as

‘interiors’,

situation week

in English,

require

'points', though

on.

while

Some

others

are

the basis for this

obscure,

may also be used with Since

to the

this

is clearly

a following

genitive

not an ablatival

to express

genitive

(realising SOURCE),

it must be an original (partitive)

genitive

expressing

that

part

the

fact

one

object

is

looated

object viewed as a surface (= *somewhere on x');

7 330

7λέμαχος μιὲν

p?

ἐντὶ δ

why

ἐπ᾿ ἀχροῦ. (tre.

at

some

of

another

-195-

A162

» o67TEn

/

ev

Pera

οἵ Shor.

} >>I» 72 | KEMEV Ew WWE pou -

This is & special case of simple location (i.e. location involving two objects

directly

related

to some other location).

to each

other without

reference

‘The following representation

suggests

itself:

L(SUEPACE-DP(x. e)?

The genitive

case

(=

‘partitive').

1s

interpreted

immediately

i.e.

ending

the

representing

outside

of x viewed as a surface!

is the realisation

In general as

'at (part)

case

the

the braokets

ending

component

containing

of the

component

of a noun that

stands

it:

L( SURPACE=x, .)

LOCATIVE

-

dative

L(SURPACE4OR(x,..,)))

OF

-

genitive

Notice

that

partitive

genitives

also

appear

OF

phrase

in directional

expressions

(e.g. GOAL): »/

K56

It

>?

ἔνθω

seems

5

clear,

& neutralisation expression

ἐπ᾿

then,

,

~

Ἴπειροο

that

£5

the genitive

of the opposition

of partitiveness

£v.

takes

24

after ov

LOCATIVE

versus

precedence

over

represents GOAL, the

The

expression

-196-

of location genitives

or direction,

The distinction between

and goal-genitives

mainly by reference Consequently

it

to the

16 in fact sense

seems best

contextually

of the verb

to regard

looativedetermined,

(stative

expressions

or dynamic).

involving

a

partitive genitive as containing an indeterminate locational/ directional

component K when

in isolation:

K( SURFACEOP(x,.,,))) Only

in the

(e.g.

the verb the

context

of a particular

L or G) be provided, is ‘directional’

genitive

involved

seen (p. 189),

sentence

can

a specific

and then not in all oases, as in

K56,

it is

still

is a locative-genitive,

possible

since,

value

Even where that

as we have

such verbs may take either dative or accusative

complements,

6,

In

some

involved

N

12

[1700

It

is

contexts

seems

ro

ἔπ'

not

1

at

where

clearly

esp

to be the

"τον"

clear

of

a genitive

some

κορυφῆς

the

‘part?

object:

Σῴμου.

»/

ἔστη.

that

this

ἔν, , because

the interpretation

be

of contextual

the result

is used with

ἐπ᾿ ὥκροτάτιης

/

Wupyou

all

ἐπί

is

in

fact

‘on top of!

inference.

For

a different

can always the

sake

use

of

be taken

of economy

to and

«1 97.

simplicity

7.

of description,

83.166 phrases

ambiguous,

I shall

of the form

at least

in some

assume

that

ἔπι + dative

cases,

this

is the

case.

are potentially

between

the

senses

‘on x'

and

'at/by x', it seems that ἐπ, + genitive was used on occasion simply Since

to make

it clear

location

at ἃ ‘part’

contact

with

correct

reading:

K 62

én’

E550

The

that

thing,

οὐδοῦ

the

217

where

the

unnecessary

ei

νηῶν]

7]

is clearly

since

such

Ἴλιον

3

£i

this

examples

‘somewhere

on x',

of partitiveness.

8,

The

suppression

even if no

-

of £7

>

εἰς

intended.

involves assigned

the

ε

εὔπωλοφψ...

ἑπέσθων.

ἢ

|

2

A

νηυδῖν Ἀχαιῶν.

ships!,

Again

as a completely

the notion

use

V

‘by the

upon

the

necessarily

is automatically

wa,

mean

temporal

one

with:

δὲ ms

to recognise

partiole,

is the

ξίομεθ᾽

δὲ

sense

‘on’

of something

latter may be contrasted

odesys

sense

the phrase

»

μελυνάων

A559.

the

that

plus

of a noun meaning

can

it seems

different

use of

still be interpreted

emphasis

whatever

genitive

seems

‘time’

to

is placed

simplyto involve

or the like,

the genitive

-198-

being

its

adnominal

dependent,

The

marker of the component LOCATIVE

particle

itself

is

simply

(with SURPACE suppressed,

a

as

before):

E 637

ὠνδρῶνῚ

2

of Διὸς

-»

Efe y ἔνοντο

£T)

\

/

>

/

προτέρων οἰνθρώπων -

I.e. 'at/in (the time) of x'

9,

The particle

OS...

B 1,22

κω B7 [ον

X 40h

Ζεὺς

sense

here

L(INTERIOR-x,

The

object

(with the

dative

ἐν

1s

rors

θρόνοις. (C ad Bots

QE

} δῶκεν

~ £g

2 Ev

Herp

.)

at

is

viewed

which

ending

LOCATIVE,

K( INTERIOR)

ὕψη

phrase:

ὠμφιρύτη.

ἐν

νήσων

noun

clearly:

involved

case

πάσχει]

Svopevecst

'contents')

component

1s followed by & dative

πήματ

οἱ 50

The

ἐν

must

The

as

some be

ἃ volume other

taken

definition

or

object as

of

the the

demarcated is

area

located.

As

realisation sense

of

év

of 4

before

the

/ 0*1

-199-

is incorporated of the dative as a whole,

phrase

Notice

that

since

7 132

£v

consisting

the representation

in the oase

of the AdyP

of £v » the value

this particle may only

Ἄλκινόοιο

ἐν ἀφνείου

Χ 389

εἶν

all

of

the place

co-ocour

of K is with a

these

πωτρας.

seem

of residence

this

.

Ai Sao.

to

involve

or domain

the

suppression

of some person

dependent:

It is sometimes

mean simply tat’

‘in (the

suggested

that

(cf. Chantraine,

house,

ἐ v,

of

a noun

or god,

is the NP, modified by the particle

4s its adnominal

10,

to give

expression

genitive:

Ζῳ

words,

of the locative

(There are in fact a handful of examples where we have

a following

but

that

noun

always LOCATIVE

dative.

into

denoting

In other

and the genitive

etc.)

like

of x'.)

Eni,

1963, p. 101).

may come

to

Consider the

following:

0 463

Ade

Σ 521

“8°

E 1,66

There

év ὑμύμον. ore ¢,

δ:

εἶ pev κ᾽ ἐν

is in fact nothing

τοξῳ

P ᾿ἥκωνεν

ToT apes

26;

| ῥηξε. Chibi

Svtuy dtd

to prevent

εἶκε

Aeg ta, lé

νύκτῳ

the interpretation

$v AM.

of the

To Tea.

«200-

particle

in these

Bow-strings

examples

are fitted

along

'in'

bows,

the lines

already

and in the last

suggested, two cases

it

4s quite likely that the intended sense is ‘in a river (bed)'. As far as I can determine,

there

are no literal

spatial

of the use of £v where

sense

'in'

inappropriate.

It is clearly

the

appropriate

is wholly

in the following

examples

cases:

with towns and countries (demarcated areas): ξ 125

£v

Ay Vx TO .

B*59

£v

A65 v» -

with groups of things which, together, 7 287

Ev

B 456

οὔρεος

with

duMob... ἐν

assemblies

Kopp

» 2

Bis

7ηλεμαχν

[9

ἐν προμάχοισι

11. locate

As an

was

noted

event

‘at

[l&5

dp

Σ 251]

153 S? ἔν [3

4

Ἰ εὗδον.

of people /

£v

§

Ev

above, the

constitute a volume/area:

7s.

viewed ^

dow

as a coherent mass: e€780

&yov

€

ὑποθήσομα!

N Ψῦτος.

φωνέντωῳ.

év

may

be

used

interior’

of

certain

εἰ. vy.

νυκτὶ γένοντο.

in

temporal

contexts

units

time:

of

to

4i πρός, 1.

The particle

E 43h

Tipof

C

4s used with

WETp YB) --- | ro:

the dative

in exemples

like:

ὥτέδρυρθεν.

y 99 vipis ye wort 6M Beet ἔαξαν | oper? ε 322

πυκιναΣὶ

EMO

καὶ

Clearly

ὁ »

contact

at a place object.

(κων

δοῦπον

would

componential

where PACE

work

n

be the usual definition

Cw

each

as facing

is to be interpreted

is viewed

as a point,

*opposes!

the object of

7

fév

Consequently realisation

ὡλληλη

δι

ἔχονται.

458661

case

or being

ϑωλώσσης.

an object opposed

translation.

of the locative

is located

to that

I propose

the

phrases:

4) 5

L(PACE-x,

An

πρὸ

here,

is po-ceived

‘Against

examples

δὲ

Wkovét

is involved

that

following

Bets)

moos

located

used

/

LI

I again of the

surface,

with

LE

take

to mean area

or volume

there, other

mor,

\

As with cases,

For

the location which

LOCATIVE,

or

are

example:

/

case

in question

‘faces’

eri , there

:

mt£TO«$.

the dative

component

that

(& GOAL expression)

ending

to be

and I assume

the

that

the

definition of the sense of 7700S in isolation is: K(PACB) The value ending with

of K is determined by the interpretation

of the adverbial

in particular

of the

sense

locative

result

b:

noun phrase which

cases,

expression

is a representation

ress

/

J

as before,

is incorporated

consisting

Particles

the particle

In other words,

of the particle

of

the

dative

of the AdvP

Complex

of the

case

co-occurs the definition

into

that

of the

noun

phrase;

the

as a whole.

