Social stratification among cotton farmers in the hills and delta of Louisiana

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MANUSCRIPT THESES Unpublished theses submitted fo r the m aster's and doctor’s degrees and deposited in the Louisiana S tate U niversity Library are availab le f o r inspection* rig h ts of the author*

Use of any th esis is lim ited by the

Bibliographical references may be noted, but

passages may not be copied unless the author has given permission* C redit must be given in subsequent w ritten or published work* A lib r a r y which borrows th is th esis fo r use by i t s c lie n te le is expected to make sure th a t the borrower is aware of the above re stric tio n s* LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

ll9 ^ e

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AHQNG COTTOH FAMERS IN THE HILLS AND DELTA OF LOUISIANA

A D is s e rta tio n Subm itted to th e Graduate F acu lty o f th e L ouisiana S ta te U h iv e rsity and A g ric u ltu ra l and Ifeehanleal C ollege i n p a r t i a l f u lf illm e n t of th e requirem ents f o r the degree o f Doctor of Philosophy in The Department o f Sociology

By Roy £« Hyde B* A* L ouisiana S ta te Normal C o lleg e, 1927 V* A ., L ouisiana S ta te U n iv e rsity , 1932 June, 1942

UMI Number: DP69238

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TABLE OP COHTEHTS

£9C99 42

C h ap ter

P age

I . XBTH0&3CT1OB........................ . ...................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... The Problen S t a te d ,* ........................... L n p lio atlo n s o f th e Study. . Ba m G eneral Area D iffe re n c e s.............. B sv itv 4 f L ite r a tu r e * * . M ethodology................

1 2 I

. .

B

I I . 0KI81W, I G B t t m AMD YSBBBB HISTORY................ O ccupation and Tenure o f F a m i l i e s ... ............... B irth P U e* o f S e e d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . . .......... {Bugtk o f B e s l d e n s e . . . . . . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . Residence Hi s t or y. . . . . . * * . . . . * • The A g ric u ltu ra l Ladder S o a a ry ............ III* F0P2LAYX0H AMD FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS................................. Agee o f B o a te rs of H o u s e h o l d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . S ise of R esid en t Family and o f H ousehold.. . . . . .......... Age a t Mhieh They L e ft Hone of P aren t s . . . . . . . « • • . . • • • • * • Besidenee o f O ffspring Bet Living w ith P a r e n t s . . . . . . . . . . S u e o a a r y .................... IT . HEALTH* VITALITY ABD MEDICAL PRACTICES...................... Conoral D i f f e r e n c e s . . . . . . . . ............ V ita l S t a t i s t i c a . . . . . . . . . .............. Incidence o f D isease and M edical C a r e . . . . Gere o f M others a t C h ild b irth ................• • . • • • • • • • « • •

BCOSCHIC ABB ASSICCLTURALDIFFERENCES....................

31

IB 18 II 28 m 28 SI W 40 42 80 84 88 88

88

82 82 71 78 72

h u ilfS M of B e lie f.* ...................... .. .................. 88 BUm and Value of Pams.......... .......... || Average Value o f Land andBuildings................... f| Cotton Y ie ld s.................... • • • • • • • • ................................ |f Pam Sqniposnt ................. gg Transportation. ........... gg Beads for Pam ers..................... ............ .................... log Pam Management • • • . ....................................... Pam Credit Age&oies ....................................................... jga

L33odu

3 4 V* f>7 iii

o .X

j$g

Chapter

Page

TX* THE MATERIAL LEVEL OF LIVIHO

••

House « d Equipment ........................ V eter Snppl7 » .t» * .« .« * **♦ .......... S a n ita ry F a c i l i t y * . The U w - i t - K « e Program .• . . . . . . . . . . . . .................... . . . . . . . . Fuel S u p p l y * . .................. .. Summary***• • • • • • * • • * * • * * * * • • • • • . • • • « * * • • 1

116 126 12? 129 140 4 2 144

.

G eneral P e rish D ifferen ces* * • • . • • . . . * • • • • • * • • • * • B i-R ao ial E d u c a t i o n * . ..... Seheel A t t e n d a n c e * * * . L ite ra c y * • • • • • • • • * • • * .• • • • • • * • • • • • • « • • • • • • • • • * • • • • • • « . . . .......... Grade in School Com pleted.. . . . . . . . P u b lle a tlo n s R egularly R eceiv ed . ................ S u D B iry * ... T i l l . POLITICAL PARTICIPATIOH .................. *................................. Crime end Lew ift&foreemexxt 8 ummary*. • . . • ..................

144 147 160 166 160 172 176 180

.

TO* KD6CASI0M***********............... *...............................

1X2

< 190 191

IX. PARTICIPATI OH IH ORGAHIZATIOKAL LIFE......................

194

Membership l a R eligious end F ra te rn a l O rganisations *•*« • 197 Membership o f High. School S tudents **.............. . . . . . . . . . 208 Summary* ............. *......................... 206 X. LEADERSHIP.................................................... ...........................................*

208

Complete C a ste .................... Origin* Residence end Occupation of Tows and P a ris h Of­ ficials***************.................. Source e f S h ite T e a c h e r s * . . . . . . . * . * . . . * . . . . . . * . . . . . . . . . . Fanners a s O ffio e rs in Adult S o c ial O rg a n isa tio n s. 216 High School Student Leaders* ............. *.......... Loss o f P o te n tia l L eaders........................ Sunm ary.**....................................................

206

iv

209 214

.

2 X8 228 •

224

C h ap ter

P age

XX. SOCIAL STRATIPICATIOS *

................................

*...........

th e C lass S tru c tu re d -B rie f C h a r a c te ris tic a ......... Opinions R e la tiv e to th e W elfare of C e rta in C l a s s e s . . . . . General S o e ial I n t e r a c t i o n . . . . S o c ia l M o b ility ................... *......................... In te rm arriag e among Fans te n u re C lasses** ...................... *•** tre n d a i n Farm te n u re Which Way A ffe ct S t a t u s . . . . . . . . * * * XIX. BAGS AID) STATUS...

.......................... **...............

..........

L a ie s e i- f a ir e o r S u p e r v i s i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Are th e P a m ers S a t i s f i e d ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... F a ta l le a o f Farm P e o p l e . . . . . .............. Optimism and Sdueat i on. • . * • . * * • • • • • • • • • • • « * . . 2 Pees 1mlam of F a r m e r s * . XX?* SHOCABTf SWSERALIZATIOWS AMD COICL0SIO*.

..........

General C o n c l u s i o n . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY

227 222 244 260 262 266 208

Interdependence a & d C a m p e t i t i o n . Segre I n i t i a t i v e . * * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *.*••*•••*•*#**••**•**• S p e c ific Disadvantages and Compensations o f the Lever C aste R a c e * . Base P rid e and Sees R e l a t i o n s . * . . . . . . * . . . . . ................ S ta tu s a rith ia th e Segro C a s t e . . . . X I I I . HEBSDQM, COitBSTWBBt, FATAL!3J AMD OPTIMISM.

227

*****..................... *................................................

268 267 26$ 271 278 276 276 277 284 6 6 289 290 299 502

APPEIDIX—SCHED0US FOSM.................. *.................................................................

314

BI06RAPHT........................................................................................ .............. ..

315

v

LIST OF TABLES

Ntaebar

Pag*

X* PERCENTAGE ?WWM DISTRIBUTION OF FAM HEADS BY AREA AND RACE ......... ...................... . . . ..................... . . . . . . . . . . . ...............

19

tm m

XX. PEfiom AQ s d is tr ib u tio n o f a l l fai& o p e ra to rs i s ST. HELENA ABB TSHSAS,1 9 4 0 ..,..................... XIX, OCCUPA?IGNAL DISTRIBUTION OF NQ1S~FAH»S MADS BY AREA AMD RACE,................. . ..................................................................................

IF .

BIRTHPLACEOF MADS BYAREA*RACE, OCCUPATION AMD TEHUM..

V. PER C8W OF MADS LIVING SPECIFIED WmMM OF YEARS XV PRESS® GSKMUflfT,*. ............

V I. TYPE OF BIRTHPLACE AW RESIBgSCE SIS TORY OF HEADS, BY AREA ...................... AM RACSt PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION.

SI 22

24 27 29

Y II. TSJTOHS HISTORY OF TUB FARM MADS BY AREA, BAGS ASB TENURE CLASS* PERGSXTAOS DISTRIBUTION.. . ............

34

T i l l . OCCUPATION AND TENURE OF FATHER OF KALE MAD OF HOUSEHOLD* PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION..................

34

XX. SEX, FACE, NATIVITY, AND RURAL-FAFK POPULATION OF THE TWO PARISHES * 194Q* PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION.................

41

X. ASM CF KALE BEADS OF HOUSEHOLDS; PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION. XX. AGES OF WIVES AM THOSE FEMALES REPORTED AS MADS OF HOUSEHOLDS.................. XXX. AGE OF SOBS LIVING WITH PARENTS * PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION..

X III.

abbs of daughters living with parents * percentage d is t r i ­ bution . . . . ............

XXY. SIZE OF BESIDES? FAMILY BY AREA, RACE AND TENURE* PERCENT­ AGE DISTRIBUTION.........................................

XV. SIZE OF HOUSEHOLD BY AREA, RACE AND TENURE t PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION................... XVI, AGS A? WHICH KALE HEADS OF HOUSEHOLDS LEFT HOSE OF PARENTS* PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION.............................................

43 44 47

49 51 62

33

M * r X V II. AG8 AT WHICH SOSS LEFT HOIS 0 7 PASKBTS) PERCENTAGE DJBTRIBOTIOS................................. ............................................................................... x rm .

67

w e ic s w iv b s add fsk a l e hea ds o f households l e f t HOMES OF PARENTS j PERCENTAGE D IS T R IB U T IO N ..............................

69

X IX . ASB AS K8XCB DAOGHTBRS IE FT HCKE; PE80I8TAGE DISTRIBDTIOI

80

a sk a t

XX. RBSIBKHCB OF SOBS SOT LIV M S WISH PARENTS; PERCENTAGE DZSTHIBBTION........................................................................................................ ..

61

X X I. BXSIBESRCK OF DAUGHTERS SOT LIVING H UB PARENTS; PERCENTAGE DI8THIB0YIQS......... ................................................................................. 64 XXIX. fflKBER 0 7 BIRTHS, d ea th s . abd ih fa n t FOR PARISHES;1 9 4 0 . . . . ..................

d ea t h s , and

BASES. 70

X X X II. FSBCKKTAGS OF HEADS REPORTING ILLNBS8 IB FAMILY WITHIB SOS PASS TEAS BITE TYPE OF MEDICAL GARB RECEIVED...........................

72

XXIV. CASK RECEIVED BT BOTHER AS BIRTH OF LAST CHILD > PBBCESSASS DISTRIBUTION BT ABBA. BACK. ABD TBHUHB...........................................

76

XXV. PBRCESTASBS OF FAMILIES ISO BAS COBTACTED THE PARISH WBLFA8B AGENT ABD THE FERA OK MPA......................

84

x x n . SIZE OF FARMS ( I S ACRES) ST PARISH. 1 9 4 0 ...........................................

87

X X V II. LAB) I I F A B fS. PASS OPERATED BY OWNERS, AM) AVERAGE SIZE OF FARMS BY COLOR ASBTEHURB; 1 9 4 0 ...................... X X V III. FERCfflTAGSS OF FARMERS OPESATIBG SPECIFIED BOBBER OF ACRES

89 91

XXIX. AVERAGE VALDES, IX DOLLARS, OF LAID AID BUILDIBGS PEB FARM.

ABD AVERAGE PER ACREi 1940.................... XXX. FEKCEBTASKS OF FARMERS P0SSE88IBG TRACTOR, COTTOB PLANTER AND MOWER AS SPECIFIED....................................... XXXI. FA BBB 8 REPORTING HORKSTOCK; FSRCFSTAGE DISTRIBDTION

94 96 99

X X X II. PERCEHTAGES OF FAMILIES REPORTIBB SPECIFIED MEANS OF TSARS* PORTATIOB.................................................................................................................. 101

XXXIII. PERCENTAGES OF FARM FAMILIES OSIHG SPECIFIED TYPES OF ROADS WITH DISTANCE PICK H008E TO H O D S B . . . . . ............................... 104 t w i t . PatCBBTACBS OF FAOlBtS REPORT ISO CONTACTS WITH PARISH FARM ASBNT ABD HOIK DfflOHSTRATIOK AGENT..................................................... 108

y ii

S m fetr

P*£*

XXXV. PERCENTAGES OF FAFSSSRS WHO HAD CONTACTS WOT HA OH FSA AND FCA OH FARM LAND BASK AS I N D IC A T E D .......* * ....... XXXVI. PERCENTAGES OF HOUSEHOLDS HAVING SPECIFIED NUMBER OF ROCKS XX HOUSE............... ...................................................

UO 116

XXXVII. PERCENTAGES OF FAMILIES WHO POSSESS KITCHEN SINK, WASHISO MACHINE ABD BOUGHT BROOM, AS INDICATED........ U S 120

XXXIX. FBKCBSYAS1S OF FAMILIES REPOSTINS RADIO ASP TELEPHONE, AS SPECIFIED................................................................... ................

122

.

XXXVIII. P8 RCSSTAGES OF FAMILIES REPORTING ICE SOX* REFRIGERATOR ABD SEWING MACHINE, AS SPECIFIED................................

XL. PERCENTAGES OF HCKE5 REPORTI HO SPECIFIC LIGHTING STST K S ............................ ................................................................. .. XU.

PERCENTAGES OF HOKES REPORTING SPECIFIED WATERSUPPLY.. .

.

XLXI. PERCENTAGES OF FAMILIES BSPGtYIHG SPECIFIED TOT OF SANITARY FACILITY......................

124 126 138

XLXIX* PSRCarrAOES OF FARMERS REPORTING MILK COWS AHD BEEF CATTLE.................

ISO

XLIY. PERCENTAGES OF FAXKERS REPORTING BOGS. CHICKENS AND .......................... GARDEN AS SPECIFIED...

153

XL7. PERCENTAGE OF FA1KB8S REPORTINGFRUIT ABD PECAN TREES... XLYI. PERCENTAGES OF FARMERS WHO GROW, BUY AHD PRESERVE MEAT AS SPECIFIED..............................

13$ 156

XLVTI* PERCENTAGES OF FARMERS WHO GROW* BUY, COLLECT AND PRE­ SERVE VEGETABLES........................

138

XLVIII. PERCENTAGES OF FAMILIES WHO GROW, BUY, COLLECT AND PRE­ SERVE FRUIT, AS SHSCIFISD..........................................

158

XLIX. PERCENTAGES OF FAMILIES WHO GROW, BUY ABE COLLECT FUEL, AS INDICATED......................

141

L. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE FOR CHILDREN SEVEN TO THIRTEEN YEARS OF AGS2 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION .........................

151

L I. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE OF MALES FOURTEEN TO NINETEEN YEARS OF AGE AHD LIVING WITH PARENTSi PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION.. 155 v iii

Btafewr

P*g«

U I . SCHOOL ATTENDANCE OF FBMAIES FOURTEEN TO HINETEEN TEAKS OF AOS AS) LITHE 1ITH PARENTS; FBRCBSTME DIBTRIBtJTIGS 166 t i l l . ILLITERACY OF THOSE TEH YEARS OLD OS GVERi PERCENTAGES FOR EACH PARISH ST RACE FOR 1990 AHD FOR ALL CLASSES, 1990 AND 1950...................................................... lit

. p e rc e n ta g e o f th o s e so t r a s s o ld o r o v e r hho sad c o s * PLBTBD SO TSARS OF SCHOOL, AND MEDIAN YEARS COMPLETED BY THIS m m P, BY PARISH, 1940....................................

169

LV. PERCENTAGES OF HEADS OF FAMILIES WHO AM LITERATE OR IJ> LI? MAYS .........................................................

161

LTI. CRAMS IN SCHOOL CCKPLETED BY MALE MADS OF HOUSEHOLDS* PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION. ................................

162

LVH. GRADE IN SCHOOL COMPLETED BY PSfALE HEADS, HIVES OR HC&EMAKERS} PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION ..........................

166

L V III. GRABS IN SCHOOL CCKPLETED BY SONS SEVEN TO SIXTEEN YEARS OF AGS AM LIVING WITH PARENTSt PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION 166 LIX. MADE IN SCHOOL COMPLETED BY DAUGHTERS SEVEN 70 SIXTEEN YEARS OF AGE AND LIVINS WITH PARENTS; PERCENTAGE DIS­ TRIBUTION. ......................

16?

12. GRADE IN SCHOOL COMPLETED BY SONS NOT LIVING WITH PARENTS; PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION 169 XXI. GRAM I I SCHOOL COMPLETED BY DAUGHTERS WHO ARE NOT LIVING WITS PARENTS; PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION. ................. 171 LXXI. PERCENTAGES OF FAMILIES REPORTING SPECIF DSD NUMBER OF MAGAZINES ..................

175

U 2 IX . PERCENTAGES OF HOUSEHOLDS REPORTING RELIGIOUS, VOTES’S ASD CHILDREN'S MAGAZINES AS SPECIFIED....................................

176

LXXY. PERCENTAGES OF HOUSEHOLDS REPORTING SPECIFIED TYPES OF NEWSPAPERS ABD PERIODICAL ..........

177

LXV. BOMBER OF THB POPULATION OP VOTING AGE AND PER CENT VOTING, BY PARISH, AND FOR OHIO IN 1930 AND 1940.............

184

LXYZ. PEI CENT OP POPULATION OF VOTING AGE WO VOTED, WHEN NEGROES ARE EXCLUDED FROM LOUISIANA DATA, 1 9 4 0 .............

184

LXVII. MEMBERSHIP IN WHITE ORGANIZATIONS OP PARISH SEAT IN THE HILL PARISH BY RESIDENCE, AND BY TENURE OF FAIR MEMBERS 198 ix

Pago

Iffumber

LXVIXI. MEMBERSHIP IB WHITE ORGANIZATIONS OP PARISH SEAT OP DELTA BT RESIDENCE, ABD BT TENURE OF PARR MEMBERS*• • •

200

LO T . mCSNTAOB OF HI OH SCHOOL STUDENTS HAVING MEMBERSHIP, III STWGIFT8 © TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONS.. . . . . . . ........... . . . . . . .

204

LOT BIRTBPUCS AND PRESENT RESIDENCE AND OCCUPATION OF THE TOW AND PARISH OFFICERS OF GREEKSBURG AND ST* HELENA RESPECTIVELY. *•■••*..................................................................

210

LO T . BlffFHFLAGR ABD IRES ENT RESIDENCE AHD OCCUPATION OF THE TOW AND PARISH OFFICERS OP ST* JOSEPH AND TENSAS RESPECTIVELY• *. . ....................... . ...........................

210

L U I I . OFFICERS OF ADULT SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS BY RESIDENCE AW BT TENURE OF FARMERS * PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION *.

216

o f h ig h school s t u d e n t s BOWING SPECIFIED NLKBBR OF OFFICES IN ORGANIZATIONS . . . ............

L O T II* m n CENT

210

LXXXV* WHITE HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS HOLDING OFFICES IN ORGANIZA­ TIONS BY FATHER'S OCCUPATION; PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION

221

L O T . INFORMANTS WHO BELIEVE PEOPLE LIVING IN TORN OR THOSE LIVING ON FARMS ARE BETTER OFF, WITH REASONS FOR OPINIONS; PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION....................

234

L O T I . INFORMANTS WHO BELTEVB POOREST WHITS TOWN OR POOREST WHITE FARM PEOPLE ARE WORSE OFF, AND REASON FOR OPINIONi PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION ...............

236

L O T I I . IHF03SANTS WHO BELIEVE TENURE CLASS OF WHITE FARM PEOPLE I S BETTER OFF, WITH REASONS FOR OPINION % PER­ CENTAGE DISTRIBUTION...........................

237

L O T I I I . INFORMANTS WHO BELIEVE SPECIFIED TENURE CLASS OF WHITE FARM PEOPLE IS WORST OFF, WITH REASONS FOR OPINIONS; P S R C m A G S DISTRIBUTION.............................

25S

LXXIX. INFORMANTS WHO BELIEVE SPECIFIED TENURE CIASS OF COLORED FARM PEOPLE IS BEST OFF, WITH REASONS FOR OPINION; PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION........................ . . ................. 241 L O T . INFORMANTS WHO BELIEVED SPECIFIED TENURE CIASS OF COLORED FARM PEOPLE IS WORST OFF, WITH REASONS FOR OPINIONi PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION..................................

x

243

Peg*

lim b e r L E U I.

