Some rural land use patterns and problems of Morgan County, Indiana
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SOIFE RV3AL U K B USE PATTERNS AED P & C P m * OF tOKGAJi
cosm, wl\u
% R# Anderson
Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland in partial fulfiHjaent of the requireiiaenttt for the degree of Doctor of philosophy 1S50
UMI Number: DP70259
All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete m anuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
UMI D is s e rta tio n P u b lis h ;n q
UMI DP70259 Published by ProQuest LLC (2015). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
uest ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 - 1346
AGESOa’lSDOSKStiTS 111® author is deeply grataful to all who in numerous 'ways have
assisted in the preparation of this dissertation* 0.
To the lata Dr.
Baker who gave unstinting!} of his time, I am especially in
debted? for it ?ms under his direction that this study was under taken and brought to the final phases of completion*
The week he
spent with me in Morgan County will long be remembered.
Also to
Mr* Hugh H* Wooten and Mr. Francis J* Marsohner of the Bureau of Agricultural Koonondcs, United Btates Department of Agriculture* the author is very grateful for their kindness in assuming the task of directing this thesis alter Dr. Baker’s death*
The author is
most appreciative of the many helpful criticisms and suggestions made by Professors Raymond K. Crist* Charles Y* Hu* John A. Morrison, and william Van Bowen of the Department of Geography, University of Maryland*
Likewise the author wishes to express hie gratitude to
Dr. Lynn 5* Jsebertson,
J* B. fcohlm®£®r, ¥?* 0. G. Lloyd, and
others at Purdue University who mad® numerous valuable suggestions. Certainly without the splendid cooperation of the people of Morgan County this study would not have been possible#
Many others,
particularly those in various county, state, and federal government services nave helped in numerous ways* For the typing of the manuscript the author is indebted to hi® wife, Joy, for her patient and faithful assistance.
To Charles i¥.
Porter for his aid in the preparation of some of the maps, the author also wishes to express his thanks.
TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements • • * ............ * .......... .......... list of Tables*
* * * * .............. * ........ .
List of fig u re s (Maps and Graphs)• .................. • • * * • * • • • List of Photographs* • •
.........
XNTROOUCTION CHAPTER 1.
******
FHTSICAL PATTERNS*
1
* .........................
5
Introduction* * ...................... • « • • • • * • *
5
Landfonas . * • • • « « • • • • • * • • • • • • • • • • * •
5
Till Plain * * * * * ...............................
?
Older Uplands
7
Valley Lands * • * *
• • • . * • * • • • • • • • •
Land Values*........... ........... . Drainage Pattern* • * * • * • •
..............
12 Hi.
*****
Soils
* . •
lij, 1?
General Characteristics* • • • * • • • * • * • • « * • •
1?
Parent Materials •* ........ • • * « • • • * • • • * •
17
Soil Classification* • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • « *
IB
Soil Reaction........ * .......... * ..........
22
Erosion Susceptibility ......... • • • * • * • • * • *
2h
Productivity and Use Limitations « • • • • « • * • • * *
2?
Problems in Agricultural Use .......
• • * • * • • • •
31
............ • • • * • • •
ILL
Climate Natural Vegetation* • • Summary CHAPTER II*
••*•••
.........
hi
............................... * .........
h9
EVOLVING CULTURAL PATTERNS.......... * * * * * *
51
Settlement and Agriculture to the Civil Tar (1818-1860} * •
51
Agricultural Land Us© After the Civil Lar (1865-
56
) * * •
CHAPTER II (Coat’d)
Pag®
Population Patterns « . • • . .......... , * • • • . • • * . Population Growth* • • • «
• • •**•••*
6$
Distribution ........ *
6?
Migration. . . . . . . . .
.............
?0
Evolving Transportation Patterns. . • • ................ Present Routes • «
61*
..............
72
*
72
Evolving Patterns. .......
73
Growth of Non-Para Industries • • • •
• « • • • • • « . • •
77
ConsBiunity Institutions and Attitudes.
• • • • • « . . « • •
81
The Small Town or Village. . . . • * • • • . * . . * • »
81
Church •
82
Schools.......... ................* Organised farm Groups —
*
farm Bureau* 1*-H Clubs* Future
Farmers of America* and Others • • • . * • • • • • • »
83
Governmental Agencies — Agricultural Conservation Program, County Agent, Soil Conservation Service, Extension Ser vice, and Others • • • . * . • • . < . . . • • . « « » Susanary CHAPTER III.
83
............
81*
RIVER VALLEY AMD UPLAND FRINGE........
86
Introduction.............. •
36
Extent and Physical Characteristic®
................
Unique Cultural Features. ....... Evolution of Land Use
81*
•
86 88
* • • • • • • • • • «
Present Land Use Patterns ...........
9a 97
Major Uses of Land in Farms and Type of Operator and Owner. .........................
97
Major Crop®...........
103
lime and Fertiliser® • • • * • . . « • • . • • • • • • .
109
Rotation®. . . . .
107
• • • • • ............
livestock* . . • • • • • • • •
.......
••••••••
109
CHAFfEE XIX (Cont*d)
Pag#
Problems Associated with Rented Land • ........
• » • •
109
Hunting b a n d .............. . « •
110
Changing Patterns of Ownership. • • *
112
chapter xv,
laud css contrasts
m
the
till rLAi-U * * * * * *
US
Location, Extent, and Subdivisions * * «
US
Cultural Contrasts Eclated to Land Use «
116 116
Xlie C o m Belt » • • « * • * • * • • • The Northeast Dairying Sepneut. * • • * s e e The General Earning Sapient
* * e e e
U9 122
•• * * •
12U
Land Use Patterns, » » * * ........... Status of Operator and S i m of Farsi « * * * « e « * e e
121*
Major Uses of Land in Farms .......
126
Major Crops * * ................ *
128
Livestock ............. * * * * * *
128
Land Us® Problems of the Till Plain* . •
13U
Fundamental Problems* ........... .
131*
Problem* of the C o m Belt Segment • • e e e e e e e e e
131*
Dairying S e g m e n t ......... .
139
General Farming Segment • * • • • « •
11*8
chapter
v.
stabilizing land use on tie our\*d* LFLivXvH> * • • »
152
Introduction
152
Location, Extent, and Subdivisions * * *
151*
Agricultural Patterns and Problems • • «
1SU
General Us® Characteristics • • » • »
151*
Us® Patterns on Individual Farms * , •
158
Part-Time Farming, Residential, and Resort Patterns and Problems ............... ...........
163 165
Qnwth............* * * • » • • • Subdivision of Tracts
..................
.
167
CHAPTER f (Cont’d)
Page
Motivation Behind
the Influx •• ....... * ........
168
Type of Residence
* . * • • • • * • • * • • • * « • •
169
Background of Residents Over 18 Tears of Age • . . . *
1?1
Place and Kind of &splqyinent............
1?1
Ocfassiuiing
173
........ * ........
Tenure, Mae, .and D m of Holdings* * * •
*
1?1*
Toward More Effective Utilisation of Residential and Part-Time Farming Tracts . ....... « * . • • • • •
176
Forestry .................... * * « • « . « * « • • • *
179
Summary
182
CHAPTER VI.
* ............. * • • • * . .......... . * * * * SUMMARY
* . . * . , * • . * * • • •
........
Summary of Geographic Facta*............
183 183
Landforas........ . . . . . . .......... • • • • • «
183
Soil®
. . * » . • • . • • * • • .
18U
Climate * .............. * • • • • * • * ..........
186
Natural Vegetation. • * * ......... * ..........
186
* *
Evolution of Land U s e ..........
186
Cultural Feature® Significant to Land Use • • • « • * «
18?
Areal Differences in Land Us© Patterns* • • • • # • • •
190
Summary of Problems and Recommendations * • « • * • * • * «
197
C o m Belt and River Valley-Upland Fringa Areas* • • * «
198
Dairying Area * * * * *
*****
200
General Farming Areas of the Till Plain and Older Upland® • • « • * • * » » . • * . * • • • • • * • • •
201
Farb-Tine Faming and Residential Areas * • • « • • • •
201
Forestry Areas*
202
..................
..........
Concluding l o t ® .......... BIBLIOGRAPHY * * ..................
202 *
* *
201*
LIST OF TABLES TABLE I. II# III# 17* 7. 71#
Fag® Some U m Limitation© of Major Soil© of Morgan County, Indiana • • « * » • • • * * • * • • • • • • • • * • * •
30
Soil Improvement Program® on Recently Established Pro gressive Farms on Highly Leached Soils#.............
36
Summary of Climatic Bata for Three Stations Adjacent to Morgan County* * ..............
k3
Background and iresent Occupational Status of 312 Paragon High School Graduates, 1917-191*6# * * . # . . *
72
Size of Fame (1920-19US)..................
77
Major Uses of Land in Far&s and Status of Operator* • • *
98
Area1 Contrasts in of /arm and Statue of Operator#..........
101*
7III.
Major Crops of the River 7?.H e y and Upland Fringe • * * *
10$
IX*
Humber of Horses end Tractors on Till Plain Farm® • # # •
123
X#
Contrasts in *j'im of Farm arid Status of Operator on tli® 1ill ixaufi, # • # • • ♦ • • • • * • • * * •
126
Major
12?
¥11#
XI# XII.
XIII.
Uses of Land In Farms, 19IS * . # • « • * * * * ♦ ♦
Major Crops of the Till Plain, 1 9 U $ .................... 129 Livestock on the Till Plain, X9i£ .........
130
XIV*
Patterns of Use on the Older Uplands, Ashland Township. •
1$$
XV#
Land Pus and Livestock Kept in 19h9 on Four Large Farms of the Rough Uplands * • # • « ....... • • • • • « •
161*
XVI* XVII# XVIII# XXX* XX# XXI*
Replies to the Questions "Why did you move to this location?» • * • • # . * • • . • * . . ...........
• 169
type and Place of Employment of L3 Gainfully Employed Eur&l Ron-Fara Residents* • • # • • • • • • • • • • • •
172
Sis© of Holding Among $1 Rural Non-Farm Residents and Part-Time Farmers .........
l?h
Retail Price and Cost of Producing Commodities on a Four-Acre Part-Time Farm in 19i*9. • • • * • • • • • • • 178 Lumber Production in Indiana (1909-1939)# • • • • • * * # 181 Areal Contrasts in S i m of Farm, Status of Operator, Major Use of Land, Major Crops, and Livestock « * • • « • • • 192
LIST OF FIGURES Page
Figure 1
Morgan County In Indiana • • * • • • • • • • « •
(Map)
2
2
General Location and Index Map of Morgan County# Indiana • • • * • • • • • * • » « • • # • * •
(Map)
k
3
Landforma of Morgan County# Indiana
•
(Map)
6
k
Average 1932 Rural Land Assessment Values* • • •
(top)
15
5
Soils of Morgan County# Indiana. « • • • • « • •
(Map)
19
6
General Soil Reaction. .
(Map)
23
7
Susceptibility of Major Soils to Erosion under Cultivation. ................
(Map)
25
8
General Soil Productivity..................... (Map)
28
9
Climogr&ph for Bloomington# Indiana.........
•
hS
Precipitation and Potential Evapotranspirati on . . . • at Bloomington# I n d i a n a ..........
U6
July Rainfall at Piooitington# Indiana and Average Yearly Corn Yields in Korean County# Indiana (192U-19W). . . . . . . . * * * * .........
m
IQ
11
........
12
Federal Land Sale* in Morgan County# Indiana * •
13
Changes in Utilisation of Farm Land* • • • * • •
57
U
Acreage and Value of Grope • • • • * • • • * « •
59
15
Changes in livestock on Farm®.
60
16
Soybean Acreage# 1926-19U? # • • • * * • * * *
17
Change® in Total Population* • * • • • • • • * «
18
Distribution of Population Claeses • • • • • * •
(top)
68
19
Major ion-Agricultural Industries (19U9) . * * .
(Map)
80
20
Land toe Area® . . . . . . . . .
(Map)
8?
21
Farmsteads and ion?-Farm Dwellings in Southwestern Morgan County# Indiana .......... * • *(Map)
90
Broken Farms of the River Valley and Upland Fringe * ..........
93
22
(Map)
....... .
53
61
.
66
.............
