Social Education of Bulgarian Youth [1 ed.] 9780816662579, 9780816604791

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THE SOCIAL EDUCATION OF

BULGARIAN YOUTH BY

Peter John Georgeoff

University of Minnesota Press MINNEAPOLIS

© Copyright 1968 by the University of Minnesota. All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America at the Lund Press, Inc., Minneapolis

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 68-22364

To my parents

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PREFACE

SOME comment needs to be made about the system of transliteration used in the study as applied to the Cyrillic alphabet of the Bulgarians. Primarily the system followed is that recommended by the United States Government Printing Office Style Manual: January 1959. However, since c, the form suggested by the Manual for the Cyrillic q, is difficult to write on an English-language typewriter, the transliteration employed used the letters ch, another very common way of rendering this character into English. For the same reason, sh is used for in in place of s, and zh for )K, not z. Translation also posed a problem: should it be literal or free? The procedure finally adopted has attempted to present as smooth a translation of the material as possible, but only if, in so doing, the essential idea, tone, and intent of the original was left unimpaired. When a free translation would, in any manner, interfere with the true meaning of the original, readability was sacrificed for accuracy. It is for this reason that the translated material may appear to be in places somewhat rough or awkward. This situation has arisen especially in the case of the Appendixes, where a considerable amount of source material appears in the form of supporting documents.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

THE writer wishes to acknowledge the assistance of a number of people who helped immeasurably with the work of this study. He wishes to thank Mrs. Susan Bahlke, a graduate student, for her assistance in typing, editing, and proofreading. Mrs. Bahlke also researched and wrote parts of the introductory section to Chapter I. Credit must be given to Mrs. Gloria Kay Starks, another graduate student, for her help with typing, editing, proofreading, and certain other clerical matters. Much of the burden for transcribing the translated material fell to Mrs. Ruby Haltom. The final draft of the manuscript was mostly typed by Mrs. Judy Lyon, but Mrs. Diane Yehl and Mrs. Dorothy Sinex also rendered valuable assistance. In addition, his wife helped with the work, first by proofing and editing most of the original manuscript and then by re-reading it in its final form. Moreover, without her patience and understanding, the project would never have been possible. The author's mother assisted with two major translations in the study. It was she who translated in their entirety the Statutes of the Dimitrov League of Young Communists and the Law for Closer Ties between School and Life. With this exception, the writer made all the other translations. Acknowledgment must also be made of the help received from Anne Harbour Jirasek of the editorial department of the University of Minnesota Press. Her suggestions and advice concerning format and her painstaking editing have made the volume infinitely better than it otherwise would have been. Finally, the author wishes to acknowledge the support from the InterCua

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH

University Committee on Travel Grants, which provided funds to carry out the field work. Data from this field work forms the basis of the present study which was supported in part by the United States Office of Education under contract number OE 5-10-423 S-318 (new Bureau number: 5-8029-2-12-1). JOHN GEORGEOFF June, 1967

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION

3

ii. THE BULGARIAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

18

in. THE SOCIAL EDUCATION OF CHILDREN IN BULGARIAN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

46

iv. THE RELATION OF SOCIAL EDUCATION TO SPECIFIC SUBJECTS

66

v. MATERIALS USED IN SOCIAL EDUCATION

103

vi. THE BULGARIAN SCHOOLTEACHER

118

vii. SOCIAL EDUCATION THROUGH THE PIONEER AND KOMSOMOL ORGANIZATIONS

126

vm. BULGARIAN EDUCATION IN PERSPECTIVE

157

APPENDIXES A. Bulgarian Educational Statistics B. Translations of Laws and Regulations c. Translations from Speeches, Newspapers, and Pronouncements

165 169 189

D. Translations from Courses of Study and Educational Documents E. Translations from Textbooks F. Translations from Textbooks on Educational Methods

199 224 267

NOTES

287

BIBLIOGRAPHY

299

INDEX

315

THE SOCIAL EDUCATION OF Bulgarian Youth

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chapter

I

INTRODUCTION

BULGARIA is bordered by Rumania on the north, Turkey on the southeast, Greece on the southwest, Yugoslavia on the west, and the Black Sea on the east. Bulgaria is a part of the Shatter Belt, a narrow strip of land between the USSR and Western Europe occupied by weak, disorganized nations. These nations have been dominated alternately by the Germanic and the Slavic countries, so that their history is one of many wars and boundary changes. Bulgaria has a population of over eight million people, of which about 67 per cent earn their living in agriculture.1 Sofia, the capital and largest city, has a population of 773,000. About 90 per cent of the population is Bulgarian, with the remainder consisting of Turks, Gypsies, Rumanians, and a few other small ethnic groups. Since World War II, two important ethnic changes have taken place: a significant proportion of the Turkish population, which is Moslem, has emigrated to Turkey; and Rumanians who lived in territory ceded by the peace treaty to Bulgaria, Dobrudja, have migrated to Rumania. The topography of the land has several belts: the Danubian tableland in the north, the Balkan Mountains in the center, the Thracian Plain and the valley of the Maritsa River in the south, and the Rhodope, Rila, and Pirin mountains in the southwest. Bulgaria has extensive natural forests, more hilly terrain than any other kind, and rich mineral deposits, only a few of which are being worked. About 90 per cent of the people belong to the Eastern Orthodox Church, the remainder being Moslems, Jews, Roman Catholics, Protestants, and Armenians. The state extends limited tolerance to religion, but atheism

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF B U L G A R I A N YOUTH

is taught in the schools. When the Communists took control of the government, many church leaders were sent to labor camps. However, family ties in Bulgaria are strong, and some parents still teach their religious traditions to their children. At the present time, Bulgaria is one of the states in the Soviet bloc and is allied to the Soviet Union economically, politically, and militarily.

An Outline of Bulgarian History The first Bulgarian state was founded in the second half of the seventh century through the intermarriage of Bulgar invaders and the local Slavic tribes. The original Bulgars, related to the Finno-Ugrian peoples, were a Turkic tribe from Central Asia that crossed the Danube River in the late seventh century and settled permanently in Bulgaria. They were completely absorbed by the Slavs they conquered; they gave their name and political framework to the merged nation, and the Slavs gave their language and culture. The early Bulgarian state warred against the Byzantine Empire and reached its greatest territorial boundaries under Simeon I (893-927), who established the First Bulgarian Empire. The Bulgarians were introduced to Christianity in the ninth century by the great missionaries to the Slavs, Saints Cyril and Methodius. These two men also created an alphabet for use by Slavic-speaking peoples which was subsequently adopted by the Bulgarians, thus giving to Old Bulgarian (or Old Church Slavonic, as it is sometimes known) the distinction of being the first Slavic language to have a written form. This alphabet, named Cyrillic, was based partly on characters in the Greek alphabet and was devised so that the Bulgarian language could be used in the liturgy and rites of the church; the Eastern Orthodox faith was popularized in this way among the Bulgarian people. At the same time, as the Byzantine influence was gradually displaced, Bulgaria became the foremost center of religious and cultural activities among all Orthodox Slavs. By 1018, however, the First Bulgarian Empire had come to an end; Bulgaria fell once more under Byzantine dominance. The Bulgarian Church Patriarchate was reduced to an archbishopric, and its Slavic clergy were replaced by Greeks. The situation eventually led the Bulgarians to revolt, and in 1186 the Second Empire was established. Bulgaria arose as a major Balkan power in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, esC43

INTRODUCTION

pecially under Ivan Asen II (1218-1241). The capital at that time was Trnovo. In need of outside support, both the Church and the State turned to the Papacy at the beginning of the thirteenth century, and Pope Innocent III invested King Kaloian with the imperial crown of Bulgaria and made the Archbishop of Trnovo the Primate of Bulgaria. The Roman-Bulgarian union proved to be unsatisfactory and was short-lived because after 1204 Rome pursued aggressive Balkan policies similar to those of the Byzantine Empire. The Bulgarians were distressed at the new domination, and since they still desired an autonomous Church, they turned to their one-time enemy, the Greeks, as an ally. In 1232 the Bulgarian king, Ivan Asen II, disclaimed union with Rome; four years later he was excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX. The Greeks recognized an autonomous Bulgarian Orthodox Church, and the Patriarchate was re-established in 1235. As the Second Empire declined, independence of the Bulgarian Church was threatened by intrigues of the Greek clergy. The struggle finally ended with the Turks' conquest of most of the Byzantine Empire and Bulgaria by the end of the fourteenth century. Under the Ottoman Empire, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church lost its independence. In the fifteenth century a form of religious administration was introduced: the Orthodox religion in the conquered lands was allowed an autonomous organization by the Turks, but the Greek Patriarch was recognized as the religious head of all Christians in the Empire. Under this arrangement, the Church had jurisdiction over cultural and civil as well as religious matters. In 1767 the Orthodox Church within the Ottoman Empire was consolidated under the Greek Patriarchate in Constantinople. Greek priests replaced the Bulgarian, and the Greek language was used in the liturgy. At this time, seeds of national resistance began to stir in Bulgaria, first as a quest for an autonomous Bulgarian Church, and then as a movement for independence. In 1860 the Bulgarians requested a national church with Bulgarian bishops, but their request was refused. In 1870 the Turkish government granted the right to establish an autocephalous Orthodox Church (Exarchate). The Greek Patriarchate refused to recognize the Exarchate and declared the Bulgarian Church schismatic. This split lasted until 1945. The success in the religious struggle led to a desire for still greater independence, and many leaders of the Church joined in the revolution of 1875-1876. The revolution culminated in Bulgaria's independ-

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH

ence in 1878 as a result of Russian pressure at the drafting of the Treaty of San Stefano, signed on March 3, 1878. However, a few months later, the treaty was revised at the Congress of Berlin — northern Bulgaria became only an autonomous principality under Turkish suzerainty, and southern Bulgaria (known as Eastern Rumelia) remained under Turkish rule as an autonomous province. Alexander of Battenberg became the first prince of Bulgaria, and Sofia became its capital. A military coup in 1885 united Eastern Rumelia to Bulgaria. Two years later, Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha was elected prince by the National Assembly, replacing Alexander, who had been deposed. However, it was Stefan Stambulov, premier from 1887 to 1894, who consolidated the administration and economy of the country. In 1908 Bulgaria declared herself a kingdom completely independent of Turkey, and the ruling Bulgarian prince, Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, was able to assume the title of tsar. Bulgaria joined the anti-Turkish coalition (consisting of Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia) in the First Balkan War (October 1912 to May 1913), thus gaining an outlet to the Aegean Sea. As a result of a dispute over Macedonia, Bulgaria went to war against Greece, Rumania, Serbia, and Turkey in the Second Balkan War (June-July 1913). Bulgaria was defeated, and in the Treaty of Bucharest, signed on August 10, 1913, she lost Southern Dobrudja to Rumania and also a large part of her Macedonian territory to Greece and Serbia. Bulgaria sided with the Central Powers in World War I, and lost its outlet to the Aegean Sea at the Treaty of Neuilly (November 27, 1919). A few days later, King Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his son, Boris III, who ruled until his death in 1943. After an early period of stability under Premier Alexander Stambuliski, who was assassinated in 1923, growing political rivalries led to the introduction of authoritarian institutions, and King Boris assumed executive authority in 1935. The Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) was quite active from 1919 to 1934, expressing a violent kind of authoritarianism. It originated in 1893 as a secret organization directed against Turkish rule in Macedonia and developed into a terrorist group opposing Serbian and Greek hegemony over Macedonia and also those Bulgarians who did not pursue an active policy for Macedonia's liberation. Autonomist in its aims, it was a disruptive power in the Balkans between World Wars I C63

INTRODUCTION

and II; it remained influential in Bulgarian politics until 1934, when the leader of the organization, Ivan Mikhailov, was exiled. As World War II broke out, Bulgaria moved into an alliance with Germany in the hopes of recovering some of its lost territories, and in 1940 Rumania was forced to return Southern Dobrudja to Bulgaria. During the war Bulgaria occupied Macedonia and western Thrace on the Aegean Sea. In September 1944 Soviet troops crossed the Danube River and entered the country. A coup d'etat on September 9,1944, engineered largely by the communists, overthrew the government in power and established a coalition of communists, agrarian socialists, and others. Today, the date is celebrated as the chief national holiday in much the same way that the October Revolution is commemorated in the Soviet Union. The Armistice of 1944 and the Peace Treaty of 1947, which allowed Bulgaria to keep Southern Dobrudja, confirmed the USSR'S newly won dominance in Bulgaria. After a brief period of coalition rule, the monarchy was abolished and a people's republic, directed by the Communist Party, was proclaimed on September 15,1946. Bulgaria today is still governed by the Constitution of 1947. The political system has two major parties —the Communist and the National Agrarian Union, which collaborates with the Communist Party. Founded in 1903 as the Bulgarian Workers' Social Democratic Party, the Communist Party resulted from an ideological split between the reformists (broad socialists) and the revolutionary Marxists. The name Communist was adopted in 1919. Between World Wars I and II, the Communist Party was banned, but it operated underground, with its leaders remaining in Russia. After the Soviet army entered Bulgaria in 1944, the Communist Party came into power. The National Agrarian Union was founded in 1899 to represent the peasantry. It ruled Bulgaria from 1920 to 1923 under the leadership of Alexander Stambuliski.

Economic Life in Bulgaria Today Almost all aspects of life in Bulgaria today are under governmental direction. All newspapers and periodicals are published by governmentowned publishing houses. Domestic trade is regulated and supervised by the Ministry of Domestic Trade. Private citizens are prohibited from en-

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH

gaging in wholesale operations and are heavily restricted in retail trading, so that about 99 per cent of the retail trade now is handled by the government. Bulgaria exports tobacco, fruits, vegetables, ore, metal concentrates, and a few industrial products, and she imports capital goods, used in developing industry. Shortly after the communists came to power, almost all of Bulgaria's foreign trade was redirected to the states forming the Soviet bloc. Beginning in the late 1950's and early 1960's, however, there has been a gradual readjustment, first to include some of the unaligned nations such as Indonesia, Israel, Ethiopia, and the United Arab Republic, and then the Western powers, such as the Federal Republic of Germany, Belgium, Great Britain, France, and —in a few cases —the United States. Banking and insurance are also nationalized. There is no stock exchange, and private ownership of securities is illegal. Taxation includes the turnover tax, a sales tax levied on commodities at the time of fabrication which accounts for 60 per cent of the state's revenue. About 30 per cent of the revenue comes from deductions on profits from state enterprises, and the remainder is derived from income and other taxes. Bulgaria has no foreign investment holdings. The economy is almost entirely nationalized and operates on the basis of state plans. The social security system is administered through the industrial trade and through professional organizations. There is a critical housing shortage in the cities, since the building of dwellings is given low priority and since many people are moving to the cities to work hi the developing industries. Manufacturing consists mainly of processing agricultural products. However, the government is attempting to stress heavy industrial development, and in recent years there has been a rapid increase in metal-working and chemical industries. The economy of the country remains basically agricultural, despite Communist attempts to develop industry. Most of the farming takes place on large cooperative or state-owned farms. Bulgaria is a producer of attar of roses, most of which is exported to France for the manufacture of perfume. There is some lumbering and mining, although most of the natural resources are still untapped. Minerals include iron, copper, lead, zinc, manganese, chrome, pyrite, and gold. There are also some oil wells, but the petroleum is exported in its crude form.

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INTRODUCTION Bulgarian Educational History Bulgarian education has had a long history, beginning hi the ninth century when Saints Cyril and Methodius devised the Slavic alphabet and introduced it to the Bulgarians. In so doing, they were motivated primarily by religious considerations, for they sought to make available in the Bulgarian vernacular literature of the Byzantine Church. But shortly thereafter, original Bulgarian literature also appeared, mainly in the form of church chronicles. The Slavic alphabet, and Bulgarian literature which was written in it, eventually spread to other Slavs, carried by the disciples of Cyril and Methodius. The influence of these disciples was particularly strong throughout most of the Slav sections of the Balkan peninsula and in certain other areas of Eastern Europe, notably the Kiev and Moscovy principalities of Old Russia. Because of its church-related origins, literary Old Bulgarian is frequently termed Old Church Slavonic, and it remains the language of the Russian Orthodox Church today. During the ninth and tenth centuries were organized the first Bulgarian schools in which the vernacular language was used as a medium of instruction. These were church schools, adjuncts of monasteries, and were intended for the training of clergymen. Two of the most famous of the institutions were located along the shores of Lake Ohrid, in southern Macedonia, one founded by Saint Clement and the other by Saint Naum, both students of Saints Cyril and Methodius. This period in Bulgarian history is known as the golden age of Bulgarian medieval church letters and literature. For most of the eleventh century, Bulgaria was under Byzantine rule; this temporarily checked the development of literature and culture. It was not until the fourteenth century that a renaissance in Bulgarian letters took place —with the establishment of a new, powerful Bulgarian kingdom, Byzantine influence was reversed, and Bulgarian medieval literature and education again began to flourish. This century also saw the summit of the Bogomil movement, which attempted to purify the church of what were considered to be materialistic elements. The Bogomils produced a considerable body of church literature in order to popularize their movement, and for the same reason, they also emphasized an expansion of educational opportunities. All these developments were checked at the end of the fourteenth century, when the country fell under Ottoman rule.

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF B U L G A R I A N YOUTH

Bulgaria remained under the Turks for the next five hundred years. During this time, the Bulgarian monastery schools again succeeded in preserving the Bulgarian alphabet and literature. In the second half of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth century, they became a powerful force in the national revival; they deserve much of the credit for the fact that nationalism soon became a vital and important factor in Bulgarian life. The formation of a national Bulgarian Orthodox Church in 1870 gave added impetus to the movement for education. In the 1870's, a large number of lay schools and reading clubs (chitalishta) were established in many Bulgarian towns and hamlets, largely through the support of local, civic-minded individuals and the church. Soon these schools and clubs became the nucleus of the movement to achieve political independence from Turkey, with many schoolteachers, students, and intellectuals becoming deeply involved in revolutionary activity. Their direct impact upon the national struggle for liberation was considerable. When Bulgaria was liberated from the Turks in 1878, there were 1,479 primary schools in the country, 50 secondary institutions, and 130 reading clubs; in the same year, a university was established in Sofia. Thus, the foundations had already been laid for a national system of public education, administered and financed by the state. Since the peasants and small shopkeepers comprised the vast majority of the population, the beginnings of Bulgarian national public education were essentially democratic. Some of the first legislative provisions of the newly formed government gave the schools virtual autonomy of operation and made education compulsory, requiring all children to complete at least the initial course (Grades 1-4). In 1921, the government of the Bulgarian National Agrarian Union, under Alexander Stambuliski, extended the compulsory provisions of the law to include all seven grades of elementary school. Despite many attempts, however, no Bulgarian government, including the present one, has succeeded in obtaining full compliance with the compulsory education law by all elements of the population, especially by certain ethnic minorities. The Gypsies and Moslems, in particular, have characteristically resisted these attempts —the former because of the threat to their nomadic way of life * and the latter, on religious grounds, because of their opposition to coeducation. * Most of the Gypsy clans that opposed the policies of the present communist government were forcibly relocated on isolated farms in northern Bulgaria and are

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INTRODUCTION

Bulgaria's educational development in the period between World Wars I and II continued at a slow pace. A number of schools for vocational education and training in the crafts were started to meet increasing needs for skilled and semiskilled workers as the result of industrial development. A system of entrance examinations for secondary and higher institutions of learning was inaugurated so that admission to these schools could be granted more equitably. The teaching of religion, which had always been part of the elementary school curriculum, was introduced in the secondary schools as well. Although the nation still faced enormous educational problems, much progress had been made by the time Bulgaria entered into World War II as one of the Axis coalition. The war years generally impeded further development of the educational system because most of the available national resources were committed to military purposes. Educational policy in areas occupied or annexed by Bulgaria during the war usually included an intensive attempt to win the students for the side of Bulgarian nationalism — such a policy was effected in Southern Dobrudja and in Macedonia. In both instances, the students were taught that they were actually Bulgarians, living in territories unjustly seized from Bulgaria in the past. The approach complemented the military policies in these regions, which for the most part regarded the population as Bulgarian and treated them accordingly. The Communist coup d'etat on the night of September 9,1944, brought vast changes in Bulgarian education. New textbooks, curricula, and supplementary materials were issued for all the schools at each grade level by Narodna Prosveta, an educational publishing house established exclusively for this purpose. These publications incorporated Marxist-Leninist concepts into the teaching of all subject matter. Any positive references to religion were eliminated from the curriculum. Teachers who had opposed the Communists or who could not accept the new Communist approaches to education were removed from their positions and replaced by personnel who were sometimes poorly trained but who were in sympathy with the new regime. The schools of foreign missionary societies either were confiscated and turned into public institutions supporting the new policies or were closed completely. The schools of ethnic minorities in the country were likewise placed under state control. For a time, an now compelled to work the land under state supervision. They are also required to send their children to state public or boarding schools.

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH

attempt was made to eliminate all qualifying entrance examinations, but these have since been restored and in many cases made even more rigorous. The Constitution, promulgated by the Communist government in 1947, included the following provisions on education:2 Citizens have the right to education. Education is secular, with a democratic and progressive spirit. National minorities have the right to be educated in their vernacular and to develop their national culture, while the study of Bulgarian is compulsory. Elementary education is compulsory and free of charge. The schools are state schools. The establishment of private schools may be allowed only by a special law, in which case the school in question is under state supervision. [No private schools exist in Bulgaria, except one established for children of the Soviet diplomatic corps.] The right to education is guaranteed by schools, educational institutes, and universities as well as by scholarships, student hostels, material and other aid, and special encouragement for gifted students. * Thus, the schools became instruments of state policy; soon they developed into a powerful force for the redirection of the cultural, social, political, and economic life of the country according to the Soviet interpretation of Marxist-Leninist doctrines. In 1959, on the basis of the Zakon m po-tyasna vr"zka na uchilishteto s zhivota i za po-natat"shno razvitie na narodnoto obrazovanie v Narodna Republika B"lgariya {The Law for Closer Ties between School and Life and for the Further Development of National Education in the People's Republic of Bulgaria), the school curriculum was redesigned to conform yet more closely with theoretical Communist principles on education as they were currently interpreted. The previous education was viewed as * Despite this provision in the Constitution, not every Bulgarian is given the right to receive a complete education consistent with his maximum abilities. In practice, children whose parents opposed the Communists before the coup d'etat have sometimes been excluded from receiving a higher education, whereas children whose parents were partisans or underground workers have automatically been admitted to higher institutions of learning without taking the entrance examinations. Furthermore, no matter what the academic and scholastic qualifications of a secondary school graduate, if he is not described favorably on the confidential recommendation from the Dimitrov Communist Youth League (Komsomol) that is sent to the higher institutions which the student wishes to enter, the odds are against his being accepted. The student must be collectively minded and an activist in the affairs of his socialist society, in order to ensure that his admission application will receive full consideration.

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INTRODUCTION still being too bookish, not linked directly in any way with the practical (that is, industrial and agricultural) side of life. As a result, part-time work in industry, agriculture, and building construction was made mandatory for all secondary school students, and the general secondary schools were renamed General Polytechnical Secondary Schools. In this manner, academic education was combined with "socially useful labor," making it possible for every young person graduating from secondary school to have gained skill in some trade as well as in academic subjects. It was felt that this work-study program would produce the "new, ideal socialist man" — one who possesses a basic education, has technical or vocational competence, and is a convinced, thoroughly dedicated Marxist. In all probability, two factors prompted the adoption of the plan. In the first place, the Bulgarian Communist Party believed that Bulgaria was in greater need of skilled craftsmen and highly trained technicians to develop its economy, than she was of liberally educated intellectuals. Moreover, provisions were thus made for students who would be unable to pass the admission requirements to enter a higher institution of learning after graduating from secondary school. Rather than being thrown upon the labor market totally unprepared, they would possess at least basic competence in some vocation, having qualified for some skilled or semiskilled job through examination at an occupational performance level. (Most skilled occupations are graded according to the difficulty required to perform certain operations; all workers in that line of work are evaluated by a commission on their ability and speed in performing each operation. The higher the classification a worker receives, the greater is his pay per unit of work.) In practice, the plan to train all secondary school students in some trade or vocation has produced complications. Most of the responsibility for training students in a particular vocation falls upon the industrial and agricultural workers and is carried out at the places of employment. This has tended to slow down production and to tie up needed machinery. Furthermore, the inexperienced students have been prone to make serious, costly mistakes. Such accidents are particularly annoying to the workers, all of whom are required to meet norms. Finally, much of the workers' efforts are wasted, for, if at all possible, most students would rather continue their education after graduating from secondary school than go to work. At least one criticism has also been raised by educators, who ask, How

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH

justifiable is it, from a practical and pedagogical viewpoint, for a girl to learn a trade such as automechanics or bricklaying, which she may never use, but to know nothing of home economics, child care, and sewing? Although as this is being written nothing has been done to effect a change in this part of the curriculum, there exists a strong possibility that these requirements will be revised in the near future to be made more consistent with the real needs of the students.

School Administration The Council of Ministers is the supreme governing body of the state. It is empowered to supervise all aspects of Bulgarian education and to promulgate the decrees relating to all of the nation's varying educational problems, being restricted only by existing legislation. In addition, the Council can make recommendations to the National Assembly for the enactment of new laws or for the revision or revocation of existing ones; in the past, these recommendations have invariably been adopted. The Council of Ministers most frequently are also members of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party, thus forming the links in the chain uniting party, nation, and schools. However, the direct responsibility for education in Bulgaria is delegated to the Ministry of Education (formerly the Ministry of Education and Culture). All matters involving ideology, school organization, methods, and materials of instruction come under its jurisdiction: it lays down the basic guidelines and objectives for Bulgarian education, develops courses of study in all subjects, issues rules and regulations governing the schools, approves and publishes texts and supplementary books and materials, and employs the requisite procedures to secure the desired educational organization and methodology. Its head, the Minister of Education, is assisted by several deputy ministers, each responsible for a specific division. Directly under the deputy ministers are the respective heads of departments. All the decrees, instructional materials, and school programs issued by the Ministry are subject to prior approval by the Minister of Education, who is held accountable for them by the Council of Ministers. The country is divided into districts (okrugs) and then subdivided into okoliyas and rayons, which are further subdivided into obshtinas.* Each * The administrative breakdown of Bulgaria is by okrugs, the first-order administrative-territorial divisions; the okrug approximates in some ways a state in the

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INTRODUCTION okrug has a department of education, headed by a director who serves at the pleasure of the particular district people's council, whereas the okoliya, rayon, and obshtina each usually have an education committee. On the basis of the pertinent legislation, regulations, and decrees, a department of education exercises direct responsibility for the work of most schools and educational institutions located within the administrative jurisdiction of its council. Excepted are the art schools and the institutions of higher learning, which are under the complete jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education in Sofia. Each of the district people's councils has a number of inspectors who supervise the work of the teachers, school directors, and other educational personnel and also render such assistance as may become necessary. These inspectors often popularize hi their district methods and techniques found effective elsewhere. A district people's council has still other responsibilities for education. It allots funds from the district budget to the local municipal and village people's councils * for the support of the schools within their particular jurisdiction. As the occasion arises, it issues various orders and regulations about the objectives of education, the administration of the schools, the methods and materials of education, and similar problems. Of course, in no instance can these rules and regulations supersede or countermand the provisions of existing laws, the decrees of the Council of Ministers, or the instructions and orders of the Ministry of Education. The role of the district council and its organ, the department of education, is solely a supUnited States or a province in Canada. Okoliyas and obshtinas are the second- and third-order administrative-territorial divisions, respectively; there are several okoliyas in each okrug, and several obshtinas in each okoliya. The word rayon (from the French) has been used at different periods of Bulgarian history to denote territorialadministrative areas, and in contemporary Bulgarian usage, the rayon is equivalent to the okoliya. The rayon as well as the okoliya is divided into several obshtinas, which in turn include several villages (sela) and/or hamlets (makhali) and small hamlets (kolibi). * Bulgaria is divided into twenty-seven okrugs and Sofia. The district (okrug) people's councils (Okruzhni Narodni Suveti) are the elected government, with headquarters in their respective okrugs. The local (okoliya) people's councils (Okoliyski Narodni Suveti) are subordinate to their district people's council. Sofia is divided into six rayons, each with a rayon people's council (Rayonni Narodni Suveti) that has the same jurisdiction as an okoliya people's council. Rayons that are within Sofia proper are divided into wards (kvartali) instead of obshtinas. Hence, the local people's council corresponds roughly to the county township or the city ward in the United States.

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Organizational chart of the Bulgarian educational system. Adapted from the chart on page 28 of the Ministry of Education's Development of Education in the People's Republic of Bulgaria during the School Year 1963-1964 (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1965).

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INTRODUCTION portive one, with the Ministry of Education ultimately exercising complete, systematic control over education at all levels. The schools are organized on the following plan: Each school has a director (principal) in charge of all educational, administrative, and organizational matters involved hi the operation of the school. He is assisted in his work by a teachers' council, which functions as an advisory body. In addition, there is a parents' committee in every school, which operates as an auxiliary organ dealing with certain organizational and educational matters — such as field trips, activities of the Pioneers, and improvement of discipline and scholarship; its work is closely coordinated with that of the school administration.

General Information All schoolwork must follow the courses of study and employ the textbooks adopted by the Ministry of Education. These materials are identical for all schools, both urban and rural. The organization of the Bulgarian educational system is illustrated by the chart on page 16. The Bulgarian school year lasts from September 15 to sometime between May 23 and June 30, including the annual examination period. The exact date when school ends depends upon the level of the institution, the specific projects hi manual labor that the students must complete, and the particular work needs of the locality. The students have a winter vacation from December 31 to January 12, a spring vacation from April 1 to 7, and a summer vacation from the end of school to September 15. Most public day schools are in session six days a week during the school year, the number of hours varying according to grade level. (See Table 1, p. 22, for exact time allotments by grade and subject.) Since the Bulgarians celebrate a Day of Rest, on a different day in different parts of the country rather than on Sunday, the school and workweek is staggered by regions. Thus, in each of Bulgaria's largest cities (Sofia, Plovdiv, Varna, Russev, Vidin, and Trnovo), schools are closed on a different day of the week.* * The reason given to the writer for this staggered approach to the workweek was one of economic efficiency. It was explained that the entire country was interconnected by a mesh of high-voltage power lines, and through this scheduling, the output of hydroelectric power could be utilized more completely. Otherwise, if the Day of Rest were the same throughout the country, much of the water power would be wasted that day, since all industries, schools, and businesses would be idle. The writer suspects that other factors — such as the anti-religious campaign — were, likewise, important determinants.

[IT]

chapter

II

THE BULGARIAN SYSTEM OF EDUCA TION

Preschool Education SHORTLY after Bulgaria's independence in 1878, Dragan Tzankov, a schoolteacher who had studied and traveled widely in Europe and who, on several brief occasions, served as Bulgaria's Minister of Education, wrote a number of articles under the general title "Methodology of Nursery Education" ("Za metodata v zabavachnitzite"). His efforts gave rise to a movement for preschool education in Bulgaria and eventually resulted in the formation of kindergartens and kindergarten societies in some larger cities. The writings of Froebel began to be disseminated about this time in Bulgaria and gave still greater impetus to this work. The movement also obtained considerable support from American missionary teachers serving in Bulgaria. The first institution specifically for the training of preschool-kindergarten teachers was established in Sofia in 1900 by the American missionary, Elisabeth Clark, who continued this work until her death in 1942. Following World War I, a model nurseryschool-kindergarten was established in the northern Bulgarian city of Pordim by the late Edward Haskell; it functioned as a demonstration center for his School of Home Economics and Agriculture and exerted a considerable influence on the spread of the nursery-kindergarten into rural areas. Despite occasional temporary reverses, the number of nurseries and kindergartens grew slowly but steadily in the years preceding World War II. After the Communist government came to power in 1944, the institutions supported by Western charitable groups — including nurseries, kindergartens, and the American institute for the training of teachers for pre-

THE BULGARIAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION schoolers — were either closed or confiscated and converted into state schools. The preschool curricula were drastically changed to eliminate influences deemed undesirable by the new government. At the same time, the number of nurseries and kindergartens was expanded to care for children of working parents, and Soviet methods, which stress collectivism and group competition,* were introduced. NURSERY SCHOOLS AND KINDERGARTENS IN BULGARIA TODAY

Nursery schools and kindergartens are established and supported in Bulgaria by political organs, such as local people's councils, by economic units, such as factories, collective farms, state commercial organizations, or, more rarely, by governmental departments. Institutions supported by people's councils are open to all children living in the district who are of nursery and kindergarten age, whereas the schools supported by an economic unit generally admit only those children who have one or both parents working in the particular establishment. In either case, minimal tuition is charged. A number of different kinds of preschool nurseries and kindergartens exist in Bulgaria. Infants from three months to three years of age are admitted to a special nursery called the yasla — literally, "a crib or manger" — which serves as both a health center and an educational institution. Children of working mothers are usually left at the yasla for the entire six-day workweek and are taken home only on the okrug's Day of Rest (An okrug is somewhat similar to a county or parish.). Seasonal nursery-kindegartens, in operation from two to ten months a year, are established for children whose mothers are temporarily engaged in some industrial or agricultural occupation. Most of these nursery-kindergartens are conducted in the villages during the season when work in the fields is at its height. Similar centers that care for the children on either daily or a weekly basis may be organized in urban communities whenever twenty or more children in a neighborhood have mothers seasonally employed. Open-air nursery-kindergartens are frequently organized in towns and cities during the summer months for a period ranging from forty to * The nursery or kindergarten of pre-Communist Bulgaria was frequently given the popular name of zabavachnitza, "a place where children are kept occupied or busy." This term is now held in disrepute, being considered anti-scientific; the preferred terminology is Detska gradina, "a child's garden."

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sixty days. Enrollment is not limited to children of working mothers, since the purpose of the program is to give the children a regimen of outdoor physical activity through games, activities, and excursions and to provide them with more nutritious food than their parents would normally be able to afford. Children who have had a pulmonary disease or who have been exposed to one at home sometimes are sent to special sanatorial nursery-kindergartens in the country. They usually remain there under medical supervision for three to four months, and if no complications develop, they are returned home to attend their own kindergartens. All the preceding forms of the nursery-kindergartens are open to children between the ages of three and seven. The children are divided into three classes by age: three-year-olds, four-year-olds, and five- and sixyear-olds. In addition, half-day kindergartens exist in schools that contain the primary grades. These kindergartens are for children six years of age who will be enrolling in the first grade in the following school year but do not attend any other nursery-kindergarten. The director of each school is responsible for the administration and supervision of the kindergarten in his institution. Kindergartens affiliated with primary schools have the same academic year as do the schools with which they are associated — that is, September 15 to May 15. The nursery-kindergarten curriculum consists of reading, arithmetic, and oral language lessons, games, singing, rhythmic activities, drawing, and craftwork.* Teaching methods and techniques are employed that emphasize patriotism, loyalty to the Communist Party, friendship for the Soviet Union, collective living, and group and individual competition. * A variety of activities contributing to the physical development of the children appear to be particularly stressed. Kindergarten teachers receive special training in two-year training * It seemed to this observer that the skills required to accomplish successfully some of the tasks in the finer arts and crafts may have required better coordination than that normally possessed by children of this age group. f In a frequently used technique, classes are divided into teams. The children in the team that behaved best during the preceding day are given the flag of the Communist Party for their table and emblems of the hammer and sickle to wear on their smocks. The secretary (leader) of the winning team is permitted to sit on the left side of the teacher, and the "model pupil" from the day before sits on the right side of the teacher.

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THE BULGARIAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION schools. Medical care for kindergarten children is provided by physicians, many of whom are pediatricians, assisted by nurses. * Preschool education has been made a part of governmental policy in Bulgaria. As an element of the Communist Party's Twenty-Year Plan (1960-1980), nursery-kindergarten education is to be made compulsory, and all children beginning at three years of age are to be enrolled in some kind of educational institution. If this policy is actually carried out, it will undoubtedly lessen the influence of the home on the children and increase that of the state. It will also increase the labor force by freeing for work mothers who normally would remain at home to care for their offspring of nursery-kindergarten age.

Elementary and Secondary Education The objectives for Bulgarian elementary and secondary education are stated in the Law for Closer Ties between School and Life and for the Further Development of National Education in the People's Republic of Bulgaria. This law states that the purpose of general education in Bulgaria is to "train well educated, universally and harmoniously developed young people, giving them the necessary amount of knowledge in the basic branches of science, cultivating a Marxist-Leninist outlook in them and giving them adequate polytechnical and vocational training. At the same time it is to provide the necessary training for further studies in higher institutions." 1 In other words, the elementary and secondary schools are designed to give the students a thorough education in the essentials, with emphasis on the sciences and vocational training, and at the same time to ground them thoroughly in the principles of Marxism-Leninism. Elementary and secondary education in Bulgaria takes a total of eleven years. The exact organization of the schools varies according to the conditions in the community, the facilities available, and the size of the school population. In some areas, there are initial schools for the first four grades, upper primary schools for grades five to eight, and secondary schools for * Medical personnel in Bulgaria are numerous but poorly paid; all are civil servants. A physician beginning his medical practice will earn a salary slightly more than that of a clerk in a retail store. This situation accounts for the fact that many schools and other institutions have full-time physicians on their staff. The writer of this study is not, of course, qualified to form an evaluation of the quality of medical training in Bulgaria or of the resulting professional competence of its medical personnel.

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Table 1. Plan of Study for the General Polytechnical Elementary and Secondary Schools No. of Class Hours per Week for Grade Subject

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Bulgarian language and literature .. 11 Russian language and literature West European language* Mathematics (algebra and geometry) 5 Physics and astronomy Chemistry Biology Geography History and the Constitution Elements of Communism 2 Physical culture Drawing 1 Singing 1 Labor training .. 2 General technical subjects Elements of agriculture Elements of industrial production Mechanics and mechanical drawing Electrotechnics Production training, theoretical and practical . . . Total . . 22

11

11

7

6 3

6 3

5 3

5

5

5

6

5 1

5 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2

3 2 3 5 3 2 2

4 1 2 5 4 2

2

3 1 3 4 3 3 2 2 2

2

2

2

2 2 2

1 2

1

6 31

1 6 31

2

2 2

2 2 2

5 2 2 2 2 2

3 1 2 3

3 2 2 3

2 2 2 3

2 2 1 2

V2 Y2

2 1 2 2

3 1 2 3

2 3 23

25

26

29

30

30

30

3 31

SOURCE: Ministry of Education, Education in the People's Republic of Bulgaria during the 1963-64 School Year (Sofia: Ministry of Education, 1965), pp. 18-19. «Choice of French, German, and English.

THE BULGARIAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION the grades nine to eleven; in other areas, there are comprehensive schools that include all eleven grades; and in still others, there are elementary schools for grades one to eight and secondary schools for the last three grades. In many instances, a mixed pattern of school organization prevails. Regardless of the grade level at which these elementary and secondary schools function, all of them include polytechnic in their title. This term is applied to them because all of these schools, no matter what other purposes they may have, must include a certain amount of polytechnical work —that is, their curriculum must contain vocational and industrial subjects. The children attend the elementary school, which is compulsory, from age seven to fifteen. The primary school attempts to give its pupils a basic education and concerns itself with the development of skills, attitudes, and concepts, since these elements may be related both to subject matter and to political orientations. The curriculum of the first four grades of the elementary school therefore includes the following (see also Table 1): Bulgarian language and literature, arithmetic, singing, drawing, physical education, training in labor, and some natural science and history (especially in the fourth grade). Two hours each week are spent on education in labor (that is, craft activities and manual arts) during the first and second years, and three hours each week during the third and fourth years of study.* In addition to these subjects, the curriculum of the remaining four grades of the elementary school comprises the following: Russian, a Western language (French, German, or English), physics and astronomy, chemistry, biology, geography, and the Bulgarian Constitution. The curriculum of the four upper grades of the elementary school also includes elements of education in labor. The students take further work in manual arts and obtain practical experience in the school workshops by producing various items on an industrial basis, either for direct sale to consumers or as subcontractors to industry. For two weeks each semester, students also * Despite the large amount of publicity given to the course of education in labor, the writer does not consider this work in the lower grades unique. It seeks to include in Bulgarian education many principles from manual arts and industrial education that have been part of American education for a long time. First-graders who tie their shoelaces or clean up after their play are participating in education in labor; so are third-graders who are cutting and pasting construction paper and fifth-graders who are cutting out a wood pattern with a coping saw.

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are required to work in industrial establishments, in the school experimental agricultural fields, or on collective farms. In some instances, part of this time includes field trips and excursions, so that the total number of hours actually put hi by students on work projects is less than it may at first appear. Education in labor accounts for three hours per week of the school schedule during the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades of the elementary school and for two hours weekly during the eighth grade. Many students also belong to technological and science study circles of the Pioneers. Although no formal study of Marxism-Leninism is undertaken at this level, its elements are included throughout the curriculum, incorporated wherever feasible in the material that is being studied. The secondary school course lasts three years and includes the ninth, tenth, and eleventh grades. (A projected extension of the course to a fourth year [grade twelve] has been postponed.) In addition to regular day secondary schools, a number of evening secondary schools are in operation. The Law for Closer Ties between School and Life outlines the aims and objectives of the general polytechnical secondary school: * The purpose of this school is: to give its students a greater amount of knowledge in the fundamental branches of science, to improve their polytechnical training by means of theoretical studies and useful labor, to provide a direct link between industrial training and the curriculum of general education, and to train the students for taking up a particular vocation in the field of industry or culture, or for continuing their education in any institution of higher learning.2 The following categories of subjects comprise the curriculum of the general polytechnical secondary school: (1) subjects providing a liberal arts education (humanities, mathematics, and the natural sciences); the study of Russian is obligatory in all general secondary schools; (2) technical subjects of a general, orientational nature, either (a) the fundamentals of agriculture, primarily for rural schools, which are taught from the eighth to eleventh grades and which include information on crop-raising, stockbreeding, and mechanized agriculture; or (b) the fundamentals of industry, essentially for urban schools, which are given from the ninth to *The term "general polytechnical secondary school" is used to distinguish it from secondary schools with primarily vocational objectives, such as those for the study of ballet, art, music, dramatics, and trades.

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THE BULGARIAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION eleventh grades and which cover topics in general mechanics, automechanics, electricity, and drafting; (3) subjects dealing with industrial trades, to which are devoted five hours a week in the tenth grade and ten hours in the eleventh; for each of the two, the students are also required to have two workweeks of labor in industry or agriculture; and (4) aesthetic subjects (art, music, and singing) and physical education. The introduction of technical courses in the secondary school has given a new function to this institution. The pre-Communist Bulgarian secondary schools were, for the most part, patterned after the German gymnasiums and emphasized either classical studies, science, or modern languages. There were also, of course, many vocational schools. By including technical subjects, the general secondary school functions more as an all-purpose, comprehensive institution and, during their last two or three years, provides its students with the basic skills necessary to enter some industrial trade upon graduation. The secondary school students study those trades and vocations characteristic of the area in which the school is located. These subjects are determined by the economy of the region and by the need for craftsmen and technicians to meet the requirements of its future development. Schools in farming areas usually emphasize subjects more closely related to agriculture and agricultural technology, whereas schools in industrial communities stress industrial subjects. This aspect of the school program, therefore, is usually geared to mesh with the various national, district, and local economic plans. Most of the agricultural subjects are taught by agronomists, and the students spend a large proportion of the time allotted to such courses working on the collective or state farms of the community. Each farm allots a certain amount of land, seed, and machinery-time to the schools in the district. Whatever yields are produced belong to the farm, but the students are given some remuneration for their labor. The industrial courses are taught in special school workshops, in regional or city workshops built for a number of schools that teach the same or closely allied trades, in factory training schools, or in the factories themselves. The training is given by specially prepared industrial arts teachers or by the workers, technicians, and engineers of the establishments. Special committees, whose function is to coordinate and facilitate the various aspects of the program, have been organized in each school and

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF B U L G A R I A N YOUTH

industrial establishment where students receive industrial training. The school committee is responsible for relating the material that the students study in the school to the work that they are performing in the industrial establishments. The committee is usually composed of the teachers of mathematics, physical and natural sciences, and industrial arts. A special factory committee assists in the industrial training of the students, coordinating the program within the establishment, and it has the additional task of persuading workers who are reluctant to work with students to do so. The Party secretary, one of the most powerful and influential workers in a Bulgarian industrial plant, is usually a member of this committee on industrial training. Before the student can graduate from a secondary school, he must take a series of examinations: written and oral questions in the Bulgarian language and in mathematics; written questions in Russian, physics, chemistry, and history; and a practical and written examination in some industrial or building trade. At the end of the school year 1960-1961, 89 per cent of the students graduating from general secondary polytechnical schools were able to qualify at some level in the trade that they had studied.* A student who has passed his academic examinations and has qualified in an industrial occupation has the option either to continue general or professional studies in a higher educational institution (providing openings exist and he is accepted for enrollment) or to work in his particular vocational specialty. OTHER EDUCATIONAL FORMS

In many areas internati, hostels where room and board are provided, are operated by people's councils or by collective farms as adjuncts to elementary and secondary schools. Children who reside in small, isolated settlements, as well as other children who for some reason may not be able to live at home, may stay in these internati. Such children sometimes return to be with their families on the Day of Rest. In some schools of village collective farms, a variant of the internati exists — the poly-internati, an all-day school in which the children remain in their own classrooms un* The writer was told by a student with whom he talked that the level of competence among students taking the examination differed greatly. Of the students who passed, most qualified at a beginner's level of proficiency. The percentage of students qualifying who were then employed in precisely the same work for which they had been trained was not available.

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THE BULGARIAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

der the gTuidance of v"zpitateli (tutors; literally, "trainers"), for the remain der of the day after class sessions have ended. There they prepare their homework for the next day, engage in work projects, and participate in various sports and other recreational activities. Serving a similar function is the zanimalna (study hall) for the children of working parents, especially in the important urban centers. In this case, children from a number of grades and classes may stay in the same room. Attendance in the zanimalna is optional — at the discretion of each child's parents — since most of the schools operate in shifts and there are too few classrooms to house all the pupils for the entire day. However, proposals have been advanced to establish poly-internati as soon as possible where zanimalni presently exist and to make all-day attendance compulsory.* There are, in addition, different kinds of special schools. One is the school for children of ethnic minorities living in Bulgaria, mostly Turks and Gypsies. In these schools the children's native language is employed in the initial grades, with Bulgarian taught as a second language. Generally, these schools are either primary schools or complete elementary schools, but seldom secondary schools. By the time the children have reached the ninth grade, they are expected to have learned Bulgarian well enough to attend a regular school. Other special schools are those for the deaf and mute, the blind, the retarded, and juvenile delinquents. These children attend boarding schools where they receive an elementary education and training for a suitable vocation. In 1961, there were seventy such schools, with 8,090 children in attendance. Students who suffer from heart conditions, pulmonary illnesses, the aftermaths of rheumatic fever, and other diseases are sent to special openair schools. These schools admit students in the first to the eleventh grade. The content of the curriculum does not differ greatly from that of the ordinary elementary and secondary schools, except that certain requirements of physical activity, industrial and agricultural work, and heavy homework assignments have been eliminated or redesigned to take into * This is an element of the Program of the Bulgarian Communist Party which is supposed to be realized by 1980. The numbers of these institutions in 1961 —the last year for which figures are available to the writer — are: 760 internati and boarding schools of various kinds in which 31,643 children are housed, supervised by 1,170 v"zpitateli, and 1,175 poly-internati for 50,496 children, supervised by 1,624 v"zpitateli.

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account the disabilities of these children. (See, for example, the accompanying daily schedule of the G. Berkovitsa open-air school. The school has one hundred and twenty students in seven classes, grades four to eight. There are seven teachers and an equal number of v"zpitateli [counselors].) 6:30 to 6:50 A.M 6:50 to 7:OOA.M 7:00 to 7:30 A.M 7:30 to 7:45 A.M 7:45 to 8:00 A.M 8:OOtol2:OOA.M 12:00 to 12:30p.M 12:30 to 1:00 P.M 1:00 to 3:00 P.M 3:00 to 5:30 P.M 5:30 to 7:00 P.M 7:00to 7:30P.M 7:30 to 8:00 P.M 8:00P.M.

Rise, dress, make the beds Calisthenics Breakfast Take a walk Prepare for class, go to class Class work Prepare for lunch Lunch Rest and afternoon nap Supervised study, work, and play Free period Supper Prepare to retire for the night Light

While attending these special schools, the children are under medical care. They receive the physical therapy thought suitable for their condition — sun, air, and water baths appear to be used extensively — and they are usually placed on a special diet. An attempt is made to provide a properly balanced daily program of schoolwork, extracurricular activities, and rest. The average stay for students in these special schools ranges anywhere from four months to a year. When the health of these children improves, they return to their own schools. In the case of some diseases, however, such as advanced spinal curvature and arthritis, the children may spend all their school years in the institution. There exist also special foreign-language secondary schools in which some of the subjects are taught in the foreign language which the students are studying, usually by teachers from that country. Such schools have been established for the teaching of Russian, German, French, and English. They all have a five-year course of study, the first year being a preparatory one, with the exception of the Russian-language schools, which have a four-year course and no preparatory class. There are ten foreignlanguage schools at present, attended by a total of 4,290 students. The schools provide foreign-language specialists for Bulgaria's political, military, economic, scientific, and cultural exchanges with other nations. C283

THE BULGARIAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

Vocational Education Bulgaria's vocational schools are under the jurisdiction of both the Ministry of Education and the respective district or city people's councils. The Ministry has general control of the objectives, curricular content, methods of instruction, qualifications of the staff, evaluation, and writing of textbooks. The departments of education of the people's councils, which function at a local or community level, are responsible for providing funds and for specific educational activities carried on in the schools. Vocational training in Bulgaria can be obtained in one of four ways: in technical colleges, in vocational schools, in special vocational courses, and in the colleges of railway engineering and telecommunications. The technical colleges are, in reality, schools at the secondary level that train students for work in commerce, agriculture, the medical and veterinary fields, construction, transportation, the mechanical and mining industries, and other areas. The students study the rudiments of a trade or vocation as well as the basic courses from the curriculum of the general polytechnical secondary school. Graduates of these schools usually enter their chosen field at a low level of qualification and must spend considerable time working in it before they can pass the state examinations for a higher occupational classification —that is, before they can be classified as technicians of the highest grade in their specialty. The technical colleges, therefore, function somewhat as a counterpart of the American trade or vocational school. The following kinds of technical colleges exist presently in Bulgaria: shipbuilding printing cereal technology food technology bakery technology watchmaking and optics industrial chemistry machine toolmaking mechanics electrical trades petroleum technology textile-making woodworking

agronomy animal husbandry mining building trades forestry economics transportation and communication mechanized farming technology institutional management fur and leather technology footwear and rubber technology medical, dental, and veterinary technology

The curriculum of these schools includes three principal subject areas: general secondary school subjects, general technical courses (such as C29H

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH

general mechanics or fundamentals of agriculture), and specialized work in a particular trade, with the time allotment being divided almost equally among the three categories. In all instances, the students obtain practical experience in the school shops and —still more extensively — in industry, where they work part time. Students admitted to a technical college after only an elementary school education usually must remain at the institution for four or five years in order to complete their studies. Students who may have completed a general secondary school education before being admitted to a college ordinarily can complete their studies in one to three years, depending upon the vocational specialization they have selected and previous preparation. Most of the technical colleges that have a five-year course use one of three basic arrangements for the last year: (1) The students attend evening classes at the school while working at their respective trades during the day. (2) The students study zadochno while they are employed in their trade at some enterprise. Zadochno means an extramural arrangement in which the student prepares at home, after working hours, to take a series of examinations in some specified course work. Usually, the student is given an outline to follow and a list of books to read. The procedure differs from a correspondence course in that the student is required not to submit written papers on individual lessons but to pass satisfactorily a battery of comprehensive examinations at the end of the period of study. (3) The student alternates three months of full-time study at the school with three months as an apprentice worker in his respective trade. At the end of the year, before he can graduate, he must pass a battery of final examinations. No matter what additional examinations may be required before graduation, the common requirement in all technical colleges is that the students have passed final examinations in Bulgarian language and literature and in mathematics. However, the students are usually permitted to take the examinations at the end of the year in which they have completed the study of these subjects. In addition, at the end of their last year, all students must either take a state examination in their chosen vocation or, depending upon their particular area of specialization, design and make an original project. Graduates of technical colleges begin work in industry or they may continue with their studies in any higher educational institution whose admission requirements they meet. C303

THE BULGARIAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

The vocational schools also train workers for industry and agriculture, but their curricula are intended to provide a basic vocational specialization. The following kinds of vocational schools exist at present: fire protection foundry practices metal-working electrical technology chemical technology food technology tobacco culture and processing beverage production (both soft and hard drinks) printing

transportation and communication wood technology stone cutting model-making textile technology practical agriculture farm mechanization forestry landscaping prospecting and mineralogy mining

These vocational schools are not usually intended to function as counterparts of the general secondary polytechnical schools but rather are operated as appendages to large industrial establishments, collective farms, or technical colleges. Students with only an elementary education may enroll, and the curriculum takes from one to three years to complete, depending upon the area of specialization. Although the programs of most vocational schools provide for some work in general school subjects, by far the greatest emphasis is upon the special vocational subjects, accompanied by practical work (practicum). The educational institutions are provided with the materials, machines, and other equipment for the students' training by the establishments with which they are associated. The students then manufacture during their industrial practice goods identical to those made in the establishment, and the finished products are returned to the factory to be disposed of through normal commercial channels. In the case of items that schools use, the school is permitted to keep for its own consumption some of its production, releasing the rest to other educational institutions in the district (the author was unable to determine whether this procedure actually served as a learning experience for the students or whether it was designed to provide inexpensive student labor to the enterprise). Vocational schools of agriculture have about 200 to 250 acres of land allotted to them by local collective farms, which the students cultivate under the direction of their teachers. Before a student can graduate from vocational school, he must take a state examination that determines his vocational grade classification. A

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student who receives a sufficiently high score may continue studies at the secondary level in a technical college and receive credit for the subjects taken previously in the vocational school. Sometimes new workers are trained through vocational courses under the auspices of the industrial enterprise or the collective farm where they work. Similarly, certain establishments provide refresher courses for workers who wish to qualify at a higher level on the state occupational examinations or who wish to become familiar with the new technical developments in their field. These courses, consisting of theory and industrial practice, are under the direct control of the Ministry of Education. Young people who have not completed elementary school frequently are expected to attend courses given at their places of employment that provide them with the rudiments of a basic education and that, at the same time, are designed to expand their vocational skills. Special programs in schools are also available to such youth. Although participation in any of these programs supposedly is voluntary, in practice the Party secretary of an enterprise can exert considerable pressure upon the workers to participate in such educational efforts.* There are two other vocational institutions of considerable importance in Bulgaria which are separate from the polytechnical institutions: the railway engineering and the advanced telecommunications schools that train personnel for administrative services on the national railway and in the postal and telegraph services. The program of study lasts three years, and a student must have a secondary education before admission. OTHER FORMS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Evening schools and extramural courses provide a means for the workers to improve their qualification ratings on the state examinations * It should be pointed out that many of the courses, although ostensibly vocational, also have overtones of a political nature. Indeed, the writer's observations have been that even the most highly specialized and technical subject matter has incorporated within it at some point definite elements to foster the ideological education of the worker. Nothing in the country is apolitical, least of all education. Workers also are required to participate in Communist study sessions and to attend various Party-sponsored rallies, often after a day's work. Moreover, all workers in Bulgaria are employed on a piecework basis. In order for them to be paid their regular wages, they must produce at a pre-established norm that, the writer was told, frequently is raised to a higher level each time the quota is met. It is therefore to the worker's advantage — though maybe only a temporary one — to improve his vocational proficiency and the speed with which he performs a particular operation.

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through further study, without disrupting regular work schedules. These programs are mostly carried out in the technical colleges or vocational schools of large industrial centers. The qualifications and rights to employment of graduates of evening or extramural courses are the same as those of regular day students. In rural areas, a two-year training program is given during the winter season to teach the collective farmers the basics of stockbreeding, growing fruit, and raising crops. For the women, elementary courses in home economics and rearing children are provided. The government anticipates an expansion of this program in the near future.* Present Bulgarian Communist economic policy requires the development of a large number of competent semiskilled and skilled workers and technicians in the years immediately ahead. As a result, the government is doing everything possible to encourage the youth to enter critical industries and vocations by offering considerable incentives for them to do so. All youth taking vocational courses receive their work clothes free of charge. A large number are given scholarships (6-18 per cent in the technical colleges and 30-75 per cent in the factory-affiliated industrial schools). In addition, students attending the industrial schools receive free school uniforms and room and board, those that attend technical agricultural colleges free room and board. All other institutions for vocational training have cafeterias where the students pay only for the cost of the raw food products — the state covers the remaining expenses, such as labor of its preparation and overhead. PROFESSIONAL TRAINING IN THE ARTS AT THE SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL

Eight professional schools of secondary level exist to provide training in the arts: music, ballet, painting, and sculpture. Musical training is given in special schools that have a four-year course open to talented children who have completed their elementary education. The children study a specific musical instrument, in addition to voice, music theory, and the general secondary school subjects. Extramural students under the age of thirty may also enroll in these schools; they study at home in their * This approach to rural education is not new in Bulgaria. Shortly after the turn of the twentieth century, an American Congregational missionary to Bulgaria, Edward Haskell, inaugurated such training programs at the northern Bulgarian town of Pordim and in the surrounding villages.

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spare time, but must pass a battery of examinations given by the institution. The schools of art have a four-year course and admit gifted students who have graduated from an elementary school. Ballet dancers and choreographers receive their training in the State School of Choreography. The school is divided into two departments: a department of classical dance with a nine-year course open to children under ten years of age who have passed the third grade of the elementary school, and a department of folk dancing with a three-year course, admitting students who have completed the ninth grade. After a student has graduated from one of the art or music schools and has successfully passed the final state examination, he may apply for admission to a conservatory of music or an academy of art. Beginning musical and art training is given in children's musical schools, in the Pioneer homes, at the Pioneer Palace in Sofia, and at the chitalishta (a cultural club). This training is extracurricular while the children continue to attend regular, full-time elementary schools.

Higher Education in Bulgaria The purposes of higher education in Bulgaria are defined in the Law for Closer Ties between School and Life (1959), which states the tasks of the institution of higher learning: to train highly qualified specialists in the communist spirit for all fields of life, young men and women who have mastered the latest achievements of science and technology, well versed in the economy and organization of industry and capable of independent creative and practical work; to carry out research work and to link closely the development of science with the building of socialism in the country; to do systematic work for raising the qualifications of practicing engineers and farm specialists; to spread scientific, technical and political knowledge among the working people, as well as to study, assess and spread the experience of innovators and outstanding workers in the field of industry and farming.3 Bulgarian higher education, therefore, presently emphasizes mathematics, the sciences, and the study of Communist political theory in order to train an intellectual elite who possess high technical and professional competence and, at the same time, are devoted to the Communist state. The C34H

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"new Communist man" is a phrase frequently employed to describe one of this elite. In accordance with the law on education of 1959, all students in an institution of higher learning must maintain "ever stronger links with life." Consequently, students in the technical subjects are required to spend one third of the school year during their first and last years of university study working in industry or on collective or state farms. There they first perform ordinary labor. Later, when they have sufficiently learned the operations of the establishment, they are permitted to manage, under supervision, a particular industrial or agricultural operation. Similarly, students in the humanities are required to relate the specialty which they are studying to some specific area of practical life. History students, for instance, may be required to work in a museum or to engage in archaeological excavations as part of their practicum (history and archaeology are not sharply defined as separate disciplines, especially in the provincial institutions of higher education). In addition, all students, unless they have a medical excuse, are expected to participate in work brigades during certain seasons of the year — the brigades may be used in road construction, in building projects, or on a collective farm, planting or harvesting crops. Frequently, classes at Sofia State University or the higher institutes are completely rescheduled to enable the students to participate in some critical project. Students generally work where the need for labor is greatest, not necessarily in projects related to the particular vocation for which they are preparing. (All these statements are made on the basis of the writer's own observations and his interviews with students.) Admission to all higher educational institutions is open, theoretically, to any graduate of a secondary school, but in actual practice, this policy does not always apply. The student's scholastic record, his previous work or military experience, his scores on the institution's entrance examinations, his "social and political consciousness," and the number of applicants versus openings all play a role in whether or not a student is admitted to an institution of higher learning. Children of partisans (Communist guerrilla fighters in World War II) and former Communist underground workers have preference and may be admitted without examination. Bulgaria presently has the following higher institutions of learning: the £353

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State University in Sofia with six faculties, each with a five-year course of study, with the exception of the Faculty of Law, which has a four-year course; seven schools of engineering with twelve faculties whose courses range between four and a half to five and a half years; three agricultural institutes with four faculties and nine specialties either four and a half or five years long; three medical institutes with three faculties and three specialties, involving a six-year course of study; one Higher Institute of Physical Culture with a course of study ranging from four to five years; three higher institutes of economics, with six faculties and twelve specialties and a four-and-a-half-year course of study; one Institute of Natural Science and Mathematics, with a five-year course of study; three higher institutes of art, namely, the Higher Institute of Pictorial Art, the Higher Institute of Theatrical Art, and the State Conservatory — a total of five faculties are represented with twenty-four specialties and a course of study ranging between four and six years.4 Thus, there are twenty-two institutions of higher education in Bulgaria today, which have a total of thirty-six faculties with 128 specialties. Courses zadochno (extramurally) are available at most of these institutions to individuals with a secondary education who, having completed at least two years of work in their respective occupations, wish to work on advanced studies. Such students are given outlines to follow for each subject in which they are enrolled and a list of the texts which they are to read. However, they do not attend classes but remain at their regular jobs. At stated intervals, they take a short leave of absence from their positions to prepare intensively for a battery of examinations in their courses and to participate in special intensive study sessions under the direction of the faculty members in whose courses they are enrolled. The extramural program is organized so that a student may finish his studies through a series of nine comprehensive examinations over a period of three years. Extramural students are permitted to finish their studies in a shorter time, but few are able to do it. Consultation centers to assist those studying zadochno are available in a number of provincial towns.* * A question may be justifiably raised about the quality of education under this arrangement. The writer has been unable to obtain any concrete data that would provide conclusive evidence one way or the other. In bringing this point up to both regularly enrolled university students and to those studying zadochno, the consensus seemed to be that a better education could be obtained by regular attendance in class. Nevertheless, students completing their studies zadochno obtain the same

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Nearly fifty per cent of Bulgarian university students are on state stipends of one form or another. The amount of these stipends generally ranges between fifteen and thirty leva a month, which, at the official rate of exchange in 1967, is equal to between seven dollars and fifty cents and fifteen dollars monthly. Although tuition is free, most students must pay for room and board and for all textbooks and materials needed for their courses. No degrees are awarded to Bulgarian undergraduate students who have completed their programs of study successfully. Instead, they receive a diploma on which are listed the subjects that they have taken with the grades received and results of the comprehensive examinations in the history and ideology of Communism and in the student's area of professional competence. TEACHER TRAINING

The preparation of teachers in Bulgaria has recently been in a state of flux, with various attempts being made to improve the education of teachers. Under the law on education of 1959, kindergarten teachers and teachers for the first four years of elementary school are to be educated in teacher-training institutions with a three-year program for students who have completed secondary school. Students preparing to be teachers in grades five to eight are now required to have graduated from Sofia State University. Before this law, all teachers of elementary school were educated in teacher-training institutes that provided a five-year program above elementary school. Teachers who are not graduates of Sofia State University but who are teaching in the upper grades of the elementary school now must complete their university education by enrolling in extramural courses. Teachers of general secondary school subjects receive their education at Sofia State University, and vocational teachers are trained in institutes with a two-year course after they have graduated from a vocational college or school and have worked in industry for a minimum of two years. At the end of their last year of study, all graduates of teacher-training programs must take a state examination before they can qualify as teachers. rights and privileges as those who have been enrolled in regular day classes. Students enrolled zadochno account for nearly 30 per cent of all those studying in institutions of higher education, and this figure helps to explain the claim frequently made that Bulgaria ranks first among the nations of the world in the number of university students per youths of university age. C373

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Teachers in all schools (nursery-kindergartens, elementary schools, secondary schools, and vocational schools) are expected periodically to attend special workshops and intensive short courses at one of three institutes for the improvement of teaching. Content, methodology, and Communist ideological theory are all included in these sessions. In addition to this program of in-service training, the departments of education of the district people's councils sponsor conferences, seminars, and lectures for the teachers within their districts. THE BULGARIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Besides the higher educational institutions that have been described here, the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences is a potent factor in Bulgarian education. The fundamental purpose of the Academy is to provide solutions to problems that will aid in "building the material structure of socialism." Its activities, therefore, are centered primarily in research. The Academy of Sciences is organized into nine departments, each of which contains several institutes: Department of Mathematical and Physical Sciences; Department of Technical Sciences; Department of Chemical Sciences; Department of Geological and Geographical Sciences; Department of Biological Sciences; Department of Medical Sciences; Department of Philosophy, Economics, and Law; Department of Historical and Pedagogical Sciences; Department of Linguistics, Literature, and the Arts. Altogether, the Academy has thirty-two research institutes, with a total staff of eleven hundred. Each department is directed by a prominent scholar who is either a member or an associate member of the Academy. In 1963, a Bulgarian Academy of Agricultural Sciences was founded, with functions and responsibilities in the field of agriculture similar to those of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences in the humanities, sciences, and engineering. Agricultural research stations and experimental farms are under its jurisdiction. GRADUATE WORK

Graduate programs are designed to train personnel for university and research positions. These programs are under the joint control of the Ministry of Education and the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (or the Bulgarian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, as the case may be). Graduate work is offered both in regular classes and extramurally. Students are adC383

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mitted to the program on the basis of competitive examinations, an age limit being set at thirty-five years for those following the regular program and forty for those studying extramurally. A student must have worked for at least two years in his specialization before he can be admitted to graduate study. The regular graduate program is three years long, and the extramural course lasts four to four and a half years, depending upon the area of study. During this period of time, the graduate student must successfully pass examinations in dialectical and historical materialism, hi Russian and a Western language, and in the subject matter of his particular field. While doing his graduate work, he also is working on a thesis under the direction of his research advisor. When a candidate has completed the writing of his thesis, he must present and defend his work in public and, in particular, show that it is "an original contribution to knowledge." If he is successful, he is awarded the Candidate's Degree.*

Soviet Influences on Bulgarian Education A number of aspects of Bulgarian education described in this study closely resemble the patterns in the Soviet Union, from whom the Bulgarians receive inspiration for much of their pedagogical thought as well as for their political ideology. Indeed, the two elements cannot be separated, since educational practices are an extension of the political factor and are intended to give support and continuity to Communist ideology. The nature of the broad policies toward education is similar in the two countries. Policies enunciated by the Party congresses of the Soviet Union are often restated in the pronouncements of the congresses of the Bulgarian Communist Party that subsequently follow, applied to the context and needs of the smaller nation. Statements by Soviet Party leaders on education frequently find their expression not only in the patterns employed thereafter in Soviet schools, but also in those of Bulgaria. Soviet pedagogues such as N. Krupskaya and A. S. Makarenko are studied almost as ardently by Bulgarian educators as they are by those in the Soviet Union. And translated Soviet textbooks on education are often required reading for Bulgarian students. The relation of the top echelon of educational officials to the legislative * The present Bulgarian graduate program, outlined above, follows closely the Soviet pattern from which it is copied. Pre-Communist Bulgaria had adopted a system very similar to the one then in existence in Germany.