OCCOPATIOH AHD TEHDRE OP HATE'S FATSES BT OCCGPATIQH ABC TEIUIS OF HEAD OF HOUSEHQIDt PSRCEHTAGE DISTRIBDTIOB.. 863

u m i . TBEBDS IB FAS TBSGKB 1926 TO 1940 IB ST. HELEHA ABC TBBSAS PARISHES I PERGE8IA38 CBTRIBCTIOH........................

267

OF REUTERS AHD CROPPERS REFORTIHG SATISFACTIOH WITH FAKKIHG AGBBaSBHT BT CBORBS OF SCPI5RVI8IOH..

881

KELATIOHSHIP BETWSEB EDDCATIOJ WAKT2D BT HIGH SCHOOL STTOESIS ABC TSAT 1S1CH TBfflf EXPECT TO RECEIVE I PBSCSHTAOE DISTRIBOTIOK.....................................................................

287

I X O I I I . PERCSBTAG8S

u m

xi

fh e w r ite r wish** t o u p m s h is thanks and a p p re c ia tio n to a l l h i s te a c h e rs who have stim u la te d h i s i n t e r e s t in human society*

He

p a r t i c u l a r l y w ishes t o thank Dean Fred C* Frey and P ro fe sso r ¥• Lynn Smith who helped t o make a a n th e r of o p p o rtu n itie s a v a ila b le to him* t o P ro fe ss o r Edgar A. S ch u ler, whose p a t i e n t but c r i t i c a l oounsel and in d isp e n sa b le a a s is ta a e e made I t p o ssib le f o r t h i s re s e a rc h to be done* s p e c ia l thanks a r e s in c e re ly extended*, Be devoted n o t only a g r e a t amount o f tim e to the study b u t c o n trib u te d t o th e fin an c in g o f f i e l d work by u t i l i s i n g funds which bad been made a v a ila b le t o him f o r re s e a rc h purposes*

ABSTRACT

She immediate ©b^eot o f t h i s study i s t o compare th e n a tu re sod deg ree o f s o c ia l s t r a t i f i o a t i o n among farm ers in two ty p e s o f c o tto n growing t m s ; one in th e H ills end th e e th e r in th e B elt* o f L ouisians* D iffere n ce s between th e te e a re a s in s o il* p ro p e rtie s o f Eegroes i s th e t o t a l p o p u la tio n , s i s e o f farm h o ld in g s, farm te n u re system s and economic and c u lt u r a l h is to r y a re very g re a t* th r e e hundred and f o r ty - f iv e form al schedule in te rv ie w s were ob­ ta in e d from farm end non—farm fa m ilie s*

These were supplemented by

more th a n one hundred inform al in te rv ie w s , parks o f whieh were preserv ed i n ste n o g rap h ic reeords* stu d e n ts*

Other d a ta were obtained from high aehoel

Bone u se was made o f census and s t a t e reco rd s f o r t h e

p a ris h e s e f whieh th e s e eessxunlties a re a p e rt * Seenoaic and s o c ia l indexes were a p p lied t o th e two a re a s by race and farm te n u re c la s s i n o rd er t o perm it comparison o f th e h e ig h ts e f th e s o c ia l pyramids and t o determ ine th e s o e ia l d ista n c e m aintained be­ tween ra c e s and between th e v a rio u s c la ss e s* The d a ta shew t h a t th e h e ig h t e f th e s o c ia l pyramid in th e D elta eesammity i s maoh g r e a te r th a n th a t in th e H ills *

H eterogeneity

c h a ra c te riz e * th e D elta population and i t * system e f economic and s o c ia l r e la tio n s h ip s , w hile th e r e i s much g r e a te r homogeneity in th e H ill cow m nity*

In th e H ills meet e f th e farms re a re c o -p a rtn e rs in land

p o ssessio n and in t o t a l i t y e f r ig h ts and p r iv ile g e s , w ith th e exception o f th e c a s te d is tin c tio n s based en race*

The D elta p o p u latio n , on th e

e th e r hand, I s marked by d if f e r e n tia te d groupings, o fte n having very l i t t l e in common and lac k in g th e s o l i d a r i t y and x ii

1 ikc-m indedness

o f th e

H i l l people*

P a r tic ip a tio n by

*11

w h ites in th e common s o c ia l l i f e o f

th e eonmsmity l a found only In th e H ills * The handicap e f poore© lan d i n th e R i l l s i s compensated f a r by a h ig h percentage e f lan d ownership and a system e f su b siste n c e farming* la n d ownership i s a sso c ia te d w ith h ig h e r s o c ia l s ta tu s in each a r e a , h a t th e r e la tio n s h ip la mere eons l a t e n t In th e H ills #

In th e

D e lta , sm all w hite e w e rs * meat o f ahem a r e im m igrants from th e H ills * h e ld about th e same e e e ie l p o s itio n a s te n a n ts* While p la n te rs a r e th e only fa n s group ah© enjoy in tim a te a s s o c ia tio n w ith p ro fe s sio n a l and b u sin e ss c la ss e s* Face s o l i d a r i t y i s found in th e H ill eemamtniiy, b a t in th e D elta w hite te n a n ts and la b o r e r s , i n many r e s p e c ts , a re tr e a te d by p la n te r s and p ro fe s s io n a l people w ith le s s c o n sid e ra tio n th an t h a t accorded th e p la n ta tio n Hegrces*

However, disfranchisem ent o f th e Negroes i n each

a re a seems to b e re sp o n sib le f o r t h e i r f a i l u r e t o gain c o n sid e ra tio n comparable to t h a t e f w hites in such m a tters ass money f o r e d u catio n , re a d s , p u b lic tr a n s p o rta tio n , and c e r ta in kinds o f pub lic enjoym ent. These disadvantages o f th e Hegro a re overcome to seme degree in th e H i l ls through th e g re a te r development e f s e lf - d ir e c tio n and le a d e rsh ip w ith in h is own race# S ocial s ta tu s in th e D elta i s based uptn w ealth , fam ily , t r a d i ti o n #*m3 a system o f s o c ia l ste re o ty p e s which cause th e s ta tu s o f th e In­ d iv id u a l t o be determ ined la r g e ly by th e groups w ith which he i s id e n tifie d *

This makes i t d i f f i c u l t f o r a person, once h is s ta tu s i s

f ix e d , t o g ain a h ig h e r s o c ia l p o sitio n *

At th e same tim e i t tends to

a s s u re continued s ta tu s f o r members o f th e upper c la s s *

In th e B i l l s ,

p erso n al t r a i t s , i n i t i a t i v e and ed u ca tio n al and v o c atio n a l a ttain m en t * iii

a r e a p p re c ia te d , and th e q u a lifie d in d iv id u a l l a more

l ik e l y t o be r e ­

garded by acceptance In to a h ig h e r c l a s s • In th e M ill a r e a , farm ers o f both races enjoy a much h ig h e r degree o f p erso n al freedom and independence, which appears to be a s s o c ia te d w ith wore com plete paycho-sooial adjustm ent* Recent changes in rac e com position o f th e D elta p o p u la tio n , and an in c re a s e in th e p ro p o rtio n o f s n a il earners among farm e rs, imply th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f s ig n if ic a n t m o d ificatio n s o f p o l i t i c a l and economic c o n tr o l and e v e n tu a lly , p e rh ap s, in th e e n ti r e s o c ia l s tr u c tu r e and In s titu tio n & l l i f e o f th e D elta*

xiv

CHAPTER I im O D C C T IG *

The Problem S ta te d Thi Immediate o b je c t o f t h i s study i s t o compare the n a tu re sad degree o f s o c ia l and economic s t r a t i f i c a t i o n in two ty p o s o f c o tto n grw riag a re a s

One i s a H ill sows in which sm all ow ner-operated farms

predominate* and tb s o th e r I s i n tb s D elta whore tb s p la n ta tio n system has long boon th o p rin c ip a l form o f lan d ten u re • Thoro a re some s p e c if is q u e stio n s f o r which tb s in v e s tig a tio n seeks s a t is f a c to r y answerst t

(1 ) Is th e re a d e f in ite consciousness o f s ta tu s ?

(2 ) Hew do th e s o c ia l pyramids o f th e two a re a s compare i n h eig h t? (9 ) Saw i s s o c ia l d is ta n c e m aintained?

(4) la s o c ia l s ta tu s d i r e c tl y

a ff e c te d by ten u re s t a t u s , re g a rd le ss o f economic goods? t h i s r e la tio n s h ip vary by a r e a and race? s ta tu s ?

(5) How does

( 6 ) What I s t h e cropper*a

(7 ) Do farm la b o re rs c o n s titu te a c le a r - c u t category?

o th e r s p e c ia l c r i t e r i a o f c la s s a re o p eratin g ? e d u ca tio n a s an index o f s o c ia l s ta tu s ?

(9) How im portant i s

( 1 0 ) M a t i s th e degree o f

p o l i t i c a l and s o c ia l p a r tic ip a tio n f o r s p e c ific groups? th e le a d e rs?

( 8 } What

(11) Who a re

(12) What are some o f th e p r a c tic a l im p lica tio n s of

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n fo r p a r tic u la r ra c e s and c la s s e s ? cm v e r t i c a l s o c ia l m o b ility a re observable?

(18) What r e s t r i c t i o n s

(14) How do freedom , con-

tentm snt and optimism nonpars by a re a , race and ten u re? th e tre n d s in fa n s ten u re by a re a and race?

(15) What a re

(18) What s ta tu s changes

may be in fe rre d ? *For a tborougi end a b le th e o r e tic a l treatm en t o f s o c ia l s t r a t i ­ f i c a ti o n , including a l l Im portant re la te d concepts, see P. A* Sorokin, S o c ial M obility (Hew York* Harper A B ro s,, 1927), See e s p e c ia lly C hapters I and II*

2 Im p licatio n s o f the Study The s ig n ific a n c e o f such a study l i e s ( 1 ) In th e p o ss ib le c o n tr i­ b u tio n t h a t i t may make to the s c i e n t i f i c l i t e r a t u r e on th e problems In American end mere e s p e c ia lly in Southern society* and (2} i f a system of fa m in g in which sm all ow ner-operated f a m e predom inate o f f e r s g r e a te r economic end s o c ia l w elfare to a l l the people o f th e community th en appears to e x i s t under a p la n ta tio n system * i t is hoped th a t t h i s stu d y s a y h e lp t o make t h a t f a c t known and t h a t i t say be us ed a s one o f th e guides t o land-use p o lic ie s e f the fu tu re* The th e o ry o f dem ocratic government assmaes co o p erativ e and peace­ f u l p a r tic ip a tio n by a l l th e governed in th e p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s as w e ll a s i n th e economic and s o c ia l b e n e fits o f t h a t so ciety *

While i t

i s b e lie v e d th a t e ase degree of economic end s o c ia l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i s a normal c o n d itio n e f every p resen t-d ay so c ie ty and may be expected in even tb s sm a lle r communities*

2

i t i s b e liev e d a ls o t h a t when c la s s d i f ­

fe re n c e s become very g r e a t w ithout a s a tis f a c to r y system o f accommoda­ t i o n developing* c o n f lic t w ill in v a ria b ly re s u lt* / And c o n f l i c t between groups w ith in a so c ie ty has always bean th e means by which s o c i e t ie s have d is in te g r a te d from w ithin* Zimmerman b e lie v e s th a t th e economic and s o c ia l c o n d itio n s o f tbs American farm te n a n ts and la b o re rs a re a lre a d y g e n e ra lly worse th an th o se o f the European p e a sa n t *9 and Sorokin s t a te s t h a t when re v o lu tio n s

^See R obert K* MaoIvor* L eviathan and th e People (U niversity* Louisianaz L ouisiana S ta te U n iv e rsity Press* Is& 6 ) , p* SO* *Carle C* Zimmerman (Unpublished Classroom L ectures a t Harvard U n iv ersity* Cambridge* 1936).

3 a re i n i t i a t e d toy farm ers or peasants* "sueh r e v o lts and r a d ic a l move­ ments have n e a rly always been c e n te re d In th e p o ssessio n and r e d i s t r i ­ b u tio n o f land***

I t l a f u l l y recognised t h a t c la s s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i s

n o t r e s t r i c t e d to c o tto n growers* and n o t to a g ric u ltu re *

As a m a tte r

o f f a s t th e fo rc e s o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n appear to o p erate more in ten sely * and th e h e ig h t of the s o c ia l pyramid i s d e f in ite ly g re a te r* i n the American c i t y th an i t i s among farm ers*

With th e development e f the

f a c to r y system o f p ro d u ctio n , c a p ita l came to p lay a fundam ental r o le i n the aceuznulation o f a d d itio n a l wealth*

The e x p lo ita tio n i n an un­

c o n tro lle d and unsystem atic way o f the enormous n a tu ra l reso u rce s e f the B aited S ta te s a id e d by the ra p id ly in c re a sin g use o f soienee and technology* and th e philosophy of Aden Staith* placed w ith in t h e c o n tro l o f in d iv id u a ls th e means by which sooner o r l a t e r g re a t in e q u a litie s o f wealth* of education* of c iv ic b e n e fits* and of g e n eral c u ltu r a l opports m itie s * became in e v ita b le .

I t has r e s u lte d too in th e c o n tro l by the

w e a lth ie r c la s s e s o f the p re s s and o th e r agencies o f p u b lic opinion and th ereb y r e s u lte d in c la s s c o n tro l o f government*

The very ag g ressiv e

behavior e f la b o r o rg a n isa tio n s i s one o f th e re a c tio n s a g a in s t imposed e la s s le g is la tio n * Mhile the Southern w hite worker* both i n In d u stry and a g ric u ltu re * h as n ot been as conscious of th e e x is te n c e , causes and im p lic a tio n s o f t h i s o la s s s tr u c tu r e and the e f f e c ts of i t s o p e ra tio n upon h is w elfare* th e r e is no a re a in the U nited S ta te s which o f f e r s a s e t of economic A . Sorokin* Carle C* Zimmerman and C harles J . G&lpin* A Sys­ tem atic Source Book in Rural Sociology (M inneapolis t The U n iv e rsity of M innesota P re s s , 1930X* I I , p* S S 7 '

4

s a t e o o itl p ro U «

6

more conducive to p re ssu re groups* c la s s le g is la *

t i o n , human e x p lo ita ti on and a do f i n i t e and immediate ch alle n g e to dem ocratic government to prove i t s ex istence*

The 30,000*000 immi­

g ra n ts who came to the U nited S ta te s during th e oentury ending in 1914* meet o f idiom s e t t l e d in c i t i e s and became la b o re rs in in d u stry * were fre q u e n tly ex p lo ited *

In the South th e Negroes fo r a much longer perio d

had fu rn ish e d th e o p p o rtu n ity in sla v ery f o r human e x p lo ita tio n * and a f t e r the C iv il War t h e i r l o t was very l i t t l e i f any b e tte r* sin c e moat o f them were la n d le s s farm ers and lacked experience in Independent f a r a operation*

Before and a f t e r th e war* however* th e se Negroes were th e

e c m p e tite rs e f th e yeomen and th e la n d le s s w h ites, and th e in c re a se i n economic in s e c u r ity fo r bo th groups helped t o promote g r e a te r competi­ t i o n sad antagonism* Today the South is g e n e ra lly known in the n a tio n t o be an a re a e f very low economic opportunity* an a re a o f extrem ely high b i r th ra te s* one o f a high incid en ce of disease* of race c o n flic t* o f r e l a t i v e l y g low p ro d u ctio n of sch o lars and o u tstan d in g statesmen* The enormous amount o f a tte n tio n which has been given to th e sub­ j e c t e f fa n s tenancy In th e U nited S tates* p a r tic u la r ly w ith in the l a s t two decades* by s o c ia l s c ie n tis ts * reform ers* n o v e lis ts end jo u rn a lis ts * has made i t e le a r t h a t a d e fin ite problem atic c o n d itio n has been rea cte d in the o p e ra tio n o f a g r ic u ltu r a l land* g

The a re a of c o tto n production*

See Hwrard W# Odum* Southern Regions (Chapel H illj The U n iv ersity o f B erth C a ro lin a Press* 1638), and &upert B* Vance* Human Geography of th e South (Chapel H illt The U n iv e rsity o f North C aro lin a Press* IS ieJT "

5 and th e re fo re t t e South* i t t h t t r o t which has re e e iv e d most a tte n tio n , f o r i t i s th o ra t h a t th e r a t a o f farm tenancy has reached th e h ig h e s t p o in t end where some o f the most v ic io u s a sp e c ts of the system have become commonplace* Some General Area D ifferen ces The H i l l s a re a s e le c te d is in St* Helena P a rish mid th e D elta a re a i n Tensas*

G eneral geographic* economic, and a g r ic u ltu r a l knowledge o f

th e s e two a re a s , suggests im m ediately th a t type o f s o i l , race composi­ tio n , s is e of farm s, farm te n u re systems and c u ltu r a l h is to r y , p re se n t q u ite obvious and s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e s*

In o rd er t o o r ie n ta te the

re a d e r who may be le s s acquainted w ith th e two ty p es o f a re a s , a b r i e f p re s e n ta tio n of some o f the o u tstan d in g d iffe re n o e s w ill be given a t t h i s point* The L ouisiana S ta te Planning Commission, in co o p eratio n w ith th e United S ta te s Department of I n t e r i o r , c l a s s i f i e s the s o i l s of St* Helena, the H ill p a ris h , as "Reddish-brown to brow nish-gray c o a s ta l p la in s o ils occupying h i l l y o r r o l li n g a re a s and having red to yellow f r i a b l e w ell drained su b s o ils —orangeburg, k ir v in , g re e n v ille , ru ato n and sands*" That of Tensas, the D elta p a ris h , is d escrib ed as "Dark brown to gray M iss issip p i B iver bottom s o i l s —sbarkey, sarp y , waverly and Portland."® L ocally the land o f

8 t*

Helena i s re fe rre d to as c u t-o v e r pine h i l l s ,

although f l a t s and sm all creek and r iv e r bottoms a re known to c o n s ti­ t u t e a c o n sid erab le p a r t of the to ta l*

I t is g e n e ra lly known to be

^L ouisiana S ta te Planning Commission, Second P rogress Report (Baton Rouge, 1940), Map No* 16. —

6 t h i n sad unproductive when unimproved•

E rosion vhioh has l i t t l e e f f e c t

e s the d e lt a lead ie a grave problem in the H ills* The f e r t i l i t y o f th e s o i l i s r e f le c te d in the c o tto n y ie ld s*

The

B i l l farm er seldom g e ts more than o n e -th ird o f a b a le to the a c re w hile th e d e lta farm er ex p ects a good season to &ive a t l e a s t a bale to th e aere*

The p e r acre average fo r St* Helena for th e p erio d 1936 to 1939

was 160 pounds o f l i n t , a h ile fo r Tensas i t was 359 pounds o r more th an tw ice a s stuoh* D ifferen o es in w ealth are s tr ik in g when t o t a l s and averages are considered*

Based on th e per c a p ita value o f farm p ro p e rty , in 1860

St* Helena ranked t h i r t y - s i x t h and Tensas f i r s t out of the fo rty -se v e n p a ris h e s e x is tin g a t t h a t tim e .

e

The per c a p ita assessm ent as re p o rte d

by the L ouisiana Tax Commission f o r 1939 shows a s im ila r c o n tra st* That fo r the B i ll p a ris h , St* Helena, is 5143*79 and fo r the D elta p a r is h , Tensas, i t i s #343*95 o r 139 per oent g reater* Both a re a s have more Sc gross than w h ite s, b u t in 1930, w hile th ey re p re se n te d 54*3 p e r eerib o f the t o t a l p o p u latio n of St* Helena, the corresponding fig u re f o r Tensas was 71*6 This d iffe re n c e in race com position helps t o e x p lain the d i f f e r ­ ences in farm ten u re system s, but i n order to g e t a more adequate p ic ­ tu r e i t i s n ecessary to go back to th e C iv il War period*

In I860

^Roger W* Shugg, O rigins of C lass S truggle in L oulslana (Baton Rougei L ouisiana S ta te ChiversTFy P re ss , 1939), Appendix, Table VII* ®Data taken from S ta te Department o f Education, n i n e t y - f i r s t Annual R eport, B u lle tin lumber 448 (Baton Rouge, 1941), fa b le V II.

