Sophocles, Use of Psychological Terminology: Old and New 9780773574120

Table of contents :
Contents
Tables
Acknowledgements
Preface
1. Introduction
2. Phren in the Tragedies: Part One
I: Background
II: Traditional and Contemporary Uses (with Sophoclean Features)
Age
Physical
"Predominantly Intellectual"
"Predominantly Emotional"
3. Phren in the Tragedies: Part Two
II: Traditional and Contemporary Uses (with Sophoclean Features), Continued
"Predominantly Moral"
III: Sophoclean Uses
IV: Sophoclean Images
V: The Relationship of Person to Phren
VI: Overview of Phren
4. Nous in the Tragedies
I: Background
II: Traditional and Contemporary Uses (with Sophoclean Features)
Age
"Predominantly Intellectual"
"Predominantly Emotional"
III: Sophoclean Uses
IV: Sophoclean Images
V: The Relationship of Person to Nous
VI: Overview of Nous
5. Phren and Nous and their Cognates in the Antigone
I: A Human Dilemma
II: Views of Nous and its Cognates
III: Views of Phren and its Cognates
IV: Overview
6. Thumos, Kardia, and Kear in the Tragedies
Thumos
I: Background
II: Traditional and Contemporary Uses (with Sophoclean Features)
"Predominantly Intellectual"
"Predominantly Emotional"
"Predominantly Moral"
III: Sophoclean Uses
IV: Sophoclean Images
V: The Relationship of Person to Thumos
VI: Overview of Thumos
Kardia and Kear
I: Background
II: Traditional and Contemporary Uses (with Sophoclean Features)
Kardia
Physical
"Predominantly Emotional"
Kear
"Predominantly Emotional"
III: Sophoclean Uses: Kardia and Kear
IV: Sophoclean Images: Kardia and Kear
V: The Relationship of Person to Kardia and Kear
VI: Overview of Kardia and Kear
7. Psyche in the Tragedies
I: Background
II: Traditional and Contemporary Uses (with Sophoclean Features)
III: Sophoclean Uses
"Predominantly Physical"
"Predominantly Intellectual"
"Predominantly Emotional"
"Predominantly Moral"
IV: Sophoclean Images
V: The Relationship of Person to Psyche
VI: Overview of Psyche
8. Psychic Terms in Each Tragedy
9. Conclusion
I: Overview of the Psychic Entities
II: Observations
Appendix One: An Overview of the Psychic Entities
Appendix Two: Psychic Terms in Each Tragedy
Appendix Three: Adjectives and Participles with Psychic Terms
Appendix Four: Cognate Verbs, Adverbs, Adjectives, and Nouns
Appendix Five: Hepar and Splanchna
Appendix Six: Phren and Nous and their Cognates in the Antigone
Bibliography
Index of Passages Discussed
General Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
R
S
T
W

Citation preview

SOPHOCLES' USE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TERMINOLOGY

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SOPHOCLES' USE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TERMINOLOGY • OLD AND NEW

Shirley Darcus Sullivan

Carleton University Press

Copyright © Carleton University Press, 1999 Printed and bound in Canada

Canadian Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Sullivan, Shirley Darcus, 1945Sophocles' use of psychological terminology : old and new Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-88629-343-X 1. Sophocles—Language. 2. Psychology in literature. I. Title. PA4417.S84 1999

882'.01

C98-900890-8

Typeset: Mayhew & Associates Graphic Communications, Richmond, Ont., in association with Marie Tappin. This book has been published with the help of a grant from the Humanities and Social Sciences Federation of Canada, using funds provided by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. Carleton University Press gratefully acknowledges the support extended to its publishing program by the Canada Council and the financial assistance of the Ontario Arts Council. The Press would also like to thank the Department of Canadian Heritage, Government of Canada, and the Government of Ontario through the Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Recreation, for their assistance.

For Mary Mater Thesauri Cordis

BY THE SAME AUTHOR Aeschylus' Use of Psychological Terminology: Traditional and New (1997). Psychological and Ethical Ideas: What Early Greeks Say (1995). The Philosophical Orations of Thomas Reid (1989). With D.D. Todd. Psychological Activity in Homer: A Study ofPhren (1988).

CONTENTS Tables Acknowledgements Preface 1. Introduction 2. Phren in the Tragedies: Part One I. Background II. Traditional and Contemporary Uses (with Sophoclean Features) Age Physical "Predominantly Intellectual" "Predominantly Emotional" 3. Phren in the Tragedies: Part Two II.

III. IV. V. VI.

Traditional and Contemporary Uses (with Sophoclean Features), Continued "Predominantly Moral" Sophoclean Uses Sophoclean Images The Relationship of Person to Phren Overview of Phren

4. Nous in the Tragedies I. Background II. Traditional and Contemporary Uses (with Sophoclean Features) Age "Predominantly Intellectual" "Predominantly Emotional" III. Sophoclean Uses IV. Sophoclean Images V. The Relationship of Person to Nous VI. Overview of Nous

x xi xii i u n 14 14 15 15 29 43

43 43 48 50 53 56 61 61 63 63 66 78 78 80 81 83

viii

5. Phren and Nous and their Cognates in the Antigone I. II. III. IV.

89

A Human Dilemma Views of Nous and its Cognates Views of Phren and its Cognates Overview

89 91 97 no

6. Thumos, Karelia, and Kear in the Tragedies

121

Thumos I. Background II. Traditional and Contemporary Uses (with Sophoclean Features) "Predominantly Intellectual" "Predominantly Emotional" "Predominantly Moral" III. Sophoclean Uses IV. Sophoclean Images V The Relationship of Person to Thumos VI. Overview of Thumos Kardia and Kear I. Background . II. Traditional and Contemporary Uses (with Sophoclean Features) Kardia Physical "Predominantly Emotional" Kear "Predominantly Emotional" III. Sophoclean Uses: Kardia and Kear IV Sophoclean Images: Kardia and Kear V The Relationship of Person to Kardia and Kear VI. Overview of Kardia and Kear