•
(Map)
Page
Figure Status of Land Ownership In Southwestern Morgan County* Indiana ».«
(Map)
101
Status of Farsi Operator In Southwestern Morgan County* Indiana •
(Map)
102
Grade WAW Milk Producers In Morgan County* Indiana • • • • • » • * • • • • ........... . (Map)
131
26
The Indianapolis Mllkshed » • » • • • • • * • • «
(Map)
133
27
Distribution of Dwellings on the Rough Upland® In Central Morgan County* Indiana. • • • • • • • * (Map)
166
23 2k 2$
LIST or HiQTGCHlAFHS Photograph
Fag©
1
The Flat Fertile Lakeboti of Glacial Lake JSndnance* •
8
2
The wieconsin Glacial Boundary Southeast of KonroTia ......................... „ . * • • •
n
3
The Till Plain Beet of Mooresville......... * * •
8
u
Unglaciaied Topography In South-Central Morgan County • • • « • ....... • • • • * • « • • • * *
11
5
Hie Karst Plain in western Morgan County . * . * * •
11
6
A sinkhole on the i.orst Plain* • • * * • * « • • • *
n
7
The Fertile White River Valloy Southwest of Paragon*
ii
8
An Abandoned Field Situated on a Uidge .Top with Sheet Erosion and Sassafras Trees now in Charge. •
26
An Abandoned Farmstoad on Ill-Treated Moderately Hough land . ...........
26
An Aerial Photograph of White Fiver Valley and Upland Fringe. ........................ . • • •
99
9 10 11
Lat© Summer View of "tlhito river Floodplain.......
106
12
Aerial Photograph of Land Use in the Corn Belt * • •
117
13
Aerial Photograph of Land Us© in the Dairying Area •
121
1L
Aerial Photograph of land Use in the General Farming Area .................... • • • • • • •
125
M s Integrating Farmsteads in the General Farming Area • • * • • • « • • • * * . • * * * * • * • • •
Hi9
16
A lell-Kept Fax* on the Till Plain • * . « . * • * •
159
17
An Ill-Kept F a n on the Rough Uplands* * * • * « . *
159
18
An Infertile dill Farm in Southern Forgan County • *
159
19
Hural Residence —
20
Rural Slums*..............
.**•
170
21
The Old ”Hom©stead” now Occupied by Urban-^ployed Dweller* * ....... • « • • * • • • • • • • • • •
170
Small Well-Kept Cottage on the Rough Uplands • • • •
170
15
22
First Class * • • * . * • * * « •
170
BfTtGDBCTXOll
This is & study of areal difference® in rural land use within the arbitrary limits of a county to ascertain and analyse patterns of ad justment and maladjustment to the physical environment under existing economic and social institutions*
Greater permanency and stability in
land use on a wider scale is assumed to be highly desirable*
Sine# Mor
gan County is situated where the fertile central till plain meets the rough unglaclated upland of south-central Indiana (Fig* 1)» there are sharp differences in land use patterns and problems*
ilithin this
county are land use conditions characteristic of a large area of the United States*
The northern on#-third of the county is a glacial plain,
the northwestern part of which plain belongs to the highly productive eastern C o m Belt*
It is an area of commercial agriculture with the
problems of maintaining soil resources, a high level of agricultural production, and the conservation of wealth within the farm community* The northeastern part of this plain has long been strong in dairy f a m ing, while the eastern segment with its thinner till and loss level land has retained a more self-sustained general farming pattern*
The older
uplands, only once or not at all glaciated, are distinctly loss fertile than the area covered by Wisconsin till*
These predominate in the cen
tral, west-central, and south-central part® of the county*
Land us#
problems on these uplands are representative of many areas of rough terrain in eastern United States, especially those of southern Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois*
Her© limitations imposed by topography and soil
depletion have made it a region of farms with little cropland per farm that handicaps them in the use of machinery and competition 4. th farms that can reduce labor costs by use of more power per man*
The occupants
of these areas are still struggling to make land use adjustments that
LA PO R TE
: E LKHART
• SA IN T JO SEP H
LAGRANGE
IS T E U B E
PO RTER
:NOBLE
tO E K A L
M ARSHALL
: kpsciuSKO
:
ALLEN
W H IT L E V PULASKI
NEW TON
ULTO N
IV M B A SH H U N T IN G T O N W ELLS
: W H IT E
:AE>iMS
: BENTO N
GR A N T •BLACKFORD
: HOW ARD
JAY
jW A R R E N : C L IN TON
• • T IP T O N
M A D IS O N
: DELAW ARE : RA N D O L P H
♦
C E O U N T A IN
............................................. : H A M K .TO N
-M O N T G O M E R Y
nqierson^:*^ ; WAYNE PARKE : H E N O R IC K S
H A NCOCK
.M A R IO N
: PUT MAN
n d i q n d poli S: :
j ° ewson
MORGAN
UNCN
FAYETTE
s h e lb y '
* F a ir land : E R A N K L IN DECATUR
-^BARTHOLOMEW
OW EN
GREENE*'\r j W o rfh .n g .o n
'f"\
... ”jAofsoN
/
LAWRENCE........
y
K NOX
R PLEY
* B lo o m in g to n
.
[
I a rt
■1 .ijcfcPBORN
C o lu m b u s
SU L L IV A N
D AVESS ^ M A R T IN
JE FFER SO N
:S W IT Z E R 1 A N 0
v •P .W A S H IN G T O N
vo| V i n c e n r i e s
orange
c
CLARK
cueois GIBSON
FLOYD
CRAW FORD
WARRICK JA N D E R
W ncer,;
MORGAN
HARRISON
COUNTY
PERRY
B U RG
I N
INDIANA Marqin
of
Wisconsin
G Ia c ia t io n M argin
of
Xllrnoian
F I G. I
Glaciation
3 will bring them a higher level of living and th© conservation of soil resources.
Banning diagonally from northeast to southwest is tm
broad
fertile $©st Fork of Shit© Hiver valley {hereafter referred to m
Mt®
Biver), th© alluvial and terrace soils of which are among the most valu able resources of th© county (Fig* 2).
these soils are under a system
of farming that tends to deplete soil fertility*
There is a high per**
centage of tenant-operated land on th© floodplain with corn and soy beans as major crops* As shown in Fig* If Morgan County is located in south-central Indiana* fifteen Mies southwest of Indianapolis*
It has predominantly
straight boundaries which reflect th© us® of the rectangular land sur vey in laying out th# county.
It has a total of U06 square riles*
Hi# 192*0 census of population revealed that, the number living on th© open countryside approximately ©quailed those living in Martinsville (th© only city) and in towns with a population over 100* The author*© interest springs from long standing acquaintance with •tli© area* having been reared in the western part of the county*
Field
work during the sumners of 191*6 and 19U9 constitutes th® primary source of data for this study*
MO RGAN COUNTY, INDIANA
■16 _n n ■
1,l3
12
22
/ HA RRI/S OR
I ____
---1 I ___
J E\FF E R S 0 N INDEX ■
L O C A T IO N
In dividual
btsid e
OF
PHOTOGRAPHS
OF
■ 14
PHOTOGRAPH
photograph
tach
numbers
appear
--- 1
sym b o l.
W isco nsin
G la cial
Boundary
I 111n o r a n
G lociol
Boundary
■
10
■
10
SCALE OF MILES Ufl b|8i 4■
FIG. 2
chator
i
PHTSICAL ?ATT2dm Introduction Sharp contrasts in soils and topography are of najor significance in accounting for land use patterns and problems in Morgan County, fhile overall influences of climate upon agriculture are not to be de nied, major local clirnatic differences are absent.
Changes in natural
vegetation reflect primarily variations in soil and topography.
Amount
and time of glaciation and parent materials are dominant factors making for prominent soil and topographic contrasts.
Inherently fertile soils
lie in close Juxtaposition ud th very infertile soils.
A prominent till
plain, floodplain, and karst plain, all largely cleared of native hard wood forests are separated by highly dissected uplands that still remain largely forested.
A description and areal delimitation of these con
trasts must necessarily precede any discussion of land use patterns and problems. Landforms Glaciation has been the major factor in creating the landlords of Morgen County.
Much of the best agricultural land coinaid#® closely
with the areal extent of sitconsin glaciation.
The poorest agricul
tural land results fro© lack of glaciation, while the remaining part of th# county was glaclat ^
during the Illinois** age.
fig. 3 indicates
the extent of glaciation and glacial features significant to agricul tural production and outlines the present landformu described under three major headings* ami (3) valley lands*
These may be
(1) till plain, (2) older upland®,
KFLAMTIOH OF DESCRIPTIVE TERMS The following terms which ere meed to describe tope* graphic contrasts in this study hare the Tailoring general meanings* Houghs
Local relief varying from 175 to 22$ feet. Slopes of 20 to 30 percent are common. Mary narrow ridges and *he«anedin* small stream valleys
Moderately roughs
Local relief ranging from 75 feet to 175 feet Slopes of 10 to 20 percent prevail* Hills more rounded and valleys •Aider than for rough areas
Level to rollings
Local relief generally less than 75 feet Slopes of less than 10 percent predominate. Areas of undissected upland are conspicuous *
86°35
8 6 °I5
86°25
I
LANDFORMS OF MORGAN COUNTY, INDIANA Based
in p a r t on U . S . Soil S u rve y,
Morgan
County, I n d i a n a
M AJ OR
I
LANDFORMS
TIPTON TI LL PLAIN (Wisconsin
39° 35'
I a
Level
IA
Ag e )
to R o l l i n g
39° 35'
Upland
a
Lacustrine
ib
(Lake
II
Plain
Eminence)
OLDER UPLANDS (illinoian
Age
8
Non- G l a c i a t e d ) CD 11A
Rough
H IIB
M o d e r a t e l y Rough
in c
L e v e l to R o l l i n g
HD no
Karst (Mi tchel l) P la in
m
no.
A f f e c t e d by I l l i n o i a n G l a c i a t i on
EH iid 2 a
h e
U n a f f e c t e d by Glaciation Lacustrine (Lake
hi
39° 25'
Plain
Quincy)
VALLEY
LANDS 39° 25'
i
M M H C D
c u diha
H me E3 I I I D
^ILLINOIAN
GLACIAL GLACIAL
BOUNDARY
SCALE OF M ILES
BOUNDARY
i 86°35’
86°25
FIG.3
Terrace Lesser Stream Valleys
211ft
WISCONSIN
F l o o d plai n
8 6 °I5
Aeolian
Sands
7 Till Plain* About one-half of th© county belongs to what Maloti has designated as th® Tipton Till Plain which covers much of central Indiana (7* p* 66).
In Morgan County this plain is mors rolling than
in the counties immediately to the north, as might be expected m a r the glacial margin? however, terminal moraine features are inconspicuous* Likewise, thinner till near the Wisconsin glacial boundary has resulted in less fertile ©oils than for the more deeply covered areas to the north*
Tot this Wisconsin till is of great importance and. constitutes
the parent material of some of the best soils*
In the northwestern
part of the county a lacustrine plain known as Lake Eminence is partic ularly fertile (Fig* 3).
This former glacial lake has poor natural
drainage, but artificial ditching and tiling has opened it to farming (Biotograph 1)*
The calcareous lacustrine deposits are leached to a
depth of only five to six feet (20)*
This lakebed, covering about 8,000
acres, is on® of the two most fertile part© of the county} the other Is the vhite Elver valley*
Around this glacial lakebed the thickest de
posits of Wisconsin till occur, well records and other evidence indi cating a depth of 100 feet or more in some places (20)*
The eastern
part of the till plain has a covering generally less than $0 feet thick * Heavier deposition in the northwestern part of the county has created more level terrain than elsewhere (Photographs 2 and 3)*
This condi
tion, coupled with the dark soils high in organic matter, has made the northwestern part of the county a portion of the Corn Belt*
Other parts
of the till plain ha\',j experienced only moderate dissection since Wis consin glaciation*
Of all upland areas in the county the least dissec
tion has taken place on the till plain.
K&aards of accelerated erosion
are greater in this more rolling part of the till plain than in the more level northwestern part. Older Uplands* This term is used to designate more highly dissect ed and severely leached uplands that have been glaciated only one© or
PHOTOGRAPH 1 (Lower)
Th® flat fertile l&kebed of glacial Lake Sninence west of Monrovia* PHOTOGRAPH 2 (Cantar) Looking south just aast of Monrovia to where the till plain and the rough upland meet along the lisconain glacial boundary* PHOTOGRAPH 3 (Upper) The till plain west of Ifooreaville* Level to rolling* this fertile plain has much of its area in crops.