7 sla v e h o ld e rs i n Tensas re p re se n te d 84 p e r oent of th e t o t a l v o te rs and i n St* Helena 52 p e r sent*

The d iffe re n c e is f u r t h e r emphasised by the

f a c t t h a t 91 p e r oent o f th e t o t a l p o p u la tio n of Tensas was sla v e com* pared w ith 52 p er s e n t fo r St* Helena* and the average holding fo r 9 Tensas was 47 slapres a g a in s t 12 slaves fo r St* Helena* The eye te n o f ten an cy which follow ed th e fre e in g of the sla v es tended to su rv iv e in the D elta bu t not i n th e H ills*

H oldings were muoh sm aller in the

H ills* and a f t e r the tim ber was sold th e oost of a cq u irin g land f o r a sm all farm was r e l a t i v e l y low*

An im portant in flu e n c e , however* was

th e f a c t t h a t St* Helena* lik e so many H ill p arish es* a lre ad y had the sm all owner* w hile i n th e D elta he was p r a c tic a lly unknown*

In 1860

farm s of th re e t o f i f t y ao res made up 42 per eent of S t. H elen a's t o t a l and only 1 p e r oent fo r Tensas.*®

Then too* in form ation on th ese two

p a ris h e s today shows alm ost a t o t a l disappearance of th e p la n te r e la s s from St* Helena a g r ic u ltu r e , b u t i t s d e f in ite p e rs is te n c e in th e D e lta * ^ The average s is e o f farms operated by owners gives a muoh more r e a l i s t i c p ic tu re *

That fo r w hite f u l l owners in 1940 was 98*7 aores i n S t. Helena

and in Tensas i t was 425*6 acres* o

12

Roger W* Shugg* op* c l t ** Appendix* Table II* *® Ibid** Appendix* Table V* ^ S t a t i s t i c s o f the United S ta te s Department of A g ric u ltu re on th e i i z e of farms a re very m isleading* a s the land o f each o p erato r w hether owner or ten a n t is c a lle d a farm . Thus a p la n ta tio n may be rep o rte d as one f a r a i f o p erated w ith farm labor* w hile I f operated by ten an ts* i t may be re p o rte d as t h i r t y or more farms* 12^ Bureau o f Census* Census of A g ric u ltu re ! 1940* L ouisiana (Washing­ ton* Government P rin tin g b f fio e , 1941)* P a rish Table*

Today owner* predom inate in the H ill# , c o n s titu tin g 70*9 per c o at of St* H elena 1a w hite o p e ra to rs i n 1940, w hile fo r Tensas only 32*7 p e r o en t were owners*

And t h i s re p re se n ts q u ite an in c re a se in w hite owners

I n Tensas, to r only o n e-fo u rth of a l l operates*s were owners in 1935* In th e ease of Hegroes, the p ic tu re i s sim ilar* te d 43*3 p er c e n t of St* H elen a's o p e ra to rs and

In 1940 they c o n s titu ­ only 9*0 p e r oent fo r

*Tensas* 13 The a g ra ria n p a tte r n s have t h e i r c o u n te rp a rt in th e p o l i t i c a l situ a tio n *

St* Helena in 1848 supported th e Democratic p a rty , and in

1661 on th e q u estio n of seoession, voted t o rem ain in the Union* T ensasfs re s p e c tiv e p o s itio n s in th o se e le o tio n s were Whig in 1846 and fo r seo essio n in 1 8 6 1 I n 1930 Huey Longwho

appealed t o the masses

g o t 63 p e r cent of th e St* Helena v o te, hut he was given only 31 p er cen t in Tensas where the masses have never ruled* 16 Review of L ite ra tu re Any attem pt to review th e l i t e r a t u r e p e rtin e n t to our problem must n e o e s s a rily be v ery inadequate, but some of th a t which has played a p a r t in shaping th e thought of the w r ite r w ill be mentioned a t t h i s point* There i s h a rd ly any su b je c t i n th e e n tir e f i e l d of r u r a l sociology t h a t i s not tr e a te d t h e o r e ti c a l ly and exem plified in th e three*volume source book i n r u r a l sociology by Sorokin, Zimmerman and Galpin*

16

Table I I ►gar W* Shugg, o p c i t * , Appendix, Table VII jut AuiF«r»vtJK vhouh w uvv*i> t u Mvi' VIIX reg ard in g p o l i t i c a l p o s it! on in the D elta i n 1940* 1«P. A. Sorokin, C arle C* Timmerman and C. J* G alpin, A System atic Source Book In Rural Sociology* 3 v o ls . (Minneapolis* The U n iv e rsity o f M innesota P re ss , 19327* *

9

S e le c te d m d I n g e from A ncient, M edieval and Contemporary th in k e rs a re included*

This work may m oll bo c a lle d th e encyclopaedia o f r u r a l

sociology* I n o rd e r to g a in adequate h i s t o r i c a l in fo rm atio n f o r an In s ig h t in to p re se n t day problems in e o tto n production* th e stu d en t probably mould f in d d r a y 's h is to r y of Southern a g ric u ltu r e th e most sc h o la rly p r e s e n ta tio n o f the f a c t s from e a r l i e s t se ttle m e n t up to the C iv il War*

17

For Louisiana* fo r th e same period* C ra y 's work should be sup-

plem ented by t h a t of Shugg*

18

C lass stru g g le w ith some o f i t s ra c ia l*

economic* s o c ia l and p o l i t i e a l causes and e ffe c ts * f o r Sew O rleans and f o r a g r ic u ltu r a l areas* i s the c e n tr a l theme o f the book* Southern Regions by Odum i s th e r e s u l t o f a tremendous amount of planning and work to e re a te a framework f o r th e development o f a so cio lo g y of th e South*

A ll phases of e o tto n pro d u ctio n w ith th e r e l a ­

tio n s h ip s to the many s o c ia l and economic problems of th a t a re a and o f the n a tio n are tre a te d *

19

Vanee* a form er stu d e n t and a t p re s e n t a

co lleag u e o f Odum* has two s tu d ie s which deserve m ention. One i s a 20 human geography o f the South* and the o th e r d e a ls s p e o if io a lly w ith th e people who a re involved in th e production o f cotton*

81

Vance speaks

*^L* C* Gray* Hi s to r y of A g ric u ltu re in Southern U nited S ta te s to I860* 2 vole* (Washingtons The C arnegie I n s t i t u t e , 193S). *®Hoger W* Shugg* op* c i t * ^Howard W* Odum* Southern Regions (Chapel H ills The U n iv e rsity o f Worth C aro lin a Press* 1936)# ^ R u p e rt B« Vance* Human Geography o f th e South (Chapel H ills The U n iv e rsity o f Worth C aro lin a Press* 1935J7 ^ R u p e rt B* Vance* Human F acto rs in Cotton C ulture (Chapel H ills The U n iv e rs ity of Worth C arolina Press* 1939) *

10 a s an inform ed n a tiv e* ttrn who has not only a w ealth o f o b je c tiv e knowledge* b a t an in tim a te acquaintance w ith th e problems of th e r u r a l South*

This en ab les him to c o n sid er and re v e a l f a c to r s which would

escape m ost in v e s tig a to rs * I s 1926, the a g r ic u ltu r a l econom ist, K irk p a tric k , made a study o f the f a rm e r's liv in g standard* in which he very o le a r ly d efin ed and d eso rib ed the m a te r ia l and n o n -m aterial elem ents in th e sta n d ard and p lan e o f liv in g *

He a ssig n e d s p e c ifio money v a lu e s to a l l item s eon-

sidered# w hether bought* or produced and consumed on th e farm*

22

The d e p re ssio n t h i r t i e s produced a tremendous volume of l i t e r a ­ tu r e about r u r a l p eople, bo th farm end non-fana* max* sponsored many stu d ie s*

The fe d e ra l govern -

The fic tio n a l Resource* Committee had a

s p e c ia l group stu d y the changes in p o p u latio n and th e r e l a ti o n o f th e p o p u latio n o f th e s ix c u ltu r a l regions o f the N ation to economic opport u n it y .

23

Hoofte r* i n h is study o f the la n d lo rd end tenant* comes n e a re r to the s p e c ific problem*

He p re s e n ts a d e s c rip tio n of th e r e la tio n s h ip s

be t ween the la n d lo rd and ten an t*

To accom plish t h i s he chose th e p la n ­

ta t i o n as the u n it of study* sinoe i t c o n s titu te s a community w ith in which the te n a n ts and la b o re rs have d e f in ite re la tio n s h ip * both w ith the la n d lo rd end w ith in t h e i r own groups*

24

L* K irk p a tric k , The Parm er's Standard o f L iving, USDA, D epart­ ment B all* No* 1466 ( Washington j Government f’rinETng O ffic e , 1929). ^ N a tio n a l Resources Committee* The Problems of a Changing Popula­ tio n (Washington! Government P rin tin g O ffice, 193877 ' 2 *T. J . Woofter* Jr** and ethers* Landlord and Tenant on th e Cotton P la n ta tio n . WpA Research Monograph V (Washington! 1936) * '

11 Heffsommsr lias d ir e c te d s e v e ra l s tu d ie s i n farm la b o r and tenancy i n th e su g ar cans and c o tto n a re a s o f Louisiana*

They have been pub­

lis h e d a s experim ent s t a t i o n b u l l e t i n s by L ouisiana S ta te U n iv e rsity w ith in tb s l a s t th r s e y e a rs and now form an im portant p a r t o f th e l i t e r ­ a tu r e r e s u ltin g from re s e a rc h in a g r ic u ltu r a l economic • and r u r a l s o c i­ ology* The study o f disadvantaged c la s s e s by Taylor a tte m p ts to survey th e r u r a l s o c ia l c o n d itio n s throughout th e Mat!on, n o t, according to T ay lo r, a s a p ie c e of s o i e n t i f l e re s e a rc h , but to re v e a l the prevalence o f sub-m arginal stan d ard s of l iv i n g , and to d e lin e a te the a re a s In which th e s e c o n d itio n s tend to concentrate* A fte r th e m aladjustm ents of th e economic d ep ressio n and the e x p e ri­ m ental! on w ith reform m easures o f th e t h i r t i e s . Baker, Bor sod i and W ilson w rote a beck on th e problems in American a g ric u ltu re *

26

Chap­

t e r s I I and XT a re e s p e c ia lly h e lp fu l in d e scrib in g th e e f f e c t s o f scien c e and technology on a g ric u ltu re * There i s no su b je c t in th e f i e l d o f r u r a l sociology on which so much has been w r itte n a s farm tenancy, but on th e more r e s t r i c t e d sub­ j e c t of s o c ia l s ta tu s and faim te n u r e , p r a c t ic a l l y a l l l i t e r a t u r e makes o n ly in c id e n ta l c o n trib u tio n s*

That p e rtin e n t to t h i s su b je c t and pub­

lis h e d from 1922 to 1967 i s c ite d in fo o tn o te s to an a r t i c l e on s o c ia l ^ C a r l C* T ay lo r, Helen W. Wheeler and S* L* K irk p a tric k , Disad­ vantaged C lasses i n American A g ric u ltu re , U. 2* Department o f A gricul­ t u r e , rh*» S e c u rity A d m in istra tio n , and Bureau of A g ric u ltu ra l Eco­ nomics c o o p e ra tin g . S o cial Research Report V III (Washingtons 1938). *«0. £• Baker, Ralph Borsodi and M* L* W ilson, A g ric u ltu re in Modern L ife (lew York* Harper and Bros*, 1939).

12 27 s ta tu s by S c h u ler*

n i l s a r t i c l e summarises th e fin d in g s in f i f t y

p u b lish ed r e p o r ts to fin d hoe farm owners and te n a n ts compare in s o c ia l s ta tu s •

B is more e x te n siv e r e p o r t on the same su b je c t in 1936 w hile

working under t h e d ir e c tio n o f C arl C. T aylor in the R esettlem ent A d m in istratio n I s a study of 2,425 farm fa m ilie s o f both ra c e s taken fro® 14 c o u n tie s i n th e c o m , o o tto n and tobaooo a re a s of th e U nited S ta te s*

2B

gxoept fo r the ty p es o f a re a s compared the p re se n t study

which was d ire c te d by Schuler attem pts to make a s im ila r c o n trib u tio n * The o nly study which s p e c i f i c a ll y compares the D elta p la n te r and eg th e B i l l faim er i s t h a t by Shugg. I t oonoentr& tes on th e p erio d from 1840 to 1875, b u t i t fu rn is h e s e x c e lle n t background in s p e c ific eco­ nomic , p o l i t i c a l and s o c ia l f a c t s fo r a p re se n t day study*

Tenure

o la s s e s a s such a re not m entioned, b u t the p la n te r , the yeoman and th e p o o rer sm all farm er a re c h a ra c te rise d * Percy*s re c e n t book probably w ill be c a lle d b iased f l o ti o n by most s o c ia l s c i e n t i s t s , b u t i t i s a fran k and able ex p re ssio n o f the b e l i e f s and a tt i tu d e s o f th e D elta p la n te r*

30

One review er says s f

I t , "Bo o th e r tre a tm e n t o f such problem s, (*p la n te r s , sh are-cro p p ers and su eh')> however s c i e n t i f i c or unbiased i s lik e ly to r i v a l th e se c h ap ters i n wisdom and strength*

*•31

One r a th e r unpardonable o v e rsig h t

Bdgar A* S ch u ler, "S o c ia l S ta tu s o f American Farm T en an ts," R ural Sociology, I I I (March, 1938), 20-35* 2®Bdgar A. S c h u ler, S ocial S ta tu s and Fara Tenure—A ttitu d e c and S o c ia l C onditions o f Com B e lt and C otton B elt Farmers, ^arm S e c u rity AAcI n l e t r a tI o n andHlureau of A g ric u ltu ra l Economics, S o cial Research R eport IV (W ashington, 1938). 22Reger W* Shugg, op* o i t * See e s p e c ia lly Chapters V, V III, and IX* “ w. A. P arey , L anterns on the Levee (Now York: A lfred A* Kiwmf. In©*, 1941)* ^*Timss Picayune. March 23, 1941, p . 9* Other reviews were o f th e same tone*

13 o r e r r o r , however, i s P ercy 1 s f a ilu r e to make any d is t in c t io n s among n o n -p la n te r w hite farm ers* a l l a lik e *

He le a v e s

th e im pression t h a t th e y a re

On t h i s l a t t e r p o in t Shugg does a smoh b e t t e r jo b , and

tfo llv a ls e a ls o , in h is v ery comprehensive review of t h e f i c t i o n a l end s e m i- f ic tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e o f th e South, c h a ra c te riz e * th e poor w h ite , «« th e yeoman and th e p la n te r* Many o f th e books reviewed by P c llw a in e , though n o t u sin g th e s o e la l s ta tu e concepts of th e s o c io lo g is t, draw v e ry m eaningful p ic tu r e s o f in d iv id u a l farm ers* C oncerning th e a g ric u ltu r a l la d d e r, p lan es of liv in g o f Georgia farm ers and Begro^white r e la tio n s h ip s , R ap er's book i s one o f th e b e tte r 0300a *

The Sociology o f Rural L ife by Smith c o n tain s four c h a p te rs

t h a t are p a r t i c u l a r l y h e lp fu l in th e study o f farm ers of d if f e r e n t tenure c la ss e s*

These a re "Land T enure,1* "S ize of H oldings," "S ocial D iffere n ­

t i a t i o n " and "S o c ia l S t r a ti f i c a ti o n * " 5*

This t e x t book a ls o has one o f

th e b e s t b ib lio g ra p h ie s a v a ila b le * There a re two v ery re c e n t s tu d ie s of m igrant farm fa m ilie s in Tensas which w ill be h e lp fu l in p re d ic tin g race com position and ten u re tre n d s in the Delta*

One is by H itt and unpublished, and th e e th e r i s

by Hoff sommer*5® jfd............. ...

S h ie ld s MoXlwaine, The Southern Poor-White from Lubberland to Tobacco Bead (Som an, Oklahoma:. U n iv e r s ity o f Oklahoma P re ss , 193977 ^ A r th u r E aper, P reface to P easan try (Chapel H i l li U n iv e rsity of North C aro lin a P re s s , 1936'/* **T» Lynn Sm ith, The Sociology of R ural L ife (Sew Torki Harper & Bros*, 1940), Chapters X II, X III, XIV and XV* 5®Homer L. H i t t , "Seeent M igration in to and w ith in th e Upper Mis­ s i s s i p p i D elta o f L ouisiana" (Unpublished Ph*D* d i s s e r t a t io n , Dept* o f Sociology, Harvard U n iv e rsity , 1941)* H arold Hoffscoimer, Hew Ground Farmers l a th e M iss is s ip p i River D e lta , Bureau of A g ric u ltu ra l £oonom ics. U nited S ta te s Department o t A g ricu ltu re (Washington: A p ril, 1941).

14 F a r & c o m p ilatio n o f th e s tu d ie s on sta n d ard s and p lan e s o f liv in g o f f a i l l i e s , by f a r th e most comprehensive an n o tated b ib lio g ra p h ic a l and m ethodological study i s t h a t by W illiam s and Zimmerman*

36

I t would be im p ra c tic a l to attem pt to m ention more than a very sm all p e r e a n t o f t h e in d iv id u a l p u b lic a t ions r e l a t i v e to farm ers o r even o f e o tto n farm ers*

Many e x c e lle n t ones w ill be n e g le cted e n tire ly *

Anyone w ishing ex h au stiv e sources o f th e more dependable t i t l e s in addi­ t i o n to th o se named, should see (1) the s e r ie s o f re p o rts of th e Farm S e c u rity A d m in istra tio n and Bureau of A g ric u ltu ra l Economics, (2) th o se of th e Works P ro g ress A d m in istra tio n , D iv isio n o f Research, (3) r e p o rts from S ta te A g ric u ltu ra l Sxperiment S ta tio n s and (4) B areev 's b ib lio g rap h y 37 * ' on f a n ten an cy in th e United S ta te s* Some o f the b e s t s tu d ie s have been p u b lish ed in th e o f f i c i a l jo u rn a l of the R ural S o c io lo g ic a l S o ciety o f Am erica, Rural Sociology* In O ctober, 1938 a committee o f th e R ural S o c io lo g ic al S ociety and the Bureau o f A g ric u ltu ra l Economics completed a r e p o r t c a lle d , "The F ie ld o f Research in R ural Sociology• " b ib lio g ra p h y i s in clu d ed which c o n ta in s 187 t i t l e s *

A s e le c te d

"A g ric u ltu ra l Eco-

ncmios L ite r a tu r e ," a b ib lio g rap h y in clu d in g t i t l e s o f p u b lic a tio n s in th e B aited S ta te s and fo re ig n c o u n trie s , i s is sued each month except J u ly and August by th e s t a f f of th e lib r a r y o f th e U nited S ta te s Depart­ ment of A griculture* ^ F a i t h U* W illiams and Carle C* Zimmerman, "S tu d ies o f Family L iving i n th e U nited S ta te s and Other C o u n triesi An A nalysis o f M a te ria l and M ethod," U nited S ta te s Department o f A g ric u ltu re , M iscellaneous Pub­ l i c a t i o n Bo* 223 (Washington, 1936)* " ^ L o u is e 0* Beroev, Farm Tenancy in the U nited S ta te s 1918- 3 8 1 A S e le c te d L is t o f R eferences, USDA BAS, B ibliography No, 70 (Washingtont Government P rin tin g O ffice , 1940)*

16 M ny a d d itio n a l re fe re n c e * to th e l i t e r a t u r e w i l l be made through­ o u t t h i a r e p o r t as th ey r e l a t e to s p e o if ie phases of th e problem being tre a te d * and a s e le c te d b ib lio g ra p h y w ill be p a r t of th e completed study* Methodology A fte r th e problem was conceived, th e s e le c tio n o f a re a s to re p re s e n t the d i l l s and th e D e lta had t o be made* and i n o rd er to in su re th a t th e s e a re a s would be a p p ro p ria te th e follow ing o r i t e r i a were used as a b a s is f o r s e le c t! o n 1

(1) For b o th a re a s a g ric u ltu r e must predom inate and

c o tto n m ust be th e p rin c ip a l cash crop*

( 2 ) The community c o n cen trated

upon must in clu d e th e county seat* and t h i s c e n te r sh o u ld be sm all enough to be c l a s s i f i e d as ru ra l n o n -f a m • must be ad eq u ately represented*

(3) Both w hites and Negroes

(4) The H ill a re a must be c le a r ly out­

sid e th e immediate in flu e n c e o f th e D e lta cotton-grow ing communities* (S) Small fam ily -ty p e farms must predom inate i n th e S i l l area* and th e p la n ta tio n in th e D elta*

( 6 ) The H ill land must be re p re s e n ta tiv e of

t h a t of the H ills o f the c e n tr a l C otton Belt* even i f not t r u l y rep resen ­ t a t i v e o f Louisiana* R iv er.

