South American Indian Languages: Retrospect and Prospect 9781477300251

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SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES

TEXAS LINGUISTICS SERIES

Editorial Board Winfred P. Lehmann, Chair Joel Sherzer Carlota S. Smith

SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES Retrospect and Prospect

Edited by Harriet E. Manelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark

University of Texas Press, Austin

International Standard Book Number 0-292-77592-X Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 85-51429 Copyright © 1985 by the University of Texas Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America First Edition, 1985 Requests for permission to reproduce materials from this work should be sent to Permissions, University of Texas Press, Box 7819, Austin, Texas 78713. For reasons of economy and speed this volume has been printed from camera-ready copy furnished by the editors, who assume full responsibility for its contents.

Contents

Introduction

Harriet E. Manelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark

3

Part I. Indigenous Languages of Lowland South America 1. Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region: Current Status

Ernest C. Migliazza

17

2. An Emerging Tukanoan Linguistic Regionality: Policy Pressures

Arthur P. Sorensen

140

3. Indigenous Languages of Lowland Ecuador: History and Current Status

Louisa R. Stark

157

4. Indigenous Languages of Lowland Peru: History and Current Status

Mary Ruth Wise

194

5. Panoan Linguistic, Folkloristic and Ethnographic Research: Retrospect and Prospect

Kenneth M. Kensinger

224

6. Some Macro-Je Relationships

Irvine Davis

286

7. Nambiquara Languages: Linguistic and Geographical Distance between Speech Communities

David Price

304

8. A Survey of the Carib Language Family

Marshall Durbin

325

9. Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships

Aryon D. Rodrigues

371

10. The Present State of the Study of Brazilian Indian Languages

Aryon D. Rodrigues

405

Contents

vi

Part II. Indigenous Languages of the Andes 11. Ecuadorian Highland Quechua: History and Current Status

Louisa R. Stark

443

12. Southern Peruvian Quechua

Bruce Mannheim

481

13. The Quechua Language in Bolivia

Louisa R. Stark

516

14. A Critical Survey of the Literature on the Aymara Language

Lucy Therina Briggs

546

15. Dialectical Variation in Aymara

Lucy Therina Briggs

595

16. Aymara and Quechua: Languages in Contact

M. f. Hardman

617

17. Contact and Quechua-External Genetic Relationships

Bruce Mannheim

644

Part III. Indigenous Languages of Southern and Eastern South America 18. Current Status of Argentine Indigenous Languages

Harriet E. Manelis Klein

691

19. History of the Quichua of Santiago del Estero

Louisa R. Stark

732

20. Indigenous Languages of Tierra del Fuego

Christos Clairis

753

21. Mapuche Dialect Survey

Robert A. Croese

784

22. Indian Languages of the Paraguayan Chaco

Harriet E. Manelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark Index

802 847

SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

Introduction Harriet E. Manelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark

This

book had

its

inception

held

in con jun ct i on with

as a two-part

the

annual

m eet ing s

A me r i c a n A n t hr op o lo g i ca l

A ss o c i a t i o n

1978.

e ng e nd e r ed by

Given

ssions,

the

arti cle s several

the

interest

editors

decided

and materials, years

of further

in

result

effort

of the

1977 and these

to solicit

the

sym po s iu m

se­

addi tio nal

of which

is this

after

co l l e ct i o n

ofessays. The

current

Indian the

state

languages

last major

pear ed

in

the

Indian 1958;

several

Key

M c Quo wn

1979;

1955;

and Vo ege li n

(Greenberg Lo ukotka

Swadesh 1977),

(Suarez

1974),

a brief

on the native

of

Tovar

summary

and

of

lan­

been p u ­

South Am eri ca n Ibarra Grasso

1961;

of broad

1972),

languages

region of

have

[original

one volume

(Matteson et al.

time,

the native

there

1960;

1968

1964;

studies

dies

then

ap­ of

in the world,

cla ssi fi c at i o ns

languages

that

"...the

c o nc er nin g

Since

H and b o o k At

as

dive rsi ty

ignorance

since

Alden M ason which

South Amer ic a

( 195 0:163)."

blished

c o n s i d e ra b l y

Indian Languages.

linguistic

greatest

guages

a dvanced

of South Am eri ca n

1950 in volume VI of the

des cri bed

greatest

has

study by J.

South Amer ican M ason

of know led ge

1935]; V oe g el i n c om p arat ive

a useful

o v e rv i e w

of d e scri pti ve

of Latin A mer ica

stu­

4

Harriet E. M anelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark

(Grimes

1968),

and a y early b i b l io g r ap h y

(B i b 1iographie

Americaniste: Linguistique

Amerindienne). provide

the

current

status

America,

that

However,

read.er with of the is,

the

republican b oun d a ri e s purpose, as

the

therefore,

s peci al ize d

This volume of Native Assess men t (1979) Mexico,

region

south

of Panama.

and J.

the

reader with

present

is our

general

this

as well

information.

in many ways

Histo ric al

of South

of the It

do not

on the

languages

to provide

focuses

data

Indian

edited by L.

which

p ub li c a t io n s

det ail ed

c omp l e m en t s

America:

these

The L ang uages

and Co mpa rative

Campbell

on Canada,

and M.

Mithun

North A me ric a

S u a r e z ’s T h e M e s o a m e r i c a n

and

Indian

Language s ( 19 8 3 ). The

articles

chronic

and di achronic,

sections sion: The

which

Lowland,

divi sio ns

t ra dit ion al g eogr aph ic

or language agreed

adopted

thereby

In Part reflect families

a geogra phi c

divi­

the

families

despite

specialists

grouped

we have

to be

found

Nort her n Amazon,

since

d ecided

a culture

over

area

on

This typo­

linguistic languages

c o n s i st e n tl y to utilize

an

inadequacies. present

of languages in Low land

become

distinctions.

to any

obvious

Cone.

are based

i ndividual

I of this volume we

the d iv er sit y

and

arguments

ac cording

its

Southern

those which have

avoids

syn­

three

Furthermore,

has not

both

into

than cultural

upon criteria,

area model

org anized

and

are

area

rather

still

are

Highland,

of culture.

re search

in this volume,

follow roughly

among

cl as s if i c a t i o n logies

included

papers

and

South

which

language America.

d efined

The

by Galvao

Introduction

(1960) been bal

and

a cculturation.

but

This

from continuing

freque ntl y

guage

is a region which has

spread

or

linguistic

on the

presence

in this

resulted This

has

of Arawakan, as well

r est ricted

a major

Cariban,

the

more

Jurua-Pu rus

diverse

are

un related

and Panoan,

found as well

large

the

15th century

indigenous

the national

a century

tribes

and

region

of Venezuela;

were

85 ethnic

century the

languages

time

groups

today.

Spanish

spoken

But and

by other

in

such

the

r esulted

languages.

For

there were more

than

are

in

indigenous

society have

today there at

of

numerous

in the Rio- Bra nco

in lowland Peru; of the

language

languages

Indian

ago

In this

families.

slavery

groups

in the ex ti n c t io n of many over

are

warfare,

of native

or into

example,

l in g u isti cal ly

even more

than they

as disease,

a s simi lat io n groups

the

but

for Brazil

a large va rie ty

language

South A merica were

factors

is

two major

as

and small

H i storically, Lowland

by Galvao

area,

and

d istribution,

than the Northern Amazon.

region Ara wa ka n groups,

culture

There

as many

generally excl us ive ly Amazonian.

as

im­

picture.

which

defined

degree

absorp­

with

The Western Amazon,

hostile

in l an ­

languages are

a more

about

large

had

linguistic

region,

come

conco mit ant

languages,

contem por ary

a massi ve

and

intertri­

sometimes

death.

adaptation,

pact

T up i-G era l

which

of

has

contact,

language

of individual

degree

process

friendly,

tion

is

(1948),

cha r a c te r i ze d by a high

largely

of

Steward

5

35

Ri o-O r i n oc o

only

20.

There

the be ginning of the today

there

conquest

are

63.

of Ecuador

And there

at

6

Harriet E. M anelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark

were

30 Indian

However,

even with

the Lowland languages Part

area,

spoken

settlement

policies peoples

Catholic

In

had been

the

carried more

language, late

South

Incas,

as

and

many

the

Under

the

forced d i s ­ of economic

of the

indigenous or m u l t i ­ period

to learn

spoken by the

prestige,

it was

the

as their most

r ei n forc ing

-- and

all

Given

three

that

Quech ua

Inca , and thus

language

important

chosen

contact

its dominance.

Thus

1 5 0 0 fs Que chua became

the most

language

and has

Today Pu qu ina

p robably

extinct.

In the Ande an the past

remained

region,

Q uec hu a

h i st o r i c a l l y

our

times

mi ted number

ru,

area.

both

there

far more are

some

of speakers Related

spoken

two major

in the

languages

to Aymara central

for

indigenous

languages.

to be

is

been

There were,

still

by

important

there have

and Aymara.

course,

Ande an

then,

five h un dr e d years

languages,

own

so.

the

"lenguas

and Aym ara

century.

the

evangeliza­

colonial

Qu ech ua

This

the

bil in gua l

required

language

in

indigenous

America.

a result

became

sixteenth

thus

on the

c h a r a c te r i ze d by three

were

Spaniards

languages

170 native

focuses

during

twelve.

in Brazil.