121 121 124 124 125 136 138 139 141 142 144 144 146 146 147 150 152 153 153 154

ix

y. Psyche in the Tragedies I. Background II. Traditional and Contemporary Uses (with Sophoclean Features) III. Sophoclean Uses "Predominantly Physical" "Predominantly Intellectual" "Predominantly Emotional" "Predominantly Moral" IV. Sophoclean Images V. The Relationship of Person to Psyche VI. Overview of Psyche

161 161 163 167 167 169 172 175 178 179 181

8. Psychic Terms in Each Tragedy

189

9. Conclusion

205

I. Overview of the Psychic Entities II. Observations

205 213

Appendix One: An Overview of the Psychic Entities Two: Psychic Terms in Each Tragedy Three: Adjectives and Participles with Psychic Terms Four: Cognate Verbs, Adverbs, Adjectives, and Nouns Five: Hepar and Splanchna Six: Phren and Nous and their Cognates in the Antigone

219 240

Bibliography Index of Passages Discussed General Index

275 285 287

253 257 265 266

TABLES 3.1 4.1 4.2 6.1 6.2 7.1 9.1 9.2

New Descriptions of Phren No-us in Traditional and Contemporary Contexts 7V0&5 in Wider Contexts Thumos in Traditional and Contemporary Contexts Kardia in Traditional and Contemporary Contexts New Adjectives and Participles with Psyche Phren, Nous, Thumos, Psyche Kardia and ./fezr

48 79 80 138 152 177 206 209

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for the research grant that generously supported this project. My thanks also to the University of British Columbia for the Humanities Research Grant that likewise supported this research. For the encouragement and support of my colleagues at the University of British Columbia I express my appreciation. To Arden Williams who worked with great care and diligence on entering the manuscript into the computer I give my warmest thanks. I would also like to acknowledge the very perceptive and useful comments of the anonymous reader for Carleton University Press. I likewise thank the anonymous reader for the Aid to Scholarly Publications Program for a most carefully thought-out, detailed and valuable report. I am most grateful to this Program for its support in publishing this work. I express my gratitude also to Noel Gates for careful editing of my manuscript, to Marie Tappin for her exact typesetting, especially of the Greek, and to Jennie Strickland of Carleton University Press for overseeing the publication of this book with a wonderfully generous and enthusiastic spirit.

PREFACE I. SUBJECT

In the seven extant plays of Sophocles and in the fragments of his other plays we encounter six psychological terms: phren, nous, thumos, kardia, hear, and psyche. The present study will examine how, in this respect, he resembled, or differed from, earlier and contemporary poets and from Aeschylus. All instances of the six terms occurring in his work will be treated. After presenting some background on the study of psychological terminology, the book will treat each psychic term separately. Since we have evidence only for the dates of the Philoctetes (409) and the Oedipus Coloneus (401), the order of the plays presented in the recent Oxford Classical Text will be followed. This order is: the Ajax, the Electra, the Oedipus Tyrannus, the Antigone, the Trachiniae, the Philoctetes, and the Oedipus Coloneus. After the terms have been treated separately (Chapters 2-4, 6-7), the discussion will focus on their appearance within each play (Chapter 8). In one tragedy, the Antigone, both phren and nous and their cognates appear to be of especially great importance; this drama will be discussed by itself in Chapter 5. The aim of this book is to show how Sophocles uses psychological terminology. It will consider what is traditional in his usage and what is new, and also whether the terms appear to have great or little importance in the different tragedies. II. READERSHIP

The book is intended for the reader interested in Sophocles, in Greek tragedy in general, or in the ways in which the early Greeks viewed psychological activity. It treats poets from Homer down to Pindar and Bacchylides, covering a span from approximately 750 B.C. to 440 B.C. It also refers to the ways in which Aeschylus uses the psychic terms. The book is intended for both the specialist and the non-specialist. For persons not knowing Greek, all passages have been translated. For those who know Greek, readings in Greek have often been given. The psychic terms themselves are always given in transliterated form.

III. STRUCTURE

The book has nine Chapters. Chapter 1 presents background on psychological terminology. It surveys what scholarly work has been done on psychic terms in Sophocles and discusses the approach taken in the remaining Chapters. Chapters 2 to 4, and 6 and 7, examine the six psychic terms as distinct entities. Chapter 5 treats both phren and nous and their cognates in the Antigone. Chapter 8 takes each tragedy separately and describes the psychic terms found therein. Chapter 9, as Conclusion, offers an overview of Sophocles' use of psychological terms in general. Six appendices accompany the book. Appendix One presents all psychic terms, showing specifically how a person related to them. Appendix Two (supplementing Chapter 8) lists all the instances of the different psychic terms in each tragedy. Appendix Three gives all the descriptive adjectives that appear with the psychic terms. Appendix Four presents all words, cognate with the psychic terms, that appear in Sophocles' works. Appendix Five treats the terms hepar and splanchna. Appendix Six (supplementing Chapter 5) describes phren and nous and their cognates in the Antigone. IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY, TRANSLATIONS

The bibliography lists all the texts consulted and indicates those whose numbering is followed (marking these with an [N]). For Sophocles the Oxford text, edited by H. Lloyd-Jones and N.G. Wilson (1990), is used. All line numberings are according to this edition. The portion of the bibliography giving "Selected Criticism" is divided into Parts A and B. Part A lists works on the Antigone, with special reference to Chapter 5. Part B lists all other works of importance for the book as a whole. In both the bibliography and the notes the abbreviations of journals follow for the most part those found in LAnnee philologique. Authors listed in the bibliography are mentioned in the notes by name or name and short title only. The translation of the Greek passages is my own. This translation tends to be as literal as possible in order to clarify the exact use of the various psychic terms. It is hoped that this study will show how traditional and at the same time new Sophocles' use of psychic terms was and that it will illustrate the range of psychic terms in his tragedies. An understanding of psychological terminology may help to strengthen the appreciation of Sophocles' tragedies as a whole.

