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SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES
TEXAS LINGUISTICS SERIES
Editorial Board Winfred P. Lehmann, Chair Joel Sherzer Carlota S. Smith
SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES Retrospect and Prospect
Edited by Harriet E. Manelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark
University of Texas Press, Austin
International Standard Book Number 0-292-77592-X Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 85-51429 Copyright © 1985 by the University of Texas Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America First Edition, 1985 Requests for permission to reproduce materials from this work should be sent to Permissions, University of Texas Press, Box 7819, Austin, Texas 78713. For reasons of economy and speed this volume has been printed from camera-ready copy furnished by the editors, who assume full responsibility for its contents.
Contents
Introduction
Harriet E. Manelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark
3
Part I. Indigenous Languages of Lowland South America 1. Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region: Current Status
Ernest C. Migliazza
17
2. An Emerging Tukanoan Linguistic Regionality: Policy Pressures
Arthur P. Sorensen
140
3. Indigenous Languages of Lowland Ecuador: History and Current Status
Louisa R. Stark
157
4. Indigenous Languages of Lowland Peru: History and Current Status
Mary Ruth Wise
194
5. Panoan Linguistic, Folkloristic and Ethnographic Research: Retrospect and Prospect
Kenneth M. Kensinger
224
6. Some Macro-Je Relationships
Irvine Davis
286
7. Nambiquara Languages: Linguistic and Geographical Distance between Speech Communities
David Price
304
8. A Survey of the Carib Language Family
Marshall Durbin
325
9. Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships
Aryon D. Rodrigues
371
10. The Present State of the Study of Brazilian Indian Languages
Aryon D. Rodrigues
405
Contents
vi
Part II. Indigenous Languages of the Andes 11. Ecuadorian Highland Quechua: History and Current Status
Louisa R. Stark
443
12. Southern Peruvian Quechua
Bruce Mannheim
481
13. The Quechua Language in Bolivia
Louisa R. Stark
516
14. A Critical Survey of the Literature on the Aymara Language
Lucy Therina Briggs
546
15. Dialectical Variation in Aymara
Lucy Therina Briggs
595
16. Aymara and Quechua: Languages in Contact
M. f. Hardman
617
17. Contact and Quechua-External Genetic Relationships
Bruce Mannheim
644
Part III. Indigenous Languages of Southern and Eastern South America 18. Current Status of Argentine Indigenous Languages
Harriet E. Manelis Klein
691
19. History of the Quichua of Santiago del Estero
Louisa R. Stark
732
20. Indigenous Languages of Tierra del Fuego
Christos Clairis
753
21. Mapuche Dialect Survey
Robert A. Croese
784
22. Indian Languages of the Paraguayan Chaco
Harriet E. Manelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark Index
802 847
SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Introduction Harriet E. Manelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark
This
book had
its
inception
held
in con jun ct i on with
as a two-part
the
annual
m eet ing s
A me r i c a n A n t hr op o lo g i ca l
A ss o c i a t i o n
1978.
e ng e nd e r ed by
Given
ssions,
the
arti cle s several
the
interest
editors
decided
and materials, years
of further
in
result
effort
of the
1977 and these
to solicit
the
sym po s iu m
se
addi tio nal
of which
is this
after
co l l e ct i o n
ofessays. The
current
Indian the
state
languages
last major
pear ed
in
the
Indian 1958;
several
Key
M c Quo wn
1979;
1955;
and Vo ege li n
(Greenberg Lo ukotka
Swadesh 1977),
(Suarez
1974),
a brief
on the native
of
Tovar
summary
and
of
lan
been p u
South Am eri ca n Ibarra Grasso
1961;
of broad
1972),
languages
region of
have
[original
one volume
(Matteson et al.
time,
the native
there
1960;
1968
1964;
studies
dies
then
ap of
in the world,
cla ssi fi c at i o ns
languages
that
"...the
c o nc er nin g
Since
H and b o o k At
as
dive rsi ty
ignorance
since
Alden M ason which
South Amer ic a
( 195 0:163)."
blished
c o n s i d e ra b l y
Indian Languages.
linguistic
greatest
guages
a dvanced
of South Am eri ca n
1950 in volume VI of the
des cri bed
greatest
has
study by J.
South Amer ican M ason
of know led ge
1935]; V oe g el i n c om p arat ive
a useful
o v e rv i e w
of d e scri pti ve
of Latin A mer ica
stu
4
Harriet E. M anelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark
(Grimes
1968),
and a y early b i b l io g r ap h y
(B i b 1iographie
Americaniste: Linguistique
Amerindienne). provide
the
current
status
America,
that
However,
read.er with of the is,
the
republican b oun d a ri e s purpose, as
the
therefore,
s peci al ize d
This volume of Native Assess men t (1979) Mexico,
region
south
of Panama.
and J.
the
reader with
present
is our
general
this
as well
information.
in many ways
Histo ric al
of South
of the It
do not
on the
languages
to provide
focuses
data
Indian
edited by L.
which
p ub li c a t io n s
det ail ed
c omp l e m en t s
America:
these
The L ang uages
and Co mpa rative
Campbell
on Canada,
and M.
Mithun
North A me ric a
S u a r e z ’s T h e M e s o a m e r i c a n
and
Indian
Language s ( 19 8 3 ). The
articles
chronic
and di achronic,
sections sion: The
which
Lowland,
divi sio ns
t ra dit ion al g eogr aph ic
or language agreed
adopted
thereby
In Part reflect families
a geogra phi c
divi
the
families
despite
specialists
grouped
we have
to be
found
Nort her n Amazon,
since
d ecided
a culture
over
area
on
This typo
linguistic languages
c o n s i st e n tl y to utilize
an
inadequacies. present
of languages in Low land
become
distinctions.
to any
obvious
Cone.
are based
i ndividual
I of this volume we
the d iv er sit y
and
arguments
ac cording
its
Southern
those which have
avoids
syn
three
Furthermore,
has not
both
into
than cultural
upon criteria,
area model
org anized
and
are
area
rather
still
are
Highland,
of culture.
re search
in this volume,
follow roughly
among
cl as s if i c a t i o n logies
included
papers
and
South
which
language America.
d efined
The
by Galvao
Introduction
(1960) been bal
and
a cculturation.
but
This
from continuing
freque ntl y
guage
is a region which has
spread
or
linguistic
on the
presence
in this
resulted This
has
of Arawakan, as well
r est ricted
a major
Cariban,
the
more
Jurua-Pu rus
diverse
are
un related
and Panoan,
found as well
large
the
15th century
indigenous
the national
a century
tribes
and
region
of Venezuela;
were
85 ethnic
century the
languages
time
groups
today.
Spanish
spoken
But and
by other
in
such
the
r esulted
languages.
For
there were more
than
are
in
indigenous
society have
today there at
of
numerous
in the Rio- Bra nco
in lowland Peru; of the
language
languages
Indian
ago
In this
families.
slavery
groups
in the ex ti n c t io n of many over
are
warfare,
of native
or into
example,
l in g u isti cal ly
even more
than they
as disease,
a s simi lat io n groups
the
but
for Brazil
a large va rie ty
language
South A merica were
factors
is
two major
as
and small
H i storically, Lowland
by Galvao
area,
and
d istribution,
than the Northern Amazon.
region Ara wa ka n groups,
culture
There
as many
generally excl us ive ly Amazonian.
as
im
picture.
which
defined
degree
absorp
with
The Western Amazon,
hostile
in l an
languages are
a more
about
large
had
linguistic
region,
come
conco mit ant
languages,
contem por ary
a massi ve
and
intertri
sometimes
death.
adaptation,
pact
T up i-G era l
which
of
has
contact,
language
of individual
degree
process
friendly,
tion
is
(1948),
cha r a c te r i ze d by a high
largely
of
Steward
5
35
Ri o-O r i n oc o
only
20.
There
the be ginning of the today
there
conquest
are
63.
of Ecuador
And there
at
6
Harriet E. M anelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark
were
30 Indian
However,
even with
the Lowland languages Part
area,
spoken
settlement
policies peoples
Catholic
In
had been
the
carried more
language, late
South
Incas,
as
and
many
the
Under
the
forced d i s of economic
of the
indigenous or m u l t i period
to learn
spoken by the
prestige,
it was
the
as their most
r ei n forc ing
-- and
all
Given
three
that
Quech ua
Inca , and thus
language
important
chosen
contact
its dominance.
Thus
1 5 0 0 fs Que chua became
the most
language
and has
Today Pu qu ina
p robably
extinct.
In the Ande an the past
remained
region,
Q uec hu a
h i st o r i c a l l y
our
times
mi ted number
ru,
area.
both
there
far more are
some
of speakers Related
spoken
two major
in the
languages
to Aymara central
for
indigenous
languages.
to be
is
been
There were,
still
by
important
there have
and Aymara.
course,
Ande an
then,
five h un dr e d years
languages,
own
so.
the
"lenguas
and Aym ara
century.
the
evangeliza
colonial
Qu ech ua
This
the
bil in gua l
required
language
in
indigenous
America.
a result
became
sixteenth
thus
on the
c h a r a c te r i ze d by three
were
Spaniards
languages
170 native
focuses
during
twelve.
in Brazil.