Locati

ij Jos and META ,. 1.

So far we have been

where

one

object

is

located

dimensional

properties

properties)

are ascribed.

where is

objeots

adjacent

to

are one

concerned

(or,

related of

the

'at!

only with

another

in the

case

to

simple which

location,

certain

of πρός , orientational

We must turn now to complex location, through

the medium

objects

and

defined

of a location by

reference

that to

it.

(The only exception is ave » which is discussed separately at the end of this sub-section).

2.

Consider

first

the following

μή

A 358

Atv]

ἐν βέν θεόν

A405

ὦ pa

Tapa!

[

85

A

16

εἴ

Ἕκτωρ a

ret

Qj

d

In

each

by

reference

the

case

one

object

to

some

Tae -phrases

seems

to

not

SIDE

may

designated

be

at a place

object.

For

that

example,

is

the

specified sense

of

bet:

L(SIDE (OF) Xaat)

where

βάλωμεν.

Sentry.

Kv

Wests

is located

other

-

Kiy£len

vous?

"beside!

defined

as

as its top,

the

area

bottom,

adjacent

front

to

any

or back,

facet

of

in parentheses is intended to

represent

involved

the

area called

part of x.

that

SIDE,

the area

as a medium,

is defined by reference

respectively,

as a genitive

case

ending.

is nota

and OP (partitive)

I assume that (OP) has no realisation,

is realised

case

of an object from

the area adjacent to its side by the use of (OF)

which

in this

to x, but

We can distinguish the side (part)

x

As mentioned

in Section B, 2, the use of (OF) the fact

4

ἔειπε.

dor tpe;

Μ 579 (rovguderav) n

and “κενοί

καϑέ f£ro.

poréporbiv

PED?

παρα

«Tei γέροντ:.

Tepe

& dos

Κρονίων!

δὲ ptr

pi dora

of

παρὰ

ἢ

ὧν

Kor

é£, χέρον,

Α 26

examples

Since

unlike OF, προ

may 8150

appear,

for

H190

example,

in

GOAL

expressions:

τὸν méev Te wos’ ξὸν χιμάδις βαλε.

I assume

that

its

sense

in isolation

is:

K(SIDE)

and that

this may be

a variety a value

of locational

for

contiguous the two

incorporated

K,

Notice

with

objeots

that may

that

object

since

SIDE

of

up

meaning

to

and

capture

an

away from

or may not be involved; respect,

one

the

expressions

and extends

in this

than

the representations

and direotional

inherently vague more

into

this

which provide

object

it,

is both

contact between

the partiole

there

of

is no need

difference

(of.

is

to set Section

A, 3, above). In the sense

of

set the

of examples locative

involving μετά

phrases

as

L(MIDST (OF) x,,,)

Mera

/

is

interior mass

used of

(év

is defined

where

two

as

in

represent

the

follows:

‘among’ / ‘between

some

or more

41s used

» we could

person objects

such

the area

cases),

that

or

object

which but

is

located

are

viewed

as

discrete

lies between

these

not

at

the

as

a coherent

entities,

objects.

MIDST

Where

only

two

objects

where more particle

are

involved

than two

may be used

are

the

appropriate

involved,

in other

translation

‘among’.

types

Again,

of expression,

is

'between',

since

the

such as GOAL

expressions:

A 222

7 δὲ

I assume

that

Οὐλυμπόνδε βέβηκεν...

its

sense

in isolation

μετὰ

Sayrovas

ἄλλους.

is:

K(MIDST)

and

that

this may be incorporated

locational phrases

and directional

expressions

the representations

of

involving

noun

adverbial

in the usual way.

3,

There

the

latter

are ἃ handful seems

N 700

Ln

κ 520

per?

7T 140

Ja ETÀ

These

into

phrases

of examples

to be partitive

Βοιωτῶν ὀΐλλων

Bia...

o

of pers

+ genitive,

in force:

7

ξανχοντο. λέξο

Erato

«

| wive .

may be represented:

L(MIDST (OP) (f(x, 0?)

'among (& number)

of x'

where

It is easy developed

c

to see how the later from

’

this

«

and

kind

veg

1.

The use of ὑπέρ so

far:

r$ δ᾽ ὥρ ὑπὲρ κεφιλῆς.

JA "06

$y rere... νεφέλην

Soup,

locative

l Ér£pvov

in force,

ὅπὲρ μι ζοιο .

Pera

these

and it is clear

Κρονίων | ves

phrases

thet

contain

the genitives

are not

of the genitive,

therefore,

must be ablatival,

purpose

being

clear

there

the

objects

sense

to

meke

it

involved,

of the partiole

that

Suppose

contains

the

that

is

the

component

no

contact

definition

SUPERIOR

the area adjacent to the upper parts of some object). be used to express location over’

some

object such

object.

itself

ass

and

Since then

'(generally) the

extends

SUPERIOR

above’

Sue

genitives

The use

two

have

is rather different from that of the particles

Bare

datives,

oould

vio,

Bo

than

'with'

of usage.

A 528

Though

of

7

11,

enoountered

sense

it,

rather partíitive.

its between of

the

(defined

as

It may thus

or '(directly)

of an object begins

away from

ἥλαιφυρῶς.

at the

a representation

“207.

L(SUPERIOR (OF) x...) would

allow

for

the

possibility

contact between

the

two objects.

ablatival

genitive,

which

of an interpretation Consequently

eliminates

this

involving

we find an

possibility:

L(suPeRIOR(L(S(x,..)) ))

This

is

to

be

interpreted:

fat the superior (located) from

I

assume

that

the

SOURCE

expression because but

rather

with

but

instance

its

particle

is

The

embedded

a case

genitive

phrase

in this

much more

‘independent’

rather modifies

the it

on the

its definition

inherently. here,

is not

determined,

has no bearing

case,

into

LOCATIVE

contextually

LOCATIVE

but

is

not with

separation.

of the component

component

incorporated

dealing

here

in

a LOCATIVE

of movement, case

ending

and the particle realises L(SUPERIOR);

presence

of the noun

expression

we are

statio

realises SOURCE, second

at (the end of a path thet leads)

x’,

its

representation ‘externally’.

realised

Since

the

interpretation

must

contain

In other words and

the

sense

at all, case

of the

the

the particle

is not

is

directly

of the adverbial

noun phrase,

«208-

2,

The following

AM

«ἢ n

P »06

ἔρδομεν

ps

Yoct:

These have

typical

examples

of the

locative

use

of ὕπό :

or ἡελίμ TE καὶ οὐρανῷ ... | ves ET ovd πόλνγες.

ὕπο πλετανίξτῳ.

Exarbp fas, Kaz P? ὑτὸ

expressions dative

are

case

ES bare

Àorspoifiw

can be analysed endings

wat Ned web

straightforwardly,

representing

the

component

de.

since we LOCATIVR:

L( INFERIOR (OF) x, ,) where

INFERIOR

lower

parts

below! the

is defined

as the

of an object,

and *(directly) under*.

particle

space

generally

adjacent

so the particle may mean both

to the '(generally)

‘The definition of the sense of

in isolation:

K(INFERIOR)

is incorporated

into

and directional

expressions

in the usual

3.

There

locative

the representations consisting

of various of adverbial

locational now

phrases

way.

are

sense:

also

examples

of Um

used with

the

genitive

in

Q1.

yx! βάθιστον

Α 501

δεξιτέρν δ᾽ ὠρ᾿ ὑπ᾽ ἀνθορεῶνος EA.

These that

Srépvore

bro

106

A

are

in question,

involved

dative

issue of contact). seems

is,

genitives

representing

is here actually

so that there

(The

phrases

bas.

Tuy

obviously partitive

the INFERIOR

objects,

ὑπὸ χθονάς ἐέτι βέρεθρον.

is necessarily of course,

vague

a part

the fact

of the object

oontact between with

respect

the

two

to the

The following representation of the genitive

appropriate:

L(INFERIOR(OF(x,..))

Notice

that

this

is really

rather

than

complex

a special

location,

since

case

of simple

one object

location

is located

at

(a pert of) another without reference to some other location.

1.

In an example

E 722 the

Ἥβη

basic

sense

such as:

δ᾽ ἄμ ῥ᾽’ oy£cevi θοῶς βάλε Kapa mv det κύκλα. of

» / aue: is

in

evidence:

*at

the

sides

of*.

Here

«210-

*gide*

has

of some

its most

restricted

sense,

object mot designated

Since we are here

namely

as its top,

concerned with

those

bottom,

two facets front

the area adjacent

or back,

to the

side

of an object (i.e. contiguous with it but also stretching away from

it),

contact

involved,

between

In other

the

cases,

two related

however,

objects may or may not be

‘side’

seems

to have

its

maximally general sense (as in the six ‘sides’ of a dice) and the partiole is interpreted to mean ‘at (several/all of) the sides

(of)'.

or general inference, to handle general

P 267

NA496

or not

interpretation

interpretation

οἱ

L(SIDES

is entirely a matter

Ν

a restricted

of contextual

to set up different are

examples

definitions, wbere

the

is involved:

MeéverriaSn

δ᾽ dup? Ἄλκα

Bou

θώρηκας

all the cases

«

arose Sov py ken

introduced

ὡρμήθησαν.