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I INTRODUCTION

I. GENERAL AIM

THIS BOOK WILL TREAT the ways in which Sophocles (born mid-490s, died 406 B.C.) uses psychological terminology. Its specific aim will be to show how his use of this terminology resembles that found both in earlier and contemporary poets and in Aeschylus and also how it differs. The poets will include Homer, Hesiod, the lyric and elegiac poets, Pindar and Bacchylides. References will also be given to the Homeric Hymns. Comparison will not be made with the Presocratics, the fifthcentury historians, Euripides, who will be treated in a separate study, and other tragedians of the fifth century, or writers of comedy. As comparisons are made with earlier forms of poetry — epic, lyric, elegy, and victory ode — Sophocles' own use of the genre of drama will be kept in mind. Comparison with Aeschylus is easier since both composed tragedies. Of Sophocles' many plays we possess only seven that are complete and a large number of fragments from others. Our subject is the study of six psychic terms that appear in both plays and fragments. Because of the fragmentary nature of the evidence great caution will be shown in drawing out generalizations on "Sophoclean usage." We can speak only within the context of the evidence that we have. Fortunately, however, even though this evidence is limited, it is abundant enough to allow us

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USE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL T E R M I N O L O G Y

to see the "traditional" and "new" ways in which Sophocles used psychic terms. We will use the attributes "traditional" and "new" in the context of the early and dramatic literature that we possess. If we possessed more of ancient literature, we could judge more accurately the question of "traditional" or "new." As it is, we will look at what appears to be "traditional" and "new" in the plays and fragments that we possess. II. BACKGROUND ON PSYCHIC TERMS

Much has been written on the nature of psychological terms in early Greek poetry both by other scholars1 and by the present author2 who has recently completely a study of the use of such terms in Aeschylus.3 An understanding of usage in earlier and contemporary poets, and in Aeschylus, is a prerequisite for the examination of the employment of the terms in Sophocles. The scope of this work precludes a detailed description of their use in other authors. It presents nonetheless the following suggestions, based on scholarly discussions, as to how psychic terms in early Greek literature can probably be best understood.4 1. Psychic terms designate entities that comprise aspects both "physical" and "psychological." We moderns separate categories such as "concrete" and "abstract," "physical" and "psychological," whereas the early Greeks do not. 2. The expression "psychic entities" appears to describe satisfactorily what psychic terms designate. "Psychic" emphasizes the psychological aspects which they display. "Entity" suggests a separate identifiable presence within the person. This entity appears to be distinct both from the person and from other such entities within. These "psychic entities" can act themselves, can be acted upon by the person, or can be affected by outside forces. They can be locations where a person acts, means that person uses, or accompaniments to that person's activities. 3. These psychic entities have a broad range of function, including aspects that we now tend to conceive separately. They can be agent (for example, "that which feels"), function (for example, "process of feeling"), and result (for example, "feelings"). In a single use of one of these terms we may also find combined aspects that we term "intellectual," "emotional," "volitional," "moral," and even, on occasion, "physical." For this reason categories termed "predominantly intellectual" or "predominantly emotional" will be used; it is to be remembered that other aspects may also be present.

INTRODUCTION

4. There are eight psychic terms that appear in early Greek literature: phren, nous (or noos), thumos, kardia(ot kradie), kear(or ker), psyche, etor, and pmpides. Sophocles, in the tragedies that we have, makes references to the first six. The number of psychic terms itself tells us that psychological activity was seen as "multiple" in character, being carried on by several different psychic entities. 5. Regarding this number of psychic entities we may ask: did the early Greeks have a notion of "self" that would act as a centre of psychological activity? If so, how did it relate to the psychic entities within? The answers to these questions are difficult to give; the questions themselves have been much discussed.5 The view that seems best to present the situation in early Greek literature is that the people from whom it originated did not have a carefully worked out concept of "self" but did clearly possess some illdefined notion that in some sense a "self" existed. People saw themselves as separate individuals. They also saw themselves as made up of psychic entities which could differ in their nature in different people and, furthermore, thought of themselves as being distinct from these psychic entities within. Thus we appear to have a situation in which people, aware in an ill-defined manner of their individuality, observe psychic entities within themselves functioning in a variety of ways. Depending upon how these psychic entities functioned and upon how a person related to them, certain behaviour became manifest. Such behaviour made one person differ from another. Person and psychic entity remained distinct. We have no evidence of the exact relationship between person and psychic entity. Nor do we have evidence as to how the psychic entities within related to one another. While persons saw themselves as being apart from their psychic entities, from moment to moment behaviour reflected the activity both of person and of psychic entities. It is likely that psychic entities were subordinate to the person but the person was not exactly defined. The individuals exhibit coherent personalities but do not speak of the "whole" but the "parts," the psychic entities, as being responsible for their psychological activity. 6. Over time one psychic entity, psyche, gradually comes to signify the seat of a person's thought, emotion, and will.^ This term in Homer and Hesiod signifies simply the "breath that gives life." In the lyric and elegiac poets it begins to act as a seat of emotion within the person. In Sophocles in particular we shall see evidence of its increasing role as a psychological agent within the living person. He marks

3

4

SOPHOCLES

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

USE OF P S Y C H O L O G I C A L T E R M I N O L O G Y

an important stage in the appearance of psyche in the role of the seat of personality or "self." The psychic entities are often very much alike and share in many similar functions. They can, however, also be quite distinct from one another. Nous, for example, displays characteristics not shared by phren and thumos. Phren likewise differs from thumos. Even the terms for "heart" — kardia, kear, etor— have distinct traits. Psychic entities therefore, even though often alike, do not appear to be simply interchangeable. In different contexts the question arises: why does a poet mention one term rather than another? Certainly in this regard the importance of metre cannot be denied. But passages suggest again and again that even within the restrictions imposed by metre a conscious choice of one term rather than another has occurred.7 Distinctive traits appear to have been associated with the various entities, and to have made the appearance of some entity in a particular context especially appropriate. Choices of particular psychic terms may prove to occur also in Sophocles, as we shall see. Themes of early poetry clearly influence the frequency of the mention of psychic terms and the terms themselves that are chosen. In the case of Aeschylus and Sophocles this proves true in relation to their various dramas. The restrictive force of theme makes caution necessary in generalizing about the range of function of the psychic entities. What we learn of psychic terms in early Greek poetry, in Aeschylus, and in Sophocles will not necessarily tell us much about their usage in the spoken language of the time. In the case of Sophocles the structure of drama clearly affected what terms he used; his particular themes probably influenced which terms he thought appropriate. We may correctly suppose that he used the familiar expressions since, as playwright, he had to make himself understood. We may look also for the new, for once again as playwright, he would probably wish to challenge his audience with his language and images. The present work has one purpose: to show how Sophocles uses psychological terms. Recently much interesting scholarship has appeared on the nature of psychological activity within the person. In particular, the work of Gill, Padel, Pellicia, Schmitt, and Williams focuses upon the notion of person found in early Greek literature and the conceptual models that appear to be present there. The scope of the present work does not allow a full discussion of this new