Spaniards,

-- Puquina,

in the

still

clergy,

groups

fact,

priests

are

its m ult il i ng u a li s m .

region was

by the

are

spoken

of the Andes

generales"

the

for

of the

lingual.

early

there

there

of so many

in Hi ghl and

of Indian

Jesuit

loss

p r o g r a m of the

tion of the

Andean

today

II of this volume

is noted

persal

the

cu rre ntl y

languages area

languages;

Even

with

found

are Kawki h ighl and s

of into

a li ­ in the

and Jaqaof Peru.

Introduction

Un re l a t ed

to any of the

are Uru, Ch ipaya via. but

spoken

in the Lake

in the

There their

languages

Carrangas

m e n t i on e d

Ti ticaca

district,

district

both

or re -di s c o ve r y

and

in B o l i ­

indeed may be other Andean

dis covery

above

languages

has

still

to be

ac c o m p 1 i s h e d . Q u ec h ua thonous

or Quichua

language

an ywhere

is still

of the Americas,

between

seven

It is a very dis per sed

sulted

in many dialects.

separate fact

to defining languages

that mutual

difficult,

single

B]

and

has

dialects

in spite

I [also c a l ­

[also called

Quechua

to Quechua

much work has certain

lacunae

in the

terms

Quechua],

ove rv i ew of the

and Aym ara have

of many

and this

In Quech ua

( 1964 ) and Gary

that

the

origin

Parker

in the no rth ern of Peru.

More

in turn

attracted

the

case

there has

during been

the work of Alfredo ( 1963 ).

of Quechua was part

to Que­

be they A mer i c a n

is es pec ia lly

rero

due

language.

always

linguists,

interest, in ad vancing

which

as a

been done

Peruvian

[Colombian

as

of the

in regional

much

H i ghlands

is any

of n orthern

twenty years.

but

there

re­

is sometimes

to refer

Although

a general

or Eu ropean

II

and has

language

the att ention

Cuzco,

and

spea­

of syntheses

Both' Quechua

the past

prefer

this volume

Inga

precludes

clear

and Quechua

of the

absence

chua

c ertain of these

is not

linguists

on Quechua,

the

whether

i n te l l igi bil ity

language.

coverage

language

But,

autoch­

today nu mbe ri ng

esp ecially b et ween Quechua

led Qu echua A] , most

largest

and eleven m illion

kers.

adva nta ge

the

not

They propos ed in the

of the

recently,

To­

zone

of

Central

Torero pro posed

7

8

Harriet E. M anelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark

that

the

coast,

origin

from which

Highla nds sing

wi del y with

even

a Jaqi

spoken

b e twee n

Dialect

the An de an

is the

language and

in A ymar a

discus­

d i re c t i on region

and

take

second most of

South America,

2 m i l l io n

indicate

areas,

and

seem to be

indigenous

III do not

belong

speakers.

that

that

there

recent

s p read ing

are lan­

ou tward

languages

or Amaz on

feature

is the

Southern

Cone

language

groupings,

or which

can be cl ass i f i ed

some

from

ch ar ac t e ri ze d

by a paucity

languages

nor

located

as

languages

are

of

little

known

isolates.

isolates

of this

known

in Lowland

as

of the

number

language and

Rather,

of speakers.

languages

as well

large

in

language

languages

of which

both

as de tai led

areas.

of the

r el ati vel y

A ddit ion all y,

indigenous

di sc us s e d

to any of the major

of the Andean

the d i s ti n g u i s h in g

the

ar ticles

duration,

language,

two dialect

of the

families

on

to the n o rt h e rn

Bolivia.

Most Part

on the P er u v ia n

further.

1.5 mi l l i on

inn ovations

La Paz,

with in

indigenous

studies

ba si ca l l y guage

intensity,

s.

Aymara,

c arried

In this volu me

o f c onta cts

argument

language was

it was

( 19 74 ).

the nature,

spread the

of the

are Resear ch

re gio n

studies

is not

of those

and H igh la nd

South

Ame r i c a . In a ddi ti on guage

families

in hav ing has

spread

and

large

zil,

to the m ul t i p l i c i t y the

Southern

an indigenous to encompass segments

Bolivia

of

and

size

of

lan­

Cone

is rather

unusual

language

- G uara ni

- which

an entire

its

na tion

contig uou s

and Argentina).

(Paraguay)

borders

In Paraguay,

(Bra­

both

Introduction

Gu ara ni

and

guages

Spanish

are

is predom ina nt

G u a ra n i

is

regions.

the predominant

wide ly

spoken

large migrant

is now also

receiving

places

two c ountries languages boring At

balance

of this

of the

languages

it was

and

resear ch

volume.

there

parts

sented,

indeed

mation.

Brazil

scant

there

on

For

other hand,

a ttention

man y

or are

specialists

fields.

The h e t e r og en e it y

include

con­ lan­

far more

the Andes h ea vi ly

overlap of the

and

repre­

in i n f or ­

languages

and parts such

all

found,

areas,

of

as Chibch an

carried in their

included out

are

during

respect iv e

of contrib uti ons

interests

organi­

sufficient

which we have

decade by

of

slighted.

fieldwork and research

the par tic ula r

to

We have

are more

families

the past

sent

in the

example,

the Guyanas

as entire

and in n e i g h ­

others

some

es­

in these

some kind

was

for

is even

The m aj o r i t y of works based

a recent

Gu ara ni a n

on c er tain

whereas

Guara­

and Argentina.

that

simply not

writ ten

Bolivia,

as well

receive

is

of the Amazon

On the

of Colombia,

hoped

Our hope

been done.

c er tai n

Brazil

of South America.

families,

has

Other

could be m ai n ta i n e d

temp ora ry m aterial guages

fact,

in Par aguay

of Bolivia,

outset,

that

In

to

Brazil

of these

15).

zation

however,

numbers

(Albo

spoken

due

from Paraguay;

workers.

1979:

rural

language

G ua ra n i speakers

regions

regional

in the

is now co nsi de r ed

indigenous

large

whereas

one m illion

are also

the

G uar ani

lan­

sanctioned.

areas,

language

p op ul ati on

speaking migrant

timate

in urban

In Argentina,

the most

ni

as national

and b i l i n g u a l is m is o ffic ial ly

Spanish

the

r eco gni ze d

9

repre­

and theoretical

bia­

10

Harriet E. Manelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark

ses

of their

priori

authors

framework.

overall

patterns

particular following (1)

the

and

do not

Neverth el ess , that

are

articles

that

focus

Stark pp.

802-845)

or

pp.

140-156,

303,

Briggs

of

phical

area

Wise

pp.

are

it

c onc ern ed with families

in the

pp.

325-

(Rodrigues

the

languages pp.

pp.

732-752,

(b)

3 7 1—

644-688). and current

of a parti cul ar 17-139,

0£

194-223),

pp.

geogra­

Stark pp.

a p a r ti c u la r

304-324,

Stark

M a n n h e i m pp.

of

15 7— lan­

pp.

443-

481-515,

784-801).

state

focus

Briggs

on the

pp.

and

been

to be done

areas

research in the

group

state

of

(Kensinger

546-594).

of knowledge,

that

current

language

discussed.

sug ge sti ng

field

and

the h is t or y

the hi sto ry

on

on a p ar ti cul ar

is hoped

D urbin

focus

is still much

and

Klein

(Sorensen

that

regions we have

cies

family

286-303,

Co n s i de r a bl e work has

present

405-439,

753-783,

M a n n h e i m pp.

(Price

224-285,

there

pp.

pp.

617-643,

Those which

research

(Rodrigues

state

pp.

pp.

516-545,

current

language

(Migliazza

family

(4)

pp.

(a)

area

pp.

language

Those

Croese

In

595-616).

that

H ar d man

status

Davis

pp.

Those

or more

480,

book.

of a

Clairis

guage

in the

certain

on the

691-731,

193,

are

the

Klein pp.

(3)

any a

may be c l a ss if i ed by

linguistic

404,

there

evident

part icu lar

one

into

themes:

Those

(2)

fit

accom pl ish ed, for

each

but

of the

By taking

stock of our

rev ea lin g

its

for will

future be

library.

deficien­

in vestigation,

s t i mula te d With

the

both

Indian

Introduction

languages

of South A merica

m in g

rate,

ried

out

it is

before

imperative they become

promote

interest

just

the Handbook

as

inspired

dying

in this

pa ra tio n

research be c a r ­

extinct.

If we

through

of South A m eri can

our own gen eration

a n th r o pol ogi sts ,

off at an a l a r ­

that

field

11

can

this

book,

Indians

of linguists

and

then we will

feel

that

its

pre­

and pu blication will

have

been more

than

justified. In the

o rganization

and p lanning

ral volume

a number of people have

their

and assistance.

like

time

to thank

Gertrude

Hunte,

Robert

Sherzer,

and Katherine

their highl y also

Brezin

tions which tions.

from the Mont cla ir ment

Fund

and

the

us of we would

Suzanne

Goscinski,

Our

special S. Klein

Joel

thanks for We

of the various

us to reprint

ap peared

Pam

assistance.

the editors

we grat efu lly

a gene­

Starkweather,

technical

allowed

or iginally

Finally,

Janet

and Herbert

to thank

journals who have

Bork,

Sherer

Young.

appreciated

like

Kathy

Susan

Pergolizzi,

go to Jonathan

w o uld

Dole,

given

In particular,

Javier Albo,

Comer,

of such

contribu­

in their

publica­

ac kno wledge

State

College

Faculty

Social

Science

Research

support

Develop­ Council.