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organs of government and to the Party likewise are similar. The Bulgarian Minister of Education fills a dual role as a member of the Central Committee of the Party and as an appointed official theoretically responsible to the National Assembly; the ministers of education in most of the Soviet republics fill the same role with respect to the Communist Party in the republics and the legislative organs of government. Not only are the chief educational officials Party members, serving in the Party councils at the highest levels, but so also are many other persons in the educational profession who hold positions on district and local central committees of the Party. The Party organization within a school is also similar in both nations. Soviet influence upon Bulgarian education can be seen in many aspects of the curriculum. The extracurricular activities, the program of work education, and the ideological impact upon the content of the school curriculum all include many elements from Soviet practice. Bulgarian objectives of education, which emphasize economic competence and Party and national loyalty, are like those of the Soviet Union, with the exception that an additional aim is included, that of promoting "friendship and brotherhood with the Soviet nation and its peoples." Moreover, educational institutions — such as general polytechnical schools, vocational schools, Pioneer homes and palaces, the Stations of the Young Technicians, the Home of Children's Books, and the Pioneer camps — have their counterparts in the Soviet Union. The teaching methods used in the schools of the two countries do not differ greatly from each other. The lecture technique is the one most widely used in both. The stress on ideology and the use of education to support Party programs, to foster a devotion to Communist principles, and to develop a cadre of Party workers among the coming generation are similar. Enlisting the students to participate in parades and manifestations of loyalty to the state, holding student conferences and assemblies to give impetus to political objectives, and conducting local, regional, and national contests to encourage student activities in specific areas such as science, mathematics, literature, and the practical arts — all these practices can be found in both countries. Even the method of self-criticism is used in the schools of both nations. Students must criticize themselves, with respect to what they have or have not done. Similarly, the teaching and administrative staff in faculty ses[40]

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sions must subject themselves individually to such criticisms. Persons, whether students or educators, who do not recognize and admit whatever errors they are deemed to have committed expose themselves to censure and strong pressure from their peers to confess and conform to the policies of the group. Teaching materials used in the two countries bear strong resemblances. Pronounced ideological influences are apparent in textbooks, films, educational radio and television programs, and supplementary books, charts, and still pictures. Socialist realism is stressed and the work of the Party and Communist heroes are emphasized. Lastly, recruitment and training of educational personnel — teachers, administrators, and Pioneer leaders — are similar. The courses required in teacher training —to give prospective teachers a strong background in mathematics, the sciences, and in Communist history and political theory — are not greatly different in the two nations, either in content or in ideology. Even the kinds of teacher-training institutions that have been established in the two countries bear great similarity to each other. Students of both countries who are preparing to become teachers of primary school receive their education either in pedagogical institutes or in a university. The function served by the institutes for the improvement of teachers also is similar in both countries — these institutes give refresher courses for teachers, provide opportunities for further practical work in the crafts and arts, and offer conversion programs by which individuals who have been trained in other areas may obtain the preparation necessary to teach in the schools. These are a few of the similarities between Soviet and Bulgarian education. However, there are also many important differences between the school systems of the two countries — this is inevitable. The USSR comprises over two hundred times the land area and over twenty-five times the population of Bulgaria. This fact alone would indicate that the exact political, economic, and social situation — the determinants of a national educational system — cannot exist in Bulgaria in the same form that they have in the Soviet Union, and closer analysis shows that, indeed, there are important differences in these factors that help to make Bulgarian education also different from Soviet education. Despite the fact that the broad educational policies of the two countries

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contain similar features, aspects of these policies are geared to meet the specific needs of each nation. Both countries are committed under their respective twenty-year plans to increase the number of students attending higher educational institutions. However, the Soviets, who have a developed industrialized economy, are planning to triple the number, whereas the Bulgarians, who already claim one of the highest per capita ratios of students in advanced institutions of learning, are planning to quadruple enrollments. Furthermore, the Soviets apparently are planning a more generalized distribution of the increase in enrollment throughout these institutions, whereas the Bulgarians, since their developing nation needs technical personnel, are planning to concentrate their efforts on the training of engineers, as stated at the Eighth Congress of the Bulgarian Communist Party: The total number of students in higher educational institutions in 1980 will reach approximately 220,000 as against 54,795 in the year 1960. Of the students enrolled in 1980, 50 to 60 per cent will be studying some engineering specialty; in turn, of this percentage, 65 per cent are to be preparing for work as mechanical, electrical, power, and chemical engineers. The total number of students in the technicums in 1980 shall reach about 360,000 as against 93,944 during the 1960 school year.5 The Soviet program was not nearly so specific — nor were the Soviet Party and government officials who addressed the Twenty-second Party Congress.6 Differences also exist with respect to the structure of education: The Bulgarian educational system is a national, centralized system, under one minister of education; Soviet education — theoretically, at least — has been decentralized by republics, with a ministry of education directed by a minister of education for each. The Bulgarians have selected a centralized arrangement because the size of the population and area permit it. Ethnic factors in the two countries also have affected education. Bulgaria is largely populated by Bulgarian-speaking Slavs who have inhabited the area for centuries. Most of Bulgarian Jews were permitted to leave for Israel after World War II. Similarly, Moslems who wished to do so were permitted to resettle in Turkey, so that this element of the population, once numerous and powerful in the life of the country, was drastically reduced. Although a number of Turkish villages still exist in Bulgaria, especially in the Rhodope Mountains, and pose educational problems for

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school authorities, they are gradually assimilating into the rest of the population. The Gypsies in the country were compelled to adopt the customs and ways of life of the Bulgarian majority; if they refused, they were sent to work on collective farms, with their children often being placed in state boarding schools. The minority problems that faced the Bulgarian government were solved politically and educationally at a rather simple level, for the minorities were small in comparison with the total population and were often poorly organized. Such solutions cannot, however, be used in the Soviet Union, where the minorities outnumber the dominant Great Russians nearly two to one. The Soviets thus must find workable solutions to the education of ethnic minorities that are not faced by the Bulgarians. Moreover, there exist between the schools of the two countries certain curricular differences, with respect to both length and content. The Soviet school system requires ten years to complete; the Bulgarian, eleven years, and plans are being made to extend it to twelve. The matter of curricular content is more significant. Overshadowed as the Bulgarians are by their giant Slavic neighbor to the east, the curricula of the schools include many elements influenced by the Soviet hegemony. Bulgarian children are taught not only loyalty to the Bulgarian nation, but also love and reverence for the USSR. Nationalism in texts and curricular materials is permeated with a glorification of the Soviet Union and its achievements. National history is often presented concomitantly with a study of Russian and Soviet history; and Bulgarian textbooks frequently discuss the national heroes (Communist and non-Communist) of Bulgaria together with those of the USSR. The graduates of Bulgarian higher educational institutions, including those from teacher training schools, must have passed successfully courses on the history of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union as well as that of their own Party; but no such requirement on the history of a foreign party must be met by any Soviet graduate. As a result, the educational system in Bulgaria has the task of developing a sense of national identity among the young and, at the same time, fostering in them a spirit of gratitude and respect for the Soviet Union. Developing this dual set of loyalties is one of the most difficult problems faced by Bulgarian teachers. The future of Soviet-Bulgarian relations, if not the future of Communism in Bulgaria, hinges upon whether or not the delicate balance can be achieved. This is a problem which Soviet teachers do not have to face. C43H

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There are also other, less important differences between Soviet and Bulgarian education. Bulgarian teacher training, even for the primary grades, is increasingly being centered in institutions of university rank; the counterpart of the normal school is slated eventually to disappear. However, Soviet teachers are still being educated in such schools, and no plans for change are in the offing. In Bulgaria, education in labor, required of all students, often concentrates upon agricultural pursuits and those of a developmental nature, such as road construction and building. It is in these areas that the greatest need lies; there are simply not enough industries to give students an opportunity to fulfill the requirement there. Students in the Soviet Union, on the other hand, appear to have a greater chance of completing this requirement by working in a factory, since the Soviet Union is a more highly industrialized nation.* In another instance, difficulties experienced by the Soviets have led the Bulgarians to adopt a different approach to an educational problem. The Home of Children's Books in Sofia is supported by the Bulgarian Ministry of Education rather than by the government publishing houses issuing the books, as is the case in the Soviet Union. The Home has as one of its functions (to be described in greater detail later) the responsibility of reviewing and evaluating the children's books of Bulgarian publishers. Soviet experience showed that such an evaluation could not be adequately and objectively carried out when the reviewers were receiving their salaries from the publishers of the books they were supposed to examine critically. As a result, when the Bulgarians established the institution in their own country, they sought to avoid such a conflict of interest by giving the Ministry of Education, a disinterested body, the responsibility of supporting the Home. Thus, although Bulgarian education in many ways resembles Soviet education, some of its problems and needs are quite different. As a result, Bulgarian education cannot be an exact duplicate of Soviet education — * M. Deineko, Public Education in the U.S.S.R. (Moscow: Progress Publishers, n.d.), pp. 105-118. The statement is based on the writer's observations in Bulgaria and upon economic and population data about the two countries. He has been unable to obtain any statistical information specifically about the number of students in the two countries obtaining their education in labor experiences in agriculture as against industry. Theoretically, all students should have worked in both areas, but in practice this procedure is seldom followed because of the complications involved.

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though, of course, numerous elements from the Soviet system are included. It is because important differences between the two systems exist that the present volume has been written. This study describes, therefore, the Communist system of education in Bulgaria as it has been transformed since the end of World War II. It is a system which the government —and the Communist Party —hope will meet the increasing needs for trained manpower as Bulgaria attempts to develop into an industrialized nation; it is, too, a system which the leaders hope will produce men and women highly dedicated to the collective principles of communism — and this in a nation that has had a strong tradition of rugged peasant independence and individualism. Upon the effectiveness of its teaching methods and techniques, to a large extent, depends the degree to which Marxism will succeed or fail in the nation and the extent to which coming generations of Bulgarians will accept communism as a way of life.

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A NUMBER of traits have been identified by Carl J. Friedrich and Zbigniew K. Brzezinski as characteristic of a political system such as the one that exists in Bulgaria. Of these, the four listed below are those most pertinent to the educational process: 1. An elaborate ideology, consisting of an official body of doctrine covering all vital aspects of man's existence to which everyone living in that society is supposed to adhere. 2. A single mass party . . . consisting of a relatively small percentage of the total population (up to 10 per cent) of men and women, a hard core of them passionately and unquestioningly dedicated to the ideology and prepared to assist in every way in promoting its general acceptance, such a party being hierarchically, oligarchically organized and typically either superior to, or completely intertwined with, the governmental bureaucracy. 3. A system of ... police or of party-directed social pressure . . . 4. A technologically conditioned, near-complete monopoly of control, in the hands of the party and of the government, of all means of effective mass communication, such as the press, radio, and motion pictures.1 In Bulgaria, education, as a state institution, supports the government in power — indeed, this reinforcement is one of its major functions. Bulgarian education is therefore integrated with the purposes of the Party and with the existing political structure. In the following chapters of this volume are described various ways in which the four characteristics given above find expression in the educa-

SOCIAL EDUCATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS tional process. Because of the very close interrelations of these characteristics, no attempt has been made to classify specific teaching techniques and procedures as belonging to any one of them. Each of the educational activities described below may thus illustrate and support several characteristics of Bulgaria's political system and society and must be viewed in this perspective. More specifically, elements contributing to the social education of Bulgarian elementary school children will be discussed and analyzed in this chapter. A number of aspects will be considered, especially those relating to objectives, curricular organization, and teaching methods and techniques. In subsequent chapters, educational administration, teacher training, textbooks, supplementary materials, and extracurricular programs will be described. Emphasis will be placed on broad principles and organizational practices rather than on particulars and the frequent variations. Examples and cases will be cited to illustrate principles and practices that form the basis on which children are educated to be members of Bulgarian society. The nature of the educational program in Bulgaria requires that certain aspects of social education be considered that are more extracurricular activities than classroom work. These activities are designed to produce the kind of behavior deemed most valuable for the children's future effectiveness in the political and economic life of the community. Hence, extracurricular activities, especially the varied programs of the Dimitrov Pioneer Organization, are examined in detail. The study concludes with an evaluation of the effectiveness of the socialization process under communism; this evaluation is based on the author's study of the available data, his visits to Bulgarian schools and Pioneer homes, his interviews with children, educators, and parents, and his general study of the country and the cultural characteristics of the people. Social education, as the term is used here, refers to instruction in the school or in school-related organizations that is deliberately designed to promote the children's social development in directions deemed desirable by the communist society. Social education, provided it is part of a schoolrelated activity, may take place almost anywhere with practically any kind of material or equipment. In this context, social education can be defined as the induction of youth into the traditions, values, mores, ethics, and ideology of Bulgarian society. Social education prepares the children to C473

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participate as adult members of the society and involves aspects of political and social life as well as guidance in the conduct of interpersonal relations. For these reasons social education assumes considerable importance in any study of a communist society. Indeed, many elements of a psychological and political nature can be understood in part through a study of the procedures employed in communist states for the social education of the children. Through this element in the school program many Communist conceptions of other nations are taught that are reflected at all levels of life — at the diplomatic bargaining table, on the battlefield, in the factories, and on the farms. Social education in communist states helps to perpetuate communism as a way of life and molds the children to accept this perpetuation as a positive value. It serves to strengthen the socialist society in its endeavor to build a communist system. For these reasons, then, an analysis of communist practices in social education is a significant problem. It is, of course, recognized that social education takes place in all societies with formal or informal programs for educating the young, and that the objectives, organization, administration, methods, and materials differ in each instance; however, this study is restricted to the procedures employed now in Bulgaria. It is also recognized that social growth takes place in situations other than the school and the school-related environment. Such growth forms part of the complex pattern in the social development of the child and is included within the context of social learning — that is, the sum total of all the child's experiences that in any way contribute to his social growth. However, this study restricts itself solely to a consideration of the specific provisions that the Bulgarian state has adopted for the social education of its young through the school and other public institutions.

Objectives of Social Education in Bulgarian Elementary Schools The objectives of social education in Bulgarian elementary schools have been stated many times by Communist Party leaders and government officials, by members of the Ministry of Education, in numerous laws and regulations, and in official and semiofficial documents, papers, and course guides. Because education in Bulgaria is centralized, the statements of Party and government leaders and written documents have validity for and applicability to the entire nation. Of all the pronouncements and documents that have been issued and published, probably the most succinct

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and authoritative statement is to be found in the Law for Closer Ties between School and Life.2 This law is important for a number of reasons. It is, first of all, the country's fundamental, supreme law on education, and all regulations of the Ministry of Education must be in harmony with its provisions. It was developed over a long period of time, with considerable deliberation upon all its provisions. Finally, not only officials of the Ministry of Education, but most of the high-ranking Party and governmental officials were either directly involved or, at least, were cognizant of the deliberations and the decisions and concurred in them. Consequently, all subsequent pronouncements and documents have unequivocally supported the provisions of the law. The objectives of education in Bulgarian schools are clearly delineated in the opening statement of the law: The main task of the school in the People's Republic of Bulgaria is to prepare the young people for life in socialist and communist society, as it links their training and education with social and productive labor and as it educates the young generation in respect and devotion to the principles of communism, in love of toil, and in the spirit of socialist patriotism and proletarian internationalism. The school must prepare well-educated, well-rounded, and harmoniously developed people by providing youth with necessary knowledge in the fundamentals of the sciences; it must formulate in them the MarxistLeninist ideology and provide them with productive, political, professional, physical, esthetic, and moral training. The school must fulfill these tasks by providing a balanced combination of labor and academic education, along with rest and attention to the normal physical development of the children and youth.3 In short, the school has a twofold purpose: it must develop students who are competent in some trade or profession, and it must train them to be loyal to the Communist state and to the policies of the Party. All education—from birth to death — literally centers around this concept and its fulfillment; "it has both a class and a party character."4 The nature of education, and its relation to ideology in Communist society, has been explored by many Bulgarian educators. The conclusions of one, which are typical, follow: V. I. Lenin discovered with astounding clarity the class character of the school and exposed [the fact that] the bourgeoisie lie when they maintain

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that the school may remain outside of politics and serve society on an equal basis. In reality, says he, the bourgeois school has been totally converted into an instrument of class rule by the bourgeoisie and . . . every assertion about the existence of the school outside of life, outside of politics, is a lie and a pretense. The school likewise is a class institution in the Soviet Union and in the countries of the people's democracies. Its class character is not hidden in these countries, because it is in the service of the most progressive class, the working class, which have been called to create a higher form [of social life], in which there will be no exploitation of man by man. In socialist society, the school is a weapon to remove completely the class structure; it is an important factor in the communist education of the coming generation.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL The role of the elementary school within the total framework of Bulgarian national educational objectives is also stated in the national law on education: The elementary school . . . gives the students educational and polytechnical knowledge, puts their moral, physical, and aesthetic education on a firm foundation, creates in the students a love toward work, and develops habits of useful social labor [sic], and prepares them for further education. The educational work of the elementary school is dependent upon extensive student participation, according to their appropriate ages, in socially useful labor, and is designed to help them develop their capabilities and inclinations toward a specific profession.6 The elementary school curriculum, therefore, must include not only the three R's but also socially useful labor, which, theoretically at least, is to help the students to decide later upon a trade or a profession. At the same time, the teaching of Marxist-Leninist ideology is a primary purpose common to all Bulgarian schools. The above statements are in firm agreement on this point: "The communist education of the coming generation is the fundamental objective of our new, socialist school . . . The socialist reconstruction of our entire educational system explicitly requires communist education to be the basic goal of the entire educational process.7 Thus, the total program of the school is involved in the socialization of the children into the society; all aspects of the school curriculum are de-

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SOCIAL EDUCATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS signed, directly or indirectly, to achieve this objective. Indeed, the current emphasis upon polytechnical training is a direct result of Communist ideology, such training having been advocated from the beginnings of modern Communism by Marx himself.8 This study, however, will deal with only one level of the total problem — the ways and means by which the elementary schools attempt to realize this objective. The Role of the Elementary School Curriculum in Social Education The elementary school curriculum is one of the strongest forces contributing to the social education of Bulgarian schoolchildren for their society. Essentially, it is divided into three parts: traditional schoolwork and class activities, including aesthetic studies and physical education; training in labor; and extracurricular activities. Both training in labor and extracurricular activities, in their present forms, are Communst innovations in the Bulgarian school curriculum — their equivalent is not to be found in the pre-Communist school program of Bulgaria. The subjects forming the traditional part of the curriculum have already been listed on page 22. They do not differ greatly from those that were included in the school programs before 1945, with the exception of the course on the elements of Communism. This course has apparently replaced Zakon Bozhi (The Law of God), a required course under the old regime which dealt with the basics of the Orthodox Christian religion. Otherwise, the courses forming the elementary school curriculum of the two periods are similar, at least in name. Training in labor is the outgrowth of Communist ideology and seeks to combine academic study with labor as an integral part of the school program (see Table 2). In practice, however, training m labor in grades 1-4 is little more than craft activities and the development of skills and habits in caring for personal and school property. The children are taught to use scissors and to paste; some instruction is given in making useful items for the home. In the middle and upper grades (5-8), the students are given an opportunity to use equipment —such as saws and hammers for the boys and sewing machines and stoves for the girls. The kind and quantity of equipment available for such work differs from school to school. Generally, the demonstration schools are much better equipped than any of the other schools; for instance, the number of schools with power tools or modern kitchen equipment is still limited.

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH Table 2. Program of Education in Labor, Grades 1-4 Hours Allotte>d per "Vrear f 01r Grade 1 4 Total 2 3

Kind of Work Work with raw materials Work with paper and cardboard . . Work with cloth Model-building and field trips . . . Work on collective farms Socially useful labor Total

12 24 16

18 16 18

20 16 16

10

10

62

62

10 31 93

12 14 24 12 31 93

50 68 64 24 42 62 310

SOURCE: Ministry of Education & Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Pedagogical Institute, Uchebni programi za obshtoobrazovatelnite tmdovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta, l-Xl klas (The Course of Study for the General Poly technical Schools, Grades 1-11) (Sofia: the author, 1964), p. 95.

In actual practice, then, other means must be provided to train the students in labor. Sometimes the pupils are expected to police the schoolyard and hallways, to care for the school garden, or to plant and maintain the walks that lead to the school with shrubs and flowers. At other times, the children are sent to work in neighborhood establishments during periods when additional labor is needed. There they are supposed to perform simple work operations at their level of ability. In still other cases, work is contracted from industry for the children to perform in the school workshops. Most of the schools also have a plot of land called the trudovoopitno pole (roughly translated, an experimental plot in labor — there is no exact equivalent). Here the students raise fruits and vegetables during the spring and summer months and conduct agricultural experiments. Again, in actual practice, there are relatively few such experimental and deliberately designed educational projects. The students frequently receive their training in agriculture by performing some simple operation on a collective or state farm: gathering fruit, harvesting vegetables, sorting or packing produce for shipment. If arrangements can be made for them to do so, all students are expected to participate in both industrial and agricultural production. Such an arrangement is not always possible owing to distance, difficulties of transportation, and housing problems.* * There is some question about the actual reason compelling the Party and government to develop the program of labor training: Is it a method to obtain addition-

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The third part of the elementary school curriculum falls under the general heading of extracurricular activities, although actually, extracurricular is a misnomer, since many of these activities are a required part of the school program. Only some activities taking place on the Day of Rest can be considered voluntary, and even then many school-organized activities are held that all children are expected to attend. The same is true for programs conducted at times other than during class hours. With the expansion of the poli-internati (all-day school), and the internati (full-time boarding school), more and more of the children's waking hours are under the supervision of the school authorities. The extracurricular activities may be of many kinds. Some of them are carried on in various club and hobby groups — thus, a school may have a history club, a geography club, a club to study the commune, a hiking club, or a chess club. With the Party's increasing emphasis upon science and technology as a means of developing the country economically, many of the clubs that have recently been formed are in the areas of mathematics, physics, chemistry, general science, or biology. There are also folklore, folk-dancing, and singing groups. The extracurricular work of all these clubs is a part of the Pioneer program within each school. The Pioneer leader of the school, who is specially trained and possesses not only teacher's credentials but also those al, inexpensive labor? Is it really intended as a training device? Or, is it a technique to help the students develop desirable attitudes toward labor? It seemed to the writer that it is probably all three. Certainly, the students are performing "socially useful work." If the operations require a low level of skill, with little or no training needed, then the increased production through the use of student labor may warrant the problems involved. In many cases, it seemed to the writer that this objective was all that was achieved. In other cases, it probably does serve as a training program, for the trouble of bringing the students to a certain level of performance is hardly worth the increased production, if any, that will be achieved. At times, it must also have as an objective the development of more positive attitudes toward manual labor. The development of such attitudes — though part of Communist ideological dogma — has important implications for Bulgaria, a country still dominated by Oriental prejudices against manual labor in contrast to intellectual activity. Despite Communist pressures to the contrary, even today there is a tendency in Bulgaria for an intellectual — that is, a person with university training — to despise manual work of any kind, although it may be a necessary part of his chosen profession. Consequently, engineers and agronomists are sometimes inclined to leave many aspects of their work to the semiskilled technicians and the experienced unskilled laborers, rather than to roll up their sleeves and get to work themselves. It may therefore be that through compulsory training in labor in the schools, the Party hopes to develop a different set of attitudes about labor among members of the coming generation.

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for Pioneer work, assumes the responsibility for coordinating the work of the clubs. He, or more frequently she, receives a higher salary than do teachers of comparable rank and almost invariably is a member of the Communist Party. * The extracurricular work of the clubs is coordinated with the Pioneer movement as a whole through the Pioneer homes in every city or town of any importance (approximately eighty in 1967) or through the Pioneer Palace in Sofia. Work of the clubs in science and technology is generally guided by the Stantsiya na mladite technitsi (Station of the Young Technicians) in Sofia through a special activity training program conducted by correspondence. There is another Station in Pernik, an important mining and industrial town. In part, the children themselves are used to coordinate Pioneer homes, technical stations, and schools. The outstanding Pioneers of each school, as well as those children who have exhibited unusual talents and abilities in some area, are selected to attend the Pioneer homes and stations to receive additional training after school or on the Day of Rest. After such training, lasting usually about two years, they are designated "assistants" in their special areas and serve as monitors and helpers to the adult leaders in their respective schools. Although training in labor and the extracurricular activities are ostensibly activity programs for children, they are permeated with ideological education. History groups study the Marxist-Leninist interpretation of history; geography clubs emphasize Marxist economics; the hiking clubs occupy much of their time on trips visiting historical landmarks of revolutionary or partisan engagements or the graves of fallen partisan and Communist heroes; and the folklore groups interweave an intense spirit of national pride with the study of their native cultures. Training in labor emphasizes not only technical proficiency at the children's level, but also the importance of the collective approach in meeting goals and norms. It stresses what are thought to be the advantages of the collective or state farm in increasing agricultural production. The academic part of the curriculum is also designed to prepare the children for the life they are expected to lead as adults, but since this will be considered in detail in later chapters, it is not dealt with at this point. * Based on interviews and discussions with Pioneer leaders and with educators involved in the training of Pioneer leaders.

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General Teaching Methods and Social Education The teaching methods employed to effect the social education of students through the academic program do not differ appreciably from those used in other phases of classroom instruction.9 The methods are neither unique nor necessarily inspired by Communist ideology, but typically follow the traditional European teaching patterns. This is not to say that these techniques do not lend themselves to the goals of Communist education — on the contrary, they are suited to do so, and it is for this reason that they continue to be used in the schoolrooms of Communist Bulgaria. The use of the lecture technique is an excellent case in point. Despite some questions that have been raised recently in Bulgaria about its effectiveness, it still is probably the most widely used of all teaching methods.* In most cases, the teacher simply expounds upon the day's subject matter, and the students carefully take notes upon which they are later graded. Although the technique is more widely used in the middle than in the primary grades, it is nevertheless employed at all levels to some extent^ A superior lecture is considered to be one which is well organized, logically structured, and effectively delivered.* The children apparently are not encouraged to ask questions during the course of a lecture.5 The lecture is the chief means of transmitting ideological material to the students in the classroom. The presentation to the class is made in a concise, formal manner and is supposed to be assimilated by the children. The discussion method is a second technique that is popular with teachers instructing at all levels of the elementary school.10 Discussion in Bulgarian educational language means something quite different from the definition normally given to the word by American educators: By discussion, the Bulgarians mean a procedure in which the teacher poses questions to which the children reply by quoting or parapharsing material they have learned from previous lectures or from reading the text. It does not * This statement is based upon the writer's own observations of classroom teaching practices in Bulgaria, his review of teaching methods, books, and his interviews with Bulgarian educators. f The writer observed children in Grades 1, 2, and 3 being taught to copy material from dictation. * This statement is based upon interviews with school directors and supervisors from the Ministry of Education, December 1964, in Sofia. § In the course of his visits to various kinds and sizes of schools throughout Bulgaria, the writer never once observed a child interrupting a teacher during the course of a lecture.

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mean a classroom situation in which children consider various alternatives to a problem or one in which critical thinking is being fostered. Communication is between the teacher and the students; seldom, if ever, is it among the children. If, by chance, some pupil wants to comment upon some fellow student's reply, he directs his statements to the teacher, not to the student provoking the response, and does so only after he has been recognized by the teacher. Verbal give-and-take among pupils in the classroom almost never occurs. This formal approach — again, characteristic of traditional European classrooms — lends itself perfectly to Communist educational theory and practice. As used today in Bulgarian elementary school classrooms, there is incorporated within it many elements from Pavlovian psychology. The responses, depending as they do upon the texts or the lecture notes, are highly standardized, so that several children responding to the same question would give almost identical replies. This discussion technique is used not only with factual material, whose range of correct responses is limited, but also with material that contains ideological and attitudinal elements. This approach allows for no appreciable deviation from the norm, certain predetermined responses. What might be regarded by a Westerner as an interpretation or a viewpoint is thus presented to the children as an absolute to be studied, memorized, and assimilated. A class discussion on an ideological problem might proceed: Teacher: Why do all Bulgarian children love Georgi Dimitrov? * Pupil: We love Georgi Dimitrov because he is one of the greatest sons of the Bulgarian peopled * Georgi Dimitrov was leader of the Bulgarian Communist Party after World War I. In 1923 he was involved in an abortive revolution and had to flee the country, going first to Yugoslavia and then to Germany. When Hitler rose to power, Dimitrov was implicated in the burning of the German Reichstag. However, the accusation was never proved, and after a lengthy trial he was acquitted. Dimitrov then went to the Soviet Union where he was made an honorary Soviet Citizen by Stalin and appointed Secretary General of the Comitern. After the Communists seized control of Bulgaria with the help of the Soviet Army in 1944, he returned to the country to become First Secretary of the Bulgarian Communist Party and Premier of Bulgaria. He died in a Moscow sanitarium in 1948 under suspicious circumstances. Today, he is memorialized in Bulgaria as is Lenin in the Soviet Union, and is considered to be the Father of socialist Bulgaria. His remains have been embalmed and placed on display in a tomb in Sofia's main square. * Answers to teachers' questions in Bulgarian schools must always be given in complete sentences.

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SOCIAL EDUCATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS Teacher: That is correct! Why do we say that he was "one of the greatest sons of the Bulgarian people"? Pupil: We say that he was one of the greatest sons of the Bulgarian people because he loved his nation and her people and always worked for their welfare. Teacher: Can you give us an example? Pupil: He led the Bulgarian people on the road to socialism. The remainder of the class period is conducted in a similar manner. The third important instructional method, upon which much of the discussion method hinges, is the reading and study of the textbook assigned for the course. In the process, the acquisition of factual material is stressed as well as the memorization of the fundamental concepts presented by the book. Supplementary materials are sometimes assigned for students to read, and here, too, pupils are encouraged to acquire factual data and basic concepts by, essentially, a process of assimilation, rather than one of problem solving. However, it is recognized that reading, as an educational process, has other purposes. Gizdov's widely used pedagogical text states the following: "During the instruction period, the student may read with these purposes in mind: (1) to memorize the content; (2) for understanding; (3) to deepen his knowledge —to acquire information that will supplement the text; (4) to evaluate critically the viewpoint of the author or to analyze the peculiarities of the material (its style or grammatical structure); and (5) to feel emotions." n A few words need to be said about Gizdov's last two points. Where ideology is not a factor, students sometimes are encouraged to examine an author's viewpoint critically. Whether such analysis is encouraged or not depends a great deal upon the teacher's teaching methods, knowledge of the subject matter, and rapport with the class. But since so much of the material studied by students — especially that which lends itself most readily to analysis, such as literature or history — has an ideological character, the opportunities for students to examine an author's viewpoint critically are greatly limited; where ideological elements enter, of course, no such examination is made. For those authors whose work differs from the current Communist line, the students are given access — if at all — only to selected excerpts from his writings, for the purpose of pointing out the C573

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shortcomings of his view and the superiority of the Party's position. Bulgarian writers of methods textbooks state the matter clearly: "Bourgeois . . . interpretations are to be presented only to the extent necessary for them [the children] to understand their intellectual shortcomings and their use as "scholarly" [quotations in the original] justification for the series of economic and political acts that have as their purpose the enslavement, oppression, and exploitation of the various peoples of the world."12 Lastly, the idea of reading a story to feel emotion contains important implications in the area of social education. Many of the stories available to the children are written with the distinct purpose of developing their attitudes about people and events.* Thus, stories about partisans and youth heroes are written in a highly sympathetic manner, with their sufferings graphically portrayed, so that the readers may be impressed with their determination and Communist ideals. Presumably the readers may feel impelled to follow in their paths. Stories about American minorities are written in the same style to obtain the sympathy of the children (see, for example, "A Letter from a Chinaman in America" by Mark Twain, in Appendix E). On the other hand, Nazis, other fascists, colonizers, and imperialists are often lumped together as vicious, unscrupulous, and often stupid creatures to be outwitted by the workers.13 Other general classroom teaching methods that are described in books on pedagogy, but that appear to be seldom used in the process of social education, include laboratory work14 and demonstrations.15 Such teaching methods as group work, panel discussions, projects, or problem solving appear to be rarely used. Although some teachers (especially the older ones) and the professors of pedagogy are familiar with these techniques, current policies do not favor their use in classroom teaching. Such procedures are, however, employed in the extracurricular progams of the Pioneer movement, which is permitting an increasingly greater amount of participation by the children in the development of their activity schedules. In the intermediate and upper grades, students are sometimes asked to give reports on various topics, but the procedure is considered to have serious limitations.16 Little attention appears to be given to individual instruction in teach* Recent Western behavioral studies cast serious doubts upon the efficacy of these procedures in achieving the set objectives. The writer, however, is not seeking to evaluate the effectiveness of the techniques, but simply to describe and analyze them as they are used in Bulgaria.

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ing, regardless of the subject matter or the grade level. Of course, students having difficulties with a lesson may be helped by the teacher during the class period. Students can also receive help at the zanimalna, the study hall they may attend after their regular shift at school is out (most Bulgarian schools still operate in two or three shifts) ,17 At the zanimalna, the students prepare their assignments for the next day and receive help, should they experience difficulties, either from the teacher of the course or from the Vzpitatel (in some of his duties as head of a zanimalna, the v"zpitatel actually assumes the role of a combined trainer and guardian). After they have completed their assignments, the children may participate in additional field trips, labor projects, or sports at the zanimalna, but these activities appear to bear little relation to their work in class. One reason for this is probably the fact that many zanimalna have children from several grades attending them. In any event, although these provisions exist to give help to children experiencing difficulties with their schoolwork, almost no consideration is given to individual differences. Assignments in all subject areas are given to the classes as a whole. No attempt is made to tailor the work to the level of ability of the different children or to their particular interests. There is no grouping by ability levels within a grade. Attempts are made to keep multi-grade rooms in each school to a minimum. Because school construction has not kept pace with enrollment, and most schools must operate in two shifts, it has been possible, generally, to limit the number of multi-grade rooms in a school. If, for one shift, there are not enough children in a certain grade to fill a schoolroom comfortably, the two shifts are combined. Nevertheless, multi-grade rooms do exist in many schools. The procedures employed in classes of this type, as far as could be determined by observation and inquiry, do not seem to vary from those used in rooms containing a single grade; the students in each grade simply had shorter lecture and discussion periods and a longer study period. No attempts were made to combine the classes with respect to any elements of the school program, and it appeared to this writer that such an arrangement would be contrary to the regulations of the Ministry of Education. This distinct separation of grades was true irrespective of subject matter or grade level. There are no classroom activities in any curricular area, including the social studies. Because of the disrepute in which the project method as a C593

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classroom teaching technique is held, pupil research activities — except for occasional oral reports — are nonexistent. Schoolroom craft and construction projects relating to material covered in courses are never seen. Classroom dramatic activities are extremely limited —no puppet shows, skits, operettas, or shadow screen plays are part of the work in class. There is only one exception: children are encouraged to memorize poetry and to give declamations with great gusto, considerable flourish, some skill, and almost no self-consciousness. Patriotic and Communist themes very often are the subject of these poems. Three other methods should be considered at this point: rivalry, cooperation, and criticism. Although these methods, in a sense, are not teaching methods since they are not a means of presenting content or information, they are employed intensively and continually during the process of instruction. Their use in Bulgarian schools is directly related to Communist ideology, and they form one of the bulwarks of Communist educational theory and practice. Rivalry as a method of instruction is especially prominent in the early primary grades, although it is used to a considerable degree at all levels. In actual classroom practice, there appears to be little difference between rivalry in Bulgaria and competition in the United States. However, Bulgarian school officials insist that rivalry does not mean the same as competition. They maintain that rivalry is socialist in nature because its ultimate goal is the good of the community as a whole,18 consequently, it is conducted on a friendly basis to see which child can study the most, perform some skill the best, or, as the case of the Pioneer movement, do the largest number of good deeds, collect the greatest amount of scrap paper or metal, or gather the greatest quantity of wild, medicinal herbs. Competition, on the other hand, is regarded as individualistic, antisocial, selfish, and opposed to the public welfare, a remnant of degenerate bourgeois ideology. Socialist rivalry, therefore, is construed to be constructive and a characteristic that must be encouraged, whereas competition is to be avoided. Regardless of whether this is a distinction without a difference or not, the fact remains that socialist rivalry is widely employed to motivate individual pupils in a grade, rows in a class, classrooms in a school, troops in a Pioneer company, and in every other situation where the technique can be used satisfactorily. The use of rivalry as motivation is not restricted to children, but is ex-

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tended to workers in order to stimulate greater production in factories, in the mines, and on the farms. The use of rivalry as part of the educational process thus prepares the children for adult life in communist society, where the goal will be to meet and exceed production quotas. Recognition is given to the best pupils in a variety of ways. It may be simply in the form of praise before his peers. Most often, however, the award is extrinsic and takes a more tangible form: a badge with the hammer and sickle upon it; a Communist Party flag upon his desk; the designation of model pupil with the privilege of sitting near the teacher facing the class; the gift of a book, an article of clothing, or some other memento; or a trip to some place of interest. In a similar fashion, adults are recognized for achieving beyond their quotas: they are recognized as udarniks (heroes of labor), model workers, or outstanding workers; their pictures are placed at commonly frequented public squares; they are given monetary awards and other honors — such as medals, tickets to theatrical performances, sport spectaculars, and other special events, and, in exceptional cases, all-expense-paid trips to some of the other East European countries or to the Soviet Union. Cooperation is also widely used as a method of instruction. The more capable students are encouraged to help weaker ones. Well-behaved students are expected to urge those who misbehave in class to change their ways. Members of a Pioneer troop are counselled to work together so that the troop as a whole can meet its quota in gathering scrap materials. Thus, the extremes of rivalry and cooperation exist side by side as instructional techniques. Units and subgroups — such as rows in the room, classes, and Pioneer troops — are pitted against one another, and the individuals within each are urged to help all to meet and exceed the norm or quota. At the same time, the person within the particular unit or subgroup that contributes the most toward the common goal is singled out for honor. In many cases, outstanding individual achievement is recognized only within the winning group — therefore, in order for individual attainment to be honored, the group itself must first succeed. This procedure is sometimes referred to as cooperative rivalry, and through it Bulgarian pedagogues hope to achieve a delicate balance between friendly socialist rivalry and cooperation. Such cooperation to achieve an end has its parallel in the adult world. Most of the workers in factories and other industrial establishments, on

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the farms, and in businesses such as department stores, shops, and hotels are divided into brigades of communist labor. These brigades are supposed to work together to meet a collective goal, such as a common work norm or a promised quota. Although within the brigade, each worker must attempt to exceed his own goal, he must also work for the interest of the group as a whole. Thus, should any worker of the brigade become ill or for some other reason be unable to do his share, the others are expected to work harder in order that the common objective can be met. Should the brigade fail in its purpose, all its members fail, no matter what each may have achieved himself. Members of a brigade of communist labor frequently are paid on the basis of whether or not the group as a whole meets its norm, not upon individual attainment alone. Consequently, the peer pressure to produce is sometimes enormous. In addition, members of the brigade are to spend a certain amount of their free time together after work — the time may be spent taking a course, studying some aspect of Communist ideology, learning a foreign language, attending the theater or opera, or reading and discussing books. Hence, through an emphasis upon cooperation and the collective approach in school, Bulgarian teachers are attempting to prepare their students for still another aspect of adult Communist society. Finally, criticism is often used as a method of instruction. The criticism is usually made by a group as a whole, such as a class, and directed against an individual, although an individual may subject himself to selfcriticism in front of his peers and his teachers. When a child has committed what his classmates or teacher considers an antisocial error, the group collectively discusses the matter and points out the error to the transgressor, who is expected to admit it, criticize himself for having committed it, promise to mend his ways, and ask his classmates to help him in his resolve. If, however, he persists in maintaining his innocence, or if he insists that whatever he has done is not an error, peer pressure will be exerted: Class members may attempt to ridicule him. They may send a student delegation to talk to his parents. They may ostracize him in their play and in their social encounters with him. They may demand that he remove his Pioneer neckerchief. Usually, only one or two of these devices are sufficient to persuade the offender to conform. If this procedure fails to obtain the desired results — which is most unusual — the child's parents will be called to task by the school authoriC62n

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ties and the parents' committee of the school. The Party secretary * at the parents' place of employment may be informed, and there they will be subjected to similar criticism themselves from the workers' committee. If everything fails, and the child is a discipline problem in school, he may then be sent to a reform school. A discipline problem in the classroom is not necessary, however, for a criticism session to be held. Periodically, these sessions are held in each class, Pioneer troop, and cell of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League. During these sessions, the children routinely subject themselves to selfcriticism, discussing before their colleagues what they have done well and where they have failed. Their fellow students comment upon what has been said, filling in details if anything has been omitted, and consider what further action, if any, need be taken. This process has its parallel in adult life. Adults, too, must subject themselves to self-criticism and to the criticism of their peers. Industrial workers, collective farmers, teachers, college professors, musicians, artists — all must submit to the process. Social organizations have this practice, and even Party members must undergo public self -examinations — and that not only at their place of employment and in their social life, but also in their political organization. Moreover, each street or apartment house has its own general secretary and committee composed of certain "socially conscious" people who supervise conditions on their street or in their apartment building. Any resident who the committee considers derelict in some duty is subjected to the process of criticism. Criticism, as it is employed in the schools, thus prepares the children for the adult world, since they are becoming familiar with a process that will confront them throughout life. Of the out-of-class general teaching methods, the most frequent is the field trip, called in Bulgaria the educational excursion.19 Field trips are a requisite part of the curriculum, and entire classes of children with their teachers are frequently seen on the streets of any large town. A Bulgarian methodological textbook for the teachers' institutes gives the following categories of field trips: (1) to study nature; (2) to industrial establishments; (3) to places of historical importance; (4) to places of cultural * Among the duties of a Party secretary at a place of employment are certain disciplinary ones. Consequently, he can put considerable pressure on the child's parents at the place of work to persuade them to cooperate.

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importance (exhibits and museums); (5) for the study of the geography of the country; (6) to study the life of the people — social-centered field trips.20 All six kinds of field trips have implications for the social education of Bulgarian children. Nature study and field trips to study the geography of the country emphasize the "wonders and beauty of the fatherland." In field trips to industrial establishments, the economic growth of the country under Communism is stressed. Educational excursions to places of historical importance generally are visits to sites of partisan or revolutionary activity. Visits to points of cultural importance may be made to the Museum of the Revolution, the Museum of Ethnography, an art gallery, an exhibit of Bulgarian industrial products, or some similar place. The importance of museums with exhibits on revolutionary topics are obvious, but even visits to other institutions have importance for the children's social education. The Museum of Ethnography contains many exhibits of primitive Bulgarian life and of life today —that is, life before versus life after Communism. The Museum of Ethnography, in Sofia, which appears to include also practically everything available in the country relating to the field of anthropology, contains almost nothing on the Roman or Turkish period, per se. However, in general, these two periods are not ignored. Archaeological work is going on in the country, and a number of good finds have been reported, several of which date back to Thracian times. The Roman and pre-Roman period simply is not stressed — in all probability because it is so far removed from the present. Exhibits and monuments of the Turkish period often have connected to them a certain revolutionary, nationalist flavor: buildings and sites where revolutionary leaders, such as Levski, lived; the dungeons where they were imprisoned; the stone blocks from which they were hung; and entire village-museums, such as Koprivtsitsa, where the center of an uprising against the Turks took place. Since the Russians were instrumental in liberating Bulgaria from the Turks, exhibits about this period help to reinforce the Party line, which aims to present Russia historically as a friend of the Bulgarian people. In the art galleries, works on display are mostly realistic: tractor drivers, workers, soldiers, revolutionaries, and partisan tunnels. During the course of field trips to museums with their classes, teachers select certain of these art works and discuss them in detail with the children, often placC64n

SOCIAL EDUCATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS ing more emphasis on content than on aesthetic merits. A trip to study the life of the people may mean a visit to a collective or state farm, a tour of some new workers' apartment buildings, a meeting with some industrial or agricultural group at their "home," or something similar. Thus, the field trip, as a teaching method in social education, is widely and intensively used. Regardless of the place visited, teachers almost invariably have opportunities to emphasize aspects of Bulgarian history or life that, it is believed, will develop a set of positive attitudes toward the nation, Communist society, and the Soviet Union. Thus, the teaching methods used by Bulgarian teachers are selected to meet the educational objectives that the society has set for itself. Students are educated to become participating members of socialist society — vocationally, socially, and politically. All aspects of education are directed to the realization of these ends.

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THE RELATION OF SOCIAL EDUCATION TO SPECIFIC SUBJECTS

EDUCATION in Bulgaria has as its primary purpose the education of the young to accept the Communist concept of life and of relations to other men and the state.1 Because this purpose determines all aspects of education in the country, there is no elementary school subject that is apolitical — all courses have Marxist-Leninist ideology incorporated in their content,2 and all contribute to the socialization of the child to fit him for participation in Communist society. However, the degree to which a subject is used for this purpose differs according to its intrinsic nature; generally speaking, the humanities, especially history and literature, are employed the most extensively in the social education of the young, and physics and chemistry are employed the least. Indeed, the writing and teaching of history may be said to have perpetuation of viewpoint as a very basic aim in any country.

Social Education in Teaching History One methods book on the teaching of history has this to say about the matter: In fulfilling the assigned ideological work in our schools, the study of history occupies a very high and honored position, as it is directed by the teacher-historian. The enormous potentialities of historical study for communist education are clearly evident throughout all the content of the material that is studied. There is not one area in the content of history which does not help to fulfill the goals of ideological education that have been set for the coming generation. The teaching of history has, as one of the major responsibilities, help-

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ing the young to develop a communist view of the world. Through the concrete and systematic study of history, the inevitable progress of mankind toward socialism and communism is clearly seen. History establishes the laws of socioeconomic change and the uninterruptable process by which mankind is moving toward communism. A study of history reinforces the communist view of the world and develops a conviction in the ideals of communism.3 The result of this ideological purpose as a fundamental objective in the teaching of history is that all instruction in the subject is permeated with Communist social and political theories, since only one basic interpretation of historical development is viewed as correct, that proposed by Marx and Lenin. The Marxist interpretation of history is basically an economic one, emphasizing this aspect of human life as the great current in man's social and cultural development through the ages. It derives from Hegelian philosophy the elements of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis to describe society as a predetermined evolutionary succession of social orders, each representing a higher stage of human relations than the previous one: primitive Jife, slavery, feudalism, capitalism, socialism, and, finally, communism. In this interpretation, materialism is the fundamental concept of life. This theory, as it is applied to the successive stages of man, is as follows: Primitive man existed in an aboriginal collective social order of relative equality. Gradually, though, some individuals accumulated more wealth and property than the others, and, in time, the poorer members of society found it necessary to work for the richer ones. The poorer members eventually surrendered their rights as payment for debts incurred to richer neighbors and thus became slaves. Prisoners from wars engaged in by the newly formed nobility added to the number of slaves.4 According to this view, slave society is the second stage of man's historical development. History taught in Bulgarian schools invariably emphasizes the miserable lot of slaves. The first revolutions are pictured as the result of the intolerable conditions under which slaves lived and which drove them, from time to time, to desperate action. Many slave revolutions are considered, but the one led by Spartacus against Imperial Rome is usually assigned a special place by Bulgarian teachers. The punishment of slaves who participated in unsuccessful revolutions is given special emphasis.5 1671

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The next stage in this Communist panorama of history is called the Age of Serfdom, otherwise known as the Medieval Period or the Middle Ages. Life in the ancient medieval state is presented in terms of class: tsar, boyar, and villager-serf. The villagers' heavy taxes and extreme poverty, in contrast to the splendor of the tsar and the boyars, and peasant revolts are given a prominent place.6 Saints Cyril, Methodius,7 and Clement of Ohrid8 are presented primarily as great scholars rather than as important religious leaders. The Bogomil movement is viewed as a social protest rather than as an expression of religious ideals.9 The Crusades are interpreted as a phenomenon occasioned by the desire of noble and peasant to obtain material gains — the following excerpt from an elementary school history textbook is typical: The kings and the feudal lords yearned to conquer the legendary riches of the Eastern caliphs, to load themselves with the gold from the treasury of Constantinople. They felt that only in the East would it be possible for them to create their own independent kingdoms. The landless and poverty stricken minor knights yearned to seize spoils from the infidels. The popes yearned to create a spiritual kingdom under their supreme authority. They hoped that after the "tomb of Christ" had been liberated, their power would increase and then they would be able to establish their supremacy over both the Eastern Church and over all kings and emperors. In accordance with this idea, they liberally promised larger numbers of serfs to the feudal lords, while to the serfs they promised freedom and land. The merchants from the Italian cities wanted to ruin their competitors in the East, so that they might rapidly increase their fortunes.10 The Inquisition is portrayed as an attempt by the old order to preserve its institutions. The manner in which this chapter of history is presented can be seen from the following excerpt: In its battle with the heretics, the Church arranged for a special secret court, called the Inquisition. Whole armies of monks and papal spies, termed "the dogs of God," sought out the heretics. Anyone who deviated from the teachings of the Catholic Church was termed a heretic. Those who opposed the oppression of feudalism likewise were persecuted as heretics. The suspects were subjected to fearful tortures during their examination by the Inquisition. Then they would generally be turned over to the civil authorities for some punishment that "did not require the shedding of blood." These hypocritical words meant that the condemned would have to be burned alive. The burning of the heretics took place on the

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city square and was a festive occasion. The nobility, the government authorities, the clergy, and a host of people would gather around the pyre. Beaten, spat upon, and cursed, the condemned sacrifices writhed in the roaring flames while the clergy solemnly sang hymns. The property of the heretics was confiscated. The church, the rulers, and the informers who betrayed them to the authorities would divide the goods. Toward the end of the thirteenth century, the persecution of heretics, and even of completely innocent persons, took place on a massive scale. The pyres grew, but the number of persons who were dissatisfied with the Catholic Church grew, too, for the Church was the defender of the feudal social order.11 The same textbook from which the preceding quotation was taken includes a full-page picture of a man being tortured on the rack while clerics look on and interrogate him. The caption below the picture reads, "The Inquisition subjected its sacrifices [the heretics] to fearful torture. Besides the method of torture illustrated here, it utilized other techniques, also, such as the placing of hot coals under the feet of the accused, breaking his bones, etc."12 The Church itself, and its role in medieval society, is presented and described in similar terms. The general approach can be seen from the material quoted below: The Church as the Greatest of the Exploiters. As the owner of one third of all the cultivated land, the Church was the greatest feudal landlord of Western Europe. The barns of the bishops and monasteries were nearly bursting with their stores. During times of natural calamity, the churchmen were not embarrassed in the least to sell their stores for ungodly prices. During times of famine, they would take the land and freedom of the villagers in exchange for a few sacks of grain. Individual bishops and monasteries had hundreds and even thousands of serfs. On the Church lands the villagers were no less ruthlessly exploited than on those of the feudal nobility. The feudal landlords of the Church — archbishops, bishops, and abbots — conducted wars, participated in foreign campaigns, and engaged in tournaments. During times of war, they did not remove their armor from their bodies, and in times of peace, they dressed in expensive clothing of good weave. In order to support their extravagant living, the higher clergy obtained their money in the most diverse ways. Western Europe gave the Church one tenth of all its income. The clergy was paid to officiate at weddings, at baptisms, at funerals, and at every other type of religious rite. To the C693

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innocent believers they sold splinters from "the cross of Christ," the "nails" with which Christ had been crucified, and even "drops of sweat" from the body of the Savior. The greedy, deceitful churchmen would offer miraculous healing to whomever would make a donation of money. The Church began to sell special documents — indulgences — at fairs and public squares. Every murderer and robber who bought an indulgence received remission from his sins. Through blackmail, deceit, and falsehood, the Church was constantly increasing its incalculable riches.13 The period of Turkish domination of Bulgaria is usually given detailed attention. Many Turkish atrocities are described in graphic detail, and the anti-Turkish revolutionary movements of each period are emphasized.14 The rise of capitalism and the coming of the industrial revolution in world history is presented as gradually having brought another element into society, the working class, replacing the serfs as the oppressed group. The position here is that attempts at reform were almost completely unsuccessful — no credit or mention is given to the great capitalist industrial philanthropists and social reformers, such as, for instance, Robert Owen, nor is it pointed out in the discussion of the life of Friedrich Engels that he was himself a capitalist of considerable wealth, without whose financial support Marx could never have written his voluminous works on economics and politics. Thus, according to the official view, until the appearance of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, the following conditions had always existed: From the beginning of recorded time, there had always been two great classes of people, the oppressed and the oppressors, the exploited and the exploiters. Down through the centuries, the forms of exploitation had changed — first slavery, then serfdom, then capitalism —but the two great classes remained, and with the coming of the industrial revolution, the differences between the two groups had steadily widened. So far, the oppressed had attempted various methods to ease their situation: they had fled from their masters; they had joined the Crusades; they had worked for peaceful reforms; and, when the burden had become too great, they had even revolted and tried to form new societies. In these efforts they had generally been unsuccessful because they were disunified and did not understand the fundamental laws of society. C703

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It remained for Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels to discover the economic and social laws which governed men's relations. Their discoveries were then implemented through the actions of the Communist Party, which was organized for the purpose. The work of the Paris Commune, the activities of the Internationals, the conditions in Tzarist Russia, the October Revolution, the creation of the Soviet Union, and the world conditions between World Wars I and II are all discussed from this viewpoint. The historical development of Bulgaria is presented in a similar manner. In the interest of brevity, it will not be considered here. Besides the ideological approach, there are a number of techniques employed in the teaching of history that contribute directly to the social education of the children. In the elementary school grades, instruction in history (as well as in the rest of the subjects) is related closely to the observance of holidays and special occasions important to Bulgarian Communists, such as the Ninth of September, the October Revolution, or the First of May. The academic work is supplemented by various activities carried on throughout the school —in art classes (where banners, slogans, and posters are prepared), in the physical culture program (where the children are trained to march or to perform a rhythmic exercise for the parade), and in the Pioneer troops. Literature classes study stories about the special occasion, music classes sing about it, and classes in composition write stories and articles based upon the theme. The entire school thus is mobilized to celebrate the event. In addition to national holidays, each school usually celebrates certain local or regional ones, mainly concerned with events and people of limited historical importance. Finally, each school has its own special holiday in which it honors its patron. This practice is a curious carry-over from the time when most of the schools bore the names of famous Slavic churchmen. Today, schools are named after great men of Slavic letters, men important in Bulgarian history (usually revolutionaries or political agitators against Turkish domination), or communist and partisan heroes — frequently those with which youth can most readily identify. Even medieval Slav churchmen are included if they are noted for some significant cultural contribution other than their church work. Thus, there are schools named for Ivan Vazov (a great Bulgarian poet and novelist), for Khristo Botev and Vasil Levsky (important anti-Turkish revolutionaries), for Nikola Vaptsarov

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(a Bulgarian Communist poet), for Lily ana Dimitrova and Mitko Palauzov (slain partisan youth heroes), and for (Saints) Cyril, Methodius, Clement, and Paisi (famous church fathers, men of letters, teachers). The day on which the school's patron is commemorated usually falls upon his birthday, if it is known; if it is not known, upon an arbitrarily selected day. If the patron of a school is a medieval churchman whose feast day had previously been marked on the church calendar, that day is selected for the celebration. Now, however, care is taken to divorce or minimize his church contributions and to honor him solely for his work in other fields. The day is marked by a celebration of some kind at the school that carries his name. There does not appear to be great uniformity about the matter —the staff of the institution decides what form the celebration should take. Most history classes review the life of the patron and discuss his achievements as they might relate to the development of the Bulgarian people. In some instances, a short program by the Pioneer troop is presented some time in the course of the school day or during the evening. The school newspaper — if there is one — may include some stories or articles about the person. An attempt is made in this process to glorify the figure as a hero of the Bulgarian people and a person worthy of emulation. Emphasis always seems to be upon the person's devotion to the nation and frequently contains strongly nationalistic overtones, albeit mingled with Communist slogans. The importance of these holidays in the teaching of history in the elementary school is clearly recognized by the Bulgarian national course of study: From Grade One to Grade Three, historical events and personalities can be presented to the pupils in connection with the celebration of holidays, anniversaries, and memorial days. This can be done as they participate in holiday celebrations, and as they visit historical places, monuments, and museums . . . In addition to the prescribed themes, the students must be told some particulars about the life and deeds of the patron of the school, about the exploits of the local fighters for liberty, and about the events connected with local historical monuments and with the community and its immediate environs.15 Social Education in Teaching Geography The Bulgarians make a basic distinction between geography as a science and geography as a school subject; this distinction is responsible for the two different purposes assigned to the study of geography.