INTRODUCTION

scholarship, which would require a separate study. In the present work the author, by detailing Sophocles' usage, hopes to contribute specific information, valuable for the general debate on the nature of personality and "self" in early Greek literature. 12. The present book does not treat the question of character or character development in the dramas of Sophocles. Clearly the characters in drama have a strong sense of their own identity. As mentioned above, the presence of coherent personality is found both in epic and in tragedy but this personality is not defined.8 Instead, we hear of psychic entities and their activity. This book shows that Sophocles' use of psyche indicates a new importance of this psychic entity as seat of the personality or "self." The aim is to add to the understanding of psychic terms by a careful analysis of instances of them in the plays. Using a lexicographical and philological approach, the book focuses upon one aspect only of Sophocles' work. It duly recognizes that for a full understanding of the plays, other approaches, especially the analysis of character and dramatic technique, would be required. III. EXISTING SCHOLARSHIP ON PSYCHIC TERMS IN SOPHOCLES Some valuable work has been done on psychological terminology in Greek tragedy in general; very little, however, has been written on Sophocles in particular. The commentators on his work, especially Jebb and Kamerbeek, have much that is useful to say on particular passages but their focus is not upon psychological activity. Important studies of psychological terminology include the following, i. T.B.L. Webster, "Some Psychological Terms in Greek Tragedy," JHS77 (1957), 149-54. Webster discusses the meanings of the different psychic terms, usefully suggesting a range of meaning that includes "(a) part of the body, (b] psychological agent, (c) psychological processes, (d) result of psychological process" (149). He notes that these meanings often merge into one another. He also suggests that the psychic entities display a great overlap in function but do have distinctive traits (154). He treats all three dramatists, offering some valuable interpretations of particular passages. Some of these will be referred to in our discussion of different passages. 2,. A.A. Long, Language and Thought in Sophocles (London 1968). Although this book does not focus upon psychological terminology

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in particular, it does discuss Sophocles' use of abstract nouns, making reference to several psychic terms. Long, in treating certain passages where phren, nous, thumos, and psyche occur in Sophocles, offers useful suggestions on the meaning of these terms. As in the case of Webster, some of his suggestions will be referred to in later chapters of this book. 3. D. Glaus, Toward the Soul: An Inquiry into the Meaning of Psyche before Plato (New Haven 1981). Claus' book focuses upon psyche but also treats other psychic terms, which he calls "soul-words." With regard to drama Claus speaks mostly about psyche. In treating Sophocles together with Aeschylus and Euripides, he makes mention of several passages where psyche occurs in Sophocles' plays. His interpretations are related to his conviction regarding the basic meaning of psyche, namely "life-force," and the influence that this meaning had upon the emergence and nature of psyche as a psychological agent. Although Claus does not focus upon Sophocles, his approach to psyche is of great interest. Reference will be made to his work in our chapter on psyche (Chapter 7). 4. F. Solmsen, "Phren , Kardia, Psyche in Greek Tragedy," Studies Woodbury (Chico, CA 1984), 265-74. Solmsen treats Sophocles and Euripides together. He offers brief, useful interpretations of specific passages in Sophocles' plays (268-69, 272). 5. R. Padel, In and Out of the Mind: Greek Images of the Tragic Self (Princeton 1992). In her chapter on "Innards" (12-48), Padel discusses in some detail the inner nature of human beings. She notes the importance of seeing in Greek tragedy the fusion of "physical" and "psychological" aspects and of appreciating the multiplicity of inner experience (44-48). This book does not focus on Sophocles but its author frequently has interesting comments to make on specific passages from his plays. The foregoing brief description of works on psychological terminology in Greek tragedy confirms the statement that Sophocles himself has received little specific attention.9 This present study will attempt to give an account of his particular use of psychological terminology. It will discuss which terms he chooses; it will note whether in the extant works he mentions one term more than others. It will also show how similar his usage is both to earlier and to contemporary poets and to Aeschylus. Regarding the individual tragedies it will consider what terms are present in each and how they relate to one another.

INTRODUCTION

IV. STRUCTURE OF THIS BOOK The psychic terms will be presented in several chapters (2-4, 6-7). These chapters will be generally structured as follows: i. BACKGROUND: A description of how the psychic terms were used by earlier and contemporary poets and by Aeschylus.10 Since similar background was included in the author's recent book on Aeschylus, the portion on earlier and contemporary poets will be only briefly presented.11 II. TRADITIONAL AND CONTEMPORARY USES (WITH SOPHOCLEAN FEATURES): An examination of passages where Sophocles appears to use psychic terms in traditional or contemporary ways with or without new features. in. SOPHOCLEAN USES: An examination of passages where Sophocles refers to the psychic terms in a new and distinctive way. iv. SOPHOCLEAN IMAGES: A discussion of passages from sections II and III in which Sophocles uses some form of imagery.12 v. RELATIONSHIP OF PERSON TO PSYCHIC ENTITY: An overview of how people related to their psychic entities (with detail provided in Appendix One). vi. OVERVIEW OF THE PSYCHIC ENTITY: A summary of how each of the psychic entities appears in the dramas of Sophocles. In the assessment of these works, it may be necessary to place passages in more than one category. In order to make the location of multiple discussions easily available to the reader, specific pages are given in the "Index of Passages Discussed." Chapter 5 will present a full discussion ofphren and nous and their cognates in the Antigone because they appear to have special significance within the drama (supplemented by Appendix Six). Chapter 8 will show which psychic terms appeared in each tragedy (supplemented by Appendix Two). Chapter 9, as Conclusion, will summarize Sophocles' use of psychological terminology and offer general observations on the subject. NOTES 1. See, e.g., the work of Adkins, Austin, Biraud, Bohme, Bremmer, Caswell, Cheyns, Glaus, Dihle, von Fritz, Furley, Gelzer, Harrison, Jahn, Jarcho, Larock, Lesher, Lynch and Miles, Nehring, Onians, Padel, Mind, Gods (each book abbreviated thus hereafter), Pellicia,

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2.