(7) The D elta a re a must l i e along th e M iss issip p i

( 8 ) The lo c a tio n s o f both communities must be such t h a t French

c u ltu r a l in flu e n c e w ill be a t a minimum* St* Helena l a th e H ills and Tensas in th e D elta were th e ^parishes f i n a l l y ag reed upon* and th e p a ris h s e a ts o f th ese ware used as the tra d e c e n te rs f o r th e r e s t r i c t e d communities from which schedules were a c tu a lly taken* *®8 y se v e ra l economic Indexes* St* Helena i s known to be d e f i n i te l y below average fo r L o uisiana H ill p arish es* and i t may be a l i t t l e below average f o r th e C en tra l C otton Belt* On th e o th e r hand Tensas ranks

16 Four type a o f d a ta were secured*

( 1 ) A form al schedule was used

to secu re In fo rm atio n from fa n n e rs and a few non-farm fa m ilie s reg a rd ­ ing farm lend ow nership, housing and household equipm ent, m ig ra tio n , s o c ia l p a rtic ip a tio n * fam ily c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , education* and c e r ta in fA opinions* From farmers* a d d itio n a l d a ta were secured concerning te n u re h isto ry * s i t e of farm* farm equipment* live-at-hom e program, and i n th e ease o f non-owners* te n u re arrangem ents* fa a d ly schedules were used In the a n aly sis*

A t o t a l o f 345 o f th e s e

Of these* 171 were H ill

sad 174 were D e lta f a m i li e s * ^ (2 ) An high

o ccu p atio n al choice schedule was used to

school stu d e n ts in th e two perishes*

secu re d a ta from

This a lso included p a r t i c i ­

p a tio n in o rg a n is a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s of th e community and e e r ta in p e r­ sonal data* (3) More th an one hundred inform al but system atic in te rv ie w s wens held w ith people o th e r than th o se from whom form al schedules were taken* h o s t o f th e s e people were non-farm and p rim a rily b u sin e ss and p ro fes­ s io n a l men* (4) In

A sten o g rap h ic record was kept of p a r ts of each interview * o rd e r to secure s o c ia l s t a tu s sco res fo r w hite fa m ilie s

based upon th e opinions o f lo c a l people * l i s t s of 101 H ill and 61 D elta fa m ilie s were p re s e n te d to s e le c te d persons fo r ratin g *

This p a r t of

r e l a t i v e l y h lg i on th e basis of th e same economic indexes among D elta co u n ties* S t i l l* in o rd e r to meet o th e r requirem ents* th e s e seemed to be the b e s t s e le c tio n s* copy of t h is schedule w ill be found in the appendix* ^ B a s e d upon r a s e com position of th e two p a rish e s Negroes a re u a d e r-re p re se n te d in the sample* but s t i l l th ey make up 39 p er cent o f th e H ill and 46 p e r cent of th e D elta cases* In o rd er to g ain maximum tr u th fu ln e s s in answers* a colored te a c h e r was employed to tak a the aohedules* This tended to e lim in a te th e element o f fea r*

17 th e m ethodology I t f u l l y ex p lain ed l a an a r t i c l e by Schuler*

41

Time and e f f o r t were given to th e e x ec u tio n of a p lan to g a in a r e a l i e t i o acquaintance w ith th e so c ia l and economic l i f e of the two CQwaunitiee*

I r r e g u la r v i s i t s were made ewer a p e rio d of alm ost th re e

y e a r s , beginning i n th e summer o f 1988 when th e formal schedules were

taka*.42 Data e a the sch ed u les were ceded and punehed on c a rd s , and th e sta tic tie a l tables used in th e a n a ly sis r e s u lte d from s o rtin g and count­ in g t h e c a rd s on In te rn a tio n a l Business Machines o f the Bureau o f Educa­ t i o n a l Research ef L ouisiana S ta te U niversity* Bureau o f Census Data a re used when h e lp f u l, and a lim ite d amount o f in fo rm a tio n i s talasn from secondary sources*

Edgar A* S c h u le r, " S o c ia l and Economic S ta tu s in a L ouisiana The w r i t e r 's p a r tic ip a tio n in t h a t study i s acknowledged by Ur* Schuler in a fo o tn o te , P• 69* ^ T h e w r ite r spent a t o t a l of tw elve weeks in the two a re a s , b e sid es se v e ra l one-day tr ip s * The d ir e c to r o f the re s e a rc h . Dr* E* A* S ch u ler, spent e ig h t weeks, h i s s Louise Kemp, a graduate student in so cio lo g y a t L o u isiana S ta te U n iv e rs ity , d id f i e l d work f o r seven weeks, and one month was spent by the colored f i e l d worker, K iss Thelma Conner*

H ills C e n tra l t y , * S u ra l Sociology, 7 (Maroh, 1940), 69-83*

CHAPTER I I ORIGIN, MOBILITY AND TENURE HISTORY Occupation and Tenure o f F am ilies Oar sample o f 345 fs m illo a a re c l a s s i f i e d by a re a , ra c e , farm and non-farm and by oooupation and tenure •

This l a done becauses

(1) The

t h e s is th a t some v ery im p o rtan t and o o n a la te n t eoonomle and so c ia l d i f ­ fe re n c e s e x i s t between the H ill and D e lta cotton-grow ing a re a s , as s ta te d i n th e problem, i s th e m ajor reaso n fo r t h i s stu d y .

(2) The e x is te n c e

o f r a e l a l d iffe r e n c e s in economic and s o c ia l sta tu s * re g a rd le ss o f much o v e rla p p in g , i s so g e n e ra lly reco g n ised t h a t i t dees not seem p r a c tic a ­ b le t o an aly se them to g eth er*

(3) The fundamental d iffe re n c e in occu­

p a tio n between farm and non-faro people demands t h a t th e s e two groups be kept se p a ra te f o r most purposes*

(4) Since oooupation and ten u re

c la s s e s appear to be f a i r l y o o n s is te n t c o r r e la te s with r e l a t i v e p o s i­ tio n s on th e eoonomio and s o e ia l sc a le and d o u b tle ss are f a c to r s in th e d e te rm in a tio n o f sta tu s * i t seems lo g ic a l in the p re s e n ta tio n o f much of t h e d a ta to keep th e fa m ilie s in th e se categ o ries*

Table I

g iv es the ten u re d i s t r ib u t i o n of fa m heads by a re a and race* and in o rd e r to n o te a re a d iffe re n c e s th e w h ites a re f u r th e r d iv id e d in to " f u ll- tim e " and "p a rt-tim e " farm e rs.

I t appears t h a t a g ric u ltu re i s

s o re n e a rly a f u ll- tim e job In the Delta* w hile i n th e H ills* employloent out o f a g ric u ltu re i s more frequent*

This i s o o n siste n t w ith

f ig u r e s liv e n by t h e U nited S ta te s Census o f A grio u ltu re f o r 1935* While th e D e lta farm er worked o f f h is farm more fre q u e n tly then d id 16

19

TABLE I meSSTA&S TEHURE DISYRIBUnOir OF FARM HEADS BY ASEA AMD RACE

H ill H hita T o ta l auaber F u ll tim et F a ll o r p o r t oanors u B ig c ri Rost Mrs Croppers L aborers F a r t tim et F u ll o r p a r t owners and managers R a ste rs Croppers Laborers

H ill Hegro

76

D elta White

D elta Hegro

66

80

58

F a r oast

P er e a s t

F ar e a s t

Far cen t

56.7 15.3 2 .7

62.3 30.8 16.9

17.6 15.0 36.3 15.0

26.9 29.5 41.4 3 .4

aaae

22.7 2 .7

a e ^ — —

6.3 2 .5 5 .0 2.5

. . . —

— aw aw

20 th e S i l l farmer* t h i s a x tr a employment was in a g r ic u ltu r e more th an tw o -th ird s o f th e time*

In the oaee o f th e H ill farmer* h ie p a rt-tim e

employment mas n e n -a g rie u ltu ra l i n more th a n tw o -th ird s of the oases rep o rtin g * The meet s tr ik in g f a s t in the d i s t r ib u t i o n (Table I ) i s th e d i f ­ fe re n c e in p e r e e n t re p re s e n ta tio n o f owners in th e fo u r m ajor c a te g o rie s end e s p e c ia lly between th e H ills and D elta*

While in th e H ills* f o i l and

p a rt-tim e owners to g e th e r made up HI p e r e e n t o f th e w hite fa rm e rs, in th e D elta only 24 p e r eent were owners.*

In th e ease o f Hegroes* owners

a re somewhat e re r-re p re s e n te d in th e d a ta from both p a rish es*

While tb s

H ill amaple shews 62 p e r s e n t owners and th e D elta 26 p er oent* th e 1940 f ig u r e s fo r the e n tir e p arish es* as shown in Table II* a re 44 p e r oent and 9 p e r oent r e s p e o tir e ly .

Bren w ith our d i s t r ib u t i o n more d is to rte d *

however* th e comparison of H ill farm ers w ith D elta farm ers t o a g re a t e x te n t w ill be comparing H ill owners w ith D elta croppers and lab o re rs* f o r th e se l a t t e r groups combined make up 69 p e r c e n t of th e D elta w hite farm ers and 46 p e r een t o f th e D e lta Hegro farm ers* The 67 non-farm f a m ilie s as shown i n Table i n a re c la s s if i e d not on ly by oooupation b u t a ls o according to ownership of farm land*

This

was done to determ ine to what e x te n t people in te r e s te d in a g rlo u ltu r a l lead re s id e d in town*

The number of oases does no t J u s ti f y any conclusion*

b u t m oag th e w hite non-f aim ers i t was not unusual to fin d la rg e farm land-ownsrs*

The two H ill Hegro fa m ilie s were th e only two liv in g in

T his ex ag g erates th e d iffe re n c e in ownership somewhat* as th e w hite owners fo r th e e n tir e H ill p a rish ware 71 p er oent o f th e t o t a l and f o r th e D elta p a ris h 33 p er eent in 1940* This i s shown In Table II*

21

TABLE I I FESC8 ITA6 S TESURK DISTRIBUTION OF ALL FAIM OPERATORS I I ST* HELENA AHD TEHSAS, 194Q1

At m .

T o ta l nuaber of o p e ra to rs

Owners— p a r t and fu ll

T enants and croppers

Managers

White St* Helena

833

70.9

28*7

0 .4

Tensas

602

32.7

63.6

3 .7

Hegro S t. Hols*» Tensas

876

44*3

53*7

1769

9 .0

90.9

0*1

W « o o f the Census* S ix tee n th Census of t h e United S ta te s* 1940* A g ric u ltu re . L ouisiana (Washingtont Government P rin tin g O ffic e , 1 9 4 l), P a rish Table I I , pp. 25-27•

22

TABLE 111 OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF KOH-FAB& HEADS BY AREA AND RACE

Oooupation

H ill White

H ill Hegro

D elta White

29

2

15

P ro fe ss io n a l

1

—

1

P r o p r ie to r , manager, or o ffic ia l

5

C le rk , s k i l le d and s e m i-s k ille d workers

5

—

2

These owning no farm lan d t P ro fe ss io n a l

2

—

2

3

1

S

Humber e ase s

D elta Hegro 21

n o s e owning Tam landt

S

2

P r o p rie to r , manager, or o ffic ia l

1

C lerk

1

—

—

2

S k ille d sad s e m i-s k ille d

1

—

3

4

Unskilled

7

1

A ll o th e rs in elu d in g n e t re p o rte d

6

1

1

5 2

—

25 t o m (th e county M a t) in d ic a tin g t h a t Negroes in t h a t a re a a re alm ost w holly a g r i o u l tu r a l •

In th e D e lta c h are c o n sid era b ly more Negroes

lim ed i n te e n th ey meet fre q u e n tly worked ae farm lab o re rs* and th e f a e t e f town resid en c e a c tu a lly did not make much d iffe re n c e In occu­ p a tio n a l s t a tu s to most o f them* B irth Plaoe o f Beads I t seems t h e t th e p lace where e a r ly childhood i s spent o fte n le a v e s an in d e lib le stamp upon people* and i t i s assumed h a re t h a t i t m ates seme d i f f e r s see in farm p r a c tic e s , c u ltu r a l tr a d itio n s * in te r e s t^ ra c e a ttitu d e s * a t t i t u d e s toward farm ownership and perhaps a f f e c t s th e a b i l i t y t o become a d ju s te d e it h e r i n th e B i l l s or the D elta*

The lo c a ­

t i o n o f b i r t h p lace by p a ris h o r s t a te w ill be noted f i r s t * An exam ination of f a b le IV w ill re v e a l s tr ik in g a re a d iffe re n c e s f o r w h ites and j u s t a s Im portant r a c i a l d iffe re n c e s w ith in the D elta area*

H ill w h ites i n 71 p er cent of th e eases were bora in th e p a ris h

e f re sid e n c e w hile t h i s was tr u e o f only 4*2 p e r oent o f th e D elta ah i t s s .

When only farm ers a re considered th e re i s an even g r e a te r con­

t r a s t between th e two areas*

Hone o f th e w hite farm ers o th e r than

owners were born i n the D elta p a rish * iriiile in the H ill a re a 85 p e r ce n t of the r e n te r s were born i n th e p e ris h o f residence*

Residence

d iffe re n c e s a re s im ila r in th e two a re a s f o r Negroes of a l l farm te n u re cla sse s* though a s l i g h t l y h ig h er peroentage o f the H ill farm ers were born In the parish*

The only s ig n if ic a n t ten u re c la s s d iffe re n c e was

t h a t shown by croppers and lab o re rs* c o n sid era b ly le s s of whom in both a re a s were born in the p a ris h o f residence*

The hitfi r e s id e n tia l

TABU 17

BUTBPUOB OF HEADS BY AREA, RACE, OCOUPATIOI ABD TBBUHB Population group

Bumber oaaoa

That pariah

Elsewhere In La.

B i ll B hito Owners R antara Croppara and la b o ra ra Bon-*fa m

104 61

71.1 60.5 89.9

17.3 9 .8 8.3

29

61.7

51.0

H ill Hegro Owners R antara Croppara and la b o ra ra Bon-farm

67 94

98.6

1.5

mm

1.5

—

mm

mm

20 11 2

mm

mm —

D elta Ifh ita Owners R antara Croppara and la b o ra ra Bon- fa m

96 19 14 47 15

D e lta Hagro Owners R enters Croppara and la b o re rs Hon-fann

79 16 16 26

12 2

21

mm

1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0

81.8 60.0

1 0 0 .0

9.1

Ark. Mias* ao«e

mm mm — —

5.8 5.3

1*0

mm

mm

— 13.8

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

—

mm

3 .4

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

1 .6

—

mm

—

mm

mm

—

a*a*

mtm

mm

« ...

—

60.0

l.5

2 0 ,0

2 0 .0

mm

76.9 95*9 81.5 65.4 76,2

3 .8

mm

1 2 .8

mm

—

mm

—

mm

3.8 9.5

mm

— —

38.9 1 0 .6

mm

50.0 69.6

4.3

mm

3*3 8 .3

mm

mm

1 1 .6

2 .8

mm mm

■mm

mm

31.6

1 ,9 3.9

Mo. Bono oihr atat#

mm

24.2 31.6 55.7 14.9 55.3

4.2 5,5

Texas Tenn. Ala.

18.8 19.2 9 .6

—

3.2 —

5.2 5 .5

mm

mm

—

9.1

— —

8 .4

3.2 5.3

1 0 .6

7.1

mm

mm

3 .2 mm

7 .1

—

2 .1

4 .3

2 .1

4 .3

8 ,6

6 .7

mm

6 .7

mm

13.3

—

1 .3

mm

—

mm

3 .8 6 .7

— —

mm

4 .8

— — — mm

-5 .8 mm

mm

mm

mm

7 .7

mm

»*

26 S t a b il i ty o f tb s farm Hegro i s found in both a ro se , and i n each case sad l a every te n u re o ls s s th e p ar sent bo m i n th e p a ris h Is h ig h e r th a n t h a t o f the

w h ite s . A ll o f the H ill Hegro owners and r e n te r s

were bora in th e

p a r is h . The r a c i a l d iffe re n c e i s pronounced b u t not

g r e a t in the H ills * w hile in th e D elta i t i s extreme* a re a th e s e Hegro

In the l a t t e r

farm ers born in th e a re a ranged from 65 per oent f o r

cro p p ers and la b o re rs to

93 per oent fo r owners*

In the case o f th e

w h ites only 5*3 p e r oent o f th e owners end none of th e croppers and la b o re rs wore bora i n the p a ris h of residence*

An in te r e s tin g fo o t i n

th e D elta d a ta is th a t non-farm heads a re alm ost fo u r tim es as l i k e l y a s farm heads to h a re been born in the p a ris h of residence} however* t h i s co n clu sio n must be d iscounted because o f the sm all number of oases upon which i t i s b ased . Those n o t bora in th e p a ris h o f resid en ce had come p rim a rily from o th e r p a r ts of th e s ta te * from M iss issip p i and in th e case o f D elta s h i t e farm heads* from Arkansas*

D elta whites* farm and non-fam * had

eeme from o th e r s t a t e s more o fte n th an any o th e r major group o f e it h e r

area* and more s t a t e s o f b i r t h were re p re se n te d among them*

Taking a l l

D e lta w hites to g eth er* th e most freq u e n t s t a t e of b ir th was Arkansas*

the n ex t M is s is s ip p i, and L ouisiana was th ird *

Hone o f -the farm r e n te r s

and only two cro p p ers and la b o re rs were born in Louisiana*

The D elta

w h ite owners* however* were born in L ouisiana most o fte n w ith M iss issip p i a c lo se second*

Through In fe rn a l in te rv ie w s i t was le a rn ed t h a t fre q u e n tly

th e s e owners had ecsse from o th e r p la n ta tio n s j u s t ao ro ss th e r i v e r in the D elta o f M ississip p i*

P r a c tic a lly a l l th e Hegro farm owners of th e D elta

26 n i t b o ra i n theft p arish * w hile alm ost o n e - f if th of the r e n te r s and o f th e wrapper* and la b o re rs a ero born in M ississip p i* Length of Residence Length of residonoo may be tak en as a s ig n if ic a n t index o f m o b ility * end fre q u e n tly high m o b ility is a e so o ia te d w ith poor economic and s o c ia l adjustm ent o f in d iv id u a ls and a low le v e l of i n s t i t u t i o n a l e ffic ie n c y * Length o f residonoo d a ta a re given in Table V* Hera again* we f in d th a t th e Hegroes have much lo n g er residonoo th an w hites*

The d iffe re n c e i s pronounced i n th e H ill area* and in th e

D elta i t i s very great*

Negroes d i f f e r very l i t t l e in th e two areas*

though th e re is c o n sid e ra b le v a r ia tio n among ten u re c la sse s*

Owners

show th e h i p e s t p e r c a s t of lif e tim e re sid en c e among farm ten u re groups I s b o th a re as* th e only exemption being th e s l i g h t l y h ig h e r p e r cent of lif e tim e re s id e n ts among H ill w hite re n te rs*

The o u tstan d in g d e p artu re

from th e g e n eral p le tu re Is th a t given by the D elta w h ite s, in which group only 5*5 p e r eent of th e farm owners were lif e tim e re sid e n ts* The corresponding p e r c e n ts fo r o th e r farm owners were 93*2 f o r D elta Hegroes* 91*2 f o r H ill Hegroes and 62*3 fo r G ill whites*

Hone o f th e

D elta w hite re n te rs* croppers or la b o re rs were l if e tim e re sid e n ts* H ill Hegro r e n te r s showed p r a c t ic a l l y th e same p ro p o rtio n o f l i f e r e s i ­ d e n ts as th e owners* end t h e croppers and la b o re rs were about lower*

10

p o in ts

The non-farm people had th e s h o r te s t p e rio d o f resid en c e among

th e H ill Hegroes* w hile in th e case o f D elta Hegroes* th e non-farm r a t e was very s im ila r to th e farm*

TABLI V FSR CSK7 OP MADS L IV I» SPSOIPISD HUMBER OF YEARS IS PRESENT COMMUNITY

P o p u latio n group

Number oases

S i l l W hitt 104 Owner# 61 12 Renter# 2 Cropper# end lab o rer# Non-farm 29 H ill Negro Owner# R enters Croppers and la b o re rs Non-farm

67 34

D elta White Owner# R enters Cropper# and la b o re rs Non-farm

95 19 14 47 15

D elta Negro Owner# R enter# Croppers and la b o re rs Non-farm

79 16 17 26

20 11 2

21

L ifttin t

64*6 62.5 66.7 WWW*

37.9 8 8 .0

91.2 90 .0 81.8 50.0 3.2 5.3

Born h a r t , liv e d elsew here 5 y rs. Under 5 y r s . or more 2 .6 1 .6

6.3 -3.4 3.0 2.9 5.0

One y r .