REFERE NCE S Albo,

Xavier.

1979.

Panorama

Centro y Sud America. tion of the Nations Kloss Les

lu_ Lingu ist ic C o m p o s i ­

of the World,

and G. McConnell,

Presses

de

So c i o 1 i n g u f s tico de

e d s ., pp.

l ’Univer sit e

Laval.

vol. 9-34.

Ill,

H.

Quebec:

12

Harriet E. Manelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark

B ib 1 iographie enne.

L i n g u i s t iq u e . Lin gui st i q ue

Journal

of the

Societe

A mer ind i-

des A m e r ica nistes

(Paris) . Campbell,

Lyle

Languages

and Mar ian ne

of Native

Mithun,

eds.

1979.

The

America:

H i st or ica l

and

Austin:

U niv e r s it y

of Texas

parative Assessment.

Com­

Press . G a l v a o , Eduardo dígenas

do Brasil:

Paraense lem:

Eneas.

Emilio

Conselho

Nacional Greenberg,

1960.

1900-195 9.

Goeldi,

Nacional

de Pesquisas Joseph

H.

of Central

In Men

and Cultures:

ed.

de

in ­

Bol eti m do Museu Serie

8,

Pesquisas,

1-41.

Be­

Instituto

The General

South A me ric an Selected

Congress

Sciences,

Philadelphia:

culturáis

da Amazonia.

and

I n t erna tio nal

and Et hn ol o gi c a l

Nova

1960.

cation

Fifth

Areas

Languages.

Papers

of the

of A nt h ro p o l o g i ca l

Ant hony

U ni ver sit y

Classifi­

E.C.

Wallace,

of Pe nn sy l v an i a

Press. Grimes,

Joseph.

1968.

I be r o -Ame ric an

Linguistics . ^n Current tics, The

vol.

Hague:

Ibarra Grasso, Americanas. Key,

Mary

4, Thomas

Sebeok,

in L i n g u i s ­

ed.,

pp.

302-309.

Mouton. Dick Edgar. Buenos

Ritchie.

Am e r i ca n

Trends

and C ar ib bea n

1958.

Lenguas

Indígenas

Aires.

1979.

The

Indian Languages.

G r ou pin g

of South

Tubingen:

Gunter

Nar r . Loukotka,

v / Cestmir.

1968

[original

fication

of South Am eri ca n

Johannes

Wilbert,

can Center,

ed.

U nive rs ity

1935].

Indian

Los Angeles:

Classi­

Languages . Latin A m e r i ­

of California.

Introduction

McQuown,

Norman A.

1955.

of Latin America.

The

Indigenous

13

Languages

Am er i c an A n t hr o p o lo g i st

57.3:

50 1-570. Mason,

J.

Alden.

rican ans,

1950.

Indians.

Handb ook

VI: 157-317.

Bu lletin

143.

Printing

Office.

Matteson,

The Lan gua ges of

Bureau

et al.

of Am eri ca n

1972.

in Am eri nd i an Languages. Parker, los

Gary.

1963.

dialectos

cional Steward,

(Lima)

Indians tin

III.

143.

Ha ndb oo k

Bureau

of

of Am er i c an

1974.

Mouton.

genet ica de del M useo

Na­

South Ame ric an Eth nol og y

D . C . : U.S.

South

Bulle­

Government

A meri ca n

Maurice.

Surveys.

1963.

1964.

les Cientif ic os

Indian Languages. Cambridge:

Cam­

Press. D i sc u s s io n

A nt h ropo log y

Alfredo.

Indian L a n ­

Brittanica.

The M e so a m e r i ca n Language

U niv ers ity

Current Torero,

1948.

A.

1983.

Swadesh,

Revista

In E nc y c l op a e di a

Cambridge bridge

Hague:

Studies

Office.

Jorge

guages.

G ove rnment

241-52.

Washington,

Printing Suarez,

32:

Julian.

U.S.

La c l a s if i ca c i ón

I n di ­

E th no log y

Comp ara tiv e

The

quechuas.

Ame­

South Amer ica n

Washington,. D.C.:

Esther

of South

de

4.3: Los

and criticism.

317-318.

dialectos

quechuas.

la U n i vers ida d A g r ar i a

Ana­

2:

466-78. 1974. na. Tovar,

Lima:

El quechua y la his tor ia U n iver si dad

Antonio.

Am eri ca

del

ame r i c a n a .

1961. Sur.

Ricardo

C atalogo

Buenos

de

Aires:

social

andi­

Palma. las

lenguas

Editorial

de

Sú d ­

14

Harriet E. Manelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark

Voegelin, cation York:

C.F. and

and F.M.

Voegelin.

1977.

Classifi­

Index of the W o r l d ’s Languages.

Elsevier.

New

PARTI Indigenous Languages of Lowland South America

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

1. Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region: Current Status Ernest C. Migliazza

I NT R O D U C TI O N Pu b l i sh e d

surveys,

c l as s i f i ca t i on s or another, indigenous pr o f u s i o n

been proven;

taxonomy several

tion.

This

up-t o-d ate languages

the

paper

still

2

to:

the

language

de­

which

failure

m i gr a t i o n

periods to take

and

the cove-

into

extinc­

to present

of t wen ty- thr ee

spoken

of

a f fili ati on s

h ist o r i ca l

endeavors

assessment

in one way

is due

and

area

in co rp o r at i o n wit hin

hundred years; change,

culture

status

this

genetic

of different

cultural

and fail,

of tribal

c o njec tur ed

same

Ame ric a

In part

and c onf usi on

not

maps

the current

languages.

have

account

of South

to present

signations;

ring

linguistic

an Indian

in the^reg ion s urro und ing

the A m a z o n - O r in o c o watershed. Most

of this

area

forest;

there

Brazil,

V e n ezue la

indigenous across that

are,

however,

are

national

the various

ritories.

not

savannas

frequ ent ly are

in different

due

national

tropical

(see Map

boundaries,

to the

rapid

societies

Such penetration,

circ ums tan ces ,

natural

though

undergoing,

s o c i o - c u 11ura 1 change of

with

and Guyana meet

populations,

several

all

is covered

into

an

where

1).

The

spread

similar

in

degrees, penetration their

as e vid enc ed

only creates

rain

ter­

in other

irrev ers ibl e

RIO BRANCO-RIO ORINOCO REGION

BOUNDARY SAVANNAH RAINFOREST

MAP 1.

Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region

state and

of

inter dep end enc e

indigenous

fects

the

be twe en

populations,

c ontinued

usage

but

the

"pion eer ing "

also

of local

19

a dve rse ly

a f­

Indian

1anguage s . The

tribes

(1960)

of this

as part

area,

are

kable

cultural and

d i verse

local

of basic forest

features

tribes.

u ni fo r m with

a cc ord ing

level

used.

village The

extended

brought

ferences

wi thi n

there

in relative endoga mou s obse rvi ng tend lect.

the

are

are

of

about the

to marry

still

and

groups

is

of

except still

labor

where

is

of the dead Tradi ti ona l

for h igh ly active,

a basic

accul-

with unit

au tonomous

the and

the

unit.

of Eu rop ea n c o l o n i z a ­

a " leveling"

tribes

fishing.. is fairly

uncommon.

of dialect

of this and

are not

"dialect"

tribal marr iag e

among

Only when

ec on omy

C r e mati on

languages

they are

their

tropical

the Yanomama,

family as

isolation who as

of

a ppa r e n tl y

by all

hunt ing

one h un dred years

tion has

ever,

that

Division

as the politi cal ly last

is s ug gestive

of the

systems,

communities,

m atri l o c al

show r e m a r ­

on s l a s h- a n d- b u rn h ort ic ulture,

and end oc a n n ib a 1ism are not

turated

culture

This

subsist enc e

to sex and age.

s oc io- pol iti cal

by Galvao

somehow m a ni f es t a ti o n s

the exception

less

they

shared

by gathering,

tech nol og ica l

is

are

Amazon"

yet

fact

systems

Their

based

s u p p l e m en t e d

pott ery

origin,

homogeneity.

adaptive

c la ss ifi ed

" Northern

also of the

e s se n t i a l l y

The

of the

of diverse

contact

region,

those who

the comm uni ty

area.

dif­

How­

segments

of tribes

as much

"village"

endogamous. rules,

speak comes

local

their

While people

own d i a ­

into pe rmanent

20

Ernest C. Migliazza

contact

with,

society,

or is

integrated

into,

the nat ional

do dialect

b ou nd ari es

cease

to be barriers

In other words,

among

the

to gene

flow.

of this

area

hy pothesis lect

there

is still

sug ges ted

by Hill

tribe" may have

de mog raphic There

been

o rg a n iz a t io n

are n ot i c eab le

which

from dif fu si o n

rather

than

features

co nst it ute

these

languages

There

are

also

1. There

(1977a)

are ergative

of the

man. features

languages

shared,

of this

and cen turies

region

of contact

These

areal

s ug ge st ing

are part traits

patterns

of a 1 inguis tic

of typolog ica l

to that

pattern

common that 4 area .

interest:

of disc ou rse

redun­

d e s cri bed by D er bys hir e

for a few Ara wak languages

pa ttern

the Verb,

The

languages,

and have

in which

(0-V).

the O b j e c t o r 3.

unit

for Hishkaryana.