3. 4. 5.

Plambock, Rohde, de Romilly, Riische, Russo and Simon, Schmitt, Snell, Vivante, and Warden. My articles are as follows: Phren in Homer: see my book Psychological Activity in Homer: A Study ofPhren (hereafter referred to as Sullivan, Psychological Activity); in Hesiod: RBPh 67 (1989), 5-17; in the lyric and elegiac poets: Glotta 66 (1988), 26-61; in Pindar and Bacchylides: Glotta 67 (1989), 148-89. Thumos in Homer: IF85 (1980), 135-50; in Hesiod: Emerita 61 (1993), 16-40; in the lyric and elegiac poets: SIFC12 (1994), Part One, 12-37, Part Two, 149-74; in Pindar and Bacchylides: RBPh 71 (1993), 46-68. Noos(nous) in Homer: SIFC7 (1989), 152-95; in Hesiod: Glotta 68 (1990), 68-85; in the lyric and elegiac poets: Emerita 57 (1989), 129-68; in Pindar and Bacchylides: Glotta 68 (1990), 179-202. Kradie(kardia) in Homer: Euphrosyne 23 (1995), 9-25; Ker(kear) in Homer: Euphrosyne 24 (1996), 1-22; Etor'm Homer: Emerita 62 (1994), 11-29; Kradie, Ker, Etor'm poetry after Homer: RBPh 73 (1995), 13-34. Prapidesin Homer: Glottal (1987), 182-93. Psyche'm Homer and Hesiod: SIFC 6 (1988), 151-80; in the lyric and elegiac poets: Parola del Passato 144 (1989), 241-62; in Pindar and Bacchylides: SIFC 9 (1991), 163-83. See also my book, Psychological and Ethical Ideas: What Early Greeks Say (1995), Chapters 2 and 3, which offers a treatment of all the psychic terms in both the early Greek poets and the Presocratic philosophers. (Hereafter referred to as Sullivan, Ideas.} Aeschylus'Use of Psychological Terminology: Traditional and New (Montreal 1997). (Hereafter referred to as Sullivan, Aeschylus.) This background material is set out more fully in my work on Aeschylus (see note 3). On this question of "self," B. Snell argued that no notion of "self" was present (see especially Discovery and Der Weg). His views have been frequently challenged, especially by Austin, 81-107; Glaus, 1-47; Harrison, 79-80; C. Gill, Greek Thought, Personality; D. Gill, "Two Decisions: Iliad \ 1.401 and Agamemnon 192-230" in Studies Presented to Sterling Dow (Durham, N.C. 1984); Lloyd-Jones, Justice, 9-23; Padel, Mind, 33-48; Pellicia, de Romilly, Patience, 23-45; T. Rosenmeyer, "Wahlakt und Entscheidungsprozess in der antiken Tragodie," Poetica 10 (1978), 1-24; W. Schadewaldt, Von Homers Welt und Werk2 (Stuttgart 1951), 234-66; R.W. Sharpies, "'But Why Has My Spirit Spoken with Me Thus?': Homeric Decision-Making," G&R 30 (1983), 1-7; Williams, 21-49. See further discussion (with bibliography) in my article, " 'Self and Psychic Entities in Early Greek Epic," Eos 81 (1993), 1-12, and Psychological Activity, 1-10.

INTRODUCTION

6. On psyche see: Adkins, 62-64; J. Burner, "The Socratic Doctrine of the Soul" in Essays and Addresses (London 1929), 121-62; Glaus, 1-7, 156-80; Furley, 1; Guthrie, vol. 3, 467-69; Jaeger, vol. 2, 40-42; A.G. Taylor, Socrates (New York 1952), 131-38. 7. On the question of conscious choice of terms see the work of Jahn who questions its presence. See also my articles, "The Mind and Heart of Zeus in Homer and the Homeric Hymns," AEG 37 (1994), 101-26 and "The Mind and Heart of Zeus in the Poetry of Hesiod," ABG38 (1995), 34-47, where I suggest that it is present to some extent. 8. See in particular the discussions of Gill, Personality, and Williams on this topic. 9. The valuable article of C. Knapp, "A Point in the Interpretation of the Antigone of Sophocles," AJPh 37 (1916), 300-16, which discusses in detail phren and its cognates, is referred to in Chapter 5, note 2. 10. With reference to Aeschylus his usage of psychological terminology in the six plays of undisputed authorship will be cited under his name. Since the authorship of the Prometheus Bound is much disputed, this play will be designated simply as the P.V. and its references will be treated separately. 11. See above, note 3. 12. "Images" will be referred to, rather than "metaphors," since the latter term poses problems of interpretation.

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PHREN IN THE TRAGEDIES: PART ONE

OF THE SIX PSYCHIC TERMS that Sophocles uses, he mentions phren most often. In the seven tragedies and fragments we find phren 74 times, nous 38, thumos35, kardiaG, kear5, and psyche 35. Aeschylus similarly uses phren far more frequently than other psychic terms.1 Our discussion to follow will attempt to show why Sophocles, like Aeschylus, favoured this term. The instances of phren are so many that they will be treated in two chapters. I.