10.3 4 .5 5.9 5.0

to 6 y rs. 4 .7

5 .8

4 .8

1 .6

1 .6

1 .6

8.3

8.3 50.0 6 .9

13.8

—

—

—

m*

—

9.1

—

9.1

—

—

—

—

m im

m mm

— —

13.3 1.3 —

—

— —

25.5

6.7

2 0 .0

1 .5 •

-

5.9 3.8 --

16.8 5 .3

— «»«■§ —

—

weew

29.4

17.9

2 1 .0

2 1 .1

28.6 40.4 6 .7

14.3 21.3 6 .7

6 .4 —

1 1 .8

7.6 4 .6

—

13.8

—

—

—

e e fle

—

—

1 .1

50.0 15.8

1.5

1*6

6 .7 11.5

—

—

—

—

—

6 to 9 y rs.

A ll o th a r i tad unknown 20 or 1 0 to 19 y r s . more

6 .8 1 .6 «ee»

—

2

—

—

73.4 93.5 70.6 61.6 76.2

14.4 18.0 8 .3

Bom elsew here, liv e d h t r t

23.1 31.6 67.1

1 .5

«

—

—

— nm m *

50.1 5.5 10.5 —

w ee

5 .2 5.3 —

1 2 .6

m um

13.3

2 0 .0

13.3

5 .1 —

6 .3

1 .3

—

—

5 .1 6 .7 5 .9 7 .7

-

3 .8 14.3

15.4 4 .8

—

- -

• •

5 .9 — m+m

to -4

28 Leaving lif e tim e r e s i d e n t s , we fin d a few people born In th e p e ris h e s had liv e d elsew here a number of y e a rs and then retu rn ed *

T his

had happened f o r H i l l w h ites more th a n f o r any o th e r group, and t h i s seems o o n s is te n t w ith th e f a s t t h a t th e y had worked out o f a g ric u ltu r e mere them was tr u e of o th e r groups •

Lumbering had claim ed some tim e o f

a g r e a t M ay H ill w hite sad Hegro farm ers, whioh o fte n took them to ad­ jo in in g p a rish e s*

D e lta r e s id e n ts , w hite sad Hegro, appear not to mows

away and osms bask a f t e r being born th ere*

Theonly e x ce p tio n in th e

95 ease s of w h ite s , i s t h a t o f a non-farm head.

One Negro r e n te r in 17

e a s e s , a id one out o f 26 croppers and la b o re rs had moved away and r e ­ turned*

S ix ty -s ix p e r oent of the w hite croppers and la b o re rs of the

D e lta had been th e re 12*8

on ly one to f iv e y e a rs , 21 p e r oent s ix to n in e ,

p e r een t te n t o n in e te e n y e a rs , end none had been th e re longer* Residence H isto ry I t is b e liev e d th a t o rig in o f in d iv id u a ls , in clu d in g changes in

type o f re s id e n e e , as from H ill fam ily farm to a p la n ta tio n in th e D e lta , er from r u r a l non-fann in th e H ills to a D elta p la n ta tio n w ill a id i n sa understanding of the degree o f adjustm ent and th e in te r - o la s s c o n f l i c t when i t is found in a p a r tic u la r area*

The type o f b i r th p lae e

and resid en e e h is to ry of heads of households fo r th e fo u r m ajor groups in th e sample a re given in Table VI* I t should be remembered th a t a t the time o f th e in te rv ie w s , most o f th e people of the H ill a re a were liv in g on sin g le fam ily farm s, and most of th o se i n the D elta a re a were liv in g on p la n ta tio n s*

P r a c tic a lly

a l l th e e th e r s liv e d i n th e small ru ra l town in one of the two areas covered i n t h e study*

29

TABLE VI TYFB OP BIRTHPLACE AND RESIDENCE HISTORY OP HEADS, BY AREA AND RACSs PERCENTAGE DISYRIB0TION

B irth p la c e

fa b e r eases

P re se n t resid en e e H ills D elta White Negro White Negro

104

R ural non-farm

6*7

P la n ta tio n , h i l l s

5*8

67

95 3 .2

21.5

13.7

57.0

23.9

P la n ta tio n , d e lt a 70.1

F a i l y Yam, h i l l s

54*8

F a i l y Yam , d e lta

—

P la n ta tlo n , d e l t a , to r u r a l son-Y am

1 *0

2 .1

14,4

2.1

P a l l y Y am , h i l l s , to r u r a l n o n -fa m

7.6

P a l l y Yana, h i l l s , t o p la n ta tio n , d e lt a R ural non-Yana t o p la n ta ­ t i o n ; or fam ily Yarn, h i l l s or d e lt a A ll e th e r , in s lad in g unknown

79

37.9

4.8

5 .0

12.6

2 .5

12*5

5 .0

2 8.4

11.4

30

Area and race d if fe re n c e s are im m ediately a p p a re n t.

Sixty-nin©

p e r e e n t « f th e H ill w h ites ware born on fam ily farms In th e H ills* F i f t y - f iv e p e r eent were s t i l l th e r e , and 14 per oent were now r u r a l mctt-faxm*

A ll b u t fo u r o f the 67 H ill Hegroes were born on p la n ta tio n s

o r fam ily f a r e s i n th e H i l l s , 24 per c e n t in th e form er and 70 p e r oent i n th e l a t t e r , and th ey had not changed type o f residenee*

This means

th a t v ery l i t t l e n e c e s s ity fo r s o c ia l adjustm ent due to change of en­ vironm ent has been necessary f o r th e s e H ill p eo p le, w hite and Negro* I n th e D elta th e Negroes showed s im ila r s t a b i l i t y o f re s id e n e e , only 2*5 p e r eent re p o rtin g changes.

Almost t h r e e - f i f t h s were born on

D e lta p la n ta tio n s which was the p re s e n t type of re s id e n c e , and 21*5 p e r e e n t sh e were now r u r a l non-farm r e s id e n ts had always been such. A conspicuous f e e t was t h a t none had been born In th e H ills o r re p o rte d e v e r to have liv e d i n th e H ills*

In the oase o f D elta w h ite s, th e

fam ily farm i n the H ills was the most fre q u e n tly re p o rte d b irth p la c e , olaim ing 38 p e r een t o f 95 oases*

2

H ost of th e o th s rs who re p o rte d

gave th e D e lta p la n ta tio n or non-fazm as previous residence* The incidence of m ig ra tio n of w hites from fam ily farms in the H U ls to D e lta p la n ta tio n s has been noted in a number o f oases* I t was * s tu d ie d in te n s iv e ly i n one ward of Tensas p a ris h by H itt* Percy g iv e s

TJore than a fo u rth of th e D elta w hites did not r e p o r t t h i s in f o r a a tlo n i n u sa b le form , so i t i s b eliev ed t h a t the p ro p o rtio n from th e H ills i s even g re a te r* *3omer L* H i t t , "Recent M igration in to and w ith in th e Upper Mis­ s is s ip p i D elta of L ouisiana1* (Unpublished Ph« D* d i s s e r t a t io n . Dept* of Sociology, Harvard U n iv e rs ity , 1941), pp* 185-186*

31 to m o f th e p o l i t i c a l and s o c ia l Im p lic a tio n s of t h i s f a i r l y re c e n t A m ig ra tio n to th e D elta* In th e d e ta ile d d a ta , which i s n o t given h e re l a ta b u la r form, some in te r e s tin g v a r ia tio n s among te n u re c la s s e s were n o ted , e s p e c ia lly f o r D e lta w hites*

O n e -fifth o f the farm owners had come from fam ily

farm s i n th e H i l l s , w hile mere th a n t h r e e - f i f t h s o f th e cro p p ers and la b o r e r s had come from fam ily fa m e in the H ills to the Delta*

The

s ig n ific a n c e o f th e s e te n u re d iffe re n c e s l i e s in th e fa o t t h a t th e re was f o r the r e n t e r s , cro p p ers and la b o re rs an obvious red u c tio n in te n u re s t a t u s , sin c e on H i l l fam ily farm s th ey most fre q u e n tly were emasre* For D elta Hegro fa n n e rs , v a ria tio n s were not g r e a t, most o f them i n a l l ten u re c la s s e s having always liv e d on p la n ta tio n s in th e a re a o f p re s e n t resid en ce*

The d a ta showed, however, th a t Hegro owners were

c o n sid e ra b ly l e s s l ik e ly to have come from p la n ta tio n s than were r e n te r s and croppers* In th e ease of B i l l H egroes, more then f o u r - f i f t h s o f the owners a d f o u r - f i f t h s of t h e re n te r s were born on fam ily farms and re p o rte d no change, w hile about 73 p e r cen t of th e croppers and la b o re rs were bom on and new were liv in g on p la n ta tio n s I n th e H ills*

A few H ill p lan ­

t a t i o n Hegroes had become owners of fam ily farms w ith in the same p a ris h , and a s l i g h tl y g r e a te r p ro p o rtio n were now r e n te r s , but the v a s t m ajo rity g co n tin u ed a s croppers and la b o re rs on th e p la n ta tio n . ~'

^W illie® Alexander P ercy, op* c l t *, pp# 20-21* ®It should be remembered, $u>wever, th a t the H ill p la n ta tio n Is n o t v ery common in the p a ris h to d ay and is s te a d ily decreasing r e l a ti v e to fam ily farms*

32 The A g ric u ltu ra l Ladder S tu d en ts i n the f i e l d s of s o o ia l scien ce h a b itu a lly assume t h a t f a r a ten u re o la s s e s re p re se n t a h ie ra rc h y , whose s t r a t a a re based upon T alus a s so c ia tio n s *

They have f u r th e r assumed t h a t on t h i s v e r t i -

o a l so cle* owners belong a t th e top* re n te r s next* croppers in th e t h i r d p o s itio n and la b o re rs a t t h e bottom*

I t must be poin ted o u t t h a t the

freq u en cy o f in terch an g e o f p o s itio n s between t h a t o f cropper and la b o re r and the e e ry s im ila r economic and s o c ia l p o sitio n s* a s rev e ale d by ma­ t e r i a l le v e l of liv in g and by th e opinions o f non-farm people in the a re a s studied* make i t v e ry d o u b tfu l t h a t th e re i s any reason fo r d i f ­ f e r e n t ! a t in g on th e v e r t i c a l sc a le between them*

As a m atte r of f a e t

th e r e is d e f in ite evidence t h a t some' ty p e s o f s e m i-s k ille d fan s la b o re rs occupy economic p o s itio n s th a t a re f u l l y as high as t h a t of re n te rs* T rac to r d r iv e r s may be m entioned88 mi example •

The most outspoken c r i t i c

o f the p r a c tic e of c la s s if y in g croppers as te n a n ts in s te a d of d esig n atin g g them a s a type of la b o re r i s Smith* In th e l a t t e r re fe re n c e c ited * S n ith h as very c le a r l y in d ic a te d the f a ls e im pressions given th o se who th in k t h a t the census p ic tu re o f a decrease in tenancy in Louisiana means an improvement in sta tu s *

He p o in ts out th a t a pronounced de­

c re a s e o r in c re a se in tenancy f o r a p a ris h may be e ffe c te d when one o r two c o tto n p la n te r s r e - c l a s s i f y t h e i r croppers or lab o re rs* ^

Because o f

®T* Lynn Smith* The Sooiology o f Rural L ife (Mew Yorki Harper and Bros** 1940}* pp* 265-272~ See alsoTby th e same author* "The S ig n if i­ cance of Reported Trends in L ouisiana A g ric u ltu re * R The Southwestern S o c ia l S cience Q uarterly* XXII (December* 1941}* 233-241• ^Sm ith, ibid** pp. 238-240*

33

th t foregoing fa o is , In th is study croppers and laborers are grouped together, and oar tabular data w ill hot reveal the exchangee between 6

these too categories* As akam In Table YU, B ill white owners had changed tenure statu s le s s than any other white farm group* Ae pointed out before, they had been bora on fa n ily fam e, almost always in the same parish*

Table VII

reveals a lso that the fathers o f these farm owners were also owners in 85 per eent o f th e 6? eases*

One fourth o f them, however, had come up

from the renter group and 6*6 per cent had made the two steps from cropper or laborer status*

White ranters in th is same area had shown

somewhat higher m obility on the agricultural ladder* While one-third reported no change, another third had moved up from th e cropper and laborer po sit io n , one-sixth had lo s t ownership, and another six th were not accounted for* Tbs hegroes clearly showed more progress than whites up the ladder* This was most pronounced for B ill Hegroes, but the D elta Negroes ranked next*

In th e w ills only three Negro farmers had lo s t tenure sta tu s,

w hile almost three -f ourths o f the owners and 55 per cent o f the renters had gained status*

The gains made were pronounced, as over o n e-fifth

o f th e owners had risen from the nudes o f croppers and laborers, and 53 per cent o f them had been renters* Only the croppers and laborers bad lo s t tenure sta tu s, in the ease of which three out o f eleven eases had been renters before.

I----------------fo r a sound b asis o f tenure class IfIcation o f farmers in Louisiana, see Ralph J* Ramsey and Harold Hoffsooner, Farm Tenancy in Louisiana. Bureau o f A gricultural Economics In cooperation with the Louisiana Agri. Exper* Sta* (Washington; U8DA, BAB, 1941), 2-ID.

TABU T il r a u u HISTOUT Of THB PAM HBAD8 BT ABU, UOS AID TBJTOIB o u s t I PEHOHTTAaB DISTHIMJTIOI

Population group

SO lumber Laborer Laborer Renter Owner Owner to Renter Gained A ll oth^ to la ­ to laborer to eases ohange or orop- or crop­ ( or* owner renter or crop* borer or per to per to cropper dlip renter per owner

S ill Shito Owners Renters Croppers and laborers

76 61

H ill Hegro

66

Owners R enters

54

12 2

58.7 65.9 55.3 60*0

6.9 mm

38 .S

5.9

2 0 .0

2 .7

« * •*

mm

1 .5

6 .6

£4.6

mm

—

mm

ew ee

mrn

16.7

mm

mm mm

mm

—

60*0

6 .7 4 .9 16.7 • •

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

16*4

1 0 .8 2 0 .6

27.7 52*9

1.5

- -

4 .6

mm

1 .6

mm

mm

—

mm

mm

20 11

38.5 26.6 4 6 .0 65*6

—

mm

mm

mm

27.3

mm

9 .1

13.8

R enters Croppers and la b o re rs

80 19 14 47

D elta Segro Owners R enters Croppers and la b o re rs

58 16 17 26

Croppers and laborers Delta White Owners

mm

50.0

C O lf

—

6 .0

—

mm

«4se

mm

56,0 56*8 60*0 29*8

2.5 5.5 7.1

2.5

—

6 .5

mm

mm

mm

—

mm

96.7

mm

—

mm

mm

55*4 46*7 52*9 57.7

13,8

5 .4 15.5

mm mm

47.1

—

10*5 40.0

—

mrn

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

* *

mm

10*6

2 .5

22*6

mm

—

47.4

mm

mrn

mm

14.9

31*9

4 .5

19.1

mm

5.4

1 .7

13.8

mm

—

8 . 8

W *i

mm

mm

7.7

3 .8

mm*

mm mm

30.8

26 Among D e lta H | m « 62 p er o en t o f th e o m » rs had made g a la s , 12 p e r c e n t from m t s r i *

In th e oeee o f r e n t e r s , 47 p e r oent had r i s e n

from m ong th e e ro p p e rs and lab o rs re and th e r e s t had made no change. K e r e n p e r se n t of th e ero p p ers and la b o re rs had ones enjoyed r e n te r s t a t e s , one o f th e 26 h a rin g gained and then l o s t t h i s p o sitio n * As In e th e r phenomena, th e D elta w h ite s showed g r e a te s t v a r ia ­ b i l i t y and h ig h e r m o b ility , and in t h i s case o f the a g r ic u ltu r a l la d d e r, th e movement was most o fte n down*

Only

6

per o en t o f 80 oases re p o rte d

d e f i n i t e g ain s i n te n u re s t a t u s , 25 p e r s e n t re p o rte d no change, end 96 p e r oent had l o s t ten u re s ta tu s *

G re a te s t lo s s was shown by r e n t e r s ,

96 p e r oent o f whom had form erly owned, b u t 14*9 p e r c e n t o f the eroppers sad la b o r e rs had b een reduced from th e s ta tu s o f owners*

Supplementary

in fo rm a tio n in d ic a te s t h a t th e s e people had owned fam ily farms i n th e H i l ls o f A rkansas, M is s is s ip p i, L o u isia n a, and a few i n o th er s t a t e s , and f o r v a rio u s economic reasons had eome to th e D elta where th ey had n o t been a b le to purchase land* Table T i l l , which gives th e occupation and ten u re o f th e f a th e r s o f th e s e farm h ead s, throw s fu r th e r l i g h t on th e S h iftin g o f p o s itio n s . B an ters were much more fre q u e n tly th e sons o f owners than th ey were o f r e n t e r s , t h i s being re p o rte d in 91 p er cen t of th e eases*

In th e case

o f th e H ill Vegroes 74 p e r oent of t h e owners, 20 p er cent of the ra n to rs mad h a lf o f the cro p p ers and la b o re rs were sons o f owners* T his makes i t seem t h a t th e p resen t g e n e ra tio n were le s s o fte n owners th a n t h e i r fa th e rs *

B anters gave the s ta tu e o f t h e i r f a th e r s as equal

o r h ig h e r in a l l c a se s th a n t h e i r own*

TABU T i l l OCCOTATIOH ASD TEHORE OF FATB88 OF XAIB BBAB OF HOUSEHOLD* FERCBBTAGB DIST8IBDTI08

P o p u la tio n group

H ill White Ownera R enter* Cropper* and la b o re rs Non-farm

Hisober oases

P la n ta tio n owner o r manager

Owner

79 39

1 .3

73.4 84.6 90.9

2*6

FARM R enter

P ro fe s­ s io n a l

Merchant salesman or o ffic ia l

S k ille d ft semi­ s k ille d

1 0 .1

—

6 .3

1 .3

mm

mrn

6 .1 2 .6

2 .6

10.3 9.1

mm

—

mm

mm

—

—

—

mm

mm

—

mm

—

17.2

6 .9

3 .4

11

—

—

mm

29

mm

61.7

10.3

—

B i l l Negro Owners R enters Croppers and la b o re rs Non-farm

66

mm

6 6 .1

27 20 8 1

74.1 80.0

mm

37.6 18.6 70.0 26.0

1 .8

mm

mrn

D e lta White Owners R e n te rs C roppers end la b o re rs Non-farm

88

10*6

18 18 41 13

27*8

D e lta Vegro Owners R en ters Croppers and la b o re rs Non-fane

mm

mm

— 30*8

67

—

12

eeeo

14

—

22

mm

9

mm

—

6 0 .0 1 0 0 .0

—

mm

8 .7

6 .4 3 .7

mm mm —

SB« 0 ~

10.3 mm

mm

eewa

- -

mm

mm

—

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

3.6

mm

4 .7

7.1

3 .6

—

mm

1 1 .1

6 .6

mm

30.8 48.8

mm

mm

7*7

eaem

mm

7.3

mm

^ew

mm

• .*

mm

7 .7

4 .9 83.1

mm

8 6 .1 8 8 .8

1 .8

1 .8

42.9 22.7

46.6 83.8 42.9 72.7

6 8 .8

mm

41.8 60.0 61.6 81.7 98.6

29.4

16.6 83.8 14.8 4.6 2 2 .2

feekiDsd

Cropper or la b o re r

6 .8

mm

7 .3

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

1 1 .1

mm

mm

1 1 .1

a

37 p r t n s f c t d a unique p ic tu re * gave a low er te n u re s ta tu e fo r h is fa th e r* was a r a t e r *

Only one o f 18 owners

In t h a t ease* th e f a th e r

H alf wax* owners* 28 p e r c e n t were p la n ta tio n owners or

managers* and the e th e r s were nom-fara*

Of th e re n te rs * 81*8 p e r oent

re p o rte d f a th e r s t o have b een owners* and SI p e r se n t re n te rs * e th e r s were non-fern*

The few

Of the 41 e ro p p e rs and lab o re rs* f a th e r s had been

o f th e ease s ta tu s i n only 7*7 p er oent o f th e oases*

The o th e rs appeared

t o h a re enjoyed h ig h e r te n u re s ta tu s th a n f a th e r s o f th e re n te rs*

T h irty f

two p e r s e n t had bean owners and 49 p e r oent re n te rs* I t i s i n te r e s tin g t o n o te t h a t th e m on-fara groups never re p o rte d t h e i r f a t h e r s a s e ro p p e rs o r la b o re rs and alm ost never a s re n te rs *

The

D e lta aoae-fam Negroes a re an exception* in which ease f iv e out o f n in e s a id t h e i r f a t h e r s bad bean re n te rs *

Since i n t h e non-fans groups from

22 p e r cent o f the D elta Negroes to 5*2 p e r o en t o f th e H ill w h ites gave t h e i r f a t h e r s 9 te n u re a s farm owner* i t In d ic a te s t h a t th e sons o f owners le a v e fa m in g to a g r e a te r e x te n t than th o se o f o th e r te n u re groups*

In n e s t e a se s th e H ill w hites and Negros a and the D elta Negroes were b o rn i n the s t a t e and p a ris h o f residence* w hile only a few o f th e D elta w h ites were*

This was tru e of farm and non-farm w ith minor v a ria ­

tio n s * except in case o f D e lta whites* in which non-farm heads had been born i n th e p a ria h much more o fte n th a n fa n s heads*

In th e H ills* osn ers

end r e n te r s were b o ra in th e p a ris h o f resid en c e a b i t more fre q u e n tly th a n th e e ro p p e rs and lab o re rs*

Negroes were born in th e p a ris h of

re sid e n c e more o fte n th a n w h ites in th e H ills and much more fre q u e n tly th an w h ites i n tb s D elta*

T his ru le h eld for a l l ten u re c la sse s*

38 M is s is s ip p i and Arkansas w ert th s s t a t e s o f b i r t h of mors D e lta w h ite s th a n was Louisiana*

Owners were t h e o n ly D e lta ufoite ten u re

group horn m ost o fte n i n the s t a te of re s id e n c e . In len g th o f resid en c e Negroes again exceeded w h ite s .