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The purpose of geographical studies is the discovery of new geographical truths and laws and their introduction into practice, but the purpose of geography as a school subject is the communist education of the coming generation [italics added]. From these basic differences, several other secondary distinctions are also derived. Thus, for example, the content of factual material in geography as a scholarly study is much greater than that of geography as a school subject. In the case of geography as a school subject, only that material from geography as a science is selected which acquaints the students with the fundamentals of this field and contributes most to the communist education of the coming generation.16 Other educational writers have made similar statements.17 Of the objectives that geography as a school subject is expected to meet, the one of education for communism is most pertinent to purposes of this study and also requires the most explanation, because it is unique to the schools of the communist countries. A methods book in geography explains the matter: With respect to a realization of the educational tasks in the teaching of geography, an ideological, political, and communist purposefulness must always be present . . . Neglecting and minimizing the principle of party partisanship leads the study of geography to the waste lands of objectivism, political indifference, and subjectivism, which are a complete antithesis to the tasks of the contemporary school as they have been established by the People's Government.18 Another writer has elaborated upon this point in considerable detail. The communist education of students requires that instructional material in geography courses be presented with a clearly expressed ideological-political purpose. It is evident that our student youth, the coming generation, needs to be equipped not only with factual knowledge and practical understandings, but also with a dialectical, materialistic world view — so that it may stand firmly on the position of Marxism-Leninism. As a concomitant of this [proposition, our youth needs] to understand all the phenomena and facts about our natural geographic environment, our economic development, and our social life. Ideological partisanship in the teaching of geography means that the factual material must be explained in and through correct Marxist terms [italics added]; that is, the students must be correctly instructed in the communist spirit. Just as it is impossible to have true knowledge without party partisanship, so it is not possible to have true instruction in geography without the total realization of this principle. Objectivism and an indifference to politics are foreign and harmful to our national school and to the correct instruction of the students. C733

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A realization of the principle of party partisanship during the study of courses on the geography of our fatherland helps to inspire the students with a courage and a faith in the future, and helps to develop in them a patriotic and international feeling so that they may be inspired for heroic victories in the name of the fatherland, the people, and the Party.19 As a result, all other opposing theories of geography are studied only so that they may be criticized and condemned: The teacher of geography is obliged to develop the topic from the viewpoint of Marxist geography and the understandings of Marxist-Leninist philosophy [italics added]. The interpretations of bourgeois geography and philosophy with respect to these questions are presented to the students only to the extent necessary to understand their intellectual shortcomings and their use as a "scholarly" justification for the series of economic and political acts that have as their purpose the enslavement, oppression, and exploitation of the various peoples of the world.20 Ideological partisanship in the teaching of geography has several aspects: It means, first of all, that geography be presented from a MarxistLeninist point of view, that all its elements — physical, historical, and cultural — be interpreted in terms of its economic contents and those of the class struggle. An example of this approach is given below in a quotation taken from an eighth-grade geography textbook and discusses the role of the geographic environment in terms of the orthodox communist interpretation. Some bourgeois scholars think that the influence of the geographic environment is so great that it exerts the greatest influence upon the development of man's society. On the basis of this evaluation about the role of the geographic environment, they draw deductions which are in the interest of the monopolists and against the working people. These scholars, for instance, insist that the population of the world is greater than the resources available and for this reason there are poor people. In order that there may be more goods, wars must occur which would destroy the excess population. These scholars likewise maintain that people from the various races have different mental capacities, that there are superior and inferior races, that the colonial peoples do not have the ability to organize their states independently and to develop in their cultural life. The role of the geographic environment, according to Marx and Engels, can be summarized as follows: The geographic environment may retard or accelerate the development of human society. The development of human society, however, depends above everything else on the question: Who is it in the society that owns the factories, manufacturing establishC743

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ments, the land, and the roads, and who is it that benefits from the labor of the people? Thus, the geographic environment does not hold primary significance in the development of human society.21 This interpretation is, of course, an extension of the historical one, in which the class struggle was described in a series of developmental stages. The view, as it is applied to geography, regards the socioeconomic order as the most important factor in the development of human society — all other elements are secondary, contributing to the process, but not determining it. Thus, in the panorama of human history, slavery, feudalism, and capitalism may have retarded the progress of human social development, but they could not thwart it or control it; the course which it has taken was inevitable and leads to socialism and then communism. The geographic environment may exert its influences upon the cultural and economic structure of a society and may, to some extent, even affect the stage of human development hi which that society finds itself; but it cannot — in the long run — alter it. In addition to this basic theoretical interpretation of geography that is to be presented in the schools, Bulgarian educators see other practical functions of geography: Geography as a school subject has important purposes [to perform] also with respect to the moral training of the students. Its basic task in this matter is the training of the students in socialist patriotism. Patriotic training through geography begins with the study of the geography of one's place of birth, [which is followed by the study of] one's community and our fatherland, and is completed with the study of the entire world. . . . For example, in the study of "the boundaries of the People's Republic of Bulgaria," the students — in discussing the natural characteristics and the political and economic significance of our northern and eastern boundaries — must understand that these boundaries help in our development, thanks to our friendly ties and close cooperation with the USSR and the countries of the peoples' democracies. On the other hand, when the rest of our boundaries are discussed, the teacher must emphasize that the relationship with our other neighbors likewise now is better, but that it is indispensable for our boundary guards to remain at their posts, watching these boundaries. The teacher must emphasize that the duty of the boundary guards is highly patriotic and that the students must always be ready to help them in case of need. The students [also] are educated in true and voluntary love toward our fatherland through a study of [its] natural riches and beauties. . . . C753

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The patriotic feeling of our students is deepened and reinforced when the study of geography is related to the heroic past and the happy future of our people. The students are trained in socialist patriotism when they are acquainted with the new socioeconomic conditions, with the many sided measures of the people's government for bettering conditions and raising the standard of living of the workers in our land. This [training] is achieved through the scheduling of personal meetings with the heroes of socialist labor and by a study of their achievements, through visits and field trips to our socialist enterprises — factories, plants, water reservoirs, hydroelectric plants, pumping stations, machine and tractor stations, state farms, collective farms, etc. Our young, socialist man must be trained to be proud that he is a Bulgarian. Georgi Dimitrov said: "I have no reason to be ashamed that I am a Bulgarian, and I am proud that I am the son of the Bulgarian working class." During the study of geography our youth must be trained in such a spirit.22 Another aspect of the students' moral education — a concomitant to the concept of socialist patriotism — is the idea that "through the study of geography, the students must be educated in the socialist view toward labor."23 The students are to be told that in the communist countries, "labor is an act of honor, pride, and glory,"24 and that "labor is the new name of life."25 This view of labor is to be compared with the situation that supposedly exists in the capitalist nations. "In contrast, in teaching the geography of capitalist countries, it must be explained that labor is suppressed, inferior, and dependent, and that the workers are exploited and oppressed."26 Still another aspect of moral education through the study of geography is the one which relates to "the socialist understandings of social ownership." 27 The national ownership of the means of production in communist societies is viewed in positive terms, negatively compared with private ownership in contemporary capitalist nations or in Bulgaria before the Communists took control. Recent economic developments in Bulgaria, Eastern Europe, and the Soviet Union are described in order to "prove" that socialism, as it occurs in those states, is superior to the economic systems of the West.28 Finally, the teaching of geography should serve for "the development of positive traits of character in the students by a study of the lives and C763

SOCIAL EDUCATION IN SPECIFIC SUBJECTS deeds of the great geographic discoverers and travelers . . ."29 In the case of both geography methods books and geography texts, famous explorers from all periods and nations are included, although the emphasis seems to be upon Russian discoverers — especially recent and contemporary Soviet explorers. For example, the work of Russian cosmonauts has been given special consideration, as well as that of Soviet explorers of the Arctic and the Antarctic. No Bulgarian explorers are mentioned, for Bulgaria has no important ones; as a small country relatively removed from the major ocean routes and, until fairly recent times, still a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, it has never engaged in any significant exploration. Thus, besides such objectives as factual information and basic geographic knowledge, the Bulgarian elementary school has certain essentially ideological tasks to fulfill. These tasks include reinforcement of the Marxist world view of society, development of a loyalty to the Communist Party and its policies, and training in a morality that centers on patriotism, love of labor, devotion to the fatherland, and an affinity with other countries with a communist form of government. METHODS

The classroom teaching methods in geography are essentially the same as those that were described under "General Teaching Methods and Social Education" in Chapter III — lecture, recitation-discussion, and reading of the text and supplementary materials.30 In addition, because of the nature of the subject matter, somewhat greater use than usual is made of objective materials, such as maps, globes, photographs, models, and other audio-visual materials.31 Occasionally, demonstrations and experimentation also are used.32 Insofar as the purposes of this study are concerned, these techniques do not appear to be employed in any specific manner with respect to the social education of the children, other than the ways that have already been mentioned. The one possible exception is the geography field trip, which appears to have a number of additional purposes. The first of these is, of course, the clarification and deepening of concepts and understandings. As the children visit collective farms or industrial establishments, they are supposed — in theory, at least — to understand more readily the kinds of enterprises and their relation to the geographic environment, such as soil, climate, and topography. mi

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A second purpose seems to be the acquisition of more factual information and data. According to one methods book, a tour through a canning plant, for instance, provides the children with information about food processing, observation of cleanliness, and possibly such miscellaneous statistics as the number of cans of a certain size needed to preserve a ton of cooked vegetables.33 Such purposes as these, however, are considered only in a cursory manner, if at all, in most of the Bulgarian geography methods books. A third, far more important purpose ascribed to the geography field trip, as it is related to the social education of the children, is the one involving ideological and political factors. Excursions frequently are used to emphasize the role of labor and the place of the worker in communist society and the resulting contribution to economic development. Factories, public buildings and monuments, and agricultural facilities that have been built during the period of socialism are some of the places selected for students to visit. Other points of interest commonly included are places of natural beauty or unusual phenomena of nature. Trips of this kind have the purpose of strengthening the students' love for the fatherland and of increasing their patriotic ardor. In the process, an attempt is made to relate love of fatherland to loyalty toward the Party and Communist state. Writers of geography methods textbooks plainly state this as one of the desired outcomes —for example, "Excursions in geography are schools for the communist education of the students. Through them, the feelings of comradeship, mutual aid, discipline, collectivism, and love to our socialist society are developed. Well-organized and conducted excursions remain as permanent memories in the consciousness of students. . . ."34 Another of the nation's pedagogues appears hardly less enthusiastic in his discussion of field trips. He gives the geography teacher some concrete suggestions for them. Through a careful selection of the places to be visited on field trips, it is possible for the student to become acquainted with a larger number of occupations and industries in the national economy. This [procedure] has tremendous importance, enabling the students to acquire factual material in economic geography and also to establish closer ties with life. . . . As they become acquainted at a given enterprise with the achievements of the rationalizers, the innovators, and the udarniks [people who produce far above their norm] of socialist labor and with their ability to overcome HSU

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hardships, the students develop a feeling of love toward labor and toward our heroic working class; and their feeling of national pride is aroused by our successes in socialist industrial development.35

Current Events Current events form an important area of the Bulgarian school curriculum, beginning with the first grade. The fact that the subject has many implications for the social education of the children can be seen from its very title, Study of Sociopolitical Information. This area of study is aptly named, for sociopolitical information is quite descriptive of its contents. In selecting events to be discussed by a class, news items that have political importance or those that in some manner relate to communist life and the communist state are singled out for class consideration. For instance, events such as these have been included in the past: the various congresses of the Bulgarian and Soviet Communist parties, the meetings of the Central Committee of the Party, Soviet space exploration, developments in Cuba, rebellion in the Congo and Western activity there, celebrations revolving around national and international Communist holidays (the First of May, the Ninth of September, the October Revolution), and celebrations marking the fulfillment of economic goals (the construction of new factories, the dedication of a hydroelectric power project, achieving a five-year plan ahead of schedule). Work in the area of sociopolitical information occurs at three levels: First, there is a special time allotted to it during the regular school day several times a week (the exact amount varies according to the grade in school). Second, most of the courses in the humanities, and sometimes even the sciences, include elements related to current political happenings. Finally, sociopolitical work goes on continually in the Pioneer Organization and in the groups of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League. The organization of the formal period for the Study of Sociopolitical Information has been described in detail in a number of Bulgarian pedagogical publications, and the quotation which follows is taken from one of them. Because of the extreme importance of this area to the topic under investigation, and also because the statement presents a candid and detailed analysis of the program, extensive portions are reproduced in this book. C793

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Sociopolitical Activity Every activity of the schools — instructional, labor, social, cultural, and physical — must be conducted with predetermined Communist purposefulness and party partisanship. By this means the political consciousness of the students is developed. Thus, they will become acquainted continually with the essence of the communist order and its supremacy over capitalism. Gradually their interests and scholarly criteria are being educated with respect to political events and concepts; and habits are developed which will prompt them to carry out organizational-political work in their own school organizations — the Pioneer or the Komsomol organizations — and they will become irreconcilable with the enemies of communism. Among the varied activities of the school, however, there are more specific sociopolitical projects through which the political consciousness and convictions of the students can be most directly and concretely developed. We shall briefly review several of the basic sociopolitical activities that students can carry out. Most important for the students to study are contemporary political events so that they might have a correct understanding of them; to become acquainted with the heroic past and the exemplary life of Vladimir Lenin and Georgi Dimitrov; to understand and visualize the heroism and beauty of our glorious contemporary period; to yearn and struggle for the happy future of their own birthplace and for their own socialist fatherland; to carry out their assigned political work by the organization of concrete undertakings (congresses, meetings, lectures, conferences, etc.); to be active members in their own organizations, as they expose every manifestation of bourgeois ideology and of bourgeois morality. Organization of the Political Information Period Political information is a means for continually acquainting the students with contemporary political events. Ordinarily the political information period is carried on throughout the week during the hour of the homeroom teacher. Under the leadership of the Party organization in the school, the homeroom teacher is instructed in the fundamental questions which will be considered during the hour of political information. The children in the first through the third grades, are small, but they are curious; they are interested in the life about them, about what occurs in the world and in our country. It is for this reason that we must understand and correctly develop this, their interest. A special period for political information is not allotted for them, but during the hour in which the homeroom teacher has them, he allots some time [from the schedule] to acquaint the children with the most important political events which are of concern to all of our society. For example, in the past, attention was C80]

SOCIAL EDUCATION IN SPECIFIC SUBJECTS given to the flight of the space satellite with the first cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, to the meetings of the Twenty-second Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, to the great international sports spectacle in Sofia, to the gala festival honoring the greatest producers in the agricultural economy, to the yearly anniversaries of Lenin, Georgi Dimitrov, etc. The teacher tells about these incidents relating them to the level of the children, or she reads excerpts having political content, always utilizing for illustrative purposes the best cartoons in the newspapers and journals. In the fourth grade a specific hour is allotted for political information. The newspaper Septemvriiche is not only to be read to the students, but they must also learn to read it themselves, to peruse the newspaper Narodna Mladezh, and to know what kinds of headlines the newspaper Rabotnichesko Delo has. At specific times during this period of political information [the students should] describe what they have read and what they have learned. Some fourth-graders should actively participate in arranging the current events bulletin board, while others should look for material to put on it. The program of educational work requires that the students from the fifth grade and above gradually and systematically develop the interest and habit of reading newspapers and political journals and brochures, and of attending political speeches and meetings. . . . In the middle and upper grades, the political horizons of the students are broadened throughout all class and extracurricular activities. The course guide recommends that longer excursions and trips be taken, that meetings be organized with social and political men of importance and with labor brigades so that the students may become acquainted with the fundamental economic tasks of different enterprises and entire districts. During the political information period, interpretations about the most important political events are summarized and the general politics of the Party is explained. The Party's work which has transformed into concrete reality the principles of socialism and communism [in our land], to better the life of the people, must be explained. The homeroom teacher must prepare himself thoroughly for the political information period, for his discussion must be sincere, and he must illustrate the topics with suitable audio-visual materials which have been worked out beforehand by the Pioneers (i.e., current events bulletin boards, diagrams, tables, and illustrations).36 In order to intensify the ideological-political education of the students in the higher grades, the development of a series of lectures, theoretical conferences, and discussions is recommended.37

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On the second level at which work in sociopolitical information occurs, material about current events is incorporated into the content of regular school courses in all areas of the school curriculum, to a greater or lesser extent. Thus, the celebration of Lenin's birthday will be an occasion for the children to read stories about him in their reading and literature classes. At the same time, work in history will include details about his life and his impact upon the Russian Revolution and the establishment of communism in Russia. Teachers of the Russian language will select stories by Russian authors describing conditions under the Tzar; these conditions will be compared with descriptions of life in the Soviet Union today, which is presented, of course, in positive terms, and credit for this favorable contrast will be given to Lenin for guiding the course of the Revolution and establishing communism in the country. Excerpts from the writings of Lenin or from a biography by Krupskaya, Lenin's wife, will be read. Although arithmetic and the sciences lend themselves less readily to the inclusion of sociopolitical information in their content, some material of this nature is included. News accounts about collective farmers or industrial workers that have met and exceeded their quotas form a basis for problems in arithmetic. The dedication of a new industrial complex serves as an occasion for science classes to discuss the industrial processes used in the plant, and a Soviet space achievement will be reviewed in a physics class, not only for its elementary technological concepts but also for its significance as a "triumph of Soviet science and engineering." The teaching of geography, however, may serve as a case study of the manner in which elements of a sociopolitical nature are incorporated into a school subject. Geography is especially suitable for this purpose because it contains elements from both the sciences and the humanities. In achieving the educational objectives of geography teaching, an ideological, political, and Communist purposefulness must always be present. . . . Neglecting and minimizing this principle of party partisanship leads the study of geography to the wastelands of objectivism, political indifference, and subjectivism, which are a complete antithesis to the tasks of the contemporary school as they have been established by the people's government. Only through a creative and general application of this principle [of party partisanship] will the teacher of geography produce a correct ideo-

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logical-political orientation in the students concerning contemporary international political and economic situations [italics added].38 The same text gives a number of ways in which the study of current events during the geography lesson can be related more directly to the ideological principles that have been outlined. A few of the suggestions are indicated in the excerpt that follows. Student collections of illustrated materials have an especially important pedagogical significance. Such work compels them to follow the daily press or the periodical journals through which they will become acquainted with the achievements of our society, with the achievements of the countries having a people's democracy and with those in the USSR, with the life of workers in capitalist countries, etc. It is well that this work relating to the collection of the material be assigned to all the children in the class . . . An important task in the study of the section on the "National Economy" is the communist and patriotic education of the students. Guided by the principle "become acquainted with the fatherland so that you may love it," the teacher of geography in teaching this section must acquaint the students with the people responsible for the production of goods, with their experiments in labor, with raw material, its organization and distribution, and the energy base of production [as it exists] throughout the length and breadth of the country, etc. All this information educates the students in a love of the working people and our socialist fatherland and, at the same time, introduces elements of polytechnology in the study of geography . . .39 The third level at which sociopolitical information is taught is through the Pioneer Organization and the Dimitrov Communist Youth League. Work at this level is carried on through regular circles formed for the purpose and through other groups if the topic or event is appropriate. All the Pioneer and Komsomol units of course participate in the commemoration of national and international Communist anniversaries. International Education A conscious attempt is made to teach "internationalism" to Bulgarian schoolchildren, although not through a formal subject in the curriculum. It is important, however, that this, and several other terms, be defined, because internationalism, education for international understanding, and international education have entirely different meanings in Bulgaria than they do in the West. In Bulgaria, all these terms are conceived in Marxist terms, which means that the internationalism is of a proletarian nature: C83H

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All the "toilers of the world" (that is, those following communism) are supposed to be united in their purposes and objectives. Education for international understanding or international education therefore requires that the children be taught concepts supporting the "worldwide solidarity of the working classes." The following statement, taken from a methods textbook on the teaching of geography used in pedagogical schools, elaborates upon the matter. Socialist patriotism is irrevocably tied to socialist internationalism; for this reason . . . the students must be trained to have a feeling of love and eternal friendship with the peoples of the USSR and the other socialist countries, love and international solidarity with the workers of all the world, and a hate and contempt toward all oppressors, exploiters, and starters of new wars. Proletarian internationalism is the exact antithesis of bourgeoisie cosmopolitanism. The latter does not include the right of the peoples to their mother tongue, to their own national culture, to their national independence, etc. It must be unmasked during the geography lessons.40 The Bulgarian Program for the Primary Grades of the Elementary School (hereafter referred to as the Course of Study) puts the matter another way. It states: The students must be convinced —and this conviction must be constantly reinforced —that the achievements of our country are inconceivable without the full and complete cooperation of the people's democratic republics. Their love and gratitude to the Soviet Union must burn within them. They must be made to know and understand the necessity for an indestructible solidarity in the socialist camp and that our country is an indivisible part of that camp.41 Thus, Bulgarian political and educational writers continue to criticize Western governments and their actions. No attempt is made to analyze objectively and dispassionately the historical basis for these actions or other reasons that may have brought them about. There is, further, little attempt at helping children to develop a genuine cultural understanding of life in countries in political opposition to communism. Representative elements from the broad spectrum of art, music, drama, literature, or dances of these countries are seldom included in the curriculum. In instances where material about such countries is incorporated into the school program, it is almost invariably from a Marxist point of view — to provide opportunities for criticism of life there and, converseC843

SOCIAL EDUCATION IN SPECIFIC SUBJECTS ly, "to demonstrate the superiority of socialism." "Realism" — which shows the seamier life in the nonsocialist countries — continues to be the most frequent style of artistic and literary expression included from these countries.

Fundamentals of Communism Another area of the curriculum intended to effect more readily the socialization of youth for Communist society is a course titled "The Fundamentals of Communism." This course is intended as a supplement to the rest of the curriculum and as a means through which the concepts and ideas that have been developed in this area during the lower grades can be reviewed, reappraised, and reinforced. Fundamentals of Communism is usually given in secondary schools but may, in certain cases, be part of the eighth-grade curriculum. The reasons prompting the development of this course appear in the introduction of the guide for the course: Formation of a Marxist-Leninist world view and a Communist consciousness by the students is one of the fundamental tasks of our schools. These tasks are achieved mainly through the materialistic approach to the content of the individual school subjects and through the varied extracurricular activities of the Komsomol Organization. Practical experience, however, showed that these means were insufficient for students to develop this desired world view.42 The course therefore was developed to fill the vacuum which Bulgarian educators and Party officials believed to exist. It is the direct outcome of a mandate given to the schools in 1961 by the Eighth Congress of the Bulgarian Communist Party.43 The course includes a number of topics related to Communist theory and ideology and attempts to present a philosophical basis for Marxist beliefs. Fundamentals of Communism includes the study of several important problems of dialectical and historical materialism as the philosophical basis for the communist world view. It provides a unifying element to the rationale for a socialist-communist society. A significant place is allotted for an explanation of the fundamental problems, worked out by the Twentieth and Twenty-second Congresses of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Eighth Congress of the Bulgarian Communist Party . . ,44 For illustrative purposes, the course is supposed to draw upon material that the students have studied in physics, chemistry, biology, and history.45 C853

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Other Subject Areas The Bulgarian elementary school does not include specific course work in such areas as economics, sociology, anthropology, conservation, or philosophy. Although each of these disciplines is covered to some extent in the elementary school, the content is integrated with other subjects, most frequently history and geography. In each instance, the basic concepts are Marxist and are intended to support Communist teachings and practices. Economic ideas center around the Communist view of the ascending orders of society: slavery, feudalism, capitalism, and socialism-communism. Who owns the means of production? is the gauge to determine the level of a society's development. Labor is glorified as the element responsible for all wealth. Sociological concepts in the content of elementary school subjects are based upon the same view of progressive socioeconomic orders of society. Poverty, crime, and corruption in the West are due, according to this view, to the capitalist order of society, and similar problems in communist states are attributed to vestiges of bourgeois influences. Malthusian theories about wars, poverty, and disease are described as typical Western scholarship. The anthropological statements frequently are inaccurate, with stereotypes often being presented in the classroom or in school texts. For instance, Africans generally are pictured as half-naked peoples who work on plantations, mercilessly oppressed by their masters, and who look to Communism for their salvation.46 Western anthropological knowledge is still more inaccurately presented to the children — scientists and scholars (mainly British and American) are described as championing the belief in the inferiority of the colored races.47 Views about conservation also reiterate Marxist economic and social doctrines. Capitalist societies are pictured as doing little to conserve their natural resources, when their natural resources are being ruthlessly exploited by great capitalists for their own personal gain. This picture is contrasted with communist societies, where the state supposedly serves as the protector and conserver of the natural riches. Philosophical concepts likewise repeat Communist theories. Dialectical materialism serves as the guiding principle, and all elements of the supernatural are rejected. The development of man's society and thought is

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SOCIAL EDUCATION IN SPECIFIC SUBJECTS viewed in terms of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis — that is, a progressive, evolutionary development. The culmination of historical progression, according to this view, will be the triumph of communism.

Atheism Atheism is one aspect of the materialistic nature of Marxist philosophy which has definite implications for education and should be considered further. As part of the process whereby the schools prepare the children for citizenship in a Communist society, atheism is considered to be an integral element of Communist morality and, hence, has become a tenet of Bulgarian education. Definite attempts are made to teach it directly to the students: "The atheistic education of the students must become an indivisible part of the work of our teachers in Communist education. Its success depends exclusively upon thorough preparation by the teachers, upon their methodological abilities, and their pedagogical skills."48 Teaching of atheism proceeds in a number of ways. Atheistic concepts are integrated with all subject areas of the school curriculum. In the sciences, the following approaches are frequently used: atheism is presented as a cardinal principle emerging from a study of biology and the evolutionary process; it is related to chemistry in discussion of the chemical composition of the universe and to physics with theories about the physical nature of matter and energy. In the humanities, other methods are employed. Historical illustrations serve to criticize or ridicule religion. Geography reiterates the theme that the socioeconomic order of society determines not only man's physical development, but his understanding about the nature of man and his gods. Bulgarian literature is probably the subject most extensively used for atheistic purposes, for, "of all the school subjects, literature presents the greatest number of possibilities for the Communist education of the youth, for atheistic activities, and for [achieving success in] the struggle with powerful religious superstitions and prejudices." *9 Other procedures employed in the teaching of atheism include: studying Bulgarian literary works on anti-religious topics, writing compositions on atheistic themes, organizing atheistic lectures and conferences in school, and preparing anti-religious exhibitions for the school corridor.00 One writer describes vividly the atheistic work conducted in a Bulgarian school. C873

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In order to improve the political consciousness of the students, particular attention must be given to atheistic education. In School Number Two, in the city of Burgas, the students with the help of their teachers conducted an atheistic conference on the theme: "Religion and Science." Preparation for the conference lasted four months. During this time, the students studied and discussed various topics. In the school audio-visual room a series of scientific documentary films were shown which had a specific anti-religious content. During the class period, the homeroom teacher would review [anti-religious] articles. . . . The students . . . took a most active part in the discussions and showed a very high ideological-theoretical understanding. As a result of the conference, many students decided to celebrate birthdays instead of name [feast] days; and crosses which some students wore on chains around their necks were thrown away.51

Language Arts Another area of the school curriculum which is related to the social education of Bulgarian schoolchildren is the language arts. This relation takes a number of forms. READING

The reading material frequently includes topics supporting governmental and party policies, patriotism, and nationalism. These selections are used in the grammars for illustrative purposes, in the reading texts for exercises and study, and in supplementary books for reading at leisure. A number of these selections, taken at random as they appeared in their sources, are included in the appendixes. The following example will illustrate this point. The material in A Reader for the Third Grade is divided into the following units: I. Labor and Knowledge; II. Our Earth; III. Plants and Animals on Our Collective Farm; IV. Health and Joy; V. Stories and Tales; VI. [Selections] on the History of Our People; VII. Liberty, Comradeship, Peace; and VIII. Socialist Development. The titles under "Socialist Development" are typical of stories and poems that have national or political implications: "Who Saved the Valley?" "Tractor," "Nine Fountains Flowed" (a poem about irrigation in the Dobrudja region), "Aggression," "A Visit to the Plant," "A Riddle (about building construction), "Sofia," "A Meeting in the Tunnel" (a story about partisan guerrilla activity), "Hero of Labor," "The First of May," "The Coal Miner," "The Happy Year" (when production quotas C883

SOCIAL EDUCATION IN SPECIFIC SUBJECTS were achieved), "Uncle Ignat" (about a disbeliever in socialist construction who finally began to support it), "Guardians of National Property," and "We Breathe in Freedom." Similar literature appears in readers for all the other grades. The account that follows appears in the alphabet book and first reader: Udarnik Stefka Filipova is a weaver. She works in a big new factory. She weaves cloth. She weaves faster and better * than anyone else. For this reason she is a udarnik. Yesterday we had a very happy day in school. Stefka Filipova visited our class. She told us how she became a udarnik. We called the photographer. He took pictures of us with our guest.52 Materials with ideological implications are used even when studying the literature of other countries. For example, in the middle and upper grades the assignments in literature are to be divided into three categories: Bulgarian, Russian, and Western literature.53 A perusal of the sources from which the material has been selected for the middle- and upper-grade readers indicates that there are about two thirds as many selections from Russian sources as from Bulgarian, and that there is about one third or one fourth as many from Western sources in translation as from Bulgarian sources. However, both the authors and their works appear to have been carefully selected, especially those from the West (mainly French, English, German, and American). Most Western writers whose works have been selected for study by Bulgarian children seem to be what Marxist literary critics term realistic writers — that is, writers whose literary productions deal with the realities of life: poverty, exploitation of the workers, colonialism, or similar topics. The foreign writers represented in the fifth-grade reader are listed here, together with the title of the selection and a summary of its contents. Victor Hugo, "Gavrosh": The story takes place during the French insurrection of 1876 and describes an incident during one of the battles in which Gavrosh, a young boy, is the hero. Gavrosh is on the side of the * The phrase "faster and better" is especially interesting because it is precisely the current theme of the Party in its production goals. By radio, television, and the newspaper, Bulgarian workers are urged to increase their production, but at the same time to maintain "high standards of quality." It would seem that children at an early age are being acquainted with these policies.

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insurrectionists and gives them considerable aid. When the revolutionaries have expended all their ammunition following a battle with governmental forces, Gavrosh exposes himself to the fire of loyalist forces by going into no man's land to collect the bullets left on the bodies of insurrectionists who have been killed. Lev Tolstoy, "The Smallest Devil": The story is about how the smallest of the devils won a contest that was held among all the devils. He accomplished this feat by teaching a group of men in a village to make and drink a very intoxicating Bulgarian liquor called rakija (vodka in the original Russian). Tolstoy then describes the hardships that the drunken men inflicted upon their wives and children. A Chinese Folk-Tale, "The Persistence of Un Si": The story describes a Chinese boy who became a famous scholar despite the obstacle of great poverty. The landlord in the tale is described as greedy and selfish. Charles Dickens, Oliver Twist: The excerpt includes scenes from the novel which describes the life of Oliver Twist while he lived at the orphanage. This paragraph is typical of the tone of the entire selection: ". . . The master of the home, who was helped by two women, gave the children gruel from oats which he boiled in a great kettle. Each child would receive half a bowl and nothing more, except on Sundays and holidays when he would be given in addition, a small piece of bread. The bowls did not have to be washed because the children polished them with the spoons and with their tongues, so that they could not shine any better. The unfortunate children sucked even their fingers in order not to lose even one drop of gruel." Hungarian Folk-Tale, "The Little Cherry Orchard" ("Vishnichkata"): The tale is a moralistic one in which a boy, who comes from a very poor family and who is exceedingly lazy, is taught the value of work by his father. K. Pavstovski, "Water in a Dry Tub" ("Voda v sukhoto korito"): This is an account, purported to be from the life of Lenin, in which he awards a high position to a wise and modest villager. Nev Kasil and M. Polyanoiski, "Volodya Dubinin": This is a condensed excerpt from the novel, Nai-mladiyat sin na Partlyata (The Youngest Son of the Party). GRAMMAR

The teaching of grammar incorporates patriotic and Communist ideology in a similar manner through illustrations that are used to bring out certain aspects of syntax or form. It is not unusual to see such examples as these employed in the classroom or in texts: "My country! My beauC90H

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tiful land!"54 or "Oh, Bulgaria, you are never so dear, as when we are far away from you!"55 or "We love you Party, dear!"56 Supplementary materials in the language arts also employ nationalist, patriotic, and Party themes.57 FOREIGN LANGUAGES

Even teaching of foreign languages in Bulgarian elementary schools adds to the social education of the children. The techniques employed are similar to the ones used in teaching Bulgarian grammar and literature. Selections for reading are made from what is considered to be the realistic literature of the language being studied. In addition, sentences and phrases are used for illustrative purposes that either support communism and the Bulgarian government or are critical of life in the capitalist countries. While the children are still becoming acquainted with the foreign language and are not yet far enough advanced to handle materials written by its native writers, they are given easy, graded reading materials in the foreign language that have been prepared by Bulgarians and are based on sociopolitical themes. The following selection, taken from an eighth-grade text in English is an example; additional excerpts from some of these materials are included in Appendix E. May Day It is fine today. The sun is bright and the sky is blue. The trees are green. The gardens are lovely. It is May Day. May Day is a great holiday. The streets are full of people. There is a big demonstration. Boys and girls are marching and singing with flowers in their hands. They are so happy and gay! The working people are marching too. They are carrying red and national flags, portraits and slogans. Planes are flying in the sky. "Peace and socialism" is our cry today. Long live the first of May! Long live the Bulgarian Communist Party! Long live the great Soviet Union! Long live the struggle for peace!58

Arithmetic and Science Teaching of arithmetic and science includes elements that contribute to the realization of Bulgarian objectives in social education. There are,

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of course, fewer opportunities in these subjects than in the humanities, and for that reason, arithmetic and science are not used as intensively for purposes of social education — but they are used. ARITHMETIC

Many of the illustrations and the word problems in arithmetic class or texts relate to work in factories and on cooperative farms. A problem in a first-grade arithmetic book states, "For the First of May, eighteen workers were given awards at a certain factory. Of these, eight were men, and the rest were women. How many women received awards?"59 The same text includes these colored drawings and black and white sketches: children waving to tractor drivers, children gathering fruit on a collective farm, women working in the garment industry, children marching in a parade and carrying flags with the word peace and a picture of a dove on them, a brigade of Pioneers sawing wood.60 At each grade level, similar situations are used in word problems. The following exercise is taken from the arithmetic book for the third grade: "The Pioneers from the troop Vasil Levsky collected 2,128 kilograms of waste paper. In order to fulfill their pledge, two companies had to collect 186 kilograms more. How many kilograms of scrap paper had the Pioneers pledged to collect?"61 Additional problems, taken from Bulgarian elementary school arithmetic textbooks, are included in Appendix E. The problems were selected from the textbooks of each grade level, grades 1-8 inclusive. GENERAL SCIENCE

The teaching of science is similarly used in social education. Frequently, topics studied in science class relate to work that the government has under way in an area. Communism is frequently given credit for technological advances, and the fact that these activities are being carried out under the direction of the Party is emphasized. The following example is taken from a discussion of water in nature in the science text for the fourth grade. Before the Ninth of September, 1944, the fascist government was not concerned with the proper utilization of our waters. At that time, many of our fields were not being irrigated. The harvests from these fields were small, and consequently the people lived very poorly. After our liberation from fascism, the people's government made a thor-

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SOCIAL EDUCATION IN SPECIFIC SUBJECTS ough study of the water resources of our fatherland. The government then constructed dams and irrigation systems so that our many rivers and lakes could be most effectively utilized. Mighty electrical pumps draw water from the rivers and lakes into canals so that the fields and cities can have adequate water . . . Bulgaria is rich in water resources. The people's government uses our water resources correctly and makes the lives of the workers richer, more convenient, and more enjoyable.62 In a discussion of mining in the same text, a similar approach is used: "Before the Ninth of September, 1944, the miners dug the coal with pickaxes in the weak light of the miner's lamps. Today the production of coal has been mechanized. The miners dig the coal with special digging machines and electric drills, and hi open-pit mines steam shovels are used."63 PHYSICS

Material relating to progress under socialism is incorporated in an almost identical manner in the teaching of physics. Although the subject does not readily lend itself to the purposes of social education since it is relatively free of ideological content, some material has political implications. The most frequent practice along these lines is to include allusions to the "achievements of Soviet science" or to the "progress of Bulgarian science under Communism." For example, The great achievements of Soviet physicists are used for peaceful progress — to build communism in the USSR and socialism in our country and in other lands. The radio, to which we all listen today, is the invention of the Russian scientist, A. S. Popov. The Russian scientist N. D. Zhukovski, whom Lenin termed the "father of Russian aviation," contributed much to the development of aviation. The scientific discoveries of Tsiolkovski in rocketry are used by Soviet scientists and engineers in the building of artificial earth satellites, space vehicles, and rockets.64 A perusal of the elementary school texts in physics indicates that this writer's preceding observations about the greater freedom from political elements in the teaching of physics are essentially valid. Both the sixthand seventh-grade physics textbooks are comparatively free from extraneous political content. The historical developments in the field are presented in a rather objective, factual manner. Scientists from all countries are described as having contributed to the immense body of knowledge in this area that mankind now possesses. The more remote a particular scientist C933

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is to the present, the more objectively his contributions seem to be reviewed. Some attempt is made, of course, to give Russian scientists credit for various discoveries that elsewhere in the world are attributed to Westerners, but at least the texts do recognize important historical contributions from all nations to the advancement of scientific knowledge. This statement, however, is not true when applied to the contemporary scene — indeed, there is almost no recognition of Western achievements in the immediate past and the present. Recognition of current achievement is restricted almost solely to Soviet scientists and engineers. For instance, Soviet achievements in space are described in great detail, but little mention is made of similar activities by Western scientists and astronauts. This quotation is typical: On the fourth of October, 1957, the first Soviet artificial earth satellite was shot into orbit. It was followed by a second and a third one, by a rocket to the moon, and by several cosmic vehicles. The legendary flights of Yuri Gagarin, Gherman Titov, Andrian Nikolayev, and Pavel Popovich were achieved, to the glory of Soviet scientists, engineers, and technicians. Successful flights around the earth also were completed by American astronauts.65 BOTANY

The teaching of botany in the elementary school is likewise relatively free from political material. With the exception of occasional statements about the history of botany, there appears to be little social education during botany lessons. The sixth-grade botany textbook is restricted to a general survey of the field and emphasizes plant structure, the life cycle, and classification of plants. There are exceptions, however: The people's government exercises great care to develop botanical knowledge. Today botany has a new task to fulfill — to aid the development of the agricultural economy. The conditions under which plant life best develops are being studied, as well as the procedures that must be followed to obtain the greatest productivity of cultured plants. Great discoveries in botany were made by the great Soviet scholars Kliment A. Timiryazev and Ivan V. Michurin. As a result of the new techniques from Michurin's discoveries, our scientists and those of the other socialist countries are able to create new types of plants and to use them for man's welfare.66 Soviet botanists are given special recognition in other ways. For example, school farms are often named after Ivan Michurin, a pioneer SoC943

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viet horticulturist, and Pioneer circles in botany are sometimes named in his honor. Michurin's theories, for the most part, are still espoused by Bulgarian botany teachers in their classes. Thus, it cannot be said that botany or any of the other sciences are not affected by political ideology, for they certainly are. However, by comparison with the humanities —history, geography, and the language arts — sciences seem to be used less in social education. The matter is one of degree and not of absolutes, for no part of school life is completely apolitical.

The Fine Arts Ideological factors directly influence the fine arts program in Bulgarian elementary schools. Music, drama, and art lend support to the state and the Party. They, too, are presented realistically and must reflect "the life of the people." MUSIC

A Bulgarian educational writer describes clearly the ideological functions of music in a book on the role of aesthetics in Communist education: True music educates us in Communism. Patriotism and internationalism, for example, are characteristics of communist morality. Likewise, is a great love for the fatherland. When Vaptsarov [a Bulgarian Communist poet] and his comrades were about to be executed in the tunnel they talked and sang songs about the fatherland. Thousands of true sons of the people went to their deaths with a song on their lips. Beaten and tortured, the Red Don Youth Guards likewise were singing with all their strength, before they were thrown into the shaft. How great a feeling of might that the Russian people have and how great their love of freedom can be seen in the songs of the October Revolution! Who does not have goose pimples when he listens to "Varshavyanka," "The March Bud'on," and "Varyag" . . . Whose breath does not heave with emotion when he listens to the simple majestic songs of the Fatherland War [World War II after the Communists came to power]? Who is not filled with hate and fury against the fascist invaders!67 This view of the importance of music to Communist society has its counterpart in the school and in the objectives of music education. Among the purposes for the teaching of singing in the elementary school, the first one is "to develop in the students a love toward the fatherland and toward labor, in consonance with the peoples of the USSR, with the socialist nail 95 3

Typical Songs for the Elementary School, Selected from a List in the National Course of Study» Grade 1 * Work Is Necessary The Bell The School Bell Rings March for the Ninth of September The Happy Ducks The Snow Man The Workers A Spring Song The Happy Grandfather A Song about the Alphabet * The Airplane The White Rabbit

Good Night The Bird * The Tractor A Forest Night The Month of March * Let the Blue Neckerchiefs of the Junior Pioneers Flutter! * The Brightest Bouquet * Cyril and Methodius A Beautiful Book Junior Pioneers Grade 2

The First School Day * Junior Pioneers * The Blue Neckerchiefb * A Song about Chavdar, the Vojvoda My Flag * Work Is Necessary * Comrades, Junior Pioneers The Brightest Bouquet Winter

Grandfather Frost * The Hero of the Forest Dimitrov's Lullaby Fatherland Father Is a Worker Uncle Mincho * A Song about Lenin * Cyril and Methodius Autumn Grade 3

* March of the Pioneers * Our Land * The Chetas Greetings to the Brigadiers The First of May Dimitrov's First of May * Partisans Forest, I Love You The Caterpillar and the Rose Bush

* The Kavals c Are Playing Song of the Forest Young Heroes * Yanka Came Down from the Forest Last Night * The Wind Blows * A Song of Comradeship * A Hymn to Cyril and Methodius * The Pioneer Circle

Grade 4 School Bell, Ring Out! * Fatherland * Stara Mountain * The Blue Flag b The Boundary Guards * Courage, Comrades Russia He Lives On, Who Gives His Life for His Fatherland

Oh, Thou Balkan Mountain The Parting of the Partisans The Fatherland Listensa * Pioneer Joy * Arise, Oh Arise, Hero of the Balkan Mountain The Danube Flows on to the Sea * I Love the Fatherland Let There Now Be Sunshine d

* Songs marked with an asterisk are obligatory. b (of the Junior Pioneers). c A musical instrument. d In Russian.

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tions, and with all peoples who are fighting for peace and independence."68 The other objectives are those ordinarily found in such a course guide — developing a love of music and singing, studying aesthetics, and encouraging growth in musical understanding.69 In harmony with these stated objectives, the course guide further directs: First place in the repertory of songs, as conceived in the elementary school course of study, must be given to Bulgarian national folk songs and the songs of our composers, to Soviet children's and Pioneer songs, and to suitable works from the vocal musical literature of the world. Such works Musical Compositions for Listening, Selected from a List in the National Course of Study Songs, Grades 2 and 3 National Anthems of Bulgaria, USSR, A Dance Song and the Internationalea Yearnings of Children A Song of Comradeship White Doves A Song about the Pioneer Let Us Fight for Peace Neckerchief Lullaby Instrumental Numbers, Grades 2 and 3 March of the Prisoners of War Dance of the Elves A Waltz March of the Hunter b A Horo from the Danube Minuet Regionc Neopolitan Song The Poor Orphan Night over the River The Happy Villager Horo b The Music Box A Dance Songs, Grade 4 National Anthems of Bulgaria, USSR, A March of Youth and the Internationale • Song about the Party Party of the Fatherland Song about the Party A Song about the Party The Young Woman Partisan March of the Artillery The Cuckoo The Fight for Peace Lullaby The Little Cannon Roared A Song about Tomorrow's Cosmonaut March of the Hikers Rehearsal for the Concert Song of India Melody Pastorale Yearning

Instrumental Numbers, Grade 4 National Dance A Lyrical Dance My Summer as a Pioneer The Red Hat

* The international anthem of all Communist parties. A special folk dance, somewhat like a round dance. c Of Bulgaria.

b

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are those that have suitable themes about school life and the everyday life of children, about comradeship, about labor and work, and about our heroic past and our bright prospects for the future.70 Similar directions are given for music intended for listening by the children. The Course of Study provides a list of music for teachers' guidance. Some numbers are required, others optional. Selections of songs from this list are given for grades one to four on page 96, and selections for listening on page 97. School music texts follow the categories suggested by the Course oj Study rather closely. In a school songbook, out of 196 songs, there are 15 about the fatherland and patriotism, 8 about the Communist Party and the people's government, 2 about Soviet-Bulgarian friendship, 6 about peace, 11 about work, 5 each about military brigadiers, the conquest of space, and Bulgaria's past and the partisans, and 60 Pioneer songs, including camp and marching songs.71 ART

Two of the objectives in the study of art listed in the Course of Study are: To teach the students to understand the significance of art in the practical life of man so that they will use their knowledge and abilities in art in practical work — both within the school and outside of the school. To teach the students love toward the fatherland, toward labor, and toward the men who labor; to teach them accuracy and persistence in work.72 This point of view is further elaborated in a book discussing the aesthetic education of children. The author of that book makes the following statement: It is not always nature . . . but many other aspects of life that have inspired numerous artists and have made them immortal. The face of man with its clear distinguishing features, sorrowful or joyful, the relationships between individual people, the dramatic episode and episodes in their lives, historical events, the struggle of the oppressed peoples, the struggle between classes, the new teacher of man in the epoch of socialism — such riches as these which artists celebrate through their talent and brush have made them immortal.73 A list of suggested themes for art lessons in school as they appear in C983

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the Course of Study is presented in Appendix D; listed also are art works that might be reviewed and analyzed in class. Ideological factors and the emphasis on realism clearly determine content, both of the themes and of the art masterpieces. The approach is amplified in a guide to aesthetic education which includes a discussion of several paintings that the author deems to be realistic, to convey the true meaning of proletarian art, and to portray in a vivid sense the life of the workers. Our art has strong and emotional tones, for it is art which has been created by the hands and hearts of artists who love the people and the lives of the workers. One of them is Khristo Stanchev, who worked in the epoch when capitalism flourished in Bulgaria, the epoch of chauvinistic wars and the exploitation and suppression of the workers. His most beautiful masterpiece is the painting "At the Field," painted before the Ninth of September, 1944. Khristo Stanchev portrays the scene simply, but with great feeling. The painting is of a Bulgarian mother with a small child at her breast, a dry parcel of land, and a team of weak oxen. The husband is not there. He is a soldier at the front, sent there to defend the interests of the bourgeoisie and the capitalists. She has been left alone and must struggle with the soil. The painter has selected the most significant and most emotional moment.74 Another painting in the category of important Bulgarian art is described: After the Ninth of September, 1944, our renowned artist, Stoyan Venev, created one of his most beautiful paintings, which is called "The Parting." He was deeply moved by our partisan movement, which was created and led by the heroic Party of Dimitrov in order that the fascist regime might be overthrown and a people's government established. For this reason, he selected such a theme. In his paintings, S. Venev has selected a highly emotional moment. It is the moment in which the father, who is going as a partisan, is being separated from his family — his small child and his wife.75 Appropriate paintings and sculpture are exhibited in schools: A portrait or bust of the school hero-patron (after whom the school is named) may be placed conspicuously in the entrance hall of the building. The school corridors frequently are lined with pictures depicting famous incidents in Bulgarian history, portraits of national political figures, or sketches of Russian cosmonauts. Slogans sometimes accompany these pictures: a painting of a historic Bulgarian battle may bear the state-

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ment, "They Fought for Our Freedom"; a gallery of Soviet cosmonauts, "Long Live Soviet-Bulgarian Friendship"; and a picture of workers in a factory, "We Must Work for Our Fatherland." There are few illustrative materials in classrooms — no bulletin boards or "interest" corners. The walls are bare, except the one facing the class. There, almost invariably, are hung several pictures of past or present Communist leaders, most frequently Lenin and Dimitrov. Similarly, the themes of class artwork often are socially and realistically oriented. Historic battles of the partisans, patriotic celebrations, parades and reviews of the armed services and border guards, and activities at a collective farm or in some factory are all subject matter for children's artwork. Other recurrent themes in school art projects are Bulgarian scenery, historic monuments, and newly constructed industries and hydroelectric plants. Abstract art is unknown in school classes, and children do not work in media of free expression, such as fingerpaints.* Schoolchildren also are taken on field trips to art museums and exhibits. What they see at such places varies, of course, according to the nature of the exhibit. An exhibition of general works might have many themes —none of them, however, differing appreciably from the categories already mentioned. Even the works of nineteenth-century Bulgarian artists that are prized today — those works in the National Art Gallery, frequently viewed by school groups — depict scenes from the life and work of the people of their time. Sometimes special exhibits are organized around a theme. A widely publicized collection of oil paintings exhibited in Sofia in the fall of 1964 had the theme "Underground Tunnels of the Partisans" and illustrated the various kinds of tunnels the partisans used during World War II. Important events of the period that took place in these tunnels also were depicted. Other exhibits that children attend often concentrate exclusively on themes of agriculture or industry. DRAMA

The dramatic arts are considered to have definite educational implications for ideology. One Bulgarian writer expresses this viewpoint thus: * Abstract art is not included in the school curriculum, but some Bulgarian artists are employing such techniques — albeit, in most cases they still attempt to give such works such realistic titles as "A Worker," "Women in the Field," or "The Factory."

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The role of the theatrical arts in the formation of the new man is very great. Already during the time of the five-century-long Turkish enslavement, theatrical plays became a very strong factor in raising the revolutionary spirit of the people. During the fascist regime, it was through theatrical plays that we first became acquainted with the life of the Soviet people. After the Ninth of September, our theater taught us how we should overcome our difficulties; and it is still teaching us the way.76 The concept of the role of the theater in education for Communist society is applied not only to adults, but also to children. The intellect and character of people is already formed at a very early age. One of the factors in the correct formation of their development is the theater. For this reason, the Pioneer organizations must realize the indispensable significance of the theatrical arts and use them in achieving the great task: the Communist education of the Pioneers, who tomorrow must become worthy young Communists." Children, therefore, are urged to become interested in the theater and to become participants in it, as well. By taking an active part in such work, they supposedly will develop certain moral traits deemed desirable in Communist society. It is the duty of every Pioneer organization to have its own Pioneer theater. . . . By having their own theater, the Pioneers will not only develop the priceless quality of collectivism, but will learn to help their own little comrades to correct their own errors. Thus, if we give a pupil who always tells answers to the others in class such a role in a play he will think a long time after this before beginning again to tell the answers to others in class. If in a satirical play we give the pupil who always copies work from others such a role, he will surely become ashamed from his little comrades, and hardly again will he ever copy work from others.78 Physical Education Physical education in Bulgarian elementary schools is viewed as an element in the total process of Communist education. In the Course of Study, the relation is pointed out clearly: "Physical education, as an indivisible part of the process of Communist education, is to be taught in correlation with the total educational work of the school and is one of the important means to prepare the students for socially useful labor."79 In order to achieve this objective, physical education in the elementary school is divided into these categories: gymnastics and calisthenics, light athletic activities (walking, running, jumping, and throwing), games of

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low organization and sports, and folk dancing. Of these, folk dancing is possibly the one most closely related to the problem of this study, in that elements of nationalism, patriotism, and ethnic pride are incorporated in a study of the dances, which are almost solely of Bulgarian origin. In addition, during classes in physical education, the children sometimes are given training in marching to prepare them for some patriotic or Party parade or manifestation (a demonstration of loyalty and support). With these exceptions, there is little in the school physical education program that appears to have a direct and immediate bearing upon social education. The main purpose of physical education, then, is preparing students to become healthy members of Bulgarian Communist society — adults who will be able to participate fully in socially useful work. Qualities to be developed in physical education include "strength, speed, stamina, and desirable personal and social habits."80 In addition, physical education should help the students to develop "discipline, collectivism, comradeship, patriotism, and courage . . ."81

Education in Labor In addition to providing a basic, preparatory academic education, the Bulgarian elementary school has as one of its fundamental responsibilities "the education of the children for labor." The program of the elementary school makes specific provisions — "to provide the children with such an education, for 'education in labor' is at the center of all the educational work that is carried out by the school and the Pioneer organization with the younger generation."82 The objectives of education in labor thus are essentially social: to help the students acquire concepts about labor and basic work skills which will contribute to their total development and to prepare them to work as adults under the conditions of a socialist and communist society. Through education in labor, proper communist . . . attitudes are formed toward labor, collectivism, and life; and the children develop the habit of working for the welfare of society, which is the pre-condition that must exist to permit the gradual transition to a completely communist society.83 The content of the course Education in Labor, as well as the time allotted to each of its parts, is given in Table 2 (see p. 52). All the program functions throughout the school year.84 Field trips are included, especially to industrial enterprises and collective farms.85 C 1021]

chapter

V

MATERIALS USED IN SOCIAL EDUCATION

SCHOOL texts are probably the most important kind of material used in the social education of Bulgarian children because of all the instructional items available, they are used the most extensively. The texts are selected in open competition. An announcement is published in newspapers and educational journals specifying the kind of book needed. The entries, submitted with the author's name in code, are judged by a special committee of educators and officials from the Ministry of Education. The manuscript which in the opinion of these judges is the best of those submitted is declared the winner; the author is given an award in addition to the publication fees that he receives. Royalties are not paid in Bulgaria, for it is argued that the number of copies of a book sold does not necessarily determine its importance and that all workers, including scholarly workers, must receive equal compensation for equal labor. A rather complicated system — taking into consideration such things as originality, length, purpose, style, and importance — has therefore been established to determine the amount of money that an author should receive for a book. Textbook writers, as well as all other writers, are paid on the basis of this system. Writers of books going into two or more editions are paid an additional sum — again, according to a predetermined scale. The special committee on the selection of a text has a number of criteria to determine the worth of a manuscript being considered for use in the schools — since adoption for courses comes before publication. These criteria include readability, interest, style, quality of illustrations (which

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF B U L G A R I A N YOUTH

must be supplied by the author),* suitability and selectivity of contents, and similar factors. In addition, however, there is the added, ideological criterion: all texts must follow the current Party line and support Party and governmental policies and decisions. The importance of ideology is clear in a geography textbook which the writer has in his possession. On the inside cover page, under the heading "Important Announcement," this statement appears: "The editors notify the readers to take the following revisions into consideration." x A long list of corrections follows, to be made to previous editions of the book that some children may still be using. (School textbooks and supplies must be purchased by the children, and for this reason, some children use secondhand copies.) Many of the corrections are of typographical or factual errors, but some are the result of ideological and political factors. Two of these statements follow: "To the phrase 'The monarchy was overthrown,' should be added, 'but the country remains a dependency of the imperialists'"; and again, "The sentence on the line should now end, 'The country has finally liberated itself from the yoke of the imperialists.'"2 The fact that the editors of the geography text are so concerned with what might appear to be minutiae indicates the importance of ideology in school texts. In the same geography text, however, an even more significant revision was made which could hardly have been other than politically and ideologically inspired. When the writer purchased the book from the dealer, he discovered that pages 96-106, inclusive, were missing from the text, and judging from the appearance, they had been torn out. A check of the Table of Contents showed that these pages had contained material on China. In place of the missing pages were several loose, untrimmed and unbound pages, numbered 96-103, in keeping with the numerical sequence of the text, with the last page being given three numbers, 104, 105, and 106, so that the sequence could be resumed again with page 107. A notation in the book read, "Please insert these pages in their proper place," with no further explanation. Although it is, of course, impossible for the writer to know with certainty the former contents of the pages which had been removed, the pre* Although the author must supply the illustrations, they are generally not hard to obtain. A special news bureau has been established in Sofia, where anyone, for a nominal sum, can obtain photographs and other illustrative materials about aspects of Bulgarian life, past and present, in which he is interested.

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MATERIALS USED IN SOCIAL EDUCATION sumption is strong, at least, that ideological differences between the Soviet Union and China had prompted a drastic revision at this point. The text, which had been newly revised to include political changes since the previous editions, apparently had had to be revised itself as soon as it had been published. Rather than withdraw all the texts and go to the great expense of printing a new edition without selling the old, this procedure had been adopted. The relation of the Bulgarian school texts to ideology seems an incontrovertible fact.

Propaganda Techniques in School Texts The relation between ideology and textual materials also appears in the manner in which elementary school books present the Party and the government. All the common propaganda techniques are employed: name-calling, glittering generalities, card-stacking, transfer, bandwagon, plain folks, and the testimonial.* Each of these techniques will be analyzed here. Name-calling, or applying words with unfavorable connotations to an object or a person, is perhaps the technique cultivated most intensively. Terms frequently used in this manner are exploitation, capitalism, dictatorship, traitor, occupier, and various combinations such as fascist enslaver, domestic traitor, bourgeois democracies (applied to Western nations), colonial imperialism, and imperialistic capitalism. These phrases form an important part of the vocabulary of textbook writers, especially those in the humanities. At the other extreme are glittering generalities —that is, associating vague terms with favorable connotations with a person or a policy. Words used in this manner are freedom, liberation, brotherhood, unity, antifascist, liberty-loving, patriot, worker, fatherland, and such phrases as national hero, democratic people's republics, socialist fatherland, and honest intellectuals. Of these expressions, the word fatherland (rodina — literally, "Land of Our Birth") is an excellent example. It is difficult to describe the charged emotional tone and feeling present when Bulgarians speak of their father* The classification of propaganda techniques used in this study follows the one suggested by the Institute for Propaganda Analysis. A further description and analysis of each technique is given in "How to Detect Propaganda," Propaganda Analysis, I (November 1957) pp. 1-4.

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land. The word is spoken with all the respect and reverence that someone may use in referring to his parents and, in a sense, actually personifies the state. Because of this positive connotation, certain terms or concepts of the present Bulgarian social order are associated with the word in order to elevate them to a higher plane, thus: "Nature in our fatherland is rich, varied, and beautiful. It becomes still richer, still more beautiful through the cooperative labor of our Bulgarian people."3 Another technique that is frequently employed is card-stacking — the use of partial truths. For instance, facts that may have been true in the past or that may have been valid in only certain regions of another country, are used as if they applied to the entire country at present. Here is a typical example: "In America the riches belong to a small number of capitalists, called millionaires, who keep the largest part of the population dependent upon them. Taxes, consumer prices, and unemployment constantly increase. A series of laws are being created which limit the rights of the workers. The land is owned by a small number of huge landowners (farmers), who exploit the peasants."4 The technique is used in two additional ways, which the writer for the purposes of this study will call the before-and-after and the there-and-here techniques. In the before-and-after approach, life in Bulgaria under the monarchy is compared in a highly unfavorable way with present conditions under Communism. This example is taken from an elementary school science textbook: "Before the Ninth of September, 1944, we manufactured very little cement, and what was made was very expensive. Today we manufacture cement in five plants . . . and some of it is exported to other countries."5 The following excerpt is another example of this technique. "Before the Ninth of September, 1944, we did not produce any cast iron or steel. With the help of the Soviet Union, the people's government built the V. I. Lenin Steel Mill to produce cast iron and steel. We are now in the process of building the largest steel mill in our country in the village of Kremikovtsi, which is in the Sofia district."6 The there-and-here technique is similar to the previous one. By this method, economic conditions in nonsocialist lands are contrasted unfavorably with those in Bulgaria in an attempt to convince the students that life is much better in their country than elsewhere. For purposes of this comparison, countries such as Spain, Brazil, Portugal, or India are usun063

MATERIALS USED IN SOCIAL EDUCATION

ally selected, but the same technique is sometimes applied even to the more advanced industrial nations of the world. The device of transfer, whereby an attempt is made to carry over prestige, respect, or authority from one object or person to another also appears. Bulgarian revolutionary heroes of past centuries are commonly used —for example, the junior division of the Pioneers is called Chavdarcheta, after Chavdar, a revolutionary who led his band against the Turks in the sixteenth century. The testimonial device is also widely used. Generally, some important contemporary Bulgarian or a famous Marxist of the past is cited as endorsing some principle or activity of the social order. The plain folks device, which portrays the Bulgarian Communist leaders as ordinary people, is employed as the occasion permits. The frontispiece of some textbooks pictures a delegation of Pioneers crowding around Zhivkov, the current Bulgarian head of the Communist Party, or a school child giving him flowers, or boys and girls in an audience with him. Communist heroes are almost always described in the school books as simple workers and peasants, men of proletarian stock who lived the simple life. Finally, there is the bandwagon technique, which encourages students to follow the group by participating in collective programs of Communist society. This device is especially apparent in social-educational activities of children, such as parades, excursions, and Pioneer rituals, but it also appears very clearly in textbooks as various aspects of Bulgarian life are being discussed. Thus, every possible method is incorporated into Bulgarian school books to prepare the children for citizenship in the society of which they are a part. Through the use of these techniques and their many variations, the children are taught loyalty to the Party and its leaders as well as to the nation and its people. Encyclopedias and Supplementary Reading Materials Encyclopedias do not appear to be much used by children in their school work, for many reasons. Few schools have any encyclopedias, and there are none written in Bulgarian expressly for children. The Bulgarian ones for adults are out of date and grossly inadequate in scope and depth; only foreign encyclopedias, available in but a few libraries, are sufficiently

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comprehensive in the material they cover. Indeed, most of the few Bulgarian encyclopedias that have been published were written before World War II and consist of two or three volumes. Bulgarian adults and older youth generally consult Soviet encyclopedias when necessary. A comparatively large number of supplementary children's books are published. Although most children's publications currently are in areas of science and technology, there is, nonetheless, considerable material of an ideological nature. A number of books typical of those used for social education are described in the following list. From the brief description that is given for each one, it will be noticed that many of the books are specifically designed to achieve certain predetermined objectives in the socialization of the children for their Communist society. Books are written about heroes of labor, partisan history, contemporary developments under Communism, youth activities supporting the Party and nation, the torture of Communists by the police during the monarchy, and similar topics. Some Bulgarian Children's Books Used for Social Education Angelov, Tsvetan. Prikazki za devetiya den (Stories about the Ninth Day). Sofia: Narodna Mladezh, 1964. The book contains stories, in poetic form, about the Ninth of September (day of the Communist coup d'etat). Bankov, Milen. Gerovat ot Petrovitsa (The Hero from Petrovitsa). Sofia: Narodna Mladezh, 1963. The book presents a brief biographical sketch of Stefan Stoinov, a hero of socialist labor who is the leader of a miners' brigade of youth at the Petrovitsa Mine in the village of Madan. Krupskaya, N. K. Vladimir Ilich Lenin, translated from the Russian by Sider Florin. Sofia: Narodna Kultura, 1962. N. K. Krupskaya was Lenin's wife. The book is intended for first-graders and preschoolers and is an attempt to humanize Lenin for the children. It is, essentially, a short biographical sketch. Kr"steva, Savina. Priyateli na boitsite (Friends of the Fighters). Sofia: Narodna Mladezh, 1964. This book describes the activities of Pioneers in connection with the Bulgarian armed services: visiting the military camps, participating in maneuvers and patrols, shooting rifles, and engaging in other aspects of military life. It is basically a guidebook for Pioneers who will be visiting these camps. Descriptions of the various military ranks and emblems are included. Kr"stev, Ivan. SV'ncheviyat kam"k (Rock of the Sun). Sofia: B"lgarski Khudozhnik, 1960. The book is intended for the primary grades and describes the origin, mining, and uses of coal. Maeva, Kunka. Dimitrov za podvig s"rtsata zaoali (Dimitrov Has Stirred Our Hearts to Achieve). Sofia: Narodna Mladezh, 1961. The book contains a brief description of the highpoints from the life of Georgi Dimitrov during his activities in Bulgaria. It presents the biography in terms of Pioneer activities centered around national monuments that have been established for him — the house where he lived, the cities he visited, and his mausoleum. Markov, lordan. V golemiya grad (In the Big City). Sofia: B'lgarski Khudozhnik,

ClOS]

MATERIALS USED IN SOCIAL EDUCATION 1964. The book is designed to inform children coming from the country to live in a large city about the traffic hazards that will confront them. Melnishki, Luben, and Roksandra Aleksandrova. Rastat redom s nas (Our Number Increases). Sofia: Narodna Mladezh, 1961. A booklet in the "Library for the Activist" series, this describes industrial and technological progress in Bulgaria under communism. Mikhailov, Pancho. Ptitsi v kafez (Birds in a Cage). Sofia: Narodna Mladezh, 1962. This book, by a contemporary Bulgarian writer, contains a series of stories about Bulgarian child-heroes who have contributed in some way to the welfare of the country or the Party. Popova, Latinka. Plant"tsi na druzhbate (Flames of Friendship). Sofia: Narodna Mladezh, 1964. A booklet in the "Library for the Activist" series, this is for Pioneers and describes the activities and typical games of Pioneers from several socialist countries. Rusinova, Penka. Sred novi priyateli (Among New Friends). Sofia: Narodna Mladezh, 1963. The book lists and describes some of the activities of the Pioneers. Sokolski, Aleksand"r. Druzhbi i veseli (Comradeship and Friendship). Sofia: Narodna Mladezh, 1963. The book describes in a narrative form some activities that Pioneers could carry out. Staikova, Teodora. Mila Ralitse (Dear Ralitse). Sofia: Narodna Mladezh, 1963. The volume gives short descriptive excerpts from the life of a Pioneer. Turichin, Ilya. Sedemte geroi (The Seven Heroes), translated from the Russian by Gercho Atanasov. Sofia: Narodna Mladezh, 1964. The introduction to the book, quoted here, presents the central theme of this work for children: "Vovka was sitting on the divan, and I was reading him stories. At first I read him a story about cats, then about goats, and after that about birds. The stories were well written and interesting. "Sometimes Vovka appeared to be listening, and then he would seem to be completely disinterested. He would squirm on the divan, sigh, and glance first at me and then toward my books. Behind the glass of my book cases were 'adult' books. " 'Vovka, are you listening to me?' " 'I am listening.' " 'And about what I was reading to you?' " 'About birds,' Vovka whispered slowly. The answer pleased me. I was just ready to continue when Vovka suddenly said, 'But your books tell mostly about people, Can't we read about people sometimes?'" The author then goes on to describe how this conversation with Vovka made him realize that children want to know about people rather than about fairy tales and imaginary birds and animals. The incident convinced him of the importance of realistic materials for children, and he determined to write the book about socialist heroes he has known or about whom he has read. Vasilev, Rosen. Toi ne stana moryak (He Did Not Become a Sailor). Sofia: Narodna Mladezh, 1961. This is a story of a boy who wanted to become a sailor but who did not realize his ambition because he was arrested and executed by the police in monarchical Bulgaria for his Communist activities.