2. Except

phrase

a sig nif ica nt

relationship.

is a common

dancy similar

"dia­

by the

genetic

the

that

linguistic

degrees,

supp ort ing

(1972:314)

of ancient

in various stem

evidence

a bo rigines

in these

formal

to a relative

a p posi tio n

and n o m i n a 1 ization

precedes

precede

d i st i n ct i o n

languages,

equivalent

verb

(S-O-V or 0 - V - S ) .

A lack of a c ti v e- p a ss i v e

is also no tic e a b le

Object

can either

follow the Verb

others

a trans iti ve

the nominal

Subject

all

clause

and

form ati on

rather

the is by

than

embedd i n g . At ges over

the

spoken

time

in this

a cen tury

tribes

and

of discovery,

region were

ago,

languages

t w enty -th re e

the

there were (see Map

indigenous

indigenous

langua­

indeed numerous; still 3).

languages

about

Today, are

fifty

only

still

spoken

Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region

(see Map

2).

speakers,

One

of these has

and three

others

only

have

two

fewer

21

survi vin g than

twenty

speaker s e a c h . A co m p a ri so n

between Map

lack of n ot i ce ab le last

150 years,

Y a no m a m a west,

and

tribes.

languages

during

of the

g e ne t i c a l l y

time

into

families;

Yanomama,

addition,

a few languages

or yet

fo rmation

on the current

groups

fo llowing 1. mo nly

Map

unknown genetic status

ap­

other

Today, people

the may

be

linguistic and

Carib.

labeled

because

In

"inde­

of their

affiliation. of the

In­

extant

lin­

in accord with

the

pattern:

accepted

This

section

designation.

of each

2. Wh enever

language possible

p re se n te d by c omparing de signations.

External

refers other

or people

in question.

are

the

are

village

of the

who

those

local

same

tribe,

its

location

or

these

auto-

but which

gi­ of

names

lack of

Internal

one village

on

are

are names

or

com­

p r e ced ing

are not members Often

language.

given by

the most

internal

of m i s i n t e r p r et a t i o n

of the

nations

to

de sig nat ion s

Indian

result

with

d e si g n ati ons

external,

the

tribe

begins

The number

ven by outsiders

knowledge

still

will be p r es ent ed

Name.

the name

are

" un c lass if ied "

un c e rt a i n

guistic

A raw ak

have

into

period.

indigenous

Saliban,

of the

groups

four major

the

and A raw ak

or a ss im i l a te d

surviving

p e n d e n t ” or better

local

a

and n o r t h ­

of Carib

many

this

grouped

during

to the north

extinct

3 reveals

an e xp an sio n

decrease

Ne vertheless,

groups

for

south

a mar ke d

p ar e n t l y become local

tribal m i g ra t i on s

except

from the

2 and Map

desig­

to another

are

not

always

LANGUAGES OF THE ORINOCO - Amazon Region: Yanomama 1. Yanam 2. Yanomam 3. Y anomami 4. Sanima

Saliban 5. Piaroa

Independent 6. Hoti 7. Uruak 8. Sape 9. Maku

* Mandawaka, Guarekena, Baniva (Yavitero).

MAP 2.

Arawak 10. Baniwa 11. Bare, etc.* 12. Wapishana

1977 Carib 13. Panare 14. Yabarana 15. Mapoyo 16. Yekuana 17. Pernon 18. Kapon

19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

Makushi Waiwai Waimiri Hishkaryana Warikyana

Yanomama 1. Yanam 2. Yanomam 3. Yanomami 4. Sanima

MAP 3.

Saliban 5. Piaroa 5a. Maco 5b. Ature 5c. Saliva

Independent 6. Hoti 7. Uruak 8. Sape 9. Maku M. Maracana T . Taruma

Arawak 10. Baniwa IOa. Tariana 10b. Mandawaca lOc. Jabaana lOd. Baruana lOe. Manao 11. Bare Ila. Kuriobana llb. Piapoco Ile. Mawaca lld. Saniva 12. Wapishana 12a. Atorai G. Guinau

Carib 13. Panare 14. Yabarana 15. Mapoyo 16. Yekuana 16a. Mayongong 17. Pernon 17a. Arekuna 17b. Kamarakoto 17c. Taurepang 18. Kapon 18a. Akawaio 18b. Ingariko 18c. Patamona

19. 19a. 19b. 19c. 20. 21. 21a. 21b. 22. 23. 23a. 23b. 23c.

Makushi Sapara Parauiana Paushiana Waiwai Waimiri Atroari Jawaperi Hishkaryana Warikyana Kashuyana Kahuyana Pawiyana

24

Ernest C. Migliazza

ac ce pte d are

as a s e 1 f - d e s i g n a t i o n .

those names

which

A a t o - d e s i g n a t io n s

the people

use

to refer

to

th ems eIves. 2. Location, Only

the

given

present

in this

actual

M al a ri a

pologists). is often

less

with

local

the

the the

e l em en t ar y

language

a summary

may be

the

or

of a language

number,

are

especial­

in per ma nen t

and/or

where

there

i nst ruc tio n

con­

are is

in

natio nal

In this

section

is p re s en te d

as much

s o c i o /c u 1 1ura 1 context

contact

pressure.

recent

of external

in permanent

contact,

missiona­

of speakers

situation.

are derived

pi one eri ng

govern­

field a n t h r o ­

society

of the

Types

this work

gather ed

and

s itu ati on

of external

is given.

and

language.

as pos si ble w ithi n

known,

data

teachers,

Indians

E t h no l i n g ui s t i c

in terms

is

of p o p u la t i on

p o pu l a t io n

schools

tribe

the author,

P ers onn el

the nat ion al

general

(e.g.

of Speakers.

of the

on census

school

Service

where

the nati ona l 3.

local

than

location

based

The number

ly in cases tact

are

and Number

Estim ate s

of persons

officials,

ries,

general

section.

speakers

by a va ri ety ment

P o pu l at i o n

h ist or y

contact

from Ribeiro

contact

with

society,

isolated , i.e.

or only

Where of the

group

r ec o g n iz e d

(1957):

the

and

in

A tribe

local

in i nt e rmi 11 e n t acc ide nt al

outside

c on t acts. 4.

P rognosis

present

and

Suggestions.

soc io- cu l tu r a l

sible

to

foretell

vival

of a par ti cul ar

lingui sti c

studies

s itu at ion

Based it

the p o s si b i li t i e s language.

or ongoing

on the

is often for

Recent

research

the

f ea ­ sur­

pu bli she d are

inclu-

Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region

d e d , but

b i b l i og ra p hi c a l

refere nce s

in O ’L e a r y ’s 1963 E t hnog rap hic South

Am er ica

already

given

B ib l io g r ap h y

are not n e c e s sa r i ly

25

of

included here.

Y A N O M AM A FAMILY 1 . Y an am 2. Y an omam 3 . Y anomami4.

The

Sanima

term Yano mam a was

first

a n th r o p ol og i c al

and genetic

(Arends

196 7 ), and

only has

et a1.

to the Yanomamt argued

nate

that

the whole

the m a j or it y

the

used

as

p e r s o n ” , by all

local

has

used

the

anan,

It

to the is only

reported

and,

this

terms

of sc holarly

been

linguis­ in Brazil first

o ffi ci al l y

such as

in Brazil),

term

Shiri-

Waikan,

also

used

to

family.

after

actual

other

which was

other

is

Y anom ama

all

years

and Yanom amo were

same

it

” a native

has

by

although

term Yanomami,

( especially

G u a i k a , Yanoama, refer

is understo od

However

In the past,

X ir ia n a

to d e s i g ­

a n t h r o p o l o gi c a l

(1967),

Neel

(1972)

anthropology.

introduced by M i g li az z a adopted.

used

to designate

In recent

the

it referred

in an increasing number

and cultural

by J.V.

variation,

m ea ni ng

in human genetics,

and V e n ez u e la

it

speakers

speakers

into

M ig l ia z z a

phonetic

name,

of Yanomama.

tics

first

term should be

speakers

papers

at

language.

of Yan om ama

a general

been

literature

family because

pr o n o un c e d with

i nt roduced

the year

encounters

1800 that

with

E uro peans

the Y ano m a m a

Indi­

26

Ernest C. Migliazza

ans .

However,

lists

of tribal

which

could be

on

the

from the middle names

i den tified

t rib utaries

co Rivers.

Maps

tributaries

of

which and

c an

be

possibly

prehistoric

conta in

the

some

d es ig n a ti o n s

Orinoco, period

middle

and

interpreted

in

indicate

area

an

Negro,

lower

the

Rio

occupied

in spite

of being

tropical

of yet

u n a c c u 1turated

in South America.

area

of

100,000

over

200 vi lla ges

lage

and

past

es timates but

of

language

by

them

in

total

the number was

were

not

in

taken

vi sited

miles.

the

located

at

from

with

1.5 inhabitants

per

d is t r i b u t i o n the center

over

per v i l ­

have

high

200 people)

where w ar fa re

a much higher

clear

is not

that

10 square

is not

pop ul a ti o n located

so intense

1970

a d e m o g ra p h ic

uniform;

of the Y a n o m am a

than those

In

as

1950 to

the Y a n o m a m and Y a n o m a m i ) and en gag ed

wa rf are

an

in just

as high

it became

15,000,

Indi­

15,000 people.

number was

d e nsity of about However,

4)

enga­

largest

forest

seventy people

were

over

of the

(see Map

1970 about

surveys

and more vill age s

one

are d i s t r i bu t e d

a v e rag ing

the

as

They

square miles

tot all ing

as

Bran­

c o n st a n tl y

groups

(i.e.

and

Branco

Yanomama

are

v i llages

groups

report names /

ged in int erv il lag e warfare,

50,000,

local

times.