The d i f ­

fe re n c e was pronounced i n the H ills end extreme i n th e Delta*

H ill

w h ite s i n a l l te n u re c la s s e s shewed lo n g er resid en ce th an D elta w h ite s , only a l i t t l e over fiv e p e r oent of whom were l i f e re s id e n ts *

Hone of

th s D e lta w hits r e n t e r s , ero p p ers or la b o re rs were lif e tim e re sid e n ts* Tenure c la s s d iffe re n c e s were s lig h t among Negroes.

In th e H ills both

w h ites and Negroes i n a few o ases had l e f t the a re a and returned*

D elta

r e s i d e n t s , w hite and Negro who a re bora i n th e D e lta , appear not to move away and re tu rn * H ill Vegroes and w h ites were born g e n e ra lly on H ill fam ily farm s, though most of th e Begre croppers and la b o re rs were born on p la n ta tio n s in 1dm p a rish *

In th e D elta the Negroes were born on the D elta p la n ta ­

t i o n s , except f o r a few n o n -fa ra , w hile th e farm w h ites gave th e H ill fam ily f a r a a s th e type of b irth p la c e in most oases*

D elta w hite owners

were born In the H ills l e a s t fre q u e n tly among ten u re e la sse s* More Negroes than w hites in the sample o f farm ers had olimbed the a g r ic u ltu r a l ladder*

In th e H ills t h i s may be explained by th e f a c t

t h a t th ey more o fte n were b orn o f p a re n ts whose ten u re s ta tu s was below t h a t of owners*

I n th e D elta more of the w h ites were m ig ran ts from B ill

fam ily f a m e where th ey were most o fte n owners, while in the new lo ca­ t i o n th ey were r e n te r s , eroppers and lab o rers* Leas Negroes had l o s t a h ig h er p o s itio n on th e la d d e r, t h i s being tru e in both a re a s and perhaps being a g ain p a r t i a l l y accounted fo r by

th e f t o t t h a t th ey i t r i more o fte n b o m i n a tenure o la s s somewhat low er th e n t h a t of w hites*

G re a te s t lo s s of s ta in s Izl both a re a s

seem ed t o be t h a t s u ffe re d by w h ites who had fo rm erly been owners,

b ein g muoh g r e a te r fo r th e s e o f th e D e lta .

CHAPTER I I I POPULATION AND FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS

1a

o rd er t h a t seme o f

th e

d iffe re n c e s In th e gens r a l f e a tu r e s o f

th e p o p u latio n s o f th e t e e a re a s may he se e n , 1940 census d a ta are used to p re se n t t o t a l and ru ra l-fa rm p o p u latio n s and the sex, raoe and na­ t i v i t y com position o f th e te c p a ris h e s from which samples s e r e ta k e n . These d ata a re p resen te d i n Table IX. The p o p u latio n of th s B i l l p a ris h , S t . H elena, i s 80*9 p er oent male and 49*1 p e r cent fem ale, c h il e t h a t of th e D e lta p a ris h i s 49*8 p e r s e a t male and 50*2 p e r e a s t female*

The corresponding sex r a t i o s a re 103*6

and 99.3 fo r the H ill and D elta p a ris h e s re s p e c tiv e ly *

Since the sex

r a t i o f o r th e r u r a l p o p u la tio n o f the ^ e n tire n a tio n , of L o u isian a, and p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t of th e farm p o p u la tio n , i s much g re a te r th a n

100,

and

s ia e e th e se p a ris h e s have such high p ro p o rtio n s o f farm p eople, th e r e l a ti v e ly low se x r a t i o s o f th e se two p a ris h e s must be con sid ered ex­ c ep tio n a l*

I t su g g ests t h a t th e eooaomio o p p o rtu n itie s fo r men are

p o o r, o r t h a t th e r a t e of d ep artu re of fem ales i s n o t so g r e a t as i s u s u a lly expected*

There i s a n o th e r f a c t o r , d e scrib e d l a t e r in the

c h a p te r, t h a t a p p lie s t o th e D eltas

So many of the w hite people th e re

a re immigrants from o th e r s t a t e s , and Immigrants to farm a re a s u su a lly c o n ta in s o re m ales th an females* of m ales is high*

A pparently th e n , the r a te of d e p artu re

Statem ents o f inform ers in d ic a te d th a t t h i s was e s ­

p e c ia lly tr u e fo r high school g rad u a tes in T ensas, and fo r male youth g e n e ra lly i n S t. Helena*

I t must be remembered, to o , th a t any m igrant 40

table ix

SfiX, BAOB, NATIVITT, AMD RUSAL*FARtf POPULATION OF THE TWO PARISHBSi 1940$ PBRCBMTAOfi DISTRIBUTION1

RACE 8 SX

F a rta h St* Helena Tensas

T o ta l popula­ t io n

WHITS N ative

Foreign bora

Negro

Hale

Female

T otal

9,548

50.9

49.1

47.1

99*8

0 .2

62.9

15,940

4 9 .S

60.2

29.7

98.5

1 .4

70.2

^Bureau of the Census, S ix teen th Consul of the United S t a t e n 1940.

Other raoea

Rtural farm 86.4

•03

78.0

S e rie s F-»7, Mo* 31, p . 2*

s

42 to an urban a r e a m ust lea v e e i t h e r St* Helena or Tons as* Bath p a r i s h a t have mar# Negroes th a n w h ite s.

In th e H ill p a ris h

62*9 par c e n t a r e Begro and i n th s D e lta 70*1 p e r cant*

The exoass of

fe g ro e s decreased s l i g h t l y and s im ila r ly f o r both a re a s i n th e t h i r t i e s * F o reig n -horn a re alm ost n o n -e x is te n t in th e H i l l s , th e re being o nly seven, and th e D elta p a ris h had o n ly

68

or 1*4 p er c e n t o f i t s w hite

population* A ll people i n both p a ris h e s a re c l a s s i f i e d a s r u r a l and m ost of them a re n s ra l farm*

In th e H ill p a r is h 86*4 p e r oent and in the D elta

7 8.0 per e e e t mars r u r a l fa n s people in 1940*

There i s only one in c o r­

p o rated town in St* H elena, th e county s e a t , and i t s p o p u latio n in 1940 mas l e s s th a n 40Q*

There a re th r e e in co rp o ra te d p la c e s i n T ensas, each

somewhat la r g e r than t h a t of the H ill p a ris h , but s t i l l eaoh o f th e th re e i s c o n sid erab ly le s s th a n 1800* Ages o f Members o f Households Ages o f p a re n ts and of o th e r members o f households w ill be given in ' t h i s se ctio n *

I t is b eliev e d t h a t th e r e la tiv e ages of the fa m

heads in v a rio u s ten u re c la s s e s o fte n serve as a valu ab le index to th e p ro g ress t h a t has been o r may be made on t h e a g r ic u ltu r a l ladder*

Then

to o , the ages of boys and g i r l s living w ith parent a are a f a i r measure of th e s t a b i l i t y o f fam ily membership* Table X g iv es th e age d is tr ib u tio n of male heads of households by a re a , race and te n u re o la s s , and a ls o f o r the non-farm , by te n y e a r periods*

D elta w h ites appear to be th e youngest of th e four p r in c ip a l

TJlBLB X AOBS OF WA1R HBADS OF HOTTSBHOLDS) PSRCKBTA8 E DISTRIBUTION

Itamber oases

20

to 29

30 to 39

S i l l S h ite Owner* Renter* Oroppere and la b o re r* H on-far»

87 51 28

4*3

H ill S*£ro Owner* Renter* Cropper* and lab o re r* H on-fant

68 31

19.0 12.9

20 11 1

2 0 .0 1 0 0 .0

16.1 25.0 27.8 —

D e lta S h ite 1 Owner* R en ter 8 Cropper* and lab o re r* Non-far»

88

20.4

17.0

D e lta Hegro Owner* Renter* Cropper* and lab o rer* Hon-farm

11 2

18 13 44 13

8*0

9*8 9*1 —

27.5

26.4 19.6 27.5 —

18.4 17.6 18.2

2 1 .8

23.6 27.5 1 0 0 .0

6 .8

9 .8 mm

—

21.7

4 .3

2 0 .6

23.8 29.0

2 0 .6

14.3 12.9

5*2

2 0 .0

mm

9.1

m*m

mm

—

2 0 .0

18.2

25.8 15.0 18.2

mm

25.1 20.4 7.7

31.8 38.9 30.8 29.6 30.8

20.4 33.3 25.1 13.6 23.1

24.6 7 .7 26.0 32.0 26.7

34.8 38.5 37*5 28.0 40.0

20.3 30.3 25.0 16.0 13.3

68

7 .2

13 16 28 15

mm

6 .8

16.7 7 .7 4 .6 —

ass ^On« D e lta S h it* eropper was under tw enty

70 end ei

8 .7

15.4 29.5 23.1

6 .7

mm

60 to 69

17.4

1 1 .1

1 2 .0

18.4 19.6 18.2

60 to 69

45.5

- -

6.5

40 to 49

1 .6

2.3 — —

mm

15.4

1 0 .1

2 .8

7 .7 6 .3

16.4 —

1 2 .0

mm

13.5

mm

44 groups o f hoods l a th s sample•

A w hite eropper of t h a t a re a I s th e

o n ly male head whose age i s under 20 years*

H ill Negroes come nest#

follow ed by D elta Negroes whloh lea v e s the H ill w h ites a s th e o ld e s t grox^u

D iffere n ce s are i r r e g u l a r and sometimes sm a ll, but unm istakable*

Sinee th e H i l l farm ers who o o n a tit u te 73*6 p e r oent o f H ill w h ites a re predom inantly owners* i t i s n e t s u rp ris in g t h a t th ey are older*

Cas­

p a r lag te n u re o l a s see* one fin d s th e se owners to be somewhat o ld e r th an o th e r H ill whites*

The tim e i t ta k e s t o become an owner oould be p a rt

o f th e explanation* b u t i f owners a re more s ta b le i n re sid e n c e and ooeupatdon* th e same e f f e o t on age oould r e s u lt*

Among the D elta w hites#

m entioned above a s th e youngest group, i t i s in te r e s tin g to n o te t h a t th e r e i s n o t an owner among th e e ig h te e n oases who i s under 30 end only two a re under 40* o f age*

Seventy-two p er oent o f them a re from 50 to 69 y e ars

In f a s t e f a l l fo u r owner groups i n Table X, D elta Negroes a re

th e o n ly ones a s o ld a s the D elta w hites*

This< em phasises the age d if ­

fe re n c e s among te n u re groups where tenancy and th e p la n ta tio n a re m ajor p a r t s of th e dosim ant p a tte rn * In the extrem e ages* 70 and over, r e p re s e n ta tiv e s among the farm ers a r e a l l owners* end only in the oaee of D e lta w hites i s th e re a t o t a l absence of owners in t h i s age group*

I t appears then t h a t very young

and veiy e ld men a re ab sen t among D elta w hite owners* and very o ld are absesfc in a l l th e ten u re groups of th a t area*

The conspicuous number

o f widows among the owners in the D elta in d ic a te s e a rly deaths among th e male farm owners*

Retirem ent and change from farm to non-farm

resid en c e i n l a t e r y e a rs a re suspected as f u r th e r causes of th is absenee*

45

S ia m w hit* owners a re more fre q u e n tly n a tiv e s o f th e Delta* and o th e r w h ite te n u re groups are almost in v a r ia b ly m ig ran ts from H ill areas* t h i s age differenow by te n u re may be viewed as one of the funds* m ental d iffe re n c e s between n a tiv e s and m ig ra n ts in th e Delta*

This

ag rees s u b s ta n tia lly w ith th e fin d in g of H itt in h is study of m ig ra tio n i n th e D e lta ,* and a le e w ith th a t o f f a i t h . * Age o f wives and o f fem ale heads a re given in fa b le XI*

As one

would l o g ic a lly expect* th e area* race* and te n u re d iffe re n c e s c o r­ respond c lo s e ly t o th o se f o r males* however*

Some s p e c ia l f a c t s a re observable*

The la b o re rs and croppers have a monopoly on th o se under 20

y e a rs o f age* even -though t h i s age group i s re p re se n te d in th r e e o f th e fo u r m ajor c a te g o rie s*

The exception i s t h a t o f th e H ill w h ite s, in

which group, i t was noted above* the males were p rim a rily owners and r e l a t i v e l y advanced i n age*

In the two age groups above 59* n o t one

o f th e ero p p ers o r la b o re rs i n the t o t a l sample i s found* which le n d s f u r th e r w eight t o the th e o ry t h a t m igrants to a new farm a re a , p a r­ t i c u l a r l y n o tic e a b le in the Delta* and alm ost always lower in tenure s ta tu s th an owners* a re r e l a t i v e l y younger th an n a tiv es# Sons o f le g ro e s liv in g w ith p a re n ts are younger* as seen In Table XII* th a n th e s e o f w hites*

Those tinder te n y e ars o f age make

up 47 p e r eerib of th e sons o f H ill Negroes* 58*5 p e r oent f o r D elta w h ites and 33*5 p e r oent fo r H ill w h ite s .

When we tu r n to sons above

tw en ty -five* we fin d none liv in g w ith Negro p a re n ts except i n th e ease o f one D elta non-farm fam ily* ^Homer t 7 H itt* op* s it* * Table 47* p . 223* 2T- Lynn fa ith * “C h a r a c te r is tic s o f M ig ra n ts," The Southw estern S o c ia l Science Q uarterly* XXI (tfareh* 1941), 542* '

TABU XI

A9B8 OP 1IIVBS ABD THOSE PMALM RSPORTBD Aft BEAM OP HOUSEHOLDS

Bomber oases Wader

20

H ill White Owner* R enter* Croppers sad la b o re rs 51on-farm

87 48

mm

11 8

mrn

28

a s am

H ill Negro Owners R enters Croppers and la b o re rs Non-farm

62 30

1 .6

D e lta White Owners R enters C roppers and la b o re rs Non-farm

88

3.4

18 14 42 14

asas

D e lta Negro Owners R enters Croppers and la b o re rs Non-farm

20 10 2

77 16 16 26 20

mm

mm

— — 10*0

* »

7.1 sees

1.3

20

to 29

60 to 69

29.9 30.4 27.3 60.0 28.6

16.1 17.4 18.2

18.4 26.1 18.2

• * .

m » s»

14.3

7.1

32.2 23.3 36.0 60,0 50.0

2 2 .6

24.2 30.0

11.3 13.8

2 0 .0

2 0 .0 1 0 ,0

1 0 .0 1 0 .0

e s^

60.0

mm

51.8 38*9 21.4 33.3 26.6

30.7 27.8 42*9 28.6 28.6

26.6 13.3 37.6 23.1 40.0

24.7 26.7 31.3 19.2 26.0

19.3 6 .6

21.4 23.8 21.4

3 .8 mm

2 0 .0

mm

40 to 49

19.6 16.2 27.3 60.0 21.4

23.4 6.7 18.0 38.6

—

30 to 39

23.3 26.0

60 t o 69 10.3 6 .5 9.1 — 17,9 6 .1 1 0 .0 1 0 .0 —

—

70 and o r e r 6 .7 4 .3 —

mm

10.7 **• mm mm

— —

9 .1

4 .5

1*1

2 2 .2

6 .6

mm

7.1 7.1

7.1

mrn

mm

mm

14.3

7.1

2 .6

1 .3 6 .7

18.2 40.0 12.5 16.4

mm

1 0 .0

6 .0

6 .7

mm mm

&

z* 32 g*OI 8*91 ©•08 8*91

8*88 1*12

6*39 0*03 8*93

0*01

8*n 4*9 I l*ZZ e*29 8 *6 T

9*13 4*93 1*98 9*82 9*92 *

2*82 9*T8 1*4

61 91

2*61

8*98 4*98 0*09 9*88

29

ajejoq«x pot Ii«d3ft29 •je q s e g fi» « o 048*1

8*9t 4*81 4*22 8*9t 9*8t

0*09 0*09 8*42 8*9t 0*98

91 94

sn ^ -sq i pro u « d l« jt0

-

01

22

9T 321

—

3*81 3*9 1*92 0*81

8*9 8*98 4*91 8*91

0*92 9*01 S*8 t 0*81

3*93 6*43 4*09 3*49

91 61 99 69

6*21

4*T3 2*81 0*09 0*93 4*92

9*98 9*98 4*9 9*6t 8*88

9*03 9*99 4*99 9*82 8*88

82 II 91 99 901

IM W

4*9 8*98 T*8 T 4ftfcO 08

6T

o* 9 t

9 t ©* OX 01

i iH

6

S

8*88

IJMBQ ®9HUI *rc®a K n g -a e | *JGJtoq«x p ro u id lM o titu o lir a

w >h

•aeao qv t psv vaeddojo UtBKO •9P 0I IITH

tm rte Jt*qwn«

g o x a f x iu x o m r s m m u *§zsmv XT»«

WBJ* c i t . f Pp* 2-10*

e x te n t t h a t a c la s s ste re o ty p e hae been e re c te d by the e x iste n c e o f so many o f th e u n s k ille d f a m lab o rers* can t h i s group be given a d e f i n i te p la e e a t th e bottom o f th e a g r ic u ltu r a l lad d e r. In th e H ill a re a also* th e s ta tu s of th e w hite fa m la b o re r i s un­ c e rta in *

He la l i k e l y to be an o th er lo c a l fa rm e r's son, who I s h ire d

by the n enth and sh a re s the em ployer's house fo r lodging and meals* In many in sta n c e s no d iffe re n c e in s o c ia l s ta tu s appears to be implied* I n o th e r e ase s th e members of one fa m ow ner's fam ily work fo r wages on the neighboring f a m fo r the day* and i t sometimes happens th a t the employee today become a th e employer the follow ing week o r month* In th e c a se o f t h e Hegro fa m la b o re r in the H ills* th e re is more l ik e l y to be a c o r r e la tio n between ten u re s ta tu s and s o c ia l sta tu s* e s p e c ia lly i f the Hegro i s an a d u lt and does not o p e ra te land f o r him­ s e lf*

Here again* however* i t must be remembered th a t p a rt-tim e f a m

work f o r wages by o p e ra to r fa m ilie s i s co n sid erab ly more common than f u l l tim e wage employment*

The g re a te r sig n ific a n c e of eueh p a rt-tim e

work in St* H elena i s seen when i t is considered th a t in 1940 owner o p e ra to rs made up 44 p e r cent o f a l l colored operators* w hile in Tensas o n ly 9 p er c e n t o f a l l co lo re d o p e ra to rs were owners. Opinions B e la tiv e to th e W elfare o f C e rta in C lasses What people b e lie v e about the w elfare o f them selves as an o ccupatio n al o r te n u re group* o r what th sy th in k of o th e r groups* tends to a f f e c t those holding suoh opinions* sin e e a l l su b je c tiv e standards of liv in g a re r e l a ­ tiv e * An im portant elem ent is th e r e la tio n between "stan d ard ” and "p lan e” o f liv in g * and the d iffe re n c e between th ese two Is always brought in to

233 sh a rp e r r e l i e f l a an a re a of pronounced economic s t r a t i f i c a t i o n *

If a

sta n d ard is vexy Ion wa may have what Ely seems to see as a poverty o f wants*^ I t i s b e lie v e d t h a t a tt r ib u t i n g a h ig t o r low le v e l of liv in g t o a race o r c l a s s can be In te r p r e te d a s a re c o g n itio n of a comparable degree e f s o c ia l s t a t u s i n t h a t group* In th e s e r i e s o f ta b le s t h a t a re to fo llo w , c la s s w elfare w ill be measured l a term s e f th e opinions given by persons who l iv e in th e a re a s and o fte n are members o f th e c la s s e s in question* g iv en , reasons f b r holding them were obtained*

When opinions were

the opinions and the

reasons f o r them a re given i n the tab les* The f i r s t opinions r e l a te to the w elfare o f town and f a m people* The inform ants were asked, "Whom do you b e lie v e are b e t t e r o f f around h e re , people liv in g i n town o r on farm s?"