Most of these books are published by Narodna Mladezh. This establishment is directed by the Dimitrov Communist Youth League and publishes materials for the League, the Pioneers, and the Chavdarcheta (the junior branch of the Pioneers), exclusively. £10911

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Narodna Mladezh also issues the official paper of the Dimitrov League, a daily bearing the same name as the house — Narodna mladezh (The People's Youth). It also issues Srednoshkolsko zname, a weekly for students of high school age, Rodna rech, the literary journal for youth, Studentska tribuna, a weekly for students in higher educational institutions, and Septemvriche, a publication for Pioneers. In addition to these newspapers and periodicals that are published by Narodna Mladezh, there are other publications in Bulgaria for children and youth. These include the monthlies, Pionerski zov, by the Home of the Pioneers in Turnovo, Pionerska iskra and Drugar, by the Home of the Pioneers in Sofia, and Sofiski universitet, by Sofia State University.

Nonreading Materials and Resources Audio-visual resources used in teaching in Bulgaria include all of the following: paintings and illustrative reproductions; photographs; films; slides; auditory aids, such as radios, tape recorders, and record players; globes and maps; charts; cartoons; specimens; and models and objects. However, these materials are not all used to an equal extent or universally. Expensive items are available only in a few schools for demonstrational purposes. This is especially true for record players, tape recorders, and television sets. Radios are available, but not usually in each classroom; rather, programs are directed to the classrooms by means of a loudspeaker system from a central receiver. Similar loudspeaker systems are installed in most Pioneer camps and in central, strategic locations in many towns and cities. The programs broadcast are those emitted by Radio Sofia, to which most of the country is tied by a network of receivers and transmitters. Some children's programs are broadcast, but schools also include certain regular programs. Although there are no commercials, much of the material is intended to support the policies of the Soviet Union, the Party, and the government. Newscasts, to which students sometimes listen in the schools, are primarily editorials in which commentators describe and analyze events in accordance with current Party lines. News accounts about local and national events usually consist of an enumeration of groups and individuals who have reached and surpassed their production norms. World events are reported from the view of Marxist ideology. There is no attempt at what is known in the West as objectivity. For exCH03

MATERIALS USED IN SOCIAL EDUCATION ample, during the Presidential elections in the United States in 1964, Senator Goldwater was practically never mentioned by name — it was always, "The mad senator from Arizona said . . ." or "The candidate of the warmongers insists . . . " Films are also important in the social education of the children. Most of the films shown by the schools are produced in the Soviet Union or in Bulgaria and include a high propaganda content. The writer saw one such film along with a group of Pioneers. The film dealt with a melodramatic incident that was supposed to have occurred at the Soviet International Pioneer Camp at Artek. A group of youths, among whom was a Japanese girl who survived the American bombing of Nagasaki, began to climb one of the mountains near the camp. They approach the summit, and a beautiful scene unfolds as the sun rises over the Black Sea in a blazing variety of colors. Suddenly, its rays strike a cloud shaped like the mushroom of an atomic bomb. The Japanese girl goes into a state of shock, for it reminds her of her experiences during the atomic blast. She falls down and strikes her head against a rock. Slowly and with great difficulty she is carried down the mountain side by her friends, the Soviet Pioneers, and taken to the clinic of the camp. There she has to undergo delicate brain surgery. A specialist comes from Moscow to perform the operation. Blood of a very rare type is needed immediately for transfusions in order to save the girl's life. An American woman delegate to the camp — the only person anywhere near who has the rare blood type — offers to give as much blood as necessary "in expiation for the American imperialists" who bombed Nagasaki. The operation is performed, and the blood of the American becomes one with that of the Japanese. The suspense builds in the film. Will the life of the Japanese girl be saved? Will the American woman who gave so much of her blood live? All the camp waits and watches. Finally, everything ends successfully: both the Japanese and the American live and recover. Of all the materials used hi the classes, however, still pictures are probably the most common. Many of these illustrations depict events of historical, patriotic, or national importance. A book for educators gives the following description of how one such picture — showing the capture by the Turks of Vasil Levski, a Bulgarian revolutionary — can be used in class. In teaching the lesson on "The Formation of the Internal Revolutionary

C1113

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF B U L G A R I A N YOUTH

Organization," as I describe the capture of Levski at the inn of the village K"krina, I use the painting of Nikola Kozhukharov titled, "The Capture of Levski," which I place on a stand so that all students can see it. / ask the students: 'How does the artist portray Levski at the moment of his capture?" Answer: "The great revolutionary is fearless. His whole being shows deep contempt for his captors." / tell them: "Notice the expression on Levski's face, the taut muscles of his bound hands — his entire body shows his inner strength and greatness. Every feature of the face of the Great Apostle [of Freedom] in that moment speaks of his boundless courage and fearlessness, of his heroism, will, and power, of his uncompromising spirit and self-sacrifice for the cause to which he dedicated his whole life. Levski, who traveled throughout his enslaved fatherland to organize a tight network of revolutionary committees, possesses an unbreakable, noble spirit which cannot be bound by the shackles of his captors." 7 give another question: "From where does Levski get this inward strength which radiates from his face?" Answer: "He draws strength from his great love for the Bulgarian people, from his great ideal of liberty for the fatherland to which he had dedicated himself and his very life, and from his deep abhorrence of slavery." Question: "How are the Turks who capture Levski portrayed in the picture?" Answer: "Pleased at their success, they are in a hurry to put him in the chains which they have prepared for the purpose." I add: "Levski is captured, but he is not defeated by his enemies. Rather, it is his enemies who fear him."7 Globes and maps are used in geography and history classes, but rarely in connection with other subjects of the curriculum. In some schools cartoons are frequently enlarged from newspapers by the children or the teachers themselves, and the children may also draw charts, collect specimens, and construct models and objects. The cartoons and charts very often have themes high in propaganda content: the cartoons are likely to ridicule the West and its leaders, and the charts attempt to present the country's economic growth and development under Communism. Slides of various kinds and film strips are available only to a limited extent and infrequently used.

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MATERIALS USED IN SOCIAL EDUCATION

The degree to which all these audio-visual aids are used in classroom teaching varies according to the school. Much appears to depend upon the financial resources of the district. For the most part, it seemed to the writer that lectures, recitations, and reading of textbooks comprise by far the most common technique of classroom teaching in the social sciences. The writer did see excellent — indeed, outstanding — objective materials being used with elementary school children in the sciences and in the technological areas (that is, education in labor), but there appeared to be little, if any, transfer to the rest of the school curriculum. For example, one teacher of a fourth-grade class explained the principles involved in the distillation of water and demonstrated the process. Each of the children then performed the experiments at his desk, using an alcohol burner and a test tube with water in it, stoppered by a cork through which a bent tube had been inserted. The steam passing through this tube was deflected against the inside surface of a cold beaker, where drops of water formed.* The writer saw well-equipped science cabinets in most of the schools he visited. The industrial arts and homemaking rooms likewise were usually well equipped, and two of the institutions even boasted the basic essentials of a photographic laboratory (although in several schools it seemed as if the equipment were not being adequately used, serving more as a display than anything else). In the majority of schools, it was apparent from projects that the children had completed that equipment was being well utilized. Making allowances for the fact that the writer had no control over the selection of schools he was to visit (the Bulgarian academic authorities made this decision), and operating within the premise that only outstanding schools had been included on his itinerary, the conclusion still seems warranted that Bulgarian schools are making progress in the teaching of science and practical arts. * The experiment apparently had been rehearsed by the children in anticipation of the visit by the American teacher, for it was carried out perfectly, without exception. The fact remains that children of this age group nevertheless were given an opportunity to experiment and that materials for the purpose had been made available to them. The writer, who was a fourth-grade teacher for nearly a decade, would have been extremely hesitant to attempt such a lesson individually with children in that grade. Of course, the educational value of having each child perform this experiment might be questioned, especially considering the risks and difficulties. The extent of such experimental activities as part of regular classroom work also is a moot question.

C1133

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF B U L G A R I A N YOUTH

The Home of Children's Books and Its Influence on Children's Literature In many of the East European countries, there is a unique establishment in operation, usually known as the Home of Children's Books (in Bulgarian, Dom na detskata kniga) and sometimes by some other, similar title. Except for the fact that the one in Sofia is a unit of the Ministry of Education, it is similar to its Soviet counterparts in Moscow and Leningrad. (The Soviet homes, however, function as entities financially supported by the various Soviet publishers of children's literature.) The Home of Children's Books in Sofia was first established in 1959, but it actually began to function on an extended scale in 1962. According to an interview which the writer had with members of the staff, the primary purposes of the Home are to foster and encourage the publication, distribution, and reading of good children's literature — that is, books that have literary style and a high level of interest and that contribute to the children's moral and patriotic training.* Obviously, this includes books that emphasize Communist ideology and a collective outlook toward life, so that its operation has a definite bearing upon this study. The Home is organized into five divisions, each of which helps to fulfill its stated and implied objectives. There is, first of all, the Division of Research in Children's Reading (Otdel za isledvane na detskoto chetene). This division surveys the reading interests of Bulgarian children —both kinds of books preferred and reasons for such preferences — using data librarians obtain from the Home's experimental children's library and from the children's libraries of the Kolarovgrad Okrug, which serves as an extended field research center. Each child who checks out a book is asked to volunteer his reaction to it on a special form,* similar to that of a book report, after he has finished reading it. The younger children give their reactions orally to their schoolteachers, who cooperate in the project, or to the librarians when the book is returned; the children's comments are written down word for word. The data about the children's reading interests is then tabulated by the staff of the Division of Research according to the kinds of books preferred and * The Home is not directly concerned with the development or selection of manuscripts of school textbooks; this is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education. t The form asks that the child list the title, author, and publisher of the book, and tell what he liked best and least about it.

C114]

MATERIALS USED IN SOCIAL EDUCATION the reasons for the preferences. The children's reactions to each book are placed in a file made available for the author's perusal. The study is carried on on a continual basis so that the impact of each new book upon the children can be determined and so that the effectiveness of various methods of publicizing and distributing the books can be gauged. The second division, Division of Theory and Criticism (Otdel na teoriya-kritika), has a number of functions. As its name implies, this division is primarily concerned with the theories and criticism of literature as applied to the writing of children's books. At the request of authors, especially those just beginning to write material for children, specialists in the division review the manuscripts and make suggestions for improvement. Some of the considerations in judging the merits of a book are the style of writing, the grade and interest level for which the work is intended, and the nature of its content. Content is important for the purposes of the division. Although all kinds of children's books are published (fairy tales; books about science and technology, people and places, historical events; and so forth), it is believed that wherever possible, no matter what the subject, each work should contribute to the children's moral education — that is, to their social and communist education. To assist established authors, the division conducts yearly seminars at which topics of interest to the writers are considered, such as discussions of the changing interests of children in literature, needs anticipated by the staff of the Home and the Ministry of Education for books of a certain kind or on a specific subject, and changes in the Communist Party line as they might effect the content of books for children. In addition to these seminars, the division also arranges discussion sessions on theoretical and practical problems with authors. When a new, more important book for children is published, the division sometimes arranges a reception for an author to honor him and to publicize his work. After a book has been published, the division reviews and evaluates it and then publishes its criticisms for the guidance of librarians in the children's department of public libraries, school libraries, and the adult leaders of Pioneer druzhini (battalions). Another important function of the division is to conduct an annual nationwide contest for the best manuscripts of children's books. Although the Home of Children's Books actually manages the contest, several other groups help to sponsor it: the writers' union (Pisatelski souz), the Com-

C1153

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH

mittee for Culture (Komitet za kultura), the Ministry of Education (Ministerstvo na prosveta), and the Central Committee of the Dimitrov Komsomol Youth Union. The last body is composed of Communist Party members, a few of whom also serve on the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party itself, and provides the direct means for Party policies to find their expression in the manuscripts selected in the contest. To encourage a large number of entries, the awards include sizable monetary sums (two thousand leva for the first prize, one thousand leva for the second prize, and so forth) in addition to the established fees that will be paid to the writers upon publication of their books. Lastly, the Division of Theory and Criticism conducts studies of various theoretical problems as they are related to children's literature. Some topics studied in the past are "What image of Communist and Party heroes is presented in recent books for children?" "How appropriate for use in the Pioneer program is the material appearing in new literary works for children?" and "Does current children's literature present a sufficiently realistic picture of life in other lands?" The third division of the Home of Children's Books is entitled Division of Publicity (or Mass Propaganda; Otdel na masova-propaganda). One of its chief purposes is to publicize the books that the staff at the Home consider worthwhile and to encourage children to read them. Here again, the books selected not only must have literary style and interest for the level for which they are written, but also must be politically sound. The division sponsors Children's Book Week, during which a number of activities are carried out to publicize the importance of children's literature. The division arranges with libraries throughout the country to serve as hosts for authors to meet with children who have read their books. The division selects the city of Bulgaria which, in the opinion of the staff, has done most in the past year to further children's literature, as the place where the opening festivities of Children's Book Week are celebrated. Similarly, it selects the city which has done the least in the past year to further children's literature as the place where the celebration of Children's Book Week will end. According to the staff of the Home, this procedure honors the librarians of the city which has done most to further the work of children's literature and at the same time encourages the ones of the city with the greatest need for improvement. During the rest of the year, the division works with the national children's group known as Friends of the

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MATERIALS USED IN SOCIAL EDUCATION

Book, which functions as one of the Pioneer circles in Pioneer homes and in schools. The fourth division of the Home of Children's Books has the impressive title Division for Work with Libraries and Other Organizations. Its purpose is to help librarians and Pioneer leaders with any problems that they might have with children's literature. This includes help in selecting the best materials available for a limited budget, instruction in cataloging and classification, and advice for improving procedures in checking out and returning books. The work of this division is closely coordinated with the work of the Division of Publicity (Mass Propaganda). Finally, there is the Library-Archival Division of the Home. This division maintains the library which is a part of the Home and where new procedures and techniques in publicizing and circulation of books are tested, where studies of children's interests are carried out, and where data are kept about the total circulation of children's books in Bulgaria. There are approximately seventy-five thousand children's books in its holdings: The library serves as a depository for all children's books published in Bulgaria, and it maintains a center containing children's books from other lands, especially those from the Soviet Union and other East European countries, for study and comparison. The division houses approximately ten thousand children's books in its archives. These books are mainly of historical interest, preserving the development of children's literature in Bulgaria from its beginnings in the early nineteenth century to the present. The archives include also the textbooks that have been used in the schools. It seeks to have at least one copy of all the children's books that have ever been published in Bulgaria, although at present it still has serious gaps in some areas of its collection — particularly among books published during Bulgaria's early national renaissance in the nineteenth century.

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chapter

THE BULGARIAN

V1

SCHOOLTEACHER

Preparation ALL teachers in Bulgaria today, regardless of their subject area, are by the nature of their profession, social educators — supporters of the policies and principles of the Party and the government. All three kinds of institution essentially involved in the preparation of teachers — the institutes for teachers of elementary school, the institutes for the improvement of teachers, and Sofia State University —include courses of an ideological nature as part of the program of study. The institutes for teachers of elementary school, which are two-year normal schools admitting students who have graduated from secondary school, require the following courses as part of their curriculum (see Table 3): History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Communist Party of Bulgaria, Dialectical and Historical Materialism and Political Economy, and Civil Defense, which has paramilitary content. Similarly, the institutes for the improvement of teachers — advanced training institutes offering seminars and workshops for teachers in the field — include specific course work on Marxism-Leninism (see Table 4). The Central Institute for the Improvement of Teachers has a threefold purpose: (1) To provide continued in-service training for experienced teachers and Pioneer leaders who are teaching in the field. This is done through intensive workshop sessions and through short courses during vacations. (2) To provide teachers who do not have adequate training with an opportunity to receive it and hence to become fully qualified. (3) To provide training to people who have met the minimum requirement of two years of experience in agriculture or industry and who now wish to be-

THE BULGARIAN SCHOOLTEACHER

come teachers in their respective fields. These people usually become teachers in trade schools or in the industrial arts. Probably the most intensive attempts at the ideological education of future teachers, however, take place at the university, where a large number of courses of this kind are available to the students and are specifically geared to various aspects of their professional preparation. Thus, Sofia State University offers these courses, of which a student is required to take at least one: Political Economy for Students in Education, History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union for Students in Education and Philosophy, History of the Bulgarian Communist Party for Students Specializing in History, Philosophy, and Education, Marxist Ethics for Students of Education, and Dialectical and Historical Materialism for Students in Education.1 However, ideology is not restricted to formal courses — it permeates all the courses in teacher education. For instance, in a course on General Table 3. Program of Study of the Central Institute for the Improvement of Teachers, in Hours per Six-Week Term Leetures

Courses

Marxism-Leninism 6 Introduction to education 26 Bulgarian 8 Methods of teaching Bulgarian 9 Methods of teaching arithmetic 10 Methods of teaching science 1 Methods of teaching geography 1 Methods of teaching history 2 Methods of teaching singing 2 Methods of teaching drawing 2 Methods of instruction in work education 3 Methods of teaching physical education 2 Observation in the classroom Student-teacher and teacher conferences Field trips Practicums in work education Working with wood 1 Model-building and working with papier-mache 2 Working with paper and cardboard 1 Working with textiles 1 Total "?7

Semi- Practical nars Work Total 3 13 4 8 3 1 1 1 1

35

4 40 6 8

9 39 12 19 18 4 4 3 6 6 4 6 40 6 8

5 10 7 5 104

6 12 8 6 ~216

2 5 2 2 4 4

SOURCE: Mimeographed material issued by the Central Institute for the Improvement of Teachers, in the files of the author.

CH93

Table 4. Program of Study of the Institutes for Elementary Teachers (here with a major in Russian), in Hours per Year

Course

Semester 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, No. of 14 17 13 8 Semester Wks. Wks. Wks. Wks. Exams

History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the History of the Bulgarian 3 Communist Party Dialectical and Historical Materialism Political Economy Child and Educational Psy4 chology Education; History of Education, and the History of Bulgarian Education; School 3 Health Russian Language and Teach2 ing Methods Methods of Teaching the Bulgarian Language 3 The Bulgarian Language 4 Children's Literature Selected Readings 2 Arithmetic Methods of Teaching Arithmetic Methods of Teaching Science Methods of Teaching History Methods of Teaching Geography Drawing and Its Methods of 2 Instruction Singing and Its Methods of Instruction; Learning to Play a Musical Instrument 4 Physical Education and Methods of Its Instruction 2 Education in Labor and Meth2 ods of Its Instruction Civil Defense Pedagogical Practice 31 Total

2 2

2 2

3

0

No. of Colloquia

Total

1,2

76

3 4

60 50

1

56

2

2

1

3

110

2

2

4

2,4

120

2 1

1 2

2

1

2 2

2 1

2

2

47 101 56 26 87

2 2 2

1 1 1

1

3 3

47 55 47

2

1

3

47

2

2

2

4

4

5

2

2

2

6 33

4 4 30

2 3 33

4

216

2,4

30,35

104

2,4

104

4 4

62 32 161 1,664

14,16

SOURCE: Mimeographed material issued by the Ministry of Education (Sofia, n.d.), in the files of the author.

C1203

THE B U L G A R I A N SCHOOLTEACHER

Problems of Education at the Central Institute for the Improvement of Teachers, the first topic is the Decisions of the Eighth Congress of the Bulgarian Communist Party and the Tasks of the Elementary School: Documents and Proposals for the New School.2 Other topics covered in the same course are: Grouping for Communist Labor in the Practical Work of Our Schools, The Moral Code of Communism, and The Teachers Work with the Pioneer Organization. A course at the same institute, Methods of Teaching History, covers, among other things, such topics as Patriotic Education through Instruction in History, The Reality and Source of Socialist Patriotism, and Helping the Students to Form Criteria for the Correct Understanding and Evaluation of Historical Events and a Love toward Fighters for the Liberty and Independence of the Fatherland and the Builders of New Bulgaria.3

The Training of Pioneer Leaders Those studying to become Pioneer leaders receive the same initial education as those preparing to be teachers. However, they continue to study for one additional year, which is devoted exclusively to the Pioneer movement and its work. All aspects are included, such as organization and administration, ideology, methodology, and content of the activities. Students in training for Pioneer leadership receive larger scholarships, and upon graduation, they are paid higher salaries than regular teachers. Since they have completed the regular preparation for teachers, they can also enter classroom teaching later if they so desire. This appears to be encouraged, for the Pioneer movement seeks to maintain a youthful cadre in the lower ranks of its leaders, in the belief that the children will be able to relate more readily with younger people. The higher echelons of the movement, of course, include many older people and seasoned Party members. Incentives A number of incentives are provided to motivate the teachers in their instructional work. Although some monetary rewards are given, the incentives consist primarily of various hero awards. Teachers receive special honors and privileges with these awards. In a sense, therefore, these incentives promote the ideological education of the teachers, encouraging them to function more effectively in their educational work. Indeed, the

C1213

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH

incentives appear to be definitely related to the teachers' ideological education, for most frequently it is those educators who have in some outstanding manner implemented current Party and governmental educational policies in their schools who receive the awards. For example, such awards seem to go to a disproportionate number of leaders in the movement for education in labor and to teachers of agriculture, the sciences, and mathematics.*

Administration and the Teacher The general organization and administration of the elementary schools in Bulgaria has already been described. There are, however, several aspects of administration that need to be considered that relate directly to the social education of children in the schools. The most important of these concerns the relation of the Communist Party to the schools. Party control over Bulgarian education is exercised through the administrative organization of the school system. Although both the okrug and the obshtina have certain responsibilities for it, Bulgarian education is essentially centralized at the national level. The Ministry of Education, therefore, at the head of which is the Minister of Education, assumes ultimate control of and responsibility for the national educational program. The Minister is not only a member of the Presidium, but is also a member of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party. The assistant ministers of education likewise have high Party posts. Through this interlocking directorate, the policies of the Party for education are directly implemented throughout the school system. The Party acts not only to support school legislation, but also to originate it. Thus, on the one hand, the chain of command extends from the Central Committee to the Ministry, from the Ministry to the okrug, from the okrug to the various obshtina and from there to the individual schools. On the other hand, the Party also exerts an influence upon the teacher directly through its organizational apparatus. The Central Committee of the Party, at the national level, is the highest organ of authority. Below it are the central committees of the administrative provinces (okrugs), and lower still, are those of the counties (obshtina). These committees have * The writer has no data to support this statement. However, during his stay in Bulgaria, he met a number of heroes of education, and the majority were teaching in the areas of science or technology.

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THE BULGARIAN SCHOOLTEACHER

under their jurisdiction a number of party cells, including the ones formed by school personnel. The cell of an individual school may have anywhere from three to usually not more than twenty-five or thirty members. Personnel from several schools may belong to the same cell, especially in rural areas where the enrollment may be low and the schools have small staffs. There may be several cells in a school with a large staff. Each cell has a secretary, elected by the group, and a board of several members. The secretary and the board serve as the immediate link between the central committees of the obshtina and the Party members in the school or schools. This fact is in itself sufficient to indicate that Party policies will be reflected in the work of the schools, since, as Party members, these people are expected to execute Party decisions within their particular areas of jurisdiction in the school. The Party secretary in a school cell has, however, a number of additional duties to perform.* He is responsible for all Party matters as they relate to education within the school, and he serves as the immediate coordinator of the work of the Party with the work of the school. He assists in the Pioneer program of the school, works closely with the Pioneer leader, answers questions that might arise about Party matters, and helps students who are interested in developing programs relating to Party history or policies. The secretary also acts as Party whip, making certain that all staff members are fully aware of the educational implications of the decisions of Party and that they are carrying them out. He also is active in the sessions of criticism and self-criticism held in all educational institutions, in which each staff member criticizes himself or is criticized by his colleagues for any errors that he may have committed in instructional or ideological matters. The Party secretary has still another function. In a sense, he serves as a shop steward for the staff members of the school. Should any difficulties arise between staff members, be they private or professional, he acts as arbiter. Should the school staff be opposed to some administrative decisions of the director or should they feel that some administrative injustice has been done, he examines the issues and renders an opinion that, in most cases, is accepted by each side without further question. * The Communist Party secretary is usually not the principal, since such a dual function would result in a conflict of interest.

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF B U L G A R I A N YOUTH

The Party secretary, finally, is responsible for the dossiers that are kept on all Party members as well as on the school staff. These record the individual's professional competence, interest in his work and in school and community activities, attitude and ideological commitment, deviations, and the important statements made by or about him at criticism sessions. The Party secretary, therefore, is one of the most influential and important members of a school staff. Although he functions outside of the direct administrative educational hierarchy, in an ostensibly nonprofessional capacity, he exerts an influence upon the programs and policies of the institution. In some areas of school life, he possesses greater authority than even the director. His role in the social education of schoolchildren, though seldom recognized in Western comparative studies of Communist education, is immense, for he serves as the direct link between the Party and the school. The Party influences the school program through still another means: the Pioneer Organization, for first- to seventh-graders. The Pioneer Organization is the junior body of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League, which is for eighth-graders to adults up to the age of twenty-eight. Both of these youth groups are directly controlled by the Party, which considers them "to be the greatest help in the Communist upbringing of the young generation."4 The Statute of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League clearly points out the relation between the two youth organizations to the Party. The strength and success of the Komsomol [an abbreviation for the League] takes root in Party leadership. All of the organizations of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League carry out their work under the leadership of the corresponding committees of the Bulgarian Communist Party [italics added]. The greatest honor given to a member of DKMC [another abbreviation for the League] is to become a member of the Bulgarian Communist Party.5 The Dimitrov Pioneer Organization, Septemvriiche, has similar responsibilities for the age group with which it functions. The Dimitrov Pioneer Organization, Septemvriiche, is a mass patriotic organization in Bulgaria which prepares children to become builders of socialism and communism and to become members of the Communist Youth League. C1243

THE BULGARIAN SCHOOLTEACHER

By order of the Bulgarian Communist Party, the Dimitrov Communist Youth League assumes the direction and leadership of the every day work of the Pioneer organization Septemvriiche.6 Thus, the organizational and administrative links hi Bulgarian schools serve to facilitate not only academic instruction but political orientation as well. They have been so formed that the programs and policies of the Party can be implemented rapidly and effectively in the educational institutions of the land.

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chapter

V 11

SOCIAL EDUCATION THROUGH THE PIONEER AND KOMSOMOL ORGANIZATIONS

THE different influences of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League and of the Dimitrov Pioneer Organization upon the social education of Bulgarian children and young people are indeed immense and complex. The topic would comprise a study by itself, for its implications are many and varied. The matter can be considered here only in its broadest aspects, but it needs to be discussed, since no study concerned with the social education of youth in Bulgarian society can be complete without an analysis of the aims, objectives, and methods of the youth organizations — one of the most active and potent elements in the process. The Dimitrov Pioneer Organization, Young Septembrists The Dimitrov Pioneer Organization, Young Septembrists, is the full name of the Bulgarian youth group for all children of elementary school age. It was organized on September 20, 1944, at the instigation of Georgi Dimitrov, who by that time had returned from his position in Moscow as General Secretary of the Communist world revolutionary movement to become Premier of Bulgaria and First Secretary of its Communist Party. Although he did not originate the name Young Septembrists, he was the one who officially gave it to the newly formed Bulgarian Pioneer Organization. The name Septembrists was selected to commemorate both an unsuccessful Communist uprising against the monarchy in 1923 and the successful coup d'etat which brought the Communist Party into power in 1944. The term Septemvriicheta is a Bulgarian diminutive meaning

THE PIONEER AND KOMSOMOL ORGANIZATIONS

Young Septembrists or, better still, Little Septembrists. In the first years of Bulgaria's Communist government, the organization was known as the Young Septembrists' Pioneer Organization, but after Dimitrov's death in 1949, his name was added to the official title: Dimitrov Pioneer Organization, Young Septembrists. The nature of the organization and its relation to the social education of the children is thus indicated even by its name. The name of the junior group of the Pioneers (first- and second-graders) is Chavdarcheta (Little Chavdars), after a medieval Bulgarian haiduk). AIMS OF THE ORGANIZATION

The Statute of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League, under which the Dimitrov Pioneer Organization operates as the junior division, states the following about the Pioneers: The organization works together with the schools in order to train the Pioneers in a spirit of boundless faithfulness and devotion toward their socialist fatherland, toward the Bulgarian Communist Party and the labor of communism, toward the great Soviet alliance and toward proletariat internationalism. It trains the children to love work and education, involves them in sports, labors for their aesthetic training, and builds up the Pioneer qualities of collectivism, activity, conscientiousness, honesty, and justice.1 Upon admission to the organization, the young Pioneer makes this promise, which he often repeats during his membership: I, a Dimitrov Pioneer, promise before my heroic people and my comrades to be true to the heritage of Georgi Dimitrov, to fight without respite for the objectives of the Communist Party for the victory of communism. I promise so to live, so to study and to work, as to become a worthy citizen and defender of my socialist fatherland — the People's Republic of Bulgaria. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE PIONEERS

The Pioneers are a highly organized group. The National Central Committee of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League maintains a special division devoted to the affairs and work of the Dimitrov Pioneer Organization. At the level of the rayon and the okrug, similar committees function under the general direction of the Soviets for Working with Students, which are responsible for youth work in their particular territorial jurisdiction. Each school of an okrug, in turn, has at least one Pioneer Battal-

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ion (druzhina) which is governed by a soviet of the druzhina. Schools that are operated in shifts (and most schools in crowded urban areas are) generally support one druzhina for each shift. The school druzhina is divided into companies (otryadi, plural of otryad) — the classes of a school. Finally, at the lowest level, each row within a classroom forms a zveno (plural, zvena). Hobby, special interest, and study groups of Pioneer Homes and school battalions are also called zvena, meaning literally "circles." The Chavdarcheta are organized into cheti (bands) by classrooms rather than into school-wide battalions. However, the leader of the Pioneer battalion in the school also serves as coordinator for the cheti, giving guidance and help to the classroom teachers who must direct the cheti. Thus, through directives and meetings, the chain of command flows from the Central Committee down through the ranks to the youngest members of the organization living in the remotest part of the country. ACTIVITIES OF THE ORGANIZATION

In keeping with the objectives of the organization, from its very first months — while Bulgaria was still at war with Nazi Germany — the Pioneers began to engage in various patriotic activities that contributed to their social education. They went hiking in the mountains and laid wreaths on the graves of the fighters for freedom [i.e., Communists and partisans]. . . . The Young Septembrists wrote warm letters to the Bulgarian soldiers on the battlefield, where they were taking part in the defeat of Nazi Germany; they sent them gifts, entertained the wounded soldiers with songs and recitations, helped the lonely mothers whose sons had perished on the front or as partisans.2 Ever since, the activities of the organization have been designed to develop an ardent "socialist patriotism" in the coming generation. Much of this work has been a study of the history of Bulgaria and especially of the nation's communist movements. Georgi Dimitrov, who established many of the principles that have determined the course that the organization has since followed, once expressed his views on the relation of history to patriotic education when he was speaking to a group of Pioneers: You Young Septembrists should study the life, struggles and achievements of our great national [revolutionary] fighters. Many fighters have C1283

THE PIONEER AND KOMSOMOL ORGANIZATIONS given up their lives for the people's freedom and progress. You know who they are ... You must study well the biographies and struggles of these national heroes . . . As you know, many heroes and heroines recently fell in the struggle against fascism. You should know how they fought and why they sacrificed themselves. The history of these heroes and struggles is a book which speaks better than any other book.3 To these comments a Bulgarian writer adds the observation that the study of the "sacred book of the heroic past of their people and of their native land . . . is one of the most interesting occupations of the Bulgarian Pioneers." 4 The activities of the Pioneers with respect to the history of the country and of the Party have been summarized in a Bulgarian publication about the Pioneer Organization intended for Western readers. If the obvious propaganda can be ignored, these statements present a candid and accurate description of patriotic Pioneer activities. Pioneers from Pleven recently organized a long trip on the theme of "Study Your Homeland, in Order to Love It." Their route led through interesting places which recalled glorious pictures from their country's history. They visited Levski's native town, where they experienced the thrill of seeing his house. They enjoyed the sight of the Valley of Roses and went into the heart of the Balkan range. Then they climbed Mount Bouzloudja [now Khadzhi Dimif'r], where Khadzhi Dimif'r's detachment had fought against the Turks, where the Bulgarian Socialist Party had held its first congress and where more recently uneven battles had taken place between partisans and fascists. The flames of the Pioneers' campfire illumined this legendary place, and Pioneer songs rang in the mountains. Refreshed and rested, the young tourists climbed the historical Mount Stoletov [formerly Sveti Nikola], where a handful of Russian troops and Bulgarian volunteers had defended the important strategic peak against the attacks of the numerous enemy in the Russo-Turkish War of 18771878. On Mount Botev they talked with the guardian of the observatory, Uncle Blago. He told the thrilling story of the fight between partisans and the military force which had taken place there in 1943. From the high Balkan range peak [sic] the eloquent man showed his young guests the homeland, unfolding far and wide before their eyes with its mountains, rivers, and fertile plains. . . . Pioneer groups from Trnovo district organized a big district rally

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at the place where the great Balvan battle, the most glorious battle in the history of the partisan movement in the locality, had been fought. Over 6,300 Pioneers from all parts of the district followed in the tracks of the partisans for dozens of kilometers gathering valuable material and studying the historical past of their district. The Lovnidol village Pioneers will never forget their meeting with old Vulcho, the father of the commander of the partisan detachment, and with Suba Eneva, the old mother of four heroes shot in the struggle against fascism, with the father of Mitko Palauzov, the youngest partisan, and with the mother of Hristo Kurpachev, the shot poet and partisan [sic]. These children will always remember their meeting with the former partisan commanders, Ivan Raikov and Bonchouk. The Pioneer groups of all the towns and villages in the district made for the gathering place in cheerful columns, with banners and songs. . . . The first thing they did was to lay a wreath of fresh flowers at the memorial to the dead fighters. The rally was solemnly opened with a report, a roll call, kneeling, and the song, "You All Fell Victim in Uneven Battle." Tears appeared in the eyes of the living partisans who had come to the rally. Mothers in black kerchiefs thought of their dead sons. Ivan Raikov, the commander of the partisan detachment, made a moving speech. . . .5 The words of a Pioneer song read: "Let us study, let us work,/ Let us build the country's new life;/ Botev [a revolutionary poet] is our banner proud/ And Dimitrov —our first teacher."6 This verse expresses the aim of the second group of activities of the Pioneer organization: to teach the children to work.7 The emphasis upon labor takes many forms. Pioneers are encouraged to work hard in school in order to make good grades. Work in school, however, "must be linked with practical life," and it is here that the Pioneer movement has assumed an active role. Much of this work is conducted through the Pioneer druzhini (battalions) in the schools. Each druzhina (formed by one school) accepts a certain quota with regard to some objective, such as the gathering of scrap paper or metals, the harvesting of farm products at nearby collective farms, the planting of trees, the collecting of wild medicinal herbs,* or some other socially useful task. * Collecting medicinal herbs is a favorite activity of Bulgarian Pioneers. There seems to be a vast lore on the subject, some of which is espoused by presumably reputable medical men. Many of the herbs, however, appear to the writer to be little more than folk medicine, but he has nothing to support this statement. At any rate, many Pioneers spend hours at the pursuit of gathering herbs.

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THE PIONEER AND KOMSOMOL ORGANIZATIONS In 1958 in the Trnovo district, according to Komsomol sources, the Pioneers cleared nearly "30 decares of pasture land [about ll/2 acres] and raised about 5,000 chickens, planted some 50,000 fruit and decorative trees, collected over 140,000 kilograms of wood ash, 50,000 kilograms of scrap iron, 8,000 kilograms of paper, 5,000 kilograms of pumpkin seeds, and 500 glass jars."8 On a national scale, the following activities were listed as the activities of Bulgaria's Pioneers in a report given to the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party in 1964. We, the Pioneers and the Chavdarcheta, take an active part in the motto, "Pioneer — Labor for Our Country." We plow, water, and weed our school gardens, plant greenery along the streets, and plant young forests. During this year alone, we gathered 3,000 tons of dry herbs and mushrooms. Our well-tilled fields have not known dry heat or weeds. For us, the young, every vegetable bed is an open book which teaches us how to wrest from the earth more and better yields. We take care of many domestic animals and birds. We help the cooperators by picking cherries and peaches, watering grapevines and melon vines, feeding silkworms, watching the wheat sheaves for fire, and bringing water to the mower and harvester operators. This year we collected 5,680 tons of paper and iron. We are the patrol boys and girls on the streets and help the frontier guards.9 Another aspect of the Pioneer program is aesthetic — dancing, singing, music. Although some of the work in this area is truly art, there is much that is intended for the social education of the children. One writer declares : I attended a Pioneers' meeting which celebrated the anniversary of the birth of Hristo Botev. This was an animated and thrilling children's celebration, in which ardent words about the exploits of the poet and revolutionary were accompanied by his militant verses and songs. Botev's young descendants had adapted his poem "Eloped" for the stage. Haiduks in colorful national costumes . . . appeared before our eyes. The organization holds such celebrations and gatherings constantly . . .10 The author of this study recalls seeing several major Pioneer programs in the fine arts that included elements contributing to the social education of the children. One of these was a series of ballet concerts presented by the ballet section of the Pioneer Palace in Sofia and by the National

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Children's Ballet School. The programs were finished performances of technical perfection — it was difficult to accept the fact that children and youth from the ages of eight to fifteen or sixteen could be capable of such outstanding work. On the other hand, the stories of the ballets were examples of the usual realistic theme. The plot of one dealt with the revolt of workers on a South African plantation against the oppression of their master; the workers assumed control. Another ballet was intended as an ode to the Red Army of Liberation, and still another portrayed activities of the partisans during World War II. Similarly, the Pioneer orchestras, which are technically often of very high caliber, sometimes develop repertoires of uninspired, mundane musical compositions on socialist themes by realist composers. Another area of Pioneer activity centers in the study circles. These circles exist in every school and may involve work on a hobby, such as chess, photography, music, or folk dancing. Increasingly, however, the emphasis is upon some activity of a socially useful character, one in an academic area, or — most frequently — a combination of both.11 Thus, in most schools of any size, there are circles in physics, chemistry, biology, history, and geography. The programs of these circles is varied and may include field trips, demonstrations, experiments, exhibits, or similar projects. A phase of the program of a circle in geography is described below: One of the outcomes of the circle in geography is the evening programs on geographic themes. Such evening programs, however, may also be worked out by students who are not members of the circle and even in schools in which such circles do not exist. Evenings in geography are important events in the life of all the school, not only in the lives of those students who participate in them. When the programs are of interesting and realistic content, they remain for a long time in the memory of all those who have attended them. Preparation for an evening program in geography is a responsible and difficult task, requiring much time and hard labor, but for this reason its effectiveness is great. Many different themes exist around the topic of "Our Fatherland" which are suitable for an evening program in geography. The subject for such an evening may be the themes: "Along the Borders of Bulgaria," "The Natural Riches of Bulgaria — An Important Resource for Her Socialist Advancement," "The Working People — Builders of Socialism in Our Country," "The Socialist Construction of Bulgaria," "Comradeship with the USSR —The Sun and Air of our Fatherland," "The Metallurgical C1323

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Combine Klemikovtsi," "Rodopite Mountains — The Bulgarian Urals," "Our Land of Birth," "Our Town along the Path to Socialism," etc.12 Similarly, the children in the history circles study the local historical places, write down local tales and legends, visit museums, and listen to talks on various subjects. The members of a botanical or an agricultural circle may work in the school fields or engage in another suitable pursuit. As part of the Pioneer program of education in labor, most schools also have a circle called the Deft Hands, dealing mainly with the arts and crafts. The children generally make items of a practical nature in woodworking, metalworking, embroidery, model-building, and similar activities. EVALUATION OF THE PIONEER PROGRAM

The Pioneer program in Bulgarian schools attempts, especially through its various special interest circles, to provide the children with experiences in practical and manual work as a balance to their rather formal program of academic study. In this way, also, it is hoped that the children will be better prepared for a lifetime of manual work as adults, since — despite Communist efforts — the country is still far from developed, and the work open to most people is necessarily manual labor. Consequently, the government and Party attempt to anticipate and prepare the children for such work through the school Pioneer program. There are several shortcomings to this approach, however. In the first place, for each child, only a small segment of the academic classroom program can be supplemented through the activities of the Pioneer circles, since he can belong to one, or at most two, such circles. This fact prevents him from seeing the practical applications of most of what he learns formally in school. Furthermore, because of the limited number to which a child can belong, these circles contribute to early specialization, without providing the child with a wide range of opportunities before he makes a decision about his life's work. Although children can transfer from one circle to another, transfers can usually be made only at the beginning of an academic year, so that the children must remain in the same circle or circles for an entire school year. Finally, some of the work in these circles seems to be basically busywork, with little thought given to a broadening of the educational possin333

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bilities within a particular circle. For example, although some agricultural circles perform experiments with seeds and plants, many spend their time mostly doing chores on collective farms, which have little, if any, educational value. METHODS

The methods of work in the Pioneer circles vary. Contests are often used to stimulate the children to participate actively in some project. Rallys are held in which the children exhibit their projects or give demonstrations of their skills. Some of the rallys are primarily political in nature — to greet party dignitaries or to celebrate some patriotic or Communist holiday — and the children must participate in them. Another method is related to organizational procedures. Most Pioneer work is carried out on the collective principle, by which the children do a particular job together as a group in competition with some other group. Work thus becomes an enterprise of a larger social body, rather than of an individual or family unit. In this manner, the children are trained to participate in collective society as members of the group. Although the family is not eliminated, it is certainly given a different and, possibly, less important role.13 The children are taught that their group is to be the center of their attention. Later, they will function on a similar basis as members of the brigades of communist labor. Another teaching technique in Pioneer work is called samodeinost (self-direction), by which is meant permitting children to participate in the planning of their program. Since the publication of a book by Professor Oshanin, this aspect of the Pioneer program has been growing, and today it is probably receiving greater emphasis than ever before.14 Children are permitted to plan their activities, under the guidance of the Pioneer leader, and to carry out their plans. Of course, the program must be in harmony with the decisions of the Pioneer Organization, the Komsomol, and the Party. For example, once the national body of the Komsomols has decreed that a great mass drive by the Pioneers will be made for medicinal herbs, all Pioneer groups are expected to participate. However, the children usually are free to decide where and how they can best effect the Komsomol objective that has been set for them. Similarly, an agricultural circle is not free to decide to go on an excursion or a field trip during the crucial harvest season instead of working with the farmers to gather C1343

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farm products. In reality, therefore, the freedom of the children for selfdirection is limited within the confines of predetermined policies. THE PIONEER CAMPING PROGRAM

One of the activities of the Dimitrov Pioneer Organization, Young Septembrists, least known to Westerners and at the same time potentially one of the most important, is its camping program. Each summer children — especially those living in the cities — migrate en masse to Pioneer camps in the mountains and on the coast of the Black Sea. The total number of camps or the exact number of children participating in the program does not appear to be available,* but several Pioneer leaders told the writer that well over half of the elementary school pupils attend at least one month-long camp session each summer. The students pay a nominal fee to attend the camps; the remainder of the expenses are paid by okoliyas, communes, industrial enterprises, or the Ministry of Education. The program of these camps is highly developed and is conducted by professional Pioneer leaders and teachers. It is essentially a continuation of the Pioneer program during the regular school year, with certain modifications for conditions of camp life. Various circles are formed around special interests, such as the study of history, craftwork, drama, hiking, and art. Field trips are taken to places of historical or industrial importance near the camp. Camps at higher altitudes in the mountainous regions generally stress physical activities, and much time is given to calisthenics, games, sports, and hiking; camps near bodies of water, notably the Black Sea, allot considerable time in their schedules for swimming and related water activities. Pioneer groups sometimes also visit military and boundary guard posts. All camps are including more elements of work education in their programs than they did in the past.15 This sometimes means simply that the children wait on tables, work in the kitchen, and patrol the camp area in general. It may also mean engaging in activities that will improve the campground: planting flowers, trees, and shrubbery, mowing the grass, or building a shelter. In addition, many children attending camps are ex* This data does not appear in the statistical yearbooks published by the Bulgarian Central Statistical Directorate (Tsentralno statistichesko upravlenie) for the years 1963-1966, nor is it included in any of the other sources available to the writer.

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH pected to spend part of their time working on nearby collective farms. This trend has assumed increasing importance in the last several years. Social education in the camps proceeds much as it does during the regular school year: through collective organization of the children, through dramatic activities around Communist or patriotic themes, through a study of Bulgarian folk dances, and through visits to partisan heroes living in the area, and to monuments, museums, and Communist or partisan graves. In addition, most camps have a loudspeaker system over which broadcasts of Radio Sofia or records and tapes can be played. The system does not serve exclusively for purposes of propaganda, but by the very nature of the radio programs and audio materials available, it does, in many camps, contribute to the children's social education. One camp, the Georgi Dimitrov International Pioneer Camp, near Kranevo, Bulgaria, will be described in detail. Although it is an international camp hosting delegations from many countries, the qualifications of the staff, its program, and its facilities seem to the writer to be similar to all the other better organized camps in Bulgaria. In addition, certain aspects of the work of the Nikola Vaptsarov Pioneer Camp near Govedartsi, a mountain camp for Bulgarian nationals, are outlined, and brief comments about the Central Komsomol Camp-School, Lilyana Dimitrova, a camp for older youth on the coast of the Black Sea, are included. THE GEORGI DIMITROV INTERNATIONAL PIONEER CAMP

History. The international Pioneer camp movement is an outgrowth of the Pioneer organizations that exist in one form or another in all Communist countries (with the possible exception of Poland, where the members of the youth organization are called harcerz, meaning boy scout [literally, "wanderer"] and harcerka, a girl guide or scout). Represented in the Pioneer camping program also are some Western nations that have a goodsized Communist Party, such as Finland, Austria, France, and Italy. The international aspect of the Pioneer camping program is essentially a post-World War II development. Until that time, the Pioneer movement and its camps existed in strength only in the Soviet Union. Since World War II, the expansion of Communism in Eastern Europe and in Asia and the legalization of the Party in certain Western European nations has been accompanied by increased emphasis upon the organization of activities for children and youth. The Communist-sponsored student C1363

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and youth groups in all these countries provide the leaders and participants for the international Pioneer camps. The Georgi Dimitrov International Pioneer Camp was organized in 1958. It originally occupied facilities near Varna that had once been army barracks, but subsequently it was moved to its present campground at Kranevo, Bulgaria, on the coast of the Black Sea, where quarters of a former military academy were converted for its use. Objectives. The stated objective of the camp is "the development of international understandings," and the directors of the camp seek to achieve the goal, in part at least, through the international mingling within the camp. Although this aim is identical to the one often expressed by counterpart international camps in the West, the premises and theories upon which it is based are vastly different. Because of its political orientation, the Georgi Dimitrov International Pioneer Camp is committed to a particular philosophic, economic, and governmental theory, that of MarxismLeninism, and the value structure of all the Pioneer camps, the approach to the camp activities, and indeed, the total program reflect this orientation. Thus, the camp is not only a rest center for the children and a place where "proletarian and progressive youth of the world may meet" and become acquainted with one another's cultures, but it is also a center for continuing political education. These purposes will become clear as the program, personnel, selection procedures, and instructional methods of the camp are considered. Organization. The Georgi Dimitrov International Pioneer Camp, unlike the other Pioneer camps, is directly supported by the Bulgarian Pioneer Organization, which, in turn, serves as an adjunct of the Bulgarian Communist Party. At the international level, the work of the Dimitrov Camp is coordinated with all other international Pioneer activities by the International Committee of Children's and Adolescents' Movements (CIMEA). CIMEA was organized as a special body to work with children's organizations by the World Federation of Democratic Youth (an organization with which the youth groups of Communist and some other nations are affiliated) at its congress in 1957, in Kiev, USSR. The Federation, together with CIMEA, makes the policies for the international Pioneer camps. Internally, the organization of the Georgi Dimitrov International Pioneer Camp consists of a camp director and his assistant, who assume diC1373

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rect responsibility for the activities and programs, and special counselors to teach the crafts, art, dancing, singing, and music. The children are divided into national units led by an adult chaperon who accompanies the group. Translators at the camp are secondary school students from the language gymnasiums or students majoring in a foreign language at Sofia State University. Military terminology describes the camp organization — the entire camp forms a battalion, the national units are companies (odredi, from the Russian). The number of children in a company is not definitely set, but the combination of five children and an adult leader occurs most frequently. Physical Facilities. Technically, the term camp is a misnomer, for the facilities are those of the old military academy: the buildings are of stone and brick, and accommodations in dormitories are provided for the children and leaders. The grounds are meticulously kept by students from a nearby landscaping academy who serve their practicum at the campground. The Participants. There is no single set of criteria for the selection of children who are to attend the international Pioneer camp; the responsibility rests solely with the local sponsoring organization. In countries that have a Pioneer organization, its leadership decides how the children will be chosen. This procedure is followed in both Communist and non-Communist nations, such as Austria, Finland, and Mali. In Poland, the central leadership of the Union of Polish Scouts makes the arrangements. In nations without a Pioneer organization, which includes most Western countries, some other organization takes over this responsibility — in France, Italy, and elsewhere, the Federation Internationale de Resistance (FIR).* FIR is made up of national organizations formed by Communist partisans, participants in national underground resistance movements that sprang up during World War II, and former inmates of concentration camps. The national units of FIR select those children whose parents are active in the organization or those children who come from "needy, progressive families" and who would benefit from the stay at a Pioneer camp. *FIR, an international organization, was founded in 1951. Organizations from twenty-nine European countries, including the Soviet Union, are represented. Its Fourth Triennial Congress was held in Warsaw, December 13-16, 1962, and was attended by 240 delegates from twenty-two countries. Khrushchev was one of the principal speakers. FIR maintains its international headquarters at 2, Castellezy 35, Vienna, Austria.

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In some Western countries where a Communist Party functions, the Party leadership decides which children among those who have applied will go to an international Pioneer camp. Obviously, political considerations play a part: In Western countries with a Pioneer movement, "politically conscious children of politically active parents" are the ones most likely to be selected. Even when a national unit of FIR makes the decision, the odds favor children of Communist background. In an international Pioneer camp that the writer visited, the Italian children had been chosen from respondents to a newspaper advertisement of a contest. Criteria used in selection had theoretically included family background (resistance fighters, workers, and so forth), grades in school, personality, and ability to adapt to new situations. It appeared that all the children awarded scholarships either had parents who where members of the Italian Communist Party or were themselves candidate members of the Party (this status was granted as a reward for special services to the Party).* Not all children who attend the international Pioneer camps, however, are from Communist backgrounds. In many cases, children — sometimes entire delegations — from non-Communist countries are invited to attend a camp because it is felt that such a visit would be desirable politically or for purposes of propaganda. Most frequently, these children are from the developing countries of Africa and Asia, such as Ghana, Algeria, Egypt, and Tanzania. Indeed, at one camp, the writer saw an entire Boy Scout troop from Afghanistan in attendance. The scoutmaster explained to the writer in a private, casual conversation that neither he nor any of his boys were Communists and that "the ideals of Lord Baden-Powell are our ideals, but since the Communists invited us to attend with all expenses paid, and since no conditions were attached, we saw no reason to refuse. Indeed, how could we refuse such an offer!" In selection of the children to attend the international Pioneer camps, age does not seem to be a critical factor. The children are anywhere from nine to sixteen years old; the ages vary with, and within, each delegation, * Similarly, the Finnish children who attended the camp represented all sections of Finland and were selected by the Finnish Komsomols at the request of the Bulgarian Komsomols. The Polish children were all from the same school in Poland and were accompanied by two of their teachers. In this instance, too, the school had been selected by the national Union of Polish Scouts and only the best, most active members of the school unit were invited to participate.

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apparently depending upon the age required for membership in the particular Pioneer or other youth organization. In some cases, children who have just been admitted to the Communist youth organization of their country are also permitted to attend, and this fact accounts for the attendance of many older children (fourteen to sixteen) at the camps. These children may serve as junior counselors, but more of ten — especially if they are from the host country —they assist in camp organization and management. In addition to the preceding criteria, a health certificate signed by a school or family physician is required before the child can be cleared for admission to the camp. If for some reason, he cannot present such a document, he has to pass a health examination given by the camp doctor.* Although the writer was not able to obtain documentary proof of further criteria of selection, it seemed to him that most of the children at the camp possessed certain personality characteristics: They adjusted easily to their new environment; they made friends readily with the children of other nationalities and found language no great barrier to communication. They were outgoing, had considerable vitality, and quickly became engaged in the camp program. Many possessed definite qualities of leadership — they were aggressive but directed their energies into channels approved by their society, and their considerable initiative was used to carry out broad camp policies already formulated by adults. Camp Personnel. The adult personnel at the Georgi Dimitrov International Pioneer Camp appeared to have been carefully screened. Although the host country had not influenced the selection of the adult leaders of the foreign delegations, these people nevertheless seemed to be experienced, capable, and proved leaders of youth. Almost all of them were educators in their native countries — teachers, educational supervisors and administrators, youth leaders, or coordinators of youth work — and as Pio* Bulgarian Pioneer camps can afford the services of these trained medical personnel, not only because they are government supported, but basically as the result of the overabundance of doctors and nurses and the comparatively low salaries generally paid to medical personnel in the country. A doctor receives a salary ranging from 80 to 125 leva a month, depending upon his specialty and experience (2 leva equal one American dollar at the official exchange rates.) A better criterion is this comparison: a clerk in a department store receives about 50 leva monthly; a supervisor in the post office, 80 leva; and a worker in an industrial establishment, 60-180 leva, depending upon his qualification and output (Norms and the piecework system are used as incentives for a high rate of production.).

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neer leaders, most had had intensive training for their work in political, psychological, educational, recreational, and other subjects. A number were also graduates of institutions for training teachers. In most countries, the Pioneer leaders were paid professionals.* This description is particularly pertinent for those leaders from countries where a Communist government is in power. Most — if not all — of them are members of the Communist Party of their country. The camp had a professional dancing instructor to direct the program of modern (that is, ballroom) and folk dancing, a physical fitness instructor, and two lifeguards. Two physicians (pediatricians by specialization) and two graduate nurses were on full-time duty for the two hundred twenty-five youths at the camp. The director of the camp was a professor of the Methodology of Pioneer Work at the Central Institute for the Improvement of Teachers (Institut za zavershvane na uchiteli) in Sofia, and the assistant director during the academic year headed the Station of Young Technicians in Sofia. The instructor of music was a professional musician who regularly worked at the Student's Home in Sofia,f and the crafts teacher taught at the Station of Young Technicians (discussed in detail below) during the academic school year. The Camp Program. There are two four-week sessions per summer at the camp. The basic activity programs are designed to encourage closeness among the children; swimming, games, sports, arts, crafts, folk dancing, and nature study are the most popular. Because of the many older children, modern dancing is also part of the program. Several field trips of a scenic or educational nature are conducted. Entertainment programs, often in pantomime, permit the children to introduce themselves and their cultures to the other campers; each delegation presents a national night of songs, dances, dramas, and games which draws heavily on folk traditions of their country. These programs are augmented by folk-dance festivals and by various national dishes on the daily menu. Activities for a typical day in the camp are listed in the accompanying schedule. * Yugoslavia and the Western nations are exceptions to this statement. In them, only the top executives receive any remuneration for their work; all the other Pioneer leadership serves on a voluntary basis. f The Student's Home in Sofia is a cultural, ideological, and recreational center for students at the university or institute level. C141]

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Schedule of the Georgi Dimitrov International Pioneer Camp 7:00 A.M 7:05-7:20 A.M 7:20-7:45 A.M 7:45-8:00 A.M 8:00-8:20 A.M 8:20-9:00 A.M 9:00-12:00 A.M 12:00-12:30 P.M 12:30-1:00 P.M 1:00-2:00 P.M 2:00-4:00 P.M 4:00-4:30 P.M 4:30-6:30 P.M 6:30-7:00 P.M 7:00-9:15 P.M 9:15-9:30 P.M 9:30-10:00 P.M 10:00 P.M

Reveille Morning exercises (calisthenics and running) Morning toilet (includes making beds, cleaning rooms) Roll call, raising flags Breakfast Free period — dress for swimming Swimming or sunning on beach Preparing for lunch Lunch Free period (for hobbies, craftwork, projects, rehearsals for evening programs, etc.) Afternoon rest period Afternoon snack Activities (participation is by battalions and includes physical culture, singing, dancing, field trips, free reading, or craftwork) Dinner Games, skits, dances, evening programs Evening roll call, taps, lowering flags Preparation to retire Lights out

Methods. The Georgi Dimitrov International Pioneer Camp emphasizes socialist competition among the children. The Pioneer director saw no ideological problem in a methodology employing competition. "Socialist competition is healthy," he maintained. "Competition is not a divisive force; it is, rather, a productive and creative one. National animosities are not encouraged by such a technique, for all children realize that they are part of a larger whole —the international socialist [i.e., Communist] movement." * The delegations of the camp thus are pitted against one another in many different ways. Each night at roll call, the delegations exhibiting the greatest initiative, cooperation, and originality, respectively, are given special recognition by the tying of blue ribbons to their delegation's flagpole for the following day. At the camp carnival, special prizes are awarded not only to individuals but also to the delegations that wore the most unusual carnival costumes. Competition among the national groups is extremely keen at the camp's talent nights. The national nights, hi which the delegates present a program of their national folklore, songs, and dances, likewise whet the children's competitive spirit. "Let us do our best," the * Stated in an interview with the writer, August 28, 1964. The educational philosophy which he expressed is, of course, a logical corollary of Marxist economic and political doctrines.

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children are told by their leaders, "so that our delegation will receive first prize at the end of the camp period." * However, competition among delegations was at its height for the Junior Olympiad, modeled after the Olympic games, held in Tokyo, Japan, in the summer of 1964. An Olympic Flame was lighted with a torch carried by a runner, a ceremony was held to inaugurate the Olympiad, and then the contests began. The eliminations took nearly a week, during which the Pioneers vied determinedly to bring honors to themselves and to their nation.f Considerable attention is also given at the camp to the political education of the youth, to which end both direct and indirect techniques are employed. One direct technique is a seminar on "political questions that concern the children of the world." The writer attended such a session: First, each delegation met in a seminar to discuss the topic "Toward Equal Rights for All the World's Youth." Then all the campers assembled at a rally to hear representatives of each delegation report on the resolutions it adopted; a summary of the resolutions the delegations adopted follows: Czechoslovakia: Free school tuition and free health care for all children of the world. Yugoslavia: Free school tuition for all children and youth to age twenty-five and, in addition, stipends for their support while in school. Poland: End of all racial discrimination in every country of the world, including the United States. Hungary: A new social order for all the world. Complete equality between parents. An end to all racial discrimination. Austria: The expansion of international children and youth camps. A forty-hour workweek in all countries of the world. Higher wages for work* This statement, or its paraphrase, was frequently repeated in the writer's presence while he observed the camp activities. f Readers who work in the area of physical education may be interested in the results of the competition at the camp for several of the main events. It should be remembered that the participants were no older than junior high school age and did not necessarily excel in athletics in their home schools. GIRLS

Sixty-Meter Dash (in seconds') First 8.6 Second 9.1 Third 9.3 Running Broad Jump (in meters) First 3.89 Second 3.84 Third 3.73

BOYS

8.1 8.2 8.3 4.93 4.52 4.50

GIRLS

Running High Jump (in meters) First 1.25 Second 1.20 Third 1.17 Throwing a Soccer Ball (in meters) First 48 Second 44 Third 42

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1.45 1.43 1.40 64 60 55

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH ers. Free elementary education. Higher education according to ability, not wealth. Bulgaria: Free education. Strengthen and expand the ties among all children in the world. Algeria: Peace. Free education for all. Italy: A school in every village; free education. Free recreation centers. End of discrimination in favor of boys in the capitalist countries. Mali: An international language. Equal rights. A political and economic social order that gives justice and life to all. Free common education. Children's Pioneer camps all over the world. Afghanistan: Education for all. Finland: A socialist world. More international Pioneer camps. End of hunger. Education for the village children. Equality of opportunity for villager as well as city dweller. End of discrimination against the Pioneer movement in the West. Cuba: End to the exploitation of man. Other direct techniques in political education include visits and speeches by political leaders; field trips to historical, economic, and social institutions with political implications;* and manifestations and demonstrations of support or sympathy. The writer was present when news reached the camp that Palmiro Togliatti, head of the Italian Communist Party, had died. Immediately, a special memorial was set up with the Communist and the Italian national flag draped around Togliatti's picture framed in black. Each Pioneer delegation in turn stood at attention before the memorial and gave the Pioneer salute; this ceremony took an entire morning. Indirect techniques of political education include slogans in the children's languages placed strategically about the camp: "Youth Builds the Future," "Thank You, Party, for Our Happy Childhood," "Youth Has Made Great Strides under Communism," and others. Additional slogans are chanted by the children during the day — at meals, during morning * Ordinarily, these excursions include visits to collective farms, agricultural institutes, museums, factories, monuments, and parks. The Pioneers attending the first session of the camp, however, made an unusual field trip that summer. It may be recalled that, in July 1964, the late Maurice Thorez, long-time leader of the French Communist Party, was stricken with a fatal heart attack while he was on the Soviet liner Litva, which at the time was on the Black Sea bound for Yalta. His body was taken to the Bulgarian city of Varna, the nearest seaport, where it lay in state. Varna is not far from Kranevo, site of the Georgi Dimitrov International Pioneer Camp. When news of Thorez's death reached the camp, all the Pioneers were assembled in buses and taken to Varna to join the procession of people viewing the body.

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THE PIONEER AND KOMSOMOL ORGANIZATIONS and evening roll call, and when the units assemble for some activity. A much-used slogan declares "For Peace and Comradeship, Be Always Ready!" Photographs of Bulgarian partisan and Party youth heroes — killed in battle or executed by the prewar, anti-Communist Bulgarian government for their espionage or terrorism — adorn hallways and rooms. The Pioneers read their biographies, visit and interview persons who remember these heroes, or invite such persons to the camp to talk to an assembly of all the children. As a culminating activity, groups of Pioneers often prepare dramatic skits depicting the deeds of the heroes for evening camp assemblies. Songs likewise may have politically significant overtones; a camp favorite at the time of the writer's visit was "Let There Always be Sunshine" ("Pust vsegda budet solntse"), a peace song which had recently been composed in the Soviet Union and which was sung by most of the children in the original Russian. Political education is carried out also through discussion of the significance of the various Pioneer uniforms and neckerchiefs, through the symbolism of various national and organizational flags and emblems,* and through Pioneer pledges and creeds. THE NIKOLA VAPTSAROV PIONEER CAMP

The Nikola Vaptsarov Pioneer Camp is located near the village of Govedartsi on the side of a slope of the Rila Mountains, at an elevation of approximately four thousand feet. The camp was named after Nikola Vaptsarov, a Bulgarian Communist poet who was executed for his revolutionary activities. Its facilities, though adequate, are somewhat more primitive than those of the Georgi Dimitrov International Pioneer Camp, with frame cottages and administrative building rather than stone or brick. The staff, not quite so well qualified as the one at Kranevo, near Varna, is composed of schoolteachers and students in training to be teachers who spend the entire summer working at the camp. There is one medical doctor and one nurse for approximately one hundred and ten campers. The children are all Bulgarian, from Sofia and its immediate environs. Ex* Even the base of the flagpole had symbolism: set in concrete and stone was a five-pointed star, signifying the five continents of the earth and the Marxist belief in an eventual communist world.