9 not at all*
They str# old relative to Wisconsin glaciation.
uplands era conveniently discussed under the headingst
These older
(1) rough and
moderately rough upland, (2.) level to rolling upland, (3) lacustrine plain# and (!*) karst plains* (1) Rough and Moderately
Upland. Fig. 2 indicate® that
there are four particularly rough to moderately rough areas?"which are separated by major stream valleys*
(a) Including moderately rough ter
ra : J3 the largest of these is a northeast-s outhw®st trending central area averaging five to six mile® in width and approximately fifteen miles in length*
(b) A north-south trending ridge approximately five
miles long is separated from th© central rough area by the ..hit© Hiver valley*
The north end of this ridge terminates in steep bluffs at the
river*© edge just south of Genterton*
Across the river to th® north
west are less pronounced bluffs terminating several north-south trend ing ridges of the central- upland*
5c) A third area lies south of the
ihite River and Indian Greek valleys (Photograph it}* glacial drift is very thin or non-existent*
Here Illinoian
This area is much dissected#
and except for small stream valleys is largely forested. were ©ore agricultural clearings than there are today. is now the Morgan-Monro© State Forest Preserve,
Formerly there Some of the area
(d) The other area is
north of Indian Creek near the Wisconsin glacial boundary in th® south eastern corner of the county. The resistant formation vh ich caps the ridges in these rough areas is a fine grained, evenly stratified sandstone*
In seme places this
sandstone grade® laterally into shale which ha® been somewhat less re sistant to weathering and stream action. ias drift is absent.
On the higher ridges Xllino-
It is probable that this moderately resistant
These areas are designated as rough and moderately rough relative to th# adjacent till plain.
10 sandstone in south-central Indiana presented a greater obstacle to the southward advance of the glaciers than did the Vabash and *hite«rater valleysI consequently this part of the state regained anglaciated (7, p* lli9)* Th® scarcity of leval land in those rough areas limits favorable agricultural use*
If the farts unit is sufficiently large to combine
eome tillable srall valleys *ith ridge crests suitable for gracing and feedlar livestock, then sore profitable agricultural utilisation may be possible*
The slopes generally trust be kept in forests for the best
land use adjustment.
The fields on the ridges are generally so small
and broken by gullies thot they are best used for pasture and feed lots* The small valleys can be used to produce part of the feed, but this is generally inadequate for the livestock feeding program needed on such farms*
Th© deficiency is made up by purchase from adjacent river valley
and till plain*
Some successful far® units are located in the rough
parts ©f the county and their land use patterns and problems wi.ll be discussed in Chapter V* (2) level to Rolling Upland* In contrast to these relatively rough portions of this older upland, there are two cart© of it that are distinctly less dissected (Fig* 3).
ihe largest of these areas lies
east of Lewisville in the west^central part of the county, and the other is east and southeast of the north-south trending ridge north of Rartinsvilla*
In these two areas a greater leveling by deposition was
exerted by the Illinoian glaciation*
In some places the till is 100
feet thick (20). (3) Lacustrine Plain*
Particularly level is the poorly
drained m d little dissected lacuBtririe plain of Illinoian age lying primarily west of Lewisville*
The area is referred to locally as the
*flats” and has been named Lake Quincy by geologists (Fig. 3) (IB, p. 132). It has very shallow valleys with relief generally less than 30 feet.
PHOTOGRAPH k (Lower Right) Unglaciated topography in south-central Morgan County* Largely woodland and woodland pasture# little of this area is suitable for crops* PHOTOGRAPH 5 (Upper Left) Th# karat plain in western Morgan County 1© more rolling and less fertile than the till plain. PBOTCCSAFH 6 (Upper Eight) A sinkhole on the karst plain. The eroded brim of th© hole is suggestive of accelerated erosion damage* Fif teen such sinkholes were counted in the 20-acre field. PHOTOGRAPH ? (Lower Left) The fertile White River valley southwest of Paragon. The hills in the background are near the Illinoian Glacial Boundary* The railroad in the foreground marks the northern edge of the floodplain.
12 Leaching to depths of 12 to 1$ feet has occurred (20)#
Poor drainage
presents a major problem to local farmers with land often left idle be cause a wet spring prevents getting a crop planted on improperly tiled fields.
Many of the farms are small, and are hardly more than subsist
ence units|
however, there are some very productive larger farms*
There
is an apparent need for consolidation of some of the smaller units if proper land use adjustments are to be made -
A decidedly stronger live
stock program with accompanying increase In legumes and pasture iro- • provement is correctly recommended by the local land use planning committee (9)* (h) Karst Plain. South of this lacustrine plain there is a limestone plain which is covered by a relatively thin layer of Illinoian till.
There are also two smaller Karst areas that are unaffected
by lllinoian glaciation along the southern edge of the county (Fig. 3). These plains are marked by typical solution sinkholes which are immr** ous enough to reduce the tillable acreage of many otherwise good fields by as much as one-third (Photograph $)♦ slopes bordering the sinkholes.
Erosion is rapid on the steep
In plowed fields many farmers do not
leave these slopes adequately covered with grassj consequently loss of topsoil is aggravated (iiiotograph 6).
This upland limestone plain is
underlain by a coarse limestone formation and the small area in Morgan County represents a part of the much larger north-south trending Mit chell Plain (7, p. 66) which for the most part lies to the south of the ©aunty* Valley lands. The river and larger creek valleys ar© particularly important from an agricultural point of view.
Partly because of the
diagonal course of white River, the county has about 10 percent of the area in floodplaln and terrace land.
Its breadth reflects the position
of fehit© River in relation to melting Wisconsin ice sheets.
®hii@ River
was located so that it received much of the tremendous volume of molt-
13 water flowing away from the glacier in this central part of Indiana* Looking at-the Morgan County portion of the white Elver valley and its relation to the ^'leoonsin glacial boundary (Fig* 3), the sudden widening of the valley beta? the glacial margin gives considerable support to the conclusion that melting ice was most significant in the formation of a broad fertile valley in the southwestern part of the c.=ur*ly* There are m m
particularly broad floodplaln. and terrace areas
along White Stiver that have high agricultural productivity*
Such m
area at the confluence of white lick Greek and white River in the vicin ity of Centerton is about five miles long and two miles wide.
Southeast
of the river, at the point where Stott*s Creek joins white River, there is a less extensive area.
Southwest of the Wisconsin glacial boundary
the valley widens out, reaching its greatest width of about four miles in the vicinity of Paragon (Photograph 7).
Here there is a sharp line
of dem&rkatlan where lowland and upland met.
This is in contrast to
a m e h less abrupt transition between valley and upland in the till plain northeast of the Wisconsin glacial boundary. Three creek valleys that are extensive enough to be of considerable agricultural value penetrate a considerable distance into the upland. These are the shite Lick, Stott’s, and Indian creek valleys.
Several
lesser creeks have ribbons of floodplaln and terrace that provide till able land whore rough, uplands
are especially unsuitable for cultivation,
and make possible several farms that would otherwise be uneconomical. For the most part there is no sharp break-between terrace and floodplaln, the difference in general elevation being less than 10 feet. Tne separation is commonly based on a lino marking the widest extent of floods.
The farmsteads and pastures for most of the fanners renting
first bottom fields are on the terrace.
Creeks winding across the
river terrace formerly overflowed the land adjacent to their courses. Most of these creek courses have now been dredged and straightened,
Xu which has practically eliminated flood damage along the lower creek courses.
The higher parts of the terrace are more gravelly and sandy
than are the lower parts where silts and clays predominate*
This means
that the water holding capacity io poor on these higher parts and droughts are particularly damaging there.
Several areas composed pri
marily of aeolian sands of post-Wisconsin age are also characterised by drought hasards#
These areas are slightly higher tiian the terrace level.
Land Values. In order to obtain some tangible means of comparing the approximate agricultural worth of various landform®* a study of land assessment values was made.
The average per acre 19.32 values (the last
official land assessment) are of course very low* but they serve to in dicate how sigalfiaantly topography and related soil conditions affect land value®.
The contrasts are shown in fig. li. The whit® Elver val
ley and the Lake Eminence plain command the highest valuations.
These
&r® approximately eight time® that placed upon the rough unglaciated, south-central area* now largely included in Vorgan-Monroe State Forest Preserve.
The per acre values on the till plain as a whole are about
three times those for the older uplands.
This comparison raises a
basic question as to possible alternatives of improving values through better land use adjustments on some of this low value land.
Is ail of
this land to be written off as being agriculturally worthless or can some of it be made economically useable again?
Hecent observations in
dicate that some important adjustments toward better land use arc taking place.
Hies® will be discussed in Chapter ?• Drainage Pattern
All of Morgan County is drained by ihite
Elver,
with the excep
tion of the northwestern part and the southern margin* tributary streams reach the river within the county {Fig. 2).
Mill Creek and tributaries
drain into Bel Elver which reaches ihit© River southwest of Morgan
AVERAGE MORGAN
1932
86 ° 15
86°25'
86 ° 35'
RURAL
LAND
ASSESSMENT VALUES
COUNTY, INDIANA
39° 35‘
39° 35'
ASSESSED VALUE (dollars
per acre)
39°
25'^
39° 25'
LESS THAN 10
□
11 - 25 26 - 40
□
M O R E THAN 40
SCALE OF MILES SO U R C E - L a n d
Transfer Ledgers
in Auditor's
O ff ic e , M a r tin s v ille _ _i _
86°25
86° 35'
FIG. 4
8 6 °I5 '
County (/ig#
1
),
k
few small streams along the southern margin flow
into Lean Blossom Creek and than into '.vhita i&ver doumstrean from %Ggw gasi Gouaby* Significant to rural land use is the dagrsa of dissection that has occurred.
In L o r g m County this varies primarily with. length of time
sino© glaciation and secondarily with contrasts in bedrock.
There I#
a marked difference In degree o£ dissection between the till plain of Wisconsin age and the older Illinoian and non-glaciated areas which latter areas nave been exposed to stream action for a much longer per iod of time.
The influence of limestone bedrock is evident In the
southwestern corner and west-central part which hme many sharp ridges and narrow creek valleys.
aaspleoous V-shaped depressions, known lo
cally as "hollows*-, e-o tributaries to these creeks, this central part reaches common#
200
feet in several places,
local relief in Steep slopes are
Cropland has been restricted to the narrow ridge tops which
erode badly when cultivated and to scattered small fields in the narrow stream valleys,
Hhere the major creeks enter nhlte River valley they
broaden out to make possible larger fields, which however were subject to severe overflow until lower creek courses were straightened by dredging. On the till plain there is a. distinct contrast between the poorly drained northwestern part where much artificial open ditching and undersurface tiling has been necessary and the eastern part which is more dissected and much better drained#
Transitional between these two
areas is the northeastern part of the till plain with relatively flat undissected uplands.
Local relief In the northwestern part of the till
plain does not exceed 25-50 feet* a local relief somewhat
1n
In the eastern part some places have
excess' of
100
feet.
Slopes her# are not suf
ficiently steep to prevent cultivation, but are steep enough to result in serious accelerated erosion if brought under cultivation and not
1? carefully managed. Soils Oonsral Characters.sties. Morgan County Has great soil diversity. Tliio diversity is largely due to*
(1 ) extent, depth, cliaracteristies
of glacial, deposits, and differences in bedrock, (2 ) length of time that soil forming processes have been at work, and O ) differences in drainage conditions during the period of soil formation. Important common general soil characteristics:
(1)
Tot there are
All soils have
bean formed under deciduous forests making them generally light in color and law in organic matter.
(2)
Moderately heavy rainfall ha©
led to considerable leaching, particularly of lisa.
(3 ) The soils are
practically all relatively low in nitrogen, phosphorus, and available potash,
(k)
silt loams, sandy (20).
Firm texture is a common characteristic, 83 percent being
10
percent silty clay loams, and five percent relatively
Sandy soils are found principally' on the -mite River ter
race and also on the floodplaln in places where velocity io lost as th® river leave© its channel in floodstage.
Silty clay loams are found in
aoao of the more y-oorly drained parts of the white i'&ver floodplaln. (3)
Three-fourths of the soils are naturally well-drained; about one-
fifth are poorly drained and the rest very poorly drained (2 0 ). Parent Materials. Six principal kinds of parent materials have en tered into the development of Morgan County*s soils;
(1) calcareous
Late Wisconsin glacial drift, (2) calcareous Sarly Wisconsin drift , (3 ) calcareous Illinoian drift, (k) oherty limes tana, (5 ) wxliuje-gralned sandstone -ml shale, and (6 ) calcareous loessial deposits of Wisconsin
o *Th® use of the terms ”Lat®H and *?2arlyn Wisconsin are in accord ance with the soil survey report. According to some studies both *L&te" and “Early" «isoonsin la Morgan County night be oostbined into one substage.