δηΐων

T)

6r» DES

so far oan be represented:

(OP) z,..)

the definition

K(SIDES8)

is to be given

The following

di

μεμαῶτες

Presumably

'side'

so it is not necessary the two cases,

ἔόταδων

B5»

where

Whether

of the

sense

of the

pertiole

in isolation:

.

«211.

bas been

2,

incorporated

Compare

Bui

in the usual way.

now the use

‘Exropeov

κνημῖδας μὲν

N24

Svvero

> 55

wav

sense

περι

δὲ χ'τῶνι

ΛΊ7

The

of

πρῶτα

SURROUND

As before, extends

of περι

θεό

Sat Eat.

περὶ

Σ ket

‘around x!

is defined

as the space

right up to the object

surrounding

in question.

is involved,

object

are

taken

together

again,

the

sense

of the particle

When

they constitute

some

sinoe

all its

that

incorporated

directional

into

the

the

'sides'

‘surround’.

in isolation:

expressions

representation

in the familiar

of

locational

way.

area the sense

when the general

K(SURROUND)

is

object,

this

Notice

is all but identical to that of audi of SIDES

πύλησι.

phrases may be represented:

contact may or may not be involved,

interpretation

ἔθηκε.

περὶ X por.

L(SURROUND (OF) Xaat)

where

br

περὶ Kv jay fiw

μῴρναντο

of the locative

1

περὶ

τεύχει καλὰ

δ᾽ ἦμαρ

/

or

of an Once

3,

There

are

by a genitive

also

now

cases

phrase,

a contact

interpretation:

ε (8

7

δ᾽ αὐτοῦ

£ 130

TOv

a

μὲν

of περ!

the

τετώνυ το

case

ἃ locative

ending

\

περ!

sense

followed

presumably

forcing

ε

Sueiovs ...| ἥ μερὶς

pea

βεβίωται.

τρόπος

περὶ

ἐκ

xk

ἐγὼν

in

phrases may be represented:

Such

L(SURROUND (OF) (ar(x

o)

)

¢*around (some part) of χ' (1.9. in contact with x)

ve

4.

Pinally we come to the particle vv, which is unlike the

looative its an

particles

definition area

already

involves

specified

following

by

discussed

a component

reference

to

in this whioh

some

section

in that

is not the name

object.

Consider

of the

examples:

A15

oréppar? ἔχων

ΣΊΤΙ

κεφαλὴν δὲ E Oupes ev

Z 352

εὗδε... wa

Qua

ζρμωτώ

P3

£v

Epon ol χρυσέῳ ὡνὼ

ει] πῆξαι xv

Γωργήρῳ apy f»

oti

τίθει.

δκήπηρῳ.

Srehewests.

-

This

particle

combined with

sense ‘up (at/on/in x)'.

a dative noun phrase

seems

to mote that there is no comparable use of Ka, (at/on/An x)'. phrases

(

suggests

are

two

apposition

the

meaning 'down

The following representation of these locative itself:

L(HIGH) L(xa e)

There

to bear

It is ἃ rare use and it is interesting

)

"at a high (place),

separate LOCATIVE

to the first

expressions,

and a specifier

(namely) at χ'

the

of it.

second

in

The first

expression is realised as a/vx, and the second as the dative noun phrase,

The

particle

its definition the locative

is,

therefore,

is not inoorporated

noun

phrese;

rather

independent into

the

in the

sense

representation

it is qualified by it.

that

of

Contrast

the representation above with that provided for ὕπερ -phrases earlier (p. 207):

L(SUPERIOR(L(8(x gen)?

))

where the definition of the sense of the particle, L(SUPERIOR), is also

independent

phrase,

but where

of the representation

the latter

apposition to, the former. the

object

is located

'away from x',

while

‘at

is embedded

of the within,

locative rather

noun

than

in

Thus in the oase of béo -phrases the

in the

superior’

case

that

is itself

of Zv« ephreses

the

located

object

is

located former

‘at ἃ high

the adverbial

superior’, object.

staff

while This

namely

noun

phrase

in the letter

is correct,

specifies

In other words, the location

it specifies

since

if something

the

location

is held

in the

of

‘the

of the

‘up on a

just "high up’ with respect to the observer, and

ton

the staff’,

D:

Direot

a

Expressions

les

i

wi

J

λ

ressi

E1S

Consider these examples containing phrases of the form

&cousative

noun

phrase:

x Gove

[265

&wo

yv TES

ni

Ζ 386

ἐπὶ

TUpyov

iby .

Xx?

ὥλγχο

(2. 590

These

‘at x'.

(cf. A 15), it is not necessarily ‘high up on the staff

(itself)",

i1.

place’,

οἱ HE

phrases

δ᾽ mi JM yet οὐδόν.

piv

may

sse

be

>

ἔν

>

» qm.

represented:

ἔτι +

G(SURPACE-x,

where

οἱ

the basic

'onto χ'

sense

of the particle:

K( SURFACE)

has been meaning

inoorporated

into a GOAL

of the adverbial noun

phrase.

of the latter is the realisation

2,

We also find

K56

ἔνθα

A485

vifa

examples

expression

representing

The accusative

of the

component

case

the ending

GOAL.

of goal-genitives:

δ᾽ ἐπ᾽ ὑἡπείρο,ο μεν. μὲν

oi

YE =

ἐπ᾽

πε

£p v (fav.

ρο)0

These are clearly partitive (» 'onto some part of x'):

c( sunPack-(or(x .)) ) The

genitive

is also

used in some

instances

to make

it olear

that the sense ‘onto’ is the one intended, since ἐπὶ plus accusative and

is potentially

interpretations

towards’

ambiguous between

involving

the

senses

this

interpretation

‘over to’

and

‘over

(the latter allowing for the possibility of non-errival

at the goal):

A12

('over to!)

t

M101

(‘over towards!):

246€

beds

Oda...

ἐπὶ νῳς

Ἀχιῶν.

Sea]... | pias

Ep’ ja ET£p4f [ic vu)

(For a foll discussion of these, paragraphs 5 and À), Por

example:

N 665

>\ ἔπι

Vos

Agsin,

there

upon

seens

Ess

plus

Ev

plus

dative:

βέλος

Α 220

ἐς εἰς

phrases

usage,

aoousative

© 85

These

to be little even

reason

to recognise

though

little

this

emphasis

as ἃ

is placed

of partitiveness.

3.

δ 220

a! ἔβαινον.

distinct

the notion

see below, Subsection ν(1),

The genitive forces the contact interpretation,

Tonto’,

completely

νέας.

δ᾽ εἰς

κουλέον οἶνον

can

be

is the GOAL

ἢ κέφαλον abe

Bore

expression

equivalent

of

δῦ.

ξίφος. φάρμακον.

represented:

G(INTERIOR-x.. o)

where the sense of the partiole, K(INTERIOR), has been inoorporated

“217.

in the usual way,

Just as

Ev

So)

cov

is used with

towns and countries,

so is £75 !

€ 298

Ke)

Tore

οἱ 28. πρῶτα μὲν A "ες

ὄχομεθ᾽

ἤμεν

»

ἐξ Πύλον Es

ἐς

χόλιν.

J

ἔλθε.

Θήβην.

kh.

Ia certain

εἷς

balanced by ἔκ, where the senses ‘into’ and ‘out af!

(en ἔκ,

spatial

contexts,

however,

we find

cases

of

see below, viii, paragraph 5) seem inappropriate:

7981.

χάλκεοι μὲν pip τύχοι ἐληλέατ᾽.. | ἐξ μυχὸν ἐξ οὐ Ὁ.

Σ 353

ξωνῶ

In cases meaning

lr

4^ v wav | ἐς

such as these we might ‘in to’

and

‘out from’,

πόζω:

interpret

ἐκ

KEDIATS

the particles

as in the following

.

as

English

sentences:

The

boat

came

in

The

boat

went

out

to

the

from

shore, the

shore.

where the particles ip and out are not parts of compound prepositions but

independent

adverds,°

These are

interesting,

because we are

not dealing with objects viewed as 2/3 dimensional locations and

‘out of!

which a movement

takes

place.

Rather,

‘into!

we are dealing

«218»

with movements viewed takes

as

the

towards focus

or away from ἃ reference

of

the

spatial

within

which

which the

is

journey

place:

47

7

BEN

p ^

΄

^

΄

*

» N

4

Ν

^

N

N

/

4

\

area

point,

V

N

(t

\

/

\

LC. N

N

Ν

σ΄ Se ~~

In the first

oe

‘interior’

Ν v ~

point,

to the

and in the

as being

described.

Thus

to the exterior (= ‘outer parts')

‘exterior’

point.

it makes

of the area

movement

to the

The fooal

‘at the centre’ sense

4

*

-

P d

-

second,

to a GOAL focal

is conceived

situation being

σ΄

-

of the area

case

/ M

case we have movement

from a SOURCE fooal

in each

a

»

^

point

of the

spatial

to talk of motion

of this area from its centre,

end motion to the interior (= ‘inner parts’) of the area to its centre. with

In the Homerico

phrases

'in to x out from y’

If so,

examples

above,

then,

we may be dealing

of ἃ similar kind:

=

‘all

they could be represented

( G(INTERIOR) C(x...)