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cept for these minor differences, the organization and procedures at the two camps are very much alike. However, the location of the two camps makes a considerable difference in their schedules. The daily schedule of the Dimitrov Camp includes a large block of free time to permit the students to swim and sunbathe, whereas the schedule of the Vaptsarov Camp is closely planned with Schedule of the Nikola Vaptsarov Pioneer Camp 6:30-7:30 7:30-7:45 7:45-8:00 8:00-8:30 8:30-9:30

A.M A.M A.M A.M A.M

Arise, morning toilet, make beds Calisthenics Getting ready for breakfast Breakfast Physical activities — running, more calisthenics, and supervised games of low organization 9:30-11:00 A.M Sports and hikes 11:00-11:30 A.M Getting ready for lunch 11:30 A.M.-12:30 P.M..Lunch 12:30-1:00 P.M Prepare for afternoon rest 1:00-3:00 P.M Rest and afternoon nap 3:00-3:45 P.M Undirected activities — air baths, washing feet, etc. 3:45-4:00 P.M Assembling for afternoon snack 4:00-4:30 P.M Afternoon snack 4:30-6:45 P.M Games, craftwork, reading stories, singing, assemblies and programs 6:45-7:00 P.M Getting ready for supper 7:00-7:45 P.M Supper 8:00-9:00 P.M Prepare to retire for the night 9:00 P.M Lights out

much less free time (see accompanying schedule). Even in the middle of August, days are cool and nights cold (40°-70°), so that it is impractical for the camp to have a swimming pool. As a result, physical activities are stressed: there is a rigid program of calisthenics three times a day; games requiring running and vigorous exercise, such as soccer, are encouraged; and the children spend much time hiking in the woods. The writer went on several of these trips with the Pioneers, one of which was a climb up the Rila Mountains to a lodge near one of the peaks. Eighty campers and twelve staff members, including the medical personnel, participated. Arrangements were made with a nearby collective farm to transport the children by truck from the camp to the foot of a trail leading up the mountain to the lodge. As the children got off the trucks, they formed into companies and began the ascent. The trail led through a dense forest opening from time to C1463

THE PIONEER AND KOMSOMOL ORGANIZATIONS time on verdant mountain pasturelands. After a hard climb, the tree line was passed, and rocks and dwarfed mountain vegetation remained. Still the climb continued, the path at times assuming at least a seventy-fivedegree angle. After a climb of nearly five miles, the group finally reached a lodge, its destination. After a rest of about an hour at the lodge, the campers began the descent. Late in the afternoon, they reached their starting point at the base of the mountain, where they again were picked up by the trucks and taken back to camp. All campers and staff members made the climb to the lodge and back again successfully. Each that day had walked and climbed almost ten miles over what in places had been very rough, rocky terrain. Making allowances for the fact that the participants had been carefully screened — only children in good physical condition who had had previous hiking experience were selected — it was still a feat. These children were all between the ages of ten and thirteen. All of them were city dwellers who, except for holidays, had few opportunities for outdoor activities of this kind. Yet, not a single child had asked to turn back. The physical conditioning of Pioneers attending the mountain camps thus was dramatically illustrated. Physical conditioning is, indeed, the primary feature that distinguishes the Pioneer camps in the mountains from those on the seashore, which stress rest, sunshine, and a balanced diet instead. Otherwise, the aims, political objectives, personnel, methods, materials, and facilities do not differ greatly between the two. Both have as their ultimate goal the training of citizens for the socialist state. All work and all activities are directed toward this goal. THE CENTRAL KOMSOMOL CAMP-SCHOOL, LILYANA DIMITROVA

The third camp to be described here is the Central Komsomol CampSchool, Lilyana Dimitrova, located at the village of Ravda, Bulgaria. As a camp on the Black Sea, its facilities and recreational program is similar to other camps so situated. This camp does, however, have certain more specific characteristics and functions. It is, first of all, a camp for adolescents from thirteen to seventeen or eighteen — one of a number of such camps for members of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League, the Komsomol. It is, secondly, a camp-school, which means that its major function is the training of leaders for the League. All the campers, therefore, either are at the time or

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will be during the coming school year in positions of responsibility in the Komsomol. Most of them will serve as general secretaries of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League in their respective schools; a select few will work in some capacity at the district or regional level of the League's organization. Because the camp has leadership training as its major objective, its total program differs considerably from other camps for adolescents. The program includes a series of intensive lectures and training sessions specifically for the ideological education of the youth and their preparation for the duties they hold in the organization. The series takes anywhere from two to four hours or more per day, depending upon the weather (that is, whether beach conditions are suitable for swimming), the availability of lecturers and resource leaders to visit the camp on a particular day, and the demands of other camp activities. The schedule given here is thus a tentative one, subject to vicissitudes of camp pressures, although the total number of hours scheduled for a certain activity during a camp session (see Appendix D) appears generally to have been met. Schedule of the Central Komsomol Camp-School, Lily ana Dimitrova 6:00 A.M 6:05-6:30 A.M 6:30-7:10 A.M 7:10-7:20 A.M 7:20-8:00 A.M 8:00-10:00 A.M 10:00-12:00 A.M 12:00-12:30 P.M 12:30-1:30 P.M 1:30-4:00 P.M 4:00-4:30 P.M 4:30-6:15 P.M 6:15-7:15 P.M 7:15-8:30 P.M 8:30-10:00 P.M 10:00-10:15 P.M 10:15-10:30 P.M 10:30 P.M

Arising Morning calisthenics Dressing, making beds, and cleaning dormitories Morning roll call Breakfast Activities (lectures, discussions) At the beach Getting ready for lunch Lunch Afternoon rest Snack Activities (recreational and educational) Getting ready for dinner Dinner Cultural — mass activities and free time Evening roll call Getting ready to retire Lights out

Lastly, the camp differs from other youth camps in the staff selected to administer it. All staff members, irrespective of interest and area of specialization, are members of the Bulgarian Communist Party. All the administrative and counseling personnel are also active in the Komsomol at a fairly high level. The director and assistant director of the camp were

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both members of the Central Committee of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League and worked at its headquarters in Sofia. All the counselors regularly serve as paid leaders in Pioneer or Komsomol work. Some work with district or regional central committees, others as supervisors of League programs in the schools, and still others as directors of Pioneer homes. The staff in special subjects, such as art, drama, and dancing, are competent in their areas and are active in the program of the League or one of its affiliated groups. Although the lecturers and training leaders are mostly members of the camp staff and conduct the sessions in their own competencies, some people come to the camp from as far as Sofia — about three hundred miles away — expressly to give a talk on a topic in which they were especially knowledgeable. The camp therefore provides both a recreational and an educational experience for the youths. Unlike other camps discussed here, the work toward the latter objective is carried out directly through lectures and training sessions designed to prepare the participants specifically to work in their schools as leaders of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League. It is exactly what its name implies, a camp-school to train an officer cadre for the Komsomol. THE PIONEER PALACE AND PIONEER HOMES The Pioneer Palace in Sofia and the Pioneer homes in cities and larger villages throughout Bulgaria are a vital part of the Pioneer Organization and provide an important means by which children and youth receive additional education after school in ideology, science, technology, and the arts and crafts. The Palace and the homes are essentially the same kind of institution, the programs differing only in extent and variety. The Pioneer Palace, with a larger student population from which to draw, has a more extensive program of activities than do the smaller Pioneer homes. Regardless of its name, each institution, urban or rural, is intended to support the Pioneer program of which it forms an integral part, and it plays a vital role in the education and training of the Bulgarian children. There are in Bulgaria one Pioneer Palace (Dvorets na pionerite) and some eighty Pioneer homes (Pionerski Domove) offering a wide range of activities to the children-participants. One of their functions is to serve as social centers for the children of the community; another is the training of C1493

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a cadre of student leaders. Children representing all the schools of a community attend the Palace or home, where they receive training in a skill or hobby. When they have gained some proficiency in the particular activity, usually after a period of two years, they are designated instructors in their respective schools, where they are expected to share what they have learned with their fellow pupils. Thus, the following motto is frequently seen on the walls of these institutions: "Each Pioneer shares his knowledge and experience with his comrades." Often the children attending the homes or the Palace already are leaders in their zveno (the smallest unit of the Bulgarian Pioneer Organization) or in their otryad (Pioneer battalion, or the school as a whole). At the same time, they may also be members of the school Pioneer council (Pionerski sovet). Regardless of their exact status at their home school, the Pioneers chosen to attend are usually those who are the most outstanding, show the greatest amount of leadership ability, and have unusual talents. They are potential leaders and, if properly directed, are likely to become leaders of the Party and in their vocation; thus, it is upon them that the greatest amount of time and money is invested by these extracurricular institutions. As an example of the work of the homes, the Pioneer Palace in Sofia will be described in detail. It is probably the most outstanding of the Pioneer centers and the one given the greatest amount of money and staff; it is a showplace for visitors, particularly those from abroad. Founded in 1951 under the direct supervision of Georgi Dimitrov, the Pioneer Palace of Sofia occupies confiscated buildings that formerly housed the largest Orthodox theological seminary in the country. Of all the centers for Bulgarian Pioneers, it has the largest enrollment, offers the greatest number of courses and activities, and also seems to be one of the best administered. During an average school year, four thousand kr"zhochnitsi (members of a study circle) regularly attend the Palace during their free time (after school and on the Day of Rest). The work of the Palace is divided into four divisions: The Arts, Science and Technology, Physical Culture, and Mass Action. Each division is supervised by a head responsible to the director of the Palace. The division is divided by hobby or skill into specific sections (kr"zhotsi, study circles), each of which is subdivided by age and ability into groups. These groups are taught by specialists who, for the most part, have also had some pedagogical training. There are ordinarily five or six of these groups C1503

THE PIONEER AND KOMSOMOL ORGANIZATIONS

for every hundred pupils in a particular interest section. The organizational scheme for all of the activities of the Pioneer Palace follows: Division I, The Arts, has these sections: a chorus and a symphony orchestra, including a music school; a national ensemble, where the children learn Bulgarian folk dances and music; puppetry; dramatics; ballet; art (drawing and painting); sculpture; wood carving; applied arts; and literature. Division II, Science and Technology, includes these sections: building of model boats; radio technology; building of model airplanes; photography; mechanical technology; chemistry; electricity; raising crops; nature study; geography; biology; mathematics; graphic arts, and the Club of Young Michurinites (which studies the life and work of the Soviet botanist Michurin). Division III, Physical Culture, includes these sections: hiking; light athletics; games; chess; gymnastics; tennis; modern dance (called artistic gymnastics and not modern dance, since modern dances are considered decadent); and the Club of Young Dimitrovites (which studies the lives of Georgi Dimitrov and other partisan and Communist leaders). Division IV, Mass Action, is concerned with educational, propaganda, and organizational work among the professional leaders of the school Pioneer groups as well as with the children participating in the work of the Palace. Its structure is more complex than that of the other divisions; it is not based solely on a sectional arrangement, but rather, it works with the other three divisions and with all the sections of the Palace. It is responsible for greeting foreign and domestic visitors to the Palace, including heads of state, officials of the Communist Party, diplomats, and educators. It operates the Hall of Friendship, the library, and the Hall of the People's Republic of Bulgaria. It organizes and trains children from the Palace to participate in various patriotic and Party manifestations and celebrations. It assists the schools in organizing the children for such activities and helps plan field trips to places of historical, geographical, political, or national interest. Thus, in addition to its activities at the Palace, the division Mass Action functions as an extensive service center, working with teachers, administrators, and Pioneer leaders in individual schools and local districts throughout Bulgaria. It is, of course, impossible to discuss the work of all the sections separately here, but activities from several will be outlined briefly. Probably .

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH

the best known, nationally and internationally, of all the sections at the Palace is the children's chorus, Bodra Smena. The chorus, which has over two hundred and forty children enrolled in its subdivisions, is directed by five adult musicians. It gives vocal concerts frequently in all parts of Bulgaria and has made concert tours of the East German Democratic Republic and the West Federal German Republic, Czechoslovakia, the Soviet Union, and Hungary. The Bulgarian government has awarded the Red Banner of Labor medal and a first-class Dimitrov prize to the choir. The radio technology section operates a ham radio station. The station has four receivers and a transmitter, which the children learn to use. Although most of the ham contacts are by voice, code sending and receiving are taught. The Pioneers of the section have over two hundred QSL cards (cards from other radio stations confirming receipt of their transmitted radio signals) from many stations throughout the world, primarily from Europe and North America. However, judging by the QSL cards, most of the stations whose programs have been heard by the Pioneers are in Eastern Europe. Another section of the Palace is the crop-raising section, which operates an experimental farm on a vacant plot of land behind the Palace. The farm is little over an acre, on which vegetables and a few fruits and flowers are cultivated in season. The organization of the section is similar to that of a collective farm. Despite the use of the term experimental (opitno) for the project, the children do not appear to be engaged in much, if any, work of an experimental nature, even at their level of ability. The field chiefly gives the city children of Sofia an opportunity to grow plants on their own, to develop experiences in collective management, and to further their education in labor. The members of the dramatics section operate their own theater, at which they give performances of plays and skits, complete with props, makeup, and costumes. The performances are usually at a high technical level. Some of the plays that the group has produced are based upon world-famous legends and fairy tales, such as Cinderella and The Snow Queen-, other programs include recitations from classical Bulgarian and foreign prose or poetry. Some themes, however, stress ideology, and plots may emphasize the oppression of the poor, the evils of colonialism, progress under socialism, and the importance of hard work for the advancement of the fatherland. C 152:1

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Members of the art section have had their work on display in a number of international exhibits of children's art under the auspices of UNESCO including exhibits in the United States, the USSR, West Germany, Australia, India, Italy, and Switzerland. A few of their drawings and paintings have even been given awards at these exhibits. The artwork of these children is quite varied — landscapes, portraits, and illustrative copy appear. Some of the themes are totally apolitical, but most portray historical battle scenes, partisan skirmishes, and developments on farms and in industry. Not one of those shown to the writer (nearly fifty) was abstract; socialist realism characterized by far the predominant number of paintings and drawings.

The Station of the Young Technicians Another important educational institution in Bulgaria is called the Stantsiya na mladite tekhnichi (The Station of the Young Technicians), part of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League and the Pioneer Organization. It, too, is modeled after similar institutions in the USSR that are located in the larger towns and cities, especially those heavily industrialized. Unlike the Soviet Union, however, Bulgaria has only one, in Sofia; it functions at both the local and the national level * and receives its support from the Ministry of Education. The Station has the motto, "Educate the Hands, Not Only the Mind." In keeping with this motto, these are the Station's basic objectives: (1) to develop interest in science and technology among the children; (2) to provide interested students with technical knowledge and information; (3) to develop the technical and scientific creative abilities of the children. (The objectives for the Station were given to the writer in an interview with several members of the staff on January 3, 1965.) Accordingly, the Station provides a broad range of programs that touch upon almost all phases of technical and scientific education. Residence training programs are provided locally for Pioneers, Pioneer leaders, and teachers in the Sofia district. At the national level, members of the staff serve as consultants to Pioneer homes, okrug education committees, and * An experiment station, modeled after the Station of Young Technicians, has recently been organized in Pernik, an important mining and industrial town in Bulgaria. The experiment station, however, is locally operated and funded by the industrial and education committees of the okrug. It has a much narrower program, focused primarily upon activities that train students for the industries of the region.

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school study circles, and they offer in-service extension courses for Pioneer workers and teachers. On the Station's printing press, books and pamphlets are published for children on various technical subjects of interest to them. A lending library maintained by the Station permits students throughout the country to borrow and return books by mail. Another important responsibility of the Station is nationwide mass activities designed to stimulate children's interest in science and technology. Traveling exhibits are assembled and sent to schools throughout the country; lecturers go from town to town to give talks and demonstrations on scientific topics. The correspondence study circles — especially the one called Mlad Tekhnik (Young Technician), which boasts a membership of over twenty thousand pupils from grades three to eight — provide a means for distant village children to participate, albeit in a limited way, in the work of the Station. Similarly, Conferences by Correspondence, which offer series of discussions on various scientific topics in the form of printed materials by mail, are also popular. In a recent year, twentythree hundred children participated in this program, of whom twelve hundred prepared papers on the theme of the conference that they mailed to the Station of the Young Technicians for evaluation by the staff. Prizes of books and diplomas were given to the best entries.16 The most widely publicized nationwide activity of the Station is probably its Mathematical Olympiad, which, interestingly enough, is directed to the training of the mind rather than the hands. The Olympiad is a contest in mathematics, open to all children of the country from grades three to eleven. The staff of the Station developes a set of twenty mathematical problems for each grade level, which are sent to all schools in which there are children wishing to participate in the contest. The children work the problems under the supervision of their teachers or Pioneer leaders, who then return the papers to the Station for grading. Every child who answered all twenty problems correctly participates in the second round of the contest, held in a centrally located school in each of the larger cities. The third round of the Olympiad takes place in Sofia, where all successful contestants from the second round compete. The problems for this session are prepared by the staff of the Ministry of Education in collaboration with some of the top Bulgarian mathematicians. Students who are able to solve all the problems during the final round of competition are given the privilege of participating in an international Olympiad held C1543

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annually in the USSR for all national winners from the Eastern European countries.* The work of the Station of Young Technicians thus fosters the scientific and technical abilities of Bulgarian children and youth. In this way, a cadre of engineers and scientists is being developed to meet the nation's economic objectives and the increasing need for skilled manpower in the drive for still greater industrialization.

The Dimitrov Communist Youth League The Dimitrov Communist Youth League (Komsomol) is primarily an organization for eighth-graders to adults up to the age of twenty-eight. Its program and methods are similar to those of the Dimitrov Pioneer Organization, except that the activities and techniques are suitable for the abilities and interests of adolescents and young adults. The League organizes special interest groups; holds dances for its members; maintains summer camps; participates in various work projects on farms, in factories, and in building construction; sponsors sports events; and enlists the young in its activities in many other ways. The aims of the League therefore do not differ greatly from those for the Pioneers. According to the Statute of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League, "The League trains the younger generation bravely and cheerfully to devote all its energy to the struggle for the triumph of socialism and communism. It labors for the establishment of the Marxist-Communist ideology in the youth and for the education of every boy and girl in the spirit of the Communist cause outlined in the Statutes of the Bulgarian Communist Party."17 Further, the League attempts to develop these characteristics in the youth: "Faithfulness to the cause of the Party, love toward the fatherland and toward the Soviet Union, brotherly solidarity with the nations of the socialist camp, hatred toward the enemies of communism, toward the warmongers and the oppressors, readiness to labor for the benefit of society, and irreconcilability toward idleness. . . ,"18 Later in the Statute, the objectives of the League are stated as specific * For a number of years now, the Soviets have consistently won first place in this event. The reason for this success, the writer was told, is due in large measure to the special secondary schools for mathematics in the Soviet Union, the most famous of which being the one in Novosibirsk.

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and complex expectations for the younger generation. Every member is obliged: 1. To be an active fighter, while recreating in life the politics of the Bulgarian Communist Party and conscientiously undertaking every task delegated to him by the Party; 2. To serve as an example in labor, struggling for technical progress while studying and applying the latest innovations, caring for, and multiplying society's common possessions, and furthering his own education, job qualifications, and scientific-technical knowledge; 3. To work with diligence and zeal, eager for his optimum growth toward the strengthening of the Communist viewpoint in himself; to study Marxism-Leninism; to enrich his own cultural level; to oppose the influences of the bourgeois religious prejudices; and to shun laziness and other anachronisms of the past; 4. To be attached devotedly both to his socialist fatherland and to the cause of communism, ready to give all his energy and, if need be, his very life for the protection of his fatherland; 5. To maintain the solidarity and unity of the League by observing the strictest Komsomol discipline, protecting the secrets of both the state and the League and manifesting watchfulness; 6. To participate actively in public political life, cooperating in developing and strengthening socialist public relations; to be honest, truthful, humble, responsive, and considerate, with willingness to help his comrades; to oppose violations of the socialist laws against drunkenness; and to help create healthy and friendly relations among young men and women; 7. To occupy himself actively in physical culture and sports; 8. To criticize courageously both himself and others, revealing faults openly and struggling for their elimination; to report to the leading Komsomol organs any errors and mistakes found on the job; to oppose attempts to stifle or smother criticism; 9. To take an active part in the work of his society by attending meetings regularly and fulfilling the responsibilities assigned to him, displaying both initiative and persistence in bringing to completion every task that is begun.19 In short, the Komsomol Organization is expected to help create the New Communist Man. * * It would seem, though, that these objectives deny the realities of human nature and that a perfection is desired which is impossible to achieve in practice. Certainly, it was the writer's observations that Bulgarian youth as a whole have far to go before they even approximate the characteristics specified for them by the Statute cf the Komsomol League.

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chapter viii

BULGARIAN EDUCA TION IN PERSPECTIVE

THE objectives of Bulgarian education stem from the nature of the society in which it exists. As a Communist nation in the process of economic development, Bulgaria seeks to achieve three primary objectives through its school system: to provide the students with the basic education necessary to function as individuals in modern society; to give the students professional-vocational training so that they can become, as adults, economic contributors to the development of the society; and to bring them up in an attitude of loyalty to the state and to the Communist Party. The Bulgarian school system has been organized to meet these three objectives readily. The system is centralized under the Ministry of Education in Sofia, which is directly responsible for education at all levels — primary, secondary, and university education. Although there are local, district, and regional educational bodies, these are subject to the directives of the Ministry and are responsible to it for their policies. The political responsibility of Bulgarian education to develop a citizenry loyal to the state and to the Party (synonymous terms in Bulgarian society) appears in the dual approach by which education is administered in the country: academic, vocational, and professional training in the schools is controlled by the Ministry of Education, and the work of the Dimitrov Pioneer Organization and the League of Young Communists is directed by the Central Committee of the League. The Pioneer leader of a school, who also is a trained educator, is responsible not only to the director of the institution, but also to the leadership of the Dimitrov League. Pioneer and Komsomol activities in a school may complement the work of the classroom, but they have the primary purpose of fulfilling the social aims

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF B U L G A R I A N YOUTH

and objectives set for these organizations by the Central Committee of the League. This duality is also seen in the staffing of the schools. As members of the Communist Party, many of the teachers and administrators serve two roles: they are educators, and they are Communists with the duty of carrying out the policies of the Party in the educational sphere. This duality exists at all administrative levels. Teachers and school directors are members not only of the educational committees of a locality, district, or region, but in many cases they are also members of the corresponding central committees of the Party or of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League. This is well illustrated at the national level by the Minister of Education, who is invariably a member, or at least a candidate member, of the Central Committee of the Communist Party. Thus, the dual role played by many teachers and administrators serves to foster the national educational objectives, which stress loyalty to the state and Party as well as academic and vocational competence. The objectives of Bulgarian education, however, probably find their greatest expression in the school curriculum. The curriculum in all elementary and secondary schools, as well as in all higher educational institutions, is divided into three parts in order to meet the three objectives set above: subject matter and course work designed to develop the student's general knowledge and basic skills, activities related to industrial or agricultural pursuits to educate the youth in labor, and the work of the Pioneer and Komsomol organizations, an important aspect of the student's education in school and out. Although the last part of the school curriculum stresses political and ideological education, such work is by no means limited to the Pioneer and Komsomol organizations. Rather, it penetrates the entire school program at all levels — nothing in Bulgarian society is apolitical, least of all the educational process. The teaching methods used in Bulgarian schools reinforce the educational objectives. Teaching by means of lectures is the technique most extensively used at all grade levels; it is almost the exclusive method of instruction in secondary schools and higher educational institutions in the academic portions of the curriculum. Such extensive use of the lecture method is not, of course, unique to Bulgarian — or even Eastern European schools — but it does nonetheless offer a convenient means by which carefully selected subject matter and prescribed ideological content can be

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BULGARIAN EDUCATION IN PERSPECTIVE presented to students. Another widely used method of instruction, particularly in the primary and intermediate grades of the elementary school, is discussion — that is, the method of teaching by asking certain questions based upon what the students have read in the textbook or have acquired from class lectures; specific responses are expected that presumably indicate the students' mastery of the required content. As carried out in Bulgarian schools, neither of these two teaching methods permits challenging of the assumptions upon which a particular lesson may be based. The material that the students are supposed to know is thus usually carefully prescribed, especially when it relates to values and subjective evaluations. Almost everything is presented in terms of absolutes. Two other important teaching techniques in Bulgarian schools, most often used in the teaching of the sciences, are demonstration and laboratory experimentation. These techniques are used in the same way as they are in American schools: In a demonstration the instructor explains a particular process or procedure as he simultaneously carries it out step by step in class. Laboratory work is conducted much as it is everywhere else in the world, with the exception that findings must not conflict with Communist dogma. Since the results of work in the physical sciences and, to a lesser extent, the biological sciences so seldom conflict with Communist doctrines, the experiments students are permitted to carry out are practically the same as anywhere else. The field trip is yet another method of instruction. Bulgarian students at all levels from the nursery school to the university participate in trips as part of their regular schoolwork. Field trips are used most extensively by the Pioneer and Komsomol organizations, but they are also widely used by almost every classroom teacher. Classes make field trips (or excursions, as they are better known in Bulgaria) to all kinds of places with historical, social, national, political, or economic interest — scenes of battles, museums, factories, collective farms, and sites of natural beauty. In this way, field trips expand the conceptual and factual knowledge of children and youth with respect to academic subject matter, vocational and professional areas, and ideology. Lastly, activities are an important means of instruction. The activity method is used primarily in the Pioneer and Komsomol organizations and in teaching that part of the curriculum known as education in labor. Very seldom is it introduced in the classroom, and then only in the teaching of

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH the sciences. The youth organizations teach through activities in many ways: through the field trips; patriotic parades and manifestations; projects in science, technology, or the arts; and participation in the ritualistic work of the organizations themselves — to mention just a few examples. The work of the children on collective farms, on experimental agricultural plots that are part of some schools, in the school workshops, or in industry is the activity method of learning in its ultimate form. The students become acquainted with the economic and vocational demands of adult society by actually participating in the work of that society; they are, indeed, learning by doing. The materials used in Bulgarian schools are those most readily available to them in a society which is still in the process of economic development. The most common classroom teaching aid is the textbook. To a much lesser extent, educational radio programs, films, slides, filmstrips, records and tapes, and television are used. In the broadest sense, nature and society also serve as educational media by which the learning process is facilitated, by methods already described. Education of teachers follows the curricular triad of Bulgarian education: it consists of work in the academic areas, professional-vocational training, and ideological education. The academic program continues the general education of the students at an advanced level to develop greater understanding of subject matter. The professional curriculum includes courses in psychology, educational history and philosophy, and the methodology of teaching specific subjects. Of course, a considerable amount of ideological content is included, so that, in keeping with the national educational objectives, the students are being prepared not only as specialists (that is, educators), but also as loyal adherents to the state and Party policies. The activities of the Pioneer and Komsomol organizations are an important element of Bulgarian education. Although the term extracurricular is frequently applied to this program, students' participation in the work of these groups is, for all practical purposes, a requirement. Students are free to select the groups within these organizations to which they want to belong, but they must belong to some group. The Pioneer and Komsomol organization has essentially two functions to fulfill in the country's national educational objectives: to provide a means by which children and youth may develop an interest and a degree

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BULGARIAN EDUCATION IN PERSPECTIVE of specialization in some professional or vocational field, and to present opportunities through which the ideological education of the young people can be furthered. The various study groups of these organizations in the schools and the Pioneer homes enable students to do additional work in some area, and they provide, to a certain extent, individualization in the teaching process — they attempt to complement the work of the classroom, where little or no latitude is given to students to follow their own interests or to develop specific abilities. Through the emphasis on activities in study groups, the students are given an opportunity to apply to a concrete situation information they have obtained in the classroom, from the textbook, or through the lectures and discussions (the amount that can be applied is, of course, limited). Because students can belong to one or, at most, two such study groups, early vocational specialization is encouraged. Elements of ideology are incorporated in all aspects of the Pioneer and Komsomol programs. The work of study circles in the humanities and social sciences especially lends itself to such a purpose —history study circles work on the biographies of partisan and communist heroes, legendary revolutionaries, and make trips to various monuments of historical interest; literature study groups study the poetry and prose of realist writers, especially those who have been engaged in revolutionary or Party work. The ideological training of the youth in these organizations also proceeds through various forms of mass activity: the children and youth participate in various patriotic and Party functions at the local and national level; they march in parades celebrating May Day, the October Revolution, and the Ninth of September, the date on which the Communists came to power in Bulgaria; and they engage in certain rituals at each meeting of these organizations, which presumably reinforce the student's feelings of loyalty to the state and Party (such rituals include the Pioneer and Komsomol youth salute, the reciting of Pioneer and Komsomol pledges, kissing the Pioneer and Komsomol flags, and holding sessions of self-criticism). In these ways the work of the school is extended, especially in the areas of vocational and ideological education. Bulgarian education therefore has an official ideology, the ideology of Communism, which it supports. Every form of education in the country reinforces to a greater or lesser degree the molding of children and youth along ideological lines. Simultaneously with this ideology, there exists the

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF B U L G A R I A N YOUTH

single, mass Communist Party, to which the student's loyalty is developed — in fact, the Pioneer and Komsomol organizations have been created as units within the school organization with the overriding purpose of fostering this ideological and Party loyalty among children and youth. Moreover, all methods and materials, all media of instruction used in the schools are designed to foster this end. The school, therefore, is an instrument of the society, serving as a means to communicate en masse its ideology and loyalties to the coming generation. In so doing, it hopes to achieve the objective that Bulgarian society has set for education: to train the youth to become competent, contributing members of the society, giving their unswerving devotion both to the state and to the Party.

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Appendixes

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appendix f\

BULGARIAN EDUCA TIONAL STA TISTICS

NOTE: These data are taken from the Central Statistical Bureau of the Ministers' Soviet, Statisticheski godishnik na Narodna Republika B"lgariya, 1963 (Statistical Handbook of the People? Republic of Bulgaria, 1963) (Sofia: the author, 1963), pp. 145-158. All data are for 1962-1963. Kindergartens Total number of kindergartens Regular Seasonal Total number of children in attendance In regular kindergartens In seasonal kindergartens Total number of teachers In regular kindergartens In seasonal kindergartens Other Educational Institutions Total number of schools Total number of teachers Total number of students Elementary schools Teachers Students Special schools (for the blind, deaf, retarded) Teachers Students General high schools Teachers Students Vocational high schools Teachers Students

7,416 3,091 4,325 330,000 146,000 184,000 14,302 7,041 7,261 5,813 72,493 1,560,363 5,178 54,794 1,280,724 77 1,001 8,634 254 3,656 51,469 264 7,321 134,816

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH

Institutes at the junior college level Teachers Students Higher educational institutions Teachers Students General Schools Number of institutions Primary (Grades 1-4) Intermediate (Grades 5-7) Elementary (Grades 1-7) Gymnasium (Grades 8-11) Combined elementary and secondary (Grades 1-11) Number of students Primary (Grades 1-4) Intermediate (Grades 5-7) Gymnasium (Grades 8-11) Number of teachers Primary (Grades 1-4) Intermediate (Grades 5-7) Gymnasium (Grades 8-11) Special Schools Total number of special schools Schools for the blind Schools for the deaf Schools for the retarded Training schools Vocational-Professional High Schools Total number of vocational-professional high schools Technical high schools Industrial Construction (building trades) Agricultural and forestry Transportation and communication Economics Other Special schools for music, ballet, art, and physical culture Total number of students in vocational-professional high schools Students in technical high schools In industrial schools In building trade schools In agricultural and forestry schools In the school for transportation and communication In schools of economics In other schools

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18 668 13,187 22 5,053 71,533

1,724 77 3,081 129 167 608,000 515,000 158,000 21,500 25,300 8,000 1,001 27 160 556 258 264 255 104 16 87 1 24 23 9 134,800 132,800 66,900 9,600 31,700 400 15,000 9,100

APPENDIX A Students in special schools for music, ballet, art, and physical culture Total number of teachers in vocational-professional high schools Teachers in technical high schools In industrial schools In building trade schools In agricultural and forestry schools In the school for transportation and communication In schools of economics Teachers in schools for music, ballet, art, and physical culture.. Higher Professional Technical Schools Total number of schools Total number of students Total number of teachers Institutes at the junior college level Total number of institutes Total number of students Total number of teachers Normal schools Students Teachers Institute for communication and transportation Students . Teachers School for librarians Students Teachers Other Students Teachers Institutions of university rank Total number of schools in these institutions Schools of engineering Schools of agriculture Schools of economics Medical schools Schools of fine arts Other schools Total number of students In engineering schools In agricultural schools In schools of economics In medical schools In art institutes In other schools Total number on the faculties Professors C1673

1,900 7,317 6,995 3,420 477 1,981 8 460 322 254 51,500 3,656 18 13,187 668 15 11,429 569 1 840 43 1 217 10 1 701 46 22 36 12 4 6 3 5 6 71,500 27,300 9,800 8,900 6,000 1,300 18,200 5,053 434

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH

Associate professors Assistant professors Instructors

512 2,748 1,359

Number of Graduates during 1962 General Schools Primary school (Grade 4) Intermediate grades (Grade 7) Gymnasium (Grade 11) Professional-Vocational schools Technical schools Industrial Building trade Agriculture and forestry Transportation and communication Economics Other Special schools for art, music, ballet, and physical culture Higher professional technical schools Institutes at the junior college level Teachers schools Institutes of communication Library schools Other Institutions of university rank Engineering schools Agriculture schools Schools of economics Medical schools Art institutes Others

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134,700 62,900 26,000 15,300 14,300 5,800 1,300 4,900 100 200 2,000 800 20,200 1,947 1,320 255 42 330 6,783 1,622 1,221 1,396 937 165 1,442

appendis B

TRAJVSLA TIOJVS OF LA WS AND REGULA TIOJVS

Law for Closer Ties between School and Life and for the Further Development of National Education in the People's Republic of Bulgaria* I. The School in the People's Republic of Bulgaria 1. The main task of the school in the People's Republic of Bulgaria is to prepare the young people for life in socialist and communist society, as it links their training and education with social and productive labor, and to educate the young generation in respect and devotion to the principles of Communism, in love of toil, and in the spirit of socialist patriotism and proletarian internationalism. The school prepares well-educated, well-rounded, and harmoniously developed people by giving them necessary knowledge in the fundamentals of the sciences; formulates in them Marxist-Leninist ideology; and provides them with productive, political, professional, physical, aesthetic, and moral training. The school fulfills its tasks by providing a wise combination of labor and academic education, along with rest and attention to the normal physical development of the children and youth. II. The Secondary Polytechnical School 2. The secondary polytechnical school consists of general, academic work and polytechnical studies along with training in productive labor. It combines the positive aspects of the existing general academic and professional school with polytechnical and productive elements. Its principal task is to provide a broad, general, academic, and polytechnical education and training in labor in order to prepare the students scientifically, technically, physically, and psychologically to participate in economic production. It provides the necessary preparation for study in the higher educational institutions and for work in the cultural field. The secondary polytechnical school creates Communist virtues and ensures physical and aesthetic training for its students, * Published in Sofia on July 4,1959.

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH 3. The length of instruction in the secondary polytechnical school is twelve years. The secondary polytechnical school consists of two levels: a primary and an upper level. 4. The primary school begins with the first class and ends with the eighth class. It gives the students educational and polytechnical knowledge, puts their moral, physical, and aesthetic education on a firm foundation, creates in the students a love toward work, develops habits for useful social labor, and prepares them for further education. The educational work in the primary school is tied to a broad participation of the students, according to their appropriate ages, in socially useful labor, and also helps them to develop their capabilities and inclinations toward a specific profession. 5. Primary education is free. It is compulsory for all children up to sixteen years of age. The district people's councils ensure the compulsory completion of primary education. For this purpose, they create and support schools, study halls, dormitories, children's homes, students' dining rooms, summer camps, etc . v . . 4fe«*rifill Dormitories, study halls, dining rooms, summer camps, etc., can be established and supported also by different enterprises, cooperative farms, and public organizations. To assure the children of compulsory education is the primary duty of the parents and society. 6. The upper course of the secondary polytechnical school lasts four years — from the ninth to the twelfth class.* The fundamental task of the upper course of the secondary polytechnical school is to prepare educated and cultured citizens for all spheres of life, fit for active work in industry, construction, the agricultural economy, culture, etc. In the upper course, the learning of scientific fundamentals and the polytechnical preparation of the students is completed; and through productive training, it becomes possible for them to master at least one specialized occupation essential in mass production. Productive education is conducted in shops for education and production, in the enterprises, in industry, on the collective farms, on the educational experimental farms, and also in workshops at the school. This combination of education with socially useful and productive labor provides for the all-round development of the students and assures them ample rest. Depending upon the economic character of the district, in the upper course of every secondary polytechnical school, one or several specialties from the industrial, agricultural, and construction trades are represented. Those students who show an inclination toward a specialty which is not represented in the school of the district can learn it at another school in another district. The graduates of the secondary polytechnical school, irrespective of the specialty they have studied, can continue their education in all semi-higher [junior] or higher educational institutions. * The length of the upper course has since been shortened to three years, but plans are being made to reinstate the additional year.

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APPENDIX B 7. In the secondary schools of the arts, a general education is provided, together with preparation in the respective art and training in communist labor. III. Secondary Vocational Schools — Technicians 8. The secondary vocational schools (technicians) prepare specialists for the needs of industry, agriculture, construction, transportation, commerce, health and sanitation, and for the other spheres of life. They provide the students with scientific, technical preparation, good work habits, and technical dexterity (so that they can graduate with the qualification of "technicians — secondary grade" [one of the occupational grade levels in a trade] in their respective vocation), and academic knowledge corresponding in its essential lines to that of the secondary polytechnical school. The graduates of the secondary professional school have the right to continue their education in all the higher educational institutions. 9. Students who have completed elementary or secondary education are accepted in the secondary professional schools. The length of study in the professional schools is four to five years above the primary or one to three years above the secondary school. 10. The organization of the educational program and of productive work in the secondary professional schools is determined by the Ministry of Education and Culture [now the Ministry of Education]. 11. In order that the students acquire good work habits and technical dexterity, educational workshops, agricultural experimental stations, educational guilds, and laboratories and workrooms with contemporary technological [equipment] are established at the secondary professional schools. In the secondary professional schools for the preparation of agricultural personnel, the students participate actively in all the productive processes. IV. Professional Technical Schools 12. For the preparation of well-qualified workers for the national economy, industrial, machine-tractor, practical agricultural, construction, and other professional technical schools are established. Professional technical schools exist independently or are part of a technical school, large plant or factory, large enterprise, or an agricultural collective. 13. Admission to a professional technical school requires a grade school education. The course of study in it is one to three years, depending upon the profession that is studied. Graduates of these schools have the opportunity to obtain a secondary education, since credit is given for the material they have already studied. 14. In the professional technical school, the youths take active and systematic part in productive labor. For this reason, educational workshops, laboratories, and educational experimental farms are established at the [professional technical] schools, and at the schools of factories and agricultural cooperatives special educational stations are being organized, with modern technical equipment.

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH V. Higher Educational Institutions 15. The fundamental tasks of higher educational institutions are: to prepare highly qualified specialists trained in the communist spirit for all the spheres of life, who have taken hold of the newest achievements of science and technology and who are well acquainted with technical developments, economics, and production management, who are suited for independent, inventive practical work; to do scientific research and to develop knowledge in close ties with socialist views; to take systematic care for the betterment of the qualifications of those engaged in productivity — technical, engineering, agricultural, and other specialties; to spread educational, technical, and political knowledge among the workers; and to study, generalize, and spread the experience of the innovators and the leaders in production. 16. The teaching and training of specialists in the higher educational institutions is combined with participation in socially useful and productive labor in the specialty. The amount and character of the labor (which takes up at least one third of the school time during the first and the last years of education) and its distribution in the curriculum depends upon the particular specializations and the conditions of work in the higher educational institutions. 17. The higher educational institutions take care of the ideological-political training and improvement of the students, never interrupting the teaching of Marxist-Leninist theory. The educational process must formulate in the students a Marxist-Leninist view of life and a method of recognizing creative approaches and self-initiative toward the mastering of science and toward its practical application. 18. Special cares are exerted to increase the number and to improve the qualification of the engineering and technical specialists with higher education. The training of students in the higher technological educational institutions is accomplished on a wide educational and technical basis with a view to prepare specialists with a wider background, who have also mastered completely a narrower field of specialization. During the course of instruction, the students carry out productive practice and take part in productive labor in the factories, shops, and laboratories of the higher educational institutions, or in model enterprises. 19. The instruction of students in the higher agricultural educational institutions conforms to the character and the season of agricultural production. The instruction is given on the educational experimental farms of the higher educational institutions, in the educational research institutes, or in the best of the DZS [state farms] and TKZS [collective farms]. During their training, the students take part directly in agricultural production and familiarize themselves with the different processes. 20. Great care and effort is exerted for the development of humanitarian and economic education in the university and in the higher agricultural educational institutions, but especially for the development of mathematics, the physical, chemical, and biological sciences, and practical economics. The students of these educational institutions work at socially useful and productive labor in the enterprises, [business] offices, [governmental] departments, educational institutions, laboratories, experimental stations, schools, and oilier establishments for which they are prepared as specialists. C1723

APPENDIX B

Very special attention is given to the pedagogical preparation of the students in the teaching specialty. 21. The higher medical educational institutions prepare advanced medical personnel with a high communist consciousness, and a feeling of civic and professional duty, well trained in the medical sciences, and possessing practical experience in the arts of healing. The training of the student is combined with constant practice in clinics and hospitals. 22. The higher educational institutions of the arts organize the education of the students on the basis of Marxist-Leninist aesthetics and the development of socialist art in the closest ties with socialist practices. 23. The young specialists who have completed secondary or higher education are obliged to work a definite time at the places where they are assigned. 24. The higher educational institutions help to solve the pressing problems of socialist production. For this purpose, they make contracts with enterprises, [governmental] departments, DZS, TKZS, and other enterprises. They also work on theoretical problems, which open up new directions in science and technology. Educational research institutes, laboratories, and experimental stations are organized as part of the higher educational institutes. 25. The administrators and faculties of the higher educational institutions exert great systematic care for the enactment of legislative measures for the improvement of the position and qualifications of the instructors. In order to improve the education of the students and to achieve closer ties between science and life, instructors are drawn from specialties in production and practical life. The instructors are obliged to keep regular ties with the enterprises, TKZS, DZS, and with [governmental] departments and to give them systematic help in resolving problems of construction, technology, and organization. 26. As part of the program of the higher educational institutions, [special] sections are created to raise the qualifications of specialists, who have a higher education and [who are engaged] in production, by acquainting them with the newest achievements of science and technology. VI. Evening and Extramural Education 27. Secondary polytechnical, secondary professional, professional technical, and higher education is obtained also in evening and in extramural courses without the need to be absent from work. Evening and extramural education is equal to regular education. 28. In order to give an opportunity to more workers in production to improve their education and to improve the program of evening and extramural education: a. The number of evening schools is increased; where conditions permit, evening courses are given in the higher educational institutions; and the program of extramural education is broadened. b. Branches of the evening schools are opened at the larger factories, mills, plants, TKZS, etc. c. A network of educational consultative centers is being formed for the

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH

extramural school students where they may receive systematic help in studying the subjects that are compulsory for them. d. Textbooks and supplementary educational literature is assured for the extramural students. Classes and examination sessions are conducted at a time most convenient for the extramural students, thus permitting them, according to the study plan, to take examinations in some subjects at the educational advisory centers at other than regularly scheduled times. 29. The students of the evening and day schools, the secondary and higher educational institutions, and the extramural courses have a reduced workweek and supplementary paid yearly leaves of absence to prepare for, and to take, examinations. The extent and the manner of use of this time is determined by the Council of Ministers. 30. In order to prepare for, and to take, the government examination which includes the preparation and defense of the diploma work or the diploma project, the students who do not leave their productive work receive additional leave up to four months for each specialization, in accordance with the educational plan. During one school year (nine calendar months), the extramural students study by taking time off from production. In the case of the above mentioned paragraphs 28a and 28b, the students receive up to thirty working days of additional paid leave, according to Article 55 of the labor code, but for the remainder of the time they are considered as being on leaves of absence without pay. This time is added to the length of service. Their position at the place of employment is kept for them. They also receive scholarships from the institutions of higher education where they study according to their family's position and their material circumstances. 31. In order to improve the quality and level of the education of those workers who go to work directly in production without professional preparation, the district people's councils and the leaders of the enterprises, the DZS, and TKZS organize courses to bring them up to a minimum level of technical proficiency. The methodological leadership of these courses is carried out by the Ministry of Education and Culture. Youths who have finished primary school and who do not continue their education are accepted in organized courses at the enterprises and at other places of education, in order that they may increase their general and professional education and master a profession [i.e., a trade]. For this category of persons, separate schools may also be organized. VII. Teaching Personnel 32. In order to achieve the purpose of the new school, it is necessary that the teachers have a good ideological, political, educational, pedagogical, and especially a practical preparation in labor. 33. Teachers for the children's kindergartens and for classes 1-4 are being prepared in teacher institutes with a three-year program above secondary education. All the other [teachers] are being prepared in higher educational institutions. The teachers of polytechnical and special subjects receive the necessary C1743

APPENDIX B

pedagogical preparation in a manner determined by the Minister of Education and Culture. Teachers [who are to serve as] specialists in education and productive practice are prepared in special institutes or in courses for graduates of secondary vocational schools (technicums), but only after they have acquired experience in the enterprises. 34. Leaders for the Pioneer Organization are prepared in the higher educational institutions and in teachers' institutes. 35. Those who have received the right to be regular teachers up to the time the present law went into effect or anyone who will graduate while the present system is in force, keep their rights for improving their qualifications: courses, laboratory experiences, seminars, etc., are organized for them, where they are given the opportunity to receive a higher education in the regular manner or through a special extramural program. Teachers in productive education and practice who were already at work at their profession when this law was enacted retain their rights. 36. The Ministry of Education and Culture organizes the preparation and promotion of ideological, political, educational, pedagogical, and methodological qualifications of the teachers at the higher educational institutions, the institutes for the improvement of teachers, the teachers' institutes, and the district people's councils. VIII. The General Situation 37. The Ministry of Education and Culture assumes the ideological, methodological, organizational, and pedagogical leadership of education in the country, as it is led by the Party and government policy. It ratifies the basic documents on education, such as educational plans, programs, etc.; provides for the writing and publishing of textbooks and supplementary educational literature; determines the forms of education and work training in the schools; establishes the order for the appointment of teachers; and determines the conditions for the admission of pupils and students by the educational institutions. The opening and closing of the teachers' institutes for secondary polytechnical and professional schools, for the special schools (for the blind, deaf, and dumb, etc.), and for the professional technical schools, and determining the specialties [to be taught] in the schools is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education and Culture or the respective ministries and departments which have educational institutions, at the request of the district people's councils and according to the needs for the economic and cultural development of the country and the government's national economic plan. The nomenclature of the specialists is endorsed jointly by the Ministry of Education and Culture and the State Planning Committee. 38. The district people's councils carry out the indirect leadership of the schools and the training institutions (with the exception of higher educational institutions, the teachers' institutes, and the institutes for the improvement of teachers), as they are guided by the basic documents of the Party, the government, and the Ministry of Education and Culture. 39. School buildings are constructed under standards and requirements ap-

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH proved by the Ministry of Education and Culture and the Ministry of National Health and Social Care. In [planning] school buildings, ample space is provided for classrooms, laboratories, productive workshops, etc., needed for the correct organization of the educational process. 40. In order to ensure the best conditions for the education and training of students, boarding schools are opened, providing a complete or partial secondary school curriculum. 41. The ministries, [governmental] departments, organizations, and the district people's councils assure the pupils and students a working place in the best equipped enterprises, collective farms, and establishments; [provide] materials for productive labor; take all possible measures for the safety of labor and for the correct organization of the work; and create for them suitable living conditions. The same is recommended also for the TKZS. The labor of the pupils and students is paid for according to the quantity and quality of the product produced, following the scale set by the Council of Ministers. While the students are in productive training and productive practice, they are covered with accident insurance in accordance with Article III of the Code of Labor. To meet the needs of polytechnical and productive training sections, the district people's councils with the help of the enterprises, TKZS, DZS, etc., are obliged to provide and furnish classrooms, laboratories, and workshops for woodworking, metalworking, mechanics, and electronics, as well as educational experimental farms in accordance with the standards set by the Ministry of Education and Culture. 42. The educational institutions encourage and support the pupils' and students' technical inventiveness, the creation of new devices, models, technical systems, etc. 43. The educational institutions providing a course of study two to three years above secondary school may be considered junior [literally, semi-high] institutions of higher learning. The Council of Ministers determines which of these institutions are recognized as junior institutions of higher learning. 44. Schools not mentioned in the present law, as well as the kindergartens, the educational programs of enterprises, etc., reshape their work according to the requirements of the present law. IX. Transitional Regulations 45. The reorganization of the educational system according to the present law begins with the 1960-1961 school year and ends in four or five years. The introduction of work education in the higher classes is to start during the 19591960 school year on a transitional educational plan approved by the Minister of Education and Culture. 46. This law supersedes all other decrees contrary to its provisions. The enforcement of the present law is assigned to the Minister of Education and Culture, the Minister of National Health and Social Care, the Minister of Transportation and Communications, and to the executive committees of the district [people's] councils.

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APPENDIX B

The Statutes of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League NOTE: The Statutes were accepted at the Tenth Congress of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League (DKMC) on April 26, 1963, and were published by the Central Committee of the League (Sofia, 1963). They are herein translated in full. The Dimitrov Communist Youth League is an amateur organization of the youth of Bulgaria. It is considered by the Bulgarian Communistic Party to be the greatest help in the communistic upbringing of the young generation. The Socialist Building houses the League's reserve and active participants. The Dimitrov Communistic Youth League is the successor of the revolutionary traditions of youth alliances led by the Party. The League is continuing the work of alliances such as the Bulgarian Communistic Youth Alliance (BKMO) and the Working Class Youth Alliance (PMC in the Dimitrov Alliance of the Nation's Youth — DCNM) . The strength and success of the Komsomol takes root in Party leadership. All of the organizations of Dimitrov Young Communistic League carry out their work under the leadership of the corresponding committees of the Bulgarian Communist Party. The irrevocable rule of the Komsomol is that one must actively participate in the struggle, carrying out the Party's task, and recreating in life the politics of the Party and the legacies of Georgi Dimitrov. The greatest honor given to a member of DKMC is to become a member of the Bulgarian Communist Party. The League trains the younger generation bravely and cheerfully to devote all its energy to the struggle for the triumph of socialism and communism. It labors for the establishment of the Marxist-Communist ideology in the youth and for the education of every boy and girl in the spirit of the Communist cause outlined in the Statutes of the Bulgarian Communist Party: "Faithfulness to the cause of the Party, love toward the fatherland and toward the Soviet Union, brotherly solidarity with the nations of the Socialist camp, hatred toward the enemies of communism, toward the warmongers and the oppressors, readiness to labor for the benefit of society, unreconcilability toward idleness; "Impatience toward the violators of society's interests, concern for, and protection of, efforts to increase social property; "Giving joint, collective help and having humane relations among peoples; "Responsibility for the health of the family and for the training of the young generation; "Honesty and justice, modesty and humility in society and in personal life, unsympathetic toward those who would exalt themselves and supportive of those whose aspirations are for the well-being and prosperity of the tradesmen." DKMC organizes the youth into a fervent, glowing, selfless band, all the youth dedicated to master science and technology under the slogan "Toil and learning — learning and toil, for the fullest upbuilding of socialist society among us and the gradual transition to full-fledged communism." The Dimitrov Communist Youth League actively carries out the Party's wishes for a bold initiative in bringing before the proper Party officials and orC177H

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH ganizations all questions concerning the betterment of the educational and institutional work of the TKZS [collective farms]. They also aid in organizing the youth to participate in society. The defense of the socialist fatherland is sacred and uppermost in the minds of every member of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League. The League teaches Bulgarian youth to love and appreciate the CPSU [Communist Party of the Soviet Union], which is the highest organization of the international Communist movement. In its activities, it studies and creatively applies the rich efforts of the International Lenin Communistic Alliance of Youth by educating and training daring fighters for communism. As an inseparable part of the world's democratic activity, DKMC labors for the strengthening and deepening of friendship and collaboration between Bulgarian youth and youth of other countries. In the tradition of proletarian internationalism, it also actively participates in the world's democratic youth organization, educating the youth in a spirit of solidarity among nations fighting for their own freedom and national independence. The Dimitrov Communist Youth League observes Lenin's principles of collective leadership, development of universal democracy, wide initiative, individual and self-criticism, and accomplishes in life the legacy left by V. I. Lenin, "to be an aggressive group, which gives help in every situation and manifests its own initiative." I. The Obligations and Rights of Members of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League 1. Membership in the Dimitrov Communist Youth League is open to any girl or boy fourteen to twenty-eight years of age, who accepts the statutes of DKMC, who takes active part in establishing socialism, who works in one of the League societies, who meets the obligations of the alliance, and who pays his membership dues regularly. (Members who have reached twenty-eight years of age, who are elected or who are in positions of leadership, continue to be members.) 2. Every member in the Dimitrov Communist Youth League is obligated: a. to be an active fighter, while recreating in life the politics of the Bulgarian Communist Party and conscientiously undertaking every task delegated to him by the Party; b. to serve as an example in labor, struggling for technical progress while studying and applying the latest innovations, caring for, and multiplying society's common possessions, and furthering his own education, job qualifications, and scientific-technical knowledge; c. to work with diligence and zeal, eager for his optimum growth toward the strengthening of the communist viewpoint in himself, to study Marxism-Leninism, to enrich his own cultural level, to oppose the influences of the bourgeois religious prejudices, and to shun laziness and other anachronisms of the past; d. to be devotedly attached both to his socialistic fatherland and to the cause of communism, ready to give all his energy and, if need be, his very life for the protection of his fatherland; e. to maintain the solidarity and unity of the League by observing the strictC178]

APPENDIX B

est Komsomol discipline, protecting the secrets of both the state and the League, and manifesting watchfulness; f. to participate actively in public political life, cooperating in developing and strengthening socialist public relations; to be honest, truthful, humble, responsive, and considerate with willingness to help his comrades; to oppose violations of the socialist laws against drunkenness; and to help create healthy and friendly relations among young men and women; g. to occupy himself actively in physical culture and sports; h. to criticize courageously both himself and others, revealing faults openly and struggling for their elimination; to report to the leading Komsomol organs any errors and mistakes found on the job; to oppose attempts to stifle or smother criticism; i. to take an active part in the work of his society by attending meetings regularly and fulfilling the responsibilities assigned to him, displaying both initiative and persistence in bringing to completion every task that is begun. 3. Every member of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League has the right: a. to participate in discussions regarding all the questions about the work of the League at the meetings of the Komsomol committees and through the publications of the League; to express his opinion freely and openly and to propose motions; b. to elect and be eligible for election to the leading organs of the League; c. to criticize boldly and openly at the meetings, conferences, congresses, and sessions of the Komsomol the weaknesses and faults of every member of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League, including the leaders of the League; d. to assume an active part in all cases when a decision is being made in behalf of his own activity and conduct; e. to address questions and proposals, complaints and petitions to any organ of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League and to request an answer from them. 4. The following is the procedure by which members are received into the Dimitrov Communist Youth League: a. Individuals desiring to join the Dimitrov Communist Youth League submit an application accompanied either by recommendations from two members of the League who have served at least a year of apprenticeship or a recommendation from one member of the Bulgarian Communist Party. (The Pioneers are received into the Komsomol only if they have a recommendation from the detachment's council. This is equal to the recommendation of a member of the DKMC.) b. The question with regard to the admission of an individual into the League is discussed and decided at a meeting of the association in the presence of the one who petitioned to be admitted into the Dimitrov Communist Youth League. The candidate is considered accepted the moment the association decides in his favor. The council is required to submit to the association for consideration, no later than a month from the day the application was made, all applications of those young men and women who desire to join the League. 5. When members of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League move from

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH one association to another, they resign from one and become members of the other in a manner determined by the Central Committee. 6. Violations of the Statutes of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League by a member of the League, as well as by other offenses, may be punished in the following manner: remarks, scolding, reproach, severe scolding with a forewarning, or expulsion. When applying punishment, care and attention must be given by the comrades first to discuss the Komsomol member's actions. It is not advisable to resort immediately to the most severe punishment, expulsion, but in case of the minor offenses to apply other methods which are helpful for education and [have an] effect upon his character. 7. The question of expulsion from the ranks of the League is decided at a meeting of the association in which the youth in question is a member. The decision for expelling a member must be by vote of at least two thirds of the Komsomols present. In a month's time the expulsion is ratified by the bureau of the town or district, or by the municipality's committee, which has such rights. At the same time accusations directed at the member are carefully appraised to discover if they are [well] founded and to appraise whether suitable punishment was administered for the offense committed. Until the expulsion is confirmed, the member keeps his membership card and is a full member of DKMC. Every expelled member from the Dimitrov Communist Youth League has the right to appeal to a higher ranking official, who must examine the appeal within a month. 8. The association of DKMC has the right to consider the acts and the conduct of a member or a candidate member from a district, city, county, or municipal committee or a member of an inspection board in order to make a decision concerning the case and to impose punishment, except for expulsion. If the offense is such as to impose the severest punishment, expulsion, the association makes a motion before the corresponding committee. The decision for expelling a member or candidate member of a region, city, district, or municipal committee or a member of an inspection board must be decided by a two thirds vote of the members of the respective committee. The decision for expelling a member or a candidate member of the Central Committee or a member of the Central Inspection Board is made by the congress, and the decision to expel a member of the congress must be made by the plenum of the Central Committee by not less than two thirds of the voting members. II. The Organization of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League Internal Democracy and Discipline of the Komsomols 9. The leading principle in the organization of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League is democratic centralism: a. by electing all the executive officials in the League from the bottom to the top; b. by having the leading Komsomol executive officers give periodic reports

iriso:

APPENDIX B to their Komsomol organizations and associations and to those of higher authority; c. by exercising strict Komsomol discipline and subordination of the minority to the majority; d. by the unconditional adherence to the decisions of the higher authorities by the lower. 10. The Dimitrov Communist Youth League is built on a territorial and productive basis, since the Komsomol associations and organizations are set up at places where the Komsomols work or study and they are incorporated into the municipal, regional, city, or district organization of DKMC. 11. An important meeting of the Komsomol association is the conference of the organizations, but the highest organ of the whole League is the congress. The meetings, conferences, and the congress select committees, which execute and lead the work of the corresponding organizations. 12. In choosing committee members, every candidate must be considered individually. At that time, the members or delegates have the unlimited right to refuse motions based on criticisms of the specified candidates. The municipal committees, the committees of the associations, and the auditing committees are elected by oral voting. Those candidates who receive two thirds of the votes of those present that have the right to vote are considered elected. 13. The members of the leading Komsomol committees are obliged to be examples in keeping Komsomol discipline in all their activities, so that they justify the trust bestowed upon them. When a member of a leading Komsomol committee violates this requirement, he can be dismissed by the corresponding committee. 14. Divisions and sectors of the municipal, city, or regional committees are set up by the Central Committee in order to work among the different strata of the youth. 15. The main objective of the League is the internal development of democracy in order to promote activity and initiative in every Komsomol and to strengthen discipline. A vivid manifestation of the internal democracy in the League is seen in the free discussions of the Komsomol organizations, the right that every member has to pass judgment on all the problems and work of the Komsomol, and the opportunity to take part in evaluating activities and in making decisions. These rights must be strictly upheld by the officials of the Komsomol. 16. The collective method of work and leadership is an important principle in the activities of the Komsomol. This method is the best guarantee for normal and efficient operation of the Komsomol organs, organizations, and associations, for the proper training of Komsomol personnel, and for the uninterrupted increase in the creativity, activity, and initiative of the youth. At the same time, the collective method of work and leadership does not free the leaders from responsibility. They are held accountable for the outcome of the job which is entrusted to them. 17. At the close of the congresses and conferences of the Central Committee and the district, town, and municipal committees, the Komsomol associations and organizations are systematically informed about the activities that

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH took place during these meetings. The youth are advised about the plans for Komsomol work. In order to discuss important questions, the youth League may call a special conference. 18. The Central Committee, organizations, and associations of DKMC have their own banners, the patterns of which are fixed by the Central Committee. The banners symbolize the honesty and militant unity of league members and their boundless devotion to the socialist fatherland and the Communist Party. 19. In order to increase the labor, political activity, and initiative of the young for active participation in socialist construction, the Central Committee and the other committees of DKMC widely utilize moral stimuli and encouragement. III. Supreme Organs of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League 20. The supreme organ of Dimitrov Communist Youth League is the congress. The congress convenes at least once every four years. The date for the congress and each day's agenda must be announced at least two months before the congress begins. The standards of representation at the congress and the method of choosing delegates is fixed by the Central Committee. 21. The Congress: a. listens to and approves the reports of the Central Committee of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League and the Central Inspection Committee; b. plans the line of work and the tasks at hand for the Dimitrov Communist Youth League; c. examines, changes, and accepts the charter of the league; d. chooses the members of the Central Committee and the Central Inspection Board. 22. The staff of the Central Committee of the Youth League and the Central Inspection Board are selected in a way determined by the congress. The plenum selects members for the Central Committee from among the chosen member-candidates of the congress. 23. The work among the congresses is guided by the Central Committee of the Dimitrov Communist [Youth] League. The Central Committee represents the Communist Youth League at governmental and social organizations, approves the editorial staff of the League's paper, Narodna mladezh [Nation's Youth} and the editors of the other publications of the Central Committee, distributes and controls the resources of the League, represents the League at congresses of international youth organizations, and keeps in touch with the youth organizations of other countries. 24. The Central Committee has at least one plenary session every four months. By decision of the Central Committee, the activists of the League — those who are first in their studies and labor — and specialists and public figures can take part in the work of the plenum. 25. The plenum of the Central Committee selects from its own staff leaders to guide the work of the League. A secretary is chosen from the staff by the Central Committee to organize the current work of the organization. 26. The Central Inspection Committee checks: a. the working order in the affairs of the apparatus of the Central Commit-

C1823

APPENDIX B

tee, the immediate inspection of letters and complaints that have come before the Central Committee, the monies, and the budget of the Committee. These are also the tasks of the other inspection commissions of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League. IV. District Organizations of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League 27. The supreme organ of the district in the Youth League is the district conference. However, between conferences the district committee is the leading organ. The congress and Central Committee decide on the activities to be undertaken by the district conference and committee. 28. The district conference of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League convenes at least once every two years. The district committee determines the standards of representation at the district conference. The district conference listens to all the reports and accounts of the district committee and of the inspection board, discusses and assesses the work of the committee and organization of the district, chooses district committee members, inspection board members, and delegates to the congress of the League. 29. The district committee of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League chooses the executive board and secretaries. The district committees are composed from representatives of different [Komsomol] organizations so as to encourage a broader participation on the part of the youth and the leaders of the League in furthering the public good. 30. The district committee ensures the fulfillment of the tasks given by the Party and the Central Committee of the Dimitrov League to the district organizations, provides leadership for the work of the associations and organizations in the territories of the district, represents the district organizations of the DKMC at meetings of governmental and public organizations, informs the associations and organizations of its own work, and distributes the [financial] resources fo the League within the District. 31. The district committee of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League has at least one plenary session every three months.