18 &g® along fthite River (20}•
Th@ various glacial deposits are similar
in character and th© differences in the soil® that have developed fro® these deposit® are principally due to the varying time interval that soil forming processes have been at work on them* greater leaching of the older materials*
this has resulted in
Soils derived fron late Wis
consin drift have been leached to an average depth of three feet, those from the Early Wisconsin to a depth of I4 to
6
Illinoian to a depth of 10 feet or more (20)*
feet, and those from the The depth of leaching
has greatly affected soil fertility and hence th© need for lime and fertilisers* Soil Class!fication* The distribution of th© soils of Morgan County is shown in Fig* 5*
They may b® conveniently classified as (1)
upland, (2) terrace and lacustrine, and (3) alluvial*
The parent mater
ials from which th© various soils ar® derived are indicated in th© leg end to Fig* £*
Upland Soils* Th® upland soils belong prind rally to four
(1) great soil associations*
(a) Hthosols (shallow soil®) ar© upland soils situated primarily on steep slopes*
The surface soil is brown in color, th® sub
surface soil is a grayish brown, and th© subsoil a yellow-brown*
The
Muskingum soils, found principally in the rough central and south-central parts of the county, are in this group.
The parent material is th© med
ium-grained sandstone and shale of th© Borden formation*^ (b) Gray-Brown Podsolic soils are found on flat to roll ing terrain. brown.
The surface soils vary from a light brown to a grayish
About three-fifths of th© soils of th© county are in this group,
which includes th® following upland soils*
Beliefontaine, Russell, Mi
ami, Cincinnati, Grayford, Frederick, Janesville» Rellston, and Prince-*
3 Th© Borden or Inobatone formation is early Mlasisaippian*
SO ILS
8 6 °I5 '
86°25'
86°35'
OF
S O IL S AND TH E IR PARENT M A TER IA LS
MORGAN COUNTY, INDIANA
UPLAND
Late
SOI LS ~
Wisconsin
Drift
A - Brookston gjsi
B -B e llefo n ta in e
^
C -C rosby D - M ia m i
39° 35'
E a rly
Wisconsin
39°
D rift
'35 '
E -F in castle F-R ussell Illi n oi a n
Drift
G-Vi go H -G ib so n I - Cincinnati L i m e s to n e
In fl u e n c e d
Illin oi a n
D ri f t
[TTT|
i
by
J - Grayford
Lim e s t o n e
R e s id u a l
K - F r e d e ri c k Sandstone & S h a le (r es id uo l) L - Z a n e s v il l e 8 Wellston
□
M - Muskingum
Lo ess ial J^jj
(wind blown sands)
N - P rin c e to n
TERRACE
8
Wisconsin I ■■■j
LJ
LA C U S T R IN E
SOILS
Ou tw ash
0 * Fox P - M a r t i n s v i l l e , W h ita ke r , 8 M a h a la s ville
Il li n o ia n f//|
39e 25'
Ou tw a sh
Q - M or ga nt o wn
Low
39° ;25'
Illi no ian T e r r a c e s
R - B artle Wisconsin f j
Lacustrine
S - M o n ro v i u
A L L U V IA L
8
Gregg
S O IL S
Wisconsin D r i f t (source m a t e r i a l ) H |j
T - G e n e s e e,R o ss ,8
Sa nds ton e - Illi n oi a n
—
W IS C O N S IN
G LA C IA L
BOUNDARY
✓
IL L IN O IA N
GLACIAL
BOUNDARY
(so ur c e
jH| SOURCE-
U S Soil
Survey
Morgan
County, Indiana
SCALE OF MILES
I 86°35
86°25'
FIG. 5
0 86°I5 '
Eel
D ri ft
m ate ria l)
U - Pope, Phi lo, St end al
ton*
The iiussell, l&anti, and Beliefont&ine soils are derived from .-Wis
consin drift*
S a m phases have been badly le&chod while others have
been leached only to a depth of two or throe feet*
The Cincinnati
soils have been formed fro® deeply leached Illinoian till# is typical of these soils#
A claypan
The parent material of the Grayford series
is limestone altered by leached Illinoian drift*
The Frederick -soils
are derived fro® cherty limestone of th© Harrodshurg format!on*^
The
relatively infertile ianesvill© (developed on undulating to sloping re lief on ridge tops and upper slopes) and .elision (developed on narrow ridges) series are from medium-grained sandstone and shale of the Borden formation#
Princeton soils, derived fora loessial deposits, are sandy
loams and loams with a low moisture holding capacity. (c) Planosola are found on flat to undulating terrain. The surface soils in this group are brownish-gray to brownish-light grays the subsurface is a light gray, while the subsoil Is often a rusty gray. The Crosby and Pincastl© soils, derived from .1sconsin drift, belong to this group*
The Crosby soils are leached to a depth of 2 to 3 feat and
the Fincastle fro® U to
6
fact (20).
The Vigo and Gibson scdis have
originated from Illinoian drift now leached 10 feet or more (20).
Th®
Gibed! soils are slightly batter drained than the Vigo series. (d) Half-Bog soils are found in two principal areast
(1)
in the northwestern depressions! areas and (2 ) In old river beds in th© Faits River valley.
These are fertile dark soils occurring on flat ter
rain or in depressions*
Th© principal upland soil in this group la the
Brookston fro® Wisconsin drift*
This soil has a relatively high organic
content. (2) tural soils*
Terrace and Lacustrine Soils* These are important agricul The fox, Martinsville, and Morgantown series are Gray-Brown
The liarrodsburg formation belongs to the early Mississippian Period*
P© aolic soils situated on terraces in •chito River valley#
Th© Martins
ville (good to excessive drainage), a M taker (iisperfectly drained), and Mahalaeville (poorly drained) soils are fro® calcareous stratified silt, sand, and gravel of Wisconsin age. gravel of Wisconsin age#
The fox soils are fro® calcareous
The Sorgantcmn soils are derived from noneal-
©areous outwash sand, silt, and gravel of Illinoian age.
The Bartl®
soils originate from nonoalear©ous clay, silt, and sand.
They are found
on low terraces in association with soils developed on sandstone, shale, and. Illinoian drift#
Bartl© soils have beer* highly leached of l i m car-
bonates; they are light colored and low in organic ®atter (20)# The Monrovia and Gregg soils are developed from assorted and strat ified calcareous lacustrine silts and clays of Wisconsin age.
The Mon
rovia soils have been developed under nearly permanent saturation .thils the Gregg soils are found on alight knolls 3 to It feet above the lower depressions.
These soils are of dark color to a depth of 10 to 18 in
ches with a high organic matter content (2 0 ). (3) Alluvial Soils. There are six principal alluvial soils (Genesee, Boss, Eel, Pope, Philo, and Stendal).
The Genesee, Eoss (high
bottoK position on the floodplaln), and Eel (sicall stream valleys in Wis consin drift areas and in abandoned Shite River channels) soils origxrvated from materials that are neutral to slightly alkaline ahich have been washed from- the lisconsin drift region. quent overflow.
They are subject to fre
The Bel soils are imperfectly drained.
The Pope, Philo,
and Stendal soils are formed from acid alluvia® derived largely fro® Illi noian drift.
The Genesee and Eel soils are found in the overflow portions
of the White River valley and on the lower floodplains of small streams
originating in and flowing through areas covered by viscousin drift*
Pope
(well-drained), Phil© (moderately well-drained), and Stendal (Imperfectly drained) soils are found on the floodplains along creeks originating in and flowing through areas covered with illinoian drift or non-glaoiated
22
areas*
Those relationships are brought out in Fig* $.
Soil Beaotim*
The soils of Morgan County range widely fro® Mldly
alkalin© in reaction to vary strongly acid* tribution of aoil reaction*
Fig. 6 indicates the dis
The mildly alkalim 9 neutral, and slightly
acid soils are primarily (1) soils of the floodplaln of "shite River and of creek valleys with watersheds in areas of Wisconsin till Cleneae®, Ross, Tel, and Mahalasville (depressions on I w terraces), and (2) poorly drained lacustrine and low depression*! soils of the till plain in the northwestern part of the county (Monrovia, Gregg, and Brockstcn).
The
relatively brief time that these soils have boon exposed to leaching and their replenishment through overflew has been responsible for the nearly neutral condition.
little or no lime amendment is needed on these
soils which comprise nearly one-fourth of the total, area. Soils of medium acidity are situated (1) on terraces built fro® Fisconsln glacio-fluvi&1 and aeolian materials (fox, Martinsville, Whit aker, Princeton) and (2) on the better drained uplands of Wisconsin drift (Miami, Crosby, Beliefontai no, Russell, Fincastle).
Of these soils
the Russell and Fincastle soils, developed on Parly Wisconsin drift, are more acid than the 'Miami, Beliefontaine, and Crosby soils on late iisconsin drift,
lime application to these soils .is desirable in order to
establish better legume crops and to obtain maximum utilisation of fer tilisers.
Sells with medium acidity constitute over one-third of the
total area. Strongly acid and very strongly acid soil® are found on uplands, terraces, and flood-plain® made up of Illinoian glacial drift, limestone, sandstone, and shale material®.
The relatively long time that these
soils have been exposed to leaching in a humid climate and t he noncalcareous composition of the sandstone and shale mean strong acidity.
Be
fore these soils can be used successfully for agriculture, heavy appli cation of U s e must necessarily precede other improvement measures*
GENERAL S O U R C E - U.S. Soil
SOIL REACTION
Survey, Morgan Co.,Indiana
39°' 3 5 '‘
m
pH
VALUES
4 .5 - 5.0 Very Strongly Acid
r—^ 5 I - 5 5 39° 25'
•— j Strongly Acid
5 6-60 Medium
•:6 1~ 6 5 L Slightly
Acid
66-73 Neutral
7.4 - 8.0 Mildly Alkaline
86°35
FIG. 6
2h These strongly as id soils make up nearly two-fifths of the total area* Sroaion Susceptibility*
fig* T indicates th© degree of erosion
that can be expected on various soil© under cultivation without protec tive erosion ©assures*
The susceptibility to erosion place# various
limitations on use if th® topsail is to b# retained,
without adequate
care accelerated erosion is menacing approximately to the degree indi cated in fig. ?.
The greatest erosion has&rd is present on the Vuskim-
gum and, 3ellston soils situated on steep slopes*
The Cincinnati soils
are also subject to sover® to very sever® erosion when cultivated*
Thus
somewhat more than one-fifth of the county, most of which is situated in
the central and southern parts must be carefully managed to save topsoil.
A considerable part of this area Is forested? however, there are
numerous examples of abandoned and badly eroded fields where cultivation has been attempted on narrow ridge tops ami in some places on slopes suitable only for forests and limited graaln^ holographs 8 and 9 indi cate severe erosion on improperly managed fields on these soils* On the soils susceptible to moderate erosion under cultivation, there Is much more of th© land actual lv- being cultivated, hone® the threat of damage is as great or greater tban on th# PusH.ngnm, grid Cincinnati soils with their high rercentaga of forest cover*
ellstcm, le-
eentl:- through the work of the Soil Conservation Service, th® county agent, high school agricultural teachers, and extension workers, many farmer# are becoming aware of th® necessity to ccmtat accelerated ero sion on moderate slopes under cultivation.
The norths astern and eastern
parts of th® county have s particularly high proportion of soils that are is this category*
About three-tenths of the county's area is sus
ceptible to moderate erosion. The soils only slightly susceptible to erosion are concentrated ca th® northwestern, lacustrine plains and. on creek and river floodplsdna and terraces*
Altogether these make
up
over two-fifths of th® total
SUSCEPTIBILITY SO U R C E- U.S. Soil
OF
MAJOR
86°I5'
86°25‘
86°35'
SOILS
TO
EROSION
UNDER CULTIVATION
Survey, Morgan Co.,Indiana
39° 35'
39° 35'
& a
DEGREE OF EROSION None,or Very SIight
tj)m
toco
39° 25
Moderate 5, or Very Severe (Including
Gul l y E r o s i o n )
SCALE OF M ILES
86°35
8 6°25
FIG. 7
8 6 °I5 '
PHOTOGRAPH 8
(tow) An abandoned field situated on a ridge top «?ith sheet erosion and sassafras trees now in charge* The owner hopes to return it to meadow pasture by the use of nan** ure and grating of sheep to keep down the bushes* It la little wonder that this hapless farmer told me he would rather do anything else than sell a load of man ure off his farm. B1GT0GMFH 9 (Upper) An abandoned farmstead on ill-treated moderately rough land.