The Yanomama,

ans

16th century,

as Y an o m a m a

of the

of this

of the

(at

area

in

times

as

in areas

(usually

belo w 40

people).

in

The

heaviest

the

Parima

least the

four

concentration

Mountain

known

demographic

range

centers density

of is

of Y a n o m a m a where

there

concentration as h i g h

as

people are

is

at

in w h i c h

6 inhabitants

Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region

1— -1___ 1___ L— 1 0 miles 100 i

A

Yanam

B

Yanomam

4 N

C

Yanomam±

D

Sanima

MAP 4.

27

28

Ernest C. Migliazza

to one

square mile.

lation

is more

river ted,

areas,

Toward

scarce.

In six specific

where vill ag e

the ratio

square miles

ranges

to one

per

9.6

records,

occupi ed

at

tury

the Y an om am a

7,000

people.

tribe. their have

has

in some

Today

their

es t i m at i o n by Ramos

during

reduced number

and Taylor

the

(1950-1970)

twenty

only no n - In d i a n

station was noco. tions

In

est abl is h ed

1970 there were

located

on almost

territory;

yet

could

and write

read

Until

red

no more

recent ly

Y an oma ma was a family

in

of

one

linguistic

family with

four major

and

Sanima

languages

has

several

In relation

14,000.

to us last

The

alone

un cer ta in

10 years.

the

upper

Ori­

m is s i o n

sta­

river

4).

of their adults

language. as

to wheth er d ial ect s

(1972)

to show that

(see Map

contact

first m is s io n

several

languages:

given

too high

ten Y a no ma m a own

The

in Y an o m a ma

tw enty-one

M ig l i a z z a

evidence

Yanomamt,

over

of outside

language with

languages.

than

p o p u l a t io n by half.

settlers

in their

cen­

an e xp a nd i n g

every major

it was

last

epi demics

1950 on

than

and

Various

the

te rritory were missio nar ies .

Conside­

ten years

seems

years

5

n um b er e d more

in Brazil

of

per

last

is not

the e pidemics first

of the

the

the

(1979)

coun­

d en s i ty

they were

of 8,400 Ya n o m am a

c o ns id e ri n g For

1968

been

miles.

p o p ul at i on

diminished.

areas total

square

could not have

Until

have

the p o p u ­

p e r i ph e r al

inhabitant

the b e g in n i ng

U n fo r t u n a t e l y number

people

from one

ring h is to r i ca l areas,

the p er ip h e ry

has

Yanomama

Yanam, Each

or

offe­ is a

Yanomam,

of these

dialects.

to other

South

Am e r i ca n

languages,

Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region

Yanoma ma was

at

first

c l a ss i f ie d

isolated by K oc h -G r u n b er g (1950), recent

M c Qu ow n

c l a ss i f i ca t i on s

(1963),

and Vo ege lin

cons ide red , evidence, lum.

(1955),

without

re spo nde nc es, gene tic (about cha),

putting

shown

cognates),

although

tes).

and Vo eg el i n

Pano

using that

sion

South A me r ic a n Recent

family

(1967,

M ig li a z z a

and Neel

common

languages the

is

sequence

1.

object,

Yanam:

1970,

sound

phy­ cor­

Guaymi

a

(Chib-

(20% c o g n a ­

This

research

points

and

to

a revi­

c la s s i f i c a t i o n

pu bl i ca t i on s Borgm an

1972,

of

1973);

surface word

order

O b j e c t - V e r b - Su b j ec t suffixes

Village

people

identify or river

" dwellers

(1965);

Spielman,

In narr ati ve s

also except

occurs. for

Case

the d i ­

is unmarked.

N i n am and Yanam,

of a place

al.

of the Y an om a m a

S u b j ec t - O b j e c t - V e r b .

which

et

co n c e rn i n g

(1974).

a u to - d e si g n a t i o n s

me ani ng

linguistic

languages

degree

phyla.

include

general

name

it was

exhibits

as with

p h yl o ge net ic

is ov ertly marked with rect

Wilbert

languages.

Migliazza

The

In

t r a d i t i on a l ly been

compa rat iv e

ant hro li n gu i s ti c

the Y an o ma m a

regular

lower

and Chibcha have

of the present

any

Panoan

as well

to a much

for more

(1977),

Y an o m a ma

the

c l as s i f i e d wit hin different the need

(1968). (1960),

forward

or

Mason

of the M a c r o - C h i b c h a

r el a t ions hip with 40%

1923),

by G r ee n b e rg

(1978b),

has

(1913,

ind ependent

and L o uk o t k a

to be a family

M ig l i a z z a

as

29

of"

or

mea ni ng

"person" , are

in the Yan am

themse lve s plus

language.

also with

a suffix

"inhab ita nt s

the

[-theri] of",

or

[-p]

30

or

Ernest C. Migliazza

[pik]

"plural"

[parawap] River";

[parawapik]

Internal

shiana;

Cas apare

term)

for

Ex ter nal

Jawari,

names

L oc at i on

and

d e sig nat ion s: [kasrapai]

Population. one

Rivers

variant

on the A piau

as well about

with

700 people;

years

mo u n t ai n

range

present

Yan om a ma

sion,

to

pr oba bly

internal tinction,

tribes

cana,

Maku).

there

some Maku,

result

the east area

Rivers total

and central

400. last

in dif fer ent part

of

400

stages

the

from

Parima

and U r a r i c a a - P a r a g u a part

In their

fissio ni ng

c o n t r ib ut e d of,

of the expan­

caused

to

the

the

by

ex­

Carib

Purukoto,

and

Mara-

they also

i n t er ma rri ed

Uruak

Sape.

these

related

and

other

Y a n a m have

s p ec i al i z ed v o c a bu l a r y

4)

po pulation,

the

M ayo ngong,

Mayong ong , with

(see Map

about

During

the m ig r a t i o n

the north

and

of Y a n a m was

are

to v il lag e

dia­

a southern

and n ort hea st

they have

of contacts

n or the rn

and

U ra ri c a a

(see Map 4).

(Paushiana, In

Crichana,

three

and

of speakers

southern

or caused

other

upper

1970 the

today

due

strife,

Jawaperi,

M a k u , A ra wa k

to the Mu cajai

i.e.

with

In

the

Rivers,

Shiri-

River v i l ­

and A ja ran i

situation.

and

or

and M u c a ja i

speakers;

the Ya na m have moved

the A ja rani

P ara gua

(a d eroga-

on the

the number

E t h n o 1 inguistic

S hir ian a

Y anam has

200

speakers. as

of the

to the Yanam.

a no rt h e r n

400

Par agua

lips"

given by Carib,

Para gua

with

example

of the

"long

des ign at ion s:

B raz ili ans

lects,

"people

the Ura ri ca a

lages.

local

For

[p a r a w a u t h e r i ] " in h a b ita nts

River".

tory

or

for people.

tribes,

b orr o w e d to bitter

As

a

the

sets

of

manioc

Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region

processing, from

the

fermented

susta ine d

1958 with upper

Protestant

that

time

once

every

during

are

the

five

or more

last

K o c h - G r un b e r g

1913,

Paragua

some

past

contacts

started

Rio

Branco with

about

are

River

of contact

and

at

1841,

6 0 ?s

s easo nal ly

in the

the Yanam

20% due

a result

to

of these people

in

inter­

learned

Catholic

1960.

(the No rth ern

As

with

some Yan am are

in

young people

can be met

are

the Yan am and

and some

the national starting

only by the

in the

died.

intermittent

contact with

the

of three

epidemics

of the p opu la t io n

high­

join

been built

road workers,

"civiliz ed"

the

Pe rimeter

a con se q u e n ce

the

missio­

During

e ven t u a ll y

the Rio Negro has

thr ee -fo urt hs

Their

Rivers

visits

area c on tr act ed

needs which

In the

Rivers,

that will

area.

in p er manent

ciety.

1923).

and Ajarani

" P e r i m e t r a 1")

Today

( Sch omburgk

a few Ya nam young

a road

or

Ajarani

Schom bur gk

K o c h -G r u nb e r g

d im in ish ed As

regular

way

of the

area

e ncounters

and Portuguese.

ten years

years

1922,

and Ur aricaa

In the Apiau naries

century

diseases.

Spanish

and with

Before

outsiders.

explorer

started wor kin g

in that

"c ivi liz ed "

the

in

on the

River.

sporadic

The

was

first

years with

century,

of this

po p u l at i o n

only

those with

diamond miners

no n-I ndi ans

then on the Mu cajai

the Yanam had

were

mi ttent

with

m iss ion ari es ,

the b eg in n i ng

upper

" H a l l e l u j a h ” songs

ge ner all y monoling ual .

contact

Uraricaa,

No table

and

Ca r i b .