The ta b u la te d answers a re

given i n Table LXXV. The o p in io n s g iv en , and th e reasons f o r the choice are o o neentrated to such an e x te n t and so c o n s is te n tly fo r w hites and Sfegroes o f both a r e a s , th a t one can say th e predominant opinion in th e a re a s was ob* ta in sd *

More than 70 per oent of the members of both ra c e s of each

a re a thought th e people liv in g on farm s wore b e tt e r o f f , and over th re e f i f t h s o f the l e a s t c e r t a i n group and 04 p er oent of th e most c e r ta in group gave economic reaso n s f o r th e supposed g re a te r w elfare of the ^alchaSTT* E ly , O u tlin es of Economies (Hew Yorkt The Macmillan Company, 1931), p* 1551 See th e s ix th e d itio n (1937) o f t h i s book fo r an ex eel l e n t d isc u ssio n e f "Standard* and "Level” of liv in g , pp. 145-47.

table lxxt

HrQSiUR8 WHO BBLISVE PSOH£ LIVI10 I I TOW* OR TH06B UTII8 01 PARKS ARS BETTIS Off, WITH REASOHS POR OPIHIONS| PEHOESTAQE DISTRIBWTIOH

Wumber e tu i

Don't know or not re p o rte d

loononle rontons

Whit®

104

4.8

11.6

Segro

67

1 .5

Delta* Whit®1

05

Hegro

79

Inform ants

BSTT1R OFT IW TOWI Payoho- Comforts lo g ic a l and oon▼onlsnoos

J J J — f softest! e reasons o th er reasons

BSTTBB OFF OK FAHMS Psyehe* Comforts A ll o th e r lo g io a l and so n venienees reaso n s

H ill* 1.0

1.0

1.9

71.2

8 .6

1 .0

3 .0

8 .0

mm

—

mm

94.0

1.6

—

mm

12.6

7.4

mm

3.2

3.2

61.1

7 .4

1.1

5 .2

1.5

18.9

mm

mm

2.5

61.0

mm

mm

1*5

nz

^Opi n i ob of om S e l t . w hits is not o ln sc ifie d *

3*0 people l i i l a s on farm s* 91th m il th e c o n siste n c y , th e re mere n o tic e a b le d iffe re n c e s* Negroes mere mere uniform in t h e i r s e le c tio n of th e farm and of eco­ nomic re a so n s, mad H ill Segroes mere alm ost unanimous in th e s e op i n i one* 8111 w h ites mere more uniform ly o f th e sane o p in io n than B e lts w hites* These a re a d iffe re n c e s In d ic a te th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f more complete adjustm ent o f H ill th a n B e lts p e o p le, and p e rh a p s, t h a t Negroes are somewhat b e t t e r s a t i s f i e d th an w hites in each area* Opini ons in Table LXXVI in d ic a te w hether th e p o o rest white people I n town ofr on f a m e a r e w orst o f f , and th e answers a re found t o be con­ s i s t e n t w ith th o se i n th e previous ta b le * Those Tawing th e po o rest people in to m as w orst o f f ranged from 70 p er c e n t f o r D elta w h ite s, mho were l e a s t c e r t a i n , to 97 per cent f o r H ill Begroes mho w ere most uniform ly of t h a t opinion*

N early a l l reaso n s

given were c l a s s i f i e d as economic* A s ig n if ic a n t f a c t I s th a t th e H ill Negroes mho so overwhelmingly p ick farm r e s id e n ts as b e t t e r o f f , a re alm ost e n ti r e l y f&xm people* Our n ex t q u e stio n r e f e r s to the w elfare o f white te n u re cla sses* People questioned mere asked, *Hhieh ten u re c la s s of w hite farm people to you th in k b e s t of f t * sad the ten u re c la s s e s were sp e c ifie d as owners, r e n t e r s , c ro p p e rs o r "h&lf-hmxde* and lab o re rs*

Opinions are given in

Table LIX7IIThere was a very d e f in ite c o n ce n tra tio n of answers in fav o r o f owners, b u t th e reaso n s were somewhat l e s s c o n siste n t*

As in answers to

th e two p rev io u s q u e stio n s , D elta w hites showsd le a s t uniform ity*

Even

tk ev g i f o u r - f i f t h s o f them named owners as b e s t o f f , j u s t 44 p er cent gave economic reasons only fo r t h i s o p in io n , and o n e-eighth of them d id

TABU LXXTI

nrOBMABTS TOO BSLIBVB POOREST WHITB TO«l 08 POOREST WHITE FA8B PEOPLE ABB WORSE OFF, ADD RSA80H FOR OPIKIOBj FSROSDfTAOB DISTRIBUTIO* TOWB lumber oases

D on't know or n o t rep o rte d

Booncmio Psycho­ reason* lo g ic a l reasons

FABf A ll o th e r reasons or not s ta te d

Eoonamio reasons

Psycho­ lo g ie s !

TUT”

o th e r reaso n s o r not s ta te d

H illt White

104

6.7

74.0

—

8.7

6 .8

«*«*

4.8

Segro

67

1 .6

89.6

4.5

5.0

1 .6

—

—

D elta White

@6

1 2 .6

76,8

—

3.2

4 ,2

Kegro

79

2.5

84.8

2.5

. .

6*1

1.5

A ll o th e rs

3,2

1 .1

3.8

—

TABLS UEX7II INFORMANTS WHO BELIEVE 8PBCIFIED TENURE CUSS OP WHITE FA» PEOPLE IS BETTER OFF, WITH REASONS FOR OPINION| PERCENTAOS DISTRIBUTION

OWNERS S ta b il­ Psyohoi t y of lo g io a l looa*» reasons tio n

Number oases

Don’t know or not rep o rte d

Soonomlo reasons

H ill t White

104

1 .9

56.8

2.9

2 .9

Negro

6?

mm

83.6

ewes

mrn

White

95

18.6

44.2

Negro

T9

8 .5

68.4

n a tio n of f i r s t 3 reasons

A ll o th e r reasons

RENTERS CROPPERS LABORER ATI A ll A ll ....... m ” ...... reasons reasons reasons othera

24.0

7.7

1 .0

2 .9

1 .0

6 .0

6 .0

4 .5

—

mm

6 .3

23.2

7.4

3.2

2 .1

1 .1

1 .1

2 .6

1 0 .1

16.3

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

D elta!

mm

233 s o t g iv e any opinion*

H ill w h ites shewed the second g r e a te s t tendenoy

t o name a a m b e r o f reasons f o r s e lo o tin g owners.

Twenty-four p e r c en t

o f t h i s group g am s t a b i l i t y o f lo c a tio n end psychological reaso n s in com bination w ith economic a s the advantages owners enjoy« T abic UUVI1I t e l l s which c la s s of w hite fa n s people are thought to be w o rst o ff*

On t h i s q u e stio n th e re is f a r le s s agreement*

There

i s v a r i a ti o n o f o p in io n between ra c e s in each a re a and between a re a s f a r each r a e e .

W hites of Hie H ill a re a showed l e a s t un ifo rm ity o f

opi n io n , which may in d ic a te , sin c e m ost of them were farm owners, t h a t they re c o g n ise farm ow nership, as noted i s th e d isc u ssio n above, a s th e only d e s ir a b le r e l a t i o n to la n d , and th a t they may not have a g re a t d eal o f e x p erien ce w ith e th e r forms*

I t a lso su g g ests the p o s s ib ility t h a t

th e degree of c la s s consciousness they hold resp ectin g o th e r tenure groups is e i t h e r eonfused o r t h a t i t has very low in te n s ity *

In o th e r

w ords, th e owner th in k s more in term s of w hite ownsrs and non-owners, and th e w hite faxm la b o re r may be no moxe stig m a tise d th an a ren ter* As one sm all owner expressed i t , "Any man who has any backbone i s going t o have hie own place*" The opinion most f re q u e n tly given by H ill w hites was th a t croppers were w orst o f f , follow ed by r e n te r s , and only 14*5 p e r o est named the la b o re rs*

The rea so n most o fte n given fo r

th in k in g croppers w orst o f f

was t h a t th ey had to give to o much to the landlord* th o se

More than h a lf o f

cro p p ers gave t h is answer, and p r a c tic a lly a l l th e o th e rs

gave some answer w ith economic im p lications* B i l l le g ro c s showed much g re a te r uniform ity of opinion, ad such o p in io n appears to r e f l e c t th e ir own ten u re experienoe*

S ixty-seven

p e r cen t named croppers a s w orst o f f , end more than f o u r - f i f t h s of

TABUS LXXYIII

INFORMANTS ISO BELIEVE SPECIFIED TENURE CLASS OP WHITE PARIS PEOPLE 18 WORST OFF# WITH REASONS FOR OPINIONS) PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION

Number eases Inform­ an t a

OWNERS RSHTEB8 D on't m ill r«MOBi reasons know or not reported

CROPPERS LABORERS Wag.. S h if t"SKiyii-i- ~"TTLm"' o th e r leas# muoh to o low) less# la a y , reaeona% lasy# ir r e g u la r to improve­ work m ostly land­ improve­ ment •oonomlo lo rd ment

Too

A ll A ll o th e r o th er* re a so n s, m o stly eeexromie

rela tio n * H illi 6.7

4 .8

2 0 .8

19.2

2.9

14.4

8.7

67

—

—

14.9

6 8 .2

—

9.0

Delta* White

94

13.7

2 .1

4.2

2 1 .1

—

Negro

79

2.5

—

1.3

15.2

—

White

104

Negro

1 .0

4 .8

7 .8

16.4

—

1 .5

mm

2 1 .1

26.3

2 .1

9 .5

mm

5.1

75.9

mm

—

mm

240 th o s e thought cro p p ers had to g iv e to o much to th e landowner*

A g r e a te r

p ro p o rtio n o f Negroes then w h ites named fa n s la b o re rs as w orst off* S e re , we m ust remember th a t th© N egro's own e x p erien ce, and h ie knowledge o f o th e r Negroes, working as la b o re rs as a more o r le s s permanent r e la ­ t io n to th e land r a th e r than the u su a lly temporary^ r e la tio n s h ip o f the w hite h ire d man, may h elp to cause him to name t h i s group*

Low wages

and i r r e g u l a r work were th e reasons most o fte n given by Negroes f o r weeing la b o re rs a s w orst o ff* D e lta w h ite s , th e g r e a te s t per e e a t of whom were c ro p p e rs, most fre q u e n tly named t h i s te n u re group as w orst o f f .

Almost as many named

la b o r e r s , and 14 p e r s e n t did not give an opinion* The g r e a te s t u n ifo rm ity o f opinion on t h i s q u astio n was held by D elta Negroes*

S lig h tly over th re e -fo u rth s named la b o re rs , and a l l o f

th e s e gave low wages and ir r e g u la r work as reasons f o r th e opinion* In c id e n ta lly th is reaso n was given most fre q u e n tly by a l l groups naming farm la b o r e r s ; most o th e r reasons were economics* In fa b le L2XXX, fans and non-farm people name th e colored farm te n u re c la s s whieh th ey th in k b e s t o ff* by ra e e

Opinions are given by a re a and

r e f e r to ten u re c la s s e s in th e p a r tic u la r area*

The d iffe re n c e s between th e opinions of raee groups are re a d ily apparent and seem very s i g n i f i c a n t • Negroes a re b e s t o f f o f f as croppers*

sb

Half o f the H ill w hites th in k

owners, but almost o n e -th ird th in k them b e st

About o n e -te n th e it h e r d i d n 't know, or gave no opinion*

W hites of the D elta were l e s s c e rta in *

More than o n e-fo u rth did not

know or would not s t a t e t h e i r opinions*

Of those who named a group,

more th a n h a lf thought co lo red owners were b e s t off* th r e e tim es as l ik e l y a s r e n te r s to be named*

Croppers were

For both a re a s , i t seems

TABU UXXX IHF0HMAKT8 WHO BELIEVE SPECIFIED TBffltJRS CU80 Of COLORED FARM PEOPLE 18 BB8T OFF, WITH RfiASOl® FOR OPIEIOlfi PERCENTAGE DX8TRISBTXOI

Euaber Inform­ oases a n ts

CWBBBS RENTERS CROPPERS LABORERS EBBffbidlTSr s t a b i l i t y ■ 'P iydna-' CM bl1* ~*£Tr Don’t ‘"X1T" a ll 1 1 1 "* A ll know lo g ic a l n atio n s o th er reasons reasons reasons reasons o th e rs Of Io ­ roasona of f i r s t reasons or not csa t ion th re e roportod

H ill: 9.6

51.7

1 .0

67

tm rn

82.1

«»•»

White

95

26.5

17.9

—

Negro

79

2.5

64.6

White

104

Hogro

6*7

9.6

6 .7

31.7

7.6

7.6

S.O

«***

1 .1

8.4

16.8

6*3

18.9

1.5

15.2

16.6

mm

1 .0

1 .0

1 .0

aeaa

tmwm

4.2

1 .1

w ee

—

D eltas

M f t W i v a i IMUU

se M

t h a t w h ites e i t h e r oenoede Hegroes th e a b il i ty to operate independently , o r assume they se ed supervision*

Those who b e lie v e them to be capable

o f w orking a s independent e n tre p re n e u rs th in k them b e s t o f f as owners* I f th e y need supervision# th e y should have th e complete su p e rv isio n u s u a lly g iv en ereppers*

These a re o ffe re d a s th e probable reasons why

w h ites of b o th a re a s seldom mentioned Segro r e n te r s as b e s t off* le g ro e s a re more c e r t a i n what ten u re c la s s i s b e s t o f f } th ey know what th e y would r a th e r be* and th ey seem to know why* of

6T

A ll except two

SU 1 Hegroes and a l l b u t two o f 70 D elta Hegroes thought owners

were b e s t o ff*

Eeonemie reasons predom inated, but permanence of lo c a ­

tio n * independence* and th e b e l i e f th a t people work h ard er fo r them* s e lv e s were given* The c o lo re d te n u re c la s s b e lie v e d to be w orst o f f was named* and th e opinions a re ta b u la te d in Table LUX* The o p in io n s o f H ill w hites were marked by an extreme laok o f uni­ form ity* and they appeared to be a b i t in c o n s is te n t w ith t h e i r s ta te d o p in io n s reg a rd in g th e co lo red ten u re c la s s th a t was b e st o ff* f o r w h ile owners were nssmd (Table LXXIX) as b e s t o f f more o fte n than any o th e r group* when asked th e group which was w orst off* owners ag ain were named by 22 p e r c e n t o f the 104 H ill w hites questioned, and r e n te r s were the o n ly Wegro te n u re c la s s named more freq u en tly *

Bren here the d iffe re n c e

was n e t g reat* Almost o n e -th ird of the D elta w hites e it h e r had no d e f in ite opinion o r d id not re p o rt it*

Those vfeo did were more l ik e l y to name laborers*

sa ch l e s s l ik e l y to name croppers* and were about h a lf as lik e ly to ii— > r e n te r s as la b o re rs as w orst o ff*

Three of th e 96 named owners as

TABLB LUX INFORMANTS 1R0 BELIEVED SPECIFIED TENURE CUSS OP COLORED FABS PEOPLE 18 HORST OFF, WITH REASONS FOR OPINIO!; P8R08NTA08 DISTRIBUTION

OWNERS REUTERS D on't A ll A ll Too Inform know reeeona raaaona suoh mate or n o t to re p o rte d land* lo rd __________________________________ Number oaeea

CROPPERS_________ _________ LABORERS________________ 4 h i£t« A ll Wegee i h ii f t - ~ i i F ' A il leaa* o th e r too le a a , o th e r o th e rs la a y reeeona low, la iy , reaao n a; end improor i r - l» p r o r l- no f u r r ld e n t re g u la r d en t n ie h ln g e , ._______•' e t o . __________

H ills White

104

18*4

22*1

26.0

6 .7

1*9

8*7

6 .7

2 .9

6 .7

2*9

Negro

67

—

—

11,9

53.7

—

11*9

19.4

—

1*6

1*8

D eltas White

95

31.6

5*2

15.8

4 .2

—

14.7

22,1

1*1

5*3

2 ,1

244 w orst o f f , which may in d ic a te thoy thought Hegroes should n o t to owners* Almost th ro e ■fo u rth s o f th e H ill Hegroes thought croppers w o rst o ff* sad only

22

p e r s e a t o f them named lab o re rs*

The o th e r

12

p e r omit named

ra id ere* D o lts Hegroes d if f e r e d from H ill Hegroes* alm ost f o u r - f i f t h s o f th e form er group naming lab o re rs*

411 o th e rs who g a rs an opinion named

croppers* He may conclude t h a t

s o b s tilin g

n e ar unanimous opinion of both ra c e s

in each a r e a p la c e s th e ownar in th e p o s itio n of h ig h e s t s ta tu s * and th a t th e s ta tu s o f cro p p ers and la b o re rs i s d e f i n i te l y low est when o p in io n s o f a l l groups a re considered to g eth er*

A rea d iffe re n c e s are s ig n ific a n t*

however* cad d iffe re n c e s e f opinion by raee a re pronounced in each area* S H I w h ite s se sa r a th e r c e r t a i n th a t croppers a re much worse o f f th en la b o re rs* mid t h a t r e n te r s a lso a re worse o f f th a n lab o rers*

H ill

Hegroes* hoeerer* would a l i t t l e r a th e r be r e n te r s than la b o re rs end bed much r a t h e r be la b o re rs than croppers* make r e n te r s e f Hegroes*

A pparently w hites would n e t

They would concede them enough i n i t i a t i v e to

o p e ra te as owners* or th e y would give them th e su p erv isio n u su a lly con­ s id e re d a p p ro p ria te f e r croppers* General S o c ial In te ra c tio n

In tb s H ill p a rish * c a s te or raee consciousness i s most apparent* while in tb s D elta parish* c la s s consciousness among w h ite s ten d s to lessen the r e l a t i v e i n te n s i t y of raoe consciousness o f upper o la s s w hites, and perhaps* t o I n te n s ify t h a t o f th o se w hites who a re more d ire c tly in economic co m petition w ith th e Hegroes*

In th e Delta* how-

246 o v e r,

M n iitio tts a iit cannot c o u n te ra c t th e f o r a i i

M u g for

eon*

f ilo u tB ic s o f a t a t as o f a l l o la s s e s w ith in th e g r e a tly s t r a t i f i e d w hite rase*

F ar f c u a i i I t i s as easy to conceive o f am " in group* oosposad

o f Hegross an d upper o la a s w hites a s one composed of a l l o la s a e s o f w hites*

t h i s would h a rd ly he tr u e in St* Helene*

th e observable evidences fo r •fee fo reg o in g sta te m e n ts a re very complex*

In fee D e lta , th e to la ranee and frie n d 11ness which upper o la a s

w h ites oftso. show f o r H eg ro es.la found both i n p erso n al and in p u b lic r e l a t i o n s , y e t th e re a re vexy d e f in ite lim ita tio n s *

A bsolutely under

no e o n d itio s s would t h e Segro be in v ite d by th e p lan ter* a fam ily t o p la y

fee r o le o f guest*

I t would be j u s t a s unthinkable f o r the r a d ia l b a r r i e r

t o h e ig n o red in c o u rts h ip o r m arriag e.