Spaniards,
-- Puquina,
in the
still
clergy,
groups
fact,
priests
are
its m ult il i ng u a li s m .
region was
by the
are
spoken
of the Andes
generales"
the
for
of the
lingual.
early
there
there
of so many
in Hi ghl and
of Indian
Jesuit
loss
p r o g r a m of the
tion of the
Andean
today
II of this volume
is noted
persal
the
cu rre ntl y
languages area
languages;
Even
with
found
are Kawki h ighl and s
of into
a li in the
and Jaqaof Peru.
Introduction
Un re l a t ed
to any of the
are Uru, Ch ipaya via. but
spoken
in the Lake
in the
There their
languages
Carrangas
m e n t i on e d
Ti ticaca
district,
district
both
or re -di s c o ve r y
and
in B o l i
indeed may be other Andean
dis covery
above
languages
has
still
to be
ac c o m p 1 i s h e d . Q u ec h ua thonous
or Quichua
language
an ywhere
is still
of the Americas,
between
seven
It is a very dis per sed
sulted
in many dialects.
separate fact
to defining languages
that mutual
difficult,
single
B]
and
has
dialects
in spite
I [also c a l
[also called
Quechua
to Quechua
much work has certain
lacunae
in the
terms
Quechua],
ove rv i ew of the
and Aym ara have
of many
and this
In Quech ua
( 1964 ) and Gary
that
the
origin
Parker
in the no rth ern of Peru.
More
in turn
attracted
the
case
there has
during been
the work of Alfredo ( 1963 ).
of Quechua was part
to Que
be they A mer i c a n
is es pec ia lly
rero
due
language.
always
linguists,
interest, in ad vancing
which
as a
been done
Peruvian
[Colombian
as
of the
in regional
much
H i ghlands
is any
of n orthern
twenty years.
but
there
re
is sometimes
to refer
Although
a general
or Eu ropean
II
and has
language
the att ention
Cuzco,
and
spea
of syntheses
Both' Quechua
the past
prefer
this volume
Inga
precludes
clear
and Quechua
of the
absence
chua
c ertain of these
is not
linguists
on Quechua,
the
whether
i n te l l igi bil ity
language.
coverage
language
But,
autoch
today nu mbe ri ng
esp ecially b et ween Quechua
led Qu echua A] , most
largest
and eleven m illion
kers.
adva nta ge
the
not
They propos ed in the
of the
recently,
To
zone
of
Central
Torero pro posed
7
8
Harriet E. M anelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark
that
the
coast,
origin
from which
Highla nds sing
wi del y with
even
a Jaqi
spoken
b e twee n
Dialect
the An de an
is the
language and
in A ymar a
discus
d i re c t i on region
and
take
second most of
South America,
2 m i l l io n
indicate
areas,
and
seem to be
indigenous
III do not
belong
speakers.
that
that
there
recent
s p read ing
are lan
ou tward
languages
or Amaz on
feature
is the
Southern
Cone
language
groupings,
or which
can be cl ass i f i ed
some
from
ch ar ac t e ri ze d
by a paucity
languages
nor
located
as
languages
are
of
little
known
isolates.
isolates
of this
known
in Lowland
as
of the
number
language and
Rather,
of speakers.
languages
as well
large
in
language
languages
of which
both
as de tai led
areas.
of the
r el ati vel y
A ddit ion all y,
indigenous
di sc us s e d
to any of the major
of the Andean
the d i s ti n g u i s h in g
the
ar ticles
duration,
language,
two dialect
of the
families
on
to the n o rt h e rn
Bolivia.
Most Part
on the P er u v ia n
further.
1.5 mi l l i on
inn ovations
La Paz,
with in
indigenous
studies
ba si ca l l y guage
intensity,
s.
Aymara,
c arried
In this volu me
o f c onta cts
argument
language was
it was
( 19 74 ).
the nature,
spread the
of the
are Resear ch
re gio n
studies
is not
of those
and H igh la nd
South
Ame r i c a . In a ddi ti on guage
families
in hav ing has
spread
and
large
zil,
to the m ul t i p l i c i t y the
Southern
an indigenous to encompass segments
Bolivia
of
and
size
of
lan
Cone
is rather
unusual
language
- G uara ni
- which
an entire
its
na tion
contig uou s
and Argentina).
(Paraguay)
borders
In Paraguay,
(Bra
both
Introduction
Gu ara ni
and
guages
Spanish
are
is predom ina nt
G u a ra n i
is
regions.
the predominant
wide ly
spoken
large migrant
is now also
receiving
places
two c ountries languages boring At
balance
of this
of the
languages
it was
and
resear ch
volume.
there
parts
sented,
indeed
mation.
Brazil
scant
there
on
For
other hand,
a ttention
man y
or are
specialists
fields.
The h e t e r og en e it y
include
con lan
far more
the Andes h ea vi ly
overlap of the
and
repre
in i n f or
languages
and parts such
all
found,
areas,
of
as Chibch an
carried in their
included out
are
during
respect iv e
of contrib uti ons
interests
organi
sufficient
which we have
decade by
of
slighted.
fieldwork and research
the par tic ula r
to
We have
are more
families
the past
sent
in the
example,
the Guyanas
as entire
and in n e i g h
others
some
es
in these
some kind
was
for
is even
The m aj o r i t y of works based
a recent
Gu ara ni a n
on c er tain
whereas
Guara
and Argentina.
that
simply not
writ ten
Bolivia,
as well
receive
is
of the Amazon
On the
of Colombia,
hoped
Our hope
been done.
c er tai n
Brazil
of South America.
families,
has
Other
could be m ai n ta i n e d
temp ora ry m aterial guages
fact,
in Par aguay
of Bolivia,
outset,
that
In
to
Brazil
of these
15).
zation
however,
numbers
(Albo
spoken
due
from Paraguay;
workers.
1979:
rural
language
G ua ra n i speakers
regions
regional
in the
is now co nsi de r ed
indigenous
large
whereas
one m illion
are also
the
G uar ani
lan
sanctioned.
areas,
language
p op ul ati on
speaking migrant
timate
in urban
In Argentina,
the most
ni
as national
and b i l i n g u a l is m is o ffic ial ly
Spanish
the
r eco gni ze d
9
repre
and theoretical
bia
10
Harriet E. Manelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark
ses
of their
priori
authors
framework.
overall
patterns
particular following (1)
the
and
do not
Neverth el ess , that
are
articles
that
focus
Stark pp.
802-845)
or
pp.
140-156,
303,
Briggs
of
phical
area
Wise
pp.
are
it
c onc ern ed with families
in the
pp.
325-
(Rodrigues
the
languages pp.
pp.
732-752,
(b)
3 7 1—
644-688). and current
of a parti cul ar 17-139,
0£
194-223),
pp.
geogra
Stark pp.
a p a r ti c u la r
304-324,
Stark
M a n n h e i m pp.
of
15 7— lan
pp.
443-
481-515,
784-801).
state
focus
Briggs
on the
pp.
and
been
to be done
areas
research in the
group
state
of
(Kensinger
546-594).
of knowledge,
that
current
language
discussed.
sug ge sti ng
field
and
the h is t or y
the hi sto ry
on
on a p ar ti cul ar
is hoped
D urbin
focus
is still much
and
Klein
(Sorensen
that
regions we have
cies
family
286-303,
Co n s i de r a bl e work has
present
405-439,
753-783,
M a n n h e i m pp.
(Price
224-285,
there
pp.
pp.
617-643,
Those which
research
(Rodrigues
state
pp.
pp.
516-545,
current
language
(Migliazza
family
(4)
pp.
(a)
area
pp.
language
Those
Croese
In
595-616).
that
H ar d man
status
Davis
pp.
Those
or more
480,
book.
of a
Clairis
guage
in the
certain
on the
691-731,
193,
are
the
Klein pp.
(3)
any a
may be c l a ss if i ed by
linguistic
404,
there
evident
part icu lar
one
into
themes:
Those
(2)
fit
accom pl ish ed, for
each
but
of the
By taking
stock of our
rev ea lin g
its
for will
future be
library.
deficien
in vestigation,
s t i mula te d With
the
both
Indian
Introduction
languages
of South A merica
m in g
rate,
ried
out
it is
before
imperative they become
promote
interest
just
the Handbook
as
inspired
dying
in this
pa ra tio n
research be c a r
extinct.
If we
through
of South A m eri can
our own gen eration
a n th r o pol ogi sts ,
off at an a l a r
that
field
11
can
this
book,
Indians
of linguists
and
then we will
feel
that
its
pre
and pu blication will
have
been more
than
justified. In the
o rganization
and p lanning
ral volume
a number of people have
their
and assistance.
like
time
to thank
Gertrude
Hunte,
Robert
Sherzer,
and Katherine
their highl y also
Brezin
tions which tions.
from the Mont cla ir ment
Fund
and
the
us of we would
Suzanne
Goscinski,
Our
special S. Klein
Joel
thanks for We
of the various
us to reprint
ap peared
Pam
assistance.
the editors
we grat efu lly
a gene
Starkweather,
technical
allowed
or iginally
Finally,
Janet
and Herbert
to thank
journals who have
Bork,
Sherer
Young.
appreciated
like
Kathy
Susan
Pergolizzi,
go to Jonathan
w o uld
Dole,
given
In particular,
Javier Albo,
Comer,
of such
contribu
in their
publica
ac kno wledge
State
College
Faculty
Social
Science
Research
support
Develop Council.