Ya nam speakers first

drink

31

so­

to acquire

"civilized"

32

Ernest C. Migliazza

people; some

this,

in tarn,

P ort ug ues e

ricaa

and Muca jai )

in the

6 0 ’s;

it

few ch i l d re n Pr ogn osi s their last

and

tions.

could

language

A l re a d y

almost

s tarting

s i tuat ion

ten years

half

to

learn

In two v i l la g e s

(Ura­

an e l em e n ta r y

school

of what

attended,

The

drastic

and m o r t a l i t y

bring

w ithi n

the

about

the

the next

it was

in

p e ne t r at i n g

youn ger

g e ne ra t io n

of Yan am males,

nomy,

is tending

in a diff ere nt they become own

group to

a

the

to ensure

leave

in

the

area

r educed

of

and

instead

cheap

economy.

Once

the of s t a ­

cultural

to teach

auto­ laborers outside

rej ec t i ng it

to

natio nal

to become

"ci vil ize d"

and refusing

changes

e x ti n c t io n

The

a shamed of being Yanam,

language

but

during

been

1970.

is ra pidly

their

started

two g e n e r a ­

p op u la t i on has

society

ying w it hi n

was

to learn Portuguese.

Suggestions.

contact

the Y an a m

Spanish.

them eager

is not very well

are

and

has made

their

to their

children. Ling uis tic

work

azza

and Grimes

azza

(1972).

and

different

(1961),

These

s yntactic

dialects.

in Y an a m

southern

search has

yet

rapid

of ex t i n c ti o n

urgent

that

importance Y anomama.

been

it be for

the

(1965),

sout her n

dialect,

two,

no

undertaken. of this

studied,

that

deal with

of the

from the other

rate

A lbright

studies

aspects

In the

includes

and M i g l i ­

p h o n o l o g ic a l and central

which

is quite

linguis tic

re­

C o n si d e ri n g

the

dialect,

is

in part

reconstruction

of M i g l i ­

it

because of proto-

of

its

Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region

2.

Yan o m a m .

dents

are

the word

The

a a to - d es ig nat ion

geo graphical for

"people"

to the dialect.

have

appear ed

Tupi

of the Rio Negro,

t e rp r e t a t i o n the name Warema,

was

similar

term

speakers)

designations: terms

but

[warima]

Wadema,

"inlaw"

( 1956 ) who

one

Waika,

not

Population.

by

thought

it

and a peripheral and

1970 was

today

two main

in the headw ate rs River

one

area

spoken

the Upper

The

and Parahuri,

Y a n om a m has

spoken

Another

au t o- d e si g n at i o ns .

and Orinoco

speakers).

epidemics,

Guadema,

it was

from the Rio N e g ­

Parima

in

thought

a misin­

[sorima]

D e m e n i , Catrimani

speakers,

who

(from

is Xurima

a central

upper

"soldier"),

village; of

Surara

group.

d er og a t or y and

are:

which

Yanoma ma

are

L oc at i o n

while

a local

Internal

(1,500

(1960)

( 1954 ) and Vinci

ro.

the

me ani ng

of Becher

for

[-theri],

de sig nat ion s

literature

m is in t e r p r e t a t i o n

a name

lects:

External

of a particular

G he er b ra n d t

plus

resi­

is Y an om a m or Ya no a m a c c o r ­

ding

in the

names

of village

33

dia­ of

(2,800

in the

U r a r i cu e r a

upper

areas

total

number,

p op ul a t io n

and

4,300.

Because

of contact

and

there

are

less

than

3,800

Yanomam. Et hno l i ng ui s ti c Y a n o m am have P au sh ian a upper

taken over

(Carib)

Catrimani,

U r a r i cu e r a gong

situation.

River

(Makiritare)

the

In their territory

of the Catrimani they have moved and expelled living

e xpa ns ion

The Y a no m a m are m onol ing ual

of the

River.

north

the Maku

in that

the

From the

to the

upper

and Mayon-

area.

and only

a few of

34

Ernest C. Migliazza

them, ver,

located can

on the

speak

lower

a few words

1960s m i s s i o n a r y wo r k was Catrimani,

P arima

"P eri met ra l" tioned part

of the

Indians flu,

Yanomam

and

toll.

In only

1977,

half

one

year,

recent upper

point

Parima

lated Y a n o m a m areas, B razilian Air

Force

of the ago

Surucucu

the

ners

and

A few years same

one

area was

which

brought

was

soon

the

and m inin g Due

is e xpe cte d

to the

recent

society

into

their

process

of changi ng

with

intermittent

This

change

will

slow e xt in ct i on

popu­ the

Field the

tops

A few years

invaded by m i ­ than

of that

actual

their

field,

over

two

popu­

discove­

one h un d re d region,

gold

road bu i l d i ng

to start.

p e ne tr a ti o n

te rri to ry from an

contact

the

with

for

of the Yanomam

isolated

p rob ab l y mark process

60's

In less

a u r a niu m

south

and

n o n- I nd i a ns

on

d ec im a t ed

Just

found

died.

area c o nt r a c t ed v ene re al

ago

region,

their

Summer

of the most

airst rip s

field geologists. also

with

the U n e v a n g e l i z e d

the

lation.

to

Ca tri ma n i

for cassiterite.

and e pidemics

in the

taking

Parima mountains.

the Y a n o m a m of

sou the rn

be twe en

in the early

opened

diseases

red

1976

where

Surucucu m o un t a i n

p r o sp e c ti n g

years

from Fall

area,

men­

and major

are

of contact

and

M is si o n m i ss i o n a r i e s

inevit abl e

of the

The

the

epide mi cs

of the Y a n o m a m

An oth er is on the

was

Demeni,

Highway)

Contact

Ri­

In the

Rivers.

through

territory.

and m a l a r i a

on the

P eri met er

pa ssi ng

roa dw o rk e r s

m easles

started

N or t h er n

is also

and Deme ni

of Portuguese.

and U r a r i c u e r a

(the

above,

Catrim ani

the

n at ion al are

in the

society

to one

outside

world.

the b e gi nn i ng

the Y a n o m a m

of a

language.

Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region

The

Indians

themselves

there

are

three

P rot estant

Brazil,

four mission

and

(Catri man i

their ning has

own

except ries

for

and

gaining

in immediate

its

speakers

oncomi ng

have

plagued

Demeni where

River entire

Recent Borgman (1972). the

has

as well

and

Cue

Primers

Bible were

and

Christians,

is

to the

rapidly

pene­

for survival

be­

good.

and measles fight

for

has that sur­

as Af ri c a n

the Y a n omam of the

the Y an o m am r been

Tracy

language

ada pt a ti o n

co mmo nly known

studies

further

of Y anom am (1966)

in the

west,

infected.

translat ion s

completed

in their

onchoce rci as is,

in their

reached

(1963),

advantage,

unless

are not

malaria,

vi llages have

linguistic

the Yano-

But

the

chances

disease,

as

success

of the m i s s i o n a ­

The Y a n o m a m

in their

O nc hoc erc ias is, bli ndness,

the

of extinction.

the Y a n oma m

to l e ar ­

teaching

in b eco min g

two gen era tio ns

flu,

step

in

goods.

society,

to the

operate

and write

to read

f rie ndship

their

another

added

or

si tuation with

national

been

river

the

less

are helped

the next

vival.

to write

in the

stations

nor

in

Catholic

the children;

the point

danger

contact

Rece ntl y

to

Demeni

one

Their

Suggestions.

not

yond

see

and even

and

and

and

territory,

River

a p r e l i mi na r y

limited

ob taining

P r ogn osi s

t rating

as

in learning

language,

upper

to read

language.

do not

in their

These mi ss i o n

language

been mos tly

mon ol i n gu a l

of Butau

the natives

the national

as yet,

Parima,

of Venezuela)

River).

mam adults

stations

(upper

to teach

own

still

the headwa te rs

P arima Mo u nt a i n

schools

are

35

include:

and M i g l i a z z a

of portions

1 9 6 0 ’s by the

of New

36

Ernest C. Migliazza

Tribes M is s i on

(Demeni

River),

M is si o n

(Parima

area)

mani).

Current

linguistic

progre ss

in the

Ca trimani logist

Parima

River

Bruce

and

(John

Albert

U n e v a n g e l i ze d Fie ld

C o ns ol ata field

area

res ear ch

(Sandra

Saffirio).

has

Fathers

Cue)

is

in

and on the

French

c on d uc t e d

(Catri­

anthropo­

field w o r k

in the

Ca t r iman i area.

3.

Yanomamir.

The

same

Bible

Auto-des ignat ion : Y an om ami , Yanoama.

term,

spelled

tra ns l at io n s

as Y a no m a mo

in V e n ez ue l a

as well (Chagnon,

of the

e th n o gr ap h ic

liter atu re

1974).