)

the way frosx to γ'

as follows:

7

( Θ(ΕΧΤΈΒΙΟΒ) S(x,.)

)

Since both

ἐπὶ

(see Subsection b(i), paragraph &) and

γγρός

(see Subsection b(i), paragraph 7) have uses with the acousative whioh allow for the possibility

of non-errival

at the goal

(1.9. in certain contexts mean more or less 'towards'),

it seems

that €/$ was used im some cases to make it olear that movement all the way to the goal is involved (since both 'into' and ‘in to’ entail arrival).

Seme of the examples of εἰς where the

destination is a town or country (see above, paragraph 3) eould well be interpreted

in this way,

5,

and developed use of the same kind is

δὲ

μετ

> αἰ

- ‘to oatoh/find'

μεθ᾽ Exrepe . .7 φυιτου

c 2.0 ν

κυτέου

ἐκ

fepe.

v pire POTE

sequence: /

Q

575

U^ 35%

1.

μετὰ

beret

Consider

) 292

2X!

1

Marpox

Tov

δ᾽

dev

Edw

the following

Kv Swves

gé

θανόντα.

oh

κρείων

Evuydos

.

examples:

ἔναιον

lap δώνου

du

i

ῥέεθρα.

-255-

Λ 706

amps

/

λι9

aug)

2

)

These

^

»/

of

TE eru -

KpyTypa

are ell locative

enbedded

PATH

,

| ξρόομεν γγρωπέ

in force,

-—

ipa

θεοῖς.

(oes TE

w+

Oovlas | KEJAE Def -

and presumably

therefore

involve

expressions:

L(z(P(sIDES (OF) x...))) The sense of the particle in isolation, K(SIDES), has been inoorporeted

LOCATIVE

the

and EXTENT

of

stative

as

an

2,

into

verbs

PATH

expression,

are contextually

and

the

and

the

components

conditioned by the presence

interpretation

of

the

looation

involved

area,

Compare:

X 162 X175

/

περὶ

very Tt»:

UM

EME

> 31h v 187

πέρ...

1

135

>

vr

eee

TEppaaTet

mro,

|...

TX

~

wes.

/

διώκει.

\

»J

γέρον...

λαδαν

σπου.

MOV... TEP! by KS.

ec, / £4 To A vas

JE! WEps

~ To Xov.

féradrés

περὶ βωμόν.

In the first set we have ordinary (directional) PATH expressions:

P(SURROUND (OP) x...)

and in the

seoond,

embedded PATH

expressions:

L(B(P(SURROUND (GF) x,..))) Notice

that

gud;

interpretation

and

περί

are

all but

of SIDES is involved

synonymous when

the general

in the interpretation

of the

sense of the former (ef, Subsection C, ν(414) ), though ψμφί does

not

seem

be

used

»

T.

1,

to

ὠνώ

ΚΟ Τα

Consider first

ἐρχόμενον

Sm

BF δ᾽ γεν

p?

Cof

1 fov

ξένον

directional

expressions.

,

διὼ

ὁ φέαις.

ἀγγελέων

(αὐτὸν)

ἄγων

Sia δώματος .

διὼ

dana

oly epyyvd t

LM

o paja

jugis | weov

hi

Oven...

Ems ddev

In the first

PATH

the following:

7 40

A 600

in

set we have

S red

Torvuovre

£v CETTE

.

-

Wrodn

δ," ἦκα:

ἤνεμιοέσεαε:

ET ᾿ ἄλγεα... | Touts... διὼ Kpare pas [ dspuives.

simple

directional

PATH

expressions:

-255-

P(INTERIOR-x,..)

while

in the second

now familiar

set we have

a secondary

‘locative’

use of the

sort:

L(E(P(INTERIOR-x, ..))) 2,

Related

4143

K 101

τις

to the latter are the following

θεὸς

Sy

EMOVEVE

| VUMT od

temporal

ὅδ," ὀρφναίην.

καὶ Sid νύκτ Διενονν ἤδιωδι

py πῶς

examples:

tll Bats

though, according to Palmer (1962, p. 142), these retain rather strong

spatial

overtones,

could be interpreted

If this

is the case,

as directional,

the first

example

Otherwise both are

locational:

L(z(P(nrrERIOR-x,..)))

3.

E

There

545

are also spatial uses

"f

7?

A 75%

rod

IaA78

φεῦγον

Evpy

peer

Bat

Sia

involving

[Tv \itov

Ombéos

Si? Ἕλλαδος.

Sua

a partitive

yeains.

weSlorc.

genitive:

I Z

δ᾽

ἔγχεα

226

Again,

τωνύοντο

δύες.. .]

468

the first

μηλῶν.

δὼ

δάφμενος

ταν

ι 298

three

examples

contain

φαίζτοιο

simple

directional

expressions,

the second three, esdedded directional

In ell these

cases

the INTERIOR

in question

μύλου

δ,"

καὶ

Od

athecsue

ἀλλήλων

Ἥ

φληὸς

Sia

expressions.

is clearly

the

interiorepart of the object/place involved:

p( Ivrzaron(ar(x, ..))) L¢a(e( cmon Thus while

(ars, )) ))

the acousative

specifies x ‘as a whole’

as the area

traversed (x being conceived as a defined area or volume), genitive

limits

It implies

the area traversed

a more

notion

of extent

of some

object

as ἃ point,

direct

to the

path and carries

than the accusative,

is particularly

less

since

can be viewed as a very

This

‘interior

part’

emphasis

the of x,

on the

the interior-part

small area

indeed,

clear in exaaples where

even the

object traversed is obviously no more than a point en route (4.6, does not define the total extent of the movement) and where some further

goal

is specified

[55

διὰ n

EM

διὰ

δὲ

asi bos

or implied:

ἦλθε. .] καὶ διὼ θώρηκος... ἡρηρειέτο.

ora betpw

ZA adt

.

«257-

[

263

“A

διὰ

Σκαιῶν

Im ell these of the object any great

in question,

Where

two

2

> ἔχον

the interior-pert

extent because

involved, first

cases

»J

πεδίον

and this

IME

AE

e(L(P(nwrzRIOR(GK(x,..))

represent

))

‘at the middle'

cannot be viewed

of the physical nature

we might

ἤχους.

is the part

the goal is not actually

examples,

!

of the object

specified,

the

as possessing

phrases

as in the as

follows:

"to (e place) at (the end of a peth that leads) via the interiorpart

/ dit -phrase

The

realises

only

the PATH

of x’

expression,

as expected,

the presence of the other components, which are not realised, being

ἂς

onoe again

The uses

interesting.

oontextually

ef ve

amd

determined,

Xtra: im PATH expressions

are extremely

Like yp and down in English, these particles may

be used idiomatically

to refer to ἃ herisontal

path:

He walked up the roed, He

ran down

Neither

the platform.

the road nor the platform need be inolined

horisontal

in

such

cases,

The

sense

of both

seems

away from to

be

the

similar

to that οὗ alopg, with no appreciable difference in meaning between

then,

So in Homer we find examples

used with noms

denoting

‘lengths’

in the

of wed sense

and

oT

‘along’:

Ks» Ba δ᾽ ev’ odov. O 682

Kel θ᾽ ὅδον.

τω! ον

δι

/

Det

it is clear

that

the senses

of

«V

and

“(δέ

are much

more

general than those of English up and dowp in this kind of use, because

they are also used with nowns

»

»/

X

A 209

δ᾽

v

tEVel

... »

of

»

Z 505

δειίατ᾽ ἔπειτ᾽ ἄνω

ᾧ 23h

φέρων eve

A 276

ἔρχομενον

o 276

ΚΤ

e 113

>

KelTa

> οἷνov

Ke To

Op θρωτπτονς /

Tre λιν

OT paTOv

af

>

...

‘areas’:

—

Ἀχαιῶν.

/

ὥόδτυ.

δώματω \

Y

/

A

Vel

A

denoting

τόξον.

πόντον.

aha V

exero

hyo

WP. Cali-

/

mivTY).

Recall that the basio senses of phrases of the form

vd

κατ

plus

&ocusative (of extent) oan be represented as follows:

(

G(HIGH-ER)

P(x

) )

( θ(μσμ κα) x.) )

(cf. a(vii), peregrephs 5 and 5)

«259-

These particles

oan be used to describe

vertical movement,

but also

cases

not only cases

of movement

οὗ strictly

along a path or via

an area that is inolined to some extent away from the horisontal, It

is then

only ἃ small

metaphorical

step for

them to be used

in a somewhat

sense to describe motion in ἃ horisontal plane,

say ‘up’ and 'down' rivers:

7 / ἐνλέομεν...}

£259,

c ridens,

€ 4$

2 e)

\ Ko T«

τε

Once the

'horisontal motion’

use was

possible

for these partioles

to be reanalysed,

already discussed reinforcements

for a variety

of an accusative

the component

PATH,

with

established,

of other case

the loss

poov.

it would be

slong

particles,

the lines as simply

ending in the realisation

of their inherent

semantic

content ( G(HIGH-ER) and G(LOW-ER) respectively).

5,

There

ere alse

locational

uses of these

particles

accusative:

a

A

10

©

55

Vov6ov

Τρῶες

ἄνω

ὄγρατον

dva

πτόλιν

μένον:

A 386

dei

4.53

δόμιον

κάτω

kara Sols

Tad

-

omdifovre

Susy

/

MAK

wl

.