REFERE NCE S Albo,
Xavier.
1979.
Panorama
Centro y Sud America. tion of the Nations Kloss Les
lu_ Lingu ist ic C o m p o s i
of the World,
and G. McConnell,
Presses
de
So c i o 1 i n g u f s tico de
e d s ., pp.
l ’Univer sit e
Laval.
vol. 9-34.
Ill,
H.
Quebec:
12
Harriet E. Manelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark
B ib 1 iographie enne.
L i n g u i s t iq u e . Lin gui st i q ue
Journal
of the
Societe
A mer ind i-
des A m e r ica nistes
(Paris) . Campbell,
Lyle
Languages
and Mar ian ne
of Native
Mithun,
eds.
1979.
The
America:
H i st or ica l
and
Austin:
U niv e r s it y
of Texas
parative Assessment.
Com
Press . G a l v a o , Eduardo dígenas
do Brasil:
Paraense lem:
Eneas.
Emilio
Conselho
Nacional Greenberg,
1960.
1900-195 9.
Goeldi,
Nacional
de Pesquisas Joseph
H.
of Central
In Men
and Cultures:
ed.
de
in
Bol eti m do Museu Serie
8,
Pesquisas,
1-41.
Be
Instituto
The General
South A me ric an Selected
Congress
Sciences,
Philadelphia:
culturáis
da Amazonia.
and
I n t erna tio nal
and Et hn ol o gi c a l
Nova
1960.
cation
Fifth
Areas
Languages.
Papers
of the
of A nt h ro p o l o g i ca l
Ant hony
U ni ver sit y
Classifi
E.C.
Wallace,
of Pe nn sy l v an i a
Press. Grimes,
Joseph.
1968.
I be r o -Ame ric an
Linguistics . ^n Current tics, The
vol.
Hague:
Ibarra Grasso, Americanas. Key,
Mary
4, Thomas
Sebeok,
in L i n g u i s
ed.,
pp.
302-309.
Mouton. Dick Edgar. Buenos
Ritchie.
Am e r i ca n
Trends
and C ar ib bea n
1958.
Lenguas
Indígenas
Aires.
1979.
The
Indian Languages.
G r ou pin g
of South
Tubingen:
Gunter
Nar r . Loukotka,
v / Cestmir.
1968
[original
fication
of South Am eri ca n
Johannes
Wilbert,
can Center,
ed.
U nive rs ity
1935].
Indian
Los Angeles:
Classi
Languages . Latin A m e r i
of California.
Introduction
McQuown,
Norman A.
1955.
of Latin America.
The
Indigenous
13
Languages
Am er i c an A n t hr o p o lo g i st
57.3:
50 1-570. Mason,
J.
Alden.
rican ans,
1950.
Indians.
Handb ook
VI: 157-317.
Bu lletin
143.
Printing
Office.
Matteson,
The Lan gua ges of
Bureau
et al.
of Am eri ca n
1972.
in Am eri nd i an Languages. Parker, los
Gary.
1963.
dialectos
cional Steward,
(Lima)
Indians tin
III.
143.
Ha ndb oo k
Bureau
of
of Am er i c an
1974.
Mouton.
genet ica de del M useo
Na
South Ame ric an Eth nol og y
D . C . : U.S.
South
Bulle
Government
A meri ca n
Maurice.
Surveys.
1963.
1964.
les Cientif ic os
Indian Languages. Cambridge:
Cam
Press. D i sc u s s io n
A nt h ropo log y
Alfredo.
Indian L a n
Brittanica.
The M e so a m e r i ca n Language
U niv ers ity
Current Torero,
1948.
A.
1983.
Swadesh,
Revista
In E nc y c l op a e di a
Cambridge bridge
Hague:
Studies
Office.
Jorge
guages.
G ove rnment
241-52.
Washington,
Printing Suarez,
32:
Julian.
U.S.
La c l a s if i ca c i ón
I n di
E th no log y
Comp ara tiv e
The
quechuas.
Ame
South Amer ica n
Washington,. D.C.:
Esther
of South
de
4.3: Los
and criticism.
317-318.
dialectos
quechuas.
la U n i vers ida d A g r ar i a
Ana
2:
466-78. 1974. na. Tovar,
Lima:
El quechua y la his tor ia U n iver si dad
Antonio.
Am eri ca
del
ame r i c a n a .
1961. Sur.
Ricardo
C atalogo
Buenos
de
Aires:
social
andi
Palma. las
lenguas
Editorial
de
Sú d
14
Harriet E. Manelis Klein and Louisa R. Stark
Voegelin, cation York:
C.F. and
and F.M.
Voegelin.
1977.
Classifi
Index of the W o r l d ’s Languages.
Elsevier.
New
PARTI Indigenous Languages of Lowland South America
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
1. Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region: Current Status Ernest C. Migliazza
I NT R O D U C TI O N Pu b l i sh e d
surveys,
c l as s i f i ca t i on s or another, indigenous pr o f u s i o n
been proven;
taxonomy several
tion.
This
up-t o-d ate languages
the
paper
still
2
to:
the
language
de
which
failure
m i gr a t i o n
periods to take
and
the cove-
into
extinc
to present
of t wen ty- thr ee
spoken
of
a f fili ati on s
h ist o r i ca l
endeavors
assessment
in one way
is due
and
area
in co rp o r at i o n wit hin
hundred years; change,
culture
status
this
genetic
of different
cultural
and fail,
of tribal
c o njec tur ed
same
Ame ric a
In part
and c onf usi on
not
maps
the current
languages.
have
account
of South
to present
signations;
ring
linguistic
an Indian
in the^reg ion s urro und ing
the A m a z o n - O r in o c o watershed. Most
of this
area
forest;
there
Brazil,
V e n ezue la
indigenous across that
are,
however,
are
national
the various
ritories.
not
savannas
frequ ent ly are
in different
due
national
tropical
(see Map
boundaries,
to the
rapid
societies
Such penetration,
circ ums tan ces ,
natural
though
undergoing,
s o c i o - c u 11ura 1 change of
with
and Guyana meet
populations,
several
all
is covered
into
an
where
1).
The
spread
similar
in
degrees, penetration their
as e vid enc ed
only creates
rain
ter
in other
irrev ers ibl e
RIO BRANCO-RIO ORINOCO REGION
BOUNDARY SAVANNAH RAINFOREST
MAP 1.
Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region
state and
of
inter dep end enc e
indigenous
fects
the
be twe en
populations,
c ontinued
usage
but
the
"pion eer ing "
also
of local
19
a dve rse ly
a f
Indian
1anguage s . The
tribes
(1960)
of this
as part
area,
are
kable
cultural and
d i verse
local
of basic forest
features
tribes.
u ni fo r m with
a cc ord ing
level
used.
village The
extended
brought
ferences
wi thi n
there
in relative endoga mou s obse rvi ng tend lect.
the
are
are
of
about the
to marry
still
and
groups
is
of
except still
labor
where
is
of the dead Tradi ti ona l
for h igh ly active,
a basic
accul-
with unit
au tonomous
the and
the
unit.
of Eu rop ea n c o l o n i z a
a " leveling"
tribes
fishing.. is fairly
uncommon.
of dialect
of this and
are not
"dialect"
tribal marr iag e
among
Only when
ec on omy
C r e mati on
languages
they are
their
tropical
the Yanomama,
family as
isolation who as
of
a ppa r e n tl y
by all
hunt ing
one h un dred years
tion has
ever,
that
Division
as the politi cal ly last
is s ug gestive
of the
systems,
communities,
m atri l o c al
show r e m a r
on s l a s h- a n d- b u rn h ort ic ulture,
and end oc a n n ib a 1ism are not
turated
culture
This
subsist enc e
to sex and age.
s oc io- pol iti cal
by Galvao
somehow m a ni f es t a ti o n s
the exception
less
they
shared
by gathering,
tech nol og ica l
is
are
Amazon"
yet
fact
systems
Their
based
s u p p l e m en t e d
pott ery
origin,
homogeneity.
adaptive
c la ss ifi ed
" Northern
also of the
e s se n t i a l l y
The
of the
of diverse
contact
region,
those who
the comm uni ty
area.
dif
How
segments
of tribes
as much
"village"
endogamous. rules,
speak comes
local
their
While people
own d i a
into pe rmanent
20
Ernest C. Migliazza
contact
with,
society,
or is
integrated
into,
the nat ional
do dialect
b ou nd ari es
cease
to be barriers
In other words,
among
the
to gene
flow.
of this
area
hy pothesis lect
there
is still
sug ges ted
by Hill
tribe" may have
de mog raphic There
been
o rg a n iz a t io n
are n ot i c eab le
which
from dif fu si o n
rather
than
features
co nst it ute
these
languages
There
are
also
1. There
(1977a)
are ergative
of the
man. features
languages
shared,
of this
and cen turies
region
of contact
These
areal
s ug ge st ing
are part traits
patterns
of a 1 inguis tic
of typolog ica l
to that
pattern
common that 4 area .
interest:
of disc ou rse
redun
d e s cri bed by D er bys hir e
for a few Ara wak languages
pa ttern
the Verb,
The
languages,
and have
in which
(0-V).
the O b j e c t o r 3.
unit
for Hishkaryana.