27 area or the county* Productivity and. Use Limitations* fable 1.lists the principal ©oils of Morgan County as to extent and use limitations*
Productivity data
collected in conjunction with the soil survey of 1937 has been used as the basis for a map of general productivity (fig*
8 ).
the soils fall
rather sharply into four general productivity groupss
(1) Those of
high productivity are the alluvial, lacustrine, and depreealon&l soils derived from Wisconsin glacial materials*
Those of glacial Lake gti&nemce
(Monrovia) and of depressions on the till plain (Brookston) along with depressions on terraces (Mahalasville) and floodplaln (Eel) have re quired drainage to attain a high level of productivity* which belong to this group, have required no drainage*
Genesee soils, (2
and
3)
Medium
and medium to low productivity characterises soils derived from Early and Late .isconsin and from Illinoian drift, aeolian deposits, and glaciofluvial materials along with topographically better situated soils de rived from residual limestone, sandstone, and shale*
(ii) Excessively
drained steep slopes with highly leached shallow soils have a very low productivity. Six agricultural use limitations for various soils listed in Table I are especially significant* low organic content, erosion menace and erosion damage already inflicted, acidity, poor drainage, excessive drainage and droughtiness, and overflow*
In areal extent the most
widespread soil factor limiting agricultural production is low organic matter.
Over two-thirds of th® total area is so handicapped*
Only
lacustrine, alluvial, and depressions! soil® derived from Wisconsin glacial materials have fairly adequate organic matter*
Erosion menace
and damage and ac4‘^^y each affect about one-third, of the area* one-fifth of the total area is strongly acid (Fig*
6 ).
About
i&ccessive
drainage with accompanying susceptibility to drought is a significant limitation on one-tenth of the soil area*
Poor drainage affects about
GENERAL
SOIL
SOURCE-
S oil
U. S.
8 6 °I5
86°25'
86°35
PRODUCTIVITY
Survey
Morgan
Co., Indiana
39° 35'
39° 35'
• S
Relative
Productivity
HIGH
39° 25'
39°
25'
MEDIUM !
IMEDIUM
to LOW
tLOW
SCALE OF MILES
86°35
86°25
FIG. 8
8 6 °I5
dy TABLE 1 Sc®© Use limitations of Major Soils of Morgan County, Indiana* {Souro^j 0 . 3. Soil 3urvey Morgan Countyf Indiana) Soil
Acres
Percent
Brookston
3,320
3.2
Bsllafont&ine
1,U08
.6
Crosby
7,55a
2.9
Excessive drainage, low organic content*
Mi,jaaptt'S,
11,712
U.6
Erosion, low organic content.
Fincastle
i3,e?u
5*8
Poor to issperfect drainage, lew organic content*
Russell
37,696
11**6
Limitation® Vary poor drainage. Erosion, drought, low organic content.
Erosion, low organic content (steep phase — * 9 ,3 bb acres — erosion and non-arable| gullied eloping phase — 3,90li acres — non-arable, de stroyed for present agricultural use)*
Vigo
’if672
1.8
Fuddles and bakes easily, strong acidity, poor drainage, low or ganic content, lew general fer tility.
Gibson
7,01*0
2.7
Strong acidity, low organic con tent, lew general fertility*
37,o56
1U*3
Grayford
3,712
l.li
Frederick
1,536
.5
Zanesville
3,968
1.5
Wellston Muskingum
U,352 19,136
1.7 ?.U
Cincinnati
Susceptibility to erosion, strong acidity, low organic content, low general fertility. (Gullied sloping phase — 1,728 acres — destroyed ^for present agricul tural use)} (Steep phase — 17,728 acre® — non-arable, sever® erosion steep slopes, and low general fer tility). Erosion, acidity, low organic content, and low general fertility* Erosion, low organic content (steep phase — $76 acres — ! non-arable). Erosion, acidity, low fertility. Mon-arablo* Largely non-arable steep slopes, acidity, low organic content, stoniness, erosion.
30
TABLE I (Cont*) S o m Use llsidbatiang of Ma^or Soils of Morgan County# Indiana* (Sources b. 5* Soil Survey Morgan County# Indiana)
limitations
Soil
Acres
Percent
Princeton
is#860
1.9
.Drought, loir fertility, low organic content.
Fox
3# SOli
1.1
Droughtiness, low organic content (sloping phase — 320 acres — slop®, and low general fertility).
Martinsville
6 #532*
2.6
Lem organic content (fin# sandy loam 1,536 acres — sowrhat drought.y and low organic content).
ivhitaker
3# 200
1.2
Poor drainage, low organic content*
M&halasville
l,98h
Poor drainage*
Morgantown
2,0U&
Erosion# acidity, lew organic content (steep phase — 832 acres — non-arabl® slopes).
Bartle
l,i*?2
.6
Monrovia
5# 760
2.2
Oregg
1,792
.7
23#168
9.0
Ross
1,792
.7
lei
16,896
6*3
Popo
2,li32
.9
Overflow, acidity, low fertility*
Philo
3,632
2.1
Overflow, acidity, low fertility*
Steorial
3,810
1.5
Overflow, poor drainage, acidity, low fertility.
Genesee
Other Minor Soils
li.9
Poor drainage, acidity, low gen eral fertility. Very poor drainage* Poor drainage, low organic con tent (silt loam — 1,500 acres — puddles and bakes easily)* Overflow® Occasional danger from overflow* Overflow and backwater damage •
31 one-eight of the area; however most of these soils have been profitably drained.
Danger of overflow affects one-fifth of the soils; those alluvial
soil® otherwise have relatively few limitations. Problem® in Ag.ricultural Us®, the' great soil diversity in Morgan County presents a variety of problems in agricultural use.
pies© soil3
are representative of a considerable part of the United state53 east of th# Mississippi and north of th# Ohio rivers.
Brookston, Miami* Crosby,
and related soils of moderate to high productivity which have bean so basic to high production in the eastern part of th# Corn Belt arc found on t'm till plain,
bore highly leached soil® such as th© Cincinnati and
Vigo scries, found in th® older uplands, are typical of considerable areas of southern Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and northern Missouri.
Also
present are the relatively infertile Zanesville and iMskingum soils which occupy many square mile© in southern Indiana, western and eastern Kentucky, and southeastern Ohio. are of major importance.
Very fertile alluvial ©oils (Cmrm&mm)
.Problems relating to t-e agricultural utili
sation of these various soils are discussed under th® following head ings t
(1 ) Inherently productive till plain soils, (2 ) highly* leached
older upland coils, and (3 ) alluvial soils* Plain Soil®. A hundred years of farming ha© cut heavily into the reserve of natural fertility which h m made the north ern part of Morgan County a part of the C o m Belt.
Probably one-third
to one-half of the organic matter stored up under centuries of natural vegetation cover ha® been removed in little over a century of exploita tion faming (3 , p. I*?).
The great error ha® not been in the using of
this native fertility; gkco th© land was cleared and plowed it "was in evitable that this depletion should commenee.
Th# tragedy lies in the
great neglect in replacing- th# original organic matter through a better balanced farming of these more productive soil®. yet established this balance.
Most farmers have not
They have begun to use fertilisers and
32 reduce corn acreages*
However* a three year rotation of corn* soybeans,
and a small grain planted with a legume to clow under the following spring is not maintaining the organic matter of these better soils*
This is
especially true whan soybeans are sold off the farm and often only a part of the corn and small grain is fed on the farm* coming to the foreground*
The telltale signs are
k few remarks made by farmers interviewed
this past sunser illustrate what is happening*
tfJ common topic we talk
about around here is ho® much harder the ground is to bs 3&k in the spring than it used to be#*
This remark was mad-** by a farmer who was accustomed
to seeing fields in cons every other year#
Soil structure has naturally
suffered serious damage under such a scheme of farming* coesRented on the change in seasons and how summers formerly*
-Several farmers
mamad
drier than
The climatic records reveal the truth that summers are not
.getting progressively drier; farmers are rapidly losing the organic matter which is so vital to the high absorption and retention of moisture
In the top®oil.* Here is an example of how mining of th® sore highly productive soils in th® northwest part of th© county is taking place*
One farmer
is farming Crosby.slit loam® and Monrovia and Plano silty clay loams*
all or whien are relatively high in organic matter, particularly the latter two types*
The. Monrovia and. Plano silty clay loams had to be
artificially drained before they'could be famed* ceptionally large one for Corn Bolt farms* #6 in Pig* 20*}
*he farm is an ex
(This fans is located as
The operator owns 233 acre®, the soil of which is large
ly Grosby silt loam.
He rents from one landlord m additional 500 acres*
Th© cropland under cultivation on this 733-acre far® is 700 acres. There is hot a single head cu livestock on. the entire farm* not even a chicken* th# farm#
The entire com* soybean* and wheat crops are taken off Only the sweet clover sown id th th® wheat in the three-year
rotation is plowed under.
Th® rate of fertiliser application is 200
33 pounds of 3-9-18 to th® acre cm each crop In th® rotation* 1988 wore as followss —
23 bushels*
com —
8$ bushels, soybeans —
Yields in
3$ bushels, wheat
The 191*8 corn and soybean yields were about five and
three bushels respectively above normal*
This is of course as: extreme
case of mining th® inherent fertility of the better soils, for cm most farms some livestock are kept, and at least a, part of th® c o m is fed* However, after looking at th*.* farms on th® most productive soils in th® county, th® overall picture appears to be definitely on® of taking out more than is being returned* However, in contrast to this example indicating th® loss of organic matter on many farms in the Corn Belt part of the county another story must b© told*
It is the story of a farmer on Miami and. Crosby soils*
Forty-nine years ago this man bought some abandoned land of ahich th® tenant had said **it was so near worn out that it didn’t pay to tend it any more*” That piece of land had. been rented for 28 years before the present owner took it over in 1900*
Average per acre weighed and re
corded c o m yields on this farm have been as follows during the past four years* 125? bushels in 1988 100 « « 1987 73 « « 1986 90 * * 1985? neighbors, th© county agent, soil conservation supervisors, Purdue Uni versity extension workers, and others acknowledge and admire the high level of productivity that has been attained on this farm* is located as #9 in Fig* 20)*
(This farm
It has been accomplished through hard
work, careful and alert management, and a willingness to experiment* One of the first improvement measures was to haul manure fro© livery stables in th® nearby village of Hall*
In 1910 pasture improvement was
begun by mixing legumes with bluegrass.
There was an early recognition
that parts of th© fane needed potash badly*
'This was discovered, by ex-
314 perimanting with wood ashes#
In th© application of lime th© owner has
always followed the policy of putting on a ton more than is rsoonasotied* Today there are over six miles of terraces on this 27$ aero farm#
Ho has-
tiled and terraced in the satm fields because he believes a greater amount of underground drainage is needed on his fans#
A 'three-year ro
tation was used la the beginning; but the owner did not think this was maintaining th® productivity of his farm properly* so for the past sev eral years he has used a four-year rotation of corn — alfalfa —
ladiao clover* and alsike clover cut for hay the first year
and pastured the second# as beef* pork* or mutton#
grain or hay is sold off the farm except
$0
Sane grain is ©van purchased#
300 feeding, cattle and 700 hog® are fed out each year.
are kept#
small grain —
An average of About SO esres
But the classic remark illustrating this farmer1® attitude
toward his farm came near th© end of a very pleasant afternoon# la what he said4
Here
“I’ve made a little money during the past several
years* so three years ago I decided to start putting on an additional $00 lbs# of fertiliser (0-20-20) to the acre#
That’s sy bank account#
It will be there as a reserve to draw upon sometime in the future when I may need it#*
Such a farm a® this Is a great constructive example
for that coumainity#
This farmer’s approach is basically sound and has
resulted in a high income#
The farm will be inherited by hi® son in
better condition than when it was taken over k9 years ago#
The early
realisation of need coupled with the courage to carry out an evolving program of improvement* often setting aside the possibility of quick money returns* makes this farm a worthy practical contribution toward a more permanent agriculture# Here then is a fundamental problem and an apparently great oppor tunity in land use#
first* there is & need to regain the inherent pro
ductivity of our better soils#
Then perhaps it will be advisable to
push these soils to a level of productivity greater than that endowed
by nature*
lost farmers of the till plain o&eerved in Morgan County
have a long way to go to reach the first objective.
A very few such as
th® on® cited above arc tackling th® second problem. (2)
Older Upland Soils. For many farmers in the county th®
problem of making th® most out of the soil is a different one from that in the C o m Belt.
They are fanning soils derived from more highly
leached Illinoian till ©fieri with unfavorable slop® conditions*
Sur
rounded by better endowed till plain soils on the on® hand ana highly productive alluvial soils in th® KMte River valley on th® other* there has been a tendency to expect too much from these soils*
Farters have
often tried to farm them with rotations and other practices vary similar to those used on th© better soils in adjacent areas.
