Social Patterns in Yorkshire Prehistory 3500-750 B.C. 9780860540786, 9781407323466

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
List of Plates
List of Figures
List of Tables
Introduction
Chapter 1: A General Background to Yorkshire's Prehistoric Social Patterns
Chapter 2: Artefact Variability, Mortuary Practices and Social Patterns. Some Insights from Ethnography
Chapter 3: A Case Study of Mortuary Data; 65 Yorkshire Beaker Associated Burials
Chapter 4: The Food Vessel Type: Its Variability and Social Importance
Chapter 5: The Plano-Convex Knife: Its Variability and Social Importance
Chapter 6: The 'Battle-Axe', Its Variability in Relation to Social Patterns
Chapter 7: Bronzes as Items of Social Importance
Chapter 8: Miscellaneous Artefact Types: Suggestions as to Their Social Role
Chapter 9: An Analysis of Social Developments in Yorkshire 3500-1400 B.C.
Chapter 10: Implications of the Artefactual Analysis: Some Alternative Viewpoints
Conclusions
Bibliography
Appendices
Plates

Citation preview

Social Patterns in Yorkshire Prehistory 3_s-oo - 7 _s-o B.C.

Stephen Pierpoint

BA R British Series 7 4 1980

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS

A. R . Hands, B.Sc., :\I.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, :\I. A.

B. A. R. 74, 1980: "Social Patterns in York shire Prehistory, 3500-750 B. C." © Stephen Pierpoint, 1980.

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860540786 paperback ISBN 9781407323466 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540786 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

Page 1

I n troduct ion C hapter 1

A G enera l b ackground t o Yorksh ire Preh is tor ic s oc ia l p a t terns

C hap ter 2

Ar tefac t v ar ia bi l i ty, mor tuary p ract ices a nd s oc ia l p a t terns .

C hap ter 3

3 8

S ome i ns igh ts f ro m e thnography

A c ase s tudy o f mor tuary d a ta :

6 5 Beaker a ssoc ia ted

4 5

b ur ia ls C hap ter 4

The F ood V esse l t ype :

i t s v ar iabi l i ty a nd s oc ia l

6 3

i mpor tance C hapter 5

The p iano-convex k n i fe :

i t s v ar iabi l i ty a nd s ocia l

1 24

i mpor tance C hap ter 6

The ' Ba t t le-axe ';

i t s v ar iabi l i ty i n r e la t ion t o s oc ia l

1 43

p a t terns C hapter 7

B ronzes a s i t e ms o f s oc ia l i mpor tance

1 66

C hapter 8

M iscel laneous a r tefac t t ypes :

1 82

s ugges t ions a s t o t heir

s oc ia l r o le C hap ter 9

An a na lys is o f s ocia l d eve lop men ts i n Yorksh ire

1 98

3 500-1400 B . C . C hapter 1 0 I mp lica t ions o f t he a r tefac tua l a na lys is :

s o me

2 55

a l terna t ive v iewpo in ts C onclus ions

2 79

B ibl iography

2 80

A ppend ices

3 01

P la tes

3 13

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS

T o t he s ta f f o f museums t hroughou t B r i ta in , Ia cknow ledge my d ebt f or a ccess t o d a ta a nd f or p enn ing r ep l ies t o my e nd less q uer ies . g ra te fu l t o Mr . Dav id Wi l l ia ms ( Craven Museum ) ; J ohn R u msby ( Hu l l Museu m ) ;

Iam p ar t icu lar ly

N or ma Wh i tco mbe a nd

t he s ta f f o f t he B r i t ish Museum ;

Mrs . H ar t ley

( Yorksh ire Museum ) a nd t he s ta f f o f t he N a t iona l Museum E d inburgh .

Al arge

n umber o f l oca l a rchaeo log is ts i n Yorksh ire h ave h e lped i m mense ly i n t he p roduc t ion o f t h is work p ar t icu lar ly Mr . R ay mond H ayes ; a nd Mr . R o land C lose .

Messrs . G ran tham

My d epes t g ra t i tude g oes t o Mr . T . Ma .nby whose

k now ledge o f t he a rea a nd p er iod h as b een o f t re mendous h e lp .

Ia cknow ledge

t he h elp o f Dr . N . F ie l ler a nd M iss Amura l f or t he ir h e lp i n c o mpu ta t ion a nd s ta t is t ics . The work a s n ow p resen ted i s as hor tened v ers ion o f my P h .D . t hes is p resen ted a nd a ccep ted a t S he f f ie ld Un ivers i ty i n D ece mber 1 978 .

Iam g ra te-

f u l t o t he Depar t men t o f E duca t ion a nd S c ience f or p rov id ing my f inance f or t hree y ears ' r esearch .

Ia lso g ra te fu l ly a cknow ledge t he g ran t p rov ided b y

S hef f ield Un ivers i ty R esearch Fund f or t he t hree r ad io-carbon d a tes p resen ted h ere .

A bove a l l Iwou ld l i ke t o t hank Dr . A . P . P h i l l ips whose c on t inua l h e lp ,

a id a nd a dv ice h as a l lowed me t o c o mple te t h is work .

I L

L IST OF PLATES

Page 3 13 f ,

P la te I

Food Vesse l f ro m Moun ts tewar t , Bu te

I

F ood V esse l f ro m Duncra iga ig , K i l mar tin , Argyl l

I I

F ood V esse l f ro m Duncra iga ig , K i l mar tin , Argyl l

I V

Food Vesse l f ro m Bars loisnoch , Argyl l

V V I

Food V esse l f ro m ( ?) Lanarksh ire Food V esse l f ro m C a mbusbarron , S t ir l ing ( A , B :

V I I V I I I

u pr igh t/base )

Food Vesse l f ro m n ear B ishop Bur ton , Yorksh ire Food Vesse l f ro m C aw thorn , N or th Yorksh ire

I X

F ood Vesse l f ro m G ar ton S lack ( Barrow 3 7) , Yorkshire

X

Food V esse l f ro m G ar ton S lack ( Barrow 7 5 ) , Yorksh ire

X I

' Pygmy ' V essel f ro m G ood manha m Wo ld , Yorksh ire

X I I

C o l lared U rn f ro m Pa ins thorpe ( Barrow 9 8 )

X I I I

Beaker f ro m Hanging G r i ms ton ( Barrow 5 5 )

X IV

G rave g roup f ro m G ar ton S lack ( Barrow 1 52 )

XV

Ear ly B ronze Age d agger a nd p o m mel f ro m G ar ton S lack ( Barrow 1 07)

XV I

B eaker a ssoc ia ted G rave g roup f ro m G ar ton S lack ( Barrow 3 7)

I ll

L IST OF F IGURES ( Figures a re n u mbered a ccord ing t o c hapter )

Page

F igure

5

1 .1

' O ld ' Yorksh ire:

R e l ief a nd p rofi le

3 .1

B eakers :

v ar iables u sed i n a na lys is

4 6

3 .2

B eakers :

C lus ter a na lys is , 9v ar iab le d endrogram

5 0

3 .3

B eakers :

C lus ter a na lys is , 1 8 v ar iable d endrogra m

5 1

3 .4

B eakers a nd p i a no-convex k n ives ;

ac o mpar ison o f s ize

5 3

a gains t q ua l i ty 3 .5

B eakers :

Fac tor s core p lots ( 1 )

5 5

3 .6

Beakers :

Factor s core p lots ( 2 )

5 6

3 .7

B eakers :

Factor s core p lo ts ( 3 )

5 7

4 .1

Food V esse ls :

S o me d ecora t ive f ea tures ( 1 )

6 6

4 .2

F ood Vesse ls :

S o me d ecora t ive f ea tures ( 2 )

6 7

4 .3

Food V esse ls :

av ar ie ty o f f or ms

6 8

4 .4

F ood Vesse ls :

S ca t ter d iagra m o f d ecora t ion ' score '

7 4

a ga ins t f abr ic ' score ' 4 .5

C lus ter a na lys is o f s amp le

4 .6

F ood V esse ls :

The d is tr ibu t ion o f f ea tures i n N . Br i ta in ( 1 1

7 8

4 .7

F ood Vesse ls :

The d is tr ibu t ion o f f ea tures i n N . B ri ta in ( 2 )

7 9

4 .8

F ood Vesse ls :

The d is tr ibu t ion o f f ea tures i n N . Br i ta in ( 3 )

8 0

4 .9

F ood V esse ls :

The d is tr ibu t ion o f f ea tures i n N . Br i ta in ( 4 )

8 1

4 .10

F ood V esse ls :

The d is tr ibu t ion o f f ea tures i n N . Br ita in ( 5 )

8 2

4 .11

Food V esse ls :

The d is tr ibu t ion o f f ea tures i n N . Br i ta in ( 6 )

8 3

4 .12

F ood Vessels :

ar eg iona l i ty o f s tyl ing

8 8

F ood V esse ls :

Factor s core p lots ( 1 ) :

a ngu lar i ty;

' f ine ' v essels ;

4 .13

7 5

1 10

wh ipped c ord 4 .14

Food Vesse ls :

Fac tor s core p lots ( 2 ) :

4 .15

F ood Vesse ls :

Factor s core p lots ( 3 ): f ee t/cover ;

l ugs

f a lse

1 11 1 12

r e lief ; 4 .16

F ood V esse ls :

Fac tor s core p lo ts ( 4 ) : d ecora t ion ; b ody s tyle

1 13

4 .17

F ood V esse ls :

ac lus ter a na lys is d endrogra m o f v ar iable

1 14

s im i lar i ty c oef f icien ts i v

F igure

Page

5 .1

P lano-convex k n ives :

s o me e ar ly f or ms o f k n ives

1 27

5 .2

P lano-convex k n ives :

ar ange o f t ypes ( 1 )

1 28

5 .3

P lano-convex k n ives :

ar ange o f t ypes ( 2 1

1 29

5 .4

S co t t ish p iano-convex k n ives : s ize r anges

1 32

P lano-convex k n ives :

ac o mpar ison o f g rave a ga ins t s tray

1 35

ac o mpar ison o f g rave a ga ins t s tray

1 35

5 .5

f inds 5 .6

P lano-convex k n ives : f inds

5 .7

Miscel laneous f l in t k n i fe f or ms

1 41

6 .1

Para l lel p er fora ted imp le men ts :

6 .2

PPIs :

B ivar ia te d is tr ibu t ions ;

WADPP I/S IPP I ( 1 )

1 49

6 .3

PPIs :

B ivar ia te d is tr ibu t ions ;

WADPP I/S IPP I ( 2 )

1 49

6 .4

PPIs :

B ivar ia te d is tr ibu t ions ;

g rave/s tray ( 1 )

1 52

6 .5

PP Is :

B ivar ia te d is tr ibu t ions ;

g rave/s tray ( 2 )

1 52

6 .6

PP Is :

B ivar ia te d is tr ibu t ions ;

g rave/s tray ( 3 )

1 53

6 .7

PP Is :

B ivar ia te d is tr ibu t ions ;

g rave/s tray ( 4 )

1 53

6 .8

PPIs :

Dendrogra m o f c lus ter a na lys is ( 1 )

1 54

6 .9

PP Is :

Dendrogra m o f c lus ter a na lysis ( 2 )

1 55

6 .10

PP Is :

D is tr ibu t ion p a t terns ;

1 56

v ar iables u sed i n a na lys is

s epara te/over lapping

1 45

p opu la t ions 6 .11

PP Is :

H is togra ms o f v ar iabi l i ty ;

g rave/s tray ( 1 )

1 57

6 .12

PP Is :

H is togra ms o f v ar iabi l i ty;

g rave/s tray ( 2 )

1 58

6 .13

PP Is :

H is togra ms o f v ar iabi li ty ;

g rave/s tray ( 3 )

1 59

6 .14

PP Is :

g raphs o f v ar iab il i ty;

7 .1

S iX b ronze a xes

7 .2

The d isp lay e le men t ;

f la t a xes , p a ls tave

1 68

7 .3

The d isp lay e le men t ;

s ix s ocke ted a xes

1 69

7 .4

The d isp lay e le men t ;

f our s ocke ted s pears ( 1 )

1 70

7 .5

The d isp lay e le men t ;

s ocke ted s pears ( 2 )

1 71

7 .6

Traders a nd c ra f ts men

1 72

7 .7

The d isp lay e le men t ; b ronze weaponry

1 73

7 .8

Max i mum h oard s izes/years ; b ronze f inds p er 1 00 y ears

1 74

( 1 )

1 75

7 .9

g rave/s tray

1 67

The r e la t ionsh ip b e tween s ize a nd d ecora tion i n s ocke ted

a xes

1 60

F igure

Page 1 75

7 .9

( 2 )

8 .1

P o l ished f l in t k n ives a nd s crapers i n e as tern Yorksh ire

1 84

8 .2

Worn a nd r e-used s tone a xes i n Yorksh ire

1 88

8 .3

The ' pres tige ' e le men t i n s tone a xes

1 89

8 .4

A s oc ia l s che me f or p reh is tor ic Yorksh ire

1 96

9 .1

Ad endrogra m o f Nascen t s ociety

2 15

9 .2

Ad endrogra m o f Deve lop men ta l s ociety ( Round b arrow )

2 17

9 .3

Ad endrogra m f or Deve lop men ta l s ocie ty ( Beaker )

2 18

9 .4

Ad endrogra m f or F lorescen t s oc ie ty

2 19

9 .5

Factor s core p lo ts f or Deve lop men ta l s ocie ty b ur ia ls

2 21

9 .6

Factor s core p lo ts f or F lorescen t s ocie ty b ur ia ls

2 25

9 .7

Factor s core p lo ts f or F ood Vessel b ur ia ls

2 29

9 .8

S ex/age s ocia l c hanges ( amoun t o f g oods a nd c are )

2 36

9 .9

Nascen t-Expans ive s oc ia l c hanges a nd b ur ia ls

2 37

9 .10

Food Vessel

2 44

9 .11

F ood Vesse l s tyle map o f n or th-eas t Eng land

2 46

9 .12

Food Vesse l a ssocia ted b ur ia ls : p os i tions

2 48

F ood Vesse l a ssocia ted b ur ia ls :

s core a nd p o t/grave

2 50

s core a nd p o t/grave

2 50

9 .13

A s che me f or ' Bronze Age ' meta l t ypes

s ty le map o f n or thern Bri ta in

v ar ia t ion ( 1 ) 9 .14

F ood Vessel a ssocia ted b ur ia ls : v ar ia tion ( 2 )

9 .15

F ood Vesse l a ssocia ted b ur ia ls :

s ex/age v . g rave v ar ia t ion ( 1 )

2 51

9 .16

F ood Vesse l a ssocia ted b ur ia ls :

s ex/age v . g rave v ar ia tion ( 2 )

2 51

1 0 .1 Ar tefact t rea t men t/cho ice i n t he 2 0 th c en tury B . C.:

t he

2 62

b urn ing o f f l in ts w i th c re ma t ion b ur ia ls 1 0 .2

A r tefact c hoice 2 0th c en tury A .D .:

t he p rovenancing o f

2 63

c o l lected ma ter ia l i n for ma t ion , c ho ice a nd d es ign

2 64

1 0 .3

F ood Vesse l t es ts :

1 0 .4

Barrow p os i t ions i n Yorksh ire :

1 0 .5

Ac ho ice o f s i te l oca tion f or ' pro m inence ' ( 1 )

2 68

1 0 .6

Ac ho ice o f s i te l oca tion f or ' pro minence ' ( 2 )

2 69

1 0 .7

The p os i t ion o f t he Ruds ton Mono l i th a nd t he b arrows o n i ts

2 72

s ou thern h orizon

v i

l andscape s et t ings

2 67

Page

F igure 1 0 .8

S pa t ia l q ua l i ty v ar ia t ion :

t ranchet a rrowheads i n e as tern

2 74

B eakers ( Sco t land ) , F ood Vessels

2 76

Yorksh ire 1 0 .9

S pa t ia l q ua l i ty v ar ia t ion : ( Yorksh ire )

v i i

L IST OF TABLES ( The t ab les a re n u mbered a s t o c hap ters i n wh ich t hey a ppear )

Table 3 .1 3 .2

Page Table o f ' f ine ' a nd ' l ess f ine ' B eaker g roups ( va lue means )

4 9

C onclus ion o f d iscr im inan t a na lys is o f ' f ine ' a nd ' less f ine '

4 9

B eakers 3 .3

C onc lus ion o f d iscr im inan t a na lys is o f s ex a nd a ge g raded

4 9

b ur ia ls a ssocia ted w i th B eakers 3 .4

B eakers ' score ' a nd h eigh t w i th s ocia l p os i t ions

5 8

4 .1

Yorksh ire Vesse ls :

9 1

4 .2

A l l Vessels :

q ua l i ty a ga ins t f ea tures

9 2

4 .3

A l l Vessels :

d ecora t ive ' score ' a ga ins t f ea tures

9 3

4 .4

S co t t ish V essels :

4 .5

At able o f ' f ine ' a nd ' l ess f ine ' Food V esse ls ( va lue mean )

9 8

4 .6

' 192 ' c lus ter a na lys is :

v a lue means a t t he 4 c lus ter l evel

9 9

4 .7

' 192 ' c lus ter a na lys is :

v a lue means a t t he 2 c luster l evel

1 00

4 .8-9

S ign i f icance t es ts :

s core v . f ea tures ( 192 ' )

1 00-102

4 .10

S ign i f icance t ests :

l ugged v . u n lugged v essels ( 192 ' )

1 03-104

4 .11

C orre la tions :

u n lugged a nd l ugged v essels v . f ea tures

1 05

4 .12

C orrela t ions :

' f ine ' a nd ' l ess f ine ' v essels v . f ea tures

1 05

4 .13

D iscr im inan t a na lys is o f F ood Vesse ls f rom 4 ma in r eg ions

1 15

4 .14

Factor a na lys is o f 1 92 F ood V esse ls : r ota t ions

1 16

4 .15

D iscr im inan t a na lys is o f F ood Vesse l a ssoc ia ted b ur ia ls/sex

q ua li ty a ga ins t f ea tures

q ua li ty a ga ins t f ea tures

means a nd v ar i max

9 4

1 16

a nd a ge d a ta 5 .1

Table o f s ign i f icance t es ts :

g rave v . s tray f inds

5 .2

Table o f s pecia l f ea ture r e la t ionsh ips P .C . k n ives

1 39

6 .1

' Ba t t le-axe ' a nd ' axe-ha m mer ' mean v a lues

1 47

6 .2

C lus ter a na lys is :

1 50

6 .3

S u m mary Table o f c lus ter a na lyses ( va lue means )

2 ma jor g roups ( va lue means )

v i i i

1 37

1 50

Page

T able

1 61-3

6 .4

Med ian t es t s ta t is t ics f or 1 5 v ar iables

8 .1

Table o f d iscoida l k ni fe d is tr ibu t ions

1 86

8 .2

T able o f Dugg leby a dze a nd S e m ler a xe d is tr ibu t ions

1 87

9 .1

A T able o f c o mpu ter v ar iables o f 2 041 b ur ia ls

2 13

9 .2

A c o mpar ison o f s ex a nd a ge d i f ferences i n F lorescen t

2 30

a nd Expans ive s ocie ty

i x

I NTRODUCT ION

Th is w ork s u m mar ises s o me a spec ts o f s oc ia l d evelop men t i n t he a nc ien t c oun ty o f Y orksh ire 3 500-750 B .C. f ro m wha t m igh t b e c a l led t he e arly f ar mi ng s oc ie t ies t o t he b eg inn ings o f ' mass p roduc t ion '. The a na lysis i s b ased o n a va i lable d a ta u p t o S pr ing 1 978.

T h is i nc ludes

ag rea t mass o fl ow q ua li ty 1 9th c entury c o l lec ted d a ta t oge ther w i th s o me mat eria l f ro m r ecen t e xcava t ions a nd r esearch . The p oor q ua li ty o f d a ta i s p art ly c o mpensa ted f or b y t he l arge q uan t ity o f ma ter ia l f ro m s o me p ar ts o f t he c oun ty .

The work c an b e t aken a s ab as is o n wh ich t o c arry o n f urther r e-

s earch . N ever the less , t he work i s n ot a c orpus o f ma ter ia l s o much a s a n a na lys is. Most o f t he work i s c oncerned w i th e xa m ina t ion o f p reh istor ic b ur ia l ma ter ia l a nd a ssoc ia ted r e ma ins.

Re-assess men ts a re o f fered f or a

n umber o f a rtefac t t ypes o f N eol i th ic a nd Bronze A ge d a te.

Ab r ief i n troduc-

t ory c hap ter a t te mp ts t o f i l l i n ag ood d ea l o fb ackground ma ter ia l i nc lud ing : t he d a ta b ase ; w ork ; e tc.

t he s ubsistence e cono m ic b ackground ;

ag eograph ica l f ra me-

C o mpu ter b ased a na lys is i s u sed t hroughou t t he b ook a nd a v ariety o f mu l t i-var ia te t echn iques a re emp loyed . De ta ils o f t hese a na lyses c an b e f ound i n t he o r ig ina l t hes is o n wh ich t h is w ork i s b ased ( Pierpo in t 1 978 ). S u m mar ies o n ly o f t he c o mpu ter work a re o f fered h ere , b u t t h is d oes g ive a c lear i dea o f t he p anerns t ha t c an b e r ecogn ised i n s uch ma ter ia l . I t i s e stabl ished t ha t t here i s ac lear c ho ice o f a r tefacts f ro m t he ' genera l a sse mblage ' o f o b jec ts t o b e p laced i n to mortuary c on tex ts i n a l l p er iods. Th is ' choice ' f ol lows a r egu lar p a t tern .

The f ines t p lano-convex k n ives ,

p ara l lel p erfora ted a xes ( ba t t le-axes a nd a xe-ha m mers ) e tc. a re t aken f or g rave d epos it ion . The v ar iabi l i ty o f a r tefac ts w ith in g rave c on tex ts i s o f more i n teres t a nd f o l lows e qua l ly c lear p a t terns.

The v ery f i nest q ua l i ty a r tefac ts a re c hosen

t o b e p laced w i th t he more i mpor tan t me mbers o f t he c o m mun i ty. t he s oc iet ies d ea l t w i th i n t h is a na lys is a re r ela t ively s i mp le.

Most o f

Ag rea t d ea l

o f t he s oc ia l d if feren t ia t ion i s o n t he b as is o f t he s ex a nd a ge o f t he i nd iv idua ls i n t he b ur ia l c on tex ts ;

t he ma les a re r ecogn ised a s t he most i mpor tan t

me mbers o f t he c o mmun i ty . Thus a l l t he f inest : F ood Vesse ls ; Beakers , p iano- c onvex k n ives e tc . a re p laced w ith a du l t ma les. The l east i mportan t g roup o f i nd iv idua ls , i n mos t c ases , i s t he c h ildren . L ook ing w i th a ' dyna m ic p erspec t ive ' , t here i s e v idence o f s oc ia l c hange w i th in t he g roups.

T hus t he e ar l iest s oc ie t ies t end t o b e l i t t le d if feren t ia ted

a nd t he l a ter o nes more s trongly s ex a nd a ge g raded.

A lso w i th t he l a ter

s oc iet ies t here i s i ncreas ing e v idence o f i mportan t ' b ig men '.

C on te mporary

w ith t h is i s s o me c hange i n t he r ecogn i t ion o f j uven i les a nd c h ildren wh ich may i nd ica te a move men t t owards s oc ie t ies w ith more h ered itary s ta tus.

1

Un fortuna tely t he f ina l p ar ts o f t he p er iod a re marked b y ag rea t p auc i ty o f b ur ia l e v idence , b u t f ro m o ther f or ms o f e v idence , t he t rend t owards more a dvanced s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion s ee ms t o b e c on t inu ing . The e arly s oc iet ies r epresen ted h ere a re n o t o n ly w i thou t s trong s oc ia l r ank ing , t hey a lso a ppear t o l ack s trong ' group i den t i ty '. Much o f t he s tyl is t ic v ar ia t ion r ecogn ised f ol lows g eograph ica l ly d e ter m ined p a t terns. On t he o ther h and t here i s e v idence o fb etween g roup a c t iv i ty a nd c o mpe t i t ion i n Eastern Yorksh ire b y t he e nd o f t he E arly Bronze Age. Thus b y e xa m ina t ion o f a r tefac tua l e v idence i ti s p oss ible t o d escr ibe s oc ia l d evelop men ts e ven when t he d a ta i s n ot o f t he h ighes t q ua l ity .

Further-

more i ti s q u i te c lear t ha t t he v ar iab il ity o f a r tefactua l d a ta b ears a s trong r ela t ionsh ip t o t he t ype o f s oc ie ty c oncerned e ven when t he o rgan isa t iona l l evel i s f a irly s i mp le. The work i nvolves t he u se o f ma ter ia l f ro m l arge p arts o f N or thern Br it a in .

Many o f t he c onclus ions d rawn f ro m t h is b ook may u seful ly b e a pp l ied

t o t hese a reas a lso i fn o t much o f N eol ith ic a nd B ronze Age Br ita in .

However ,

a s y e t , t here a re n o c o mprehens ive c o mpara t ive s tud ies f ro m o ther a reas.

2

CHAPTER 1 A GENEB ,AL BACKGROUND TO YORKSHIRE 'S PREHISTOR IC S OCIAL PATTERNS

1 .

THE PER IOD AND THE AREA The p er iod e xam ined c oncerns t he c onven t iona l ly t er med ' Neol ith ic ' a nd

' Bronze Age ' f ar m ing c o m mun it ies f ro m 3 500-750 B . C. ( 2900-650 b .c.) i n c a l ibra ted r ad io-carbon y ears. The e ar l iest e v idence o f t hese g roups i s i n t he f or m o f l ong b arrows , s tone a xes, f l in ts a nd p ot tery .

T rad it iona l ly t er med

' Mesol ith ic ' g roups f a l l ing w ith in t h is p er iod w il l n ot b e c ons idered .

The

d a te 7 50 B . C. marks t he p er iod when ' mass p roduced ' b ronzes w ere a ppear ing i nY orksh ire p robably c on te mporary w ith more mass ive t rade a nd e xchange s yste ms.

A t t he s a me t ime i ncreas ing e v idence o f s oph ist ica ted f i e ld s yste ms ,

h i l l-forts a nd t he l ike a re o ccur ing i n many p ar ts o f t he c oun try .

Wha t h appens

a f ter 7 50 B .C. wou ld b e t he s ub jec t o f c ons iderable f ur ther a na lys is , i tf inds n o p lace h ere ( brief d iscuss ions a re o f fered b y Cha l l is a nd Hard ing 1 975 ). The a rea u nder c ons idera t ion i s t he ' anc ien t c oun ty o f Yorksh ire ' o r r a ther Yorksh ire b efore t he 1 973 b oundary c hanges.

Th is a rea makes b et ter

g eograph ica l s ense i n many w ays , b u t t he a rea i s t o al arge e x ten t s t i l l a r t if i c ia l .

I make n o a t te mp t t o s t ick r ig id ly t o b oundaries i n many c ases.

Much

a na lys is i s d evoted t o ma ter ia l f a l l ing o u ts ide t h is b oundary. 2 .

BAS IC CONS IDERATIONS B efore g o ing o n t o a na lys is , i ti s i mportan t t o o u t l ine t he o b jec t ives o f

t h is w ork a nd t he b as ic q uest ions wh ich u nderl ie t he c o mpu ter a na lys is. F irs t ly , ag rea t d ea l o f c ons idera t ion h as b een made o fb ur ia l d a ta a nd s oc ia l p a t terns ( Bin ford 1 971, S axe 1 970 , B loch 1 971, Ta in ter 1 973 : e tc ., e tc. a nd i n a dd i t ion importan t c onferences i n Br ita in ( 1 ) h ave b een c oncerned w ith s o me t heore t ica l a spec ts o f mortuary d a ta i n t he l ast t wo y ears ).

Th is w ork

f ol lows much o f t ha t a na lys is , a l though i ti s c oncerned w i th b ur ia ls f ro m a l arge a rea a nd p er iod r a ther t han s ingle c e metery ( e .g. Ta in ter 1 975 ) o r g roup . 1 .

As a r esu l t t hree b as ic c ons idera t ions a re a s f ol lows :

Can t he p resen t e v idence , a nd p art icu larly t he p a t tern ing o f t he a rtefact ua l d a ta , ' describe ' t he b as ic s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion a nd h ow i tc hanged 3 500-750 B . C. ?

2 .

H ow d oes s oc ia l p a t tern ing v ary c hronolog ica l ly a nd s pa t ia l ly?

3 .

C an t he s ocia l c hange b e e xp la ined i n t er ms o f e cono m ics , a rtefacts e tc?

I n o rder t o b eg in t o a nswer t hese q uest ions a n umber o f ' p la tfor ms ' must b e e stabl ished . These a re a s f ol lows : 3

i )

Ar tefac tua l p a t tern ing c an b e d e mons tra ted t o r ela te t o t he o rgan isat i on o f t he s oc ie ty i n ac ons is ten t manner.

i )

Tha t c hanges i n a rte fac tua l p a t tern c an b e s hown t o r ela te t o c hanges i n t he s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion.

i i )

Tha t t he q ua l ity o f t he d a ta i s more t han a dequa te.

i v )

Tha t ac o mpara t ive measure e x is ts.

I t must b e p oss ible t o measure

i n as ys te ma t ic way a r tefactua l d a ta a ga inst s oc ia l v ar iab il i ty.

The

b est way o f d o ing t h is ( f ol low ing S axe ( 1970 ) a nd B in ford ( 1971) ) i s b y u se o f b ur ia l d a ta . v )

The e x ten t t o wh ich v ar iab il ity r e la tes t o s oc iety , a nd t he e x tent t o wh ich i tr ela tes t o c hronolog ica l , g eograph ica l a nd o ther f ac tors.

I n a dd it ion t o e stabl ish ing s uch ' p la tfor ms ' as ound t heore t ica l b as is h ad t o b e f ound ( see b elow ) a nd t h is i s d iscussed t horough ly i n l a ter c hap ters. For t he mo men t a na lysis w i l l b e c onf ined t o a nswer ing t hese f undamen ta l q ues t ions.

Even t hese t ypes o f q uest ions h ad n ot b een a sked o f t he Yorksh ire

d a ta b efore a nd a ma jor r econs idera t ion o f Yorksh ire a rtefactua l d a ta o f v ar ious f or ms was t herefore n ecess i ta ted .

H owever , i fi tc an b e s hown t ha t

a ma jor e le men t i n t he d a ta v ar iab il i ty was a ' soc ia l ' o ne , t he p urpose w il l h ave b een s erved . t he a ppend ix .

C orpuses o f t he ma ter ia l u sed a re p resen ted b r ief ly i n

These a re n ot p art icu larly i n tended a s c o mp lete l i sts o f a va i l-

a ble Yorksh ire ma ter ia l (b u t most may b e u sed a s s uch ) , b u t s i mp ly o f l i sts o f ma ter ia l t ha t t he wr i ter h as a na lysed . 3 .

GEOGRAPH ICAL BACKGROUND ( F ig . 1 .1 ) T o s o me e x ten t Y orksh ire may b e c ons idered a s am icrocos m o f B ri ta in .

Fox 's ' l ow land ' a nd ' h igh land ' c lass if ica t ion o f B r i ta in a lways s ee med t o b au lk ab i t when i tc a me t o Y orksh ire ( as s ugges ted i n ar ecen t ' Curren t A rchaeology ' n o. 6 1).

There a re l ow land a reas s uch a s t he w olds a nd v a les , b u t a way t o

t he west i s t he moun ta inous mass o f t he P enn ines c u t b y b road a nd d eep g lac ia l v a l leys.

Phys ica l ly a nd g eolog ica l ly t he a rea i s a n o dd mix ture.

Yorksh ire s ee ms t o h ave ' so me th ing o f e veryth ing '. Th is h as d isadvan tages i n mak ing a na lys is c o mp lex. A t t he s a me t ime , i ti s o n ly b y o bserv ing c hange r ela t ive t o a measure ( say a s pa t ia l measure ) t ha t t he a rchaeolog ist 's a na lys is c an p rosper. A l l i n a l l t hen , t he d isadvan tages o f t he a rea a re f ar o utwe ighed b y t he a dvan tages. F or t hose u n fa m i l iar w ith t he a rea t he n ex t f ew b r ief p aragraphs may b e u sefu l . The Wolds t o t he E ast ( t he b as ic a rea o f t he o ld E as t R id ing ) a re ma in ly c ha lk l ands w i th a l luv ia l d epos i ts t o t he s ou th-eas t ( Holderness ) a nd b ou lder c lay ma ter ia l o verly ing t he c ha lk i n t he e as t ( t h is i s v ery i mportan t i n a gr ic u l tura l t er ms :

s ee Best ( 1930 ) a nd h is d escr ip t ion o f t he ' whea t l i ne ' ).

To t he n or th a nd west o f t he wolds a re ' va le ' a reas , t he ma in o nes b e ing

t he v a les o f P ickering a nd York .

These a re l arge ly a l luv ia l r eg ions .

o f t he u nusua l f ea tures o f t hese a reas i s t he d ra inage p a t terns. t he r ivers t ha t ' dra in ' v irtua l ly t he whole o f Yorksh ire. d ra inage p a t tern i s o n ly v ia t he Hu mber e stuary.

4

One

They c onta in

The e x i t f or t h is

IWo lJs

5 T abu lar H i lls

2N Y orks Moo rs

6 H o lde rness

3 Magnm . L imes tone

7

L imes tone D a les

4' Va les '

8

P enn ines

F ig. 1 .1

' Old ' Y orksh ire :

Rel ief a nd p rof i le.

5

The North Yorksh ire Moors a re a p ea t c overed a rea i n t he n or th-east o f Yorksh ire wh ich E lgee ( 1933 ) t er med B lacka more .

T o t he s ou th a re t he Tabu-

l ar H il ls , al imestone a rea , w i th a r ela t ively d ense o ccupa t ion c o mpared t o B lacka more.

Between t he N orth Yorksh ire Moors a nd t he Wolds i s as pur

o fu p land —the H a mble ton H i l ls .

Th is i s a lso a l imes tone a rea .

Western Yorksh ire i s c o mpr ised o f t he P enn ines a nd i t s f r inges.

A long

t he e astern e dge o f t he P enn ines w i th in Yorksh ire ( as f ar n or th a s C a t ter ick ) t here i s an arrow b and o f magnesian l imestone wh ich i s v ery i mportan t i n t er ms o f h is torica l ( and p reh is tor ic?) s et t le men t a nd a gr icu l ture. t h is a re a l luv ia l a reas o f Yorksh ire 's ma in r ivers. a re d iv ided c o m mon ly i n to a n u mber o f a reas.

C u t t ing

The P enn ines t he mselves

T o t he s ou th a nd wes t t here

a re t he C oa l Measures wh ich o ver t he l as t t wo a nd a h a lf c entur ies h ave f or med t he c oun ty 's i ndustria l h eart .

West Yorksh ire a lso h as l arge a reas o f r e la t ively

i nfer t i le g r i ts tone moorlands ( such a s I lk ley Moor ).

The n or thern mass o f

t he P enn ine r ange i s c o mposed o f r ol l ing l imestone h il ls a nd many h igh p eaks k nown n or ma l ly a s t he Yorksh ire Da les. f ea tures o f l imestone c oun try :

Th is a rea h as many o f t he n or ma l

U-shaped v a l leys , l imestone p ave men ts ,

c l if fs , swa l low h oles a nd t he l i ke. Th is b r ief s urvey h opeful ly w il l s how t he t remendous v ariety o f t he c oun ty. A t t he s a me t ime i t may g ive s o me i nd ica t ions o f t he p roble ms o f s e t t le men t c hanging f ro m a rea t o a rea ( t he n eed i n v ar ious a reas f or man- made a nswers t o s uch d if f icu l t ies : p roble ms ;

e .g. d ew p onds i n t he w olds a s a n a nswer t o wa ter s upp ly

warp ing i n H olderness a s a n a nswer t o i n fer t il i ty ;

a n a nswer t o s lope p roble ms i n t he Da les ;

t errac ing a s

e tc.).

Agr icu l ture h as a lways b een c oncen tra ted ( h istor ica l ly ) i n c er ta in a reas wh ich a re l argely t he c arbon iferous a reas d escr ibed a bove , b u t a lso w i th improved d ra inage o n t he ' vales '.

Th is h as i mpor tan t c orre la t ions w ith s o me

o f t he p reh istor ic p a t terns d escr ibed b elow ( and i n Cha l l is a nd Hard ing (1975 ) ). 4 .

YORKSHIRE ANTIQUARIAN ISM :

THE NATURE OF THE EV IDENCE

Av ast amoun t o f ma ter ia l h as b een d iscovered ( and s o me r ecovered a nd r ecoverable s t il l ) i n Yorksh ire s ince t he ' Agr icu l tura l Revo lut ion ', b u t n o d oubt a lso i n f or mer t imes.

Over t he l as t 1 50 y ears a n u mber o f c o l lec tors

b egan t o g a ther s uch ma ter ia l i n as ys te ma t ic way .

Ag rea t d eal o f ma ter ia l

was r ecovered b y s ur face c ol lec t ion a nd e xcava t ion i n t he m idd le y ears o f t he n ine teen th c entury , p rov id ing i ti s t rue t o s ay a n embarass men t o f r iches. The ma ter ia l v ar ies t re mendously i n t he q ua l i ty o f ' i n for ma t ion ' i tp rov ides. Much o f t he c ol lec ted ma ter ia l was n ever p ubl ished a nd l arge q uan t i t ies o f a rtefac ts h ave b een l ost .

However , many o f t he ma jor b arrows d iggers p ro-

d uced s o me f or m o f r eports , a nd more i mportan t ly , t ook n otes o n t he ' excav a t ions '.

I n o rder t o c ons ider t he p er iod 3 500-750 B .C. i n Yorksh ire c on-

s iderable a t tent ion h ad t o b e p a id t o t hese c ol lec t ions a nd e va lua t ions o f t he m made.

A l i st o f s o me o f t he more i mportan t f i gures i s g iven b elow , w i th my

c o m men ts : a .

Canon J ohn A tk inson o f Danby ( A tk inson 1 861, 1 863a-f , 1 864a-c , 1 865 ,

1 882 , 1 891).

A l though A tk inson d id w r ite r eports , t hese a re i nadequa te i n

r ela t ing a r tefacts t o b uria ls.

We h ave a r ough i dea o n ly o f wh ich a r tefac ts

c a me f ro m wh ich b arrows a nd much e xcava ted ma ter ial c annot n ow b e t raced . 6

b .

S a mue l Anderson o f Wh i tby .

There a re n o p ub lished r eports o f Anderson 's

e xcava t ions , n or a re t here a ny u sefu l d e tai ls f ro m h is c orrespondence .

L iver-

p oo l Museu m h ouses h is c o l lec t ion , mos t ly f ro m t he N ew ton Mu lgrave a rea . c . Tho mas B oyn ton . H e amassed l arge c o l lec t ions o f ma teria l ( now s o mew ha t s p li t u p ) , b u t t h is was h ard ly p ub lished . d . e tc .

Wi l lia m G reenwe l l ( Greenwe l l 1 866, 1 877 , 1 890 G reenwe l l &G a t ty 1 910 , Purv is 1 967 ) .

G reenwe l l e xcava ted i n many p arts o f B ri ta in a nd d id

p ub lish mos t o f h is e xcava t ions .

Many o f h is d escrip t ions s ee m t o b e a ccura te

( Brews ter p ersona l c o m mun ica t ion ) .

There a re i nadequac ies , b ut mos t i m-

p ortan t ly w e c an t i e i n g rave g roups , b uria ls a nd i n many c ases b arrows . t h is a na lys is , t h is i s v ery i mportan t . b een u t i lised .

F or

The b u lk o f G reenwe l l 's ma teria l h as

U nfortuna te ly , al arge q uan t i ty o f a rtefac tua l r e mains h as b een

l os t s ince t he d epos i tion o f t he G reenwe l l c o l lec t ion i n t he B ri t ish Museu m . e .

Tho mas K enda l l a nd t he Mitche l lson c ol lec t ion

Tho mas K enda l l was a v orac ious c ol lec tor a nd b arrow d igger , whose c ol lect i on ( o f v ast p ropor t ions ) e nded u p i n t he h ands o f t he M itche l lson f am ily. I ti s n ow i n t he Y orksh ire Museu m . o fg rave g roups.

There a re n o p ubl ished r eports o r d eta i ls

T he c ol lec t ion h as n ot b een u sed e xcep t i n i nd iv idua l a rte-

f ac t s tud ies. f .

L ord L ondesborough .

L ondesborough d id s o me e xcava t ion i n Yorksh ire

( i n t he wo lds a nd n orth Yorksh ire ). j ourna ls ( Londesborough 1 851 e .g.).

S o me o f t h is i s r epor ted i n ' an t iquar ian ' Th is l a t ter Ih ave u t i l ised , b u t t h is i s

b iased t o s o me e x ten t —Londesborough was o ne o f t hose e xcava tors who o n ly r eported o n t he

g 2ood i es .

g . The Mort i mers ( Mort i mer 1 877 , 1 895 , 1 903 , 1 905, 1 907 , 1 909a , 1 909b , 1 911). Mort i mer w as a nother g rea t b arrow d igger who p ubl ished ma ter ia l . The d eta il a nd i l lus tra t ion i n ' Forty Years Researches

i s i n many ways

p ioneer ing , b u t a t t he s a me t ime h is r eports a re c on fused i n p laces ( Brewster i n a n u npubl ished a r t ic le i s v ery c r i t ica l ).

H owever , o ne c an l i nk g rave g roups ,

b ur ia ls a nd b arrows i n mos t c ases a s w i th Greenwe l l .

T hus h is ma teria l

f or ms a l arge p art o f t he d a ta f or t he a na lysis h ere. h .

J a mes Ruddock o f P icker ing

Ruddock was a c on te mporary o fb oth Green-

w e l l a nd Mort i mer b u t was much l ess met icu lous t han e i ther. w ere p ubl ished ( i n a n i nadequa te way ) i n Ba te man ( 1861).

H is e xcava t ions

S o me o f Ruddock 's

ma teria l h as b een u sed f or a na lys is h ere. i . J a mes S i lburn o f P ock l ington The o n ly d escr ip t ions o f S i lburn 's i nadeq ua te e xcava t ions a re i n Mort i mer ( 1905 ). The e xcava t ions were v ery sma l l s ca le a nd c annot b e r el ied u pon f or p rov id ing a ny u sefu l a nd n ecessary d e ta il. A whole s er ies o f o ther p eop le a re k nown t o h ave d ug i n to b arrows i n Y orksh ire ( or amassed s o me f or m o f c ol lec t ion ) i nc lud ing :

T rech mann ( 1914 );

L uk is ( 1869 ); T ess i man ; Denny , Cras ter , T inda l l ( reported i n E vans w ork ) ; P orter ; Wooler ; t he Holga tes ( i n for ma t ion f ro m D . Wil l ia ms , C raven Museu m );

e tc . e tc .

7

On ly a l im i ted amoun t o f t he d a ta d escr ibed h as b een u sed i n t he a na lys is ( see Corpus l i sts f or f u l l d e ta i ls ).

A t t he s a me t ime , o ne mus t b e w ary o f

a ny 1 9 th c en tury ma teria l emp loyed i n modern i n terpre ta t ion a nd a na lys is. On t he whole , Iam r easonably h appy w i th mos t o f t he Mor t i mer a nd G reenwe l l ma ter ia l a nd o n ly p arts o r n one o f t ha t e xcava ted b y t he o ther e xcava tors a nd c ol lec tors. I f s o me c r i t ic is m c an b e l eve l led a t many o f t he o lder d iggers a nd c ol lect ors , o ne c an b e e qua l ly c r i t ica l o f d a ta c ol lec t ion i n r ecen t y ears i n t h is c oun ty .

I ti s n ot t ha t t he e xcava t ions a re n o t ' sc ien t if ic ' o r t ha t o ne c an

c r i t ic ise a ny o f t he r esu l ts.

H owever , w i th t he emphasis o n ' rescue ' e xcava-

t i on much i n for ma t ion i sb e ing l ost i n v ar ious ways.

F irst ly, i n t he ma in

e xcava t ion i s c onf ined t o p loughed o u t ( or v ir tua l ly s o ) b arrows a nd t hus t he p ubl ished r eports a ppear a s as er ies o f f ea tures d ug b elow t he o ld g round s urface ;

many b arrow f eatures a re l ost .

S econd ly , e xcava t ions a re n ot

d irec ted t owards a nswer ing s pec if ic q uest ions ( t o u se t he modern j argon , t hey a re n ot ' proble m o r ien ta ted ' ).

There i s a n i ncreas ing a nd d isturb ing t rend

among r escue a rchaeolog ists t o b e s a t isf ied w ith ' s tandard ised ' r epor t ing p rocedures.

Th is u sua l ly means t ha t we h ave s tandard ised i gnorance a cross

l arge a reas o f t he c oun try. S imi lar ly , modern c o l lec tors i n Y orksh ire h ave y e t t o p roduce much u sef u l o r s ys te ma t ic s urveys o f ma ter ia l .

' Co l lec tion ' i s s t i l l i n t he h ands o f a

f ew ama teurs who ' know t he a rea ' i n t he ma in .

Many o f t hese p eop le i n f ac t d o

e xce l len t w ork , p art icu larly w i th t he ir l oca l k now ledge.

S o me o f t he ma jor

Yorksh ire c ol lec t ions a re l i sted b elow : i )

The G ran tha m C ol lec t ion D r if f ield :

Th is i s av ery importan t c ol lec-

t i on o f Neol ith ic ma ter ia l p art icu larly , f ro m t he Dr if f ield a rea o f t he Yorksh ire w olds.

The ma ter ia l i nc ludes s o me f ro m e xcavat ions

( l arge ly a s er ies o f ' p i t g roups' o n t he Ruds ton ' Woldga te ' p ubl ished i n Manby ( 1974 )). i ) i i )

J ohn Cunda l l a nd t he P ex ton c ol lec t ion T . C . M. Brewster C ol lec t ion :

Al arge c ol lec t ion o f ma ter ia l p ar t ic-

u larly f ro m t he wolds. i v )

The Tho mas L ord C ol lec t ion

( t he c ol lec t ion o f t he P ig Yard C lub a t

S et t le ). v ) v i ) v i i )

v i i i ) i x ) x ) x i ) x i i )

The Ray mond Hayes C ol lec t ion a nd t he Museu m o f Rura l L i fe The Roland C lose C ol lec t ion The Darby C ol lec t ion : l argely Mesol i th ic.

( K i lda le ).

Th is i s aWest Yorksh ire c ol lec t ion a nd i s

The G ray a nd Sm i th C ol lec t ions ( Wh itby Museu m ) The T . G . Manby C ol lec t ion The Wi l mot t C ol lec t ion The E . Cow l ing C ol lec t ion , O t ley The Ra istr ick C ol lec t ion 8

Ra istr ick h as d one v ery i mportan t w ork e spec ia l ly i n t he Yorksh ire Da les ( Ra istrick 1 929 , 1 931, 1 934, 1 936, 1 937 , 1 939 , 1 947 , 1 968 , 1 970 e tc . ) . Many o ft he " o lder" c o l lec t ions a re n ow i n Museu ms ( York , L ondon o r H u l l e .g . ) . There a re t hus l arge n umbers o f c ol lec t ions o f ma teria l f ro m Y orksh ire ( part icu larly f l in t i t e ms f ro m t he Yorksh ire Wolds ).

I n a dd i t ion t o t h is many

o f t he Yorksh ire ( and s o me L ancash ire ) Museu ms h ave s izeable c ol lec t ions o f a r tefacts o f t he r e levan t p er iod , S o me c onc lus ions O i l ' orksh ire c ol lec tors The ma jor ity o f r elevan t a r tefacts f ro m Yorksh ire b e long t o l arge c ol lect i ons o f ten b u il t u p i n t he 1 9 th c en tury o r t he e ar ly y ears o f t he p resen t c ent ury . a .

The ma in p roble ms o f t hese c ol lec t ions c an b e s u m mar ised a s f o l lows :

There was a g enera l t endency among many o f t he 1 9 th c en tury c o l lec tors

t o s e lec t o n ly t he f iner i t e ms f or i nc lus ion i n t he ir c ol lec t ions.

Th is t rend

v ar ied s o mewha t f ro m my own o bserva t ions , b u t c o inc identa l ly ( or n o t , s ee b e low ) i t i s t he ' soc ia l ly importan t ' p ieces t ha t were n orma l ly c o l lec ted . Mos t 1 9 th c en tury c ol lec t ions ( and s o me r ecen t o nes t oo ) c ons ist o f a rrowheads , s crapers a nd s tone a xes a nd v ery f ew ' run-ofthe- m il l ' r e touched a nd u nret ouched f lakes a nd b lades. b .

A l arge p roport ion o f i mp le men ts i n many o f t he c ol lec t ions a re u nprove-

n anced.

A r ough a pprox i ma t ion among t he ma jor Yorksh ire c ol lec t ions m igh t

g ive t he f o l low ing p roport ions : i ) i )

F lakes a nd b lades.

I n e xcess o f 9 0% u nprovenanced .

Arrowheads a nd s crapers.

i i )

S tone a xes.

i v )

Bronzes.

I n e xcess ( I f 5 0% u nprovenanced .

4 0% u nprovenanced .

1 0-15% u nprovenanced .

I no ther words, t he i mp le men ts t ha t a re t he most ' decora t ive ' a re t he o nes t ha t a re l ikely t o b e r ecorded. c . S o me o f t he l arger c ol lec t ions h ave n ow b een b roken u p a nd t h is makes a t tr ibu t ion o f l oca t ion a n e ven more d if f icu l t t ask . Thus o n ly a sma l l p roport i on o f imp le men ts c an b e c lose ly l oca ted ( many o f t hose t ha t c an b e l oca ted a re o n ly p rovenanced a s t o p ar ish ). d .

Most o f t he l arge c ol lec t ions o f a r tefacts r e ma in u npubl ished .

I n v iew

o f t he l ow q ua l ity o f much o f t h is ma ter ia l , t h is s i tua t ion i s l i kely t o p ersist . e .

Many o f t he e xcava t ions o f t he 1 9 th c en tury e xcava tor/col lec tors w ere

o f al ow s tandard.

Many a re i nadequa tely r ecorded ( i f n o t a l l ) a nd l arge n u m-

b ers o f t he ' d igs ' c annot n ow b e a ccura tely l oca ted .

Wi th Mor t i mer a nd G reen-

we l l p art ly e xcep ted , t hese a n t iquar ians r e ta ined o n ly t he f i ner i t e ms f or t he ir c ol lec t ions. The c ol lec tor 's ma ter ia l c an b e made s o me u se o f i f we a re a ware o f t he l im i ta t ions o u t l ined a bove.

9

A s u m mary o f c o mpara t ive d a ta :

t he modern e v idence

There a re , a s d escribed , an u mber o f modern c o l lec t ions w i th b e t ter p rovenanced ma teria l .

Bu t , t h is c ol lec t ion s ee ms t o l ack d irec t ion t o al arge

d egree. Modern e xcava t ion i n Yorksh ire h as c oncen tra ted o n t he Yorksh ire Wolds ( as d id t he 1 9 th c en tury w ork ).

Th is h as i nvolved t o al arge measure , t he

r e-excava t ion o f 1 9 th c en tury e xcava ted s i tes.

T he ma jor s er ies o f e xcava t ions

t ha t h ave t aken p lace h as b een i n t he r eg ion o f t he Garton a nd Wetwang S lacks ( Brewster 1 976 ,e tc .).

The w ork h as i nvolved h igh ly c o mpe ten t e xcava tors

emp loy ing s c ien t if ic me thods.

Th is p rov ides a ccura te i n for ma t ion o n t he

s ex a nd a ge o f N eol ith ic a nd Bronze Age b ur ia ls , d e ta i led d escrip t ions o f g rave g roup a ssoc ia t ions a nd t o ac er ta in e x tent , a na lys is.

Thus w i th in t he

l ast 2 0 y ears o r s o , o ver 5 0 N eol i th ic a nd Bronze A ge b arrow a nd b ur ia l s i tes h ave b een e xcava ted w i th in Yorksh ire. s tudy .

Th is e v idence i s i nva luable t o t h is

C r it ic is ms o f r ecen t w ork h as a lready b een v o iced h ere , b u t t h is d oes

n ot d im in ish t he v a lue o f t he l im i ted amoun t o f i n for ma t ion t ha t t hey h ave p rod uced .

S o me s i tes, i n a dd i t ion h ave p rov ided d e ta i l o f e nv iron men ta l a nd

e cono m ic d a ta ( e .g. C oo mbs e xcava t ions a t Ca l l is Wold ( 1976 ) ;

Manby 's

e xcava t ions a t K ilha m ( 1976 ) a nd Wi l lerby Wold ( 1 963 )). I tw ou ld b e o f g rea t v a lue i ft he b arrow a nd b ur ia l e xcava ted d a ta c ou ld b e c o mpared w ith i n for ma t ion f ro m s e t t le men t s i tes. The l ack o f g ood s e tt lemen t e xcava t ion o f t he Neol i th ic a nd Bronze Age p er iod i s v ery u nfor tuna te. Th is i sb oth a n i nd ic t men t o f t he f act t ha t s uch s i tes a re d if f icul t t o s po t ( bu t v ery e asy t o d estroy b e means o f d eep p lough ing ) , t he l ack o f f inance a va ilable f or s uch e xcavat ions a nd t he g enera l l ack o f i n teres t i n s et t le men t s i tes i n Yorksh ire u nt il t he l as t 2 0 y ears o r s o. The e v idence we d o h ave i s a s f ol lows : i )

The e xcava t ion o f a sma l l n u mber o f s i tes o n t he w olds ( Manby 1 974 a nd 1 975 ) o f v ery l im i ted e x ten t .

Part icu larly i n t h is c a tegory o ne

w ou ld i nclude t he e xcava t ions a t Beacon H il l , F la mborough ( Moore 1 964 ) a nd C rayke H il l .

The f irst o f t hese h as p rov ided u s w i th o n ly

at an ta l is ing g l i mpse o f t he k ind o f i n for ma t ion t ha t i sb eing r ap id ly d estroyed b y t he p lough i n t h is c oun ty. i )

The sma l l s ca le e xcava t ion o f s ca t ters o f p o t tery a nd f l in ts b y amat eurs ( t he e xcel len t w ork o f t he G ran tha ms d iscussed i n Manby ( 1974 a nd 1 975 )).

i i )

S urface c ol lec t ions o f f l in ts a nd p ot tery w i thout e xcava t ion a lso o ccur .

i v )

L arge s ca le e xcava t ion o f Neol i th ic a nd B ronze Age s i tes i n Yorksh ire i s a l most u nknown.

The r ecen t w ork a t Thw ing b y Manby i s ap leasing

e xcep t ion t o t h is r u le.

When c o mp le te , t h is e xcava t ion i s l i ke ly t o

p rov ide i nva luable i n for ma t ion o n B ronze A ge s e t t le ments . v )

The e xcava t ion o f c aves i n t he Y orksh ire D a les h as b een a p opu lar p astt i me f or o ver a c en tury.

C aves h ave b een l i ved i n , i n t he n orth

o f E ng land , a t a l l t imes f ro m t he P a laeo li th ic o nwards . I t i s n o t a t a l l s urpr is ing t ha t o ne s hou ld f i nd ' Neol ith ic a nd B ronze Age ' ma teria l a t s uch s i tes.

H owever , many o f t hese e xcavat ions a re v ery sma l l

s ca le a nd t hey a re f requen t ly b ad ly r ecorded a nd r eported.

1 0

T he

l im ited d a ta f ro m t hese s i tes makes i n terpre ta t ion a l most i mposs ible ( apar t f ro m t he most s i mp l is t ic o f s ta te men ts ). v i )

Aer ia l p ho tography i s p rov id ing i ncreas ing e v idence o f s et t le men t i n t he p reh is tor ic p er iods i n t he g ravel a nd c arbon iferous a reas o f Yorksh ire.

Much o f t h is d a ta i s y e t t o b e i n terpre ted .

H owever,

i ti s c lear t ha t t here was d ense s e t t le ment i n Yorksh ire b y t he Bronze Age i nvolv ing f i eld s yste ms.

Bu t i ti s s t i l l v ery d if f icu l t t o d a te

many o f t hese s i tes w i thou t e xcava t ion .

Th is i s b y n o means k eep ing

p ace w i th t he d iscovery o f n ew s i tes b y a eria l p hotography.

T h is

k ind o f i n for ma t ion c oup led w ith e xcava t ion a nd a r esearch p rogra m me w il l n o d oub t i n t he f u ture g rea t ly i mprove o ur k now ledge o f p reh ist or ic s e t t le men t i n Yorksh ire. v i i )

A n umber o f p eop le ( e .g. D i rnbleby 1 962 ) h ave b een w ork ing o n e nv iron men tal ma ter ia l i n Yorksh ire i n t he p er iod .

Th is makes i t

c lear t ha t t here were many p eop le l i v ing ( as we l l a s d y ing ) i n t he c oun ty a nd c lear ing t rees , g row ing c rops a nd t he l i ke.

H owever ,

t h is d oes n o t ( d esp ite F le ming 's e v idence ( 1976 e .g . )s ee b e low ) t e l l u s wha t e xac t ly t hey were d oing o r why a nd h ow. S yn thes is a nd c onclus ions :

t he n a ture o f t he e v idence

The p rev ious p ages h ave a t te mp ted t o q u ick ly r un t hrough t he f or m o f t he e v idence a va ilable f or t he modern p reh istory s tuden t .

N ever theless , i t

s hou ld b e c lear t ha t t here i s aw ide r ange o f d if feren t f or ms o f e v idence a nd t ha t o f v ery v ary ing q ua l i ty .

I ti s o n ly i ft he p roble ms a nd l im i ta t ions o f t he d a ta

a re f u l ly r ea l ised t ha t t hey c an b e o f a ny g rea t v a lue.

The n a ture o f t he e v i-

d ence , If eel , h as n o t o n ly a n i mportan t e f fect o n t he way t he d a ta a re h and led , b u t i ti s a lso f unda men ta l i n a n a pproach t o t he s tudy a s a whole. Ir egard t h is d is t inct ion a s o f t he g rea test importance.

My a pproach h ere i s t o r e-

e xa m ine a nd r e-c lass ify , where p oss ible , l arge q uan t i t ies o f o ld ma ter ia l i n to ' useable ' f or m t o a nswer t he p ar t icu lar q uest ions o u t l ined a bove.

Th is

h as i nvolved t he u se o f c o mpu ter a nd s ta t ist ica l t echn iques, wh ich h ave made p oss ible t he a na lys is o f s uch l arge amoun ts o f ma teria l— it wou ld h ave b een a n i mpossible t ask b y h and .

T o s o me e x ten t , t he n a ture o f t he d a ta , h as

n ecess i ta ted a ' quan t i ta t ive ' a pproach , a nd t he p os ing o f f ar-rang ing q uest ions. Iw ou ld t hus ma in ta in t ha t a l though t he ' da ta ' a va i lable h ave s evere l im ita t ions i n s o me r espec ts , i ft hese d isadvan tages a re r ecogn ised , d e ta iled a na lys is i s p oss ible. 5 .

S O ME S UGGEST IONS ON THE S UBS ISTENCE ECONO M IC BAS IS P ar t 1 :

The h istor ica l p erspec t ive

I ti s d if f icu l t t o c onsider p a t terns o f s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion w i thou t h av ing s o me k now ledge o f t he s ubs is tence e cono m ic b as is.

I n f act , t here i s v ery

p oor e v idence a va i lable a t p resen t a nd i ti s d if f icu l t t o make a ny th ing more t han ' guesses ' ( Fle m ing 1 976 e .g.) o r t o a rr ive a t a ny th ing b u t t he mos t g enera l c onc lusions.

T h is w i l l n ot b e at horough t rea t men t ( f ur ther d e ta i ls

a re g iven i n t he o r ig ina l t hes is manuscr ip t ( Pierpo in t 1 978 )).

Cha l l is a nd

Hard ing ( 1975 ) o f fer s o me g enera l c onc lus ions o n p reh is toric e cono m ic p a t terns i n t he c oun ty .

Th is a na lys is c an a dd l i t t le t o t he s uggest ions made 1 1

t here .

H owever , Id o o f fer h ere a n h is torica l p erspec t ive f or t he p rob le m , wh ich

If ee l d oes p rov ide v a luab le i nfor ma t ion o n t he t ypes o f p rob le ms f aced b y t he a gricu ltura lis t o r p as tora l is t i n d if feren t a reas o f Y orksh ire i fn ot ag ood p ic ture o ft he s o lu t ions t o t he s a me i n t he p reh is toric p er iod .

H opefu l ly , t h is w i l l s how

more t han t he s i mp le f ac t t ha t t he mos t p rosperous a gricu ltura l a reas h ave t he l arges t c oncen tra t ions o f b arrows a nd r ich b ur ia ls .

S uch a c orre la t ion i s n o t ,

h owever, s urpris ing . a .

E ast Yorksh ire The I ron Age F or t he I ron Age , t here i s o n ly t he s crapp ies t e v idence a va ilable — l i t t le

more t han t here i s f or t he N eol ith ic o r B ronze Age. f orward i n t he p ast h ave b een s i mp l ist ic .

Mos t o f t he v iews p u t

I n 1 961 P iggot t r e in troduced t he o ld

F ox ian v iew ( Fox 19 23, 1 933 ) t ha t t he s ou th o f Eng land was a lways ab road a gr icu l tura l b el t w i th c oncen tra t ions o f ' gra in ' s torage p i ts a nd l arge n u mbers o f q uerns , whereas t he n orth , i nc lud ing Yorksh ire , was i ncapable o f s upport i ng a gr icu l ture t o a ny e x ten t . Much o f t he e v idence i s d iscussed i n Cha l l is a nd Hard ing ( 19 75 p ages 1 53-9 ). A .

Iw il l s u m marise t he ma in p o in ts b e low : Wheeler e xcava t ing a t S tanw ick ( 1954 ) c ou ld f ind n o e v idence o f

c erea ls a nd i n terpre ted t he s i te a s as tock e nc losure. B .

As S tap le Howe ( Brewster 19 63 p ages 1 39-140 ) ac ache o f 8 000 g ra ins

o f c lub whea t was r ecovered .

I n t he l ast f ew y ears t he s a me e xcava tor h as

r ecovered a mass o f whea t a nd b arley f ro m I ron A ge f eatures i n t he Car ton S lack .

I n t he S lacks h ere )t here may a lso b e f i e lds a nd s e t t le men t o f ac on-

t e mporary d a te. C .

Recen t a er ia l p ho tography o n t he Magnes ian l imestone b el t a nd o n

t he w olds ( I . Ra m m a nd D . R i ley i n for ma t ion ) i nd ica tes t ha t c oncen tra t ions o f f i elds e x isted i n t hese a reas i n t he Ro mano-Br i t ish a nd I ron Age p er iods. The s ize o f many o f t hese f i elds may ( or may n ot ) s uggest a c oncen tra t ion o n a gricu l ture ( t hey were c o mparable t o t hose d escr ibed b y F le m ing a nd C ol l is ( 1973 )).

Recen t e xcava t ion i n Wes t Yorksh ire ( P. Mayes i n for ma t ion )

h as s hown t ha t I ron Age r ound h ouses a re l oca ted i n t he n e ighbourhood o f t he f i elds.

Th is may s uggest t ha t a gr icu l ture h ad a n i mpor tan t p art i n t he

e cono my i n t hese a reas.

Th is i s n ot e n t irely s urpr is ing.

H is tor ica l ly t h is

was ' ever t hus '. D .

A rgu men ts o ver I ron Age a gr icu l ture f requen t ly r esort t o t a lk o f t he

a bsence o f I ron Age q uerns i n Yorksh ire.

I n a ny c ase s uch q uerns h ave n ow

t urned u p i n t he a rea ( bu t t hese c ou ld a lso b e l a ter ) a nd t h is wou ld h ard ly a ppear t o g ive u s a ny d e ta i l o f I ron Age a gr icu l ture. E .

S torage p i ts c on ta in ing g ra in h ave b een l oca ted i n t he Garton S lack .

I n c onc lus ion Id on 't t h ink Ic an a dd a nyth ing t o C ha l l is a nd Hard ing 's ( 1975 ) c onc lus ions t ha t I ron A ge e cono m ies i nc luded a gr icu l ture a s a n i mport an t e le men t.

We k now t ha t t he t hree b as ic d o mes t ica tes w ere p resen t ( sheep ,

c ow a nd p ig b u t n o I ron Age s i te h as ( as y et ) p roduced a u sefu l b one s a mp le f or a na lys is ).

We a ctua l ly k now v ery l i tt le.

P ol len d iagra ms a re p roduc ing

u sefu l e v idence s how ing c learance o ccupa t ion a nd t he g row ing o f c erea ls i n marg ina l a reas.

A l o t more e v idence i s y et n eeded . 1 2

The Ro man p er iod I n t h is p er iod w e k now t ha t t here were Ro man v il las ( as a t Rudston ) w ith r ich i te ms i nc lud ing t he s ta tu tory mosa ic p ave men ts.

However , a s i n Garton

S lack ( J . Den t i n for ma t ion ) t here were p oor Ro mano-Br i t ish f ar msteads. There were b ig s e t t le men ts w ith a m il itary b as is a t Ma l ton a nd P e tuar ia ( on t he Humber ). p age 7 0-1;

T here w ere 1 2 v i l las i n E ast Yorksh ire ( Longworth 1 965

K irk a nd C order 1 933;

K itson C larke 1 930 , 1 939 ;

S teer 1 937 ).

Many o f t he v i l las i n B r ita in ( and e lsewhere ) were s i ted t o e xp lo i t r ich a nd v ar ied a reas.

The s i t ing a t Rudston f or e xa mp le i s a t t he j unc t ion o f t he o ld

h eavy a nd l i gh ter s o i ls o f t he wolds.

I n f ac t , we k now r e markably l i t tle a bou t

s ubs istence o n t he w olds i n t he Ro man p eriod .

One l ooks f orward t o t he p ub-

l i ca t ion o f r ecen t e xcava t ions i n t he a rea. Med ieva l a nd l a ter p er iods The l a ter p er iods a re o f v ery c o mp l ica ted a nd s oph is t ica ted s oc iet ies w i th marke t c en tres h av ing a n impor tan t e f fec t o n e xp lo i ta t ion p a t terns.

The

D o mesday S urvey ( Darby a nd Maxwel l 1 962 p ages 2 17-21) d oes p rov ide s o me i nd ica t ion o f e cono m ic p a t terns , b u t i ti s c learly i nco mp lete a nd u nrel iable. There a re l arge b lanks i n t he e v idence d escr ibed a s ' waste-v i l las '.

Darby

a nd Maxwe l l ( 1962 ) s uggest t ha t t h is may b e d ue t o r a ids f ro m t he n orth b u t w i thou t a ny c lear e v idence. The s urvey d oes s ee m t o s how c oncen tra t ions o f p lough t ea ms a round Hu l l t ogether w i th a l arge p opu la t ion .

C ons iderable a reas o f p asture a re i n-

d ica ted o n t he western wolds c orrespond ing t o t he s heep d im ina ted a reas o f t he 1 9th c en tury ( see b elow ). The n ext s e t o f i mportan t d ocu men ts c o mes i n t he f or m o f t he monastery r ecords o f c . 1 1501350 ( su m mar ised i n Wa ites 1 967 p ages 1 36-43 ).

Many

o f t he med ieva l v i l lages o f t h is p er iod a re c oncen tra ted o n t he most s u itable a gr icul tura l s o ils i n t he Grea t Wolds Va l ley ;

s i tes l i ke He lperthorpe , Weaver-

t horpe, Bu t terw ick , F oxho les , Wold N ew ton , A rgha m ( w i th i t s a ssoc ia ted I ron Age s i te ) , Bark island , F orden e tc. ( na mes wh ich w il l b e f am il iar t o t he p reh istor ian f or t he l arge q uan t i t ies o f f l in ts wh ich t hese p ar ishes h ave p rod uced ).

Ownersh ip o f t he l and was c oncen tra ted i n t he h ands o f af ew r ich

i nd iv idua ls a nd I nst i tu t ions s uch a s t he monaster ies.

I n t h is p eriod , i n p ar-

t i cu lar , t he C isterc ian move men t was g row ing v ery r ap id ly a nd a cqu ir ing l arge a reas o f l and . Fro m t he A bbey r ecords t here a re masses o f e v idence o f e cono m ic p ract i ces.

Each a bbey o f ten s e t u p l arge n u mbers o f g ranges t o l ook o f ter t he

l ands i n v ar ious a reas. o f e v idence c orre la te .

The p a t tern i s v ery p red ic tab le a nd a s er ies o f s trands The Wold t op g ranges w ere v ery much s heep d om ina ted

a t t h is p er iod ( c f . C lark 1 947 ) . f l eeces a t t h is t ime.

Wharra m Percy was e ven p ay ing a t i the i n

On t he o ther h and t he p ar ishes a nd g ranges o n t he e as tern

w o lds ( t he b ou lder c lay s o i ls ) a nd t he l ow land a reas h ad l arge n u mbers o f p lough t ea ms , l arge n umbers o f f ar m workers ( as n eeded i n a gr icu lture ) e tc. ( d eta ils i n t he ! Naw ton t rac ts ' o f 1 254 f or e xa mp le ). I t may b e p oss ib le t o a gree w i th Wa ites , own c o m men t :

" I t i s t e mp t ing

t o s ee a lready i n t he med ieva l t imes s o meth ing o f t he c oncen tra t ion o n s heep-

1 3

b arley a gr icu l ture wh ich i s t yp ica l o f t he wo lds t oday" ( Wa i tes 1 967 p age 1 40 ). A t t he s a me t ime t here i s e v idence o n t he e astern Wolds o f whea t r ep lac ing b arley o n t he h eavy s o i ls. By 1 303 we k now t ha t t he f i rst ' dew-ponds ' w ere b e ing b u i l t o n t he Wolds ( a t We twang ) t o c o mpensa te f or t he l ack o f s trea m wa ter.

H owever , t o c or-

r e la te w i th t he d ocu men tary d a ta t here i s al i t t le a rchaeolog ica l i n for ma t ion a s c onf ir ma t ion , Wharra m Percy ( Ryder e t a l . 1 974 p ages 2 3-4) h as t he h ighest p ercen tages f or s heep o f a ny s i tes o f t he p er iod a nd a rea ( t here a re i n f ac t f ew t o c o mpare e .g. P etersga te a t York o r K irksta l l Abbey a t L eeds ( Ryder 1 967 )). 1 600-1800 ( Ev idence s u m mar ised i n H arr is 1 959 ) The t rends s een i n t he med ieva l p er iod c an b e s een t o c on t inue o n t o t he 1 9 th c en tury a nd l a ter.

By 1 650 t he wolds were a lready we l l c leared o f t rees

a nd d ot ted w i th p len ty o f s heep t o e nsure t ha t t hey w ou ld n ot g row a ga in . "Many o f t he h igher t ownsh ips a t l eas t w ere s im ilar i n a ppearance t o Wetwang wh ich was d escr ibed e arly i n t he 1 8 th c en tury a s l y ing i n t he m idst o f a n o pen c oun trys ide i n wh ich ' scarce abush o r at ree ( appeared ) f or s evera l m iles ' "( Harr is 1 959 p age 1 21). Much o f t he wolds b y t he 1 8 th c en tury was d om ina ted b y s heep g raz ing o r r abb i t warrens ( t hese l a t ter s urv ived i n to t he m idd le o f t he l ast c en tury ). H olderness o n t he o ther h and was l argely c a t t le p as ture ( Harr is 1 959 p age 1 22). The c en tra l a nd e astern Wolds were t he b es t a rable l ands. A bou t 5 00 a cres o f l and was u nder t he p lough i n t he m idd le o f t he 1 8 th c en tury . Barley was t he ma in c rop f ol lowed b y whea t .

I ti s c lear t ha t a s n ow b arley w as d o m-

i nan t o n l oa my a nd l i gh ter s o i ls a nd whea t d om inan t o n t he b ou lder c lay s oils ( see Best 's whea t l i ne 1 930 ).

As f ar a s h erds o f a n i ma ls w ere c oncerned , i t

i s t he wold t op f ar ms t ha t h ave t he g rea test d ef ic iency o f c a t t le;

b u t t he

l argest n u mbers o f s heep ( t here were s o me h erds o f o ver 1 000 ).

1 800 t he t he p resen t d ay A f ter t he b eg inn ing o f t he Agricu l tura l a nd t he I ndustria l Revo lu t ion t here was a move men t o ft he l and less f ro m t he w o lds i n p art icu lar ( agricu l ture b eing v ery l abour i n tens ive b enef i t ted g rea t ly f ro m t he w ork o f T u l l a nd o thers ) . I ndustr ia l c en tres a ppeared t o t ake t h is l abour f orce a s a t Hu l l , b u t e spec ia l ly i n t he West R id ing.

R ich d a iry f ar m ing a reas d eveloped a round c en tres l ike

Hu l l t o c a ter f or t hese g row ing p opu la t ions.

T o i ncrease t he f ert il i ty o f t he

f i elds warp ing o pera t ions b eca me v ery p opu lar i n H olderness ( north o f Hu l l ). Th is i nvolves t he f l ood ing o f f i elds t o s pread s i l ty ma ter ia l o ver t he m .

A t

t he s a me t ime t he wolds l and was e nc losed , warrens d isappeared b u t t he b as ic g raz ing a rable d ichoto my f am il iar i n t he e arl ier p er iods s ee ms t o h ave c ont inued ( Harris 1 967 ). S u m mary o f E cono m ic p at terns i n Eastern Yorksh ire A n u mber o f g enera l t rends a ppear c lear o ver t he h istor ic p er iod a t l east :

1 4

A .

T here i s ac oncen tra t ion o f a gr icu l tura l l ands i n t he Grea t Wolds

V a l ley a nd t he Eastern Wolds e dge.

B oth t hese a reas h ave t h icker more

f ert i le s o i ls p rov ided b y g lac ia l o r a l luv ia l a ccu mu la t ion .

Un t i l t he I ndustr ia l

R evolut ion t hese t h icker s o i ls p rov ided t he a rea f or s et t le men t. B . The p resence o f l arge a reas o fg ood p astora l l and o n t he e x tens ive w old t ops—in t he med ieva l a nd l a ter p eriods s heep d o mina ted t hese a reas . Bu t , f or a s hort p er iod , r abb i t warrens were a l mos t e qua l ly i mportan t t o t he e cono my o f t he a rea .

Earl ier p at terns o f e xp lo ita t ion may h ave b een r a ther

d i f feren t p art icu larly i ft here was more t ree c over.

I n t h is c ase c a t t le a nd

p art icu larly p igs c ou ld h ave b een importan t . C .

The r ela t ive ly i nfert i le a rea o f Holderness was n o t e xtensively d ra ined

u n t il t he a gricu l tura l r evolu t ion .

There was a v ery l ow a rable p oten t ia l a nd

H olderness i n g enera l may h ave l ooked s o meth ing l ike t he r eg ion o f H ornsea Meer.

S o me o f t he p roble ms h ere w ere s olved b y ' warp ing ' o pera t ions.

D .

The Va le l ands were a lso p oorly d ra ined i n s o me p laces a nd p rov ided ,

i n t he ma in , p as ture l and .

S o i ls a t t he b ase o f t he w o lds w ere s o mewha t b e t ter

w i th t he w ash-down o f ma teria l a nd h ave i n r ecen t c enturies p rov ided i dea l whea t l ands .

The a reas a re a lso i mpor tan t f or t he n u mber o f w o ld f oo t s prings .

s prings. The ma in s et t lemen t a reas o ver t he h istorica l p er iod were l oca ted i n p art icu lar z ones , p art ly b ecause o f t he u n ique q ua l i t ies o f t he a rea : i )

i ) i i )

I n t he l im ited a gr icu l tura l l ands d escr ibed , b u t w ith in r each o f p ast ure l and o n t he h igh w old t ops o r i n t he Va les. Wi th a ccess t o wa ter s upp ly ( un t i l d ew-ponds b eca me c o m mon ). P referab ly w i th a ccess t o b oth h eav ier a nd l i gh ter a gr icu l tura l s o i ls.

The G rea t Wo lds Va l ley , a t t he f oot o f t he Wolds e scarpmen t a nd i n t he Marke t We igh ton G ap w ere ' i dea l ' s et t lemen t a reas .

The i mp lica t ions o ft h is

f or t he p eriod 3 500-750 B . C . w i l l b e d iscussed l a ter . B as ica l ly t here a re g ene ra l t rends a nd t here a re r ecurren t p rob le ms wh ich p eop le t hroughou t p reh is tory f ro m t he N eo li th ic o nwards h ad t o s o lve . b .

West Yorksh ire I f t he e v idence f or East Yorksh ire i s l im ited ( desp ite t he o bv ious g enera l

p a t terns t ha t h ave b een n oted ) , p roble ms i n o ther a reas a re more s evere. F or t he e arl ier p er iods many i n terpre ta t ions a re b ased o n f ar t oo l i t t le e v id ence a s w il lb e made c lear b elow. The I ron Age There i s v ery l i t t le o ne c an a dd t o t he c o m men t o f fered b y Cha l l is a nd Hard ing ( 1975 p ages 1 84-5 ) , wh ich a re v ery s im ilar t o t he e arl ier s uggest ions o f Ra istr ick ( 1939 ;

b u t s ee T oo mey 1 964 ).

The g enera l i dea i s t ha t West

Yorksh ire was b as ica l ly p astora l w i th s ca t tered p a tches o f a rable.

Ra istr ick

d escribes t hree t ypes o f i ron Age s et t le men ts ( used i n t he ' High land ' s ense c overing t he RB p er iod a lso ).

Cha l l is a nd Hard ing s ta te ( 1975 p ages 1 84-5 ) :

" the c apac i ty o f t he P enn ine d a les t o s upport p opu la t ion was s everely l im i ted. S em i-no mad ic p astora l is m was t he o n ly p rac t icable way o f l i fe". 1 5

They f ur ther i n terpre t t he i ncreas ing p ol len e v idence a s i nd ica t ing t ha t a rable a c t iv ity was c onf ined t o t he l im i ted v a l ley f l oor a reas w i th t he e xcept i on o f t he Penn ine f r inges.

A er ia l p hotography i n t hese l a t ter a reas ( D. R iley

i n for ma t ion ) b acked u pb y s o me e xcava t ion ( P. Mayes i n for ma t ion ) w ou ld s uggest d ense c lusters o f f ields a nd s e t t le men ts b y t he Ro mano-Br i t ish p er iod , w i th f orerunners i n t he I ron Age a nd p robably c ons iderably e arl ier.

S i tes o f

v ar ious p er iods a re k nown o n t he magnes ian l imestone a nd t he g ravels f ro m Doncaster t o Ca t ter ick a nd f ur ther t o t he s ou th o u ts ide t he c oun ty. Ro mano-Br it ish p eriod I n t h is p er iod , p ol len e v idence may s how a n e xpanse o f a rable c u l t iva t ion i n to t he Penn ine r ange. Anglo-Saxon a nd Med ieva l Ra istr ick ( 1970 p ages 2 6-7 ) ma in ta ins t ha t much o f t he s ett le men t o f t he Penn ines d a tes f ro m t he Anglo-Saxon p er iod .

There a re p len ty o f p lace n a mes ,

h e c la i ms , wh ich wou ld i nd ica te c learance o f wood land a nd t here a re a lso n u merous Anglo-Saxon l ynche ts i n t he a rea a t v a l ley h eads ( e .g. a t Ma lha m i n A ireda le ) a nd e spec ia l ly o n t he g ood l imestone s o ils o f C raven .

O u ts ide

t hese a reas t he s o ils a re p oorer s t i l l a nd many o f t he p lace n a mes a re n ot Anglo-Saxon , b u t N orse , wh ich may i nd ica te a l a ter u se o f t he mos t marg ina l l ands. The Do mesday a ccoun ts p resen t av ery u nsa t isfactory d a ta s e t a s t o t he e cono m ic e xp lo i ta t ion p a t terns.

Accord ing t o t h is t he e n t ire Craven l imestone

was "waste" ( Darby a nd Maxwe l l 1 962 p age 8 0 ) , a s was t he western p art o f t he Penn ine moors.

L im i ted s et t le men t was p resen t i n t he l ower v a l ley a reas

i n t he Wharf a nd Ca lder i n p art icu lar.

P opu la t ion a nd t he d ens ity o f p lough

t ea ms was v ery l ow ( wh ich i n v iew o f t he l im i ted p oten t ia l ly a rable l and i n t hese v a l leys w ou ld n o t b e s urpr is ing ).

The magnes ian l imestone b e l t was

a ga in t he most h eav ily o ccup ied a rea b y f ar.

I n 1 086 i nhab i ted v i l ls w ere

q u ite ' t h ick o n t he g round ' a nd t here were a s many a s t wo p lough-tea ms p er s quare m ile ( Darby a nd Maxwe l l 1 962 p age 8 1; p loughtea m d ens i ty ).

t h is c o mpares w i th t he Wolds

The ' waste ' l ands a re h ard t o e xp la in.

I t may b e t ha t

t here were S co t t ish a nd S cand inav ian r a ids i n t h is p eriod o r more p robably t ha t ac o mp lete s urvey was n o t a t te mp ted .

The ' waste ' a reas were r e mote

a nd p ro f i ts wou ld h ave b een s l igh t i n a ny c ase. The Med ieva l e v idence c o mes i n t he f or m o f Monast ic r ecords ( a bbeys l ike :

F oun ta ins , By land a nd J ervaux a nd sma l ler h ouses l i ke S a l ley ).

t he ' Glebe t err iers '.

a nd

The wea l th o f t he monas ter ies a ccord ing t o t he r ecords

was n ot d er ived f ro m t he l im i ted a rable l ands b u t f ro m s heep p as tur ing o n t he d a les a nd f el ls.

There a re v arious a ccoun ts ( descr ibed i n Ra is tr ick 1 970

p age 5 2 e .g.) o f l arge s heep move men ts u p s heep t racks i n t he s ummer i n to t he Da les.

I ti s impossible t o d eter m ine f ro m t he l im ited e v idence a t p resen t

h ow f ar s uch l t ra .nshu man t ' p rac t ices a c tua l ly t ook p lace . The ' Glebe t err iers ' a re a r ecord o f p re-enc losure Yorksh ire a nd d o g ive s o me measures o f a rable l and e tc . ( see B eresford 1 951 p ages 3 25-68 ). They d o s how t ha t t here were more o pen f i elds i n t he West R id ing ( 1 86) t han i n t he E ast ( 1 21) o r N or th ( 97 ).

Many o f t hese a re o n t he Magnes ian l imes tone .

1 6

A ga in i nd ica t ions a re o f ma jor u se o f v a l leys , c a lcareous s o ils a nd t he ' va les ' , b u t l ess u se o f t he ' marg ina l ' Penn ine l ands. The e nc losures a nd t he I ndustr ia l Revo lut ion The p a t terns o f e xp lo i ta t ion i n t he West R id ing c hange more t han a ny o ther p art o f Yorksh ire a t t h is t ime.

The West R id ing b eca me t he i ndustr ia l

h eart o f t he c oun ty a nd t he c h ief s et tle men t a rea .

To s o me e xten t t hen , f ar-

m ing was a nd i s g eared t o s upp ly t he n eeds o f t h is p opu la t ion.

The most

margina l l ands i n t he a rea h ave b een u t i l ised ( Hey 1 967 ) a nd t he p a t tern o f e xp loita t ion i s v ery much marke t d om ina ted . S u m mary o f s ubs istence e cono m ic p a t terns i n Wes tern Yorksh ire The e v idence o f t he e cono m ic p a t terns o f t he a rea e xcep t f or t he more r ecen t h istor ica l p er iods i s most r e markably p oor.

On ly g enera l t rends a re

v is ible a nd s o me o f t hese a re d i f f icu l t t o d iscern e xac t ly .

A n u mber o f p o in ts

may b e c lear : A .

P opu la t ion b e fore t he I ndustr ia l Revolu t ion was c oncen tra ted o n t he

n arrow s tr ip o f t he Magnesian l imestone , t he s he l tered v al leys a nd t he a l luv ia l s oi ls o f t he P enn ine f r inges.

S uch s e t t le men t w ou ld a l low m ixed a gr icu l-

t ure t o b e c arr ied o u t u s ing t he b e t ter s o i ls f or c u l t iva t ion a nd t he ' va le ' a nd h igh land a reas f or p asture. B .

The s uccessfu l e xp lo ita t ion o f t he g rea t P enn ine mass wou ld h ave

b een more d if f icu l t .

D if feren t s tra teg ies s ee m t o h ave b een t r ied o ver t he

c en turies , b u t o ne c an a lso b e s pecu la t ive a bou t t he h az ier p er iods o f t he West R id ing 's p as t . i )

One s olu t ion was t o p rac t ice t ranshu mance ( and t h is may a ccoun t e ven f or t he ' waste ' v i l ls o f t he D o mesday r ecords ).

Th is w ou ld

i nvolve l arge s ca le move men t o f s heep u p t he s heep wa lks i n to t he P enn ine Da les i n s u m mer a nd a r eturn j ourney b efore t he w inter s e t i n.

The monastery r ecords i nd ica te t ha t t h is may h ave b een t ak ing

p lace i n s o me a reas.

T ranshu mance wou ld r equ ire a p er manen t

b ase s uch a s t he monastery a nd p oss ible a lso a c ap i ta l b ase e as ily s upp l ied b y t he r ich a bbeys.

The monaster ies were i mportan t e x-

p lo i ta t ion c en tres i n t he med ieva l p er iod .

A Penn ine f r inge l oca l i ty

w ou ld a l low t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he Penn ine h i l ls b y t ranshu mance ( us ing d augh ter h ouses e tc ) , t he c a lacareous s o ils b y ' grange f ar ms ' a nd t he r ivers w ou ld h ave p rov ided v a luable r esources a lso. i )

The p resen t d ay p a t tern i s r a ther d if feren t f ro m t h is.

Many s e t t le-

men ts a re l oca ted i n t he r iver v a l leys where g ood p er manan t g raz ing a nd a rable l and i s r easonably a bundan t .

Mos t o f t he modern s e t t le-

men ts a re sma l l u n less t hey h ave t he ir own i ndus try ( i nc lud ing t ouri sm : ).

A n umber o f t he l arger s e t t le men ts t hen a c t a s market c en tres

f or t he ir o wn r eg ions . The t wo s tra teg ies a re n o t mutua l ly e xc lus ive. t hey a re a l mos t c er ta in ly n ot t he o n ly t wo p oss ib i l i t ies.

A t t he s a me t ime

The u se o f a n i ma l

move men t t o u t i l ise t he ' marg ina l ' a reas a t t he b est t ime o f t he y ear i s a v ery o bv ious s olu t ion .

Th is p a t tern may b e v ery o ld i n t he a rea .

1 7

Mesol ith ic

p a t terns ( Mel iars 1 976 ) were p robably o f t he f or m o f f ol low ing d eer h erds u p i n to t he s u m mer g raz ing l ands a nd w i th a r e turn i n w in ter.

These ' s tra teg ies '

d o more t o p o in t o u t t he p roble m o f e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he a rea t han t hey d o t o p rov ide a s olu t ion t o o ur d if f icu l t ies i n l ook ing a t e arl ier s et tle men t p a t terns. i i )

L arge a reas o f t he Va le o f York a nd t he Hu mbers ide l evels w ere b ad ly d ra ined a nd t here i s l i t t le e v idence o f t he ir u se b efore t he I ndustr ia l Revolu t ion .

i v )

The e v idence o f ' K ing 's Forest ' o ver p ar ts o f t he P enn ines s et a s ide f or h un t ing i s a n i n terest ing p heno menon .

I ti s a means o f e cono m ic

e xp lo i ta t ion n ot e n t ire ly d if feren t f ro m t he ' l e isure i ndus tr ies ' o f t he 2 0 th c en tury. c .

N orth Yorksh ire The I ron Age There i s a bundan t p a lynolog ica l e v idence f ro m t h is r eg ion a nd much o f

i tw ou ld s ee m t o s how t ha t c l i ma t ic d e ter iora t ion was wel l u nder-way b y t he f i rst m il len iu m B .C. ( Cund i l l 1 971, S i m mons 1 969 , e tc ) a nd t ha t w idespread c learance o f t he moorland h ad t aken p lace c ons iderably b efore t h is t ime ( Cha l l is a nd Hard ing 1 975 p age 1 83 ).

E v idence o f I ron Age o ccupa t ion i s e n-

t i rely l ack ing f ro m many p arts o f t he moors ; h ave b een q u i te a dvanced b y t h is p er iod .

d egrada t ion o f t he s o i ls wou ld

Most o f t he I ron Age s e t t le men ts

a re o n t he moorland f r inges ( such a s E ston N ab a nd Percy R igg ) t oge ther w ith most o f t he f inds o f q uerns.

E lgee ( 1912 a nd 1 930 ) s aw t he moors a s

h av ing b een a p erpetua l w i lderness ( ca l led B lacka more b y h im ), b u t w e k now t h is i s n ot t he c ase i . As w i th West Yorksh ire , s o me o f t he e arl ies t c learances o f t he Penn ines a re l i ke ly t o h ave b een o f I ron Age d a te ( Piggot t 1 963 ). As e arly a s t he I ron Age ( a l though t he f ina l y ears o f t h is p er iod ) l arge s ca le s et t le men ts w ere d evelop ing.

One s i te i s o u ts tand ing i n t h is r espec t ,

t he ' opp ida t a t S tanw ick ( Wheeler 1 954 ). i s f ar f ro m c lear.

Un fortuna tely t he e cono m ic e v idence

Wheeler c la i ms t ha t c a t t le were d om inan t ( 40% ) f ol lowed

b y s heep ( 23% ) , b u t t h is i s b ased o n av ery sma l l u ns ieved s a mp le . l arge a nd Iwou ld e xpec t al arge e xp lo i ta t ion t err i tory .

T he s i te i s

S tanw ick i s l oca ted p re-

d ic tab ly o n t he P enn ine f ringe o n t he e dge o f t he ' va les ' w i th a ccess t o t he v a l leys s tre tch ing h igh i n to t he Penn ines.

I tc ou ld h ave u t i l ised t h is l oca t ion we l l ,

w ith c on trol o ver t he Penn ine f r inge a rable a reas , t he h igh Penn ine g razing l and ( and t he v a les ) a nd w i th r ivers a s means o f t rade e tc . ( t he l oca t ion i s s im i lar t o t ha t o f t he med ieva l a bbey s i tes a nd t he Ro man v il las , b oth o f wh ich c an b e s een a s c en tra l ised p o in ts o f e cono m ic c on trol ). Ro mano-Br i t ish a nd Anglo-Saxon Desp i te l ong t er m e xcava t ions a t York a nd e lsewhere , we d o n o t k now e xac t ly wha t was g o ing o n i n many p arts o f t he r eg ion .

York s ee ms t o h ave

c on trol led g ood g raz ing l ands i n t he v a les ( R .C.A . M.) a nd h ad a pparen t ly a s ubs tan t ia l t rade i n h ides a nd o ther c a t t le p roduc ts i n t he Ro man p er iod. By t he Ro man p er iod i n a ny c ase t here were a n umber o f l arge c en tres o f wh ich York was c er ta in ly o ne o f t he most i mportan t .

The s i t ing o f v i l las

a nd o ther Ro man c en tres o n t he Penn ine f ringe ( Aldborough a nd Ca t terick Br idge f or e xa mp le ) s hows a p a t tern t ha t i s f am i l iar t hroughou t t he h istor ic p er iod, 1 8

The Anglo-Saxon p er iod i s a ga in d if f icu l t t o u nderstand .

Ra istr ick 's

e v idence f ro m t he West R id ing h as a lready b een d iscussed a nd w i l l n ot b e r ei t era ted.

S i tes t ha t h ave b een e xcava ted h ave n ot b een h elp fu l t o t he e cono m ic

h istorian .

T yp ica l o f t he n eglec t o f e cono m ic p rac t ices i s t h is r e markable

s ta te men t b y Moore ( 1964 p age 4 03) : " A f ur ther s elec t ion o f a n i ma l b ones f ro m Wykeha m was d epos i ted a t t he S carborough Museu m .

There a ppeared t o b e n o u sefu l p urpose

s erved b y r eta in ing t he mass o fb one f rag men ts". A n u mber o f s i tes a re n ow k nown f ro m t he n or thern Va le o f P icker ing a rea ;

ap a t tern c orre la ting r e markably we l l w ith t ha t o f t he l a ter med ieva l

p er iod . Ra is tr ick ( 1968 p age 7 0 ) s uggests a ma jor c hange i n t he o ccupa t ion o f t he P enn ine d a les i n t he Ro man p er iod w ith a move men t d own t o t he n ew c iv il s e t t le men ts a nd n o ma jor r e-exp lo i ta t ion o f t he d a les u n t i l t he c om ing o f t he Anglo-Saxons. Th is s uggest ion o f a bandon men t s ee ms t o b e b acked u pb y v ery l i t t le e v idence ( I wou ld s uggest t ha t s uch s et t le men ts wou ld h ave p rov ided ar eady marke t f or more ' mob ile ' s ubs istence e cono m ies o n t he h igher Penn ine a reas ).

H owever , f ro m t he p lace-na me e v idence t here i s s o me s ugges-

t i on o f o ccupa t ion o f s o me P enn ine a reas b y t he Anglo-Saxons. Med ieva l a nd l a ter Once a ga in i n t he Do mesday e v idence i s r a ther ' opaque ' ( quoted i n Darby a nd Maxwe l l 1 962 ).

As migh tb e e xpec ted , t here i s ac oncen tra t ion o f p opu-

l a t ion a nd p lough-tea ms o n t he t abu lar h il ls a nd t he v a le o f P icker ing f r inge a nd t o s o me e x ten t o n t he Ha mbledon H i l ls.