I t la n o t n e cessary t o guard

a g a in st th e s e c o n s id e ra tio n s ! th e y a re fix ed and f i n a l , and in no se n se do fe e y

sm r

t o be regarded by e i t h e r group a s problems*

There appears

t o be v ery l i t t l e , I f any, f e a r t h a t fee D elta Hegro nay assume g re a te r s o c ia l p r iv ile g e s because o f any concessions which th e p lan ter* * fam ily

may make to him*

There la an In d isp u ta b le e a s ts r e la tio n s h ip , so f u l l y

see opted by b o th groups th a t any b ehavior on fee p a r t of e it h e r w i l l n o t bo I n te r p re te d a s in any way v io la tin g c a s te tra d itio n s *

And w hile

snaerous d iffe re n c e s say be seen in the treatm ent of in d iv id u a l Hegroes,

naay r u l e s apply t o a l l Hegroes* the

could n o t

b e s a id about th e re la tio n s h ip between th e

p l a n t e r 's fam ily and fe a t of th e w hite te n a n t or la b o re r on h is o r some o th e r p la n ta tio n *

There i s mors c a u tio n , more concern, more f e a r o f

m isunderstanding end store resentm ent on th e p a rt o f members o f both c la sse s*

This I s tru e e s p e c ia lly whan the te n a n t fam ily has m igrated

246

from * S i l l area* where a hig h degree of homogeneity had n o t condi­ tio n e d th e fam ily t o an * t«y aooeptaaoe o f o la a s d iffe re n c e s* ^ P u b lic schools o ra a te s o c ia l s itu a tio n s t h a t ten d to em barrass th e o h ild re n o f both o lasees*

There, consciousness o f s ta tu s i s l ik e l y to

develop i n very young c h ild re n beoauae of th e p oorly d e fin ed lim i ts o f a s s o c ia tio n i n tb s school room., outdoor re c re a tio n * school o rg a n isa ­ t i o n s and o th e r e x tr a - c u r r io u la r a c t i v i t i e s *

F req u en tly , from th e seme

p la n ta tio n , c h ild r e n of p la n te r and te n a n t fa m ilie s a re brought to g e th e r In c la s s e s * and th e a tt i tu d e s in school in v a ria b ly must be c o lo re d by th e s t a t i c

p o s itio n s on th e p la n ta tio n *

The f a c t of previous ao -

quaintanee se rv e s only t o in te n s if y th e oonselousne as o f s ta tu s * The degree of s o o ia l d ista n c e which i s s y s te m a tic a lly m aintained among th e members o f fa m ilie s o f d if f e r e n t ranks on th e p la n ta tio n i s e a m p li f l e d through a d e s c rip tio n givsm th e w r i t e r by th e daughter o f a Leuiaiema p l a n t e r i n th e M iss issip p i Helt&t Looking back to my childhood days on our p la n ta tio n * 1 r e c a l l occasions when I ’d fin d m yself asking the reasons fo r c e r ta in r e s t r i c t i o n s Imposed upon th e younger members o f the fam ily ( 1 say younger because I was p a rty to t h a t group)* X can h e a r m yself asking "why" f o r every r e s t r i c t i o n , and i t i s n o t u n t i l now t h a t X r e a l i s e t h a t f o r my p a re n ts to have answered a l l my whys and w herefores would have been j u s t to in te n s if y a something I could never have understood* A few r e a l ex p erien ces would a id in a s s i s t i n g one to j u s t i f y th e above* Dinner was ready t o be served i the fam ily had a lre a d y a s­ sembled fo r t h a t purpose when th e b u tle r announced an o v e rsee r and some te n a n ts ( I mean w h ite ) were th e re to see *the b o ss” j my f a th e r im m ediately bade us r e t i r e in to th e drawing-room u n t i l t h i s s p e c ia l

*fhe w r i t e r has v i s i t e d on p la n ta tio n s i n Points Coupee pariah where w hite te n a n ts* who w ere bom th em * sesmed to he much b e t t e r a d ju ste d in a p sy c h o lo g ic al sense to the lower s ta tu s p o sitio n *

247

b u sin e ss could be tr a n s a c te d . I f th e in te rv ie w became to o len g th y th ey e l l r e t i r e d to th e o f f ic e (e s p e c ia l place of b u sin ess)# a f t e r which th e fam ily resumed t h e i r p la c e s a t th e d in in g ta b ic . We could have e a t down t o our se a l* bub b u sin ess was never tr a n s a c te d in e a r presence# and furtherm ore we were not allow ed a t ta b le w ith th e ten an ts# some o verseers# and low -ranking employees# i . e . # th e h o s tle r# foreman and the l i k e , to go f u r th e r , o h ild re n o f th o se te n a n ts sad « ploy ess were never in v ite d to our s o c ia l fu n c tio n s— p a rtie s # b irth d a y s , e t c . # and we were never allowed to any o f t h e i r s o o ia l g ath erin g s# nor w ere we given perm ission t o v i s i t in t h e i r homes} b e t we were always ta u g h t t o t r e a t them w ith utmost c o u rte sy . During school re c e s s p e rio d s we played w ith them only during th o se tim es when t h e te a c h e r a c tu a lly su p erv ised the game} otherw ise we n ever sought them out a s in d iv id u a l playmates* At church# a pew was re se rv e d f o r our fam ily# and i f by chance th e peer warn f i l l e d when we# the younger members got th ere # we dare a c t fin d a s e a t in th e s id e a is le s # f o r th e r e s a t th e te n a n ts f fam ilies# end the lew w hite employees* As we grew up# we never considered a t any tim e th e p o s s i b i l i t y of c lo s e r s o c ia l r e la tio n s h ip : we were always ta u g h t to spurn the advances made by any member of the le v c la s s w hite* On th e o th e r hand# toward the Negro te n a n t # we bid the tin e of day to a l l } and to th e se rv a n ts in our immediate household# we n o t o n ly b id the tim e o f day# bu t we even tau g h t n u rse ry rhymes and songs to our eookb two l i t t l e g ir ls # and on Sundays we were per* m itte d to h e a r them r e c i t e th e posms# and sing th e songs. On S at­ urday# i t was our d e lig h t to have th ese two l i t t l e Negro g i r l s {4 and 6 y e a rs e ld ) s i t on our back k itc h e n step s# w hile we p la ite d t h e i r h a ir and primped i&em up f o r ohurch on Sunday* d u st a s soon a s t h a t l i t t l e ta s k was done# we were c a lle d back to our playroom* Ne were never allow ed an qpp o rt unity o f t h i s s o r t or any o th e r kind w ith o h ild re n o f th e lo v er w h ite cla ss* A d i s t i n c t s o c ia l d is ta n c e ex iste d # and t o t h i s day s t i l l e x is ts . In o th e r words# th e lew w hite c la ss # according to the stan d ard s o f my people, were coarse# vulgar# intem perate* th ey sought p le a su re l a places unthinkable* To have a s s o e ia te d w ith them in any way would d e f in ite ly have lowered our standing i n th e eyes of fa m ilie s enjoying a s im ila r stan d in g to ours* I t appears t h a t on th e p la n ta tio n th e re la tio n s h ip between Negroes and upper c la s s w hites o r d in a r ily may be lim ite d consciously only in term s of s o c ia l d is ta n s e , bu t f o r members of p la n te r and s h i t e te n a n t f a m ilie s p h y sic al d ista n c e appears n ecessary fo r e fflo leiA and comfort­ a b le m aintenance of s o o ia l d istan ce*

This may be one of the reasons

so many p la n te r s p re fe r Negroes to w h ites as te n a n ts and la b o re r s .

m One o f th e moot rem arkable th in g s about th e membersof th e whit© upper c l a s s la th a form al reaps o t which th e y accord one a n o th e r, and y e t th a ap p aren t ease w ith which th e y can asp r e s t personal d is lik e o r d i s t r u s t f a r th d sa sane persons*

I t appears t h a t many o f t h i s c la s s

a re a b i t u n c e rta in o f t h e i r complete acceptance, and je a lo u sy accomp a n ic s th e extrem e consciousness of s ta tu s * *ho m ust o r

who m ust a c t be In v ite d to s p e c ific s o c ia l fu n ctio n s

a re v e ry im portant q u e stio n s , and i t l e easy to stake irre p a ra b le mis* tak as*

Tbs same may be s a id about c o u rtsh ip and m arriage*

Our inform ­

a n ts f re q u e n tly used such expressions a s , "But he oould n o t go out w ith Hr* Jones * d a u g h te r,1* and "She can be a member of th e Parent Teachers A ssociation* but she could n e t be in v ite d to Mrs* Sm ith4© to play b rid g e* ” The a p p lic a tio n of such r u le s to re c e n t imm igrants who were members o f th e tea ch in g o r o t t e r p ro fe s s io n a l c la s s was not uncommon, and the m aintenance o f both p h y sic a l and s o o ia l d ista n c e between p la n te r and e th e r w h ite farm fa m ilie s or between upper c la s s non-farm and faxm te n a n t or sm all owner fa m ilie s was even more s t r i c t * I n c o n tr a s t t o t h is g en eral p ic tu re o f p e lt s s o c ie ty , in th e H ills m eet o f th e sharp fe a tu re s o f the w hite c la s s s tru c tu re a re lacking*

A

number of f a m ilie s a t te e to p o f th e sc a le —d e f in ite ly removed from th e o th e rs — is o b se rv ab le , but th e

ty p es o f r e la tio n s h ip s w ith the members

o f th e o th e r o la s s e s , o r w ith newcomers to the a re a seeking acceptance in to t h i s g ro u p , a re very d i f f e r e n t from t h a t ty p ic a l of te e P elts* T tey may attem pt to use, e i t h e r p o l i t i c a l l y o r ©oonoraically, the farm e r n o n -fa m people o f a low er economics or so o ia l c lo se fo r t h e i r own

^ S p e c ific examples w ill be avoided*

8*9 b e n e f i t , but o o e re io n , extreme economic p re ssu re o r in tim id a tio n a re n e t ob servable a s naans o f accomplishment#

O ccasio n ally , th e b u sin ess

o r p ro fe s sio n a l man w i l l m ats a comparison of "low er c la s s ” w hite* w ith H egroes, which may bo complimentary to tha Kegroes, but t h i s i s r e la ­ t i v e l y r a r e and whan nada i s more l ik e ly to r e f e r to In d iv id u a l whites-"* never a p a ssio n a te condemns.ti on of th e w hite c la s s o f which he is a p a rt* I t is more l i k e l y to be in the fo ra o f rec o g n itio n o f, o r p r a is e fo r Vogro h o n e sty , in te g r ity o r re s o u rc e fu ln e ss , r a th e r than an attem pt to be extrem ely uncomp1 im entaiy or u n frie n d ly to the whites# A fu n e ra l of a prominent white in th e H ills i s lik e ly to be atten d e d by e l l w h ites in the community, and th e re seems to be no in d ic a tio n i n t h i s H ill p a ris h of any d e s ire to prevent in te r c la s s a s s o c ia tio n o f a d u lts o r c h ild re n i n schools o r churches*

There is c&vious s e le c tio n in mere

in tim a te and p erso n al s o o ia l r e la tio n s , but even h e re th e extrem e con­ scio u sn ess o f s ta tu s by w h ite s of a l l e la s s e s J u s t doesn’t seam to e x is t* I t may be p o ssib le th a t a p a r t of t h i s a re a d iffe re n c e is due to th e much sm a lle r s iz e of the H ill town, and should some o f th e s e people o f d if ­ f e r e n t o ccupatio nal and ten u re o la sse s meet i n an urban environment elsew h ere, t h e i r behavior might be marked by g re a te r consciousness of s ta tu s *

That consciousness of s ta tu s does e x is t among farm ers i n th e

B i l l eomau&i'ty i s a tt e s te d by o ccasio n al re fe re n c e s by fan s people, w ith a show o f s a t i s f a c t i o n , t o t h e i r p erso n al acquaintance with wel 1 know n

b u sin e ss o r p ro fe s sio n a l men o f unquestionably high s t a t u s , and

th e frequency w ith which whit© owners c r i t i c i s e o r r id io u ls r e n te r s and eroppers*

260 S o c ia l M o b ility P ro f# 8 iio n » l u d te c h n ic a l men who have coma to th e D elta from th e S i l l s o f L ouisiana and M iss issip p i may he accepted in th e upper c la s s whan th ey e s ta b lis h them selves in occupations of high p re stig e * h a t suoh acceptance is not immediate*

There a re c e r ta in D elta t r a d i ­

tio n s which th e y m ust accept* and changes in behavior p a tte r n s a re more l i k e l y to be made by th e immigrant than by the n a tiv e*

The im­

m igrant * w hether doctor* teacher* p lan ter* a g r ic u ltu r a l s p e c i a l i s t o r b u sin e ss man* must not be too steep ed in H ill tr a d itio n s * and C e rta in ly must not show antagonism toward D elta c a s te and c la s s so ciety *

Con­

spicuous speech* u n u su ally p u r ita n ic a l m orality* or th e in c lin a tio n t o be so ciable o r dem ocratic in d e alin g w ith a l l c la s s e s o f w hites o r w ith b o th races* w ill d e f in ite ly je o p a rd ise b is own adjustm ent in D elta so ciety *

Therefore* i t is n o t a t a l l uncommon t o see a D elta e itiS a n ­

aa Immigrant from the H i l ls —s to u tly defending the c la s s s tru c tu re o f the D e lta and p o in tin g out the extreme i n f e r i o r i t y of the farm ers who a re doming from the H ills*

Gases were noted in which the r e la tio n s h ip

end r e l a t i v e s ta tu s p o s itio n s of s p e c ific immigrants* who had known each o th e r in tbs H ills* were g r e a tly changed in 'tile new location* a s some ad ju s te d them selves to high* and o th e rs had to accept much lower* s o c ia l p o sitio n s*

One p ro fe s s io n a l man who had come from a H ill county in

M iss issip p i s ta te d th a t he would not want h is fam ily , who have always h e ld a com fortable s o c ia l p o s itio n r e l a ti v e to th e neighbor faroiera th ere * to come t o the D elta to farm* fo r they would have to a c c e p t a r e l a t i v e l y low p o s itio n In the s t r a t i f i e d D elta farm population* and be w ith o u t th e i n s t i t u t i o n a l advantages th ey were enjoying in the H ills*

E ducation makes a muoh g re a te r d iffe re n c e in th e H ills th a n in tk e D e lta w ith in each o f th e race groups, hut i t * im portance i s e sp e c i­ a l l y n o tic e a b le among w hite*.

Jl c o lle g e degree alm ost c e r ta in ly , and a

su c c e ss fu l p ro fe s s io n a l p o s itio n a s a tto rn e y , d o c to r, a g r ic u ltu r a l s p e c i a l i s t o r e th e r p u b lle te c h n ic a l e x p e rt w ith a good s a la r y , q u ite in v a ria b ly c o n s titu te th e n ecessary r e q u is ite s fo r s o o ia l acceptance esf an immigrwot In to th e upper c la s s . included a s a s o o ia l p riv ile g e *

In term arriag e would he r e a d ily

The Immigrant could lo se p erso n al

re s p e c t because o f immoral behavior mere e a s ily th an he would in th e D e lta , b u t tb s economic and s o c ia l p o s itio n of the fam ily which he re p re se n te d i n th e previous lo c a tio n would veiy seldom be in v e s tig a te d o r q u estioned in the H i l ls , u n less h is own personal s t a tu s o r behavior were q uestioned f i r s t . I n t e r - c l a s s m arriage in th e D e lta , involving a member o f an upper c la s s non-fana or p la n te r c la s s fa m ily , may be seen in th e sta te m e n t o f a young immigrant o f the p ro f e ssio n a l class* Tensas i s one of the l a s t old-tim e a r i s t o c r a t i c p a ris h e s in th e s t a t e . We liv e In the p a st a g re a t d e a l. A house i s hallowed be* cause J e f f Davis stepped on th e porch. People m arry below t h e ir c la s s now and th e n ....P e r s o n is accepted in upper stratu m , but i f husband d ie s , w ife w ill be o u t. I f she can make the grade, she w ill be to le r a te d but not f u l ly aoeepted. S o cial m o b ility w ith in th e community, e s p e c ia lly up the ed u ca tio n al or p ro fe s s io n a l la d d e rs , i s r e l a t i v e l y u n r e s tric te d by c la s s p re ju d ic e s in th e H i l l s .

A person may be p ra is e d p u b lic ly fo r making the a sce n t

under d i f f i c u l t i e s from an humble p o s itio n to one o f muoh h ig h er educa­ t i o n a l , economic or o ccupational ran k .

m Jtoople, w hether farm oar non-farm , are tr e a te d a g re a t deal moie aa In d iv id u a ls and allow ed to determ ine t h e i r own p erso n al s ta tu s r a th e r th a n t r e a te d a s members o f ste re o ty p e d groups* In th e D e lta , however, and e s p e o ia lly w ith th o se who a re re a re d t h e r e , th e s t a tu s of fa m ily , tenure c l a s s , o r occupations! p o s itio n a re l i k e l y to he insurm ountable b a r r i e r s t o th e a tta in m e n t o f s ta tu s i n th e h ig h e s t s o o ia l e la s s , even a f t e r f a i r l y su p e rio r educational or p ro fe s s io n a l attainm ent •

And f a i l u r e to g a in a c o lle g e education does not

condemn a member o f an upper e la s s fam ily to a lower p o sitio n *

As long

as a D e lta person or fam ily w ith high so o ia l s ta tu s remains lo y a l to D elta t r a d i t i o n s , o th e r personal behavior i s u n lik e ly to cause lo s s o f sta tu s * In term arriag e among gam Tenure C lasses Where e la s e e s became so r ig id as to cause extreme consciousness o f s t a te s

p rev en t eoemon p a rt io i pat ion in the a o e ia l l i f e of the com­

m unity, one o f th e p ro h ib itio n s which i s very lik e l y to r e s u l t i s t h a t o f in to m arria g e * fa b le LflDU shows th e r e la tio n s h ip between th e oooupation and ten u re of th e fan s head and t h a t o f the m ate’ s fa th e r* White form owners had m arried the o ffs p rin g of farm owners in 84 p e r se n t of th e

49

e a s e s , and

p la n ta tio n owners o r managers*

two of th e o th e rs had m arried t h a t o f One had m arried a member o f a r e n t e r ’ s

fam ily sad one t h a t o f an u n s k ille d laborer*

This l a s t was the only one

who had m arried a member o f a non-farm fam ily* Of th e 11 H ill r e n te r s , alm ost th re e -fo u rth s had m arried o ffs p rin g o f ow ners, and t h e r e s t had m arried members o f r e n te r s ’ fam ilies*

TABLE U U 1

OCCUPATION AND TBOTUKBl OP UATS’S FATHER BT OCCUPATION ADD TENURE OF HEAD OP HOUSEHOLD| FEROBHTAOE DISTRIBUTION vm

Number Not oases m arrlsd

79 H ill White Owners 43 R enters 11 Croppers and la b o rs is 1 Non-farm 24 H ill Negro Owners R enters Croppers A la b o re rs Non-farm D e lta White Owners t e n te r s Croppers A la b o re rs Non-farm D elta Negro Owners R enters Croppers A la b o re rs Non-farm

52 25 IS 9

3.8 7.0 — -- -

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ttaroer

7AHH b a n te r

lab* 76.9 85.7 72.7 ■mm

7.8 2.5 27.5 —

—

66.7

8.5 42.8 23.0

m

63.0

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mm

mm

44.4 33.5

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m rn

85 18

4 .8 5.6

6 .0 1 1 .1

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40 15

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40.9 50.0 68.3 40*0 15.4

50.1 5.6 16.7 45.0 30.8

13.6 16.7

42.4 60.0 63.3 54.6 38.6

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6 6 .6

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