&any of these
soils are worn out and difficult to fern ©conos&c&Xly*
khil© depletion
has taken place it must be kept in mind that the inherent productivity of these soils was not as great a s that of th® till plain; consequently it has been mich easier to ruin fare® through poor agricultural practices* It is on such soils that many farmers are apparently unable to better their position.
Their farm units are too small and their capital in
sufficient to carry out needed improvements*
d th ouch a.prevailing
situation matters go from bad to wears® and many units end up with farmer and farm both going bankrupt,
till it be economically feasible to re
store some of these moderately to highly leached soils to a level of productivity capable of competing with the better soils that surround them or should they bo written off as so many mor© acres wasted in a e#m~ tury of agricultural uso and then returned to forestry or some other lower level of land use?
This quest!cm is now facing governmental tax
ation units in many parts of the country*
The possibilities of revital
ising these soils should be considered carefully in relation to specific physical and economical conditions.
Th© mere physical limitation of do
ing the job is of course but on® aspect of the problem.
Other basic
36 question# that must be raised ares efficient fans units be &ad©v
Can a consolidation into larger mor©
m i ®ark©t con&itions be favorable to re
instating a hi^ier lave! of agricultural production on those soils?
la**
fertile soils located near to market outlets are often more intensively used than tetter soils more remotely situated*
If farmed property* these
soils could bo used to prevent overworking our better soils*
In the long
ran this would be economical. Success in the agricultural utilisation of these inherently lass productive soils may be possible.
Several farmers in Morgan County are
making sufficient progress in improvements and the application of now ideas to suggest that the job may bo accomplished*
However* there are
soma cc*on problems confronting these more progressive farms and farmers* In the first place a big handicap to trie restoration of soma of the leached soils is the fact that too many acres of agriculturally imprac tical soils may need to be included in order to establish a farm unit. Only where most of the farm :ias favorable topography and soil possibili ties for cropping and open pasture does it appear advisable to undertake restoration of moderately to highly leached soils. Secondly* there is a more accurate recognition of soil limitations by the more progressive fanners on the mors severely leached soils* The realisation of need is Hie first step toward an economic utilisation of these soils*
The farmer on these leached upland soils can not look
to the river valley nor to the till plain for correct practices for his farms yet many farmers (often with farming experience on adjacent valley lands and till plain) are attempting to do just that* and it leads to low farm incases that partially result from improper care of soil re sources* Furthermore* available capital for carrying out thorough initial improvements seems essential*
It is not enough to buy a farm with mod
erately to highly leached soils and start faming*
There should he
37 enough capital available to make lira© and fertiliser applications suffi-
slant to supply the nutrients necessary for a high level of crop produc tion*
An approach cosamooly used on such soils is to improve them over
a period of ten or fifteen years with modernte amounts of fertiliser added once or twice during the rotation*
Experiments carried on by th©
Department of Soils, University of Wisconsin (1 9 $ p* 219 ff*} suggest a more rational approach to fertilisation of leached soils such as these
found in Morgan County*
Since basic soil deficiencies and crop require
ments can now bo established quickly for a specific situation, is it not logical to make heavy initial applications of lime and fertiliser ade
quate for high yields on these solIs?
.Results indicate that "it is pos
sible under this system to bring depleted soils quickly (often the first year) to a high state of productivity at vary lew costs for the marked increases in yields obtained*ff(19* p* 223) • This expenditure for lime and fertilisers should be considered as a part of the investment in Age
ing productive land against which annual interest and depreciation or depletion charges are made.n(19* p* 222)*
Many farmers on these de
pleted soils don*t feel they can afford to use heavy applications of fertiliser broadcast and worked into the soil*
As a matter of fact
from the long rang© point of view they cannot afford to neglect using a heavy initial application*
Thus it is neceroury to have capital avail
able for the purchase price and for heavy initial applications of
11 m®
and fertiliser in order to launch a successful farming enterprise on the older uplands in Morgan County* A survey of four recently established farms under new operators on depleted soils (Table II) reveals that all had sufficient capital to make heavy initial outlays fear lira© and fertilisers in addition to buy ing farms*
This capital had been acquired In the following ways:
(1)
doing custom work for other farmers* (2 ) inheritance* (3 ) loan f r m father* O4 ) school teaching by both husband and wife.
Furthermore* it
38 ?ABL
I II ■
Soil Improvement Programs on Recently Established Progressive Farms on Highly Leached Soils, (Based on Personal Interviews)
Farm**
Tears Operated by Present Qsmer
Per Acre Pur chase Price and Tear of Purchase
#91* (19U6;
$10 (191*2)
Sported Corn and Wheat Helds oa Farms at Time of Purchase (in bushela)
hS (bora) l£ (Wheat)
(corn) 8 (wttaatj
26
laid of ora Ch ained ast Tear n Corn
Mo com or whaat Harvested ”>< 60 (191*6)
Total Per Acre Appli cation of Lime by Present Oimsr Dur ing 1st Lt-year Rotation
2$ tons1
U tons (gives pH of 5 )
Total Per Acre Application of Fertiliser (lbs. If formula) used by Present Oimer
300 lbs. of 3-12-1#
7$0 lbs. of >12-12 A 0-12-12
Cost of Fertili ser and lime Ap plied by Present Oensr*
6*90 fertiliser 7.00 lima II3TW 16.88 fertiliser 11.20 lime JSB70S
$98 (19U6 )
#20 (191*0;
20-25 (com)
pQ0 (191*83
6 ton
1300 lbs. of >18-9 & U-12-8
1$ (corn) 90 (191*5)
6 ton
l650 lbs. of 8- 8-6 k 3- 12-12
29•Sk fertiliser 16.80 lime iHS73Ii 37.96 fertiliser 16.80 lime ¥51*775
For only a two year period. 'l&s® and fertiliser costs are figured on basis cf priced prevailing in June, 19U9 in Morgan County, spreading charges. ' See fig. 20 for the location of these farms.' #1 Only hay and. pasture is grown on this .i.;r;a.
lime costs include
39 sms noted that these farmers war© sacrificing immediate profits in order to build up their farms quickly* Carefully conducted experiments in Illinois offer convincing evi dence that the efficiency of producing crop© on most of the soils in that state can be improved *
oentr&iod in the knobstone regions south of Martinsville• Here wore such species as the white and red oak, pig-nut and shell bark hickory, with gotae ash, sugar* maple, elm, and black gum on the moist lower slopes#
Important stands of oale-hickery forests also covered the 1111-
noian drift area north of Vnite Jiiver#
The ridges and slopes of these
oak—hickory areas are still predominantly forested#
Some of the ridge
bops which were cleared for farming are being abandoned and are growing up in sassafras and briars.
The remaining forest is on slopes unsuited
for faming# ■Forests along fhite fiver and creeks ivore made up of sycamores, birches, willows, black gum, and soft maples#
Today only about two
percent of the valleys a re forested# Summary Among the physical features climate sets the broad, pattern of land use in Morgan County bub soil and topographic differences are much more significant in accounting for prominent local variations*
The till
plain* th® ollar uplands* and the
* a i be
; •diver valley a m the major land—
T o m areas which along v*ith respective soil contrasts givo & starting point lor dividing the county into land use regions.
Further detail in
contracting land use pa.itam s and problems is suggested by soil. onces in productivity* nusoaptibility to erosion and soil roc.oilon along; ndth pertinent solving cut uaral patterns*
0HAFTS& XI
moLvim cmmmt pattsrfs Settlement and Agriculture to tho Civil &ar (1SX8~1860) The period between 18X6 and 1825 saw a great inpouriny of thousand# of families into Indiana fro® states to the Fast and from tho South#
S*ngr earns down tho Chio Riv#r in fl&tboatsj others cane overland
when roads were opened*
Tho contra! portion of Indian® was tho nearest
la r g e unsettled area of land, open to those immigrants, so that a re a re
ceived sany settlers during this period* Officially organised and namad after General .Daniel Morgan* in 1822* Morgan County received her share of the many who came seeking homes on the frontier| for in 1822 Morgan County was on the fringe of settlement between the settled counties of the south and the wilderness of the north*
The early settlers came principally fro® Kentucky, north Caro
lina* Chio, Tennessee* and Virginia? and the greater number were of English and German origin (36* p* 3&L )* These early settlers were not such deterredby the fact that Indiana still roamed in the forests till after 18.20* county fro® three directions — south*
The settlers entered the
from the east, the southwest* and the
An adventurous pioneer* Jacob ftecrteel* was responsible for bias
ing a much used and important avehu* of entrance*
Out in 1818 and little
more than a narrow* unimproved* cleared•path wide enough for a wagon* this trail was known as 'ilhatsel's Trace*
It connected the #hitewater
Elver with the Seat Fork of tihite Hiver.
It ended at what was then
known as The Bluffs.^
^larlier it had. bean Port Royal* namedby .Frenchmen who cams up tsite GIvar before the- :,ar of 18X2 to trade with toe Indiana#
52 Vihite Hiver vsm another important highway by which the pioneers entered Morgan County during the early -period of settlement.
Th© coun
ties along it* lower course had already been Battled and it was from these that many of the early inhabitant© came.
The rivers and larger
creeks were the principal roads then, for land travel through the dens© forests of central Indiana was hard indeed in 1820 (29, p. 111). A less important avenue of entrance wa© directly from the south via Monro© County.
Mo early -well—known trail connected Morgan County with
the southern counties (except for a such less used trace southeastward toward where Columbus, Indiana is now located); but settlement had ex tended north into Monro© County and these settlements vrer© nearest, since Johnson and Brown counties had few people in 1820 (29, p. 11*6). Practically all land in Morgan County passed from federal to priv&ia ownership between 1810 and 1853*
The settlement pattern of the
county is reflected in the map of federal land sales (Fig. 12).
Dates
of original disposition of land were placed on a map to locate areas of early (1818-1825), intermediate (16?6-l6itU)» and late (after 181*5) settle ment*
During the period of 1818-1825 Morgan County war on the fringe of
settlement when an inpouring of new settler© accounted for most of the land sales.
In the intermediate period the influx wag less rapid and
many of the ©ales during this period were made to settlers already in the county who were wanting additional tracts to expand their farms. The passing of the flatboat era In transportation and the coming of the railroad encouraged the purchase of the remaining lard.
Some significant
relationships existed between settlement and various physical conditions. Opon entering Morgan County the early settlers fanned out in groups and located in what appeared to be suitable places for settlement.
Nearness
to a stream or river was an important consideration in locating a farm in the wlHemess; hence the first settlements were made on the level but well-drained land along mite Elver and on the larger creeks.
The streams
FEDERAL
L A N D S AL E S IN
MORGAN C O U N T Y ,
INDIANA
^ ’7 n?
*,
I-----
F. J i I "f:
DATE
SOLD [
|
OF S A LE
BETWEEN
SOLD
BETWEEN
SOLD
AFTER
SOURCE
18 18 A N D 18 2 6 AND
1825 1845
1845
- ORIGINAL
LEDGER
IN
LAND
TRANSFER
RECORDERS
r
OFFICE, MARTINSVILLE
Morcof'tow
SCALE OF MILES
LEM,
F I G . 12
Sh were also important as a source of power for local mills sot up for grinding grain into flour ?and meal*
Oood springs were much pri^jd by
the early farmer® not only for the water * but as crude "ice boxes'* in hot weather*
The *lay of the land1* and the presence of any small un
forested spots were also influential in locating farms*
The predominant
concentration of early settlement was on th# terrace lands of White River and the well-drained parts of creek valleys*
Land on the lower
river floodplain was purchased largely as additions to already estab lished farms on the terrace and adjacent upland margins*
Especially
poorly drained soils wore avoided by the early farmers who were without means to drain them satisfactorily*
Hough areas (even those relatively
near to the river) remained largely unpurchased until the lumbering in dustry became well established In the county# Am
the early settler® usually came in groups, small clusters of
farmsteads developed that encouraged the establishment of small villages as trading centers*
The first early clusters of people were all near
hhit© River, often near the mouth of one of the creeks*
The earliest
settlement was located on Lamb*® Creek in the central part of the county* The families who formed it came late in 1819*
The second settlement was
in the eastern part of the county along what is now btctt1* Creek# James Stott and six other®, coming up from Lawrence County, located farms in this vicinity in 1819*
Another early setilessent was made on
Butler Creek about one mil® north of Whit# atver in the southwestern c o m e r of the county near the present village of hhitaker.