BACKGROUND

Early and Contemporary Poets In early and contemporary poets phren and phrenes appear often.2 Features of phren in this earlier literature are as follows.3 1. Both the singular and plural of phren are found. In the epic poetry of Homer and Hesiod the plural is more common; the singular becomes more frequent in the lyric and elegiac poets. 2. Phrenes in some passages display a strongly physical connotation. Although variously described as "diaphragm," "lungs," or "'pericardium" they seem best understood in their physical element as a composite of entities located generally within the chest region.4 Phrenes may have had a more exact identification in the early Greek period but by the time of Homer and Hesiod, after epic formulas

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had been long repeated, this identification seems to have become lost. The psychological aspect of phrenes gradually predominates but the physical element remains present. In general, phrenes were associated with the chest region; this remains true with Aeschylus and Sophocles. 3. The range of function of phrenes is wide. Within the person they often serve as a location. They do so for other psychic entities such as thumos, nous (noos), ker, and etor. They also act as such for persons as they carry on different kinds of activity. 4. Phrenes serve frequently as a means or instrument that individuals use as they act. Sometimes they serve as well as an accompaniment to someone's activity. 5. Phrenes also appear as active agents within a person. This role is less common in Homer and Hesiod than it is in the lyric and elegiac poets. 6. Regarding types of activity, phrenes are often associated with those we would call "primarily intellectual." In them or with them people carry on the activities of pondering, reflecting, deliberating, thinking, and planning. It appears that, when choices or decisions are to be made, phrenes are the place where individuals act or the means that individuals use. Nous may be able to grasp clearly what would be the best course of action but it does not always function (see below, Chapter 4). Phrenes seem often to be the psychic entity that someone has to use, even though their activity may not always result in what is best or correct. 7. Phrenes are involved as well in emotional and volitional activities. Emotional states present in them include anger, courage, grief, joy, love, madness, and pain. Volitional activities include desiring, ordering, urging on, and hoping. 8. Phrenes are connected with moral behaviour. "Good" phrenes appear in people acting well. Phrenes are either distorted or "missing" in people whose behaviour seems to be of a negative kind.5 The "moral" aspect of phrenes is particularly evident in Theognis and Pindar. 9. In early and contemporary poets we find many adjectives appearing with phren and phrenes. These suggest positive qualities of phrenes ("deep," e.g., "firm," "wise," "just") or negative ones ("wretched," e.g., "crooked," "baneful"). Within a person phrenes can change with age and with circumstances. 10. Like all the psychic entities phrenes prove vulnerable to the actions of outside agents and forces. They can be damaged or removed.

BACKGROUND

When this occurs, the effect upon the person is the loss of the useful function of phrenes. Forces such as wine, love, and delusion (ate] can also distort their function. n. Within the person phren and phrenes appear to be a separate and valuable presence. People generally act in, by, or in company with phrenes. When phrenes act, they seem to do so in harmony with the person. Person and phrenes co-operate. Aeschylus 6 1. In his references to phren, Aeschylus uses the singular and plural almost equally. 2. The "psychological" element of phrenes is most prominent in Aeschylus but the "physical" element is also found. When the latter is present, phrenes are placed "near the liver" (Eum. 158). Kardia (Choe. 831) and kear (Ag. 997) are also said to be found in the vicinity of phrenes. Once again phrenes seem to be connected with the chest region. 3. Phrenes are involved in a wide range of activity. In passages where their "intellectual" aspect predominates, Aeschylus relates them to intelligence, deception, memory, prophecy, and speech. 4. When phrenes are primarily "emotional," they are concerned with courage, distress, fear, grief, joy, love, and madness. 5. Aeschylus mentions phrenes in moral contexts, relating them to holiness, justice, pride, and the proper attitude to wealth. 6. Gods can affect human phrenes. Justice can "attend" them (Sept. 663). A daimon can "deceive" them (Per. 472). 7. To a very large extent Aeschylus' references to phrenes reflect traditional and contemporary usage. Within this context, however, he introduces many new descriptions of phrenes. Thus we find such adjectives and participles as "black-robed" (Per. 115), "bright" (Choe. 565), "endowed with eyes" (Choe. 854), "kindled into flame" (Ag. 1033), and "sleeping" (Ag. 275, Eum. 104). 8. With some adjectives Aeschylus places phrenes in a wider context, as, for example, with "evil" (Ag. 1064), "obedient" (Per. 374), and "womanish" (Choe. 305). 9. Aeschylus refers to a few new activities of phrenes. They are involved in hate (Ag. 1308, Choe. 79, 390). They could express "good-will (evvoia)" in relation to marriage (Supp. 940). 10. Aeschylus offers a rich variety of images of phren, some in traditional contexts, some in new. These contexts can be described as

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"agricultural" (Sept. 593, Supp. 1017, Ag. 502) or "medical" (Per. 750, Ag. 1622, Eum. 536). They include also those related to "darkness," the "sea," "sight," "sleeping," and "writing."7 (More detail on these images will appear in the discussion of Sophocles.8) ii. Within the person phrenes act predominantly as an active agent. They appear also as a location where individuals act or a means that they use. Person and phrenes co-operate and act in harmony. Phrenes appear to be a valuable psychic entity within.

II. TRADITIONAL AND CONTEMPORARY USES (WITH SOPHOCLEAN FEATURES) In his references to phren and phrenes Sophocles often uses the terms in ways that resemble the usage of both early and contemporary poets and that of Aeschylus. Sometimes, however, he adds new and varied features. In the analysis to follow categories will be used ("predominantly intellectual," or "predominantly emotional") that focus on particular aspects of the meaning of phren. Other aspects may also be present in any occurrence. Age 0.27 1511. Phrenes appear to develop with age. This is the picture we find in Homer who speaks of phrenes in the young as "flighty" (//. 3.108). It seems too that phrenes can deteriorate with age, as Hecuba implies about those of Priam when she says that his were better when he was younger (//. 24.201). Aeschylus suggests that the phren or phrenes of a child are not admirable (Ag. 277, Choe. 754). Aeschylus also makes reference to an "aged" phren in the father of the Suppliants, Danaus (Supp. 606). Sophocles likewise presents these ideas about phrenes changing with age in two passages. At 0.77 1511 Oedipus tells Antigone and Ismene: "I would give many pieces of advice to both of you if you already had phrenes." The youth of the two girls makes it seem that they do not have phrenes at all. The absence of phrenes is made manifest in their lack of mature thought. When Antigone and Ismene come to "have phrenes" theirs will, it seems, be capable of intelligent ideas. O.C. 805. In this line we encounter the opposite situation. When Oedipus refuses to comply with his wishes, Creon says: "will you