I n t he Penn ine r eg ion t here i s

n o men t ion o f s e t t le men t a bove 2 50 m a nd most o f t he s e t t le men t i s o n t he P enn ine f r inges ( a l though s o me o f t he l arger v a l leys were c learly o ccup ied ). Most o f t he Penn ine v i l ls were d escr ibed a s ' waste ' i n 1 086.

One c ou ld i n-

t erpret t h is i n t he way Ra istr ick ( 1968 p age 8 5 ) d oes a nd s uggest a ' grav ita t ion ' o f s e t tle men t d own f ro m t he Penn ines i n t imes o f ' t rouble '. The B lacka more a rea ( as p er E lgee 1 912 ) was l argely u noccup ied i n 1 086. A t t he s a me t ime a ccord ing t o t he s urvey t he t ota l p opu la t ion o f t he a rea i n 1 086 was o n ly 2 014 a nd we a re u ncerta in j us t who was b e ing c oun ted .

Bu t ,

t h is i s l ess t han E ast R id ing f igures ( 2 362 ) o r t hose f or t he Wes t ( 3329 ( Darby a nd Maxwel l 1 962 p age 1 95 ). The Monasteries h ad a p rofound e f fec t o n t he North R id ing o f Yorksh ire a nd b eca me o ne o f t he ma in ' exp lo i ters ' o f t he r eg ion i n t he med ieva l p eriod . The ma jor s i tes were l oca ted o n t he Penn ine o r moorland f r inge ( as a t J ervaux , R ievau lx , F oun ta ins , Ma l ton a nd Gu isborough f or e xa mp le ).

A n umber o f

' daugh ter ' s i tes w ere s et u p i n p oorer a reas ( many o f t he a reas d escr ibed a s ' was te ' i n t he 1 086 D o mesday a ccoun ts ).

They were v ery k een t o e xpand a nd

c la i med g raz ing r igh ts wherever p oss ible ( Wa i tes 1 959 ).

One o f t he ma jor

a i ms , i ts ee ms , was t o e stabl ish l arge s heep p as ture a reas o n t he moorlands a nd o n t he wolds.

On t he o ther h and Ta le ' s et t le men ts ( as a t K irby Misper-

t on a nd Edston ) h ad ag rea ter c oncen tra t ion o n c a t t le ( based o n t he y ear r ound g raz ing v a le a reas. h is tory ).

Th is a rea i s ac lass ic c a t t le p asture a rea t hroughou t

Wa ites ( 1959 p age 6 53 )d escr ibes t he p eriod a s as ort o f ' monas t ic

b l i tzkre ig ' o f e xpans ion .

Unfortu ma te ly a l though we k now q u i te a l ot f ro m 1 9

monastery r ecords wha t t he r e l ig ious h ouses were d o ing , we d o m o t k now i f t h is was t yp ica l o r n ot o f t he t ime. p a t tern may b e s o mewha t o verdone.

I n a dd i t io r _ t he s heep d om ina ted e cono m ic Many o f t he f e l l g ranges d id t rade e x ten-

s ively i n w ool b u t , a t K ilnsey f or e xa mp le , t here was a lso a c orn-m i l l .

De-

s p i te t h is, It h ink t here i s l i t t le d oubt t ha t t he monasteries were w e l l c o-ord in a ted mach ines o f e xp lo i ta t ion p rov id ing c ap ita l a nd o rgan isa t ion t o e xp loi t ' marg ina l ' a reas i n av ery s uccessfu l way. 1 500-1900 The Yorksh ire ' Terr ier ' d ocu men ts p rov ide u sefu l d a ta o n Yorksh ire s e tt l e men t a nd f ar m ing a t t h is p er iod .

S heep s t i l l s ee m t o d om ina te t he Penn ines

w i th l im i ted a rable c u l t iva t ion o n t he v a l ley f l oors ( bu t w ith a rable o n ly r epres en t ing 1 0.8% o f l and-use f or 1 545 f or e xa mp le ).

Most o f t he moors ( apart

f ro m t he ' arable ' f r inges ) a re s t il l u sed f or r ough g raz ing , b u t h un t ing a nd s hoot ing were c om ing more i n to t he ir own b y t he 1 5th-16th c entur ies. Many o f t he d e ta ils o f t h is p a t tern c on t inue t o t he p resen t d ay , a l though f orestry workers a re mov ing i n to s o me a reas o f N orth Yorksh ire w i th n ew me thods o f l and e xp lo i ta t ion . S u m mary o f e cono m ic e xp lo ita t ion i n North Yorksh ire A n u mber o f p o in ts s ee m more o r l ess c lear : A .

There i s at re mendous amoun t o f v ar ie ty o f e xp lo i ta t ion ma tch ing t he

g eolog ica l a nd p hys ica l v ar ia t ion o f t he r eg ion .

A s w ith t he West R id ing , w e

k now q u i te a l o t a bou t t he k ind o f p roble ms f aced b y p eop le w ish ing t o ' u t il ise ' a n a rea , b ut we k now l ess a bou t t he d e ta i ls o f h ow t h is was a nswered e spec ia l ly i n t he p reh istor ic p eriods. B .

A l arge p roport ion o f t he a rea h as b een u sed g enera l ly f or r ough

g raz ing i nc lud ing t he h igh N orth Yorksh ire Moors a nd t he u p land P enn ines ( and more r ecen t ly f or h un t ing a nd l e isure p ursu i ts ). C .

The ' marg ina l ' a reas h ave b een s uccessfu l ly e xp lo ited b y v ar ious

means , b u t o f ten w ith t he n eed f or c ap i ta l i nvestmen t .

Per manen t s e tt le men t

o n t he h igh moors a nd f el ls h as n ever b een a r ea l ly v iable p ropos it ion .

The

med ieva l a nd p resen t d ay s et t le men t c oncen tra tes i n t he b roader more f ert i le v a l leys w ith t he most a rable p oten t ia l . A t t he s a me t ime , f or e xamp le , many o f t he monast ic g ranges i n t he h ighest v a l leys c ou ld n ot h ave s urv ived w itho u t t he c ap i ta l s upport o f t he l arger a bbeys , a nd t he d ona t ions f ro m r icher i nd iv idua ls i n t he n on- monas t ic c o m mun i ty .

The l t ranshu man t l p rac t ices

t ha t d id t ake p lace were c losely l i nked t o t he med ieva l market s e t-up . D . The Tabu lar H il ls , t he magnes ian l imestone a nd t he r iver g ravel a reas p rov ided t he ma jor a rable z ones. They f or med t he p re m ier s e t tle men t a reas i n t he N orth R id ing f ro m t he Ro man p er iod u n t il t he I ndustr ia l Revolut i on a nd a re s t il l o f p r i me i mportance i n t h is r espec t. E .

I nd ica t ions a re t ha t t he ' va le ' l ands were v ery i mportan t a t many

p er iods f or c a t t le p as ture , b u t more e v idence i s n eeded.

The a n i ma lb one

r eports f ro m Pe tersga te , York ( Ryder e t a l . 1 974 p ages 2 3-5) s how o ver 6 0% c a t t le b ones a nd K irksta l l Abbey p roduced o ver 9 0% c a t t le b ones ( wh ich w ou ld r epresen t i n e xcess o n 9 5% o f t he mea t w e igh t ).

2 0

F .

E xp lo i ta t ion o f North Yorksh ire i n t he h is tor ic a nd l a ter p reh istor ic

p er iod s ee ms t o r ela te t o t he l arger e cono m ic mach ines o f t he d if feren t p er iods i n v ar ious ways.

A lready b y t he I ron Age , t he d evelopmen t o f t owns

a s a t S tanw ick i s l i ke ly t o h ave h ad a p rofound efect o n t he im med ia te n e ighb ourhood a nd o n marke t ing e tc.

Wi th t he c rea t ion o f Ro man v i l las a nd t owns

a nd l a ter Monast ic s et t le men ts d iferen t ( a l though e qua l ly i fn o t more f ar r each ing ) e f fects w ere p roduced.

The l ack o f s ubstan t ia l e v idence f or o ccupa-

t i on o f t he N orth Yorksh ire marg ina l a reas i n t he e arl ier h is tor ic p er iod ( see b elow ) may b e a s much d ue t o t he l ack o f s uch ' econo m ic mach ines ' a s t o t he l ack o f t echnolog ica l d evelop men t . C onclus ions —H istor ica l p erspec t ives Yorksh ire i s a n a rea o f t re mendous v ar ie ty i n t er ms o f l andscape a nd e cono m ic p oten t ia l .

E ach a rea h as b een s ub jec t t o av ar iety o f r eg i mes o f

e cono m ic e xp lo ita t ion .

There i s n o r eason t o s uppose t ha t we c an ma tch

e arly p reh istor ic e xp lo i ta t ion p a t terns w i th t hose o f l a ter p er iods.

H owever,

It h ink t h is b r ief (a nd o ver s i mp l ist ic ) h istor ica l a ccoun t d oes g ive t wo import an t i nsigh ts.

F irst o f a l l , i tg ives s o me i dea o f ar ange o f p ossib il i t ies o f

e xp loita t ion ( not f u l ly d escr ibed i n t he f orego ing ).

S econd ly a nd p erhaps more

i mportan t , i td oes i nd ica te t he b as ic p roble ms f aced b y p eop le w ish ing t o make u se o f a n a rea .

And a s i nd ica ted b elow , t here a re g enera l c orre la t ions b e-

t ween e arl ier a nd l a ter s et t le men t p a t terns. Part 2 :

S et t le men t a nd s ubs istence e cono m ic 3 500-750 B .C.

Var ious a pproaches h ave b een s uggested a s t o t he s tudy o f p reh istor ic s ubs istence ( Barker 19 72 ).

One o f t he mos t p opu lar o f t hese h as b een t he

s tudy o f s i te l oca t ion a nd s i te c a tch men t a na lys is ( both s uggested b y H iggs 1 972 p age 3 1).

The a im o f t h is work i s n ot t o p rov ide d eta iled e cono m ic e x-

p lo i ta t ion p a t terns f ro m n u merous p reh is tor ic s i tes. i n terest h owever.

Genera l p a t terns a re o f

The p roble ms o f t he Yorksh ire d a ta a re i m mense a t t he

p resen t t ime. A t t he mo men t , t he d a ta a re i nadequa te i n many ways. T H iggsian i t ype a na lyses a re n ot t he a nswer t o t he p roble m . A .

There i s al ack o f s u i table s i tes —there a re v ery f ew s et t le men ts

k nown o f t he p er iod i n Yorksh ire ( a l though we h ave l arge q uan t i t ies o f c ol lec ted a r tefactua l ma ter ia l a nd b ur ia l d a ta ).

Id o n ot b el ieve w e c an b eg in t o u se

b ur ia l s i tes a lone o r i n c on junc t ion w ith o ther e v idence t o s tudy i n a ny d e ta il s e t t le men t p a t terns o f t he p er iod .

A c o m mon s uggest ion ( e .g. F le m ing 19 71)

i s t ha t many b ur ia l s i tes a re o n g raz ing l and a t s o me d istance f ro m t he h o me b ase , w ith t h is Ih eart i ly c oncur.

Bu t , a t t he s a me t ime , s o me b arrows d o

s ee m t o b e i n a reas o f s trong c oncen tra t ions o f s et t le men t ma ter ia l ( t he o bv ious c on trast h ere i sb e tween t he moor t op Bronze Age b arrows o f N or th Y orksh ire a nd t he l arge ' Tow thorpe ' N eol ith ic b arrows o f t he Grea t Wolds Va l ley i n E as t Yorksh ire ). B .

N one o f t he s et t le men t s i tes t ha t a re k nown h ave b een a dequa tely

e xcava ted a nd p ubl ished ( t o J une 19 78 ).

T o t ake a n e xa mp le , Moore 's ( 19 64 )

w ork a t F la mborough a t t he Beacon H il l s i te d id p roduce a l arge q uan t i ty o f ' Beaker ' a nd ' Gr i mston ' ma ter ia l , b u t t he e xcava t ion was sma l l . at an tal is ing g l i mpse o f wha t was a ctua l ly g o ing o n.

Presen t ly e xcava ted s i tes

( such a s Thw ing ) may h elp t o r ec t ify t h is u n fortuna te s i tua t ion . 2 1

I to f fers b u t

C .

N o s i tes c an d ef in i te ly b e a scr ibed t o t he ' earl ier N eol ith ic ' p er iod

( see b elow f or d ef in it ion ).

F or e xa mp le i ti s n ow c lear t ha t p ot tery s uch a s

G rir as ton Ware h ad a v ery l ong l i fe s pan .

Thus t he p ot tery f ound a t B eacon H i l l

( Moore 1 964 ) o r t he R uds ton p i t s i tes ( Manby 1 974 a nd 1 975 ) c ou ld b e long t o a l mos t a ny p eriod i n t he ' Neo li th ic ' . D .

F ew e xcava ted s i tes h ave p roduced F ood V esse l o r C o l lared U rn

s herds o r c an c er ta in ly b e a scr ibed t o t h is ' phase o f t he e arly Bronze Age '. Th is i n t he p ast h as l ed t o s uggest ions o f mob ile p astora l e cono m ies o f t he p er iod ( e .g. E lgee 1 933 p age 3 8 ).

H owever , i ti s n ow c lear t ha t s o me ' f ie ld

s yste ms' a nd p oss ibly ' se t t le men ts ' d o b elong t o t h is p hase ( c la i med b y Cha ll i s a nd Hard ing 1 975 ) , b u t t hey a re c on f ined t o ' marg ina l ' a reas. E .

As f ar a s t he l a ter p ar t o f t he ' Bronze A ge ' i s c oncerned s et t le men t

d a ta i s e qua l ly d epress ingly a bsen t ( w i th t he e xcep t ion o f j us t o ne o r t wo s i tes ). F .

The d ichoto my b e tween s et t le men t a nd b ur ia l e v idence i n p er iods w

when b oth t ypes o f e v idence i s a va i lable i s ap rob le m i n i t se lf .

Th is c an b e

e xp la ined i n v ar ious ways ( deta i led a na lys is o f v ar ious a rtefac t t ypes f o l lows i n l a ter c hap ters ). Many o f t hese p roble ms c ou ld b e s olved b y s yste ma t ic f i eld-work a nd t he e xcava t ion o f s o me o f t he k nown s et t le men t s i tes.

Th is i s n ot l ike ly t o o ccur

i n t he f oreseeable f uture a nd i n t he mean t ime s ub-so il ing c on t inues u naba ted o n f ar ms ( par t icu larly o n t he Wolds ) where s uch s i tes a re k nown t o e x ist . There i s s o me e v idence o f h u man s et t le men ts f ro m t he p er iod 3 500-750 B .C. a nd t h is t akes a v ar iety o f f or ms : i )

Unexcava ted f l in t a nd p ot tery s ca t ters i nv ar ious p arts o f t he c oun ty . S o me o f t h is i s w el l r ecorded , much b y ama tuer f i eld-workers.

i )

The Gran tha ms o f Dr if f ield h ave e xcava ted a n umber o f s ca t ters a nd d iscovered ' p i t s i tes ' p art icu larly i n t he v ic in i ty o f t he Ruds ton Woldg a te ( Manby 1 974 a nd 1 975 ).

S o me o f t hese may b e s torage p i ts o thers

a re o n ly n a tura l d epress ions.

It ake most o f t hese a s t he e v idence

o f o ccupa t ion s i tes a t l east i n t he im med ia te v ic in i ty. i i )

As w el l a s u nexcava ted f l in t s ca t ters , t here a re v ery l arge c o l lec t ions o f f l in t ma teria l t ha t h ave b een r ecovered b y n umbers o f f i e ld-workers o ver t he y ears.

These i nd ica te i n tens ive/ex tens ive o ccupa t ion o f

c erta in l oca t ions. Many o f t hese s i tes a re ' Neo li th ic ' a nd l ocated o n t he t h icker s o i ls o f t he e astern Wolds ( e .g. East L eys Far m , N or th Da le Far m , Beacon H il l e tc. e tc.).

I ti s l i kely t ha t s o me o f t he

l arge c ol lec t ions o f f l in t ma ter ia l f ro m t he 1 9 th c en tury c ol lec t ions c a me f ro m s im i lar s i tes. Un fortuna te ly a t b est t h is i s l oca ted a s t o p ar ish r a ther t han s pec if ic l oca l i ty . i v )

I n ' Marg ina l a reas ' p ar t icu lar a round t he N orth Yorksh ire Moors ( and e spec ia l ly t he E sk Va l ley ) an umber o f p robable ' Bronze Age ' s e t t le men ts c an b e t raced o n t he g round .

These a reas a nd p arts o f

t he P enn ine b el t h ave f i eld s yste ms , h u ts a nd o ther f eatures wh ich p robably b elong t o t h is p er iod . Occas iona l ly t hese s i tes h ave b een t he s ub jec t o f e xcava t ions.

H owever , w e a wa i t p ubl ica t ion o f much

o f t he more i mpor tan t ma ter ia l . 2 2

v )

Yorksh ire h as i t s s hare o f c aves p ar t icu larly i n t he ' Nor th R id ing '. These , a s s im i lar s i tes i n n e ighbour ing c oun t ies , h ave o ccupa t ion d ebr is o f v ar ious p er iods , u p t o t he p resen t d ay .

Occas iona l ly a lso

t hese s i tes h ave p roduced b ur ia ls ( e .g. t he Windyp i ts w i th i t s ' Beaker ' b ur ia ls ).

Th is e v idence h as b een i n terpreted i n v ar ious ways , b u t

Id on 't t h ink we s hou ld make t oo much o f i t .

Caves w il l a lways h ave

p rov ided s hel ter t o e nable man t o c arry o u t av ar iety o f o ccupa t ions( ! ) i nc lud ing f l in t k napp ing a nd t he b u tchery o f a n i ma ls.

As f ar a s t he

Yorksh ire ma ter ia l i s c oncerned , t here i s n o e v idence t o s how t ha t t hese l oca t ions were e x tens ively o r i n tens ively o ccup ied i n t he p er iod i n q ues t ion . v i )

S o me e xa mp les o f f i eld s yste ms , r i tua l monu men ts e tc , a re n ow c om ing t o l i gh t f ro m a er ia l p ho tography o n t he c a lcareous s oi ls a nd r iver g rave ls i n Yorksh ire ( as i n most p arts o f t he c oun try ).

Th is

i s b e ing t aken b y s o me a rchaeolog ists t o s uggest d enser a nd more ' organ ised ' ( i n t he l ooses t s ense o f t ha t w ord ) o ccupa t ion i n t he p reh istor ic p er iod a s a whole.

There c er ta inly maybe s o me t ru th i n

t h is s ugges t ion ( co mpared w i th A tk inson 's 1 972 s uggest ions f or e xamp le ). v i i )

A n u mber o f d e fens ive s i tes i n Yorksh ire a re k nown .

Ow ing t o t he

e v idence o f s i tes f ro m many p arts o f E ng land a nd s pec if ica l ly t ha t a t Thw ing ( Manby i n for ma t ion ) s o me o f t hese c erta in ly f a l l w i th in t he p er iod u nder d iscuss ion .

Un t il more i n for ma t ion i s a va ilable ,

o ne f eels i mpel led t o r eserve j udge men t . S o me e xa mp les o f t he v ar ious f or ms o f s i tes a re g iven i n t he a ppend ix . T h is i s n ot a c o mp le te l i st o f s i tes , b u t i td oes b r ing t oge ther many o f t he more impor tan t l oca t ions men t ioned i n t he l i tera ture. D ISCUSS ION OF ECONOMIC EXPLO ITAT ION PATTERNS 3 500-750 B . C. The p a t terns t ha t e x is ted i n t h is p er iod a re r evea led o n ly b y f rag men tary e v idence.

H owever , i n c er ta in a reas t here a re c oncen tra t ions o f s i tes w ith

l im i ted e xcava t ion e v idence o r i n for ma t ion f ro m c arefu l c ol lec t ion .

Very

r arely d o t hese s i tes h ave g ood e v idence f ro m a n i ma l b ones o r p ol len e v idence o f d e ta ils o f t he e xp loi ta t ion p a t terns.

A t t he s a me t ime , t h is d iscuss ion i s

n o t i n tended a s ac o mp lete r e-ana lys is o f t he p roble ms , i ti s i n tended t o p rov ide a u sefu l b ackground a ga ins t wh ich t he s oc ia l p a t terns d iscussed i n l a ter c hap ters c an b e s een .

The d if feren t ' groups ' o f s i tes w i l l b e d iscussed i n

t urn b elow : A .

N eol i th ic s i tes o n t he E astern Wolds ( Fig. 1 .3 )

Most o f t he s i tes i n t h is a rea a re d escr ibed i n Manby ( 1974 & 1975 ). a . E vidence o f e cono m ic p rac t ices : i )

An i ma lb one r e ma ins f ro m t he Rudston a rea ( Bra mwel l i n Manby 1 974 ) wou ld i nd ica te a p redo m inance o f c a t t le f ol lowed b y s heep a nd p ig r e ma ins .

H owever , t he s a mp le i s sma l l a nd n ot s ieved ( Payne

i n H iggs 1 972 p ages 4 9-64 d iscusses t he d if f icu l t ies ). were a lso p resen t . 2 3

Dog a nd d eer

i )

A n umber o f s i tes d id p roduce t he r e ma ins o f s ea s hel ls a nd t here was a s ingle r epresen ta t ion o f af i sh ( dep ic ted o n ab one ) a t N orth Carnaby s i te 1 ( i n terest ing ly e nough i ti s l argely t he s i tes w i th in 5 km o f t he p resen t c oas t t ha t h ave p roduced mar ine r e ma ins ).

i i )

A s ingle q uern f rag men t was d iscovered a t B oyn ton .

i v )

S o me c harred h aze lnu ts w ere a lso f ound a t o ne o f t he Boyn ton s i tes.

v )

More d ub ious ly t he p resence o f t ranchet a rrowheads ( and t he p resence o f d eer b ones ) may b e t aken a s e v idence f or h un t ing ; t he u se o f b road s crapers a s s k in s crap ing e tc ;

b u t t h is e v idence i sb ased o n

t reachrous g round . F ro m t h is e v idence w e c an s ee a ' m ixed e cono my o f s orts , b u t t he d eta i ls ( wh ich a re q u i te c ruc ia l ) e lude u s a t p resen t. b .

I th as b een s ugges ted t ha t wa ter s upp ly was a c ruc ia l f ea ture o f e cono m ic

e xp lo i ta t ion t hroughou t t he h istor ic a nd p robably p reh istor ic p eriods ( s ee a bove a nd p ar t icu larly t he q uest ion o f t he d ew p onds ). There a re o n ly t wo s ources o f p er manen t s upp ly :

t he Gypsy Race ( v irtua l ly a l l t he N eo l i th ic

s i tes l i sted b y Manby ( 1974 & 1975 ) w ou ld l i e w i th in 1 -2 km o f t h is s upp ly ) a nd t he sma l l s trea ms i n t he a reas o f B e mp ton a nd F lamborough . I n a dd it ion t o t h is t here a re s pr ings o f f t he ma in c ha lk a rea a t t he b ase o f t he n or thern Wolds s carp . c .

The s i tes a re n u merous a nd l argely w i thou t e xcava t ion .

r egu larly a l im i ted r ange o f t ypes i nc lud ing :

They p roduce

b road s crapers, s erra ted f l akes

a nd b lades , t ranche t a nd l ea f a rrowheads , d isc c ores e tc.

As wel l a s t he

s i tes i n Manby ( 1974, 1 975) t here a re l arge c ol lec t ions o f c o mparab le ma teria l f ro m s evera l l oca l i t ies ( e .g. E ast L eys Far m , West Hun tow , S ou th L and ing . Dugg leby , Weaver thorpe , Bur ton F le m ing , Wold N ew ton e tc .) a nd l arge n u mb ers o f s im ilar f l in ts f ro m 1 9 th c entury c ol lec t ions h ave v ague p rovenances i n t he Grea t Wolds Va l ley. d . The s o i ls a re l i kely t o h ave b een i mportan t t o s et t le men t. The o rig ina l man t le when t he t rees were s tr ipped a way ( i n t he ' Neol i th ic ' ) was o ne o f b rown f orest e ar th ( as b enea th t he b arrow a t K ilha m i n Manby ( 19 76 )).

Th is

t ype o f s oi l i s modera te ly f er t i le , b u t a s h as b een d iscovered b y h ope fu l f ar mers i n many p arts o f t he world , r ap id ly d ec l ines f o l low ing c on t inuous g row th . The d isappearance o f t h is s o i l w ou ld p robably h ave b een r ap id l eav ing a p a t tern o f s o i ls s im i lar t o t ha t f or t he med ieva l f ar mer.

T he a rea

t o t he e ast o f Br id l ing ton h as a v ery h eavy c over o fb ou lder c lay s o i ls wherea s t o t he west o f Wold N ew ton most o f t he s o i ls a re t h in a nd s toney. Th is l eaves t he impor tan t a rea b e tween o f s l igh t ly t h icker s oi ls ( bu t more f ert ile a nd a ble t o s upport whea t ; s ee B est ( 1930 ) ) . I ti s i n t h is l ast a rea t ha t most o f t he s i tes Iam d iscuss ing h ere c oncen tra te. Un fortuna tely w e k now r ela t ively l i t t le a bou t t he g enera l e x ten t ( j ust s pec if ic s i tes ) o f t ree c learance a t t h is p er iod o r t he d egree o f s o i l d e ter iora t ion . e . P oten t ia l ly b oth s ea b irds ( many m igra t ing s pec ies u t i l ise t he c l if fs a round F la mborough Head ) a nd f i sh c ou ld h ave b een made u se o f a t t h is t ime. H owever , t he e v idence i s l ack ing.

2 4

f .

Resource S tra teg ies.

The e v idence f ro m t he h istor ic p er iod i nd ica tes

ac on t inuous p a t tern o f r ich a rable f ar m ing o n t he t h icker s o ils i n t he Br idl i ngton a rea a nd o n t he ' a l luv ia l ' wash o f t he Grea t Wolds Va l ley a nd t he u se o f t he wold t ops f or g raz ing l and .

T o s o me e x ten t t he d istr ibu t ion o f ' Neol i th ic '

ma teria l w ou ld s ee m t o f o l low t h is p a t tern .

There a re , i n a ny c ase , r egu lar

p a t terns o f l oca t ion o f t hese s i tes b ear ing i n m ind H iggs ' ( 1972) s i te c a tch men t t err i tor ies : i ) i )

S i tes a re l oca ted w ith in 1 -2 km o f ap er manen t wa ter s upp ly. S i tes a re a l most e n t irely a l l w i th in a f ew h undred y ards o r d irec t ly u pon b ou lder c lay s oi ls o r ' a l luv ia l ' wash s o i ls.

i i )

S i tes a re l oca ted w ith in 4 -5 km o f t he t rad i t iona l p asture a reas o f t he Wold t ops o f t he c arr l ands ( or f requen t ly b oth : ).

i v )

Those s i tes w i th t he mos t l im ited ' pasture ' a reas h ave a l terna t ive mar ine r esources w i th in 5 km .

Th is i s n o t e v idence o f wha t was a c tua l ly g o ing o n a t t h is p er iod .

But ,

i ti s p robable t ha t most o f t hese ' l a te N eol ith ic ' s i tes c ou ld h ave b een i n a r e la t ively c lear w o lds l andscape ( w i th f ew t rees ). i s p erforce s pecu la tory.

Much o f a ny c onc lus ions

N evertheless , If eel , t ha t am ixed f ar m ing p a t tern

i n t hese a reas a t t h is p er iod i s t he most l i kely e xp lana t ion f or t he e v idence we h ave a t t he mo men t .

I t wou ld o f c ourse h ave p rov ided a ' set t led b as is '

o n wh ich t he d evelop ing s oc ia l p anop ly c ou ld h ave u n folded. t wo o ther h in ts a bou t wha t was g o ing o n . p er iod a rable l and was a t ap re m iu m .

There a re o ne o r

We c an s ee t ha t i n t he med ieva l

The med ieva l p a t tern s hows v il lages :

Duggleby —K irby G r inda ly th— West L u t ton— Weaver thorpe —Bu t terw ick —Foxh oles — Wold N ew ton—Bur ton F le m ing —Thw ing —Rudston—Boyn ton —Gr inda le e tc ., w i th r e markable g r id l ike p a t tern a nd a t wo m ile s pac ing b etween e ach p a ir o f v il lages.

We a lso k now a d ea l a bout t he d iv is ion o f l and a t t he t ime

a nd t he ' open f ield s ys te m '.

I n t he N eol i th ic , 3 000-2000 B .C. t he mass ive

' Tow thorpe t b arrows m igh t h ave a c ted a s t err itor ia l ' markers ' , t here b e ing a t l east o ne n ear t o e very o ther Med ieva l v i l lage.

Th is Wold Val ley l oca t ion

c on trasts s harp ly w i th t ha t o f t he ' earl ier ' l ong b arrows wh ich a re a l most a l l w old t op s it ings.

The monu menta l a spec t o f t hese b arrows , t he ir v is ib il ity

f or s evera l k ilo meters ( Fig. 1 0 .4 ) , t he ir c ha lk b u i ld e tc . makes t he m i dea l ' marker ' p o in ts.

A lso , o ne c an l ook a t t he n ea t way t he c urs i a round Rudston

n ea t ly d iv ide t he a rab le l and i n to r ough ly e qua lb locks ( Dy mond 1 966 ).

I n

t h is t an tal is ing ma ter ia l we h ave t he mechan is ms f or p reh istor ic l and d iv is ion , b u t Ic annot s wear t ha t t hey were ' sw i tched o n ' . S o me c onc lus ions A p a t tern o f m ixed a gr icu l ture c losely r ela ted t o a reas o f t he b est a rable l and i s s uggested f or t he ' Neol i th ic ' s i tes o f t he e astern Wolds.

Th is i s

b ased o n s i te l oca t ion , a r tefactua l a nd e cofac tua l d a ta a nd h istorica l p erspect i ves. S o me w ider e cono m ic p a t terns We c annot l ook a t s ubs istence e cono m ic p a t terns w i thou t s o me a cknow ledgemen t o f t rade.

Many s oc iet ies ( e .g . many o f t he N ew Gu inea g roups ) l iv ing

2 5

n ear t he c oas t n eed t rade t o ' surv ive '.

I ti s c lear t ha t e rra t ic f l in t a nd s tone

( f or a xes ) ma ter ia l f ro m t he c oast was mov ing i n land t oge ther w i th s o me s hel ls ( ? ).

Can o ne s uggest t ha t c o m mun it ies w i th l ess a rable/pasture l and

were e xchang ing a r tefacts f or f ood?

The s uggest ion i s t here —the e v idence

i s n ot . B . a .

N eol i th ic s i tes i n o ther a reas

A n umber o f s i tes o u ts ide t he ma in wolds a rea h ave p roduced s im i lar

ma ter ia l t o t ha t d escr ibed i n t he l as t s ec t ion . b .

These s i tes f a l l i n to d is t inc t a reas.

The s i tes a t Wykeha m a nd C rayke

H i l l a re b oth i n g ravel a reas o f t he ' s lacks ' n ear D r if f ield.

A t l east t hree

s i tes ( i nclud ing t wo a t S ea mer ) a re o n t he e dge o f t he v a le o f P icker ing . C o mparable e v idence e lsewhere i s l im ited .

There a re i nd ica t ions o f s et t le-

men t f ro m t he ' r i tua l r ubb ish ' a t N orth De igh ton ( ab arrow s i te ) a nd s ubstant ia l c ol lec t ions o f a rtefactua l ma ter ia l f ro m t he T abu lar H i l ls, t he P ennine f r inges ( i nc luding ma ter ia l f ro m t he magnes ian l imestone —P. Mayes i n forma t ion ). c .

Iam e xc lud ing t he c ave s i tes h ere f or d iscuss ion i n al a ter s ec t ion .

There i s s i mp ly i nsuf f ic ien t d a ta t o g enera l ise a bou t t hese s i tes.

The

' va le ' a nd ' s lack ' s i tes s ee m t o h ave a ccess t o g ood a rable l ands a nd a reas o f p as ture ( bu t r a ther d i f feren t f ro m t he e astern Wolds s i tes ).

L ook ing a t

t he g enera l d is tr ibu t ion i n a reas l i ke t he magnes ian l imestone o ne c ou ld a ga in s pecu la te g enera l ly a bou t t he l ikel ihood o f t he u se o f m ixed f ar m ing p ract ices b u t f ar more e v idence i s n eeded.

I ti s i n terest ing t hough t ha t t he c oncen tra-

t i on o f s et t le men t i n t he ' l a ter N eol i th ic ' p er iod s ee ms t o r e la te t o a reas o f g ood l i gh t a rable s o i ls , wh ich f or med t he ma in a reas o f s et t le men t a nd a gr ic u l ture t hroughou t much o f t he h istoric p er iod . c lus ters o f f i e ld monu men ts o f s im i lar d a te.

One s hou ld a lso n ote t he

The l arge g roup o f s i tes a t

Rudston a nd i n t he Grea t Wolds Va l ley a nd t he e qua l ly impress ive ( and more e x tens ive ) c luster o f s i tes o n t he P enn ine f r inge.

I t may b e t ha t as e t t led

mixed f ar m ing e cono my a l lowed t hese d evelopmen ts t o t ake p lace. C .

N eol i th ic s i tes i n marg ina l a nd ' re mo te ' a reas

I n t h is s ec t ion Iw ish b r ief ly t o d iscuss t he c ave s i tes o f t he P enn ines a nd a f ew sma l l s ca t ters o f a r tefactua l ma ter ia l i n t he s a me r eg ion . a .

A n u mber o f c ave s i tes i n t he l imestone Da les h ave e v idence o f N eol ith ic

u se , b u t t here h as b een n o l arge s ca le e xcava t ions.

F ieldwork b y G ilks ( 1974 )

a nd o thers h as h elped t o l oca te sma l l ' Neol ith ic ' s ca t ters i n Western Yorksh ire. These s i tes a l l h ave a g enera l l ack o f g ood a rab le p o ten t ia l . 1 0 km z ones a round a ny o f t he Cave s i tes wou ld s how o ver 9 0% r ough g raz ing l and a nd l i t t le b e t ter f i gures f or t he Cast le H i l l s i te ( G ilkes 1 974 ). b .

I t may b e s uggested t ha t t he Cave s i tes a re p ar t o f mob i le e cono m ies

u s ing t he a reas o n ly i n t he s u m mer s eason . l i t t le .

Bu t i n r ea l ity we k now v ery

L ook in g a t t he Cast le H il l s i te a nd i t s n e ighbours ( G ilks 1 974 ) o ne o r

t wo i n terest ing p o in ts d o emerge a s G ilks i nd ica tes ( 1974 ).

There i s av ery

i n terest ing d ichoto my b e tween t he d istribu t ions o f a xes a nd a rrowheads.

The

a xes c oncentra te i n t he l ower v a l ley a reas a nd t he a rrowheads o n t he h ea thl and .

Bu t , c an i tb e s uggested t ha t t h is i s ad icho to my b etween f ar m ing a reas

a nd r ough g raz ing/hun t ing t err i tor ies? 2 6

C onclus ions I t i s q u i te l ike ly t ha t s o me mob ile f or m o f e cono my c ou ld h ave e xp loi ted t he Penn ine z one i n t h is p er iod .

The a rea i s ' poor ' a nd i s u n l ikely , e xcep t

i n t he most f avourab le l oca t ions , t o h ave s upported p er manen t o ccupa t ion . T he mass ive c oncen tra t ions o f f l in ts e tc . k nown f ro m a s tr ing o f s i tes i n E astern Yorksh ire i s e n t irely l ack ing f ro m t he ma in Penn ine a rea .

We d o

k now f ro m p ol len e v idence t ha t c learance o f p arts o f t hese a reas was t ak ing p lace a t t h is t ime , b u t t he ma jor p hases o f u se s ee m t o c o me s o mewha t l a ter. D .

B ronze Age s e t t le men t s i tes i n t he ma jor s e t t le men t z ones

There i s ag enera l l ack o f c o mparable Bronze Age ma ter ia l f ro m t he Wolds a nd c a lcareous s ot ls o f Yorksh ire.

There a re c er ta in ly n one o f t he

d ense c oncen tra t ions o f ma ter ia l s een f ro m t he e arl ier p er iod .

One o r t wo

o f t he Gran tha m 's p i t s ites ( Manby 1 974 ) h ave p roduced Beaker s herds a nd b arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads ( as a t t he Rudston East Reservo ir s i te ).

Bea-

c on H il l F la mborough ( Moore 1 964 ) p roduced e v idence o f ' two p hases o f o ccup a t ion t ( I am s o mewha t s cep t ica l o f t he e v idence h ere f ol low ing e xa m ina t ion o f s o me o f t he r ecords , b u t Iw il l n ot g o i n to d e ta i led r e-assess men t h ere ) w i th a Gr i mston Ware a ssoc iated p hase s ucceeded b y o ne a ssoc ia ted w i th B eaker p o t tery.

I n f act t he p ot tery i s most ly o f C larke 's ( 1970 ) AOC t ype

w h ich c ou ld wel lb e c on te mporary ( Case 1 977 ) w ith Gr i mston ma teria l ( bu t AOC i s l i kely t o b e s i mp ly a more ' do mest ic ' f or m o f Beaker s how ing l i t t le c hange o ver a l ong p er iod .

S ee b elow ).

On t he o ther h and t here a re marked ly

s im ilar p a t terns o f d istribu t ion o f r itua l monu men ts a ssoc ia ted w i th Beakers a nd l a ter N eol i th ic ma ter ia l .

The Ruds ton monu men ts ( Pac it to 1 972, Green-

w e l l 1 877 ) a re c lus tered a round w i th Beaker a ssoc ia ted b ur ials ( s im ilarly s i tes o n t he magnes ian l imestone ).

O ther f or ms o f f unerary wares t urn u p

i n e xact ly t hese a reas a s wel l ( bu t n ote t he c au t ion Ii ssued e arl ier r egard ing e qua t ing b ur ia l s i tes a nd s e t t le men ts ).

Bu t wha t a re we l ook ing f or?

I n t he

g rea t Wolds v a l ley t here a re e qua l ly h eavy c oncen tra t ions o f ' c lass ic ' Bronze A ge t ypes a s t here w ere Neol i th ic o nes. Thus t he s a me p ar ish n a mes t ha t p roduced t ranche t a rrowheads , l eaf a rrowheads , b road s crapers a nd s erra ted f l akes a lso t urn u pb arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads , p iano-convex k n ives , ' round ' s crapers a nd t he l i ke .

I ti s q u i te p oss ible t ha t c o mparable Bronze Age s i tes

d id e x ist i n t hese a reas.

A t t he s a me t ime , l a ter B ronze Age ma ter ia l i s

e qua l ly i fn o t more s carce. C onclus ions I n t he p ast t here h as b een a t e mp ta t ion f or a rchaeolog is ts ( i n a l l p arts o f t he c oun try ) t o s ee t he Bronze Age r epresen t ing a ma jor e cono m ic c hange w i th a s h if t f ro m s e t t led N eol i th ic s oc ie t ies t o p astora l ist d om ina ted e cono m ies i n t he Bronze Age.

T h is i s l argely b ased o n v ery p oor s e t t le men t d a ta .

The

' s e t t led ' N eol ith ic i s o n ly r epresen ted b y ah and fu l o f ' se t t le men ts ' a nd o n ly as ingle dwel l ing s i te ( a t Beacon H il l , F la mborough ). Id o n ot t h ink t here i s s u f f ic ien t e v idence f ro m t h is c oun ty a t l east t o j u mp t o s uch c onclus ions. T he b es t r ev iew o f a gr icu l tura l e v idence i s g iven b y Dennel l ( 1976 ), t h is r ea l ly s hou ld make u s more c r i t ica l o f t he t ypes o f ma ter ia l we h ave g o t.

Is ee n o

e v idence f or t he p astora l is t/barley t ype o f e cono my i n t he Yorksh ire Bronze A ge.

The ma in c oncen tra t ions o f ma ter ia l s how n o g rea t c hange f ro m t ha t

o f t he p reced ing p eriod. 2 7

E .

Bronze Age s i tes i n marg ina l a reas

Bronze Age ma ter ia l d oes o ccur i n c aves i n t he Penn ines a nd s ca t tered t hroughout n orth Yorksh ire.

H owever , t he ma in d evelop men t a ppears t o b e

ag enu ine o ccupa t ion o f c erta in marg ina l a reas a t t h is t ime.

There a re b oth

f i eld s yste ms a nd s et t le men ts a ppear ing i n West Y orksh ire , t he Da les a nd o n t he North Yorksh ire Moors b y t he e arly Bronze A ge.

T here a ppears t o b e

n o ma jor e arl ier o ccupa t ion o f t hese a reas. A mass o f f i e ld d ykes , wa l ls , c learance c a irns a nd t he l i ke ( many l i sted i n Cha l l is a nd Hard ing 1 975 ) i nd ica te a s ubstan t ia l s et t le men t o n t he N or th Yorksh ire Moors. t h is d a te.

P ol len e v idence i nd ica tes w idespread t ree c learance a t

However , most o f t hese s i tes a re w i th in 2 km o f g ood g raz ing o r

a rable l and o f t he p resen t d ay .

The wold t op a reas a re s t il l l argely emp ty

a part f ro m l arge n u mbers o fb arrows.

A s im ilar s i tua t ion p erta ins w i th t he

s i tes i n West Yorksh ire. The a reas o f t hese s et t le men ts t oday a re u sed f or n o more t han r ough g raz ing.

D i mbleby ( 1962 ) h as d iscussed t he p rob le ms o f s o i l d eter iora t ion

a nd l i t t le c an b e a dded h ere. e ver b e made : i )

S o me g enera l p o in ts a bou t s e t t le men t c an h ow-

Fro m t he c ol lec ted ma ter ia l ( Wh i tby Museu m e .g. a nd a n umber o f c ol lec t ions ) t he c oncen tra t ions o f Bronze Age f l in t t ypes ( wh ich f ar o u tnu mber N eol ith ic f or ms ) i s i n l ow land p arishes. L arge n umbers o f a rrowheads a re f ound o n t he moor t ops h owever ( e .g. T inda l l 's c ol lec t ion o f f our v ery f ine b arbed a nd t anged f or ms f ro m S t oney R igg , Wes terda le ) .

Th is may s ugges t ac oncen tra t ion o f o ccupa tion

i n t he v a l ley a reas , v ery s im ilar t o k nown h istor ica l p at terns. i )

A l though t he ' marg ina l ' a reas h ave p roduced c ons iderable e v idence o f f i elds a nd t he l ike , t here a re r e markably f ew h u t s i tes.

i i )

P ol len e v idence ( e .g. D imbleby 1 962; S i m mons 1 969 ; Cund i l l 19 71 e tc .) wou ld i nd ica te n o o vera l l s udden move men t i n to t he moor land a reas b u t more o f a' dr ibs a nd d rabs' s i tua t ion .

Iwou ld s uggest t ha t t he ma in moorland a rea h as a lways b een p oor.

Any

' i ntens ive ' u se , e ven o ver a r ela t ively s hort p er iod w ou ld e nsure r ap id s o il d e teriora t ion . One o ther marg ina l a rea , t he ' carr' l ands , i s o f i n terest . o ccas iona l e v idence o fu se i n t he e arl ier p reh istor ic p er iods.

I t h as p roduced They h ave

a lso p roduced ? odd ' i t e ms l i ke t he Roos Carr f i gures ( Hu l l Museu m ) a nd t he b oa ts f ro m N or th F err iby ( Wrigh t a nd Wr igh t 1 947 ; Wr igh t a nd Church il l 1 965 ). I n terest ing c o m men ts o n ' marine ' e cono m ic u ses c an b e f ound i n t he l i tera ture f or t he h is torica l p er iod , b u t a ny s uggest ions f or t he p reh is tor ic p er iod wou ld b e v ery t en ta t ive s pecu la t ion . E xp lo ita t ion p a t terns i n marg ina l a reas F le m ing ( 1971 a nd 1 976 ) h as s uggested t ha t i ti s l i kely t ha t t he moorland a reas were o nce c u l t iva ted . i )

H is a rgu men ts r un a s f o l lows :

There a re s o me ( l ess t han h a l f ad ozen ) c erea l impressions f ro m moorland u rns. 2 8

i )

Most o f t he ' se t t le men ts ' a re o n s ou th f ac ing s lopes , an a tura l l ocat i on t o c hoose f or p eop le g row ing c rops.

i i )

I t wou ld n o t b e p rof i table f or ' herders ' t o c lear t he moorland o f t rees o n ly a gr icul tura l ists ;

t herefore d e foresta t ion i s ap roduc t o f t h is

l a t ter g roup . i v )

C learance c a irns i nd ica te t he o pen ing u p o f l arge a reas f or a gr icu lt ure.

H erd ing c o m mun i t ies wou ld n ot w ish t o c lear a reas f or g raz ing.

Fur ther we k now t ha t t he moors were o nce e n t irely t ree-covered ( bu t c learance g oes b ack t o t he Mesol i th ic ) a nd t ha t , a ccord ing t o P iggot t ( 1972) c l i ma t ic d e ter iora t ion s e t i n a t t h is t ime. c ase i s v ery weak .

However , If eel t ha t F le m ing 's

The p oor s o i ls o n t he moors , may h ave mean t t ha t a gr i-

c u l ture h ad l ow r eturns a nd was o n ly p rac t icable i n o ne a rea f or a s hor t p er iod . More c ruc ia l ly o ne c an s ay : A .

The c erea l i mpress ions o n p ot tery a re f ew a nd i n a ny c ase , p ot tery

was b e ing t raded i n Br i ta in wel lb efore t h is ( Peacock 1 969 ) s o t he p ot tery may n o t r ela te t o t he ' moors ' t he mse lves ( i n a ny c ase t h is i s d irec t ly a ga ins t F le m ing 's ( 1971) p o in t r egard ing s et t le men t a nd b ur ia l s i tes n ot r ela t ing ). B .

There i s al ack o f c erea l p ol len f ro m t he r ecords o f t he moorland

a reas ( as F le m ing a dm i ts ). C .

S ou th f ac ing s lopes a re u n iversa l ly f avoured b y most g roups , n ot

j us t a gr icu l tura l ists.

S im ilarly o ne c an q uote ( N . Mi l ls i n for mat ion ) c ases

o f ' c learance c a irns' among p astora l g roups. Iwou ld n ot d eny t ha t a gricu l ture may h ave b een p rac t ised o n t he moors , b u t Iwou ld s uggest t ha t i ti s u n l ikely t o h ave b een a s s ign if ican t a s F le m ing t r ies t o make o u t.

T he p resen t e v idence ( espec ia l ly t he p ol len d a ta ) may wel l

s how t he ' spas mod ic ' n ature o f moorland c learance.

There a re a n u mber o f

' i nd ica t ions ' : i )

The i rregu lar n ature o f c learance a s i nd ica ted b y t he p ol len d iagra ms ( f ro m D i mbleby 1 962 o nwards ).

i )

The c ruc ia l f ea ture o f c learance i s t ha t r egenera t ion o f t he f orest d id n ot s ubs tan t ia l ly o ccur.

The g raz ing o f s heep a nd g oa ts o n t hese

a reas wou ld b e a n e f fect ive p reven tor o f t he r eappearance o f t ree g row th . i i )

N one o f t he s et t le men ts s how e v idence o f r ecu t d itches ‚ expans ion e tc .

i v )

I ft he v a l leys were t he p re m ier a reas o f s e t t le men t a n i n teres t ing p a t tern emerges a s r egards b arrow s izes.

The sma l l c a irns a nd

c a irn g roups a re a l l j us t a bove t he v a l leys ( as i n t he Danby-Cast let on a rea .

S ee F ig. 1 0.4 ) , a bove t hese a re l arger b arrows w i th

c ol lared u rn g roups , i n t he ma in .

A t t he ' t op ' o f t he moors a re t he

' r ichest ' b arrows s uch a s L oose H owe ( Elgee a nd E lgee 1 936 ) w i th a l l i t s d aggers , a xes a nd t he l i ke.

Th is may i nd ica te a r egu lar

p a t tern o f u sage o f t he moors w ith s pec ia l moor t op r i tua l p o in ts , r a ther t han a p ic ture o f mob ile a gr icu l tura l ists u s ing a l l a reas i n s im ilar ways. 2 9

Iw ou ld t hen s uggest t ha t i n t he B ronze Age t he f er t i le a reas o f t he v a l leys were t he p re m ier s e t t le men t a reas ( as a t a l l t imes h is tor ica l ly ) a nd t ha t t he moors w ere u sed s pas mod ica l ly , p robably w ith l oca l e xpans ions i n to t he p oorer s o i ls , b u t a t t he s a me t ime p robably a w el l e s tabl ished p a t tern o f moorland u se.

Th is l a t ter was p robably i n t he ma in g raz ing a nd/or h un t ing a c t iv it ies. S im i lar p roble ms o f i n terpreta t ion a re f aced i n Wes t Yorksh ire.

We

k now : A .

There i s c lear e v idence o f f i eld s yste ms a nd o ccupa t ion o f t he West

Yorksh ire ' marg ina l ' a reas i n t he ' Bronze Age ' p er iod . B . The p ol len d iagra ms d o i nd ica te t ree c learance i n t he Bronze Age p er iod a nd e arl ier ( Ta l l is 1 964, a nd Wa lker a nd West 1 970 ; i fn ot p ossibly a s e arly a s t he Mesol i th ic s uggested b y J acob i ). C .

I n t he l imestone a reas e v idence o f l and d eter iora t ion ( presen ted b y

F le m ing 1 976 ) may i nd ica te s o me l im i ted f ar m ing a c t iv it ies.

Aga ins t t h is

t he f ol low ing must b e p laced : i )

A l though p ol len e v idence d oes i nd ica te s o me c learance f ro m t he ' Neol ith ic ' a nd ' Bronze Age ' p er iod , t he ma in i nroads were i n t he I ron Age a nd h istor ic p er iods.

i )

There a re f ew a rtefac tua l f inds f ro m t he P enn ine r eg ion a par t f ro m t he ' f r inges ' ( w ith o ne o r t wo l oca l ised e xcep t ions ).

i i )

The a rchaeolog ica l f i e ld s ys te m e v idence s t i l l c ons ists o f o n ly a h and fu l o f e xa mp les.

If ind F le m ing 's a rgu men ts a nd d a ta ( 1976 ) i nsu ff ic ien t t o s er ious ly p u t f orward n ew i deas a bou t Bronze Age a gr icu l ture.

There a re t an ta l is ing

s uggest ions t ha t F le m ing m igh t b e r igh t , b u t a t p resen t Ic annot a ccep t h is v iews. CONCLUS IONS B ronze Age s e t t le men t i n marg ina l a reas There w ould s ee m t o b e s trong e v idence i n t he ' Bronze Age ' p er iod o f c ons iderable e xpans ion o f s et t le men t i n to a reas o f p oorer s o ils p ar t icu larly i n t he North Yorksh ire Moors a reas a nd t he P enn ines.

H owever , t h is o ccu-

p a t ion o n p resen t e v idence w ou ld s ee m t o b e e n t irely s pas mod ic.

T here i s

n o s trong s ugges t ion o f l ong t er m s e t t led o ccupa t ion o r e x tens ive u se o f s uch a reas.

We s hou ld n ot b e c onfused b y t he g ood p reserva t ion o f e v idence i n

t hese h is torica l ly ' marg ina l ' a reas i n to t h ink ing t ha t o ccupa t ion was s ubstan t ia l . H istor ica l ly s uch a reas w ere o n ly b rough t i n to g rea ter u se i n e xcep t iona l c ircu ms ta _nces a s w ith t he monast ic r b l i tzkre ig ' o f t he med ieva l p er iod .

The

v as t c hanges t ha t t ook p lace i n t hese a reas d ur ing t he ' Bronze Age ' may owe more t o c l i ma t ic d e ter iora t ion a nd t he v ery p oor q ua l ity o f t he s o i ls t han t o s udden a nd e x tens ive h u man a c t iv i t ies , a l though t h is may h ave b een t he v ita l t r igger.

Any s uch s uggest ion mus t b e t en ta t ive a nd f ur ther e v idence m igh t

improve o ur k now ledge o f t he p er iod a nd a reas. F .

B ronze Age s e t t le men t i n t radi t iona l s e t t le men t a reas The a reas u nder d iscuss ion a re t he c a lcareous s o ils o f t he magnesian

l imes tone , t he moors a nd n or th e ast Yorksh ire a nd t he g ravel a reas c h ief ly 3 0

o f t he Penn ine f r inges.

Unfortuna tely b ecause t hese a reas h ave ' a lways ' b een

s o h eav ily o ccup ied , t he e v idence i s f rag men tary i n n a ture.

A t t he s a me t ime ,

Id o n ot t h ink o ne c an c onc lude t oo much ( as s o me a uthors h ave d one ) f ro m e xpansions a nd c on trac t ions o f s e t t le men t i n ' marg ina l ' a reas t o s ay v ery much a bou t wha t was g o ing o n e lsewhere.

A n umber o f p o in ts a re w orthy o f c ons id-

e ra t ion : A .

D . R i ley ( 19 76 e .g.) a nd o thers h ave i den t if ied a c lose n e twork o f

f i e ld b oundar ies a nd r oadways o n t he magnes ian l imestone.

S o me o f t hese

m igh t h ave a n e arly d a te ( a l though most may b e o f t he RB p er iod ).

P . Mayes

h as c onf ir med t ha t s o me a t l east a re I ron Age a nd h as r ecovered N eol i th ic a nd Bronze Age ma ter ia l ' i n t he ir v ic in i ty '. B .

Museu m c ol lec t ions i n Yorksh ire wou ld i nd ica te a c oncen tra t ion o f

f l in t ma ter ia l i n t hese t rad i t iona l s e t t le men t a reas.

Th is may owe much t o

t he d istr ibu t ion o f modern p loughs ( as t o a nc ien t o nes ' .) a nd modern c ol lec tors. C .

' I n trench men ts , ( l and d iv is ions? ) h ave l ong b een r ecogn ised o n t he

Wolds.

F ro m e xcava t ions a t Thw ing ( T. Manby i n for ma t ion ) s o me a t l east

a re Bronze Age.

T h is wou ld s ee m t o b e c on f ir med b y a er ia l p ho tographs

( H. G . Ra m m i n for ma t ion ). Un fortuna tely B ronze Age ( or a ny o ther p reh istor ic ) s et t le men ts a re g o ing t ob e d if f icu l t t o r ecogn ise.

F irst o f a l l d eep p lough ing i s d estroy ing s i tes i n

a l l p arts o f t he a reas u nder d iscuss ion .

H owever , i n a dd it ion , B ronze Age

f l in t t ypes a re n ot e asy t o r ecogn ise ( espec ia l ly a f ter t he e arly Bronze Age ) d ue t o t he a pparen t ' degenera t ion ' o f t he i ndus tr ies a nd t he d isappearance o f r ecogn isable t ypes. S ites l i ke t he o ne a t Bur ton F le m ing ( Cha l l is & Hard ing 19 75 ) may b e o ne o f av ast n umber o f ' f ar msteads ' t ha t s tudded t he wolds.

There a re s ugges t ions

f ro m Garton a nd Wetwang S lacks t ha t s o me o ft he ' set t le men ts ' B ronze Age o r ig ins.

may h ave

A lso o f i n terest h ere i s t he mass ive f ortlike s i te o f

T hw ing ( Manby i n for ma t ion ) w ith i t s d efens ive d i tches a nd r a mparts a nd v ar ie ty o f ' r ich ' a rtefacts ( such a s ' urn f ield l p ins ). I ti s n ot a n or ma l s e t t le men t , b u t a ppears t o b e a' cen tre ' o f s o me k ind ( see b elow ).

I n a dd i t ion , i ts hou ld

b e n oted t ha t t he ' i n trench men ts ' o f t he wolds t end t o d iv ide t he a rea i n to v ery l arge b locks wh ich i n mo men ts o f s pecu la t ive o p t im is m o ne may s ee a s r anch b oundar ies ( Mor t i mer 19 05 f irst f igure ). Thus t here a re s uggest ions f ro m t he d a ta o f h eavy o ccupa t ion o f t he t rad i t iona l s e t t le men t a reas , p art icu larly o n t he Wolds i n t he ' Bronze Age '. W ith s ites l ike Thw ing , o ne c an e ven s uggest ' cen tra l p o in ts ', s oc ia l g a ther ings a nd t he l ike.

I t i s i n av ery g ood p osi t ion t o e xp lo i t t he b es t a rable l ands o f

t he g rea t w olds v a l ley a nd t he p as ture a reas t oo.

Recen t e xcava t ion ( 19 78 )

h as p roduced e v idence o f t he p resence o f t he t hree ma jor d o mes t ic a n i ma ls. T he e v idence a s y e t w il l n ot a l low t he b u i ld ing u p o f a ccura te p ictures o f ' Bronze Age ' s ubs is tence e cono m ics , b u t t here a re s uf f ic ien t g rounds f or t he s ubstan t ive r efu ta t ion o f t he t rad i t iona l v iew o f p astora l d om ina ted l i fe. Ie agerly a wa it t he r ecovery o f f ur ther i n for ma t ion f ro m s i tes s uch a s Thw ing.

3 1

GENERAL CONCLUS IONS : Yorksh ire s ubs istence e cono m ic p rac t ices 3 500-750 B .C. C onclus ions a t p resen t a re n ecessari ly t en ta t ive.

Bu t o ne c an make s o me

g enera l c o m men ts i n v iew o f p rov id ing a u sefu l b ackground f or d iscuss ion i n l a ter c hap ters : A .

There i s e v idence f or t he p rolonged u se o f t he t rad i t iona l s e t t le men t

a reas o f t he wolds ( t he b ou lder c lay a nd a l luv ia l s o i ls o f t he Grea t Wo lds Va l ley ) a t l east f ro m t he ' l a ter N eol ith ic ' o nwards.

Th is i s i nd ica ted b y d is-

t r ibu t ions o f a r tefac ts a nd l im i ted s e t t le men t ma ter ia l . B .

O ther ' t rad i t iona l s e t t le men t a reas ' l ike t he Tabu lar H il ls a nd t he

magnes ian l imes tone a lso h ave c oncen tra t ions o f s i tes a nd a r tefacts o f ' Neol i th ic ' a nd ' Bronze Age d a te '. C .

Apar t f ro m t he ir ' f r inge ' t he P enn ines h ave a g enera l l ack o f r elevan t

ma ter ia l .

The ma in i nroads i n to t hese a reas was i n t he I ron Age a ccord ing

t o t he p o l len d iagra ms , b u t t here was ' Neo li th ic ' a nd ' Bronze Age ' a c t iv i ty i n t hese a reas a lso , a l though o f u nclear n a ture. D .

A move men t i n to wha t may b e t er med ' marg ina l ' a reas p robably

t ook p lace i n t he ' Bronze Age ' p art icu larly i n N orth a nd Wes t Yorksh ire. Desp ite s uggest ions t o t he c on trary t he ma in u se o f t he mass o f t hese a reas t hroughou t t he p er iod u nder c ons idera t ion i s l ike ly t o h ave b een s l igh t a part f ro m r ough g raz ing a nd h un t ing .

However , am ixed u sage w ith s porad ic e x-

p ansions o f s et t le men t i n to t hese a reas s ee ms l i kely f ro m l im ited e v idence. Much o f t he e v idence t ha t Ih ave d iscussed a nd t he t one o f my a rgu men ts h as s tressed c on t inu i ty.

Bu t , Is tress more t he p oor q ua l i ty o f t he e v idence

a nd t he b iases wh ich a re many : i )

P lough ing o n t he Wolds s ince t he med ieva l p eriod i s l ikely t o h ave d estroyed l o ts o f p reh is tor ic ( and o ther ) s i tes a nd h ence t here a re l arge c ol lec t ions o f f l in ts o n t he s urface e ven t o t he p resen t d ay. Th is may h ave t he e f fec t o f o ver-e mphas is ing t he importance o f t he Wolds f or p reh istor ic s e t t le men t.

i )

Va le a reas ( such a s t he Va le o f York ) h ave b een s ub jec t t o h eavy s i l t ing s ince t he Ro man p er iod a nd p robably b efore.

Ma ter ia l f ro m

t hese a reas i s c onsequen t ly s carce. i i )

I n a reas l ack ing t he u se o f t he p lough ( such a s t he N orth Yorksh ire moors ) s et t le men ts a nd f i eld monu men ts a re wel l p reserved a nd t he b urn ing o f p ea t c an s tr ip s urfaces t o p reh istor ic l evels. a reas t hus a ppear t o b e wel l s et t led

These

i n t he p eriod i n q ues t ion .

Hav ing s a id a l l t ha t , If ee l t he p resen t e v idence wou ld i nd ica te t ha t o ccupa t ion b etween 3 500-750 B . C. was c oncen tra ted i n t rad i t iona l a reas o f a gr icu l ture ;

t h is s et t led a gr icu l tura l b as is o f t he s ubs istence e cono my ( t hus

s uggested ) s ee ms t o h ave p rov ided a f ounda t ion o n wh ich Yorksh ire s oc iety d eve loped i n s tr ik ing f ash ion . The imp l ica t ions f or t h is s uggest ion o n s oc ia l d evelopmen t may b e q u ite c ruc ia l ( e .g. B rose 1 970 ).

The wr iter wou ld e xpec t t ha t i t wou ld b e t he

3 2

r icher a reas t ha t wou ld b e l ikely t o s ee t he g rea test s oc ia l d evelopmen ts. T he a reas w i th t he g rea test p opu la t ion w ou ld a lso p rov ide t he g rea tes t o pport un i ty f or c onf l ic t , t he n eed f or c en tra l isa t ion a nd t he l ike.

A more d e ta i led

t heoret ica l f ra mework f or t he s oc ia l p a t tern ing l ikely t o b e i nvolved w i l lb e p rov ided i n t he f ol low ing c hap ters. 6 .

DATING FRA ME WORK Genera l c onc lusions :

Rad io-Carbon d a t ing

There a re v ery f ew r ad io-carbon d e ter m ina t ions a va ilable f or t he p er iod 3 500-750 B .C. w ith in Yorksh ire i t self . a re f or t he s a me t ypes o f s i te.

O f t he d a tes t ha t d o e x is t s evera l

F or e xa mp le , an umber o f d eter m ina t ions

a re n ow a va i lable f or t he e arthern l ong b arrows o f Yorksh ire ( K i lha m , Wil lerby Wo ld , Hang ing Gr i mston e tc.) o r ' monu men ta l "Neol ith ic ' b arrows ( Ca l l is Wo ld a nd S ea mer ) .

S evera l d a tes a re ( or s hort ly w i l l b e ) a va i lab le f ro m t he

s i tes a t Thw ing a nd G arton S lack .

H owever , t he l arge mass o f Y orksh ire

a rtefact t ypes , a nd monu men ts p ossess n o d e ter m ina t ions wha tsoever.

Wha t-

i s more , o ne must b e c r it ica l o f t he me thod i t sel f , p ar t icu larly when s o l i t t le ma teria l i s a va i lab le.

Even i ft he method i s a ccura te t wo c ruc ia l p roble ms

r e ma in : i )

The s tandard d ev ia t ion p rov ides o n ly a t wo t h irds l i ke l ihood t ha t t he d e ter m ina t ion w il l l i e w ith in ' t ha t ' p eriod o f r ad io-carbon y ears.

i )

I n p ract ice i ti s imposs ible t o ' da te ' t ypes w i th a f ew C i4 d e ter m ina t ions.

The p robab i l ity t heor ies o f s ta t ist ics i nd ica te , i n s i mp le

t er ms , t he f ewer t he i t e ms d a ted t he more l ike ly t he d e ter m ina t ion i s t o b e ' marg ina l '.

For e xa mp le i ft he p opu la t ion i s u n ifor m ( ra ther

t han ' nor ma l ' , b a t t le-sh ip s haped e tc .) a nd t here a re o n ly 3 a bsolu te d a tes , t here i s a1 2.5% c hance t ha t t hese d a tes w il l f a l l w i th in o ne h a l f o f t he ' per iod ' i nvolved (a nd a 2 5% c hance t ha t t hey w il l f a l l w ith in e i ther h a l f o f t he p er iod ).

Th is i s ah igh f igure , a nd e ven i f

o ne a ccep ts t ha t i n t he r ea l w orld ' nor ma l ' d istr ibu t ions a re l i kely , t he ma in p oint h ere i s s t i l l g ood .

We c annot p rac t ica l ly d a te t ime

r anges o f a r tefact t ypes s er iously w i th t he sma l l n u mbers o f d e term ina t ions t ha t p resen t ly e x ist f or many ' t ypes ' i n B ri ta in . T he c al ibra t ion o f r ad io-carbon The f ac t t ha t f or c a lendar y ears o ne n eeds t o ' ca l ibra te ' y ears a dds t o o ur p roble ms.

r ad io-carbon '

There a re s t i l l p len ty o f d isagree men ts i n t he 1

l i terature o ver t he ' smoothed c urve ' o r t he ' i rregu lar c urve w ith w iggles '. Iw ou ld a ccep t t he s ta te men t o f S uess ( Suess a nd C larke 1 976 ). ' By c o mparing t he v ar ious c a l ibra t ion c urves i tc an e asi ly b e s een t ha t f or t he p urposes o f c a l ibra t ion a s ingle g iven c onven t iona l r ad ioc arbon d a te , i tw il l , i n g enera l , b e i m ma ter ia l wh ich o f t he p roposed c urves i s u sed , b ecause t he e xper i men ta l e rror o f a n a verage i nd iv idua l r ad io-carbon d a te w il l a l mos t a lways b e l arger t han t he d i ff erences b etween t i r v ar ious c urves.

However , r esu l ts o bta ined b y

u s ing o ne o f t he smooth c urves may g ive t he wrong impress ion o f b e ing more a ccura te t han t ha t o bta ined b y my more i rregu lar c urve '. ( c f . S uess 1 970 ;

C lark & Ren frew 1 972). 3 3

How v a luable t hen a re t he f ew d e tern i ina t ions t ha t we d o p ossess? t he t able i n C lark 1 975 n o. 6 ) .

( see

The Yorksh ire ma ter ia l i s q uo ted i n P ierpo in t

( 1978 ) , b u t i ti s n ot worth r eitera t ing t h is ma ter ial h ere.

However , Il i st

b elow ' t i me ' r anges f or s o me a rte fac t t ypes i n t er ms o f r ad io-carbon d a tes ( us ing t he C lark c a l ibra t ion 1 975 ). A .

Beakers :

B .

Col lared U rns :

Per thsh ire ). C .

3 095 ( Skend leby ) t o 1 780 ( Moun t P leasan t ). 2 206 ( Dev il 's R ing S u ffo lk ) t o 1 550 ( Grand tu l ly ,

N ote G rea t Ayton 's d a te ( 9 50 b .c.).

Food Vessels :

2 035 ( Ba l lynag i l ly ) , b u t a l l E ngl ish d a tes a re l a ter

t han 1 620 ( Moun t P leasan t ). D .

( Bu t s ee Harland E dge a nd Ta l l ing ton ).

P lano-convex a nd o ther k n ives :

3 530 ( Da l lad ies );

1 770 ( Ta l l ington )

t o 1 835 ( Harland E dge , p iano-convex ). E .

L ong b arrows :

F .

Round b arrows :

4 250 ( La mbourn ) t o S kend leby ( 3095 ). 3 580 ( Ca l l is Wold 2 75 ) t o 2 755 ( S ilbury H i l l ) ;

N eol i th ic . G .

H enges :

3 245 ( Ar m ingha l l ) t o 2 305 ( S tonehenge ).

H .

G r i mston/Lyles H i l l Ware :

4 555 ( Ba l lynag il ly ( secure c on tex t ));

3 095 ( Skend leby ). Even w ith t h is l i st , Ih ave e xc luded d a tes t ha t m igh t b e c onsidered ' archaeol og ica l ly u naccep table '.

The ma in p urpose o f t he r ad io-carbon d a t ing c hrono-

l ogy w ou ld b e t o g ive u s ag enera l f ra mework f or t he p er iod , a nd a s s uch i t i s c ruc ia l .

Bu t , f or a more s pec if ic c hronology o ne h as t o r e ly o n more

t rad i t iona l me thods a nd e ven ( per ish t he t hough t !) i n tu i t ion .

There w ou ld

h owever , s ee , t o b e ag enera l a gree men t o f t he C 14 d a tes i n t he mse lves a nd e ven o f t he c a l ibra t ion c urves.

Us ing t rad i t iona l me thods o ne c an make s o me

g enera l s ta te men ts b elow wh ich w i l l h elp t o b u ild a ' b lock ' c hronology b elow. Ag enera l s yste m i s v i ta l i fc hanges t hrough t ime a re t o b e e xa m ined . s yste m wou ld s ee m t o b e r ea l ly a dequa te.

N o

However we h ave s o me v ery u se-

f u l t ools i n a rchaeology . Typology T ypolog ica l ly we c an s ee c erta in d evelopmen ts ( as i nd ica ted f or i nd iv idua l a rtefac ts b elow ). Bu t t here a re p roble ms h ere t oo : i )

A c oncen tra t ion o fb arrow ma ter ia l i s n o t r ea l ly h e lp fu l when , a s Iw il l s how , t h is i s n ot t yp ica l o f ' genera l ' a sse mblages.

i )

Many t ypes a re e x tre mely l ong l i ved.

Th is i s c erta in ly t rue o f

' Gr i mston Ware ' ( Manby 1 974 ) , p iano-convex k n ives a nd e ven r ound b arrows. i i )

There a re s t i l l w idespread d isagree men ts o ver t ypolog ies i n t he l i tera ture.

One c lass ic e xa mp le i s p resen t a na lys is o f Beakers.

The r ecen t a r t icle b y Case ( 1977 ) wou ld s ee m t o b e af u l l-c irc le s w ing b ack t o o ld f ash ioned e arly- m idd le-la te c hronolog ies a way f ro m C larke ( 1970 ) o r e ven v an d er Waa ls ( 1972 i n L an t ing a nd Van d er Waa ls ).

The a rt icle i s f u l l o fu nsupported a nd u nsuppor table 3 4

a ssu mp t ions a s wel l a s i n s ubstan t ia ted s ta te men ts t ha t h ave b edev ill ed d iscuss ions o f Beaker t ypology f or mos t o f t h is c en tury .

There

a re more h opefu l a reas o f t ypology , p ar t icu larly t he s tudy o f me ta l f or ms.

Unfortuna tely , g ood t hough t hese s che mes a re , t hey o n ly h e lp u s t o

d a te b ronzes , b ronzes a nd morebronzes ( so r are i s t he o ccurrence o f s uch f or ms o n s e t t le men t s i tes ) .

A t l eas t , t ha t i s t he s i tua t ion i n

Y orksh ire . i v )

T oo many t ypolog ist s t il l r ely o n t he p r inc ip les ( o f ten u ns ta ted ) o f monocausa l d evelopmen t ( so me th ing t ha t i s p erhaps more v a lid , i n s o me t er ms , f or e xamp le , f or b ronzes ) .

The o p in ion o ft he p resen t

wr i ter f ol lows t ha t o f C larke ( 1968 ) o r B in ford ( 1968 ) , t ha t a rtefacts a re a r ef lec t ion ( bu t s ee b elow ) o f s oc ie ty a nd a re t he p roduc ts o f i n ter-rela ted ' sys te ms ' w ith in t ha t s oc ie ty.

I ti s o n ly i fo ne c an

' i sola te ' c hronolog ica l v ar iab il i ty t ha t o ne c an g et ' good m i leage ' o u t o f a rtefacts f or d a t ing s che mes.

Iw il l t ry t o s how i n l a ter c hap ters

t ha t i ti s p oss ible t o p oin t t o t e mpora l v ar iab il ity i n t he c ase o f most a rtefac t t ypes , b u t t h is i s as o mewha t d iferen t ma t ter f ro m u s ing t ha t f or c hronolog ica l f ra meworks.

Ii n tend t o u se t herefore ' rough

a nd r eady ' c hronolog ica l b lccks a nd t o p ush a s much ma ter ia l i n to e ach c onta iner a s Ic an .

My c hest-of-drawers may n ot b e p art icu larly

p re t ty , Ih op e t o s how t hough t ha t i ti s r a ther e f fec t ive . C hronolog ica l ' b lock s yste m ' A .

The E arl iest ' Neol ith ic ' p eriod c . 3 750-3000 B . C.

Many d i f feren t s uggest ions h ave b een e xpressed a s t o h ow o ne s hou ld ' sp l i t-up ' t he ' Neol ith ic ' ( e .g. P iggot t 1 954 ) , b u t n one o f t hese s ee m e n t irely r e levan t t o t h is e nqu iry o r t o t he Yorksh ire ma ter ia l i n p ar t icu lar.

Is ce a n

e arl ier p er iod i n wh ich t he c h ief b ur ia l monu men t i s t he l ong b arrow (o f v ar ious k inds ) ; t here i s al ack o f l arge r itua l c en tres , p o ttery i s s i mp le , l argely u ndecora ted b ow ls , t here a re f ew r ich a r tefacts ( see b e low ).

Ic a l l

t h is t he Nascen t p er iod . B .

The L a ter ' Neol ith ic ' p er iod c . 3 000-2500/ 2400 B .C.

Th is p er iod i nc ludes t he l arger r itua l monu men ts i n Yorksh ire , t he ' r ich ' r ound barrows s uch a s Dugg leby H owe , a nd a n u mber o f f ine f l in t a nd p ot tery t ypes ( f ine l ea f a nd t ranchet a rrowheads , p ol ished e dge k n ives , o rna te a xes e tc . ( see Manby 1 974 )).

Iw ou ld e qua te t h is , a t l east i n p art w i th P iggot t 's

( 1 954) Dorchester S er ies , t he Manby ( 1974 ) ' Macehead C o mp lex ' a nd much o f t he ma ter ia l n or ma l ly s een a s ' secondary Neol i th ic '. o f N eol ith ic ma ter ia l s ee ms c ountry w ide.

Th is g enera l d icho to my

Bas ica l ly t here s ee ms t o b e a

p er iod a t t he e nd o f t he ' neol i th ic ' i n wh ich a rtefac ts , monu men ts a nd p erhaps s oc iety e xh ib i ts a g rea ter d egree o f e labora t ion. p er iod. C .

Ic a l l t h is t he Deve lop men ta l

The P er iod c on te mporary w ith t he e arl ies t Beakers c . 2 600-2300 B .C.

Th is p er iod wou ld i nclude C larke 's ( 1970 ) A l l-over-cord a nd E uropean B eakers.

I tc an b e a l most c er ta in ly s wa l lowed u p ( chronolog ica l ly ) b y t he

p reced ing a nd s ucceed ing p er iods. p er iod.

Iw ou ld c a l l t h is a ga in t he Deve lop men ta l

3 5

D .

Per iod c on te mporary w ith t he l a test Beakers c . 2 400-2000/ 1900 B .C.

Th is ' b lock ' i nc ludes a l l C larke 's ( 1970 ) o ther B eaker t ypes a l though s o me o f t he l a ter f or ms may ' f i t ' c hronolog ica l ly b et ter i n to t he n ex t p hase . I n b ur ia l t er ms , t here a re f ar more g oods p laced i ng raves b u t s o me i t e ms a ppear t o b e b eco m ing s tandards ( l ike t he Beaker f or ms t he mselves ).

Techno log ica l ly ,

t here a ppears f or t he f i rst t ime c opper a nd b ronze i t e ms , b u t t hese a re e xc eed ing ly r are a nd a re most ly f ound i n b ur ia l c on tex ts ,

I n t rad it iona l t er ms

i tr epresen ts t he e arl iest p art o f t he ' Early Bronze Age '.

It er m t h is t he

F lorescen t p er iod . E i. The L a ter ' Early Bronze Age '

c . 2 000-1600/ 1500 B . C.

I n t h is s ec t ion o f t he p er iod a re i nc luded a l l ' Food V essel ' a ssoc ia ted b uria ls a nd p arapherna l ia o f t he l a ter p ar t o f t he ' Early Bronze Age '. p arapherna l ia t a ppear more w idely n ow i n s pa t ia l t er ms.

' Soc ia l

Th is i s my ' Expan-

s ive p eriod. E i i. The L a ter ' Early Bronze Age '

c . 2 000-1400 B .C.

Th is o verlaps a l most c o mp lete ly w i th t he p reced ing ' phase ' ( E i ). a l l p rac t ica l p urposes Iam u s ing t he t wo a s a n u nd iv ided whole.

F or

I ti nc ludes

a l l ' Urn ' b uria ls wh ich b eg in t o a ppear i n r a ther more r e mote a reas t han t he o ther Bronze Age t ypes. t ed i nd iv idua ls a t b ur ia l . F .

R ich i t e ms a re a lso p laced w i th c o l lared u rn a ssoc iaExpans ive p er iod .

Midd le a nd L a ter ' Bronze Age ' 1 400-750 B .C.

I n t h is p hase , i t e ms o fb ronze b eco me i ncreas ingly c o m mon. v ery f ew b ur ia ls a nd s oc ia l p a t terns a re d i f f icu l t t o d iscern . a re b eco m ing i ncreasingly ' cen tra l ised '.

T here a re

Valuable i t e ms

C o mp lex p er iod .

The f ra mework o u t l ined a bove w il lb e u sed i n t he b ur ia l a nalys is s ec t ion i n l a ter c hap ters.

The s yste m h as i t s f au lts i n t ha t t he ' b locks ' a re a l lb road

a nd c learly o verlap w i th o ne a nother. t ypolog ies.

I ti s b ased o n many o f t he t rad i t iona l

I ti s n o t c la i med t ha t t h is s ys te m i s i dea l , b u t i td oes p rov ide a

v ery g enera l c hronolog ica l f ra mework wh ich i s p rec isely w ha t i s r equ ired h ere.

A t te mp ts w i l lb e made l a ter t o s uggest o ther means o f c hrono log ica l

c onf igura t ion c onstruc t ion . GENERAL CONCLUS IONS :

CHAPTER ONE

THE BACKGROUND

I n t he p reced ing s ix s ec t ions , Ih ave a t te mp ted t o p rov ide a b ackground t o t he e nqu iry i n to s oc ia l p a t terns i n t he p er iod 3 500-750 B .C. i n Y orksh ire. Ig ave a g enera l p ic ture o f t he p hys ica l f ea tures o f t he a rea a nd s tressed t he v ast ly v ary ing n ature o f t he t erra in .

Th is Iwou ld s uggest i s l ikely t o p roduce

av ary ing s oc ia l p a t tern i n g eograph ica l t er ms.

Ia lso a t te mp ted t o d escride

t he n a ture o f t he d a ta t o work o n , p o in t ing o u t i t s v ery l arge q uan t ity a nd p oor q ua l i ty.

H owever , Id o t h ink i ts u i table , i n many ways , f or t he k inds o f

q ues t ions wh ich Ib r ief ly o u t l ined a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he c hap ter.

I n t he ma jor

s ec t ion o f t he c hap ter , Ia t te mp ted t o d escr ibe t he s ubs istence e cono m ic b asis o f t he p reh istor ic a nd h is tor ic s oc iet ies i n t he a rea . Iwou ld s ugges t t ha t many o f t he ' t rad i t iona l s et t le men t a reas ' h ave f unc t ioned a s s uch s ince t he b eg inn ing o f f ar m ing i n t he c oun ty .

A t t he s a me t ime ' Neol ith ic a nd B ronze

3 6

A ge t s oc ie ty d id h ave a p rofound e f fec t o n t he l andscape a nd t here a re movemen ts i n to n ew a reas a t v ar ious t imes. F ina l ly , Is uggested t ha t ac hronol og ica l f ramework was e ssen t ia l f or t he a na lysis , wh ile p oin t ing o u t t he c ons iderable d if f icu l t ies e ven o f t he a bsolu te d a t ing t echn iques.

Thus , It h ink

w e d o h ave s o me i dea o f t he b ackground t o t he e nqu iry , l e t u s n ow p roceed a nd b eg in t o a sk s pec if ic q uest ions a nd t of i nd s o me a nswers.

3 7

CHAPTER 2 ARTEFACT VAR IABIL ITY , MORTUARY PRACT ICES AND S OCIAL PA TTERNS .

S O ME I NS IGHTS FRO M ETHNOGRAPHY

There a re t wo a reas o f c h ief c oncern i n t h is c hap ter : i )

To wha t e x ten t c an w e r ela te a rtefactua l q ua l i ty v ar iab il ity w i th s pec ia l isa t ion a nd v a lue s yste ms?

i )

To wha t e x ten t c an w e r ela te mortuary p rac t ices a nd s oc ia l p a t terns ?

I n t he f i rs t p art Iwan t t o s uggest t ha t most p r im it ive s oc iet ies h ave a r ud i men tary s pec ia l isa t ion s yste m a nd t ha t t h is i s l i kely t o h ave a c ruc ia l i n f luence o n t he q ua l i ty o f a rtefac ts a nd t he r ange o f q ua l i ty t ha t c an b e p erc e ived.

Th is i n t urn ( Is pecu la te ) h as importan t e f fects o n t he way a n o b jec t

i s u sed a nd t he way i ti s ' chosen '. I n t he s econd p art Iw i l l merely r ei tera te t he B in ford ian v iew t ha t s oc ia l p a t terns a nd mortuary p ract ices a nd v ery c losely l i nked . I n a ppend ix 3 , 5 0 s oc ie t ies a re l i sted a nd t h is f or ms my e thnograph ic ' sa mp le ,. They a re ' chosen ' t o g ive a w ide g eograph ica l a nd s oc ia l r ange. I ti s i n tended t ha t t hey h elp g ive s o me i dea o f t he r ange o f ' p ossib i l i t ies ' b y way o f s oc ie ta l f or ms.

I ti s i n tended t o u se t h is g roup t o p rov ide y e t f urther

b ackground i n t he way o f p a t terns t ha t we m igh t n ot o n ly d escr ibe , b u t p red ic t i n t he Yorksh ire ma ter ia l. 1 .

VALUE S YSTE MS , QUAL ITY VARIATION AND S PECIAL ISATION The i n terests o f t he a rchaeolog ists a nd t he e thnographers d o n o t o verlap

a s o f ten a s o ne wou ld l i ke a nd i ti s p ar t ly b ecause o f t h is d iscon for m i ty t ha t t he importan t f i eld o f e thnoarchaeology h as d eveloped .

H owever , t here a re

many e thnograph ic monographs c on ta in ing l arge q uan t i t ies o f d a ta a nd Iw il l a t te mp t t o u se s o me o f t hose h ere. S ah l ins h as a lready d escr ibed a nd o u t l ined t he i mportance o f e xchange ( Sah l ins 1 974 p ages 2 46-275 ) a nd h as s tressed t ha t g iv ing a way o b jec ts c onfers ' s tatus ' o n a n i nd iv idua l ( or c an d o ) a nd c an o bl ige r eturn o f g oods b y ap artner. The i n tent ion h ere i s t o s how t ha t s ubt le d if ferences were r ecogn ised i n a rtefact t ypes a nd t ha t t hese d if ferences h e lped t o c on fer ' soc ia l e stee m ' o n i nd iv idua ls. I n t he a ppend ix Il i s t 5 0 s oc ie t ies. S yn thes is a nd c onc lusions f ro m t he e thnograph ic monographs A s s tressed , n o t horough s earch o f t he l i tera ture h as b een made , b u t i n t he s oc ie t ies i nd ica ted i n t he a ppend ix ( a t o ta l o f o n ly 2 3 o u t o f 5 0 p rov ided t he n ecessary d e ta i led t rea t men t o f t h is s ub jec t ) ar ange o f v ar ia t ion c an b e s een .

3 8

Ic an a dd l i t t le t o t he c o m men tary o f S ah l ins ( 1974 ) o r P ospos il ( 1968 ) a s f ar a s v a lue s yste ms a re c oncerned .

The ma in c oncern h ere i s w i th t he

d is t inct ions made b e tween a rtefac ts a nd t he impor tance o f s pec ia l ist p roduct i on.

Pospos i l 's a t te mp t t o s how t he c o m mon f ea tures o f modern mone tary

e cono m ies a nd p r im i t ive e xchange med ia wou ld s ee m em inen t ly s ens ible a nd Iw ould a gree t ha t many a rtefacts d o h ave a s ign if ican t e cono m ic ( even monet ary ) v a lue , i n mos t p ri m i t ive c o m mun i t ies. S pec ia l is t g oods i n p art icu lar , wou ld s ee m t o f i gure h igh i n e cono m ic v a lue s ys te ms ( bu t t hen s o a re w o men f or e xa mp le ).

However , t he i mportance

a nd o rgan isa t ion o f s pec ia l ist t rades c an b e s hown t o v ary g rea t ly.

The ma in

f or ms o f s pec ia l isa t ion wou ld a ppear t o b e :1 .

Co m mun i ty o r v i l lage s pec ia l isa t ion .

I n t h is a c o m mun i ty w el l p laced

f or a ccess t o ar esource b eco mes t he ma jor p roduc t ion c en tre. 2 .

S exua l ly s pec if ic s pec ia l isa t ion ( Murdock 1 966 ).

I n many c o m mun it ies

wo men may b e e .g. t he p o tters , men t he makers o f c anoes. 3 .

Poorly d ef ined c o mpe t it ive s pec ia l isa t ion .

I n s o me s oc ie t ies s pec ia l isa t ion

i s n ot ' ascr ibed ' , c erta in i nd iv idua ls a re n ot p icked o u t t o make a l l o f a c erta in i t e m.

H owever , t he f act t ha t c erta in i nd iv idua ls w i l l n a tura l ly

b e b e t ter a t mak ing c erta in o b jec ts t han o thers may l ead t o t he m b e ing a sked t o make g oods f or t he l ess ' able ' me mbers o f t he s oc ie ty. 4 .

The I nd iv idua l s pec ia l isa t ion .

I nd iv idua ls t oo o ld o r i nf ir m t o c arry o u t

t he n or ma l e cono m ic r ou t ine may l i ve b y mak ing i t e ms f or e xchange. 5 .

The Fa m ily s pec ia l isa t ion .

I n s o me s oc iet ies t he a bi l i ty t o make g oods

wel l i s s een a s a n h ered itar ily t ransferrable e n t ity.

I t may b e c on ferred

b y mag ic , t hus p ass ing t he ' sk i l l ' o n f ro m o ne g enera t ion t o t he n ex t. There a re c lear ly many o ther f or ms o f s pec ia l isa t ion , n o t r ecogn ised h ere p ar t icu larly i n t he more a dvanced s oc iet ies.

The f or ms o f s pec ia l isa t ion

h ere d o s ee m c o m mon t o an u mber o f s oc iet ies c ross-cu t t ing t he n or ma l e cono m ic o r s oc ia l d evelop men ta l f ra meworks. S exua l d iv is ion a nd c o m mun ity s pec ia l isa t ion a re p art icu larly c o m mon f or ms. Fa m i ly s pec ia l isa t ion s ee ms ma in ly t o r ela te t o i ron a nd o ther sm i th ing a c t iv i t ies.

H owever , t here a re

i nd ica t ions among t he N ew Gun iea s oc it ies t ha t s pec ia l isa t ion w as e qua l ly wel l c on f ined . S pec ia l isa t ion may h ave many d if feren t f unc t ions w i th in t he s oc ie ty.

The

s pec ia l ist h i msel f i ts ee ms , i s n ot r egu larly a ccorded a s pec ia l h igh p os i t ion w i th in t he s oc ie ty ;

i ndeed h e may b e d esp ised.

The g oods t ha t a re p roduced

h ave a v ar iety o f f unct ions , b u t t hese a re n ot mu tua l ly e xc lus ive :a .

The p roduc t ion o f u t il i tar ian g oods f or a l im ited marke t o f ten r esource

d ependen t. b .

The p roduc t ion o f g oods f or e xchange w i th o ther g roups o f ten f or o ther

s pec ia l is t p roduced i t e ms. c .

The p roduc t ion o fg oods t o e xchange f or f ood .

d .

The p roduc t ion o f g oods f or ' marke t ' r ed istr ibu t ion ( con f ined t o ' co mp lex '

s oc iet ies ( see Belshaw 1 965 ) ) .

3 9

e .

The manu facture o f al im i ted n u mber o f i t e ms f or c erta in i nd iv idua ls

w i th in t he s oc iety. f .

The manu fac ture o f al im i ted n u mber o f p res t ige o r s oc ia l ly impor tan t

g oods.

These i t e ms may b e o f g rea t v a lue a nd c onvey s tatus t o t he p ossessor

( a l though n ot u sua l ly o n t he p roducer );

l ess v a luable i t e ms may h ave o ther

more s pec if ic v a lues. T o s o me e x ten t w e c an i gnore ' marke t ' d istr ibu t ion h ere , b u t a l l t he o ther f or ms w ou ld s ee m r elevan t t o o ur e nqu iry h ere.

S pec ia l isa t ion o f g oods may

b e d escr ibed a s a c t ing a s a n e xchange mechan is m a nd/or a s r elat ing . t o t he s oc ia l p os i t ion o f i nd iv idua ls a nd c o m mun i t ies.

A s f ar a s s i mp le a grar ian

s oc ie t ies a re c oncerned , Iw ou ld c on f ir m t he s ugges t ion made b y S erv ice ( 1962 ) t ha t s y mbols a re v ery i mportan t t o s uch c o m mun i t ies.

He s ays t ha t

s uch s ymbols h elp t o c on f ir m t he p os it ion o f i nd iv idua ls a nd ' soda l it ies ' w ith in t he s oc ie ty .

Accord ing t o S erv ice t he s oda l i ty p a t tern o f s oc ia l r ela t ionsh ips

e nded w i th t he emergence o f more c o mp lex ( ' ch iefdo m ' ) s oc iet ies i n w h ich s oc ia l p os it ion was d ef ined o n a n a scr ibed o r h ered i tary b as is .

A l though

S erv ice 's s ugges t ions i n b road t er ms a re n o l onger p opu lar ( bu t s ee R en frew 1 973b ) , t hey d o s uggest t he p oss ib il ity t ha t ac hange i n t he b as is o f s pec ia l is a t ion m igh t b e e xpec ted w i th t he r ise o f a scr ibed s ta tus c o m mun i t ies. Wha t Iam s ugges t ing , t hen i s t ha t s pec ia l ised g oods h ave a v i ta l s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic r ole i n many c o m mun it ies a nd t ha t t hese i t e ms r ela te c losely t o p r im i t ive ' econo m ic v a lue s yste ms '.

Bu t i n a l l c ases t h is i s o n ly p art o f

ac o mp lex s ys te m . Many i t e ms n ot p roduced b y s pec ia l ist manufacture c an c onfer t he s a me a dvan tages o n a n i nd iv idua l a s d o t he s pec ia l ist i t e ms : 1 .

I n many s oc iet ies f ood i s a n importan t s ta tus i t em . b y Rappapor t ( 1975 ) a re p art icu larly i n terest ing .

The s ugges t ions made

He s ees e cono m ic

f actors b e ing d e ter m inen t o f s oc ia l a c t iv i t ies ( a l though Iwou ld s uggest t ha t t he r everse may b e more c orrec t ).

I n many N ew Gu inea g roups i n

p ar t icu lar , t he d isp lay o f f ood , a nd t he s laugh ter o f a n i mals a t f easts h elp t o c on f ir m t he p osi t ion o f c o m mun i t ies o r g roups w ith in t he s oc iety a nd t o al esser e x ten t ( i n t h is c ase ) e f fec t i nd iv idua l p rest ige.

Among

s o me n orth-wes t Austra l ian g roups t he e xchange o f s tone a xes f or e xa mp le i s o n ly p art o f ag enera l f east ing a nd e xchange o f f ood a nd v ar ious ' serv ices '. 2 .

N on-Trea ted r esources c an a lso b e a n impor tan t e xchange med ium .

N ew

Gu inea s oc iet ies f requen t ly u se d og 's t eeth o r p ig 's t usks a s a n e xchange med iu m . 3 .

A l though s pec ia l ist i t e ms c an c onfer s ta tus , o ther i t e ms c an d o s o a s e f fec t ively o r more s o.

The E ast A fr ican g roups o f c a t t le h erders s ee

t he ir c a t t le a s t he s econd most v a luable i t em i n t he e cono m ic c yc le. The most i mportan t i t e ms a re wo men (L ev i-strauss 1 966 i s v ery e n l igh te n ing o n t h is ma t ter ).

Polyga my i s t he b as is o f t hese c o m mun i t ies a nd

i ti s c o m mon i n many p ar ts o f t he w orld i nclud ing N ew Gu inea .

O ne ma in

p urpose o f p olyga my ( poss ibly a part f ro m t he p ossibi l i t ies o f p opu la t ion c on trol ) wou ld s ee m t o b e t o c on fer s ta tus o no lder ma les w ith in t he c o m mun i ty.

I ti s p r inc ipa l ly a s ign o f wea l th a nd p robably a n

i nves t men t

On ly t he wea l thy c an a f ford more t han o ne w i fe , b u t h av ing o bta ined a n u mber o f w ives , t here i s more l abour f or p lot t i l l ing , a nd more c h i ldren 4 0

who c an p rov ide a l arge l abour f orce.

I tc an t hus b e s een i n s tr ic t ly

e cono m ic t er ms a s a means o f i ncreas ing l abour i npu t a nd p roduc t ion o u tpu t . The importance o f s pec ia l ist p roduc t ion c an o n ly b e u nderstood w i th s o me c o mprehens ion o f t hese c o mp lex i n terl ink ing s yste ms.

Many o f t he i t e ms

a bove a re i mportan tb ecause : a .

They a re s carce r esources.

b .

They r equ ire a l arge l abour/energy i npu t . Even t he s i mp lest s oc iet ies a re r e makably c o mp lex i n t er ms o f t he ir

v a lue s ys te ms a nd s i mp le e xp lana t ions ( such a s Rappapor t 1 975 ) w ou ld n ot s ee m t o h ave g rea t v a lue.