2. Except
phrase
a sig nif ica nt
relationship.
is a common
dancy similar
"dia
by the
genetic
the
that
linguistic
degrees,
supp ort ing
(1972:314)
of ancient
in various stem
evidence
a bo rigines
in these
formal
to a relative
a p posi tio n
and n o m i n a 1 ization
precedes
precede
d i st i n ct i o n
languages,
equivalent
verb
(S-O-V or 0 - V - S ) .
A lack of a c ti v e- p a ss i v e
is also no tic e a b le
Object
can either
follow the Verb
others
a trans iti ve
the nominal
Subject
all
clause
and
form ati on
rather
the is by
than
embedd i n g . At ges over
the
spoken
time
in this
a cen tury
tribes
and
of discovery,
region were
ago,
languages
t w enty -th re e
the
there were (see Map
indigenous
indigenous
langua
indeed numerous; still 3).
languages
about
Today, are
fifty
only
still
spoken
Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region
(see Map
2).
speakers,
One
of these has
and three
others
only
have
two
fewer
21
survi vin g than
twenty
speaker s e a c h . A co m p a ri so n
between Map
lack of n ot i ce ab le last
150 years,
Y a no m a m a west,
and
tribes.
languages
during
of the
g e ne t i c a l l y
time
into
families;
Yanomama,
addition,
a few languages
or yet
fo rmation
on the current
groups
fo llowing 1. mo nly
Map
unknown genetic status
ap
other
Today, people
the may
be
linguistic and
Carib.
labeled
because
In
"inde
of their
affiliation. of the
In
extant
lin
in accord with
the
pattern:
accepted
This
section
designation.
of each
2. Wh enever
language possible
p re se n te d by c omparing de signations.
External
refers other
or people
in question.
are
the
are
village
of the
who
those
local
same
tribe,
its
location
or
these
auto-
but which
gi of
names
lack of
Internal
one village
on
are
are names
or
com
p r e ced ing
are not members Often
language.
given by
the most
internal
of m i s i n t e r p r et a t i o n
of the
nations
to
de sig nat ion s
Indian
result
with
d e si g n ati ons
external,
the
tribe
begins
The number
ven by outsiders
knowledge
still
will be p r es ent ed
Name.
the name
are
" un c lass if ied "
un c e rt a i n
guistic
A raw ak
have
into
period.
indigenous
Saliban,
of the
groups
four major
the
and A raw ak
or a ss im i l a te d
surviving
p e n d e n t ” or better
local
a
and n o r t h
of Carib
many
this
grouped
during
to the north
extinct
3 reveals
an e xp an sio n
decrease
Ne vertheless,
groups
for
south
a mar ke d
p ar e n t l y become local
tribal m i g ra t i on s
except
from the
2 and Map
desig
to another
are
not
always
LANGUAGES OF THE ORINOCO - Amazon Region: Yanomama 1. Yanam 2. Yanomam 3. Y anomami 4. Sanima
Saliban 5. Piaroa
Independent 6. Hoti 7. Uruak 8. Sape 9. Maku
* Mandawaka, Guarekena, Baniva (Yavitero).
MAP 2.
Arawak 10. Baniwa 11. Bare, etc.* 12. Wapishana
1977 Carib 13. Panare 14. Yabarana 15. Mapoyo 16. Yekuana 17. Pernon 18. Kapon
19. 20. 21. 22. 23.
Makushi Waiwai Waimiri Hishkaryana Warikyana
Yanomama 1. Yanam 2. Yanomam 3. Yanomami 4. Sanima
MAP 3.
Saliban 5. Piaroa 5a. Maco 5b. Ature 5c. Saliva
Independent 6. Hoti 7. Uruak 8. Sape 9. Maku M. Maracana T . Taruma
Arawak 10. Baniwa IOa. Tariana 10b. Mandawaca lOc. Jabaana lOd. Baruana lOe. Manao 11. Bare Ila. Kuriobana llb. Piapoco Ile. Mawaca lld. Saniva 12. Wapishana 12a. Atorai G. Guinau
Carib 13. Panare 14. Yabarana 15. Mapoyo 16. Yekuana 16a. Mayongong 17. Pernon 17a. Arekuna 17b. Kamarakoto 17c. Taurepang 18. Kapon 18a. Akawaio 18b. Ingariko 18c. Patamona
19. 19a. 19b. 19c. 20. 21. 21a. 21b. 22. 23. 23a. 23b. 23c.
Makushi Sapara Parauiana Paushiana Waiwai Waimiri Atroari Jawaperi Hishkaryana Warikyana Kashuyana Kahuyana Pawiyana
24
Ernest C. Migliazza
ac ce pte d are
as a s e 1 f - d e s i g n a t i o n .
those names
which
A a t o - d e s i g n a t io n s
the people
use
to refer
to
th ems eIves. 2. Location, Only
the
given
present
in this
actual
M al a ri a
pologists). is often
less
with
local
the
the the
e l em en t ar y
language
a summary
may be
the
or
of a language
number,
are
especial
in per ma nen t
and/or
where
there
i nst ruc tio n
con
are is
in
natio nal
In this
section
is p re s en te d
as much
s o c i o /c u 1 1ura 1 context
contact
pressure.
recent
of external
in permanent
contact,
missiona
of speakers
situation.
are derived
pi one eri ng
govern
field a n t h r o
society
of the
Types
this work
gather ed
and
s itu ati on
of external
is given.
and
language.
as pos si ble w ithi n
known,
data
teachers,
Indians
E t h no l i n g ui s t i c
in terms
is
of p o p u la t i on
p o pu l a t io n
schools
tribe
the author,
P ers onn el
the nat ion al
general
(e.g.
of Speakers.
of the
on census
school
Service
where
the nati ona l 3.
local
than
location
based
The number
ly in cases tact
are
and Number
Estim ate s
of persons
officials,
ries,
general
section.
speakers
by a va ri ety ment
P o pu l at i o n
h ist or y
contact
from Ribeiro
contact
with
society,
isolated , i.e.
or only
Where of the
group
r ec o g n iz e d
(1957):
the
and
in
A tribe
local
in i nt e rmi 11 e n t acc ide nt al
outside
c on t acts. 4.
P rognosis
present
and
Suggestions.
soc io- cu l tu r a l
sible
to
foretell
vival
of a par ti cul ar
lingui sti c
studies
s itu at ion
Based it
the p o s si b i li t i e s language.
or ongoing
on the
is often for
Recent
research
the
f ea sur
pu bli she d are
inclu-
Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region
d e d , but
b i b l i og ra p hi c a l
refere nce s
in O ’L e a r y ’s 1963 E t hnog rap hic South
Am er ica
already
given
B ib l io g r ap h y
are not n e c e s sa r i ly
25
of
included here.
Y A N O M AM A FAMILY 1 . Y an am 2. Y an omam 3 . Y anomami4.
The
Sanima
term Yano mam a was
first
a n th r o p ol og i c al
and genetic
(Arends
196 7 ), and
only has
et a1.
to the Yanomamt argued
nate
that
the whole
the m a j or it y
the
used
as
p e r s o n ” , by all
local
has
used
the
anan,
It
to the is only
reported
and,
this
terms
of sc holarly
been
linguis in Brazil first
o ffi ci al l y
such as
in Brazil),
term
Shiri-
Waikan,
also
used
to
family.
after
actual
other
which was
other
is
Y anom ama
all
years
and Yanom amo were
same
it
” a native
has
by
although
term Yanomami,
( especially
G u a i k a , Yanoama, refer
is understo od
However
In the past,
X ir ia n a
to d e s i g
a n t h r o p o l o gi c a l
(1967),
Neel
(1972)
anthropology.
introduced by M i g li az z a adopted.
used
to designate
In recent
the
it referred
in an increasing number
and cultural
by J.V.
variation,
m ea ni ng
in human genetics,
and V e n ez u e la
it
speakers
speakers
into
M ig l ia z z a
phonetic
name,
of Yanomama.
tics
first
term should be
speakers
papers
at
language.
of Yan om ama
a general
been
literature
family because
pr o n o un c e d with
i nt roduced
the year
encounters
1800 that
with
E uro peans
the Y ano m a m a
Indi
26
Ernest C. Migliazza
ans .
However,
lists
of tribal
which
could be
on
the
from the middle names
i den tified
t rib utaries
co Rivers.
Maps
tributaries
of
which and
c an
be
possibly
prehistoric
conta in
the
some
d es ig n a ti o n s
Orinoco, period
middle
and
interpreted
in
indicate
area
an
Negro,
lower
the
Rio
occupied
in spite
of being
tropical
of yet
u n a c c u 1turated
in South America.
area
of
100,000
over
200 vi lla ges
lage
and
past
es timates but
of
language
by
them
in
total
the number was
were
not
in
taken
vi sited
miles.
the
located
at
from
with
1.5 inhabitants
per
d is t r i b u t i o n the center
over
per v i l
have
high
200 people)
where w ar fa re
a much higher
clear
is not
that
10 square
is not
pop ul a ti o n located
so intense
1970
a d e m o g ra p h ic
uniform;
of the Y a n o m am a
than those
In
as
1950 to
the Y a n o m a m and Y a n o m a m i ) and en gag ed
wa rf are
an
in just
as high
it became
15,000,
Indi
15,000 people.
number was
d e nsity of about However,
4)
enga
largest
forest
seventy people
were
over
of the
(see Map
1970 about
surveys
and more vill age s
one
are d i s t r i bu t e d
a v e rag ing
the
as
They
square miles
tot all ing
as
Bran
c o n st a n tl y
groups
(i.e.
and
Branco
Yanomama
are
v i llages
groups
report names /
ged in int erv il lag e warfare,
50,000,
local
times.