TZvovro

.

ν..

with

the

of

«260»

These similarly involve suppression of the literel 'up/down' sense,

and the particles

ef the accusative PATH,

The PATH

expressions

L(z(F(x,

may be seen once

ef extent

expression

in the familier

again as reinforcements

in the realisation

of the component

is embedded within EITENT

and LOCATIVE

way:

2)))

There is ἃ related temporal example involving ova

>

I.e,

!

ον yp

£ 80

!

VEME GAS

7s

\

/

φυγέειν κὠκὸν

»

οὐδ

)5

v

«ve

/

νυκτω.

‘in (the time that extends) for (the period that runs) via x'/ ‘during x‘

6.

The distributive use of «7«

not Homerio, ef. Chantreine, type

>

(the comparable use of ova

/

is

1955, p. 91) 16 also related to this

ef usage: / íxidvevro

A487

b 305

I.e.

J

JON Ketred

Mol Tox βωμοὺς

/ κλιδιας

| ἔδομεν

TE

/ VEdS

End Top

TE.

Ge.

*to/at (the place that extends) for/over (the area that leads) via (the totality of) x (conceived as a collection of individual

objects) *

e261

The members of x constitute the total affected area, but each is effected has more

individually.

to do with

aceusative

noun

Homeric

1.

ef this

Im the following

« resp

289

To

y '?-5

3

Ss

ὅλα M

the distributive

interpretation

the particle itself,

sense

of the

than with

the

at least as far as the

type of usage

are concerned,

exsmples:

κ΄

/

Sverre) c/

^

TEIXoS

ὠλάλησϑθεῚ

the PATH

after

of the partiole

examples

Ψ 227 M

the contextual

phrase

interpretation

Im other words,

UWE?

oid τε

Foss. δι

^

7v

2

e

OvNos

Ayidriapes

/

Opes

2

2

E.

whe

.

expressions may be represented:

P(SUPERIOR (OF) X oo

Im certain

instances,

that

the

area

specifying

ἃ geal

acousative

'beyond'

the

however,

noun

where

phrase

whole

is implied,

extent

does of

as in:

it is clear not the

from

designate journey

an

the context object

involved,

and

or where

«262»

[1478

we must

ὑπερ

prov A

OY

ἀκοὴ

allow for the embedding

GOAL and LOCATIVE

| ἔγχεος .

of the PATH

expressiem within

expressions:

e(L(P(SUPERIOR (OF) x oo) ))

"to (a place) at (the end of & path that leads) via the superior of x’

2,

There are also examples of Uc»

0382

rrt q^

Y 279

3 ’ £)Xxe'*?

The genitive

κύμα

sof í a

y

with the genitive:

bare (fus ...] vines ὑσεν To eov

C VW πέρ

’ὔ γωῖοωυ

2 4 Evi

here is clearly not partitive,

is presumably

to make it clear

concerned

is not involved;

realising

the

component

i.e,

, i7

>/., | E6Ty

since

κωγω 3o dr ε / "ξένη

its purpose

that contact between it is an ablatival

the objects genitive

SOURCE:

p( supeRron(L(8(x, ..,)) ))

‘wie the superior (located)

at (the end

of a path that leads) from x'

Because

we are dealing with

directional

expression,

SOURCE

static

expression

separation,

is embedded

the basioally

within

a LOCATIVE

The particle realises the components P( SUPERIOR).

It might be argued

-

that a goal

‘beyond’

is implied

in these

cases,

«265»

in which case the representation above would have to be embedded within GOAL and LOCATIVE expressions

35,

Bxemples

of ὕπο

of

o 349

€;

Wev

plus accusative

»/

7

ET!

[3

SpA dil J£ uw

7 259-60

a4 «^ el αἱ Θ᾽ vio Jv

These

are

LOCATIVE

/

\

simply PATH

straightforward:

2

vw

N

»

auyas

/

TodvKesros

€

.

Tt. 2

ὕπο δειρὴν.

πώλην

pacts

ἃ

€.

Y

c

\

/ > | av pw Tovs

expressions

7

néd1000

T? mb Adv

ὑπ᾽ xus

&udfiv

S 4o,

are

«>

(ove

E 267

2

(ef. paragraph 1 above).

l TIVUVTolt -

embedded within

EXTENT and

expressions:

L(B(P(DOPERIOR (OP) x,..)))

ho.

There are two related

temporal

examples,

both

of which

to involve the suppression of the component INFERIOR, second may well

retain

something

of a spatial

case we may be dealing with a simple

(though the

character,

directional

PATH

seen

in which

expression

of the form P(INFERIOR (OP) x, .) ):

I] 202

(ὠτειλάων) ἑἰς... ὠπειλεῖτε

X 102

of p

e

>=

ἢ

£KEAEVE

... Ἴρωδ,

\

Tec

Nor: πτόλιν

| Tov δ᾽ bo

n yv! Bucy.

c

4)

γδεισθα:] [

I.e,

νύχθ᾽ / 754

ὑπο

25 / hon.

*at (a time that extends) for (the period that runs) via x'/

'durinag'

iL s 1.

}

2.

Consider

the following:

A190

2

B 596

Orya

A 468

TÀEU2M,

y 431 These

δ΄ δε

5 BEV

λθον SOURCE

φήίγανον Jv Tad

£P vl epa E νος

παρ"

or

κύψαντι

Gos

Wal

Te

δὲ

ὀξὺ

Taye

Εὐρύτου Wega ?

Yo.

ὥγχαλιος.

rides

£e

paavby

Vines OTI

expressions may be represented:

S(SIDE (OF) x...) where SOURCE, in

2,

the genitive and where

isolation

has

case

ending is the realisation

the definition been

of the sense

incorporated

in

the

of the component

of the particle

usual

way,

There is an apparently specialised use of ups with the genitive

of personal nouns,

perhaps

involving

the suppression

of the component

Zmi

sfeor

E 452

Trap δ᾽ apd BN

παρὰ

41

Dro.

1.

Σὰ the follewing:

P 235

V EK oov

X»

oro

ὕπ᾽

loe

roro

7Τωῴφίων

Aldvras

θρόνου

ὥρτο

φέρο,το.

apidro.

EPUEN . .

S P bw? déribos chero κωλὴν lbfegv. e

Uy

the SOURCE

P?

5

/

|

AW yv oS

ε-

,

wmprovous

2

€

νον.

expressions may be represented:

S(INFERIOR (OW) x...) where has

the definition

of the

sense

of the partiole

again been incorporatedin the usual way.

in isolation

«266-

Summary Sections ef C apd D, Is Table

18 below,

the particles only

those

as discussed

components

of the particles an apparently

I list the componential

themselves;

thus,

use

expressions,

characteristically

I inolude

where,

directional

case

in the

for example,

of a partiole and which

element)

is determinable

presence of stative verbs, of the definition that

of the

the definitions

senses we have

which normally

appears

is still followed hy a

ending,

I assume

that

presence of the LOCATIVE element (and, where relevant, EXTENT

of

in the definitions

which are olesr]y inherent

locational

in directional

above,

definitions

from context

(e.g.

the

of the

from

the

eto,), and that this is not a part sense

fall

of the particle.

into

two

types,

It should be noted

those

containing

the

variable K, and those containing a specific locational/directional component.

The

former are

semantically

jnoorporated

into

expressions comprising a specific locational/directional

component and the representation of ὁ noun phrase (realised in isolation as an inflected (adverbial) noun phrase), while the latter are semantically ‘independent’ are

qualified by representations

ere not incorporated

into

them.

particles which gualify or

of adverbial Thus

noun phrases,

the former

acquire

but

a

locational/directional component in context, the latter contain such & component particular

inherently.

instance

The

is given after

range the

of values for K in any definition

of the particle

«267.

concerned, following the symbol /.

μετά

"

undi /

Thus the definition

For exemple:

L

(dat., gen.)

@,P

(ace. )

of the

sense

of the particle may be incorporated

into LOCATIVE expressions (realised as dative or (partitive) genitive neun phrases),

or into GOAL and PATH expressions (realised

as accusative nown phrases). one,

the

types

of

If the partiole is an independent

expression

with

which

it

can

co-ocour

after its definition, again following the symbol /.

fri

a

(n

appear

For exsmple:

/ © (ace.)

P(SURFACE(

/

@ (acc.)

Thus in the first case the definition of the particle is follewed by & separate embedded GOAL

GOAL

expression.

expression, Where

and in the

there

is a parallel]

L

(dat. )

/ G,P

(ace. )

this is indicated by (7).

Zable 16, ὠμφί

"

X(8IDES)

Ü

second by an temporel use,

«268-

ove

εἰ

1.

L(HIGH)

2,

G(HIGH-ER)

3,

Support P

1.

G(SOMB PLACE)

2,

Support 8

/L {

(dat. ) e

/ P

awo

1|

(aoco., gen.) (eoe. )

(aco, (?)) /8

(sen. (T)) (gen. )

διά

1

K(INTERIOR)

/P

ἔκ

1

Q(EXTERIOR)

/8

(gen. (T))

£v

:

K( INTERIOR)

/L

(dat. (T))

εἰς

:|

1.

K( INTERIOR)

/¢

(ace. (T))

2.