My ma in i n terest i s w ith t he ' r ich '

Bronze Age '

i t e ms . Iw ou ld s i mp ly a sk whe ther t hese were i t e ms o f ' spec ia l is t ' manu fac ture. A f ter t he N ascen t p eriod w e " mow t ha t e labora te a rtefacts b eco me i ncreas ingly c o m mon a nd many o f t hese a re c erta in ly t raded .

Ih ave t r ied t o s uggest i n

t he f orego ing t ha t t here i s ac lose l i nkage b etween v a lue —spec ia l isa t ion—prest i ge , a l though we may q u ibble a bou t t he t er m inology. 1 .

A l im i ta t ion i n ' who g ets wha t '.

Iw ou ld p red ic t/expect :

S pec ia l ist p rest ige g oods a re l ikely t o

b e l im i ted t o c er ta in me mbers o f t he c o m mun ity ( or e ven c er ta in c o mmun i t ies among many ). 2 .

Mortuary d a ta may b e p ar t icu larly u sefu l h ere.

Part icu lar p a t terns o f a rchaeolog ica l d epos i t ion ( t he i t e ms a re ' va luable ' , i nd iv idua ls w i l l n o t wan t t o l ose ' t he m a nd w i l l t ake g rea t c are o f t he m ). One m igh t e xpec t ' depos i t ion ' o n r itua l o ccas ions , c aches ( h id ing away ) , l ong l i fe s pans e tc .

3 .

Part icu lar p a t terns o f ' cho ice '.

Ih ave a lready s uggested t ha t c erta in

i t e ms wou ld h ave p rest ige v a lue , b u t c o m mun i t ies a re f requen t ly c o mp lex a rrays o f s oc ia l p a t terns.

S o t he q uest ion o f ' who g e ts wha t ' t akes o n a

more c o mp l ica ted f or m a nd d e mands c o mp lex a nswers.

Part icu larly

importan t h ere a re q uest ions o f c erta in i t e ms c on fer ing a p art icu lar p rest ige ;

ar ange o f i t e ms c on fer ing d if feren t ' prest ige ' i n d if fer ing c o mb ina-

t ions ; r anges.

d if feren t ia l q ua l ity o f a r tefac ts r e la ting s pec if ica l ly t o s oc ia l These a re a l l v i ta l i ssues when i tc o mes t o l ook ing a t t he mor-

t uary d a ta i n l a ter c hap ters.

Un fortuna te ly t he e thnograph ic ma ter ia l

d oes n ot p rov ide much o f t he d e ta il f or c ons ider ing s uch ma t ters. S u m mary Us ing e thnograph ic d a ta i th as b een p oss ible t o d e mons tra te a r ange o f v ar ia t ion f or e cono m ic s ys te ms p art icu larly w i th r egard t o s pec ia l isa t ion . S pec ia lis t-produced

g oods c an b e av ery i mportan t med iu m o f e xchange a nd

c an t o s o me e x ten t ma in ta in t he s oc ia l p os it ion o f i nd iv idua ls a nd s oc ia l g roups. S pec ia l isa t ion i s o ne p art o f c o mp lex e cono m ic s yste ms.

Th is c o mes d own

t o q uest ions o n t he l im i ta t ions p laced o n d istr ibu t ion ( a c lass ic Marx ist s ugg est ion ) a nd t he p rob le ms o f c hoice .

These t wo p oin ts w ou ld s ee m p art icu larly

i mportant when c ons idering t he a rchaeo log ica l d a ta .

S o me a nswers c an b e

r ead i ly p rov ided b y s imp le means , a s s hown i n t he f o l low ing c hap ters .

4 1

2 .

MORTUARY PRACTICES AND S OCIAL I DENTITIES I n l a ter c hap ters t he u se o f d a ta f ro m b ur ia l c on tex ts w i l l b e d iscussed .

The i n ten t ion h ere i s t o p resen t s o me f ur ther e thnograph ic d a ta ( f ro m t he s a me 5 0 s oc ie t ies ) t o s upport t he i deas o f r ela t ionsh ip o f mortuary p rac t ices a nd s oc ia l p a t terns.

B in ford ( 1968 ) h as d iscussed t he p roble m a nd c o me t o

t he s a me c onc lus ions a s S axe ( 1970 ) t ha t t here i s as trong r ela t ionsh ip . e ver , Ucko ( 1970 ) g oes v ery much a ga inst t he i dea .

How-

H owever , Iwou ld s ugges t

Ucko 's d if f icu l t ies s te m n o t f ro m t he l ack o f s oc ia l d if feren t ia t ion i nd ica ted i n t he mor tuary r i tua lb u t f ro m t he l ack o f g ood o bserva t ions b y t he e thnog raphers.

Th is i s p oss ibly a nother c ase f or e thnoarchaeology .

Th is p resen t

s earch t hrough a t iny f ract ion o f t he e thnograph ic l i tera ture h as f ound o n ly l im i ted r eferences t o i n for ma t ion o n a ny b u t t he mos t s i mp le d eta ils o fb uria l r i tes , a nd i ti s s uggested t ha t t h is i s t yp ica l o f t he e thnograph ic ma ter ia l a t p resen t . O ne o ther c oncern h ere i s w i th h ow s oc ia l g roups i den t ify t he mse lves ( t h is t rea t ment i s c o mp le men tary t o t he e xce l len t s tud ies c arried o ut b y H odder ( 1977 ) ) .

S even teen s oc ie t ies o u t o f my g roup h ad s o me d e ta i led i nfor ma t ion o n

t he t opics u nder a na lys is . C onclus ions a nd s ynthes is A .

Mor tuary p rac t ices a nd s oc ia l p a t terns

The ma ter ia l h ere i s r a ther i nadequa te. were v iewed b y s ingle e thnographers.

I ti s d oubtfu l t ha t many f unera ls

I n g enera l t he d a ta w ou ld c on f ir m

H odder 's v iew ( persona l c o m mun ica t ion ) t ha t p r im it ive s oc ie t ies a re v ery c hary o f a l low ing ' ou ts iders ' t o v iew a spec ts o f mor tuary p ract ices.

N ever-

t heless , Iw ou ld c on trad ic t Ucko ( 1970 ) a nd s ta te t ha t as oc ia l d ist inc t ion o n t hree ma in g rounds was r egu larly r ecogn ised a t b ur ia l a s d isp layed i n d if fere n t ia lb ur ia l r i tes : a .

The s ex o f t he i nd iv idua l .

b .

The a ge o f t he i nd iv idua l .

c .

S oc ia l g roups a nd t he ' importance ' o f i nd iv idua ls. One m igh t s ugges t t ha t B in ford ( 1972, p ages 2 08-239 ) was c orrec t i n h is

v iews o f ' soc ia l p yra m ids ' w ith t he n umber o f i nd iv idua ls p ar t ic ipa t ing i n t he f unera l r i tes b e ing r ela ted d irec t ly t o t he n u mber o f p eop le ' below ' h im i n t he p yra m id .

I ft hese p o in ts a re a ccep ted i t mus t a lso b e p o in ted o u t t ha t a no ma-

l i es a re l i kely . i )

The p roble m o f c r im ina ls , s u ic ides , d iseased p eop les a nd t he l i ke. The b ur ia l r ite o f t hese i s f requen t ly q u i te d ist inc t ive a nd u n l ike t ha t o f o ther members i n t he c o m mun i ty.

H owever , t he g roup i s l i ke ly

t o b e l im ited a nd i n t he r igh t c ircu ms tances , s o me o f t hese g roups a re r ecogn iseable a rchaeolog ica l ly ( d iseased p eop le e spec ia l ly ). A l though t he s oc ia l p os i t ion o f t he i nd iv idua l may b e i nd ica ted b y t he p lac ing o f o b jec ts i n t he g rave , t hese may n ot s urv ive i n many c ases. H owever , i t e ms o f g rave g oods a re o f ten t he f inest a nd mos t d urable g oods p roduced b y as oc ie ty.

4 2

i i )

A l though t he s oc ia l p osi t ion o f t he i nd iv idua l may b e i nd ica ted i n t he f unera l r i tes , n o f ine g rave i t e ms a re p laced w i th h im ( t hey may b e g iven away , b roken u p , e tc .).

i v )

I fd if feren t g roups d o h ave d if feren t b ur ia l r i tes , t he b oundar ies mus t b e r ecogn ised i fc on fus ion i s n ot t o a r ise.

None o f t hese p roble ms i s e n t irely i nsur moun table. The c ruc ia l f ac tor i s t he e s tabl ish men t o f t he f act t ha t b ur ia l r i te a nd t rea tmen t d o r ela te t o t he s oc ial p os i t ion o f t he i nd iv idua l . t h is : a .

There a re t wo b road ways t ha t w e c an d o

I f a ccura te i den t if ica t ion o f s ex a nd a ge o f t he b ur ied i nd iv idua ls i s a va i-

l able , i ts hou ld b e s i mp le t o t est whether t here a re s ign if icant d i f ferences b e tween t he s ex a nd a ge c lasses i nb ur ia l t rea t men t .

Al arge b ody o f d a ta i s

t ob e p referred ( even i fo f l ow q ua l i ty a s S . J . S hennan 1 977 ). b . A mu l t i-var ia te a na lys is o f v ar ious f ea tures o f t he b ur ia l , i t s t rea t men t a nd t he a ssoc ia ted g rave g oods. C lose i n terrela t ionsh ips may b e p redic ted . Both o f t hese me thods a re u t i l ised i n t h is a na lysis. B .

G roup I den t i t ies

The e thnograph ic monographs i nd ica te , a s much a s a ny th ing e lse , t ha t t here h as b een a l ack o f i n terest i n t he e xa m ina t ion o fb e tween g roup r ela t ions h ips. Hodder ( 1977 ) h as p resen ted t he f i rs t ma jor s tudy o fb e tween-group r e la t ionsh ips i n a rchaeology ; i th as b een l ong o verdue ( c o mpare C larke 's ( 1 968 ) c o m men ts o nB antu c o mp lexes ). I ti s n o t t he f i rs t r ecogn i t ion o f g roup i den t it ies ( archaeo logy i s d ecades i fn ot l i gh t y ears b eh ind mos t o f t he o ther s oc ia l s c iences ) e ven i n a rchaeology. S erv ice i n h is d escr ip t ion o f s oda l it ies ( S erv ice 1 962 ) r ecogn ised t ha t o ne o f t he b ases o f s oc ia l s truc ture was t he e x istence o f a l mos t ' an tagon is t ic ' s ets w ith in a s oc iety o r g roup . S ah l ins ( 1 974 ) t ook u p t h is t he me t o s uggest a s i tua t ion o f a l most c ons tan t t hrea t b et ween g roups. H odder h as r ecogn ised ( 1977 ) t ha t f ea tures o f t he g roups a re d i f feren t b ecause t hey a re d i f feren t ; i ti s ar ela t ive t h ing ( Lev i-strauss i n h is c o m men ts makes t h is p o in t a bundan t ly c lear when r eferr ing t o B ergson ). There wou ld s ee m t ob e as trong p ossib il i ty o f r ep lac ing t he o u tmoded c u l tura l mode ls ( f ro m Ch ilde t o i t s c u lm ina t ion i n C larke ( 1968 )) t o o nes i nv olv ing ' group i den t i ty s e ts '. Th is i s v ery importan t h ere i n s tudy ing b ur ia l p rac t ices a nd a r tefact v ar iabi l i ty. Randsborg ( 1975 ) h as s hown t ha t s pa t ia l p a t tern ing o f ' p res t ige ' a rtefac ts may i nd ica te g roup t err itory b oundar ies.

Ren frew ( 1973b & c ) t o al im ited

e x ten t , h as s hown t ha t c en tra l p laces o fg roups p resen t p yra m id ica l d eve lopmen t p a t terns i n s oc ia l t er ms. B oth o f t hese s tud ies a re mak ing s er ious a tt e mp ts t o r ecogn ise g roups i ng eograph ica l s pace. Here , Iw il l a t te mp t t o e xa m ine t he r ela t ionsh ip b e tween t he s oc ia l s truct ure , c h ief ly a s r evea led i n t he p a t tern ing o f t he b ur ia l d a ta , a nd t he o vera l l g roup s pa t ia l p a t tern ing. Fro m t he w ork o f Hodder ( 1977 ) a nd t he l im i ted r eferences i n t he e thnograph ic r ecord , g roup i den t i ty p a t tern ing c an b e p red ic ted. One h opes t ha t s uch p a t tern ing i s n ot a s e lus ive i n t he a rchaeolog ica l r ecord a s i ti s i n t he e thnograph ic l i tera ture. 4 3

Genera l c onc lus ions :

Chap ter 2

D iscuss ion h ere h as b een l im ited , b u t Ih ope Ih ave made a n umber o f p o in ts c lear : i )

Tha t s pec ia l isa t ion i s a n i n trins ic p ar t o f av a lue s yste m-pres t igee xchange c yc le i n many p r im i t ive s oc ie t ies. I t may h elp t o e xp la in s o me o f t he p a t terns i n t he Y orksh ire ma ter ia l .

i )

S pec ia l ist p roduced i t e ms s ee m g enera l ly c o m mon s ta tus i nd ica tors p ar t icu larly a tb ur ia l.

However , s uch i t e ms a nd o ther i t e ms o f

v a lue ( a l l s uch o b jec ts a s i nd ica ted may n ot b e s pec ia l ist p roduced ) a re l i ke ly t o i nd ica te d ist inc t p a t terns o f l im i ta t ion ( i f o n ly ab asic e cono m ic c onstra in t ) a nd ' cho ice '.

Wha t w e w ish t o k now i s ' who

g e ts wha t ' a nd a lso ' who g ets wha t t ype o f wha t ' ( cho ice ). i i )

Mortuary p rac t ices a re l i kely t o r ela te c lose ly t o s oc ia l p a t terns.

i v )

I ti s p red ic table t ha t ' group i den t i ty ' p a t terns e x ist i n t he a rchaeolog ic a l ma ter ia l .

Th is w il l c ons iderab ly e n larged u pon i n t he f i na l

c hap ter. v )

The e thnograph ic ma ter ia l ( as q uoted i n t he a ppend ix ) d oes g ive u s ar ange o f p oss ibi l i t ies f or more d e ta i led i n terpre ta t ion. On t he o ther h and i ts ee ms more u sefu l i n p rov id ing g enera l p a t terns t ha t we c an l ook f or a ga in i n t he a rchaeolog ica l r ecord .

4 4

CHAPTER 3 A CASE S TUDY OF MORTUARY DATA ; 6 5 YORKSH IRE BEAKER ASSOCIATED BUR IALS

P rel im inary Ana lys is D iscussion s o f ar h as b een k ep t t o af a irly g enera l l evel .

In ow t urn t o

s pec if ic q ues t ions a nd a s pec if ic d a ta s e t . Iw i l l a t te mp t t o t est h ere s o me o f t he s ugges t ions made i n t he e ar lier c hap ters . The Beaker i s ah igh ly o rna te ( Clarke 1 970 ; Abercro mby 1 912; p la te X I I I ) f or m o f ' , Bronze Age ' p ot tery f ound l argely i nb ur ia l c on tex ts b ut a lso ( rarely ) o n s et t le men t s i tes.

Ih ave a lready s ta ted t ha t ar ela t ionsh ip o f

s oc ia l p a t tern a nd a r tefac t i s l ikely t o e x ist.

I n t h is c ase , Iam t est ing t he

v ariabil i ty o f as ingle a rtefac t t ype w ith t he s ex a nd a ge d a ta ( prov ided l argely b y D . Brothwel l :

ar e-ana lys is o f t he b one ma teria l f ro m t he e xcava t ions

o f Mort i mer ( 1905 ) a nd Greenwel l ( 1877 )).

Ih ave d el ibera tely u sed o n ly 1 9 th

c en tury d a ta ( w i th a f ew ' w ildca ts ' t hrown i n f or g ood measure ) t o p rov ide a t t he s a me t ime a c heck o n t h is ' t yp ica l ' Yorksh ire d a ta .

Can we r ea l ly make

a ny th ing o f t h is ma ter ia l? A l i st o f t he ma teria l u t il ised f or t he a na lys is i s p rov ided i n t he a ppend ix . Iam u s ing 2 2 ma jor v ar iables c hosen t o t ry a nd e xa m ine c en tra l q uest ions. Iam u s ing a n u mber o f s ize measures t o l ook a t t he r ela t ionsh ip o f f or m a nd b ur ial a nd f or t he s ame r eason measures o f d ecora t ion e tc.

H owever , Ih ave

t r ied t o a ssess v esse l ' qua l ity ' b y e xa m in ing t he f abr ics , s urface t rea t men t a nd t he l i ke.

Th is may b e q u i te c ruc ia l f or t he q uest ion o f ' cho ice ' wh ich I

h ave d iscussed i n t he e ar l ier c hap ters. The v ar iable l i s t was a s f ol lows ( see F igs. 3 .1) : 1 .

Max i mu m h e igh t o f v esse l.

2 .

Max i mu m b ase d ia me ter.

3 ,

Max i mu m r im d ia me ter.

4 .

Max i mu m h e igh t t o s hou lder.

5 -11.

Var iables d escr ib ing t he f abr ic a nd s urface t rea t men t .

c oded w i th max i mu m v a lue 6 , m in i mu m v a lue 1 . a tta in t he h ighest v a lues ( t he v ar iables r ela te t o : b urn ish ;

Each were

The ' f ines t ' v esse ls i n ter ior a nd e x ter ior

i n ter ior a nd e x ter ior s urface smooth ing p re-f ir ing ;

g r it a nd we igh t o f g r i t ;

r egu lar i ty o f s hape ).

1 2. Max i mu m h e igh t t o n eck . 1 3. Max i mu m n umber o f d ecora t ivelor ms u sed .

4 5

e x ten t o f

- -

t

I-

CN

1 ! :

; ; ; -- — .;

F ig. 3 .1

Beakers :

v ariables u sed i n a na lys is. 4 6

1 4. S core ( t ota l v a lue o f 5 -11 when a dded ). 1 5. Average v a lue o f 3t h ickness measures t aken 1 cm b e low r im . 1 6. Average v a lue o f 3t h ickness measure ments t aken a t n eck . 1 7 . Average v a lue o f 3t h ickness measure ments t aken 1 cm a bove b ase . 1 8. Rela t ive a ccu mu la ted v a lue o f 1 5-17 i n p ropor t ion t o h e igh t . 1 9 . Age o f a ssoc ia ted b uria l . 2 0 . S ex o f a ssoc ia ted b ur ia l . 2 1. Nu mber o f s epara ted d ecora t ive b ands. 2 2. Assoc ia ted o b jec ts. 1 5 a ssoc ia ted d ecora t ive t ra i ts were a lso c lass if ied , b u t were f ound n o t t ob e p ar t icularly i mportan t i n t he mselves a nd w i l l n ot b e d iscussed i n f ur ther d e ta il h ere ( bu t s ee P ierpo in t 1 978 p age 1 28 f ). The c hoice o f v ariab les i s u n l ike t ha t o f C larke ( 1970 ) o r e ven L an t ing a nd V an d er Waa ls ( 1 972 ) .

A l l v ariab le l i s ts a re s e lec t ive ( den ied b y H odson t o a

l arge d egree i n 1 970 ; b ut r e trac ted l a ter ( Doran a nd H odson 1 975 ) 1 . The c hoice i s b ased o n v arious t h ings : 1 .

The l im ited n umber o f v essels ( 65 ) i n t he a na lys is makes t he i den t if ica t ion o f p a t terns s uch a s t hose o f C larke ( 1970 ) i mposs ible.

Var iables c hosen

a re t hus ' broad ' . 2 .

Iam n ot i n teres ted i n v ery s ub t le d i f feren t ia t ions a t t h is s tage b u t g enera l p a t terns. S o a ga in t he v ar iables a re ‚ broad ' .

3 .

Var ia t ions i n q ua l i ty a re c ons idered b y t he wr iter ( see c hap ter 2 ) t o b e c ruc ia l .

I h ave t hus i nc luded a l arge n umber o f v ar iables t o measure

d if feren t a spec ts o f ' qua l ity '. 4 .

The v ariables c hosen r e la te v ery much , o r d irec tly t o t he q uest ions I am a sk ing.

C o mpu ter a na lys is.

The q uest ions a sked

The a na lys is o f t h is l im i ted g roup o f d a ta was o f av ery s pec if ic n a ture. A s s uggested e arl ier , Iam l ook ing a t s i mp le r ela t ionsh ips b etween s oc ia l v ar iabi l i ty a nd a rtefactua l v ar iab i l i ty.

S econd ly Iw ish t o t est t he r ela t ionsh ip

o f c hoice a nd q ua l i ty s o Iam p ar t icu larly k een t o k now t he i n ter-rela t ionsh ips o f t he ' qua l i ty , v ar iables a nd i ft hey s how a ny c onnec t ion w ith d ecora t ive o r s ize v ariab i l ity.

I n t he f i rs t p art o f t h is d iscussion Iam g o ing t o l ook a t t h is

l as t p oin t . Iam u s ing c o mpu ter a na lys is a s ag rea t t ime s av ing d ev ice. The t echn iques a re a l l ! s i mp le ' a nd ! s tandard '. They a re a l l t o b e f ound w i th in t he S PSS p ackages o n t he S he ff ie ld ( Mk V ) a nd Manchester ( Mk V I ) c o mpu ters. They a re f u l ly d escr ibed i n t he r elevan t c o mpu ter manua ls .

4 7

Quest ions o f Qua l ity My measures o f q ua l i ty a re a l l ' rough a nd r eady ' b e ing l argely s ix-part g rad ings o f f abr ic o r s urface t rea t men t e tc . ( i n ter ior/ex ter ior s urface t rea tmen t ; f abr ic g r i t ; f abr ic c olour ; ' neck r egular i ty ' ; ' f oot r egu lar i ty' ; f or m ). N evertheless , t hey w ere u sefu l i n g iv ing ag raded q ua l ity measure f or e ach v essel .

I nf act t he g rades were a l l s o c l osely i n ter-rela ted ( s ee

b elow ) t ha t ac o mb ined ' score ' was p referred t o s imp l ify most o f t he l a ter a na lyses. A n umber o f p o in ts a re a bundan t ly c lear a s f o l lows : 1 .

There i s ac lose r ela t ionsh ip b e tween t he ' scor ing ' v ar iables.

T h is was

c learly i nd ica ted b y t he h igh c orre la t ion c o-ef f ic ien ts p roduced b y t he f actor a na lys is.

The p rinc ipa l f actor i n t he f actor a na lys is h ad t he h ighest v a lues

i n t he v ar i max r ota ted ma tr ix ( t he h ighest d egree o f r ela t ionsh ip ) w i th t hese s even v ar iables a nd modera te c orre la t ions w i th t he n umber o f s epara te d ecor a t ive b ands a nd w i th t he ' s ize ' ( par t icu larly h e igh t ) o f t he v essels ( s ee b elow ). The way Ii n terpret t h is i s s i mp ly t ha t t he h igher q ua l i ty v essels h ave t hat ' h igher q ua l i ty ' i n a whole s eries o f d irec t ions. T he v ar iables c hosen wou ld s ee m t o i nd ica te a t t he ' t op ' e nd o f t he ir s ca le more c are t aken i n p roduc t ion a nd/or g rea ter s k il l i nvolved i n t he p roduc t ion me thods.

The f act t ha t t he

v ar iables o f ' qua l ity ' d o i n ter-rela te h as i mportan t r epercussions w hen c ons idering , n ot s ingle v ar iables , b u t whole e n t it ies ( i .e. t he p ots ).

I ti mp l ies ,

w i thout f ur ther a na lys is , t ha t t here w i l lb e v esse ls t ha t a re l ow i n q ua l ity a nd o nes t ha t a re h igh. T h is i s amp ly b orne o u tb y t wo f urther me thods o f a nalys is , f ac tor s cor ing a nd c luster a na lys is ( t hese a re more t horough ly d iscussed b el ow ).

A t p resen t i ti s s u ff ic ien t t o s ay t ha t f i gures 3 .5-7 ( i l lustra t ing s ca t ter

d iagra ms o f t he f actor s cores f or t he t wo p r inc ipa l f ac tors ) i ndica te a c lear l i near t rend f or t he v essels. I n t h is c ase t he c lus ter a na lys is a cts a s a more u seful t est ing p rocedure. F or t he c lus ter a na lys is ( Figs. 3 .2-3 ) t he b as ic S PSS C lustan l A p ackage was u sed , wh ich i s ap oly the t ic ' j o in ing ' p rogra m . I t s ma in d isadvan tage i s i t s l ack o f ' h i l l-cl i mb ing ' p rocedures ( t ha t i s , o nce ' groups' a re f ormed t hey c annot b e s p l i t a ga in ) , b u t t h is i s n o t at err if ic d rawback when t he n umbers i nvolved a re sma l l a s h ere. Many d if feren t t ypes o f a na lys is were u sed ( Neares t N e ighbour , Group Average , Ward 's Me thod , Fur thest N e ighbour ) b u t a l l t ended ( w ith t he e xcep t ion o f N earest N e ighbour ) t o p roduce s im ilar s ets o f r esu l ts.

The most u sefu l o f t he me thods If ound t o b e Ward 's Me thod

( wh ich i s w el l k nown t ob e a' producer o f g roups ' ). S econd ly If ound t ha t I c ou ld l im i t my v ariable l i st a nd p roduce a l mos t i den t ica l r esu lts w i th f ewer v ar iables , t hus mak ing ' i nstan t ' c lassif ica t ion ( i f d es irable ) much e as ier. My b as ic ' pruned ' l i st o f v ar iables was a s f o l lows : 1 .

Max i mu m h e igh t

5 .

N umber o f d ecora t ive mo t ifs

2 .

Base d ia meter

6 .

H e igh t t o s hou lder

3 .

Max i mu m r im d ia meter

7 .

S core t o ta l

4 .

N u mber o f d ecora t ive b ands

8 .

P ercen tage t h ickness

9 .

A ssoc iated a rtefacts ( graded i n t er ms o f my o wn ' r ichness ' s ca le ).

4 8

T ab le 3 .1

Tab le o f ' f ine ' a nd ' l ess f i ne ' B eaker g roups ( va lue means )

' l ess f i ne g roup ' cm

1 3 .5

' f ine g roup ' 1 9 .2

cm

1 0 .4

cm

1 0 . 7

1 3 . 5

v a lue

2 0 . 0

2 8 . 3

v a lue

0 .0 9

T ab le 3 .2

h e igh t

7 .4

b ase d ia me ter r im d ia me ter s core t ota l

2 .0

a ssoc . a r tefac ts

C onc lus ion o f d iscr iminan -ta na lysis o f ' f ine ' a nd ' l ess f i ne ' B eakers 1 8 v ar iab les :

P red ic t ion r esu l t

Actua l g roup N a me

C ode

N o . o f c ases

' F ine '

1

4 4

' Less f i ne '

2

1 9

P red icted 1

P red icted 2

4 4 ( 69 .8% ) 0

0 1 9 ( 30 .2% )

1 00% o fk nown c ases c orrec t ly c lass if ied C h i-square -63 . 0 00

T ab le 3 .3

s ign if icance 0 .0 00

C onc lus ion o f d iscr im inan t a na lys is o f s ex a nd a ge o f B eaker a ssocia ted b ur ia ls 9v ar iab les :

P red ict ion r esu l ts

Actua l g roup N a me

P red icted g roups

C ode

N o . o f c ases

1

C h i ld

1

8

8

S ub-adu l t

2

F e ma le

3

7

Ma le

4

8

2

3

4

7 7 8

1 00% o f k nown c ases c orrec t ly c lass if ied .

S ign if icance 0 .0 00

P rincipa l v ariab les i n a na lys is

W i lks L a mbda H e igh t

0 .7 957

2 .0 546

B ase d ia me ter

0 .9 226

0 .6711

R im d ia me ter

O .8 581

1 .3 226

S hou lder h eigh t

O .7 984

2 .0 203

S core

0 .4139

1 1 . 3 283

Th ickness

O .7 861

2 .1 763

4 9

L aw Wi lks L a mbda v a lue a nd h igh F v a lues i nd ica te ah igh d egree o f d iscrimi nat ion o n t h is v ariab le

3 8 .057

1 4 .171

2 6 .114

2 .2 28

-

Ward 's Me thod

I

F ig. 3 .2

Beakers :

C lus ter a na lysis , 9v ariab le d endrogra m. 5 0

0 9('ZI

E EL

.

VE'S

E SE •9

1

3 WE

N rZ

± 7

u T I L

nE•C

1 › SG -C6 6E

L ESS F INE

.6

6 50'6

6 LI'L

O CZ '9

T LZ'S

•Z I>'E .

t Ed•Z

r -

I-

[ E . F ig. 3 .3

Beakers :

—1

C lus ter a na lys is , 1 8 v ar iable d endrograms.

5 1

S O U0 -

Accord ing t o t he c luster a na lys is d endrogra m t he ma jor ' sp li t ' w as a t t he t wo c luster l eve l ( us ing 9v ariables h ere ( f ig.3.2 ) , b u t 1 8 v ariab les a lso ( f ig. 3 .3).

A c lear p icture o f wha t t hese d if ferences a re c an b e g a ined f ro m

t able 3 .1 o f mean v a lues o f t he t wo g roups s o p roduced .

Th is t able p o in ts

o u t v ery b as ic a nd c ruc ia l d if ferences b etween t he t wo ' groups '.

The ' f iner '

p ots a re n ot o n ly b e t ter i n t er ms o f f abr ic , b u t b igger a nd a ssoc ia ted w i th more a nd b et ter a rtefacts. F or o ur p urposes h ere , i ti s n ot v ita l t o d e mons tra te t ha t t here a re ' two g roups' ( a l though i tw il lb e s hown t o b e i mportan t l a ter ), b u t t here i s as i mp le t est ing p rocedure —d iscr im inan t a na lys is — to c heck t he c lus tered g roups. Th is p rocedure , s o mewha t a k in t o f actor a na lys is , t e l ls y ou i fa l l t he me mbers o f t he g roups c an b e d ist ingu ished f ro m o ne a nother a nd wh ich v ar iables ' prod uce ' t he g rea test d if ferences b e tween t he g roups. i n t he t able ( Table 3 .2). c ri mina ted .

The r esu l ts a re p resen ted

S u ff ice i tt o s ay t ha t a l l e n t it ies w ere c orrec t ly d is-

I n t h is c ase X2 t es ts b eco me s uperf luous .

Fro m t h is f i rst s ec t ion , Iw ou ld ma in ta in t ha t w e c an s ay t ha t B eakers v ary i n q ua l i ty i n c ons isten t ways a nd t ha t we c an r ecogn ise b asica l ly a ' f ine ' a nd a ' l ess f i ne ' g roup .

These q ua l ity measures n ot o n ly i n ter-rela te w i th

o ne a nother b u t c orrela te w i th o ther f ea tures o f t he v essel f or m , p ar t icularly s ize.

These d i fferences were p red ic ted f ro m t he e thnograph ic e v idence i n

c hap ter 2 , e ven i f we c anno t e xp la in t he m p rec ise ly. p urposes h ere , we n eed n o t . 2 .

I ndeed f or p resen t

S econd ly , Iw ish b r ief ly t o d iscuss more d e ta i led Beaker p at tern ings a s-

s oc ia ted w ith t h is ' qua l i ty ' v ar iab il i ty.

A l though Ih ave d oubts a bou t t he

g enera l v a l id i ty o f c luster a na lys is , t he t echn ique d id h in t t ha t t here w ere sma l ler g roups o f v essels i n e arl ier s tages o f c lus ter ing. i s i nd ica ted i n t he f i gure ( 3 .3 ).

One s uch g roup ing

Th is p a t tern f ol lows t rad i t iona l l ines o r

r ather s uggest ions make b y C larke ( 1970 ).

Us ing 2 2 v ar iables ( bu t a lso 3 7

i nc lud ing t he 1 5 d ecora t ive v ar iables ) , i t was p oss ib le t o s ee t he A l l-overc ord v essels g roup ing t oge ther ;

t he FP v essels f or m ing a smal l g roup ;

a nd a t t he o ther e nd o f t he s ca le s trong g roups o f h igh q ua l i ty n orthern s eries v essels.

As s uggested a bove t he q uan t i ty o f t he d a ta was t oo sma l l t o a l low

a ny g enera l c onc lus ions t o b e r eached a nd Iw il l s ay n o more t han t ha t t here were s o me g enera l s im ilar i t ies b etween ny a na lyses a nd C larke 's.

T he o ne

t h ing t ha t d id n ot b eco me a pparen t was a ny ma jor d iferences b etween t he Northern a nd S ou thern S er ies. H owever , t he ma in p o in t h ere i s t o c onsider t he q ua l i ty o f t he v essels. Ih ave a lready e stabl ished t ha t t here a re ' h igh ' ( abou t t wo t h irds o f a l l v essels ) a nd ' l ow ' q ua l ity ( a bou t o ne t h ird ) Beakers. The l a t ter g roup c o mpr ises c h ief ly A l l-over-cord , FP a nd s o me s ou thern v essels.

The f i rst g roup c ons ists o f wha t C larke ( 1970 ) wou ld t er m ' l a te '

v essels p ar t icu larly N orthern f or ms ( N2-4 ) a nd S ou thern t ypes t oo.

B u t , i t

i s c lear f ro m t h is d a ta t ha t ' earl ier ' f or ms t oo c an a lso b e o f h igh q ua l i ty ( NNR t ypes f or e xa mp le ).

L ook ing more w idely i n B ri ta in many o f t he Euro-

p ean a nd Wessex-M idd le-Rh ine Beaker g roups s how ah igh d egree o f f abric q ua l i ty a nd t he l a t ter , a ccord ing t o C larke ( 1970 ) h as a s o ne o f i t s ma in c harac terist ics a h igh ly b urn ished s urface.

I n c onc lus ion t o t h is b r ief s ect ion ,

i ti s c lear t ha t t here a re sma l l s e ts o f v essels , c orrela t ing w i th C larke 's s er ies i n p art icu lar , b u t b ased v ery much h ere o n q ua l ity measures .

5 2

B

50

E

A

E

K

R

S

40

A

A

L

A A

c

A

L A

A A A

0

A A

A

A

A

A

A

A

0 2 5

A

G A

A A A A

A

A A A

A

A

A

A A

A

A

A

A A

AA A

10

8

6

1 0

1 2

18

1 4 1 6 H EI G H T

00

8 .

22

24 CM

0

7

0

PLANO-CONVEX

6

KNIVES

0

(BUR IALS)

00

5

c 0 0 0

20

00

4

0

0 00 0

3

0

000 00

0 0

00

000 0

< c 1

3

0

4 4

5

• LE N G

F ig. 3 .4

6

7

8

1

• 9CM

TH

Beakers a nd p iano-convex k n ives ; q ua li ty.

ac o mpar ison o f s ize a ga inst

3 .

Ih ave men t ioned a bove t he c orrela t ion b etween v ariables wh ich It ook

t o ' score ' my Beakers a nd o ther v ariables. I n many ways t h is c orre la t ion i s more i n terest ing t han t he q ua l ity c ons idera t ion i n i sola t ion. Fabr ic t h ickn ess was o ne o f t hese v ar iables. Th is i s n ot s urpr ising a nd t here a re s evera l r easons o ne c ou ld s uggest why t h is wou ld b e l i ke ly. The p roduct ion o fb etter f abr ic wou ld a l low ' t h inner ' v essel wal ls.

On t he o ther h and t he v ery s trong

c orrela t ion b e tween f abr ic s core a nd h e igh t ( Fig. 3 .4 ) ( con f ir med o n t he bas is o f 1 10 v essels i n l a te a na lys is ) i s r a ther more s urpr is ing . The v esse l g roup u sed h ere c overs a w ide t ime r ange ( wh ich e ver t ypology o ne f ollows : e .g. C larke ( 1970 ) o r Case ( 1977 ) o r e ven t he ABC s yste m ) s o t h is c orre la t ion m igh t w el lb e al ong t er m o ne.

Id o n ot w ish t o e n ter i n to t he v agar ies o f

Beaker ' t ypology ' h ere , b u t Imust make a c oup le o f p oin ts.

F irs t ly f ro m

t h is a na lys is t here s ee m t o b e p ar t icular g roups o f v essels o f v ery h igh q ua l i ty ( espec ia l ly N orthern 2 a nd N orthern-North-Rh ine ; b u t a lso s o me S ou thern f or ms ), wh ich C larke w ou ld p lace l a te i n h is s equence. T o p re judge 2 00 p ages o f a rgu men t t h is c ou ld s uggest ( i n v iew o f s o me o f t he e v idence i n c hap ter 9 ) a n i ncreased s oc ia l i mportance o f Beakers a t t he e nd o f t he ir p er iod o f u se. Th is i s l i kely , b u t t here i s a n a l terna t ive wh ich may b e a l most e qua l ly a s l i kely , t ha t t he ' qua l i ty ' d if ferences, wh ich a re t aken f requen t ly ( a l though n ot i n s pec if ic t er ms ) a s c hronolog ica l d if ferences , a re s i mp ly a s oc ia l d iv ision . Ip u t t h is f orward a s at en ta t ive s uggest ion h ere , Iw i l l r eturn t o t he p o int a ga in .

T he i mpor tan t t h ing t o n o te i n a ny c ase , i st he s trong c orre la t ion

v is ible , b etween v ar iables o f ' qua l i ty ' a nd v ery g enera l f eatures o f v essel f or m . These r ela t ionsh ips b eco me s l igh t ly c learer i n t he f i gures ( F igs. 3 .5-7 ) wh ich i nd ica te a c lose c orrela t ion b etween t he t wo p rinc ipa l f actors b ased o n f actor s cores. d ing :

S econd ly i ts hows t ha t many t h ings ' f i t ' w i th t h is t rend i nclu-

t he h e igh t o f t he v essel ;

t he Beakers ;

t he a ssoc ia ted a rtefac ts ;

a nd t he s ex a nd a ge o f t he b ur ia ls.

t he t h ickness o f

There a re v ery s t rong

i n ter-connec ted a spec ts o fv ar iab il i ty l ead ing i tw ou ld s ee m i n v ery p art icu lar d irect ions. Ima in ta in t ha t q ua l i ty i s a ma jor f ac tor i n Beaker v ar iab il ity a nd ' i n f luences ' o ther v ar iables i n v ar ious ways. Are t here i n ter-rela t ionsh ips w i th s ex a nd a ge d a ta t oo ? Th is i s ac ruc ia l q uest ion . F or p resen t p urposes i ti s o n ly n ecessary t o s how a s i mp le r ela t ionsh ip . The q uest ion p osed i n c hap ter 1 , a sked s i mp ly i ft here was a r ela t ionsh ip b e tween s oc ia l p a tterns a nd a r te fact v ar iab il i ty ( w i thou t c ons ider ing t he n a ture o f t h is r ela t ionsh ip ). H ere , Iw il l l ook a t t wo a spec ts : t he s ex a nd a ge o f a ssoc ia ted b ur ia ls ; a nd a ssoc ia ted a r te facts ( mak ing t he c rass a ssu mp t ion o f t he ir ' soc ia l i mpor t ' ). Ia ccep t t hroughou t t he 0 .05 s ign if icance l eve l i n t he t ests c arr ied o u t b elow. 1 .

A ssoc ia ted b ur ia lb y s core t o ta l

Because o f t he p roble ms o f a ge ing b ur ia ls Iam u s ing a s i mp le f our p art s yste m f or t hese t ests ( and most o f t he o thers i n t h is w ork ) : [ ch ild ( 1 ) —sub a du l t ( 2 ) —adu l t f e ma le ( 3 ) —adu l t ma le ( 4 ) 1 S ign i f icance l evel :

0 .0004.

The p a t tern i s v ery c lear.

S ign if ican t . The v essels s core f ro m7-42; o f t hose w i th s cores

l ess t han 2 0 , 6a re w i th c h ild b ur ia ls ( t here a re o n ly 3 o thers a nd o ne o f t hese

5 4

a du lts

•

0 c h i ldren

AI

•

•

••

• •

•

•

••

F A • C e TO R 2 S ..

I e

•

•

•

F ig. 3 .5

Beakers :

Factor s core p lots ( 1 ).

5 5

•

• •

ma le

•

• f ema le

•

•• •

• • 1 1 1

• •• •

• u r • • •

e

M I

•

•

• •

F A

• •

•

•

C

•

FAC TO R 2 • 0 • • R e •. op • . . .P .• • I lea

L e

. k

••

• •• • •.

• • • •1 14 ••

• • •• 44 ,

1

•

II

t

a

e a• •

t‘

• • • 21 4.16

•

•

• •

F ig. 3 .6

Beakers :

Fac tor s core p lots ( 2 ).

5 6

• h i gh s core

•

• t a l l ( 1 9cm )

• • 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1. 1 •

4 ,

•

•

•

• • •

•

C

• ••

•

A

•

•

1

WS . •

.

•

• TO R 2 •40 0 • R or :

Lj

1 1 1 1• •

e

0

.• • •

••

•

• •

•

• • • • te,

•t • •

• •

•

•

•

F ig. 3 .7

Beakers :

5 7

Fac tor s core p lots ( 3 ).

i s ' unknown s ).

On ly 1 4 v essels h ave a ' score ' o ver 3 6 a nd 1 2 a re w i th a dul ts

( t he o ther t wo a re w i th s ub-adu l ts ). 2 .

Assoc ia ted b ur ia l b y h e igh t

S ign i f icance l evel :

0 .0409 .

S ign i f ican t .

A l l t he c h i ld b ur ia ls a re w i th Bea-

k ers l ess t han 1 8 cm i n h e igh t . 3 .

Assoc ia ted a rtefac ts b y v esse l h e igh t

S ign if icance l eve l :

0 .0473.

a ssoc ia ted a r tefacts.

The t a l les t v essels a re more l ikely t o h ave ' r ich '

Ou t o f 1 9 v essels l ess t han 1 5 cm i n h e ight o n ly o ne

( and t ha t merely af l in t f l ake ) h ad a n a ssoc ia ted a rtefact .

1 6 v essels o ver

1 5 cm h ave a ssoc ia ted a r tefacts. 4 .

Assoc ia ted a rte facts b y s core t o ta l

S ign if icance l eve l :

0 .1309 .

N ot s ign if ican t .

The f igures a re ' var iable ' , b u t d o n ot r e jec t t he ' nu l l ' h ypothesis , t ha t t here i s n o r ela t ionsh ip b e tween s ex a nd a ge g rades a nd ma in f ea tures o f t he a rtefac ts.

One c an r ejig t he ma ter ia l i n s o me c ases , b u t t he q uan t ity o f

d a ta i s n ot r ea l ly l arge e nough t o d is t ingu ish a ny th ing more t han s i mp le p a tt erns.

I ti s i n terest ing t o n ote t ha t t he ' r ichest ' a r tefac ts ( bronzes , s tone

a xes a nd j e t ) a re o n ly a ssoc ia ted w i th t he v ery h ighest s cor ing a nd t a l lest v essels.

Below , t he mean v a lues o f ' score s a nd h e igh t a ga inst t he d if feren t

g rades a re p resen ted ( w i th o ne e x tra s et ' r ich a du l ts ' , t ha t i s t hose w i th b ronze , j e t a nd s tone a xes ) :

Table 3 .4

V esse l s core a nd h e igh t a du l t ma le

Mean h e igh t ( cm )

1 7 .4

Mean s core ( va l )

2 8.4

a du l t f e ma le

c h i ld

r ich a dul t

1 6.3

1 4.4

1 9.3

1 7 .0

2 4.0

1 6.5

3 0.4

2 5.6

e

The t rend s uggested a bove i s c lear.

a l l B eakers

The ma les h ave t he h ighest v a lues

f or b oth ' score ' a nd ' he igh t ' a nd t he c h ildren t he l owes t. Br ief ly b elow , t he r esu l ts o f af ew f ur ther s ign if icance t ests a re g iven : Iam u s ing t he Wilcoxon s ign r ank t est , wh ich u t i l ises ' ranks ' o f i t e ms a way f ro m t he t ested f i gure ( e .g. mean ) a .

H e igh t o f p o ts w i th a du l t b ur ia ls.

LT 5% p robab il i ty.

b .

H e igh t o f p ots w ith c h i ld b ur ia ls.

LT 1 % p robab i l i ty.

c .

Ma le v . f e ma le p opu la t ion a nd h e igh t .

d .

Beaker h e igh t w ith a ssoc ia ted g oods.

LT 1 % p robab il i ty. LT 5% p robab i l ity.

These t ests merely c on f ir m t he a na lys is i n p rev ious p aragraphs.

5 8

S u m mary I n t he f orego ing Ih ave a t te mp ted t o s how t ha t t he f or m o f t he b eakers c orrela tes w i th t he s ex a nd a ge o f a ssoc ia ted b ur ia ls a nd w i th t he p resence/ a bsence o f g rave g oods ( t h is m igh t c on f ir m Case 's ( 1977 ) s uggest ions a nd S hennan 's ( 1977 ) c o m men ts o n Br i t ish a nd C en tra l European ma ter ia l ). 1 .

Ch ildren o n ly o n l im i ted o ccas ions h ad Beakers p laced w i th t he m a t a l l . The f ew o ccas ions when Beakers a re a ssoc ia ted , t hey a re sma l l p oorly f in ished a nd b ad ly made.

2 .

S ub-adu l ts a nd f e ma les a re more c o m mon ly a ssoc ia ted w i th B eakers a nd t hese a re t a l ler i n h e igh t a nd b et ter f in ished t han t hose p laced w i th c h ild ren .

H owever , e ven t he f e ma les w i th b ronze aw ls were n ot a cco mpan ied

b y t he v ery f inest Beakers. 3 .

N or ma l ' ma le ' a ssoc ia ted Beakers were t a l l a nd wel l f i n ished c o mpared w ith t hose o ft he r es t o f t he p opu la t ion .

4 .

Certa in i nd iv idua ls ( a l most e xc lus ively mature a du l t ma les ), were a ssoc iat ed w i th ' r ich ' i t e ms a tb ur ia l .

I ti s t hese i nd iv idua ls who h ave t he v ery

f inest v esse ls r eserved f or t he m . S pecu lat ion , s u m mary , c o m men ts —Beaker v ar iab i l i ty The a na lys is h as b een s ucessfu l i n t h is c hap ter a nd t wo ma jor p lanks h ave b een e stabl ished : i )

There i s as trong r e la t ionsh ip b etween a rtefac t v ar iab il i ty a nd f ea tures o f s oc ia l p a ttern ing.

I n t he t able ( n o . 3 .3 ) Ip resen t t he r esu l ts o f

ad iscr im inan t a na lys is wh ich s hows 1 00% d iscr im ina t ion . i )

Qua l i ty i s av ery ma jor f actor i n Beaker v ar iab i l ity. I ta ppears t o t i e a spec ts o f f or m , d ecora t ion e tc . i n to a v ery b as ic p a t tern o f v ar iab i l i ty ( shown most c learly i n t he f actor s core p lots ).

It h ink i n f ac t w e c an t i e t hese t wo a spec ts t ogether a s Is uggested a t t he b eg inn ing i n t er ms o f c ho ice ( 'who-ge ts-wha t ' ). F or t h is o ne c an a ga in t urn t o t he d iscr im inan t a na lysis a nd s ee wha t t he b as is o f t h is ' cho ice ' i s . The v ar iables t ha t d iscr im ina te a re p r i mar i ly o nes r ela t ing t o ' qua l i ty '. Th is i s v ery p red ic table f ro m t he f orego ing a na lyses ( 'who-ge ts-wha t-and-why ' ). T h is w il lb e a ma jor t he me t hroughou t t h is c o mp le te s tudy o f p reh istor ic Y orksh ire s oc ia l p a t terns.

I ft h is i s t he ma jor t he me , t here d o a ppear t o

b e o ne o r t wo c o mp le men tary melod ies , a l though r a ther l ess d ist inc t i n t he p erfor mance. A .

Iw i l l s u m mar ise t hese b r ief ly :

Beakers s ee m t o d iv ide o n t he b as is o f q ua l ity i n to t wo g roups wh ich

It er m ' f ine ' a nd l ess f ine '. H owever , t here a re a lso s uggest ions ( as i n t he f ac tor s cores ) o f ag enera l c on t inuu m o f v essels f ro m o ne e nd o f t he s ca le t o t he o ther.

The ma jori ty o f t he v ery f inest v essels a re o f C larke 's ( 1970 )

N orthern f or ms, a l though s o me b e long t o h is S ou thern ' t rad i t ion '.

The

N orthern f or ms w i th t he ir ' grooved ' n ecks e tc. a re s o me o f t he t a l lest v essels. The s i mp lest me thod o f i ncreas ing t he s ize o f av essel i s t o d raw o u t t he n eck al i t tle ( c f . v an d er L euw i n L an t ing a nd Van d er Waa ls 1 976 ) a nd a ' l a te ' l ong n ecked t rad i t ion h as b een w idely r ecogn ised ( Case 1 977 , P iggot t 1 963 ).

5 9

B .

S o me o f t he g roup ings i nd ica ted i n my c lus ter a na lysis l i nk w i th

C larke 's ( 1970 ) g roups . T h is i s r a ther a n i nciden ta l p o in t , b u t Iw ou ld s uggest , t ha t i fC larke 's d a ta w ere r e-ana lysed i tw ou ld s how s im i lar p a t terns t o t hose r ecogn ised h ere. C erta in ly , t here a re s o me r eferences i n C larke t o t he ' qua l ity ' o f i t e ms a nd s o me o f h is ' t ypes ' h ave q ua l ity ( e .g. t he b urn ish o n t he W MR v essels ) a s a ma jor c r iter ion . C .

The d ichoto my d rawn h ere b e tween Beaker ' f ine ' a nd ' l ess f i ne ' ware ,

may b e t hough t t o b e s l igh t ly a rt if ic ia l i n t ha t o nly b ur ia l d a ta h as b een u t il ised . Un for tuna tely w i thou t ac on tex t , s uch a s t h is , t here i s n o ' co mpara t ive ' measur ing med iu m . C erta in ly s o me c oarse wares h ave b een d iscovered o n n on-bur ia l l oca l i t ies ( e .g. C oo mbs 1 976 ).

One may ma in ta in t ha t t he b uria l

ma ter ia l i s j ust t he ' f ine ' wares o f a much w ider a sse mblage o f v essels t ha t were p roduced. The b ur ia l c on tex ts f or e xamp le l ack t he l arger ' s torage ' t ype v essels k nown f ro m s o me s e t t le men ts — the h e igh t ' cu t-of f p o in t ' b eing a t 2 4 cm i n Yorksh ire S o me o f t hese p o in ts may b e t hough t i nc iden ta l t o t he immed ia te a rgu men t , b u t t hey w i l lb e i n troduced a ga in i n l a ter c hap ters a s Ic on t inue t o b u i ld my f ramework . I n t he n ex t s ec t ion o f d iscuss ion Iwan t t o t ry a nd r e la te s o me o f t hese r esu l ts t o t he c o m men tary i n c hap ter t wo c oncern ing t he ' spec ia l is t ' a spec ts o f p roduct ion a dop ted i n many p r im i t ive s oc ie t ies. One o f t he c r it ica l a spec ts may b e l abour e xpend i ture v . s k il l i n p roduct i on . C larke ( 1976 i n L an t ing a nd v an d er Waa ls 1 976 ) e st i ma ted af i gure o f 4 -6 h ours c on t inuous w ork f or t he p roduc t ion o f o ne o f t he Du tch B eakers , a nd t h is d id n ot i nc lude t he c ol lec t ion o f t he c lay , i n i t ia l p repara t ion o f t he s a me , d ry ing o f t he c lay s hape a nd f i r ing ( see S emenov 19 64 a nd S hephard 19 56 f or d e ta i ls o f t hese p rocesses ).

I tm igh tb e s uggested t ha t ab e t ter

' scor ing ' s yste m m igh tb e p roduced i fa ccura te p roduc t ion f i gures w ere a va i la ble. One c an make g enera l s ta te men ts h owever . The g rea ter s ur face a rea o f t he l arger v essels w ou ld i n i t sel f r equ ire a g rea ter l abour e xpend i ture. For e xamp le : a .

v essel i :

r im d ia meter 1 2 cm ;

h e igh t 1 5 cm

b .

v esse l i : r im d ia meter 1 3.5 cm ; 8 05 s q .c m

c .

v essel i i : r im d ia meter 1 5 cm ; 130 s q.c m

s urface a rea C . 5 65sq. cm

h e igh t 1 9 cm .. s urface a rea C .

h e igh t 2 4 cm

s urface a rea c .

The a rea t ob urn ish o n v essel i i ( ex ter ior o n ly ) w ou ld b e t w ice t ha t o f v esse l i . Th is i s v irtua l ly t he r a t io o f t he mean ' f ine ' v essel t o t he ' l ess f i ne ' o ne. I n a dd i t ion t o t h is , t he g rea ter r ela t ive t h inness o f t he ' f iner ' v essels p oses g rea ter p roble ms o f ma in ta in ing s uch a f abr ic d ur ing p roduc t ion w i thou t b reakage ( e .g. v an d er L euw i n L an t ing a nd Van d er Waa ls ( 19 76)). S evera l means o f c op ing a re a va i lable i nc lud ing : b ind ing , r ush t i e ing e tc . t o g ive t he v essel g rea ter s tab i l i ty b efore f i r ing ( = more s k i l l? ). I n a dd i t ion t he g rea ter p rofus i ty o f d ecora t ion o n t he ' f iner ' v essels s ign if ies i ncreased l abour i npu t . FP a nd AOC v essels h ave s i mp le d ecora t ion a nd r equ ire c o mpara t ively l i t t le e f for t. However , t he f ine c o mb i mpressed f or ms a re v ery d i f feren t ;

C larke ( 1976 ) q uotes t he e x tre me f igure f or a 6 0

Du tch Beaker w i th 5 ,000 s epara te c o mb i mpress ions i n to t he s urface.

Th is

m igh t h ave t aken many h ours t o c o mp lete ( t he p roble ms h ere a re o f ma in ta in ing s urface mo isture i nt he v esse l ), a nd t h is d oes n o t i nc lude t ime f or ' p lann ing ' t he c o mp lex d es igns n or ma l ly f ound o n t hese ' t op q ua l i ty ' Beakers.

I n a dd i t ion

many Beakers may h ave b een p a in ted ( a l though e v idence i s r e markably s l igh t ), c erta in ly many h ad wh i te i nf i l led impressed a reas. a dd t o l abour i npu t .

Th is a ga in i s l ikely t o

Thus i tm igh t b e s uggested t ha t a measure o f l abour

i npu t migh tb e u sefu l i n ' scoring ' t hese v essels. However , many o f t he e cono m ic a n thropolog ists ( e .g. P ospos il 1 968 p age 3 81f f ) h ave t r ied t o a t tach t ransporta t ion c osts t o i t e ms a s t he s econd ma jor i npu t .

It h ink t ha t i ti s a l most c erta in t ha t Beakers were t raded , a l though

t h is h as t o b e a n a sser t ion .

Ih ave n ot a t te mp ted t o c arry o u t t he t h in s ec-

t i on ing p rogra m me t ha t m igh t c lear u p t h is ma t ter.

For t he mo men t t hen

i tr e ma ins a n a sser t ion , b u t i n t he f ol low ing c hap ter Iw il l d e mons tra te t ha t F ood Vesse ls were c erta in ly t raded i n t he Bronze Age.

N ever theless , a t t he

mo men t n o t ranspor ta t ion v a lue c an b e a t tached t o t hese i t e ms.

One wou ld

r equ ire c onstruct ion o f t rade p a t terns a nd i nd iv idua l o r ig ins. I n a ny c ase , t hese t wo f ac tors o n ly c on tr ibu te t o wha t w ou ld p erhaps b e t he b est measure o f' s core '-econo m ic c os t— the p r ice o f a Beaker i n t he Bronze A ge marke t .

I n many s oc ie t ies ( such a s t he Trobr ianders d iscussed i n c hap-

t er 2 ) i t e ms a t ta in a ' gold s tandard ' a nd t h is i s p art icu larly t rue o f s pec ia l ist p roduced g oods , wh ich o ne may s uggest t ha t t he Beakers a re. b eco me n or ma l w ea l th o b jec ts. a s r eal ' money '.

S uch o b jec ts

P ospos i l ( 1968 ) s uggests t hey f unc t ion a l mos t

A ga in o ne c an a t tach n o f i gure o n t h is b as is.

I fs pec ia l ist

c ra f ts men were i nvo lved t he ir t ime m igh tb e ' expens ive ' , a l terna t ively b ecause t hey were g ood p o t ters t hey w ou ld b e a ble t o s peed-up p roduc t ion .

Va lues

t hen c an o n ly b e g uessed g t . Iwou ld s uggest t hen t ha t o n t h is b as is t he whole i dea o f ' scoring ' i s f raught w i th d if f icu l t ies.

Iwould r eco m mend t he u se o fg enera l e s t i ma tes

s uch a s t hose Ih ave a dop ted .

Bu t , Iwou ld a lso s uggest t ha t t here a re p os i t ive

a dvan tages t o my me thod o f measure.

The t hree p oss ib il it ies f or measur ing

( o r p er m a ny t wo f ro m t hree o r h ave a l l t hree l i nked t) a re a l l measures o f ' c ost ' i n s o me f or m o r o ther.

E thnograph ica l ly , Ic an f ind n o s i mp le r elat ion-

s h ip b etween ' cho ice ' ( wh ich i s a f ter a l l t he p heno mena Iam i n terested i n h ere ) a nd e cono m ic c ost , a l though Id o n ot d oubt t ha t w i th b et ter e thnograph ic d a ta , s uch c ou ld b e f ound.

My a ssess men t i s b ased o n a ppearance o f t he f abr ic ,

s o mething t ha t c ou ld e qua l ly wel l h ave b een ' scored ' i n t he Bronze Age.

I t

i s a lso worth n ot ing h ere t he r ela t ionsh ip b e tween t he f abr ic s core a nd f ea tures o f t he d ecora t ion .

Wha t Iam s uggest ing t hen , i s as yste m o f v a lu ing f or i t e ms

b ased o n s i mp le f ea tures o f v essel a ppearance.

Th is i s c er ta in ly r ela ted

c losely w i th l abour i npu t , b u t h as a s er ies o f d if feren t i mp l ica t ions. r e turn t o t hese i n t he n ex t c hap ter.

Iw il l

However , h av ing s uggested t he impor tance

o f t he ' Bronze Age p ackag ing ' i ndus try , Iw il l n ot c o mp lete t he a rgu men t h ere ( but s ee c hap ter 1 0 ). Ih ave s uggested i n t h is c hap ter t he s oc ia l r e la t ionsh ips o f Beakers a nd h ow t here d oes s ee m t o b e ac orrela t ion b etween p a t terns o f Beaker v ar iabi l i ty a nd s oc iety .

Bu t , t h is i s n o t an ew s ugges t ion , o ur p arad ig m o f Beakers

h as c hanged c ons iderably o ver r ecen t y ears. 6 1

Th is h as b eco me p art icu larly

c lear f ro m L an t ing a nd Van d er Waa ls ( 1976 ).

Id o n ot h es i ta te t o q uo te e x-

t ens ively i n t he l as t f ew p aragraphs o f t h is c hap ter , f ro m s evera l a u thors who c on tribu ted t o t h is w ork : C larke ( 19 76 p age 4 62 ) " I t n ow s ee ms s afer t o i nver t t he t rad i tona l a ssu mp t ions a nd a ssu me t ha t Beaker f ine wares w ere ma jor v eh ic les o f r ank , p rest ige a nd s ta tus d isp lay '. ( page 48 5 ) ' W ith t he c hange i n e v idence a nd c hange i n p h ilosophy i t i s n ow c lear t ha t c er ta in q uest ions w e u sed t o a sk a re o f t he k ind : c ow b lue o r g reen? '

' I s t h is r ed

These q uest ions emerge a s u nreal , q ues t ions

wh ich i n many c ases c ou ld n o t b e a nswered '. S hennan ( 1976 p age 2 31) ' The c on ten ts o f t he g raves , h owever , a re o bv ious ly a r esu l t o f s oc ia l c onven t ions c oncern ing wha t a re , a ppropr ia te g oods i n p art ic u lar c ircu mstances ( Bin ford 1 972 ) , t hus i ti s o n ly t he s e t t le men ts wh ich p rov ide t he c o mp le te r ange o f d o mes t ic p o t tery '. ( page 2 33) ' l ack o f p resence o f a ssoc ia t ion b e tween a r tefacts i n g raves may wel l b e t he r esu l t o f s oc ia l c onstra in ts r a ther t han c hronology ' ( Th is r el a tes d irect ly t o my c o m men ts o n t rad i t iona l Beaker c hronologies ). N eustupny ( 19 76 p age 2 64 ) ' A d eep c hange i s t o b e e xpec ted i n t he e xp lana t ion o f Cen tra l European Beakers i n t he n ear f u ture.

The Trad i t iona l p arad ig m i s l os t f orever ,

a nd t he f acts a re mu te w i thou t ap arad ig m .

A n ew o ne mus tb e a c-

c ep ted '. Even s o me o f t he more t rad i t iona l w r i ters ( e .g. Burgess i n Burgess a nd S he rman 19 77 a nd Case 1 977 ) a re n ow a ccep t ing t he importance o f Beakers i n Br i ta in ( as w e l l a s E urope ) i n s oc ia l t er ms.

T h is i s u ndoubted ly t he ma jor

d eve lopmen t i n s uch s tud ies i n r ecen t y ears , b u t s uch a r ecogn it ion i s n ot u sefu l w i thou t a more g enera l f ra mework—a mode l . b e a ccep ted .

A n ew p arad ig m must

I n c hap ter 9 Iw il l p resen t n ew mode ls a nd t heor ies t o h e lp t he

u nderstand ing o f t he B ronze Age b ur ia l d a ta i n v ar ious ways.

6 2

CHAPTER 4 THE FOOD VESSEL TYPE : I TS VAR IAB ILITY AND SOCIAL IMPORTANCE

A bs tract I n t h is c hap ter t he F ood V esse l t ype i s d ef ined a nd d escr ibed . a b i li ty o f t he t ype i s e xamined .

The v ari-

I ti s s ugges ted t ha t c er ta in k ey f ea tures o f

v ar iab i l i ty , r ecogn ised h ere , h ave i n t he p as t b een a l mos t c o mp le te ly i gnored . O ne o f t he ma jor d i f feren t ia t ions i n t he s er ies i s i n t er ms o f q ua l i ty .

I t i s

s hown t ha t t he q ua l i ty o ft he f abr ic d oes r e la te i n ac oheren t way w i th f eatures o f f or m a nd d ecora t ion . d iscussed ;

V ar ious f or ms o f ' qua l i ty ' s core a re d escr ibed a nd

ap ragma t ic a pproach i s a dop ted .

U nder ly ing t h is t ype o f p a t tern ,

a re b road r eg iona l d if ferences wh ich w ou ld s ee m t o b e c learer t han p rev ious ly r ecogn ised p an-Br i t ish c lass if ica t ions . 'T e s s el

Throughou t , t he b road c harac ter o f

g roups i s s tressed a ga ins t ' t he i nd iv idua l p ersona l i ty ' o f s ing le i te ms .

I ti s d e mons tra ted t ha t w i th in Y orksh ire a t l eas t , t he v ar ia t ion ( par t icu lar ly a s r egards q ua li ty ) r e la tes c lose ly t o t he s ex a nd a ge g rades o f a ssoc ia ted b ur ia ls . B y t he u se o f f ur ther d e ta i ls o f b uria l t rea t men t s o me more c onc lus ions o n s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion c an b e r eached .

The r ea l ly h igh q ua l i ty v esse ls w i th e xot ic

d ecora tion r e la te t o t he mos t i mpor tan t b ur ia ls w i th in t he c o m mun i ty .

F ina l ly

i ti s s ugges ted , t ha t a t p resen t , ab road f l ex ib le v iew o f F ood V esse ls i s t o b e p referred t o t he a lmos t mono l i th ic t ypo log ies c rea ted b y A bercro mby ( 1912 : b ut o n ly a ssu ming t he ir s o l id c harac ter b y t he misunders tandings o f t h is w ork b y l a ter w r i ters ) a nd wh ich h ave c hanged l i t t le . FOOD VESSELS ;

METHODOLOG ICAL I NTRODUCTION

The a im o f t h is c hap ter i s t o c on t inue t o r ecogn ise t he t ypes o fp a t terns r ecogn ised f or Y orksh ire B eakers .

H owever , t h is i s a much more d etai led

a na lysis a nd Ih ave d one f ar more w ork o n t h is t op ic . b as ica l ly b e e xamined i n t er ms o f ' measured ' c ontex ts .

F ood V esse ls w i l l O n t he b as is o f t he

q uestions p osed i n t he f i rs t t wo c hap ters , t he a na lysis f o l lows p ar t icu lar l i nes o f e nqu iry . 1 .

F irs t o f a l l , w e c anno t p roceed w i thou t ad ef in i t ion o f t he t ype o f a r te-

f ac t u nder c ons idera t ion .

A s w i th B eakers t here a re g enera l ly r ecogn ised

t ypes u nder t he h ead ing ' Food V esse l ' b ased o n v ar ious c ons idera t ions .

I n

p ract ice , t he d ef in i t ion o f t ype d oes n o t p resen t o ver-grea t p rob le ms , a lthough t here a re many t ypes wh ich a re marg ina l ( bu t t h is i s l i ke ly t o b e l ess t han 2 % ) . 2 .

Ih ave a lready e s tab l ished w i th B eakers t ha t p a t terns o f s oc ia l h ierarchy

a re c lose ly r e la ted t o t he f or m o fp o ts .

O ne q ues t ion n o t a nswered t here w as

t he p rob le m o f t he g eograph ica l s pace d if feren t ia t ion w i th in s ocie ty .

Th is i s

c onsidered h ere i n v ery g enera l t er ms . H owever , s pa t ia l v ar iab i l i ty d oes h e lp i n l ook ing a t t he v ar iab i l i ty w i th in s ing le a reas . 6 3

3 .

Q ua l i ty c ons idera t ions a re c ruc ia l .

I ti s e ssen t ia l t o e s tab l ish h ow

' qua l i ty ' r e la tes w i th g enera l v esse l v ar iab i l i ty a nd t o s ee s imp ly i ft h is i s a ma jor f ea ture o f v ar iab i l i ty . 4 .

D oes t he v ar iab i l i ty o ft he v esse ls r e la te t o s ocia l p a t terns w i th in t he

' conf ined ' a rea o f Y orksh ire?

A much l arger b ody o f d a ta i s a va i lab le f or

t hese t es ts t han i n t he B eaker c hap ter . a b i l i ty c an b e e n tered i n to .

Th is means t ha t more d eta i l o fv ari-

Iw i l l t es t t he s ex a nd a ge g rad ing s ys tem ( des-

c r ibed i n c hap ter 3 ) a ga ins t t he v esse l v ar iab i li ty a nd l i nk t h is w i th a ssocia ted g rave g oods . 5 .

Iw i l l a lso c ons ider t he p rob le ms o f ' choice ' ( 'who-ge ts- wha t ') .

To

s o me d egree t h is w i l l b e p oss ib le o n ar eg iona l b as is . THE FOOD VESSEL TYPE F ood V esse ls a re o ne o f t he mos t c o m mon t ypes o fp o t tery c onven t iona l ly a ss igned t o t he ' Bronze Age ' p er iod w i th in B r i ta in .

T hey a re a l mos t e xc lusive ly

af unerary i t em ( a lthough t here a re i mpor tan t e xcep t ions :

e .g . B urgess

( 1976b ) ) . Def in i t ion o ft he t ype The t ype h as r are ly b een we l l d ef ined .

A bercro mby ( 1912 , p . 9 3 ) s i mp ly

c o mpared i tt o t he ' Beaker c lass ' ... ' Co mpared w i th b eakers t he wa l ls o f t he v esse ls a re t h icker , more s o l id , a nd t hough g enera l ly o f sma l ler s ize ( f ro m 4t o 6i nches i n h e igh t ) a re h eav ier t han a b eaker o fg rea ter h eigh t .

H owever ,

Abercro mby 's d ef in i t ion e x tended t o a l mos t a ny v esse l t ha t was n o t u rn o r B eaker .

I ti s d if f icu l t t o d raw e xac t l i nes , b u t an u mber o f f ea tures a ppear

t o b e c harac ter is t ic o f F ood V esse ls : 1 .

The f abr ic i s my ma in c r i ter ion f or a scr ib ing a v esse l t o t he t ype .

Mos t

h ave a t h ick b uf f f abr ic w i th a b lack c ore a nd v ar iab le t hough of ten h eavy g r i t .

The f abr ic i s b urn ished of ten i rregu lar ly a nd h as a ' b lotched ' s ur-

f ace . 2 .

T he v as t ma jor i ty o f F ood V esse ls h ave a r im b eve l .

T his c an v ary f ro m

as i mp le ' f la t tened r im ' t o al arge p las t ic c ons truct ion o n t he i ns ide o f t he t i p . 3 . 4 .

T he v esse ls n ear ly a l l h ave f l a t b ases , t he e xcep t ions p ossess f ee t . The g rea t ma jor i ty o f v esse ls h ave a d iv ided b ody p rof i le i n t wo o r t hree p ar ts .

5 .

T he mos t p ro m inen t d iv is ion i s a n a ngu lar s hou lder .

D ecora t ion t akes a v ar ie ty o f f or ms , s o me v esse ls i ndeed , l ack a ny d ec ora t ion .

I nc is ion , t w is ted c ord a nd c o mb i mpress ions a re s o me o f t he

more c o m mon d ecora t ive f or ms .

Th is may t ake t he f or m o f h err ingbone

o r mu l t ip le h or izon ta ls v ery o f ten . 6 . 7 .

O n an u mber o f v esse ls t he e x terior r im f orm i s a lso e xaggera ted . Many v esse ls h ave p las t ic a dd i t ions a t t he s hou lder n or ma l ly t ermed l ugs ' .

8 .

F ood v esse ls a re a lso d is t inc t ive i n

t er ms o f t he a rrange men t o f d ecora-

t i on ( see b e low ) , wh ich i s r are ly ' zoned ' a s a re t he B eakers . 6 4

Ih ave a ccep ted v esse ls w i th t he ' correc t ' f abr ic a nd r im f or m a s F ood V esse ls f or t he p urpose o ft h is a na lysis . al arge e x ten t i ntu i t ive .

The c lassif ica t ion i s a dm i t ted ly t o

Ih ave a ccep ted m in ia ture v esse ls a nd ' En larged '

t ypes f or t he ma jor a na lys is h ere .

A c o m mon d is t inc t ion i s d rawn b e tween

' bow l ' a nd ' vase ' f orms o f v esse ls .

Many o ft he I r ish v esse ls a re b ow l f or ms

w i th c onvex b ody a nd w ide r i ms a nd many o ft he s ou thern B ri t ish v esse ls a re v ases w i th t a l l s hapes c oncave b od ies a nd n arrower r ims .

I n f act , e ven o n

t he b as is o f s uperf ic ia l o bserva t ion , t here a re a who le r ange o f f or ms .

S uch

ad ist inc t ion , If ee l , h as o n ly t he b roades t d escr ip t ive v a lue ( bu t s ee ApS i mon 1 959 p p . 2 4-6;

S impson 1 968 ) .

The F ood V esse l g roup o fp ot tery i s ' re la ted ' ( has s i mi lari t ies ) w i th a r ange o f o ther ' Neo l i th ic ' a nd ' Bronze A ge ' t ypes . t hese o ther p ot tery t ypes w i l l n o t b e a t te mp ted .

Ad e tai led a na lys is o f

B u t , i n o rder t o c o mprehend

al i t t le b e t ter why F ood V esse ls a re t he way t hey a re , Iw i l l b r ief ly d escr ibe s o me ma jor r e la t ionsh ips . 1 .

Pe terborough S er ies R e la t ionsh ips b e tween F ood V esse ls a nd t h is ' La ter N eo li th ic ' t ype a re

o f ten d escr ibed i n t he l i tera ture ( e .g . B urgess 1 975 & 1 976b ).

Many o f t he

p ub l ished f or ms f rom t he R uds ton a rea s i tes ( Manby 1 974 ) b ear a s trong r ese mb lance t o F ood V esse ls , a l though t hey g enera l ly l ack l ugs a nd f l a t b ases . H owever , t w is ted c ord , b ird b one i mpress ions , h erringbone mot ifs , e tc . a bound o n b o th g roups o fp ot tery .

S o me o f t he P e terborough p ot f or ms a re

v ery e ar ly i n d a te ( 3 600 B . C . i n s ou thern E ng land :

Smi th 1 975 ) .

I n Y orksh ire ,

t he s tra t igraphy s hows P e terborough n or ma l ly e ar l ier t han G rooved Ware t ypes ( bu t n o te t he l a te d a te f or t he o ne r ad io-carbon d e ter mina t ion ) a nd l a ter t han Grims ton a nd ' Tow thorpe ' f or ms ( Manby 1 974 ) .

I n s o me a reas P e ter-

b orough t ypes a re k nown t o b e v ery l a te ( Burgess 1 976 : a l mos t c er ta in ly o ver lap w i th t he F ood V esse ls .

P e terborough t ypes a re t he ' paren ts ' o f F ood V esse ls ; d isagree w i th t h is s ta te men t .

Me ldon B r idge ) , t hey

I ti s we l l a ccep ted t ha t If ee l n o r eason t o

On ly t he more ' soph is t ica ted ' d ecora t ive t ypes

k nown f ro m F ood V esse ls a re l ack ing f ro m t he P e terborough s eries . 2 .

G r ims ton-Ly les M i l l s er ies

There a re f ew r ea l s im i lar i t ies b e tween G rims ton p o t tery a nd F ood V ess e ls , a lthough t he t wo f or ms may o ver lap .

T he n or ma l p resense o f

c ar na t ions o n b oth t ypes o fp o t tery may i nd ica te n o more t han t he g enera l p opu lari ty o f t h is f ea ture i n n or thern a nd e as tern B ri ta in . 3 .

B eakers

The B eakers a re a f ar f ro m u n if ied g roup o f ' Bronze Age ' p ot tery .

They

a re t he f i rs t ma jor B ri t ish g roup o f p o t tery t o p ossess f la t b ases . T here a re o n ly g enera l s i mi lar i t ies b e tween t he t wo g roups o fp o t tery . H owever , t here a re sma l l n u mbers o f ' hybr id ' v esse ls wh ich c anno t n or ma l ly b e a scr ibed d ef ini te ly t o o ne g roup o r t he o ther .

A lso , t he w e l l k nown AOC t ypes ( C larke

1 970 ) a re a l mos t p arod ied i n t he f or ms o f s o me o f t he s i mp ler F ood V esse ls . T he u se o f B eaker t ype c o mb i mpress ions d oes o ccur o n F ood V esse ls i n s o me p ar ts o f t he c oun try .

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G rooved Ware

F ood V esse ls l ack a ny o ft he c lass ic G rooved Ware f ea tures , p art icu lar ly t he p last ic f or ms o fd ecora t ion ( apar t f ro m l ugs ). 5 .

M isce l laneous

I n a dd i t ion , many B ronze A ge v esse ls s hare f eatures o f f abr ic a nd d ecorat i on . The C o l lared U rn a nd F ood V esse l f abr ics a re q ui te s imi lar i n many w ays .

B ronze Age p ot tery g enera l ly h as c ord i mpressed d ecora t ion , i ncis ion

a nd t he l i ke . C onc lus ions The F ood V esse l g roup i s ad iscre te s e t o f v esse ls o fp ar t icu lar s hape , f orm a nd d ecora t ion . H av ing s a id t ha t , t here a re g enera l s imi lar i t ies among many o ft he N eo li th ic a nd B ronze Age t ypes .

S o me o ft hese s imi lar i t ies may

i nd ica te ' paren tage ' o r ' i nf luence ' ( wha tever t ha t migh t mean , v esse ls n ot b e ing c ogn izan t b e ings ) .

F ood V esse ls , o n ap ar t ly i n tu i t ive b as is , c an b e

s epara ted f ro m t he o ther p ot tery t ypes . F ood V esse l F ea tures ( F ig . 4 .3 ) Iw i l l n ow d escribe i n al i t t le more d e tai l s o me o ft he ma jor f ea tures o f t he t ype . a na lys is .

T h is d escr ipt ive s ec t ion i s i n tended t o h e lp c o mprehens ion o f t he F irs t o f a l l d ecora t ion o n F ood V esse ls i s t o b e f ound o n an u mber

o fr eg ions . i .

These c an b e d escribed a s f o l lows :

R im b eve l :

Mos t v esse ls h ave a b eve l led r im , a ng led f rom t he l i ne o f

t he r im . I t may b e f l a t , c oncave o r c onvex . I tp rov ides a b road i fr es tricted a rea f or d ecora t ion . i .

I n terior/r im b eve l :

A t t imes d ecora t ion i s f ound o n t he i ns ide o f t he

v esse l b e low t he r im b eve l ( compar ing , i nciden ta l ly w i th t he P eterborough t ypes ) . i . E x ter ior r im : Th is i s n o t p resen t o n a l l v esse ls a nd t he a rea i s o n ly r are ly we l l d e marca ted . i i . N eck : The n eck i s n or ma l ly w e l l d ef ined . a nd n or ma l ly c oncave . i v .

G roove :

I ti s f requen t ly d ecora ted

Ag roove a t t he s hou lder i s ac o m mon F ood V esse l f eature .

A l terna t ive ly t here may b e aw ide b and d emarca ted b y ' r idges '.

S uch v esse ls

a re t er med ' t r ipar t ' . I ti s i n t h is z one t ha t t he ' p las t ic ' l ugs a re p laced ( wh ich may o r may n o t b e p erfora ted ) . i va . 2 nd G rooves ( or more ) : Sma l l n umbers o f v esse ls h ave mu lt ip le g roov ing ( or r ibb ing ) a t t he s hou lder . These may a lso h ave l ugs . v . The b ody : T h is c an b e s tra igh t , c oncave o r c onvex a nd i s n orma l ly t he l arges t a rea a va i lab le f or d ecora t ion . I t of ten p ossesses t he mos t ' co mp lex ' d ecora tive f or ms . v i . The b ase : T he b ase o f s o me v esse ls ( par t icu lar ly i n I re land ) i s d ecor a ted , b u t t h is i s r are . Af ew v esse ls l ack a t rue b ase a s s uch , p ossess ing f ee t i ns tead . 6 9

v i i .

C overs :

Af ew v esse ls a ctua l ly p ossess a s epara te p iece o f c lay

a ct ing a s ac over f or t he v esse l .

T h is i s e x treme ly r are .

F ood V esse l d ecora t ive t echn iques ( F igs . 4 .1-2 ) Al arge r ange o f d ecora t ive t ypes a ppear o n F ood V esse ls .

The mos t

c o mmon a re a s f o l lows : a .

Tw is ted c ord i mpress ion

T h is i s o ne o f t he mos t c o m mon t ypes .

Mos t o f t he c ord i s t wo s t rands

p la i ted b u t i n s o me c ases t hree c an b e r ecogn ised . T he c ord i s n orma l ly d eep ly i mpressed i n to t he s urface . Al im i ted r ange o f d es igns i s a ssoc ia ted w i th t h is f or m r equir ing n or ma l ly l ong c on t inuous ' l ines ' o fd ecora t ion ( a lt hough o ccas iona l ly mot ifs s uch a s h orseshoes d o o ccur ) . b .

I ncis ion a nd e xcision

T h is f orm i s a lso v ery c o m mon . b road s ha l low ' grooves ' .

I tc an t ake t he f or m o f s harp l i nes o r

These t er ms s hou ld c orrec t ly b e r es tricted t o

d ecora t ion e xecu ted b efore t he c lay h as d r ied ( p os t-f ir ing i ncis ion c an b e r ecogn ised a t t imes ) . E xcis ion , i mp l ies r e mova l o f c lay f rom t he s urface d ur ing e xecu t ion . c .

Wh ipped o r w rapped c ord

T h is i s a no ther c o m mon f or m .

B y t i gh t ly w rapp ing a p iece o f c ord

a round a t w ig ( or s im i lar i t em ) a nd i mpress ing t he we t c lay s urface w i th t he p roduc t , ad is t inc t ive d ecora t ive f orm r esu l ts . T he mos t c o m mon f orm i s t o p roduce ' maggo ts ' —shor t h or izon ta ls , v er t ica ls o r o bl iques o f wh ipped c ord . d .

B ird b one i mpress ion

A who le r ange o fo b jec ts c an b e s een , i mpressed i n to t he s urface o f F ood V esse ls .

B ird-bone i mpressions a re o ne o f t he more c o m mon t ypes .

Th is i s n or ma l ly f ound i n s imp le h or izon ta l o r o b l ique l i nes . e .

' Fa lse r e l ief '

Th is i s av ery d is t inct ive f or m o f d ecora t ion . i mpress ion i n as eries o f r ows ; S impson 1 968) .

r a ised ' reserved ' a reas c an b e c rea ted ( c f .

H owever , s uch ' reserved ' b ands c an b e c rea ted b y t he u se

o fo ther f or ms o f i mpress ion . f orm h owever .

B y t he u se o f at r iangu lar

The u se o f t r iang les a ppear t o b e t he ma in

A t t imes , a l though t r iangu lar i mpress ions a re u sed , t he

e f fect o f ' f a lse-re lief ' i s n o t a ch ieved . f . N otched s ta mp a nd c o mb i mpress ions These t ypes a re r are i n Y orksh ire . They a re v ery c o mmon o n B eakers h owever , t hroughou t t he c oun try . T he i mpress ion o f a' co mb ' i n to t he s urface p roduces s hor t h or izon ta l p a t terns more d eep ly i mpressed i n t he c en tre ( as t he v esse l i s c urved ) .

S o me v esse ls h ave s imi lar d es igns i n c o mb a nd c ord .

The r ange o f mo t ifs , i n a ny c ase , i s v ery s imi lar t o t ha t o f c ord . g .

P unc tua t ion

P unc tua ted i mpress ions a re v ery c o m mon a nd t ake a w ide v ar ie ty o f f orms .

v iz . 7 0

h .

F inger n a i l i mpress ions

Th is i s n or ma l ly r es tr ic ted t o v esse ls w i th r e la t ive ly s parse d ecora t ion . D ecora tive D es igns The a bove d ecora t ive f or ms a re r es tr ic ted i n t he t ypes o f mo t ifs t hey c an p roduce .

H owever , t here a re a l im i ted r ange o f mo t ifs t ha t a re k nown

f rom F ood V esse ls a s f o l lows : 1 .

H err ingbone :

B y u s ing a l terna t ing s e ts o f o b lique f or ms a h erringbone

p a t tern i s p roduced . i . i .

T h is c an t ake a n u mber o f ma in f or ms :

S tandard h or izon ta l p a t tern ' Sp ined ‚ h err ingbone w i th a c en tra l h orizon ta l ( or v er t ica l ) l ine

i i .

S tandard v er t ica l h err ingbone

i v .

By o ver lapp ing g roups o f h erringbone d ecora t ion a n u nusua l t ype i s c rea ted wh ich It er m ' angu lar h err ingbone ' .

2 .

H orizon ta l l ines :

Th is i s t he c o m monest f or m o fd ecora t ion a nd i s n or ma l ly

f ound i n mu l t ip le g roups . 3 .

V ertica ls :

4 .

O b liques

5 .

L oops :

Th is i s c o m mon p ar t icu lar ly i n t he f or m o f ' maggots ' .

H orseshoes , wavy l ines e tc . a nd a l l v ar i t ies o f l oops a re k nown

f rom F ood V esse ls . 6 .

T r iang les :

T h is i s r e la t ive ly r are .

P endan t t riang les a t t he s hou lder a re k nown o n t hese v esse ls .

Tr iang les a re more ' popu lar ' o n C o l lared u rn t ypes . 7 .

R ows o f I mpress ions :

8 .

L adder p a t terns :

Th is migh t b e p unc tua ted d es igns , f i nger n ai ls e tc .

Th is i s as e lf e xp lana tory t erm .

I ti s ac o m mon f or m

o n t he r im b eve ls . 9 .

I mpressed c o mb ina t ions :

V ar ious c o mbina t ions o f h orizon ta ls a nd v er t ica l

i mpress ions a re f ound . C om men ts :

F ood V esse l F or m ( F ig . 4 .3 )

I n t he p as t f ew p ages F ood V esse l f or m a nd t he ir d ecora t ive t echn iques h ave b een e xa m ined i n s o me d e ta i l .

Th is g ives a b road p icture o f s o me i m-

p or tan t f eatures o f F ood V esse ls . H owever , t hese i t e ms a re d if f icu l t t o d esc ribe i n words . The p la tes ( nos . I -X ) g ive a g ood v isua l i mpress ion o f F ood V esse l f or ms . A .

H owever , an u mber o f o ther f ea tures s hou ld b e n o ted :

S ize v ar ia t ion

Ih ave i nc luded h ere v esse ls r anging f ro m o ver 3 0 cm h igh t o o nes l ess t han 5 cm h igh ( the r ange o f min iature t o e n larged t ypes ) . The ma jor g roup o f v esse ls f a l ls i n t he r ange 9 -17 cm h igh .

B u t t here a re a lso d if ferences i n

t he r im w id th , b ase d iameter , r im b eve l b read th e tc . B .

Q ua li ty v ar ia t ion ( f ig . 4 .4 ) A s i n t he c ase o f B eakers , F ood V esse ls , e ven o n as uperf icia l l eve l v ary

t remendous ly i n t er ms o f q ua li ty .

A s i mi lar s ys te m t o t ha t u sed i n C hap ter 3 7 1

f or B eakers c an b e u sed f or F ood V esse ls ( see c ompu ter a na lysis b e low ) .

The

s urface may b e b urn ished t o d if fer ing d egrees , t he s urface may b e ' c leaned ' b efore f i r ing , t he f abr ic c an b e o fv ery v ary ing q ua li t ies . I n a dd i t ion v esse ls may h ave smoo th r egu lar o u t l ines o r v ary g rea t ly i n ' care t aken d ur ing p rodu ct ion ' . C .

V isua l I mpress iveness F ood V esse ls s truck me o n f i rs t i mpress ion a s v ery ' v isua l ' i t ems ( i n tu i-

t ive ly o f c ourse ) .

It h ink t he p la tes h ere g ive s ome i dea o f t h is .

Th is ' Feature '

s ee ms t o b e a ccen tua ted b y an u mber o f t h ings : i . H eavy b urn ish , s h ining s urface f abr ic ( e .g . p la tes I I I ) P las t ic d ecora t ion i n t he f or m o f f ee t , mu l t ip le g roov ing , l ugs a nd r ibb ing . I n tr ica te a nd h eavy d ecora t ion .

S evera l v esse ls e ven h ave d ecora ted

b ases h eav i ly d ecora ted r i ms e tc . i v . v .

T h is may g ive d if feren t v isua l im-

p ress ions f ro m d if fer ing p oin ts o fv iew . The r egu lari ty o f d ecora t ion . Many o f t he ' f iner ' v esse ls h ave c aref u l ly p lanned d ecora t ion ( P la tes The u se o fv ery a ngu lar p rof i les o n many F ood V esse ls p resen ts a s trong v isua l i mpac t .

A l l t he a bove s ta te men ts mus t b e o n av ery i n tu i t ive l eve l ( bu t t hen wha t 's wrong w i th i n tu i t ion?) , b u t l a ter i n t h is c hap ter Iw i l l s how t ha t we c an b e more o b ject ive a bou t s uch ma t ters .

One o f t he c rucia l p oin ts Iw i l l make h ere ( but

w i l l r a ise a ga in ) i s t he p rob le m o f ' break ing ' u p v esse ls i n to v ariab le l i s ts a s w i th c o mpu ter a na lys is .

Are o b jec ts s ing le e n t i t ies ( who le e n t i ties ) o r n ot?

I t may b e impossib le t o c onsider i t e ms a s ' who le e n t i t ies ', b u t If ee l t here a re t h ings w e c an d o ( see C hap ter 1 0 ). The p r incipa l i ssue i s whether t he p ar ts make u p t he who le—or i s t he who le g rea ter t han t he s um o f t he p ar ts?

I

n ote t ha t t h is a spec t o f F ood V esse ls h as b een r ecogn ised i n t he p as t , b u t n ot u sefu l ly b y a ny o ft he more r ecen t s tud ies .

Mor timer ( 1 905 , x i i i ) n o ted :

"Many o ft h is t ype o ff ood-vase a re v ery w e l l a nd s ym me tr ica l ly made , a nd t he o rna men t i s a pp lied w i th much t as te , a nd t hey may b e s a id t o e xce l l i n f i neness o fp as te , c are i n manufac ture a nd b eauty o f o rnamen t ...." .

[ referr ing t o t he l ugged v esse ls o f Y orksh ire ]

CO MPUTER ANALYS IS F ood V esse l v ar iabi li ty :

t he g roup o f v esse ls u sed

A l though t here a re l arge n u mbers o f F ood V esse ls i n Y orksh ire ( i n e xcess o f 3 00 ) , If ound t h is g roup o f ma teria l i nadequa te f or a nswering s o me o ft he q ues t ions r a ised a t t he b eg inn ing o ft h is c hap ter .

P ar t icu lar ly when c onsider-

i ng s pa t ia l v ar iabi li ty , Ic ons idered i tn ecessary t o h ave a l arge c ompara t ive s a mp le . v esse ls .

Thus , t he b ody o fd a ta a na lysed i nc ludes o n ly a bou t 5 0% Y orksh ire The r es t a re g roups f ro m a l l p ar ts o fn or thern B r i ta in f rom N or thern

S co t land t o D erbysh ire . Th is i s a' cho ice ' b ased l arge ly o n t he n umbers o f v esse ls a va i lab le i n d if feren t p ar ts o f t he c oun try . T he S co t t ish g roup If ound t o b e ap ar t icu lar ly u sefu l o ne . N o a t temp t h as b een made t o a ssemb le a c orpus o f a l l v esse ls f ro m n or thern B ri ta in , b u t a l l t he ma jor c o l lect ions o fv esse ls 7 2

i n t he n or th were u t i l ised .

Th is p rov ided a g roup o f 7 02 v esse ls i n a l l .

I n

a dd i t ion , Ih ave g one t hrough t he l i tera ture f or v esse ls f ro m s ou thern E ng land a nd t he impor tan t g roups f ro m Wa les . A l l c ompu ter a na lys is i s b ased o n i nt u i t ion t o ag rea ter o r l esser d egree a nd Ir ea l ised t he i mportance o f o b ta ini ng a n o vera l l i mpress ion o ft he t ype . T he v ariab les u sed B ased o n t he d escr ip t ions o ft he F ood V esse l t ype i n t he f orego ing I p roduced a v ariab le l i s t c o mpr is ing 1 38 v ariab les . Iw i l l n ot d escribe t hese i nd iv idua l ly a ga in , b u t Iw i l l l i s t t he ma in ' groups ' o fv ar iab les t ha t were emp loyed : A .

S ize measures :

Measures f or h e igh t , r im d iame ter , b ase d ia me ter ,

b eve l w id th e tc . were a l l u t i lised . I n mos t c ases a d oub le ( min . -max . ) r ead ing was t aken a s a' crude ' measure o f r egu lar i ty . B .

Ma jor d ecora t ive f or ms/zones :

The p resence o r a bsence o f e ach o f

t he d ecora t ive f or ms w as n o ted o n t he a reas o f t he v esse ls d escr ibed . C .

Ma jor d ecora t ive mo ti fs/zones :

The p resence o r a bsence o f t he d eco-

r a t ive mo t ifs was n oted o n e ach a rea o f t he v esse l . D .

P resence o r a bsence o f f ea tures :

F ea tures s uch a s l ugs , f eet , c overs

e tc . were d escribed i n v ery s imp le t erms , n orma l ly p resence o r a bsence ( or i nt he c ase o fl ugs : n onelugs-perfora ted l ugs s er ies ) . E . F ea tures o f f or m : S evera l f ea tures o fv esse l f or m ( e .g . t he f oot s hape , t he b ody s hape , t he g roove s hape e tc . )w ere d escribed i n s imp le a lphan umeric s equences .

I n a l l c ases Ia t te mp ted t o g ive t hese s equences s o me

' d irec t iona l ' q ua li ty r a ther t han a s imp le d escr ip t ive v a lue . F .

Measures o fq ua l i ty :

A s ys te m s imi lar t o t ha t a dop ted f or B eakers

was u t i lised f or F ood V esse ls ( measures f or d i f feren t f ea tures o f f abr ic t rea tmen t ) . T h is was s l igh t ly more d e ta i led h owever . F ood V esse ls a re n orma l ly l ess h eav i ly b urn ished t han B eakers a nd o ne c an n orma l ly p ick o u t more f ea tures o f f abric p roduc t ion . T here i s much v ar ia t ion i n F ood V esse ls i n t er ms o f t he smoothing o ft he s urface b efore o r af ter f i ring ; t he e x ten t o f t he b urn ish ; p roduc tion o ft he f oo t ( mos t a re ' un trea ted '— tha t i s t hey h ave a f oo ted b ase , t he e xcess c lay a round t he f oo t n o t b e ing r e moved ) .

Ia dop ted a r e la t ive ly

s imp le s er ies o f measures , b u t t hese d o g ive a c lear p ic ture o f ' qua l i ty ' . G .

Decora tive mo t ifs :

I n a dd i t ion t o n o t ing d own t he s imp le d ecora t ive

f orms a nd mo t ifs , Ia t te mp ted t o l i s t a bou t 2 0 ma jor mo t if g roups wh ich f req uen t ly o ccur o n F ood V esse ls . The a c tua l d ef in i t ions p ossess a g ood d ea l o f s ub jec tiv i ty . N ever the less , Id id t ry a nd k eep t he mot if g roups f a ir ly b road a nd t h ink t ha t t hey h ave a g ood d ea l o f v a l id i ty . b y s o me o ft he a na lyses . H .