Son# of
th#se early communities developed into towns, but they served a® im portant centers for further settlement (£9, p. 11*6 ff• )* Somewhat later in origin were the settlements that grew into the two most important populated centers, Hartinsville, and Mooreeville* Both were favored in their growth by conditions not entirely geographic. Martinsville owes much of its e&rly growth and subsequent development
ss to the choice of the casas&seioners appointed by the state legislature to select a county seat*
Two sites were under consideration, the pr©s-
eat site of Martinsville and ft site la Clay township just north of the river where Centerton is now situated (Fig* 2)*
The Centerton-site is
nearer the geographic center of the county which with its location near the junction of a major creek and Shite River gave it geographical pre cedence.
However, the longer established residents near the Martinsville
site had more money and were free in offering some of their landj con sequently Martinsville (named after the oldest member of the board of casasisstoners} was established as the county seat in 18-22 (29* p. 31}*
Mooresville owes much to the man in whose honor It was named, Sam uel Moore*
this ambitious trader and merchant realised the advantages
of having a trading center near'the confluence of the main branch and the East Fork, of Shite Lick Greek* then a navigable stream ( by flatboat) for part of the year.
The immediate vicinity of Moorasvllle was
one where good farms could develop,
hhile not so fertile as the lake
Eminence area and the Lower '-hite River floodplain* the early farmer
thought it much better for farming than the poorly drained areas. After-the early pioneer farmer had selected wftsi he considered a favorable location arid after he had erected a simple log cabin, he was faced with the immediate problem of getting enough land cleared upon which to plant his first crops.
The trees were numerous and large, and
many long hours of labor were required to clear a plot*
Many of the
trees were simply deadened? others were felled and the logs rolled into huge piles .for burning*
Destruction of the now precious Indiana hard—
woods scorned a necessity to the pioneer intent upon getting enough land cleared to support a family*
Each spring the farmer w^yid ©pand weeks
clearing new tracts of land so that he could increase the tillable acre age of his farm.
Blanchard writing in 1883 gives this description of
pioneer agriculture in Morgan County:
Cora was planted and almost wholl\ cultivated with the hoe. A m m who could raise and Morgantown are also occupied very largely by non-farm people (IC).
These strips have not yet been incorporated*
Developing around a small artificial lake In the central part of the county is another concentration of the non-farm group; however# this 1©
70
yet largely resort rather than permanent occupancy* In addition to those concontratione of non-farm population there is a general scattering of this occupant group in all parts of the county, but particularly in areas designated in Pig* 18 as tfw®ll a&xsd fans and non-far® population*H Nearness to Indianapolis accounts for area 1XA*
Location along main higbway® is largely responsible for area II
B, and intonrdxtu.ro of good and poor farmland in part explains IIC* Predominantly farm areas have a number of non-farm families gener ally settled along (1) main road®, (2) on less usuablo agricultural tracts, or (3) vary commonly on e,old hoBM»placesR with the cropland rant ed out to neighborhood farmers*
However, the fax'® element Is definitely
in the majority in these areas, particularly in the northwestern part of the till plain, more non-farm population being found (1) on relatively less productive till plain soils in the northeastern and eastern parts of the county, and (2) nearer to Indianapolis, Martinsville, and Mooresville* Somm of the most productive and least productive land is cparaely populated*
Two very productive area®, the floociplain of ;.hite River and
the lower part of the Lake Eminence plain have very few people*
Because
of flood haaard and soil dampness these are not occupied| however, there is a concentration of farmsteads on their margins* cultur&l areas have very few people*
Two rough r.on-agri-
The one along the southern margin
of the county Is largely in a state forest preserve (Fig. 18). central area is largely privately owned forested land.
The
It is less ac
cessible than other parts of this central rough upland that have con siderable non-fans population elements* Migration* The net migration out of Morgan County during the twen ties followed by a net migration into the county In the thirties and probably* during the forties has been of considerable significance In changing rural land urn patterns*
For example, nearness to Indiana-
71 polls sad the competition with union labor h m adversely affected dairy ing in the northeastern part of the county*
The unwillingness and lack
of opportunity for far® youth to remain on the farm has been a critical drain on rural wealth*
little available land and lack of capital neces
sitate many youth seeking urban employment*
The materialism and glamour
of urban life is a very potent force attracting youth to the cities where many jobs offer a greater immediate return than most farm employ ment*
Today* ease of movement between Indianapolis and adjacent country
side has made rux*al youth acutely aware of this urban glamour*
Twenty
years ago when the author was a boy of 10* the chance of a farm boy getting to the city for a look around was generally limited to a two or three-day visit 'with a relative once a year*
Today* many young people
visit the city weekly. k studty- of graduates fro© Paragon* a small high school in a rural area* was made to obtain more specific data relating to migration out of .rural areas.
The background and present occupational status of 312
graduates was obtained for representative classes graduating between 191? and 191x6*
The results as tabulated in Table IV confirm the general
trend ox outward migration mentioned above*
About two-fifths of the male
graduates who -were reared on faxms are currently farmers*
Another too-'
fifths of farm-reared boys left the county principally for Indianapolis jobs*
About one-fifth have found non-farm employment within the county*
Of the female graduates only one-third became f&rsawives*
Graduates
reared in non-farm homes on the open countryside and in Paragon are al most entirely engaged in non-farm Jobs* have left the county*
About three out of every four
This strong outward migration means a dissipation
of rural wealth through education of youth who contribute nothing to the community financing a considerable part of their education.
They also
take fro© the county much inherited wealth that fakes it difficult for remaining youth to establish owner-operated farms.
72 TABLE IV Background and Present Occupational Status of 312 Paragon High School Graduates* 1917-19146.
Partners or Famedves
jA-dounty Occupations
ho 23
16
2 1
6
1 U
11
Out-of-Gounty Occupations
Present Occupations of Graduates with* Far® Background Kale Female Rural Non-Farm Background Kale Female
38 $6 10 31
Paragon (Small Town) Background Hale Female
3k 39
Bvolvlng Transportation P&tteras Present Boutea* Ths major transportation routes passing through Morgan County arc greatly influenced by two factors: Elver valley and (2) the location of Indianapolis*
(1) the Lhite Two Important state
highways and one of the railroads use the thite Elver and white lick valley® as the easiest and most direct approach to Indianapolis from the southwest (Pig. 2)*
Th© presence of rough terrain on both flank©
of UMte Hiver in western Morgan County* plus the wideness of the valley in that locality which is subject to frequent flooding* has made a defin ite natural transportation funnel through most of Bay Township*
In lo
cating the two main highways and the railroad* engineers tried to keep away from the rough terrain on the one hand and the treacherous floodplain on the other*
This restriction lias made Ibr a concentration of
73 tra ffic flow#
An intricate system of county roads offer secondary transportation routes linking all parts to the main transportation pattern — * the state highways and the railroads# topography*
These roads have also been influenced by
In the rough parts* the roads follow the creek valleys -r
the ridge tops as much as possible$ whereat on the till plain they are straight* except for many more rigat-angl© turns# Evolving ratterns# There have been three distinct eras in the transporting of agricultural products to market from Morgan Countyi
(1) the flatboat era (1530-1852)I (2) the railroad era (1653-1932)1 and (3) the truck and automobile era (1933(1) Has Flatboat Era (1630-1852)> By 1630 th© county had a well scattered population* but with score people concentrated in the river valley; consequently 'white Elver became the principal artery of trade#
Th© golden era of the flatboat was at hand.
Noah Major, a
pioneer of Morgan County* writing in hie memoirs about 1900 graphically describes th© flatboat trade as follows; vthlte river, though crooked and turbulent and abounding in snags* drifts* and abrupt cut-offs* was destined to b® the great thoroughfare for Morgan county produce* and to convey on its restless bosom many thousands of dollars* worth of pork* com, wheat* flour* mess beef* and lumber cn their way to the Southern markets — generally to th© city of Hear Orleans* a city then of 150*000 inhabitants and one of the bast markets in the United States* The distance from. Martinsville to how Orleans is computed at 1*600 miles by water* It was soon learned that lard* bacon* and bulk pork were th© most profitable products to ship from Morgan county# Although considerable quantities of corn* wheat* flour, and lumber were shipped in an early day, not much of it was don© toward th© last# Th© reason is obvious enough* when a thousand, pounds of the pork products would
^It was in tha early- thirties that th© truck began to play a role in the transportation of agricultural products from Morgan bounty*
bring #50 in Hair Orleans* while the same weight in corn would in no case bring more than 16 or #10* Froir. 1660 to 1853 was th® golden era of flatboats# During that period Morgan county stood third in the. State for the production of c o m and hogs* Faming was then pre-etsinentlir the business of this county. Ho succeeding epoch ever proved sore satisfactory to our snt^rprising farmers than this one* — the magnitude of flatboatlng will be better ■understood by th® following estimates -which* I think* are within the bounds of reason. Counting an average of fifteen boats per annum from 1829 to 1853, we have a total of 365 for the twentythree years. There were not less than 6,500,000 feet of lumber used in constructing these boats* threefourths of which were of the fi nest poplar trees that grew near $hit® river. This lumber was worth at least 510 per thousand feet* or 665*000* 365 boats at a cost of #260 per boat, #82,800* The cargoes, estimated at #60,000 each, 31,380,000 (37, p p . 396-603). From these accounts it is apparent that the flatboat trade was indispensible to the farmors for they were much in need of a market for their surplus pork and grain in order that they could acquire needed supplies of salt, tools, and other articles not produced locally. l&i1-road £ra (1853-1932).
Following the nourishing flat-
boat trade, the railroads made their appearance*
The first railroad,
111® Martinsville and Franklin Flatter t&ilroad, began operation in 1853 after citizens living along the route had spent nearly five years in grading the roadbed and helping to lay the truck* about 1856 when service was discontinued*
It was operated till
After the Civil war the road
m m extended to ?airland in Shelby County (Fig. 1)| however, operation again ceased in a few years (29, p. 33).
It finally became part of the
Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, and St. Louis hailroad (Fig. 2)j but it was never a financial success because its orientation toward Cincinnati was not in keeping with the natural flow of trade.
Cincinnati was de
clining during the second half of the last century as a xm&% packing
75 center and at the aasie time Indianapolis markets % m m becoming-the nat ural outlet for fans products from Morgan County* Most important in the county*& railroad history has bm n the In dianapolis and'Vincennes road* comsaonly knmm as the I* and V. (fig* 2)* It was started by the New Albany and Paiem Company in 1853*
By about
1875 it had become part of the remsylvania Railroad* th® present owner# (29* p# 33)*
until about 1930 this road was a moat important transpor
tation facility affording much local freight and passenger service* Town and villages along it thrived as centers of local trade and indus try#
But with the coming of the automobile and freight truck, th© rail
road traffic has dwindled* and now this railway is mainly a significant connection between Indianapolis and the coal ®dnes of southwestern In diana* The third railroad* the Illinois Central (fig* 2)* passes through the extreme southeastern part of th® county* serving especially Jackson Township* where Morgantown has been a trading center for several decade# and has some industry.
(3) Truck and Automobile Era (1933-
)•
The truck has al
most completely supplanted the railroad in the handling of certain types
of freight#
Th© railroad still hauls wtie?t and soybeans out of the
county* but all livestock are transported to market by truck*
The rail
road brings in some but by no me?mo all of the farm machinery* fertili sers* and other farm supplies*
All local transportation of farm produce
within th©c ouaty is by truck and automobile* Truck rates on livestock testify as to the advantage of proximity to Indianapolis*
Livestock hauling rata© for various points southwest
of Indianapolis indicate that from the Mooresvl11© community (15 miles from Indianapolis) rates were 15 cents per 100 poond® (a® of January* 1950)*
From Eminence* Martinsville* and. Paragon they wara 20 cents*
76 From Gosport, just southwost of Morgan County on Stats Road 6?, the rat# was 2$ csrits for a distance of UB mile®.
At Worthington (also on
Stats Road 67), 77 miles from Indianapolis, the rat© was 30 cents or just double that for Mooresvill©*
Thus there is also a distinct advan
tage in the sal© of livestock products, particularly -whole adIk because of nearness to Indianapolis*
Th# favorable position in respect to mar
kets for farm produce is further reflected in th# price paid for egg® and poultry at points along this highway* Th# automobile has also been significant in altering the pattern of land us© in th# county*
Phil© the tractor has increased the number
of large farms, the automobile has mad© many assail part-time farms and. non-farm rural residences during th© past fifteen years*
The peripheral
location of Morgan County in respect to Indianapolis has meant much commuting to urban jobs from rural areas*
Many of these 'urban-employed
workers live on small rural holdings that produce enough to ba classified as part-time farms*
Th© total production of these part-time farms and
rural residential tracts Is relatively insignificant*
However, in of
fering urban employed workers th# amenities of rural surroundings, a saving in rant, taxes, and food? and a better place to rear children, these small farms have a sociological significance surpassing their economic contribution* Table V presents som© significant changes in the sis# of farms that have occurred during the past 2$ years*
The tractor has ssado a small
to ®#dium farm uneconomical whereas th© automobile and th® great im provement in highways has encouraged, commuting from rural homes to ur ban employment*
Th® farmer of 2$ years ago who farmed $0 to 100 acres
with horses and who frequently found supplemental employment in hauling logs and building roads has largely disappeared*
This steady Increase
in the
return-to-the-landrl
sis© of farm was interrupted only by th©
77 movement of the mid-thirties.