G( INTERIOR)

/9

(aco.

K(SURPACE)

/L

(date, gen.)

/¢

(ace.,

/

(ace.

ἐπί

i| 1.

P

X (eoe. (2), gen.)

(?T))

gem.) )

P(SURPACE( 5»

Support L

(dat.

he

Support C

(aeo. )

5,

Support P

(ace. )

6.

»(

/6

(T))

(ace. (T))

Kara

εἰ

f.

G(LOW-ER)

/¢

(aco. , gen. )

/P

= (ac0e., gen.)

78

pera

εἰ

1.

2, Tet pol :

X(MIDST)

(aen. )

{i

(dat., gen.)

/G,P

(acc)

P(MIDST(

/@

(acc. )

K(SIDB)

/L

(dat. )

/

(ace.

G,P

7 8

περ!

1

K( SURROUND)

{ /L / P

πρὸ

:|

c(amrmRIOR)

πρὸς

1] 1. E(PACE)

{’ L

dn

P(FACE( ὅς

Suppert

il.

Ρί

— /8

)

(gen.)

(dat., gen.) (aco. )

(gens) (date)

/@

(eco., gen.)

/¢

(ace. )

/¢

(aco., gen.)

¢

(ace. )

/€

(see.

(7)

Bj

ὕπέρ :| 1. K(SUPERIOR) 2, L Ἤτοι

/P 7 ν(8)

(aco.) ᾿ (sen.)

ὕπό

71.

(date, gen.)

/6

(ace.)

/P

(ace.

/8

(sen)

1

K(INFERIOR)

(T, - INFERIOR))

The Adverbial Particles τό and ἐπί,

1.

In this

section

I shall be concerned with

the uses

of the

partioles xo and Cm! as they appear in phrasal and compound verbs,

An ettempt

though non-literal relationship discussed

is made

and developed,

to the literal

in Sections

of morphemes,

whether

to a greater

or lesser

we

are

dealing

of morphemes

to demonstrate

with

a

degree

of the

syntagmatic

or compounds,

of idiomaticity.

continuous

whose meanings

senses

Most

collocations

these

bear a reasonably

spatial

C and D.

that

soale

ranging

in isolation

uses, systematic

particles

as

combinations are That

from

susceptible is to say, oonjunctions

can be straightforwardly

«27)4-

combined

to provide

the meaning

of the syntaga

'froszen', often gremmatically restrioted,

they form,

to

collocations (e.g.

kick the bucket), or compound items (e.g. headlong), whose meanings

are not analysable

apperent

syntactic

in terms

of the meanings

or morphological

constituents.

of their Since

combinations of particle and verb (whether collocations, as phrasal verbs, or genuine compounds) syntactic

varying

or morphological

degrees

of idiomaticity.

be concerned with case,

are

genuine,

relatively

semi-productive,

2,

where

of the whole

oan

hold

more

between

developed

the contribution

the English

particle up.

appear when

the particle

& verb

of

of being

The

affected

idioms,

senses

which,

in any

I shall concentrate

that are at least of the particle

to the

isolated,

of

To do this literal

functions

the analysis

particles

I take

meaning

and

is most

as a directional

(i.e.

of the that their

the case likely

of to

complement

movement:

He pushed up the window

by

I shall not

the kind of relationship

spatial

senses.

be

follows

before beginning

to illustrate literal

may

Greek.

of the particles

16 capable

abstract

they

In what

in Homeric

It will be worthwhile,

Homerio material,

do have an internal

unanalysable,

rare

primarilyon those uses

meaning

structure,

such

‘to a higher place’)

to

The

basic

meaning

may

then

be

extended

metaphorically,

as

in:

She brought up her childrem alone.

(1.6, "bring to maturity’ )

He turned up in Londom. .

(1.e. become epparent')

He dug up the facts.

(1.6. ‘cause to become apparent,

Wy, as it were, digging’) In each case predictable

the basic way;

sense

the first

has

been extended

is still

in a fairly

residually

directional

(children grow ‘upwards'), but their resultant condition is & new state rather than ἃ new location (vis, adulthood/Baturity). Similarly is & new which

in the second and third examples, state;

is 'up'

Still more

the extension is visible,

developed

He revved up the

even

senses

the result

is a naturel

in each

case

one in that something

conspicuous,

i.e.

‘apparent’.

appear in:

engine.

He turned up the volume.

Here

the sense

‘to a higher

*to ἃ greater/higher All

these

examples

& transition

degree’,

are

to a new

affected by the action of ‘perfeotivity’;

1.0.

place’

has been

i.e.

in some

'directional' state.

are all naturally that

the

to become

'inoreased',

in the sense

The resultant

the fact

extended sense

that

states

they involve

of the ται

associated with states

involved

the ides are

-2)5»

the results verb.

of an ection imputes

This becomes

most abstract

a nuance

inoreasingly

examples

οὗ perfectivity

apparent when we move

of the use of the particle.

to the

to the

Ultimately

wp is reduced to expressing little more than the notion *result

achieved’,

retained,

with very

Consider

little of the basic meaning

the following:

He boarded up the window,

(i.e. ‘cause to become to a result

(closed) by fixing boards’) He cut up the meat,

(1.9.

He shook up the cushien,

(i.e.

‘cause to become to a result

(in pieces) by cutting’ ) ‘cause to become to . result

(fuller/fatter)

Im sentences range

such as these it cannot be assumed

ef resultant

states

in fact metaphorical sense,

by shaking')

which

extensions

What we have here

that

the whole

seem to be expressed by up are of the primitive

directional

is a set of states which are

the

result

of carrying

out the action

described by the verb

ebjeot

in question

to its natural

conclusion,

from expressing motion along a non-horizontal the particle

comes

to express

from a beginning to a climax

That is to say, path to a goal,

the idea of progressing or result.

to the

gradually

It is the idea of

culmination that links these abstract uses of up to its literel uses,

The nature

of the olimax or result

in each

case is determined

-2]-

hy its context

of ocourrenoe,

for long emough

it becomes

meat persistently vigorously so on,

it ends

it becomes

In each

earried

up

conolusion

is depends

& possible

line

directional

toward

eye of the viewer;

viewer and

When a glass

a cushion

it was before;

and

of a process

the action has been what

context.

for these

exactly

Bolinger

suggests

probably modified

that most

is filled,

physical

the

acts

of closing

with

to of

level moves up

when a flow is suddenly ‘up’

that

uses:

meaning was

This associates

the notion

that

conclusion;

one hy the direction

take,

and also with

than

is the culmination

on the wider

completion the

if ome cuts

if one shakes

and fatter’

indicating

of development

the level rises,

to a window

But up by itself is little more than a

to its natural

"The primitive

boards

or 'blooked';

'in pieces’;

‘fuller

particle

through

the aspeotual

'olosed'

case the result

or repeated action, perfeotivising

If one applies

checked,

completion

a gap between

the

and arrest, eye of the

the thing viewed,"

(1971, p. 98) There

is clearly

range

of particle

As Bolinger

ἃ unifying uses

from

prinoiple purely

running

literal

through

to purely

the whole aspectual,

observes:

"Pundementally

the

two extremes

are akin,

There

is a deep-

seated

relationship between notions

inception,

completion

of direction

amd the

and position

of action,

like,

state,

on the one hand,

progression, end notions

on the other “ a kind of geometry

of semantics." (1971,

3.

p.

110)

Let us begin with an analysis of the uses of Yo in phrasal

verbs.

The most common

use is that where

there

is no overt

genitive noun phrase (realising a SOURCE expression) simply has its literal sense 'away/off' These

cases

are not,

is functioning complex

transitive

position,

generally,

There

verb,

»

A

gy

is a fairly free

€ 161

ἤδη

There

are,

literal

1

pev

p

however,

sense,

afl

TE

could,

and verb

cases

where

stand

the

in principle,

particle or

in pre-verbal

of particle

the partiole

it would be either

to supply.

cohere very tightly

& semantically

choice

verbs;

to a oopular

available,

be supplied:

ὡποπέμψω.

to supply ἃ genitive noun phrase anything meaningful

phrasal

).

At

OE...

but where

(1.0. G(SOME PLACE)

complement

and as such may

and ἃ genitive noun phrase

p 593

true

as a directional

and the particle

oonplete whole.

still retains

completely redundant

or very difficult In these

in the sense

its

instances that

to think of the partiole

they constitute

They are fully interpretable

without SOURCE

amy need fer further expression,

complementation

Im other words,

we have the beginnings

special

relationship between particle

of free

substitution

p "6

Ds τοῦ

B183

wwe

In the case

of other

§s ye

of

‘sending

‘taking off'

of the meaning

amd the possibility

disappears:

yes

off!

a gift,

as a SOURCE

clothes,

the

expression,

nature

of the phrase

it is hard

to see what

and in the

of the SOURCE

and this

that particles

to acquire

somewhat

perticular verbs,

,

δέπως

where do

does not need to be

in this

developed

Consider,

»2

§ reU

sort of use

senses

should

in association with

for example:

>

3

—

\

Evi χήλῶ.

might be interpreted to mean not simply ‘to some (other)

place’ but rather ‘out of sight'/'out of harm's way’. with (1.e.

certain the

verbs

the

completion

partiole

such as

seems

of the verbal

of an origine) state of affairs), with verbs

part

|

It is naturel

M25.

could

case

is really

specified,

begin

ef ἃ

vav βάλλε.

plausibly be supplied of

and verb,

particles

δῶρ᾽ Boro TÉ

in the form of a

νοφγέωι

to have

action

the sense

leads

Similarly, ‘tack*

to a restoration

This usage 16 most obvious

Ae

where

νῦν due

To(À py

the verb itself

xBE vus

involves

the idea of

affects

the interpretation

is also

common with verbs whose

the idea

2.