L oca t ion :

Th is i s p erhaps c onf ir med

A l l v esse ls w ere g iven g r id r eferences i n t er ms o f t he ir

p ar ish t own ( v i l lage ) w herever p oss ib le . T he a na lys is h ere r equ ired a l arge n umber o f v is i ts t o s evera l ma jor museu ms . It hank o nce a ga in a l l c oncerned i n a l low ing me a ccess t o c o l lect i ons .

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F ig. 4 .4

Food Vessels :

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S ca t ter d iagra m o f d ecora t ion ' score ' a ga inst

f abr ic ' score '. 7 4

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S PATIAL VARIAB ILITY—A REG IONAL S TUDY I n t er ms o f t he q ues t ions p osed a t t he b eg inn ing o f t h is c hap ter , i ti s c rucia l t o e s tab l ish t he r eg iona l v ar iabi l i ty o f t he F ood V esse l t ype.

A t

t h is s tage t he a na lys is w i l l b e o f av ery s i mp le f orm d escr ib ing t he d i f fere nces f ro m r eg ion t o r eg ion a nd a ssess ing t he n a ture o f t hese d i f ferences . Wi th s uch a l arge b ody o fd a ta a nd r e la t ive ly c o mp lex a r tefac t t ypes , t he u se o f ac o mpu ter was e ssen t ia l ( t he 1 906S a t S hef f ie ld f or mos t o ft he work ; b ut a lso t he CDC7600 a t Manches ter f or s o me o ft he d iscr i minan t a na lys is ) .

A

l im i ted n u mber o f a na lyses a re t r ied a t t h is s tage ( a l though i n t er ms o f more s pecif ic q ues t ions , t hese a re t aken f ur ther i n C hap ter 9 ) .

The t echn iques

emp loyed a re a s f o l lows : 1 .

S cat ter d iagra ms o f v esse l f or ms a nd d ecora t ion U se o f f ac tor a na lys is t o e s tab l ish d ecora t ion a nd ' f orm ' s e ts .

F ro m

t he b r ief d escr ip t ions a lready o f fered ( and f ro m s uperf icia l e xam inat ion ) t here a re p ar t icu lar ly g roups o f d ecora t ion t ypes .

I f we c an

f i nd o u t t he r e la t ionsh ips o f v ar iab les i n t h is way , we w i l l h ave a much b e t ter p ic ture o f r eg iona l v ar iab i li ty .

C lus tering t echniques c an a lso

h e lp h ere . D iscriminan t a na lys is .

T o s how t ha t t he ' reg iona l ' p a t terns o f v ari-

a b i l i ty d o h ave c onsiderab le v a lue w e c an u se a d iscrim inan t a na lysis a ga ins t ' reg iona l ' g roup ings . I .

S PATIAL D ISTR IBUT IONS OF VESSEL FEATURES Many o ft he F ood V esse l s tud ies o ver r ecen t y ears ( e .g . S i mpson 1 968)

h ave t r ied t o e s tab lish a l mos t p an-Bri t ish c lasses o f v esse ls .

I ti s v ery c lear

t ha t s trong r eg iona l g roup ings a re p resen t a nd e ven f ro m i d le s imp les t s ca t ter p lo ts o f f ea tures , t h is b eco mes r ead i ly a pparen t .

I n t he f ol low ing d escr ip t ive

p assage t he 7 02 v esse ls a re ' mapped ' i n t er ms o f v ar ious v esse l f ea tures ( F igs . 4 .6-11 ) . A .

S imp le s ty les 1 .

C o mb d ecora t ion ( F ig . 4 .7 )

C o mb d ecora t ion , u n l ike many o f t he f o l low ing t ypes , h as s trong r eg iona l p a t terning .

The sma l l g roup o f c o mb d ecora ted v esse ls i n E ng land a c tua l ly

c o mpr ises o n ly 2 % o f a l l E ng l ish v esse ls ( a l though t he n u mber i n Derbysh ire a t 1 0% i s i n teres t ing ly l arger ) .

T here i s av ery s trong c oncen tra tion o f c o mb

d ecora ted v esse ls i n t he C lyde-For th-Tay r egion a nd p ar t icu lar ly i n A rgy l . 2 .

F a lse r e lief d ecora t ion ( F igs . 4 .6-7)

The p a t tern o f f a lse r e l ief t r iang le d ecora tion i s c o m mon ly t hough t t o h ave ab as ica l ly I r ish d is tr ibu t ion .

The s tronges t c oncen tra t ion o ft he f or m h ere i s i n

t he C lyde r eg ion a nd Ayrsh ire .

There a re 7 v esse ls i n E ng land ( 9 _ .

1 % o f t he

t ota l E ng l ish v esse ls , t he Ta l ling ton v esse l i s n ot i nc luded o n t h is map ) . 3 .

Wh ipped c ord d ecora t ion

C o mb d ecora t ion a nd wh ipped c ord d ecora t ion c an i n many ways b e c ont ras ted .

Wh ipped c ord , i s ac o m mon f or m b u tt here a re s trong r egiona l 7 6

t endencies .

Mos t o ft he v esse ls a re o n t he e as t c oas t a nd p ar t icu lar ly i n t he

F or th-Tay a rea . 4 .

Impressed d ecora t ion ( F ig . 4 .8 )

The d is tr ibu t ion o f a l l f or ms o f i mpressed d ecora t ion ( i n f act a w ide r ange o ft ypes ) i s w idespread , w i th n o p ar t icu lar c oncen tra t ions b u t w i th a d is tribut i on f ro m D erbysh ire t o t he I s le o f S kye . 5 .

Tw is ted C ord d ecora t ion

There i s a marked e as t c oas ter ly t rend i n t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t w is ted c ord d ecora tion , c on tras t ing w i th ( and c o mp le men ting ) t he d is tribut ion o f c o mb d ecora tion . 6 .

The o ver lap w i th t he f o l low ing t ype ( i ncised d ecora t ion ) i s marked .

I ncised Decora t ion

There i s n o marked c oncen tra t ion o f i ncised d ecora t ion a lthough t he ma in t rend i s t owards t he e as t c oas t . 7 .

More c o mp lex f or ms

i .

F a lse r e lief c omp lex a nd h or izon ta l c o mb d ecora t ion :

The v esse ls s how

ar e markab le F or th-C lyde c oncen tra t ion f or b o th t ypes w i th a sma l l n u mber o fo u t liers o n t he e as t c oas t .

The d is tr ibu t ion o f o ther f a lse r e lief d ecora t ive

f orms h as a lready b een n oted . i .

Punched d ecora t ion a nd mu l t ip le i mpress ions ( F ig . 4 .8) :

These f or ms

a ppear t o h ave a f a ir ly r es tric ted d is tr ibu t ion c o mparab le w i th t ha t o f wh ipped c ord d ecora t ion a nd t hus ma in ly c oncen tra ted o n t he e as t c oas t .

B o th t ypes

a re q ui te r are . i i .

F ringes ( F ig . 4 .10 ) :

These i n t he ir ' t rue ' s ense a re a l mos t e n t ire ly

r es tricted t o t he Y orksh ire wo lds . i v .

Z ig zags a nd r ibbed h err ingbone ( F ig . 4 .1 0 ) :

n ea t ly a s s hown i n t he f igure .

These t wo t ypes c on tras t

Z ig zags a re w ide ly s pread whereas ' r ibbed

h err ingbone ' h as a c lear A rgyl l a nd A yrsh ire c oncen tra t ion . v .

Y orksh ire b ody s ty les :

V esse ls w i th ' zoned ' a rrange men ts o fb ody

s ty le ( co mpara t ive w i th t he B eaker f or ms , t hough n ot n ecessar i ly b earing a ny c onnection ) a re v ery r es tric ted i n t he ir d is tr ibu t ion .

Over 9 0% c o me f ro m

Y orksh ire . v i .

D if feren t ia l d ecora t ion , v er t ica l h err ingbone , h err ingboned c ord

( F ig . 4 .6) :

These s pecia l f or ms h ave s tronger r eg iona l c harac ter is t ics .

' Herr ingboned c ord ' i s n o ted e spec ia l ly i n Yorksh ire . h as a marked F or th-Tay t endency .

V er t ica l h err ingbone

B u t d if feren t ia l d ecora t ion i s f ound t hrough-

o u t t he e as t c oast a rea . v i i .

H err ingbone d ecora t ion :

Th is f or m i s s o w idespread a nd p opu lar a s

af or m o fd ecora t ion o n F ood V esse ls t ha t i ti s d if f icu l t t o c ons ider i ta s a s ing le t ype .

B as ica l ly t he p a t tern i s a s f o l lows :

b one ( so me i ncis ion ) ( F ig . 4 .11) ; 4 .11 ) , i ncised ( so me t w is ted c ord ) ;

Wes t C oas t :

E as t c oas t ( genera l ) : Y orksh ire :

h err ingbone ( F ig . 4 .9 ) .

7 7

c o mb h erring-

Wh ipped c ord ( F ig .

e specia l ly t w is ted c ord

F ig . 4 .6

F ood V esse ls :

The d is tr ibut ion o f f ea tures i n N . Brita in ( 1 ) . 7 8

F ig . 4 .7

F ood V esse ls :

The d istr ibu t ion o f f ea tures i n N . B ri ta in ( 2 ) .

F ig . 4 .8

F ood V esse ls :

The d is tr ibut ion o f f ea tures i n N . B r ita in ( 3 1 . 8 0

F ig . 4 . 9

F ood V esse ls :

The d is tr ibu t ion o ff ea tures i n N . Br i ta in ( 4 ) . 8 1

F ig . 4 .1 0

F ood V esse ls :

The d is tribu t ion o f f ea tures i n N . B r i ta in ( 5 ) . 8 2

F ig . 4 . 1 1

F ood V esse ls :

The d is tr ibut ion o f f eatures i n N . B ri ta in ( 6 ) . 8 3

C .

S pec ia l r es tr ic t ions C ross-cu t t ing t he g enera l d is tribu t ions , i ti s n ot iceab le t ha t s o me p ar-

t i cu lar f orms d o c oncen tra te i n sma l l a reas . Th is i sb et ter d escribed e lsewhere ( P ierpoin t 1 978) , b u t t he f o l low ing l i s t may b e h e lpfu l :

D .

1 . 2 .

Tw is ted c ord b eve l —Yorksh ire t o F or th C o mb d ecora ted e x terna l r i ms—Argy l l

3 .

Tw is ted c ord b ody—Yorksh ire

4 .

Angu lar h erringbone—Argy l l e tc .

M isce l laneous ( a ) N arrow g rooved v ases ( F ig . 4 .9 )

T o i l lus tra te t he p o in t t ha t n arrow g rooved v ase ( t a l l v er t ica l b od ied v ess e ls ) , s o me t i mes r eferred t o a s ' Yorksh ire V ases ', d o c oncen tra te i n t he Hu mber/ Tyne a rea Ih ave p repared F ig . 4 .9 . A lthough t he l arges t g roup d oes f a l l i nto Y orksh ire , t here a re p erfec t ly g ood n arrow g rooved v ases i n A rgy l l .

B u t a s

s ugges ted b e low , t he b as ic r eg iona l t rend i s t ota l ly d ominan t o ver t he ' i n tern a t iona l ' s ugges t ions o fv esse l d is tr ibu t ion s ugges ted b y s o me w r i ters . ( b ) P la in b ody I n Y orksh ire an u mber o fv esse ls h ave p la in z ones o n t he b ody o r a re e nt i re ly p la in . Th is i s s hown i n t he map . v esse ls a re k nown f ro m t he e as t c oas t . ( c ) P la in z ones :

A sma l l n umber o f o ther p la in b od ied

b eve l a nd g roove

The d is tribu t ion o fp la in g rooves a nd b eve ls i s s im i lar t o t he l as t .

T he

ma in c oncen tra t ion i s i n Y orksh ire a nd t he e as t c oas t . ( d ) L ow s hou ldered v esse ls Any v esse l w i th a b road g roove w i l l h ave a p roport iona te ly l ower s hou lder . ' Mu l t i-grooved ' v esse ls a re a lso o nes p ossess ing l ower s hou lders . ( e ) R ingfoo t b ase R ingfoot b ases a re c o m mon ly a ssoc ia ted w i th ' Yorksh ire V ase ' t ypes .

The

f orm d oes h ave a w idespread d is tr ibut ion b u t i n t wo w ide ly s epara ted a reas , t he F or th-Tay-C lyde a rea a nd t he Y orksh ire-Derbysh ire a rea . ( f ) L adder p a t terns L adder p a t terns a re q u i te c o m mon a nd a ppear i n av arie ty o f d if feren t f or ms . T hey a re s pread t hroughou t t he a rea u nder c ons idera t ion . ( g ) T r iang le b ody d ecora t ion There i sn o marked

r eg iona l t rend .

( h ) F ine f abr ic U s ing a c o mp lex t o ta l s core q ua l i ty measure ,va lues c an b e a ss igned t o a l l v esse ls . H owever , a l l a reas o n t h is s ca le h ave n umbers o f ' h igh q ua l i ty ' v esse ls ( a l though i n C hap ter 9 Is how t ha t t here a re c learer l oca l t rends ) .

8 4

( i ) L oops a nd swa thes N e i ther l oops n or s wa thes , t hough r are a nd ' soph is t ica ted ' h ave s trong r eg iona l c haracter is t ics . ( j ) Lugs a nd p erfora ted l ugs ( F ig . 4 .11 ) L ugged ' decora t ion ' i s v ery w idespread . Y orksh ire a ga in p rov ides t he h ighes t p ropor t ions o fl ugged v esse ls . I n S co t land t here a ppears t o b e s o me s pa t ia l t endency f or t here t o b e g roups o fp erfora ted l ug a nd u nperfora ted l ug v esse ls . ( k ) Ob liques T h is t erm c overs a ' mu l t i tude o f s ins ' , t he t ype i s v ery w idespread . ( 1 ) Chequer p a t terns , d ecora ted b ases a nd t r iang les A l l t hese f or ms a ppear t o h ave a w ide d is tr ibu t ion .

T he ma jor g roup o f

v esse ls w i th d ecora ted b ases i s i n t he C lyde r eg ion . The d ecora ted b ase f orms a re s ugges ted f ro m Abercro mby 's c orpus ( 1 912 ) t o b e a n ' I r ish f ea ture ' . N ever the less t here a re d ecora ted b ase f orms a l l t he way d own t he e as t c oas t a nd i n Y orksh ire . C onc lusions O n t he b as is o ft hese maps an u mber o f c onc lusions c an b e r eached . 1 .

Al im i ted n umber o n ly o ft he d ecora t ive o r o ther f ea tures a re g rea t ly

r es tr ic ted g eograph ica l ly , a nd s o me a re r e markab ly u n iform i n d is tr ibu t ion t hroughou t t he a rea . 2 .

Mos t o ft he b as ic d ecora t ive f orms :

o b lique d ecora t ion , h or izon ta ls ,

h err ingbone , t r iang les , z ig zags , i ncis ion , i mpress ion e tc ., a re s pread w ide ly o ver t he who le a rea u nder c ons idera tion .

C omb d ecora t ion i s t he mos t o bv ious

e xcep t ion t o t h is r u le . T o ac er ta in e x ten t wh ipped a nd t w is ted c ord a lso h ave al im i ted r eg iona l p a t tern ( t he t wo l a t ter b eing b as ica l ly e as t c oas t f or ms ) . 3 .

However many o ft he ' decora t ive s che mes ' d o h ave c lose r eg iona l ly

a ssoc ia ted d is tr ibu t ion p a t terns .

Th is i s p ar t icu lar ly t rue o f t he f o l low ing :

r ibbed h err ingbone , s wa thes(?) , mu l tip le i mpress ion a nd ' punched i mpress ion ' , ' d i f feren t ia l r ad ia l ' , v er t ica l h err ingbone , ' herr ingboned c ord ' a nd f a lse r e l ie f . Thus i t may b e s ugges ted t ha t a l though mos t r eg ions p ossesses t he b as ic ' resources ' f or a l l p a t terns , t he s chemes p roduced d id h ave a marked r eg iona l b ias . T h is h as i mpor tan t i mp l ica t ions .

I fi tc an b e e s tab l ished t ha t t here a re

r eg iona l v ar ia t ions i n s ty ling a nd t ha t v esse ls h ave s oc ia l i mpor tance ; t hen t h is l a t ter mus t a lso v ary r eg iona l ly . Wi th B eakers , Id e mons tra ted h ow ' qua l i ty ' measures w ere t he b es t s oc ia l i nd ica tor .

S econd ly , i th as b een

s ta ted a bove t ha t i ti s t he ' sche mes ' t ha t v ary r eg iona l ly , n o t p ar t icu lar ly t he b as ic e lements . Two t h ings s hou ld t hen b e e s tab l ished a t t h is s tage : i . The n a ture o fd ecora t ive ' sche mes ' a ssocia ted w i th F ood V esse ls i .

The r e la t ionsh ip o f ' qua li ty s cores ' t o d ecora t ive a nd o ther f ea tures o f t he v esse ls .

T he f or mer Ii n tend t o b y means o f af ac tor a na lys is ( t o i nd ica te t he r e lat i onsh ip o f v ar iab les ) t he s econd b y r a ther s imp ler s ign if icance t ests . 8 5

2 .

FACTOR ANALYS IS—DECORAT IVE S CHE MES Id o n ot i n tend t o g o i n to d e ta i ls o ft h is a na lys is ( b u t t hese a re f u l ly d e-

s cr ibed i n P ierpoin t 1 978 p p . 1 98f f . ) . S tandard R - mode a na lyses were u sed o n t he S PSS Mk V p rogra m . The v ar iab le l i s t was r a ther s imp l if ied f olow ing p ro longed a na lys is . Two f ea tures o f t h is f orm o f f ac tor a na lys is t el l u s a g ood d ea l o ft he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween d ecora t ive f ea tures : t he c orre la t ion c oe f f icien ts ( genera ted ) a nd t he v ar imax r ota ted ma tr ix ( wh ich p roduced ' f ac tors ' w i th v ary ing p os i t ive a nd n ega t ive r e la t ionsh ips w i th v ar iab les ) . me thods t e l l b o th p os i t ive a nd n ega t ive a ssoc ia t ions .

These t wo

I n c onc lus ion a nd s um-

mary o f t he a na lys is Ic an make t hree ma in p o in ts : 1 .

There a re g enera l n ega t ive c orre la t ions b e tween t he t hree ma jor e xecu-

t i on med ia : c ord i mpress ion; i nc is ion a nd c o mb i mpression . Tw is ted c ord a nd wh ipped c ord h ave a v ery s trong n ega t ive a ssoc ia t ion . C o mb d ecora t ion c orre la tes we l l w i th i mpress ion a nd f a lse r e l ief . Th is i nd ica tes t ha t e xecu t ion med ia a re b as ica l ly d iscre te . 2 .

T he ' soph is t ica ted ' a nd r are f or ms o f d ecora t ion a re a lso e ssen t ia l ly

d iscre te . 3 . The ' pat terns ' p roduced r e la te wel l w i th t he e xecu t ion med ia ( i n ap osit ive a nd n ega t ive s ense ) . Thus h orizon ta l d es igns r e la tes t o b o th t w is ted c ord a nd i mpress ions ( c f . f ig . 4 .5 ). Th is c an b e t aken much f ur ther .

R e me mber t oo t ha t Ih ave p oin ted o u t t ha t

t he ' e le men ts ' f or d ecora t ion were p resen t i n a l l ma jor a reas , s o t he f orm o f t he s cheme n eeds f ur ther e xp lana t ion .

I n f ac t t he f ac tor a na lys is p roduced

1 1 i mpor tan t ' f ac tors ' ( e igenva lue g rea ter t han 1 .0 ) w h ich t ended t o i nd ica te more s peci f ic d ecora t ive s che mes a nd r e la t ionsh ips . T hese t o ag rea ter o r l esser e x ten t e xh ib i t r eg iona l b ias a s f o l lows : F ac tor 1 : S trong p os i t ive v a lues f or t wo measures o ff a lse r e l ief d ecora t ion , c o mb i mpress ion a nd t he ' we igh t ' o fd ecora t ion ( ap os i t ive c orre la tion s o t he v esse ls w i th c o mb d ecora t ion a nd f a lse r e l ief h ave h eavy d ecora t ion ) . T h is s che me i s s trong ly c oncen tra ted i n t he C lyde-For th-Argy l l r eg ion ( t h is i n t rad i t iona l t er ms r epresen ts t he d ecora t ive s cheme o f I r ish b ow ls ) . F ac tor 2 : T h is f ac tor h as s trong p osi t ive c orre la t ions w i th t w is ted c ord , h or izon ta l d ecora t ion ( and mu l t ip les o ft he s ame ) b u t h as g ood n ega tive v a lues f or i nc ised a nd h err ingbone d ecora t ion .

' Vesse ls ' o ft h is s or t a re c oncen tra-

t ed o n t he e as t c oas t ( as a re o nes w i th i nc ised h err ingbone ! ) F ac tor 3 : T h is f ac tor r e la tes we l l w i th h err ingbone d ecora tion , h erringboned c ord , t he ' we igh t ' o fd ecora t ion ( p os i t ive ) a nd w i th b o th i ncised a nd t w is ted c ord d ecora t ion ( b u t n ega t ive w i th c o mb a nd wh ipped c ord ) .

T hese v esse ls

a re r es tr ic ted i n n u mber a nd d is tr ibu t ion , b u t h ave amarked e as t c oas t d ec ora t ion . F ac tor 4 : T he o n ly t wo i mpor tan t v ar iab les h ere a re t wo ' exo t ic ' h err ingbone s ty les ; t he d if feren t ia l t ype a nd t he r ibbed f or m .

T hese f or ms a re a l l o n t he

n or th-eas t c oas ta l s trip . F ac tor 5 : Th is f ac tor h as r e la t ionsh ips w i th v ar ious f or ms o f t r iangu lar d ec ora t ion wh ich a re f or ms c oncen tra ted i n t he A rgy l l-For th-C lyde a rea . 8 6

•

F ac tor 6 :

Th is f ac tor c orre la tes t he v ar ious impressed d ecora t ive f orms a nd

t he b as ic h or izon ta l d ecora t ion . Th is s eems t o b e ac o m mon f ea ture i n many a reas b u t p art icu lar ly i n Y orksh ire . F ac tor 7 :

Th is f ac tor h as s trong c orre la t ions w i th a ngu lar h err ingbone a nd

c omb d ecora t ion a nd a n ega t ive r e la t ionsh ip w i th i ncised a nd t w is ted-cord d ecora tion . Th is l im i ted ' sche me ' i s l imi ted t o t he A rgy l l-For th-reg ion . F ac tor 8 :

Th is h as s trong c orre la t ions w i th wh ipped c ord a nd o b lique d ecora-

t ions ( and n ega t ive w i th i nc ised a nd t w is ted c ord d ecora t ion ) , af or m l imi ted t o t he e as t c oas t . F ac tor 9 : Th is h as s trong c orre la t ions w i th o b l ique d ecora t ion a nd i ncised a nd w h ipped c ord d ecora t ion . There i s n o marked r eg iona l p a t tern . F ac tor 1 0 : T h is h as h igh c orre la t ions w i th v er t ica l d ecora t ion a nd l ower o nes w i th mos t o ft he e xecu t ion med ia . T here i s a ga in n o marked r eg iona l p a t terns . F ac tor 1 1 :

Th is f ac tor h as t he h ighes t v a lues f or p endan t t r iang les a nd t w is ted

c ord d ecora t ion .

Th is i s a n e as t c oas t f orm .

Conc lusions Id o n ot t h ink Ic an e xp la in a l l t he a bove p at terns h ere .

The c lear p oin t

t o n o te t hough , i s t ha t t he more d e ta i led s chemes u n l ike t he ' basic e le men ts ' d o h ave s trong r eg iona l c harac ter is t ics .

The ma in d iv is ion i s b e tween w es t

a nd e as t c oas t , b u t Iw i l l n o t g o i n to f ur ther d iscussion h ere .

S o me c onf ir ma-

t ion o ft he p a t terns i nd ica ted b y t h is f ac tor a na lys is was a ch ieved b y means o f c lus ter a na lys is . Th is t ended t o s how i mpor tan t g roups o f v esse ls ( ra ther t han r e la t ionsh ips o fv ar iab les , Iam n ow d ea l ing w i th c o mp lete e n t i t ies ) e .g . c omb i mpressed a nd f a lse r e l ief d ecora ted f or ms ; t w is ted c ord h erringbone f or ms ; e tc .

i ncised h err ingbone f or ms ;

( The i nc ised/ tw is ted c ord d ichoto my i s

i n teres t ing a nd i s d ea lt w i th f ur ther i n Chap ter 9 .)A t t he s ame t ime t here were v ery t i gh t ( bu t sma l l ) g roup ings o f many o f t he r are d ecora t ive f orms . T hroughou t , t he a na lys is h ere s ugges ts marked r eg iona l p a t tern ing .

T h is

c on trad icts t o s o me e x ten t t he ' i n terna t iona l ' c lass if ica t ion o f F ood V esse ls p referred b y many a u thors ( e .g . Abercromby 1 912 ;

B urgess 1 975 ) .

T here i s

n o d oub t t ha t t here a re o vera l l s i mi lar i t ies , b u t Iw ou ld ma in ta in t wo t h ings : 1 .

I ti s n ot p ar t icu lar ly i n teres t ing t o c ons ider i nd iv idua l v esse ls ( t hey a re l im i ted i n t he a rea t ha t c ou ld b e d ecora ted f or e xamp le a nd t he n umber o f

2 .

d ecora ted f or ms t ha t c ou ld b e p resen t !) . v a lue .

V esse l g roups a re o f f ar g rea ter

T here a re r eg iona l d ecora t ive s chemes .

T hese p at terns c an b e d escr ibed

a s f o l lows ( su m mar ised i n F ig . 4 .1 2 ) . i . Y orksh ire : Tw is ted c ord a nd i nc is ion a re t he ma in t ypes o f d ecora t ion ( bu t w h ipped c ord a nd i mpress ion a lso o ccur ) . H or izon ta l a nd h erringbone p a t terns o ccur mos t f requen t ly . i ng :

C er ta in c o mp lex p at terns c an b e s een i nc lud-

' swa thes ' , l adder c o mp lexes , mu l t ip le h or izon ta l l ines , v er t ica l h err ing-

b one , d if feren t ia l r ad ia l p a t terns e tc . i . Derbysh ire :

T he u se o ft w is ted c ord a nd c o mb a re b oth c o m mon .

c ons idering t he n earness t o Y orksh ire t he d if ferences a re s urpr is ing . 8 7

B u t

Mos t

F ig . 4 .1 2

F ood V esse ls :

ar eg iona li ty o f s ty ling . 8 8

o f t he Y orksh ire f or ms a re u sed , b u t t here i s ap ar t icu lar p enchan t f or t r iang les a nd z ig-zag d ecora t ion .

As i n Y orksh ire l ugs a re p reva len t .

i i . The N or th E as t : The d ecora t ive f or ms f o l low t ha t o f Y orksh ire , b u t w i th h igher p ercen tages o f c o mb a nd a s l igh t ly d if feren t r ange o f ' exo t ics ' . i v . The F or th Tay a rea : Tw is ted c ord , i nc is ion , wh ipped c ord a nd i mp ress ion a re a l l u sed w ide ly . There i s aw ider u se o f f a lse r e l ief t han i n a ny a reas t o t he s ou th .

T r iang les , z ig zags , h err ingbone , l ugs , l oops , ' swa thes ' ,

' d i f feren t ia l d ecora t ion ' , mu l t ip le g roov ing , l adder p a t terns e tc . a re a l l k nown f rom t h is a rea . T he r eg ion p robab ly h as a r icher a ssor tmen t o f s ty les t han a ny o ther a rea . v . Argy l l , C lyde a nd t he Wes t :

Th is h as t he h eav ies t c oncen tra t ion o f

f a lse r e lief a nd c o mb d ecora ted v esse ls i n N or thern B ri ta in ; p oss ib ly o n ly I re land h as more . D ecora ted b ases a re p opu lar ( P la tes V -V I ) . ' Exo t ic ' f or ms o f f a lse r e l ief a re c o mmon t oge ther w i th l oca l h err ingbone s ty l ings . v i .

N or thern S co t land e tc .:

There a re i nsuf f ic ien t v esse ls f ro m t h is

r eg ion t o c o me t o a ny f i rm c onc lusions .

H owever f a lse r e l ief a nd c omb d eco-

r a ted v esse ls a re we l l r epresen ted , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he w es t . 3 .

D ISCR IM INANT ANALYS IS AND THE S TRENGTH OF REG IONAL PATTERNS I fi th as b een s hown t ha t r egiona l v aria t ions d o e x is t a nd t ha t t h is r e la tes

more t o d ecora t ive s che mes ( as p icked o u t b y t he f ac tor a na lys is ) , t he t h ird impor tan t t h ing t o c ons ider i s t he s treng th o f t h is p a t tern . The Manches ter ( CDC 7 600 ) c o mpu ter h as a u sefu l S PSS p rogram wh ich i nd ica tes wh ich v ar ia b les a re t he b es t d iscr im ina tors a nd s o meth ing o ft he ' s treng th o ft he d isc r im ina t ion ' .

Aga in a l im i ted v ariab le l i s t was u t i lised s imi lar t o t ha t u sed

f or t he f actor a na lys is . The R esu l ts Two c onc lus ions c an b e r eached f ro m t he a na lyses a s f o l lows : i .

T he r eg iona l p a t terns i nd ica ted b y t he f actor a na lys is e tc . were c on f irmed .

T he r eg iona l s t yles d escr ibed a bove c orre la ted we l l w i th t hose v ar iables t ha t d iscr im ina ted b es t b e tween g roups . Var ious r eg iona l ' b locks ' were e xam ined i n as eries o f a na lyses . B u t t hese t ended t o f o l low s i mi lar p a t terns a ga in . i .

C erta in a reas w ere v ery much more ' d iscre te ' t han o thers .

The S cot t ish

l ow land a rea h as a c o mp lex mass o fd if feren t s ty les , whereas Y orksh ire h as af a ir ly l im i ted r ange o ft ypes ( as d oes much o ft he e as t c oas t ) . The d iscrimi nan t a na lys is w orks s o t ha t v esse ls a re c lassif ied a s t o b es t g roups . Mos t o ft he v esse ls i n ' wrong ' g roups ( f or e xa mp le a v esse l f rom Y orksh ire w i th aD erbysh ire g roup c lass if ica t ion ) w ere i n t he n eares t a rea ' nex t-door ' . T o al arge e x ten t t hen , t he a na lyses c onf irmed t he s treng th o ft he r eg iona l p a tt erns i n F ood V esse l p ot tery . T o c o mp le te t h is s ec t ion , Il i s t t he f ea tures wh ich ' describe ' t he Y orksh ire g roup o f v esse ls : a .

G enera l a ngu lar b ody s ty le ( s trong c ar na t ions e tc . )

b .

' Zoned ' b ody d ecora t ion ( s imi lar t o t he B eakers ) p resen t o n many v esse ls

c .

The u se o fc o mp lex d ecora t ive ' exo t ic ' s chemes s uch a s : s wa thes ; l adder c o mp lexes ; mu l t ip le h or izon ta l l i nes ; v er t ica l h err ingbone; d if feren t ia l r ad ia l p a t terns ; h err ingboned c ord ; 8 9

e tc .

d .

The u se o ft w is ted c ord a nd i ncised h err ingbone ( a s a l l e as t c oas t )

e .

T he l ack o fc o mb a nd f a lse r e lief d ecora t ion

f . g .

The p resence o fl ugs b o th p erfora ted a nd u nperfora ted The u se o fc oncave a nd s tra igh t b od ied v esse ls

h .

T he u se o fr ing-foot b ases ; w ide r im b eve ls . Many o ft hese f ea tures a re f ound w ide ly , b u t a s as e t o f ' variab les ' t hey

g enera l ly c harac ter ise t he Y orksh ire t ypes . 4 .

QUAL ITY , S TYLE AND REG IONALItY

I n t he s econd p ar t o ft h is c hap ter Iw i l l s how t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween q ua l i ty a nd s ty le a nd t he s ocia l f eatures . H owever , t o c onc lude p ar t o ne o f t h is c hap ter Iw i l l a t te mp t t o a nswer t he s econd q ues t ion p osed a t t he e nd o f s ec t ion 2 ( above ) ; a nd t ry t o e s tab lish t he r e la t ionsh ip o f s ty le a nd q ua l i ty r e la t ionsh ips o n ar eg iona l b as is . Iw i l l d o t h is v ery s imp ly c on tras t ing Y orksh ire w i th ' S cot land ' o n t he b as is o f as er ies o f s ign if icance t es ts ( Tab les 4 .1 -4 ) . T he t ab les r epresen t t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween f abr ic s core a nd v ar ious f ea tures o ft he v esse ls .

O ne c an c onc lude ( accep t ing t he 5% l eve ls o f s ignif i-

c ance ) t ha t Y orksh ire v esse ls a s ag roup h ave c lear r e la t ionsh ips w i th v esse l f ea tures , whereas t he S cot t ish v esse ls h ave f ewer g ood r e la tionsh ips ( bu t o n t he b as is o ft he p rev ious a na lyses t h is i s l i ke ly t o b e c onnec ted w i th t he r e lat ive h e terogene i ty o ft he v esse ls o ft h is a rea a s aw ho le ) . A .

Y orksh ire

i . Mos t o f t he d ecora t ive t ra i ts h ave h igh s ign i f icance l eve ls w i th f abr ic q ua l i ty i nc lud ing ; mu l t ip le h or izon ta ls , d i f feren t ia l r ad ia ls , f i l led t r iang les , c o mbina t ion t r iang le d ecora t ion a nd many f orms o f h err ingbone d ecora tion . Bu t ; l oops , z igzags , c hequer p a t terns , mu l t iple i mpress ions , l adder p a tt erns , e tc . d o n o t s o r e la te . I n f act mos t o f t he c o mp lex d es igns h ave g ood c orre la t ions w i th s core , whereas s imp ler d es igns d o n o t . i . ' score ' .

V esse ls w i th l ugs p ar t icu lar ly p erfora ted o nes c orre la ted we l l w i th V esse ls w i th f l a t r im b eve ls a nd/or s tra igh t b ody p rof i les a nd/or

a ngu lar e x terna l r i ms a lso t end t o h ave h igh s cores . i i . T he b as ic s ize measure men ts h ave p oor c orre la t ions w i th s core . H owever , b o th h e igh t a nd b ase d ia me ter d o a ch ieve t he 5% l eve l . N o te t ha t t he v esse ls w i th h e igh t b e tween 8 a nd 1 4 cm h ave t he h ighes t s cores .

V esse ls

w i th r im b eve l w id th g rea ter t han 1 . 0a nd l ess t han 2 . 5 cm h ave h igher s core v a lues ( bu t t here i s n o s i gn if ican t l eve l o f a ssoc ia t ion ) . T he v esse ls w i th t he n arrowes t b ases d o s ee m t o h ave t he h ighes t s cores ( t h is i s c lose ly r e la ted t o t he way v esse ls a re f i n ished ) . B .

S co t land V ery f ew o ft he v ariab les ( c o mpared w i th Y orksh ire ) a ch ieve s ign if icance

v a lues , b u t t hese a re d i f feren t f ro m t he Yorksh ire v ar iab les . Vesse ls w i th f a lse r e l ief , d if feren t ia l r ad ia l h err ingbone d ecora t ion , a nd p endan t t r iang les h ave h igh s cores .

S imi lar ly v esse ls w i th h eavy b ody d ecora t ion a nd v ar ious

f orms o f h err ingbone d ecora t ion t end t o b e h igh q ua l i ty o nes . h and v esse ls w i th u ndecora ted r im b eve l ' s a re l ow s coring . 9 0

On t he o ther

T ab le 4 .1

Y orksh ire V esse ls Degrees o f

V ar iab le B eve l/he igh t

X2 1 25 . 0 4602

S ign if i-

f reedo m

c ance

R e marks

9 8

0 .0 297

C oncen tra t ion o f h igh s cores o n p o ts w i th w ide b eve l

E x terna l r im s hape

8 2 .55277

2 1

0 .0 000

H igh s cores w i th a ccen tuat ed r im s hapes

B eve l s hape

7 2 .97442

2 1

0 .0 000

H igh s cores-f la t r im b eve ls

N eck s hape

2 2 .40158

2 1

0 .3 767

Mos t v esse ls w i th c onc ave n ecks a re h igh s cor ing

B ody s hape

6 8 .76364

2 8

0 .0 000

H igh s cores-a l l t ypes b u t mos t c oncave o r s tra igh t p rof i les

P erfora ted l ugs

1 37 . 9 6179

2 1

0 .0 000

H igh s cores-w i th l ugs e sp . p erfora ted o nes

L ooped d ecora t ion

8 .19475

7

0 .3 157

N o marked p a t tern

Z ig-zag d ecora t ion

6 .19272

7

0 .5 174

N o marked p a t tern

P endan t t riang les

8 .78108

7

0 .2 688

N o marked p a t tern

C riss-cross d ec .

8 .93640

7

0 .2 573

N o marked p a t tern

3 4 .87193

7

0 .0 000

H igh s cores w i th t h is

V er tica l r ibs

f or m Mu lt ip le h orizon ta ls

5 6 .98287

1 4

0 .0 000

H igh s cores w i th t h is f or m

Mu l tip le i mpress ions D if feren t ia l r ad ia l

6 .63415

7

0 .4 679

3 4 .87193

7

0 .0 000

N o marked p a t tern H igh s cores w i th t h is f or m

Mu ltip le h err ingbone

6 1 .4 3533

7

0 .0 000

H igh s cores w i th t h is f or m

S wa thes

O .9 2690

7

0 .9 959

N o marked p a t tern

F i l led t r iang les

3 .89331

7

0 .8070

N o marked p a t tern

7

0 .0 063

' Herr ingboned c ord '

1 9 .68760

H igh s cores w i th t h is f or m

C o mbina t ion h err ingbone L adder

2 4 .4660

7

0 .0 009

H igh s cores w i th t h is f orm

3 . .56738

0 .8280 9 1

N o marked p a t tern

Degrees Tab le 4 . 1( con td .) X2

Var iab le

1 08 .71407

B ody s ty le

o f

S ign if i-

f reedo m

c ance

5 6

0 .0 000

R e marks H igh s cores ' profuse ' d ecora t ive s tyles

L ack o fd ec . b eve l

4 5 .75761

7

0 .0 028

L ow s cores -no d ecorat ion

L ack o f d ec . n eck

1 8 .96215

Tr iangu lar d ecora t ion

3 7 .95981

7 1 4

0 .0 095

L ow s cores -no d ecoration

0 .0 005

H igh s cores

-T i th

t h is

f or m H erringbone b ody

1 04 .63640

1 4

0 .0 00

H igh s cores w i th t h is f or m

H erringbone b eck

7 5 .35056

8

0 .0 00

H igh s cores w i th t h is d ecora t ion

H err ingbone g roove

1 7 .86920

7

0 .0 126

H igh s cores w i th t h is d ecora t ion

Herr ingbone e x t . r im

1 6 .33767

7

0 .0 222

H igh s cores w i th t h is d ecora tion

H err ingbone b eve l

4 3 .28118

8

O .0 000

H igh s cores w i th t h is d ecora t ion

Impressed b ody

1 0 . 2 1160

8

0 .2 505

No c lear p attern

Impressed n eck

1 2 . 3 9903

8

0 .1 343

S o me t endency f or h igh s cores

Wh ipped c ord b ody

1 2 . 7 0762

8

O .1 223

No c lear p at tern

Wh ipped c ord n eck

8 .48986

8

0 .3 871

N o c lear p at tern

Tw is ted c ord b ody

1 6 . 0 0312

8

0 .0 423

H igh s cores w i th t h is d ecora t ion

Tw isted c ord n eck

1 0 . 8 8063

8

0 .2 886

N o c lear p at tern-so me h igh s cores

I nc ised b ody

Tab le 4 .2

1 5 . 0 9830

G enera l

8

0 .0 573

S o me h igh s cores w ith t h is

A l l v esse ls Degrees

Var iab le G roove s hape

x2

o f

S ign if i-

f reedo m

c ance

1 02 .22820

7 2

0 .0 086

R e marks C oncave g rooves-h igh s core

H e igh t

1 04 .83130

9 8

0 .2 907

H igh s cores -broad ly midd le r ange

9 2

Degrees

Tab le 4 . 2( con td .)

o f V ar iab le B ase d ia me ter

S ignif i-

f reedo m

c ance

R e marks

5 6

0 .0 004

Narrower b ases —h igh

9 8 .4 0211

s cores R im d ia meter

1 39 . 3 7572

1 68

0 .0 571

N o p a t tern c lear b ut midd le r ange f or ms —h igh s core

S hou lder h eigh t B eve l w id th

1 59 .47058

1 40

0 .1 179

7 3 .34754

6 3

O .1 645

N o c lear p a t tern N o c lear p a t tern ( w ider b eve ls —h igh s core )

I n t . r im d ia meter Yorksh ire Vessels :

1 06

1 33 .63943

0 .0 270

B roader r i ms h igh s cores

' we igh t ' o f d ecora tion

S hou lder

7 8 .59356

7 7

O .4 174

N o c lear p at tern

B eve l w id th

6 5 .73881

5 6

0 .1752

( see r e marks a bove )

H e igh t

7 5 .73242

4 9

0 .0 085

H igh s cores w i th midd le s izes

B ase d ia me ter

9 8 .40211

5 6

0 .0 004

H igh s cores w i th n arrow b ases

D if f . h err ingbone

7

1 5 .54951

0 .0 296

H igh s cores w i th t h is d ecora t ion

Ang . h erringbone

7

3 .75314

0 .8 078

H igh s cores , b u t n ot s ign if ican t

Tab le 4 . 3

' We igh t 'o f d ecora t ion :

G enera l :

A l l v esse ls

Degrees o f f reedo m

V ar iab le I nc ised b eve l

7 5 . 1 8511

5 7

S ign if ic ance 0 .0 536

R emarks H igh s cores w i th t h is d ecora tion

Tw isted c ord

1 25 . 8 4862

5 7

0 .0 000

H igh s cores w i th t h is d ecora t ion

Mu l t ip le h orizon ta ls

5 7 . 0 867

1 9

0 .0 132

H igh s cores—va lue w i th t h is d ecora t ion

9 3

Tab le 4 .4

S co t t ish v esse ls-score v a lues Degrees o f

Variab le

X2

f reedo m

S ign if iR e marks

c ance

I n terna l r im

2 2 .19296

3 5

0 .9 544

No c lear p a t tern

B eve l/heigh t

9 1 .66034

9 1

0 .4 510

No c lear p a t tern

B ase/rim

4 2 .78933

1 8

0 .0 009

H igh s cores -broad r i ms , b ases n arrow

Heigh t

2 1 . 1 5049

2 4

0 .6 298

N o c lear p a t tern

B eve l w id th

1 7 . 9 3274

2 8

0 .9 278

No c lear p a t tern

S hou lder h eigh t

5 1 . 0 1068

4 2

O .1 606

N o c lear p a t tern

Base d ia me ter

4 3 . 5 5131

4 9

0 .6 929

No c lear pa t tern

R im d ia meter

3 1 . 6 8626

4 2

0 .8 768

N o c lear p a t tern

Herringbone n eck

4 .5 1724

7

0 .7 186

No c lear p a t tern

Herringbone g roove

5 .8 2898

5

0 .3 232

H igh s core w i th t h is , n ot s ignif ican t

Herringbone e x terna l 1 1 . 2 3065 r im

4

H err ingbone b eve l

1 .8 1575

7

0 .9 693

No c lear p a t tern

Impressed b ody

1 2 . 0 1888

7

0 .0 999

N o c lear p at tern

Wh ipped c ord b eve l

1 1 . 7 2042

7

0 .1 101

No c lear pa t tern

Tw isted c ord b ody

5 .4 0901

7

0 .6 103

No c lear pa t tern

1 2 . 6 3406

7

0 .0 815

H igh s cores t h is d ecora-

Mu l t ip le h orizonta ls

0 .0 241

H igh s core w i th t h is d ecora t ion

t ion C o mb b eve l

4 .9 8704

6

0 .5 6453 N o c lear pa t tern

Angu lar h erringbone

5 .3 6197

6

0 .4 983

H igh s cores t h is p at tern

C o mb-neck

5 .4 3080

6

0 .4 899

No c lear p a t tern

C o mb b ody

6 .33580

6

0 .3 866

N o c lear p at tern

L adder

1 0 . 4 188

6

0 .1081

No c lear p a t tern

No d ec . b eve l

2 0 . 4 8780

6

0 .0 023

No d ec . -low s cores

F a lse r e l ief

2 5 . 3 3157

0 .0 133

F a lse r e lief-h igh s cores

P endan t t r iang les

1 4 . 2 2191

6

0 .0 273

N o c lear p a t tern

' Di f f . h err ingbone '

1 5 . 5 4951

7

0 .0 296

H igh s core t h is p at tern

B ody s ty le

7 2 . 3 2122

3 5

0 .0 002

H igh s core -heavy d ec .

B eve l s hape

3 7 . 9 4614

2 1

0 .0 131

H igh s cores-concave

1 2

9 4

As a c oro l lary , Ih ave e xa m ined t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween ' we igh t o f d ecorat i on ' ( ano ther p oss ib le s core measure ) a ga ins t t he v esse l f eatures ( f ig . 4 .4 ) . T h is s hows s im i lar r e la t ionsh ips t o t hose d escr ibed f or f abr ic s core , b u t I w i l l n o t d escr ibe t hese f ur ther h ere . C onclus ions a .

There i s as trong r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he q ua l i ty o ft he f abric a nd o ther f ea tures o ft he v esse ls i n a l a reas .

b .

There a re d if feren t ' h igh q ua l i ty ' s chemes i n Y orksh ire a nd S cot land . B u t t he p at terns a re f ar l ess c lear f or S co t land .

Much o ft he w ork i n p ar t t wo o ft h is c hap ter c ons iders o n ly a g roup o f v ess e ls f ro m Y orksh ire . When t he s ocia l r e la t ionsh ips a re c onsidered i ts hou ld b e r e me mbered t ha t a l though o ne m igh t e xpec t s im i lar c onf igura t ions i n o ther p ar ts o ft he c oun try t hese a re l i ke ly t o b e o f as l igh t ly d if feren t n a ture . There a re c lear ly d if feren t i deas o f wha t a' h igh q ua li ty ' v esse l s hou ld l ook l i ke i n d i f feren t p ar ts o ft he c oun try .

Iw i l l e n large o n t h is p o in t l a ter i n t h is c hap ter .

S um mary—Par t 1 A .

Ih ave e s tab l ished t he n a ture o ft he F ood V esse l t ype .

B .

Ih ave s hown t ha t F ood V esse ls v ary s trong ly o n ar eg iona l b as is .

C .

Ih ave s hown t ha t t here i s ac orre la t ion o f v esse l q ua li ty a nd v ar ious f eat ures o ft he p o t tery , b u t t h is c hanges f rom r eg ion t o r eg ion a s we l l .

9 5

PART 2 I n t he s econd p ar t o ft h is c hap ter Iw i l l a t temp t t o s how t wo t h ings : i .

T he i n ter-re la t ionsh ip o f q ua l i ty v ar iab les i n B r i ta in ( my s amp le ) a nd more u sefu l ly w i th in Y orksh ire The r e la t ionsh ip o f s ocia l f ea tures t o t he f orm o ft he F ood V esse l ( t he s ex a nd a ge o f a ssocia ted b ur ia ls ; g rave f urn iture e tc . ) .

C lus ter a na lys is 7 02 v esse ls Ih ave a lready s hown t ha t t here d oes s eem t o b e s ome s ignif ican t r e la t ions h ip b e tween ' qua l i ty measures ' a nd o ther v esse l f eatures o n ar eg iona l b as is . H owever , i fo ne c lus ters t he v esse ls , i n teres t ing p an-Br i t ish p a t terns emerge . The c lus ter ing was a ga in d one o n t he b as is o f ar es tr ic ted v ar iab le l i s t . Howe ver , b ecause o ft he l arge n umbers i nvo lved t he c o mpu ter a na lys is w as d one o n

o n t he b as is o f as er ies o f s a mp les .

The s tandard C lus tan 1 A p ackage o n

1 906S c o mpu ter a t S hef f ie ld was u ti l ised . f o l lows :

T he r esu l ts c an b e s u mmarised a s

a . T here was a t endency f or t he c lus ter a na lys is t o p roduce a r ange o f sma l l g roups a t ' ear ly s tages o fc lus ter ing ' . T hese w ere o f s evera l f or ms , b u t g roups o f c o mb d ecora ted p ots , t w is ted c ord h err ingbone v esse ls , i ncised h err ingbone v esse ls f igured s trong ly ( Tab le 4 .6 ) . The E n larged a nd Sma l l F ood V esse ls s epara ted o u t we l l a lso .

Many o ft he ' reg iona l ly p reva lent '

s che mes s eemed t o h ave g rea t i mpor tance i n t he c lus ter ing . ( see b e low ) b .

The mos t i mpor tan t d iv is ion a ppeared a t t he t wo c luster l eve l .

a s w i th B eakers was b e tween ' f ine ' a nd ' l ess f i ne ' v esse ls .

Th is

I n t he ' f ine g roup '

a re l u mped t oge ther ' h igh q ua l i ty ' p o ts f rom a l l p ar ts o ft he c oun try ' t radi t iona l ly t er med ' I r ish B ow ls ', ' Yorksh ire V ases ', ' I r ish V ases ' a nd t he l i ke. ( The r esu l ts a re s u m marised i n Tab le 4 .7). A t t he t wo c lus ter l eve l t wo s ubs tan t ia l g roups a re f or med o fh eav i ly d ecorat ed/we l l f in ished f or ms , a nd b ipar t p oor ly d ecora ted/poor ly f in ished t ypes .

O n

O n t he o ther h and many o ft he b ipar t a nd t r ipar t v esse ls f al w i th in t he ' l ess f i ne g roup ' .

Id id n o t p erfor m a d iscrim inan t a na lysis o n t hese g roupings b u t

t he ma in d if ferences b e tween t he g roups w ere a s f o l lows : a . ' Qua li ty s core ' v ar iab les h ad q u i te d if feren t p at terns f or e ach g roup ( f ine/ less f ine o . T he ' f ine v esse ls ' w ere 1 5% l arger o n a verage i n h e igh t a nd h ad marked ly w ider r im d ia me ter , r im b eve ls e tc . c . L ugs o ccur f ar more of ten o n t he ' f ine v esse ls ' , a nd h ard ly a t a l l o n t he l ess f i ne o nes ( c . 8% ) d . I ncis ion , c o mb i mpression , t w is ted c ord , wh ipped c ord , f a lse r e lief , h err ingbone e tc . were a l l f or ms o f d ecora t ion o ccurr ing more o n t he ' f ine ' v esse ls e . T he ' f ine ' v esse ls w ere more h eav i ly d ecora ted p ar t icu lar ly o n t he b ody f . Mos t o ft he ' exot ic ' f or ms o fd ecora t ion w ere e xc lus ive ly r es tr ic ted t o t he ' f ine ' g roup g . I n a dd i t ion t he ' f ine v esse ls ' h ad s tra igh ter , l ess b aggy b od ies , more f l a t tened o r c oncave r im b eve ls , b et ter ' f in ished ' f ee t e tc . 9 6

Th is r a ther p re l im inary a na lysis s ee med t o ma tch i n av ery s tr iking manner t he k inds o fp at terns a ch ieved f or B eakers .

I ti s q ui te r e markab le t ha t t he

' qua li ty ' d if ferences s hou ld h ave s uch a s trong ly p an-Br i t ish a spec t t o t he m t hough .

I n t he c ase o ft he B eakers , Id id n o t h ave a c o mpara t ive B r i t ish

s a mp le , b u t o n t he b as is o f C larke ( 1 970 ) i ts eems v ery l i ke ly t ha t t here a re s uch q ua l i ty d i f ferences c ross-cu t t ing h is ' reg iona l ' g roupings ( name ly t he S ou thern a nd N or thern f or ms ) . I n t he c ase o f F ood V esse ls i ti s v ery s ign if ic an t t ha t f ea tures s uch a s l ugs a re v ery much r es tr ic ted t o t he ' h igh q ua li ty ' v esse ls . To c on t inue t h is a na lys is , It hough t i tv i ta l t o h ave a r es tr ic ted s amp le f or a n u mber o f r easons : i . T o r es tr ic t t he r eg iona l b iases i . i i .

To h ave a s amp le t ha t was ' re l iab le ' a nd w i th g ood b uria l i nfor ma t ion To h ave a g roup t ha t c ou ld b e c omfor tab ly h and led b y t he c o mpu ters a nd p rograms Iwas u s ing .

It hus ( l arge ly o n t he b as is o ft he f i rs t t wo f actors a bove ) s e lected 1 92 v esse ls f ro m ' good ' c on tex ts w i th in Y orksh ire . These a re d escr ibed i n t he a ppend ix . A t t he s ame t ime , Iwas a sk ing q ues t ions o f ar a ther d i f feren t n a ture i n t h is c ase a nd Ir es ty led my v ariab le l i s t .

Th is was t o h ave more

n u meric s equences; l ess i n teres t i n d ecora t ive z ones , b u t more i n amoun t o f d ecora t ion a nd t ypes ; a nd more i n teres t i n v esse l s hapes a nd f orms . l i s t u sed was a s f o l lows : 1 . Mean r im d iame ter

1 5 . S hape o fn eck

2 . Mean b eve l w id th

1 6 . S hape o fg roove

T he

3 . Mean b ase d iame ter

1 7 . S hape o fb ody 8 . P resence o f f ee t/cover 4 . Descr ip t ion o fl ugs ( perfora ted e tc . )1 5 . V er tica l we igh t o fd ecora t ion 1 9 . F a lse r e l ief d ecora t ion p /a 6 . H orizon ta l w e igh t o fd ecora t ion 7 . S urface t rea t men t ( score )

2 0 . ' Swa thed d ecora t ion ' p /a

8 . H erringbone/beve l 9 . H err ingbone/neck

2 2 . H or izon ta l l i ne d ecora t ion p /a

2 1 . Wh ipped c ord p /a 2 3 . Z igzags p /a

1 0 . Herr ingbone/groove

2 4 . L ooped d ecora t ion p /a

1 . H erringbone/body

2 5 . D egree o f a ngu lar i ty

1 2 . S oph is t ica ted h err ingbone 1 3 . B ody d ecora t ive s ty le

2 6 . M isce l laneous f ea tures 2 7 . E x terior r im s hape

1 4 . S hape o fr im b eve l

2 8 . F oo t s hape 2 9 . ' De l icacy o fd ecora t ion '

T he f i rs t a na lys is p erfor med was t he c lus ter a na lys is , u s ing t he s ame me thods a s d escr ibed a bove f or t he 7 02 v esse ls . b efore : i .

T he r esu l ts a re b road ly t he s ame a s

Two ma in g roup ings ' f ine ' a nd ' l ess f i ne ' E n larged a nd m in ia ture v esse l s epara te e ar ly .

9 7

Tab le 4 . 5 2c lus ter l eve l means Variab le Heigh t

l ess f i ne g roups ( 191 )

f i ne g roup ( 160 ) 1 1 .5

1 3 . 2

Base

6 .9

R im

1 4 . 9 2

( 10 .15 )

cm

6 .7

( 5 . 8 8)

cm

1 2 .9

( 11 . 6 )

cm

S hou lder

7 .7

5 .1

( 4 . 6 8)

cm

Groove w id th

1 .49

0 .33

( O . 3 9 )

cm

B evel s hape

1 .52

1 .4 6

( 1 . 4 9 )

r egu lari ty v a lue

L ugs

1 .62

1 .0 9

( 1 .17)

2 -pres . 1a bs .

I ncision

1 .51

0 .39

( 0 .6 0 )

amoun t

C o mb

O .4 9

0 .0 5

( 0 .15 )

amount

Tw isted c ord

1 .20

0 .72 ( 1 . 1 8)

amoun t amount

Wh ipped c ord

1 .05

0 .45

Impressed

1 .52

0 .91 ( 0 . 8 7)

amoun t

Herringbone

1 .76

0 .3 9 ( 0 . 5 9 )

amoun t

F a lse r e lief

O .3 0

0 .0 0 ( 0 . 0 15 )

amoun t

L oops

1 .00

1 . 0 0 ( 1 . 0 7)

amoun t

Triang les

0 .27

0 .0 6 ( 0 . 4 8)

amoun t

I n terior b urn ish

2 .96

2 .08

v a lue

Ex terior b urn ish

3 .18

2 .20 ( 2 . 5 8)

v a lue

L ack o fd ecora t ion

3 .42

1 .5 6 ( 1 . 9 9)

v a lue d egree

( 0 . 5 6)

( 2 .3 9 )

B ody s ty le

7 .10

6 .22

Punched

1 .00

1 .6 0 ( 1 . 0 5 )

D if ferentia l

1 .00

1 .0 0 ( 1 . 0 6)

amount

Herringboned c ord

1 .0 12

1 .02

( 1 . 0 0 )

amoun t

Angu lar h err ingbone

1 .05

1 .0 0 ( 1 . 0 0 )

amoun t

Mu ltip le impression

1 .13

1 .23

F a lse r e lief c o mp lex

1 .21

1 . 0 0 ( 1 . 0 4 )

amount

Z ig- Z ag

1 .08

1 .0 0 ( 1 . 1 5 )

amoun t

( 6 .7 1)

( 1 . 1 4 )

mean

9 8

amount

amoun t

Tab le 4 .6

4c lus ter l eve l g roup ings 1

1

1 .35

2

3

4

1 .38

1 .04

1 .83

Lugs

2

0 .9 5

0 .6 3

0 .2 6

4 . 0 4

I ncised

3

2 .1 3

0 .1 0

0 .0 0

0 .0 2

C o mb

4

0 .15

1 .72

0 .33

0 .29

Tw is ted c ord

5

0 .6 0

0 .9 6

O .1 5

Wh ipped c ord Impressed

0 .7 2

6

1 .9 5

1 .1 7

0 .4 6

1 .2 4

7

0 .8 8

0 .8 8

0 .4 8

3 .4 8

H orizon ta l b one c ord

8

1 .85

1 .63

0 .34

H orizon ta l

9

0 .47

0 .65

1 .00

0 .28

0 .29

V ert ica l

1 0

1 .1 8

0 .0 1

0 .0 0

0 .0 7

F a lse r e lief

1 1

1 .00

1 .06

1 .00

1 .00

L oops

1 2

0 .1 5

0 .5 6

0 .0 5

Triang les

0 .0 4

1 3

3 .2 2

2 .7 4

1 .7 0

2 .6 8

B urn ish

1 4

3 .3 2

2 .9 6

1 .7 4

3 . 0 7

Burn ish

1 5

3 .25

2 .74

1 .80

2 .78

S urface

1 6

3 .42

2 .93

1 .85

3 .22

S urface

1 7

3 .42

2 .67

1 8

3 .00

2 .76

1 9

3 .33

2 .90

1 .59 1 .97 1 .67

2 0

2 .98

2 .79

2 1

8 .68

6 .64

2 2

1 .2 5

1 .1 0

2 3

1 .0 3

1 .0 4

2 4

1 .0 0

1 .0 6

2 5

1 .00

1 .00

2 6

1 .0 0

1 .0 0

2 7

1 .2 0

1 .0 0

2 8

1 .0 8

1 .0 5

1 .0 0

2 9

1 .0 8

1 .2 2

1 .0 2

3 0

1 .73

1 .41

1 .0 7

4 0

2 24

4 6

N u mber

0 .96

3 .26

Ang le

3 .00

G ri t

3 .24

F or m

3 .41

Undecora ted

6 .12

S ty le

1 .0 2

1 .0 2

L adder

1 .0 0

1 .0 0

"Punched"

1 .0 0

1 .0 0

D ifferen tia l

1 .00

1 .00

Swa thed

1 .0 0

1 .0 5

Herr ingbone c ord

1 .0 0

Angu lar h erringbone

7 .21

1 .0 0

V a lues r efer t o d egree o f d ecora t ion e tc .

9 9

1 .0 2 1 .1 0 1 .0 7

Vert ica l h erringbone Mu l tip le d o t Mu lt ip le l ine

4 1 ( see Tab le 4 . 5f or d e tai led b reakdown )

Tab le 4 ,7

1 92 v esse ls 1

2

1 4 .7

1 4 .6

cm

1 .7

cm cm v a lue ( 1-4 )

2c lus ter l eve l 1 .

r im

2 .

b ase

1 .6

3 .

b eve l

7 .1

6 .6 2 .43

l ugs

1 .18

5 .

p ro fuseness

9 .63

8 .

h err ingbone b eve l

1 .1

4 .

v a lue ( 0-25 )

1 .88

p /a ( 1/2 )

1 1 .

h err ingbone b ody

1 .2

2 .44

v a lue ( 1-5 )

1 3 .

b ody d ec .

3 .4

7 .5

v a lue ( 1-9 )

1 4 .

b ody s hape

1 .85

v a lue ( 1-5 )

1 6 .

f ee t

3 .93 1 .0

1 .07

p /a ( 1/2 )

1 7 .

f a lse r e l ief

1 .0

1 .07

p /a ( 1/2 )

2 0 .

wh ipped c ord

1 .48

2 .43

v a lue ( 1-5 )

2 5 .

e x terna l a ng le

2 .23

3 .17

v a lue ( 1-5 )

2 6 .

f oot

3 .34

2 .39

v a lue ( 1-5 )

1 13

n u mber 1 .

1 8 .0

( See a bove ) d ecora t ion .

2 .

7 9

L arge p oor ly d ecora ted g roup l ack ing e xo t ic f eatures a nd " Loose ly a ng led" f or ms p redo m ina te .

L arge g roup ma in ly c ons is t ing o f " Yorksh ire V ases" h eav i ly d ecora ted e tc .

The minor g roups w i th e xo t ic f ea tures s uch a s f ee t a re a l l i nc luded

i n t h is ma in g roup .

Tab le 4 .8

S u mmary o f T able 9

Var iab le

x2

d egrees o f f reedo m

s igni f icance l eve l

l ugs

6 7 .01678

3

0 .0000

h erring , b ody

5 3 .11681

5

0 .0000

h err ing , b eve l

3 3 .12070

4

0 .0000

a ngu lari ty

6 8 .28507

6

0 .0000

f oo t s hape

4 1 .94582

5

0 .0000

b ody s hape

6 3 .25163

5

0 .0000

b ody s ty le

5 4 .16977

8

0 .0000

s urface t r . p rofuseness 1 . 2 , d e l icacy o f d ec .

9 1 .97797

2 3

0 .0000

2 5

0 .0000

1 18 .23528

2 4

0 .0000

1 03 .75511

2 1

0 .0000

1 12 .84679

b eve l s hape

3 2 .30422

4

0 .0000

e x t . r im s h .

3 2 .41904

4

0 .0000

b eve l w id th

3 8 .46359

f a lse r e l ief

7 .483319

2 3

0 .0227

3

0 .0582

1 00

T ab le 4 . 9 S core v . f ea tures

1 . l ugs G roup :

a bsen t

u nperfora ted

9 9 2 3

1 0 2 8

1 2

c h i-square

9

a bsen t

1 1

1 00

c h i-square 5 3 . 1 1681 3 .

H .b one/beve l

G roup :

i nc ised

1 03

8

4 6

9

1

6

2

0

c h i-square 6 8 . 2 8507 5 .

F oo t s hape

G roup :

1 9

4 7

1

0

2

9

2

i mpressed

c o mb

1

0

0

1

5

0

s ign if icance 0 .0 000

4

8

0

5

2 7

1 1

1 9

2 4

6 3 2 2

7

8 > more a ngu lar

0

0

5

0

s ignif icance 0 .0 000

r ingfoo t

c oncave

f la t

1

0

6

7

3 9

6 0

1

2

2

3 1

1 0

1

2 1

1

1 2

1 2

c h i-square 5 4 . 1 6977

2 8 5

c onvex

2

3

4

5

6

2 5

1

8

2 1

3 6

2 2

5 2

9

7

T op

6

4

S urface t rea t men t 2 5 v a lues :

2

3

s ign if icance 0 .0 000

/Basa l/band/ topha lf/75%/a l l b u t f oot/p l/a l l

3 6

2degrees

misc .

s ign if icance 0 .0 000

5d egrees o f f reedo m

B ody d ecora t ion s ty le/ G roup :

1 4

5d egrees o f f reedo m

B ody s hape v a lues

c h i-square 6 3 . 2 5163

8 .

1

3

1

wh ipped

1 8

2

c o mb

n one

G roup :

7 .

t w is ted

6d egrees o f f reedo m

c h i-square 4 1 . 9 4582 6 .

1

i mpressed

s igni f icance 0 .0 000

4d egrees o f f reedo m

Angu lar i ty v a lues G roup :

2 5

a bsen t

1 2

h .b one

6

1 0

1 13 7 9

s ign if icance 0 .0 000

t w is ted

6

T o ta l

0 3

5d egrees o f f reedo m

c h i-square 3 3 . 1 2080

4 .

i ncised

3 1

2

t wo r ows

4 2 5

6 7 . 0 1687 3 d egrees o f f reedo m

H .b one/body

G roup:

p erfora ted

0

1

2 2

2

8

4

1 2

1

0

1 4

4

6

6

3 9

o f f reedo m

s ign if icance 0 .0 000

l ower 1 5 v a lues d om ina ted b y g roup 1

h ighes t 1 0 v a lues b y g roup 2 . ( Lowes t 4 6 v a lues a l l g roup 1 .) c h i-square 9 1 . 9 7797

2 3 d egrees o f f reedo m

v ery s ign if ican t

1 01

s ign if icance 0 .0 000

Tab le 4 .9 ( con td .) 9 .

' Ver t ica l ' p ro fuseness . 2 5 v a lues , d e ta i ls a s l as t .

L owes t 4 7 v a lues al

g roup 1 . c h i-square 1 12 .84679

2 5 d egrees o f f reedo m

s ign if icance 0 .0 00 v ery s ign i-

v ery s ign if ican t 1 0 . ' Hor izon ta l ' p ro fuseness . 2 5 v a lues , d e ta i ls a s l as t , l owes t 3 7 v a lues o f g roup 1 . c h i-square 1 18 .23528 w i th 2 4 d egrees o f f reedo m , s ign if icance 0 .0 000 v ery s ign if ican t 1 1 .

' De l icacy ' o f d ecora t ion . 2 5 v a lues d e ta i ls a s l as t .

C h i-square 1 03 .75511

2 1 d egrees o f f reedo m

s ign if icance 0 .0 000

v ery s ign if ican t 1 2 .

B eve l s hape

f l a t

1

3 7

1 3

5 0

2

5 4

1 1

1 3

G roup :

c h i-square 3 2 .30422

s haped

c onvex

c oncave 1 3 1

4d egrees o f f reedo m

s igni f icance 0 .0 000

v ery s ign if ican t 1 3 .

E x terna l r im s hape G roup :

a bsen t

v es t ig ia l

a ccentua ted

3 4 2 1

3 1 2 0

3 5 5

1

2

c h i-square 3 2 .41904 4 d egrees o f f reedo m v ery s ign if ican t 1 4 .

F a lse r e l ief d ecora t ion :

G roup :

1

1 13

2

7 4

c h i-square 7 .4 83319 1 5 .

B eve l .

a bsen t

3

s ign if icance 0 .0 582

8 2 4

s ign if icance 0 .0 000

p resen t 0 0

a ngu lar d ecora ted

2 z o nes

0 0 2 n o t s ign if ican t

M idd le r ange o n ly a rea f or g roup 2 .

c h i-square 3 8 .46359

w i th 2 3 d egrees o f f reedo m

s ign if ican t

1 02

s ign if icance 0 .0 227

5 9

S UM MARY L IST OF C M-SQUARE TESTS OF LUGGED VESSELS AGA INST " LUGGED VESSEL" GROUP INGS : T ab le 4 .1 0 1 .

l ugs

a bsen t

u nperfora ted

1 22 0

0 3 8

G roup: 1 2

p erfora ted 0 2 9

0 3

c h i-square 1 92 . 0 0000 3 d egrees o f f reedo m 2 .

2r ows p erfora ted

s ign if icance 0 ,0 000 v ery s ign if ican t

Herr ingbone/body a bsen t i nc ised t w isted c ord wh ipped

G roup :

1 00 3 1

1

2 c h i-square 3 5 .42106

8 8

9 2 2

5d egrees o f f reedo m

i mpressed

0 3

c o mb

5 4

0 2

s ign if icance 0 .0 000

v ery s ign if ican t 3 .

Herr ingbone/beve l Group :

a bsen t

1

1 07

2

4 2

c h i-square 2 6 .94677

i ncised t w is ted c ord wh ipped 7

4

1 0

1 5

4d egrees o f f reedo m

i mpressed

c o mb

0

4

0

2

1

0

s ign if icance 0 .0 000

v ery s ign if ican t 4 .

Angu lar i ty v a lues G roup :

1

2

3

4

5

1

6

2 0

4 5

2 6

1 5

2

0

1 0

2 0

2 0

c h i-square 4 2 . 5 6873

0

6d egrees o f f reedo m

6

7

9

>

more a ngu lar

1

1 6

4

s ign if icance 0 .0 000

v ery s ign if ican t 5 .

F oo t s hape

G roup

:

n one

1 2

1 1

c h i-square 2 7 .10711

r ingfoo t

c oncave

1 1 6

f l a t

c onvex

misc .

3 8 3 2

6 0 1 0

2 0

1 0 1 1

5d egrees o f f reedo m

s ign if icance 0 .0 001

v ery s ign if ican t 6 .

Body s hape v a lues

1

2

3

4

5

6

G roup : 1 2

3 7 4 0

2 8

6 9

1 9 8

3 6 2

2 2 3

c h i-square 4 2 .70880

5d egrees o f f reedo m

s ign if icance 0 .0 000

v ery s ign if ican t 7 .

Body d ec . s ty le n one/fr inge/fringe/fr inge-ban

G roup :

1 2

c h i-square 3 5 . 4 8141

2 4 9

3 6 4

5 0%/75%/a l l b u t f oo t/gap/a l l

0

1

2 3

3

1

0

1 2

3

8d egrees o f f reedo m

v er7 s ign if ican t 1 03

s ign if ican t 0 .0 000

1 1 3

3

2 0

7

3 1

8 .

S urface t rea t men t : 2 5 v a lues c oncen tra t ion o fg roup 1 i n l o wer 1 5 c oncent ra t ion o fg roup 2 i n u pper 1 0 ( 15-25 ) .

c h i-square 7 0 .66972

2 3 d egrees o f f reedo m , s ign if icance 0 .0 000

v ery s ign if ican t 9 .

V er t ica l p rofuseness .

2 5 v a lues :

c oncen tra t ion o fg roup 1 i n l ower 1 5

a nd o fg roup 2 i n u pper 1 0 ( 15-25 ) c h i-square 9 7 . 2 6321

2 5 d egrees o f f reedo m

s ign if icance 0 .0 000

v ery s ign if ican t 1 0 .

H or izon ta l p rofuseness .

2 5 v a lues c oncen tra t ion o fg roup 1 i n l ower 1 5

a nd o fg roup 2 i n u pper 1 0 ( 15-25 ) . c h i-square 8 6 .12614

2 4 d egrees o f f reedo m

s ign i f icance 0 .0 000

v ery s ign if ican t 1 1 .

De l icacy o f d ecora t ion .

2 5 v a lues c oncen tra t ion o fg roup 1 i n l ower 1 5

a nd o fg roup 2 i n u pper 1 0 ( 15-25 ) . c h i-square 7 7 . 5 3014 2 1 d egrees o f f reedo m

s ign if icance 0 .0 000

v ery s ign if ican t 1 2 .

B eve l s hape

G roup :

f l a t

1 2

s haped

4 3 4 8

c h i-square 2 4 . 2 8451

c onvex

c oncave

4 8 1 4

1 4 0

1 6 8

4d egrees o f f reedo m

misc . 1 0

s ign if icance 0 .0 001

v ery s ign if ican t 1 3 .

E x terna l s hape G roup :

a bsen t v es t ig ia l

1

3 6

2

4

c h i-square 3 6 . 5 1039

a ccen tua ted a ngu lar

3 9

3 3

1 6

1 8

4d egrees o f f reedo m

a ngu lar & d ecora ted

8 2 4

6 8

s ign if icance 0 .0 000

v ery s ign if ican t 1 4 .

F a lse r e lief d ecora t ion 1 G roup : 2

c h i-square 1 .3 7203 1 5 .

a bsen t p resen t p resen t x 2 1 20

1

1

6 7

2

1

2d egrees o f f reedo m

s ign i f icance 0 .5 036

n o t s ign if ican t

B eve l w id th a s er ies o fv a lue c oncen tra t ion o fg roup 2 i n midd le v a lues .

c h i-aquare 3 4 . 5 0370 w i th 2 3 d egrees o f f reedom

s ign if icance 0 .0 582 s quare

n ot s ign if ican t I n mos t c ases i t was f ound t ha t p hys ica l measures r e la ted b ad ly t o d ecorat ive a nd s ty l is t ic v ar iab les . ar im/base measure .

H owever , t here was o ne u sefu l v ariab le o f s ize ,

Th is p icked o u t b roader r i ms a nd n arrow b ases .

1 04

T ab le 4 . 1 1 l ugged/un lugged c orre la t ion

V ar iab le

s ign if icance

p rofuseness 1

0 .10790

0 .0 6816

p rofuseness 2

0 .10454

0 .0 7450

h err ingbone b eve l

0 .1 4707

0 .0 2089 s ign if ican t

h err ingbone n eck

0 .11533

0 .0 5558

h err ingbone g roove

0 .0 9318

0 .0 9931

b ody h err ingbone

O .1 5013

0 .01883

0 . 0 1483

0 .41913

b ody d ecora t ion a ngu lar i ty

O .1 7643

0 .0 0718 s ign if ican t

Tab le 4 .1 1 s hou ld b e c o mpared w i th T ab le 4 .1 2 wh ich g ives s ign if icance v a lues f or u n lugged a nd l ugged v esse ls a ga ins t as im i lar g roup o fv ar iab les ( p redic tab ly f ro m t he l arge g roup o f l ugged v esse ls i n t he ' f ine ' g roup h igh c h i-square v a lues a re a ga in o b ta ined ) . T ab le 4 . 1 2

2c lus ter l eve l d egrees f reedo m

V ar iab le L ugs

1 92 . 0 00

s ignif icance l eve l

3

0 .0 000

h err ingbone b eve l

3 5 .42106

5

0 .0 000

h err ingbone b eve l

2 6 . 9 4677

4

0 .0 000

a ngulari ty

4 2 . 5 6873

6

0 .0 000

f oo t s hape

2 7 .10711

5

C .0 001

b ody s hape

4 2 . 7 0880

5

0 .0 000

b ody s ty le

3 5 .48141

8

0 .0 000

s urface t r .

7 0 .66972

2 3

0 .0 000

p rofuseness 1 .

9 7 .26321

2 5

0 .0000

p rofuseness 2 .

8 6 . 1 2614

2 4

0 .0 000

' d e l icacy '

7 7 . 5 3014

2 1

0 .0 000

b eve l s hape

2 4 . 2 8451

4

0 .0 001

e x t . r im , s hape

3 6 . 5 1039

4

0 .0 000

1 .3 7203

2

0 .0 5036

3 4 .50370

2 3

0 .0582

f a lse r e l ief d ec . b eve l w id th

1 05

The d iferences b e tween t he g roups were s im i lar t o t hose d escribed a bove , b u t i n v iew o f s l igh t ly d i f feren t V ar iab le l i s t o fr a ther d iferen t n a ture : a .

The ' f ine ' v esse ls h ad b e t ter s urface t rea tment .

b .

The ' f ine ' v esse ls h ad h eav ier , more d e l ica te a nd more ' profuse ' d ecora t ion .

c .

L ugs , f ee t , a nd c overs a re r es tr ic ted l arge ly t o t he ' f ine ' v esse ls .

d .

Mos t o ft he d ecora t ive f or ms r e la te t o ' f ine ' v esse ls r a ther t han ' l ess f i ne ' o nes .

e .

The s hapes o ft he ' l ess f i ne ' v esse ls a re a l toge ther more b aggy a nd more p oor ly f or med .

Iw ou ld s ugges t t ha t t h is v ery b as ic d i f ference c ross-cu ts t he t urg id F ood V esse l t ypo log ies o ft he p as t , p ar t icu lar ly i n v iew o ft he ' pan-Bri t ish ' a na lys is . CONFIRMATION :

D ISC IMINANT ANALYS IS AND S TATISTICAL TESTS

Two d iscr im inan t a na lyses were a t te mp ted .

T he f i rs t o n t he t wo ma jor

c lus tered g roup ings h ere s howed t ha t t he d if ferences c ould b e ' recogn ised ' f or 9 2 .3% o fv esse ls , wh ich i s av ery h igh f i gure .

The p rob lems a re more

l ike ly t o b e ar esu lt o fc lus ter ing d if f icu l t ies ( t he l ack o f ' h i l l-c l i mb ing ' , r ea l loca t ion i n t he p rogram u sed ) , b u t t hese d o l i t t le d amage t o t he q ua l i ty o f t he r esu l ts h ere . T o s e t a ga ins t t h is , It ook t he l ugged v esse ls a s ag roup a nd d iscrimina ted t hese a ga ins t t he n onlugged f or ms .

Aga in t he r esu l ts a re v ery c onv inc ing .

8 3 . 6% o fv esse ls a re c orrec t ly d iscr im ina ted .

I n t h is c ase , i ti s c lear t ha t

s o me ' poor ' q ua l i ty l ugged v esse ls a re c aus ing p rob lems . T he b as is o ft he d iscrim ina t ion i n b o th c ases i s t he l i s t o f f ea tures o u t l ined a bove . S ta t is t ica l t es ts On t he f o l low ing p ages Ip resen t al i s t o f c h i-square t es ts t o c heck t he s ign if icance o fv ar iab les a ga ins t t he g roup ings . I n mos t c ases t he v ar iab les r e la te we l l a s c an b e s een .

The ma in d if f icu l t ies a re i n t he c ases o ft he

p hys ica l s ize measures w hich c ons is ten t ly a re p oorer i nd ica tors o f ' f ine ' v esse ls t han a ny o ft he ' qua li ty s cores ' , ' decora t ive s cores ' d ecora t ive f ea tures o r f or m f ea tures . I n mos t c ases i t was f ound t ha t p hys ica l measures r e la ted b ad ly t o d ecorat ive a nd s ty l is t ic v ariab les . ar im/base measure .

H owever , t here was o ne u sefu l v ariab le o f s ize ,

Th is p icked o u t b roader r ims a nd n arrow b ases .

C onc lus ions There a re c lear ly s trong i n ter-re la t ionsh ips o f a who le a rray o f F ood V esse l f eatures . The ma in d e ter m inan t o f t h is v ar iab i li ty s ee ms t o b e b road ly r e la ted t o ' qua l i ty ' . There i n f ac t s ee ms t o b e ab reak o f t he who le F ood Vess e l s equence i n to ' f ine ' a nd ' l ess f i ne ' v esse ls ( as Ih ave t ermed t hem ) . FACTOR ANALYS IS :

VESSEL I NTER-RELATIONSH IPS AND SOC IAL PATTERNS

H av ing d e mons tra ted c er ta in p a t terns , o ne o f t he b es t me thods o f e xa mi n ing t hese i n s o me d e ta i l ( t ha t Ip refer ) i s t he u se o f R - mode f ac tor a na lysis 1 06

( SPSS manua l ) . s ed i n d e ta i l .

T hese a l low t he i n ter-re la t ionsh ip o f v ar iab les t o b e a ssesThe g enera t ion o ff ac tor s core v a lues a lso a l lows a c lear p icture

o fp a t terns . T he r esu l ts O n t he b as is o ft he a na lys is many o f t he f ea tures n o ted a bove were c onf i rmed . The s ize v ariab les r e la ted mos t p oor ly w i th t he s ty le a nd f or m f eat ures . B u t t here w ere c lose i n ter-re la t ionsh ips b e tween q ua l i ty v a lues a nd f ea tures o fd ecora t ion a nd s hape . A ccep t ing e igenva lues o f 1 .0 0 , t here a re f i ve impor tan t f ac tors o n ly ,accoun ting f or mos t o ft he F ood V esse l v ar iance : F ac tor 1 Th is r e la ted b es t w i th n ine o ft he v ariab les : l ugs , h err ingbone b eve l d ecor a t ion , h err ingbone b ody d ecora t ion , s hape o fb eve l , s hape o ft he b ody , s hape o ft he e x ter ior r im , a ngu lar i ty o f t he v esse l , s hape o ft he f oot a nd I dec l icacy ' o f t he d ecora t ion . T he v esse ls w i th h igh v a lues o ft hese v ariab les t end t o b e o f ' h igh q ua l i ty ' , b u t r a ther more t han t h is ,they t end t o a pproach t he a ngu lar f orm o ft he t rad i t iona l ' Yorksh ire V ase ' . F ac tor 2 Th is f ac tor r e la tes mos t c lose ly w i th 5 v ariab les :

2o f d ecora t ion p rofuse-

n ess ( we igh t ) , t he s urface t rea t men t , t he d egree a nd s ty le o f b ody d ecora t ion , a nd t he p resence o f ' f a lse-re l ief ' d ecora t ion . T he v esse ls w i th h igh v a lues o f t hese v ar iab les t end t o b e d is t inc t ive a nd o f v ery f i ne q ua li ty a nd i nc lude t he ' I r ish ' t ype o f v esse ls . F ac tor 3 Th is r e la tes c lose ly w i th o n ly t hree v ariab les a nd a l l a re s ize measures : r im d ia me ter , b ase d ia me ter a nd b eve l w id th . The f actor i s s imp ly r e la ted t o v esse l ' bu lk ' . F ac tor 4 Th is r e la tes c lose ly o n ly w i th t he n eck a nd g roove s hape .

The f actor s ee ms

t o b e ' describ ing ' v esse l f or m ( see b e low ) . F ac tor 5 Th is r e la tes w e l l o n ly w i th wh ipped c ord d ecora t ion a nd t o al esser e x ten t w i th h err ingbone d ecora ted b eve ls .

I ts ee ms r e la ted t o p ar t icu lar d ecora t ive

s ty les . The a na lys is c onf ir ms t he i mpor tance o f ' qua li ty ' , a l though h ere t h is i s s p l i t i n to t wo s epara te f actors .

T o s o me e x ten t , i n tu i t ive ly , Iw ou ld s ay t h is

i s ad is t inc t ion b e tween t he ' nor ma l f i ne wares ' o ft he c oun ty a nd f ea tures o f F ood V esse ls wh ich more w ide ly d is t ingu ish ' t op q ua l i ty ' v esse ls .

T he o ther

p o in t made a pparen t b y t he a na lys is i s t he d is t inct ion b e tween f ea tures o f s ize ;

f orm e tc .

T here i s i n f ac t ac rucia l d iv is ion b e tween v ariab les d e-

s cr ibing ' f or m ' a nd t hose d escrib ing ' s ty le ' a s Iw ou ld t er m i t .

Th is i s p ar t ly

i nd ica ted b y t he f actors b u t made more c oncre te b y ac lus tering ( Ward 's Me thod ) o ft he c orre la t ion c oef f icien ts o ft he v ar iab les f ro m t he f ac tor a na lys is . A t t he t wo c lus ter l eve l , t he d iv is ion was a s f o l lows ( F ig . 4 .1 7 ) : 1 07

F ea tures o f f or m :

r im d iame ter , r im b eve l w id th , b ase d iame ter , b eve l s hape ,

b ody s hape , f oo t s hape ( ?) , wh ipped c ord d ecora t ion , n eck s hape , g roove s hape ( i n o rder o f ' j o in ing ' t he c lus ter ) . F ea tures o f s ty le :

l ugs , a ngu lar i ty , f i neness o f d ecora t ion , b ody s ty le , h er-

r ingbone l eve l , h err ingbone b ody , e x terna l r im s hape , v er t ica l we igh t o f d ecora tion , h or izon ta l w eigh t o fd ecora t ion , s urface t rea tmen t , f a lse r e l ief ( i n o rder o f ' j o in ing ' t he c lus ter ) . T he a na lys is d oes s ee m t o s how v ery i mpor tan t t rends o f r e la t ionsh ips . A l though , o ne c an b reak u p t he v ar iab les i n to g roups ( by f ac tor a na lys is o r b y c lus ter a na lys is ) t here a re c lear i n ter-re la t ionsh ips b e tween f actors . Th is i s p ar t icu lar ly t rue o f f ac tors 1 a nd 2 . I n t he f i gures ( 4 .13-16 ) Ih ave p resen ted p lo ts o f f ac tor s cores . T he c lose r e la t ionsh ip o f f ac tors 1 a nd 2 a ga ins t t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween f ac tors 1 a nd 3 ( s ize ) i s r e markab le . A lso o f i mpor tance i s t he c lose r e la t ionsh ip i nd ica ted b e tween t he f ac tor a na lys is a nd t he o rigina l Ward 's Me thod c lus ter ing p resen ted a bove . i ndeed .

The c orre la t ion i s v ery c lose

The f i gures a lso p lot t he r e la t ionsh ip o f v esse ls w i th v ar ious f eatures

a ga ins t t hese f actor s cores .

The c orre la t ions p resen t a n i n teres t ing p icture .

The f i gures i l lus tra te t he f o l low ing : ( i ) P rofuseness a nd ' del icacy ' o f d ecora t ion ( i) S ty le o fb ody d ecora t ion ( ii ) F ea tures : f ee t , f a lse r e l ief d ecora t ion ( i v ) ' F ine V esse ls ' ( v ) Angu lar i ty ( v i ) L ugs ( v i i ) D ecora t ive f ea tures : ( v i i i ) D ecora t ive f ea tures :

' swa thed ' a nd ' l ooped ' f or ms wh ipped c ord i mpress ion .

These s ee m t o s how t he f o l low ing p a t terns : A .

' F ine ' a nd ' l ess f i ne ' v esse ls a re w e l l s epara ted .

The v esse ls w i th t he

h eav ies t a nd f i nes t d ecora t ion c oncen tra te a t t he t op o f t he s ca le . B .

T he mos t o rna te b ody s ty les a re a t t he t op o ft he s ca le , b u t r e la te c loser t o f ac tor 2 .

C .

V esse ls w i th c o mb i mpress ion e tc . a l l h ave h igh f ac tor s cores o n b o th s ca les b u t p ar t icu lar ly f ac tor 2 . F a lse r e l ief a nd f ooted v esse ls f or m sma l l a nd s epara te g roups t o s o me d egree .

D .

T here i s ac lear c on tras t b e tween t he r ing-foo ted v esse ls ( we l l f in ished ) a nd t hose w i th c onvex ( p oor ly f i n ished ) b ases . A ngu lar e x terna l r ims h ave h igh v a lues .

E . A ngu lar v esse ls a nd t hose w i th n arrow b ases ( t o al esser e x ten t ) c luster a t t he u pper e nd o ft he s ca le . T he l a t ter i s r e la ted i n p ar t t o p roduct ion me thods a nd whe ther t he b ase i s ' c leaned ' o r n o t . F .

V esse ls w i th g ood s urfaces h ave h igh f ac tor 2v a lues .

V esse ls w i th l ugs

h ave g enera l ly h igh v a lues b u t r e la te b es t t o f ac tor 1 .

N o te h owever , t he

sma l l k nots o f l ugged v esse ls a t t he l ower e nd o f t he s ca le ( see d iscri m ina n t a na lys is a bove ) .

1 08

G .

L ooped a nd swa thed d ecora t ion s hows n o s trong p a t tern , b u t t he s wa thed f or ms d o f or m a f a ir ly t igh t ' knot ' .

H .

Wh ipped c ord , z igzags a nd h or izon ta l d ecora t ion h ave n o s trong c oncent ra t ions . These t ypes d o t ake a v arie ty o f f orms o n ' f ine ' ( e .g . d e l ica te wh ipped c ord ) a nd ' l ess f i ne ' ( crude wh ipped c ord maggots ) v esse ls .

J .

H err ingbone d ecora t ion , i n d irect c on tras t t o t he l as t , i s v ery s trong ly c oncen tra ted a t t he t op e nd o ft he s ca le o fb o th f ac tors .

K .

S hape v ariab les s how t he ' baggy ' p ots ' ( va lue 6 ) a t t he l ower e nd o ft he s ca le a nd t hose w i th v a lues ( 1-4 , t he s tra igh t a nd c oncave b od ies ) a t t he o ppos i te e x treme .

C onc lus ions :

f ac tor a na lys is

T he f ac tor a na lys is c onf irms t he r esu l ts o b ta ined e ar lier .

H owever , i t

d oes s hed i n teres t ing l i gh t o n t he i n ter-re la t ionsh ip o f v ar iab les . V ery f ew v esse ls f or e xa mp le p ossess a ny th ing l i ke a ' f u l l-co mp lemen t ' o ft he v ery f i nes t f eatures .

I ns tead t here i s ap opu la t ion o f f ea tures wh ich s epara te t he

' sheep f ro m t he g oa ts ' , t he v ery f ine F ood Vesse l Wares f ro m t he r es t .

I ti s

s imp ly n o t p rac t ica l t o c hoose o ne o r t wo f ea tures t o t ry a nd c ons ider F ood V esse l s ty le a nd t he l i ke ( as many o f t he t rad i t iona l t ypo log ies ) o r t o t ry a nd r ecogn ise ' c lassic ' v esse l f orms . T he ma in d iv is ions r ecogn ised i n t he p as t , d o h ave a l imi ted v a l id i ty ( s ee b e low ) , b u t t h is t ype o f a na lys is d oes r ecogn ise f ar more b as ic p a t terns . The c lose r e la t ionsh ip b e tween a who le r ange o fv ar iab les h as b een made c lear h ere a nd i n t he p reced ing a na lyses ( bearing i n m ind s o me d iv is ion p ar t icu lar ly o n t he b as is o f ' s ty le ' a nd ' f orm ') . S oc ia l pa t terns S ocia l p a t terns f or t hese v esse ls a re c o mp lex a nd more d e ta i l i s g one i n to i n C hapter 9 . H owever o n t he b as is o f af ew s ignif icance t es ts u s ing c h i-square Iw as a b le t o s how t ha t : i . The f our p ar t g rading s ys tem r e la tes t o t he t wo ' f ine ' a nd ' l ess f i ne ' g roups i n as ign if ican t way ( be t ter t han 5 % ) . i .

The f our p ar t s ex a nd a ge g rades r e la te t o v ar ious v esse l f ea tures a t

s ign if ican t l eve ls : f abr ic s core , r im d iame ter , \ e igh t o f d ecora t ion ( b o th ) , b ody d ecora t ive s ty les , r im s hape , f ineness o fd ecora t ion , a ngu lari ty , l ugs , h erringbone d ecora t ion ( mos t f or ms ) , b ody s ty le a t b e t ter t han t he 5 % l eve l . i i . The s ys tem d oes n ot r e la te we l l w i th mos t o ther v ariab les , c er ta in ly n o t a t as ign if ican t l eve l p ar t icu lar ly . Mos t s ize measures , wh ipped c ord , z igzags , s wa th ing , g roove s hape , n eck s hape e tc . T h is i s q u i te p red ictab le a nd f o l lows t he B eaker p a t terns c lose ly . Iw i l l s how i n c hap ter n ine t he c lose r e la t ionsh ip o f v esse l f or m t o s uch g rave f eat ures a s w ood l i ned g raves a nd t he p resence a nd a bsence o fp lano-convex k n ives . Iw i l l c onc lude t h is b r ief s ec t ion b y c onf irming t ha t Ih ave d emons trat ed t ha t F ood V esse ls v ary i n r e la t ion t o f eatures o ft he s ocia l p at terning . I w i l l e labora te a nd embe l l ish t h is s ta temen t i n l a ter d iscuss ion . i nan t a na lys is ( Tab le 4 .15 ) s u m mar ises t he p a t terns . p ar t s ex a nd a ge g rad ing a re c orrec t ly c lass if ied . t han t na t f or B eakers . 1 09

T he d iscr i m-

6 7 .7% o f b uria ls i n 4 -

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F ood Vesse ls :

1 11

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F ig . 4 .16

F ood V esse le :

•

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Fac tor s core p lo ts ( 4 1 .

1 13

S TYLE

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6 L9

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F ood V esse ls :

ac lus ter a na lysis d endrogram o f v ariab le

s imi lar i ty c oef f icien ts . 1 14

-

6 60 -0-

T ab le 4 . 1 3

D iscrim inan t a na lys is o f F ood V esse ls f ro m f our ma in r eg ions ' Bes t ' d iscri m ina t ing v ar iab les Wi lks L a mbda

Var iab le S hou lder h e igh t

0 .9 798

3 .3 470

G roove w id th

0 .9 772

3 .8 299

L ugs

O .9 771

3 .8063

C o mb d ecora t ion

O .8 887

2 0 . 4 531

Tw is ted c ord

0 .9 553

7 .6 505

I mpressions

0 .9 533

8 . 0 072

Wh ipped c ord

0 .9 724

4 .6 307

F a lse r e lief

0 .9 275

1 2 . 7 745

T r iang les

0 .9 640

6 . 0 958

Angu lari ty

0 .9305

1 2 .2000

B ody s ty le

0 .9 135

1 5 . 3 972

Angu lar h err ingbone

0 .9120

1 5 .7651

' Dumb-be l ls '

0 .9 701

5 .0 288

H igh v a lues o f

fa nd l ow o nes o fW i lks L a mbda i nd ica te a h igh d egree o f d is-

c r im ina t ion o n t ha t v ar iab le . P red ic tion r esu l ts Actua l g roup

n o . o f

P red icted g roups

c ode

c ases

1

2

3

4

Y orksh ire

1

3 42

2 28

5 0

4 9

1 5

Derbysh ire

2

4 9

1 6

2 7

N or th Eas t/For th

3

1 34

2 4

1 6

7 9

1 5

( 16 . 0 % )

C lyde/ Wes t

4

6 7

1 6

1 5

3 4

4 5

( 9 . 1 % )

n ame

3

3

( 46 . 2 % ) ( 5 . 5% )

1 00% 7 6 .7% o fk nown c ases c orrec t ly c lassif ied :s igni f icance 0 .0 00 c h i-square 7 04 .7 80

1 15

Tab le 4 . 1 4

F ac tor a na lys is o f 1 92 F ood V esse ls ; Means a nd v ar i max r ota t ion F ac tors

Var iab le

mean

1

2

3

4

5

0 .0 2

O .8 7

0 . 0 1

O . 1 2

B eve l w id th

1 . 7 cm

1 0 .0 4 0 .1

0 . 0 7

0 .71

0 . 0 2

0 . 0 2

Base d ia me ter

6 . 9 cm

5 0 . 1

0 . 0 6

0 .72

0 .06

0 .11

L ugs

1 . 8v a lue

O .5 9

0 .18

0 . 0 5

Dec . we igh t A .