The Yanomama,
ans
16th century,
as Y an o m a m a
of the
of this
of the
(at
area
in
times
as
in areas
(usually
belo w 40
people).
in
The
heaviest
the
Parima
least the
four
concentration
Mountain
known
demographic
range
centers density
of is
of Y a n o m a m a where
there
concentration as h i g h
as
people are
is
at
in w h i c h
6 inhabitants
Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region
1— -1___ 1___ L— 1 0 miles 100 i
A
Yanam
B
Yanomam
4 N
C
Yanomam±
D
Sanima
MAP 4.
27
28
Ernest C. Migliazza
to one
square mile.
lation
is more
river ted,
areas,
Toward
scarce.
In six specific
where vill ag e
the ratio
square miles
ranges
to one
per
9.6
records,
occupi ed
at
tury
the Y an om am a
7,000
people.
tribe. their have
has
in some
Today
their
es t i m at i o n by Ramos
during
reduced number
and Taylor
the
(1950-1970)
twenty
only no n - In d i a n
station was noco. tions
In
est abl is h ed
1970 there were
located
on almost
territory;
yet
could
and write
read
Until
red
no more
recent ly
Y an oma ma was a family
in
of
one
linguistic
family with
four major
and
Sanima
languages
has
several
In relation
14,000.
to us last
The
alone
un cer ta in
10 years.
the
upper
Ori
m is s i o n
sta
river
4).
of their adults
language. as
to wheth er d ial ect s
(1972)
to show that
(see Map
contact
first m is s io n
several
languages:
given
too high
ten Y a no ma m a own
The
in Y an o m a ma
tw enty-one
M ig l i a z z a
evidence
Yanomamt,
over
of outside
language with
languages.
than
p o p u l a t io n by half.
settlers
in their
cen
an e xp a nd i n g
every major
it was
last
epi demics
1950 on
than
and
Various
the
te rritory were missio nar ies .
Conside
ten years
seems
years
5
n um b er e d more
in Brazil
of
per
last
is not
the e pidemics first
of the
the
the
(1979)
coun
d en s i ty
they were
of 8,400 Ya n o m am a
c o ns id e ri n g For
1968
been
miles.
p o p ul at i on
diminished.
areas total
square
could not have
Until
have
the p o p u
p e r i ph e r al
inhabitant
the b e g in n i ng
U n fo r t u n a t e l y number
people
from one
ring h is to r i ca l areas,
the p er ip h e ry
has
Yanomama
Yanam, Each
or
offe is a
Yanomam,
of these
dialects.
to other
South
Am e r i ca n
languages,
Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region
Yanoma ma was
at
first
c l a ss i f ie d
isolated by K oc h -G r u n b er g (1950), recent
M c Qu ow n
c l a ss i f i ca t i on s
(1963),
and Vo ege lin
cons ide red , evidence, lum.
(1955),
without
re spo nde nc es, gene tic (about cha),
putting
shown
cognates),
although
tes).
and Vo eg el i n
Pano
using that
sion
South A me r ic a n Recent
family
(1967,
M ig li a z z a
and Neel
common
languages the
is
sequence
1.
object,
Yanam:
1970,
sound
phy cor
Guaymi
a
(Chib-
(20% c o g n a
This
research
points
and
to
a revi
c la s s i f i c a t i o n
pu bl i ca t i on s Borgm an
1972,
of
1973);
surface word
order
O b j e c t - V e r b - Su b j ec t suffixes
Village
people
identify or river
" dwellers
(1965);
Spielman,
In narr ati ve s
also except
occurs. for
Case
the d i
is unmarked.
N i n am and Yanam,
of a place
al.
of the Y an om a m a
S u b j ec t - O b j e c t - V e r b .
which
et
co n c e rn i n g
(1974).
a u to - d e si g n a t i o n s
me ani ng
linguistic
languages
degree
phyla.
include
general
name
it was
exhibits
as with
p h yl o ge net ic
is ov ertly marked with rect
Wilbert
languages.
Migliazza
The
In
t r a d i t i on a l ly been
compa rat iv e
ant hro li n gu i s ti c
the Y an o ma m a
regular
lower
and Chibcha have
of the present
any
Panoan
as well
to a much
for more
(1977),
Y an o m a ma
the
c l as s i f i e d wit hin different the need
(1968). (1960),
forward
or
Mason
of the M a c r o - C h i b c h a
r el a t ions hip with 40%
1923),
by G r ee n b e rg
(1978b),
has
(1913,
ind ependent
and L o uk o t k a
to be a family
M ig l i a z z a
as
29
of"
or
mea ni ng
"person" , are
in the Yan am
themse lve s plus
language.
also with
a suffix
"inhab ita nt s
the
[-theri] of",
or
[-p]
30
or
Ernest C. Migliazza
[pik]
"plural"
[parawap] River";
[parawapik]
Internal
shiana;
Cas apare
term)
for
Ex ter nal
Jawari,
names
L oc at i on
and
d e sig nat ion s: [kasrapai]
Population. one
Rivers
variant
on the A piau
as well about
with
700 people;
years
mo u n t ai n
range
present
Yan om a ma
sion,
to
pr oba bly
internal tinction,
tribes
cana,
Maku).
there
some Maku,
result
the east area
Rivers total
and central
400. last
in dif fer ent part
of
400
stages
the
from
Parima
and U r a r i c a a - P a r a g u a part
In their
fissio ni ng
c o n t r ib ut e d of,
of the expan
caused
to
the
the
by
ex
Carib
Purukoto,
and
Mara-
they also
i n t er ma rri ed
Uruak
Sape.
these
related
and
other
Y a n a m have
s p ec i al i z ed v o c a bu l a r y
4)
po pulation,
the
M ayo ngong,
Mayong ong , with
(see Map
about
During
the m ig r a t i o n
the north
and
of Y a n a m was
are
to v il lag e
dia
a southern
and n ort hea st
they have
of contacts
n or the rn
and
U ra ri c a a
(see Map 4).
(Paushiana, In
Crichana,
three
and
of speakers
southern
or caused
other
upper
1970 the
today
due
strife,
Jawaperi,
M a k u , A ra wa k
to the Mu cajai
i.e.
with
In
the
Rivers,
Shiri-
River v i l
and A ja ran i
situation.
and
or
and M u c a ja i
speakers;
the Ya na m have moved
the A ja rani
P ara gua
(a d eroga-
on the
the number
E t h n o 1 inguistic
S hir ian a
Y anam has
200
speakers. as
of the
to the Yanam.
a no rt h e r n
400
Par agua
lips"
given by Carib,
Para gua
with
example
of the
"long
des ign at ion s:
B raz ili ans
lects,
"people
the Ura ri ca a
lages.
local
For
[p a r a w a u t h e r i ] " in h a b ita nts
River".
tory
or
for people.
tribes,
b orr o w e d to bitter
As
a
the
sets
of
manioc
Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region
processing, from
the
fermented
susta ine d
1958 with upper
Protestant
that
time
once
every
during
are
the
five
or more
last
K o c h - G r un b e r g
1913,
Paragua
some
past
contacts
started
Rio
Branco with
about
are
River
of contact
and
at
1841,
6 0 ?s
s easo nal ly
in the
the Yanam
20% due
a result
to
of these people
in
inter
learned
Catholic
1960.
(the No rth ern
As
with
some Yan am are
in
young people
can be met
are
the Yan am and
and some
the national starting
only by the
in the
died.
intermittent
contact with
the
of three
epidemics
of the p opu la t io n
high
join
been built
road workers,
"civiliz ed"
the
Pe rimeter
a con se q u e n ce
the
missio
During
e ven t u a ll y
the Rio Negro has
thr ee -fo urt hs
Their
Rivers
visits
area c on tr act ed
needs which
In the
Rivers,
that will
area.
in p er manent
ciety.
1923).
and Ajarani
" P e r i m e t r a 1")
Today
( Sch omburgk
a few Ya nam young
a road
or
Ajarani
Schom bur gk
K o c h -G r u nb e r g
d im in ish ed As
regular
way
of the
area
e ncounters
and Portuguese.
ten years
years
1922,
and Ur aricaa
In the Apiau naries
century
diseases.
Spanish
and with
Before
outsiders.
explorer
started wor kin g
in that
"c ivi liz ed "
the
in
on the
River.
sporadic
The
was
first
years with
century,
of this
po p u l at i o n
only
those with
diamond miners
no n-I ndi ans
then on the Mu cajai
the Yanam had
were
mi ttent
with
m iss ion ari es ,
the b eg in n i ng
upper
" H a l l e l u j a h ” songs
ge ner all y monoling ual .
contact
Uraricaa,
No table
and
Ca r i b .