D e s ig na t io n s

for

usually

com pos ed

[-theri] are:

as

Waika,

general

de sig n a ti ng co mmon

re sidents

used

above.

ancestor,

of v il la ges

prob abl y

External

de signations:

(meaning

"howler

m onkey"

are

d e s ig na tio ns the

Shamathari, d esc en d ed

called

Guaica,

1968,

sense with

of "bad people",

a group

in some

term plus

Internal

in a d e r og at o r y

as

in

of a vi lla ge

of a ge ogr a p h ic a l

shown

m ea ni n g

appe are d

Shama

Waica,

in Brazil),

from a

"tapir". G ua h ar ib o

Xurima

[s or i m a ] . Lo cat ion

and

in south ern

Population. V en ez uel a

Yanomami,

(see Map 4),

dialects:

an eastern

one

mo untains

with

3,000

one with into

5,000

about

speakers.

three m u tu a l l y

whic h

is spoken

another

spoken

The

latter

third,

i nte rna lly

spoken

south

d esi gna ted

of the Orinoco

as

Parima

and is

a w est er n s ubd ivi de d

var ieties,

of the

upper

spoken

two main

in the

i n tell ig ibl e

and

has

speakers,

in the v al l ey

on the Ocamo

mos t l y

Padamo

Or i n o co

and

of

River,

Rivers

[samathari],

River

one

and is

in adjacent

a

Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region

Brazil. was

In

8,000.

about

1970 the appro xi mat e Today

has

been

of speakers

reduced

to

7,500.

E t h n o 1 inguistic language

lated with ever,

Situation.

of the Yanomama

mono lin gua l.

Y a mom ami

family;

The m a jori ty

only accidental

with m ission

in permanent

is the

its

outside are

stations

largest

speakers

of them are

a few of the villages

contact are

the number

number

37

still

are i so­

contact.

How­

in intermittent

while

ten villages

with

these

outposts

report

about

the

contact

of

"civilization. " The

first

published

the Y a n om a m t dates ded

a "Guahar ibo" word

(Codazzi tact

1841).

with

upper

Braz ili an

there

nurses

and has medical and M ava ca

In spite

"convert"

their

language

posts

trading

for

knives,

pots,

shot g u n s .

outside

and in some

cases

upper sta­

are on the

Y ekuana

of

Indians

as

upper O rinoco

to m i s s io n efforts remain

sta­

to educate attached

to

fairly detached

However, such

by

1954

eight mis si o n

the Yano ma mt

goods

village,

on the

on the

and

on the

settled

adjacent

and culture,

con­

In

e mployed

from the outside world.

1950,

The M in is t r y

of m is s i o n a r y

them,

in

two of which

of the border.

in Ven ezu ela has

tions.

also

Orinoco

Mission.

are about

Health

at Platanal

started

of

recor­

sus tained

the M a h e k o t o - th e r i

the Yanomami,

side

Codazzi

upper

first

of the New Tribes

Today

among

on the

the

Sa lesian miss ion ari es

tions

1838 when

list

However,

O rinoco near

Orinoco.

and

to

the Yanomami was

m is si o n a r i e s the

back

language

they have

as axes,

started

machetes,

they have

acquired

38

Ernest C. Migliazza

Their

area

being made side

is now being

for d ev e lo pme nt

of the border.

measles, about

m a l aria

mo s tl y

Daring

and

colds

the

has

spread

to almost

B ra zil ian Yanomami, V e ne zu e la n P r ognosis Ya nom am4 it will

and

No one knows

are m on o l i n g u al

number

(1956,

of their

[S a n i m a ] . of

to as

are

name.

(1964).

[-dili]

or

[-dubu]

little

Lizot

is

(1970,

Spielman,

also well

Lizot

language

is

(Ramos

is much

is either or

suffixed

to

the

1976,

analysis needed.

[tsanima]

of the villa ge

in

through

(1975b,

1972)

e_t^

known

A l inguistic

d e s i g n a ti o n

People

schools"

studies

e s p e c i al l y

1974),

the h e a d m a n ’s lineage

gr aphical

(1969);

S e lf - d e s i g n a t i on Village

society

to attend.

(19 72 ); and

chanted

had

de­

and dicti ona rie s:

literature, (1968,

Zerries

formal

Sanima.

Berno

outlast

p la nn ed

"m i s s io n a ry

language

grammars

The Yano ma mi

of Chagnon

threatened;

the

and have

of recent

Migliazza

(1974).

of the

the n ati ona l

the Yanoma mi

1971);

the e thn og ra p h ic

4.

in Yano mam i

to partial

and

of the

survival

soon

At present,

in g etting

1973 , 1975);

1977),

of

onchocer­

s e ri ou sly

how

place.

w o rk

life

of Y a n om am a wh ich will

will

a1.

the

a f fect in g many

The

and p e ne t r a t io n by

Barker

taken

is also

v el opm ent

limited

ten years,

Rec en tl y

is not yet

a var ie t y

others.

A small

Bra zilian

all v ill a g es

Suggestions.

language be

success

on the

are

Yanomami. and

take

and plans

last

have

five hu n dr e d Yanomami.

ciasis

the

exp lor ed

or the name a geo­

are

referr ed

the v illage

Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region

location name. of",

and

Suffix

[-dubu]

pronoun".

or

There

"aliens"; group

of

Sanima. are:

Ye k u a na

Indians,

term

Shirishana

intelligible

spoken

2,000.

The

as

In

The

1970 Sanima

contact

rated Yeku ana

in the past

has

and the

them access

vaccine,

The current

three One

is

is spoken a third

upper

on

Padamo

num be red

not

Y a no mam a

such as ma laria

etc.

to

they have with

allows

least

a second

speakers

side" med ic in e

at

Brazilian

of Sanima.

extending west

of the other

at

Rivers,

Sanima po pul ati on

that

are

area;

and Ventuari

upper Auaris area.

There

v ari eties

in the Caura River

on the Erebato

kers.

by the

the

to them

desig­

Venezuelans.

m u tu al l y

fast

or

b ackward

external

(from

applied

mos tly

"enemy"

more

common

and Gu aha rib o

and P o p u l a t i o n .

River

animate

[Yi r is'an a ] given

Lo c a t io n

the

"they,

[nabad-ibi]

The most

"inhabitant

designations,

a southern,

for howler monkey)

the

means

means

internal

such as

[Kobaliwa]

nations

by

[-tipi]

are

d er og a t o r y names

[-dili]

39

about

d imi nis hed

language

as

spea­

the more

accultu-

to certain

"out­

p reventives,

p op u la t i on

measles

is e sti ma ted

1,700.

E th no l ingu ist ic point

to the

t h ei r

northern

ritare Only

Situation.

fact

that

Carib

the

H is tor ica l Sanima have

neighbors,

and M a y o n g o n g ) , for more

in the

last

30 years

Vent uar i

and Erevato

peaceful

and

neighbors.

friendly Often

the

have

the

with

(Maki6

200 years.

Sanima

areas m a i n t ai n e d relati ons hip s

fought

Yekuana

than the

documents

rela tiv ely

with

Sanima villages

of the

are

their located

40

Ernest C. Migliazza

near

the

and to

more

in m a n y the

prosperous

instances

Yekuana

Permanent

as

and

Sanima

wives,

contact

with

are

and p r o c e ss i n g

cass ava shing

bread

use

rituals; ving

of

lingui st ic

and the

ch anted

vowel;

Sanima b i l ingu als areas .is as high There Sanima two

are

as

25%

in V e nezu ela

(one

on

and

one

M i s s io n w ork

Ye kuana

languages. most

of

the

on

of the

border the

the

Except

and

when

Sanima

are

In the

into Venezuela, side

at

invol­

prec ed ed number

of

in some

stations

and

in

one

still

the

from

of the

area mov ed

the h e a d wa t e rs

and

sta­

isolate d

only

the

Auaris

Sanima

1 9 6 0 ’s most

leaving

on

upper

the m i s si o n

River

in

two P ro t e stan t) ,

on the

both

for

lower Auaris

Br azilian

process

Erebato

is done

and

population.

in Brazil

the n o n- I n di a n world. Sanima

in trade

three m i s s io n

Catholic

to make

dimini­

i ncr eas ing

of the

(one

tions,

the

of con son an ts

at present

River),

n ot i c ea b l e

(S a n i m a - Y e k u a n a ) whic h

River.

the

language

the

given

re sul ted

ma nioc

drink;

t err it ory

Caura

been

Most

of bitter

and

ones

vice-versa.

of a p h o no l o gi c a l

the p a l a t a l i z a t i o n front

have

change.

a fermented

b or r ow i n g

by a high

not

Yekuana

the Y ek ua n a has

and

use

women

but

in cultural the

bigger

across

about

200

of the

Auaris. Prognosis unique items ned

and

Suggestions.

of the Yan o m a ma and

with

a c ertain number ph ono log y

languages

in structure.

contact

as well

a Carib

Given

in

is the most

both

the

language,

of changes as an

Sanima

present

sustai­

one

foresee

lexical

increas ing

in lexical

can

items

number

of

and

Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region

bilinguals. su rvival

of the

Recent

Some

there

Borgman

the

language

linguistic

kn ow l ed g e 1963),

However,

is only

and Ramos

an th r op o l o g is t field w ork Upper

are

for

good. to our

of Wilbert

and M i g l i a zz a

a n t h ro p o l og i c al

by Ramos

(1972),

and Taylor

(1974).

Marcus

the

scarce;

the work

(1969-1970),

in the works

1974),

is still

studies

lan gu ag e- r el a t ed

found

progno sis

Colch est er

1979-1980

among

the

Ere bat o

and Upper

Ventuari.