Smaller than 50 -acre farm® h a w increased
In number because of the significant Increase in part-time tarsis* crease
In
In the number of larger farms has been in response to the in-
creased use of tractors which makes possible and necessary a larger farm unit.
TABLE ? 31ae of Farms (1920-191*5) (Sources 8. S. Bureau of the Census)
1920
1525
Under 10 acres (Ho.) Percent of all farms
153 6.3
113 1**8
10-1*9 acre© (Ho.) Percent of all farms
762
50-99 acres (Ho,) Percent of all. farms
699 28.0
100-259 acres (Wo.) Percent of all farms 260-1*99 acres (Ho.) Percent of all farms 500-999 acre® (Ho.) Percent of all farms
1933
191*0
191*5
97 5.0
169 7.2
176 8.5
166 8.2
?U1 23* 2
1*36 23.1
67? 20.9
596
28.9
620 30.7
659 28.2
586 29.7
617 26*3
505 2U.1*
1*25 20.9
71*1 29.7
718 30.8
711 36.1
761 32.5
665 32.0
657 32.3
117 it.?
91 3*9
106 5.U
97 5*0
108
130 6.1*
28.2
11
17 .7
1000 acres or over (Ho. ) 3 Percent of all farm© .1 Total Humber of Farms
1930
2,1*92
13
1
17
20
•6
.5
.8
.9 2
2
3
5.2
32 1.5 2
.1
.2
.1
.1
,1
2,331*
1,972
2,31*3
2*069
2,032
Growth of Non-P&m Industries Mon-far® industries became important in Morgan County at a time when agricultural expansion had reached it© peak, which meant local non farm employment opportunities brought a good balance between agriculture
78 Much of the industry has always bean closely related to
and Industry*
agriculture and forestry in the county* The present industries of Morgan County slowly evolved out of small beginnings*
The early mills for the grinding of grain were located on
the creeks emptying into whit© River because water was the primary source of power*
Small though these early mills were
and Insigulfleant
though they seem today, they were of utmost Importance to th# early pioneer who relied upon them for hisflour ami meal*
The sawmills too
were important in furnishing the necessary lumber for
the building of
houses to take the place of the crude log cabins, the first homes of the pioneer {29» p* 122 ff)* The forests offering a good rang© for hogs, nearness to th® river, a good market in Mew Orleans and in the East, and fair flatboat trans portation made the pork slaughtering business a significant early in dustry in Martinsville*
Hogs were purchased widely and driven to the
county seat (and a lesser number to [email protected]®} to be slaughtered and packed on flatboats bound for New Orleans*
For some years in the for
ties the average number of hog® killed for flatboat shipment probably exceeded 10,000*
The business attracted such subsidiary activities m
■cooperage making, and greatly stimulated retail merchandising? for those who took farm products down the river would bring back what they could, by steamboat to Madison and by wagon from there, to sell or barter* Following th# Civil >far a more varied economy began to appear in .Morgan County*
Agriculture still remained the dominant industry but
declined in relative importance* ficant industry after 1870*
Sawmllllng was an especially signi
Then in the 1890*® Martinsville became
aware of its mineral waters and their commercial possibilities wore soon realised*
Other industries, including a goldfish hatchery, also
were founded giving the city a notable increase in population*
The clay
product® industry at Brooklyn and Martinsville was also developing near
19 the turn of th® century.
Furniture and cooperage plants along with
g&XUng in small mills rounded out the picture of Morgan County1$ in dustries at th® turn of th® century.
Sossswh&t later vegetable said to-
mate? canneries veer® established to give th*? county a well-rounded econ omy with agri cultural and manufacturing goods of about equal ‘ value* These development® essentially completed the diversification of the county1b m o m m y f which ha© more recently undergone change but has ex perienced no expansion comparable to that between. 1B90 and 1510*
The
distribution of present industries shown in Fig. 19 indicates that the manufacturing industries of fifty year® ago ere still dominant*
Manu
facturing clusters principally at Martinsville and Mooresvlll®*
The
early development of these cities coupled with their location in agri culturally productive valleys are important in explaining their pr©~ sednence * The peak In the county1© industrial development can*© in 1929 when the value of manufactures reached almost ib,000,000.
The drop during th®
thirties as shown by the 19ii0 census should be attributed mainly to th© generally poor economic condition© throughout the country rather than to any relative decline in the county's industrial position.
It remains to
be seen If nearness to Indianapolis will become & distinct advantage. If so, Mooresville and the rest of the northeastern part of the county will benefit more than will the Martinsville location.
In the past the
Indianapolis area ha® completely overshadowed the surrounding counties in industrial enterprises; and while definite advantages have accrued to these counties because of their proximity, the tendency has been for industries to locate in Indianapolis where geographic and other factors seemed more advantageous,
while the Indianapolis Industrial area ha®
bean surpassed by the more favored extreme northwestern part of Indiana, th# central area will remain a strong industrial sector j ano with a possible tendency to decentralise some industries, Morgan County may
66*35
M A J O R N O N - A G R I C U L T URAL M O RGAN
TYPE
OF
66*25
•ris
I N D U S T R I E S OF
COUNTY, I N D I A N A
(1949)
INDUSTRY
FOOD
a
FURNITURE LUMBER
FINISHED
P R O D U C TS
PRINTING
8
POULTRY
HATCHERIES
PUBLISHING
FISH
HATCHE RlES
CLAY
PRODUCTS
SAWMILLS OTHERS
SCALE OF MILES
86*33
86*25
F I G . 19
86*13
81 reasonably hops for ni$r 1, there has been less reliance upon the small town.
The little village of 4hl taker which once
boasted a sawmill, post office, freight depot, and two stares has now only th© sawmill and on© store* place of th# community#
No longer is the post office a meeting
Likewise other towns and villages are dying*
Th® sites of Hahalasvill#, The Bluffs, .Exchange, and other© are recog nisable only to those familiar with th© county*s past* Eminence, and Hall also are shrinking villages.
Centerton,
averly,
These small towns still
have a place in th# distribution of food products, hardware goods, and commercial feeds.
However, they have lost much of their former import
ance as trading centers*
Th® automobile, good roads, the coming of
chain stores, and th© ability of larger retail centers to .undersell the small merchant have led to their gradual disintegration as centers of retail trade*
Such recent practices as having free open air motion pic
tures on# ni$it a week in the small towns a re Illustrative of attempts being made to keep at least a partial grip upon the immediate community* But the pull of the larger distribution centers ha® been too great, and the fight of the small merchant has been a losing one*
However, some
of the small towns on main roads have remained more vigorous, because a shift in functions was feasible.
Gasoline station#, restaurants, and
residences for urban-enployed worker# have helped to maintain population, especially in Paragon, Morgantown, Monrovia, and Brooklyn*
82
Ksjdiinavllla, the county seat# is th© most important* trading ©onter with Mooresvill® a secondary canter within the county*
Sine® th® ssoat
distant part of th© county* is less than an hour*a drive fron Indianapolls# more of th® residents of this county trad© outside th# county than do those of more isolated places.
Although th© presence of greater
variety and better stocks in Indianapolis stores tmkm them more attrac tive places to buy snany articles# there are other factors explaining why Indianapolis gets such a large share of the county>s trade*
Recreational
facilities are more attractive for those who can occasionally afford them*
Also it m a t be recalled that a considerable number of people
living in Morgan County have full-time Jobs in Indianapolis.
They ccbk
imib® and hence do much of their own shopping as well as an appreciable amount for others*
Another siaeabl© group of workers are those who re
side in Indianapolis during the week#.but who t*ave strong hosts attach ment® and spend the weekends at home*
Naturally they do some or much of
th© family shopping along certain lines*
Good bus service enables mary
to make these weekly visits home# while many others are able to travel by automobile.
Certainly Indianapolis because of its proximity plays a
very prominent role in the economic and cultural activities of the county. Church* The church membership of the county is overwhelmingly Protestant# the most important abominations being Methodist# Baptist# and Christian*
The Quaker® are numerous in and near Moor©svllie.
-1th
the advent of th® automobile and good roads# email country churches are having an increasingly hard time maintaining an active membership*
H&agr
of these small churches are unable to support a mini star by ihtassdL wasj consequently one minister often serves two or three churches which means that church services are seldom held more than twice monthly. of these small rural churches have been abandoned*
Several
During the past
twenty years the declining position of the rural church as a strong
ooBmsmlty institution is apparent.«
.vith this decline in small churches,
mall retail stores, and small post offices has cone a loosening of ooaeminihy ties#.
The farmers have aligned. themselves «&th bigger and
bigger coaraunity groups and have become inaroasiagl^r dependent upon the larger canters for their goods, markets, and their culture*
As an ia-
fluenoe upon the pattern of farming the church itself has not been es pecially strong in Morgan Gaunty* Schools# the schools have been consolidated in the larger centers until today there arc only about ten schools in tm more than throe times that many 75 years ago#
county as against
Even 15 years a£^ th®
mall one-roc© schoolhouse was to be found in th© less wealthy parts of the county*
Today most of these are gone, and another small community
institution has been replaced by the Institution of a larger center# Probably on© of the most forceful effects of this shift has been to in crease th® desire of farm youth to leave the farms formn/~tfum employ ment*
The consolidated school ha© -given rural youth a broader outlook
and a bettor opportunity to train for non-farm occupations# Organised Farm Groups —
Farm Bureau, U-B Clubs, Future Farmers of
America, and Others# Such groups a© these have had an important Influence upon the eomeunlty in recent years#
iHff cluba in particular have become
increasingly active in this county, and they have exerted considerable Influence in arousing interest in greater care in th® breeding of live stock, the keeping of better stocks of poultry, the application of sore fertilisers, the use ©f better seed, the adoption of better techni ques of feeding and handling of livestock, and other improved practices# Young boy© and girls are much more susceptible to change than older peo ple.
By example they have encouraged the spread of many better farming
methods#
Numerous farmers adopt new methods after their boys or girls
persuaded them to let them entar the club*
These groups are really
significant influences in changing the agricultural scene*
Their strength
varies with quality of leadership in different parts of the county* but an increasing interest in such activities in recent years is encouraging. Agencies —
the Agricultural Oonsarvatioa Ih’ogram*
County Agent# Soil Conservation Service# Sxtenaion Service# and Other®• Also of increasing importance has been th# financial assistance and trained direction that various governmental agencies have been rendering. The advice and suggestions mad© are probably of much more long-lasting importance than the financial assistance.
Toe AGP in helping to plan
fans rotations has boon helpful in disproving farm practices#
Tncourage-
aaent in the use of lime and fertilisers has stimulated farmers to adopt the® as taor© common practices*
The County Agent la a. well-qualified
Purdue ifcivarsity graduate who has been a major asset to the agriculture of the county*
In 19U6 Morgan County was organised as a Sell Conser
vation Service district.
It is just beginning to function m
an teport-
ant force in this county in helping farmer® plan and cany out land use adjustments. program*
As of January, 19 ?Q there were 211 farms enrolled in the
Much valuable aid and advice can be rendered by this agency#
for erosion and fertility problems -are numerous in the central and south ern parts of the county#
Ivon in the rolling till plain mich improvement
in the handling of the land is possible. sity has probably not been m
The influence of Purdue Univer
strong in southern Indiana (of which Morgan
County Is a northern part) as it has in north-central Indiana where It in located.
Smmaxy The decline of the small t o m m
a market center for agricultural
produce# dwindling membership in country churches# and consolidation of public schools indicate th# weakening of community individuality and net gfcborlin m m • Cooperation among farmers no longer ha® its ferror im portance.
Aeoaapanying these changes has com® increased dependence an
0£ state and federal advie® and assistance.
Farmers must now often turn
to govsraaiaiit agencies rather than, to neighbors for help and advice. Much a m been lost through excessive e