1 5 . 3v a lue

0 . 0 4

0 .02

0 . 0 0

1 4 . 9v a lue

0 .2 6 0 .2 7

0 .95

Dec . we igh t B .

0 .94

0 .05

0 .03

0 .09

S urface s core

R im d ia me ter

1 4 . 9 cm

0 . 0 1

O .1 0

1 7 . 2v a lue

0 .1 0

0 .90

0 .05

0 .04

0 .09

Herringbone

1 . 7v alue

O .3 9

0 .03

0 . 2 4

0 .02

0 .31

Herr ingbone

2 . 0v a lue

O .6 3

0 .12

O . 1 5

0 . 0 1

B ody s ty le

5 .7 v a lue

9 0 .3

0 .44

B eve l s hape

1 . 8v a lue

0 . 6 1

0 .09

O . 1 7

Neck s hape

1 .0 v a lue

4 0 .0

0 . 1 1

0 .06

G roove s hape

1 . 2v alue

0 . 2 1

0 .13

0 . 0 7

0 .3 5

O .1 4

B ody s hape

2 .7 v a lue

0 . 4 7

O . 1 6

O . 1 9

0 . 0 6

0 .11

F a lse r e l ief

1 . 1v a lue

0 . 1 3

0 .48

Wh ipped c ord

1 .6 v a lue

0 0 . 1

0 . 0 3

0 . 0 2 0 .0 0

Ex t . r im s hape Dec . f i neness

0 .05

0 .96

0 .00

0 . 3 7

O .1 4

0 . 0 5

0 .6 4

O .6 8

0 .29

0 . 0 8

O .1 8

0 . 0 2

O .1 5

0 .0 3

0 . 0 1

2 .7 v a lue

O . 4 5

0 . 1 3

O .1 7

0 .01

O .1 4

1 6 . 0v a lue

0 .6 8

0 .42

0 . 2 1

2 . 9v a lue

F oo t s hape

O .1 0

O . 1 4

O .5 2

4 . 3v a lue

Angu lar i ty

0 . 0 7

0 .04

O .1 9

O . 1 8

nder l ined . H ighes t v a lues f or e ach v ar iab le a re u

O . 1 6

0 . 0 4

T he f actor s core p lo ts

b ased o n t h is a na lys is a re r eproduced i n t he f igures .

Tab le 4 .15

D iscrim inan t a na lyses o f F ood V esse l a ssoc ia ted b uria ls/sex a nd a ge d a ta ;

S u m mary t ab le :

4p ar t s ex a nd a ge s ys te m

P red ic t ion r esu l ts

Actua l g roup Na me

P red ic ted g roups 1

2

3

5

3

1

( 23 . 2% )

7

2

1

( i . 1% )

3

( 18 . 2% )

c ode

n o . o f c ases

Ch i ldren

1

3 2

S ub-adu l ts

2

1 1

1

F e ma le a du l ts

3

2 5

2

2

Ma le a du l ts

4

3 1

3

4

2 3

6 7 . 7% o fk nown c ases c orrec t ly c lass if ied

4

1 8 5

1 9

( 24 . 2% )

c h i-square 9 6 . 1 65 s ig .

0 .0 00

Adu lt g rad ing S u m mary t ab le :

P red ict ion r esu l ts P red icted g roups

Actua l g roup Na me Y oung ma les

c ode 1

O ld ma les

2

F e ma les

3

n o . o f c ases 8 1 0 2 5

1

2

3

8

0

0

( 18 .6 % )

0 1

8

2 2 4

( 18 . 6% )

0

9 3 . 0 % o fk nown c ases c orrec t ly c lassif ied c h i-square 6 8 . 9 42

( 55 . 8% ) s ig .

0 .000

S o me ma jor v ariab le d if ferences

M e a ns

v a lue

Var iab le R im d ia me ter

Y oung ma le

0 .7680

F e ma le

O ld ma le

1 5 .2

1 5 .8

1 4 .6 cm

1 .6

1 .7

1 .5 cm 1 .3 cm

B eve l w id th

0 .7990

L ugs ( 1-5 s ca le )

1 .5049

1 .5 .

Decora tion weigh t ( 1-25 )

5 .1692

1 7 .0

2 .3 1 6 .4

1 8 .9

1 8 .5

1 .3 v a lue 1 0 .6 v a lue

S urface t rea t men t ( 1-25 )

5 .9185

H err ingbone b ody ( 1-5 )

5 .7497

1 .62

2 .60

B ody s ty le ( 1-9 )

2 .9073

8 .5

7 .1

1 .60 v a lue

F a lse r e l ief ( 1-2 )

1 .4871

1 .2

1 .2

5 .0 v a lue

A ngu lari ty ( 1-5 )

4 .5719

4 .6

4 .6

1 .0 v a lue

1 4 .2 v a lue

COM MENTS ON FOOD VESSELS I n t he l as t p ar t o ft h is c hap ter Ii n tend t o l ook a t s o me o f t he p rob le ms r a ised i n h ere , b u t a lso i n t he B eaker s tudy . 1 .

Q ues t ions o f Q ua l i ty-can we r ea l ly measure ' f ineness ' Ih ave n o t g one i n to d e ta i ls o f measur ing v ar iab les i n t h is c hap ter , n or d o

It h ink i tc rucia l t o my a rgu men ts .

I ti s d if f icu l t t o a ssess a v esse l ' qua li ty '

e xcep t i n ar ough-and-ready manner .

H owever , Id o t h ink b y b r ing ing t oge ther

a nd i n ter-re la t ing a who le s er ies o fv ar iab les o ne h as a s ol id b as is f or p ron ounc ing o n ' Bronze Age ' p o t tery q ua li ty .

As Is a id i n t he B eaker c hap ter , t he

measures may b e i n f ac t measur ing o ther f ea tures :

t ime s pen t i n p roduct ion ,

t rade ( no te t he way t he e xo t ic ' I r ish ' s ty led v esse ls h ave h igh f actor 1 a nd 2 v a lues ) o r ' abso lu te ' v a lues .

A t t he s a me t ime , w i thout r e-en ter ing t ha t p rob-

l em , Id id men t ion t he d if f icu l t ies o f a c tua l ly a ssess ing a B ronze Age ' va lue s ys te m ' e ven i fo ne c an r ecogn ise t he ir q ua l i ty p a t terns .

Id o n o t t h ink t h is i s

aq ues tion o ne c an r ea l ly a nswer w i thou t g et t ing i n to c ircular a rgu men ts r egardi ng t he d epos i t ion o fo b jec ts a t b uria l .

H owever , Id o t h ink i t wor thwh i le t o

b r ing t oge ther a s tr ing o f d if feren t measures t o t hrow f ur ther l igh t o n t he p rob le m ( as Ih ave t r ied t o b r ing t oge ther h ere a l arge g roup o f i n ter-re la t ing v ar iab les ) .

Ih ave a lso p oin ted t o t he p rob le m o f c ons ider ing v esse ls i n t er ms

o fl ong v ariab le l i s ts i ns tead o f a s c o mp le te e nt i t ies , wh ich i s wha t t hey a re a nd were . One way o f l ook ing a t t hese v esse ls i s i n t er ms o f v isua l s how . l i nk ' var iab les ' i n to a who le . r esponses t o t h is s t imu l i ( ? ).

Th is d oes

U nfor tuna te ly o ne c anno t r ecogn ise B ronze Age I n t er ms o f p ersuad ing s o meone t ha t av esse l i s

' f ine ' , i t may b e more i mpor tan t t ha t i ta ppears t o b e ' f ine ' t han t ha t i ta c tua l ly i s .

Th is i s t he a dver tis ing e xecu t ive 's ma in f unct ion ( i f Iam b eing c yn ica l )

t o make t h ings a ppear d es irab le .

I td oes n ot ma t ter whe ther t hey a re o r n ot ,

o ne c an measure t he ' response ' t o t he a dver t is ing c a mpa ign .

One c an measure

t he Bronze Age r esponse t oo , i n t er ms o f c ho ice o f o b jec ts f or g raves . I n t he f o l low ing sma l l s ca le e xper i men t( wh ich i n v iew o f i t s l imi ted n a ture c an o n ly b e t aken t o b e s ugges t ive n o t c onc lus ive ) Iam t ak ing t h is a pproach . 1 17

Iam c o mparing my f abr ic a nd f ac tor measures ( above ) w i th ( a ) t he B ronze Age g rave c hoice a nd ( b ) t he ' react ion ' a nd c hoice o f 3 3 S hef f ie ld U n ivers i ty s tuden ts . The work was c arr ied o u t u s ing a g roup o f o n ly 1 0 v esse ls ( f rom t he 7 02 ) a t t he S hef f ie ld Museu m i n S pring 1 978 . Id o n o t i n tend t o g o i n to d e ta i ls o f t he r esu l ts o r why c er ta in p rocedures w ere a dop ted .

H owever , Imus t make i t

c lear t ha t v ery s tandard ised p rocedures a nd c ond i t ions were u sed a t a l l t imes . R ando m n u mbers t ab les d ecided who l ooked a t wh ich v esse ls .

The b as ic

me thods f olowed w ere a s f o l lows : i .

S tuden ts were a sked t o d escr ibe v esse ls a t d if feren t d is tances f ro m t hem i n s tandard l i gh t ing c ond i t ions .

Th is was r ecorded o n t ape .

S tuden ts were a sked t o p a ir g roups o fv esse ls a t d ifer ing d is tances . S tuden ts w ere a sked t o p ick o u t t he mos t ' eye-ca tch ing ' v esse l a t d iff eren t r anges , a lso ' t he ir f avour i te ' v esse ls e tc . Var ious me thods o f a na lys is were t r ied . g is ts h ave h ad g rea t d iff icu lt ies .

I n a ssess ing r esponses p sycho lo-

Ia dop ted v ery s imp le p rocedures o f c oun t-

i ng words a nd t ime t aken t o d escr ibe v esse ls a nd f ea tures a lso n u mbers o f t imes f ea tures were men t ioned . emerged : A .

( see d iagra ms )

The ' h igh ' q ua li ty v esse ls were c onsis ten t ly p icked o u t a s t he mos t e yec a tch ing .

These w ere a lso t he v esse ls t ha t a ppeared i n t he ' more i mpor-

t an t ' ( see c hap ter 9 )g raves . B .

The r esu l ts were p rocessed a nd t he f o l low ing

T h is o ccurred a t a l l d is tances .

C er ta in f ea tures o fv esse l f or m were more n o t iceab le a t d i f fer ing d is tances . I n t he c ase o f a l l v esse ls , d ecora t ion b ecame l ess s ign i f ican t ( l ess o f ten v is ib le o r n ot iced ) a t more t han a f ew me tres f ro m t he v esse l .

F eatures

o f s hape a nd p resence o fl ugs was r eadi ly a pparen t a t l arge d is tances , c er ta in ly u p t o 1 3 m . A t d is tances o ver 1 0 m h owever , t he v esse ls were b eco ming i ncreas ing ly s hape less b lobs . t here i s av ery i mpor tan t p oin t h ere .

F or t he h igh q ua li ty v esse ls ,

T he r ich d ecora t ion ' van ishes '

r ap id ly a t a ny g rea t d is tance f rom t he v esse l , b u t t he f ea tures s uch a s t he a ngu lar i ty o ft he s hou lder , t he p resence o fl ugs e tc . mean t ha t t hese p ots a re e qua l ly i mpress ive v isua l i t e ms f ro m l onger d is tances .

T h is i s

i mpor tan t , a pparen t ly , i n t er ms o f c ho ice ( t he mos t ' e ye-ca tch ing ' ) a s o ne moves a way f ro m t he v esse ls . C .

T o c orre la te s o mewha t w i th t he l as t p oin t , t he p a ir ing a t ' c lose-range ' was more i n t er ms o fd ecora t ion a nd f ur ther away more i n t er ms o f s hape . These t hen were t he b as ic p a t terns .

T he d if feren t f a l l-of fs o f t he v arious

v esse ls a nd f ea tures i s v ery i mpor tan t i n t er ms o f c ho ice a nd why s ome v ess e ls a re c ons is ten t ly p referred . A l l Ic an s ay h ere i s t ha t t he Bronze A ge a dver t ising c a mpa ign was r e markab ly s uccessfu l . N o t o n ly was i tp oss ib le t o ' s e l l ' t o t he B ronze A ge i nd iv idua ls f or g rave g oods , ' se l l ' t o 2 0 th c entury s tuden ts i n t he l abora tory .

i ti s a lso p oss ib le t o

I n many ways t here a re

c o mp lica t ions . O ur r eac t ions t o t h ings , a ccord ing t o t he p sycho log is ts , a re c u ltura l ly d e ter m ined ( s ee C hap ter 1 0 ) a nd i ti s i mposs ib le t o d eterm ine p rec ise ly t he b as is o ft h is c ho ice o r t he B ronze Age c hoice a nd i ti s imposs ib le 18

t o r e la te t he t wo ( even t hough t he t wo p a t terns c o inc ide s o we l l ) .

F or t he

mo men t , Iw i l l b r ing t h is a rgu men t t o ac lose b y r e i tera t ing wha t Is a id a bove . I n t erms o ft he a dver t is ing e xecu t ive , h e may n o t b e a b le t o d e term ine p rec ise ly why t he h ousew ife p refers B rand Y wash ing p owder f o l low ing h is a dvert i sing c a mpa ign , a s l ong a s s he d oes . Iam n ot c oncerned h ere t ha t t he B ronze Age c hoice a nd t ha t o ft he 2 0 th c en tury s tuden t may b e made o n ad if feren t b as is , b ut In o te w i th p leasure t ha t t he c ho ice i n b o th my marke ts f o l lows a r e markab ly s im i lar p a t tern . F or t he B ronze Age p ot ter t ha t i s av ery s uccess fu l p iece o f ' sa les mansh ip ' ( and h e l acked t he p oss ib i li ty o f 2 0 th c entury marke t r esearch !) . T he r esearch i s n o t c onc lus ive , Iw i l l e ndeavour t o t ake i tf ur ther myse lf , b u t Iw ou ld a lso e ncourage o ther w orkers i n t h is a nd r e la ted f i e lds t o t ry t h is f orm o fa pproach . If ee l t ha t t he r esearch was a more t han u sefu l c orro lary o f t he p a t terns t ha t Iw as r ecogn is ing o n t he b as is o f my c o mpu ter r esearch a nd i td oes u t i l ise v esse ls a s who le e n t i t ies ( or o ne a spec t o f t h is ) .

It h ink

i n a ny c ase t he v isua l a spec ts o f a ny o b jec t w i th s oc ia l i mportance i s l i ke ly t o b e i mpor tan t , F ood V esse ls c ou ld b e ' shown o f f ', If ee l . T he ' f ine ' v esse ls s eem t o h ave b een v ery e f fect ive v isua l d ev ices a nd b e t ter a t s t i mu la t ing a r esponse f ro m o ur 2 0 th c en tury g uinea-p igs . It h ink t he a pproach h ere i s a n ' a l terna t ive ' t o t he l abour i npu t/d is tance t rave l led mode l p ervad ing much o ft he l i tera ture a t p resen t .

It h ink i ti s a

more h u man a nd r ea l ist ic measure e ven i fa s y e t al i t t le r ough a round t he e dges . 2 .

T rade a nd e xchange i n B ronze Age p ot tery I ti s c lear f ro m v ar ious t h in s ect ion ing w ork ( e .g . P eacock , 1 969 ) t ha t

t rade i np ot tery was p resen t i n t he e ar l ier N eo l i th ic p er iod i n E ng land .

O ne

c an s pecu la te t ha t s uch t rade was a lso p resen t i n t he B ronze Age , b u t s urp r is ing ly t here i s n o v ery s trong e v idence f or a t rade i n B eakers o r F ood V ess e ls ( a lthough C larke 1 970 n o ted t he g rea t s imi lar i t ies b e tween Du tch a nd B r i t ish p o ts ) . I fo ne i s c ons ider ing v a lue s ys tems o ft he l abour i npu t/d is ta nce moved t ype , t he e s tab lishmen t o ft he d egree o fp ot tery t rad ing i n t he B ronze Age i s c ruc ia l .

As s ugges ted a bove h owever , t here a re a l terna t ive ways o f

a pproach ing t h is p rob lem . Ih ave a t te mp ted n o t h in s ec t ion ing o f v esse ls a nd as t udy o f c o mb i mpress ions o n v esse ls ( f or t he r ecogn i t ion o f i dent ica l marks o n an u mber o fp o ts ) p roved a bor t ive . H owever , Id id n o tice t ha t o ne c ou ld p ick o u t f abr ics a nd d es igns t ha t w ere i den t ica l o n V esse ls a t an u mber o f mi les d is tance .

Many o ft he ' s imi lar ' v esse ls a re f ound w i th in a r ange o f 1 0

mi les , b u t o thers a ppear t o b e more w idespread . a re l i s ted b e low :

The g roups t ha t Ir ecogn ised

i . C aw thorn-Fo lk ton . Two i den tica l v esse ls f ro m t he Y orksh ire a nd B r i t ish Museum were l oca ted i nb arrows o ver 2 5 mi les a par t . V essels f ro m P easho lm ( Scarborough Museu m ) a nd Garrowby ( Hu l l Museum ) a re a lso q u i te s imi lar i n t erms o f f abr ic a nd d es ign . i .

4v esse ls .

G arton S lack—Ta l ling ton—Garrowby 1 39 .

v ess les a re v ery s im i lar i n f or m a nd f abric . f rom t he n or th wo lds t o t he We l land v a l ley .

1 19

T hree f a lse r e l ief d ecora ted The v esse ls a re w ide ly s pread

3v esse ls .

i i .

G ar ton S lack .

S evera l v esse ls i n t he G arton S lack a nd t he e as tern a rea

o ft he w o lds ( Sharp H owes , We twang S lack ) a re v ery s im i lar i n t erms o f f abr ic a nd d es ign . More t han a s ing le ' group ' o fv esse ls i s i nd ica ted h ere h owever . i v .

1 0 v esse ls .

G oodmanham .

G reenwe l l h imse lf ( 1 877 ) n o ted t he a l most i den t ica l f orms

o f v esse ls f ro m t wo n e ighbour ing b arrows o n G oodmanham w o ld . V .

G an ton .

2v esse ls .

Two b ipar t v esse ls f rom G an ton ( Greenwel l 1 877) a re r emarkab ly

s im i lar i n s hape . v i .

Q uernhow .

T he g roup o fv esse ls f ro m t h is s ing le b arrow , a l though s how-

i ng s o me v ar ia t ion i n ' s ty le ' a re v ery s im i lar i n t er ms o f f abr ic . v i i .

F ok ton XX I

f abric .

6v esse ls .

( Greenwe l l 1 877 ) c on ta ins t wo c rude v essels o f s imi lar

An u mber o fb arrows o n t he w o lds d isp lay t h is p heno menon .

1 0

v esse ls . v i i i . S t ir l ing . Two v esse ls i n t he S t ir ling Museum w i th t r iangu lar i mpressed d ecora t ion a re s o s im i lar t ha t t he Museu m h ad c onfused t hem ! O ne o f t he v esse ls was f ro m t he t own i t se lf , t he o ther f rom D oune a f ew mi les t o t he n or th . 2v esse ls . i x .

A rgy l l v esse ls .

I n 1 950 Y oung i so la ted o ne o ft he mos t c onv inc ing o f t he

F ood V esse l t ypes t he T t ripar t b ow l ' —of ten t er med t he S co t t ish t r ipar t .

T he

g roup i nc luded v esse ls i n Argy l l , t he n or th o f I re land , Aberdeensh ire a nd t he s ou th wes t .

S o me o ft hese a re i l lus tra ted h ere i nt he p la tes ( I I a nd H I ) .

T hese

v esse ls s ee m t o f a l l i n to a sma l l n u mber o fg roups o f s imi lar f abr ic a nd d es ign .

T he wr i ter w ou ld s ugges t t ha t many o ft hese v esse ls a re l i ke ly t o b e

t he p roduc ts o fo ne o r t wo w orkshops . x .

L anarksh ire .

1 5 v esse ls .

4v esse ls f ro m t he L anarksh ire-Ayrsh ire r eg ion a re o f

g lobu lar f orm w i th a p ecu liar o rangey-buf f f abr ic a nd wh ipped c ord d ecora t ion . T he s ty le i s v ery d is t inc t ive ( s ee P la te V ) .

4v esse ls .

x i . Ayrsh ire-Nor thu mber land . V esse ls f ro m t hese t wo c oun t ies w i th v er t ica l g roov ing s ee med t o b e t he p roduc t o f o ne workshop . 3v esse ls . Th is l i s t o n ly i nc ludes 6 1 v esse ls o u t o f o ver 7 00 t ha t Ie xa mined . E ven i f o ne a ccep ts t hese g roup ings , a nd It h ink t hey a re f a ir ly s o l id , i ti s d i f f icu l t t o make o u t as trong c ase f or s ubs tan t ia l B ronze A ge t rad ing o n t h is b as is , p art i cu lar ly when a bou t 5 0% o ft hese r epresen t ' very s hort d is tance t rade ' . H owe ver t here a re t wo r easons why Is ugges t t ha t t h is e v idence may b e i nd ica t ive o f av ery s ubs tan t ia l t rade i n F ood V esse ls : a .

If ound i tp oss ib le o n ly t o d is t inguish ' group ings ' i n t he c ase o fp ar t icul ar ly d is t inct ive v esse ls . My s earch i n a ny c ase was a f a ir ly s uperf icia l o ne a nd o wes e veryth ing t o my o wn me mory a nd a c o mprehens ive p ho tograph ic r ecord .

b .

Mos t o f t he g roup ings a re o f v ery s imi lar v esse ls , o nes t ha t Iw ou ld s ugg es t were made b y as ing le f i r ing ( It hink a bou t h a lf o f t he g roups o u t lined a bove c ou ld b e c la imed t o b e s uch ) . I ft here w ere w orkshops t hey w ou ld b e l i ke ly t o b e w ork ing o ver l ong p er iods a nd p roducing a v ar ie ty o f p ots !

1 20

It h ink t ha t t here i s c er ta in ly t rade i n s uch p ot tery a nd t ha t i t was p robab ly o fc onsiderab le v a lue .

We k now t ha t b ronzes , f i ne a xes ( Cum m ins 1 974 ) , g o ld

( Co les a nd T ay lor 1 971 ) e tc . were a l l t raded i n t he B ronze Age .

Ih ave n o

d oub t t ha t p o t tery was t oo . I n v iew o f s o me o f t he c o m men ts made i n C hap ter 6( b e low ) , It h ink t h is i s a lso i nd ica t ive o ft he v a lue o f t hese i t ems . P a t terns f or B eakers a re l i ke ly t o b e s tronger s t i l l , If ee l . H owever , t he f ac t t ha t i t i sn o t p oss ib le t o r ecogn ise s ources o ft rade ( F le m ing p ersona l c o m mun ica t ion n o tes t he p rob le ms o f ' erra t ic ' g r i ts f or many Y orksh ire v esse ls w h ich makes t he i dent if ica t ion o f s ources a c ons iderab le p rob lem ) , makes i ti mposs ib le t o u se t h is i n a ny c a lcu la t ion o f v a lue s ys te ms . 3 .

A lterna t ive e xp lana t ions o f F ood V esse l v ar iab i li ty Iam n ot g o ing t o a t te mp t h ere a r ev iew o f t he p apers o n F ood V esse ls

p resented o ver t he l as t 1 00 y ears , t hey d o n o t r e la te p ar t icu lar ly t o t he a rgumen ts t ha t Iam p resent ing h ere . Iwan t t o make i tc lear t ha t Iam n ot a t te mp ti ng t o d eny t he v a l id i ty o fo ther ' quest ions ' o n F ood V esse l d a ta ( a l though I f i nd mos t o ft he t ypo log ica l a rgu men ts s imp l is t ic , p ar ticu lar is ing a nd n onp rob le m-or ien ta ted ) .

Id o t h ink t ha t s ome o ft he p a t terns r ecogn ised i n my

a na lyses may ' answer ' o ther q ues t ions h owever . l i ke ly t o b e i mpor tan t . A .

Chrono log ica l v ar iab i li ty :

An u mber o f f ac tors a re

T h is h as b een s ugges ted a s i mpor tan t b y a

n umber o fw r i ters f ro m Abercro mby ( 1 912 ) o nwards ( Manby 1 958 s um mar ises t he d i le m ma we l l ) . T he b as ic i dea i s t ha t t he f i nes t v esse ls a re a t t he h ead o ft he s equence a nd t hese d egenera te t o b eco me ' t r ipar t ' a nd ' b ipar t ' f or ms . O n t he b as is o f my w ork h ere , It h ink much o ft h is k ind o f w ork i s misgu ided . I ti st rue t o s ay t ha t more o ft he ' f iner ' v esse ls t urn u p a s p rimar ies i n b arr ows a nd t ha t t he ' l ess f i ne ' o nes a re more of ten s econdaries , b u t t h is c an b e b et ter e xp la ined b y s oc ia l f ac tors ( s ee C hap ter 9 , t he i dea t ha t t he mos t i mpor tan tb ur ia ls w i l l h ave b arrows b u i l t f or t hem a nd w i l l b e b ur ied w i th t he f ines t F ood V esse ls ). Presen t e v idence f ro m Eng land a nd I re land ( e .g . t he 1 460 b .c . d a te f or t he Ta l l ing ton v esse l : S impson 1 976 ) may i nd ica te t ha t ' I rish ' t ypes a re g enera l ly e ar l ier . B u t a t p resen t we h ave a s hor tage o fg ood C 14 d a t ing e v idence . It h ink i tu nw ise i n a ny c ase t o s ay t oo much a bou t c hrono log ica l v ar iab i li ty when t he d iscuss ion mus t n eeds b e b ased o n 1 9 th c en tury b arrow s tra t igraph ies ( or 2 0 th c entury p loughed-ou t b arrows ) a nd s o f ew a bo lu te d a tes . A t t he s ame t ime i ti s w or th n ot ing t ha t ' f ine ' a nd ' l ess f i ne ' v esse ls a re of ten f ound t oge ther ( e .g . E arby , w e l l a s o ther d ivergen t f or ms . b orne i n mind h owever .

S k ip ton Museu m ) a s

C hrono log ica l v ar iabi li ty mus t c ons tan t ly b e

B . I t was n o ted a bove t ha t many ' exo t ic ' f or ms o f ' I r ish ' c harac ter d o o ccur i n Y orksh ire . One a sks whe ther t h is i s d ue t o e x tens ive t rade o r t o l oca l c opying o f i mpor ted f i ne wares p erhaps? C . I n Chap ter 2 a bove , Is howed t ha t many i t e ms w ere s pec ia l ised i n t he ir p roduc tion i n a who le r ange o fp rim i t ive s oc ie t ies , b u t t ha t t h is s pec ia lisa t ion i sl i ke ly t o t ake a v ar ie ty o f f or ms . Ih ave n oted h ere t ha t t here i s ab as ic d iv ision b e tween ' f ine ' a nd ' l ess f i ne ' wares . C ou ld t h is b e r epresen ta t ive o f d i f feren t me thods o fp roduc t ion ( e .g . h igh ly s pecia l ised a nd n on/ less s peci a l ised )?

There i sn o q ues t ion t ha t t he p roducers o f ' f ine ' a nd ' l ess f i ne ' v es-

s e ls were a im ing t o p roduce v ery d if feren t v esse ls f or ' d if feren t marke ts ' . 1 21

The f i ner v esse ls i n my o p in ion d o e xh ib i t ah igher d egree o f s k i ll i np roduct i on ( n ot j us t aq ues t ion o ft ime t aken i n manufacture ) . B u t a ny s ta temen ts o n ' specia lisa t ion ' e tc . h ave t o b e p ure ly a sser t ive . It h ink o ne h as j us t a t an ta l is ing g li mpse o fp a t terns .

T he t rade p a t terns a nd p roduct ion g roup ings

( t he l ong d is tance t rade n oted a bove i s e xc lus ive ly o f ' f ine ' wares ) may h o ld o ne o ft he k eys t o a nswer ing t hese p rob le ms ( i nciden ta l ly Iw ou ld s ugges t t ha t t he p erfora ted l ugs o n many v esse ls a t t he v ery t op o ft he s ca le wou ld p rov ide au sefu l med ium o f c arr iage i ft rade was i mpor tan t .

O n s ome v esse ls t he

p resence o f s ing le p erfora ted l ugs w ou ld n ot h ave h e ld t he v esse ls u pr igh t i n ' hang ing b ow l ' s ty le , b u t w ou ld h ave b een s uf f ic ien t t o c arry t he m a round ) . D .

The ' boxed s e t ' v iew o f F ood V esse ls :

Id o n o t w an t t o g o i n to d e ta i ls o f

many p rev ious a t temp ts a t F ood V esse l ' c lass if ica t ion ' ( c lass if ica t ion f or wha t? ) many o f wh ich h ave i n tu i t ive ly ' boxed ' v esse ls i n to v ague ly c hrono log ica l s e ts , ' na tura l g roup ings ' e tc .

T hese s tud ies h ave b een l arge ly c harac ter ised

b y t he f o l low ing : i ) T he l ack o f a ny k ind o f r igorous a pproach i nt er ms o f t he u se o f ' varia b le l i s ts ', s tandard ised c lass if ica t ion p rocedures a nd t he l i ke . i )

Many h ave b een c oncerned w i th c hrono log ica l v ar iab i li ty .

H owever ,

Ih ave a lready p resen ted h ere t he d if f icu l t ies o fb u i ld ing c hrono log ies o n f i rm g rounds f ro m t he p resen t e v 'dence .

T hey h ave t hus b eco me t ypo log ies f or

t ypo logy 's s ake . I i i ) A sser t ive d escr ip t ions o f v esse ls ( Burgess 1 975 e .g . )s hou ld n ot b e c onfused w i th a c lear t ypo log ica l e xam ina t ion o r p rogram me . Too many ' brave ' s ta te ments o fv esse l t ypo logy a re made w i thou t a ny h ard e v idence i n s uppor t . i v )

T oo f ew s tud ies h ave b een c oncerned w i th a nswering q uest ions a nd

s ee m i ns tead t o b e c oncerned w i th f i l ling a n ew ' b oxed-se t ' o r an ew c ase i n a museu m .

I ti s n ot e nough t o a rgue t ha t many o ft hese s tud ies were b efore

r ad io-carbon o r i n a n a ge o f i nnocence ( C larke 1 973 ) . v ) O ne s earches i n v a in t hrough mos t o ft he v esse l t ypo log ies f or a s ta temen t o f a ssu mp tions , d ef in i t ions a nd t he l i ke .

B urgess ( 1975 ) , a modern wr i ter

o n t he s ub jec t i s p erhaps t he mos t o u trageous e xamp le . H e l i s ts a s er ies o f t ypes w i thou t e ver s ay ing why a nyone s hou ld h ave a ny i n teres t i n t hem w ha tever . O ne w onders wha t t he mot ives o f s uch wr i ters a re . v i )

Many s tud ies ( e .g . A pS imon 1 959 a nd S i mpson 1 968 ) f a i l t o e s tab l ish

e ven t he b as ic p re m ises o ft he ir s tud ies . They b o th f a i l t o c orre la te e ven t he s imp les t f ea tures o fv esse l s ty le a nd f or m . Id o n o t wan t t o l abour t hese i ssues . Ih ave s e t o u t h ere t o a nswer p ar t icu lar q ues t ions a bou t ' Bronze A ge ' s ocie ty a nd f or t h is Ih ave t urned t o a r te f actua l d a ta .

O ther a pproaches migh t make c o mp le te ly d if feren t u se o f B ronze

Age p o t tery . B u t If ee l t ha t F ood V esse ls h ave b een s uf fered more t han mos t a r tefac ts a t t he h ands o ft he t ypo log is ts .

1 22

C onc lusions O n t he b as is o ft he a na lys is h ere s evera l c onc lus ions c an b e r eached ( see a bove ) . 1 .

T he F ood V esse l f or m o fp ot tery i s a we l l-def ined a nd d is t inc t ive f or m o f p ot tery i t em o ft he ' Bronze Age ', b u t w i th s o me r e la t ionsh ips w i th v ar ious ' Neo li th ic ' a nd ' Bronze Age ' v esse ls .

2 .

F ood V esse ls v ary mos t s ign if ican t ly s pa t ia l ly .

T here a re d is t inc t ive

s ty les o fv esse ls i n many a reas o ft he c oun try . T here i s ag enera l d ivi s ion b e tween e as t c oas t a reas o fn or thern B r i ta in a nd w es tern a reas . T h is d if feren t ia t ion i s ma in ly i n t er ms o f d ecora t ive a nd f or ma t ive f eat ures wh ich o ne may t er m ' s ty le ' . 3 .

Q ua li ty s ee ms t o b e av ery i mpor tan t v ar iab le i n t he B ronze Age v esse ls i n g enera l a nd c er ta in ly F ood V esse ls . Th is c an b e measured i n v ar ious w ays b y t he a rchaeo log is t . Measures o f ' f abr ic q ua l i ty ' s ee m t o r e la te d irec t ly t o c er ta in f ea tures o f ' s ty le ' a nd ' f or m ' . Many f ea tures s ee m t o b e i nd ica t ive o f ' h igh q ua li ty ' i n d if feren t p ar ts o ft he c oun try o thers s ee m t o h ave a more l oca l b as is .

4 .

T he v ar iab i li ty ( p ar t icu lar ly i n t erms o f q ua l i ty ) o ft he v esse ls r e la tes d irec t ly t o b as ic s oc ia l p a t terns ( i n t h is c ase a 4 -par t s ex a nd a ge g rad ing s ys te m ) , b u t n o t q u i te a s c lear ly a s f or B eakers . N ever the less Bronze A ge ' cho ice ' f or b ur ia l d epos i t ion d id t ake v ery p ar t icu lar f orms .

5 .

B ronze Age ' c ho ices s ee C hap ter 9 ) .

a lso r e la te t o more d e ta i led a spec ts o f s oc ie ty ( and

A s w i th B eakers i th as b een p oss ib le t o d e mons tra te p at terns o f s ocia l r e la t ionsh ips a nd v esse l p a t tern ing a nd v ar iab i l i ty .

T he p rob lem h ere i s p er-

h aps t he l ack o f c o mpara t ive ma ter ia l f ro m n on-grave c on tex ts i n a nswering q ues t ions o f ' choice ' p ar t icu lar ly . I n t he n ex t t wo c hap ters Iw i l l s how h ow t he q ues t ions c an b e w idened b y e xam ining o ther a r tefac t t ypes .

1 23

CHAPTER 5 THE PLANO-CONVEX KN IFE : I TS VAR IAB ILITY AND S OCIAL IMPORTANCE

I n troduct ion S o f ar Ih ave l ooked a t t wo p o t tery t ypes a s c ase s tud ies . I t h ink Ic an a sk t he s ame q ues t ions o f o ther a r te fac ts , i ndeed It ake t he p roble m f ur ther . T he q ues t ions h ere f o l low t he s ame p a t terns a s b e fore , b u t Ic an a sk a s l igh t ly d i f feren t ' cho ice ' q ues t ion : 1 .

C an t he p iano-convex k nife t ype b e d ef ined?

2 .

D o measures o fq ua l i ty r e la te t o o ther f ac tors o fk n ife v ar iab i l i ty?

3 .

D oes t he v ar iab i li ty o ft he p iano-convex k nife r e la te t o ' Bronze Age ' s oc ia l p a t terns?

4 .

Wha t i s t he n a ture o ft he ' Bronze Age ' c hoice : a ) r egard ing ' who-ge ts-wha t ' ? b ) r egard ing wh ich k n ives a re c hosen f or g rave d epos i t ion?

T he a nswers t o t hese q ues t ions c an b e p ursued i fo ne i s a rmed w i th t he s a me b a t tery o ft echn iques d escr ibed i n t he p reced ing c hap ters a nd w i th a p ragma t ic a pproach . DEFIN IT ION OF THE TYPE The t ype :

I ti s a ccep ted f o l low ing p ro longed Museu m s tudy , t ha t t he

p iano-convex k n ife f or m c an b e r ecogn ised , a l though t here may b e c ons idera b le o ver lap w i th o ther f or ms . T he p iano-Convex k n i fe

i s af l in t i mp lement made f ro m a f l ake .

s urface i s n or ma l ly o n ly s l igh t ly r e touched o r n ot r e touched a t a l l .

T he b u lbar T he o p-

p os i te s urface i s e i ther c o mp le te ly r e moved b y ' pressure-f laked ' r e touch ( t he A f or m i n a ppend ix ) o r c o mp le te ly r e touched a long b oth e dges ( t he B f or m i n a ppend ix ) .

T he f aces a re n or ma l ly p ressure f l aked a l though t he f l akes

r e moved c an b e n arrow ' r ipp le-f laked ' f or ms , o r b road s ha l low f lakes . Add it i ona l r e touch o fv arious f or ms i s ac o m mon f ea ture o f t he e dges . T he k n ives may b e s ym me tr ica l i n s ec t ion ( w i th a c en tra l r idge ) o r a pprox i ma te t o a b acked f or m . T here i s s o me o ver lap w i th t he ' f abr ica tors ' o r ' s tr ike a l i gh ts ' a t t h is p oin t . T he ' ru le o ft hu mb ' u sed h ere t o d if feren t ia te i s t ha t t he a ng le o ft he f l akes r e moved f ro m o ne e dge mus t b e l ess t han 4 5° t o t he f ace o ft he i n i t ia l f l ake . The f l akes c hosen f or p roduc t ion a re n or ma l ly t hose t ha t b ear t he s cars o ft hree f l akes p rev ious ly r emoved f ro m t he c ore .

1 24

T he ma jor i ty o f f l in t k n ives t end t o h ave s o me t race o f r e touch o n b o th f aces bu t s o me i mp lemen ts , e xc luded f ro m t he a na lys is , c anno t s tr ic t ly b e t ermed p iano-convex . H owever ,so me o ft hese h ave s o me c harac ter is t ics o f t he p iano-convex k n ife t ypes .

Ac om mon f orm o f r e touch o f t he b u lbar s urface

i st he r e mova l o f f l a t l ow-ang led f l akes t o r e move a p ro minen t b u lb o fp erc uss ion , a nd a l im i ted d egree o f r ipp le f l ak ing migh t a lso b e s een o n s o me k n ives . C lark ( 1 932 ) men t ions t he n a me ' s lug k n ife ' a s a n a l terna t ive t er m , o ne t ha t i s f requen t ly f ound i n t he l i tera ture o f o lder r epor ts , p ar t icu lar ly i n E as t A ng lia a nd I re land . T h is q u i te a ccura te ly d escr ibes t he s hape o fp ia no-convex k n ives i n g enera l ( f or wh ich F ig .5 .2 n o . 2 4 may p rov ide t he a rche-type ) .

The

' s oapy f ee l ' d escr ip t ion may a pp ly t o an umber o ft he f or ms b u t i s h ard ly a u sefu l f orm o f c lass if ica t ion . I n v iew o ft he f orego ing , t he ma jor f ea tures o f a ' p iano-convex k nife ' may b e d escribed a s f o l lows : 1 . 2 .

They mus t h ave s o me p ressure f l ak ing o n t he v en tra l s urface . They mus t h ave a g rea ter d egree o f r etouch o n t he v en tra l s urface t han o n t he b u lbar s urface .

3 .

They mus t b e r e touched b iser ia l ly .

4 .

The a ng le o fr e touch o n a t l eas t o ne e dge mus t b e l ess t han 4 5° ; i n mos t c ases t he a ng le o fr e touch o n b oth e dges w i l l b e l ess t han t h is .

N o d is t inc t ion c an b e made o n t he b as is o f s ize . f ea tures may b e p resen t .

I n a dd i t ion t he f o l low ing

( i ) Af l a t u ndersurface a nd ' convex ', s o me t imes d o med , v en tra l s urface . A bou t 9 9% o f t he k n ives c on form t o t h is r u le , t he ma in e xcep t ion b e ing t he ' t ransverse ' f or m made a cross ab lade . s ense p ia no-convex . ( i i ) ( i i i )

O va l

Most f l ake i mp lemen ts a re i n t h is

' s lug ' s hape .

T rapezoida l c ross s ec t ion a s o pposed t o t he d o med s ec t ion .

The f o l low ing f ea tures a pp ly t o o n ly a sma l l p ropor t ion o f t he t ype : ( i v ) ( v ) ( v i ) ( v i i )

N o tches , p oss ib ly u sed f or h af t ing . Many k n ives b ear c or tex o n t he v en tra l s urface ( c ore t r imming f l ake ) . R ipp le f l ak ing . C urved p rof i le ( as d escr ibed b y C lark ( 1932 ) i s i n f ac t q u i te a r are f ea ture b u t i ti s f ound o n an umber o ft he f i nes t f orms ) .

( v i i i ) C o lourfu l f l in t c ho ice . ( i x )

' Mu l t i-purpose i mp le men ts !. o r b ur in f or m .

S o me k n ives a re r e touched i n to s craper

OR IG INS? P lano-convex k n ives a re k nown f ro m many p ar ts o f t he B r i t ish I s les a nd an u mber f ro m s ecure ly d a teab le c on tex ts . The e ar l ies t p iano-convex k nife 1 25

k nown a t p resen t t ha t c an b e s o d a ted c o mes f ro m t he Da l lad ies l ong b arrow ( P iggo t t 1 971 ) a nd i s s hown i n F ig . 5 . 1n o . 4 ) .

The k n ife was a pparen t ly c on-

t e mporary w i th a c up marked s tone a nd a mortuary s truc ture w i th C 14 c a librat i on d a ted c . 3 500 b .c .

An u mber o f o ther e ar ly s i tes p ossess t hese k n ife

f or ms ( see F ig . 5 .1 ) a l though o n ly a h andfu l c an b e s ecure ly d a ted , a nd mos t a re n o t c on te mporary w i th t he e ar l ies t u ses o f t hese s i tes . A t B rack ley ( see H ensha l l 1 972 , p . 3 48) t he k n ives were l a te i n t he l i fe o f t he t o mb , p oss ib ly r e la t ing t o as econdary ' Food V esse l ' u sage .

A t P or t

C har lo t te C lyde c a irn ( P ierpo in t a nd H arr ing ton f or thco ming ) , t he k n ife ( F ig . 5 .1 n o . 1 0 ) was s econdary t o af açade c ol lapse w i th a p ri mary c ha mber d epos i t o f e ar l ier N eo l i th ic p o t tery a nd a r ad io-carbon d a te o f 2 610 ± 9 0 .

H owever a t

o ther s i tes i n S co t land t he k n ives d o a ppear t o b e c on te mporary w i th t he e ar l ies t u se o ft he c ha mbers , n o tab ly a t B lackhammer ( Hensha l l 1 972 p . 1 85 ); C a lf o f E day L ong ( Hensha l l 1 972 , p .

1 85 ) ;

T or more ( ap o l ished e dge f or m ;

H ensha l l 1 972 , p . 1 85 , i l lus tra ted i n F ig . 5 .1 n o . 6 ) ;

G ian t 's G raves ( Hensha l l

1 972 , p . 1 85 ; i l lus tra ted i n F ig . 5 .1 n o . 3 ) . a nd C a irnho ly ( Hensha l l 1 972 , p . 1 85 ) .

A t t he l as t o ft hese s i tes t he p lano-convex k n ife may p reda te t he

G r i ms ton-Ly les H i l l Ware i n t he f orecour t .

Af la t f l aked p ia no-convex k n ife

h as a lso b een f ound a t G len luce ( unpub l ished s ee F ig . 5 .1 n o . 7 ) as i te w h ich h as a lso p roduced q uan t i t ies o f ' Neo li th ic ' ma teria l .

( They a re a lso k nown

f ro m s im i lar c on tex ts a t C as t le H i l l Denby-G i lks 1 974 ; Knappers H i l l D u mb . H ensa l l 1 972 p . 1 85 ;

Wind mi l l H i l l-Sm i th 1 965; D urr ing ton Wa l ls — Wa inwrigh t

a nd L ongwor th 1 971 . ) I n s uppor t o f t he s ugges t ion made e ar l ier , t ha t t hese k n ives a re mere ly a n e labora te f or m o f aw ide v ar ie ty o f Neo li th ic a nd B ronze Age k n i fe f orms , i s t he e v idence f ro m G ian t 's G raves Arran a nd P or t C har lot te I s lay .

A t t he f or mer

t he p ia no-convex k n ife w i th b road s ha l low f l akes was f ound i n as i mi lar c ontex t t o o ne l arge s ing le e dge p ressure f l aked k n ife ( F ig . 5 .1 n o . 2 ) a nd a no ther s ing le k n ife ( F ig . 5 .1 n o . 1 ) .

A t P or t Char lo t te ( F ig . 5 .1 n os . 8 , 9 , 1, 1 2) ,

f our k n ives were r ecovered f ro m a n e ar ly c on tex t p reda t ing t he Neo l i th ic p ot tery f ro m t he s i te .

A l though n one o ft he k n ives a re s tr ict ly p iano-convex t ypes , a t

l eas t t wo b ear e x tens ive p ressure-f lak ing .

H owever , t he k n ives , a l though

f ro m a s ing le l ayer , a re o f q u i te d if feren t f or m .

I n t h is sma l l b ody o fd a ta

t hen , a l l f ro m f unerary c on tex ts may b e s een s o me i nd ica t ion o f a ' f am i ly ' o f n eo l i th ic k n ife f or ms .

A l l may h ave b een u sed f or s imi lar p urposes ( o ne c an

s ugges t s ta tus a nd p res t ige p urposes a s b e ing a s l i ke ly a s a ny o ther p ossib i li ty ) . E ven a t t h is s tage t he k n ives may h ave b een t raded .

T he k n ives a t G ian t 's

G raves a nd Da l lad ies a re a l mos t c er ta in ly t oo l arge f or t he f l in t t o b e f ound r ead i ly l oca l ly . were t raded . c rude .

The k n ives a t P or t Char lot te may a lso b e a typ ica l f orms t ha t

Ap re-ca irn b each f l in t i ndus try a t P or t C har lot te i s r e markab ly

O ne p oss ib le s ource o f s uch f l in t may h ave b een t he f l in t a xe t rade,

b u t Ih ave n o e v idence o f t h is .

The s ugges t ion t ha t t he k n ives t he mse lves

were t raded mus t b e b orne i n m ind p end ing f ur ther d a ta f ro m o ther s i tes . THE PLANO-CONVEX KN IFE I N YORKSH IRE I n F ig . 5 .2 -3 , Ih ave t r ied t o i l lus tra te a p ar t o f t he r ange o f t ypes e nc o mpassed w i th in t he d escribed f or m . N one o ft he i mp le men ts g a thered t og e ther h ere h ave a ny p ar t icu lar r ese mb lance t o t he b road f l a t f or ms f ro m S co t land w i th t he ir b road s ha l low f l ak ing ( F ig . 5 .4 ). 1 26

( One i mp le men t f ro m

F ig. 5 .1

P lano-convex k n ives :

s o me e arly f or ms o f k n ives.

1 27

1 4

d o . 1 3 l o ck ton 1 6

A d m . 1 4 b I nn r .h2 L . 1 1 5a ck la r n2 04

4 0 1 1 1 1 1 10 > 4 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 e

1 6g a r ton s l ack 157

1 9

1 7p ic ke r in g-nea r 1 8h ugga te224

2 3 b l anch

r-• \ _ j •

2 1

• 4 11 1 1 1w

4 1 11110 > 1 9-2 0w .p e rcy67

‘ 1 1 11 1 1ä . 2 1-2w eave r tho

2 4 2 5

2 4pa ins tho rpe4 25 pa ins tho rpe 8 3 . y2 8p a ins tho rpe98 , 2 7

C M

F ig. 5 .2

P lano-convex k n ives :

ar ange o f t ypes ( 1 ).

1 28

-

4 11>

2 6r i ggs 14 2A

2 9 t ow tho rpe 139

3 0h ang ing 3 1h ugga te 24 g r im s ton 5 6

I

1 1 1h . 3 3 . w eaponess

3 2g a r tor . s l oc k7 5

3 4 .e t ton 8 2

3 5b i shop 3 5g ar ton b u r ton 25 s l ock162

A l lbw 3 9 .gn r t on s l ack 1 6 2

3 7 e ar by

. 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .

4« 1 1 1 11 ii lb . 3 8 h u t ton P usce l

4 0 .g on to n

F ig. 5 .3

M I I l

P lano-convex k n ives :

C M

ar ange o f t ypes ( 2 ).

1 29

R udycon D ean i n t he H uddersf ie ld Museu m i s p erhaps c loses t t o t h is f or m . ) I n C lark ( 1932 ) , a n e f for t was made t o c lass ify t he p lano-convex k n ife i n to d if feren t ly s haped f or ms , i nc lud ing o n ly t he l arger a nd f i ner f or ms ( C lark i n f ac t u sed a l arge q uan t i ty o f Y orksh ire b arrow d a ta ) . i fu ndes irab le .

Th is i s q ui te p ossib le

There a re e ven p oss ib le n ew f or ms , f or i ns tance t he r ect-

a ngu lar f or m o f F ig . 5 . 2n os . 1 6 i s q u i te d is t inct ive . H owever t he p resen t wr i ter p roposed t o d ispense w i th t h is f or m o fp ure ly d escrip t ive t ypo logy immed ia te ly , f or t he f o l low ing r easons : 1 .

There i s n o s ugges t ion t ha t t h is ' t ypo logy ' h as a ny r ea l meaning o ther t han a p ure ly d escr ip t ive o ne ( bu t s ee b e low ) .

2 .

The v as t r ange o f s hapes a nd s izes ( on ly t he more r egu lar f or ms a re i l lus tra ted t o a ny e x ten t i n F igs . 5 .2-3 , b u t t he i rregu lar s hapes o f 5 . 2n o . 2 1 , 2 0 a nd F ig . 5 .3 , 3 9 , 4 1 g ive a c lear i dea o f t h is i rregu lari ty ) . S o me o ft he Y orksh ire k n ives , t hough l ack ing t he s ize o f t he r e markab le

f i nd f ro m Da l lad ies , d o a t ta in s izes g rea ter t han 1 0 cm .

T he i mp le men t f ro m

H u t ton B usce l i s t he l arges t f ro m Y orksh ire k nown t o t he p resen t wr i ter . H owever o thers a re c o m mon ly a round t he s ize o f t hose f ro m Weaver thorpe ( 5 . 2n o . 2 2 ) o r L ock ton ( 5 . 2n o . 1 3 ) .

I ti s s ugges ted t ha t sma l ler f or ms t han t hese may e x is t i n l arger q uan ti t ies t han h ave s o f ar b een f ound .

An u mber o ft hese i mp le men ts a re i n t he S car-

b orough Museu m ( unpub l ished ) a nd w ere u n t i l r ecen t ly i ncorrec t ly i den t if ied a s l eaf a rrowheads . Da ting e v idence T here i s l i t t le t o a dd t o C lark 's ( 1932 ) l is t o f a ssoc ia t ions f ro m Y orksh ire wh ich were e xc lus ive ly f ro m b arrows . Mos t o f t he p ia no-convex k n ives f ound a ssoc ia ted w i th p o t tery were w i th F ood V esse ls . H owever , al ong h is tory o f u se m igh t b e e xpec ted .

S o me i nd ica t ion o f t he r ange i n Y orksh ire c an b e

g a ined f ro m t he f o l low ing :

1 . S ur face f ind f ro m C as t le H i l l D enby ( G i lks 1 974 ) w i th g roup V I a xe f l akes p oss ib ly a ssoc ia ted .

Wo ldga te N eo l i th ic s i tes ( Manby 1 974 ) ,

a ssocia t ions a re d oub t fu l b u t may b e N eo l i th ic p o t tery. 2 .

B eaker a ssoc ia t ions ( Gar ton S lack e .g . T . C . M . B rews ter p ers . c o mm . ) .

3 .

' Food V esse l '

a ssocia t ions ;

n u merous e .g . E arby ( Ho lga te u npub lished )

F ig . 5 .3 , 3 7 . 4 .

A ssocia t ions w i th u rns , e .g . t he r ecen t ly l oca ted g roup o f p o l ished e dge p lano-convex k nife a nd a rrowheads a nd b a t t le a xe s ee m t o h ave b een f ound i n a n u rn f ro m L ev isha m .

Mos t f i nds o fp iano-convex k n ives a re T unassoc ia ted ' a nd l arge q uant i ties a re k nown f ro m t he Y orksh ire Museu ms ( 346 o ft hese were u sed f or a na lysis h ere ) .

These p lano-convex k n ives may b e o f a ny p er iod b u t i ti s p oss ib le t ha t

t he t rad i t iona l v iew t ha t mos t a re B ronze Age ( i .e . e ar ly B ronze Age ) may h ave ag ood d ea l o f v a l id i ty .

C ow ling h as c o l lec ted a n u mber o f t hese i mp le-

men ts f ro m s i tes i n t he A ire v a l ley w i th a r tefac ts o f B ronze Age t ype ( part i cu lar ly s crapers ) .

There a re n o c o mparab le s i tes i n E as tern Y orksh ire ,

b u t r ecen t e xa m ina t ion b y t he wr i ter o fu npub lished ' barrow f l in t ' a sse mb lages 1 30

f rom Mor t imer 's work , h as r evea led a sma l l n umber o f t hese k n ives i n Ear ly B ronze Age b arrows . A s f ar a s c hrono log ica l v ar iab i l i ty i s c oncerned , a par t f ro m t he k n ives a ssoc iated w i th F ood V esse ls , t here a re t oo f ew f ro m o ther c on tex ts t o make av a luab le c o mpar ison .The o vera l l i mpress ion f ro m t he p resen t w ri ter 's e xam ina t ion b e ing t ha t many o f t he ' f ine ' f or ms may b e l a te .

A s ugges t ion w ou ld

b e t ha t at yp ica l ' ba t t le-sh ip ' c urve s i tua t ion p reva i led w i th t he p lano-convex k n ife p eak i n t he midd le p ar t o f t he e ar ly B ronze Age a nd w i th t he p eak o ne migh t e xpec t ' ex travagances ' o f f or m .

Iw i l l t ouch o n t h is p oin t a ga in l a ter .

W i th in Y orksh ire , b es ides t he p lano-convex k n ife f or ms t here was a v as t r ange o f o ther f or ms , many o f t hem n ot ' l eg i t im ised ' b y t he b enef i t o f ' t ypol og ica l r ecogn i t ion '.

H owever , t here c an b e n o d oub t t ha t t hey a re n u merous

i n museu m c o l lec t ions a nd i n b arrow c on tex ts .

The p resen t w r i ter h as n o i n-

t en t ion t o a id t he r ecogn i t ion o f n ew f or ms b u t s o me i dea o f t he r ange o f t ypes c an b e g ained f ro m F ig . 5 .7.

T he p o l ished e dge t ypes a re w e l l k nown ( e .g .

1 V i anby 1 974 a nd F ig . 5 .7 n os . 5 0-52 ) .

The D -s haped f or ms ( F ig . 5 .7 n os .

4 2-3 ) a re k nown f ro m b arrow a nd g enera l c on tex ts . h as a p o l ished e dge a lso .

T he f i nd f ro m " Gromard"

T he o thers ( 44-49 ) a re a mixed b ag o f r e touched

f l ake ' kn ives ' f rom a v arie ty o f c on tex ts .

T he i mpor tance o f s o me o f t hese

w i l l b e d iscussed i n al a ter c hap ter . G enera l v ar iab i l i ty a nd s ign if icance T he i n ten t ion h ere i s t o e xa m ine t he ' soc ia l ' i mpor tance o f t he p ianoc onvex k n ife .

I ft here was s o me ' spec ia l ' s ign if icance i n t he p lacing o f s uch

a n i mp le men t w i th a b ur ia l t h is s hou ld b e r evea led b y a ' cho ice ' o f i mp le men ts o r e ven a s pecia l manufacture o f t hese i t ems . I ti s a lso i mpor tan t t o h ave s o me i dea o f h ow a c hoice w as made ( i f i tw as made ) a nd t he r easons b ehind t h is . 1 .

F or t h is a na lys is t wo t h ings a re i mpor tan t :

The a ssemb ly o f al arge b ody o f d a ta a l low ing c o mpar ison o f p ia no-convex

k n ives a ssoc ia ted w i th b ur ia ls w i th t hose f ro m s e t t le men t s i tes a nd s tray f i nds . I n f ac t t he v ast b u lk o fp lano-convex k n ives i n museu m c o l lect ions i n Y orksh ire w ere ' s tray f i nds ' a nd t h is i nd ica tes a l mos t a ny c on tex t .

I ti s c lear t ha t a

n umber may o r ig ina l ly h ave c o me f ro m b arrows a nd t ha t t he ir i nc lus ion migh t b lur t he d if ferences b e tween t he t wo g roups . t ha t mos t o ft he ' s tray

I ti s a ssu med h ere , h owever ,

f i nds c o me f ro m n on-barrow c on tex ts .

A l l a re a s-

s umed ' co mparab le ' i n d a te . 2 .

I t i s i mpor tan t t o ' code ' t he d a ta i n s uch a way t ha t di f ferences c an b e s een .

T he c hoice o f v ar iab les f or f l in t t ypes i s d i f f icu l t a nd o f c ourse s ub jec t ive . H owever t he i n ten t ion i s t o s how d i f ferences , n o t t o r ecogn ise t ypes .

T he

c ho ice o f a t tr ibu tes i sb ased o n t he p re m ise t ha t s e lect ion o f a r te fac ts f or b arrow ' d isposa l ' w ou ld i nvo lve t he i mp le men ts w i th t he f iner f in ish a nd g rea ter r egu lar i ty a nd p oss ib ly g rea ter s ize . Al is t o f ' spec ia l f ea tures ' was d rawn u p t o b e u sed t o d escr ibe a r tefac t .

e ach

T hese r e la ted t o d e ta i ls o f f i n ish , a nd i n mos t c ases i nvo lved a d e-

g ree o f s ub ject ive j udgemen t , a l though If ee l t h is s hou ld n o t b ias t he v a lue o f t he r esu l ts o b ta ined .

S evera l s pecia l f ea tures w ere c ons idered b u t i gnored

f or v ar ious r easons ( see b e low ) .

1 31

3 0

2 0

L ENGTHS

1 0

1 2

1 3

THICKNESS/LENGTH

2 0

1 0

2

6

1 0

2 8

3 6

p ercent

1 4

1 8

44

52

2 0+

WIDTH /LENGTH 2 0 -

1 0 -

2 3

SCOTT ISH F ig. 5 .4

p ercent

P LANO -CONVEX

S cot t ish p iano-convex k n ives;

1 32

s ize r anges.

ii 5 6

6 0 +

Variab le l i s t : 1 .

L eng th o f a r tefac t ( based o n t he max imu m d i mens ion o f t he i mp le men t n ot o n t he l eng th measured f ro m ,t he b u lb ) .

2 .

The w id th o f t he a r tefac t .

T he max i mu m d i mens ion o f al i ne d rawn a t

r igh t a ng les t o t he l i ne measur ing t he l eng th . 3 .

Max imu m t h ickness o f t he i mp le men t .

4 .

Max imu m t h ickness o ft he i mp le men t away f ro m t he b u lb o fp ercuss ion . Th is measuremen t d id p roduce u sefu l d if feren t ia t ion f ro m t he l as t .

5 .

R e touch e x ten t Ao r Bf or m . ( cf .

I s t he who le o ft he v en tra l s urface r e moved?

F ig . 5 .2 , 2 0 w i th 2 5 ) .

S pecia l f ea tures : 1 .

S ym me tr ica l c ross s ec t ion . s ect ion .

Mos t i mp le men ts h ad a s ym me tr ica l c ross

Those e xc luded were ' backed ' f or ms , t hose w i th p ressure

f lak ing o n o ne e dge o n ly e tc . 2 .

Para l le l s ides :

D if f icu l t t o c lass ify a nd v ery r are .

F ig . 5 .3 n o . 3 4 i s a

t ypica l e xamp le . 3 .

S erra ted e dges .

An u mber o f i mp le men ts h ad r e touch af ter t he i n i t ia l

p ressure f l ak ing , t h is a t t imes t ook t he f or m o f n otches ( F ig .5 .1 n o . 1 0 ) b u t a t o thers i nvo lved t he c rea t ion o f ag enuine s erra ted e dge .

F ig . 5 .3

n os . 3 4-35 a re g ood e xamp les . 4 .

R egu lar i ty o f o u t line :

N o c lear d ef in i t ion o f t h is c an b e o f fered .

H owever

t hose i mp le men ts w i th f l akes t aken o f f i n smoo th c urves a long t he e dges were a ccep ted . 5 .

R ipp le f lak ing .

F ig . 5 .3 n o . 2 9 i s a ' t yp ica l ' e xamp le . Many i mp le men ts h ad r egu lar p ara l le l a nd n arrow f l akes

r e moved o ver t he v en tra l s urface .

I ti s ar are f ea ture b u t i s p resent o n

e .g . F ig . 5 .2 n o . 2 6 . 6 .

U nre touched b u lbar s urface .

T h is f ea ture was i nc luded b ecause p resu m-

a b ly t he f l in t k nappers w i th t he h ighes t s k i l l w ou ld n o t n eed t o c on tinue r e touch o n t he 2 nd s urface . 7 .

C lark ( 1932 ) c lass ic s hapes .

8 .

S y m me tr ica l .

As d escribed i n C lark .

I mp le men ts a ccep ted were t hose s ym me trica l i n t wo p lanes

i n p lan . One u se fu l d i f feren t ia t ion , a nd a measure o f f ineness , i sb e tween ' A ' a nd ' B ' f or ms a s d escr ibed a bove .

' A ' f or ms a re more h eav i ly w orked r e-

mov ing t he who le o f t he d orsa l s urface o ft he f l ake .

Many o f t hese f ea tures

w ere d if f icu l t t o c lass ify , b u t t he i n ten t ion was t o h ave a measure o f ' f ineness ' a nd r egu lar i ty . An u mber o fo ther p oss ib le f ea tures w ere c ons idered b u t r e jec ted : ( a ) Curved p rof i le ( see F ig . 5 .2 n o . 1 7).

Th is f ea ture may a lso b e au se fu l

measure o f ' f ineness ' b u t i n p rac t ice i tp roved d if f icu lt t o measure .

C urved

' b ladel ike ' f l akes o ft h is f orm a re a f eature o fg ood f l in t k napp ing a nd g ood f l int .

I fo ne migh t c on jec ture , t here was s pecia lis t f l in t k napp ing i n t he 1 33

B ronze Age , i t migh t b e f ur ther s ugges ted t ha t t hese s pecia l is t k nappers wou ld b e t he o nes who h ad a ccess b y wha tever means t o t he b es t f l in t .

W i th many o f

t he f ea tures a bove t he p roduc t ion i s o n ly p oss ib le w i th g ood f l in t . ( b )

P o lished e dges ;

L ev isha m Moor :

T hese a re k nown f ro m s o me i mp le men ts i n t he a rea ( e .g .

P ierpoin t &P h i l lips 1 978) b u t i ti s s o r are a s n o t t o p rov ide

au sefu l c lass if ica t ion . ( c )

The p resen t w r i ter k nows o n ly o f t hree .

B r igh t ly c o loured f l in t :

The b r igh tness o f t he c o lour w i l l i n al a ter c hap ter

b e s ugges ted t o b e o ne o ft he r easons b eh ind t he s e lec t ion o f r aw ma teria ls f or b a t t le a xes .

I n i t ia l c lass if ica t ion p rocedures t r ied b y t he wri ter p roved

u nsa t isfac tory .

I n a ny c ase many o f t he ' f ines t

f or ms a re i n b lack o r d ark

g rey f l in t . D imens iona l c r i ter ia S o me a t ten t ion was p a id t o v ar ious r a t ios : 1 .

l eng th-w id th

2 .

w id th-th ickness Th is g ave s o me i dea o ft he r e la t ive s hapes o ft he a r tefac ts . P ecu l iar i t ies o f k n ives f ro m b arrow c on tex ts

1 .

P hys ica l measures I t was c lear b efore a na lys is t ha t many o f t he l arges t k n ives were f ro m

b arrows , a nd t h is was t es ted q u i te e as i ly w i th a med ian t es t : a .

L eng ths :

g rave

s tray

t ota ls

l t . Med ian

2 0

2 18

2 38

g t . Med ian

5 5

1 28

1 83

7 5

3 46

4 21

c h i-square = 3 3 . 1 23774 w i th 1 d egree o f f reedo m .

S ign if icance l ess t han 0 . 0 01

h igh ly s ign if ican t . g rave

s tray

t ota ls

l t . Med ian

3 9

2 95

3 34

g t . Med ian

3 6

5 1

8 7

7 5

3 46

4 21

b .

Wid ths :

c h i-square = 4 1 . 5 91179 w i th 1 d egree o f f reedo m . 0 .0 01 . h igh ly s ign if ican t .

S ign if icance l eve l l ess t han

T he c onf igura t ions a re i l lus tra ted i n F igs . 5 . 5a nd 5 .6 . a .

P lano-convex k n ife l eng ths ( F ig . 5 .5 ) T he p a t tern r epresen t ing t he

t ribut ion .

s tray ' f i nds i s s imi lar t o aG auss ian d is-

T he p eak i s a t 5 cm , a nd i s q u i te r egu lar .

' ou th ers ' 8 -10 cm i n l eng th .

H owever t here a re

T he p a t tern f or t he g rave f i nds i s r a ther more 1 34

G

R

A

V

E .

20 . 1 0-

%

1 0 -

2

4

L .

5

6 CM

I

2 CM

3

4

5

I

7

8

9

1 0

1

2 0

WIDTHS

30

6

S T

R

A

-

Y

L ENGTHS

1

20 1 0

%

-

0

F ig. 5 .5

P lano-convex k n ives :

ac o mpar ison o f g rave a ga inst s tray f inds.

30-

G

R

A

,

1 5•

I

0 %

2

3

4 5 TRA ITS

6

7

1

o z S T TRA IT

F ig. 5 .6

V

P AM

1 TH ICKNESS

1 5 .

SCORE

P iano-convex k n ives :

R A

'9

ac o mpar ison o f g rave a ga inst s tray f inds.

1 35

d if f icu l t t o i n terpre t .

None o ft he i t e ms a re b e low 3 cm i n l eng th a nd t here

a re o u t liers u p t o 1 1 cm .

There i s n o s ing le p eak a nd a v ery i rregu lar s hape .

The i rregu lar p a t tern may b e c aused b y t he r e la t ive ly sma l l q uan t it ies o f d a ta ( on ly 7 5 i t e ms ) .

I ti s c lear t ha t d esp i te t he f ac t t ha t t he t wo p opu la tions

a re s ign if ican t ly d if feren t , g rave f i nds i nc lude a l mos t t he f u l l r ange o f t he s tray f or ms , b u t n ot v ice-versa . b .

P lano-convex k n ife w id ths ( F ig . 5 .5 )

T he d is tribu t ion o f t he 's tray ' f i nds a pprox ima tes t o t he G auss ian t ype . A l l measure men ts a re w i th in c . 2 .5 cm o f o ne a nother .

The g rave f i nds o n

t he o ther h and s how a ' peak ' c . 1 cm g rea ter t han t he o thers a nd t here a re 2 cm o f ' range ' o ccup ied b y g rave i t e ms a lone .

T he p a t terns a re v ery s im i-

l ar f or t he f i rs t 2 cm , b u t a f ter t h is p oin t t he g rave f i nds s how c ons iderab ly h igher f igures . 2 .

R e la t ive p ropor t ions B as ic med ian t es ts were a t te mp ted f or l eng th/w id th a nd t h ickness/w id th .

3 .

L ength/w id th :

g rave

s tray

t ota l

l ess t han mean

2 7

1 54

1 72

g rea ter t han mean

3 1

1 20

1 51

2 74

3 32

5 8

c h i-square = 1 .89 s ign if icance o ver 0 .1 n o t s ign if ican t . 4 .

Th ic k ness/ w id th :

g rave

s tray

t ota l

l ess t han mean

4 1

1 58

1 99

g rea ter t han mean

1 6

1 51

1 67

5 7

3 09

3 66

c h i-square = 8 .389808 s ign if icance u nder 0 .05 s ign if ican t . F ig . 5 .6 c o mpares t he ' t h ickness ' o f t he t wo p opu la t ions a nd i n f ac t t hey a re s l igh t ly d if feren t .

Th is c onf ir ms t ha t t he l arger k n ives a re u sua l ly made

( i .e . t hose f ro m t he b arrows ) o n f i ner f l akes t oo . C onc lus ions :

P lano-convex k n ives f ro m b arrow-grave c on tex ts c an b e s hown

t o b e s ta t is t ica l ly s ign if ican t ly l arger t han ' s tray ' f i nds ( and f i nds i n g enera l f ro m n on-funerary c on tex ts ) . S pecia l f eatures ( f ig . 5 .6 ) T ab le 5 .1 l i s ts t he o ccurrences o ft he s pecia l f eatures .

S pecia l f ea tures

6a nd 8 a re b y f ar t he c o m mones t a nd s o me a re v ery r are i ndeed . I n a l l c ases t he i t e ms f ro m t he b arrows h ave h igher p ercentages o ft he ' spec ia l f ea tures ' t han t he s tray f i nds a nd t h is i sp ar t icu lar ly t rue o ft he minor i ty f ea tures .

1 36

T ab le 5 .1 1 .

S ign if icance t es ts

Feature 1 : p resent a bsen t

g rave

s tray

t ota l

6 8

2 16

2 84

1 30

1 37

3 46

4 21

7 7 5

c h i-square = 2 2 . 3 91166 s ign if icance l ess t han 0 .0 01 v ery s ign if ican t . 2 .

F ea ture 2 :

g rave

s tray

t o ta l

4

1 4

p resen t

1 0

a bsen t

6 5

3 42

4 07

7 5

3 46

4 21

c h i-square = 2 8 . 4 31381 s ignif icance l ess t han 0 .0 01 v ery s ign if ican t . 3 .

F eature 3 :

g rave

s tray

t ota l

p resent

1 7

1 4

3 1

a bsen t

5 8

3 32

3 90

7 5

3 46

4 21

c h i-square = 3 1 . 3 3082 w i th o ne d egree o f f reedo m , s ignif icance l ess t han 0 .0 01, v ery s ignif ican t . 4 .

F eature 4 :

g rave

s tray

t o ta l

p resent

3 2

1 4

4 6

a bsen t

4 3

3 32

3 75

7 5

3 46

4 21

c h i-square = 9 2 .676961 w i th 1 d egree o f f reedo m , s ign if icance l ess t han 0 .0 001 v ery s ignif ican t . 5 .

F ea ture 5 : p resen t a bsen t

g rave 7

s tray

t ota l

1 0

1 7

6 8

3 36

4 04

7 5

3 46

4 21

c hi-square = 6 .6036943 w i th o ne d egree o f f reedo m . 0 .0 5 . 3 .

S ignif ican t .

F ea ture 6 : p resent a bsen t

g rave

s tray

t ota l

6 9

9 1

1 60

2 55

2 61

3 46

4 21

6 7 5

1 37

S ignif icance l ess t han

Tab le 5 .1 ( con td .) c h i-square = 1 26 . 0 6769 w i th o ne d egree o f f reedo m , s ign if icance l ess t han 0 .0 001 , v ery s ign if ican t . 7 .

F ea ture 7 :

g rave

t o ta l

s tray

p resen t

3 9

2 6

6 5

a bsen t

3 6

3 20

3 56

7 5

3 46

4 21

c h i-square = 9 3 .431623 w i th o ne d egree o f f reedo m .

S ign if icance l ess t han

0 .0 001 v ery s ign if ican t . 8 .

F ea ture 8 :

g rave

t ota l

s tray

p resen t

2 3

1 3

3 6

a bsen t

5 2

3 33

3 85

7 5

3 46

4 21

c h i-square= 5 7 . 0 7758 w i th o ne d egree o f f reedo m .

S ign if icance l ess t han

0 .0 01 v ery s ign if ican t . 9 .

" A" f or ms A

g rave

s tray

t o ta l

3 9

1 16

1 55

3 6

2 30

2 66

7 5

3 46

4 21

c h i-square = 9 .0 433103 w i th o ne d egree o f f reedo m , s ign if icance l ess t han 0 .0 1 v ery s ign if ican t .

The r ecurren t h igh c h i-square f i gure w ou ld i nd ica te t ha t t he p a t terning i s as ign i f ican t o ne . T h is wou ld c on f irm t he t es ts c arr ied o u t o n t he p hys ica l s ize measure men ts . T he t o ta l f ea ture n u mbers f or e ach k n ife s hown i n Tab le 5 . 2i s p erhaps t he c leares t i nd ica t ion o f t he p a t tern . Th is s ys te m u sed h ere s hou ld n ever the less b e r egarded a s r e la t ive ly ' crude ' a s i t mere ly c odes d if ferences t ha t a re c lear ly a pparent f ro m p hys ica l e xa mi na t ion o ft he ma ter ia l . I ti s q u i te n o tab le t ha t s o me o f t he i t e ms p ossess mos t o f t he s pec ia l f eat ures ;

f or i ns tance t he i mp le men ts i n t he 3 -4 r igh t h and c o lu mns o ft he

h is togra m .

H owever i n 4 5 .6% o f o ccurrences ( 1 29 ) f ea ture 1 i s n o t a cco mpan-

i ed b y a ny o ther f ea tures , a nd i n 2 3 .1% o f a ppearances ( 3 7) f ea ture 6 i s u nacc o mpan ied b y a ny o ther f ea ture .

S erra ted e dges ( f ea ture 3 ) o ccur o n ly t hree

t imes ( 9 .8% ) a nd w i thou t a ny o ther f eature . h and a re n ever f ound u nassoc ia ted .

1 38

F ea tures 2 a nd 8 o n t he o ther

S pecia l f ea ture r e la t ionsh ips I n Tab le 5 . 2s o me i nd ica t ion o ft he r e la t ionsh ip o ft he ' specia l f ea tures ' i s i nd ica ted . Th is was e xp lored f ur ther b y ac lus ter ing o f t he a ssoc ia t ion c oe f f icien ts ( co mpi led b y c a lcu la t ion f ro m T ab le 5 .2 ) . The c lus ter ing t oge ther o fv ar iab les

7 , 8 , 4 ,t he t hree ' shape ' f ea tures ,

a t a n e ar ly l eve l o f c lus ter ing w ou ld i nd ica te a c lear a nd p erhaps u nsurpris ing r e la tionsh ip . The g roup ing o f t he f ea tures ( 2 &5 ) —r ipp le f l ak ing a nd p ara l le l s ides i s a more i n teres t ing o ne .

Th is may s ugges t s o me th ing o ft he p repara t ion t ech-

n iques n eeded t o c arry o u t s o me o ft hese s pecia l ly manufac tured f ea tures . R ipp le f l ak ing i s o ne o ft he more d if f icu l t f lak ing p rocedures a nd t he p reparat i on o f as tra igh t e dge , s o t ha t l ong t h in r egu lar f l akes c ou ld b e r e moved , may h ave b een i mpor tan t . The o ther ma jor g roup ing i s o ft hree v ar iab les wh ich o n ly c lus ter a t al a te s tage —(fea tures 1 , 3 , 6 ) —serra ted e dges , c ross s ect ion s ym metry a nd u nret ouched s econd s urface . As s hown i n Tab le 5 .2 t here i s ag enera l c lose r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he s pecia l f eatures . Tab le 5 .2

S pecia l f eature r e la t ionsh ips A C orre la t ions

F ea ture n o .

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1

-

1 3

2 6

4 4

1 4

1 26

5 2

3 3

2

1 3

-

1 3

1 1

3

2 6

7

-

1 1

6

1 6

1 2

4 5

4 4 1 4

8 6

1 1 6

1 0

1 0 -

3 8 1 3

3 7 1 3

2 2 1 3

6

1 26

1 3

1 6

3 8

1 1

-

4 3

2 5

7 8

5 2 3 3

1 1 7

1 2 9

3 7 2 2

1 1 1 1

4 3 2 5

2 7

2 7 -

7

8

6

N o . o f f ea tures F ea ture n o .

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

t ota ls

1

1 84

5 9

1 7

1 2

5

2

4

1

2 84

2

-

3

3

1

1

1

4

1

1 4

3 4

1 1 1

7 6

1 1 7

1 1 0

4 5

2 2

4 4

1 1

3 1 4 6

5

2

2

1

3

2

2

4

1

1 7

5 4

3 3

4 4

1 1

1 60 6 5

4

3

4

1

3 6

6 7 8

N o . o f k n ives

9 2 1 2

2 7 1 5 9

1 7 1 7 5

1 1 1 0 8

3 03

1 28

7 8

5 6

3 03

6 4

2 6

1 4

3 0 6 1 39

1 8 3

3 2 4

8 1

4 21

7 9

Tab le 5 .2 ( contd .)

Fea ture n o. % g rave

% s tray

%b arrow

1

9 0 .67

6 2 .43

2 3 .9

2

1 3 .3

1 .16

7 1 .4

3

2 2 .66

4 .05

5 4 .8

4

4 2 .66

4 .05

6 9 .6

5

9 .33

2 .89

4 1 .2

6

9 2 .00

6 .30

4 3 .1

7

5 2 .00

7 .5

6 0 .9

8

3 0 .66

3 .75

6 3 .9

A

5 2

3 3 .53

2 5 .16

B

4 8

6 6 .47

1 3 .53

Percen tage c orre la t ions N o . o f f ea tures

Fe a ture n o .

1

1

6 4.4

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

t ota ls

2 1.1

5 .9

4 .2

1 .8

0 .7

1 .4

0 .4

2 1.4

2 1.4

7 .1

7 .1

7 .1

2 8 .5

7 .1

3 .3

3 5 .5

2 2 .6

3 .2

3 .2

1 2.9

6 .5

1 2 .9

3 .2

7 .4

4

2 .2

1 3 .0

3 6.5

2 1.7

1 0 .9

4 .3

1 0 .9

2 .2

1 0.9

5

1 1.8

1 1.8

5 .9

1 7.7

1 1.8

1 1.8

2 3.5

5 .9

4 .0

6

5 6.9

1 7.5

1 0.6

6 .9

3 .1

1 .9

2 .5

0 .6

3 8 .0

7

1 6.9

2 3 .8

2 6.2

1 5 .4

6 .2

4 .6

6 .2

1 .5

1 5.4

8

5 .6

2 5 .0

1 3.9

2 2 .2

1 1.1

8 .3

1 1.1

2 .8

8 .6

2 3

C onc lus ions :

6 7.5

I tc an b e e s tab lished q ui te c lear ly t ha t p lano-convex k nives

f ro m b arrows a re d if feren t f ro m imp le men ts f ound

i n o ther c ontex ts .

The Mean ing o ft he d if ferences -the b ias o ft he e v idence 1 .

A l though t he o rig ina l h ypo thesis i s c lear ly t es tab le , i ti s p ossib le t ha t t he

e v idence may b e b iased i n s o me way .

P h i l lips ( pers . c omm . )h as s hown

t ha t s urface f i nds a re l ike ly t o b reak u p more t han ' protected ' i te ms .

The

5 cm b reak i n t he ' s tray ' f i nds may i nd ica te t h is t endency . 2 .

S ch if fer ( 1976) h as s hown t ha t c o l lectors w i l l p ick u p o n ly t he l arges t a nd

mos t h eav i ly r e touched i t e ms .

Th is w i l l b ias t he ' s tray ' f i nds t owards l arger

s izes . These t wo f ac tors w i l l p u l l t he p a t terns i n o pposi te d irect ions , b u t t he t endency w i l l b e t o c once l e ach o ther o u t . t he e f fect o ft h is i s .

I ti s i mpossib le t o s ay e xe t ly wha t

H owever Iwou ld ma inta in d esp i te t h is , t ha t t he d if fer-

e nces ( part icu lar ly i n s pecia l f ea tures ) a re more t han s uf f ic ien t t o s uggest t ha t t he b arrow imp le men ts a re d if feren t f ro m t hose i n ' se t t le ment ' d epos i ts . S ugges tions a nd c o m men ts As w i th t he F ood V esse ls we c an t ake t h ings a l i t t le f ur ther .

It h ink i t

q ui te l ike ly t ha t s o me o ft hese k n ives w ere ' spec ia lis t ' manufactured .

There

i s s o me i nd ica t ion o ft h is i n t he s i mi lari ty i n d e ta i l o f s o me o ft he f orms ( e .g . F ig . 5 .3 n os . 3 4 & 3 5;

Mor t i mer 1 905 F ig . 1 610 a -c ) . 1 40

4 2 l i f eh i l l294

4 3 g romard (? ) 4 l i f eh i l l 2 68

4 5 l i f eh i l l 2 9 4

4 6p a ins tho rpe4

e l e c . 4 9& 47gar ton s l ack 152

4 8 s co lp ie ,bu te (c is t ) 5 0 l o ck ton 5 1 w ykeham m oo r 5 2 g r inda le

C M

F ig. 5 .7

Misce l laneous f l in t k n ife f or ms.

1 41

P lano-convex k n ives/bur ia ls a du l ts l t . med ian

s ub-adu l ts/ch i ldren

t o ta l

9

1 7

8

g t . med ian

1 6

1

1 7

t ota l

2 4

1 0

3 4

c h i-square = 8 .814813 w i th o ne d egree o f f reedom .

S ign if icance l eve l l t .

0 .01 .

I n f ac t c h i ldren/sub-adu l ts h ard ly e ver h ave p ia no-convex k nives o ver 6 cm l ong . An a l mos t i den t ica l r esu lt was o b ta ined o n t he b as is o f s pec ia l f eatures . S u m mary a nd C onc lus ions I n t h is c hap ter Ih ave t r ied t o a nswer a n u mber o fb as ic q uest ions . It r ied t o d ef ine t he p ia no-convex k ni fe t ype a nd d iscuss i t s d a t ing a nd p os i t ion i n t he p er iod u nder c ons idera t ion . I t was q u i te c lear t ha t c erta in k n ives w ere b et ter made t han o thers . T here was a c ons iderab le r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he v arious f ac tors o f q ua l i ty .

Mos t i mpor tan t o f a l l were t he a nswers t o t he ' s oc ia l '

q ues t ions . I t was q u i te c lear t ha t ( 1 ) B ronze Age i nd iv idua ls were mak ing a c ho ice o fl arger a nd ' be t ter q ua l i ty ' i t ems f or d epos i t ion i n g raves f rom a l arger a ssemb lage . T he v ery sma l l s ize e lemen t o fk n ives was t o ta l ly l acking f ro m t he g raves . ( 2 ) F ur ther , c ho ice was made f ro m t he g rave d epos i ted i t e ms . T he f i ner a nd l arger f or ms were r ecurren t ly p laced w i th a du l ts ( part i cu lar ly a du l t ma les ) . T he q ues t ion o f c hoice h as b een s trong ly s tressed i n t h is c hap ter . Iw i ll a t temp t t o s how i n l a ter c hap ters t ha t t he c ho ice o f d if feren t a r tefac ts c an b e i n ter-re la ted .

It urn n ow t o av ery d if feren t a r tefac t t ype .

1 42

CHAPTER 6 THE ' BATTLE-AXE ' , I TS VAR IAB IL ITY I N RELAT ION TO S OCIAL PATTERNS

I n troduc t ion I n t h is s ect ion Iw i l l e xa m ine i n t er ms o f s oc ia l r e la t ionsh ips a g roup o f p erfora ted a xes o f ' Bronze Age ' d a te . t i on t he p rob le ms o f ' choice ' .

The i n ten t ion h ere i s t o f ur ther q ues-

The a r tefac t t ype i s r e la t ive ly r are i n g rave

g roups ( co mpared w i th , s ay , F ood V esse ls , B eakers a nd p lano-convex k n ives ) . T he g roup c ons is ts o f aw ide v ar ie ty o f f or ms w i th in wh ich b as ic d iv isions a re a lready r ecogn ised i n a rchaeo logy ( see d ef in i t ion o ft ype b e low ) .

The

s a me q ues t ions a s b efore c an b e s l igh t ly r ephrased f or t hese i mp le men ts :

1 .

To wha t e x ten t a re t here r ela t ionsh ips o f v ar iab les t o q ua l i ty i n v iew o f p red ic t ions made i n C hapter 2 ? A re t here g roups w i th in t he a sse mblage?

2 .

To wha t e x ten t c an t here b e r ecogn ised a ' choice ' f ro m t he a r tefacts f ro m ' s tray ' f i nds f or d epos i t ion i n g raves ( bear ing i n mind t ha t ' s tray ' may r epresent ' grave ' ma ter ia l a lso !)?

3 .

Are t here s pec ia l i t e ms made f or d epos i t ion i n g raves?

4 .

Do t he i t e ms r e la te t o s oc ia l p a t tern ing w i th in t he s ocie ty r e la ted t o v aria bi l i ty o f t he t ypes a nd ' choice ' o f i mp le men ts?

D ef ini t ion o ft he t ype F or t he p urposes o ft h is d iscuss ion Iam g roup ing t ogether a l l a xes w i th ap erfora t ion p ara l le l t o t he s ing le c ut t ing b lade o ft he a xe . v arious s izes a nd t ypes . b ut t .

These a re o f

They a re made o f s tone a nd u sual ly h ave a r ounded

Th is g enera l f am i ly i s we l l d escr ibed i n R oe ( 1966 , 1 967) .

I n t h is l a t ter

ad ef in i t ion i s made b e tween t he l arge p oor ly f i n ished f or ms w i th t endency t o l arge h our-g lass p erfora t ions a nd sma l ler f i ner f orms w i th more c y lindrica l p erfora t ions .

T hese a re t er med ' axe-ha m mers ' a nd ' bat t le-axes ' r espect ive ly

i n t he l i tera ture .

Ii n tend t o r efer t o t he who le g roup f ro m h ere o n a s p ara l le l

p erfora ted i mp le men ts o r PP Is .

I ti s c lear t ha t s o me i t e ms t urn u p i n g raves

a nd s ee m t o b e s oc ia l ly i mpor tan t ( i ntu i t ive ly ) . t o wha t e x tent i s t he c ho ice n on-rando m?

The q ues t ion t o a sk i s t hen ,

I n f ac t Iw i l l b e p red ic t ive h ere .

My h ypo thes is i s a s f o l lows : A s e t o f f i ner f i n ished i mp le men ts w i l l e x is t w i th in t h is g roup o f i mp le men ts a nd t hese w i l l h ave s ocia l

These i mp le men ts w i l l b e c lear ly d is-

t i nguishab le f rom t he r es t o ft he p opu la t ion . F o l low ing o n f ro m t ha t o ne c an s ay :

1 43

T he s ocia l ly i mportan t a xes w i l l n o t b e t hose o f e veryday u se .

T hus t he

' soc ia l ly i mpor tan t ' p ara l le lp erfora ted i mp le ments s hou ld b e c lear ly d ist ing uishab le f ro m a g roup o f w ork-a-day o nes ( r ef erred t o h ere a s S IPPISs a nd WADPP Is ) . Ih ave b r ief ly d escr ibed t he t ype a bove a nd Iw i l l b e p red ict ive a bou t more d eta i led d if ferences : 1 .

P erfora t ion o f i mp le men ts i s a ma jor o pera t ion . F or WADPP Is i t wou ld b e b es t t o c ur ta i l t h is p rocess a s much a s p oss ib le . O ne c an e xpec t l ess e nergy e xpend i ture o n t he p erfora t ions f or t hese i mp lemen ts ( h our-g lass e tc .

2 .

G enera l ly p oorer q ua li ty f i n ish w i l l b e e xpec ted i n t he smooth ing p rocess f or WADPP Is .

3 .

Ie xpec t •d if feren t s ize r anges f or ' f unc t iona l ' a nd ' socia l ' imp lemen ts b ecause o ft he d if ferences i n ' t asks ' .

4 .

WADPP Is w i l l h ave more i rregu lar b lades .

5 .

E v idence o fu se w i l l b e more p reva len t o n t he WADPP Is i n t erms o f b a tt ered b lades e tc .

6 .

D ecora t ion e tc . may b e e xpec ted f or t he S IPP Is .

7 .

S IPP Is w i l l b e b et ter p o l ished ( ano ther l ong a rduous p rocess ) .

8 .

More b r igh t c o lours , h arder s tones w i l l b e e xpec ted f or t he S IPP Is .

9 .

S IPP Is w i l l h ave more d is t inc t ive f ea tures o f s hape . e tc .

A ng les , r idges ,

T es t ing p rocedure a nd a na lys is I n o rder t o a nswer t he q ues t ions a nd t es t t he p red ict ions a d a ta s e t a nd v ar iab le l i s t a re r equ ired . T he v ariab les were c hosen i n l i gh t o ft he p red ict i ons made a nd q ues t ions a sked a nd l i ke a l l s uch l i s ts i s f a ir ly s ub jec t ive ( F ig . 6 .1 ) : 1 .

M in imu m d iame ter o fp erfora t ion

2 .

Max i mu m d iame ter o ft he p erfora t ion a t t h is p o in t

Th is was i n tended t o d emons tra te h ow r egu lar , o r h ow o va l was t he p erforat i on . 3 .

Max imum d iame ter o ft he p erfora t ion

I n p rac t ice n ear ly a l l p ara l le l p erfora ted i mp lemen ts h ave h our g lass p erforat i on t o s o me d egree ; ac o mparison o f 1& 3w ou ld d emons tra te t h is . 4 .

Max imu m e x ten t o f s urface w ork ing a round p erfora t ion

A n u mber o fi mp lemen ts s how c ons iderab le u nd isgu ised w ork ing a round t he a ctua l p erfora t ion . d uc t ion . 5 .

T h is migh t b e t aken a s a measure o f c are t aken i np ro-

Mean s haf t h o le s ec t ion

A mean o f t wo measure men ts t aken c en tra l ly o n e i ther s ide o ft he s haf t h ole .

1 44

F ig. 6 .1

Para l lel p erfora ted i mp le men ts :

1 45

v ar iables u sed i n a na lysis.

6 . 7 .

Max i mu m b lade e xpanse Max i mum b u t t e xpanse

8 .

L eng th o f imp le men t

9 . 1 0 .

B read th o f i mp le men t S kewness o f b lade/shaf t h o le a x is

( Th is measure men t i s f raugh t w i th p rob le ms f or a n i rregu lar imp lemen t .

I t

s hou ld g ive a n i dea o ft he r egu lar i ty o ft he i mp le men t ). 1 1 .

C urva ture o fb lade ( max i mu m )

1 2 .

B lade s core :

s ca le 1 -15

A measure 1 -15 o ft he d egree o fb a t ter ing a nd u se o ft he b lade , a nd r egu lar i ty , e .g . 1 -5 were a l l h eav i ly b a t tered b lades . 1 3 .

P resence o f s quared b u t t :

S ca le f or d egree o f s quaring .

s ca le 1 -3 1n o t s quared , 2p ar t ia l ly s quared e tc ...

1 4 .

P resence o f s qaured b lade e x tre m i t ies :

s ca le 1 -3

1 5 .

P resence o fd ecora t ive r idges o n ' dorsa l &v en tra l ' s urfaces : s ca le 1 -3

1 6 .

M isce l laneous o ther d ecora t ion :

1 7 .

P resence o fd ecora t ive r idges o n s ides :

1 8 .

P o lish ing a nd f i n ish :

s ca le 1 -3 s ca le 1 -3

s ca le 1 -30

v a lue j udge men t o n d egree o f f i n ish .

H owever t he measure was s pec if ica l ly o f

p o l ished a reas . Thus many i mp le ments a re o n ly h eav i ly p o l ished a t b lade e dge . Th is w ou ld g ive a s core b e low 1 0 . p ar ts o ft he i mp le men t : 1 9 .

O thers h ave s o me d egree o fp o l ish o n a ll

t h is w ou ld a ccord a s core o f o ver 2 0 .

C o lour o f i mp le men t .

S ub jec t ive j udge men t o n c o lour v a lues , e .g . b righ t

r ed imp le men ts w ou ld b e c oded a bove mot t led f or ms . Mos t i mp le men ts h ad p oor ' co louring ' a nd w ere l ow s cored , s ca le 1 -10 . 2 0 .

S core o f s ym me try :

s ca le o f r egu lar i ty o f s hape , s ca le 1 -100 .

2 1 .

C o mpar ison o f t he measure men ts o f t he a xe a t e ach s ide o f t he p erfora t ion

2 2 .

We igh t i n g ram mes

2 3 .

C o mpar ison o ft he w id ths o ft he a xe a t e ach s ide o f t he p erfora t ion .

A measure o f c en tra l i ty o ft he p erfora t ion . 2 4 .

G rain :

2 5 .

C oncav i ty o f f aces :

a measure o f t he t ype o f s tone u sed f i ne- med iu m-coarse: s ca le 1 -3

2 6 .

W id th o f a xe 1 cm f ro m t he b ut t

2 7 .