V. City, Regional, and Municipal Organizations of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League 32. The supreme organ of the city, regional, and municipal organization is the city, regional, and municipal conference. This general meeting of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League convenes in the city, region, or municipality at least once every year. 33. The city, regional, and municipal conferences listen to the reports of the various committees, consider and assess the activities of the committee and the organization, choose city, regional, and municipal committee members, inspection board members, and delegates for the District Conference of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League. 34. The city and regional committees choose their own executive board and secretaries. Within the city and regional committees, different organizations

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH

are formed to provide a greater number of activities for the young. Leading officials of the League conduct these organizations on an optional basis. 35. The municipal committees choose only a secretary, not an executive board. 36. The city, regional, and municipal committees of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League organize, approve, and lead the associations in the city, region, and municipality, counsel the members, and represent the League at governmental and social organizations. The city and regional committees of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League have at least one plenary meeting every three months. 37. In the big cities, regional organizations are formed by permission of the Central Committee of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League. They are subordinate to the city committee. Upon the decision of the district committees of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League, the large Komsomol organizations may be given the rights to function as city or regional committees. VI. Societies of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League 38. The societies are the foundation of Dimitrov Communist Youth League. They are formed in the presence of at least three members within enterprises, TKZS [collective farms], educational institutions, and wherever they are needed. The societies are approved by the respective city, regional, or municipal committees. Within the societies, groups of members of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League can be organized into youth brigades, teams, farms, work crews, etc. 39. Within the enterprises, TKZS, educational institutions, and wherever expedient, societies can be formed at the places of production, shops, shifts, divisions, classes, etc. A committee is organized at the mill, factory, or plant. 40. The Dimitrov Communist Youth League unites all of its members by bringing the leading officials of the Komsomol together with the masses of youth. The fundamental tasks of the association are: a. to labor for the communistic training of young men and women, to mobilize their efforts for a most active participation in building the socialist society; b. to organize the study of Marxism-Leninism by the youth, to fight unreconcilably against the ideology of the bourgeois, to conduct propaganda work, and to bring young men and women in closer touch with our socialist life by enabling them to participate in its development; c. to organize the youth in the Socialistic Competition Movement for Communist Labor so as to meet production goals; to increase the productivity of labor so that more, cheaper, and higher quality products can be produced; to organize the participation of all young men and women in the fight for technical progress; to encourage youth to study and to apply their knowledge in practice; and to manifest broad initiative regarding all matters connected with the improvement of work by discussing them before the Party and other organs and organizations of the enterprise, TKZS, establishment, or educational institution; C184]

APPENDIX B d. to encourage the mastery of science and technology by young men and women in order to increase their education, productive qualifications, and scientific-technical knowledge; e. to protect the interests of the youth, to improve the conditions of labor, to study the living conditions of the young people in order to increase their material possessions, and to raise their standard of living; f. to increase the role of youth in public and political life, to encourage youth to participate actively in economic and governmental tasks; to fight against the manifestations of bureaucracy, wastefulness, [and] idleness; to work for greater productivity on collective farms and for a more thorough organization of the economy; and to encourage the youth to participate directly in the work of society; g. to involve the members and youth in systematic study, along with sports, in order to prepare them to be deserving defenders of the socialist fatherland; h. to work systematically with the Pioneer brigades and bands to ensure their all-round development in their activities and work; i. to influence all the youth through the membership of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League; j. to follow the members of DKMC as they perform their charter obligations and to increase the feeling of duty in every member of the Komsomols; k. to help with the activities of the district, city, region, or municipal committee of the Dimitrov [Communist] Youth League and to give an account of their work to the League. 41. The supreme organ of the society of Komsomols is the convention, which convenes at least once a month. The society of the [Dimitrov Communist] Youth League selects the convention members. In societies that have fewer than ten members, only a secretary and undersecretary are chosen. The Komsomol organizations and associations can choose inspection committees. VII. The Dimitrov Pioneer Organization "Septemvriiche" 42. The Dimitrov Pioneer Organization "Septemvriiche" is a mass patriotic organization in Bulgaria which prepares children to become builders of socialism and communism and to become members of the Communist Youth League. This organization works together with the schools in order to train the Pioneers in a spirit of boundless faithfulness and devotion toward their socialist fatherland, toward the Bulgarian Communist Party and the labor of communism, toward the great Soviet alliance, and toward proletariat internationalism. It trains the children to love work and education, involves them in sports, labors for their aesthetic training, and builds up the Pioneer qualities of collectivism, activity, conscientiousness, honesty, and justice. The Pioneer battalion organizes and leads the bands of children. 43. By order of the Bulgarian Communist Party, the Dimitrov Communist Youth League assumes the direction and leadership of the everyday work of the Pioneer organization, "Septemvriiche."

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH The district, city, region, and municipal committees of the DKMC carry out the leadership of the Pioneer organizations within their respective district, city, region, or municipality. Other organs can be formed for the out-of-school work at the extracurricular Pioneer institutions. The Central Committee of DKMC specifies the work for the Dimitrov Pioneer Organization. 44. The committees of DKMC select and support the Pioneer leaders. The Komsomol organizations in industry, transportation, the agricultural economy, the army, and educational institutions nominate the groups of people suitable for the task of becoming leaders of the Pioneers. 45. The Central Committee of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League publishes newspapers and periodicals for the Pioneer organization. VIII. Organizations of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League in the Armed Forces of the National Republic of Bulgaria 46. The organizations of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League in the Armed Forces of the National Republic of Bulgaria are guided by the Statute of DKMC and work on the basis of instruction approved by the Central Committee and chief political management of the National Army, under the direct leadership of the Party's organizations and political organs. 47. The Komsomol organizations unite the young soldiers around the Bulgarian Communist Party and her Central Committee, train them in the spirit of Marxist-Leninist ideas, in sacred devotion and constant readiness to protect their socialist fatherland, and maintain brave, courageous, heroic friendship with the Soviet Army and the armies of the socialist countries. They mobilize the youth in the army in order to prepare them successfully to fulfill military and political tasks, to strengthen military discipline, to master the fighting technique and weapons, and to breed in the young soldiers the characteristics of the ideal man of communistic society. 48. The organization of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League in the armed forces supports the local Komsomol organization, cooperates in the training of youth in love of the National Army, and prepares the young for military service. Representatives of the political organs and the organizations and associations of DKMC in the National Army participate in the work of the local Komsomol organs and organizations. IX. The Resources of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League 49. The resources of the Communist association and organizations are ensured by membership dues, by work done by the youth, by children's publications, and by other receipts. The amount of the membership dues is specified by the Central Committee of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League. 50. The association of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League keeps a record of the members' dues and seeks reasons and takes appropriate measures when members are delinquent in their payments.

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APPENDIX B

Constitution of the Young Friends of the Arts, a Pioneer Club NOTE: Translated from Dimif'r Dimitrov, compiler, Za esteticheskoto v"gpitanie na pionerite (Concerning the Aesthetic Education of Pioneers) (Sofia: NarodnaMladezh, 1961), pp. 77-79. I. Aims and Objectives 1. The club is created to provide for the many-sided aesthetic education of Pioneers and Young Communists in light of the requirements of the Pioneer and Komsomol programs for the education of the youth. 2. To provide an opportunity for participants in the club to develop their talents and abilities as they receive instruction in their particular areas of strength in the arts. 3. To educate the members of the club in love of our contemporary realistic socialist art and loyalty toward socialist realism and Communist Party partisanship. 4. To study our art, the art of other countries, and the most progressive art in the world — that of the Soviet Union. 5. To popularize art as a mighty force in the education of man for communist society. 6. To popularize the activities of the club among the Pioneers and Young Communists of the city and okrug. II. Organization 1. The club is organized as part of the Pioneer Home and the city committee of the Communist Youth League. 2. The club is to be directed by the section of the Pioneer Home known as the Section of Fine Arts Education. 3. The club will have three sections: literature, music, and the fine arts. 4. Every section will work according to the particular plan which it develops. 5. The sections will meet three to four times each month. 6. The general meetings of the club as a whole will be held once a month. Comments: At the meetings of the club, various questions connected with the arts will be surveyed, lectures will be given, exhibits will be visited, recitals will be held, concerts will be attended, the theater will be attended, etc. III. Membership 1. Youths will be admitted to the club who are Pioneers in grades 6 and 7 and Young Communists in grades 8, 9, and 10 and who have a specific interest in one of the respective art forms. 2. Every member of the club must attend one of the sections and actively participate in its work. 3. Every member of the club must pass on what he knows to the comrades of his company or his organization in the Dimitrov Union of Young Communists and also to bring into the club at least two new members. 4. With the help of the adult leadership of the club, each member is obliged to assist in organizing a special night program at school, which will be devoted C187]

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF B U L G A R I A N YOUTH

to specific composers, writers, poets, and artists, and to attend collectively and evaluate such artistic gatherings as concerts, song recitals, exhibits, etc. IV. Leadership 1. The club will be a self-directed collective. The leadership will be elected at a general meeting. 2. The leadership of the club will consist of a chairman and a secretary of the club and a chairman, secretary-correspondent, and technical supervisor for each section. 3. The entire club is under the general leadership of the Section of Fine Arts Education as part of the Pioneer Home, which, in turn, is part of the educational division of the city committee of the Young Communist League. 4. Artists, writers, literary men, music teachers, musical directors, symphony musicians, and others will be designated honorary members and friends of the sections and club.

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appendix

TRANSLATIONS FROM SPEECHES, AND PRONOUNCEMENTS

v^

NEWSPAPERS,

Salutation by the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party (BKC) x Precious Dimitrov Pioneers! Dear Chavdarcheta! [Junior Pioneers] Today is a festive and exciting day. Our youngest generation — the enthusiastic Pioneers of our glorious fatherland — celebrate a famous holiday, the twentieth anniversary of the Dimitrov Pioneer Organization, "Septemvriiche." In the name of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party, I greet you and wish you good health and prosperity at school, at work, and in all your undertakings so that you may become fighters for the triumph of the great communist cause. Septemvriiche was created through the initiative of our leader, the unforgettable comrade and teacher of our children, Georgi Dimitrov. This Pioneer Organization nobly and honorably carries out his fatherly precepts. It bears his name with honor and worthiness. Under the direction of the Party and the leadership of the Komsomol (points out Comrade Zhivkov), the Pioneer Organization has grown into a massive and favorite amateur social-practical organization for all Bulgarian children and youth. We greatly value its role in the early communistic training of the youth. During the twenty years of its existence, the Pioneer Organization has created a multi-faceted and rich activity for the communistic training of the little Pioneers, to facilitate their growth to become complete and valiant citizens of the National Republic of Bulgaria. The numerous Pioneer societies actively assist the young generation in becoming highly educated, studious, industrious, patriotic, and spiritually and physically fit. The societies train the Pioneers to live and work the way Communists do, and develop in them [a spirit] of comradeship and mutual help, courage, honesty and humility, and kindle in their young hearts the flame of love toward our glorious Party, and the dear fatherland, and toward the great Soviet Union. The Pioneer societies help the children and the youth to develop

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF B U L G A R I A N YOUTH

the highest virtues of man, for they are the future builders of the communistic society. The Dimitrov Pioneer Organization puts all its strength enthusiastically into the youth campaign in order to realize the challenge of the Party slogan, "Study and labor — labor and study." It cooperates directly with the school to help the Pioneers master more knowledge. The Party and the nation are proud that in your youthful ranks step tens of thousands of capable youths and that you are growing up studying and learning science and technology as you diligently prepare yourselves for great and noble deeds. We are sincerely glad that your organization plays a patriotic role in the common efforts of the Party and the national government. [Our nation thanks] the teachers and educators for uniting instruction with labor, for creating in the growing generation work habits and technical dexterity, for preparing the youth to be talented workers of tomorrow: cooperators, engineers, agronomists, doctors, and teachers — enthusiastic creators of our wonderful communist future. For this vital end, the wide network of Pioneer homes and clubs is organized. These organizations are the center of enlightenment and serve for the communist training of Pioneers in initiative and creative work. The work of the Pioneer Organization is worthy of enthusiasm for mastering sports and developing amateur art activities among our young generation in order to improve their health and develop their talents. All these wonderful successes of the Pioneer Organization are told with inspiration in your report. The Party and all our nation are very pleased with the rich fruits of twenty years of activity of your Organization. They praise the thousands of Pioneer leaders and public workers for their untiring efforts and noble labor in teaching the Bulgarian children and youth and in strengthening the Pioneer Organization. Dear comrades, you are the most fortunate citizens of our fatherland. Your childhood is happy and enviable because you were born and raised in free socialist Bulgaria. Just recently we celebrated the twentieth anniversary of our most glorious national holiday of liberation — the Ninth of September. The sounds of the whole nation's celebration of those festivities have not yet quieted. The Party and the nation reviewed the past heroic deeds during these festivities. In the distinguished address of Comrade Todor Zhivkov to the session of the National Assembly on the twentieth anniversary, it was plainly stated what our country was before the liberation of the Ninth of September, to what height it has risen since then, and what crucial problems it faces now. With greater faith and optimism, our nation looks ahead to the future. In cities and villages, in businesses and cooperatives — everywhere, our work untiringly brings about the historical decisions of the Eighth Congress of the Party, which has outlined a practical program for building socialism in order [then] to begin the gradual transition to communism during the period [from 1961] to 1980. These grand perspectives have demands on you too, my young friends, for your numerous Pioneer Organizations are needed in this plan. As our Central Committee has repeatedly stressed, your most important duty is to study diligently and persistently, to acquire more and more learning, in order to master

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APPENDIX C

knowledge, education, and technology so you can proudly carry out the Pioneers' Program. In addition to this, as a child you must determine persistently to fight hardships and train your mind to love labor. Labor, in our society, is the main measure of the worthiness of man. Never forget that the material and spiritual treasures of humanity are created only by honest and persistent labor. Better conditions are being created both in the school and in the family so that the young generation will be able to study successfully and be trained correctly. The youth are surrounded by the constant attention and concern of the Party and of the State. New expression of this concern is the further betterment of the educational course unifying instruction with productive labor. That is why on this festive moment, our Party turns to you and to all Pioneers with the challenge to study tirelessly, and to love your books as your dearest friends! Study and work the Lenin way — the Dimitrov way! Live in friendship and agreement! Be active in sports; travel the length and breadth of our land to become acquainted [with it] and to [learn to] appreciate its enchanting and charming beauties. Let the songs and the plays, the laughter, the happiness, and glorious romance be an inseparable part of your work and of your relaxation! Be always with the Party — always with the State! With feelings of deep gratitude the whole Bulgarian nation realizes that our future success depends decisively upon our brotherly friendship with the Soviet nations and upon the selfless, all-around help of the great Soviet Union and its glorious Communist Party. It makes us happy that you are Pioneers and contribute to the strengthening of the Bulgarian-Soviet friendship by keeping close ties with your dear little comrades — the Pioneers of the mighty Soviet land! Young friends! Guard our eternal friendship with the nations of the Soviet Union, which lately blossoms with new beauty and might! Strengthen your ties with the Soviet children, correspond with them, learn about their Pioneer Organization, walk shoulder to shoulder with the young Leninists of the land where Communism is being built. Strengthen your friendship with the children of the other socialist countries. Create ties with the children of all the countries of the world. The friendship of the children of all the different nations is an important factor in the international training and preparation of the young generation to fight for a future, where there will be no exploiters, no war, and all mankind can live in peace and brotherly love. Precious Pioneers! Now the important tasks of the Komsomol and the school are more vigorously to overcome all weaknesses and faults in the lives and activities of the Pioneer bands and detachments. It is anticipated that the formality and [adult] control in the work of the Pioneer Organization will be lessened, and the children will be included in planning the activities and amateur work so that the organization can, in reality, become an organization of the children themselves. The Bulgarian Communist Party calls on teachers and parents, the mass organizations, and all our society to support and develop in all ways every useful initiative of the Pioneer bands and detachments, to actively enrich and variegate the life of the Pioneer Organizations, so that all Bulgarian children and 1:1913

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF B U L G A R I A N YOUTH

youth may grow and be trained to become worthy [citizens] to take our places tomorrow. Dear comrades! The twenty years of the Dimitrov Pioneer Organization Septemvriiche has been a joy to all the Bulgarian nation. Your organization grew strong. Before you is an open and far-reaching road. Many years will come [and go], but the Pioneer Organization will always be young and radiant because under the glorious Pioneer flag the youth, which is the sunny future of the Party and of our dear fatherland, is united. Together with your father and mother, together with your brothers and sisters, you, too, our lively Pioneers, walk on the road to socialism and communism. The same [thought] is expressed in the song: Communists, Komsomols, Pioneers are we in one and the same system; Communists, Komsomols, Pioneers, together in labor and battle. Good luck Pioneers, good luck! For the cause of socialism and for the good fortune of our fatherland, be ready! Report to the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party by the Dimitrov Pioneers2 Dear Comrade Zhivkov! Dear comrades of the Central Committee of the Party! The millions of Pioneers and Chavdarchetas stand to report before Dimitrov's Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party. In this hour, the Pioneer groups from the mountain tops to the banks of the Danube, from the Black Sea to Osogo hear and repeat in their hearts our words of pride, appreciation, and admiration. Liberty! It came smiling and was awaited as a ruddy peasant maiden with an automatic gun in her hand and cartridges on her belt, with a daisy in her curls and delight in her eyes. It came during the prettiest of all autumns, and during the loveliest September. Liberty! It came from the top of the Balkans to return to the people their lost happiness. Russian soldiers sang on the roads and there were not enough flowers to decorate their guns, nor enough hands to greet them. It was during the prettiest of all autumns, and during the loveliest September. Twenty glorious years have passed since then! The ashes of the war were still smouldering when liberty came. The ground of our brothers' graves was still wet, when our great mother — the Party — had determined how to change the lives of the children. One man with a big heart, Georgi Dimitrov, the leader of our nation, had already drawn the path for the youngest generation. Soon, one after another, the glorious bands of the Chavdarchetas appeared. The first detachments! They beamed radiantly like sparks in a fireplace. Many of the first Septemvriiche are now Komsomols and Communists. Some are at our assembly among you. Some are next to their radios and television sets. Some are in factories and plants. Some are on the wide blue ocean or in the heights of the heavens. And every one of them now, wherever they are, lift,

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APPENDIX C in thought, their hands, and together with us give a report of their deeds. A familiar tone rings in their minds and they are moved to whisper its beginning: "Sing in our bright homeland, all little Septemvriiches." The Pioneers have performed many deeds in honor of our glorious holiday. Our own native Party! You teach us to be faithful children to our fatherland. That is why we followed the footsteps of the heroic communists. We traversed the plains and mountains, two hundred thousand strong, to be participants in the second Dimitrov expedition. We turned the marvelous pages of your history with baited breath. We decorated the monuments to the heroes with wreaths and bouquets. We looked with admiration at the huge factories, the oil turrets, and the vast electric power stations. We rejoiced at the new cities and villages, and at the vast cooperative fields; we became acquainted with the feats of the workers and cooperatives. The heroism of our sons and daughters, members of our own native Party, inspires us in our study and labor. We are proudly reporting that the slogan "Study and labor — labor and study" set forth by your Comrade Zhivkov, is being carried out with honor in true Pioneer spirit. In our lines step hundreds of thousands of children from the model Pioneer detachments. These Pioneers are first in study and first in labor. Knowledge and technology illuminate our future path, revealing to us wonderful worlds! That is why in 22,320 groups we learn the secrets of mathematics, physics, and chemistry and become acquainted with the structures of complicated machines by constructing models of airplanes and ships. We also arrange collections of minerals and plants. We broaden our knowledge in the workshops, laboratories, and experimental fields. Our friendship with the youth brigades for communistic labor is firm and hearty. From our more experienced friends, we learn diligence and perseverance, comradeship and mutual aid, and honor and humility. Our native Party! We solemnly promise to study more diligently so that we may become good workers, cooperators, engineers, agronomists, doctors, and teachers — tomorrow's builders and protectors of our precious, cherished Dimitrov Party. We, the Pioneers and the Chavdarchetas, take an active part in the motto "Pioneer labor for our country." We plow, water, and weed our school gardens, plant greenery along the streets, and plant young forests. During this year alone we gathered three thousand tons of dry herbs and mushrooms. Our well-tilled fields have not known dry heat or weeds. For us, the young owners, every vegetable bed is an open book which teaches us how to wrest from the earth more and better yields. We take care of many domestic animals and birds. We help the cooperators by picking cherries and peaches, watering grapes and melons, feeding silkworms, watching the wheat sheaves for fire, and bringing water to the mowers and harvesters. This year we collected 5,680 tons of paper and iron. We are the patrol boys and girls on our streets, and help the frontier guards. Comrade Zhivkov! The Dimitrov Central Committee! The Pioneers and the Chavdarchetas are ever ready to learn in order to strive for the good of our socialistic land!

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH

We not only study and work, but we also participate in sports. Every autumn we take part in the International Pioneer quadruple wrestling matches, we swim in the Danube, and we organize competitions and athletic games. Thousands of Pioneers wear a badge with this motto: "Pioneer, be ready for labor and defense." In the morning we do gymnastics, learn to swim, and do exercises. From our Pioneer groups have come many athletes who have made our land famous throughout the world. When the Pioneers and Chavdarchetas step on the scene, they steal the hearts of the public. Who has not been filled with admiration by the native dances; the children's philharmonic orchestra, "Pioneer"; the dances of Gabrovo, Varna, Tolbuhin, Burgas, Vratza; or by the hundreds of young instrumentalists, dancers, and artists of the country? The force that strengthens our Pioneer detachments is the intimacy with our friends of the great Soviet Union, with the friends of the socialist countries, and with children all over the world. From the example of Lenin's Pioneers, who are most dear to our hearts, we learn how to live more amicably, how to master knowledge, and how to work and play. Dimitrov Komsomol, our older brother and comrade! We are grateful that you trained and hardened courageous fighters as our examples — lordanka Nikolova, Alexsander Dimitrov, Adulburg Antonov, Svilen Russev, Lilyana Dimitrova, and Vela Peeva, to name a few. We are grateful that the Pioneer groups in the past have provided builders for our land, and that you are helping us to become worthy citizens to take your place. Our Party! Our wise and brave mother! We thank you for the good teachers and leaders! We thank you for the thousands of beautiful schools, Pioneer homes, libraries, children's homes, and camps; for the red and blue ties; for festivals and athletic games; and for everything that makes us so fortunate today. Central Committee! We, the Bulgarian Pioneers and Chavdarchetas solemnly declare that we will study and work so that we will honor the Dimitrov flag, and will fly it fearlessly as a symbol of the Party, the mother of our Communist legacy. Dimitrov's Pioneer Organization, "Septemvriiche." CKR [Central Committee of the People's Republic of] Bulgaria, Sofia. September 23, 1964. The Pioneers — Golden Youth of the Party and the Nation3 "Our joy, our hope, our future" — that is the way we are accustomed to calling the children of our nation! This day is celebrated as the anniversary of the Dimitrov Pioneer Organization, "Septemvriiche," as well as of the Liberation. Both are the same age. The Pioneers were created by the great son of Bulgaria, Georgi Dimitrov, who was brought up and trained by the Bulgarian Communist Party. This organization became the beloved organization of the Bulgarian children. Under its scarlet flags, lit up by Dimitrov's smile, over one million Pioneers and Chavdarchetas [Junior Pioneers] walk and sing. The Dimitrov Pioneer Organization "Septemvriiche" celebrates its coming of age. This holiday of the Pioneers is a holiday of young Bulgaria. The fast C194]

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growth of the organization is due to the concern of the Central Committee of our Party and personally to our comrade, Todor Zhivkov. In his meetings and talks with the Pioneers and the leaders of the detachments, comrade Todor Zhivkov presents inspired goals and gives fatherly advice and direction for the communistic training of the children. The time: 7 P.M., September 23. The place: Universiada Hall. Here every corner feels the momentousness of the national anniversary session. This hall has witnessed the excitement of the many thousands of enthusiastic youth gatherings, meetings with the Soviet Komsomols, and the triumphs of Bulgarian sports. But, possibly up to now the hall has never been so brilliantly lit. The crystals of silence were shattered by the Pioneer song. The hall shone from the scarlet flames of a thousand Pioneer scarfs and from the light of the clear eyes of the youth destined to see over the horizon in the coming days. And one pictures the millions of Bulgarian Pioneers and Chavdarchetas, standing in solemn rows for the Republic's Pioneer assemblages all over cities and villages of our land, shivering from enthusiasm and impatience, and carrying flags and bouquets for the celebration of the holiday. In all the rows of the Pioneers here assembled there is much beauty and pride — the heirs of the little red-shirt proletarians, the little helpers of the partisans, and the youngest sons of the Party fallen in bitter war. All Dimitrov Pioneers come to report with pride before their beloved Party and the nation. They grow with all-around interests, hungering to learn of everything that surrounds them. They are captivated by the sciences and technology, much as Georgi Dimitrov was when he founded the "Septemvriiche." His legacies are their first aim: to walk in the path of this alert and energetic organization. Its path is directed by the speeches of the Party, by the wise decisions of the April Session of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party and of the Eighth Congress of the Party, that cleansed the Pioneer Organization from the weeds of dogmatism and formalism. The anniversary session began with the sound of fanfare and the beating of drums. The hearts of the Pioneers and of the hundreds of friends of the Pioneer Organization paused momentarily. On the platform the members of the presidium take their places: the comrades Todor Zhivkov, Boris Velchev, Stanko Todorov, Dimif'r Dimov, Natcho Papazov, Luchezar Avramov, Evan Prumov, the Minister of National Education, Gancho Ganev, secretaries of the Central Committee and DKMC [Dimitrov Communist Youth League], heroes of the labor, and [other] public figures. Those giving the signals lift the silver trumpets with the scarlet flags. The President of the Assembly, Evgeni Vulev, who is also the battalion President at School 12 in Sofia, commands excitedly: "Pioneers, stand up! Pioneers, attention!" Thousands of Pioneers, having fulfilled their trust, stand at attention. Hundreds of thousands of their little companions from all corners of Dimitrov's native land carry out the command of the assembly. The President turns and steps toward Comrade Todor Zhivkov, first secretary of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party and president of the Ministerial Council of the National Republic of Bulgaria, and asks him to grant that the session be opened.

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The leader of the Party and of the nation, the great friend of the youth and the Pioneers, smiles a warm and fatherly smile, and nods: "I grant." The Pioneer flags enter the auditorium, carried by children filled with joy and enthusiasm, and are received by long, unabating "Hurrahs!" It always happens this way. To someone falls the honor of speaking on the behalf of his comrades. On the unforgettable holiday evening, Valentin, Emilia, Alexsander, Zoja, and Radiana are so honored. They report before the beloved Party, the mother and teacher of all Bulgarian children. They report not on one detachment, or of one group, but in the name of seven hundred thousand Pioneers and of three hundred thousand Chavdarchetas who at this moment follow their every word attentively from the hall, in front of the radio, and before the television sets. (The report of the Dimitrov Pioneer Organization "Septemvriiche" to the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party is printed separately.) The assemblage of thousands of Pioneers applauds the anniversary report of its organization. The First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party, the beloved friend of the Bulgarian children, Comrade Todor Zhivkov, receives the report of the twentieth year of the organization and greets the children: "Dear Pioneers and Chavdarchetas, for the cause of socialism, for the good fortune of our fatherland, be ready! Always ready!" The hall echoes with delight and enthusiasm. The noise of the Pioneers sounds like a spring stream. From the platform Comrade Boris Velchev, member of the Politboro of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party greets the Dimitrov Pioneers. (The greeting is given separately.) Young and excited, the Pioneers stand and greet the Central Committee. Spontaneously, the children shout "Bulgarian Communist Party, Bulgarian Communist Party," and begin singing "Communists, Komsomols, Pioneers..." The voices of the thousand-member choir darts to the heavens and resounds in the villages and cities, winging over fields, forests, and mountains, and reaching into the far corners of the country. It is taken up anew by the strong voices of hundreds of children of the whole country who on this festive moment are close together under the banner of the twentieth anniversary of "Septemvriiche." Pioneers, Pioneers a glorious journey awaits you — on the roads of labor! Communists, Komsomols, Pioneers, we are one in the same system. D. GEROVA B.BALEV

The School Bell Rang 4 Today the first school bell rang announcing the new school year. In the capital city alone approximately two hundred academic schools and fifty technical and professional-technical schools began classes. Through their open doors one hundred twenty-five thousand happy, alert students passed, all of whom were wearing their holiday outfits. Today thousands of students once again entered through the doors of the institutions of higher education! First day of school! What happiness it brought to the children, teachers, and parents! With a warm look and a kind smile, loved and respected teachers wel-

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APPENDIX C corned their students and called them once again to work persistently and selflessly over their books. The Party and the government are greatly concerned about the development and prosperity of education. All of our children have the opportunity to study and to train in the communist spirit, so as to become worthy builders of socialism and communism. We are one of the world's leaders in the percentage of students attending school. The Marxist-Leninist principle — the study and training of the student combined with a useful and productive labor — is applied. Our schools give the student the kind of education that he will use to build the new life. The beginning of the school year coincides with the twentieth anniversary of our socialistic revolution. On this occasion our nation reported great deeds — the fruits of its heroic labor. Apace with our other successes goes the national education. [Training in] labor always becomes a deeper part of the life of the school and serves as a foundation for the building of the whole educational process. The material base of the educational institutions becomes wider and richer. The teacher, who is the sower of truth and knowledge, has the responsibility of preparing the children and youth for the requirements of life. He must fully and correctly understand and evaluate the meaning of the Law for Closer Ties between School and Life and the instructions of Comrade Todor Zhivkov, given at the Ninth Congress of the Komsomols. The teacher must relate the instruction of all subjects to life, to the practice of socialist construction. To this end, he searches untiringly for new methods of instruction and training, to enable the students to master the material they are studying, while building their Marxist-Leninist ideology. The education and training of our children and youth is the job of all of our society. They are helped to do this by the Pioneers, the Komsomols, and the members of the Fatherland Front Organization, and the collectives of the enterprises and factories. We wish much success to all students and teachers! Your school days are the days which you will recall with a warm, pleasant feeling. There is a day of great importance, that is not repeated, which awakens the most exciting scenes from childhood, but one which everyone wants to recall. This day is the first day of school, when the school bell rang again for you, and the classroom became filled with happy children like yourself. This morning the school bell rang in all the city's primary grades, high schools, and professional schools. Thousands of children, who until recently were at the Pioneer camps, at the beaches of the Black Sea, in the Balkan Mountains, or at Rila and Pirin, have returned with pleasant memories of the summer and are anxious to begin their studies. The first-graders are especially excited, for to them, everything is new and interesting. They have some fear of the unknown, and are somewhat shy, but with boundless curiosity they enter their new school, which by the next day will be familiar to them. How proud are the two little friends Vladko Benevski and Nikola Petroff. Until yesterday they wore the blue aprons of the kindergarten; now, they wear their black aprons proudly and carry small suitcases: they are real students! Their little hearts trembled when Comrade Gencheva read their names as she gave them their seats among the other children. Little

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH Yavor Stoyanov also entered the class filled with curiosity. Primary School 6 is not new, but inside it is very pleasant and clean, and very bright, and there are many flowers in the corridors as well as in the classrooms. This day will be long remembered also by the first-graders of Primary School 105, Colonel Abadjiev School, which was named for the regiment commander Abadjiev. The principal, Stoyanka Kioseva, expressed her best wishes to the students and said that she hoped that they all would become honor students and good citizens in our homeland. The fourth-graders Emil Georgiev, Ivan Palikov, and the rest of their classmates presented the first-graders with gifts. But the first-graders held on to their mothers' hands and did not dare to become separated from them. They are still shy, because everything here is new. Little Rumen Donchev came to school alone today. He is already a secondgrader in the Emil Markov School, and he knows his teacher, his friends, and his school. Many songs were sung on this first day, and many poems were recited in every school in the capital city and all over the country, because the new school year had begun. All the students — from the oldest to the youngest — were in a holiday mood. But the happiness of the students from the C. M. Kirov Electro-Technical School is doubled. They have a new, modern building, excellently equipped. There are classrooms for all the different subjects and specialties. Everything here predisposes the young students at this school to labor and study. It also obligates them to become masters of their trade, as well as excellent specialists. Their visitor today was the Minister of Education, Gancho Ganev. The school in the Benkovski District is new also, and in about a month the students from the Suhata Reka District will move into their new building, too. That will be one of the prettiest school buildings in the capital city. The students in the rest of the schools also had happy experiences on the first day of school. They were visited by many guests — parents, public officials from the districts, and educators. These guests spoke to them of education and labor and wished them health, alertness, and success — great success during the new school year.

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appendix

L)

TRANSLATIONS FROM COURSES OF STUDY AND EDUCATIONAL DOCUMENTS

Topics Studied in Geography: Excerpts and Outlines from the Bulgarian National Course of Study in Geography Geography: Program of Study, Grade 4 [Each week fourth-graders devote IVi hours to the study of geography; the total of 47 hours yearly is distributed thus: for new information, 25 hours; for summarizing and review, 12 hours; and for practical work, 10 hours.] INTRODUCTION: GEOGRAPHICAL MAPS The People's Republic of Bulgaria 1. Our Fatherland: Its Boundaries and Its Size 2. The Surface Features of Our Fatherland Northern Bulgaria 1. The Danube River and Our Danube Riverbank Area 2. The Danube Plain and Dobrudja 3. Stara Mountain Southern Bulgaria 1. The Sofia Valley 2. The Valley along the Rivers Struma and Mesta 3. Eastern Sub-Balkan Mountain Valleys 4. The Sredna Forest 5. The Thracian Lowland 6. The Tundzhanska Oblast and the Strandzha Mountain 7. Rila and Pirin — The Most Beautiful Mountains in Bulgaria 8. The Rhodope — The Most Extensive Mountain Chain in Bulgaria The Black Sea and Our Black Sea Coast Roads and Communications in Bulgaria

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF B U L G A R I A N YOUTH

Selected Problems in General Geography and the Physical Geography of Africa and America, Grade 51 [Fifth-graders devote to geography] 2 class hours weekly, a total of 66 hours yearly, distributed as follows: for new information, 44 hours; for practical work and excursions, 14 hours; for review, 8 hours. SELECTED TOPICS IN GENERAL PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY: THE EARTH AS A SPHERE; MAP STUDY

What Geography Teaches Orientation Shape of the Earth and Its Movement Lines of Latitude and Longitude and the Size of the Earth Maps and Charts Kinds of Maps. Geographic Globes The Dry Land The Distribution of Dry Lands. The Seacoasts Contour of the Earth Bodies of Water Distribution of Bodies of Water Oceans and Seas Air Air and the Temperature of the Air Air Pressure Wind Moisture in the Atmosphere and Rain Weather and Climate AFRICA General Physical Geographic Overview Geographic Location, Size, and Coastline Its Surface and Mineral Resources Climate Bodies of Water Physical Geographic Belts and Regions Populations and Political Divisions Populations The Political Map UAR — Egypt. The Republic of South Africa The Newly Liberated Countries AMERICA General Geographic Overview Geographic Location, Boundaries, and Coastline Surface and Mineral Resources Climate Bodies of Water Physical Geographic Belts and Regions C2003

APPENDIX D

Populations and Political Divisions Populations The Political Map Countries of South America Countries of North America The Physical Geography of Europe, Asia, Australia, and Antarctica, Grade 6 [Sixth-graders devote to geography] 2 class hours weekly, a total of 66 hours yearly, to be distributed as follows: for new information, 47 hours; for practical work and excursions, 10 hours; for review, 9 hours. EUROPE General Physical-Geographic Overview Geographic Location, Size, and Coastline Surface Climate Bodies of Water Lakes Physical-Geographic Belts and Regions Populations and Political Divisions Populations The Political Map The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Czechoslovakia and Poland Rumania and Hungary Yugoslavia and Albania The Democratic People's Republic of Germany and the German Federal Republic Great Britain France and Italy Greece ASIA General Physical-Geographic Overview Location, Size, and Coastline Surface Climate Bodies of Water Physical-Geographic Belts and Regions Populations and Political Divisions Population The Political Map The Chinese People's Republic The Mongolian People's Republic, Korea, and Vietnam Countries of Southwestern Asia India and Indonesia Japan

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH AUSTRALIA

Geographical Location and Coastline Climate, Bodies of Water, Physical-Geographic Belts and Regions Inhabitants and Economy ANTARCTICA [is studied as much as possible, though there is a relatively small amount of information available.] Geography of Bulgaria, Grade 7 [Seventh-graders devote to geography] 2 class hours weekly, [a total of] 66 class hours yearly, distributed as follows: for new information, 47 hours; for practical work and excursions, 10 hours; for review, 9 hours. GENERAL OVERVIEW

A. The Geographic Location and Size of Bulgaria Surface Mineral Resources Climate Bodies of Water Soil and Vegetation Inhabitants Inhabited Places B. Overview of the Physical Geographic Regions — with Brief Information Concerning the Economy and Inhabited Regions I. NORTHERN BULGARIA

The Danube River and Bulgaria's Danube Coastline The Danube Lowlands Stara Planina [the Old Mountain, a mountainous region in Bulgaria] II. CENTRAL BULGARIA

West Central Bulgaria Mountains in West Central Bulgaria River Valleys of the Upper Iskar River River Valleys of the Upper Struma River and the River Erma East Central Bulgaria Sub-Balkan Mountain River Valleys Sredna Gora Upper Thracian Lowland Tundzhanian Region III. SOUTHERN BULGARIA

Rhodope Mountains Western Rhodope Mountains Eastern Rhodope Mountains The Rila Mountains Pirin Mountains and the Valley of the River Mesta The River Valley of the Centra Struma and the Mountains Bordering on Its West C2023

APPENDIX D IV. THE BLACK SEA AND BULGARIA'S BLACK SEA COAST

The Black Sea The Bulgarian Black Sea Coast B. The National Economy A General Overview of the Economic Development of Bulgaria Industry Heavy Industry Light Industry Agriculture Vegetable Growing Animal Husbandry Transportation Economic Ties General Physical Geography, Grade 8 [Eighth-graders devote to geography] 2 class hours weekly, [a total of] 58 class hours yearly, distributed as follows: for new information, 44 hours; for practical work, 8 hours; for review, 6 hours. INTRODUCTION

Subjects, Problems, and Divisions of the Geographical Sciences MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

The Heavenly Bodies. The Solar System Rotation of the Earth and Its Axis The Orbiting of the Earth around the Sun Geographical Maps Map Sketching CLIMATOLOGY

The Atmosphere The Temperature of the Air Atmospheric Pressure Air Currents Precipitation Seasons. Cyclones and Anti-Cyclones Climate Climatic Belts and Regions HYDROLOGY

Drainage and the Water Drainage Systems of the Earth according to Great Divides Rivers Lakes and Marshes Oceans and Seas Waves of the Oceans and Seas High and Low Tides Ocean and Sea Currents C203H

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF B U L G A R I A N YOUTH GEOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY

Structure of the Earth Kinds of Earth Surfaces — According to Their Origin Kinds Formed by External Forces Kinds Formed by the Action of Running Water Kinds Formed by the Chemical Action of Water Kinds Formed by Glaciers Kinds Formed by the Action of Oceans and Seas Kinds Formed by the Action of the Wind BIOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY

Geography of Vegetation (Botanical Geography) Geography of Animal Life (Zoological Geography) GEOGRAPHY OF POPULATIONS

Inhabitants of the Earth THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHICAL ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN SOCIETY

Physical Geographical Belts The Equatorial Forest Belt. Savannas and Marshland Regions The Tropical and Intracontinental Deserts. The Subtropical Regions Regions of Steppes and Forests in the Temperate Climates and the Arctic Tundra Region The Geographic Environment and Human Society Economic Geography of the Soviet Union and of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, Grade 10 [Tenth-graders devote to geography] 2 class hours weekly, [a total of] 64 class hours yearly, distributed as follows: for new information, 53 hours; for practical work and excursions, 6 hours; for review, 5 hours. INTRODUCTION

A. Economic Geography of the Soviet Union Union of the Soviet Socialist Republic Inhabitants and Governmental Structure General Characteristics of the Economy Geography of the Industry Geography of the Agricultural Economy Geography of the Transportation System Economic Ties B. Economic Geography of Bulgaria 1. General Overview An Economic Evaluation Economic Geographical Overview Surface Mineral Resources Climate and Bodies of Water Soils, Vegetation, and Animal Life

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APPENDIX D

The Inhabitants and Manpower Resources 2. The National Economy a. A Survey by Branches [of the Economy] General Characteristics Geography of the Industry [Sources of] Energy: Types of Power Stations Mining, Metallurgy, and Toolmaking Chemical, Building, and Woodworking Industries Food and Tobacco Industries Textile and Leather Industries The Geography of the Agricultural Economy The Production of Food Grains The Development of Technological Culture Vegetable Raising, Vine Husbandry, and Sheep Raising Animal Husbandry The Geography of the Transportation [Industry] Economic Ties b. Survey of Bulgaria's Economy by Districts [Rayons] The Concept of District Divisions The Southwestern District The South Central District The Southeastern District The Northeastern District The North Central District The Northwestern District

Topics Studied in History: Translations from the Bulgarian Course of Study in History Program of Study [in History], Grade 4 [Fourth-graders devote to history 2 class hours weekly; the total of 62 hours yearly is distributed thus: for teaching new information, 40 hours; for generalization and review, 22 hours.] INTRODUCTION

I. Our Fatherland in the Distant Past A. The Formation of the Slav-Bulgarian State B. The Growth of the Slav-Bulgarian State C. Slavic Letters D. The Might of the Bulgarian State E. National Opposition against the Tsar, Boyars, and the Church — The Bogomil Movement F. The Fall of Bulgaria and the Rule of Byzantium G. Liberation from Byzantine Rule H. Expansion of the [Bulgarian] State I. The Peasant Uprising Led by Ivaylo II. The Bulgarian People under Turkish Rule A. The Fall of Bulgaria under Turkish Rule C2053

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH B. The Hard Life of the Bulgarian People under the Turkish Yoke C. Individual and Mass Conversions to Islam of the Population D. The Struggle of the Bulgarian People against Turkish Oppression III. The Reawakening of the Bulgarian People and Their Liberation from Turkish Rule A. The Beginning of the Reawakening B. The Development of Learning C. The Organized Battle of the Bulgarian People for Liberation from Turkish Rule D. Preparation for a General Uprising E. The National Uprising of April [Background] F. The Outbreak of the April Uprising G. Khristo Botev and His Cheta in Bulgaria H. The Liberation of Bulgaria from Turkish Rule IV. Bulgaria after the Liberation from Turkish Rule A. The European States against a Great and Powerful Bulgaria B. Changes in the Life of the Bulgarian People after Their Liberation from Turkish Rule C. The Creation of the Bulgarian Workers' Social Democratic Party D. The Influence of the Great October Revolution on Bulgaria E. The National Armed Uprising of September 1923 F. The Battle against Fascism G. The Armed Battle of the Bulgarian People during Years 1941-1944 H. The Participation of Children in the Anti-Fascist Struggle V. Bulgaria on the Path of Socialism A. The Victory of the National Armed Uprising on the Ninth of September B. The Fatherland War of the Bulgarian People C. The Bulgarian People's Republic D. Changes in the Life of the People after the Ninth of September 1944 E. The Victory of Socialism in the People's Republic of Bulgaria F. The Gradual Transition of the People's Republic of Bulgaria to the Path of Communism G. The People's Republic of Bulgaria in the Struggle for Peace and Friendship among the Nations Introduction to the Program of Study for Grades 5-8 2 The students must become fully convinced that the achievements of our country are unthinkable without the tremendous and varied help shown to us by the mighty Soviet Union and without the mutual cooperation of the people's democratic nations. They must become aflame with the love and gratitude that our people have for the Soviet Union. Their understandings with respect to the indispensability of the indestructible unity of the socialist camp must be continually reinforced and emphasized; they must clearly realize that our country is an indivisible part of the united socialist camp. In studying the history of Bulgaria and in getting acquainted with the life and eternal struggles of our people against the foreign and native enslavers, the students must develop the feeling of love of their own people, of the achieveC2063

APPENDIX D

ments of our socialist fatherland, and a readiness to defend her against the attempts of her enemies to impede our peaceful progress. Grade 5. The History of the Old World [Fifth-graders devote to history 2 class hours weekly; the total of 66 class hours yearly is distributed thus: to introduce new knowledge, 46 hours; for review, 20 hours.] I. Introduction A. What History Teaches Us B. Periods in History II. Primitive Social Order A. Life of Primitive People B. The Formation of Tribes C. The Improvement of the Life of Primitive Man III. Slave Society A. The Ancient East 1. Egypt a. Life of the Egyptians in Most-Ancient Times b. The Egyptian State c. The Religion of the Ancient Egyptians d. The Culture of Ancient Egypt 2. India a. The Ancient Indian State and Its Inhabitants b. The Culture of Ancient India 3. Ancient China a. The Chinese State in Most-Ancient Times b. The Culture of Ancient China B. Ancient Greece 1. Greece in Most-Ancient Times a. The Natural Environment and the Inhabitants of Ancient Greece b. The Life of the Greeks in Most-Ancient Times c. The Religion of the Ancient Greeks d. Greek Colonialism 2. The City-States of Ancient Greece a. Sparta: The Life and Training of Spartans b. Athens (1) The Social and Political Organization of the Athenian State (2) Struggles of the Athenian Demos against the Aristocrats 3. The Greek and Persian War and the Development of Slavery during the Fifth Century B.C. a. The Origins of the Greek and Persian War b. The Victory of the Greeks in the Greek and Persian War c. The Flowering of the Athenian State d. Slavery in Ancient Greece 4. The Culture of Ancient Greece a. The Arts and the Theater

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b. Knowledge and Education 5. The Fall of Ancient Greece: The Peloponnesian Wars C. Ancient Macedonia 1. The Rise of the Macedonian State 2. The March of Alexander the Great to the East 3. Hellenic Culture D. Ancient Rome 1. Rome in Most-Ancient Times a. The Formation of the Roman Slave-Owning State b. The Social and Political Organization of Rome c. The Struggles between the Patricians and the Plebeians 2. Conquests of the Roman Slave-Owning State a. The Conquest of the Italian Peninsula b. The Punic Wars c. Rome — Mistress of the Mediterranean 3. The Insurrection of the Slaves and Poor and the Fall of the Republic a. Early Slave Uprisings b. The Fight of the Poor Villagers for Land c. The Great Slave Uprising Led by Spartacus d. The Fall of the Roman Republic in the First Century B.C. 4. The Roman Empire a. The Establishment of the Empire b. Roman Culture at the End of the Republic and the Beginning of the Empire c. Attacks against the Roman Empire at the End of the Second and the Beginning of the Third Century A.D. d. Christianity e. The Fall of the Western Roman Empire Grade 6. The History of the Middle Ages [Sixth-graders devote to history 2 class hours weekly; the total of 66 class hours yearly is distributed thus: to introduce new knowledge, 46 hours; for review, 20 hours.] I. The Early Middle Ages A. Western Europe from the Fifth to the Eleventh Century 1. The Beginnings of New Nations in Western Europe 2. The French State 3. The French Empire under Charlemagne and Its Fall 4. The Feudal Economy to the Eleventh Century 5. Conditions under Feudalism in Western Europe B. The Establishment of Feudal Society in the Eastern Roman Empire 1. Byzantium from the Fifth to the Eleventh Century 2. Byzantine Culture C. The Slavs to the Eleventh Century 1. Slavs 2. The Southern Slavs from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century 3. The Eastern Slavs from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century

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APPENDIX D D. The Establishment of Feudal Society in the East E. Arabia during the Sixth to the Eleventh Century 1. The Beginnings of Unification of the Arab Tribes 2. The Arabian Caliphet F. China: The Establishment of Feudalism in China II. The Golden Age of Feudalism A. The Development of Knowledge, Commerce, and Cities from the Eleventh to the Fifteenth Century 1. The Beginnings of Cities 2. Life and Culture in the Cities of the Middle Ages 3. The Class Struggle in the Cities B. The Catholic Church during the Middle Ages 1. The Church — The Largest Feudal Landlord 2. The Crusades 3. The Last Crusades C. The Formation of Centralized Feudal States in Europe from the Eleventh to the Fifteenth Century 1. The Strengthening of the Power of the Monarchy in France 2. The Strengthening of the Power of the Monarchy in England 3. The Hundred Years War and the Peasant Revolts in France and England 4. France and England during the Fifteenth Century D. Czechoslovakia during the Thirteenth to the Fifteenth Century 1. The Struggle of the Czech People against the German Invaders 2. The Peasant War in Czechoslovakia E. Culture in Western Europe from the Fifth to the Thirteenth Centuries 1. The Reactionary Influences of the Church upon the Development of Knowledge and Culture F. Russia during the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries 1. The Struggle of the Russian People against Foreign Invaders 2. The Beginning of the Unification of Russian Lands G. The Birth of Bourgeois Life and Culture 1. Italy during the Fifteenth Century and the Birth of the Bourgeois 2. The Beginning of Bourgeois Culture in Italy III. The Late Middle Ages A. The Development of Technology and Geographic Discoveries 1. The Development of Technology in Western Europe 2. The Discovery of America and a Water Route to India 3. Consequences of the Geographic Discoveries B. England during the Sixteenth Century 1. The Beginning of the Capitalist Development of England during the Sixteenth Century 2. The Development of Trade and the Fight for Colonies C. Developments in France: The Establishment of an Unlimited Monarchy D. The Reformation and the Peasant War in Germany 1. The Beginning of the Reformation in Germany 2. The Peasant War in Germany

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH 3. The Battle of the Catholic Church with the Reformation E. Russia during the Sixteenth and First Half of the Seventeenth Century 1. The Transformation of Russia into a Multi-National State 2. The Peasant War in Russia and the Defeat of the Polish-Swedish Interventionists F. Culture in Europe from the End of the Fifteenth to the First Half of the Eighteenth Century 1. The Development of Literature and the Social Sciences 2. The Development of Art 3. The Development of Science and Technology Grade 7. The History of Bulgaria [Seventh-graders devote 2 class hours weekly to history; the total of 66 class hours yearly is distributed thus: to introduce new knowledge, 51 hours; for review, 15 hours.] I. Bulgarian Lands during Primitive and Slave Societies A. Primitive Society B. Slave Society II. Bulgaria during the Feudal Epoch A. The Formation of the Bulgarian State and the Establishment of Feudalism 1. The Formation and Consolidation of the Slav-Bulgarian State 2. The Growth of the Slav-Bulgarian State 3. The Introduction of Christianity in Bulgaria 4. The Beginning of Slavic Letters 5. The Might of the Bulgarian Feudal State and the Flourishing of Bulgarian Culture in the Beginning of the Tenth Century 6. Popular Opposition against Feudal Oppression — The Bogomil Movement 7. The Fall of Bulgaria under the Byzantine Yoke B. The Golden Age of Feudalism from the Twelfth to the Fifteenth Century 1. The Liberation of Bulgaria from the Byzantine Yoke 2. The Development of the Bulgarian State during the Thirteenth Century 3. The Peasant Anti-Feudal Insurrection Led by Ivaylo 4. Economic, Social, and Cultural Life of Bulgaria during the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries 5. The Fall of Bulgaria under the Turkish Yoke C. The Bulgarian People under the Oppression of Turkish Feudalism to the Seventeenth Century 1. The Situation of the Bulgarian People under the Turkish Yoke 2. The Struggle of the Bulgarian People against Turkish Feudal Oppression D. The Renaissance of the Bulgarian People and the Battle for National Recognition and Liberation 1. The Beginnings of the Renaissance 2. The Battle for National Recognition

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APPENDIX D

3. 4. 5. 6.

The Battle for Political Liberation The Beginnings of the Organization of the Battle for Liberation The Development of Revolutionary Organizations Khristo Botev at the Head of the BRTSK [The Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee] 7. The National Insurrection in the Month of April 8. The Russian-Turkish War of Liberation III. The Establishment of Capitalism in Bulgaria [A. Early, Post-Liberation Developments] 1. The Order of the Bulgarian Bourgeois State 2. Bulgaria during the First Years after the Liberation 3. The Unification of Southern with Northern Bulgaria 4. The Intensification of Capitalist Development 5. The Beginning of the Workers' and Socialist Movement in Bulgaria 6. The Peasant Movement in Bulgaria 7. Bulgaria during the First Decade of the Twentieth Century 8. The Course of the Workers' Movement in Bulgaria at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century B. Wars of the Bulgarian Bourgeois 1. The Balkan and Inter-Allied War [The First and Second Balkan Wars] 2. World War I and Bulgaria's Participation in It 3. The Great October Socialist Revolution 4. The Influence of the Great October Revolution on Bulgaria IV. Bulgaria in Most-Recent Times A. The Course of the Revolutionary Movement in Bulgaria after the War 1. The Intensification of the Class Struggle in Bulgaria after the War 2. The Rule of the BZNS [The Bulgarian National Agricultural Union] 3. The People's Anti-Fascist Uprising of September B. Bulgaria during the Time of the Fascist Dictatorship 1. The Fascist Government of the United Parties after the Year 1923 2. The Leipzig Process and Its Repercussions in Bulgaria 3. The Establishment of an Open Monarchic-Fascist Dictatorship 4. The Struggle of the Bulgarian People against Bulgaria's Involvement in World War II 5. The Armed Struggle of the Bulgarian People against Hitler's Occupation of the Country and the Mastery of Capitalism 6. The New Stage in the Armed Struggle C. Bulgaria along the Path of Socialism 1. The Victory of the People's Armed Uprising on the Ninth of September 2. The Fatherland War of the Bulgarian People 3. The Strengthening of the People's Democratic Rule 4. Socialist Construction in NRB [People's Republic of Bulgaria] 5. The Victory of Socialism in the People's Republic of Bulgaria

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6. The Program for the Gradual Transition of NRB toward Communism Program of Study [in History], Grade 8 [Eighth-graders devote to history 2 class hours weekly; the total of 58 hours yearly is distributed thus: for teaching new information, 45 hours; for review, 13 hours.] I. The Beginning of Modern Times A. The English Bourgeois Revolution during the Seventeenth Century; The Beginning of the Industrial Revolution 1. England at the Eve of the Revolution 2. The Civil War 3. The English Republic 4. The Industrial Revolution B. The War for Independence in North America and the Formation of the United States of America 1. The War of Independence in North America 2. The Formation of the United States of America C. Russia during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 1. The Establishment of the Russian Empire 2. The Russian Empire during the Eighteenth Century II. Europe at the End of the Eighteenth and the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century A. The French Bourgeois Revolution during the Eighteenth Century 1. France at the Eve of the Revolution 2. The Ideology of the Progressive Bourgeois and the Masses 3. The Beginning of the Revolution 4. The Fall of the Monarchy 5. France during the Time of the Convention 6. The Dictatorship of the Jacobins B. France from 1794 to 1815 1. The Counter-Revolutionary Convention and the Directorate; the French Empire 2. Crisis in the Napoleonic Empire III. Europe during the First Half of the Nineteenth Century A. France during the First Half of the Nineteenth Century B. England during the First Half of the Nineteenth Century 1. The Economic and Political Development of England to the Middle of the Nineteenth Century 2. The Chartist Movement C. Utopian Socialism: Historical Prerequisites for the Development of Utopian Socialism D. Scholarly Communism 1. The Beginnings of Scholarly Communism 2. The Struggle for the Creation of the Marxist Party E. The Revolutions in Europe during 1848-1849 1. The Revolution in France during 1848 2. The Revolution in Germany during 1848 C2123

APPENDIX D

IV. The Development of Capitalism during the Fifties and Sixties of the Nineteenth Century A. Russia during the Fifties and Sixties of the Nineteenth Century 1. The Eastern Question and the Crimean War 2. Russia after the Crimean War B. England and Her Colonies during the Fifties and Sixties of the Nineteenth Century 1. England in the Fifties and Sixties of the Nineteenth Century 2. English Colonies at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century C. The Civil War in North America 1. The United States of America in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century 2. The Civil War in the United States of America D. China from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Century: The Feudal Order in China and the Beginning of Her Enslavement by the Capitalist Nations E. The Unification of Italy and of Germany 1. The Unification of Italy 2. The Unification of Germany F. The First Internationale 1. The Establishment and Activity of the First Internationale from 1864 to 1866 2. The Activity of the First Internationale from 1866 to 1870 G. The Development of Science and Technology from the End of the Seventeenth Century to the Seventies of the Nineteenth Century Topics Considered in the Study of the Constitution of the People's Republic of Bulgaria Outline from the Course of Study, Grade 8 (9 Class Hours Yearly) 1. Characteristics of the Constitution of the People's Republic of Bulgaria 2. A Socialist State - A New Kind of State 3. Supreme Organs of Governmental Power 4. Local Organs of Governmental Power 5. Organs of Governmental Rule 6. People's Courts and the Jurisdiction of the Public Prosecutor 7. The Fundamental Rights and Obligations of Citizens a. The Equality and the Socioeconomic Rights of the Citizens of the People's Republic of Bulgaria b. Basic Obligations of the Citizens The Development of Science The Development of Technology

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Topics Studied in the Fundamentals of Communism (Translated from the Bulgarian Course of Study) [Excerpts from] a Course Guide for the Fundamentals of Communism for the General Poly technical Schools and the Middle Vocational-Professional Schools and Technicums EXPLANATORY COMMENTS AND BRIEF METHODOLOGICAL SUGGESTIONS ABOUT THE COURSE

The formation of a Marxist-Leninist world view and a Communist consciousness among the students is one of the basic tasks of our school. This task is realized chiefly through the materialistic study of the content of the individual school subjects and through the varied extracurricular activities of the Komsomol Organization. Practice however shows that this [method] is not sufficient for building a world view among the students. The Eighth Congress of the Bulgarian Communist Party emphasized the increasing importance of ideological work in the education of the new man — the builder of socialism and communism — and gave [educators] the task of introducing as soon as possible a special course in the middle schools through which the students will become acquainted with the fundamental problems of Marxist-Leninist teachings and the politics of the Party. For this reason, in all middle polytechnical schools, in the technicums, and in the vocational-professional schools, a new school subject, the Fundamentals of Communism, is being introduced which will be studied two hours weekly in the final year of the course. In the program for Fundamentals of Communism are included for study in graded format several basic topics in dialectical and historical materialism, such as the philosophic basis of the Communist world view. A more unified approach to socialist-communist society is presented. Considerable time is allotted for the explanation of basic themes, developed by the Twentieth to Twenty-second Congresses of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Eighth Congress of the Bulgarian Commmnist Party — the peaceful contemporary existence of nations with different social orders, the prevention of war, the forms for passing from capitalism to communism, and the tasks and measures contributing to socialist and communist development. This is indispensable to make it clear to the students that the struggle for socialism and communism is not without direction, but rather a regulated phenomenon, deeply founded in scholarship and social-historical practice. Specific consideration in depth must be given to an explanation of the basis and reality of Communist morality as the most progressive and humane morality, basically opposed to bourgeois morality. The attention [of the students] must especially be focused on the battle against decadent bourgeois morality, against its penetration and [its] harmful influence upon one segment of our youth, and likewise also upon the battle for the uprooting of religion and other anachronisms remaining in the consciousness of some people, to the end that Communist morality may be established in the lives and relations of the people. It is indispensable that the students be convinced that the struggle for C214H

APPENDIX D communism is the chief content of Communist morality and that this struggle must become the thought and content of their life and activity. It is desirable that the Komsomol Organization in the school organize theoretical and practical problems of Communism, carried out by the students, teachers, and resource persons from the outside. The teachers of the course Fundamentals of Communism must assist the Komsomol [Organization] in this matter. The grading system for the Fundamentals of Communism is the same as that for all the other school subjects. THE PROGRAM *

Hours for New Knowledge For the middle polytechnical schools 55 For the middle professional technical schools 59 For the technicums 61

Hours for Review 5

Total Class Hours [per Year] 60

7 9

66 70

INTRODUCTION

I. Elementary Concepts about the Philosophical Bases for the Communist World View A. What Is a World View? B. Dialectical Materialism C. Historical Materialism D. Conclusions II. Capitalism, the Last Social Order of Exploitation: The Revolutionary Character of the Transition from Capitalism to Socialism A. The Concept of Capitalism as a Social Order B. The Revolutionary Character of the Transition from Capitalism to Socialism HI. Socialism, the First Phase of Communism A. The Economic Order of Socialism B. The Sociopolitical Order of Socialism IV. The Bulgarian Communist Party — The Universally Recognized Leader of the People in the Battle for the Victory of Socialism and Communism in the People's Republic of Bulgaria V. The Gradual Development of Socialism into Communism A. The Creation of the Materialistic-Technological Base for Communism B. The Formation of Communist Social Relations C. The Education of Man for Communism * The form of the tabulation of class hours has been modified; the content remains the same.