(1972).

studies

Taylor

are

(1972,

British

has

in

(1962,

c o nduc ted

Sanima

of the

SAL I BAN FAMILY The

Saliban

guages 1935,

(also w ritten

Salivan)

had been c onsidered 1968;

Rivet

(1920)

c l a s si f i c a t i o n which

in dependent

until

places

literature

(see Wilbert, summ ary included used

three

to be

Or inoco on the

near

last

Piaroa

by

some

four

Last

in the

side

falls

was

of the

authors

(see Wilbert,

for a good

cent ur y

this

Saliva,

and,

family

which

to a lesser

Orinoco;

Orinoco,

ssion);

Piaroa,

Orinoco

a p p ro x i ma t e ly where

for

At u r e , which,

it

group

and was name

a d etailed

on the west

and

extent,

spoken by a small

to be another

1963,

spoken

1975

family

" l l a n o s ” of the Meta

of the

century,

is d i sa g r eem ent

of this

languages:

in Colombia

V e nezu ela

the Ature

thought

or

spoken

Rivers

up to the

There

on the members

problem).

(Loukotka

ten ta t iv e l y within

1963 and Kaplan,

of this

of l a n ­

G r e e n b e r g ’s (1960)

it

the A n d e a n - E q u a t o r i a 1 Stock. in the

family

side

is spoken

for

the

discu­

of

the

today

41

42

Ernest C. Migliazza

(see Map

2); Maco,

spoken by a small part

number

of the Piaroa

languages way.

only

500

in C olom bia from

perm ane nt lation,

in the

speakers

in Venezuela,

ma te d

area

outsiders.

among

even

ch il dre n now

speakers,

is m u t ua ll y

[tiha] Their better

The name 1760

Piaroa

and

pronunciation

internal

d e si g na tio ns

include:

Piaroa;

subgroup);

Ature

Maco;

been

that

esti­ in

popu­

speak

their

Spanish with the

with

Saliva

danger

of

is

about

with

of the

130

Piaroa.

Piaroa

are

" j u n g l e ’s m ast er. "

to as

[wo?tiheh]

or

^

" j u n g l e ’s m a s t e r ’s

in the

com mun ica tio n). li terature

it may h a v e ^ b e e n

of

250

While

Ature

int el lig ibl e

appe are d

and

the y ounger

language,

[de?aruwa]

of

reports

immediate

Spanish.

thiwene]

1975)

use

(1972)

( K r u t e - G e o r g e s , personal

(Kaplan,

Spanish

and

a few of

is referred

[de?aruwa

speech"

still

a u t o -d e s i gn a t i on s

’’p e o p l e ” and language

in no

only

the Maco

The

(1972)

to M orey is

And

a number

n o n -i n d ig e n o u s

themselves

extinct.

Piaroa.

the

these

in a s ubs tan tia l

individuals.

though

speak

Of

southe rn

in Co lo m b i a

of Saliva

in Co lom bia

3).

p o p ul at i o n has

with

A c co r d i ng

extinction,

5.

M ore y

1200 to 2000

language

in the

1 9 5 0 ?s give

Saliva

contact

to Piaroa,

surv ive d

of Saliva

the m aj o r i ty

language

(see Map

although,

the

related

of people

Piaroa has

Es timates

around

own

c losely

[de?arua].

which Mako

or Adole.

around

the

Ex ter nal

appea re d

in print

or

(a name

Itoto

and

of a

Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region

Location, of the from

Pop ul ati on

Piaroa

occupy

the mouth

the Ventua ri pa ral lel s

north.

called Maco

Map

(see Map

estimates, 4,000 most

one,

about the

(Monod recent

es ti mates

Piaroa

Piaroa part

2,500

total

1970)

to

estimate

of this

is that

of about

Situation.

1975)

on the

’’pea cef ul" , not warlike ’’c i v i l i z e d ” world the Jesuits

goes

settled

River,

back

among

and

language,

language",

not

only

rest About

trade.

Some

The who

10% are

society

contact are

do cuments

describe Their at

them on

with

as well

s urvived but

1970,

was

of them are b ilingual

1700

a center that

of of

the

as a " c h a n ­ until

1970

in spite

of

world.

a h o r t i c u 11ura 1 ist until

to

with

the banks

of auton om y

the outside

them as

contact

least

It is r em ark abl e

a c ertain degree

tribe which, 50%

from

(1975)

and the area became

culture

Piaroa

(see

on recent

pio ne e ri n g

people.

Piaroa

The

in the

1963).

2,500.

Piaroa

slave

pr olo nge d

Based

His tor ica l

Indian

m a int a i n ed

spoken

Piaroa.

E t h n o 1 inguistic

ted

one

130 speakers,

of Kap lan

use

the O ri noc o

least

a southern

(Wilbert

and do not

when

at

of Piaroa varies

into the V e n e zue lan

(see Kaplan,

has

terr ito ry

speakers.

1,886

a popu lat io n

about

to

from 7°to 4*

language

i n tegr ate d

the

of the Orinoc o

i.e.

proper,

number

Most

in the north

south,

2), with

and n orthern

2) with

bank

River

in the The

of Speakers.

intelligible varieties:

and a n ort her n central

the east

of the Meta

River

two m u t u a ll y

and Number

43

tropical

on the

either

fo­

increase.

in Y e k u a na

44

Ernest C. Migliazza

(Carib), Their to

or Y a b a r a na

type

of outside

int erm itt ent

others. near

the V e n ez u e la n

east

bank of

the

Tribes few

Mission

families

about

are

are

those

1970's move

to p erm ane nt

integr ate d

River.

both

tested

in or on the

gone

to live

near

the New Also,

the Y ab ar a na

local in

in

(1963)

Tama-Tama.

common

on

a and

diseases,

1950 had

1963).

Catholic

stations

(Salesians)

among

at Corom oto

of their

live

Wil bert

Piaroa"

called

Piaroa

and

of Puerto A y a c u c h o

of Piaroa has

from the

the

and

Piaroa,

Protes­

the

largest

and

Isla Raton.

In the

of the

Piaroa were

ad vi sed

jungle

into

the more

to

"c ivi li z e d"

stations.

K r u t e -G e o r ge s that

areas,

"Punta

a good number

out

m i ss io n

at

(Wilbert,

tant mi ss i o n being

from isolated

i n te r ma rr ied with

48% of 406

There

varies

town

center

Apart

filariasis

contact

are

a group

O rinoco

Yekuana.

Spanish.

the Orin oco

that

upper

and/or

in certain

Some Piaroa

reported

(Carib),

there

(personal

co mmu n i c at i o n )

is great v a r i a bi l i t y

reports

in the degrees

b i l i n g u a li s m and acc ul turation: ...at

Corom oto

younger males b il in gua ls contacts

everyone tend

where

uses

to be

Spanish

the

functional is spoken

in

with m i s s ion w o r k e r s ,

to wns peo ple

and officials,

the vil lage

with

A ya cu c ho

Piaroa,

there

p ro gre sse d

other

are

Piaroa.

three

to sec ond ary

dozen others

to other

and Pi aroa

in

In Puerto

Piaroa who have sch ool ing

voc ati on a l

and a schools;

of

Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region

yet

local

number have

people

claim

of villages

never

Piaroa

groups

nearby

tributaries,

denying Raton, and

along

their

c ul tur all y

the

and

with

domains,

dren

Spanish.

while

of the recent (1963)

by past

explorers),

Monod

good

10

is a

until

for

1970.

and without

a sound

is threate ne d

it will

are

(1970)

linguistic

Kris olo go

there

by a

be co nfined

in e l e men tar y

studies

River

prognosis

schools

to

chil­

e thnographic:

for r eferences

No detailed

telling.

to word

lists

and Kaplan study has yet been

( 19 76 ) has

p u bl ish ed

a small

(S p a n i s h - P i a r o a ) and pr esc rip tiv e

Boglar

(1970)

La urence

University)

been

(good

trade

distinct.

the

language

in which

Isla

for

Al tho ugh

appeared

this

Wilb ert

Piaroa

l in gui sti cal ly

recent migra tio ns

dome sti c

grammar;

At

somehow

situation

d ic tio nar y

ancestry.

of bilinguals,

some

of

are

of Piaroa

the

published^

point

Piaroa who and

who

fairly

P arguaza

d ig lo s si a

(1975).

to the

a

and

the

program,

Most

are

Along

bi li n gu a l

use

are

are

River

There

who

Suggestions.

perce nta ge survival

Now,

Cuao

they produce h a n dicr aft s

are

Prog nos is

there

the O rinoco

Piaroa

tourists.

there

the

seen whites.

a c c u 1t u r a t e d , some

fair

up

that

45

in

did

an article

K ru te- Ge org es

linguistic

1979-1980.

field

Portions

on story (Columbia research

of the

the

Bible have

tra ns la t e d by the New Tribes M iss ion

Sales i a n s .

among

and

the

46

Ernest C. Migliazza

IN DEP EN D EN T L ANGU AGE S 6.

H o ti

7. Uruak 8 . Sape 9. Maku In this

section

four

known

a f fi l i at i o n

these

are

there

died

linguists

by

are

languages

present

purposes.

is

provisionally

simila rit ies

chance

except Sape

for

and Maku and

some

6.

Various

external

Hoti.

m i s t a k e nl y

applied

r e cogn ize d

as Hoti.

Chicano,

Shikana,

Coppens,

Mitrani

fieldwork

in

d e si g n ati ons whose

self

Location

to

who

Monteros,

Waruwaru,

and G uar is ma

1972-1973, referred

Pinto,

di sco ve r ed

to an

some

have

lies

and Yuana. during

that

i ndependent

the

The

area

parallels

these group,

occupied

and

the merid ian s

The n orth ern

65

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