L eng th b e tween b u t t a nd p erfora t ion .

s ca le 0 -2

T he v ar iab les a re s hown i n t he F igures 4 .1-3 . T he d a ta was d rawn f ro m c o l lec t ions a t H u l l Museu m , S hef f ie ld Museu m , t he Y orksh ire Museum , t he B r i t ish Museu m a nd t he R yeda le Museu m .

A l l a va i lab le ma ter ia l was u ti lised

a nd t he n u mbers r educed t o 1 00 b y means o f r ando m n u mbers .

Axes f ro m

b ur ia ls a nd ' s tray ' f i nds were i nc luded i n t he a na lys is i nc lud ing b oth t he t rad i t iona l ' axe-ha m mers ' a nd ' ba t t le-axes ' .

1 46

ANALYS IS OF DATA I n t he f i rs t p ar t o f t he a na lys is Ia t te mp ted t o r ecogn ise i ft here were d iff erences i n t he g roup c o mparab le w i th t he WADPP I/S IPP I d iv is ion p red icted . I ndeed i tr ap id ly b ecame a pparen t t ha t t here was a c lear d iv is ion i n t he s er ies f o l low ing v ery much o n t rad i t iona l l ines .

An u mber o f a na lyses w ere s uccessfu l

i n r evea l ing t he g rea t c lar i ty o f t h is ' break ' . A .

C lus ter a na lys is ( C lus tan IA ;

S hef f ie ld U n ivers i ty 1 906S c o mpu ter

( F ig . 6 .9 ) The p re l im inary c lus ter a na lyses u s ing v ar ious me thods ( Wards Me thod b e ing p referred h ere ) a l l s howed t he s ame c lear p a t tern .

Ad iv is ion i n to a

g roup o fl arger more p oor ly f i n ished , l ess a ccura te ly made e tc . a xes a nd o ne w e l l f inished s e t o f i mp le men ts w i th g ood f i n ish , b r igh t c o lours e tc .

Th is i s

s u m marised i n t he t ab le b e low : T ab le 6 .1 Va lue means v ar iab le

S IPP I

n u mber

" ba t t le-axes"

"a xe-ha m mers"

1 2

1 .90 1 .97

3 .25 3 .31

cm cm ] P er fora t ion

3

2 .72

5 .15

cm

6

4 .65

6 .80

cm

B lade

7

3 .83

6 .82

cm

Bu t t e xpanse

8

1 1 .94

2 0 .33

cm

L eng th

0 .45

1 .14

cm

S kewness B lade c urva ture

1 0 1 1 1 2 1 5

WADPPI

0 .82 1 2 .0 1 .46

s ize

1 .24

cm

5 .92

v a lue B lade s core

1 .01

v a lue D ecora t ion

1 8

2 1 .8

8 .7

v a lue P o l ish ing

1 9

5 .6

2 .6

v a lue

C o lour

2 0

6 4 .9

2 9 .4

v a lue

S y mme try

2 1

0 7 .8

3 4 .7

cm

R egu lar i ty

2 2

3 9 .0

2 3 .27

gm

We igh t

2 3 2 4

0 7 .0 2 .7

3 1 .4 1 .1

mm v a lue

R egu lar i ty G ra in

B . D iscr im inan t a na lys is The d iscri minan t a na lys is was 1 00% s uccessfu l i n d iscrimina ting b e tween t he two g roups f ro m t he c lus ter a na lys is ( Wards Me thod ) . The ma in d iscr i mi na ting f ac tors s eemed t o r e la te more t o q ua l i ty t han t o s ize .

T he ' score '

q ua li ty v ar iab le was t he s ing le mos t i mpor tan t d iscri mina tor . C . B ivar ia te d is tr ibu t ions-sca t ter d iagrams ( F igs . 6 .2-3 ) The d if ferences a re r e markab ly c lear u s ing a l arge v ar iab le s e t a s f or t he c lus ter a na lys is a nd d iscrim inan t a na lys is , b ut t hey were a l mos t a s c lear u s ing o ne o r t wo ' impor tan t ' v ar iab les .

1 47

The d if ferences a re a s f o l lows :

1 .

The ' l ess f i ne ' g roup a re l arger i n t he v as t ma jor i ty o f c ases .

2 .

The s tandards ( ?) o fp roduc t ion a re f ar l ess e xac t ing f or t he ' l ess f i ne ' i mp le men ts t han f or t he ' f ine ' o nes .

The ' f ine ' i mp le men ts a re v ery

s y m me trica l , h ave v ery a ccura te ly made a nd c en tra l p erfora t ions , a re v ery l i t t le ' skewed ' a nd h ave v ery a ccura te ly made b lades . 3 .

The ' l ess f i ne ' g roup a re l ess b r igh t ly c o loured , more c oarse g ra ined , h ave marked ly h our-g lass p erfora t ions . These s ta te men ts a ccord v ery much w i th t he p red ict ions made a tt he b e-

g inn ing o ft he c hap ter .

Ii n tend t o u se t he t er ms WADPP Is a nd S IPP Is f or

d escr ib ing t he g roups b e low .

Is hou ld p oin t o u t h owever t ha t t he b ivar ia te

a na lys is t oge ther w i th t he d iscri minan t work make i tc lear t ha t c er ta in v ar ia b les a re much b e t ter a t ' recogn ising ' d if ferences b e tween t he g roups . t he f igure ( 6 .2-3 ) t h is i s made q u i te c lear .

I n

Mos t o ft he d iagra ms s how c lear

g roupings o f WADPP Is a nd S IPP Is , b u t i ti s t he s core a nd s ize v ar iab les t og e ther ( e .g .

F ig . 6 .2 w e igh t v . s core ) wh ich s eem t o i nd ica te t he c leares t

d if feren t ia t ions . C onc lus ions It h ink o n t he b as is o ft h is work t ha t i ti s p oss ib le t o s ay t ha t t here a re t wo g roups w i th in t he p ara l le l p erfora ted i mp le men t f a mi ly ( WADPP Is a nd S IPP Is ) b u t t hese ma tch v ery we l l t he t rad i t ion 'b a t t le-axes ' a nd ' axe-hammers ' .

H owever , Id o i ns is t t ha t t he u se o f s ubs tan t ia l v ar iab le l i s ts i n-

c lus ing q ua l i ty measures i s t he b es t way o f c onsider ing d if ferences ( c f .

R oe

1 966 ) . THE S ELECTION OF IMPLE MENTS FOR BUR IAL DEPOS ITION Ih ave d escr ibed h ow t he ' f ine ' a nd ' l ess f i ne ' i t e ms d if fer i n t he PP I s eq uence .

Ar ap id a na lys is o f t he b ur ia l ma ter ia l s hows t ha t i ti s e xc lus ive ly

t he ' f ine ' a xes t ha t o ccur i n t he b ur ia l c on tac ts .

B u t , a l l ' f ine ' PP Is a re n o t

f ro m s uch l oca t ions ( a l though d ue t o p lough ing e tc . many o ft he ' s tray ' f i nds c ou ld h ave b een p laced w i th b ur ia ls a t o ne t ime .

I n t he d iscuss ion b e low ,

t h is i s l arge ly i gnored , a nd t he r esu lts s ee m t o i nd ica te t ha t i ti s n o t a n i mp or tan t c ons idera t ion ) . g roup i n many ways

T he S IPP Is a re i n a ny c ase a r a ther h e terogeneous

( Roe 1 966 e .g .) .

I n t h is s ec t ion Iw ish t o s how t ha t t he

g rave i t e ms a re a s e lec t p ar t o ft he S IPP I g roup . a t te mp ted .

An u mber o f a na lyses were

A . C lus ter a na lys is If i rs t a t te mp ted t o s ee i ft here were c lus ters w i th in t he S IPP I g roup wh ich c orre la ted w i th t he ' choice ' f or d epos i t ion i n b uria l c on tex ts . Th is i n f ac t s ee ms t o b e t he c ase .

I n T ab le 6 .2 t wo ma jor g roups o f S IPP Is a re i nd ica ted

b y t he Wards Me thod c lus tering .

7 0% o f t he ' 10 c lus ter ' i t e ms a re d ef ini te ly

f ro m g raves a nd o n ly 2 5% o f t he o ther g roup .

A c h i-square t es t s hows t ha t

t h is i s u n l ike ly t o b e ar ando m p a t tern ( ch i-square = 9 .201244 : L .T . 0 .1 p roba b i l i ty ) .

I n T ab le 6 .2 Is how t ha t t he 10 c lus ter ' g roup i s b e t ter a nd more

a ccura te ly made , l arger , h as more ' decora t ive ' f ea tures e tc .

I t i s o ft he

g rea tes t i n teres t t ha t t he ' grave d epos i ted ' i t e ms d o s ee m t o f or m a d is tinct

1 48

•

• E r . % E t . < 0 -

• a

•

I . z

a l. •

• 0

• I

•

•3 :

9-

2

O

.

Z

0 j i *

i s •

* W - 0 11-

- Z

_ J w Z O, Z

0 >

0

- Z

0 3

••

-r )

•

2 ,0 00

••

• •

•

•

•

C

•

• •

•

• •

• •

• •.

•• • •

•• • • • •

• •

• • ••

•

. • •• •

•

• ••

\ 0 \

•

00

0

opc

•

0

0

0

•

• • •

C

•

• • 0 • tu

••

%

•

C

0

• •

t o

C 0D

0

C0t) 0

, -

° .16

o

\

\ •

•

•.

C

•

• 00 1 1 1 >

Q D

\

• •

N t . • ••

•

\*

•

•• •

•

0

o

7

G 0

0

• 0 \

1 0

•

0 3 1 . 0

( I )

t i J - 0 1I-

1 49

C . )

0

Z

t u

Tab le 6 .2 C lus ter Ana lysis : Var iab le

t wo ma jor g roups o f S IPPIs c lus ter a na lys is

" 10 c lus ter"

" 36 c lus ter"

1

2 .21

1 .79

cm

2

2 .33

1 .85

cm

3

2 .82

2 .62

cm

Per fora t ion s ize

4

2 .83

2 .65

cm

5

3 .36

3 .26

cm

6

5 .27

5 .08

cm

B lade

_

7

4 .32

3 .78

cm

Bu t t

8

1 4 .25

1 1 .40

cm

L eng th

cm

Breadth

9

6 .10

1 0

4 .94

2 0 .5

1 1

2 8 .5

1 .1 1

1 2

0 .7 5

1 2 .8

1 0 .7

mm cm

S kewness B lade c urva ture

v a lue

B lade s core

1 3

2 .7

2 .0

v a lue

S quared B u t t

1 4

1 .0

1 .0

v a lue

S quared B lade

1 5

1 .0

1 .0

1 6

1 .6 1

1 .4 0

v a lue

1 7

1 .00

1 .80

v a lue

v a lue Decora tion

1 8

2 7 .6

2 1 .0

v a lue

P o l ish ing

1 9

6 .4

5 .5

v a lue

C o lour

2 0

8 1 .4

6 1 .0

v a lue

S y m metry

2 1

0 .47

0 .8 0

mm

Regu lar i ty

2 2

6 .25

3 .22

gm

Weight

2 3

0 .3 6

0 .7 8

mm

Regu lar i ty

2 4

3 .00

2 .61

v a lue

G ra in

2 5

0 .40

0 .20

v a lue

C onrar i ty

2 6

5 .22

4 .01

cm

Width

Tab le 6 .3 S u m mary t ab le -C lus ter Ana lys is Variab le

g rave i t e ms

s tray f i nds " Flex ible f ine" "Wards f ine"

Mean

1 cm

2 .1 3

1 .86

2 .3 2

2 .20

1 .96

3 cm

2 .83

2 .60

3 .02

2 .81

2 .68

4 cm

2 .8 4

2 .68

3 . 0 5

2 .83

2 .73

5 cm

3 .34

3 .50

5 .09

3 .36

3 .44

6 cm

4 .78

4 .47

5 .27

5 .27

4 .57

7 cm

4 . 0 4

8 cm

1 2 . 8 5

3 .6 5 1 1 .1

4 .4 3

4 .3 2

3 .78

1 5 . 1 0

1 4 . 2 5

1 1 .70

9 cm

5 .44

5 .16

6 .32

1 0 cm

1 3 .76

2 5 .1

1 6 .14

1 2 v a lue

.

5 .26 2 1 .6

1 2 . 1

1 2 .85

1 2 .8

1 2 . 1

1 8 v a lue

2 5 .1

2 0 .9

2 7 .86

2 7 .6

2 2 .29

2 0 v a lue

7 4

6 1

8 2

8 1

2 1 mm n u mber

1 2 . 3

6 .10 1 2 .1

0 .47 1 5

0 .94

0 .50

3 4

7

1 50

0 .47 1 0

6 6 O .7 8 4 8

g roup i n t h is way . Iw i l l r eturn t o t he p rob le m i n al a ter s ec t ion o ft he c hapt er . A s er ies o f c lus ter a na lyses g ave v ir tua l ly t he s ame p at tern a s Ii nd ica te i n T ab le 6 .3 . The p o in t i s we l l made w i thou t l abour ing t he i ssue . B .

F ac tor Ana lys is

T o e xam ine t he i n ter-re la t ionsh ip o fv ar iab les a nd t he ' cho ice ' f or g rave d epos i t ion Ia t te mp ted a f ac tor a na lysis . 1 .

Th is w ou ld s eem t o i nd ica te :

Tha t mos t o ft he v ar iab i li ty ( w i th in t he c hoice o f v ar iab i l i ty h ere ) c an b e

' accoun ted ' f or b y f ac tors o f q ual i ty . 2 . Tha t t he s e lec t ion o fi t ems f or g rave d epos i t ion was ma in ly o n t he g rounds o fq ua l ity r a ther t han s ize c ons idera t ions ( as f ar a s t he S IPP Is a re c oncerned ) . I ft h is i s ag enu ine c ho ice ( as o pposed t o t wo s epara te g roups a s s ugges ted b y t he c luster a na lys is ) t h is may i nfor m u s g rea t ly a bou t h ow i t e ms were s e lected . I ti s a lso s ign if ican t t ha t v ar iab les o f ' qua li ty ' h ave b een i gnored b y a rchaeo log is ts i n t he p as t when c ons ider ing PP Is . The a na lys is h ere wou ld s eem t o s how t ha t t h is h as b een a mis take , e ven t hough t hese v ar iab les a re d if f icu l t t o q uan t ify . C .

S cat ter d iagrams

I n F igures 6 .4-7 Is how t ha t i ti s d iff icu l t t o i nd ica te t he d if ferences b e tw een g rave a nd n on-grave i t e ms o n t he b asis o f 2v ariab les ( as Iwas a b le t o d o w i th t he WADPP I ) /S IPP I d iv is ions ) . H owever s o me o ft he d iagrams d o s how ' c lus ters ' o fg rave i t e ms e specia l ly :

f i n ish v . b lade e xpanse ; p erfora t ion

d iameter v . s kewness ; e tc . I ti s a lso i n teres t ing t ha t ag roup o f ' ova l p erforat ed ' imp le men ts i s l arge ly r es tric ted t o g rave c on tex ts . A l though t he d if fere nces h ere a re n o t s o c lear , t hey a re c er ta in ly p resen t . D .

U n ivaria te t echn iques :

s ign if icance t es ts .

The n a ture o ft he d if ferences

I ti s p oss ib le t o s ee c lear ly t ha t c er ta in f ea tures o f t he i mp le men ts a re more c lose ly l i nked t o ' cho ice ' o f a r tefac ts f or g rave d epos i t ion o r s epara t ion o f d iferen t g roup ings . These p a t terns a re i l lus tra ted i n t he f i gures . We c an p red ict t he t ypes o fp at terns t ha t migh t b e e xpec ted . O n t he b as is o ft h is i t s hou ld b e p oss ib le t o d ecide i ft he g rave i t e ms a nd ' s tray ' f i nds a re d rawn f ro m as ing le p opu la t ion . 1 . Over lapp ing b u t s epara te d is tr ibut ions . Are t here s epara te n or ma l d ist r ibutions o fv ar iab le v a lues i .e. t wo d iscre te g roups? 2 .

S ing le p opu la t ion .

I ft here i s a' se lec t ive ' c hoice o ne w ou ld e xpec t a

s ing le ' nor ma l ' d is tr ibu t ion w i th p ar t o f t he r ange ' chosen ' f or d epos i t ion . I h ave a lready s hown t ha t t he c hoice i s n ot a r ando m o ne . I n C hap ter 1 0 , Iw i l l d iscuss ' adver t is ing ' t heor ies wh ich may h e lp t h is c ho ice t o b e u nders tood . These t wo p oss ib i li t ies a re i nd ica ted i n F igure 6 .10 . R esults I n F igures 6 .11-14 Ii nd ica te t he v a lues g iven b y t he d a ta .

D i f feren t

v ar iables f i t e ach o f t he t wo p oss ibi l i t ies o u t l ined a bove , t hese a re : T ype 1 d is tr ibut ion : b lade v a lue ;

f i n ish ;

1 51

' score '; d ecora t ion ; b lade e xpanse .

20 v a lue 6 MM

2 0

1 8 v ar .

1 0

v ar iab le g rave 60

F ig. 6 .4

PPI 's :

B ivaria te d istr ibu t ions ;

g rave/stray ( 1 ).

3

C.

2

d i e

3

2 -5

CM

2

1 5

1

1

0 -5

1 -5

1

1

0 -5

5

CM

5

2 -5 CM n v ar iab le 1 0 g rave

F ig. 6 .5

PPI 's :

2

_

B ivaria te d istribu t ions; 1 52

g rave/stray ( 2 ).

90

a •D

M I Dl

U

E •

E J

W Jl

1 1p3D D OD

LD 1 3

I g o c o D

3

c e

C J

e l

c o c

N -

C ) z . -

C D

>

C I • E n 0

0: 2

D

^

a

E n ( 02

L e ) a )

1 53

C , e • — • N )

C a l

•3 :

1 1

c ) ( bZ

F ig. 6 .8

S r11 3u

PPPs :

W H2 2f f lO2c 1

H I

N ulsn13

3 H1

. 0 e

C e k V

1 \ J I

S IS)

Dendrogra m o f c luster a na lys is ( 1 ) .

1 54

0 0 1 1'34 I HNb

S nHM

l e-H [ 7 1

I nT

I,

wadpp i

r 17 77 ,W1 I ; ';

'

s ipp i

• i • C • 1

Cr

LU CD Li

CD CD 1 : 1 _

C A D

1 7 1

5 71 1

I I

F ig. 6 .9

PP I 's :

Dendrogra m o f c lus ter a na lys is ( 2 ) 1 55

11

T r ]1

II

AXE

D ISTR IBUT ION

PATTERNS

C o E 6 ' z

4 i c

F ig. 6 .10

PPI ts :

d istr ibu t ion p a t terns;

1 56

s epara te/overlapp ing p opu la t ions.

RAVZ

F IN ISH

8

STRAY

a xes

21 4 I

1 1

1 4

1 7

v a lue 20

2(3

26

2 9

WE IGHT

2

4

o i5 Aq

r 9 [ 1

6

1 ' 0

1 1

SCORE

REGULAR ITY

4 0

5 0

v a lue 70

80

AXE

F ig. 6 .11

PPI 's :

„ 9 0

5

POPULAT ION

1 1

1 4

1 7

COMPAR ISON

H istogra ms o f v ar iabil i ty ;

1 57

8mm

g rave/stray ( 1 ).

2 0

DECORAT I ON

2

8

BLADE

M IN .

PERF .

1 0

D I A METER

2 0

25

30

EXPANS I ON

1 0 8 a xes

6 4 2 2

1 0 mm

4

1 2

1 8

I

SKE WNESS

2

4

v

6 mm

I

8

AXE

F ig. 6 .12

PPI 's :

P ERFORAT ION (2 )

1 0

1 0

POPULAT ION

H istogra ms o f v ar iab il ity ;

1 Z8

mm

20

2 5

COMPAR ISON

g rave/stray ( 2 ).

LJ

LJ

B LADE

PE RE WIDTH

SCM

7

II

LENGTH

BUT T

r i g

4

5

6 cm

6

8

1 0

1 2c m

1 4

1 6

1

BLADE SC ORE

BREADTH

1 2 1 0 8a xes

6 4 2 r i g

2

3

4

AXE

F ig. 6 .13

PPI 's :

5

6c m

1 • 7

7

POPULAT ION

9

COMPAR ISON

H istogra ms o f v ar iab il i ty ;

1 59

1 1vaue1 '3

g rave/stray ( 3 ).

F ig. 6 .14

PPI 's :

g raphs o f v ar iab il ity ;

1 60

g rave/stray.

T ype 2 d is tr ibut ions : p erfora t ion w id th ; b lade w id th ; b u t t w id th ; l eng th ; b read th ; we igh t ;

r egu lar i ty ; min imu m p erfora t ion d ia meter; maximu m p er-

f ora t ion d ia me ter ;

s kewness ( ?) .

C onc lusions The r esu l ts a re n o t c onc lus ive . Iam u nhappy a bou t t he q uan t i ty o fd a ta i nv o lved , b u t t here i s s trong e v idence t ha t t wo s epara te p opu la t ions d o e x is t w i th in t he S IPP Is a nd t hus p erhaps t ha t a xes were made s pecialy a nd p erhaps s pecif ica l ly f or g rave d epos i t ion . A l terna t ive s ugges t ions may b e t ha t S IPP Is w ere t rea ted s pec ia l ly ( repo l ished f or e xa mp le ) b efore t hey were d epos i ted i n g raves .

Wha tever t he c ase , t here a re c er ta in ly v ery c lear d if ferences i nd ica-

t ed b y t hese u n ivaria te t echn iques b e tween g rave a nd n on-grave p opu la t ions . T h is i s c onf ir med b yt he l is t ing o f med ian t es ts g iven b e low . T ab le 6 .4 S u m mary o f Med ian t es t s ta t is t ics f or 1 5 v ar iab les 1 .

P erfora t ion w id th : t ype 1

t ype 2

9

1 5

2 4

5 1 4

2 0

2 5

3 5

4 9

l t . M g r • M

Mean 3 27 .95918

Med ian 3 02 m m

c h i-square 1 .835 n ot s ign if ican t s ign if icance 0 .2

2 .

B lade w id th Med ian 4 71 m m t ype 1

t ype 2

6

1 8

8

1 7

l t . M g r . M

1 4

2 4 2 5 4 9

c h i-square = 0 .29449 n o t s ign i f ican t s igni f icance 0 .6

3 .

Bu t t w id th Med ian 3 89 m m 8

1 6

2 4

6 1 4

1 9 3 5

4 9

l t . M g r . M

2 5 c h i-square = 0 .52267 n o t s ign i f ican t s ign if icance 0 .4

4 .

L eng th Med ian 1 224 m m

l t . M g r . M

7 7 1 4

1 7

2 4

1 8

2 5

3 5

4 9

c h i-square = 0 .0081666 n o t s ign i f ican t s ign if icance 0 .9

5 .

Bread th Med ian 5 20 m m

l t . M g r . M

6 8 1 4

1 8

2 4

1 7

2 5

3 5

4 9

c h i-square = 0 .2 9449 s ign if icance 0 .6 n ot s ign if ican t

1 61

6 .

B lade v a lue Med ian v a lue 5 . 2 cm

l t . M

9

g r . M

5 1 4

7

1 6

2 8

3 3

3 5

4 9

c h i-square = 8 .9 1837 s ign if icance 0 .0 1 v ery s ign if ican t

7 .

F inish Med ian 2 3

l t . M g r .

3

M

2 2

2 5

1 1

1 3

2 4

1 4

3 5

4 9

c h i-square = 6 .8 6817 s ign if icance 0 .0 10 h igh ly s ign if icant

8 .

We igh t Med ian 3 50 g m

l t . M

8

g r . M

6 1 4

2 0

2 8

1 5

2 1

3 5

4 9

c h i-square = 0 .0 000 s ign if icance 0 .0 n ot s ign if ican t

9 .

S core v a lue Med ian 6 5

l t . M g r . M

2 5

2 9

1 0

1 0

2 0

1 4

3 5

4 9

4

c h i-square = 7 .603448 s ign if icance 0 .0 1 h igh ly s ign if ican t

1 0 .

Decora t ive f eatures Med ian 6

l t . M g r . M

2 9

6

2 3

8

1 1

1 9

3 4

4 8

1 4

c h i-square = 2 .5 48277 s ign if icance 0 .0 6 n ot s ignif icant ( marg ina l ly o utside 5% l eve l)

1 1 .

S kewness Med ian 2 4 mm

l t . M g r . M

9 5 1 4

1 6

2 5

1 9

2 4

3 4

4 9

c h i-square = 1 .0 935 s ign if icance c . 0 .3 n ot s ignif ican t

1 2 .

B lade e xpanse Med ian 1 0 mm

l t . M

g r . m

4 1 0 1 4

2 1

2 5

1 4

2 4

3 5

4 9

c h i-square = 3 .9 5267 s ign if icance 0 .0 5 s ignif ican t

1 3 .

M ini mu m p erfora t ion d ia me ter Med ian 2 02 m m

l t . M

6

1 9

2 5

g r . M

8

1 6

2 4

1 4

3 5

4 9

c h i-square = 0 .2 9449 s ign if icance 0 .6 n ot s ignif ican t

1 62

1 4 .

Max imu m p erf . d iame ter a t min . p o in t Med ian 2 13 m m

l t . M

4

g r . M

2 1

2 5

1 0

1 4

1 4

3 5

2 4 4 9

c h i-square = 3 .95267 s ign if icance 0 .0 5 s ign if ican t

1 5 .

R egu lar i ty Med ian 1 9.2 m m 2 7

l t . M

9

1 8

g r . M

5

1 7

2 2

3 5

4 9

1 4

c h i-square = 0 .668707 s ign if icance 0 .4

T he t abu la t ion g iven b e low i s o f c h i-square f i gures a rranged i n d escend ing o rder o f v alues :

' f in ish ' v ar iab les a re marked w i th x

1

B lade

8 .9 1837 x s ign i f ican t

2

S core

7 .603448 x

3

F in ish

4

B lade e xpanse

6 .86817 x 3 .95267 x

5

Max . p erf . a t mp .

3 .9 5267 x ( ?)

6

d ecora t ion

2 .5 448277 x

7

p erf . w id th

1 .8 35

8

s kewness

1 .0 935 x

9

r egu lar i ty

O .6 68707 x

1 0

b ut t w id th

0 .5 2267

1 1

b lade w id th

0 .2 9449

1 3

min . p erf . dm .

1 4

l eng th we igh t

0 .2 9449 0 .0 081666

1 5

n o t s ign if ican t

0 .0 00000

Th is f o l lows t he p a t terns r evea led i n t he d is tr ibu t ion c urves q u i te c lose ly . G enera l C onc lus ions I ti s p oss ib le t o make a n u mber o fg enera l p oin ts i n t he l igh t o f t he a na lyses d escr ibed h ere . 1 .

Qua l i ty i s ac ruc ia l measure o f PP I v ar iab i li ty .

PP Is a re a d is t inc t g roup

o f ' Bronze Age ' i mp le men ts , b ut t here a re s evera l g roups w i th in t he p opu la t ion . 2 .

There i s ab as ic d iv is ion b e tween ' f ine ' a xes a nd ' l ess f i ne ' o nes which

ma tches c lose ly t he t rad i t iona l d iv is ion o ft he g roup i n to ' ba t t le-axes ' a nd ' axe-ha m mers ' .

T h is d iv is ion i s b ased p ar t ly o n s ize , b ut e qua l ly o r p er-

h aps more , o n q ua li ty o f i t e ms .

The ' f ine ' i t e ms a re f ound o ccas iona l ly i n

b uria l c on tex ts , t he ' l ess f i ne ' o nes , n ever .

1 63

3 .

I ti s imposs ib le t o r ecogn ise d if ferences w i th in t he ' f ine ' g roup .

Ag roup

o fp ar t icu lar ly f i ne f or ms a re l arge ly r es tr icted t o g rave c ontex ts a nd t here a re c lear d if ferences b e tween S IPP Is i n g rave l oca t ions a nd t hose o fn on-grave o nes .

Th is d if ference c ou ld r epresen t ap ar t icu lar B ronze Age c ho ice o r

s pecial p roduc t ion o f i t ems f or g rave d epos i t ion . 4 . I th as n o t b een s ta ted a bove , b u t t here i s as ugges t ion ( P ierpoin t 1 978) t ha t t he g roup o f ' f ines t ' i t e ms i s a ssocia ted w i th t he r iches t b ur ia ls , o r r a ther t hose w i th b ronze d aggers , o ak c off ins e tc . 5 . Ih ave s a id n oth ing a bou t ' s oc ia l p a t terns ' i n t he g raves . I n f ac t t here a re t oo f ew a ssocia t ions t o u se s ign if icance t es ts e tc . I ts ee ms l ikely h owever t ha t PP Is a re v ery v a luab le i t e ms ( a t l eas t t hose p laced w i th b uria ls ) .

They

a re a ssoc ia ted o n ly w i th a du l t ma les a nd f requen t ly w i th o ther a r tefac ts t ha t w ou ld i nd ica te g enera l ' r ichness ' .

T his w ou ld s eem t o c onf ir m t he v iew t ha t

t he ir d epos i t ion i n g raves i s r e la ted c lose ly t o p a t terns o f s ocia l o rganisa t ion w i th in t he g roup . O n t he b as is o ft he a na lys is i ti s p oss ib le t o make s o me f ur ther more g enera l s ugges t ions .

There a re i mpor tan t a nd o bv ious i mp l ica t ions f or o ther a rte-

f ac t t ypes a s Id iscuss i n C hap ter 8 , a nd p erhaps a lso f or s o me o f t he g rave d epos i ted b ronzes ( Chap ter 7 ) . PP Is h ave b een t hrough ly d iscussed b y s evera l wr i ters ( espec ia l ly R oe 1 966, 1 967) a nd Id o n o t w an t t o e n ter ' t ypo log ical ' d eba tes f ur ther . H owever , Imus t a ga in make c er ta in s ugges t ions a bou t t he p oss ib i li t ies o fc onfus ing ' t ypo log ica l ' a nd s ocia l v ar iabi l i ty. Ih ave a ssumed h ere t ha t t he i mp le men ts a re a pprox ima te ly c on temporary , t hus i gnor ing c hrono log ica l v ar iab i li ty .

Th is i s n ot a l toge ther s a t isfac tory , b u t a s y e t n o s at is-

f ac tory c hrono log ica l s cheme e x is ts f or t hese imp lemen ts .

Id o a ccep t R oe 's

( based o n Ashbee 1 960 ) s ugges t ion t ha t b lade e xpanse i ncreased t hrough t ime , b u t i n tu i t ive ly n o t t he d e ta i led d iv is ions ( I wou ld f olow Ashbee 's g enera l s ta temen ts r a ther t han R oe 's .

B lade e xpanse a s s hown h ere d oes s ee m t o r e la te

t o q ua l i ty , s o i t may a lso r e la te t o s oc ia l v ar iabi l i ty ) . As s ta ted t he g enera l r ecogn i t ion o f ' fi ne '/ 'less f i ne ' d iv ision i s c lear .

I t

i s f ur ther c onf ir med a nd ' de ta i led ' b y i nfor ma t ion f rom t he t h in s ec t ion ing p rogram me ( Ph i l lips p ersona l c o m mun ica t ion a nd R oe f or thco ming ) .

Th is

wou ld s ee m t o s how f ur ther ' cho ice '( ?) d if feren t ia t ions . T here s eems t o b e ag enera l t rend f or t he WADPP Is t o b e made f rom l oca l s ources ( f requent ly u nprovenanced i n f ac t , s o t h is i s p ar t ly s pecu la t ive ) a nd t raded o n ly o ver s hor t d is tances .

T he S IPP Is o n t he o ther h and a re made f ro m r ock u sua l ly f ro m o ne

o f ah andfu l o f s ources a nd t raded w ide ly . F or t he ' Bronze Age ' a dver t ising e xecu t ive i tm igh t b e e nough t o k now t ha t t he p roduc ts a re b e ing s uccessfu l ly t raded .

B u t , If ee l w e c an l eg i t ima te ly s pecu la te o n why t h is s hou ld b e s o .

T he o bv ious e xp lana t ion i s t ha t t he S IPP Is were ar es tricted r esource , t hey were t herefore v a luab le a nd t raded w ide ly ( c f . Mu lvaney 's c o m men ts o n t he t rade o f v a luab le o b jec ts b y A us tra l ian a bor igines , i n wh ich h e s ta tes t hat t he more v a luab le i t ems a re l i ke ly t o b e more w ide ly t raded a nd t ha t t h is r el a tes c lose ly t o r ar i ty . P ersona l c o mmun ica t ion ) . T hroughou t t h is c hap ter Ih ave t r ied t o s how t he i mportance o f ' c ho ice ' o r t he r ecogn ised d if ferences b y t he s ocie ty . s tanding o f a ny a r tefac t t ypes . e n t ' cogn i tive a rchaeo logy ' .

T h is If ee l i s c rucia l t o t he u nder- -

I ti s ab as ic p rinc ip le b eh ind much o f t he p res-

Iw i l l r eturn t o t h is i ssue i n C hapter 9 ; s uf f ice 1 64

i tt o s ay h ere t ha t t here were c lear ly r ecogn ised d if ferences b e tween i mp lemen ts w i th in t he PP I s er ies i n t he ' Bronze Age ' a s we l l a s i n t he t wen t ie th c en tury .

1 65

CHAPTER 7 BRONZES AS I TE MS OF S OCIAL I MPORTANCE

The n a ture o ft h is c hap ter w i l l b e q u i te d if feren t f ro m t hose p reced ing .

I t

i s much more d if icu l t t o r e la te t hese b ronzes t o s ocia l p at terns i nt he way I d id :

F ood V esse ls , B eakers , p lano-convex k n ives a nd ' ba t t le-axes ' .

The

ma in f ac tors a re : 1 . A l though t here a re s evera l h undred b ronzes i n Y orksh ire o n ly ah andfu l o ft he e ar l ies t f or ms a re k nown t o c ome f ro m b uria l d epos i ts . O ne c an t heref ore make o n ly v ery g enera l s pecu la tions a bout ' s ocia l c hoices ' .

I ti s n ot

wor thwh i le t o c o mpare g rave/non-grave v ar ia t ion o r ' cho ice ' w i th in t he g rave a sse mb lage . 2 .

Most b ronze o b jec ts o ft he p eriod a re f ro m ' unassocia ted ' c on tex ts .

The

ma in a ssocia ted a r tefac t t ype w i th b ronzes i s more b ronzes ( t he s o-ca l led B ronze Age h oards ) . T hus t here i s ag enera l l ack o f a' co mpara t ive ' measure ( so me th ing t o measure v ar iab i l i ty a ga ins t ) . 3 . T he p at terns o f B ronze d is tr ibu t ion a re c er ta in ly c o mp l ica ted b y d estruct i on . A ny b ronzes t ha t were f ound i n t he h eav i ly p loughed a reas i nt he med ieva l p er iod a re l i ke ly t o h ave b een me l ted d own ( Manby p ersona l c o mmun ica t ion ) . If ound i ti mposs ib le t o c ons ider s pa t ia l v ariab i l i ty . The s ta te men ts i n t h is c hap ter w i l l t herefore t end t o b e more s pecu lat ive . H owever , t here i s o ne c lear ' var iab i li ty ' p at tern t ha t c an b e we l l d emonstrat ed—the t e mpora l o ne . Mos t w ork o n b ronzes i n a rchaeo logy h as c oncerned c hrono log ica l v ar iat i on b ased l arge ly o n t echno log ica l c ons idera t ion . T here a re i n tr ica te t ypol og ica l a na lyses o f an u mber o f a r tefac t t ypes f or e xamp le : p a ls taves ( Burgess 1 964 ) , d aggers ( Burgess 1 962 ) , d irks a nd r ap iers ( Burgess 1 968) .

T here a re

a lso i ncreas ing ly me ta l lurg ica l a na lyses ( Ty leco te 1 962 ) wh ich s how t echnol og ica l d eve lopmen ts . H owever , Ip ersona l ly r egre t t ha t t h is i s s een a s a n e nd i n i t se lf .

O n ly r are ly h as t h is v ery f i rm ' variab i l i ty ' f ra mework a ctua l ly

b een p u t t o u se t o t e l l u s a bou t ' peop le ' i ns tead o fb ronzes ( Hawkes a nd Hawkes 1 958 o r B urgess 1 976 e .g . ) . U nfor tuna te ly t he p a t terns t ha t a re r ecogn ised a re i nvar iab ly o ft he f or m o f migra t ion o r o ther move men ts o fp eop le . As I h ave s ta ted a v ery s o l id c hrono log ica l s che me d oes e x is t a nd p erhaps t oo much t ime i s n ow s pen t t i nker ing w i th t he e s tab l ished t ypo log ica l w orks ( Row lands 1 976 ; B r i t ton 1 963 ; B rown a nd B l in S t oy le 1 959 ; B ut ler a nd Sm i th 1 956 ; B urgess 1 964 , 1 968 , 1 968a , 1 969 , 1 969a , 1 976 e tc . )t han w i th u s ing t h is s cheme . S o me o ft he more i n teres t ing q ues t ions , s uch a s l oca ting t he s ources o f i mp le men ts a re j us t b eg inn ing t o b e a nswered .

T racing d is tribut ion ' ne tworks '

i s l i ke ly t o a id t he s tudy o f s ocia l p a t terns i n t he f u ture a nd Ie ager ly awai t f ur ther r esu l ts . 1 66

F ig. 7 .1

S ix b ronze a xes.

1 67

c .`

C

_ 8u nknown

7u nknown

II

1 0 .appe r iey b r idge

C M .

9l a ng ton

F ig. 7 .2

The D isp lay e le men t ;

f l at a xes , p a lstave.

1 68

I

F ig. 7 .3

The D isp lay e le men t , s ix s ocketed a xes.

1 69

1 2

U .

C M

CD

c o

F ig. 7 .4

T he D isp lay e le men t ;

f our s ocketed s pears ( 1 ).

1 70

2 1 h o tham

' ,

2 2 y o rk

I

F ig. 7 .5

2 4 g an ton

2 3 f e r r iby

The D isp lay e le men t ;

C M

s ocketed s pears ( 2 ).

1 71

2 6

b ae l lm o l 2 9 3 0

2 5 .t h ey o rk c eme te ry — 30 h oa rd 1 1

+4

3 2e ve r tho rpe h oa r d

3 3c a s t le h i l l 3 4 s ca rbo rough h oa r d

3 1 .s awdon

I I

F ig. 7 .6

T raders a nd c ra f ts men .

1 72

C M

b r omp ton

\

3 6w ake f ie ld ( n ear)

3 7l o ck ton w a rren

3 8 k i rkdo le c ave

C M

F ig. 7 .7

The D isp lay e le men t ;

b ronze

1 73

w eap on ry .

1 ' Wes t ow

MAX I MU M

BRONZE

HOARD S IZE

3 0 n o .

Roundhay Ho tha m Carr

• • • • • •• •

y ear

2

P ERCENTAGE

BRONZES

P ER

1 00 Y EARS

GRAVE

1 0-

TOTAL

200 0

1 50 0

y ear

BRONZES

F ig. 7 .8

Max i mu m h oard s izes/years ;

1 74

b ron ze f inds p er 1 00 y ears.

U )

0 5

W

TECHNOM IC

C D

c s .

a ) C ;

( 1 3

>

t o

1 3

W Z

a

c )

I

C i )

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c Z

3

( / )

—

, —

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a)

c n —

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c n

a s t u _ . . . -a

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a

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c ) S

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a

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DECORAT I ON

l e •

••

• •

• •

•

• •

••• • Or • • e • •

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F ig. 7 .9

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( P

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o

• •

I

( 1 ) The r ela t ionsh ip b etween s ize a nd d ecora t ion i n s ocketed a xes ( 2 ) As che me f or ' Bronze Age ' meta l t ypes. 17n

C hrono logy Iw i l l a t te mp t n o t horough r ev iew o ft ypo log ica l/chrono log ica l v ar iabi li ty o ft he b ronze a ge i mp le men ts f ro m Y orksh ire .

If o l low a n u mber o f s ources

( Burgess 1 976b , 1 976a ; R ow lands 1 976 ; C o les 1 959 , 1 963 , 1 968 ; H awkes a nd H awkes 1 958 ) . F or my p urposes , i f Iam t o s ay a ny th ing a bou t s oc ia l p a tt ern ing , i ti s v i ta l t o h ave b road ' b locks ' o f i mp le men ts t o c onsider a ga ins t e ach o ther .

F ur ther f i ne t un ing o ft he ' t ypo log ica l works ' i s o f n o v a lue f or

me h ere . A .

E ar l ies t B ronze Age c . 2 500-1600 B . C . ( Burgess s tages I IV 1 976b , c f . C o les 1 968)

I n t h is p er iod t echno logy was s i mp le b u t t rade was p robab ly e x tens ive ( Case 1 966 , B urgess 1 976b ) . t ries ( Br i t ton 1 963 ) . i .

Th is ' b lock ' i nc ludes B r i t ton 's Migda le i ndus-

The t ypes o f i mp le men ts i nt he p er iod a re :

F la t a xes . Av arie ty o ft ypes a re k nown s o me d ecora ted ( F ig . 7 .2 ) Aw ls . These a re a l mos t e xc lus ive ly f ro m b ur ia l l oca t ions F la t d aggers a nd t anged k n ives .

There a re v ery f ew ' groups ' o fi mp le men ts . O ne e xcep t ion i s t he ' set ' o f f our f l a t a xes f ro m a b arrow a t W iHerby ( Greenwel l 1 877 a nd B ri t ish Museum r ecords ) . B .

F ina l E ar ly B ronze Age 1 600-1400 B . C .

Th is p er iod i s c harac terised b y B r i t ton 's ( 1963 ) A rre ton i ndus try a nd t he g enera l a ppearance o f ' Wessex ' t ype d aggers e tc . ( t hough r are i n t he n orth ) . Aw ls , a xes e tc . a s i n t he l as t p hase p robab ly b e long t o t h is ' b lock ' a lso . C .

M idd le B ronze Age 1 400-1200 B . C . ( P icker ing p hase o f B urgess 1 968a , 1 976b )

T ypes s uch a s s h ie ld p a t tern p a ls taves ( F ig . 7 .2 n o . 1 0 ) a nd m id-ribbed p a ls taves o ccur . D irks a nd r apiers ( Burgess 1 968a ) a re a lso k nown . I n Y orksh ire , t here a re n o h oards o ft h is p er iod . D .

L a ter M idd le B ronze Age 1 200-1000 ( Ho tham C arr :

B urgess 1 968 ,

1 970 ; C o les 1 963 ) T o t h is p er iod b e long t he w ing f l anged p a ls taves ( Fig . 7 .1 n o . 1 ) a nd o ther p a ls tave f or ms ( bu t n o t t he s h ie ld p a t tern t ype ) . D irks a nd r ap iers ( Burgess 1 968a a nd 1 968 p . 5 : g roups I I a nd I V ) a re a ga in k nown i n sma l l n umbers i n t he n or th o f E ng land . E .

T he s ing le h oard g roup i s f ro m H o tham Carr .

The L a tes t M idd le B ronze Age c . 1 050-950 B . C . ( Pennard p hase : B urgess 1 968a )

Med ian w inged a xes , p eg-ho le s pearheads ( i n t he ma in ) , b i f id r azors ( Bu t ler a nd Sm i th 1 956 ) a nd t he s ing le B a l in tober s word ( Yorksh ire Museu m ) c an b e a ssigned t o t h is p eriod .

B u t a lso u sua l ly c ons idered h ere a re ' Trans i-

t i ona l ' p a ls taves , d irks a nd r ap iers ( Burgess 1 968a g roup W). O ne o f t he mos t i n teres t ing s e ts o ff i nds i s t he g roup o f b ronze U rnf ie ld p ins f rom t he s i te o f Thw ing ( c f . H awkes a nd H awkes 1 958; T o t tenhoe ) , wh ich i sl i kely t o h ave b een a n i mpor tan t ' cen tre ' .

1 76

F .

L a te B ronze A ge 9 50-750 B . C . ( Burgess 1 968 :

Wa l ling ton t rad i t ion

i n t he n or th ; Wi lbur ton i n t he s ou th ) I n t he s outh l ead b ronze ' t akes o ver ' t he marke t . a re a c on t inua t ion o ft he e ar l ier t i n b ronzes .

I n t he n orth , mos t f or ms

' Trans i t iona l ' p a ls taves a nd

l ooped s pearheads a re s t i l l k nown , b u t t here a re n ow l arge n u mbers o fh oards i nc luding s o me c on ta in ing t hese t ypes .

T he h oards t o s o me e x ten t d iv ide i n to

t hose c on ta in ing sma l l s e ts o f s ocke ted s pearheads ( e .g . U l leske lf ) o r l arger g roups o fp a ls taves ( e .g . R oundhay a nd S he lf ) . G .

T he Ewar t P ark P hase a nd l eaded b ronzes

Wi th t he ma jor i n jec t ion o f l eaded b ronzes i n to Y orksh ire , my ' per iod ' e nds . Wi th in t h is p er iod n ow a ppear v as t n u mbers o f ' mass p roduced ' i t e ms p ar ticu lar ly t he s ocke ted a xe o f ' Yorksh ire ' t ype ( F ig . 7 .1 n o . 6 ;

F ig . 7 .3

n os . 1 4 , 1 3 , 1 6 ) . S o me o ft he h oards a re v as t , Wes tow h as 4 8 i mp le ments a nd s o me ' l os t ' h oards h ad o ver 1 00 i mp lemen ts . Imus t make c lear t ha t t h is c hrono log ica l s cheme c ou ld n o t b e b ui l t u p o n t he b as is o f Y orksh ire ma ter ia l a lone a nd i s d rawn f ro m t he w ork o f e xper ts i nt he f i e ld w ork ing o n l arge amoun ts o f ma teria l f ro m n or thern B ri ta in .

I

w i l l n ow r un t hrough t he p er iods a ga in a nd t ry t o make c o m men ts o n t he s oc ia l i mportance o f s uch i t ems f ro m p resen t e v idence . Y orksh ire ma ter ia l a lone .

Th is t ime Iam c ons idering

YORKSH IRE BRONZES A .

Ear l ies t B ronze A ge Daggers a nd aw ls a re k nown i n sma l l n u mbers f ro m g rave a ssoc ia t ions

a nd t he i t e ms may w e l l b e i nd ica tors o f s ocia l p osi t ion . T he d aggers a re f ound o n ly w i th a du l t ma les a nd u sua l ly i n ' r ich ' c on tex ts ( F ig . 7 .7 n o . 3 7) . T he a xes a re more r are ly a ssocia ted w i th b ur ia ls , b u t t here a re l arge n u mbers o f s tray f i nds ( F ig . 7 .2 , 7 -9 ; F ig . 7 .1 n o . 2 ) . Many o f t hese a re d ecora ted . T he g roup f ro m ab arrow a t Wi l lerby ( Greenwel l 1 877) i s i n teres t ing i n t ha t t he c en tra l b ur ia l s ee ms t o h ave b een a n i mpor tan t o ne .

One c an s pecu la te

t ha t b y t he ir r ar i ty a lone , b ronzes i n t h is p er iod w ou ld l i ke ly h ave b een o f g rea t v a lue a nd p robab ly o fg rea t s ocia l i mportance ( t he q ues t ion o f ' who-ge tsw ha t ') . I n l a ter c hap ters , Iw i l l t ry t o s how t ha t t hese o b jec ts w ere o ne o f a sma l l g roup a t t he ' t op o ft he s oc ia l t ree ', b u t t h is i s o n ly p oss ib le u sing t he l arge g roup o fb ur ia l d a ta amassed f or C hap ter 9 . B .

The l a ter E ar ly B ronze Age The p a t terns d escr ibed a bove, n o d oub t c on tinues i n to t he f o l low ing p hase .

T here a re n ow l arger n u mbers o f aw ls , b u t v ery f ew ' Wessex ' d aggers . f i ne T ow thorpe e xamp le ( Mor t imer 1 905 p age 1 3 ) i s o ne e xcep t ion .

T he

I t was

a ssocia ted w i th a v ery i mpor tan t ma le . N o t o n ly i s t he b arrow massive , b u t t he b ur ia l i s e x tended t o d if feren t ia te i tf ro m t he mass o f c ontemporary b ur ia ls . H e a lso ' possesses ' a mace-head o f l imes tone a nd o ne o f t he l arges t p ianoc onvex k n ives i n Y orksh ire ( no te t he c o m men ts i n C hap ter 5 a nd t he f ac t t ha t t he l arges t p lano-convex k n ife was a lso a ssoc ia ted w i th a ' dagger b ur ia l ' a t H u t ton B usce l ( Greenwe l l 1 890 ) )F ig . 5 .3 n o . 3 8 . T he h a lberds a nd c as tf l anged a xes ( F ig . 7 .7 n o . 3 8) d o n o t o ccur i n g raves a nd i ti s d if f icu l t t o c o me t o a ny g enera l c onc lus ions , b u t a ga in t he r ar i ty o f s uch o b jec ts i s l i ke ly t o mean t ha t t hey w ere v a luab le . 1 77

C .

The e ar l ies t M idd le B ronze A ge B urgess ( 1976b ) ma in ta ins t ha t t here i s a ma jor c hange h ere , w i th t he

v ir tua l d isappearance o f monu men ta l b uria l . T h is s eems t o b e l arge ly t rue a l though t here a re o ccas iona l a ssoc ia t ions o fl a ter b ronzes a nd b ur ia ls i n ' per iphera l ' a reas .

B ronzes a re s t i l l r are , b u t i ti s v ery d if f icu l t t o a ssess

t he ir v a lue o r s oc ia l i mpor tance . D .

The L a ter M idd le B ronze Age There a re t hree d eve lop men ts o f c ons iderab le i n teres t i n t h is p er iod :

i . The a ppearance o fl arge h oards a s H o tham C arr . f ounders h oard .

Th is s ee ms t o b e a

Th is i s t he f i rs t e v idence o f i ncreas ing l arge s ca le ' d istribu-

t i on ' a nd p roduc t ion i n t he c oun ty .

Imigh t s ugges t t ha t f or t he r arer e arlier

t ypes s i mp ler mechan isms were emp loyed ( par t ly t o ma in ta in t he v a lue o f t he i t e ms !) . i .

N one o ft he ' Ornamen t h or izon ' ( Sm i th 1 957) i t ems a ppear t o h ave r eached

Y orksh ire . S o me o ft he I r ish h oards o f t he p er iod a re v ery r ich a nd i nc lude g o ld o b jec ts . T here i s n o d eve lopmen t o ft h is k ind i n Y orksh ire ( b u t s ee a pp earance o f T hw ing i n n ex t p hase ) . i i . I n t he f i gures ( Chap ter 7 ) Is ugges t ' d isp lay ' e le men ts i n s pecu la t ive manner . H owever t he o ccurrence o f d ecora ted i t ems ( s uch a s t he p unch d ecora ted b asa l l ooped s pearhead i n F ig . 7 .5 n o . 2 1 a nd t he s ocke ted l ooped f or m i n F ig . 7 .4 n o . 1 7) , may s ugges t t ha t o b jec ts w ere o f ' d isp lay ' v a lue . E .

L a tes t M idd le B ronze A ge B y t h is p er iod t here a re h in ts t ha t many o f t he b ronzes h ad h igh s ocia l a nd

e cono m ic v a lue : i . T he a ssoc ia t ion o fb ronze p ins a nd ' r itua l ' ( T . G . Manby p ersona l c ornmun ica t in ) c en tres a s a t T hw ing . T he s i te w i th i t s mass ive d efenses a nd ' i ndus tries ' i s c er ta in ly a v ery i mportan t c en tre o f s o me k ind . i . The s ing le o ccurrence o f aB a lin tober s word i n Y orksh ire marks a c oun tryw ide c hange t o t he u se o f v ery s oph is t ica ted b ronze t ypes— large i t ems o f c onsiderab le r ar i ty . T he a ssocia t ion o f s uch t ypes i n t h is p er iod a nd t hrough t he r es t o ft he ' Bronze Age ' w i th ' r i tua l ' ( wa ter c u l ts?) may a gain s uggest t he ir v a lue . i i . Is hou ld a lso p oin t o u t t ha t t here may w e l l b e ab reak s tar ting i nt h is p er iod b e tween ' work-a-day ' i t e ms a nd ' socia l g oods ' . T here d oes s ee m t o b e ab as ic d iv is ion b e tween s ay a xes/pa ls taves e tc . a nd s words/ large s pearh eads e tc . i n s evera l aways : a .

D if feren tia l h oard d is tr ibu t ion

b .

' r i tua l ' l oca t ions

c .

T here i s v ery l i t t le c hange i n t he ' work-a-day ' t ypo logy f rom t h is p er iod e specia l ly t he p a ls taves .

T here a re a ga ins t t h is , r ap id c hanges

i n f ash ion o ft he o ther i t e ms p ar t icu lar ly t he s words a nd s pearheads . Iam b eing d e l ibera te ly s pecu la t ive h ere , b u t Ic an s ee s igns o f t h is t rend c ont i nuing t hroughout t he l a ter s tages o f t he B ronze A ge .

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F .

The L a te B ronze A ge T he p a t tern d escr ibed a bove s ee ms t o b e v is ib le a s f o l lows : i .

There a re a l arge n u mber o f ' f ounders ' h oards o f ' work-a-day ' i t e ms

p ar t icu lar ly t he p a ls taves .

S uch i t e ms s ee m t o b e b eco m ing r e la t ive ly c o m mon

a nd t h is may h ave r educed t he ir ' va lue ' . i .

Obv ious i t ems o f wea l th o ccur s uch a s t he 4 g o ld b race le ts f ro m C ot t ing-

h am . i i .

S ocke ted a xes b eg in t o a ppear , b u t t here d oes s ee m t o b e ac lear

' d isp lay ' e le men t h ere o f l arger d ecora ted f or ms ( c f . B urgess 1 969 a nd B urgess a nd M ike t 1 976b ) s uch a s t he ' pa ir ' f ro m D anes Dykes . i v . T here a re i n teres t ing g roups o f l arge a nd d ecora ted s pears , s o me f ro m sma l l ' hoards ' . ( c f . t he e ar l ier H o tha m C arr f or ms e .g . F ig . 7 . 5n o . 2 1 w i th t he l a ter i t e ms f ro m Y ork F ig . 7 .5 n o . 2 2 . )B urgess h i mse lf r ecogn ises t he d isp lay e lemen t i n o b jec ts s uch a s t he B roadward s pearheads ( F ig . 7 .5 n o . 2 3 , wh ich i s t he o n ly l oca ted e xamp le f ro m t he c oun try ) .

S o me o f

t he s pearheads a re r eal ly ' monu men ta l ' i n p ropor t ion a nd i n tui t ive ly i ti s d if f icu l t t o t h ink o ft hese w i thout s o me s oc ia l f unct ion . G .

The L a tes t B ronze Age I n t h is p er iod n ew p a t terns emerge : i .

T here i s n ow a l arge d ecora t ive ' d isp lay ' e le men t w i th in t he s ocke ted

a xes ( F ig . 7 .3 e spec ia l ly n u mbers 1 3 , 4 1 , 1 6: i .

F ig . 7 .9 ) .

T here o ccur f ur ther monu men ta l s pearheads (F ig . 7 .5 n o . 2 3 ) i nclud ing

ag roup o f f our f ro m K irk D e igh ton ) . i i .

T here i s ac on t inuing u se o f v ar ious swords , s uch a s t he o ne f ro m

B ro mp ton ( F ig . 7 .7 n o . 3 5 ) a l though s o me main ta in s t i l l t ha t t h is i s ar esu l t o ft he i ncurs ion o fp eop le ( Burgess 1 976b e .g . ) . I n t h is c onnec t ion o ne s hou ld n o te t he sma l l ' groups ' o f s uch i mp le men ts t ha t h ave b een l oca ted ma tch ing t he p a t tern o ft he s pearheads .

C oo mbs ' weapon h oards ' ( 1975 ) a re a n o bv ious

e xa mp le a nd n o te t he p a ir o f s words f ro m E bbers ton ( Burgess 1 968a :

C owen

1 951, 1 967) . i v .

Of ten i n a ssocia t ion w i th t he ' work-a-day ' a xes a re n ow s e ts o f wha t

Iw ou ld t er m ' craf ts mens ' t oo ls ' . e tc .

An u mber o fh oards h as g roups o fg ouges

There i s e ven a s ocke ted s ick le f ro m S awdon ( F ig . 7 .6 n o . 3 1 ) .

7 .6 ( 32-4 ) i nd ica tes a f ew o ft he t ypes . c on tras t b e tween t he b ronze t ypes ;

F ig .

It h ink t h is d oes c on tinue a g enera l

b e tween i t e ms p erhaps o f more g enera l u se

a nd t hose o f ' soc ia l i mpor tance ' . C o m men ts a nd c onc lus ions Unfortuna te ly t h is c hap ter h as b een v ery s pecu la t ive w i th v ery l i t t le h ard e v idence .

The l ack o f ac o mpara t ive measure ( such a s g rave a ssocia t ions )

makes t he t ask o f e va lua ting t he r o le o fb ronzes a s i t e ms w i th in t he s ociety , a d if f icu l t o ne .

The c hrono log ica l v ar iabi l i ty t ha t i s c lear wou ld s ee m t o i nd ica te

c lear c hanges t hrough t ime .

H owever , we a re a f forded a n u mber o ft en ta t ive

g li mpses i n to ' Bronze Age ' s ocie ty a nd o ne c an d raw c er ta in c onc lus ions : 1 79

1 .

There a ppears t o b e ad ec l ine i n v a lue o f i t ems i nverse ly p ropor tiona l t o

t he n u mber o f f i nds ( F ig . 7 .8) . A s i t ems b eco me more c o m mon t hrough t ime t hey o ccur l ess i n ' soc ia l c on tex ts ' ( bur ia ls e .g . )a nd more i n h oards . Through t ime Iwou ld ma in ta in , more a nd more ' work-a-day ' i mp le men ts a ppear ( Fig . 7 . 9( i i ) ) . T he a ppearance o fh oards o f l arge s i ze b y t he M idd le B ronze Age ( c on tras t ing w i th t he e ar l ier p er iods o f s ing le f i nds/monu men ta l b ur ia l/socia l c on tex t ) may i nd ica te n ew w ider s ca le me thods o fp roduc t ion a nd e xchange . 2 .

There a re i nd ica t ions o fd if feren t e lemen ts w i th in t he b ronzes w h ich may

ma tch p at terns w i th in t he s oc ie ty : A .

T he b ronze sm i th 's a c t iv i t ies a re i nd ica ted b y t he ' debris ' i nt he

f ounder 's h oards . B .

C raf ts men i n o ther ' t rades ' a re i nd ica ted b y t he o ccurrence o f a

v ar ie ty o f ' work-a-day ' i mp lemen ts i nc lud ing s i ck les a nd g ouges . C .

S o me b ronzes i nd ica te ' d isp lay ' .

I n F ig . 7 . 9( i ) Ii nd ica te t ha t t he

l arger s ocke ted a xes a re t he o nes mos t l i ke ly t o b e d ecora ted . B u t t here a re e lemen ts o fd isp lay i n many o ft he w eapon t ypes t oo . F rom Thw ing t here c o mes e v idence o ft hriv ing ' i ndus tr ies ' o fj e t , b one a nd b ronze f or t he p roduct i on o fd ecora t ive ( socia l?) i t ems . D .

The w ork o f B urgess ( 1 976b ) , C larke ( 1977) a nd R ow lands ( 1 972 , 1 973 )

may w e l l i nd ica te t err i tor ia l p at terns o fb ronze p roduc t ion ( or a t l eas t d epos it i on ) . I ti s p erhaps i n t he u se o fb ronzes i nt hese t er ms t ha t we may b e a b le t o g e t mos t mi leage f ro m t hem when l ook ing f or s oc ia l p a t terns . i s t oo sma l l a n a rea i n wh ich t o a t temp t t h is k ind o f a na lys is .

Y orksh ire

A l l t hese p oin ts a re f a ir ly g enera l . I n f ac t i ti s n o t p rac t ica l t o u se a ny b u t t he e ar l ies t b ronzes t o b ui ld u p d e ta i led s oc ia l p at terns ; a nd i n t h is c ase t hey a re i n ' co mpara t ive ' c on tex ts i n wh ich w e c an measure s ocia l v ar iabi li ty a ga ins t b ronze v ar iab i li ty .

Iw ou ld s ugges t t ha t t here i s n o d oubt t ha t many o f

t he b ronzes were i t e ms i n tended t o i ncrease t he ' p res t ige ' o ft he p ossessor ( or a t l eas t h is weal th ) .

T he f ea tures o f d isp lay a re o fg rea t i n teres t a nd i t

wou ld b e t e mp t ing t o t ry t he ' psycho logy-s ty le ' e xperimen ts t ha t Iu sed o n F ood V esse ls w i th t he b ronze ma ter ia l .

I n t he s ou th o f E ng land a nd o ther

p ar ts o ft he c oun try t h is ' d isp lay ' e le men t i s e ven more p ro m inen t i n i n tui t ive t er ms . T he ' o rna men t ' h or izon a nd t he o rna te ' W i lbur ton ' t ypes a re t o ta l ly a bsen t f ro m Y orksh ire . Why i s t h is? I s i tc onnec ted w i th d is tribu t iona l p rob le ms o r i s i tf unda men ta l ly a s ocia l mat ter? Iw ou ld ma in ta in t ha t t he b as ic d ua l i ty o fb ronze t echno logy a t t he e nd o f t he B ronze A ge i s f a ir ly c lear a nd f undamen ta l . It h ink i n t he e ar ly p ar t o f t he B ronze A ge , i t e ms a re v ery r are a nd o fg rea t v a lue a nd p robab ly v ery much t he ' pres t ige ' i t e ms . T he ' dua l i ty ' o ft he b ronze i mp le men ts p robab ly a pp eared i n t he midd le B ronze A ge . T o s u mmarise t he s ugges t ions Imade e ar lier , Iw ou ld make a b as ic d iv is ion b e tween a xes/craf tsman 's i mp le men ts/ p a ls taves a nd s words/spearheads/ornamen ts a s i nt he d iagram ( Fig . 7 .9) . T he b as is f or t h is w ou ld b e a s f o l lows : i . Mass p roduc t ion o ft he f i rs t g roup o f i t ems a nd t he l arge t raders a nd f ounders h oards c ons is t ing o fg roups o f t hese i t ems ( usua l ly a lone ) o ccurs b y t he e nd o ft he M idd le B ronze A ge .

T he s econd g roup o f i t e ms a re n or ma l ly

1 80

f ound s ing ly o r i n sma l l g roups ( usua l ly e xc lus ive ly o f s uch i t ems e .g . K irk D e igh ton ) . i .

N e tworks o ft rade may h ave b een d if feren t .

T he o ccurrence o fr ea l ly ' monu men ta l ' p ieces i n t he s econd g roup

( s uch a s B roadward s pearheads; l eaf-shaped swords e tc . )w ou ld s ugges t s o me s pecia l f unc t ion . B u t Iw ou ld n o t d eny t ha t s o me ' d isp lay ' e le men t may h ave e x is ted i n t he f i rs t g roup a lso . i i .

T here a re i nd ica t ions o f ' r itua l ' a ssocia tions o ft he s econd g roup

( r iver d epos i t ion ; f i nds i n s i tes l i ke T hw ing e tc . ) . i v . T he Y orksh ire ' hoards ' s eem t o b reak u p i n to g roups o f o ne t ype o r t he o ther . A l l t he l arge h oards a re o ft he f i rs t g roup b u t t here a re a n u mber o f sma l ler c o mb ina t ions o ft he s econd g roup . Hav ing s a id t ha t t here i s ab as ic d iv is ion i n to l arge ly ' socia l ly i mpor tan t ' i mp le men ts a nd ' l ess s ocia l ly i mpor tan t ' i mp le men ts Imus t make i tc lear t ha t e very h u man ly p roduced a r tefac t i s s ocia l ly i mportan t .

B ut Iw ou ld s ug-

g es t t ha t t he s econd g roup o f i mp lemen ts p robab ly h ad a more i mpor tan t f unct i on i n ma in ta in ing t he s ocia l o rgan isa t ion t han d id t he s econd .

T h is i s v ery

much i ntu i t ive b ased o n t he l im i ted e v idence a t p resen t a va i lab le .

O ur k now-

l edge o ft he p rec ise r o le o ft hese o b jec ts i s s t i l l a mys tery i n s oc ia l t er ms a nd o ur p icture o ft he l a ter s ocia l d eve lopmen t mus t r e ma in c louded a nd d ist or ted .

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CHAPTER 8 M ISCELLANEOUS ARTEFACT TYPES : S UGGESTIONS AS TO THEIR S OCIAL ROLE

I n troduc t ion I NTRODUCT ION I n t h is c hap ter , u s ing n o d e ta i led f or m o f a na lysis , Iw i l l t ry t o s ugges t t ha t av as t r ange o f a r tefac t t ypes i s l i ke ly t o h ave s ocia l i mportance a nd i nf or m u s o fd e ta i led s ocia l p a t tern ing when t aken i n c on junct ion w i th o ther e v id ence ( as i n t he s ucceed ing c hap ter ) . 1 .

L eaf-shaped a rrowheads These a r tefac ts a re o ne o ft he mos t c om mon i mp lemen t t ypes r ecovered

b y c o l lec tors i n t he f i e lds o f Y orksh ire . They v ary i n f orm t re mendous ly a nd t here i s l i ke ly t o b e s o me r e la t ionsh ip b e tween v ar iabi li ty a nd c hrono logy ( S . G reen p ersona l c o m mun ica t ion ) . T hey s eem t o s tre tch f ro m t he b eg inn ings o ft he N eo li th ic we l l i n to t he e ar ly B ronze Age . U nfor tuna te ly t hey a re n ot f ound v ery c o m mon ly ( as s ay p lano-convex k n ives ) i n b ur ia l c on tex ts , b ut t here a re a n u mber o f f eatures wh ich s ugges t ( a , s ocia l i mpor tance a nd ( b ) s pecia lis t p roduc t ion . i . An u mber o f a rrowheads a re r emarkab ly t h in ( 2 -3 mm ) r evea l ing h igh ly s k i l led f l ak ing t echn ique . i .

Many o ft he a rrowheads a re o f v ery r egu lar o u t line ( i nc luding d iamond s hapes a nd t he l i ke ) . s k i l l .

Th is w ou ld a ga in s how s o me n o t i ncons iderab le

i i .

An u mber o f a rrowheads a re v ery a ngu lar a nd w el l f ormed .

i v .

S o me o ft he a rrowheads a re c onsiderab ly l arger t han t he mean . T h is i s p ar t icu lar ly t rue o ft he ' d iamond ' f orms w i th ' La ter N eo li th ic ' a ssocia t ions ( Ca l lis Wo ld a nd D ugg leby H owe ( Mor t imer 1 905 ) e .g . ) . S ub ject ive ly , If ee l Ic an r ecogn ise t he s ame ' f ine ' a nd ' l ess f i ne ' v aria t ion

t ha t Ih ave d emons tra ted f or a n umber o f a rtefac t t ypes a lready . T here a re a c oup le o f r easons why Iw ou ld s ugges t t ha t t he ' f ine ' i t e ms were s pecia l a nd p robab ly r e la ted t o s ocia l p a t tern ing . a .

T he r egu lar a ssoc ia t ion o f o n ly t he f i ner t ypes w i th b ur ia ls ( e .g . t he d iamond f orms a nd o ther a ngu lar t ypes ) .

b .

T he s pa t ia l c oncen tra t ion o f f i ner f orms i n p ar t icu lar a reas , e specia l ly t he f ert i le a reas o f e as tern Y orksh ire .

1 82

It h ink i th igh ly l i ke ly t ha t c ho ice f ro m a ' genera l a sse mblage ' f or g rave d epos i t ion was r es tr ic ted a nd b ased o n ' qua l i ty ' a nd t ha t t he f ines t i t e ms a re d epos i ted w i th t he mos t i mpor tan t b ur ia ls .

B ear ing t h is s e lec t iv i ty i n mind

a ny c hrono log ica l s tudy ( wh ich mus t l arge ly b e b ased o nb ur ia l d a ta ) i s l ike ly t o mee t c ons iderab le d i f f icu l t ies . 2 .

The p o l ished e dge k n i fe ( F ig . 8 .1 ;

5 .4 )

The t ype h as r ecen t ly b een d iscussed ( Manby 1 974 p . 8 6 a nd f ig . 3 5 ) a nd e ar l ier b y C lark ( 1 928 ) . Iw i l l n o t c o m men t h ere o n t he t ypo log ica l s che mes ( P ierpoin t 1 978 e xam ines t he m i n s o me d e ta i l ) , b u t It h ink t hey a re n o t p art i cu lar ly u se fu l f or o ur p urposes .

The k n ives s ee m t o b e e xc lus ive ly

l i th ic ' ( Mor t i mer 1 905 p . 1 81 a nd Manby 1 974 p . 1 12 ).

' Neo-

The p o l ished k n i fe i s

v ir tua l ly a bsen t f rom s e t t le men ts , b u t i s r ela t ive ly c o m mon i nb ur ia l c on tex ts ( Carnaby T op s i te 1 2 i s t he o n ly s e t t le men t c on tex t ( Manby 1 974 f ig . 1 0 .12 ) ) . An u mber o f f ea tures i nd ica te t he ' spec ia l ' n a ture a nd s oc ia l i mpor tance o f t hese i t e ms : a .

H igh e nerg y i npu t

b .

They a re r are a nd h ave a l im i ted d is tr ibu t ion i n o ne p ar t o f t he c oun try.

c .

They a re a ssoc ia ted w i th ' impor tan t ' b ur ia ls o r b arrow s i tes : i ) Dugg leby H owe ( Mor t i mer 1 905 p . 5 8 ) ' I n f ron t o f t he f ace was a b eau-

t i fu l k n i fe o f a l mos t g lassl ike f l in t .

I ti s ar are t ype a nd v ery t h in h av ing

b een g round d own o nb o th s ides t o n o t more t han o ne s ix teen th o f a n i nch '. S uch a es the t ic v iews a re n o t w i thou t t he ir v a lue a s Ih ave i nd ica ted . i )

A ldro 9 4 ( Mor timer 1 905 f ig . 1 80 ).

i i ) A ldro 1 75 ( Mor t i mer 1 905 p age 1 57 a nd 1 60 ). i v )

L i f f 's L owe ( Manby 1 974 p . 1 13 ) ;

l os t .

Mos t o f t hese b ur ia ls h ad g roups o f o ther ' r ich ' i t e ms a nd were g enera l ly s epara ted f ro m t he ' mass ' o f t he p opu la t ion ( s ee Chap ter 9 ) . I ft hese o b jec ts a re c ons idered a s ' spec ia l i t e ms ' o ne migh t l ook f or ' qua li ty ' i n t he f o l low ing f ea tures . A .

Pol ish ing .

B .

Regu lar o u t l ine a nd d es ign ( C lark 's ( 1928 ) t ypes ).

T he e x ten t a nd d egree .

C .

The c ho ice o f h igh q ua l i ty o r c o lour fu l f l in ts .

D .

Exaggera ted s i ze .

E .

Presence o f ' r ipp le f lak ing '.

F .

Care fu l s tr ik ing o f l ong c urved b lades w i th p ara l le l s ides .

D is tr ibu t ions ( F ig . 8 .1 ) The c oncen tra t ion o f k n ives w i th in 1 0 km o f t he Ruds ton mono l i th i s r emarkable .

Th is may i nd ica te i n i t se lf t ha t as ing le ' workshop ' was i nvo lved

i n p roduc t ion ( or i tc ou ld b e c o l lec t ion b ias ) .

I fo ne , f or t he mo men t , a ccep ts

ac en tra l ised p roduc t ion t wo i mpor tan t f actors s pr ing t o mind : a .

Tha t we c an e xam ine a t rade n e twork b ased o n t h is a ssu mp t ion .

1 83

•

01 ) •

•

• •

•

•

•

•

• •

0

Fi g . 8 .1

P ol ished f l in t k n ives a nd s crapers i n e astern Y orksh ire. 1 84

b .

Why s hou ld a ' workshop ' b e p laced h ere?

R e la ted t o t h is i s t he q ues t ion

o f why t hese o b jec ts s hou ld o ccur i n t h is r eg ion ( bear ing i n mind S chi f fer ( 1976) ) —why s hou ld t hey b e ' depos i ted ' h ere? The s econd c ons idera t ion Iw i l l s ave f or t he n ex t c hap ter , b u t s o me b r ief c o m men ts a nd s ugges t ions c an b e made a bou t t rade .

Ip lo t ted t he 3 7 k nown

' d iscoida l ' ( s ing le t ype ) p o l ished k n ives t o t ry a nd l oca te t he ' source ' o f p roduct ion w i th t he a ssump t ions t ha t : i . There was a s ing le s ource i . i i .

There was a n e xponen t ia l f a l l-o f f The a rchaeo log ica l d is tr ibu t ion r ef lec ts p as t d is tr ibu t ion . By p lo t t ing 5 km f a l l-o f fs f ro m ' rando m ' p o in ts w i th in t he a rea o f d is tr ibu-

t i on ( based o n c oun ts o f e n t i t ies w i th in e ach 5 km r ing ) ,

i n F ig . 8 .1 Is how

a reas r epresen t ing d ecreas ing l ike l ihood o f t he ' source ' b eing w i th in t ha t a rea .

The r esu l ts a re h and-drawn .

mos t l ike l ihood ) was

The c en tre o f t he ' ma in ' a rea ( t he a rea o f

G r inda le , b u t t he a rea s tre tches f ro m S pee ton p lan ta t ion

i n t he n or th t o Ra is thorpe i n t he s ou th a nd f ro m Argha m i n t he wes t t o Eas t L eys Far m . Th is a rea i s b ased o n p o in ts wh ich c on ta in t he max i mu m n u mber o f f inds ( 20 ) w i th a 5km r ad ius . a' regu lar ' f a l l-o f f .

H owever mos t o f t hese p oin ts d o n o t p ossess

To l im i t o u t ' hun t f or t he s ource ' we c an ( b y more c o m-

p lex methods n o t d escr ibed h ere ) d escr ibe a n a rea f ro m wh ich t he f a l l o f f i s ' r egu lar ' .

Th is a rea i s v ery sma l l , o n ly 4 km l ong ( c igar s haped ) f ro m Ra is-

t horpe t o t he R e fuge Far m i nc luding Ruds ton V i l lage .

I fo ne i s l ook ing f or a

' source ' o f p roduc t ion t hen i tw i l lb e mos t l i ke ly t o h ave b een w i th in t h is l im i ted a rea . On t he o ther h and t hese p a t terns may b e i nd ica tove o f o ther t h ings .

As I

s ugges t a bove ( and a ga in i n C hap ter 1 0 ) i t may s how s oc ia l r e la t ionsh ips o r s imply t he p roc l iv i t ies o f modern c o l lec tors . There a re p rob le ms i n a ny c ase w i th t he o r ig ina l a ssump t ions a s f o l lows : i . Agr icu l tura l h as ab iass ing e f fec t o n t he d is tr ibu t ion o f ma ter ia l C ol lec tors ' i n teres ts h ave a no ther i i . Museums t end t o b r ing t oge ther o n ly t he ma ter ia l i n t he ir i m med ia te a rea i v . There may h ave b een s evera l ' workshops ' v .

Trade i n s uch ' rare ' o b jec ts may h ave b een ' spec ia l '.

Bu t , Iwou ld ma in ta in t ha t t here i s s o me v a l id i ty i n t h is p a t tern , e ven i f i ti s d i f f icu l t t o u se i ts imp ly a s a' d is tr ibu t iona l ' s tudy. The l oca t ions o f many o ther a r te fac t t ypes f o l lows t he s a me ' t rack ' e .g . s tone mace-heads ( Manby 1 974 ) ; ( t h is c hap ter ) ; c a t ion ).

t ranche t a rrowheads ( t h is c hap ter ) ;

p o l ished e dge s crapers

' specia l ised ' a xes ( t h is c hap ter a nd P h i l l ips p ersona l c o m mun i-

Much o f t h is d iscuss ion i s s econdary t o t he ma in p o in t wh ich d oes s ee m c lear , t ha t p o l ished k n ives h ad a s pec ia l s ocia l f unct ion i n Yorksh ire ' Neo l i th ic ' s oc iety.

1 85

Table 8 .1

D iscoida l Kn i fe D is tr ibu t ion s ources

km

o ne

t wo

t hree

f our

f ive

s ix

No . o f k n ives/s te m r ad ius 5

1 9

1 0

1 4

4

1 3

1 7

4

6

1 5

5

2

4

2 0

2

1

2

1 9

6 1 8 1 1

2 0

5

3

4

5

2

1 1

2 5

1

0

0

2

1

3 0

4

2

2

4

1

0

3 5

0

3

4

0

3

4

4 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

4 5

1

1

1

2

0

1

5 0

1

1

1

0

1

1

o ne

- TA 1 27680 L ow Caythorpe

t wo

- TA 0 75735 Nor th Bur ton G range

t hree - TA 1 15645 Thurnho l me F ield f our

- TA 9 28660 C row Wood

f i ve

-1 00680 Nor th Ruds ton

s ix

- TA 1 47715 G r inda le F ield Eas t L eys

Areas ( i n s q . km ) Rad ius : 5

Area :

1 0

2 35.5

1 5

4 71.0

2 0

7 85 .0

2 5

1 177.5

3 0

1 648 .5

3 5

2 198

4 0

2 826

4 5

3 532.5

5 0

4 317.5

3 .

kms

7 8 .5

Dugg leby a xes a nd S ea mer a dzes ( F ig . 8 .3 ) Manby ( 1974 ) h as a lready r ecogn ised t he l i ke l ihood t ha t t hese i t e ms were

s pecia l is t p roduced a nd l ess c lear ly t ha t t hey were s ocia l ly impor tan t . n o t r ev iew h is e v idence a ga in h ere.

Iw i l l

H e a lso d ef ines t he t ypes .

I ti s q u i te c lear t ha t ag rea t d ea l o f t ime a nd e f for t wen t i n to t he p roduct ion o f t hese i t e ms a nd t h is may r ela te t o t heir v a lue a s s oc ia l i t e ms : a .

Many o f t hese a xes a re o f c arefu l ly c hosen mo tt led o r b r igh t ly c o loured f l in t f or ms .

b .

Mos t o f t he a xes a re p o l ished o ver a l arge p ar t o f t he s ur face —a t imec onsum ing t ask f or f l in t ma ter ia ls .

1 86

c. The carefully curved profile of the Duggleby adzes would have been difficult to achieve. d. Many of the axes are carefully and delicately flaked to produce regularity of form and smoothness of outline. Secondly it seems clear that they have a social function from their limited grave associations (listed in Manby 1974), with the type site, the massive mound at Duggleby Howe (with its 'rich' burials). -

If they are specialist products one can attempt the same procedures as described for polished knives. A very similar pattern emerges from the plot­ ting of the 32 axes and adzes with the most likely source at the east end of the Great Wolds valley. The 'best fits' were in fact two separate areas (one Rudston-Caddy Barf Farm, the other was larger Staxton Village-Seamer Carr). The general 'fit' however was less good than that for the knives. The possible sources are indicated in the table (testing three 'possibilities': Table 8.2). Table 8.2 Distribution Duggleby Adzes and Seamer Axes km

one

two

three

No. of axes/stem radius 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

12 9 4 2 1 1 0 0 0 2 0

10 9 6 2

1 2 0 0 0 2 0

12 8 6 1 1 1 0 0 0 2 0

one - Little Thorpe Farm near Rudston TA 102696 two - Rudston Beacon TA 0946 56 three - Between Staxton Brow and the Diamond Plantation TA 0307790 4. Stone axes (Figs. 8.2-3) There are between two and three thousand stone axes known from locations throughout Yorkshire of which over 800 have now been sectioned (Dec. 7 8). Of these about three-quarters are from the Yorkshire wolds. Of those sec­ tioned 30% are group VI implements from Langdale; 15% are axes of Cornish group I (Keen and Radley 1971; Moore and Cummins 1974; Evens, Grinsell, Piggott and Wallis 1962; Evens et al.1972) despite the ar·guments of Briggs (1976). There are smaller numbers of implements from Charnwood Forest in Leicestershire (Group XX); Rathlin-Tievebulliagh in Northern Ir�land (IX);. Cornwall (III); and Wales (VIII), but there is a good representation of imple­ ments from Craig Lwyd (VII). I believe a basic division in axes can be made between the following:

187

1 ,6 , 8 :u nknown 2n o r th b u r ton 3 no r t hd a le 4b r id l ing ton , 5wo lds

9h ay ton

F ig. 8 .2

7 a r ros

U '

C M

Worn a nd r e-used s tone a xes i nY orksh ire.

1 88

" ; --

F ig. 8 .3

The ' p rest ige ' e le men t i n s tone a xes.

1 89

A .

S tone a xes p roduced b y f l in t t echno logy ( Groups V I , V I I , V I II , I X ) p ossess ing n or ma l ' f lak ing ' p roper ties a nd u sua l ly o f l en to id f or m.

B .

S tone a xes p roduced b y ' scu lpture ' i nclud ing mos t o f t he C orn ish f or ms ( I , I I , XV I , XV I I e tc.).

These i mp le men ts n or ma l ly h ave c ircu lar o r

o va l s ect ions a nd h ave p o in ted b u t ts a nd a re f requen t ly h eavi ly w ea thered ( F ig . 8 .2-3 ). A ccord ing t o H odder t here may b e b as ic s ocia l a nd e cono mic d i f feren t iat i ons b e tween t hese t wo t ypes ( and p ar t icu lar ly b e tween g roup V I a nd I : Hodder ,p ersona l c o m mun ica t ion ) i n t ha t g roup V I imp le men ts h ad more ' l ong d is tance ' c en tra lised t rading mechan is ms t han t he C orn ish f or m.

T h is h as

i mpor tan t i mp l ica t ions i n t er ms o f v a lue ( group V I b eing p robably more v a lua ble t han g roup I ) .

H owever a s wel l a s t h is t here a re a who le r ange o f o ther

p robable d i fferences . A .

S pa t ia l d i f feren t ia t ion There a re marked c oncen tra tions o f C orn ish t ypes i n t he a rea w es t o f

Ruds ton a round B e mp ton a nd B r id l ing ton ( based o n K een a nd Rad ley 1 971 a nd p ersona l museu m s tudy ).

G roup V I a re more w ide ly a nd e ven ly s pread b u t

a re v ery much ' t he n or ma l a xe o f t he wo lds ' ( C larke 1 965 ; s ugges ted p ossible e xp lana t ions ). t he ' Br id l ing ton ' a xe . i .

B radley 1 971 h ave

E lgee ( 1912 ) e ven c a l led ' Corn ish ' t ypes

There a re s evera l s ugges t ions p oss ib le:

C oas ta l t rad ing ( as p er E vens , G r insel l , P iggo t t a nd Wa llis 1 962).

B u t

i t s hou ld b e n o ted t ha t n o o ther e as t c oas t i n n or thern Eng land h as a ny s uch c oncen tra t ion . i .

A t t he ' macro-level ' o f d is tr ibu t ion ( Hodder i n C larke 1 977) t h is c on-

c en tra t ion d isappears . i i .

Id o n o t t h ink i t s hou ld b e i gnored h owever .

Functiona l d i f ferences .

The d is tr ibu t ion p a t tern o f C orn ish a xes c o m-

p ares we l l w i th t he d is tr ibu t ion o f b ou lder c lay s o i ls .

Are t he Corn ish a xes

a gr icu l tura l imp le men ts o f s o me s or t f or d ea l ing w i th t he p roble ms o f h eavy s oi ls?

Th is may a lso a ccoun t f or t he l arge amoun t o f wear , d a mage ( and

n o t j us t wea ther ing ) o n many o f t hese imp le men ts . mos t l i ke ly e xp lana t ion . B .

It h ink t h is l as t , t o b e t he

Ha f t ing d i f ferences __ The d i f feren t s hapes o f b u t t , wou ld r equ ire d i f feren t h a f t ing p rocedures .

The l en to id s ect ion o f g roup V I f or ms means t ha t ' t urn ing ' o f t he a xe when i n u se i s u n l ikely ; t h is i s n ot t he c ase w i th t he C orn ish f or ms . C .

Re-use G roup V I ( and r e la ted ) a xes c an b e r e-worked i fb roken i n to sma l ler

v ers ions o f t he ' paren t ';

t h is i s n o t n or ma l ly t he c ase w i th t he Corn ish t ypes

( see F ig . 8 .2 n os . 4a nd 7 ;

c o mpare t he l arge i mp le men t ;

F ig . 8 .2 p rov ides a u sefu l c ompar ison o f t he t wo t ypes .

F ig .

8 .3 n o . 1 4) .

T o s o me e x ten t t he

b ig l en to id a xes c ou ld b e t raded a s ' l arger ' c urrency t o b e c hanged i n to i sma l l2r d eno mina t ions ' when t he n eed a rose.

1 90

D .

Va lue a nd ' regard ' There a re a n umber o f p ieces o f e v idence t ha t t he a xes were ' seen ' t o b e

d i f feren t b y t he N eo l i th ic s ocie ty p ar t icu lar ly i n s oc ia l t er ms : a .

A l l a xes f ro m b ur ia l c on tex ts a re o f g roup V I s hape ( a l though many a re o f f l in t ) .

b .

The l arge h oards o f i mp le men ts i n t he c oun ty ( Fig . 8 .3 1 2-13 ) a re b o th o f l en to id f or ms .

c .

O ne i nc ludes a g roup V I i mp le men t .

One s hou ld n o t a lso

The l en to id a xes r each a l mos t ' monumen ta l ' p ropor t ions c on tras t ing v ery much w i th t he C orn ish f or ms .

d .

L en to id a xes h ave i mpor tan t a ssoc ia t ions w i th h enges ( L landega i , C a irnp app le e tc .) a nd o ther r i tua l s i tes ; C orn ish t ypes d o n o t .

e .

L en to id a xes h ave i mpor tan t r e la t ionsh ips w i th ' r i tua l ' a reas .

F or e xamp le

i ti s t he l en to id a xes t ha t c oncen tra te i n t he i m med ia te a rea o f t he R uds ton s tand ing s tone .

There h as a lso b een a d eba te a bou t t he c oncen tra t ion o r

n o t o f E roup V I i n t he s ou th o f E ng land ( C larke 1 977).

U s ing g r id s quares

( 20 km s ize ) Il ooked a t t he s ou th o f Eng land . I ti s n o table t ha t ' Avebury 's s quare ' h as a l mos t 2 5% g roup V I i mp le men ts wh ich i s a l mos t t wice t he q uan t i ty o f a ny o ther s quare i n t he s ou th wes t .

I n a dd i t ion t here

a re H odder 's o wn d i f feren t ia l d is tr ibu t ion p a t terns ( C larke 1 977) . C onc lus ions I ti s p oss ib le t o s ay t ha t t here w ere i mpor tan t g roups o f v a luable a xes w i th in t he N eol i th ic a sse mb lages .

A s f ar a s t he s tone a xes a re c oncerned a

b as ic d iv is ion c an b e made b e tween ( a ) L en to id a xes wh ich s ee m t o b e i t e ms o f v a lue a nd s oc ia l i mpor tance a nd ( b ) ' Corn ish ' a xes wh ich may h ave h ad more ' work-a-day ' f unc t ions . 5 .

B arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads N o r ea l ly u sefu l d iv is ions o f t he b arbed a nd t anged a rrowhead h ave y e t b een

made

b u t B rews ter 1 971 ;

K endr ick 1 932 h ave a t te mp ted g roup ings ) .

If ee l

t ha t t here i s a ga in ab as ic q ua l i ty v ar ia t ion b ased o n s ize ; l eng th o f b arbs ; a ngu lar i ty o f b arbs ; f ineness ; f ineness o f f lak ing a nd f l in t c o lou t . If ee l many o f t he g roup ings r ecogn ised i n t he p as t h ave j us t l ooked a t t he e x tre me ly f ine q ua l i ty o nes ( so-ca l led ' Bre ton ' f orms f or e xamp le ) wh ich a re a ngu lar/we l l made ( and t here foreeasy t o c lass i fy ) a nd i gnored t he f ac t t ha t mos t a rrowheads a re o f p oorer q ua l i ty .

Many o f t he f iner t ypes a re r ecurren t ly f ound w i th

B ronze A ge b ur ia ls i nc lud ing a n umber o f ' archer b ur ia ls ' ( Case 1 977) .

Iam

n o t g oing t o g o i n to a ny d e ta i ls h ere , b u t If ee l t ha t t he s ame b as ic c onc lus ions r eached f or p iano-convex k n ives a nd l ea f a rrowheads c an b e made h ere: a .

A n umber o f b arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads were s ocia l ly i mpor tan t a nd were p ar t ia l ly i nd ica t ive o f s ta tus a t b ur ia l .

b .

Tha t t here was a c hoice o f ' f ine ' i t e ms f ro m a g enera l a sse mblage f or g rave d epos i t ion .

e .

Tha t t here a re c lose i n ter-re la t ionsh ips o f t he ' qua l i ty ' v ar iables .

1 91

6 .

Tranchet a rrowheads

Mos t p rev ious a na lyses o f t h is we l l-recogn ised a nd d escribed f or m ( e .g . C lark 1 934) h ave i gnored t he o bv ious q ua l i ty v ar ia tion i n t er ms o f : s ize v ar iabi l i ty;

v ar ia t ion i n f l in t u sed ;

v ar ia t ion i n t he r egu lar i ty a nd s k i l l i n

p roduct ion ( Rad ley 1 974 , S tevenson 1 949 ) .

I n f ac t t here a re g ood g rounds

f or t h ink ing t ha t aq ua l i ty c ons idera tion w i l l c ross-cu t a nd s evere ly d a mage t he t radi tion t ypo log ica l s che me .

F or e xa mp le i ti s i n teres ting t ha t mos t o f

t he f ines t f or ms ( exh ibi t ing r ipple f lak ing a nd t he l i ke ) a re a t t he e nd o f t he s equence ( t ypes G a nd H o f t he C lark c hrono logy ) . The f or ms a re o ccas iona l ly f ound w i th b ur ia ls ( e .g . ' r ich ' o nes .

Dugg leby H owe ( Mor t imer 1 905 ) a nd t hese a re u sua l ly

Wha t i s more , t here d oes s ee m t o b e ac oncen tra t ion o f t he f ines t

t ypes o f t ranche ts w i th impor tan t r i tua l c en tres ( bo th a t R uds ton a nd Avebury: s ee C hapter 9 b e low).

It h ink i tl i kely a ga in t ha t s o me o f t he q ua l i ty d i f ferences

i n t hese i t e ms r e la te t o s ocia l p a t tern ing a nd p erhaps t o s pecia lis t p roduct ion . I n s i mi lar t er ms It h ink o ne c an i nc lude p o l ished e dge s crapers ;

k n i fe f or ms

( exc lud ing p o l ished e dge a nd p iano-convex t ypes ) a nd v ar ious o ther f l in t t ypes a s impor tan t s ocia l i t e ms . 7 .

J et a r tefacts J et a r te facts s ee m t o d iv ide v ery we l l i n to ' t ypo log ica l ' g roups , b u t Iw i l l

a t te mp t n o t horough r ev iew h ere .

The t ypes i nc lude s l iders , V-per fora ted

b u t tons , p u l leys , b arre l b eads , d isc b eads , g lobu lar b eads , p endan ts , l arge d iscs e tc. J e t o b jec ts a re r are b u t an umber o f f ea tures i nd ica te t heir s pec ia l n a ture : i . i .

Their f requen t a ssocia tion w i th ' r ich ' b ur ia ls ( see b e low ) . Their a ppearance i n l arge g roups —so me i n n eck lace f or m.

T he l arger

' neck laces ' s ee m t o b e a ssoc ia ted w i th i mpor tan t i nd iv idua ls w i th in t he s ocie ty. The a ssocia t ion o f t hese ' j e t g roups ' w i th ' r i tua l c en tres ' s uch a s s o me o f t he l arger b arrow g roups i n Yorksh ire ( Gar ton S lack ) a nd K i lmar t in . i v .

S tandard isa t ion o f p roduc t ion . t erns .

The ma in t ypes d o f ol low o ne o r to p a t-

I s t h is i ndica t ive o f s pecia l ' va lue ' o r ' bur ia l s ta tus '?

J et d oes s ee m t o h ave a ssumed s o me s pecia l i mpor tance i n ' Bronze Age ' s oc ie ty. 8 .

' Neo li th ic ' a nd ' Bronze Age ' p o t tery A .

The c o l lared U rn

The d eta i led a na lys is o f B eakers a nd F ood V esse ls i nd ica ted c lose r elat ionships b etween v ar iabi l i ty a nd s ocia l p a t terns .

The C o l lared U rn i s t he

t h ird a nd mos t n u merous o f t he g rea t t r iu mv ira te o f b ur ia l wares i n t he Yorks h ire ' Ear ly B ronze Age '.

These u rns a re g enera l ly much c ruder t han t he

o ther v esse l t ypes b u t n ever the less f ro m b r ief a na lysis ( f ur ther d escr ibed i n Chap ter 9 ) i ti s c lear t ha t : i .

T here i s ac lear r ela t ionsh ip b e tween v ar iab les o f q ua l i ty a nd o ther v esse l f ea tures .

I n P la te X I I , Ii l lus tra te o ne o f t he f iner u rns .

There a re l arge

n umbers o f p oor q ua l i ty v esse ls i n Yorksh ire o f ten w i th ' i nd is t ingu ished ' b ur ia ls .

Bu t t here a re a lso i mpor tan t g roups o f f iner wares ( e .g . Bo les

H i l l b arrow ) w i th ' r icher ' g rave a ssocia t ions e tc. 1 92

i .