Ya nam speakers first
drink
31
so
to acquire
"civilized"
32
Ernest C. Migliazza
people; some
this,
in tarn,
P ort ug ues e
ricaa
and Muca jai )
in the
6 0 ’s;
it
few ch i l d re n Pr ogn osi s their last
and
tions.
could
language
A l re a d y
almost
s tarting
s i tuat ion
ten years
half
to
learn
In two v i l la g e s
(Ura
an e l em e n ta r y
school
of what
attended,
The
drastic
and m o r t a l i t y
bring
w ithi n
the
about
the
the next
it was
in
p e ne t r at i n g
youn ger
g e ne ra t io n
of Yan am males,
nomy,
is tending
in a diff ere nt they become own
group to
a
the
to ensure
leave
in
the
area
r educed
of
and
instead
cheap
economy.
Once
the of s t a
cultural
to teach
auto laborers outside
rej ec t i ng it
to
natio nal
to become
"ci vil ize d"
and refusing
changes
e x ti n c t io n
The
a shamed of being Yanam,
language
but
during
been
1970.
is ra pidly
their
started
two g e n e r a
p op u la t i on has
society
ying w it hi n
was
to learn Portuguese.
Suggestions.
contact
the Y an a m
Spanish.
them eager
is not very well
are
and
has made
their
to their
children. Ling uis tic
work
azza
and Grimes
azza
(1972).
and
different
(1961),
These
s yntactic
dialects.
in Y an a m
southern
search has
yet
rapid
of ex t i n c ti o n
urgent
that
importance Y anomama.
been
it be for
the
(1965),
sout her n
dialect,
two,
no
undertaken. of this
studied,
that
deal with
of the
from the other
rate
A lbright
studies
aspects
In the
includes
and M i g l i
p h o n o l o g ic a l and central
which
is quite
linguis tic
re
C o n si d e ri n g
the
dialect,
is
in part
reconstruction
of M i g l i
it
because of proto-
of
its
Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region
2.
Yan o m a m .
dents
are
the word
The
a a to - d es ig nat ion
geo graphical for
"people"
to the dialect.
have
appear ed
Tupi
of the Rio Negro,
t e rp r e t a t i o n the name Warema,
was
similar
term
speakers)
designations: terms
but
[warima]
Wadema,
"inlaw"
( 1956 ) who
one
Waika,
not
Population.
by
thought
it
and a peripheral and
1970 was
today
two main
in the headw ate rs River
one
area
spoken
the Upper
The
and Parahuri,
Y a n om a m has
spoken
Another
au t o- d e si g n at i o ns .
and Orinoco
speakers).
epidemics,
Guadema,
it was
from the Rio N e g
Parima
in
thought
a misin
[sorima]
D e m e n i , Catrimani
speakers,
who
(from
is Xurima
a central
upper
"soldier"),
village; of
Surara
group.
d er og a t or y and
are:
which
Yanoma ma
are
L oc at i o n
while
a local
Internal
(1,500
(1960)
( 1954 ) and Vinci
ro.
the
me ani ng
of Becher
for
[-theri],
de sig nat ion s
literature
m is in t e r p r e t a t i o n
a name
lects:
External
of a particular
G he er b ra n d t
plus
resi
is Y an om a m or Ya no a m a c c o r
ding
in the
names
of village
33
dia of
(2,800
in the
U r a r i cu e r a
upper
areas
total
number,
p op ul a t io n
and
4,300.
Because
of contact
and
there
are
less
than
3,800
Yanomam. Et hno l i ng ui s ti c Y a n o m am have P au sh ian a upper
taken over
(Carib)
Catrimani,
U r a r i cu e r a gong
situation.
River
(Makiritare)
the
In their territory
of the Catrimani they have moved and expelled living
e xpa ns ion
The Y a no m a m are m onol ing ual
of the
River.
north
the Maku
in that
the
From the
to the
upper
and Mayon-
area.
and only
a few of
34
Ernest C. Migliazza
them, ver,
located can
on the
speak
lower
a few words
1960s m i s s i o n a r y wo r k was Catrimani,
P arima
"P eri met ra l" tioned part
of the
Indians flu,
Yanomam
and
toll.
In only
1977,
half
one
year,
recent upper
point
Parima
lated Y a n o m a m areas, B razilian Air
Force
of the ago
Surucucu
the
ners
and
A few years same
one
area was
which
brought
was
soon
the
and m inin g Due
is e xpe cte d
to the
recent
society
into
their
process
of changi ng
with
intermittent
This
change
will
slow e xt in ct i on
popu the
Field the
tops
A few years
invaded by m i than
of that
actual
their
field,
over
two
popu
discove
one h un d re d region,
gold
road bu i l d i ng
to start.
p e ne tr a ti o n
te rri to ry from an
contact
the
with
for
of the Yanomam
isolated
p rob ab l y mark process
60's
In less
a u r a niu m
south
and
n o n- I nd i a ns
on
d ec im a t ed
Just
found
died.
area c o nt r a c t ed v ene re al
ago
region,
their
Summer
of the most
airst rip s
field geologists. also
with
the U n e v a n g e l i z e d
the
lation.
to
Ca tri ma n i
for cassiterite.
and e pidemics
in the
taking
Parima mountains.
the Y a n o m a m of
sou the rn
be twe en
in the early
opened
diseases
red
1976
where
Surucucu m o un t a i n
p r o sp e c ti n g
years
from Fall
area,
men
and major
are
of contact
and
M is si o n m i ss i o n a r i e s
inevit abl e
of the
The
the
epide mi cs
of the Y a n o m a m
An oth er is on the
was
Demeni,
Highway)
Contact
Ri
In the
Rivers.
through
territory.
and m a l a r i a
on the
P eri met er
pa ssi ng
roa dw o rk e r s
m easles
started
N or t h er n
is also
and Deme ni
of Portuguese.
and U r a r i c u e r a
(the
above,
Catrim ani
the
n at ion al are
in the
society
to one
outside
world.
the b e gi nn i ng
the Y a n o m a m
of a
language.
Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region
The
Indians
themselves
there
are
three
P rot estant
Brazil,
four mission
and
(Catri man i
their ning has
own
except ries
for
and
gaining
in immediate
its
speakers
oncomi ng
have
plagued
Demeni where
River entire
Recent Borgman (1972). the
has
as well
and
Cue
Primers
Bible were
and
Christians,
is
to the
rapidly
pene
for survival
be
good.
and measles fight
for
has that sur
as Af ri c a n
the Y a n omam of the
the Y an o m am r been
Tracy
language
ada pt a ti o n
co mmo nly known
studies
further
of Y anom am (1966)
in the
west,
infected.
translat ion s
completed
in their
onchoce rci as is,
in their
reached
(1963),
advantage,
unless
are not
malaria,
vi llages have
linguistic
the Yano-
But
the
chances
disease,
as
success
of the m i s s i o n a
The Y a n o m a m
in their
O nc hoc erc ias is, bli ndness,
the
of extinction.
the Y a n oma m
to l e ar
teaching
in b eco min g
two gen era tio ns
flu,
step
in
goods.
society,
to the
operate
and write
to read
f rie ndship
their
another
added
or
si tuation with
national
been
river
the
less
are helped
the next
vival.
to write
in the
stations
nor
in
Catholic
the children;
the point
danger
contact
Rece ntl y
to
Demeni
one
Their
Suggestions.
not
yond
see
and even
and
and
and
territory,
River
a p r e l i mi na r y
limited
ob taining
P r ogn osi s
t rating
as
in learning
language,
upper
to read
language.
do not
in their
These mi ss i o n
language
been mos tly
mon ol i n gu a l
of Butau
the natives
the national
as yet,
Parima,
of Venezuela)
River).
mam adults
stations
(upper
to teach
own
still
the headwa te rs
P arima Mo u nt a i n
schools
are
35
include:
and M i g l i a z z a
of portions
1 9 6 0 ’s by the
of New
36
Ernest C. Migliazza
Tribes M is s i on
(Demeni
River),
M is si o n
(Parima
area)
mani).
Current
linguistic
progre ss
in the
Ca trimani logist
Parima
River
Bruce
and
(John
Albert
U n e v a n g e l i ze d Fie ld
C o ns ol ata field
area
res ear ch
(Sandra
Saffirio).
has
Fathers
Cue)
is
in
and on the
French
c on d uc t e d
(Catri
anthropo
field w o r k
in the
Ca t r iman i area.
3.
Yanomamir.
The
same
Bible
Auto-des ignat ion : Y an om ami , Yanoama.
term,
spelled
tra ns l at io n s
as Y a no m a mo
in V e n ez ue l a
as well (Chagnon,
of the
e th n o gr ap h ic
liter atu re
1974).
D e s ig na t io n s
for
usually
com pos ed
[-theri] are:
as
Waika,
general
de sig n a ti ng co mmon
re sidents
used
above.
ancestor,
of v il la ges
prob abl y
External
de signations:
(meaning
"howler
m onkey"
are
d e s ig na tio ns the
Shamathari, d esc en d ed
called
Guaica,
1968,
sense with
of "bad people",
a group
in some
term plus
Internal
in a d e r og at o r y
as
in
of a vi lla ge
of a ge ogr a p h ic a l
shown
m ea ni n g
appe are d
Shama
Waica,
in Brazil),
from a
"tapir". G ua h ar ib o
Xurima
[s or i m a ] . Lo cat ion
and
in south ern
Population. V en ez uel a
Yanomami,
(see Map 4),
dialects:
an eastern
one
mo untains
with
3,000
one with into
5,000
about
speakers.
three m u tu a l l y
whic h
is spoken
another
spoken
The
latter
third,
i nte rna lly
spoken
south
d esi gna ted
of the Orinoco
as
Parima
and is
a w est er n s ubd ivi de d
var ieties,
of the
upper
spoken
two main
in the
i n tell ig ibl e
and
has
speakers,
in the v al l ey
on the Ocamo
mos t l y
Padamo
Or i n o co
and
of
River,
Rivers
[samathari],
River
one
and is
in adjacent
a
Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region
Brazil. was
In
8,000.
about
1970 the appro xi mat e Today
has
been
of speakers
reduced
to
7,500.