99

'restoretien',

of the partiole

εὔχετο

accordingly.

sense is merely

Tuv T^ amo

ἀὑπέτρωπε

αὖτις

are alse many

examples

to be purely aspectual,

meaning

T 230

μὲν

dev

There seems

QT ovo (rufi £v and But it

compatible

with

of restoration;

ὅ

Λ758

οἴω! | àv

dove

! | Saye

λωὸν

where

the

πιφαύσκων.

A Ogu.

sense

with very little

of the particle of the literal

retained;

ὃ μὲν

λάε

νεβρὸν

Vo

eov

(*eause to become to a result (dead) by choking’)

Oma

οὐδέ Kev £x dExcirovs... ἐνιωυτοὺ | £A we! ἀπωλθη 6€ Cbov (*eause to become to a result (whole) by healing’)

X432

SED

ὠτοτεθνηῶτος.

("become removed (from life)*) L6

οὐδ᾽ &p' Ὀδυσῆϊ...

μόρόγμον

ev)...

Διὸς

viov

OW OMTYUEN.

("cause to become removed (from life)*)

A522

apo Tepes δὲ révevre

καὶ bbtew

Ades... lax prs wry Aor

(*oause te become to ἃ result (flat) by orushing')

£v.

The particle

here

still

transition,

but

be inferred

from

consequence

of carrying

repetition)

verb,

the context;

some

means

however,

such combinations the verb

the affected

object

things

to

their

original

Taking

state

of

like

choice

Notice

exist

form,

sense

altogether,

This

(by perseverance

or

that result

‘death’; ‘choke

is

the whole phrasal to death’.

It

an aspectual properties

although

one,

determined by the

sense above

‘removed

from

scene’

at

cease

least

of

the to

‘removal’

of its

literal

aspectual sublimation. abstract

sense

involving

the

It is,

of

*xilling’,

exist

Consequently when «mo achieved’,

or

2

is a

‘away'. is

very fundamental

as it were,

its

is used in its most

of some

associated

person

with verbs

or thing. of ‘dying’,

For example:

>

ἀποκτείνω,

in

the result must be one

‘elimination’

eto.

-

of the particle

certain

representing,

most naturally

‘destroying’,

ἀποθνήσκω,

retains

sense,

‘result

‘removal’

therefore,

the primary function

ia

of

examples

general notion

it nevertheless

should

particle

natural development of the literal sense of the particle, In other words,

or

7 230 as an example, if

that in all the

is in some

to

the naturel

of perfeotivising

is to some degree

in question,

cease

the

action

from ἃ

in question has

case

‘to a result’,

something

that

resulting

of the result

out the verbal

animate being

therefore,

state

it is in each

interpreted as the

be noted,

the

the exact nature

to its conclusion,

one chokes naturally

expresses

}

e'ToÀA

7

UA,

ὠποφθινω,

ὠποφθινύθω.

he

‘There are also ἃ variety of uses of

verbs.

The most

cemon

type is that where

the sense ‘completely'/*thoroughly', or intensive development

adverb,

specification

'to (sone)

Comsider

7185

again be seen as a natural The use as a GOAL

expression

) generally involves the identification or of

spatial notions expressions

the particle bears

i.e. functions as a completive

This may once

of the basic meaning,

( G(SOMB PLACE)

τέ in genuine compound

a corresponding

are

SOURCE.

transferred

involved

When

to an abstract

these

basically

context,

the

could be interpreted:

end, (frem a beginning)’

=

‘oompletely'/' thoroughly’

the following:

οὗ μὲν ay T! Vet dh

rov Bai Ma | edel

erret

Lb nt Oa

("de fully placated') N113

οὕνεκ᾽ ἀτητίμηδε

Tolo

£a

Πηλεΐωνα .

('dishoneur utterly’)

[M5

rit

SE δ᾽ ὠνεχθήρω.

(*hate utterly'/'detest')

1j 202

ὠπεχ βώνεα,

δ᾽ ἔτι jue λλον.

("be utterly hated)

/ There are also cases where oo is compounded with a verb in & sense very close

to that of a simple negetives

«2805»

7

I &31

A

A^ uel ελ

dap /

Iso

of

7397

εἰ δ᾽ DAI

Again

the

Sé

K

>

cV)?

jf

f

29 Τα |

M

«7. ἐξ ,)7Χόὄν. Kats

OSE pubes

connection

'away from’

^

KATE >

with

somewhere

expressions

ááve

ζποείπη.

1.

Te be

is simply to be at any place which

is pot

in question,

1971, pp. 218-9;

is possible for

away

abstract

ἁφων

has been remarked

as meaning

2

στερεῶς

is apparent.

(e.g. Anderson,

at least,

TE

the basic meaning

the reference point (‘source’) SOURCE

2

frog

Leech, 1969, pp. 19.»»5).

to be analysed,

simply

The negativity of

upon by many linguists

‘not at'.

in certain

Compare

also

It

contexts the more

use in:

I am far from happy with this.

(I.e.

not at all happy)

In certain contexts in combination with verbs of ‘speaking’, ro has use

developed of

‘speak out’

He spoke

Presumably, residue uttered,

the

'freely'/'directly!.

in English,

out on the

subject

as far as Homeric

of the go

sense

literal

‘away fron'

of this partioular

spatial

is ἃ similar

as in:

of corruption,

Greek sense

the lips

use perhaps

There

is concerned,

there 16 some

in so far as words,

of the speaker.

originates

when

The development

in sentences

of the

type:

«281.

1509

Argent

μῦθον

airy ty Ewes

uv Bev

wb bw

x 575

rev

$5

pe

xr

omo t£

.

Éiv

ὠποείτω.

where the interpretation of ao is influenced by the supporting adverb ἀπηλεγέως. retention

of the associations

the adverb,

7T 340

From this we get the use of ὦπο alone with

H362

with

For exemple:

>

\

2

of UTa/p

ἔχε,

1

δ.

H M6. ὁ yap ἦλθε Compare

acquired when in combination

1

^

Wel (od v

»

./

Ed

741 06 υνὴν

καὶ LT,

2

d

ATEETE.

WEE im.

also:

ἀντικοὺ

δ᾽ wrod put.

beside:

d x22

γε 6:ν

p67

Presumably,

with

Ἀχαιῶν

i ἀγγέλίην

the establishment

was

originally

a simple

was

reanalysed

as

of this

collocation

a genuine

of verb

compound,

along

are gas be.

specialised

usage,

and directional the

lines

what particle,

suggested

earlier (see Chapter I, C, paragraph 8, and Chapter II, A, paragraph

25). A similar

reanalysis

is presumably

involved

in cases

such as:

-B2=

[ 26

γημιὴν δ᾽ Apytro:$

[7398

πολέων

ὠτοτινέμεν.

δ᾽ àmerílvvro

σονήν.

where the partiole has the sense ‘beck’ clearly a development particle

expresses

(see pp. 276-7).

(= 'requital'),

of the use described

the idea of

This is

earlier where the

‘restoration

of an original

state’,

The main difference is that in these cases

we are dealing with inseparable

compounds

rather

than with

collocations of verb and directional partiole (to judge from the absence

of examples

of verbs

of this

sort with

their

particles

in

tmesis). Finally, there

be interpreted

ι 51

ἔνθω

are

just

ἃ few

examples

as having an inceptive

δ᾽

ἀπο

ριξωντες

where

the

particle

can

force:

ξμεινώμεν

Ἠῶ

ὄζων.

(‘drop off to sleep'/'begin to sleep’) Sas

Ldap

δ᾽ ἀπε θωύμιω δ᾽

ὄνειρον.

(*begin to wonder'/ or: ‘wonder greatly’ ? )

Since the particle dre & reinforcement the

component

oan be used in literal spatial contexts as

for a genitive

SOURCE,

the interpretation:

"from (a beginning)!

it could,

case

ending

in the realisation

in an abstract

context,

of

acquire

«285»

and

so be associated with

type

the idea of inception,

of use are very rare,

however,

analysed straightforwardly as containing or

intensive

5.

Examples

of this

and many of them can also

be

cro in ἃ completive

sense,

"Turning now to the particle

ἐπί,

we again find

that

the most

common use is as ἃ locational/direotional complement to copular or complex

transitive

combinations

are not,

verbs,

of course,

particle

is prepositional

between

this and the verb,

4t is possible to the range

The vast majority

true phrasal verbs,

and there is no special Given

to interpret

in ἃ variety

of uses in evidence when

ó/rov

Α

555

98

οὐδέ

ἔσλη

τηῖ

μεῖναι

however,

many

examples

the sense is purely aspeotual, used im perfective tends

performance

the particle

is followed

»

2

πολλ

...| εἰ δα To!

ETE

Evo

kj

»

ἐπιθεῖόῳ.

-

‘destructive’

‘creative’

‘te a result’

verbs brings

of genuine

phrasal verbs where

While ^ro is oharaoteristically

function with

te appear with

esseciated with

of the context,

of ways oorresponding

ἐπωϊζσοντῳ.