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VI. The World Revolutionary Process and Its Characteristics in the Contemporary Epoch Conclusions Excerpts from the Bulgarian Course of Study in Art Explanatory Notes 3 Aesthetic education in the elementary school is closely related to the intellectual, moral, and physical education of the students. Its basic aim is to prepare the students to be tomorrow's worthy, well-rounded builders of communist society. Instruction in art best promotes aesthetic education by helping the students to acquire knowledge of the various art forms. It has the following fundamental purposes: 1. To develop the students' powers of observation, to provide them with direction in viewing art forms, and to teach them to distinguish basic forms and colors in objects. 2. To give them the elementary skills necessary to draw with pencil, watercolors, and colored pencils. 3. To develop their aesthetic tastes, to widen their creative abilities, and to help them acquire an interest and a love for art. 4. To teach them to understand the significance of art in the practical life of man and to be able to apply their knowledge and ability in art both in school and in out-of-school situations. 5. To foster love toward the fatherland, labor, and the working people; to teach them accuracy and persistency in work. Art Themes SECOND GRADE *

Painting with watercolors on the following themes: Fall Plowing, On the Collective Farm, Harvest, Around the New Year Tree, The Valley in Spring, etc. Through the art themes, the children's love for nature and the fatherland must be developed. FOURTH GRADE B

Painting with watercolors on the following themes: The First Day of School, The Ninth of September, Autumn in the Valley, Miners, Oil Workers, Lumbermen in the Forest, etc. The idea of the beauty of nature and of human labor must be developed in the children. The Study and Discussion of Art Masterpieces (Grade 4} 6 Theme: "The Struggle of the Bulgarian People against Fascism." [Art Works]: Stoyan Venev (national artist laureate) — "The Parting" [of a partisan from his family], "September Nights" [a revolutionary scene]; lliya Petrov (national artist laureate) — "The Execution" [of a partisan], "A Par-

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APPENDIX D

tisan Song"; Nikola Mirchev — "Interrogation" [of a Communist]; Ivan Petrov — "Georgi Dimitrov at the Leipzig Trial," etc. Consideration of the important historical events, as portrayed in the paintings, from the heroic struggle of our people against fascism. Material from the Bulgarian National Course of Study on School Music Musical Compositions for Listening in the Elementary School, Grade 4 1. The National Anthems of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republic, and the Internationale 2. Oh, [Thou] Fatherland Communist Party 3. A Song about the [Communist] Party 4. March of the Machine Gunners 5. Battle for Peace 6. The Little Cannon [That] Fired—A Song of the Bulgarian Renaissance 7. March of Hikers 8. March of Youth 9. A Song about the [Communist] Party 10. A Song from the Repertoire of the National Folk Song Ensemble 11. A Song from the Repertoire of the Contemporary Song Ensemble of the Pioneer Palace in Sofia 12. A Snowy Spring — A Partisan Song 13. Dilmano Dilbero 14. A Song about the [Communist] Party 15. A Young Woman Partisan 16. The Cuckoo Has Begun to Cuckoo 17-19. Lullaby 20. A Song about Tomorrow's Cosmonaut 21. Dress Rehearsal for a Concert Program for the Training of Secretaries of the Central Committees of the Dimitrov Komsomol Organization for the Polytechnical Schools in the Central Camp School Lilyana Dimitrova, in the Village of Ravda, of the Burgas Unit Length of the Session: 20 days, [distributed as follows:] * Days Hours Arrival and departure 2 Field trips and hikes 1 Study 17 Lectures, preparation, and discussions 44 Physical cultural activities 26 Aesthetic education 26 Total 20 96 * The form of the tabulation has been slightly modified. C2173

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH /. Lectures, Preparation, and Discussion Lectures

Hours of Hours of Hours of Lecture Preparation Discussion

1. Character of our contemporary epoch and the central Party line of the International Communist Movement 2. The role of the Communist organization in the schools. The common aims of the pedagogical collective and the community. Development of self-activity and initiative on the part of youth. Self-government in the schools. The Komsomol Organization—initiator and organizer of extracurricular activities 3. Organizational-political support of school groups—the chief task of the Central Committee. The work of the secretary and the Central Committee in the selection, education, and training of activists 4. The work of the school committee and the Dimitrov brigades of the Dimitrov Komsomol Organization in the development of a Marxist-Leninist world view. Putting in practice the decisions of the Central Committee with respect to ideological-political work 5. Role of the school committee and the Dimitrov brigades for the establishment of effective, creative relations toward schoolwork, for bringing about an outstanding mastery of the specialty being studied by each student, and for orientating each young person toward a suitable profession 6. Competition — a method of work in the organization and a stimulus for a richer and more varied Komsomol activity 7. Aesthetic and physical education of students in the middle school — putting into practice the policies of the Central Committee

Total

2

2

2

6

2

2

2

6

2

2

2

6

2

2

2

6

2

2

2

6

2

4

2

6

2

2

2

Exchanging Experiences 1. How to plan the work of the [Komsomol] Organization. How to organize and conduct the meetings of the Central Committee and the Dimitrov brigade and the general sessions of the organization. 2 hours. C2183

APPENDIX D 2. The work of the Central Committee in preparation for the National Congress of Middle Schoolers. 2 hours. NOTE: The following theme is to be discussed during an extracurricular period: "The contemporary role of the Komsomol and Red Cross groups in the schools in promoting public health education among the students of the middle schools and in the fight for sobriety." To be given by a lecturer from the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Red Cross. //. Physical Activities 1. Carrying out competitive games and mass cross-country races. 2 hours. 2. Carrying out competitive volleyball games among the various companies. 2 hours. 3. Carrying out competitive games in light athletic pentathlons. Conducting the elimination games in light athletics among the companies. 2 hours. 4. Carrying out competitive games in basketball within the Komsomol companies and between companies. 2 hours. 5. Practical activities to meet the set of requirements for work and defense of the Bulgarian People's Republic. 2 hours. 6. Lessons in swimming and conducting swimming meets. 16 hours. ///. Aesthetic Education 1. Musical Self-Activities— 8 hours. All campers are to learn the following songs: (1) "Student's Waltz," by J. Tzankov; (2) "Fatherland," by Todor Papov; (3) "Song about Troubled Youth," by A. Pakhmutova; (4) "Spring Paths," by A. Tanod; (5) "Holiday Song," by Todor Papov; (6) "Communist, Komsomol, and Pioneer," by P. Stupol. 2. Musical Self-Activities — 10 hours. All campers are to learn the following national and modern dances: (1) "Svishtovsko Horo," (2) "Rachenitza," (3) "Gankino," (4) "Pravo Horo," (5) "Kasapsko Horo," (6) "Dobrudzhana," (7) "Cha-Cha-Cha," (8) "E-Ha-Ha," (9) "Charleston," (10) "Madison." 3. Theatrical Self-Activities — 8 hours. Preparation for a talent night, the night of poetry, a festival; discussing a film; meeting personalities from the theater.

Yearly Plan of Work of the Central Station of the Young Technicians Basic Objectives 1. To guide the technical [study] circles in the schools and the Pioneer homes, so as to direct their work toward greater creativity and closer ties with industry and toward a study of the most recent achievements of modern science and technology. 2. To investigate and popularize the best practices in the development of technical creativity in the technicums and in the professional-technical schools. 3. To organize mass activities for the popularization of scientific and technical knowledge and for the development of technological creativity, cooperating in these projects in every possible manner with the Pioneer and Komsomol Organization. 4. To develop circles and clubs whose aim will be to formulate and experi-

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ment with programs for working with students of different abilities and school levels. Activities to Fulfill the First Basic Objective 1. To assign certain workers of the Station to help the district Soviets to work with the individuals who are responsible for the organization and guidance of the technical circles and for the leadership of the total extracurricular and outof-school work in technology. 2. To work together with the district Soviets in checking and evaluating the extracurricular work of the students in technology in two okrugs of the country; to present the results of the evaluation of this work to the leadership of the Central Soviet on Work with Student Youth; and to write articles about it in the press. 3. To take the following steps with the aim of providing methodological and practical help to the leaders of extracurricular programs in technology: a. To conduct a practicum with the leaders of technical study groups in elementary, secondary, and technical schools. b. To conduct seminars with the [Pioneer] company leaders of Sofia and environs regarding the problems encountered in mass activities and club projects for the teaching of elementary practical skills. c. In cooperation with the Central Institute for the Improvement of Teachers, to conduct refresher courses for the leaders of study circles in chemistry and automation. d. To conduct seminar/practicums for study circle leaders in Sofia according to plans to be further developed. 4. To develop and experiment throughout the year with teaching plans for all the technical subjects that are taught at the Station or elsewhere; and to evaluate these plans and prepare the results for publication. 5. Together with the Central Soviet of Professional Organizations, to conduct meetings where teaching experiences will be shared with the leaders of study circles for the children of workers who are employed in the industrial establishments of Gabrovo, Plovdiv, Ruse, and Pernik. 6. To continue the card-indexing by the study circle leaders, with each director of a section preparing for print and sending at least four items for the Station's series [of publications], "Exchange of Experiences." 7. To keep the following objectives of the Station in mind: The radio league [of the Station] and the editor [of publications], in preparation of the published schedule for the year, should obtain and prepare for publication a greater amount of material to help the young builders in the study circles of the technicums, in summer programs, and in the Pioneer groups of the general polytechnical schools. Activities to Fulfill the Second Basic Objective 1. To have the heads of the sections review the plans of study of the technical schools in their respective specialty. 2. To have every section head follow closely and help with the extracurricular work of his specialty in the technicums of Sofia. The status of the work is to be reviewed by the Pedagogical Soviet. C2203

APPENDIX D

3. To review and disseminate by means of published articles the extracurricular work being carried out in the technicum Khristo Botev in Mikhailovgrad and the technicum in mechanics and electricity in Plovdiv. Activities to Fulfill the Third Basic Objective 1. To publish in the newspaper, The Middle School Banner of the Dimitrov Komsomol Youth League, a series of lesson-cycles in specific technical areas. 2. To conduct eight lecture sessions with the Mathematical Society; and to make preparations for the Third Conference of Young Mathematicians. 3. To organize a motion picture and lecture hall for the Pioneer companies of Sofia for the exclusive dissemination of scientific-technical knowledge. 4. In cooperation with the Pioneer Home of the City of Viden during Children's Book Week, to organize a reader's conference on technical topics for the Pioneers of the district. 5. Through extension services, letters, and printed materials, to help the Pioneer and Komsomol organizations to conduct seminars, evenings of technology, and other mass activities. 6. To assist the middle schools and technicums in Sofia with literature and methodological instruction so that they can carry out theoretical conferences on technology. 7. To continue the work of the Correspondence Library, with its eight hundred readers, for the students of middle schools in smaller cities and in village gymnasiums. 8. To organize and conduct by correspondence a theoretical conference in chemistry on three themes for students from grades eight to eleven in every middle school and technicum: artificial fertilizers, metals, and plastics. 9. In honor of the Ninth of September, and in cooperation with the motion picture and television studios, to organize a contest on the theme "Our Happy Years." The contest is to be concluded in the evening of the Ninth of September with exhibits in the okrugs and a central fair in Sofia. 10. To continue the work of the Young Constructor Clubs, helping the city and school committees of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League to increase the attendance of the clubs under the leadership of young teachers or specialists from industry. To issue five numbers of the bulletin, Young Constructor, in which a greater amount of space will be devoted to technological news, new technology, diagrams for making models, etc. 11. To conduct three regular sessions of the Patent Bureau, the results of which are to be published in due time in the press and in the bulletin of the club. 12. To have the Mathematics Section, together with the inspectors of mathematics of the Ministry of National Education, and the scholarly workers of the physical-mathematics faculty, organize and conduct the annual Mathematics Olympiad, and to have the radio station conduct the Republican Radio Contest. 13. To continue the work of the correspondence club, Young Technologist; with its four thousand Pioneer groups, maintaining a steady correspondence of technical literature, which has been varied and enlivened with puzzles, riddles, technical news, etc. 14. To continue the contest, "Make a Game for the Pioneer Game Room,"

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH for it serves very well to supplement the facilities, games, and materials of the room. 15. In honor of the annual anniversary of the formation of the Pioneer Organization, to declare the month of May the Month of Science and Technology, and to exhibit the work of the technical study circles as follows: a. To conduct a contest in the making of model airplanes at three levels: at the level of the Pioneer company and at the city and okrug level during the month of May and at the national level during the month of September. b. To conduct a contest in the making of boat models at three levels: at the level of the Pioneer organization, and at the city and okrug level during the month of May and at the national level during the month of September. c. To hold a contest in the making of rocket models at two levels: at the level of the okrugs during the month of May and at the national level during the month of September. d. To hold a mathematical olympiad at three levels for Pioneers up to grade 8: at the level of the Pioneer organization, at the city or okrug, and, lastly, at the national level. e. To conduct a photo contest on the theme "Our Happy Years as Pioneers." 16. So that desirable habits, skills, and understandings among the Pioneers may be developed, to organize a technical contest called "I Know and Am Able," which requires the mastery of certain skills on the part of the youthful participants. Activities to Fulfill the Fourth Basic Objective To organize the following groups at the Station, with the purpose of studying and improving the programs of the study groups in the various kinds of schools, as well as of the clubs in technology: 1. Woodworking — eight groups. Three groups of section heads of Pioneers and five of Pioneer leaders. 2. Mechanics — five groups. Two groups of section heads of Pioneers, two of students from the middle schools, and one from the technicums. 3. Mathematics — six groups. Three groups of section heads of Pioneers and three of teachers of upper grades. 4. Airplane and Rocket Model Making — seven groups. One group of section heads of Pioneers, three of middle school students, and three of teachers from the middle schools. 5. Printing — eight groups. Six groups of section heads of Pioneers, three of which are interested in the printing process and three in the bookbinding process, and two groups of teachers, one composed of teachers of students of middle school age and one of Pioneers. 13. Architecture and Building Construction — five groups. One group each of section leaders of Pioneers, middle school pupils, and students from the technicums, and two groups of teachers. 14. Each group of section heads shall help organize in schools or enterprises, and assist with their work, three study groups of beginners in the area of their specialization. 1:2223

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Activities to Fulfill the Fifth Basic Objective 1. Together with the Central Komsomol School, to conduct a two-week course for the leaders of the Technical Section of the Pioneer homes on how to conduct technological work in the summer Pioneer camps. 2. To compile a packet of patterns for use with campers, and to select appropriate printed matter to assist the directors of the Komsomol camp schools in instructing the Pioneer and middle school activists attending the schools. 3. To have our specialists participate in organizing by okrugs a series of seminars for the training of the leaders for Pioneer and middle school camps and for the camp schools. 4. To have our specialists participate in discussions and as the leaders of seminars in the camp schools for the training of Komsomol activists.

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appendix

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TRANSLATIONS FROM TEXTBOOKS

Excerpts from Bulgarian Arithmetic Textbooks Notes on the First-Grade Arithmetic Textbook * [Among the illustrations in the book are pictures of children waving to tractor drivers, children gathering fruit, women working in the garment industry, children marching in a parade and carrying flags with the word Peace and a picture of a dove on them, and a brigade of Pioneers sawing wood.] [Typical of the word problems in this text are the following:] A group of Pioneers were helping on a collective farm. One day they dug three sacks of potatoes, and on another day, they dug four sacks. How many sacks of potatoes did the group dig? [p. 42.] The students from one class gathered five sacks of nuts, and those of another class gathered four sacks of nuts. How many sacks of nuts did the students of the two classes gather altogether? [p. 42.] In a machine tractor station there were seven tractors. Three of them were sent to a collective farm to plow the earth, and the remaining number were sent to a second farm. How many tractors were sent to the second farm? [p. 40.] In one factory, there were eight Brigades of Communist Labor. Of this number, three brigades are formed from adult workers and the remaining number from youth. How many youth Brigades of Communist Labor are there in this factory? [p. 40.] From the school farm, the students gathered four crates of green peppers and three crates of red peppers. How many crates of peppers did the students gather together? [p. 39.] In a Brigade of Communist Labor, five women were given rewards and the same number of men. How many individuals were rewarded in this brigade? [p. 39.] Lubomir worked out nine items in his class on education in labor. Of this number, five items were from paper and the rest were from clay. How many items of clay did Lubomir make? [p. 36.]

APPENDIX E In the school garden, a group of Pioneers planted three pear trees and six apple trees. How many fruit trees did they plant all together? [p. 36.] Word Problems FROM THE SECOND-GRADE ARITHMETIC TEXTBOOK 2

The old fish hatchery on the collective farm was nineteen meters long, whereas the new one is sixty meters in length. How many meters longer is the new one than the old one? [p. 23.] In a garment-makers cooperative, twelve women and nineteen men are working. How many more men than women work there? [p. 23.] The third-graders of a school collected sixty-two old fruit jars, and the second-graders collected ninety. How many fruit jars fewer did the third-graders collect than the second-graders? [p. 23.] One day the miners of a coal mine dug out forty-two coal cars of coal, and on the next day, they dug out sixty coal cars of coal. How many coal cars of coal fewer did they fill the first day than the second? [p. 23.] One day, fifty-two Pioneers went to help with the work of a collective farm, and the next day seventy-six went. How many more Pioneers went to help on the second day than on the first? [p. 24.] Last year a collective farm had thirty-six cows, but presently it has fifty cows. How many more cows does it now have than it did last year? The students of a school planted thirty poplar trees and thirty-seven linden trees. Of the linden trees, four failed to take root. How many fewer poplar trees are there now than linden trees? [p. 26.] FROM THE THIRD-GRADE ARITHMETIC TEXTBOOK 8

The Pioneers at a camp were given for breakfast one hundred sixty biscuits that had been packaged in five boxes of equal size. Each Pioneer received four biscuits. On this basis, the contents of three boxes were divided among how many Pioneers? [p. 67.] The Pioneers from the troop Vasil Levsky collected 2,128 kilograms of wastepaper. In order to fulfill their pledge, two companies had to collect 186 kilograms more. How many kilograms of scrap paper had the Pioneers pledged to collect? [p. 81.] Two brigades began laying rails for a new railroad line. In four days, the first brigade laid an average of 239 meters of rails per day. During the same period, the second brigade laid a total of 48 meters of rails fewer than the first. In order for the line to be completed, 8,586 meters of rails more need to be laid. How many meters long is the railroad line? [p. 81.] FROM THE FOURTH-GRADE ARITHMETIC TEXTBOOK 4

Three Pioneer troops collected scrap woolen cloth. The first troop collected seventeen kilograms; the second, twelve kilograms; and the third, sixteen kilograms. Find the average number of kilograms of scrap woolen cloth that was collected, [p. 67.] One collective farm sold 2,520 tons of grain to the government which were

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH loaded equally on four freight trains. How many carloads of 15 tons each did each train pull? [p. 66.] FROM THE FIFTH-GRADE ARITHMETIC TEXTBOOK 5

One collective farm turned over to the government: the first day, 10 1/5 tons of wheat; the second day, SV2 tons of wheat more than on the first day; the third day, 41A tons of wheat more than on the second day. How many tons of wheat all together did the collective farm turn over to the government during the three days? [p. 47.] FROM THE SIXTH-GRADE ARITHMETIC TEXTBOOK 6

During the course of a six-day period, a worker manufactured fifty items over his quota each day. For producing above his quota, he received a premium of 5 per cent based upon the cost of the item. How many leva of premium did he receive if the cost of each item is sixty stotinki? [p. 46.] Notes on the Seventh-Grade Algebra Textbook 7 [The seventh-grade algebra text contains little material of direct significance in the social education of Bulgarian elementary school children. The book is primarily an exposition of basic algebraic laws and formulas. Although it includes a considerable amount of practice work, it has few word problems, so that the inclusion of material with social connotations is extremely limited. Only toward the end of the book are such problems presented. Several representative ones follow:] A certain worker laboring by himself can complete a particular job in six days; it takes another worker twelve days to do the same job. In how many days could these two workers finish a job if they were working together? A certain brigade of workers can plow a field and plant tobacco in it in fifteen days, a second brigade can do the same job in ten days, and it takes a third only six days to do the work. In how many days could these three brigades plow the field and plant tobacco in it if they were working together? A certain field in which corn was planted had to be worked by three brigades. The first brigade could have plowed the field and planted the corn in twelve days, the second in twenty days, and the third in fifteen days. However, on the first three days, only the first two brigades could work on the project; and it was only after this [time had elapsed] that the third brigade came to help. Under these circumstances, then, how many days did it take all together for the field to be plowed and the corn to be planted? Notes on the Eighth-Grade Algebra Textbook 8 [Similarly, the eighth-grade algebra textbook has few problems which can be considered to have social connotations. Five of those included are given below.] The students from one eighth-grade class gathered 112 kilograms of scrap materials: iron, copper, and paper. The amount of iron collected weighed three times more than the paper and the amount of copper gathered was 13

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kilograms fewer than the scrap paper. How many kilograms of each scrap material were gathered by the students? According to work norms, 120 decares of land had to be plowed daily on a cooperative farm. The cooperative farmers, however, plowed 160 decares of land daily and finished the plowing five days before the time required by the norms. How many decares of land did the cooperative farmers plow, and how long did it take them? A certain field of a cooperative farm can be harvested by two combines of different capacities in N days. One of the combines used alone can harvest the field in eight days. How many days will it take to harvest the field if only the second combine is used? On a cooperative farm, two fields, one of two hundred decares and the other of one hundred fifty decares, were set aside to be irrigated. During the course of the season, 1,650 tons of vegetables were obtained from the two fields. The average yield per decare of the second field was five hundred kilograms greater than the average yield per decare of the first field. How many tons of vegetables were obtained from each field? In a year at a certain machine factory, economies were effected that resulted in the saving of seventy-eight tons of coke and cast iron. The amount of coke saved is 56 per cent of the amount of cast iron saved. How many tons each of coke and cast iron were saved as a result of the economies that were effected? Excerpts from Bulgarian Science Textbooks Excerpts from a Fourth-Grade General Science Textbook Bulgaria is a rich and beautiful country. If we go in the meadow during the summer, a beautiful sight extends before us: In and above us in the sky, clouds float by and birds fly. . . . Nature in our fatherland is rich, varied and beautiful. It becomes still richer, still more beautiful through the cooperative labor of our Bulgarian people.9 Before the Ninth of September, the fascist government did not make provision for the wise use of our waters. At that time, many of our valleys were not being watered. The harvest from the fields in those areas was small. The people lived in poverty. After our liberation from fascism, the people's government surveyed the water resources of our fatherland. In order to use [these resources] properly, it built dams and irrigation systems on many lakes and rivers. With powerful electrical pumps, the water is drawn from the rivers and lakes into ditches to irrigatefieldsand gardens. . . . Bulgaria is rich with water resources. The people's government utilizes the water in nature and makes the lives of the workers richer, more convenient, and happier.10 Almost all inhabited regions in Bulgaria have modern water systems. The people's government takes great care and allots considerable means to provide

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH the villages and towns with pure water. Before the Ninth of September, Dobrudja had the least amount of water. Now many new pipelines have been built and almost all the villages are provided with a bountiful quantity of pure water. With windmills, water may be pumped from reservoirs and basins. Electrical energy also can be generated by the wind. Even for our country, the Soviet Union has built several windmills to pump water in Dobrudja. Until the Ninth of September 1944, we manufactured very little cement, and what was made was very expensive. Today we manufacture cement in five plants . . . and some of it is exported to other countries.11 Before the Ninth of September 1944, the miners dug the coal with pickaxes in the weak light of the miner's lamps. They worked under very difficult conditions. Today the production of coal has been mechanized. The miners dig the coal with special digging machines and electric drills, and they use steam shovels in open-pit mines. Until the Ninth of September 1944, most of the mineral resources in our country remained unexplored and unused. After the liberation, with the help of Soviet specialists, our geologists discovered many deposits of precious minerals, such as iron, lead, zinc and copper. Before the Ninth of September 1944, we did not produce any cast iron or steel. With the help of the Soviet Union, the people's government built the V. I. Lenin Steel Mill to produce cast iron and steel. We are now in the process of building the largest steel mill in our country in the village of Kremikovtsi, which is in the Sofia district.12 With the brotherly help of the USSR, we built chemical plants in Dimitrovgrad and elsewhere for the manufacture of artificial fertilizers. An immense quantity of artificial fertilizer is produced in them with which the productivity of the soil is sustained. . . . The spreading of artificial fertilizers may be done manually or mechanically. On the collective farms and on the state farms the work is done with machinery under the direction of agricultural specialists. Recently, mineral fertilizers have been spread by airplanes, as is done in the Soviet Union.13 An Excerpt from the Botany Textbooks for the Sixth Grade 14 [With the exception of the introductory statements in the preface that relate to the history of botany, the sixth-grade botany textbook contains nothing that may be used in the social education of the children. The text is restricted to a general survey of the field of botany and emphasizes plant structure, the life C228]

APPENDIX E

cycle, and plant classification. An excerpt from one of these introductory statements is given below.] The people's government exercises great care to develop botany. Today botany has a new task to fulfill — to aid the development of the agricultural economy. The conditions under which plant life best develops are being studied, as well as the procedures that must be followed to obtain the greatest productivity of cultured plants. Great discoveries in botany were made by the great Soviet scholars Kliment A. Timiryazev and Ivan V. Michurin. As a result of the new techniques from Michurin's discoveries, our scientists and those of the other socialist countries are able to create new kinds of plants and to apply them to man's use. Excerpts from the Physics Text for the Sixth Grade [With the exception of allusions to the achievements of the Soviet Union or the Communist government of Bulgaria, the sixth-grade physics textbook is relatively free of material that may have potential for the political or social education of children. The topics covered in the text, the illustrations employed, and the practice exercises that are included involve basic concepts, understandings, and content from physics as a subject, and few attempts have been made to interject extraneous material for political purposes. The excerpt below is one of these exceptions.] The great achievements of Russian and Soviet physicists are used for peaceful development, for the building of communism in the USSR and socialism in our country and other lands. The radio, which we all listen to today, is the invention of the Russian scientist, A. S. Popov. The Russian scientist N. D. Zhukovski, about whom Lenin said, "He is the father of Russian aviation," contributed much to the development of aviation. The scientific discoveries of Tsiolkovski in the area of rocketry are used by Soviet scientists and engineers in the building of artificial earth satellites, space vehicles, and rockets.15 After the Ninth of September 1944, mighty dams were built in our land under the guidance of the people's government. The water behind these dams represents an enormous quantity of potential energy.16 WORD PROBLEM "

During 1959 a new jet airplane was built in the USSR which could travel at 2,388 kilometers per hour. How much time will it take to travel from Sofia to Moscow at such a speed if the distance between these two cities is 2,060 kilometers? Analytical Comments on the Seventh-Grade Physics Textbook 18 [Similarly, the seventh-grade physics textbook is relatively free from extraneous elements of a political nature. The historical development of physics as a scientific field is presented, on the whole, in an objective and factual manner. Scientists from all countries are described as contributing to the immense body of knowledge which mankind now possesses in this area. The more remote a particular scientist is to the present, the more objectively his contributions are C229]

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viewed. Although some attempt is made to give Russian scientists credit for various discoveries that elsewhere in the world are attributed to Westerners, the text generally seems to recognize the importance of all nations to the advancement of knowledge in the field. [However, this statement is not true when it is applied to the contemporary scene. Indeed, recognition of Western achievements of the immediate past and of the present is almost nil. Such recognition is restricted almost solely to Soviet scientists and engineers. For example, Soviet space achievements are described in great detail, but little mention is made of similar activities by Western scientists and astronauts. The quotation below is a typical example.] On October 4, 1957, the first Soviet artificial earth satellite was shot into orbit. It was followed by a second and a third one, by a rocket to the moon, and by several cosmic vehicles. The legendary flights of Yuri Gagarin, Gherman Titov, Adrian Nikolayev, and Pavel Popovich were realized, to the credit of Soviet scientists, engineers, and technicians. Successful flights around the earth also were completed by American astronauts. The Russian physics teacher and mathematician Konstantin Tsiolkovski (1857-1935) has made extraordinary contributions to the development of rocket technology as a scientific field of study. Many elements of our contemporary rockets are built according to his ideas. He also was the first to work on the problems that are involved in artificial satellites and interplanetary spaceships. In 1961, the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin first circled the earth [in a space vehicle], thus opening the era of interplanetary travel. Man's scientific and technical genius achieved one of its greatest triumphs. Today the flag and coat of arms of the Soviet Union are found on the moon, transported there in cosmic vehicles created and directed by man. The route that leads to the planets has finally been discovered by man.19 Excerpts from Geography Textbooks Excerpts from the Fourth-Grade Geography Text [The following quotation is taken from a story in the fourth-grade geography book. The story is titled "Our Place of Birth," and it describes an excursion that a group of first-graders took under the supervision of their teacher to view the village where they were born and the surrounding area. The story emphasizes the landmarks of the community and especially its beauties. The quotation here describes the impressions of the children at the end of their field trip.] The children gazed for a long time at the breathtaking view which lay before them; they drank in the beauty of the panorama at their feet. They had walked through the area and were familiar with each section, but they gazed upon it now as if they had seen it for the first time. Everything was very dear to them. "This is your birthplace," continued the teacher. "Here you were born. Here your grandfathers and your great-grandfathers were born and grew up. Here those who are most dear to you — your father and mother — now live and C230]

APPENDIX E work. Your birthplace!" the teacher exclaimed with feeling. "There is nothing dearer to man than his birthplace!" It was as if the children had heard these words for the first time! Their whole beings were filled with emotion and love for their birthplace. They understood how much beauty and riches were hidden in their birthplace, and they began to love it still more.20 Dimitrovgrad is located south of the Plain of Starazagora by the Maritsa River. Dimitrovgrad is our pride. Thousands of youths volunteered their labor for its construction and, hence, it is called the city of youth. It is built near the greatest coal deposit in Bulgaria — the Marishki Basin. These great riches were not used before September 9, 1944. Now a huge chemical plant has been built in the city. This immense enterprise is the result of Bulgarian-Soviet cooperation. Dimitrovgrad is being built according to a plan and is becoming a beautiful socialist city. It bears the name of Georgi Dimitrov and will be his eternal monument. V. Bagryana writes about Dimitrovgrad in one of her poems: Oh, where the banks were bare and barren . . . Dimitrovgrad is built today. Proudly it stands. In the future that is far distant, It shall be a monument — for Dimitrov, Living and eternal, a monument immense.21 TABLE OF CONTENTS [FROM THE FOURTH-GRADE GEOGRAPHY TEXT] 2a

The Birthplace 1. The Birthplace 2. Excursions 3. Maps and Scales 4. Geographical Maps The People's Republic of Bulgaria 1. The Land of Our Birth 2. Surface Features of Our Fatherland Northern Bulgaria 1. The Danube River and the Danube Riverbank Area 2. The Danube Lowlands 3. Work Activities of the People of the Danube Plains: Cities, Towns, and Villages 4. Stara Planina [the old mountain] 5. Questions and Problems for Discussion in Studying Modern Bulgaria Southern Bulgaria 1. The Sofia Plain and Sofia - Our Beautiful Capital 2. The Valleys of the Rivers Struma and Mesta 3. Eastern Sub-B alkan Mountain Valleys 4. Sredna Gora 5. The Thracian Lowlands C231H

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6. 7. 8. 9.

The Tundzhanian Region and Strangzh Mountain Rila and Pirin — the Most Beautiful Mountains in Bulgaria The Rhodope Mountains The Natural Riches of the Rhodope Mountains: Cities, Towns, and Villages 10. Questions and Problems for Discussion in Studying Southern Bulgaria The Black Sea and the Black Sea Beaches: The Shore of the Black Sea and Its Inhabited Areas Travel and Communication in Bulgaria Excerpts from the Fifth-Grade Geography Text African Negroes who live in America were brought by the Europeans to work as slaves on the plantations. In the nineteenth century, the slavery of Negroes was legally abolished. Even today, however, especially in the United States of America, the Negroes do not have equal rights with the whites. Because of their black skins, the Negroes receive lower wages than the white workers for performing the same kind of work. They do not have the right to attend theaters and the cinema, or go to restaurants and schools with the whites. There are special compartments for the Negroes on the vehicles of public transportation. The Negroes live in special Negro ghettos in the cities. The capitalists of the United States of America feel that people with black skins have lower mental capacities than white people. But Negroes, when placed in an enriched environment, quickly acquire knowledge and technology equal to that of the white people. Among the Negroes, now, there are many fine doctors, engineers, artists, and writers. The Negroes [in the United States] live mainly in the southern part of the Mississippi lowlands (which is known as the Black Belt), in parts of the Antilles and the Bahama Islands, and in the northeastern part of South America. . . ,23 The Condition of the Workers. In America the riches belong to a small number of capitalists called millionaires, who keep the largest part of the population dependent upon them. Taxes, consumer prices, and unemployment constantly increase. A series of laws are being created that limit the rights of the workers. The land is owned by a small number of huge landowners (farmers), who exploit the peasants. However, the workers in America, under the guidance of the trade unions and the Communist parties of each country, lead an uninterrupted fight for the improvement of their conditions and for peace in the world. . . , 24 The United States of America has a tremendous influence upon life in the countries of Latin America. Through its capitalist organizations, known as monopolies, the capitalists use the riches of these countries. They exploit the important natural resources of the Latin American countries for their own industries. Furthermore, the United States prevents these countries from developing industries so that they might export their own industrial products. The United States also prevents them from following the path of the Soviet Union and the people's democratic countries. In order to win over the people of these countries, [the American capitalists] send them books and films, and arrange for exhibits and talks in which life in the United States is praised. However, all this makes the Latin American people bitter, for most of the popula-

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APPENDIX E tion in these countries can hardly earn its food, despite the heaviest of labor, and a large group is unemployed. Latin American countries are steeped in the struggle to overthrow the capitalist exploitations and to free themselves from the interference of the United States in their lives. Their struggles are already bringing results. For example, the republic of Cuba succeeded in overthrowing its dependence upon the United States. In addition to the countries of Latin America, Canada and some other capitalist nations have found themselves politically and economically dependent upon the United States.25 [Under the section on questions and answers which follows the above discussion, a series of questions is given; three of the questions are listed here.] 1. What is the most highly developed capitalist country in the world? 2. In what ways does the United States influence and interfere with the lives of the remaining countries of America? 3. For what are the peoples of the Latin American countries fighting? . . . Population. The United States of America is the most densely populated country in the Americas. Many nationalities are represented. The descendants of the colonists from England are the most numerous. They consider themselves to be the real Americans and call themselves Yankees. Many Negroes live and work on the plantation regions around the Gulf of Mexico. Negroes are also found in the large cities, mainly working as servants and chauffeurs. A small number of Indians live in the Rocky Mountain region under very adverse conditions. The United States is a federated republic. It consists of fifty states, in which the political and economic life is governed by the industrialists, merchants, bankers, and huge landowners. The working class, which comprises the largest part of the population, is suppressed and exploited by the capitalists.26 Excerpts from a Sixth-Grade Geography Textbook A POLITICAL PICTURE 27

Through the centuries, the boundaries and governments of the European states have changed many times. However, the most important political changes on the continent have taken place during the present century. The Soviet Union, which is the first socialist country in the world, was created after World War I and was followed after World War II by the [formation of] people's democratic states. Today there are thirty-two states in Europe which are divided into two economic systems — socialist and capitalist. In the socialist system the Soviet Union and the countries with people's democracies are included: Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria, Albania, and the [East] German Democratic Republic. The supreme authority in these states is vested in the national assemblies. These are formed by representatives of the people, elected through completely free elections in direct and secret balloting. All citizens who are of age participate in these elections, irrespective of their race, nationality, sex, property qualifications, etc. The governments of the respective states are responsible to the national assemblies. In the people's democratic states the laws give great rights and freedom to the people — freedom for education, for labor, national development, etc.

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The land in the people's democratic states belongs to the laboring villagers. They unite themselves in village agricultural collectives and receive money for their labors. There are also state agricultural farms, which produce high-grade seeds and are models for the village agricultural farms. Machinery is used to work the land, and the land is fertilized and irrigated artificially. For this reason, the yields of the various agricultural products increase each year. The factories, mines, transportation, and forests are the common properties of the people. Domestic and foreign trade is nationalized. The economy in the capitalistic countries has no plan. All the factory owners and the landowners produce that which will give them more profit, but not always that which is necessary to fulfill the needs of the people. There is competition for foreign trade among the capitalist countries. In their strivings to acquire more markets, they fight for dominance and carry on wars of conquest. Many of these capitalistic countries have acquired colonies in other countries, and the local populations there are kept in dependence and are exploited. They not only use the labor of these people and pay them miserable wages, but they also sell them the few necessities of life at exorbitant prices. The Soviet Union and the countries with a people's democracy consider that despite the differences between the socialist and capitalist countries, they still can exchange their achievements in science, art, and technology; they can still trade as equals; and they can live in peace. Questions and problems: 1. On a political map of Europe, color the states from the socialist camp in red and those in the capitalist in blue. 2. What are the main differences between the capitalist and socialist economic systems? The economy of the people's democratic states develops according to predetermined goals. The mineral resources, soil, and water are carefully explored and fully utilized. Water reservoirs, power plants, irrigation canals, factories, and industrial complexes are being built; wastelands are being developed into farmlands; and swamps are being drained. All of this is being accomplished in order that the workers will have more bread, milk, and vegetables, and more clothing, shoes, and furniture — in short, so that they may raise their standard of living. For this reason, the workers of the people's democratic countries strive to work as diligently as possible in order to produce still better products. They become rationalizers, udarniks, and are fearless champions of socialist labor. Genuine friendly ties exist among the states in the socialist camp. They exchange raw materials and various manufactured goods to meet their needs, and give each other technical and scientific help. The economy of these countries advances steadily, and there are enough jobs for all the people. The most important capitalist countries in Europe include England, France, the [West] German Federal Republic, Italy, Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Finland, and Norway. In these [countries] the reins of government are in the hands of a small group of rich people [called] the capitalists. There, not all the workers are permitted to vote for their representatives to the national assembly, and some of the representatives of the capitalists are even appointed or assume their office by heredity. C234I]

APPENDIX E Much of the land in the capitalist countries belongs to a small rich minority. They utilize cheaply paid labor of landless peasants to work their land, or they rent it to them under very extortionate conditions. The factories, mines, forests, banks, and transportation systems are the personal property of the capitalists. Most of the workers in the capitalist countries receive small wages for their long hours of labor. Thus, the capitalists assure themselves of great profits. They have many acres of land and have much money in the bank; they live in luxury. The workers seek their rights through protests in the national assemblies and through strikes. OTHER EXCERPTS

Nationalities. More than one hundred nationalities live in the Soviet Union. The most numerous are the Slavic peoples — the Russians, Ukrainians, and White Russians. They live primarily in the European part of the country. The Russian people played a decisive role in the liberation of their country from capitalism and aided in the construction of socialism. The Lithuanians and Latvians, who live on the coastal areas along the Baltic Sea, are closest to the Slavs. South of the Plains of the Caucasus live the Armenians, Georgians, and Asurbonians; in Middle Asia are the Uzbekistans, Cossacks, Turkmen, and Tajiks; and the Yakutsk, Nenets, and others live in Siberia. For this reason, the Soviet Union is known as a multi-nationality state. In Tsarist Russia the non-Slavic peoples did not have any political rights and were suppressed and exploited by the Russian bourgeois. For the most part, they were illiterate and very backward economically and culturally. Some of them even led a nomadic life. Now all the people of the USSR are equal. They have a common alphabet and have developed their own national culture. Boys and girls of all nationalities study in the higher schools. The Soviet people have the most advanced science in the world. Thanks to it, the first Soviet rockets have begun to move in the interplanetary space. The people of the USSR are united in brotherly comradeship and interdependence. This developed especially after the Fatherland War because the fighters from all the nationalities were equally resolute in defense of their socialist fatherland. Now, all are occupied in peaceful construction and carry on the fight for peace in all the world. The Soviet Union is the country where the workers and peasants are led by the Communist Party. The government is ruled through Soviets in which the workers are represented by elected deputies. Every region has its own soviet, which carries on the political, cultural, and economic life of each district. Every republic has its own supreme soviet. The Federal Supreme Soviet is at the top of the political structure, and the representatives of all the federated republics and all the nationalities in the nation participate in it.28 THE ECONOMY

General Characteristics. Despite its vast natural resources, Tsarist Russia was very backward economically. Huge landowners ruled the land. They were

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH not concerned with acquiring machinery for its cultivation; nor did they fertilize it or irrigate it; hence, they obtained very low yields. Industry was primarily light and very little developed. Most of the factories belonged to foreign capitalists. After the great October Socialist Revolution which overthrew the capitalist rule and replaced it with one by the workers, the economy of the country changed rapidly. In a surprisingly short time the Soviet Union was transformed into an advanced industrial nation with a socialist agricultural economy. A plan is set up for several years in advance which determines what has to be developed in all branches of the national economy to care for the needs of the people. For this reason, we say that the economy of the USSR is planned. The Twenty-second Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union accepted a twenty-year plan for the development of the economy of the USSR. In the Soviet Union the factories are equipped with the most modern machines. Because the workers own the factories, they propose new methods of work and invent improved machines; thus, industry develops rapidly and the price of goods drops.29 OTHER EXCERPTS

The [East] German Democratic Republic is inhabited by Germans and is ruled by the workers and peasants. They are building socialism in their country and arefightingfor peace and friendship among nations. . . . Berlin is situated on the banks of the Spree River. Because of the machinations of the United States, England, and France, the city is divided into two parts — the Western part (which is capitalist) and the Eastern part (which is democratic). East Berlin is the capital of the German Democratic Republic. It has many educational institutions and large factories for the production of electrical materials, drugs, and clothing. All of the socialist countries, led by the USSR, are fighting to make West Berlin a free city. Leipzig is renowned for its printing houses and for its trade fair. There is a large museum in the city for the great son of the Bulgarian people, Georgi Dimitrov, who, during the Leipzig process [the trial of Dimitrov for his alleged part in the Reichstag fire] in 1933 struck the first blow against fascism. . . .30 Czechoslovakia is inhabited by Czechs and Slovaks. They carried on a long and uninterrupted fight against the Germans for their national independence. Their high cultural level, created many centuries ago, [has] flowered during the people's rule. The Slovaks now have self-government. . . . Poland is inhabited chiefly by Poles. During World War II thousands of Poles and Jews were killed by the Hitlerites, and still others perished in the concentration camps. . . .31 Rumania is inhabited chiefly by Rumanians, but a few Hungarians, Germans, and Bulgarians also live there. The Rumanian people's government makes great efforts to raise the cultural level of the country and to eliminate illiteracy, which was at its height during the period of capitalism, when over one half of the population could neither read nor write. . . . . . . Until World War II, Albania was one of the most backward countries in Europe. She was pillaged by the great capitalist powers, especially by

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APPENDIX E Italy. She had practically no industries, and her agricultural economy was extremely backward. With the establishment of the people's government, and aided by the Soviet Union and the people's democratic states, Albania progressed rapidly along the path toward communism.32 [Analytical comments on the above paragraphs: No mention is made of the relation of Bulgaria and the Soviet Union with Albania or of Albania's relations with China. Credit for Albania's progress is given to the Soviet Union, and the rift now existing between the two nations that has caused all such aid to be withdrawn by the Soviet Union is not discussed.] [Analytical comments upon page 58: In discussion on Yugoslavia, the form of government in the country now is not described. The word republic is used in this case to refer to the basic political subdivision that exists in Yugoslavia, but no mention is made of the unique economic and political government to be found there — that is, the brand of communism indigenous to Yugoslavia is not considered. The description of Yugoslavia centers strictly on the facts: the names of the various republics and autonomous regions, Yugoslavia's geographic position, industrial and agricultural products, and the name of its largest city, Belgrade. No reference is made to the cultural and commercial progress and developments in Yugoslavia in the years succeeding World War II.] [France] has extremely wealthy and extremely poor people. So it is in the bourgeois Republic! The Communist Party is a powerful social force in the country. It struggles for the interests of the workers, fights against the colonial evil, and [works] for the preservation of peace in the world.33 Great Britain is one of the most densely populated nations of Europe. Most of her population, which is almost entirely of one ethnic group, lives in the cities. Most of the wealth of the country belongs to a small group of capitalists. This immense wealth is acquired at the expense of the majority of the English population, which lives in poverty. Great Britain is a constitutional monarchy. The power of the monarchy is limited by Parliament (the national assembly). The representatives of the bourgeois usually enter Parliament to advance the interests of their own class. Only the Communist Party defends the workers of Great Britain. . . ,34 Industry is the most highly developed branch of the economy in England. Half of the workers are employed in factories of capitalist syndicates. Through these syndicates, the capitalists accelerate the exploitation of the workers in the country and in the colonies and thus increase their profits. Much of the machinery in the factories is extremely antiquated; it is not possible to increase production with it. . . ,35 The population of Italy consists mainly of Italians, who are descendants of the ancient Romans. Much of the population is illiterate. Italy is a bourgeois republic. There is much unemployment in the country. The workers, under the leadership of the Communist Party, fight for bread and land.36 [Asia]37 Until World War II many of the Asiatic countries were colonies or dependencies of England, France, and Japan. However, their peoples fought for lib-

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH erty, as a result of which the larger number of them succeeded in overthrowing colonial slavery. Today, the number of colonial countries in Asia is very small. Their peoples continue to conduct courageous wars of national liberation. . . . [China]38 China is a country with a very ancient culture. From very early times, the Chinese ha^d writing, were acquainted with the compass and gunpowder, worked fine porcelains, and wove beautiful silk cloth. Later, under feudalism and capitalism, China became retarded in its development. The Chinese people led a long battle for their liberation, receiving great assistance from the USSR. Led by their Communist Party, they liberated themselves from the domination of the local great bourgeois, the feudal lords, and the foreign capitalists. In 1949, China declared itself a people's republic. After its liberation, the Chinese People's Republic began its economic rise. The people's government exerts care for the cultural uplift of the population. Schools are built, and young and old are made literate. The number of higher educational institutions increases. The Chinese People's Republic is in the socialist camp. Before its liberation, China had a very retarded economy. The famous Chinese silk and cotton cloth and the world-renowned porcelain was made in small craft shops by hand. Only the foreign capitalists had factories. In China, they had found cheap raw materials, much cheap labor, and a large market. For this reason, they were able to reap great profits. The industry of the Chinese people, the great reserves of coal and water energy, the variety of mineral and non-mineral riches, the multitudinous kinds of agricultural products, and the socialist order of society are important conditions for the development of industry in the country. From 1949, the Chinese people, in order to develop their economy, began to receive various forms of aid from the Soviet Union and from the people's democracies of Europe. Much attention is given to the development of heavy industry. Mining equipment, metal products, tractors, machine tools, ships, etc., are produced. Light industry is developing satisfactorily. To counteract floods, dams are being built on the rivers, and artificial irrigation is being developed. Electrical generating stations are being built. . . . The largest part of the population is involved in the agricultural economy. Despite the great efforts which the villagers exerted in the past in working their fields, they were extremely poor because the feudal lords and the kulaks seized the fruits of their labors. Today, Chinese agriculture is developing along the road of socialism. [Korea]S9 For many long years, Korea was the colony of Japan. At the end of World War II, the Soviet armies liberated her. The people established a people's democratic order. In 1948, Korea was divided into two parts: the Korean C2383

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People's Republic in the north and the Korean Republic in the south, which remained very largely dependent upon the American capitalists. . . . The Korean People's Republic, with the help of the Soviet Union and the countries having a people's democracy, is being reorganized along the road to socialism. South Korea is under the strong influence and exploitation of the capitalists of the United States and remains retarded in its development. [Vietnam]40 In 1945, the People's Democratic Republic of Vietnam was formed in the northern part of the country, but the southern part remained under French rule. In North Vietnam, which had been a colony of France, agriculture had had a plantation character, and industry practically did not exist. Today, there, the people — with superhuman labor and with the help of specialists from all the socialist countries — are developing the diverse mineral resources of the nation and are building its industry. . . . South Vietnam is the most economically retarded country on the Indochina Peninsula, for there the French capitalists and local large landowners and capitalists rule. [Turkey]tt Turkey is a bourgeois republic which finds itself under the domination of American imperialism. [Iran]12 Iran is a dependency [zavisima strand} of Great Britain and the United States. [India] *• Until World War II, India, as a colony of the British Empire, was an inexhaustible source of the most diverse kinds of raw materials for English industry and a market for its products. After World War II, as a result of the national struggle for liberation of the Indian people, the English colonizers were forced to give India self-government. On the basis of the religious differences of the population, India was divided into three dominions: India, Pakistan, and Ceylon. India and Pakistan declared their independence and transformed themselves into bourgeois republics. The government of India gradually began a program of independent development of the country, whereas Pakistan remains under the strong influence of English and American imperialism. . . . The government [of India] is in the hands of bourgeois nationalists. The government of India maintains a peace-loving foreign policy. It attempts to develop the national economy, to widen educational opportunities, and to improve the health of the people. The Indian Communist Party has great influence among the workers. . . . After the liberation, the economy of India developed very rapidly. Government plants, factories, and power stations are being constructed, and harbors C239H

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH and railroad lines are being built. . . . The Soviet Union is assisting India greatly to develop her economy. The largest part of the cultivated lands belongs to large landowners, which prevents the correct development of the agricultural economy. The land is worked mainly with wooden plows and mattocks, and almost never is fertilized. In the area of land irrigated, India stands second in the world. A large part of the equipment used for irrigation, however, is primitive and is located almost wholly on plantations that are owned by huge landowners. The poor Indian villager works a few dekars of land with all his energy, without being able either to irrigate or fertilize it; and for this reason he can hardly meet the food needs of his large family with the products that he raises. . . . In times of poor yield, fearful famine occurs, and millions of Indians die. [Indonesia] ** Until World War II, Indonesia was a Dutch colony, but now it is a bourgeois republic. . . . Industry in Indonesia is very poorly developed because of the long period of domination by the Dutch colonizers. What little industry exists and the immense plantations are primarily in the hands of foreign capitalists. [Japan]48 The extreme poverty of the Japanese villagers forces them to hunt jobs in factories at very low wages. The situation of the workers, therefore, is also very hard. Especially ruthless is the exploitation of female and child labor, which is paid much less than the labor of men. The workers are in the first ranks of the struggle against the exploitation by the local capitalists and the country's great subservience to the United States. Until World War II, Japan was one of the great imperialistic countries. At the end of the war, however, Japanese imperialism was destroyed, and the Asiatic peoples enslaved by it were liberated. Japan is a monarchy in which the bourgeois are masters. A mighty democratic movement is developing in the country, which is led by the Japanese Communist Party. Japan is a highly developed capitalist nation. . . . [Australia]" Political authority [in Australia] is in the hands of the bourgeois parties. The democratic forces are persecuted, but the workers, under the leadership of the Australian Communist Party, fight actively against exploitation by the local bourgeois and the English and American capitalists. A General Overview of the Economy of Bulgaria [From a Geography Textbook for the Elementary Schools] 47 The Economy under Capitalism. During the entire period of its capitalist development, Bulgaria was a backward country with a petty agricultural economy and a poorly developed industry. By per capita income of the population, our country ranked in one of the last places among the European nations. The £24011

APPENDIX E chief branch of the national economy was agriculture. However, in the period of capitalism, our wonderful climate was an aid to improving agriculture. Crop-raising methods were extremely backward. The land that was worked was divided into small pieces. It was worked by primitive methods. Only the large landowners had the use of agricultural machinery. Bulgaria did not produce artificial fertilizer. Irrigated lands were nonexistent. The great summer droughts caused tremendous damage to the crops. For this reason the yields were very low. Our industry was very poorly and unevenly developed. Only a small part of the population (10 per cent) found its livelihood in industry. Chiefly, light industries were being developed, which assured huge, rapid profits to the capitalists. Food processing and textile manufacturing was especially successful. Heavy industry practically did not exist. The bourgeois considered the country poor in mineral resources and did little to explore its natural riches. The poor condition of transportation made communication between the various parts of the country difficult and thus retarded its economic development. Bulgaria exported for the foreign market chiefly the products of the agricultural economy, and imported industrial products. This made her dependent upon the foreign capitalists. They sold the industrial products to her at a high price, but they purchased the raw materials from our country for a very low price. Foreign capitalists — chiefly German — quickly established themselves in economically undeveloped Bulgaria. The National Economy under Socialism. The peoples' revolution of the Ninth of September and the brotherly aid of the Soviet Union opened up new dimensions and brilliant potentialities for the rapid economic development of our fatherland. The peoples' government took every measure for the elimination of the difficult economic situation of the country. The measures that were advanced assured a rapid progress in the economic life of Bulgaria. Agrarian reforms were enacted that took the land from the large landowners. By the end of 1947, all factories, banks, forests, etc., were nationalized. The exploitation of the workers and villagers was eliminated. Thus, the conditions were created for the planned development of the economy of our country. With the great help of the Soviet Union, the rapid industrialization of our fatherland, and above all, the development of heavy industry began. Even in the first days after the Ninth of September, thanks to the cares of the Party, our backward economy, which the Germans had ravaged, was improved. During the twenty-year plan (1961-1980), the building of socialism will be completed, and we shall move to the building of communism. In order to achieve this goal, all our natural wealth will be used without reservation, as well as the achievements of the national economy to the present time and the labor of the entire Bulgarian people. The great economic successes of our fatherland are due to the selfless help of the Soviet Union and the other countries of srv [the union for economic cooperation among the European socialist countries (excepting Yugoslavia)]. Ever more frequently, the national economic plans are coordinated among the

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH European socialist countries, adjustments are made, and specialized production is carried on. The Soviet Union, the German Democratic Republic, and Czechoslovakia give us long-term credits with which we buy tools and whole complexes of machinery from them to equip the newly built factories in our country. All this contributes to a more rapid completion of our economic plans. Problem: Draw a map of your okrug and mark on it the most important construction projects that have been built under socialism. [In a similar manner, each aspect of the economy — such as the development of industry, including both light and heavy industry, mining, tool building, forestry, food production and processing, textile manufacturing — is given detailed consideration. Likewise, the agricultural economy is discussed in detail. In each instance, contrast always is made between capitalist and communist Bulgaria. No attempt is made to analyze the problem in terms of the developing world economy or to give credit to factors other than communism that may have affected any development of the economy since 1944.] Excerpts from the Seventh-Grade Geography Text48 Nationalities. The population of Bulgaria is almost wholly of one national group. Bulgarians make up 88 per cent of the total population of the country. Bulgarians are descendants of the Slavs. Their language is Slavic. During the dark years of the Turkish enslavement, our people secretly preserved the Slavic language, morality, and customs. "Our people are few," said Georgi Dimitrov, "but they possess a strong national spirit." The Bulgarians who are Mohammedans live in the Western Rhodope Mountains. They were forcefully converted to Mohammedanism during the time of the Turkish enslavement, but they still speak Bulgarian and preserve the Bulgarian customs. Today [these] Bulgaro-Mohammedans struggle to keep their customs and to participate in the building of socialism in our country. The Turks form the largest national minority. The greatest number of Turks live in the Eastern Rhodope Mountains: Ludogor, Gerlovo, and Slannik. In capitalist Bulgaria, the Turks were greatly suppressed. Today, they are equal to the other citizens of the country. In Bulgaria there are [also] a few Gypsies, Rumanians, Jews, and others. Improving the Material and Cultural Conditions of the People. Having been liberated by socialism from capitalist enslavement and exploitation, our people now exhibit tremendous creative power. Their rapid industrialization of the country and the establishment of a cooperative agricultural economy transformed the conditions of life for us. The material and cultural development of the workers is being steadily improved. Today, man forms the center of attention for all the political and economic activities of the Party. A series of measures has been taken to improve living standards. The low wages and pensions of the village-cooperators have been raised. The per capita consumption by the Bulgarian population of cooking oils, milk, and meat is greater than that of Turkey, Greece, and Italy, [and the consumption of] rice is greater than that of France, the German Federal Republic, and Austria. Large sums are allocated from the state budget for public

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APPENDIX E health, social security, and education. In Bulgaria there are no illiterates. The government is building many schools, technical institutions, and higher educational institutions. Education in [our land] is free. Excerpts from Eighth-Grade Geography Textbooks A great service was performed by Soviet scientists in exploring the Arctic Sea and the region around the North Pole. The first Soviet polar expedition, led by Ivan Papanin, remained an entire year on an iceberg in the Arctic Ocean near the North Pole. The expedition explored and described these hitherto-unknown places. Soviet airmen first flew over the North Pole and established the direct ties between Europe [USSR] and America. Today the area around the South Pole is being studied in detail by Soviet scholars and scientists.49 The Importance of Soviet Artificial Sputniks and Cosmic Rockets in the Study of the Cosmos. It has been established that there is a very close relation between the series of natural phenomena that occur on the earth and in the cosmos. For this reason the cosmos is an object of intense study. In this respect, Soviet science and technology has universally recognized superiority. During 1957, the USSR began to study the cosmos with the help of artificial earth satellites and later through the use of powerful multi-stage rockets, the first of which became an artificial planet of the solar system. Successful attempts were made with other rockets to reach the surface of the moon and to photograph its opposite side. The successful attempts of the Soviet Union with cosmic rockets in which experimental animals had been placed showed that it is possible for man to fly in the cosmos. The triumph of Soviet science and technology and the pride of the socialist system are the cosmic flights of the Soviet cosmonauts Yuri Gagarin, Gherman Titov, Adrian Nikolayev, and Pavel Popovich.60 THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN SOCIETY 51

The geographic environment is that part of the natural environment in which uninterrupted interactivity occurs between human society and nature. A series of natural sciences, including physical geography, study the laws of the geographic environment — that is, the extreme complexity of phenomena and processes in the atmosphere, water, light waves, and biology. These have great significance for the practical activity of human society. The better man understands his geographic environment, the more fully and correctly will he utilize it in his economic activity. The geographic environment influences the development of human society, but likewise mankind exerts influence upon the geographic environment and changes it. The Influence of the Geographic Environment upon Human Society. In all of its elements the geographic environment shows its influence upon the life of man. The climate has significance in the distribution of the population upon the earth. Most of the people live in the temperate climatic zones, because there exists the most suitable natural conditions for human activity. A series of economic activities, such as crop raising, animal raising, forestry, fishing, etc., C2433

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are dependent upon specific climatic conditions. The [earth's] surface likewise exerts a tremendous influence upon man. Few possibilities exist for economic activity in the high mountains. The characteristics of the relief and the rivers have their bearing upon construction, such as, for example, road building and the establishment of inhabited places. The influence of the organic world upon the life of man is obvious. Man cannot exist without food and the textile raw materials which he uses from plants and animals. The degree of influence of the geographic environment upon man depends upon the level of development of man's society. In primitive society, man used the riches of nature directly as a means for existence — for example, the fish in the rivers, the wildlife in the forests, the natural plant life, etc. With the development of man's society, man began to use the riches of the geographic environment as sources to obtain energy, metals, food, clothing, etc. Today the life of man is unthinkable if the riches of the geographic environment were not utilized as a source of raw materials for the production of goods. The Teaching of Marx and Lenin about the Role of the Geographic Environment. Some bourgeois scholars think that the influence of the geographic environment is so great that it exerts the greatest influence upon the development of man's society. On the basis of this evaluation about the role of the geographic environment, they draw deductions that are in the interest of the monopolists and against the working people. These scholars, for instance, insist that the population of the world is greater in comparison to the resources available and for this reason there are poor people. In order that there may be more goods there must be wars that would destroy the excess population. These scholars likewise maintain that people from the various races have different mental capacities, that there are superior and inferior races, that the colonial peoples do not have the ability to organize their state independently and to develop in their cultural life. The role of the geographic environment according to Marx and Engels can be summarized as follows: The geographic environment accelerates the development of human society. The development of human society, however, depends above everything else on the question: Who in the society owns the factories, manufacturing establishments, the land, the roads, etc.? and who benefits from the labor of the people? Thus, the geographic environment does not have the primary significance for the development of human society. This fact can be seen from the following example. Under the conditions of capitalism, our country developed slowly in economic and cultural matters. This was due to the capitalist ownership of the means of production and to the concomitant exploitation of the workers. In the same geographic environment under the conditions of socialism, thanks to the socialist ownership of the means of production and the conscientiousness of the working people, our fatherland has developed rapidly in economic and cultural matters. For the same reasons, in all the socialist countries, social development is more rapid in comparison with that of the capitalist nations. In one and the same geographic environment, Tsarist Russia was a poor and feebly developed nation, whereas the USSR organized a socialist society and created the material, technological base of a communist society. The Utilization of the Geographic Environment under Capitalism and SoC244H

APPENDIX E cialism. In the capitalist countries the geographic environment is utilized without plan — helter-skelter. The reason for this is clear. For example, under capitalism our forest on the Rhodope, Strandzh, and Stara mountains were cleared without any plan whatsoever. As a result of this [lumbering] the erosion of the soil and rivers increased greatly and large sections of the topsoil of cultivated lands were swept away. Now the slopes of the mountains and other lands are being rapidly reforested. In the capitalist countries, because of the improper exploitation of the cultivated land, erosion is increasing still more and the cultivated lands are decreasing. At the same time the USSR, with its mighty technology, is cultivating virgin soils and wastelands, from which it is receiving a tremendous quantity of grain foods. The Soviet Union is utilizing extensively the riches of Siberia and is transforming the face of nature in the middle Asiatic wastelands. All this goes to show that only under the conditions of socialist society can the geographic environment be used to the fullest extent for the development of society. The triumph of peace and communism in all the world will uncover the possibilities for man to become the master of nature and to utilize it as an inexhaustible source of raw materials. Questions and Problems: 1. What do we call the geographic environment? 2. From a study of the different natural geographic zones, find examples of the influence of the geographic environment upon man. 3. What is the most important element upon which the development of man's society depends? 4. Give examples of the transformation of nature in your own birthplace. Excerpts from History Textbooks Examples of the Treatment of Certain Historical Events in Bulgarian Schools [The following excerpts are taken from Bulgarian textbooks and teacher's manuals illustrating the manner in which certain world and national events are presented to the pupils. The excerpts are arranged chronologically according to topical order.] [ANCIENT EGYPT] [The excerpt below is from a teacher's manual 52 and suggests an approach to be used by teachers in presenting the history of ancient Egypt to their classes.] For example, the teacher conducts the following discussion on the excerpt that the children have read on the life of the slaves and villagers in ancient Egypt. Question: Why did the slaves curse their lot? Answer: The slaves, who were the creators of all material goods, lived in hunger and misery. They were the property of the slave owners, and they had no rights whatsoever. Everyone treated them cruelly and with contempt. Question: How did the slave owners regard the slaves? Answer: The slaves were not recognized as human beings. They were bought and sold as cattle, on a par with cattle and plows. They were born only for labor. £2451]

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Question: How did the Egyptian state utilize the goods that the slaves and villagers created? Answer: The good things of life which these people created were used only by the pharaohs and the priests. So it is always when the people of a country are divided into oppressors and oppressed. [ANCIENT ROME] [The following outline is taken from another teacher's manual 53 and suggests the topics that need to be covered in studying the ancient Roman period. The particular problem with which it is concerned is the "Intensification of the Class Struggle in Rome and the Fall of the Republic."] I. The Role of Slave Labor in the Roman Economy II. Intensification of the Class Struggle 1. Condition of the Slaves 2. The Struggle of the Poor Villagers for Land — The Brothers Gracco 3. The Slave Uprisings (a) In Sicily; (b) The Uprising Led by Spartacus 4. The Military Dictatorship — A Means to Suppress the Slaves and Poor (a) Marius (b) Sula (c) Caesar III. Causes of the Fall of the Republic [SLAV SAINTS] [The events leading to and the basic causes for the formation of the Slavic alphabet are presented from a Marxist viewpoint. Although the mission of Cyril and Methodius as Christian monks is described, it is not emphasized. Rather, it is their contribution to Bulgarian literacy that receives the greatest amount of attention. The title saints before their names is omitted. Likewise, St. Clement and St. Naum, also famous Slav monks, are treated as scholars and teachers, not as saints or men of God, although, here again, their Christian mission is not denied. St. Clement of Ohrid, for instance, is regarded as follows:] Clement was the first Bulgarian teacher. He opened a school in Macedonia for the preparation of Bulgarian teachers and holy men. For many long years, he wrote books to enlighten the people. He trained about thirty-five hundred teachers who spread the Slavic alphabet throughout Bulgaria.54 [THE BOGOMIL MOVEMENT] [The Bogomil movement is presented as primarily a social rather than a religious movement.] [The Bogomils] . . . taught the people not to be subservient to their masters, not to pay taxes, and not to participate in wars. They termed deceitful the doctrine of the divine right of rulers. They would have swept away all who did not work, but lived on the backs of the people. They denounced all injustice. C246]

APPENDIX E . . . The Bogomils were thefirstfightersfor justice, freedom, and the welfare of the people.65 [NATIONAL REVOLUTIONARY HEROES] [Vasil Levsky is a Bulgarian revolutionary hero of the nineteenth century who worked for the nation's independence from Turkey. He was a leader of the Bulgarian Internal Revolutionary Organization at the time of his capture by the Turks. Today, he is portrayed as a model national patriot.56] In teaching the lesson on "The Formation of the Internal Revolutionary Organization," as I describe the capture of Levsky at the inn of the village K"krina, I use the painting of Nikola Kozhukharov titled "The Capture of Levsky," which I place on a stand so that all the students can see it. / ask the students: "How does the artist portray Levsky at the moment of his capture?" Answer: The great revolutionary is fearless. His whole being shows deep contempt for his captors." / tell them: "Notice the expression on Levsky's face, the taut muscles of his bound hands — his entire body shows his inner strength and greatness. Every feature of the face of the Great Apostle [of Freedom] in that moment speaks of his boundless courage and fearlessness, of his heroism, will, and power, of his uncompromising spirit and self-sacrifice for the cause to which he dedicated his whole life. Levsky, who traveled throughout his enslaved fatherland to organize a tight network of revolutionary committees, possesses an unbreakable, noble spirit which cannot be bound by the shackles of his captors." / ask another question: "Where does Levsky get this inward strength which radiates from his face?" Answer: "He draws strength from his great love for the Bulgarian people, from his great ideal of liberty for the fatherland to which he had dedicated himself and his very life, and from his deep abhorrence of slavery." Question: "How are the Turks who capture Levsky portrayed in the picture?" Answer: "Pleased at their success, they are in a hurry to put him in the chains which they have prepared for the purpose." / add: "Levsky is captured, but he is not defeated by his enemies. Rather, it is his enemies who are defeated by him." [THE SECOND BALKAN WAR] Using the argument that the Bulgarian forces had borne the brunt of the war, Ferdinand and the [Bulgarian] bourgeoisie insisted that all of Macedonia be given to Bulgaria. But Serbia insisted that she be given Northwestern Macedonia; and Greece [demanded] Southern Macedonia and Western Thracia. Because of these sharp disagreements, the allies began to prepare for war. . . . At that critical moment, Russia did everything possible to avert the war. Ferdinand, however, did not listen to Russia's pleas, and in spite of dissatisfaction among the people, he gave orders on June 16 for an attack on the allies in Macedonia. Thus began the criminal, brother-murdering, interallied war. The aim of the German capitalists was achieved. The Balkan Alliance was destroyed.57

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH [WORLD WAR n] [Allied Support of the Soviet Union] The workers and farmers, the anti-fascists and patriots in the USA and England began a movement to give full support to the Soviet Union [in its war effort]. The most reactionary circles of the monopolistic bourgeoisie of these lands, blinded by their fierce hatred of communism, expressed an evil satisfaction at the announcements of the victories of Hitler's armies in the USSR. They predicted a quick defeat of the Soviet nation. And Truman even recommended: "If we see that Germany is winning, then it follows that we help the Russians; but if Russia starts winning, then it follows that we help Germany. And so, let them exterminate each other as much as possible." But the will of the national masses and the national interests of the USA and England prevailed over the aspirations of the reactionaries. As a result, these countries became allies of the Soviet Union.58 [Allied Attitudes toward the Soviet Union] As allies of the Soviet Union, the governments of England and the USA did not renounce their imperialistic ambitions. They hoped that the Soviet Union would become so weak that they would be able to dictate their terms at the peace negotiations. All their actions during the war period stemmed from this hope. For this reason, they postponed opening a second front in the West.59 [Bulgarian Participation in the War] After fierce battles the Bulgarian army defeated Hitler's forces at Stratzin, Kumanovo, Strumica, Nish, Poduyevo, and the Kossovo Valley. During December 1944, Macedonia and Southern Serbia were liberated. German armies were retreating everywhere, but they were not yet destroyed. In order to destroy Hitler's aggressors completely, the Bulgarian government sent the First Bulgarian Army to continue the fight. Shoulder to shoulder with their Soviet brothers, the Bulgarian soldiers fought valiantly at the front.60 [Establishment of Communism in Eastern Europe] With the help of the Soviet army, many peoples freed themselves from the yoke of capitalism.61 [United States and the Atomic Bomb] Early in August, Japan recognized that its defeat was inescapable. The mighty Soviet army had entered the war against her. On August 9, 1945, Soviet and Mongolian forces began a concerted attack against the extremely wellarmed, million-man Japanese army in Manchuria. They destroyed this most powerful, main force of the Japanese army. At that moment, however, seeing that the end of the war was at hand, and in order that it might occupy a powerful position in the world, the government of the United States committed the greatest crime against humanity. On August 6 and 9, it ordered the dropping of two atomic bombs, one on the Japanese

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city of Hiroshima and the other on Nagasaki, as a result of which three hundred thousand people perished, and another two hundred thousand were wounded and exposed to atomic radiation. But these bombs did not end the war. The deciding factor was the destruction of the Japanese army in northeast China, which was accomplished by the Soviet forces. At the end of August, the units of this army were forced to capitulate. On September 2, 1945, on board the American battleship Missouri in Tokyo harbor, the document of unconditional surrender was signed by Japan.62 [RECENT PARTY POLITICS IN THE SOVIET UNION] The attempts of the anti-party group of Molotov, Kaganovich, Malenkov, and others to prevent the fulfillment of the decisions of the Twentieth Congress were repulsed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The June Plenum of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1957) reiterated and defended the creative line of the Congress. Some [of the anti-party group] were removed from membership of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.63 Historical Notes [From a Seventh-Grade Algebra Textbook] 64 The word algebra is of Arabic origin. It is found for the first time in the book Algebra Al-Mukabala, which was written about the year 820 A.D. by Mohammad Khorezmski of Khorezm, in what is now the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic.