E t h n o 1 inguistic language
lated with ever,
Situation.
of the Yanomama
mono lin gua l.
Y a mom ami
family;
The m a jori ty
only accidental
with m ission
in permanent
is the
its
outside are
stations
largest
speakers
of them are
a few of the villages
contact are
the number
number
37
still
are i so
contact.
How
in intermittent
while
ten villages
with
these
outposts
report
about
the
contact
of
"civilization. " The
first
published
the Y a n om a m t dates ded
a "Guahar ibo" word
(Codazzi tact
1841).
with
upper
Braz ili an
there
nurses
and has medical and M ava ca
In spite
"convert"
their
language
posts
trading
for
knives,
pots,
shot g u n s .
outside
and in some
cases
upper sta
are on the
Y ekuana
of
Indians
as
upper O rinoco
to m i s s io n efforts remain
sta
to educate attached
to
fairly detached
However, such
by
1954
eight mis si o n
the Yano ma mt
goods
village,
on the
on the
and
on the
settled
adjacent
and culture,
con
In
e mployed
from the outside world.
1950,
The M in is t r y
of m is s i o n a r y
them,
in
two of which
of the border.
in Ven ezu ela has
tions.
also
Orinoco
Mission.
are about
Health
at Platanal
started
of
recor
sus tained
the M a h e k o t o - th e r i
the Yanomami,
side
Codazzi
upper
first
of the New Tribes
Today
among
on the
the
Sa lesian miss ion ari es
tions
1838 when
list
However,
O rinoco near
Orinoco.
and
to
the Yanomami was
m is si o n a r i e s the
back
language
they have
as axes,
started
machetes,
they have
acquired
38
Ernest C. Migliazza
Their
area
being made side
is now being
for d ev e lo pme nt
of the border.
measles, about
m a l aria
mo s tl y
Daring
and
colds
the
has
spread
to almost
B ra zil ian Yanomami, V e ne zu e la n P r ognosis Ya nom am4 it will
and
No one knows
are m on o l i n g u al
number
(1956,
of their
[S a n i m a ] . of
to as
are
name.
(1964).
[-dili]
or
[-dubu]
little
Lizot
is
(1970,
Spielman,
also well
Lizot
language
is
(Ramos
is much
is either or
suffixed
to
the
1976,
analysis needed.
[tsanima]
of the villa ge
in
through
(1975b,
1972)
e_t^
known
A l inguistic
d e s i g n a ti o n
People
schools"
studies
e s p e c i al l y
1974),
the h e a d m a n ’s lineage
gr aphical
(1969);
S e lf - d e s i g n a t i on Village
society
to attend.
(19 72 ); and
chanted
had
de
and dicti ona rie s:
literature, (1968,
Zerries
formal
Sanima.
Berno
outlast
p la nn ed
"m i s s io n a ry
language
grammars
The Yano ma mi
of Chagnon
threatened;
the
and have
of recent
Migliazza
(1974).
of the
the n ati ona l
the Yanoma mi
1971);
the e thn og ra p h ic
4.
in Yano mam i
to partial
and
of the
survival
soon
At present,
in g etting
1973 , 1975);
1977),
of
onchocer
s e ri ou sly
how
place.
w o rk
life
of Y a n om am a wh ich will
will
a1.
the
a f fect in g many
The
and p e ne t r a t io n by
Barker
taken
is also
v el opm ent
limited
ten years,
Rec en tl y
is not yet
a var ie t y
others.
A small
Bra zilian
all v ill a g es
Suggestions.
language be
success
on the
are
Yanomami. and
take
and plans
last
have
five hu n dr e d Yanomami.
ciasis
the
exp lor ed
or the name a geo
are
referr ed
the v illage
Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region
location name. of",
and
Suffix
[-dubu]
pronoun".
or
There
"aliens"; group
of
Sanima. are:
Ye k u a na
Indians,
term
Shirishana
intelligible
spoken
2,000.
The
as
In
The
1970 Sanima
contact
rated Yeku ana
in the past
has
and the
them access
vaccine,
The current
three One
is
is spoken a third
upper
on
Padamo
num be red
not
Y a no mam a
such as ma laria
etc.
to
they have with
allows
least
a second
speakers
side" med ic in e
at
Brazilian
of Sanima.
extending west
of the other
at
Rivers,
Sanima po pul ati on
that
are
area;
and Ventuari
upper Auaris area.
There
v ari eties
in the Caura River
on the Erebato
kers.
by the
the
to them
desig
Venezuelans.
m u tu al l y
fast
or
b ackward
external
(from
applied
mos tly
"enemy"
more
common
and Gu aha rib o
and P o p u l a t i o n .
River
animate
[Yi r is'an a ] given
Lo c a t io n
the
"they,
[nabad-ibi]
The most
"inhabitant
designations,
a southern,
for howler monkey)
the
means
means
internal
such as
[Kobaliwa]
nations
by
[-tipi]
are
d er og a t o r y names
[-dili]
39
about
d imi nis hed
language
as
spea
the more
accultu-
to certain
"out
p reventives,
p op u la t i on
measles
is e sti ma ted
1,700.
E th no l ingu ist ic point
to the
t h ei r
northern
ritare Only
Situation.
fact
that
Carib
the
H is tor ica l Sanima have
neighbors,
and M a y o n g o n g ) , for more
in the
last
30 years
Vent uar i
and Erevato
peaceful
and
neighbors.
friendly Often
the
have
the
with
(Maki6
200 years.
Sanima
areas m a i n t ai n e d relati ons hip s
fought
Yekuana
than the
documents
rela tiv ely
with
Sanima villages
of the
are
their located
40
Ernest C. Migliazza
near
the
and to
more
in m a n y the
prosperous
instances
Yekuana
Permanent
as
and
Sanima
wives,
contact
with
are
and p r o c e ss i n g
cass ava shing
bread
use
rituals; ving
of
lingui st ic
and the
ch anted
vowel;
Sanima b i l ingu als areas .is as high There Sanima two
are
as
25%
in V e nezu ela
(one
on
and
one
M i s s io n w ork
Ye kuana
languages. most
of
the
on
of the
border the
the
Except
and
when
Sanima
are
In the
into Venezuela, side
at
invol
prec ed ed number
of
in some
stations
and
in
one
still
the
from
of the
area mov ed
the h e a d wa t e rs
and
sta
isolate d
only
the
Auaris
Sanima
1 9 6 0 ’s most
leaving
on
upper
the m i s si o n
River
in
two P ro t e stan t) ,
on the
both
for
lower Auaris
Br azilian
process
Erebato
is done
and
population.
in Brazil
the n o n- I n di a n world. Sanima
in trade
three m i s s io n
Catholic
to make
dimini
i ncr eas ing
of the
(one
tions,
the
of con son an ts
at present
River),
n ot i c ea b l e
(S a n i m a - Y e k u a n a ) whic h
River.
the
language
the
given
re sul ted
ma nioc
drink;
t err it ory
Caura
been
Most
of bitter
and
ones
vice-versa.
of a p h o no l o gi c a l
the p a l a t a l i z a t i o n front
have
change.
a fermented
b or r ow i n g
by a high
not
Yekuana
the Y ek ua n a has
and
use
women
but
in cultural the
bigger
across
about
200
of the
Auaris. Prognosis unique items ned
and
Suggestions.
of the Yan o m a ma and
with
a c ertain number ph ono log y
languages
in structure.
contact
as well
a Carib
Given
in
is the most
both
the
language,
of changes as an
Sanima
present
sustai
one
foresee
lexical
increas ing
in lexical
can
items
number
of
and
Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region
bilinguals. su rvival
of the
Recent
Some
there
Borgman
the
language
linguistic
kn ow l ed g e 1963),
However,
is only
and Ramos
an th r op o l o g is t field w ork Upper
are
for
good. to our
of Wilbert
and M i g l i a zz a
a n t h ro p o l og i c al
by Ramos
(1972),
and Taylor
(1974).
Marcus
the
scarce;
the work
(1969-1970),
in the works
1974),
is still
studies
lan gu ag e- r el a t ed
found
progno sis
Colch est er
1979-1980
among
the
Ere bat o
and Upper
Ventuari.