TRADITIONAL T R A D I T I O N A LAND ANDCONTEMPORARY C O N T E M P O R A R YUSES USES

appear, not even with time, ever to have grown ((pvco) phrenes, but do you nurture disgrace in your old age?" Phrenes seem to appear with maturity, "growing" over the years. EL 1463, Ant. 683.9 Twice elsewhere we hear of phrenes "growing." At El. 1463 Aegisthus wants the body of Orestes shown. This will be done, as he says, in order that citizens "may receive my bit and not perforce grow ((fivco) phrenes when they encounter me as a punisher." When the citizens "grow" phrenes, he imagines that they will then think as he wishes them to. Once again phrenes seem to change and to function well when "grown." At Ant. 683 phrenes are likewise said to "grow." Haemon greatly praises their presence in people: "the gods make phrenes grow in human beings, phrenes which are the highest of all possessions."10 The image here is of phrenes as a natural growth happening within. These passages show that phrenes were thought to develop within the person. They change with age, "grow" and ideally become better. Phrenes are, in Haemon's view, the greatest possession human beings can have. If a person fails to "grow" phrenes, as Creon suggests is the case with Oedipus, the evidence of their absence is behaviour that can be judged foolish. Physical

Tr. 931. Phrenes in their physical aspect are associated most often with the chest region. Homer describes them as "holding the liver (r/JiaQ)" at Od. 9.301 and "enclosing the heart (xf]Q) about" at //. 16.504. Pindar speaks of a sword being thrust "through phrenes" (Nem. 7.26). Aeschylus has the Chorus say: "reproach struck me ... under my phrenes, under my liver" (Eum. 158). At Tr. 931 Sophocles gives a similarly precise description of phrenes. The Nurse says that they saw Deianira "struck in her side with a two-edged sword, under the liver (rjJtaQ) and phrenes"11 Once again phrenes are connected with the "liver," both placed vaguely within.12 "Predominantly Intellectual" Most occurrences of phrenes fall into this category. As mentioned in the "Background" above, phrenes in early Greek poetry often serve as a location of deliberation or thought when people face choices and decisions.13

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Intelligence Aj. 585, 614. In these two passages references are made to Ajax's phren. At 585 Tecmessa asks: "o master Ajax, whatever would you do (dgdco) in your phrerf."^ Tecmessa longs to know what Ajax may be planning within. At 614 the Chorus describe Ajax after his exchange with Tecmessa: "now, wandering alone in phren ((pQevog oiofiwrag), he is found a great grief for his friends." A new image of phren appears here.15 Ajax is one who "pastures his thoughts alone" or "in lonely regions."16 Ajax is successfully concealing in phren what he thinks and deliberates. EL 1390. In this passage the Chorus describe Orestes and Pylades as "hounds not to be avoided" as they enter the palace to kill Clytemnestra. They add: "so that the dream (dveiQog) of my phrenes, hanging in suspense, does not still wait for a long time." The reference to a "dream of phrenes" is new. In the play the Chorus had gladly heard of the dream that troubled Clytemnestra (410, 417-25) and expressed their views that this dream should bring confidence that good would happen (495-501). As they begin their speech, they say: "unless I am a mistaken (jiaQatyQCDv) prophet and lacking in wise judgement (gnome], Justice, prophesying beforehand, will come, carrying just strength in her hands" (473-6). The phren of the Chorus has been filled with hopes for justice. Thus far, these hopes had constituted only a "dream." But the Chorus are not naQdv — "the goodwill of phrenes" — of the Suppliants toward the Aegyptiads (940). This "goodwill" is described as an essential ingredient for marriage. Philoctetes is not able to have a. phren that "thinks well" in regard to Neoptolemus. At 1164 the Chorus claim to act toward Philoctetes with goodwill (evvoia). Later Neoptolemus will chastise Philoctetes for not listening to someone who "advises with goodwill (vovOeTfj Tit; evvoia Aeywv: 1322)." Neoptolemus' treachery, however, has made such an attitude on the part of Philoctetes impossible. O.C. 310. In this line phren acts as a location of thought. Antigone, on spotting Ismene, cries out: "where in phrenes (jtol (f)Q£va>v) am I to come?"37 She is asking: "what am I to think in response to this situation?"38 Sophocles uses a new expression with phrenes in Jtol (j)Q£va>v. Phrenes appear as a region of possible thoughts or ideas in which Antigone must choose a destination. O.C. 805. In this line, treated above under "Age," Creon asks Oedipus whether he will "appear not ever with time to have grown ((pvcS) phrenes." As in Ant. 683, we see the presence of "grown phrenes' as most positive. Phrenes clearly function as a seat of intelligence within. O.C. 1340. Polyneices, trying to persuade Oedipus to help him, says: "if you stand together (^v/uJiaQaoTaTEO)) with my phren, I shall scatter him [Eteocles] with brief trouble and effort." Phren here is the "purpose," "plan," or "thinking" of Polyneices. Sophocles uses a new expression in ^Vf^JtaQaoTaTea) (pgevi. We find, however, a similar idea in Aesch., Sept. 663, when Eteocles says of Polyneices: "if Justice had been (JICLQELJUI) with his works and phrenes" We have heard, in contrast, Creon saying that in the past he did not "stand aside from the phren" of Teiresias (Ant. 993). Polyneices wishes Oedipus to share his intention for the rule of Thebes. O.C. 1487, 1488. As Oedipus anxiously awaits the arrival of Theseus, he asks Antigone: "will he meet me, my child, still alive and functioning well (xaTogOoco) in my phren?" She responds: "Why would you wish for trustworthiness (TO JILOTOV) to be implanted (ejLKfiva)) in your phren?" In both lines phren functions as Oedipus' seat of thought and intelligence. In both lines also Sophocles uses new