The u rns d o s ee m t o r ela te t o s oc ia l p a t terns , t hough i n al ess c lear way t han e i ther B eakers o r F ood V esse ls . Long-wor th ( 1961 ) h as s hown t ha t t here a re r eg iona l s tyles o f t hese v essel t ypes . Yorksh ire f or ms a re q u i te d is t inc t ive a t t imes —such a s t he s oc a lled P enn ine U rns . Wi thou t g oing t o a ny g rea t d eta i l , It h ink i tc an b e s a id t ha t t he p a t terns

o f C o llared Urn v ar iabi l i ty a re l ikely t o b e r easonably s im i lar t o t hose o f F ood Vesse ls d escribed i n C hap ter 4 .

S i mi lar s che mes a re p robable f or many

o f t he ' pyg my v essels ' a nd Ip o in t o u t t he sma l l g roup o f ' h igh q ua l i ty ' v esse ls f ro m t he c oun ty s uch a s t he p ar t icu lar ly f ine e xamp le f ro m G ood manham Wold ( P la te X I ) . B .

Neo l i th ic Wares On ly t wo t ypes o f N eoli th ic p o t tery ( Manby 1 974 ) a re f ound t o a ny e x ten t i n

a ssocia t ion w i th b ur ia ls i n Yorksh ire ( t he

' neo l i th ic ' Beakers e xcluded ) ,

t hese a re G r i ms ton Ware a nd Towthorpe Ware .

H owever , P eterborough f or ms

a re k nown f ro m a n umber o f b arrow s i tes a nd s e t t le men ts . ' Trad i t iona l ' workers i n t he f i e ld o f p ot tery s tudies h ave a t te mpted t ypol og ica l c lassi f ica t ions b u t o n ly t he mos t b road o f t hese c lassi f ica tions h ave b een w ide ly a ccep ted ( P iggo t t 1 954 t ypes ;

a nd n o te Rouse 's ( 1970 ) q ues t ion ).

Sm i th ( 1956 ) i s p erhaps t he c lass ic work o f t h is n a ture , a l though i n i t s way , a nd i n i t s r igorous a na lys is i ti s v ery much s uper ior t o p reced ing works .

A

n u mber o f p roble ms r e ma in w i th t h is a pproach : 1 .

F or a ny t ypo log ica l s tudy t o b e a t a l l v a l id t he a ssu mp t ion mus t b e

made t ha t a v a l id s a mp le i s a va i lable f or s tudy. c ase w i th N eol i th ic p o t tery.

Th is i s r arely i fe ver t he

I ti s l ike ly ( see b elow ) , t ha t o n ly a min i ma l

amoun t o f N eo l i th ic p o t tery i s a va i lable f or s tudy. 2 .

T h is p ot tery c o mes f ro m b ur ia l s i tes a nd " r i tua l" c on tex ts i n mos t

c ases , a nd r are ly f ro m " nor ma l d o mes tic" s i tes ( c f . Case 1 961 a nd Sm i th 1 956). 3 .

Mos t s tud ies h ave i gnored q ua l i ty v ar ia t ion o f t hese i t e ms , wh ich i n

t he c ase o f P eterborough Wares i n p ar t icu lar may b e ag rave mis take. There c an b e l i t t le d oubt t ha t N eo li th ic p o t tery s tud ies wou ld b enef i t g rea t ly f ro m mu l t ivar ia te a na lys is u s ing c on tex t c o mpar isons a nd w i th q ua l i ty v ariab les ( Ph i l l ips 1 972 ) .

There h as a s y et b een n o a t te mp t a t t his k ind o f

a na lys is i n Br i t ish a rchaeo logy , a l though s imi lar p ro jec ts h ave b een u sed e lsewhere ( e .g . P h i l l ips 1 971 , 1 972 ).

On t he b as is o f Smi th 's work ( 1 951) i t

i s c lear t ha t t here a re l arge n umbers o f h eav i ly d ecora ted v essels w i th in mos t o f t he s ou thern Eng lish N eoli th ic p o t tery s er ies .

I ti s n o t p oss ible t o

d ecide f ro m t he u npub lished t hes is where t he mos t o rna te o f t hese v esse ls c oncen tra te.

I t h as f requen t ly b een s ugges ted ( Burgess

1 975 e .g .) , t ha t

F ood Vessels ( and C ol lared U rns ) b elong a t t he e nd o f t he P eterborough s er ies ( Burgess 1 976b a nd c ) , a nd t he p resen t wr i ter h as n o r eason t o q uery t h is . H owever , i th as a lready b een s hown ( Chap ter 4 ) t ha t t he q ua l i ty v aria t ion i n F ood V esse ls was r ecogn ised a nd was s een a s o f g rea t i mpor tance i n t he Ear ly B ronze Age.

I ti s e xpected b y t he p resen t wr i ter t ha t q ua l i ty v ar ia t ion i n t he

P eterborough a nd o ther N eo l i th ic s er ies i s measurable , a nd w i l l r ela te i n 1 93

v ar ious ways t o t he o rgan isa t ion o f t he s oc ie ty .

Smi th 's u npubl ished i l lus tra-

t i ons d e mons tra te q u i te c lear ly t ha t ad isp lay f unc t ion f or many o f t hese v esse ls may h ave b een p oss ible . Th is p heno mena may n o t b e c on f ined t o s ou thern Eng land . S o me o f t he S co t t ish c hambered c a irns h ave p roduced l arge q uan t i t ies o f we l l d ecora ted e legan t v essels a nd p ar t icu lar ly t he s i tes a t Un iva l ( Nor th U is t ) a nd U ns tan ( Orkney ).

McK ie ( 1977) h as r ecen t ly s ugges ted t ha t s o me o f

t he d ecora ted N eo l i th ic p o t tery s ty les may b e o f r es tr ic ted d is tr ibu t ion (a nd p ar t icu lar ly t he G rooved Ware f ro m t he O rkney a nd s ou thern Eng l ish s i tes ) . H owever , t here a re n o c o m men ts o n q ua l i ty v ar ia t ion i n t he s er ies o r a ny a t te mp t t o d ef ine t he f ea tures wh ich migh t i nd ica te a ' s pec ia l ' p opu la t ion . Many o f t he s ou thern E ng l ish " r i tua l" o r " cere mon ia l" s i tes o f N eol i th ic d a te ( l is ted b y Sm i th 1 956 ) h ave p roduced o rna te v esse ls t oge ther w i th o ther o b jec ts t o wh ich a d isp lay f unc t ion may h ave b een a t tached ( e .g . e labora te t ranche t a rrowheads , f l in t a xes , f l in t s ick les a nd r are i t e ms ( Edwardson 1 965 ) ). H owever , a ny a pproach , whe ther t rad i t iona l o r t ha t s ugges ted h ere , i s l i ke ly t o b e c o mpl ica ted b y t he p roble m o f a ch iev ing a v a l id s a mp le .

E ven i f

c on tex t v ar iabi l i ty c an b e d ef ined , t h is d oes n o t g uaran tee t ha t t he r ecovered s amp le i s o f a ny v a lue .

L ess t han ( ?) 1 0 ,000 N eo l i th ic v esse ls h ave b een r e-

c overed f ro m a v ar ie ty o f N eo l i th ic s i tes i n B r i ta in .

I n t he o verwhe lm ing

ma jor i ty o f c ases t he v esse ls a re v ery f ragmen tary , u sua l ly a v ery sma l l n u mber o f s herds h ave b een r ecovered . I fi ti s a ssumed t ha t t he N eo l i th ic p opu la t ion o f B r i ta in h ad a mean o f 1 0 ,000 a t a ny o ne t ime o ver a p er iod o f 2 000 y ears ( 4 000-2000 B . C .) , av as t q uan t i ty o f p o t tery c ou ld h ave b een p roduced .

I fi ti sa lso a ssu med t ha t p o t tery

p roduc t ion was a n orma l a c t iv i ty c arr ied o u t b y mos t o r a l l f ami lies , a nd t ha t wo men ( or men ) o n ly were p o t ters , a n a c t ive p o ten t ia l p o t t ing p opu la t ion o f 2 500 may b e e xpec ted a t a ny o ne t ime .

I fe ach o f t hese w o men manu fac tured o ne

v esse l ay ear o n ly , 5m i l l ion v esse ls wou ld b e p roduced i n t he Neo l i th ic p er iod . I fe ach wo man ( or man ) made o ne v esse l a week 2 60 mi l l ion v esse ls w ou ld h ave b een p roduced . I ft hese f igures a re c orrec t i n t he l a t ter c ase t he a rchaeolog ica l r ecord w i l l h ave y ie lded 0 .00384% o f t he t o ta l n umber o f v esse ls made a nd i n t he f or mer c ase 0 .2% . I n n e i ther c ase i s t he 1 0000 v esse ls r ecovered l i ke ly t o p rov ide a ny k ind o f u se fu l o r u seab le s a mp le . The a l terna t ive i s t o a ssume t ha t p o t t ing was n o t an orma l a ctiv i ty , b u t was c arr ied o u t b y av ery r es tr icted g roup .

I n t he e thnograph ic s ec t ion i t

h as b een s hown t ha t t h is s i tua t ion d oes o ccur i n av ar ie ty o f s oc iet ies . 2 0 p o t ters ( one f or e very 5 00 p eop le i n t he c ase a bove ) mak ing 1 00 p o ts ay ear o ver 2 000 y ears wou ld s t i l l p roduce 4 m i l l ion v esse ls . U n less N eo l i th ic p o t tery p roduc t ion was c ons iderably l ess t han a ny o f t hese c ases , t he e x tan t p opu la t ion i s u n l ike ly t o b e r epresen ta t ive . On t he b as is o f t he work o n F ood V esse ls a lready d escr ibed , s pec ia l is t manu facture m igh t s ee m mos t l i ke ly , o r a t l eas t ar es tr icted manu fac ture o f s o me f orm . A s u f f ic ien t ly l arge s amp le f or a na lys is o f a ny o f t he ma jor p o t tery t ypes i s n o t a va i lable f rom Yorksh ire s i tes ( un for tuna te ly mos t o f t he G r ims ton Ware f ro m t he b arrows e xcava ted b y G reenwe l l h as b een l os t b y t he B r i t ish Museum ) .

I ti s r e markable t ha t t he N eo l i th ic G r ims ton Wares t ha t a re

a va i lab 'e f ro m Yorksh ire a re o f v ery h igh q ua l i ty f in ish , a nd a re i n a l l c ases

1 94

h eavi ly b urn ished w i th we l l-s moo thed s urfaces .

There a re n o o bv ious l arge

s torage v essels , mos t o f t he v essels b eing b road o pen mou thed b owls .

Po t-

t ery f ro m t he s ing le c o mparable " do mest ic" s i te a t B eacon H i ll ( Moore 1 964 ) i s n ot a pparen t ly marked ly d i f feren t , a l though t he v esse ls i nc lude l u gs a nd d o n o t a ppear t o b e q u i te s o we l l b urn ished a s o b jec ts f ro m t he G an ton N eoli th ic b arrows f or e xamp le . C onclus ions For r easons o f s a mp l ing a ny c onc lus ions a bou t N eo l i th ic p o t tery a re l i ke ly t ob e p rob le ma t ic .

The f ine q ua l i ty o f b urn ish a nd t he h eavy d ecora t ion n o ted

o n an umber o f b ow l v esse ls f ro m v ar ious p ar ts o f B r i ta in may s ugges t t ha t ar estr icted p o t tery p roduct ion was i nvo lved a nd f ur ther t ha t s o me o f t he v ess e ls may h ave b een u sed f or d isp lay-cere mon ia l-r i tua l p urposes .

Th is p ro-

p or tion i s o n ly t es table o n al arge s a mp le o f d a ta f ro m a v ar iety o f d if feren t f or ms , a nd s uch a s a mp le i s n o t a va i lable i n Yorksh ire o r i n t he N or th o f E ng land .

H owever a mu l t ivar ia te a na lys is u s ing s uch a s a mple f ro m S ou thern

E ng land wou ld b e o f c ons iderable v a lue t o N eol i th ic p o t tery s tud ies . C onclus ions :

C hap ter E igh t

I n t h is c hapter Ih ave t r ied t o i nd ica te t ha t al arge s er ies o f a r tefact f or ms f o l low t he t ypes o f p a t terns i nd ica ted i n t he more d e ta i led a na lys is o f B eakers , F ood Vesse ls , p ia no-convex k n ives a nd PPIs . 1 .

The o b jec ts a re impor tan t a s ' socia l i t e ms ' , b eing f requen t ly d iscovered

i n g rave c on tex ts a nd whose v ar iabi l i ty l i nks w i th s ocia l p a ttern ing . 2 . The o b jec ts a re ' chosen ' i n p ar t icu lar ways b y t he ' Bronze Age p eople '. The ma jor c ho ice c r i ter ia s ee m t o l i nk i n to ' qua l i ty ' r a ther t han s ay r eg iona l s tylis t ic v ar iabi l i ty.

The ' f ines t ' i t e ms o n ly a re c hosen f or p ar t icu lar c ere-

mon ia l o ccas ions . 3 .

Var iables o f ' qua li ty ' t end t o i n ter-rela te w i th o ne a no ther i n t he c ase

o f many o f t hese i t e ms . ah igh d egree o f s k i l l .

Many ' Neol i th ic ' a nd ' Bronze Age ' a r te fac ts e xh ibi t Iwou ld s ugges t t ha t t h is i s i nd ica tive o f s o me f or m o f

' specia l is t ' p roduc t ion , a t l eas t i n t er ms o f p ar t o f t he ' ar te fac t r ange '. These a re t he t hree b as ic p o in ts Is et o u t t o e s tabl ish . markably c lear .

The p a t tern i s r e-

H owever , t hese p a tterns b y t he mselves a re n ot r ea l ly u sefu l

u n less t hey c an b e u n i ted i n s o me way t o t e l l u s s o meth ing more ' genera l ' a bou t s ocia l p a t tern ing i n t he p reh is tor ic p er iod i n Yorksh ire.

I n t he n ex t c hap ter

Ip resen t t heor ies a nd q ues t ions t o t ake t he e v idence p resen ted s o f ar , much f ur ther . Ib e l ieve i ti s p ossib le t o make s o me more g enera l s ugges t ions h ere o n t h is ' qua l i ty ' v ar iabi li ty.

I n t he n ex t c hap ter Iw i l l s how h ow i t was u sed t o

i ndica te s ocia l p os i tion a t b ur ia l .

Bu t s ocia l s ta tus n eeds s y mbo ls a nd i n

t er ms o f t he v ar iabi l i ty d escr ibed h ere o ne c an s ee c hanges t hrough t ime . There a re t hree ' b locks '. A .

Nascen t :

l i t t le c lear a r te fact d i f feren tia t ion ,

B .

Develop men ta l-Expans ive:

C .

C o mplex :

3 500-3000 B .C .

g rea t ' qua l i ty ' v aria t ion .

c lear s ocia l s ta tus/ techno m ic d ivis ion . 1 95

3 000-1400 B .C .

1 400-750 B . C.

NASCENT 3 750 -3 000 Sma I

No

D EVELOPED BC

g roups

q ua l ity

F ew

— 2500 L arger

v ar iat ion

Small

g roups

C lear

v a luab les

q ua l ity

L arge

c entres

Bur ia l

SY MBOLS

SOC IAL

OF

L arge

D IST INCT ION

— 2 000 L arge

v ar iat ion

B ur ial

b ronzes

l arge

v a luab les

I NCREAS ING FOR

F ig. 8 ,4

a re

L arge

c lasses

I ncreas ing

d ua l it ies / less f i ne )

B ronzes

c entres

B ur ia l

t rade

BC

g roups

C iüa l ity (f ine

L ess

SOC I AL

F LORESCENT

g roups

V a luab le

OF

D IV IS ION

B C

Qu3 l ity

d is t inc t ion

S YMBOLS

E XPANS IVE —1400

v ar iat ion

V aluab le a rtefacts ( axes, f l ints. e tc )

c entres

F EW

B C

c entres

c lasses

V a luab les

MEANS

t rade

D UAL ISM

D IST INGU ISH ING

v a luab les

OF

ARTEFACT

A s oc ial s che me f or p reh istoric Yorksh ire.

1 96

SOC I AL &

D IV IS IONS

Th is i s s u m mar ised i n F igure 8 .4 .

Iam s ugges t ing h ere w i th in d i f feren t

a r te fac t s e ts t here a re s im i lar p a t terns o f d eve lop men t , c h ie f ly c oncerned w i th t he ma t ter o f i ncreas ing d i f feren t ia t ion : i .

S i tes : b y t he D evelop men t p hase ' spec ia l ' p laces d eve lop a s g a ther ing

p laces f or s ocia l g roups , c on tras t ing v ery much w i th t he n or ma l s e t t le men ts . T hese a re d is t inc t s ocia l ' so l id i fy ing ' d ev ices .

S uch p laces a re s een a lso i n

t he C o mp lex p er iod . i .

B ronzes a ppear i n t he F lorescen t p er iod a s s ta tus i t e ms c h ie f ly a rch-

a eo log ica l ly w i th b ur ia ls .

B y t he c o mp lex p er iod t he s oc ia l/work-a-day

d iv is ion i s c lear . i i .

P o t tery i s b eg inn ing t o b e d i f feren t ia ted b y t he D eve lop men ta l p er iod

w i th t he a ppearance o f f ine d ecora ted wares .

I n t he t wo f o l low ing p hases

p o t tery i s av ery i mpor tan t s oc ia l d ev ice w i th c lear d i fferen t ia t ions i n to ' f ine ' , ' l ess f ine ' , e tc . i v .

L i th ic t echno logy i s p robab ly d i f feren t ia ted i n t he N ascen t p er iod b u t

t h is d iv is ion b eco mes c lear o n ly i n t he f o l lowing p hases ( as d escr ibed ) . v .

S tone implemen ts a re p resen t f ro m t he Nascen t p er iod a nd s o me ' f ine '

f or ms e x is t ( probab ly i nc lud ing j ade o nes ). H owever , t he ma in d icho to my i s i n t he f o l lowing p hases . ( ' f ine '/ 'less f ine ' ) ;

I n t he D eve lop men ta l i ti s b e tween C umbr ian/Corn ish

i n t he F lorescen t/Expans ive i ti s b e tween WADPP Is a nd

S IPP Is . Thus i ncreasing ly o ver t he p er iod u nder c ons idera t ion t here a re t he means f or s ocia l d i f feren t ia t ion i n t erms o f t he ma ter ia l c u l ture .

B u t t h is c an o n ly

b e e xam ined i ft here i s a measure ,

I n t he n ex t c hap ter

( t he ' cho ice ' e le men t ).

Iw i l l s how h ow ' soc ia l ' d i f ferences w ere i nd ica ted a t b ur ia l b y t he u se o f t hese a r te factua l v ar ia t ions .

1 97

CHAPTER 9 AN ANALYS IS OF S OCIAL DEVELOP MENTS I N YORKSHIRE 3 500-1400 B .C.

G lossary o f t erms u sed i n t ex t Group i den t i ty :

A c oncep tua lor p hys ica l e n t i ty t o w h ich a n u mber o f i nd iv id-

u a ls l ook t o r ecogn ise t he ir own e x istence a nd i den t i ty . S oc ia l p ersona :

The s u m ma t ion o f a l l t he i den t i t ies , g roup o r o therw ise

wh ich d escr ibe t he i nd iv idua l , a nd i nd ica te h is p os it ion i n " soc iety" . S oc ia l p os it ion :

The p lace w ith in t he s oc ia l h ierarchy o f t he i nd iv idua l o r

t ype o f i nd iv idua l . S oc ia l p ersona l ity :

The s oc ia l p ersona a s i nd ica ted b y a c t ion a nd d isp lay o f

a n i nd iv idua l . S oc ia l i den t ity k it :

Ag roup o f i t e ms , i n t h is c ase g rave g roup i t e ms wh ich

d ef ine t he s oc ia l p ersona l i ty o f t he i nd iv idua l t o s o me d egree , a lso s oc ia l i den t i ty p arapherna l ia . I den t i ty g roups :

A p ar t icu lar s e t o f i den t i t ies n o t n ecessar i ly e qua l l ing a

t ota l " soc ia l p ersona". S oc ia l d isp lay mechan is ms :

Methods b y wh ich i nd iv idua ls i n t he s oc ie ty may

d isp lay t he ir s oc ia l p ersona . S ta tus :

A r ecogn ised p os i t ion o r g roup o f p os i t ions wh ich a n i nd iv idua l h olds

w ith in a s oc ie ty. More e xp l ic it ly , i n K el ly 's w ords ( 1974 ) , " S ta tus i s t he r ank ( ? ) h e ld b y ap erson a nd t he v a lue o f t ha t i nd ividu a l a s measured b y ag roup o r c lass o f p ersons ;

t h is e st i ma te o f

r ank i s b ased u l t i ma tely o n t he e x ten t t o w h ich h is t ra i ts o r a t tribu tes a re s een a s c on tr ibu t ing t o t he c o m mon ly h e ld n eeds a nd v a lues o f t he g roup o r c lass" D isp lay :

( page 3 29 ).

A method o f s how ing a n i den t i ty o r s oc ia l p ersona t o aw ider g roup .

Th is n eed n ot b e i n t he f or m o f c oncre te i t e ms. I NTRODUCT ION The p rev ious c hap ters h ave b een i n tended t o s how t ha t t here a re c lear p a t terns o f v ar iab il i ty w i th in a whole s eries o f a r tefact t ypes o f av ery s im ilar n a ture r elat ing d irec t ly t o p a t terns w i th in t he s oc ie ty .

I n t he mselves , t hese

p a t terns a re o f c ons iderable i n terest , b u t i ft hey c an b e l inked t ogether i n to a mode

t hey c an make f ar more p osi t ive s ta te men ts a bou t p reh is tor ic s oc ie ty

i n Yorksh ire.

Th is c hap ter may b e s een a s a' keys tone t o t he a rch '. 1 98

The c hap ter i s d iv ided i n to t wo p arts.

I n t he f i rst Ii n tend t o i n troduce

wha t Ic ons ider t o b e t he most a ppropr ia te t heore t ica l d iscuss ion t o a ch ieve t he l i nkage o f t he p rev ious c hap ters.

Th is a lso c onsiderably r ef lects t he

p resen t wr i ters ' v iew o f t he w orld '.

Is uggest t he p ossib il i t ies o f a n ' I den t ity '

model a nd d iscuss a l terna t ive p rocedures.

I n t he s econd p art Is et t he model

t o w ork a nd e xa m ine i ft he p red ic ted s oc ia l p a t terns c an b e r ecogn ised i n t he d a ta ( t h is s ec t ion i s a lso d iv ided i n to t wo p ar ts , t he f i rst c oncerned w i th s ta tus a nd t he s econd w i th g roups ). The ma in ' t hrus t ' o f t he c hap ter i s t o s how t ha t r ecurren t s oc ia l p a t terns c an b e r ecogn ised w i th in t he Yorksh ire d a ta . t ob e more t han u sefu l .

Bur ia l ma ter ia l i s a ga in s hown

Quest ions a sked o fb ur ia ls d a ta o ver r ecen t y ears

h ave n ow b eco me a l mos t s tandard ;

i ti s n ot p oss ible t o a nswer a l l t hese

q ues t ions f ro m t he s ame d a ta s ets.

N ever theless Ia t te mp t i n t h is c hap ter ' t o

i nd ica te t ha t t he Yorksh ire ma ter ia l i s s u itable t o i nd ica te a nswers t o many o f t hese i nqu ir ies. PART ONE:

OVERV IE W

I n t he p ast i th as o f ten b een a ssu med t ha t t he ma jor c ause o f a r tefac t v ar iabi l i ty i s ac hronolog ica l o r at echnolog ica l o ne. I th as c erta in ly b een a ssu med t ha t t he ma jor i n teres t o f t he a rchaeolog ist s hou ld b e t he c hronolog ical s equence.

Th is i s n o t t he ma jor i n terest o f t he p resen t s tudy f or a n u mber

o f r easons : 1 .

Most o f t he p resen t d a ta f ro m Yorksh ire N eol ith ic a nd B ronze Age

s i tes c o me f ro m c on tex ts t ha t may n ot b e t yp ica l o f a ny " set t le men t" s equence. S o me o f t he e v idence c o mes f ro m b ur ia l c on tex ts a nd i n t he p rev ious c hap ters i th as b een d e mons tra ted t ha t a ma jor c ause o f v ar iab i l i ty i s as oc ia l o ne. Most o f t he a rtefacts f ro m t he p er iod a re p oorly p rovenanced a nyway a nd i n many c ases h ave n o a ssoc ia t ions a t a l l . 2 .

The p resen t d a ta i nvolve o n ly a sma l l s a mp le o f t he t ota l n u mber

o f i t e ms p roduced i n t he p er iod ( see b elow ). 3 .

I th as b een s hown t ha t many d eta ils o f s oc ia l p a t tern ing c an b e d is-

c erned f ro m t he a rchaeolog ica l e v idence ( e .g. B in ford 1 968 , Ren frew 1 973a ). R ecen t w ork b y S hennan ( 1976, 1 977 ) h as s hown t ha t s oc ia l d evelop men ts a re d e mons trable a nd w ork b y Ph il l ips ( 1971, 1 972) a nd o thers h as s hown t ha t marita l r esidence p a t terns c an b e d eter m ined f ro m t he d a ta . 4 .

I ti s more t han a p ol i t ica l s ta te men t t o c la im t ha t t he ma jor i n terest

o f t he a rchaeolog is t s hou ld b e t he p eop le , r ef lec ted i n t he a rchaeolog ica l d a ta a nd p otent ia l d a ta .

There w ou ld s ee m t o b e l i t t le p a in t i n p roduc ing i n-

d ependen t t ypolog ica l p a t terns p urely f or t he ir own s ake ( wha t s hou ld t he a i ms o f a rchaeology b e c f . P earson ( 1977 ) f or e x tre me p os it ion ). Recen t a pproaches h ave t o s o me d egree f a i led t o u t i l ise t he d a ta i n a s yste ma t ic way i n t h is c onnec t ion a nd h ave p roduced models t ha t o n ly h ave l im i ted a pp l icab i l i ty.

For e xa mp le t he S erv ice model ( 1962 ) n ow w ithdrawn ,

h as s o me f or m o f a pp l icab il i ty t o t he a n thropolog ica l d a ta .

S evera l a t te mp ts

w ere made t o a pp ly t h is t o t he a rchaeolog ica l ma ter ia l ( e .g. Ren frew 1 973c ) , b u t l esp i te p rotesta t ion a nd " f ine t un ing" o f t he model ( Ren frew 1 975 ) , t h is

1 99

s yste m wou ld n ot a ppear t o b e p art icu larly u sefu l i n ap red ic t ive manner. The ma in c r i t ic is m must b e t ha t i tt r ies t o f orce a l arge a nd v ar ied d a ta s e t i n to a l im i ted n umber o f " typolog ica l b oxes".

Th is d oes n ot s ee m t ob e a ny

g rea t a dvance o n t he c on jec tura l h istor ica l v iewpo in t s o s trongly a nd r igh tly r e jected b y Radc l if fe-Brown ( 1952 ). H iggs i n a ny c ase p o in ts o u t ( 1 972) t ha t t he p resen t a n thropolog ica l c o m mun i t ies o f t he p r im i t ive world a re ' c u ltura l ' c u l d e s acs, s i mp ly a typ ica l r e mnan ts o f a more w idespread p a ttern .

There

i s n o r eason t o s uppose t ha t t hese f or m a ' rando m s a mp le ' o f a ll s oc iety f or ms ; i ndeed t here i s g ood r eason t o s uppose f ro m H iggs , c o m men ts t ha t t hey d o n ot .

Never theless a s s hown i n c hap ter 3 , t he p r im i t ive s oc iet ies c an p rov ide

aw ide r ange o f p oss ible s oc iety f or ms a nd f unct ions o f t he p ast . I t c an a lso b e d e mons tra ted t ha t much o f t he Y orksh ire d a ta may n ot b e o f t he h ighest v a lue.

Part icu larly i ti s s uggested t ha t p resen t g eograph ica l

d is tr ibu t ion p a t terns a re n ot l i ke ly t o r ef lect p as t d is tr ibu t ion p a t terns.

How-

e ver a n u mber o f f ea tures may b e d iscern ible. 1 .

T rade p a t terns c an b e s hown i n s tone a xes , f l in ts , b ronzes , e tc . Th is may g ive i ns igh ts i n to t he r ed is tr ibu t ive f unc t ions o f t he s oc ie ty ( Ren frew , D ixon a nd C ann 1 968 ;

2 .

C lark 1 965 ).

Grave g roup a ssoc ia t ions g ive s o me i dea o f t he s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion o f t he s oc ie ty.

3 .

A l thoug .h a rtefact s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n t he g eograph ica l s ense may b e p roble ma t ic , a r tefact v ar iabi l i ty/spa t ia l p a t tern ing c an i nd ica te s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion p art icu larly i fi tc an b e c losely l i nked i n s o me way. T hus i n 1 968 B in ford was a ble t o p roduce s ome g enera l ' socia l ' p a t terns

i n t he d a ta i nclud ing t he f o l low ing t ypes o f i t e ms : 1 .

I deo techn ic :

i t e ms w h ich r ela te t o t he i n te l lec tua l a nd t heo logica l

f or mu la t ion o f t he s oc ie ty . 2 .

Techno m ic :

t ra i ts wh ich r e la te t o t he w ork-a-day world a nd a re

i n tended t o d ea l w ith t he e nv iron men t . 3 .

S tyl ist ic :

c ross c u t t ing o ther f or ms , b u t i n u n-B in ford ian t er ms

may t rad it iona l ly h ave b een r e ferred t o a s c u ltura l v ar iab i l i ty . 4 .

S oc iotechn ic :

i t e ms t ha t h ave i mpor tance t o t he s oc ia l o rgan isat ion

o f t he s oc iety . Th is d iv is ion h as n ot b een w ide ly u sed .

A ccord ing t o B in ford ( 1 968 ) a l l

s oc iet ies i n t he e thnograph ic r ecord p ossess t hese s yste ms , o r h ave p a t terns t ha t c an b e i n terpre ted a s t he s a me , a nd i ts hould b e p oss ible t o make i n terp re ta t ions o f t h is n a ture f ro m t he ma ter ia l i n t he a rchaeolog ica l r ecord. I t may b e e xpec ted t ha t more t echno m ic i t e ms w ou ld b e f ound i n t he l i v ing a rea a nd more s oc ia techn ic a nd i deotechn ic i t e ms i n ' r i tua l ' a reas , a nd t o s o me e x ten t t h is h as b een d e mons tra ted i n t he Yorksh ire d a ta a lready d iscussed ( i .e. t he g rave g oods i t e ms ).

However d esp i te a g enera l u t i l i ty , o ne t ha t

may b e e xpec ted t o b e o f s o me b enef i t , i ti s n ot p roposed t o u se t h is s yste m t o a ny e x ten t h ere.

2 00

Work b y B in ford ( 1972) h as i nd ica ted t he a pp l icabi l i ty o f mode ls a nd t er m inology f ro m t he s oc iolog ica l o r s oc io-psycholog ica l f i elds. t h is model h as s o f ar b een l im ited .

The u se o f

However Hodder 's i den t if ica t ion o f g rouP

i den t ity p a t tern ing among Kenyan g roups ( Hodder 1 977 ) i s ac lear e xa mp le o f o ne a pp l ica t ion o f t h is f or m o f method , a l though a s y et t he f u l l i mp l ica t ion o f t he g roup i den t ity model h as n o t b een u t i l ised .

S he rman ( 1977 a nd 1 976 a nd

B urgess a nd S hennan 1 977 ) h as r ecen t ly u sed t he B in ford ian t er m inology o f t he s oc ia l p ersona i n t he i n terpreta t ion o f mortuary d a ta f ro m c en tra l Europe. The u se h ere , h as b een t o e xp la in t he s oc ia l p os it ion a nd t he ' soc ia l p ersona l ity ' o f t he i nd iv idua l i n t er ms o f t he g rave g roups w ith wh ich h e i s a ssoc ia ted . B eaker p arapherna l ia i s n ow t o b e i n terpre ted a ccord ing t o S hennan ( 1977 ) a s as oc ia l i den t i ty k i t .

H owever t he r eason ing a ppears t o b e l argely d educ t ive ;

c er ta in p a t terns , a re i n terpreted , o r d e monstra ted i n t he d a ta , a nd t hese p at terns a re ' s lot ted ' i n to a p ar t icu lar model .

The p resen t wr i ter wou ld

ma in ta in t ha t a ga in , t he p oten t ia l o f au sefu l model h as n ot b een u t il ised .

I t

i s c lear t ha t t he model , o r s o meth ing a k in t o i tc an b e u sed i n ap red ic t ive r a ther t han d educ t ive manner. T he s oc io-psycholog ica l model .

App l ica t ions a nd p red ic t ions

The p ast r esearch u s ing Yorksh ire ma ter ia l h as a t b est b een s i mp ly d educ t ive c oncep tua l is ing , a t worst i th as c ons isted e n t ire ly o f c orpus p rod uc t ion .

I ft he d a ta i s n o t p oten t ia l ly e xp l icable , o r p red ic t ively e xp l icable

t here wou ld s ee m l i t t le p oin t i n c orpus c onstruc t ion .

C orpus b u i ld ing h as

b een a p ar t o f t he w ork h ere b u t t he ma in a im h as b een t o e xp la in t he ma teria l . The model d rawn f ro m t he s oc io-psycholog ica l f i eld i s o ne o f e nor mous p otent i a l ( bearing i n m ind Church mann a nd Buchanan 's warn ings ( 1969 )).

A t p resen t

t he s oc ia l p sycholog ists ma in ta in t he ir w ork i s v ery much i n i t s i n fancy a nd t he p resen t wr i ter h as t herefore o n ly u sed s o me o f t he c learer a nd b est a greed p a t terns ( a l though s o me o f t hese wou ld mee t w i th d issen t a nd t he a pp l ica t ion made h ere may b e c ons idered u nusua l ). Recen t work h as s hown t wo c lear p a t terns : 1 .

Group b ehav iour ( o f a ny g roup w i th in t he l arger g roup , o r o f a ny i nd iv idu al w i th t he t o ta l g roup ) i s p art ly a nd f requen t ly l argely c ond i t ioned b y me mbersh ip o f t ha t g roup .

2 .

I n o rder t o ma in ta in g roup me mbersh ip , c er ta in b ehav iour mus t b e c arr ied o u t . There a re p roble ms w i th t hese ' l aw-l ike ' s ta te men ts , a l though mos t o f

t h is i s i n t he ' f ine-prin t ' r a ther t han t he b as ic p recep ts. 1 .

Group b ehav iour i s p art ly a nd o f ten l argely c ond i t ioned b y me mbersh ip o f t ha t g roup . A l l t he e xa mp les i n t he s oc ia l-psycholog ica l l i tera ture r e la te t o modern

g roups ( La mber t a nd L a mber t 1 973 p age 9 8-145; Mehrab ian a nd K s ionsky 1 970 ; 1 953;

J ahoba 1 975;

Moscov ic i a nd Z ava l lon i 1 969 ;

L indzey a nd A ronson 1 968 ;

S herr if & S herr if 1 969 ;

Berkov itz 1 964 ).

S herr if

Bu t t he a pp l ica t ion

t o s i mp ler s oc ie t ies may b e e asier r a ther t han more d if f icu l t.

I n modern

s oc iet ies , a nd i n s i mp ler o nes a lso , a n i nd iv idua l may h ave s evera l ' i den t i t ies ' t he ma in ( ? ) o nes b e ing t he s ex a nd a ge g roups t o wh ich h e o r s he b elongs.

2 01

I den t ity g roups w ou ld a lso i nc lude :

t rade u n ion me mbersh ip , t he g ol f c lub ,

c o-opera t ive s oc iety , Derby C oun ty S upporters C lub , Church o f E ng land e tc . ( see T iger 1 970 ).

These v ar ious me mbersh ips a dd u p t o wha t B in ford wou ld

t er m t he ' soc ia l p ersona ' b u t wha t m igh t e qua l ly b e t er med t he i nd iv idua l i den t ity. I n as imp le s oc ie ty , a n thropo log is ts ma in ta in , a n i nd iv idua l may b elong t o an u mber o f a n thropo log ica l ly d e f ined g roups ; ma le s ex g roup , a du l t g roup , f am i ly , l i neage , c lan , mo ie ty , s ib , t r ibe e tc . b e r ecogn ised i n t he a n thropo log ica l f i e ld .

T hus t he mu l t ip le i d en ti ty c an

Group me mbersh ip may i nvolve a n umber o ff unda men ta l b ehav ioural d iferences o re fec ts o n t he i nd iv idua l ( Morris 1 966 o r Vanderbil t 1 963 ). For most o f t he a n thropolog ica l g roup ings o r a t l east t he ma jor o nes , a s H odder ( 1977 ) h as d e monstra ted , t h is w il l i nvolve l i v ing i n a nd e xp lo i t ing a p art icu lar a rea . n ua l meet ing ;

O ther g roup ings may i nvo lve n o more t han a t tend ing a n a n-

o r t he r eg i men ta l r e-un ion.

N evertheless e ven o n t he most

o bv ious l evel , g roup me mbersh ip w il l h ave a n i mportan t e fec t o n t he me mbers o f t ha t g roup .

Th is may i nvolve r ole p laying a s s een b y B idd le a nd T ho mas

( 1966 ). 2 .

I n o rder t o ma in ta in g roup me mbersh ip c erta in b ehav iour mus t b e c arr ied o u t a nd c er ta in o b jec ts may b e r equ ired p ossessions. Me mbersh ip i s a l most c er ta in t o i nvolve s o me e cono m ic c ost .

One o f

t he c ruc ia l f ea tures o f S erv ice 's ( 1962 ) s oda l i t ies was t ha t me mbersh ip was r estr ic ted i n s o me way.

I n modern s oc iet ies o ne o f t he o bv ious ways o f c on-

t rol l ing me mbersh ip i s t he e cono m ic c ost , u sua l ly f or t he r unn ing o f t he g roup , b u t p erhaps s o meth ing i n e xcess o f t h is. i s s o me f or m o f a ccep tance t es t.

The o ther o bv ious means o f c on trol

I n r eturn h owever t he me mber may o bta in

p r iv ileges a nd a dvan tages n ot a ccorded t o o ther me mbers o f t he s oc ie ty a s a whole.

T iger ( 1970 ) d iscusses s o me o f t he r e markable e n try r u les t o f ree-

mason a ssoc ia t ions , t o Amer ican f ra tern i t ies a nd t he l ike , w ith p ar t icu lar r eference t o ma le g roups ( t he emphas is i n T iger i s o n t he u n iqueness o f t hese ma le g roups a nd t he ir o rgan isa t ion a nd d if feren t ia t ion w i th f e male g roups. However t h is p a t tern s ee ms o n ly t o b e r ef lect ive o f p resen t s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion i n wh ich ma les o bta in r igh ts a nd p r iv ileges n ot a ccorded t o f e ma les ). Me mb ersh ip o f al ineage o r r es tr icted g roup i n t he p as t a l most c er ta in ly a lso g ave c erta in r igh ts.

S herra t t 's l i near-band-kera m ik b ur ia l g roups o f o lder ma les

w ith s tone a xes , may r epresen t ap ar t icu lar ma le g roup ( pers. c omm ).

The

East A fr ican t r ipar t i te ma le s oc ie t ies a re a c lass ic e xa mp le ( see C hap ter 3 ) i n wh ich ma les h ave t o r each a c erta in a ge b efore t hey a re a l lowed t o marry . The p urpose o f t h is s ys te m i s t o a l low o lder ma les t o a cqu ire more w ives a nd i n t h is way g a in s oc ia l r espec t a nd p rest ige. One o f t he c ruc ia l f eatures o f s o me o f t hese g roups i s t ha t s oc ia l impor tance c an i ncrease w i th t he a tt a ir men t o f me mbersh ip o f o ne o f t he g roups. I ts hou ld n o t b e c on fused w ith a n i nd iv idua l 's own a b il i ty t o a ch ieve a c er ta in s ta tus o n h is own mer i ts; most s oc ie t ies h ave s o me f ac il ity o f t h is s or t.

I n v iew o f t he impor tance

t ha t me mbersh ip o f many a ssoc ia t ions c an g ive , t here may b e s o me d oubt a s t o t he p resen t d ichoto my i mp l ied i n t he l i tera ture b e tween a scribed a nd a ch iev -d s tatus. Requ ired r esearch i n t h is f i eld w ou ld i nvolve a s tudy o f wh ich i nd iv idua ls a ch ieved ' power a nd p os i t ion ' w i th in a s oc iety a nd why t hey 2 02

w ere a ble t o d o s o.

A t p resen t t he a n thropolog ica l l i tera ture a bounds w i th

g enera l ised s ta te men ts o n t h is ma t ter. Certa in i nd iv idua ls may h ave a h igh o r d om ina t ing p os i t ion i n an u mber o fg roups a nd a re t hus s e t a round w ith s y mbols o f t ha t p osi t ion .

The p resen t

Queen i s t he o bv ious e xa mp le o f t h is , s he i s h ead o f s ta te f or a n umber o f d ispara te c o m mun i t ies. ma t ter.

Mi l itary o rgan isa t ion i s a lso i nfor ma t ive o n t h is

A l though modern s oc iet ies may n o t b e r ef lec t ive o f p r im i t ive o nes

t he s a me p a tterns may b e e xpec ted a nd i ndeed h ave a lready b een r ecogn ised ( B in ford 19 71). The c ruc ia l i ssue h ere i s t he e x ten t t o wh ich s uch me mbersh ip i s l ike ly t o e f fec t b ehav iour a t t he most f unda men ta l l evel .

I th as a lready b een d e mon-

s tra ted t ha t b ehav iour a t t he g ross l evel i s l i ke ly t o b e a f fec ted t o al im i ted d egree , b u t f ro m t he s oc io-psycholog ica l f i eld more i mpor tan t i mp l ica t ions a re r ecogn ised .

I n t he n ex t s ec t ion a f ew c ase s u td ies w i l l b r ief ly b e d escr ibed .

Av ast n umber o f s im ilar e xper i men ts h ave b een a t te mp ted a nd a re w el l d es cr ibed i n t he l i tera ture ( t here i s al ong s er ies o f r eferences i n Berkov i tz 1 972 ).

These e xper i men ts a re n o t o n ly i mpor tan t i n t he e f fec t o n t he i nd iv id-

u a l g roup me mbersh ip w il l h ave b u t , a re a lso i mportan t i n t he u nderstand ing o f g roup f or ma t ion . 1 . ( Sherr if 19 53, S herr if a nd S herr if 19 69 ) Work o n t wo g roups o f b oys a t s u m mer c amp b y S herr if b egan b y u s ing a l arge n u mber o fb oys f ro m Wh i te Protestan t b ackgrounds a nd w i th n o s trong a l leg iances t o e ach o ther. T he b oys w ere s p l i t i n to 2 g roups a nd c on tac t a nd c on f l ic t s i tua t ions w ere a rt if ic ia l ly g enera ted.

"W i th in a f ew d ays , g roups s logans , f l ags a nd f avour i te

s ongs b eca me marks o f g roup s ol idar i ty i nb o th c a mps" ( Lamber t a nd L ambert 1 973 p age 1 41).

They were s oon p art ic ipa t ing i n c o mpet it ive g a mes e tc.

I t

was more d if f icu l t t o u n ite t he g roups s o s trong were t he g roup i den t i t ies f or med i n a ma t ter o f d ays. i n am icable s itua t ions. t o s tart .

I t was n ot s uf f ic ien t t o h ave i n tergroup c on tac t

F ina l ly t he g roups c o mb ined t o p u l l al orry t o g et i t

A l l t he manpower was n eeded s o t he g roups h ad t o c o-opera te.

F ro m t ha t t ime o n t here was a n i ncrease i n am icable i n ter-group a c t iv i ty. T h is c o-opera t ive t ask a nd s hared p roble ms d o s ee m a c o m mon f ea ture o f g roup f or ma t ions , a nd i s n owhere more c learly d e monstra ted t han i n t he n ex t c ase s tudy . 2 .

( Newspaper r eports ).

I n 19 75 a S tockhol m b ank r a id l ed t o ap ol ice

s iege o n t he b ank v au l t i ns ide wh ich were t he r obbers a nd a n u mber o f h ostages. T he s iege l asted s evera l d ays i n wh ich t ime t he r obbers a nd t he h ostages h ad t o f ace c o m mon d if f icu l t ies , ma in ly t he l ack o f t he n or ma l f ac il i t ies b u t a lso t he c onstan t a r med p ol ice p resence o u ts ide , t he c onstan t ly l i t s urround ings a nd t he i rregu lar f ood s upp ly. When t he s iege e nded a s trong g roup i den t i ty h ad f or med .

The t est i mony o f t he h os tages a t t he t r ia l was ' f avourable ' t o

t he r obbers a nd t he most f requen t p r ison v is itors t o t he r obbers i n j a il a re t he h ostages.

Th is s itua t ion i s r e markable a nd i n s o me ways s urpris ing b u t

d oes i nd ica te t ha t as trong g roup i den t ity c an b e f or med when c o m mon p roble ms h ave t o b e f aced . 3 . Research w i th t he a dvanced p r i ma tes p art icu larly t he c h i mpanzees a nd n acaques h as Consistently s hown a g roup b ehav iour p a t tern when f aced w i th c o m mon d if f icu l t ies.

One o f t he c o m mon f or ms o f e xperi men ts i s t o 2 03

p lace a d u m my l eopard i n t he n e ighbourhood o f ac h i mpanzee g roup f or e xamp le a nd a wa it t he r eac t ion .

Tha t r eac t ion h as b een n o ted t o b e t he u n i t ing o f t he

a du l t ma les a ga inst t he t hrea t. a l leg iance.

However t hese i nd iv idua ls a lready b ear g roup

N evertheless t he e xper i men t d oes s how t ha t t h is t ype o fb ehav iour

i s an atura l r eac t ion a nd o ne t ha t m igh t b e e xac ted i nb o th h u man a nd p ri ma te g roups ( t he p r i ma tes a lso h ave ' i nter-group d isp lay ' c on f l ic t i n t he f or m o f g en i ta l ia d isp lay ). 4 . ( Asch 1 952; D . G . P ru i t t 19 71 e .g.). T he most f a mous o f t he t ests t o e xa m ine ' confor m i ty ' was c arr ied o u t b y Asch i n 1 952. A n u mber o f e xper imen tors h ave f o l lowed t he e xa mp le.

A s e t o f t hree s tra igh t l ines w ere d rawn

o n c ards a nd o ne was made s l igh t ly s hor ter t han t he o thers.

By u s ing a t ea m

o f ' consp ira tors ' a nd t hese c ards a n u nsuspec t ing s tuden t i s a sked t o e xpress h is o p in ion a s t o wh ich i s t he s hor test l i ne , b u t o n ly a f ter t he ' consp ira tors ' h ave e xpressed t he irs.

The s tuden t i s g iven t o b el ieve t ha t t he c onsp ira tors

a re n or ma l c ol lege s tuden ts l i ke h i msel f .

On a n u mber o f o ccasions when

t he c ards a re s hown t he ' consp ira tors' s ay t ha t o ne o f t he l onger l i nes i s t he s hortest .

I t was f ound b y A sch t ha t o n ly 4 2% o f t he s tuden ts ma in ta ined t he ir

o p in ion a ga inst t he i ncorrec t ma jor i ty.

More c ruc ia l p erhaps t han t h is i s

C ru tch f ield Ts ( 1955 ) work o n an u mber o f s ub jects a t o ne t ime.

S im i lar

p r incip les were u sed b u t i n t h is c ase s ub jec ts were a sked t o e xpress a n o p in ion o n ac ruc ia l s ta te men t e .g. ' I t i s n ecessary t o s uspend f ree s peech i n at i me o f c r is is '.

3 0-70% o f t he a du l ts t ested o n t h is p roble m c on for med t o t he g roup

c oncensus wha tever i t may b e.

These f i gures measur ing i mportan t i ssue

o p in ions d o n ot g rea t ly d if fer f ro m t hose a ch ieved b y Asch . 5 .

Work b y Wapner a nd A lper ( La mber t & L a mber t 1 973 ) s howed i nd iv id-

u a l d i f ferences i n p roble m s olv ing i n f ron t o f av is ible a ud ience , i n f ron t o f a n i nv is ible a ud ience a nd w i thou t a n a ud ience.

H esi tancy i ncreased i n r ela t ion

t o t he amoun t o f i n for ma t ion t he i nd iv idua l p ossessed a bou t t he a ud ience, t hus t he i nd iv idua l was most h es i tan t w i th t he i nv is ible a ud ience ( unknown ). Most o f t h is ma ter ia l i s s u m mar ised i n L a mber t a nd L a mbert 1 973 bu t t he c on fo m i ty a nd g roup n or ma t ive a spec ts a re d escr ibed i n as eries o f a rt ic les ( e .g. A sch 1 952; a nd K e is ler 1 96 9 ; 1 971;

L ambert 1 972;

S za lay L orand a nd Maday 19 70 ;

C ru tchf ield 1 955; Mehrab ian a nd K s ionsky 19 70 ;

Moscov ic i a nd Z ava l lon i 19 69 ; Z a jonc 19 65;

K eis ler Pru it t

S herri f 1 953 , e tc .

Mos t

o f t hese r eferences a re g iven i n L a mber t a nd L a mber t 1 973 ) wh ich h igh l igh t d if feren t a spec ts o f t he p heno menon , s o me o f wh ich t he p resen t wr i ter h as t r ied t o o u t l ine h ere w i th s o me e xa mp les f or i l lus tra t ion .

The ma jor f ea tures

o f g roup n pr ma t ive p rocesses s ee m t o b e b road ly a greed b y s uch a u thors a s t hose g iven a nd i ti s l argely o n t h is b as is t ha t t he p resen t w r i ter h as a ccep ted t he m . S oc ia l i mp l ica t ions a nd c onc lus ions These e xper i men ts a nd a v ast n u mber o f o thers l i ke t he m i nd ica te a n u mb er o f p o in ts : 1 .

T he b ehav iour o f a ny i nd iv idua l i s n or ma l ly p rofound ly i nf luenced b y t he

a t t itude a nd b ehav iour o f t he g roup w i th who m h e i s a ssoc ia ted .

However i t

i s a lso c lear t ha t c erta in i nd iv idua ls a re l ess i n f luenced b y t he g roup a t t itude ( a lthoug h1t h is i s a l most c erta in ly a m inor ity ).

2 04

Th is h as i mportant r epercus-

s ions r ela t ing t o t he i nd iv idua ls who a re l i kely t o a t ta in l eadersh ip s ta tus w i th in t he s oc ie ty , t hey a re l i kely t o b e t he n on-con for m is ts ( or r a ther t hose i nd iv idua ls who c onfor m l ess t han o thers ). 2 .

Group f or ma t ion c an b e v ery r ap id , b u t c an a t ta in a n a dvanced s tage v ery

q u ick ly i ndeed .

The b oys a t c a mp s howed n o i nc l ina t ion t o r el inqu ish t he ir

g roup i den t i t ies , a nd i n af ew d ays p roduced a mass o f g roup i den t i ty p araphern a l ia i n t he f or m o f d isp lay i t e ms , s ongs , e tc.

The e xper i men ta l g roups e ven

t hough c onvened r ap id ly c an n evertheless h ave p rofound e f fec ts o n t he u nsusp ec t ing i nd iv idua l . 3 .

One o f t he ma jor f ea tures o f g roup f or ma t ion i s ac o m mon p rob le m

( a lso t ask o r ien ta t ion ).

Th is i s p art icu larly c lear i n s tress s i tua t ions.

Many

e xper i men ts h as s hown ( a l though o n ly o ne c ase s tudy i s g iven a bove ) t ha t i n s tress s i tua t ions t he g roup i den t i ty b eco mes s tronger , a nd t h is s ee ms t o b e r e f lec ted i n H odder 's ( 1977 ) work i n K enya where t he s trongest g roup f ee l ing i s a long t he g roups g eograph ica l marg ins. The a rchaeolog ica l i mp l ica t ions a re n u merous : 1 .

Ren frew ( 1973c e .g.) c la i med t ha t t he l arge Wessex h enge monu men ts

w ere c en tres f or l arge s ca le c o m mun i ty o rgan isa t ion a pproach ing wha t h e t er med t he c h iefdo m l evel .

The a rgu men t was b ased o n t he i ncreas ing amoun t

o f man-hours o f l abour t ha t wou ld b e r equ ired t o i nvest i n l arge s ca le f i eld monu men ts.

The f ina l c u lm ina t ion o f t he s er ies were t he monu men ta l s truc-

t ures o f S tonehenge I I a nd S i Ibury H il l b o th r equ ir ing , p erhaps , i n e xcess o f 1 0 mil l ion man-hours o f l abour . p roble m c an b e t urned a round .

Fro m t he p o in t o f v iew o f t h is a na lysis t he I t wou ld b e e xpec ted t ha t al arge c o-opera t ive

e f fort r equ ir ing h undreds o r t housands o f i nd iv idua ls i n c o-opera t ion wou ld p rov ide a l arge measure o f g roup s ol idar ity. Thus t he c ons truc t ion o f t he monu men ts t he mse lves wou ld b e a ma jor f ac tor i n g roup f or ma t ion . However t here i s n o r eason t o a ssu me a s Ren frew d oes a c hronolog ica l d evelopmen t f ro m l ong b arrows t hrough t o t he S tonehenge t ype o f s i te ;

c onstruct ion o f

sma l ler s ca le monu men ts may h ave s t il l b een r equ ired f or t he ma in tenance o f t he sma l ler g roups.

Thus t he c onstruc t ion o f ma jor f i eld monu men ts i s

l i kely n o t o nly t o b e a n e xpress ion o f ac o m mon w i l l , b u t a lso i ns tru men ta l i n t he c o mpos i t ion o f t ha t c o m mon f eel ing , a nd t he g roup i den t ity . 2 .

Fro m t he p oin t o f v iew o f t h is a na lys is , t he i mp l ica t ions f or a r tefacts ,

t hough p erhaps s o mewha t l ess c lear , may b e q u i te f unda men ta l i n a ny u nders tand ing o f p reh istory o f Yorksh ire.

B in ford 's d iv is ion i n to s oc iotechn ic a nd

o ther t ra i ts i s r a ther t oo s i mp l is t ic f ro m t h is p o in t o f v iew.

The p ossess ion

o f f inely made w ork ing e qu ipmen t f or a modern d ay c ra f ts man may h ave i t ecno m ic , imp l ica t ions, b u t t h is e qu ip men t may a lso a c t a s a means o f s howi ng h is me mbersh ip o f t ha t p art icu lar g roup o f c ra f ts men . One m igh t a lso e xpec t more o bv ious d isp lay i n t he f or m o f s hop s igns a nd t he l i ke ( as was t he c ase w i th t he f l ags o f t he b oys a t c a mp ).

I ft h is i s c orrect l arge n u mbers

o f i t e ms i n t he a rchaeolog ica l r ecord may h ave more t han s i mp ly T t echno m ic t i mportance.

Th is h as i n p art b een d e mons tra ted f or a n u mber o f i t e ms i n

t he f oregoing c hap ters , f or Yorksh ire ma ter ia l .

H owever a s B in ford ma in-

t a ins ( 1968 ) ad i fferen t ia t ion b etween t he f ace-tofaceco m mun i ty g roups a nd t he . arger g roups , wh ich t hough p ossess ing a c orpora te i den t ity a re n ot

2 05

p opu la ted w ith i nd iv idua ls who a re f am il iar w ith e very o ther i nd iv idua l i n t he g roup . Ad ichoto my i s l i kely t o e x ist t herefore b e tween : 1 .

Facetoface c o m mun it ies who a re i n ter-fam i l iar, i n wh ich t he ' soc ia l

p ersona ' o f e very i nd iv idua l i s k nown t o e very o ther i nd iv idual . 2 . L arge s ca le g roup ings i n wh ich t he ' s oc ia l p ersona ' mus t b e d isp layed i n s o me way s o t ha t i nd iv idua ls who d o n ot k now s omeone p ersona lly w i l l a t l eas t b e f am il iar w i th t he s oc ia l i den t ity p arapherna l ia . B in ford ma in ta ins ( 1968 ) t ha t s uch i t e ms a re l i kely t o d eve lop f ro m t he n or ma l ' t echno m ic ' a sse mblages. A l l modern Western s oc iet ies f a l l i n to t he l a t ter c a tegory a nd t hese s oc iet ies a re v ery c o mp lex i ndeed . I n t hese s oc iet ies t he ' s oc ia l p ersona ' i sf ragmen ted ; a n i nd iv idua l c an t ake v ar ious ' roles ' d epend ing o n t he c ircu mstances i n wh ich h e f i nds h i msel f .

H owever t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t ha t as im i lar s i tu-

a t ion d id n o t p erta in i n p as t s oc ie t ies w i th t he ir s imp ler l evel o f o rgan isat ion . Un for tuna te ly t here i s n o i n for ma t ion i n t he s oc io-psychologica l l i terature k nown t o t he p resen t w r i ter , t ha t i nd ica tes wha t s ymbols a re l i ke ly i n p art icu lar c ircu mstances ;

a l though t here i s ag enera l i mp l ica t ion t ha t d eveloped g roups

w i l l r equ ire s o me f or m o f s y mbols o f t he ir own i den t ity , j us t a s t he i nd ividua l w il l r equ ire s ymbols o f h is ( see c h . 1 0 ).

I ti s l i kely t ha t s uch i t e ms whether

o f i nd iv idua l o r g roup i mpor tance w i l lb e o rna te , v a luable a nd d urab le. Bec ause o f t he p resen t p roc l iv it ies ( a s S ch if fer 1 976 ) o f c ol lec tors, i ti s t hese o rna te d urable i t e ms t ha t a re l i kely t o b e p reserved o r a t l east o bta ined f or t he a rchaeolog ica l r ecord . H owever , i ti s n ow b eco m ing i ncreas ing ly c lear t ha t s oc ia l d isp lay mechan is ms a re h igh ly c o mp lex i n modern s oc iet ies a nd p robably w ere a lso i n p ast s oc iet ies.

A whole s er ies o f d if feren t d isp lay mechan is ms may b e

a va i lable , a nd many o f t hese may b e i nvolun tary ( Berns tein 1 975 ) a nd wou ld i nc lude , t o q uote t he most o bv ious e xamp les , t he c olour o f t he s k in o f a n i nd iv idua l a nd g roup a nd t he way t hey s peak . I ti s f or t h is r eason t ha t t he p resen t w r i ter i s s o mewha t d issa t isf ied w i th t he p resen t a nd p ers is ten t d ichot o my i n t he a n thropolog ica l l i tera ture d rawn b e tween a scr ibed a nd a ch ieved s ta tus ;

a s s uggested a bove n o s ta tus i s l i kely t o b e whol ly a ch ieved ( i n t ha t

t here was a d iscr im ina t ion o f s o me f or m f or c e ta in i nd iv idua ls a nd a ga inst o thers ) a nd c an n ever b e whol ly a scr ibed ( t here a re a lways l i kely t ob e e xcept i ona l c ircu mstances ). I n modern s oc ie ty , t o c on t inue o ne o f t he a bove e xa mp les , t he l ack o f t he s tandard E ng l ish f or m ( Labov 1 975) d ue t o s oc ia l b ackg round e tc ., c an l ead t o a n i nd iv idua l b e ing a ssumed t o h ave a l ow i n te ll ig ence w i th a l l t he r epercuss ions o f t ha t d ec is ion .

N ever theless t he a scribed/

a ch ieved d icho to my may h ave a n o pera t iona l u t i l ity. F or t he p urposes o f t he a rchaeolog ica l r ecord , as i mp le model o f s oc ia l p sycholog ica l p a t tern ing w i l l h ave t ob e u t i l ised a t p resen t , b ecause o f t he l ack o f h igh q ua l i ty d a ta , b u t t he p roble ms o u t l ined a bove s hou ld b e b orne i n m ind when s oc ia l d evelopmen ts a re c ons idered . Most i mportan t i ti s l i kely t ha t mos t o f t he i t e ms o f s oc ia l ' d isp lay ' a re n ot p reserved i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , many o f t he m b e ing i nconcre te a nd t hus f orever l ost. H owever wha t t he a rchaeolog ica l r ecord f or Y orksh ire p resen ts i s al arge c ol lec t ion o f s tone a nd f l in t i t e ms a nd a n umber o f p o t tery v essels d rawn f ro m v ar ious c on tex ts wh ich a l low a c ons idera t ion o f s oc ia l i mportance t o b e made .

2 06

F ortuna tely a l arge n u mber o f s uch i t e ms c o me f ro m c o mparable c on tex ts , t ha t i s t hey p ossess ameasurable f rag men t o f i n for ma t ion c oncern ing t he s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion o f t he t imes. I f t he ma ter ia l f ro m t hese c on tex ts i s t o b e u sed i t mus t b e d e monstra ted o r a ssu med t ha t : 1 .

The g rave g oods f ro m b ur ia l c on tex ts r ela te t o t he s oc ia l p os i t ion o f t he i nd iv idua l i n t he s oc ie ty . n u mber o f i t e ms :

Th is h as p roved d e monstrable r egard ing a

Food Vessels , Beakers , P lano-convex k n ives a nd

Ba t t le a xes a nd may b e e xpec ted f or o thers. 2 .

That t he p reserved i t e ms r epresen t e nough o f t he i t e ms o r ig ina l ly p laced w ith t he b ur ia l t o g ive a n a dequa te p ic ture o f t he i nd iv idua ls ' soc ia l p ersona '. Th is i s n ot e as i ly d e monstrable , b u t b y u s ing a l arge b ody o f c o mparable

d a ta , c er ta in c onc lus ions c an b e r eached a s t o t he v a l id i ty o f t h is a ssu mp t ion . H owever s o me i n terpre ta t ion a nd p red ic t ion may b e a pp l ied t o s et t le men t s i tes. T o d ate v ar iab il ity s tud ies f or s e t t le men t s i tes h ave a t b est l ooked f or p a tt ern ing t o e xa m ine r es idence p a t terns ( f or e xa mp le Ph il l ips 1 971, 1 972) o r l ooked f or s pa t ia l p a t tern ing o f a rtefacts t o i den t ify ' act iv i ty ' a reas.

T o a

c erta in e x ten t p a t terning h as b een r ecogn ised i n t he Amer ican s ou th w estern K ivas i nd ica t ing a d i f feren t ia t ion b e tween r i tua l a reas a nd n or ma l o ccupa t ion a reas.

H owever i f al arge e nough s a mp le i s o bta ined ( no r elevan t Y orksh ire

d a ta h as y e t b een o b ta ined ) t here i s n o r eason why t he i dent i ty i t e ms o f v ar ious g roups may n ot b e r ecogn ised f ro m t he s et t le men t d a ta ;

p art icu larly t he

l arger g roups wh ich c ross-ou t t he n or ma l s e t tle men t p a t tern. AN I DENT ITY MODEL For t he p urpose o f a rchaeolog ica l d a ta i ti s c ons idered u sefu l t o d iv ide t he g enera l model i n to t hree i n terrela t ing s ets. 1 .

The S tatus i den t i ty :

Each i nd iv idua l may p ossess ' i te ms ' wh ich

i nd ica te h is s oc ia l i mportance w i th in t he s oc iety.

An u mber o f t hese

i t e ms may b e f ossi l ised i n t he a rchaeolog ica l r ecord ( c f . K ing 1 969 ) ( ag ood a rchaeolog ica l e xa mp le i s Randsborg 1 973 ). 2 .

The ' I nd iv idua l ' I den t i ty :

The i nd iv idua l may h ave s everal s y mbols

wh ich a re i nd ica t ive o f h is own p ersona l ity , b u t wh ich may n ot i nc rease h is s oc ia l p rest ige a nd impor tance.

I n p ract ice i t may b e

d if f icu l t t o d ec ide wh ich i t e ms d o n ot a dd i mpor tance. 3 .

The g roup i den t ity :

An i nd iv idua l may b elong t o ac erta in g roup ,

c lan , s ib , mo iety , l i neage e tc.

The g roup may a lso h ave s y mbols

wh ich may man i fes t a t t he i nd iv idua l l evel . These d iv isions a re b road a nd p robably c ross-cu t ;

b u t p rag ma t ica l ly

d esigned t o h and le t he Yorksh ire d a ta . P red ic t ive p a t tern ing I t i s p oss ible t o s uggest t ha t t he a bove s e ts may b e r ecogn isable i n t he a rchaeolog ica l d a ta .

2 07

1 .

S ta tus i den t i ty i )

The i t e ms p laced w i th a n i nd iv idua l a t d ea th a re l i kely t o r ef lect h is s ta tus i n l i fe.

I n p ract ice t he r icher i nd iv idua ls may h ave more

d isp lay i t e ms w ith g rea ter l abour e xpend i ture ( B in ford 1 972 ). i )

The amoun t o f t ime t aken i n c ons truc t ion o f mor tuary s truc tures f or t he r icher i nd iv idua ls i s l i kely t o b e g rea ter , i ft he s ta tus i nvolves ap os i t ion o f p ower.

i i )

D isp lay g roups w i th in a p opu la t ion o f a r tefacts a re l ikely t ob e r ela ted t o a n i nd iv idua ls d isp lay s ta tus , b u t u n less t here i s ac o mpara t ive p opu la t ion t he p a t tern i s l i kely t o b e e lus ive ( c f . b ronze s ocke ted a xes c hap ter 7 ); H owever d isp lay i t e ms f or t he i nd iv idua l may b e most i mportan t i n c onf l ic t s i tua t ions ( s ee b elow ).

E ven c h i mps a re

' ranked ' a nd a re a ble t o ' d isp lay ' b u t s oc ia l ' f ac i l i ta t ion ' may b e i mpor tan t h ere ( Za jonc 1 965 ). 2 .

The i nd iv idua l i den t i ty The i nd iv idua l i den t i ty i s l i ke ly t o p rove d i f f icu l t t o r ecogn ise.

I n p rac-

t ice a ny g rave i t e ms t ha t d o n ot c losely r ef lec t t he s oc ia l s tand ing , s uggested b y o ther f ac tors may b e r ef lec t ive o f t he i nd iv idua l s ta tus.

I n c o mp lex c o m-

mun i t ies ( i .e. mos t a gr icu l tura l b ased c o m mun i ty ) i n wh ich t he f aceto-face g roup i s n ot d om inan t , s tandard ised , s tatus i t ems may b e e xpec ted .

I t e ms

t ha t a re n o t s tandard ised , a nd t herefore u n l ikely t o b e r ecogn ised a s i nd ica t ive o f ac er ta in s ta tus , may a lso b e o nes s uspec ted a s b e ing i nd iv idua l i den ti f iers . 3 .

The Group i den t i ty The g roup t o s o me d egree i s n o t s eparable f ro m t he i nd iv idua ls o f wh ich

i ti s made u p , a nd i n a ny c ase t he s tandard ised s ta tus i t e ms o f t he i nd iv idua l may b e i n terpre ted a s t he ' h igh s ta tus g roup ' i den t i ty o f wh ich t he i nd iv idua l i s a me mber .

H owever t hese g roups may n o t b e g eograph ica l ly r ecogn isable .

T he o n ly ' group ' i den t i t ies r ecogn isab le a t p resen t , may b e t hose t ype d ef ined b y H odder ( 1 977 ) w h ich a re g eograph ica l ly d is t ingu ishab le o n aw ide s ca le.

C erta in p a t terns may b e e xpec ted f ro m t h is model : i )

i )

Geograph ica l p a ttern ing o f a rchaeolog ica l t ypes. r ela te w i th ,

Th is s hou ld c or-

P resence o f g roup d isp lay i t e ms o n t he b order w ith n e ighbouring g roups ( t he c onf l ic t o r s tress s i tua t ion ) a s Randsborg h as d e monstra ted ( 1975 ).

i i )

E v idence o f g roup a c t iv i t ies i n t he f or m p erhaps o f f i eld monu men ts ( Ren frew 1 973a , 1 973b , 1 973c ).

P erhaps i n r a ther more b as ic a nd g enera l ised t er ms t wo n on-exc lusive f or ms o f mechan is m may b e p red icted : a .

I n ter-group mechan is ms ( t he c oncep t o f t he m ).

c ause c on f l ic t o f v ar ious s or ts . Th is may i nvo lve : ( Sah l ins 1 974 ) ;

S uch mechan is ms may r a ids , wars , s k ir m ishes ,

i n f ac t a ny p ract ice t ha t i s l i kely t o afec t o r b e a f fec ted b y

2 08

' t he m '. Thus f i eld monu men ts t ha t a re p laced p ro m inen t ly t o b e s een o ver b road d istances a re l i kely t o b e i n ter-group mechan is ms. C onf l ic t may a lso b e s een i n d o ing t he r everse o f ' t he m '. i n ter-group i den t i ty mechan is m .

C on f l ic t may n ot b e t he o n ly f or m o f

T rade may a lso b e v a luable.

may e x ist t he c oncep t o f " the p eop le who made p o ts" , e tc .

Thus t here

" the p eop le who f i sh"

Where g roups a re p acked t ogether , a nd where p opula t ion p ressure i s

g rea t , i n ter-group mechan is ms a re l ike ly t o b e c o m monest . b . I n tra-group mechan is ms ( t he c oncep t o f u s ). These mechan is ms a re p oten t ia l ly o f g rea ter i n terest . There a re v ar ious mechan is ms t ha t o ne m igh t s uggest ( c f . e .g . L abov 1 975; 1 .

C on for m i ty.

L aw ton 1 968 ; f or ' ascr ibed ' s ta tus ).

As s hown b y t he A sch a nd C ru tch f ield e xper imen ts , t h is

may b e t o s o me e x ten t f or i t s own s ake.

H owever t o ad egree i ti s aq uest ion

o fb ehav ing i n t he g roup way o r l eav ing t he g roup .

I ti s impor tan t i n t h is

c on tex t t o c on trast b e tween wha t a n i nd iv idua l ' ough t ' t o d o t o c on for m a nd w ha t h e a c tua l ly d oes.

Th is r eturns u s t o t he s tress s itua t ion i n wh ich i ti s

i mportan t t o s how s o l idar i ty , t o s how y ou a re ' one o f t he b oys ' e ven i fy ou d o n ot r egu larly c on for m a t o ther t imes ( Kel ly 1 974 ). 2 .

S y mbol is m.

N a t iona l f l ags , f ootba l l s upporters s carves , b adges ,

e tc ., c an a l l b e s ymbols o f ag roup i den t i ty.

I n p ract ice a v ast a rray o f i t e ms

c an f unc t ion a s s y mbols , i nc lud ing : l anguage a nd a ccen t , e t ique t te , d ress , a ppearance , l ength o f h a ir e tc. I n p rac t ice t oo , s y mbols o f t h is s or t a re n ot o n ly i ntra-group mechan is ms b u t i n ter-group mechan is ms a lso. 3 .

C on f l ict .

I n t he p ast o rgan isa t iona l t heory ( Taylor is m a nd p ost-

T ayloris m ) h as t ended t o s uggest t ha t w ith in a g roup t here s hou ld b e n o c onf l ic t .

Ke l ly ( 1974) d escr ibes t h is w el l , b u t a lso p o in ts o u t t ha t c on f l ic t w i th in

t he g roup c an h elp t o ma in ta in t he g roup .

Th is c on f l ic t i s h owever l i kely t o

b e o f ad i f feren t f or m t o i n ter-group c on f l ict , e .g. r i tua l ised warfare.

Most

s port ing l eagues e tc . work o n t h is p rinc ip le , t here may b e r iva lry a nd c onf l ic t b etween t he t ea ms , b u t i ti s o n ly b y t h is t ha t t he ' l eague ' i s ma in ta ined . C on f l ic t c an p rov ide t he ' s tress ' s i tua t ion d iscussed a bove t o ma in ta in t he g roup .

Th is r eturns u s t o t ask-or ien ta t ion wh ich c an a lso p rov ide s tress i n

as im ilar way .

Thus i t may b e c ons idered t ha t t he p resen t c r isis i n t he

B r it ish L abour Par ty i s c aused b y t he f ac t t ha t al arge p art o f t he ' t ask ' was c o mp leted b y t he 1 945 L abour g overn men t .

Thus t here a re n ow me mbers o f

t he p arty who wan t t o ma in ta in t he s ta tus q uo ( i n t heory t he a im o f t he ma in o pposit ion p arty ) a nd t hose who w ish t o c on t inue w i th c hange.

Thus i n g enera l

i n o rgan isa t ions i f at ask i s c o mp le ted o r ag roup i s n o l onger d o ing t he t ask i t may wel l l ose s upport. I n tra-group mechan is ms a re l ikely t o b e importan t where t he g roups a re n o t c losely p acked , a nd where t here i s s t il l n eed t o k eep t he g roup t oge ther. T he r e markable Aus tra l ian A bor ig in ian k insh ip s yste ms a re p robably o ne o f t he b est e xa mp les o f ag roup w i th v ery s trong i n tra-group mechan is ms i n o perat ion . I n ter a nd i n tra-group mechan is ms —the t rans m i t ter s yndro me Wha tever mechan is ms o f t he ' us ' a nd ' t he m ' c oncep t o r ien ta ted t ype , t here a re p roble ms i n t he way o ther i nd iv idua ls f ro m w i th in o ur g roup o r

2 09

w i th in t he ir g roup a re g o ing t o p erce ive t h is mechan is m .

The wr i ter wou ld

t er m t h is t he ' i si t-one-of-ours-orisi t-one-ofthe irs ' c oncep t.

T h is t ies

i n w i th t he i dea o f s how ing o ne 's i den t i ty — there i s n o p o in t i n b eing a me mber o f t he g roup i fy ou d o n ot b roadcast i t( see c hap ter 1 0 ), p ar t icularly i n ' s tress ' s i tua t ions. i s ms.

The p roble m h ere i s l i ke ly t o b e g rea ter f or i n ter-group mechan-

The ma in d i f ferences a re g o ing t o b e b e tween t hose mechan is ms t ha t

work i n p ersona l c on tac t s itua t ions a nd t hose t ha t h ave a w ider f or m . 1 .

P ersona l c on tac t : i ) i )

2 .

N on-verba l c o m mun ica t ion , b ody l anguage , e ye c on tac t, e tc .

i i )

Dress a nd a ppearance.

i v )

P ersona l s y mbol is m ;

b adges , s carves , e tc .

I n ter med ia te c on tac t : i ) i )

L arge b u ild ing c ons truc t ions. O ther p er manen t s table s truc tures.

i i )

L oca l t rade.

i v )

Move men t o f i nd iv idua ls a nd g roups f or p ersona l c on tact.

v ) 3 .

S peech e tc ., a ccen t , l anguage , i n tona t ion , e tc.

Var ious g roup d isp lays.

Wide s ca le c on tac t : i ) i ) i i )

Mass med ia ;

t e lev is ion , r ad io , n ewspapers , b ooks , e tc .

Wars , r a ids , e tc . Em issar ies , e tc ., move men t o f i nd iv idua ls a nd g roups f or p ersona l c on tac t .

i v )

T rade.

The mechan is ms s uggested a bove n eed n ot i nvo lve i n a l l c ases a t a l l t i mes i n tra-group a nd i n ter-group d ev ices : h owever t h is t ype o f ' t rans m iss ion ' i s o f ten l i kely t o r esu l t . A lso , b ehav iour i n a ny o f t hese s uggested s pheres n eed n o t b e i n tended t o t rans m it t he g roup , b u t t h is may r esu l t ( see B indra 1 976 f or d iscuss ion o f p roble ms ). S tatus v g roup i den t ity One f ina l p o in t o r q ues t ion c an b e p u t h ere. s yste m p art o f t he g roup? B ronze Age.

T o wha t e x ten t i s t he s ta tus

Th is i s i mportan t i n o ur c on tex t o f t he Yorksh ire

T o wha t e x ten t i s t he b ur ia l o f r ich ( o r n on-r ich ) i nd iv idua ls a

s ta tus i den t i ty s i tua t ion a nd t o wha t e x ten t i s i t ag roup i den t i ty p rob lem? B in ford h as s hown t ha t most me mbers o f t he s oc ia l p yra m id w il l a ttend t he i mportan t man ,s f unera l ( 1971).

Thus t here i s ag roup g ettogether.

I n t h is

r espec t why a re t he H a l ls ta t t a nd o ther w ea l thy b ur ia l h or izons s o s hort l i ved? Two p ossible s ugges t ions s ee m l i kely : i ) i )

C o mp lex s oc ie t ies ( Serv ice 1 962 ) t end t o b e u nstab le. F or t he p urpose o f g roup i den t i ty i tw ou ld b e e nough t o h ave a s ingle b ig e f for t a s a n i n tra-group mechan is m . 2 10

I n ad eve lopmen ta l s equence a Ren frewl ike ( 1973c ) mode l o f i ncreased e nergy e xpend i ture m igh t b e p red ic ted .

On t he i nd iv idua l l evel , ac hange

f ro m f aceto-face s oc ie t ies i n wh ich d isp lay was n on-ex isten t , o r o f a n ' i nd iv idua l i den t ity ' f or m , t o s tandard ised r ecogn isable s ta tus i nd ica tors o r r a ther s oc ie t ies w i th s ta tus i den t i t ies ' d om inan t m igh t b e e xpec ted .

L ook ing

a t t he d efunct S erv ice ( 1962 ) model a n i nd iv idua l s ta tus s oc ie ty wou ld c orresp ond w i th S erv ice 's Band C o m mun i t ies a nd t he ' s tatus i den t ity ' s oc iet ies w ith t he more c o mp lex f or ms. ' Group i den t i t ies ' wou ld s ee m v ery i mpor tan t a t S erv ice 's t r iba l l eve l o f o rgan isa t ion i n wh ich t he s oc ie ty was c ross-cu t a nd ma in ta ined b y s oda l i t ies.

I n p rac t ice most s oc ie t ies a s S erv ice h as n ow

d iscovered , d o n ot r ead i ly f i t i n to a s i mp l is t ic model o f t h is k ind .

H owever

t he g enera l t rends o f d evelop men t may b e e xpec ted. S u m mary a nd c onc lus ions I n t he f orego ing i t was s uggested t ha t p resen t models a re n ot t he most u sefu l f or i n terpret ing t he Yorksh ire d a ta .

I t was s uggested t ha t a model

b ased o n s oc ia l p sychology may b e u sefu l ly u sed i n p red ic t ive manner.

I t

w as s uggested t ha t me mbersh ip o f ag roup o r c lass i s l ikely t o i n f luence p rof oundly t he b ehav iour o f t he i nd iv idua l w i th in t ha t g roup .

Me mbersh ip i s a lso

l i kely t o r equ ire a c er ta in c onduc t o n t he p art o f t he i nd iv idua l .

Me mbersh ip

o fg roups u sua l ly h as a s o ne r equ is t ive f or m o fb ehav iour , ad isp lay o f t ha t me mbersh ip i n s o me way .

Th is d isp lay c an b e o f t he s ubt lest f or m a nd c an

b e q u ite i nvolun tary ( part icu larly i n modern s oc iet ies ).

Th is b ehav ioura l

p a t tern ing i s l i kely t ob e r evea led i n c erta in ways i n t he a rchaeolog ica l d a ta . I n o rder t o s i mp l ify t he s yste m a t r ipart d iv is ion o f i den t ity t ypes was s uggest ed ;

t wo p arts o f wh ich r ela te t o t he ' i nd iv idua l ' a nd t he o ther t o t he g roup

f or m. The w r iter w ou ld s uggest t ha t s uch c oncep ts c an a c t a s ar igorous a pproach t o s tud ies o f h u man s oc ie ty , b u t i tc an a lso p rov ide a p red ic t ive f ra mework . T oo many a rchaeolog ica l models i n t he p as t h ave b een c on ten t t o i mpose d et er m in ist ic f ra meworks o f v ar ious k inds o n t he h u man p opu la t ions w ithou t e xa m in ing t he r am if ica t ions o f v ar ious c ond i t ions a nd c hanges o n t he h u man g roup .

An a t te mp t h as b een made h ere t o s how t ha t ' s tress ' s i tua t ions c an

r ap idly p roduce g roups , a nd t ha t t he h u man g roup o nce f or med i s ap owerfu l o pera t iona l u n i t .

T he w r i ter f eels t ha t ag rea t d ea l c an b e l earned i ft he

s oc ial a nd p sycho log ica l imp l ica t ions o f t he c hang ing ' env iron men t ' o n t he h u man g roup i s t aken i n to c ons idera t ion .

PART TWO :

APPL ICATION

I n t he f i rs t p ar t o f t h is c hap ter s o me t heor ies o f h u man b ehav iour h ave b een o u t l ined .

A t t he s a me t ime Ih ave g iven t he r eader s o me i ns igh t i n to

' my v iew o f t he w or ld '.

I n t he f ol low ing s ec t ions a n a t te mp t w il lb e made t o

a nswer s o me b road q uest ions i n ' t rying o u t ' t he t heor ies ( t he f i rs t r oad t ests ). S ect ion o ne :

I n t he f i rst s ec t ion s tatus i den t it ies f ro m b ur ia l d a ta i s e xa m ined

l ook ing a t h or izonta l a nd v ert ica l p a t tern ing o ver a l ong t ime s ca le. S ecron t wo :

Th is d ea ls w ith ' group i den t i t ies ' a nd t ests t he g enera l t heory

( ra t i ier i n ' check l i s t ' f ash ion ). 2 11

S ECTION ONE

S ta tus I den t i t ies a nd Bur ia l Da ta

Th is s ect ion w i l l l ook a t 2 100 y ears o fb ur ia l i n for ma t ion ( 3500-1400 B .C .) a nd w i l l e xam ine ' ver t ica l a nd h or izon ta l ' c hanges t hrough t ime . o f t he a na lysis a re g iven i n P ierpo in t ( 1978 ).

F u l l d eta i ls

Here Iw il l s how h ow ' v ert ica l

s tra t if ica t ion ' d evelops a ga inst ab ackground o f ' h or izon ta l ' c hanges . i )

Bas ica l ly :

By u s ing a whole s er ies o f measures o f v ar iab il ity o f g rave f eatures b u t l argely r ela ted t o ' qua l i ty a nd c ho ice o f g rave i t e ms' ( ' score ' v ar iables o f a rtefacts , n umbers o f s a me e tc .) a nd l abour i npu t ( care i n p os it ion ing l abour i nb arrow , g rave e tc .) o ne c an s ee i ft here i s ac lose i n ter-rela t ionsh ip a s maybe p red ic ted f or ' ver t ica l s t ra t if ic a t ion '

( i n as im ilar manner t o t ha t f or t he a rtefacts a lone ).

One

c an t hen b eg in t o l ook f or g roup ings w i th in t he ' s tra t if ica t ion ' . i )

N ot a l l ' s ta tus ' i s v er t ica l ly s tra t if ied . I ti s i mportan t t o l ook f or ' hor izon ta l ' d if feren t ia t ion w ith in t he g roups ( d iscrete s ets a nd t he l i ke ).

Be fore p roceed ing f urther i ti s i mportan t t o e stabl ish t he f ollow ing : a .

The d a ta s e t Ia sse mb led t he r esu l ts o f o ver a h undred y ears o f e xcavat ion

f ro m ' Neol i th ic a nd Bronze A ge ' b ur ia l s i tes.

Th is i nc luded most ly 1 9 th

c en tury ma ter ia l b u t w ith t he importan t c heck o f more r ecen t e xcava t ions. Iwas f or tuna te a lso i nb eing a ble t o o bta in D . R . B ro thwel l 's a na lys is o f s ex a nd a ge d a ta f ro m 1 9 th c entury e xcava ted Yorksh ire b arrows. i n t he a na lys is wh ich f ol lows.

Th is i s c rucia l

The t ota l amoun ted t o 2 041 b ur ials.

I deal ly

i tw ou ld h ave b een b est t o c o mpare t h is w i th a s im ilar amoun t o f s et t le ment e v idence , b u t a s d escr ibed , s et t le men t e v idence i s l im i ted ( a l though Ih ave u sed i ti n ac o mpara t ive s ense i n p rev ious c hap ters ).

Most o f t h is ma teria l

i s f ro m t he ' t rad i t iona l s et t le men t ' a reas o f Y orksh ire where mos t e xcavat ion a nd b arrow c onstruc t ion s ee ms t o h ave t aken p lace.

I n g enera l t er ms i t may

b e s uggested t ha t i t was i n t he a reas o f h eav iest p opu la t ion c oncen tra t ion t ha t s oc ia l c hanges w ou ld b e l i ke ly t o t ake w il l n o t p ursue t he p o in t h ere.

p lace.

Th is may b e t he c ase , b u t I

I n f ac t 2 041 b uria ls r epresen ts o n ly o ne b ur ia l

ay ear a pprox i ma te ly f or t he p er iod u nder c ons idera t ion .

Th is i s u n l ikely t o

r epresen t t he d ead o f t he t o ta l p opu la t ion ( bu t s ee A tk inson 1 972) a nd o ne may c ons ider i n S ch if fer ian o r o ther t er ms t he way t he a rchaeolog ical e v idence f or med .

Iw ou ld ma in ta in t ha t t he d a ta b ase i s u sefu l , i n t ha t c hanges a re

o f r egu lar n a ture ( see b elow )( t h is p erhaps s ugges t ing t ha t t he d a ta b ase i s a t l eas t i n p art r epresen ta t ive o f s oc ia l d eve lopmen ts ) a nd i n a ny c ase i ti s c erta in ly p oss ible t o r e la te a l arge s er ies o f v ar iables i n o rder t o make imp ortan t s ta te men ts a bou t t he s oc ie ty r epresen ted b y t hese ' bur ia l b locks ' e ven i fo ne c anno t b e s ure h ow t he b ur ia l p opu la t ion was c hosen f ro m t he l i v ing ( dy ing ) o ne . b .

Var iable l i sts

At o ta l o f 1 55 v ar iables were c hosen l argely i n t he l i gh t

o f t he t wo q ues t ions a sked a t t he b eg inn ing o f t h is s ec t ion , b u t p art icu larly l ook ing a t v er t ica l s tra t if ica t ion . A s er ies o f o ther q ues t ions a re a sked a t t he e nd o f t h is s ec t ion i n more s pec if ic t er ms a nd v ar iables f or t hese a re a lso i nc luded .

T he v ar iables r ela ted t o t he f ol low ing :

2 12

T able 9 .1 1 .

S ex , a ge a nd t ype o fb ur ia l ( i nhuma t ion c re ma t ion e tc .) v ar iab les 3 -5 .

2 .

1 1 s ku l l measure men ts —var iables 6 -16.

3 .

Posi t ion i nb arrow .

4 .

Var iables 1 7-30.

Assoc ia ted a rtefacts a nd t he t ype a nd q ua l i ty o f t he a r tefac ts. Var iables 3 1-89.

5 .

Trea t men t a nd s truc tures a ssoc ia ted w i th t he b ur ia l v ar iables 9 01 04 ( c f . A shbee 1 960 ).

6 .

Posi t ion a nd t rea t men t o f t he a rte facts i n r e la t ion t o t he b ur ia l . Var iables 1 05-109 , a nd 1 19-122.

7 .

Posi t ion o f t he b ur ia l i n r ela t ion t o o ther b ur ia ls w i th in t he b arrow v ar iables 10-114.

8 .

Miscel laneous ;

g r id r eference , m isc , f ea tures ;

t he b ur ia l v ar iables 1 15-118 ; 9 . c .

Descr ip t ion o f Food v essels 1 26-155.

Chronology

d a tes.

a n i ma l b ones w ith

1 23-125.

The c hronology was c hecked b y means o f 3r ad io-carbon

Th is i s a n u nsa t isfac tory n u mber , b u t d id h e lp i n c er ta in d irec t ions:

G rea t Ayton Moor :

s econdary c ol lared u rn b uria l :

Har 2 091;

2 940+ 8 0 b .p .:

9 90 b .c . ( Hayes 1 967 ). L ow Cay thorpe : Har 2146;

G rooved Ware ' occupa t ion ' s i te w i th ' l a ter N eol ith ic ma ter ia l '.

3 630+ 7 0 b .p .:1680 b .c . ( Manby 1 974 ).

Hang ing G r i mston : Har 2160 ;

Ma ter ia l f ro m t he f acade b edd ing t rench o f l ong b arrow .

4 710+ 9 0 b .p . :2760 b .c . ( Mort i mer 1 905 ).

Id o n ot t rus t s ingle d e ter m ina t ions f or s i tes a nd much p refer l ong s er ies o f d a tes.

H owever , o n ly t he f i rst ( f or t he c ol lared u rn ) s ee ms ' archaeolog i-

c a l ly d ub ious '

( on s ub jec t ive c ons idera t ion ).

N ever theless t he w ide r ange

o f t he d a tes d oes l end a g enera l v a l id i ty t o my s che me , more s pec if ica l ly I w ou ld s ugges t c ruc ia l ly : 1 .

Tha t t he g roup o f d a tes f or l ong b arrows

( between 3 100-2760 b.c .) i n

Y orksh ire wou ld s uggest a r ela t ively ' t igh t ' h or izon a nd t h is i s s upported b y t he r e markable a rch itec tura l s im ilar i t ies o f t hese s i tes. 2 .

Tha t t here i s ab as ic d iv is ion b e tween t he ' earl ier ' a nd l a ter ' N eol i th ic

w i th t he l a t ter p robably l i nger ing i n to t he ' Bronze Age ' p er iod . If ol low t he b locks o u t l ined i n c hap ter 2 : A . N ascen t 3 750-3000 B .C. e qu iva len t t o t rad it iona l ' earl ier N eol ith ic ' ( F ig. 9 .1). B .

Deve lopmen ta l 3 000-2300 B .C. e qu iva len t t o t he t rad i t iona l ' l a ter

N eol i th ic ' ( w ith a p oss ible Beaker/non Beaker s ub-d iv is ion ) ( Figs. 9 .2-3 ). C .

F lorescen t 2 400-1900 B .C. e qu iva len t t o ' earl iest Bronze Age '

( F ig . 9 .4 ). D .

E xpans ive 2 000-1400 B .C. e qu iva len t t o ' l a ter E arly Bronze Age '. 2 13

ANALYS IS I n t h is p ar t Iw i l l f i rst ly a na lyse e ach ' b lock ' i n t urn a nd l ook f or p a t terni ng o f t he t ypes p red ic ted a nd t hen Iw i l l t ry t o s yn thes ise r egard ing s oc ia l c hanges. A .

N ascen t p er iod

Th is ' b lock ' i nc ludes a l l b ur ia ls f ro m l ong b arrows a nd r ela ted s i tes, a t ota l o f 10 b ur ia ls.

The p er iod i s d ist inc t f or i t s l ack o fb uria l d i f feren t ia t ion .

There a re v ir tua l ly n o g rave g oods a nd o n ly t he f o l low ing d if ferences o fb ur ia l t rea t men t ; i )

D i f feren t ia t ion b etween c re ma t ion a nd i nhu ma t ion ( and d epend ing v ery much o n whe ther t he b ur ia l s tructure was b urn t o r n ot ).

i )

A t s o me b arrows t here a re p hys ica l d iv is ions b e tween b ur ia ls a s a t Market We igh ton . (Greenwel l 1 877 ) where a s er ies o f p os ts b reak u p t he a rea o fb ur ia l f or 2 6 i nd iv idua ls.

i i )

O ccas iona l ly t here i s t he u se o f s epara te ' bone s tacks ' p ar t icu larly a ga in a t Market We igh ton wh ich i s v ery r em in iscen t o f A shbee 's work a t Fusse ls , L odge ( Ashbee 1 966 ).

There i s n o i nd ica t ion o f e ven s exua l d if feren t ia t ion , b u t c h ildren a re u nder-represen ted ( t h is i s t o b e e xpec ted f ro m t he e v idence o f many p r im it ive s oc ie t ies ).

These f eatures may b e s uggest ive o f al ack o f s oc ia l d i f feren t ia t ion.

Does t h is mean t ha t t here was n o s ta tus d iscr im ina t ion?

I n t er ms o f ' t heory

t est ing ' t h is n ega t ive e v idence i s n o t p ar icu larly u seful o n i t s own .

H owever

o ther s ources a nd e v idence ( or l ack o f i t ) s ee m t o f ol low t h is p at tern : a .

Ren frew s uggests a s im ilar p a t tern f or ' ear l ier N eol i th ic ' Wessex ( 1973b ) .

b .

I n Ren frew ian ' monu men ta l i ty ' t er ms t here i s al ack o f ' express ion ' o f

s tra t if ied s oc iety. c .

There i s al ack o f t he k inds o f ' qua l i ty ' v ar ia t ion t ha t Ih ave d e monstra ted

f or t he a rtefac ts o f t he l a ter p er iod .

The d ia mond l ea f a rrowheads , t he o rna te

PTD 's , t he d ecora ted p ot tery t ypes e tc. d o n ot s ee m t o a ppear i n Y orksh ire u n t il t he n ex t p hase. d . There i s al ack o f ( sub jec t ively ) o bv ious i t e ms wh ich m igh t b e u sed f or s ta tus s y mbol is m a par t f ro m t he s tone a xe ( and t hese a re n o t f ound w i th b ur ia ls o r e x tensively a t a ny r i tua l s i tes i n Br ita in u n t il t he f ollow ing p hase ). H owever Is hou ld p o in t o u t t ha t t he l ong b arrows d o c lus ter i n t he ' t rad it i ona l s e t t le men t ' a reas where o ne m igh t e xpec t s oc ia l d evelop men t t o t ake p lace.

Fur ther more , Randsborg ( 1975 ) h as s hown t ha t r ela t ively s imp le

b ur ia l monu men ts o f t he p er iod i n D enmark c ou ld b e i nd ica t ive o f more ' adv anced ' c o m mun i t ies o r a t l east o f l arger g roup ings o f p eop le.

Th is l ast

p o in t s hou ld c erta in ly b e b orne i n m ind . On t he whole It h ink Imust p o in t t o al ack o f t he k inds o f f eatures i n t he ma teria l c u lture o f t he p er iod i nd ica t ive o f s ocia l d if feren t ia t ion w i th in t he g roup

2 14

I nhu ma t ion

C re mat ion

_ c c n

3 z z 2

BAR RO WS

c

0 0

.9 ,1

d en c irovra m

s cen t s oc iety.