(1972).
studies
Taylor
are
(1972,
British
has
in
(1962,
c o nduc ted
Sanima
of the
SAL I BAN FAMILY The
Saliban
guages 1935,
(also w ritten
Salivan)
had been c onsidered 1968;
Rivet
(1920)
c l a s si f i c a t i o n which
in dependent
until
places
literature
(see Wilbert, summ ary included used
three
to be
Or inoco on the
near
last
Piaroa
by
some
four
Last
in the
side
falls
was
of the
authors
(see Wilbert,
for a good
cent ur y
this
Saliva,
and,
family
which
to a lesser
Orinoco;
Orinoco,
ssion);
Piaroa,
Orinoco
a p p ro x i ma t e ly where
for
At u r e , which,
it
group
and was name
a d etailed
on the west
and
extent,
spoken by a small
to be another
1963,
spoken
1975
family
" l l a n o s ” of the Meta
of the
century,
is d i sa g r eem ent
of this
languages:
in Colombia
V e nezu ela
the Ature
thought
or
spoken
Rivers
up to the
There
on the members
problem).
(Loukotka
ten ta t iv e l y within
1963 and Kaplan,
of this
of l a n
G r e e n b e r g ’s (1960)
it
the A n d e a n - E q u a t o r i a 1 Stock. in the
family
side
is spoken
for
the
discu
of
the
today
41
42
Ernest C. Migliazza
(see Map
2); Maco,
spoken by a small part
number
of the Piaroa
languages way.
only
500
in C olom bia from
perm ane nt lation,
in the
speakers
in Venezuela,
ma te d
area
outsiders.
among
even
ch il dre n now
speakers,
is m u t ua ll y
[tiha] Their better
The name 1760
Piaroa
and
pronunciation
internal
d e si g na tio ns
include:
Piaroa;
subgroup);
Ature
Maco;
been
that
esti in
popu
speak
their
Spanish with the
with
Saliva
danger
of
is
about
with
of the
130
Piaroa.
Piaroa
are
" j u n g l e ’s m ast er. "
to as
[wo?tiheh]
or
^
" j u n g l e ’s m a s t e r ’s
in the
com mun ica tio n). li terature
it may h a v e ^ b e e n
of
250
While
Ature
int el lig ibl e
appe are d
and
the y ounger
language,
[de?aruwa]
of
reports
immediate
Spanish.
thiwene]
1975)
use
(1972)
( K r u t e - G e o r g e s , personal
(Kaplan,
Spanish
and
a few of
is referred
[de?aruwa
speech"
still
a u t o -d e s i gn a t i on s
’’p e o p l e ” and language
in no
only
the Maco
The
(1972)
to M orey is
And
a number
n o n -i n d ig e n o u s
themselves
extinct.
Piaroa.
the
these
in a s ubs tan tia l
individuals.
though
speak
Of
southe rn
in Co lo m b i a
of Saliva
in Co lom bia
3).
p o p ul at i o n has
with
A c co r d i ng
extinction,
5.
M ore y
1200 to 2000
language
in the
1 9 5 0 ?s give
Saliva
contact
to Piaroa,
surv ive d
of Saliva
the m aj o r i ty
language
(see Map
although,
the
related
of people
Piaroa has
Es timates
around
own
c losely
[de?arua].
which Mako
or Adole.
around
the
Ex ter nal
appea re d
in print
or
(a name
Itoto
and
of a
Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region
Location, of the from
Pop ul ati on
Piaroa
occupy
the mouth
the Ventua ri pa ral lel s
north.
called Maco
Map
(see Map
estimates, 4,000 most
one,
about the
(Monod recent
es ti mates
Piaroa
Piaroa part
2,500
total
1970)
to
estimate
of this
is that
of about
Situation.
1975)
on the
’’pea cef ul" , not warlike ’’c i v i l i z e d ” world the Jesuits
goes
settled
River,
back
among
and
language,
language",
not
only
rest About
trade.
Some
The who
10% are
society
contact are
do cuments
describe Their at
them on
with
as well
s urvived but
1970,
was
of them are b ilingual
1700
a center that
of of
the
as a " c h a n until
1970
in spite
of
world.
a h o r t i c u 11ura 1 ist until
to
with
the banks
of auton om y
the outside
them as
contact
least
It is r em ark abl e
a c ertain degree
tribe which, 50%
from
(1975)
and the area became
culture
Piaroa
(see
on recent
pio ne e ri n g
people.
Piaroa
The
in the
1963).
2,500.
Piaroa
slave
pr olo nge d
Based
His tor ica l
Indian
m a int a i n ed
spoken
Piaroa.
E t h n o 1 inguistic
ted
one
130 speakers,
of Kap lan
use
the O ri noc o
least
a southern
(Wilbert
and do not
when
at
of Piaroa varies
into the V e n e zue lan
(see Kaplan,
has
terr ito ry
speakers.
1,886
a popu lat io n
about
to
from 7°to 4*
language
i n tegr ate d
the
of the Orinoc o
i.e.
proper,
number
Most
in the north
south,
2), with
and n orthern
2) with
bank
River
in the The
of Speakers.
intelligible varieties:
and a n ort her n central
the east
of the Meta
River
two m u t u a ll y
and Number
43
tropical
on the
either
fo
increase.
in Y e k u a na
44
Ernest C. Migliazza
(Carib), Their to
or Y a b a r a na
type
of outside
int erm itt ent
others. near
the V e n ez u e la n
east
bank of
the
Tribes few
Mission
families
about
are
are
those
1970's move
to p erm ane nt
integr ate d
River.
both
tested
in or on the
gone
to live
near
the New Also,
the Y ab ar a na
local in
in
(1963)
Tama-Tama.
common
on
a and
diseases,
1950 had
1963).
Catholic
stations
(Salesians)
among
at Corom oto
of their
live
Wil bert
Piaroa"
called
Piaroa
and
of Puerto A y a c u c h o
of Piaroa has
from the
the
and
Piaroa,
Protes
the
largest
and
Isla Raton.
In the
of the
Piaroa were
ad vi sed
jungle
into
the more
to
"c ivi li z e d"
stations.
K r u t e -G e o r ge s that
areas,
"Punta
a good number
out
m i ss io n
at
(Wilbert,
tant mi ss i o n being
from isolated
i n te r ma rr ied with
48% of 406
There
varies
town
center
Apart
filariasis
contact
are
a group
O rinoco
Yekuana.
Spanish.
the Orin oco
that
upper
and/or
in certain
Some Piaroa
reported
(Carib),
there
(personal
co mmu n i c at i o n )
is great v a r i a bi l i t y
reports
in the degrees
b i l i n g u a li s m and acc ul turation: ...at
Corom oto
younger males b il in gua ls contacts
everyone tend
where
uses
to be
Spanish
the
functional is spoken
in
with m i s s ion w o r k e r s ,
to wns peo ple
and officials,
the vil lage
with
A ya cu c ho
Piaroa,
there
p ro gre sse d
other
are
Piaroa.
three
to sec ond ary
dozen others
to other
and Pi aroa
in
In Puerto
Piaroa who have sch ool ing
voc ati on a l
and a schools;
of
Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region
yet
local
number have
people
claim
of villages
never
Piaroa
groups
nearby
tributaries,
denying Raton, and
along
their
c ul tur all y
the
and
with
domains,
dren
Spanish.
while
of the recent (1963)
by past
explorers),
Monod
good
10
is a
until
for
1970.
and without
a sound
is threate ne d
it will
are
(1970)
linguistic
Kris olo go
there
by a
be co nfined
in e l e men tar y
studies
River
prognosis
schools
to
chil
e thnographic:
for r eferences
No detailed
telling.
to word
lists
and Kaplan study has yet been
( 19 76 ) has
p u bl ish ed
a small
(S p a n i s h - P i a r o a ) and pr esc rip tiv e
Boglar
(1970)
La urence
University)
been
(good
trade
distinct.
the
language
in which
Isla
for
Al tho ugh
appeared
this
Wilb ert
Piaroa
l in gui sti cal ly
recent migra tio ns
dome sti c
grammar;
At
somehow
situation
d ic tio nar y
ancestry.
of bilinguals,
some
of
are
of Piaroa
the
published^
point
Piaroa who and
who
fairly
P arguaza
d ig lo s si a
(1975).
to the
a
and
the
program,
Most
are
Along
bi li n gu a l
use
are
are
River
There
who
Suggestions.
perce nta ge survival
Now,
Cuao
they produce h a n dicr aft s
are
Prog nos is
there
the O rinoco
Piaroa
tourists.
there
the
seen whites.
a c c u 1t u r a t e d , some
fair
up
that
45
in
did
an article
K ru te- Ge org es
linguistic
1979-1980.
field
Portions
on story (Columbia research
of the
the
Bible have
tra ns la t e d by the New Tribes M iss ion
Sales i a n s .
among
and
the
46
Ernest C. Migliazza
IN DEP EN D EN T L ANGU AGE S 6.
H o ti
7. Uruak 8 . Sape 9. Maku In this
section
four
known
a f fi l i at i o n
these
are
there
died
linguists
by
are
languages
present
purposes.
is
provisionally
simila rit ies
chance
except Sape
for
and Maku and
some
6.
Various
external
Hoti.
m i s t a k e nl y
applied
r e cogn ize d
as Hoti.
Chicano,
Shikana,
Coppens,
Mitrani
fieldwork
in
d e si g n ati ons whose
self
Location
to
who
Monteros,
Waruwaru,
and G uar is ma
1972-1973, referred
Pinto,
di sco ve r ed
to an
some
have
lies
and Yuana. during
that
i ndependent
the
The
area
parallels
these group,
occupied
and
the merid ian s
The n orth ern
65
Hoti m a i n ta i n
by
the
6
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