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expressions with phren. In 1487, Oedipus is described as "functioning well (xaTOQOoco) in phren." This description is similar to O. T. 528 (discussed above) which speaks of a "rightly working (oQOo^) phren." As mentioned with O. T. 528, contemporary uses of OQQoc, in Pindar suggest a moral connotation of the adjective. The verb ogOoa) does not appear with phren in earlier and contemporary poets but it does so twice in Aeschylus. At Supp. 915 Pelasgus tells the Egyptian herald: "erring in many things you set nothing upright (ogdoco) with your phren." Here the verb appears in a context of justice. At Choe. 512 the Chorus say to Orestes and Electra: "since you are rightly decided (xaTogOoa)) in phren to act." Again the verb appears in a context of justice as the Chorus approve of the way in which Orestes and Electra have thought. Choe. 512 seems closest in meaning to the way in which Sophocles uses the verb. The latter usage, however, seems to be more restricted: the verb suggests simply the proper functioning of phren. Oedipus before his death hopes still to be clear-minded. In the next line Antigone asks why he wishes "trustworthiness (TO moTov)" to be implanted in his phren. Oedipus responds (1489-90) that he wants to make to Theseus a requital for the kindnesses he himself received. The reference to "trustworthiness" in phren is new. In 1488 some scholars have taken TO moTOV to refer to a specific "pledge" that Oedipus has formed in his own phren or one that he wishes to be formed in the phren of Theseus.39 The meaning of TO TCLOTOV, however, seems to be more general, picking up Oedipus' concern about his lucidity of phren mentioned in the line before. Antigone is simply asking: "why do you wish your phren to be worthy of trust at this time?"40 Both lines show that Oedipus in the final moments of his life still considered his phren to be the seat of his intentions concerning earthly affairs. Fr. 576. In this fragment from the Teucros there is a reference to "those mightiest (jAeyiOTOi) and wisest (oo(/)(DTaToi) 2 in phrenes." In Homer and Hesiod several references occur to individuals excelling in phrenes.^1 In one instance, //. 20.35, Hermes "surpasses in wise (jiEVxdhi/AOc;) phrenes." The description "greatest and wisest in phrenes" occurs here for the first time.42 This description suggests the important role of phrenes as a seat of intelligence.43 Damaged Aj. 447. Ajax speaks of his attempt to kill the Atreidae: "if this eye and phrenes, distorted (didoTQotyoc;}, had not swerved (ajiaiooa)} from my purpose (gnome], they would never put a matter of justice to vote

T R A D I T I O N A L AND CONTEMPORARY USES

against another mortal." Above, on O. T. 524, "gnome of phrenes" was mentioned as something positive. Here, at Aj. 447, gnome is similarly associated with phrenes. In phrenes, it seems, Ajax formed his "resolve" or "purpose" to take revenge. But these phrenes become "distorted" as did his eyes so that he both thought and saw incorrectly.44 Athena, as she tells Odysseus, "cast mistaken purposes (dvotyoQOi yvoj^ai} on his eyes" (51-52).45 Sophocles uses the adjective "distorted" with phrenes to describe the traditional idea of phrenes in a damaged condition. In earlier and contemporary poetry several references to phrenes in a damaged state occur. In Homer someone can be "bewildered (jtTOLEO))" "crazed (T/Aeog)," "distorted (eKJiardooa)}," or "struck out (EX, Jihrjooa))" in respect to phrenes.^6 Archilochus speaks of one "unhinged (jzaQCLEiQa)) in phrenes" (172 W). Anacreon mentions citizens "set aflutter (JITOLECD)" in their phrenes (346.12). Theognis speaks of being "vexed (dodw)" in phrenes (593, 657). Pindar at Ol. 7.30 says: "disturbances (taQa^ai] of phrenes caused even a wise man to go astray." In Aeschylus likewise references to damaged phrenes are found. At Sept. 661 Eteocles speaks of "wandering (cfioiToc;) of phrenes." Someone, ^t Ag. 479, can be "stricken (MOJITO))" in phrenes. At Choe. 1024 Orestes says that "phrenes, hard to govern (dvoaQXTOi)" carry him "defeated." At Choe. 1056 "confusion (rag>ay//dg)" is said to have fallen on Orestes' phrenes. In one passage of the Prometheus Bound a reference to "distorted (didoTQotyoc;} phrenes" is found: lo's "form and phrenes were distorted" (673). When Ajax's "eyes and phrenes" become "distorted," he cannot observe correctly or judge wisely. Phrenes are not functioning in a proper way. El. 992. Here too a reference to phrenes in a "damaged" state occurs, at least in the opinion of Chrysothemis. She says of Electra: "at any rate before she spoke, if she chanced to have (TVy%dva)) phrenes that were not bad (xa%6$), she would have preserved caution (EV^d^ELa), just as she does not preserve it." Sophocles here presents a traditional idea of "bad" phrenes. At //. 8.360 Zeus "rages with phrenes not good (dyaOog)." Agamemnon "trusts wretched (Aevya/leog) phrenes" (II. 9.119); he also "rages" with phrenes that are "baneful (ohoLOt;)" (II. 1.342). In contrast people can "use (xQaojuaL) good (dyaOoc;) phrenes" (Od. 3.266, 14.421, 16.398) or have such within, as Penelope (Od. 24.194) and Odysseus (Od. 11.367) do. Homer speaks of "taking out" good (dyaOoc;) phrenes (II. 17.470); Theognis, of putting them in (429). In Aeschylus the first description

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of phrenes as KCLKOC, appears at Ag. 1064. Clytemnestra says of Cassandra: "surely she rages and listens to evil phrenes" Chrysothemis believes that Electra should show "caution" in her remarks, just as the Chorus have recommended "forethought" (991). Electra's "rashness (0Qaoog: 995)" convinces Chrysothemis that her sister's phrenes must be working badly.47 Aj. 649. In his speech on the nature of time, Ajax remarks: "and there is nothing unhoped for, but the dread oath and stubborn (jiEQLOXshrig) phrenes are vanquished (dhioxoftai)." Sophocles refers here to the traditional idea of phrenes being "destroyed." At //. 7.360 and 12.234 the gods are said to "destroy (oXXvfiL)" phrenes. Aeschylus at Choe. 211 speaks of the "destruction (xaTa