2 15

B .

Deve lopmen ta l p er iod —Non Beaker ( 205 b uria ls )

I n t h is p er iod d iv isions w i th in t he b ur ia l d a ta b eco me i ncreas ing ly c lear. A n u mber o f a na lyses s howed t he s a me p a t terns . C luster a na lys is ( Ward 's me thod —Clustan 1 A ) By t he u se o f c luster a na lys is b acked b y d iscr im inan t a na lys is ,c erta in d if feren t ia t ions a ppeared c learly : i )

A n u mber o fb ur ia ls a re d ist ingu ished b y t he p resence o f ' o rna te ' i t e ms.

These i nc lude j e t s l iders , e labora te a rrowheads ( h igh q ua l i ty )

o r l ea f a nd t ranche t f or m ) , a n t ler maces , b oar 's t usks , e tc .

Bur ia ls

w i th s uch i t e ms a re a l most e xc lus ive ly ma ture a du l t ma les.

Occa-

s iona l ly l ea f a rrowheads ( o f n on-h igh q ua l i ty f or m ) a re f ound a t t he h ips o f a more w ide r ange o fb ur ia ls. i ) i i ) i v )

Certa in b ur ia ls a re i n w ide a nd d eep g raves. There i s a n u nder-represen ta t ion o f c h i ldren. There a re s i mp le d iv is ions b e tween b ur ia ls b y c re ma t ion a nd i nhu mat i on .

Bas ica l ly t he f or mer h ave a n a l mos t t o ta l l ack o f a ssoc ia ted

a rtefacts , t hey a re n o t p laced i n g raves. v )

D iscr im ina t ion b e tween s i te t ypes.

S o me s i tes a re v ery l arge a nd

impress ive. There w ere t hus a whole r ange o f f ac tors wh ich s ee med t o d iv ide t he b ur ia ls i n to g roups.

H owever , d o t hese f actors i n ter-rela te?

To e xa m ine

t he r ela t ionsh ip o f v ar iables f ur ther , af ac tor a na lys is was emp loyed .

Fa ctor a na lys is The f actor a na lys is s ee med t o s how q u i te c learly t ha t t he v ar iables a t l east o f t he ' vert ica l s ca le ' d o i n ter-re la te. a .

Thus :

There was a c lear t endency f or t hose b ur ia ls w i th g roups o f ' o rna te '

i t e ms t o b e p laced i n d eep g raves o r o n p la tfor ms.

These b ur ia ls w ere a lso

more l i kely t o b e p laced i n t he more ' monu men ta l mounds ' c en tre. b .

a nd u sua l ly a t t he

These ' more r ich ly f urn ished ' b ur ia ls a re n or ma l ly b y i nhu ma t ion .

The p a t terns a re s hown mos t c learly i n t he ' sa mp le ' f actor p lo ts p resen ted

h ere ( Figs. 9 .5 ) wh ich i nd ica te a s trong d egree o f c orrela t ion b e tween many o f t he f actors.

Bu t t hey a lso i nd ica te a sma l l d egree o f s ta tus ' group ing ',

a l though i n t he ma in t he g rave t rea t men t e ven f or t he ' more r ich ly f urn ished ' b ur ia ls a ppears t o b e n on-s tandard ised .

The f ac tor a na lys is d oes d is t ingu ish ,

t o s o me d egree , b etween t he r un-ofthe- m il l r e touched a nd u nretouched f l akes a nd b lades a nd t he ' r icher ' i t e ms :

s tone a xes , maceheads , a rrow-

h eads e tc. c .

I ts hou ld a lso b e n oted t ha t t here a re o ccasiona l ' h in ts ' a t d iv is ions

w ith in t he s er ies.

U s ing t he q ua l i ty s cores e tc. t he b as ic t rend i s f or i ncrea-

s ing ( or d ecreas ing r ichness ' , b u t t here a re v ery f ew ' r ich ' b ur ia ls a nd l arge n umbers o f p oorly f urn ished o r u n furn ished o nes.

T here a re s ugges t ions

t ha t p os i t ion ing a nd o r ien ta t ion may b e i mpor tan t i n more ' hor izon ta l ' d if fere n t ia t ,on ( Pierpo in t 1 978 ).

A t Duggleby Howe ( wh ich p represen ts a lmos t o ne

2 16

c 0 i z t a

0

s ce l l aneous

g roup a ve rage

N EOL ITH IC

( t I

7 -

t l z ,7= 777

4-,

_

4 -,

• 1. .••••

. C O Z 0cD o

a ) >

F ig. 9 .2

A d endrogra m o f Develop men ta l s oc iety ( Round b arrow ).

2 17

EARLY

BEAKER

6

1

u rass c )c .

f l in ts e nc lqsed

•• • •• •• ••••••

g roup a vcrage c lusters

F ig. 9 .3

A d endrogra m f or Develop men ta l s oc iety ( Beaker ). 2 18

•

e • +

Q C NO

( Z 3 C Y )0 1C D ( 1 )

F ig. 9 .4

A d endrogra m f or F lorescen t s oc iety.

2 19

q uar ter o f t he b ur ia l i n for ma t ion f ro m t h is p eriod ) t here a re t wo s epara te g raves ( Mort i mer 1 905 ) o ne c on ta in ing b ur ia ls o r ien ta ted t o t he n orth ( approx ima te ly ) t he o ther w ith b ur ia ls o r ien ta ted t o t he s ou th . B oth c on ta in ' r ich ' b ur ia ls a nd h ave g rouped a round t he m n umbers o f u n furn ished b ur ia ls ( i t i s d i f f icu l t t o b e c erta in a bou t t he g roup ing f ro m Mort i mer 's p lan ). B u t d oes t h is r epresen t a ny th ing more t han t he ' s tack ing ' p r inc ip les o f t he N ascen t p er iod? C onc lus ions Most o f t he b ur ia ls s ee m t o g roup t oge ther i n a n u nd if feren t ia ted mass. I ti s o n ly t he ' we l l f urn ished ' b ur ia ls t ha t r ea l ly d ist ingu ish t he mse lves. Most b ur ia ls a re w i thou t a ssoc ia t ions , n o t p laced i n d eep g raves a nd g enera l ly l ack ing i n a ny ' spec ia l c are o r a t ten t ion '. A ga inst t h is t he ' wel l f urn ished ' b ur ia ls s tand o u t i n t he way d escr ibed .

There a re s uggest ions t ha t t h is was

at rend t hroughou t t he c oun try ( c f . P iggot t 's ' s econdary N eol ith ic ' ( 1 954) a nd A tk inson e t a l 1 951). A t D orchester h enges ( Atk inson e t a l 1 951) t here i s a g ood e xa mp le o f t h is. One b ur ia l h ere was p icked o u t f ro m a l l t he o thers. The c orpse was n ot o n ly p laced a t t he c en tre o f t he h enge b u t h ad p laced w i th h i m a macehead , a nd , t o s how g rea ter ' e f fort ' h ad b een e xpended i n h is f unera l r i tes , h e h ad b een c re ma ted a t a much h igher t e mpera ture t han a l l t he o thers. However , t he d if feren t ia t ion s ee ms t o b e l argely o n t he g rounds o f s ex a nd a ge ( ma ture ma les o n ly a re a l lowed t he ' r ich g oods ' a nd s pec ia l t rea tmen t ). Th is may i n s o me v iews o f s oc ia ta l d evelopmen t ( e .g. S erv ice 19 62 ) b e t er med a n a ch ieved s ta tus s oc ie ty. Th is h as b een c hecked h ere b y d iscr im inan t a na lys is wh ich i nd ica tes s trong d i f feren t ia t ion b e tween ma les/sub a du l ts a nd f e ma les/ch i ldren l argely o n t he b as is o f a ssoc ia ted a rtefacts , b u t a lso p os i t ion i n t he b arrow ( e .g. f e ma les a nd c h i ldren a re n ot p laced i n ' g raves ' ). Howe ver t h is g roup i s o n ly 7 5 ( one q uar ter ) o f t he t o ta lb ur ia ls f or t he p er iod a nd i sb iased b y t he l ack o f i den t if ica t ion o f t he c re ma t ions. I n t er ms o f t he model t he t ypes o f s y mbol ic d i f ferences a re c lear a nd v ery wel l d ef ined i n as er ies o f w ays . T here i s as trong c orrela t ion b etween g enera l ' care ' i nvested a nd a r tefacts p laced w i th b ur ia ls ( describ ing t he ' ver t ica l s tra t if ica t ion ).

L ook ing a t t he more g enera l d a ta t here d o s ee m t o

b e marked i nd ica t ions o f ' more o rgan ised ' , ' more s tra t if ied ' s oc ie t ies: A .

I n g enera l many o f t he a r tefacts ' s how s trong q ua l i ty d ifferen t ia t ion .

Th is i s t rue f or a rrowheads , k n ives , a xes e tc . There a re i nd ica t ions t ha t o n ly t he v ery f inest o b jec ts w ere c hosen t ob e p laced w i th t he ' r ich ' b ur ials i n t he l arge b arrows.

I n t er ms o f ' d isp lay ' t he n eed f or c lear d iferen t ia t ion

o f t h is k ind i s v i ta l , e ven i fi t s p resence b y i t sel f d oes n ot i nd ica te s t rongly s tra t if ied s oc ie t ies ( bu t o n ly t he means b y wh ich s ta tus d i f feren t ia t ion c ou ld b e a cco mp l ished ). B . The ' cho ice ' o f a rtefacts f or g rave d epos i t ion a nd t he ir s pa t ia l d ist r ibu t ion a round impor tan t s oc ia l c en tres ( s ee b e low ) w ou ld s ee m t o f o l low c lear p a t terns a nd a ga in s ugges t more a dvanced s oc iet ies. C .

I n t er ms o f ' advert is ing ' , t he p o ten t ia l o f a r tefacts a nd monumen ts

( chap ter 1 0 ) b u il t i n t h is p er iod i s e nor mous ( s ee b e low ).

S i tes l i ke t he

Ruds ton monol ith , t he ' Tow thorpe ' b arrows ( t he l arge r ound N eol i th ic b arrows ) a nd t hc h enges c ou ld a l l h ave f unct ioned i n t h is way ( Iw i l l d escribe t he ' res ponses ' i n t he n ex t c hap ter ). 2 20

DEVELOP MENTAL

08 0

0

0

0

0

oo

0 0

0 0

0

0

C O 0 0

0 0

f actor 1

0 •8 50 0 c o@

( 2 )

0

0 0

0

0 c orre lat ion -

F ig. 9 .5

0 .22

Factor s core p lots f or Develop men ta l s oc iety b ur ials. 2 21

D .

The i ncreased l abour r equ ire men ts f or s o me o f t he monumen ta l

s i tes s uggests a t l east more o rgan ised l abour i nR en frew ian t er ms ( Ren frew 1 973a ).

Bu t p erhaps t hey j us t h ad a g ood f ore man ' .

Thus , t here a re many i nd ica t ions f or r ap id s oc ie ta l c hange f ro m t he N ascen t i n to t he Developmen ta l p er iod ( non-Beaker ) w ith t he a ppearance o f s oc iet ies d om ina ted b y af ew ma ture ma les. Below Il i s t t he r ela t ionsh ip b e tween g rave t rea tmen t a nd b ur ia ls : a .

Boar 's t usks :

There a re o n ly t wo e xa mp les b oth a re a du l ts.

b .

Bone p ins :

c .

Barrow p os i t ion ( a bove o r o n o ld g round s ur face ) :

On ly t hree e n t i t ies , a l l a re w i th a du l ts . B oth a du l t g roups

t end t o b e p laced o n t he OGS whereas c h ildren a nd s ub-adul ts a re n or ma l ly a bove t h is. d .

L ea f a rrowheads :

t hese i t e ms a re a l l p laced w i th a du l ts.

The f iner

t ypes o n ly w i th a du l t ma les ( p robably ). e .

F l in ts :

most a re p laced w i th a du l ts.

f .

F l in t a xes :

t he t wo r elevan tb ur ia ls a re b o th a du l t ma les.

g .

Maceheads :

t he s ingle c ase i s a n a du l t ma le.

h .

Or ien ta t ions :

mos t b ur ia ls o f a l l t ypes p o in t E ast .

i . Grave d ep ths : o ne t h ird o f a du l t ma les a re p laced i n d eep g raves. Ch ildren a nd f e ma les n ever a ch ieve s uch p osi t ions , b u t a re o ccas iona lly p laced i n s ha l low s coops o r h igh u p i n l arger g raves. These p a t terns w ou ld a ga in i nd ica te r egu lar ' cho ice ' p a t terns f or b ur ia ls. Iw ou ld s uggest t ha t t he most impor tan t d eve lopmen t i n t h is p er iod was t ha t o f d iscr im ina t ion , n ot o n ly i n t er ms o f a rtefacts b u t t he s oc iety wh ich p roduced t he m a s we l l . Th is d iscr im ina t ion was u t i l ised s ymbol ica l ly t o g ive s pec ia l a dvan tages t o c er ta in me mbers o f t he s oc ie ty. ' Cho ice ' i s t he k ey , b ut ' cho ice ' i s n ot s o i mportan t u n less i th as c ha ins p laced a round i t .

The k ey t o a ny

' advanced ' s oc ie ty i s t he r es tr ic t ion i tp laces o n a ccess t o r esources —the c hoice i ta l lows t he i nd iv idua l i n t er ms o f ' who h e i s '. B .

Developmen ta l p er iod ( Beaker )

T here i s r e markably l i t tle d a ta f ro m t h i . ! b lock '. There a re o n ly 2 2 b uria ls a nd t h is i s n ot e nough t o r each a ny g enera l c onc lus ions. The g enera l s uggest ions a re t ha t ap a t tern s im i lar t o t ha t d escr ibed a bove p er ta ined , t he p eriods d o l arge ly o verlap ( i f n ot c o mp letely merge ).

There i s ab as ic d if-

f eren t ia t ion b etween t hose b ur ia ls w i th Beakers a nd a f ew ' r icher ' i t e ms ( f l in t a xes , k n ives e tc .) a nd t hose w ith n o g rave g oods , n ot o n ly i n t er ms o f t he a ssoc ia ted a r te fac ts b u t a lso i n t er ms o fb ur ia l t rea t men t. C .

F lorescen t p er iod

There a re 1 33 b ur ia ls r ela t ing t o t h is ' La ter B eaker ' b lock .

I n many

ways t he p a t terns a re s im i lar t o t hose o f t he p rev ious b lock , b ut t he d iscr im ina t ion i s more s tr ik ingly c lear.

2 22

C luster a na lys is —basic d iv isions

( Ward 's Method C lustan 1 A )

Many d iv is ions a re v ery c lear w ith o r w i thou t c luster a na lys is : a .

T here i s av ery b asic d iv is ion b etween b ur ia ls w i th f ew o r n o a ssoc ia t ions

a nd t hose w ith ' r ich f urn ish ings '. Th is ma tches e xac t ly t he p a t tern o f t he Deve lop men ta l p er iod. I t s hows most c learly a t t he t wo c luster l evel o f t he a na lysis ( Fig. 9 .4 ).

A t t he s a me t ime t here a re c lear i nd ica t ions ( f ro m d is-

c r im inan t a na lys is ) t ha t t he d iferen t ia t ion i s n ot o n ly i n t er ms o f a ssoc ia ted a r te facts b u t a lso i n t er ms o f c are t aken o f t he b uria l ( deep g raves , p rotec t ion o fb ur ia l , c are i n g e t t ing t he o r ien ta t ion r igh t e tc ). b .

T al l we l l f in ished Beakers d ist ingu ish t he importan t ma les ( as d iscussed

i n c hap ter t hree ) o ver a nd a bove t h is b as ic d iv is ion . A s s uggested a bove , t he v ar iab i l i ty o f t he B eakers t he mselves c an d ist ingu ish t o al arge d egree b e tween t he b asic s ex a nd a ge p os i t ions. c .

C erta in i nd iv idua ls a re p icked o u t f ro m t he ' ma le g roup ' b y v irtue o f

' r ich f urn ish ings ' i n t he f or m o f ' V-perfora ted ' b u t tons , j et ' pu l leys ' , b ronze d aggers , f l in t ' Beaker ' d aggers , w r ist g uards , g old r ivets, f l in t a xes , f l in t k n ives e tc. d .

C erta in i nd iv idua ls a re p icked o u t f ro m t he ma le g roup b y t he ir s pec ia l

b ur ia l t rea t men t ;

d eep ' shaf t ' g raves , c ists , f l in t mounds , e nc losures a nd

t he l i ke. e .

Af ew f e ma les a re p icked o u t f ro m t he r est b y Bronze a w ls , b ut t hese

d o n o t h ave ' r ich ' B eakers. f .

There a re s o me s uggest ions t ha t s o me o f t he ' r iches t ' b ur ia ls h ave b een

' r obbed ' f ro m t he s ca t tered r e ma ins i n s o me g raves. g .

Ch ildren a re u nder-represen ted .

h . Mound p ro m inence v ar ies c ons iderably ( as i n t he Deve lopmen ta l p er iod ). S o me b uria ls a re a lso p laced i n impor tan t ' r itua l a reas ' ( see b elow f or s t i mu lus — r esponse p a t tern ing ). i .

Ma les a re n or ma l ly l a id o n t he l ef t s ide a nd f e males o n t he r igh t .

When

t he r u le i sb roken i ta ppears t o b e f or p ar t icu larly ' r ich ' b ur ia ls. j .

S o me b ur ials a re p laced c en tra l ly i n t he b arrow , s o me marg ina l ly . The p a t tern i s i n many ways s im ilar t o t ha t a lready d escr ibed , b u t t he

d i f feren t ia t ions a re more n u merous i n b o th ' ver t ica l ' a nd ' hor izon ta l ' t er ms. D iscr im inan t a na lys is/Fac tor a na lys is :

The n ature o f d iscr im ina t ion

Fro m t he f actor a na lys is ( Fig. 9 .6 ) c erta in t rends b eca me a pparen t : i )

Accord ing t o t he f actor s core p lots t he ' vert ica l ' t endenc ies a re more l inear i n f or m.

There a re g enera l ly c loser r ela t ionsh ips b e tween

t he d if feren t v ar iables d escr ib ing e .g. a ssoc ia ted i t e ms a nd c are o f b ur ia l . i )

The f actor a na lys is s ee med t o p ick o u t ' groups ' o f v ar iables d escr ibi ng d if feren t ' k i ts ' ( Burgess a nd S he rman 1 976 e .g.) :

2 23

a .

Beaker d aggers/woodl ined g raves/ f l in t k n ives.

A lso V -perfora-

t ed b u ttons a nd d eep g raves. b .

Retouched f lakes a nd b lades/ma le b ur ia ls o n ly .

c .

Bronze d aggers/wr ist g uards/very h igh Beaker s cores/ large

b arrows. d .

Bone p ins/arrowheads.

e .

C en tre p os it ions/ jet i t e ms.

I n s o me ways t h is c ross-cu ts t he ' vert ica l ' s ca le.

Th is a l most c erta in ly

i nd ica tes mu l t ip le s tatuses a t t he ' t op e nd o f t he s oc ia l market '. i i )

There i s ag enera l ' break a ccord ing t o t he f actor p lots b e tween a g roup o f ,h igh s ta tus ' ma les a nd t he r est o f t he p opu la t ion ( s ee f i g. 9 .9 ).

i v )

The h igh l evel o f c orrela t ion b etween v ar iables d escr ibing ' l inear ' t rends was r e markable. Thus t he h ighes t s ta tus b uria ls m igh t b e e xpec ted t o h ave most o f t he f ol low ing : r ich a ccou tre men ts , c en tra l b arrow p os i t ion , s pec ia l ' protec t ion ' , d eep g raves , c orrec t o r ien tat i ons ( bu t s ee b elow ) e tc.

v )

There t hus s ee ms t o b e a n a l mos t s tandard ised f or m o f t rea tmen t f or b ur ia ls ( a l though o ne c an c o mpare t h is w i th Food Vesse l v ar ia t ion . On ly c erta in p ots h ad a l l o r e ven most o f t he f ine f ea tures ). G o ing a ga inst t h is t rend i s t he n eed f or e xot ica , t he n eed f or l eaders t o b e d if feren t ( see a bove ). These m igh t b e p icked o u tb y d e l ibera te c on trary o r ien ta t ion , v ery e xot ic i t e ms ( i nc lud ing u nusua l o r ' f ore ign ' Beakers ) o r e x tra-spec ia l t rea t men t.

Th is c an b e s een i n t he Food

Vessels t oo. I n Yorksh ire t he f ew ' exot ic ' v essels a l l g o t o t he ' t op e nd o f t he s oc ia l marke t '. The o ther p o in t t o n ote i s t he e x tre me f or m o f s ex a nd a ge g rade d iferent i a t ion w ith in t he s oc ie ty. The Beakers a lone d iv ide t he g roups i n to d iscre te b locks ( very wel l ) a nd t he b ur ia l t rea t men t i s n o d iferen t i n t h is r espect. By u s ing a d iscr im inan t a na lys is a nd t he f our p ar t s ex a nd a ge s ys tem ( adu l t ma le/adu l t f e ma le/sub-adu l t/ch i ld ) i ti s c lear t ha t d i f feren t iat ion b e tween t he g roups i s q u i te e asy .

9 0% o fb ur ia ls c an b e c orrec t ly d iscr im ina ted

( much h igh t han f or t he Developmen ta l o r E xpans ive p er iods ).

The ma in

d if ferences a re : a .

Ma le b ur ia ls a re more o f ten i n g raves t han a ny o ther g roup .

b .

Ma le b ur ia ls h ave a h igher a verage g rave d ep th .

c .

Adu l t ma les a re more r egu larly a ssocia ted w i th f l in t i t e ms.

d .

Adu l t ma le b ur ia ls a re t he o n ly o nes w i th a rrowheads.

e .

P lano-convex k n ives a re more o f ten w i th a du l t f e ma les t han a ny o ther

g roup . f .

Most o f t he j et i t e ms a par t f ro m V-per fora ted b u t tons a re w ith c h i ld ren

a nd f ema les.

2 24

F LORESCENT c orre la t ion - 0 -5 1

f actor

2

00

00

0

0

0 °° o °0

O

0

3

0

0

O 00 0

. _

n

c a ) 00 o n 0

0

1 C -

0

00 0 0 0 0 0 0

Oce rf , 0 0

0

0 0 f actor

c b

1 0

o

•

0

o

0

c o oo

0

0 0 0

00

0

c orre lat ion -0 -5 8 0 O

0

% Cg

F ig. 9 .6

0 / ' 4 e 10

C o

0 0 0

b O ie

88

CO

Fac tor s core p lots f or F lorescen t s oc ie ty b ur ia ls. 2 25

g .

A l l B ronze d aggers a re w i th a du l t ma les.

h .

Most woodl ined g raves a re a ssoc ia ted w i th f e ma les.

i .

A l l ' mu l t ip le ' b ur ia ls a re a ssoc ia ted w ith a du l t ma les.

j •

The v essel s core a nd h eigh t p a t terns a re a s d escribed i n c hap ter 3 .

k .

A l l g rades e xcep t s ub-adu l ts a re a ssoc ia ted w ith f l in t k n ives , b u t t he ma les h ave t he l argest f or ms.

1 .

Most ma les a re l a id o n t he l e f t a nd f e ma les o n t he r igh t .

The c h i ld g roup

i s e qua l ly s p l it . m .

Retouched f l akes a nd b lades a re most c o m mon ly w i th a du l t ma les.

n .

The l argest g roup o fb ur ia ls w i thou t Beakers a re a du l t f e males.

o .

Most ma les a re c en tra l i n b arrows ( 90% ), a much h igh f igure t han f or a ny o ther g roup ( f e ma les-28% ;

s ub-adu l ts-33% ;

c h ildren-46% ).

Th is may s uggest t ha t b arrows were n or ma l ly b u il t f or ma les. p .

The s ingle f l in t a xe i s w ith a n a du l t ma le.

c l •

The t wo e xa mp les o f Beaker d aggers a re b oth w i th a du l t ma les.

r .

The s ingle b ronze d agger i s w i th a n a du l t ma le .

S .

The s ingle w r ist g uard i s w i th a n a du l t ma le.

t .

Beaker p osi t ions :

t he b ack o f t he h ead p osi t ion i s p opu lar w i th a l l g rades

( 35% ). F ro m t he b ur ia l e v idence a lone i ti s p oss ible t o c onclude : 1 )

Tha t s oc ie ty i s l argely d iv ided o n t he b as is o f s ex a nd a ge ( ach ieved

s ta tus? ). 2 )

H or izon ta l a nd v ert ica l d iferen t ia t ion i s a pparen t , b u t l argely t he ' hori-

z on ta l ' p a t terns a re a t t he ' t op e nd o f t he s ca le ' among t he a du l t ma les. There i s o ne ma jor d iv is ion i n t he a dul t ma le p opu la t ion :

' r ich ' a nd t l ess

r ich '. 3 )

The v ert ica l p a t tern ing o f s oc iety i s v ery c lear.

A who le r ange o f f ea tures

h elp t o d if feren t ia te b ur ia ls o n t he ' ver t ica l a x is '. I n more g enera l t er ms t here a re i nd ica t ions f ro m t he g enera l d a ta o f i ncreas ing s oc ia l s tra t i f ica t ion : A .

The o ld ' r i tua l ' c en tres c on t inue t o b e u sed a nd a dded t o ( l abour

c osts e tc ). B .

E v idence o f t rade i s s trong.

I n t he l a ter Neol ith ic t here d oes s ee m

t o h ave b een i ncreased amoun t o f t rade i n a xes , b u t n ow b ronze , j e t , b a t t lea xes , p ot tery e tc. w ere p robably e x tens ively t raded . G . The g rea t d if feren t ia t ion i n ' qua l i ty ' o f i t e ms n o t ices i n t he D evelopmen ta l p er iod i s e ven more marked i n t h is * b lock ' . T h is d if feren t ia t ion was n ot o n ly ' bu il tin ' b u t was a lso e xp lo ited i n t er ms o f t he c ho ice o f i t e ms p laced w ith b ur ia ls a nd t he s pa t ia l d istribu t ion o f h igh q ual i ty i t e ms ( see b e low ).

2 26

D .

I n t er ms o f ' advert is ing ' a nd d isp lay , There was c lear p oten t ia l

s t i l l i n t er ms o f s o me o f t he ' r i tua l monu men ts ' , b u t n ow more i n t er ms o f p ortable i t e ms t ha t c ou ld b e c arr ied b y t he i nd iv idua l ( Ren frew h as n oted t h is d iv is ion a nd c oncluded t ha t t here a re d i fferences b etween t hese l a ter ' i nd iv id ua l is ing ' g roups a nd e arl ier ' co m mun ity-or ien ta ted ' s oc ie t ies ).

Id o n ot

wan t t o e n ter t he d eba te o f whe ther t he i n troduc t ion o f s uch f or ms o f ' wea l th ' Was c aused b y s oc ia l c hanges o r whe ther d e mand w i th in t he s oc ie ty b rough t a bou t ad e mand f or s uch i t e ms t hus c ausing d evelopmen ts. t wo p ossib i l i t ies s hou ld b e b orne i n m ind .

N evertheless t hese

The i ncreased n eed f or ' d isp lay '

c an a lso b e s een i n t er ms o f more w idespread g roups , w i th more n eed f or s ymbol is m-recogn i t ion when mee t ings d id t ake p lace. It h ink t he more g enera l d a ta s ee ms t o c on f ir m t he p a t terns i nd ica ted b y t he b uria l i n for ma t ion . Th is s trong d iscr im ina t ion/h igh l evel o f s ymbol is m i s t he k ind o f p a t tern p red ic ted b y t he model . One s hou ld p erhaps b e l ook ing f or d i f feren t ia l t ask o r ien ta t ion , i ncreased ' s tress ' e tc. t o s et a ga inst t hese p a t terns. H owever , Iw ou ld p refer more s e t t le men t e v idence b efore e n tering t ha t d eba te. D .

E xpansive p er iod ( Food Vessel )

For t h is p er iod Ih ave a sse mbled 1 92 b ur ia ls w i th Food Vessel a ssoc ia t ions. C lus ter a na lys is —d if feren t ia t ions Basic d iv is ions w ith in t he b ur ia l p opu la t ion a re r ead i ly a pparen t : a .

There i s ab as ic d ivis ion o f s oc iety o n t he b as is o f s ex a nd a ge g rades i n

t he f or ms o f t he v esse ls, t he t ypes o f a ssoc ia ted a rtefac ts a nd ' care ' t aken a tb ur ia l ( s ee b elow ). b .

Wi th in t he a dul t ma le g roup a re more ' wea l thy ' b ur ia ls w i th r ich g rave

a ssoc ia t ions , f ine v essels a nd t he l i ke. The most ' va luable ' i t e ms s eem t o b e r estricted t o t he a du l t ma le g roup a l mos t w i thou t e xcep t ion a nd p art icu larly t o t hese ' r ich ' g raves . c .

Ch ildren a re u nder-represen ted.

d .

There a re a v arie ty o f d if feren t b arrow p os i t ions : i ) i )

e .

c en tra l g raves a nd w ood-l ined c en tra l h ol lows. s econdary i nsert ions n ear Beaker b uria ls.

i i )

S a tel l i te b ur ia ls i n l arge b arrow g roups.

i v )

C o m muna l g roup ings.

Orien ta t ion a nd t he p os it ion o f t he b ur ia l o n ly c orrela te t o al im ited e x ten t

w i th t he s ex a nd a ge o r ' r ichness ' o f t he b ur ia l . f .

There i s ad iv is ion b etween i nhu ma t ion a nd c re ma t ion b ur ia ls ( cre ma ted

b ur ia ls w i th Beakers f or e xa mp le a re r are ). Cre ma t ion may t ake v ar ious f or ms : I ) i ) i i )

C re ma t ion i nh eaps p laced w i th i nhu ma t ions. MuL ip le c re ma t ions ( s o me t i mes i n l argevesse ls ). S ingle c re ma t ions. 2 27

Fac tor a na lys is —d iscr im inan t a na lysis :

t he n a ture o f d if feren t ia t ion

F or t he f actor a na lys is h ere , Ii ncluded a n umber o f v ariables d escr ib ing v esse l f or m t o e xa m ine t he e x ten t t o wh ich s uch f ac tors d o r ela te t o g enera l g rave t rea t men t v ar iab il ity. Once a ga in , a s w i th B eakers , t here w ere i nd ic a t ions o f ' k i ts ' o f i t e ms p laced w ith b ur ia ls : 1 .

P iano . -convex k n ife / bronze d agger/kn i fe l eng th .

2 .

B one-p ins/ f l in ts/scrapers/p iano convex k n ives.

3 .

H igh q ua l i ty v essels/woodl ined g raves/barrow s ize.

4 .

Kn ives a nd s crapers.

5 .

Bronzes/ je t o b jec ts.

T o s o me e x ten t t hese a re ' hor izon ta l ' d if feren t ia t ions i n t he s er ies , b u t t he ma in t rend i n t he 1 92 F ood V esse l b uria ls i s al i near o ne a s m igh t b e s een i n t he f actor p lots ( Fig. 9 .7 ). i )

The g enera l t rends s eem t o b e t ha t :

The r ela t ionsh ip b e tween t wo a spec ts o fv essel ' qua l ity ' i s a ga in s hown c learly .

i )

The g ood l evel o f r ela t ionsh ip b e tween t h is v ariabi l ity a nd g rave f ea tures i s i nd ica ted i n t he f igures ( Figs. 9 .7 ).

i i )

G rave d ep th v ar iab il i ty a nd b arrow p os i t ion ing i s g enera l ly l ess i mportan t t han i n e i ther o f t he t wo p reced ing ' b locks '.

i v )

The ' r ich ' i t e ms s uch a s b ronze a nd j et s ee m t o b e a l mos t i sola ted f ro m t he mass o f t he p opu la t ion . h ave t h is e n t i t le men t .

On ly af ew ' we l l t rea ted ' b ur ia ls

H owever b oth b ronze aw ls a nd j et i t e ms a re

p laced w i th f e ma les a nd t here d oes s eem t ob e s o meth ing o f a' sp l i t ' a ppearing w ith in t he f e ma le p opu la t ion , c erta in ly more t han was a pparen t w i th t he Beakers. I n t he f igure ( 9 .7 ) Ih ave p lo t ted s o me o f t he d istribu t ion o f ' grave t rea tmen ts ' a ga inst f ac tors o f v essel ' qua l i ty ' ( Figs. 9 .13-14). A . Aw ls , b one p ins a nd g raves. a round t he l ower e nd o f t he s ca le.

B one p ins a nd b ronze aw ls b o th c luster

B . Woodl ined g raves , ' Ex tra ' v essels ( unassoc ia ted v essels i nt he s a me b arrow ) , l arge b arrows. The c on trast b e tween t he f i rst t wo o f t hese i s q u i te marked t he f or mer i s l argely a t t he t op e nd o f t he s ca le. C .

F l in t , p iano-convex k n ives , j e t .

On ly p ia no-convex k nives g roup

c learly a t t he t op e nd o f t he s ca le. D .

Ma les a nd f e ma les.

There a re g enera l t rends o f ' d iscri m ina t ion '.

E . Adu l ts , j uven i les a nd c h i ldren. l ower e nd o f t he s ca le. F .

Bur ia l p os it ion a nd o r ien ta t ion .

The c h i ldren a re mos tly a t t he

The b ur ia ls p laced i n t he s ou thern

p art o fb arrows a re a t t he l ower e nd o f t he s ca le . G .

L ugs a nd ' Heavy ' d ecora t ion .

s ca le. 2 28

B oth c lus ter a t t he t op e nd o f t he

0

•

o G

4 °80 % •

•

•

• •

0

0 •

0 0

f actor 6

•male

S.

I f ema le

0 0

c orre lat ion 0 .6 3

•

ä . 0

0

0

0

0 0 0

0

C0 D0

0

0

C0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0

0 0

0 800 e

o

f actor 1

o

0

B

0 0

Ä äk Ä

0

°

0

*

( 1 0

A IL

A

PC K n ife Wood g rave

CO co 0

0

0

F ig. 9 .7

Fac tor s core p lots f or Food V essel b urials ( Expansive ). 2 29

H .

Angu larity a nd Body s tyle.

The c oncen tra t ion o f v essels w i th ' f ine '

a ngu lar ity a nd b ody s tyle a t t he u pper e nd o f t he s ca le i s marked. Tab le 9 .2

A c o mpar ison o f s ex a nd a ge g rad ing i n F lorescent a nd E xpansive s ociety Means

F ood V esse ls Ch i ld

Variab le

R im d ia me ter B eve l w id th

J uveni le

F e ma le

1 3 .0

1 4 .1

1 4 .6

1 .5

1 .6

1 .5

Ma le

1 4 .9 cm 1 .7 cm

1 .6

1 .1

1 .3

1 .6 iv a lue

We igh t/decora t ion

1 1 .1

1 1 .3

1 0 .6

1 6 .1 v a lue

S urface t rea t men t ( 1-25 )

1 3 .1

1 4 .5

1 4 .2

1 8 .2 v a lue

L ugs ( 1-5 )

H erringbone b ody ( 1-5 )

1 .64

1 .64

1 .28

2 .00 v a lue

B ody s ty le ( 1-9 )

3 .48

4 .09

5 .04

7 .13 v a lue

1 .00 (none )

1 .00

1 .00

1 .13 v a lue

Angu lari ty ( 1-5 )

3 .67

3 .63

3 .52

4 .33 v a lue

F l in ts ( 1-2 )

1 .21

1 .27

1 .00(none )

F a lse r e lief ( 1-2; p resence/absence )

1 .27 v a lue

P lano-convex k nives ( 1-2 )

1 .00 (none )

1 .09

1 .00

1 .28 v a lue

J et ( 0-1; p resence/absence )

0 .00 (none )

0 .00

0 .24

0 .03 v a lue

B ronze ( 0-1 )

0 .00(none )

0 .00

0 .00

1 .03 v a lue

B uria l o rien ta t ions

e as t

e as t

wes t

wes t

5 4

1 0

5 6

6 8 cm

B eakers G rave d ep th C en tra li ty ( 1-3 )

1 .7

1 .7

1 .4

1 .1(1 i s

F lin ts ( 1-2)

1 .12

1 .00 (none )

1 .27

1 .45

P lano-convex k nives ( 1-2 )

1 .00(none )

1 .00

1 .57

1 .00 v a lue

c en tre )

1 .00 (none )

Daggers ( 1-2 )

1 .00

B eaker s core

1 9

2 2

2 nd B eaker

n ever

n ever

Wood l i ned g raves ( 1-2)

1 .06

1 .00 (none )

1 .00 2 3 n ever 1 .29

1 .10 v a lue 3 0 3c ases 1 .05 v a lue

Overa l l , t he p a t terns a re n ot v ery d issi m ilar t o t hose o f t he B eakers . One ma jor d ifference i s t he l ess s trong s ex a nd a ge g raded n ature o f t he r ela t ionsh ips.

I n t he d iscr im inan t a na lysis o n ly 6 5% o f b urials were c orrec t ly

c lass if ied t o o ne o f t he f our c lasses.

The ma in d i fferences b etween t he s ex

a nd a ge g roups a re a s f ol lows ( Figs. 9 .15-16) : i ) i ,

Adul ts a nd s ub-adu l ts a re i n d eeper g raves t hen c h ildren . Most p iano-convex k n ives a re w i th a du l t males a nd v irtual ly a l l t he l arge o nes.

2 30

i i )

The f e ma les h ave t he l owest n umber o f f l in t i t e ms w i th t he m .

i v )

J e t i t e ms a re n or ma l ly w ith a du l t f e ma les.

v ) v i ) v i i )

Bronze a w ls a re most c o m mon ly w i th a du l t f e ma les. B one p ins a re f ound w i th j uven i les a nd c h ildren . ' R icher i t e ms ' s uch a s b a t t le a xes , b ronze d aggers , e tc . a re a l l a ssoc ia ted w i th a du l t ma les.

v i i i )

Adu l t ma les a nd s ub-adu l ts most c o m mon ly h ave w ood-l ined g raves.

The c h i ldren w ith f ew ' d iagnost ic ' i t e ms h ave t he p oorest ' d iscr im ina t ion ' l evels ( 5 4% ) whereas t he j uven iles ( 7 5% ) h ave t he b es t . Fur ther d iscr im inan t a na lys is s howed t ha t t here was , w ith in t he a du l t ma le p opu la t ion , as p l i t b e tween t he o lder ma les ( who h ad t he ' r ichest ' i t e ms t he most e xot ic F ood Vesse ls e tc.) , t ha t i s t hose o ver 3 0 y ears o f a ge , a nd t he y ounger o nes.

Th is s ee ms t o f i t w e l l w i th t he p a t terns s uggested b y t he

B eakers ; n a me ly t he t t here a re n or ma l ways o f t rea t ing a du l t ma les , b u t t ha t s o me w ere a ble t o g e t ' spec ia l t rea t men t '. However , i n t he c ase o f t he Food V essels Imust s tress a ga in t he marked ' l inear ' t rend a nd t he l ess c lear g rad ing.

S o me c h i ldren a nd f e ma les were

g et t ing e xcep t iona l t rea t men t ( i n av ar ie ty o f ways ) a nd s ee med t ob e h igher u p t he ' ver t ica l ' s ca le.

Th is ma tches a t rend s een ( bu t n ot y e t d iscussed ) a t

t he e nd o f t he ' Beaker b lock ', where af ew c h i ld b ur ia ls s ee m t o b e g e t t ing more o rna te b ur ia l c are.

Th is may i nd ica te a c hange i n s oc ie ty t o more

' a scribed s ta tus ' , b u t Id o n ot i ns ist u pon i t .

There a re s o me s uggest ions i n

f ac t t ha t t he F ood V essel g roup h ere i s i nco mp le te a nd ' above ' i to n t he v ert ica l s ca le a re r icher b ur ia ls s t il l ( who s ee m t o b e e xclus ively a du l t ma les ) a s r epresen ted b y t he Yorksh ire ' dagger g raves ' a nd e spec ia l ly T ow thorpe 1 39 ( Mort i mer 1 905 —a l arge b arrow , b u i l t l i ke many o f t he more ' orna te ' F ood V essel b arrows a nd c on ta in ing a n i nd iv idua l w i th a ' Wessex ' t ype d agger ). Certa in o b jec ts d o s ee m i nd ica t ive o f p ar t icu lar s ta tuses.

T o s e lec t

j us t t wo e xa mp les t here a re c lear d if ferences b etween t hose b ur ia ls w ith w oodl ined g raves a nd t he r est o f t he p opu la t ion a nd b e tween t hose b uria ls w i th p lano-convex k n ives a nd t he o ther F ood V essel b uria ls. These d i fferences a re p ar t ly o n t he ' v ert ica l ' s ca le ( bu t most ' hor izon ta l ' v ar ia t ion i n B eakers was a t t he ' t op e nd o f t he s ca le ' ), b u t a lso o n t he h orizon ta l. a na lysis s howed t ha t : 1 .

D iscri m inan t

Bur ia ls w ith Wood-l ined g raves were d iferen t f ro m t he r est o f t he p op-

u la t ion i n t he f o l low ing ways : i ) i )

The v essels h ad w ider b evels a nd b roader r i ms. The v essels h ad l ugs more f requen t ly.

i i )

The v essels h ad a g rea ter ' we igh t ' o f d ecora t ion .

i v )

The v essels h ad b et ter s urface t rea t men t .

v ) v i )

The v 3sse ls h ad more o rna te b ody s tyle. The v essels h ad b et ter f or med r i ms a nd b od ies. 2 31

v i i ) v i i i ) i x ) x ) x i ) x i i ) x i i i )

The v esse ls were more a ngu lar a nd h ad b e t ter f oot s hapes. There a re n o a ssoc ia ted b ronze aw ls. The b ur ia ls h ave l i t t le o r n o j et . The b ur ia ls a re more f requen t ly a ssoc ia ted w ith p lano-convex k n ives. The b ur ia ls h ave more e asterly o r ien ta t ions. The b ur ia ls h ave more f l in t . The b ur ia ls a re p laced i n l arger b arrows.

The d iscr im ina t ion l eve l i s 8 2% .

The d if ferences a re q u i te c lear a nd

Iwou ld s uggest i nd ica tes a ' horizon ta l ' d iv is ion a t t he u pper e nd o f t he s ta tus s ca le.

There a re s uggest ions ( f ro m Mort i mer 1 905 r ecords ) t ha t i t may b e

ac hronolog ica l ' horizon ' b ecause b arrow s truc tures a nd s izes a re g enera l ly s im ilar a nd c o mparable a lso w ith T owthorpe 1 39. 2 .

Bur ia ls a ssoc ia ted w i th p lano-convex k n ives a re d if feren t f ro m t he r es t

o f t he p opu la t ion i n t he f ol low ing ways : a . b .

They h ave l ugged v essels more f requen t ly. They h ave g rea ter we igh t o f s urface d ecora t ion a nd b et ter t rea t men t o n v essels.

c .

They h ave more h err ingbone d ecora ted v esse ls.

d .

They h ave more ' orna te ' b ody s tyle v essels.

e .

The v essels h ave b et ter f or med r i ms a nd b ody.

f .

The v essels h ave more f a lse r el ief d ecora t ion .

g .

The v esse ls h ave more a ngu lar f or ms.

h .

T he b ur ia ls h ave l ess j e t .

i .

They a re r arely p laced i n g raves.

j .

They a re more c o m mon ly i n woodl ined a reas.

k .

They h ave more f l in t i t e ms. The d iscr im ina t ion l eve l i s 9 0% . Fro m t he b ur ia l e v idence a lone t here i s c lear ' soc ia l p a t tern ing '.

Ar tefactua l ly o u ts ide t he b ur ia l c on tex t e v idence i s s l igh t.

However t here

a re s t i l l s uggest ions t ha t : A .

There was a marked q ua l i ty d ivers ity i n t he p er iod , r ecogn ised b y

t he p opu la t ion a nd e xp lo i ted f or t he p urposes o f s ta tus d e marca t ion b u t a lso s pa t ia l ly marked ( see b elow ). B .

The b u ild ing o f l arge ' monu men ta l ' b arrows c on t inued , b u t t here i s

n o e v idence o f a ny o f t he c oun try 's l arge c ere mon ia l monu men ts b e ing b u il t a t t h is t ime. C .

There i s c on t inu ing e v idence o f w idespread t rade o f i t e ms o f v a lue ,

wh • Lch a ccord ing t o t he b ur ia l e v idence were ' con trol led ' b y al im ited s eg men t o f t he p opula t ion 2 32

C onc lus ions The % lock ' o n t he whole s ee ms t o b e c harac ter ised b y mos t o f t he f ea tures t ha t were n oted i n t he F lorescen t p er iod .

There a re c hanges ; t here i s a

move men t i n to n ew g eograph ica l ly a reas ( f ro m t he p ol len e v idence a nd b ur ia l ma ter ia l , e spec ia l ly o n to t he n orth Yorksh ire Moors ).

I nd iv idua l s ta tus s ee ms

t o b e s t i l l i mpor tan t a nd i s c lose ly r e la ted t o s ex a nd a ge g rades w i th in t he s oc ie ty ( pa t terns t ha t c harac ter ise s oc ie t ies o f ' ach ieved s ta tus ' ) , b u t t here a re t rends a ga ins t t h is ( e .g . r icher c h i ldren ) wh ich may s ugges t a move t o more p ermanen t s ta tus .

I n t er ms o f t he mode l , t he s y mbo l is m , t he p ersona l

a dver t is ing ( image c u l t iva t ion ' ,) e tc . a re s t i l l p resen t.

The s trong t rends o f

' v er t ica l ' s tra t if ica t ion c ross-cu tb y ' hor izon ta l ' d iv is ions s ee ms q u i te c lear. D .

Expans ive p er iod —non F ood Vessel

I ti s c lear t ha t t he Col lared U rns l arge ly o ver lap w i th Food Vessels c hronolog ica l ly , b u t t here a re l oca l ' preferences '.

Whe ther t here a re a lso

s ta tus d iv is ions o n t h is b asis i s h arder t o s ay . Unfortuna tely t he s ex a nd a ge d a ta f or t h is l arge g roup o f ma ter ia l i s v ery p oor b ecause many o f t he b ur ia ls w ere b y c re ma t ion a nd most o f t hese r e ma in u n iden t if ied o r h ave b een l ost .

N evertheless t here a re s t il l c lear

p a t terns, a long f am il iar l i nes, w ith in t he s oc ie ty r epresen ted . C luster a na lys is —d i f feren t ia t ions There a re s evera lb as ic d if ferences : i ) i )

C re ma t ion/ inhuma t ion . D if feren t ia lb arrow s ize.

i i )

D i f feren t ia l s pa t ia l g roup ings a nd p os i t ions.

i v )

Ch ildren a re u nder-represen ted .

The c luster ing p rogra m me a ga in p icked o u t ag roup o f much r icher b ur ia l o f t he p er iod , s uper i mposed a bove t he r est o f t he p opu la t ion .

These were :

a .

I n l arge p ro m inen t b arrows o n h il l-top ( or n ear ) l oca t ions.

b .

I n d eep p rotec ted g raves.

c .

P laced i n o ak c of f ins.

d .

Had l arge n u mbers o f ' grave a ssoc ia t ions '.

e .

Had ' exo t ic ' o b jec ts s uch a s :

f a ience , b a t t le-axes , b ronze d aggers ,

o rna te j et w ork , e tc . f .

Had s pec ia l b ur ia l p os it ions.

A n u mber a re l a id a t f u l l l ength ( e .g.

T ow thorpe 1 39 o r Gr isthorpe ). A n u mber o f t hese e xot ic a nd r ich i t e ms a re i l lustra ted ( p la tes X IV-XVI o f v ar ious p er iods ).

2 33

Factor a na lys is —D iscr im inan t a na lys is :

The n a ture o f d if ferences

The b as ic s ex a nd a ge d if ferences a re a ga in p resen t a s f ol lows : a .

Adu l ts w ere p laced i n d eeper g raves t han s ub-adu l ts o r c h ildren .

b .

F l in t i t e ms were p laced most c o m mon ly w i th a du l t ma les a nd mos t r are ly w ith a du l t f e ma les.

c .

Adu l t ma les t end t o b e more f requen t ly c en tra l ly p laced t han a ny o ther g roup a nd more o f ten o n t he o ld g round s urface ( or b e low ).

d .

Kn ives were n oted w i th j uven iles a nd c h ildren , b u t t he s pec ia l f or ms ( espec ia l ly t he p lano-convex ) a re l argely r es tr ic ted t o t he a du l t males.

e .

J et i t e ms w ere mos t c o m mon ly f ound w i th a du l t f e ma les.

f .

B ronze a w ls were a ssoc ia ted most c o m mon ly w i th a du l t f e ma les a nd b ronze d aggers e xc lus ive ly w i th a du l t ma les.

g .

B one p ins were a ssoc ia ted w i th s ub-adu l ts a nd c h i ldren.

h .

Adu l t b ur ia ls t ended t o b e i n l arger b arrows.

i .

The s ingle b a t t le-axe i s p laced w i th a n a du l t ma le.

j .

Most w ood-l ined g raves a re a ssoc ia ted w i th a du l t ma les a nd f e ma les s ee m t o b e e xc luded.

k .

There a re m inor d if ferences i n t er ms o f o r ien ta t ion a nd p osi t ion .

1 .

The o n ly macehead i s w ith a n a du l t ma le.

m.

C ol lared u rns a re mos t r arely f ound w i th a du l t i nhu ma t ions. H owever o f 3 50 ( o f 1 001) b ur ia ls o n ly 5 1.4% a re d iscr im ina ted b y s ex

a nd a ge. The g roup was t oo u nw ieldy t o u se a f ac tor a na lys is , It herefore i sola ted t he c ol lared u rn p opu la t ion .

A s w ith F ood V esse ls t here were t rends o f g rave

' k i ts ', t hese w ere n o t p art icu larly c lear , b u t i nc luded : i ) i )

P lano-convex k n ives/unassoc ia ted b arrow v essels. C en tral ity/bone p ins/scrapers.

i i )

Ba t t le-axes/bronze d aggers/accessory v essels/bone p ins .

i v )

Wood-l ined g raves/bone p ins.

v )

I nhu ma t ion/bat t le-axe/wood-l ined g rave .

I t s ee ms l i kely t ha t o nce a ga in ' hor izon ta l ' a nd ' vert ica l ' d if ferences c an b e r ecogn ised .

H owever t hroughou t t he ' Bronze A ge ' p er iods ( Florescen t

a nd E xpans ive ) Ih ave b een n ot ing t he ' sp l it ' p art icu larly i n t he ma le p opula t ion b etween t hose b ur ia ls w ith ' l ower s ta tus ' a nd t hose w i th ' h igher '.

I n t h is

b lock t he d i f feren t ia t ion s ee ms most c lear ( and i s i n s o me ways a k in t o s oc ie ta l p a t tern ing i n t he Deve lopmen ta l p hase ).

There i s l ess o f t he l inear

t rend n oted w i th t he F ood Vessels o n t he ' vert ica l ' s ca le a nd more d iv ision i n to g roups o f ' r ich ' a nd ' l ess r ich ' b ur ia ls.

2 34

The r ich b ur ia ls a re v ery c learly d if feren t ia ted . They a re p laced i n b arrows w i th t he b es t ' advert is ing s pace ' ( see c hap ter 1 0 ); t hey h ave t he r arest a nd most e xot ic i t e ms p laced w i th t he m , a nd h ave g rea tes t c are t aken o f t he m when t hey a re b ur ied ( even t o p u t t ing t he m i n o ak c of f ins ). Iwou ld a lso l i ke t o p o in t o u t at rend o f i ncreas ing d ichoto my b e tween a du l t ma les a nd f e ma les wh ich o n t he ' s tress ' t ype h ypothes is m igh t b e e xp ec ted ( a l though i ti s more d if f icu l t t o e xp la in ).

Th is c erta in ly g oes r igh t

b ack t o t he F lorescen t p er iod , b u t i s a s c lear i n t he E xpans ive p er iod a s e ver.

The d if ferences a re i n t er ms o f o ppos i tes t hroughou t :

s ide ;

f l in t/no f l in t , r ich i t e ms/no r ich i t e ms , ' t r inke ts '/no ' t r inke ts '.

w i l l s how l a ter t ha t i ti s ak ey f ea ture f or F ood V esse ls t oo.

r igh t s ide/ lef t I

One wonders

d oes t h is mean i ncreased d if feren t ia l t ask o r ien ta t ion/more r es tr ict ion o n r esources e tc . More g enera l n on-bur ia l e v idence f or s oc ieta l d evelop men t i s l argely a bsen t b u t : A .

T he q ua l ity d i f feren t ia t ion s een i n t he o ther ' b locks ' i s p resen t h ere

a lso. B .

There i s at rend t owards e ven more ' exot ic o b jec ts ' ( t h is r eaches

i t s p eak i n Wessex i n t he c on te mporary p er iod ). C .

There i s aw ide u se o f ' d isp lay ' o fb arrows.

There i s s o me d iv is ion

a t t h is t ime b etween l arge b arrows w i th f ew b ur ia ls o n h i l l-tops a nd sma l ler b arrows w ith many b ur ia ls a bove t he v a l leys ( Danby R igg e .g. F ig. 1 0.4 ). T he d isp lay e le men t d oes n ot s ee m t o b e a cco mpan ied b y mass ive s hows o f s oc ieta l c on trol D .

( e .g. mass ive w orks o f e ng ineer ing ).

The c on t inu ing t rend i s t owards i t e ms w i th a dvert is ing p oten t ia l

( chap ter 1 0 ) t o b e p or table a nd p ersona l ( more i n terna t iona l? ). C onclusions The p a t terns o f ' vert ica l ' a nd ' horizon ta l ' d i fferen t ia t ion s een i n e arl ier p er iods a re a pparen t h ere a lso. T o s o me e x ten t s oc iety s ee ms t o b e l ess s trongly s ex a nd a ge g raded , wh ich may s uggest a c on t inu ing t rend t o more p er manen t f or ms o f s ta tus. Un fortuna te ly w e c annot f o l low t h is i n to s ucceed ing p hases, a t l east a s f ar a s t he b ur ia l ma ter ia l i s c oncerned. G ENERAL CONCLUS IONS—SECT ION ONE By u s ing i n ter-rela t ionsh ips o f l arge n u mbers o f v ar iables c er ta in p a tt erns emerge f ro m t he b ur ia l d a ta o f t he p er iod u nder r ev iew.

These c an

b e s et a ga inst t he ' S ta tus I den t i ty ' model o u t l ined : A .

I n t er ms o f ' ver t ica l s ta tus ' t he r ela t ionsh ips a re s o g ood i n a l l

p er iods t ha t o ne c an a l mos t p lo t i nd iv idua ls o n t he s oc ia l h e irachy e ven i f t hey l ack s o me o f t he ' nor ma l ' p arapherna l ia .

I n a l l p er iods r are i t e ms ,

o b jec ts s elected f ro m t he ' t op o f t he marke t ' , ' exo t ic ' ma ter ia ls , v a luable g oods e tc. w ou ld a l l s ee m t o b etoken a h igh p osi t ion w i th in t he s oc ie ty.

Th is

w ou ld ma tch w i th t he s uggest ions o f s y mbol is m made i n t he t heory s ec t ion . These v ar iables r e la te v ery c losely w i th f ea tures o fb arrow t ype , b ur ia l p rotect ion , b arrow p os i t ion , b ur ia l p osit ion , c are o fb ur ia l , l abour i nvested e tc .

I n t h is way o ne c an map o u t a' l inear v er t ical s ca l ing ' . 2 35

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S ex/age s ocia l c hanges ( amount o f g oods a nd c are '. 2 36

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Nascent-Expansive s ocia l c hanges a nd b uria ls . 2 37

MAN

B .

However , p ar t icu larly o n t he b asis o f t he f actor p lots a nd d iscri m i-

n an t a na lys is i tc an b e s een t ha t t here a re v ery d iscre te g roups o n t h is ' ver t ic a l ' s ca le.

Through F lorescen t —Expans ive p er iods ( and p robably D evelop men-

t a l p er iod t oo ) t here i s ac lear ' s ta tus' s p l i t i n t he a du l t ma le p opu la t ion . Th is i s v ery c lear p ar t icu larly f or t he Beakers a nd C ol lared Urn s e ts ( f ig . 9 .8 ) • C .

C ross-cu t t ing t he b as ic ' ver t ica l ' t rends a re h or izon ta l p a t terns o f

' s tatus k i ts ' . Sma l l g roup ings o f t ypes o f g rave t rea t men t a nd a ssoc ia ted a rte facts. H owever t hese d if feren t ' s ta tuses ' ( i f s uch t hey b e ) a re l argely c on f ined a ga in t o t he t op e nd o f t he , s ca le. D .

I n a l l p er iods , b ar t he Nascen t , t here a re b as ic d iv is ions o n t he

l i nes o f s ex a nd a ge. men ta l p er iod . p osi t ions.

T he s ex d iv is ions f i rst b eco me a pparen t i n t he D evelop-

F e ma les a re b arred f ro m t he ' t op o f t he market ' s ta tus

B y t he F lorescen t p er iod t he d if ferences a re most marked .

I ndeed ,

t here a re s uggest ions p erhaps o f ' s tress ' b e tween t he g roups o r t h is may s i mp ly b e c onnec ted w ith d if feren t r oles/ tasks w i th in t he s oc iety. T he c ons tan t u se o f ' oppos i tes ' f or d if ferences b e tween ma les a nd f e ma les i s most marked.

Ch i ldren i n a l l p er iods a re b oth u nder-represen ted a nd a re r arely

p laced i n i mportan t b arrow p os i t ions o r a ssoc ia ted w ith r ich g rave g oods ( f ig . 9 .9 ). I n s o me t er ms o ne m igh t s ee t hese c hanges ( S erv ice 1 962 ) r epresen t ing a move f ro m e ga l i tar ian t hrough 'ach ieved Is ta tus s oc iet ies t o o nes o f ' ascribed ' s ta tus.

H owever , It h ink t h is i s a n o ver-s i mp l if ica t ion a nd i s v ery h ard t o

d e mons tra te.

More i mpor tan t t han t h is i s t he g enera l o pen ing o f t he ' gaps '

i n s oc iety , i ncreas ing d iscr im ina t ion .

Th is i s a cco mpan ied b y as er ies o f

importan t d eve lopmen ts : 1 .

The f ac i l i ta t ion o f ' cho ices ' o f a rtefacts o n t he g rounds o f q ua l ity.

Th is a l lows d if feren t ia l a ccess t o r esources. s tressed t hroughou t t h is w ork ;

Qua l i ty v ar ia t ion h as b een

Ib el ieve i tt o b e e xcep t iona l ly u sefu l i n

l ook ing a t t hese e arly s oc iet ies a nd s o me th ing o f ak ey t o c hange. 2 .

I ncreased ' adver t is ing ' p otent ia l .

The D eve lop men ta l s oc ie t ies s how

s o me ' persona l ' d isp lay , b u t i n t he f o l low ing p hases t h is i ncreases r ap id ly . l ti s p oss ible t o s ee t h is i n t er ms o f i ncreased p ersonal s y mbol is m , o r s i mp ly ' image c rea t ion '. 3 .

T o s e t w ith t h is l a t ter i s t he i ncreased s tandard isa t ion o f s y mbols

( t he ' k i ts ' ) wh ich s ee m t o b e af ea ture o f t he F lorescen t s oc iety i n p ar t icular. I n n on f acetoface g roups i ti s i mportan t t o k now who ( h is r ole ) s o meone i s ( accord ing t o ' ro le ' t heory .

B idd le a nd Tho mas ( 1 966 )), t h is c an b es t b e

a cco mp l ished b y c arry ing r ecogn isable s y mbols ( bu t a lso b y b ody s tance , f ac ia l e xpress ion e tc .) . Thus i ti s c lear t ha t s ta tus d if ferences c an b e r ecogn ised f ro m b urials ( by s e t t ing l arge n u mbers o f v ar iables a ga inst a d yna m ic p erspec t ive ). H owever , when t a lk ing o f ' i den t i t ies ' a t b ur ia l , o ne n eeds t o t alk o f t he ' group ' t ha t b ur ied t he i nd iv idua l .

Iwou ld a sk ( a q ues t ion w h ich Ic annot s a t isfactor i ly

a nswer myse lf ) , a re t he i nd iv idua l s ta tus/d isp lay i t e ms a lso p art o f a' group i den t ity ' ? F unera ls e tc. a re c er ta in ly more i mpor tan t t o t he g roup t han t o t he d eceased a f ter a l l :

I f Ih ave t o a nswer , i tw ou ld h ave t o b e ' yes ',

The

i nd iv idua l i s j us t p art o f ag roup , h is ' roles ' a re o n ly r ecogn ised b y t ha t

2 38

g roup ( or o ther l im i ted g roups ) , h is s oc ia l s ta tus i s g roup o r ien ta ted , h is ' power ' , i fh e h as a ny , i s o n ly r e la ted t o t he g roup ( i n s oc ia l t er ms ). Hav ing a sked g enera l ' s ta tus " q uest ions.

Iw i l l a t te mp t t o a nswer a f ew

p art icu lar q uest ions t ha t h ave b een p u t f orward i n t he l i tera ture : 1 .

A c lose r ela t ionsh ip w il l e x is t b e tween t he n u mber a nd t ypes o f a r tefac ts

a nd t he p osi t ion i n t he c o m mun i ty o f t he i nd iv idua l i n terred . T he r e la t ionsh ip i n a l l t he p er iods a f ter t he l a ter N eol i th ic b e tween b ur ia l s ta tus a nd a r tefac ts s ee ms q u ite c lear. F l in t i t e ms o f a l l k inds r e la te t o ma le b ur ia ls a nd p ar t icu lar ly t he more e xo t ic t ypes s uch a s p lano-convex k n ives. Most o f t he o rna te i t e ms s uch a s b a t t le-axes , Beaker d aggers , Bronze d aggers e tc. a re r ela ted o n ly a du l t ma les.

There i s ac lose r ela t ionsh ip b e tween t he

d e ta i ls o f v ar iab i l ity o f s uch i t e ms a s F ood V essels a nd t he o rgan isa t ion o f t he s oc iety a s i nd ica ted b y t he mortuary d a ta . 2 .

Ag roup p art ic ipa t ing i n t he f unera l may b e u t il ised t o e xpend l abour. P art icu larly i n t he l a ter N eol i th ic , t he more i mportan t b ur ia ls s ee m t o

b e p laced i n d eep g raves.

The Yorksh ire ' sha f t g raves ' a s t hey a re c a l led

a re w el l-known f ea ture o f t he L a ter N eol ith ic a nd Beaker ' b locks '. a ppear t o b e r ela ted t o importan tb ur ia ls.

They

A l arge n u mber o f t he m a ppear

t o h ave b een p lundered ( as i nd ica ted b y Beaker s herds e tc . f ound i n t he m ) o r a re r edug.

S o me o f t he g raves a re 6 -10 f eet d eep wh ich wou ld r equ ire a

ma jor p iece o f e ng ineer ing o n i n tract ible ma ter ia l s uch a s c ha lk .

A lso t he

s ize o f b arrows ,t hough d if f icu l t t o r ely o n i n v iew o f t he q ua l i ty o f t he d a ta u sed h ere ld oes s ee m t o r ela te t o t he i mpor tance o fb ur ia ls.

The ma jor g roup

o f F ood V essel b ur ia ls w i th woodl ined g raves a re a l l i n l arge e ar thern b arrows , a nd t he t wo g rea t mounds o f t he l a ter N eol ith ic i n Yorksh ire a t Dugg leby H owe a nd Wi l l ie Howe mus t h ave r equ ired o ver 1 5,000 man h ours t o c onstruc t ( 1 50 f eet o r more i n d ia meter a nd 4 0 f ee t o r more h igh ).

The

mound a t Rudston 6 2 ( Pac it to 1 972) was s urrounded b y ab road d i tch 6 f t . w ide f ro m wh ich c ha lk h ad b een r e moved t o c ons truc t t he mound .

H owever a l though

t he e nergy e xpended a nd t he s ize o f t he b arrow d o s ee m t o r ela te t o s o me o f t he i mportan t b ur ia ls , a s i nd ica ted b y s o me o f t he d iscr im inan t a na lyses , t h is c orrela t ion i s n o t e xac t .

Wha t i s more , t here a re s o me r icher b ur ia ls

p laced i n to a lready e x ist ing mounds (a nd t h is p rac t ice i s e ven c o m moner w i th t he v ery r ich Wessex g raves o f t he s ou th ).

On t he Yorksh ire Moors

s o me v ery i mpor tan tb ur ia ls w ere p laced i n p ro m inen t moor-top b arrows a s a t L oose H owe.

Th is may h ave n ot o n ly i nvolved a l arge-sca le move men t

o f ma ter ia l , b u t a lso o f p eop le f ro m t he f er t i le v a l leys b elow t he b arrows. T hus r icher b ur ia ls o f more i mportan t b ur ia ls a re o f ten i n l arger mounds a nd i n d eeper g raves , b u t t here i s n o o neto-one c orrela t ion . 3 .

R icher b ur ia ls w il l b e more a ccura tely o r ien ta ted a nd more r egu larly

t han t he l ess i mpor tan t me mbers o f s oc ie ty. There i s at endency f cr B eaker b ur ia ls t o b e a ccura tely o r ien ta ted , t he f e ma les l a id o n t he r igh t s ide a nd t he ma les o n t he l e f t . a re o r ien ta ted t o t he e ast o r w est . Vessels.

Most o f t hese b ur ia ls

Th is p a t tern c on tras ts w i th t ha t f or F ood

Th is p a t tern was i nd ica ted b y Tuckwe l l ( 1975 ).

2 39

I ti s i n terest ing t ha t i n most c ases , i ti s t he c h ildren w ho h ave t he l east r egu lar o r ien ta t ion p a t terns , a nd t he l east c arefu l b arrow p lac ings ( a l arge n u mber o f F ood V essel a ssoc ia ted c h ildren w ere p laced i n t he n or thern p ar t o f t he b arrow ). b ur ia ls.

I ti s t he c h ildren who a ppear t o b e t he l east importan t o f t he

Aga in t he t endency f or t h is t ype o f p a t tern t o e x is t i s t here , b u t i t

i s n ot a p rec ise f or mu la . b y l oca l p a t terns.

Th is may b e b ecause t he p a tterns a re o verr idden

The d a ta a re n ot a s ingle c on te mporary c e metery i t s hou ld

b e r e me mbered . 4 .

T o s epara te t he m f ro m t he r est o f t he p opu la t ion , t he r icher b ur ia ls may

t rea ted i n c o mp letely a typ ica l a nd o r ig ina l way T h is p red ict ion c er ta in ly s ee ms t o b e t rue.

H owever i ti s n ot p oss ible

t o i l lustra te c learly b y s ta t ist ica l p rocedures o r d iagra ms.

A n u mber o f

f ea tures o f t he b ur ia l a nd b arrow t rea t men t i n an umber o f c ases a re v ery ' spec ia l '. i )

A n u mber o fb ur ia ls i n n or th a nd e ast Y orksh ire a re p laced i n o akc of f ins , e .g . a t Gr is thorpe ( W il l ia mson 1 871) , S underlandw ick a nd Rys ton .

I n a l l c ases t here a re o ther r easons f or e xpect ing t hese t o

b e p art icu larly i mpor tan t i nd iv idua ls , e .g. t he p resence o f Bronze d aggers. i )

A s er ies o fb ur ia ls i nc lud ing t hose i n s o me o f t he o ak-cof f ins a re p laced a t f u l llength r a ther t hen c rouched .

Th is i s av ery s pec ia l

f actor a pp ly ing t o o n ly a d ozen o f at housand i nhu ma t ion b ur ials , i n Bronze Age Yorksh ire .

There a re o ther b ur ials h owever.

The

p iano-convex k n ife b ur ia l a t T ow thorpe 1 39 was p laced a t f u l l l ength ; t o c l inch h is s ta tus h e was a lso p rotec ted b y a wooden s tructure , p rov ided w i th ab ronze d agger a nd s tone macehead , a nd p laced i n t he l argest b arrow o f t he g roup ( and was t he o n ly b ur ia l i n t he b arrow ). i i )

C ist b ur ia l .

I n E ast Yorksh ire a t l east , c is t b ur ia l i s r are.

There

a re a t l east t wo k nown e xcava ted e xa mp les.

Both

s ee m t o i nd ica te

v ery i mpor tan t me mbers o f t he c o m mun i ty .

One was a t K el lythorpe

where t he b ur ia l h ad a w r ist-guard , b ronze d agger , e tc ., t he o ther was a t Rudston 6 2 a t t he b ase o f ad eep ' shaf t g rave '. 5 .

I ti s p red ic ted t ha t p ersona l i t e ms s uch a s f l in t f l akes , b one p ins e t a l .

may f requen t ly b e c re ma ted w i th t he b ur ia l whereas s ta tus i t e ms a re l ikely t o b e p laced w i th t he b ur ia l a t al a ter t ime T h is d oes s ee m t o b e l argely t rue.

T he p iano-convex k n i fe i s a n

o bv ious ' s ta tus ' i t em o r a t l east o ne o f t he f ew p laced w i th b ur ia ls .

These

a re more r arely b urn t t han f l in t f l akes wh ich a re f requen t ly f ound i n sma l l n u mbers w i th c re ma t ions , a l though n ot a lways r eported.

S o me o f t he c re-

ma t ions h ave j e t b eads , o r b ronze o b jec ts p laced w i th t he m ( c f . L oose Howe E lgee a nd E lgee 1 936 ) , a nd t hese i t e ms must h ave b een p laced w i th t he i nd iv id ua l a f ter c re ma t ion .

A n umber o f F ood V essel a ssoc ia ted i nhu ma t ion p lus

c re ma t ion b ur ia ls ( such a s t hose r ecen t ly d iscovered i n Gar ton S lack— T .C. M. B rews ter p ers . c omm .) h ave u nburn t b ron ze a wls p laced w i th t he c re ma t ion .

T h is s i tua t ion i s s um mar ised i n t he f i gure , where t he more h ea-

v i ly r e touched i t e ms ( o f ' pres t ige ' a nd ' s ta tus ' ) a re l ess o f ten b urn t t han f lakes e tc . 2 40

6 .

A ma jor f ac tor b eh ind t he b ehav iour o f as oc ie ty , p art icu larly a p r im i t ive

o ne , i s t he s ex a nd a ge o f t he i nd iv idua ls who g o t o make u p t ha t s oc ie ty There i s n o n eed h ere t o e xp la in t ha t t h is h as b een d e monstra ted t o b e c orrect. The c lass ic e xa mp le w ou ld b e t he s oc ie ty o fb ur ia ls a ssoc ia ted w ith B eaker p ot tery who a re s o c arefu l ly s ex a nd a ge g raded , s i mp ly f ro m t he t ype o f Beaker t ha t i s p laced w i th t he i nd iv idua l .

T he s oc ie ty o f b ur ia ls a s-

s oc ia ted w i th Food V essels s hows a l ess c lear b u t s t i l l d ist inc t s im ilar p a t tern . 7 .

The s ex a nd a ge s ta tus may wel l b e r ef lec ted a s much i n t he p os i t ion ing

o f t he i nd iv idua l b ur ia l i n t he b arrow a s i n t he a r tefacts p laced w i th t ha t i nd iv id ua l Th is i s o n ly t rue t o al im i ted e x ten t a s s hown i n t he f i gures i n t h is c hap ter. Ma les i ti s t rue a re u sua l ly p laced n ear t he c en tre o f t he b arrow.

F or j uve-

n i les , f e ma les a nd c h i ldren r espect ively t h is i s i ncreas ingly l ess s o.

A s

a lready i nd ica ted c h i ldren a s i n t he l a ter E arly B ronze Age , a re e ven p laced i n t he u npopu lar n orthern p ar t o f t he b arrow w i th s o me r egu lar i ty.

O f t he

more s pec if ic f ea tures i ti s t rue t ha t Beaker a ssocia ted ma les a re n or ma l ly p laced o n t he l ef t a nd B eaker a ssoc ia ted f e ma les a re n or ma l ly p laced o n t he r igh t s ide , whereas t he c h ildren a re p laced e qua l ly o nb o th s ides.

There

s ee ms t o b e n o s ign if ican t c orre la t ion w ith o r ien ta t ion o f ma les o r f e ma les i n a ny o f t hese p er iods t o p ick o u t s ex a nd a ge g rad ing a s T uckwe l l a sserts ( 1975 ).

A s a lready d e monstra ted h owever s o me o f t he mos t i mpor tan t b ur ia ls

may h ave s pec if ic p lac ing ( e .g. l a id a t f u l l l ength r a ther t han c rouched ). T he Food V essel a ssoc ia ted i nd iv idua ls s how n o r ea l p a t tern a s t he B eakers f or e xa mp le ( bu t s ee b elow ). 8 .

D if ferences i n s ku l l f or m may c orrespond t o g roup d if ferences

The r esu l t o f t he d iscr im inan t a na lys is n ot c arr ied o u t b y t he p resen t w r iter a re s u m mar ised e lsewhere ( append ix ) . T he d a ta u sed were i nadeq ua te i n many ways ( n ot l eas t i n q uan t i ty ) , b u t s u f f ic ient t o s ay , s ign if ican t d i f ferences were r ecogn ised b e tween t he s ku l ls o f t he N eol i th ic , B eaker a nd F ood Vesse l a ssoc ia ted p opu la t ions.

Th is c on f ir ms t he r esu l ts o f B rothwel l 's

w ork ( e .g. 1 974 a nd 1 976 ). 9 . S oc ia l s tra t if ica t ion o ver a nd a bove t he s ex a nd a ge g rades a lready n o ted i s a nother ma jor f ac tor t ha t i s l i kely t o p roduce s o me o f t he v ar ia t ions i n t he d a ta . Th is h as a lready b een i nd ica ted t o s o me e x ten t i n t he f oregoing. a re a n u mber o fb ur ia ls s pec if ica l ly p icked o u t a bove a l l o thers.

There

These d if-

f erences a re b road a nd c lear. H owever i ts ee ms r ela t ively c lear t ha t c erta in ma les i n t he s oc ie ty w ere more i mpor tan t t han o thers. Th is was p ar t icu larly a n a ge g u ided t rend .

I t was i nd ica ted f or e xa mp le i n c hap ter f our t ha t t he

o lder ma les were ' g e t t ing ' b e t ter q ua l ity F ood Vessels i n g enera l t han t he y ounger ma les.

The s cor ing s yste ms p roduced f or B eakers i n p art icu lar ,

b u t a lso f or t he l a te N eol ith ic , i nd ica te s o me th ing o f t h is t rend .

The mature

a du l t ma les 2 8-40 a re a t t he t op o f t he s oc ia l t ree a nd a re t he i nd iv idua ls most l ikely t o a cqu ire r ich o b jec ts s uch a s b a t t le a xes , b ronze d aggers a nd t he l ike.

A f ter t h is a ge t here i s s o me i nd ica t ion o f a' re t ire men t a ge ' d ur ing

w h ich i nd iv idua ls may n o t h ave b een s o a c t ive a s t hey h ad b een f or mer:y.

2 41

H owever i td oes s ee m l i kely t ha t a l l i nd iv idua ls o f ap ar t icu lar a ge r ange were n o t a ble t o a ch ieve t he i mportance o f t hese p eop le a t t he t op o f t he ' s oc ia l t ree '.

The h igher ' ranks ' a re p icked o u t b y a typ ica l t rea t men t a s h as b een

d e monstra ted , a nd t hey a lso a cqu ire t he r are a nd v a luable i t e ms n o t a va ilable t o most o f t he me mbers o f t he c o m mun i ty.

Wha t i s more t hese i nd iv idua l

a re p laced i n g raves , p rotec ted a reas a nd t he l i ke.

They a re a lso i nd icated

b y t he h igher q ua l i ty o f t he o b jec ts t ha t a re p laced w i th t he m . 1 0. An i nd iv idua l i n s o me s oc iet ies may a ch ieve e s tee m a nd a t b ur ia ls a t r ibu te i s p a id t o t ha t i nd iv idua l I n p r inc ip le i t may b e v ery u sefu l t o d ist ingu ish b e tween t hose i t e ms wh ich a re t he i nd iv idua l 's e n t i t le men t , a nd t hose i t e ms wh ich a re s imp ly a t r ibu te , i n p rac t ice i ti s a n e x tre mely d if f icu l t t ask .

One p oss ible w ay o f

ma in ta in ing t ha t i t e ms a re t r ibu te i s i f t hey a re o b jec ts p laced i n t he b arrow ma ter ia l r a ther t han w i th t he b ur ia l , o r i t e ms t ha t a re d up l ica ted ( i .e. s evera l i nd iv idua ls g ive t he s ame t r ibu te ). a bou t t h is k ind o f s uggest ion .

Aga in i ti s d i f f icu l t t o b e a t a l l c on f iden t

I t e ms wh ich may f a l l i n to t h is c lass a re a s

f ol lows : i ) i )

The F olk ton d ru ms p laced w ith a c h ild b ur ia l. The d epos it o f f our b ronze a xes i n t he b arrow a t Wi l lerby ( Greenwel l 1 890 ).

i i ) i v )

One o f t he a xes was d ecora ted.

The r are c ases o f more t han a s ingle p iano-convex k n ife w i th a b ur ia l . The g roups o fb oar 's t usks d epos i ted w i th ab ur ia l a t Dugg leby Howe a nd p laced i n t he f acade b edd ing t rench a t t he Hang ing Gr i ms ton b arrow .

These c an b e n o more t han s uggest ions.

I n f ac t i ti s q u i te l ike ly t ha t t he

more i mpor tan t i nd iv idua ls i n t he c o m mun i ty a re t he o nes who a re g o ing t o h ave ' t r ibu te ' p a id t o t he m , t he r esu l t b e ing t ha t t he p a t terns o f ' t r ibu tory ' i t e ms w i l l b e v irtua l ly i den t ica l t o t ha t o f t he n or ma l r un o f ' s ta tus ' d isp lay o b jec ts.

S ECT ION TWO

The r ecogn i t ion o f Group I den t i ty i n t he Archaeo log ica l Record

A c lear p red ic t ive mode l f or h u man b ehav ioura l p a t terns r ela t ive t o Group I den t i t ies h as b een d escr ibed .

I n o rder t o l ook f or ' developmen ts '

Iw il l e xa m ine o ne ma in ' t rad i t iona l a rea o f s e t t le men t ' t he Yorksh ire Wolds. Th is a rea was p robably h eav ily p opu la ted i n t he p er iod 3 500-1400 B .C. a nd i ti s i n s uch a reas t ha t Iw ou ld l ook f or e v idence o f g roup i den t i ty c onsc iousn ess. Iam l ook ing p ar t icu lar ly f or t he f ol low ing p a t terns : a .

Mu tua l r ecogn i t ion a nd d if feren t ia t ion ( not d o ing wha t t he ' o ther ' g roup a re d o ing ).

h .

Task o r ien ta t ion :

D if feren t ia t ion o f t he b as is o f d ay-to-day b ehav iour.

c .

B ehav ioura l d i f ferences :

d .

S y mbol is m :

t he q uest ion o f ' s ty le '.

i nc lud ing t he u se o f c ere mon ia l c en tres e tc. 2 42

e.

Chronological:

developments over time.

f.

Intra-group v. Inter group mechanisms.

The discussion which follows mainly examine the Food Vessel burials on the Wolds. I will then examine the patterns that went before and hope to describe a developing trend. Food Vessels: 1 •

Identities (who's who)

Stylistic

In the Food _Vessel chapter I have already shown that the variation in 'lquality' relates to social 'status identityv patterns. I also noted that there were clear spatial differentiation patterns of a rather different form. In figure 9.1 O I summarise the basic northern British differences. In figure 9.10 I show that one can map style change in terms of contours repre­ senting the spatial degree of change from 'regi on to region'. This map was drawn up following the practice of Gould and White (1974) in the construction of mental maps. But the full implications of that need not be brought out here. For purposes here it shows simply stylistic variability. The system is based on a series of 16 'block' divisions within Britain and are as follows: a.

Northern Wolds of Yorkshire.

b.

Southern Wolds of Yorkshire.

c.

Holderness/Flamborough.

d.

Cleveland area.

e.

Tyneside and the English Borders.

f.

Berwick and the Scottish Borders.

g.

Edinburgh and the· area oouth of the Forth.

h.

Derbyshire.

i.

Fife and Forth/Tay.

j.

Clydeside.

k.

South-West Scotland.

I.

Argyll.

m.

Skye and the North-West.

n.

Inverness and the North-East.

o.

Central Perthshire.

p.

Mull and the Central Highlands.

By means of a Ward's Method Cluster analysis I was able to group to­ gether these areas and ..to calculate similarity co-efficients for the 'differences t. These are represented on the map by means of contours. The main features of the map as I see it are. as follows:

243

S ,Ok IV M C IOH13 W

C LUSTER ANALYS IS

WEST

EAST

YORKS .

' REL IEF '

S I MILAR ITY

km

F ig . 9 .10

2 00

F ood V esse l s ty le map o f n or thern B r i ta in .

MAP

CONTOURS

i) ii)

A broad 7flatr area covers Yorkshire and Derbyshire (as I am using a 'geographical' system I will also use geographical terms). A broad flat high plateau covers the area of lowland and eastern Scotland. There is a shallow valley between this area and Yorkshire.

iii)

In both Yorkshire and Scotland there are small 'depressions t of dis­ similarity.

iv)

A more irregular plateau covers south-west Scotland and Argyll and then dips away to embrace Skye and the North-West.

v)

A remarkably deep gorge separates the west coast area of Scotland from the rest of Northern Britain.

I regard the map as a rather crude method of analysis, but I feel it is also a successful one. The great overall similarity between this map and the relief of Northern Britain is remarkable. This is exactly the kind of pattern one would expect if there were no 'cultural/social' blocks dividing up the area into anything but natural regions. This does not mean that there are not divisions in 'cultural/social' terms between the regions as indicated (cf. Hod­ der 1977). Indeed plots of Clyde tombs, Neolithic pottery, stone axe types, etc. would almost certainly follow very similar patterns. However, my inter­ est here is looking at smaller 'social' entities and oarticularly in looking at breaks which go against the natural relief. Yorkshire and Derbyshire To take matters further, I decided to use just the Yorkshire and Derby­ shire vessels (over half the total) and do the same form of analysis for this area. I used 10 'natural' regions for the cluster analysis: a. Driffield area. b.

Rudston and North Wolds.

c. Western Wolds (Garrowby). d. Garton Slack. e.

The Pennines and west Yorkshire.

f.

North Yorkshire Moors and the area north of the Tees.

g. Northern and Western Wolds. h. Pickering and the Tabular Hills. i.

North Peak (Bull Ring).

j.

South Peak/South Derbyshire (Arbor Low). The results seem relatively clear (Fig. 9.11):

A. There are few natural divisions in the area apart from the general east-west altitude change, but this is not where the main stylistic changes occur. The division across the Wolds is of great interest, splitting as it does the 'Rudston' region from 'Garrowby' the west and the Tabular Hills. The major diffE:rences are that the 'Rudston' block has far more 'swathed 245

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FOOD VESSEL

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VARIABILITY IN YORKSHIRE AND DERBYSHIRE---

Food Vessel style map of north-east England.

246

d ecora t ion ' , more t w isted c ord d ecora t ion ( l ess i nc is ion ) , more h or izon ta l a nd v ert ica l p a t terns a nd a bove a l l more h err ingbone d ecora t ion .

Is hou ld

p o in t o u t t ha t t he i nc is ion/cord d ichoto my n o ted h ere t o b e s pa t ia l ly l inked was p icked o u t i n t he e arl ier c luster a na lys is ( and f ac tor a na lysis ) o f v esse l s ty le. B .

An e ven more marked d iv is ion i n s ty le o ccurs b etween t he n or th a nd

s ou th Peak i n Derbysh ire. C .

The c hange f ro m t he c a lcareous s o i ls t o t he moors a lso s ees c hanges ,

b u t t hese s ee m more r ela ted t o ad ecrease i n q ua l i ty ( away f ro m t he p roduc t ion c en tres o f f ine wares? ).

The v essels h ave f ewer l ugs , l ess d ecora t ion , l ess

i nc is ion a nd t w isted c ord b u t ah igh v a lue f or i mpress ion .

The p ots a re a lso

b aggy a nd p oorly f i n ished . Iw i l l s et a s ide t he n orth Yorksh ire a nd D erbysh ire d if ferences ( Iw il l r eturn t o t he l a t ter b e low ) a nd c oncen tra te o n t he a rea o n wh ich t he i n i t ia l i n terest a nd p red ic t ions f ocused.

C an o ne ma in ta in t ha t as ty l ist ic c hange

i s e qu iva len t t o d if ferences i n g roup i den t i ty? Withou t f urther s upport ing e v idence Imust a nswer ' no '. 2 .

Mutua l a wareness ;

b ehav iour mod if ica t ion

Mu tua l awareness i s s o me th ing h ard t o d e monstra te , b u t a t l east t he s ty l ist ic d if ferences h ave g iven a reas i n wh ich t o l ook . V essel b ur ia l i n for ma t ion f or c on f ir ma t ion . d i f ferences i n g rave t rea t men t.

Once a ga in t here a re ' s ty l ist ic '

There i s ac oncen tra t ion o f l arge b arrows

w i th c entra l wood l i ned h ol lows o n t he western w olds. e nces i n ;

t he p os i t ion o f t he v essels w ith b ur ia ls ;

c onvex k n ives;

It urn t o t he Food

There a re a lso d if fer-

t he p ossess ion o f p lano-

t he t ypes o f a r tefacts p laced w i th b ur ia ls ;

t he p osi t ion i n

g raves e tc . However , t hese o n ly c onf ir m s l igh t c hanges f ro m a rea t o a rea a nd d o n o t i nd ica te mu tua l a wareness , n ecessar i ly. I n t he c ase o f t he Beakers w e n oted t he importance o fb ur ia l p os i t ion ( l ef t s ide/r igh t s ide ) a nd t ha t t h is f ol lowed s exua l l i nes. a ted b ur ia ls s ee med t o s how n o c lear p a t tern.

Food V essel a ssoc i-

I n p lot t ing t he d is tr ibu t ion

o fb ur ia l p os it ions o ne im med ia tely n ot ices r ela t ionsh ips w i th t he s ty l ist ic a reas.

V irtua l ly a l l t he l ef t s ide ma les ( 10 o f 1) a re i n t he w estern Wolds

a nd most o f t he r igh t s ided ma les a re i n t he ' Ruds ton ' b lock ( 6o u t o f 8 ) . i s s ign if ican t w ith X2 a t t he 1 % l eve l.

T h is

F or t he f e ma les t he r everse o f t he

p a ttern i s t rue ( 1 2 o f 1 6 ' ludston ' b lock b uria ls a re r igh t s ided ). a na lysis s hows t ha t t h is p a t tern i s s ign if ican t a t t he 5% l evel .

A c h i-square

Th is p a t tern ing

s ee ms t o me a d e l ibera te mod if ica t ion o fb ehav iour t o d o t he o pposi te o f t he ' p eop le o ver t here ' ( ' the m ' ).

One s hou ld a lso n ote t he l oca l ised p a t terns o f

o r ien ta t ions ( Fig. 9 .12) ma tch ing t o s o me e x ten t t he b ur ia l p os i t ion t rend . I n c onclus ion Iw ou ld p o in t o u t t ha t t here a re s tyl ist ic s pa t ial d if ferences o fb ur ia l t rea t men t ma tch ing t he v essel s tyl ist ic v ar ia t ion a nd t ha t o ne o f t he p a t terns a t l eas t s uggests mu tua l a wareness. 3 .

T ask Or ien ta t ion

As f ar a s t ask o r ien ta t ion i s c oncerned Iw il l o n ly t a lk i n t er ms h ere o f s ubs istence e cono m ic b ase.

C er ta in ly t h is h as l ed t o a l l s or ts o f c on f l ic ts

2 47

• SE -SW e NE-NW

•

0

♦

vW

0 E ♦ ?

• -��

·�

,. ....•

THE

-.

■ e O

·­■ �-

:- ' A Driffield A

.c. V

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WOLDS

left right

□

Garrowby

male female

it

Rudston

c � � ,� •o ••

o

■

ORIENTATIONS

0

□

�

--

Rudston

0

■ 0

ij..

Garrowby

Driffield

PLACEMENT Fig. 9. 12

Food Vessel associated burials : positions

248

i n t he p ast ( l ike t he Amer ican w est ).

There s ee ms t ob e at rad i t iona l m istrust

o ff ar mers b y h erds men ( and v ice v ersa ) o r s hepherds b y c a t t le men ( and v ice v ersa ).

S ubs is tence e cono m ic e v idence f ro m t he Wolds i s s l igh t , b ut

t he t rad i t iona l p a t tern w ou ld s uggest a w estern w o lds a rea o f p as tora l is m a nd a n e astern w olds a rea o f f ar mers. I ft h is was t he Bronze Age p a ttern ' s tress ' wou ld b e q u i te l i kely. I n a ny c ase t he s o i ls b y t he Ear ly Bronze Age w ere p robably s im i lar t o t hose o f t oday ( t ha t i s t he f orest b rown e ar ths h ad b een r e moved ) a nd i ts hou ld b e c lear t ha t Best 's ' whea t l i ne ' ( Best 1 930 ) ma tches v ery wel l t he d iv is ion b etween t he F ood V essel s ty l ist ic z ones. 4 .

The h istor ica l p erspec t ive

L ook ing a t t he p er iods b efore t he a ppearance o f Food Vessels ( Nascen t t hrough F lorescen t ) , t here a re i nd ica t ions t ha t t he a wareness o f ' i den t ity ' e xpressed i n t he F ood Vessel ma ter ia l was o n ly t he c u lm ina t ion o f al ong p rocess ( i f t he t rend d id n o t c on t inue t hrough t o h istor ic t imes:). I n t er ms o f t ask o r ien ta t ion , a s s oon a s t he f orest b rown e ar ths w ere r e moved f ro m t he Wo lds t he b as ic d icho to my b etween t he t h in s o i ls o f t he wolds a nd t he t h icker b ou lder c lay ma ter ia l o f t he e as t w ou ld b e v ery a pparen t . There a re i nd ica t ions ( e .g. Manby 1 976) t ha t c learance o f t he a rea was wel l u nderway b y t he e nd o f t he N ascen t p er iod .

By t he F lorescen t p er iod ,

c learance was p robab ly c o mp le te ( or v ir tua l ly s o ). Throughou t h is tor ic t imes t h is s oil d ichoto my i nduced a d iv is ion i n to p astora l a nd a rable a reas. Ih ave n o r eason t o d oubt ( s ee c hap ter 2 ) t ha t t h is was l argely t he p ic ture i n t he p reh is toric p er iod a lso. Thus t here w ou ld b e ac lear t ask d i f feren t ia t ion b etween t he a reas. Wha t i s more t he ' eas tern g roup ' w ou ld h ave a ccess t o mar ine a nd c oasta l r esources ( nes t ing b irds e .g .) wh ich w ou ld b e d en ied t he ' western w o lders '.

I ft h is w ere s o , o ne s hou ld a lso b e l ook ing f or t he d evelopmen t o f

g roup c onsc iousness i nt he e arl ier p er iods. As f ar a s s ty l ist ic d if ferences i n p o t tery a re c oncerned t here a re n o o bv ious p a t terns. B eakers s ee m more ' i n terna t iona l ' a nd Iw ou ld s uggest more w ide ly t raded a nd t here a re o n ly m inor s tyl ist ic d if ferences b e tween t he a reas.

T here i s n ot e nough N eol i th ic p o t tery t o make f i rm s uggest ions.

T here a re s o me d if ferences i n ' grave r ou t ine ' i n t he F lorescen t p er iod wh ich may b e i nd ica t ive. f ac tua l t ypes.

C learer p a t terns emerge f ro m a n e xam ina t ion o f a r te -

An umber o f Developmen ta l a r tefac t t ypes c luster p art icu larly

i nt he ? eas tern b lock ' i nc lud ing t he f o l low ing ; a .

C orn ish a xes ( wh ich E lgee t er med t he ' Br id l ing ton ' a xe ).

A ccord ing t o

c hap ter e igh t t h is may b e l i nked t o ' t ask o r ien ta t ion '. b .

Tranche t a rrowheads.

S tyl ist ica l ly d ist inc t f or ms e x ist i n t he B r id l ing ton/

Rudston a rea ( T. Manby i n for ma t ion ). c .

P ol ished k n ives o f v ar ious t ypes.

d .

S pec ia l ist a xes. The p resence o f s o me o f t hese t ypes ( and more: )may b e l i nked t o t he

p resence o f t he ' c eremon ia l c en tre ' a t Rudston .

A lso i n t h is p er iod o ne

s hou ld n ote t ha t t he t wo most massive ' Neol ith ic ' b arrows o f t he p er iod l i e o ne i n t he w estern ' b lock ' t he o ther i n t he e as tern o ne.

2 49

c n a

3 J

0

0

z

z C )

V

2 50 w r 0 U C , )

1 -

—

0 ,

O O

G ' )

0

L i .

_ Z

2 ,

< J 0 .

> W C O U W C

u npe rfora ted

< z r

= _ 1 O W

> W C O

s core a nd p o t/grave v ar ia t ion ( 2 ) .

F ood V esse l a ssocia ted b ur ia ls :

TR IANGLES

9 .14

decora t ive

c o C

s core a nd p ot/grave v ar ia t ion ( 1 ) .

0 3 a 3 J

F ood V esse l a ssoc ia ted b ur ia ls :

VE SSEL S

HERR INGBONE

0 C ) 7 . d . ö . . C . ,— a

HERR INGBONE

0 W J J 1 -

c ‚ ) 0 i . . i h -

• •• •

U _