Kar Bur’

There ere,

|

the

A few examples will suffice:

Onue

Tal

8°... Tui

since

relationship

the contribution

ἐπί

hy an overt (adverbial) mown phrase,

«140

of these

the nuance verbs,

of ‘removal’,

£m)

describing

and

is generally

an sotion whose

the affected

object

‘onto

the

so

soene'

in a state of completion,

availability for

some purpose,

as the aspectual

sublimation

( G{SURFACE)

order, eto.

readiness

for action,

This may perhaps be seen

of the basic GOAL

sense

‘onto’

):

p 266 Orylxayra

δέ οἵ αὐλὴ | row Kel) Goiyxoits.

(‘work to a result (a state of completion/perfection)* ) £6

óf

of πολλὴ

P

PR

Θεὸς

δ’ ἐπὶ

ἔργον

wvekn .

(*oause to become to a result (fruition) by nurture’)

A126

lacob:

δ᾽ οὐκ

ἔπεοικε

ya) Moo!

ταῦτ᾽ éxtyE pen -

(*oause to become to a result (together) by collecting’ ) Xn

panes

χγύνό᾽

Eweye pe.

(*oause to become to a result (alert) by waking’ )

In all these cases be inferred remains

6.

from

exact nature

the context,

‘in view'/'on

Ἐπί

the

is compounded

‘urging’,

‘desiring’,

zi 183

M Tov

ξ

Ὁ

392

the

>

»/

δ᾽

prude

but

of the result has again

in each case

the affected

object

scene’.

with a number

eto.

of verbs

of

'emoouraging',

:

» . Em bapovveovris \

L

Tor >

θνωος ~

»/

e

WITIÉTOÍ, \

»

NT

καὶ S’?é€uor... Gupss . .. | μᾶλλον

Keli

wWuUTCcOV

θυμός

| οἷον

O°...

’

Z. 439

YD

to

Exorovve)

»

ἔπη

yoy ov.

>

καὶ

weap

ἐφορμῶται

ED.

πολεμίζων.

The

sense of the partiole

here

seens

to be ἃ streightforward

metaphorioal extension of the basic PATH (+ GOAL) use (i.e. motion continuing 'onwards'

‘over’

(to or towards ἃ goal), namely ‘on'/

in the abstract

sense

of leading

someone

or continue im order to achieve a (non-spatial) purpose,

I regard

of examples possible

eas compounds in tmesis,

that they should be treated

Girectional there

these verbs

with the particle

particle.

result

is not a new

state

because

the semantic

of verb and

point

involved,

for the affeoted

examples,

of the absence

but it is at least

force

continuation of an existing state: In the following

objective or

as collocations

Certainly from

is something of a resultative

to persevere

of view

though

object but

the

rather

the

‘urge x (to go) on', eto.

however,

we are certainly

dealing with

compounds:

Ψ

»

αλλ

ó 587

Here

)

the PATH

sublimation; space

»7

do

2

/

2

ἔν)

ἔπιάιεινον

γυν

1

7

.

»

e

£u οιό»ν.

{Ε)οί.)ο, ὃ v 4

use of the partiole instead

continuing through

to

σ-ς

“(γέ

the particle

in these

K24

ἔσυσλήτω

To!

T

591

aKoven.

wpa ivy καὶ Evuss

δ᾽ ἐπιτολμάτω

o

« 353

examples

something.

its ultimate

of expressing movement

expresses time, involve The

receives

the idea

i.e.

durative

the notion

verbs

in

the

continuing

of action

of

aspect.

through

persisting All

'remaining'

following

aspectual

could

or

the verbs or be

'continuing' interpreted

«286-

in

ἃ

similar

Bass

fashica:

qure

Yi .. ἐπιφλέγει

E 816

σώ

HAS

βουλήν, ^j pa θεοῖδιν

though

ro,

προφρονέως

ἄσπετον

the exact purpose

A rether different examples

such

ἔρξω

αἱ"

ὁ 191

or

£v, uv

v 85

δ Ῥ

7?

of the particle

development

abstract

οὐδ᾽

ἐπικεύσω.

here 16 in some doubt,

of the PATH use is involved

KE lam , Σπη)νώῃ

in

.

daa En Evéhy

€£to.

bev

ὡπώντων.

where we seem to be dealing with state;

&vos

ἔφήνδανε.

as:

o 217

a new

ὅλην.

‘come

the idea ef a ‘transition’

to recognise’,

PATH notion,

and the verb

eto.

The particle

itself

te

expresses

expresses

the

the

state

(of knowledge) which is the GOAL of the ‘journey’. There

are also a few exemples where

a development

of the

LOCATIVE use of ἔν, is involved: 77 164,

Ov

δὲ

κηρύκεόδι

¥ 559

εἶ μὲν δ») μέ

KEXE vov |

κελεύεις

οἴκοθεν

οἶνον

aA

These verbs could be trenslated ‘mix more (wine)',

Em

|

Kolar.

Εὐμηλο

Em Sovvel.

‘give more (gifts)'.

«207.

That

is to say,

extension

we seem to be dealing with a fairly natural

of the

or *om top of*

spatial

another

relationship

to the more

of one thing being

general

'on'

idea of ‘addition’

or 'repetition' .ι 2

T.

For

reasons

the analysis

of

of the uses

that by discussing commonly

section,

is

impossible

of adverbial detail

the

treatment

such a treatment

that has received

that a great many

motions

such as inception,

learned

as a kind

learned

in

some

connection

senses

with

laid upon In particular

help to confirm support

oppositions completion

such

and orientation,

It cannot be entirely

set of particles

are used to express both

to do with

and

se on,

location,

accidental types

the

in this

of oppositions as

with

but it is hoped

could be built.

extension

concepts

continue

of two of the most

preliminary

linguistic

to

have been

would

duration,

of analogical

here

particles,

the foundations

comprehensive

hope that

impression

it

in some

used particles,

which ἃ more I would

space

are

first

movement

that

the seme

of relationship.

«288-

1

Block

semantio

capitals

are used throughout

compoments

and to distinguish

(which are underlined) quotation marks).

this

chapter

these from

to identify

lexical

items

and glosses (whioh are enclosed in single

For a general discussion ef

componential

analysis, see Lyons (1977b, Vol. I, pp. 517-35).

2

The availability

often

restricted,

since

can only be viewed Yor at

exemple, and

ef armies,

And if we were

The

3

Thus

advance

telking

enemy dropped

No attempt

is made

generally

if we were

stopped

tons

is in fact

sorts

of location

cirounstances, reject

the use of

presumably

discussing

there

as points the movements

to sav:

at

of aerial

5,000

certain

in certain

should not be viewed

it would be possible

Russian

of preposition

use of jp, though

reason why they

or surfaces,

that

ways

of countries

og, and require the

im space

choice

it seems

in certain

the names

is no logical

The

of a free

Jugoslevia.

attacks,

of high

we might

explosive

at a componential

analysis

say:

on England.

of the

senses

ef (adverdial) meun phrases in this chapter, relevant into

to the overall objeotive;

semantic

representations

since this is not

such items

are

simply

in their orthogrephio

where we are dealing with a general

representation

form,

entered or,

of several

phrases, as the variable x.

M

Por a general

discussion

of the applicability

ef location, direction and extent to time, 94-113).

of the concepts

see Bemnett (1975, pp.

Om the question of whether or not units of time may

reasonably be said to have interiors and so on, see Bennett (1975,

p. 117).

5

Note

property

that FACE

to the object

1s located er

6

involves

'at'

another

the attribution

rather that

of sn orientational

than a dimensional is viewed

one,

as an opposing

Ome ebject point,

area

mass.

This

is demonstrated by the mobility

The beat went

[eut slowly) "n

The beat

came

the shore.

out

fin slowly) "n

from

M

of the particle

to the shore,

in question:

This

is impossible

*The

boat

went

where we have

out

slowly

of

ἃ compound prepositien:

the

harbeur,

*fhe boat came in slowly to the harbour.

(exoept, of course, where ja is an adverb

' inwards!,)

7

In the representation

of the paragraph

of the Greek

examples

at the beginning

it would be necessary

to allow

for the embedding

of these basically

directional

expressions

LOCATIVE and EXTENT expressions,

8

Note

that

this

particular

somewhat metaphorical; *‘upstreem’

and

horisontal

rivers,

9

in the

‘downstream’

Alternatively,

within EXTENT or

(see Section B, paragraph 4).

example

of the use

same way,

English

of uses

in describing movement

we may simply be dealing with

Καγώ

the expressions

along

the suppression

ef the component SURFACE in the representation G(SURFACE), same way as we find the

suppression

of this

is

component

in the

in LOCATIVE

expressions.

10. Note that the orientational use of πρός plus the genitive, analysed rather differently im Section D, δ(11), paragraph 2,

=

eould equally well be analysed L(Pp(vace(¢(or(=,..)))))see no principled way of choosing between to observe

that the representation

the genitive more accusative.

1!

see Bennett (1975, p. 58 ff.)

12

A great many

combinations

prepositional verbs ef prepositional

particles;

work

discussed,

are

not

of ἐπί

involving more

the alternatives,

suggested brings

into line with the more

the

and

just

I cas exoept

the use with

or less parallel

use with

and verb are in fact

or less developed

these fall outside

senses

the scope

of this

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