Notes and Excerpts from Readers [The first-grade alphabet book and reader6S has many overtones of a patriotic and communist nature. Communist and Bulgarian national flags appear frequently in the illustrations. Many of the scenes pictured are of work projects in which children of early school age participate: gathering of fruit, harvesting produce, and caring for farm animals. Titles of some of the stories are "The Child-Hero," "Our School Farm," "Udarnik (Hero of Labor)," "Miners," "Fatherland," "Chavdar, the Guerrilla (Leader)," "I Am a Little Bulgarian," "Georgi Dimitrov," and "Peace." The children in the pictures almost invariably are shown wearing the uniform of the Pioneer movement.] [The material in the second-grade reader 66 is divided into the following themes:] I. Once Again to School II. Memories of Summertime III. The Vegetable Garden IV. Autumn V. The October Revolution VI. The Ninth of September VII. Winter VIII. The Care of Health IX. The Labor of Mankind X. The Family XI. Spring

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH XII. The Woods XIII. The First of May XIV. Our Fatherland [The material in the third-grade reader 67 is divided into the following:] I. Labor and Scholarship II. Over the Earth III. Plants and Animals in Our Economy IV. Health and Joy V. Stories and Fables VI. From Our People's Past VII. Liberty, Comradeship, Peace VIII. The Building of Socialism [The material in the fourth-grade reader 68 is divided into the following themes:] I. Happy Childhood II. Our Fatherland III. Our Folklore IV. From the Heroic Past of Our People V. Our Two-Time Liberators VI. Scenes from Nature and from the Labor of Our People VII. The Fight for Peace and Comradeship [The material in the fifth-grade reader 69 is divided as follows:] I. Selections from Bulgarian Folklore II. Selections from Bulgarian Writers III. Selections from Foreign Writers [The themes covered in the sixth-grade reader 70 are as follows:] I. Selections from Bulgarian Folklore: Bulgarian Folk-Poetry A. Folk Poems about Work B. Folk Poems about Life C. Heroic Poems D. Folk Poems about Historical [Events] E. Folk Poems about the Haiduks [Guerrillas] F. Partisan Poems II. Selections from Bulgarian Writers III. Selections from Foreign Authors [The themes covered in the seventh-grade reader71 are as follows: Selections] from Bulgarian Literature before the Liberation [of Bulgaria from Turkey]; [Selections] from Bulgarian Literature after the Liberation; [Selections] from the Literature of the Socialist Countries. [The material in the eighth-grade reader 72 is divided into two parts: Selections] from Bulgarian Literature Beginning with the Liberation through World War I; [Selections] from Bulgarian Literature from World War II to the Present. From the First-Grade Reader I AM A LITTLE BULGARIAN 73

I am a little Bulgarian! I love Our green mountains:

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My first pride is That I be called a little Bulgarian! I am a little Bulgarian! I live freely in the land. Everything is Bulgarian and of the fatherland. I love, respect, and yearn for it! GEORGIDIMITROV 74

Every time as I enter class And pass by the blackboard, I look at your portrait And I sit down at my desk inspired. You look upon me, you want to whisper to me: To be careful, to study, to read . . . I know that you will always keep your vigil above me — Always to move ahead, always to succeed! NIKOLAY ZIEAROV

From the Second-Grade Reader FROM THE CHILDHOOD OF LENIN 75

We know Lenin's given name as Vladimir, but his parents had named him Volodya. His sister writes about him as follows: "Volodya learned to read when he was still only five years of age. Above everything else he loved books most of all. He read [them] with great interest. Very frequently he learned verses by memory and he would recite them without any embarrassment to us. His favorite verse was The Song of the Poor Man.' He teasingly would recite: " The rich man is a fool. He does not dare to sleep. The poor man who is naked is happy and sings.' "Volodya was very honest. As soon as he did any damage, he would admit it right away. When he was five years of age one time he broke the ruler of our sister Olga. At once he ran to mother and told her what he had done. Mother asked him how this had occurred. Volodya replied, 'I broke it all over my knee!' And he lifted up his foot to show how he had broken the ruler. "Mother was very pleased that Volodya always told the truth." ANA I. ULYANOVA

From the Third-Grade Reader THE STRIKE 76 The strike began at the end of January. The workers presented their demands to the factory owners and left their work. They placed pickets from their own people in front of the factory in order to prevent strike-breakers from appearing for work. At the beginning the factory owners said to themselves, "The workers will become hungry and will return to work." But the workers did not retreat from their demands. They selected a strike

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committee to lead the fight. Soon the police began to chase the strikers who were picketing. They even arrested some of the strikers. One day the streets of the city became filled with workers. They were coming out of their dilapidated little cottages, together with their wives and children, and were going to the plaza, the place which had been designated for the meeting. The plaza became packed with people. Two workers brought a table from somewhere [for the speaker to stand on]. "Comrades!" cried a tall, well-built youth who had climbed on the table. His voice could be heard over the entire city. "We demand an increase in wages! We demand to live as human beings! We demand transportation to the factories. We demand that the factory owners treat us as people. . . ." At that moment from the nearby streets the hoofbeats of the police horses began to pound. "Scatter! Scatter, all of you!" the police guards cried, and charged among the workers with their horses. Flushed with rage, the workers met them with rock-throwing. At once everything became confused. The police drove the horses into the ranks of the multitude, brandished the whips wildly, and trampled over the people. On the faces of many blood could be seen. The women and children scattered. Soon the plaza became empty. The strike lasted more than a month. The factory owners finally promised an increase in wages and nothing else. This was a small victory for the strikers. But the factory owners now knew that the workers were not obedient slaves. They knew that these workers could arise at any moment. They knew that if not now, then next year, or the year thereafter, and if not at that time, then after ten years, the workers would carry the battle to the end. VESELINA GENOVSKA

From the Fourth-Grade Reader THE BANNERS OF THE FIRST OF MAY ™

Several days before the first of May, two little Negro boys were walking along the path that meandered upward toward the mountain that towered above the valley where they lived. One of them was short and fat, with frightened childish eyes, and the other one was tall and thin with long sinuous hands. Both of them were half-naked. They had about their waists only a loincloth, the kind worn by the Negroes in South Africa. At the same time, the sun beat on the valley below, and the air was already hot. In the blue sky above, the snow glistened around the chief crater of the extinct volcano. Along the sides of the mountain, green meadows were beginning to grow, and the juniper forest was becoming darker. Down below was the plantation where the parents of the two little Negroes worked. The master of the plantation beat his workers with a leather whip, locked them in a dark cabin, and did not give them bread to eat or water to drink. "Listen, Bantu, what if the master's people find us out?" the smaller boy asked frightenedly. "They will not catch us," replied Bantu. "I can run faster than a bullet."

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APPENDIX E For several days now the master had been in a rage. Someone had informed him that the workers were preparing to celebrate the First of May. He had given strict orders: from the day before the First of May to the day after the First of May, none of the workers were to go into the city. His men now were guarding the roads and were searching the workers who were returning from the city. Bantu carefully looked at his comrade and reprimanded him heartily, "Don't look around constantly. Keep yourself calm. We have been in the city another time to help with the unloading of milk. If they ask us, we shall answer. Here," he opened his hands and winked mischievously, "I carry nothing." "Don't even mention it!" Bantu's friend was encouraged. "We carry nothing. And the rest — only we know." At the nearby turn in the road, the two young boys were barely able to jump aside in time as the automobile of the plantation master roared by them. The master apparently was hurrying to meet the milk wagon so that he might search even the cans of milk. Bantu and his comrade turned around, brandished their fists after the car, and jumped for joy. The master would sweat in vain. Happy that they had overcome the first danger, they started rapidly upward again. At the second turn in the road, two of the guards of the master suddenly appeared. The young boys shuddered. "Do not stop! Continue calmly!" Bantu whispered. He knew the order of the master. Any worker on whose person a forbidden book was found would be sentenced to ten years in prison, and any worker discovered carrying [political] leaflets would be turned over immediately to the city police. They also beat the prisoners with whips and tortured them dreadfully, so that they might learn who else distributed the illegal leaflets. Afterwards, the sentence would be pronounced, to be followed by long years in prison! "Hey, Bantu!" one of the master's men called. "Where are you wandering?" "We were in the city to unload milk," Bantu replied unconcerned. "And where is the milkman?" "His wagon broke down. He will come after us." One of the men hit Bantu on his arm with his bamboo stick and added, "Don't you two wander too much!" The men passed. Bantu and his comrade walked for a long time without turning back. If they had stopped to look behind them, the guards would have become suspicious. The sun was setting when the two young boys reached the farm. They disappeared somewhere, and finally when it was dark they returned to their own cabins. In the early morning of the First of May two red flags could be seen flying on top of two of the tallest trees, where even the monkeys did not dare to climb. They were fluttering steadily in the breeze of the bright blue sky, waving greetings to the workers in their run-down cabins. From the cabins men, women, and children were coming out; when they saw the flags, they stood with raised heads and smiled. In their breasts surged emotions of joy, and their eyes, directed to the two flags, were damp with emotion.

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The master ran about the farm, furious with anger. The flags had obviously been brought from the city. But who had succeeded in bringing them? All morning his men attempted to take the flags down. They even had to cut down one of the trees. In the meantime, the workers, starting to work, still turned their eyes toward the flags. The flags were waving high in the sky. "Wave on, you flags of the First of May!" the men, women, and children said. "Soon we, too, shall proudly carry you in our hands as do our comrades in the liberated countries!" And many of the workers on the farm whispered to each other with tenderness and gratitude, "The boys completed their assignment very well!" VESELINA GENOVSKA

Excerpts from Textbooks for the Study of the English Language In the House of Pioneers 78 The House of Pioneers is in the park. It is Friday. Many Pioneers are going there. They are hurrying. John is riding his bike. In the House of Pioneers there are many rooms for reading and writing, for playing and working. Now let's go in! Here is Lily. She is reading a book. Next to her is Kate. Kate is not reading. She is writing. This is a boys' workroom. It is very big. You see there many big tables, don't you? Mike and Bob are making little ships, planes, and tractors. Lovely music is coming from that room. The orchestra is playing. It is the Pioneers' Orchestra. Who are playing in the orchestra? Pete and Ann are. Our teachers are very proud of the Pioneers. Back Home 79 The novel The Path of Thunder by Peter Abrahams gives a true picture of the life in the Union of South Africa. The Negroes have no rights at all. The conditions of the colored people is a little better in big towns. But the so-called color bar limits most of their social rights. Lanny Swarts is going back home from Capetown where colored people are allowed to study at the universities or to take jobs. He gets off the train at the little station. . . . Across the road from the station there was a little coffee stall. Two white men were drinking coffee. They looked at Lanny. "We will make fun of this monkey in a Sunday suit," said one of them. "Hey! You!" he cried. "Come here!" Lanny walked across the road but did not hurry. "He shall not frighten me," Lanny thought. He stopped directly in front of the man and looked straight into his face. The man inspected him closely. "Where you from?" the man shot at him. "Capetown." "What do you want here?" "I live here."

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APPENDIX E "Haven't seen you around." "I've been in Capetown for seven years." "University?" "Yes." "What are you?" "What do you mean?" "I mean what I say. Have you got any degrees?" Lanny smiled. "Yes, I have two." Suddenly the man's hand shot out and struck Lanny across the mouth. With an effort Lanny controlled the instinctive desire to strike back. The man saw the move and struck again. "Don't smile at me!" the man hissed. "South Africa," Lanny thought. "This is South Africa." And this man in front of him hated him. If Lanny had been humble, the man would have been kind to him, smiled, and sent him away. This was still the old struggle for conquest. The history of this country. This white man had to dominate him, he was fearful in case he did not. This was the history of South Africa in brutal reality. Lanny felt it clearly. AFTER P. ABRAHAMS 80

Harriet Tubman In North America slavery existed in the southern states until 1865. Negro slaves who lived in the South wanted to escape to the North but they had to have conductors. They usually were other slaves who had already escaped. A system was organized called the Underground [Rail]road. Whites often took part in this system and helped the Negroes with food and money on their way. In 1890 [sic], however, a cruel law was passed under which escaped slaves were to be returned to their former owners. Harriet Tubman was the most courageous and the best conductor. She used to say that she could lead any party of slaves to the North. To be a conductor was a dangerous job because one might lose one's life. Harriet Tubman exposed herself to the danger of being caught many times and led hundreds of people to freedom. When she was only five years old, she already had to work hard in the fields under the hot sun of the South and was beaten cruelly, as all slaves were. When life became too hard for her, she ran away. Now, she knew, she ought to help her people to freedom as she could. She worked hard to earn her living, and every time she had saved up a little, she went back and brought more slaves out of the South. Many times she was in great danger and was nearly caught. Once Harriet came upon her former owner. She had two chickens in her arms. She quickly dropped the chickens and as they ran about Harriet bent her head and ran after them as if she wanted to catch them. The owner could not see her face and she got away safely. Harriet Tubman was such a loved leader that she was called General Tubman. She worked all her life to help win full freedom for the Negro people. This small courageous woman was known as one of the great American women.

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH How the Devil Unbuttoned Whittingham 81 Mr. J. Herringbone Whittingham, owner of the Whittingham silk and cotton mills, woke unexpectedly from a sound sleep one Sunday night and found the Devil out of Hell sitting on the end of his bed picking his nose. "This is a lot of damned nonsense," exclaimed Whittingham. "I am dreaming. It is the supper I ate before coming to bed. You can't fool me. It's a dream. However, what are you doing here and what do you want?" The Devil rolled his eyes and it was terrifying to see. "I am his Satanic majesty," he said in a voice like the scratching of fingernails on windowpanes. "I am the only owner of Hell. And you damned capitalists are making a hell on earth which makes my Hell seem like Heaven to the sinners." Whittingham raised his eyebrows. "That, I would say, is your weakness. If I can produce a better product than you can, you will have to suffer the result. Your Hell is out of date. The days of individual torment are a thing of the past. Today we have modern methods. We produce misery on a mass scale. Rationalization! While you are wasting your time putting hot needles up a sinner's toenails, we ruin the lives of millions with one stroke of our pen. Besides, we get money out of it. All you get is the pleasure of listening to your victims howl." "That's enough," cried the Devil. "Curse upon you! From now on every time you tell a lie, a button will fall from your clothes. That will stop you and your making money all right." So saying, the Devil took his finger out of his nose and disappeared, leaving nothing but a bad smell after him. Next morning H. Whittingham sang in his bath and thought over the incident. "It was only a dream," he said to himself. "But just the same, I should have had the presence of mind to have told him to go to hell." He ate his breakfast with good appetite and hurried up to the day's business in his limousine. At 10 A.M., he had a conference with his directors. At 11 A.M. he interviewed the press. At 12 he had lunch with a competitor. At 2 P.M. he returned home in a hysterical state. Clutching at his trousers, he entered his house without a button to his clothes. He changed quickly into another suit and rang for whiskey. Walking up and down in his room he said to himself. "Surely this is unjust. I gained what I possess by honest work." "Pop" went a button. "Well, it is true," he continued, "that without my brains there will be no civilization." "Pop" went another button. "Stop it!" he shouted. "Stop it! It is no fault of mine that people are hungry." All the buttons of his vest and trousers dropped to the floor. He fell into a chair and buried his head in his hands. "Oh God!" he cried, "Why should this happen to me after I have spent my whole life working for my fellow men?" He felt a tickling close to his skin as the buttons of his underwear let go. That night J. Herringbone Whittingham fell into the unhealthy sleep of a defeated and discouraged man. He awoke to find the Devil out of Hell sitting on the end of his bed.

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"For God's sake have mercy," begged Whittingham. "Ask anything. Tell me your price. But remove this curse." "Very well," said the Devil, "Live like an honest man. Pay your employees higher wages. Instruct your people in Washington to work for unemployment insurance and taxation of the rich. Give old-age pensions to the poor. In this way I hope they will keep you in Heaven when you die and not send you down to me. I don't want people like you in Hell." So saying, the Devil evaporated. The next morning, J. Herringbone Whittingham followed all the instructions and even carried a banner in the May Day parade, which took place about that time. His employees were astonished. The directors were alarmed. They called a special meeting and shut him up in a madhouse. J. Herringbone Whittingham did not care. His buttons were firm. He bought clothes with maximum buttons and wore them with pride. And whenever he picked up a button in the halls of the madhouse, he would declare, "Fibbers! Nothing but fibbers! The world is all sewed up with the rotten thread of lies, and now it is coming undone." Youth Aids Cooperative Farms 82 Every autumn thousands of students all over the country are organized in brigades to help in the fieldwork. This year the students of V. Levsky school are in a village near Plovdiv, where they will work at a cooperative farm for a whole week. The soil is fertile, and the farmers grow various kinds of crops. So the students formed brigades: one for the maize field, one for the orchard, another for the vegetable garden, and still another for planting trees. The work was so pleasant that they didn't notice how the day went by. In the evening all students crowded near the long rows of tables under the shed. "Hello, Lily! Where did you work today? We had a very good time in the orchard picking apples. I've never tasted such delicious ones. Tomorrow we shall be working in the vegetable garden." "Oh, I never knew fresh-picked cabbage and carrots tasted so good. It's a pity we hadn't brought any salt. We made great heaps of cabbage, carrots, peppers, and onions." "We also picked many kinds of fruits: apples, pears, plums, and peaches. Look! Here come the boys. Let's see what they have done." Two groups of boys approached the girls. Some of them had spades and picks on their shoulders. "Look at my hands," said George. "They are all blisters. We really worked very hard today. It's not like picking fruit." "Yes," said Nick. "Our brigade won the [sic] emulation. We planted ten trees each." "Where will you be working tomorrow?" he asked the girls. "Tomorrow we'll be picking maize till four o'clock; then we are going to the river." They had a very tasty supper and went to sleep happy with the work done.

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Komsomol Activities at School83 This year Peter was elected member of the Komsomol committee at his school. He has always been an excellent student, ready to help his comrades, and a very good organizer. It is the twenty-fifth of January. The committee is busy preparing for a festival in honor of their patron, V. Levsky. They have decided to celebrate the anniversary of his death. Peter is responsible for the report on the life of our national hero. Other members of the committee have to arrange a program with recitations and songs. Each class is to decorate its classroom in the proper way. All students have already promised to work harder. On the day of the anniversary the students, together with the director and the whole staff, entered the illuminated and decorated hall. They listened in rapt silence to the report. After that they went to the Levsky monument at the spot where he was hanged and laid a beautiful wreath at it. Their hearts were filled with love and gratitude for our greatest revolutionary and organizer in the struggle against the Turkish yoke. The students were deeply impressed by Levsky's idea of the best form of government. "We don't need a king. Our future form of government should be only a sacred people's republic. And the struggle must be carried to the end whatever it may cost us." The image of the hero stood bright in the students' hearts and they were proud of his patriotism and self-sacrifice. "If I lose in the struggle I lose myself. If I win — the whole people win," he used to say. The Only Way Out84 This happened in the United States. Jim Carter, a turner of a motor factory in Denver, Colorado, lost his job and became unemployed. No matter how hard he tried, he could not find another job. The times were bad. There were thousands of unemployed workers. A long time he searched for work until all his savings were spent. He had sold everything he had, and now there was only one dollar in his pocket. He often slept on a bench in the city park. One day as he was walking along the street, he looked into the yard of a big fruit store and saw a number of trucks which were being loaded with large boxes. He was uncertain as to entering the store, but made up his mind and entered the store office. In the office he saw a fat man sitting behind a desk. "What are you after?" the fat man roared. "I'm looking for a job, sir," Jim said meekly. "I thought you might need hands . . ." "What can you do?" interrupted the man. "I think I'll do any work you could offer me." "I'm afraid we've got enough hands at present." As Jim was going to leave, the fat man stopped him. "Are you strong enough?" he looked at Jim's thin face. C2583

APPENDIX E "I suppose I am, sir," Jim answered. "Our men have to load heavy boxes. It is hard work, and the pay is eight dollars a week. Will you take the job if we give you only five dollars? Then we could dismiss a man and take you in his place." Jim was silent for a while. He needed a job badly. But he would never take another man's job and become a scab. "Well, how about it, young man?" "No," Jim said resolutely and went out. He sat down on a bench in the city park thinking hard. "What is to be done? Where is the way out?" Jim thought. "I can't do anything myself but there are thousands like me. We must unite and fight the bosses. The whole system is wrong. We must wipe it out. That is the only way out." A Letter from a Chinaman in America 85 Mark Twain (1835-1910) is the pen name of the well-known American writer, Samuel Clemens. He wrote stories and articles and a number of books, the best known of which are The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. He was a brilliant humorist and often rose to satire, especially when exposing imperialist aggression, racial discrimination, and the corruption of the bourgeois press and society. The text below is one of the letters which make up the pamphlet "A Chinaman in America," one of the most critical productions of his pen. Dear Ching-Foo, I have been here about a month now, and am learning a little of the language every day. I came here to work on a plantation, but our employer set us all free since his enterprise proved a failure. I was to begin life as a stranger in a strange land, without a friend or a penny or any clothes but those I had on my back. I had not any advantage on my side in the world — not one, except good health. No, I forgot. I had one advantage over beggars in other lands — I was in America! Just as that comforting thought passed through my mind, some young men set a fierce dog on me. I tried to defend myself, but I could do nothing. I retreated to a doorway, and there the dog had me at his mercy. I cried for help but the young men only laughed. Two men in grey uniforms (policemen is their official title) looked on for a minute and then walked slowly away. But a man stopped them and brought them back and told them it was a shame to leave me in such a distress. Then the two policemen beat off the dog with small clubs and it was a comfort to be rid of him, though I was just rags and blood from head to foot. The man who brought the policemen asked the young men why they abused me in that way. They began to threaten my benefactor and he went on his way. The policemen now told me I was under arrest and must go with them. I asked one of them what wrong I had done that I should be arrested, but he only struck me with his club. I was taken into a prison with large cells and iron gates to them. I stood up

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by a desk while a man behind it wrote down certain things about me. I was accused of disturbing the peace. OH SONG HI Notes on Bulgarian Elementary School Grammar Textbooks These titles are of stories included in the seventh-grade grammar text 86 for illustrative purposes. They are typical of the illustrative materials employed in the grammar books of all levels: "The Second Company" (p. 12), "Arrest" (p. 13), "[The Hero] Zlatan" (p. 13), "In Jail for the First Time" (p. 18), "The Haiduk Strakhil" (p. 18), "The Road of the Youth Brigade" (p. 19), and "loncho Will Be a Hero of Labor" (p. 21). The eighth-grade text87 has stories on the following topics: "Srednogorski Partisans" (p. 3), "Septemvriets"t" (a story about a kylak) (p. 8), "Partisans" (p. 16), "The Russians Would Not Retreat" (p. 23), "The People's Youth" (p. 27), "A Meeting [of Russian Soldiers and Bulgarian Youth]" (p. 35), "Scouting" [a partisan story] (p. 47), "The Death of a Political Prisoner" (p. 53), and "Haiduks" (p. 60). In addition, the book contains many illustrative sentences on patriotic, nationalist, or Communist topics, but these are too numerous to list here. Typical Illustrations in a Bulgarian Grammar Textbook WHATEVER A PERSON DOES — HE DOES IT UNTO HIMSELF

88

Once upon a time, there was an old beggar. As he went about begging, he would keep saying aloud to himself, "Whatever a person does — he does it unto himself." A wicked woman made a poison pie and gave it to the old man. He thanked her and put the pie into his sack. As fate would have it, he met the son of the evil woman who was returning from a long journey and was very hungry. The good old man took pity upon the youth and not knowing that the pie was poisoned, gave it to the youth. In this manner, the old man saved his life, but the young man ate the pie, poisoned himself, and died shortly after reaching his home. From his dying words, his mother discovered what had happened. She said to herself, "How rightly the old man spoke! The evil that I wanted to do to another, I did to myself and to my son."

A NATIONAL FOLKTALE

THE SOVIET INTERPLANETARY STATION 89

The automatic interplanetary station is completing its first revolution and is receding from the earth. It will no longer be visible anywhere in the Soviet Union for two days. The next transmission of data from the interplanetary station will take place on the twenty-first of October between 16 and 17 hours, Moscow time. At that time, it will have receded from the earth a distance of 327,000 kilometers and will be located over southern Africa.

FROM THE NEWSPAPERS

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APPENDIX E AFTER THE EXECUTION OF THE PARTISAN 90

The news about the execution of the partisan quickly reached the village. The fascists had cut off his head! The villagers began to whisper against the murderers and against the traitors. The old women cursed, the old men railed against the deed, while the youths doubled up their fists in anger. A LITTLE BULGARIAN BOY 91

As the door opened, Prince Gorchakov ran to little Raicho, hugged him, and kissed him on each cheek. "You saved a thousand Russians from death!" "But you will save the Bulgarian people," little Raicho said confidently. Prince Gorchakov reached into a long, round box and took out some kind of an imposing document. Picking up a silver medal from the table, he approached Raicho and hung the medal around his neck. He kissed him once more and handed him the document. "This is for your great deed," he said. The officers saluted him and shook his hand. DORA GABE LEVSKY 92

The poor people knew what Levsky wanted, but so did the bourgeoisie, who realized that he was not their friend in any sense. His courage had no limits; his will and determination could not be crushed. When he was betrayed, wounded, and brought before the court of his capturers, Levsky saw the treachery that was perpetrated upon him, but he still remained as firm as granite. "I am Levsky. I am responsible for everything. I ordered all the political assassinations to take place. I do not know any of these other men that you are accusing . . ." KHRISTO SMIRNENSKI TO KOMSOMOLS 93

Young people! Master agricultural technology! Increase your social consciousness! Work for greater production, for the flowering of our agricultural economy! In fulfillment of the decree of the Party and the government, the Dimitrov Komsomols have taken upon themselves the task of planting five million fruit and mulberry trees, of building small water reservoirs and irrigation ditches, and of draining swampland. Presently the wheat harvest is at its height. All energies must be thrown into the work so that even the very last seed may be gathered into the storage bins. FROM THE KOMSOMOL NEWSPAPER, NARODNA MLADEZH BULGARIAN YOUTH STUDY IN RUSSIA 94

Originally, Bulgarian youth preparing to become teachers or seeking a higher education went to Greek schools located on islands in the White Sea or in Greece itself. Upon returning to Bulgaria, they became propagandists of Greek C2613

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH learning, which they sought to incorporate into the foundations of the new Bulgarian culture. As early as the year 1840, Aprilov succeeded in obtaining four scholarships for Bulgarians to study in Russian educational institutions; thus, the people's aspirations for higher education gradually were reorientated toward that brother Slavic country. This arrangement met the real needs of the Bulgarian people and their heartfelt desire for closer ties with Russia.

ALEKSAND"R BURMOV

A PARTISAN ACTION 95 Armed men and women without uniforms, helmets, horses, or motorcycles, suddenly rushed into the village from all sides. The villagers immediately recognized their defenders — the people's partisans. The drumbeat called everyone to a large village rally. With faces of joy the village men and women, the old people, the youth, and children gathered on the square to hear the partisan orator. The women partisans, Sonja and Toska, together with several other young girls, carried out their mission. They had brought to the square, securely bound, several enemies of the people who had previously been marked for liquidation. The villagers felt an unusual amount of joy, for the enemies had been arrested and brought to the square solely by a party of young women. UNDER THE SAMARSKO FLAG 9a

The forces of General Gurko liberated Trnovo and moved on to Southern Bulgaria through the Khainboazki Pass. A large Turkish force, commanded by Suleiman Pasha, was sent against the forces of General Gurko to stop the victorious march of the Russian armies and drive them out of the Balkans. The decisive battle took place near Stara Zagora. The Turks outnumbered by three or four times the Russian army and the Bulgarian militia that were defending the city. In the great battle of Stara Zagora, the Bulgarian militia exhibited exemplary heroism. The Samarsko Flag was passed from hand to hand so that it would not fall to the Turks. Tens of hundreds of heroes perished. FROM A TEXTBOOK ON BULGARIAN HISTORY PARTISANS FROM THE CHAVDAR BRIGADE 97

I divided the captured guns, cartridges, and other arms among the partisan fighters. The portable telephone was given to Orlin. On the table was a small, old radio receiver that we did not need. After a short while, a crash was heard, and the apparatus shattered in pieces. The telephone rang again. This time Andro carried on a conversation with police headquarters at Pirdop, using the captured policeman as an intermediary. They were angry with the officer because at first there had been no reply. We questioned the captured police guards as quickly and as briefly as possible. From them we learned considerable valuable information, which was indispensable to the cheta. The police begged for mercy: they promised to rehabilitate themselves; they were married; they had children; they had been poor and for that reason had enlisted in the police service. Among them from the village of Bunov was Chacho, who pleaded and lied shamelessly. ZHILYAZKO KOLEV

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APPENDIX E MARINCHO 98

Marincho proved himself to be one of the most disciplined of the partisans, and thus won the friendship of everyone. On September 20, a great misfortune happened to him. In the camp of the First Cheta, Partisan George carelessly wounded Marincho so that the bullet pierced the thigh and shinbone of one of his legs. After dressing the wound carefully, we ordered Associate Ivan Angelov to take Marincho to the clinic of Dr. Dimitrov in Bratsa [Associate (yataka) is a rank in the Bulgarian partisans equivalent to a private in the army.] . . . Ivan Angelov took Marincho to Dr. Dimitrov and told him a concocted story about how Marincho had been wounded. The doctor agreed to treat him. A COURAGEOUS SON OF THE PEOPLE "

Down the slope a second line of policemen and soldiers was coming in order to block all escape routes from the forest. For Vlado it became very plain: if he would not be discovered, it would be because of the officer's uniform which he was wearing. He buttoned his overcoat, straightened his cap, and stood up boldly. He began to walk directly across the meadow. In back of the large pear tree, in the center of the field, several soldiers had lain down; they were passing something around and shouting, but he could not understand what they were saying. Possibly they were setting up machine guns. Cold shivers went up and down Vlado's spine, but he continued to walk upright and straight ahead. Only fifty or sixty meters to go, and he would reach the hollow in which he intended to hide. He hastened his steps . . . A little more, only a minute, and he would be away from the view of the enemy. Safe in the hollow, Vlado sank to the ground in relief. The soldiers had thought that he was one of their officers, for no one had ordered him to stop. MITKO YAVORSKI AFTER THE ARREST 10°

They entered a long, one-story building. The guard unlocked a heavy iron door and shoved him inside. "You," he said, "the greatest hero! Cool off in there." And the guard locked the door. He found himself in a small concrete hole that was as dark as a tomb. A tiny ray of pale blue light entered through a little narrow, square hole over the door. The light only served to irritate him, and a fearful, uncontrollable oppression tore at the heart of Kazaka. What would they do to him? Would they beat him? Or would they let him die of cold here in this icy, concrete tomb? The light about the door went out; the lighted square sank into the darkness of the concrete tomb. Kazaka moved away from the wall. Cold, goose pimples crept over his skin. He wanted to sit down. But where? The floor was damp and cold. He took off his vest, folded it, laid it on the cement, and sat down on top of it. Good. Now he could doze a little. He folded his knees and rested his head on them. Thoughts ran through his mind, and he could not sleep. GEORGI KARASLAVOV

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH GRANIT 101

When they killed Dimov, the blacksmith shop remained closed for three years, when it was taken over by his boy, Risto. The boy had the character of his mother — smiling and shy like a girl. He threw away the knives and guns from his father's shop and began to sharpen hoes, mattocks, and scythes. Later he expanded and began to do more detailed work. He worked on bracelets for the maidens, rings for the brides, and became adept on watches. No one ever heard him say a bad word. As they say, "He wouldn't cross the path of an ant." At night he read books. That is why we were very much surprised when we learned that in the beechwoods of the Balkans, a band of brigands had come out — eighty-three young men, half of them from our village and the others from Slepche. Who do you think leads them? It was Risto Dimov. His partisan name was Granit. ANGEL KARALIJCHEV NATIONAL DEFENDER

102

In a wagon traveling toward the southern front in 1917, three people met each other. The one was inspirer to those who would later kill their own people in a way even the Turks had not killed. The second was a ploughman and worker, a father of boys, who after a quarter of a century would take up, with arms in hand, the brigand's steps of Botev and Levsky in the Balkan mountains. But, the third was one of the greatest of our epoch, the fearless fighter for right and freedom. On this rainy day he was going to the southern front to tell the Bulgarian soldiers the first accounts of the great Russian revolution. HAIDUKS — BRIGANDS 103

As the young man stood in front of the firing squad, he threw away his hooded cloak and smiled. At once Krainaliata recognized the features of his own kin and realized that it was Stoyan, his brother's son. He had heard that this boy had acquired his characteristics and that he too had become a brigand. Now for a minute both of them, the old and the young, reminisced about the happy times of the past. The young man recalled the happy and carefree winter he had spent at the home of his uncle. There was only one thing which he had longed for then. Often when Krainaliata told of his experiences as a brigand, he braggingly liked to show his weapons. The heart of the young boy would long for this brigand's dress and many times he had begged his uncle for it. But Krainaliata never gave in.

Excerpts from School and Youth Music Textbooks Titles of Some of the Songs in an Anthology of Bulgarian School and Children's Songs104 The March of the Brigadiers March Forward to Build! The Dance of the Brigadiers To Study and to Work! Bulgarian Land To Build In the Pioneer Camp Descendants of Dimitrov In the Rank of the Soldiers [The Song of the] Komsomols

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APPENDIX E The March of the Komsomols A Camp Folk Dance * Peace! A Youth Song about Peace Children of Peace Greetings to the Brigadiers! At Camp Write a Letter to the Boundary Guard Forward, Young Communists! I Love You, Fatherland! Partisans Dance of the Partisans Song for the Communists Song for Peace A Song about My Young Communist A Song about Our Camp A Song about the [Communist] Party A Song of Pioneer Comradeship A Song about the Fatherland * A Song about Those Who Love Labor A Song about Tomorrow's Cosmonaut A Pioneer Song * A Pioneer Song about the Stars

March of the Pioneers t A Pioneer Marching Song A Pioneer Spring [Song] A Pioneer Song for the First of May Pioneer Joy Pioneer Years The Pirin Mountain Honor, Ye People [the Hero of Labor] The First of May Greetings to Our Republic Fatherland t Fatherland Dear Septemvriicheta — Brigadiers Land of My Fathers Dance of the Tractor Drivers Dear School The Physical Culture Parade The Folk-Dance Leader A Folk-Dance A Hymn to Cyril and Methodius t The Little Chavdar [Young Pioneer] * Yanka - The Partisan Girl

* Two songs with this title are listed. t Three songs with this title are listed. t The inventors of the Bulgarian alphabet. An Analysis of the Songs in a School and Children's Songbook, by Themes105 No. of Songs No. of Songs Category* in Anthology Category* in Anthology Songs about study, the Songs about the fatherbook, and school .... 5 land and patriotic songs 15 Youth and Communist Songs about the Party, the marches 8 building [of socialism], Lyrical songs for and the people's govyouth 5 ernment 7 Songs of the brigadiers.. 5 Songs about the Ninth of Marches and songs for September 1 children and Pioneers 29 Songs about Soviet-BulSongs with themes relatgarian friendship .... 2 ing to the conquest of Songs about peace 6 the cosmos 5 Songs about the heroic [Pioneer] camp songs ... 19 past and the partisans. 5 Physical culture and hikSongs about labor and ing songs 4 the First of May 11 Songs about animals and Songs about mother and nature 21 the family 3 * The breakdown above was made by the compilers of the text, and not by the writer of this study, who has merely translated it from the Bulgarian. The data is self-explanatory.

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH Songs about the seasons of the year Spring Summer Autumn Winter New Year songs

13 4 4 13 4

Songs for the Chavdarcheta [Junior Pioneers] Songs and [singing] games for the youngest [children] Humorous songs Songs with themes about living conditions . . . . 106

Comradeship by the Sea The white sea gulls fly And the blue sea roars Seven flags above us Embrace and flutter under the sky.

CHORUS: Seven flags! From seven countries Pioneers have come! Here by the Black Sea All have found dear comrades. And for comradeship and faithfulness To all we have given our hands, So that the sun may always shine thusly Over the harbor of Varna. CHORUS . . . That the waves may roar on the shore, Or lap carefully; And for the Pioneers Always thusly to run across the beach. CHORUS . . . Let boats with heavy loads Arrive from the Crimea; And the fortunate fishermen Return with nets full of fish. CHORUS . . . Seven flags above us, Embrace and flutter under the sky, Our comradeship grows, Our comradeship blossoms by the sea! NIKOLAI ZIDAROV

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4 4

20

appendix

JT

TRANSLATIONS FROM TEXTBOOKS ON EDUCATIONAL METHODS

Excerpts on the Communist Education of the Young General Aims of Communist Education x The aim of communist education is the well-rounded, harmonious growth of the individual, [which includes] the development of a deep ideological consciousness, a formation of a scholarly world view, a communist attitude toward labor and toward communist morality, and the development of his physical powers, his aesthetic tastes, talents, and abilities for the creation of material and intellectual riches. The bases for the well-rounded development of the individual are in the school. This can be achieved through the total educational process, in which we can distinguish several areas: the physical, intellectual, labor, moral, and aesthetic education. The New Communist Man 2 The basic purpose through which social development is directed — the perspective in the development of socialist society — is the construction of a communist society. The allotted tasks and purposes of communist education conform to this aim. The purpose of communist education is to prepare man for communist society. What kind of a man will this person be? The man of communist society will be a well-rounded person, who has a good general education and a mastery of one or another area of material or intellectual life of society, who participates actively in the creation of the material and intellectual riches for the society, and who — together with these characteristics — develops his own particular abilities and gifts, his aesthetic appreciation, and the highest moral values. The man of communist society is a man whose deep communist convictions are directly related to his deeds. To labor for the material well-being of society for him is an inner drive, a creative activity, and the source of his happiness. The discipline and restraint which this person possesses are not imposed upon him by means of outside pressures, but from his deep awareness of his social responsibility.

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH

Notes from the Book on Fundamentals of Communist Education 3 The basic purpose of the school is to contribute to the coming of communism by helping to educate the new man (pp. 3-36). Communism requires the all-sided development of the individual (pp. 49-^64), and to achieve this purpose, it is necessary that general polytechnical and professional education be made available (pp. 72-113). In order that these purposes may be achieved, it is necessary that instruction be related to productive labor — this is the most important principle of communist education (pp. 118-136). In addition to this basic principle, however, there are certain other elements in the education of the new man: (1) A communist world view must be developed among the students (pp. 152-162). (2) The students must be educated in a proletarian internationalism and a socialist patriotism (pp. 176-199). (3) The youth must receive an atheistic education (pp. 211-224). (4) The coming generation must receive a moral education (pp. 248-277). (5) The coming generation must be educated in a communist attitude toward labor and toward social property (pp. 278-308). (6) The youth must be educated in collectivism and in a socialist humanism (pp. 309-334). (7) Children and youth must receive an aesthetic education (pp. 335-362). (8) Physical education is an indispensable part of communist education (pp. 362-388). Communist Morality * [From a Manual Intended for Komsomol Leaders} Morality is one form of social consciousness. It changes and develops together with the changes and development in human society. In societies where classes exist, it has a class character: The political aspirations, the struggles, and relations among classes find expression in it. Class determines the type of morality. The morality of the ruling class always plays the most important role in a society. . . . Communist morals arise and are formed as the morality of the working class. . . . Communism and the Education of the New Man 5 One of the most important aspects of the fundamental reconstruction of society during the transition from capitalism to socialism, and after that in its further development from socialism to communism, is the education of the new man. This is an inseparable, fundamental part of the struggle for socialism and communism, without which the victory of the new social order is completely impossible. Socialism and communism cannot be established without a fundamental change of the consciousness of the people, their viewpoints, habits, traditions, and understandings. Education and Communist Consciousness 6 [From a Text on General Methods] Moral education has the guiding role in the formation of the character of the new man of communist society. The struggle for the communist reconstruction of society lies at the very heart of communist morality. Communist morality is the highest stage in the moral development of mankind. For a communist man, morality is that which contributes to the tasks of building communism. . . . C2683

APPENDIX F TASKS AND DIRECTIONS IN MORAL EDUCATION

In the new projected program of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union a detailed section is given to the moral code required for the development of communism. This code includes the following moral principles: devotion to the goal of communism, love for the socialist fatherland, and all the other socialist nations; conscientious labor for the welfare of society — he who does not work should not eat either; care on the part of all for the protection and increase of social property; a high consciousness for one's social duty and impatience toward all elements destructive of the social interests; collectivism and comradely mutual assistance; one for all and all for one; human relations and mutual respect among people: man to man is a friend, comrade, and brother; honesty and justice, moral cleanliness, simplicity, and humility in one's social and personal life; mutual respect in the family and care in regard to education of the children; irreconcilability toward injustice, parasitism, uncleanliness, and careerism; comradeship and brotherhood among all peoples of the USSR and impatience with all national and racial animosity; irreconcilability with the enemies of communism, of peace, and of freedom of peoples; brotherly solidarity with the workers of all the countries and with all peoples. These characteristics of the new man must be continually developed in the children from their very first school years. The Basic Tasks of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League 7 The basic tasks which the communist youth organizations seek to realize in the middle grades in general can be summarized as follows: 1. To formulate among the members of the Communist Youth League a scholarly, Marxist-Leninist world view, as it carries on political-educational work with them, and to lead in the struggle against the influences of bourgeois ideology for the minds and hearts of the student youth. 2. To develop among the members of the Communist Youth League a conscientious attitude toward scholarly work, and interest and a love toward scholarship, so that they may acquire still greater knowledge, abilities, and skills. 3. To encourage members of the Communist Youth League to a still deeper study of mathematics, physics, and chemistry, and to a still greater mastery of scientific and technological knowledge. 4. To plan work education for the Communist Youth League members by organizing their efforts at socially useful labor, and to expand the role of the Komsomol organization in industrial education. 5. To work for the expansion of physical culture, excursions, and tourist activities among the youth in the middle grades.

Excerpts on Atheism An Indispensable Introduction 8 The possibility for the creative utilization of great literature in the atheistic education of the students does not need to be proved. Already for many years now, our new school . . . has worked successfully to realize this important aim. Atheistic education has become an integral part of the general communist education of the students. . . . C269J

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF B U L G A R I A N YOUTH

Lately, many valuable works and studies have appeared on the problem of religion and atheism. All of them, however, have a more general purpose and only cursorily touch upon the question of the atheistic education of the students. Very unfortunately, even today, we do not have more specialized studies devoted to the problems concerning the atheistic education of the students. Nor have any scientific experiments been carried out. It is in this area that future work must now be focused. The present book has as its aim to consider, in most general terms, some principle questions related to literature and the atheistic education of the students. [In writing the book], the author has considered not only the limited material [contained] in the school program, but almost all of the most important literary creations of our national literature that in one form or another also relate to, and shed light upon, the question of anti-religious aesthetics. The book is addressed not only to teachers, who work with students in the middle and upper grades of the general polytechnical schools, the professional schools, and the various technicums, but also to the students of the [teachers'] institutes and the pedagogical schools who are preparing to be teachers. Literature and Education in Atheism 9 . . . Of all the school subjects, literature presents the greatest number of possibilities for the communist education of the youth, for atheistic activities, and for [achieving success in] the struggle with the powerful religious superstitions and prejudices. . . . Together with school classwork in the anti-religious education of the youth, it is possible to use successfully different forms of extracurricular and extraschool activities. The teachers in literature must include, in the assigned themes for the students' homework, also such themes as are directly concerned with anti-religious topics in the masterpieces of our writers. It is helpful to organize student lectures and conferences, as is already being done in some of our schools, with talks being presented on religion and atheism. A well-organized and well-conducted discussion among the students about religious superstitions and prejudices may yield outstanding results. In detailed discussions, the students will not only employ their knowledge about literature, but also what they have learned from the other school subjects. The organization of school anti-religious exhibitions, as well as the collective visitation and study of such exhibits already set-up in some communities, also can give very good results. The atheistic education of the students must become an indivisible part of the work of our teachers in communist education. Its successful outcome depends exclusively upon a scholarly preparation by the teachers, upon their methodological abilities, and their pedagogical mastery. Excerpts on the Teaching of History Aims of History Instruction 10 In history instruction in the upper grades of the school, students must be convinced that the basis of social life is material production, that the history

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APPENDIX F

of society above everything else is the history of the development of productive forces and productive relations. The development of feudal society is to be presented to the students as predetermined and progressive changes in socioeconomic forms. In the final analysis, it is the productive forces that determine the development. The students will be able to see from history how the development of productive forces of society change the character of production and social relations among the people. Tasks in Teaching Upper-Grade History " In teaching history in the upper grades, the following specific tasks must be fulfilled in order to educate the students in the spirit of Soviet patriotism: 1. Formation of firm convictions having their roots in an understanding of true Soviet patriotism: understanding the immeasurable superiority of socialist society and the socialist governmental order of the USSR over the exploiting orders of society, and understanding the universal world-historical progressive role of the USSR as the leader of progressive mankind in the struggle for peace and democracy under socialism; 2. Educating the student in the spirit of the best revolutionary heroic traditions of the Soviet people: forming a consciousness of the superiority of these traditions and the responsibility of these traditions; 3. Educating students in a spirit of love and devotion toward the socialist fatherland: toward the Soviet people, toward their government, and toward the Communist Party of the Soviet Union; 4. Educating students in a feeling of comradeship toward the peoples of the USSR, a respect for the rights of other peoples, and sympathy for all other peoples who are struggling for their independence; 5. Developing their pride in the Soviet man; 6. Overcoming the bourgeois ideological influences and the remnants of capitalism in the form of race, nationalism, hatreds, and other prejudices which prevent education in the spirit of comradeship between the peoples of the USSR and in the spirit of Soviet patriotism, and which are antithetical to the feeling of national pride in the Soviet man; 7. Formation of moral-political ideals of the student in the spirit of Soviet patriotism through the school course in history; realization of the struggle for these ideals in the social convictions of the student. The struggle for a communist society is inherent in the concept of education for Soviet patriotism. This idea permeates all of the work of the history teacher in his education for Soviet patriotism. It is fundamental in the formation of the patriotic convictions of the student, and fundamental for the formation of his patriotic world view. The Relation of Historical Content to Educational Methodology 12 In achieving the significant ideological educational tasks of history in our new, socialist school, not only does historical content have an important role, but also the pedagogical sciences, most important of which is Soviet pedagogical fact and methodology in the teaching of history.

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH The Cardinal Aim of History Instruction 13 The one common element in the school courses in history in the upper grades is to be found in the fact that, as the students study this historical material, they obtain an understanding of the development of human society (in all its historical stages), and of the laws concerning gradual change in the socioeconomic forms: the primitive social order, slave society, feudalism, capitalism, and socialism. In other words, the main objective of the courses in history in the upper grades is this: to help students discover the laws relating to the movement of mankind toward communism. [Italics in the original.] The Importance of History as a School Subject for Communist Society 14 The highest and most-honored role in the ideological work in our schools, as it has been outlined by the Party, is to be found in a study of history, under the guidance of a teacher-historian. Among the content subjects, the tremendous educational role of historical knowledge stands out. There is not one small area of history that does not abound with possibilities for achieving the ideological objectives that have been set forth for the coming generation. Excerpts on the Teaching of Geography The Purpose of the Study of Geography1B The purposes of geographical studies is the discovery of new geographical truths and laws and their introduction into practice, but the purpose of geography as a school subject is the communist education of the coming generation [italics added]. From this basic difference, several other secondary distinctions are also derived. Thus, for example, the content of factual material in geography as a scholarly study is much greater than that of geography as a school subject. In the case of geography as a school subject, only that material from geography as a science is selected which acquaints the students with the fundamentals of this field and contributes most to the communist education of the coming generation. The Purposes of Teaching Geography 16 The Purposes of the School and the Teaching of Geography. From . . . a historical overview of geography as a school subject, it becomes clear that during different socioeconomic forms [of society], the study of geography, as also the study of all the other school subjects, has always been related to and dependent upon the social forms and has been the transmitter of the ideology of the governing class. In other words, education and moral training has been of a class [character]; and for this reason, socioeconomic changes always bring after them changes in the aims and purposes of the school. V. I. Lenin discovered with astounding clarity the class character of the school and emphasized that the bourgeoisie lies when it maintains that the school may remain outside of politics and serve on an equal basis all of the society. In reality, says he, the bourgeois school has been totally converted into an instrument of class rule by the bourgeoisie and . . . every assertion about [2723

APPENDIX F the existence of the school outside of life, outside of politics, is a lie and a pretense. The school likewise is a class institution in the Soviet Union and in the countries of the people's democracies. Its class character is not hidden in those countries because it is in the service of the most progressive class, the working class, which has been called to create a higher form [of social life], in which there will be no exploitation of man by man. In socialist society, the school is a weapon to remove completely the class structure; it is an important factor in the communist education of the coming generation. After the Ninth of September, our schools were entrusted with responsible tasks: to equip the coming generation with essential factual knowledge, to train them in communist morals, in socialist patriotism, and proletarian internationalism, and to make them active builders of the communist society. The purposes in the teaching of geography are an inseparable part of the educational purposes of our people's schools. The study of geography contributes to communist education, since it equips the students with essential factual knowledge, builds in them a dialectical, materialistic world view through the study of the material, trains them in communist morality, and creates in them a series of concepts and habits necssary to them in life. The varied and interesting content of the topics with which geography acquaints the students and the close relation of these topics to the socialist development of our country gives geography an important significance as a school subject in our people's schools. The purposes which today are presented through geography as a school subject are educational, polytechnical, and social. All are interrelated simultaneously in the teaching process. . . . EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES

17

Geography as a school subject has important purposes [to perform] also with respect to the moral training of the students. Its basic task in this matter is the training of the students in socialist patriotism. Patriotic training through geography begins with the study of the geography of one's place of birth, [then is followed by the study] of one's community and our fatherland, and is completed with the study of the entire world. . . . For example, in the study of "the boundaries of the People's Republic of Bulgaria," the students, in discussing the natural particularities and the political and economic significance of our northern and eastern boundaries, must understand that these boundaries help in our development, thanks to our friendly ties and close cooperation with the USSR and the countries of the peoples' democracies. On the other hand, when our remaining boundaries are discussed, the teacher must emphasize that the relation with our other neighbors now is likewise better, but that it is indispensable for our boundary guards to remain at their posts, watching these boundaries. The teacher must emphasize that the duty of the boundary guards is highly patriotic and that the students must always be ready to help them in case of need. The students [also] are educated in true and voluntary love toward our fatherland through a study of [its] natural riches and beauties. . . . The patriotic feeling of our students is deepened and reinforced when the

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH study of geography is related to the heroic past and the happy future of our people. The students are trained in socialist patriotism when they are acquainted with the new social economic conditions, with the many-sided measures of the people's government for bettering conditions and raising the standard of living of the workers in our land. This [training] is achieved through the scheduling of personal meetings with the heroes of socialist labor and by a study of their achievements, through visits and field trips to our socialist enterprises — factories, plants, water reservoirs, hydroelectric plants, pumping stations, machine and tractor stations, state farms, collective farms, etc. Our young, socialist man must be trained to be proud that he is a Bulgarian. Georgi Dimitrov said: "I have no reason to be ashamed that I am a Bulgarian, and I am proud that I am the son of the Bulgarian working class." During the study of geography our youth must be trained in such a spirit. . . . Socialist patriotism is irrevocably tied to socialist internationalism; for this reason, throughout the study of geography, the students must be trained to have a feeling of love and eternal friendship for the peoples of the USSR and the other socialist countries, love and international solidarity with the workers of all the world, and a hate and contempt toward all oppressors, exploiters, and starters of new wars. Proletarian internationalism is the exact antithesis of bourgeois cosmopolitanism. The latter does not include the right of the peoples to their mother tongue, to their own national culture, to their national independence, etc. It must be unmasked during the geography lessons. Through the study of geography the students must be educated in the socialist view toward labor and toward social ownership. During the geography lessons it must be explained that in the USSR, in our land, and in the other countries with a people's democracy, "labor is an act of honor, pride, and glory," "labor is the new name of life," and that the goods are divided "to each according to his work, from each according to his ability." The existing difference between mental and physical labor is rapidly being removed in these countries. On the contrary, in the teaching of the geography of the capitalist countries, it must be explained that labor is suppressed, inferior, and dependant and that the workers are exploited and oppressed. "Labor is the productive base through which are created all goods, all spiritual and material culture" (Kurazov). During the study of the geography of our fatherland, the lessons must be used also to educate the students in the socialist understandings of social ownership. In the study of industry, the agricultural economy, transportation, and in all other convenient occasions, the kind of relations that the workers had with private capitalist ownership in the past must be emphasized and the kind of relations that must be developed by them with present socialist ownership must be explained. . . . Geography helps in the development of positive traits of character in the students by a study of the lives and deeds of great geographic discoverers and travelers. . . . In this manner the students are educated in creative initiative, efficiency, a high conscientiousness, and readiness to act any moment in the interests of our fatherland — attributes which the Twenty-first Congress of the

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APPENDIX F Communist Party of the Soviet Union proclaimed as absolutely indispensable for every member of communist society. TASKS IN TEACHING THE GEOGRAPHY OF BULGARIA

18

The basic task of our schools is the preparation of well-educated, wellrounded, and harmoniously developed people, who are equipped with essential knowledge in the fundamentals of the various fields of learning, to form in them a Marxist-Leninist world view, and to provide them with an industrial and polytechnical preparation and a physical, aesthetic, and moral education. Our schools have the responsible task of preparing conscientious and industrious builders of communism for our country who have obtained the skills and habits of practical activity in socialist production. Geography as a school subject in our middle polytechnical schools likewise has such purposes, as do the other general educational disciplines. Through the study of geography, the students acquire essential scientific geographical knowledge, obtain a series of practical concepts which are necessary to them in life, and are trained in the communist spirit [italics added]. The geography of the fatherland opens great possibilities for the fulfillment of educational and instructive objectives that form a part of geography as a school subject. The Principle of Party Partisanship in Instruction in Geography IN TEACHING THE GEOGRAPHY OF BULGARIA

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The Principle of Party Partisanship. The communist education of the students requires that the instructional material in the courses on the geography of Bulgaria be presented with a clearly expressed ideological political purpose. It is evident that our student youth, the coming generation, has to be equipped not only with factual knowledge and practical understandings, but it also has to have a dialectical, materialistic world view, so that it may stand firmly on the position of Marxism-Leninism. As a concomitant of this [proposition, our youth need] to understand and explain correctly all the phenomena and facts in our natural geographic environment, in our economic development, and in our social life. Party partisanship in the teaching of the geography of Bulgaria means that the factual material must be explained in deep and correct Marxist terms — that is, the students must be correctly instructed in the communist spirit. Just as it is impossible to have true knowledge without party partisanship, so it is not possible to have true instruction in geography without the total realization of this principle. Objectivism and an indifference to politics are foreign and harmful to our national school and to the correct instruction of the students. The principle of party partisanship finds a very broad application in the teaching of geography of the fatherland. During the course of every lesson on the geography of Bulgaria, irrespective of its content, the tremendous transformations that have occurred in our economic, cultural, or social life during the years of the people's government must be emphasized. The heretofore unprecedented tempo of development in all branches of our economy, the rapid changes on the landscape of our fatherland, the abrupt betterment of the posiC2753

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tion of the workers, the bright prospects, which are unfolding before our fatherland, have to be explained simultaneously with the successes of our socialist revolution, with the peaceful politics of the Bulgarian Communist Party, [and in terms of our] brotherly cooperation with the USSR and the other socialist countries and in terms of our heroic working people. In the study of every part of the country, of every branch of industry of every district and inhabited place in Bulgaria, it is necessary that the new be pointed out which is the result of our socialist development. Not to show this — not to explain this in terms of the correct Party position — means that the teaching of the geography of the fatherland is not being carried out completely. A realization of the principle of party partisanship during the study of the courses on the geography of our fatherland helps to inspire the students with a courage and a faith in the future, and helps to develop in them a patriotic and international feeling so that they may be inspired for heroic victories in the name of the fatherland, the people, and the Party. IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY 20

With respect to the realization of the educational task in the teaching of geography, an ideological, political, communist purposefulness must always be present. . . . Its application begins first in the selection of the material for study, since it presents a factual basis through which the educational objectives are realized. The same principle finds daily application afterward in the explanations of the study materials which have to be presented to the students from the Marxist-Leninist point of view. Neglecting and minimizing the principle of party partisanship leads the study of geography to the wastelands of objectivism, political indifference, and subjectivism, which are a complete antithesis to the tasks of the contemporary school as they have been established by the people's government. . . . Only through a creative and wide application of this principle will the teaching of geography result in a correct ideological political orientation of the students with regards to the contemporary international political and economic situation. Patriotic Education through the Study of Geography 21 Student collections of illustrated materials have an especially important pedagogical significance. Such work compels them to follow the daily press or the periodical journals through which they will become acquainted with the achievements of our society, with the achievements of the countries having a people's democracy and with those in the USSR, with the life of workers in capitalist countries, etc. It is well that this work relating to the collection of the material be assigned to all the children in the class. . . . An important task in the study of the section on the national economy is the communist and patriotic education of the students. Guided by the principle "become acquainted with the fatherland so that you may love her," the teacher of geography in teaching this section must acquaint the students with the people responsible for the production of goods, with their experiments in labor, with the raw materials, their organization in distribution, and the energy base of production [as

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it exists] throughout the length and breadth of the country, etc. All this [information] educates the students in a love of the working people and our socialist fatherland and, at the same time, introduces in the study of geography elements of polytechnology. . . . At least two field trips must be carried out with this objective in mind, one field trip to a collective farm and the second to an industrial enterprise. During these trips the attention of the students must be continually focused on the working people — the creators of all material goods. Methodological Foundations 22 The methodology of teaching geography invariably is the result of specific principles and laws which have their own methodological basis. These fundamentals differ in bourgeois and socialist societies. The methodology of geography in socialist societies uses as a scholarly base the Marxist-Leninist methodology, because only with the help of this methodology, it becomes possible to explain in a scholarly way the problems in geography. Excerpts on the Methods of Teaching Geography 23 The teaching of the geography of Bulgaria also has important educational purposes. The study of the Fatherland is inextricably interwoven with the training of the students in socialist patriotism. Getting acquainted with one's birthplace, and with one's fatherland as a whole, inevitably fosters a love in the students for the natural beauties and riches of Bulgaria, for her gigantic successes and victories, for her heroic working people, and for the wise policies of the Bulgarian Communist Party — the inspiration and organizer of all victories of labor. The course material in the study of the geography of Bulgaria gives unlimited possibilities for the ideological political growth of the students [my italics]. There is not a lesson in the course on the geography of the fatherland . . . in which the potentiality for instructive influence does not exist. The explanation of the coming revolutionary changes in the political, economic, and cultural life of our people helps the students to realize that they live in a time of great social revolution — that they are contemporaries of a heroic epic; and this awakens within them a national pride, nourishes a revolutionary romanticism in their young hearts, and makes them ready for patriotic exploits. The fact that these changes are expressed, above all, in the elimination of private influence on the means of production, in the elimination of the exploitation of man by man, and in the achievement of an unparalleled moral and political unity of our people helps to develop in the students a feeling of love, respect, and devotion to the Bulgarian Communist Party and to the people's government. Our students are tomorrow's producers and they have to be prepared for life. There is not another school subject through which the students can become so well acquainted with the many-sided aspects of our country's natural beauties and our people's economic activity, as through the study of the geography of the fatherland. The course material in the geography of Bulgaria is a rich source for acquainting the students with our economic development. Unfolding the right perspectives for the economic advance of our fatherland helps C277]

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to heighten the patriotic feeling of the students and to make them conscious participants in the building of socialism in our land. The study of the geography of the fatherland provides tremendous possibilities also for the international education of the students. Emphasis upon the significance and role of the life-giving Bulgarian-Soviet friendship, upon the close political, economic, and cultural cooperation among the socialist countries, and on the peaceful existence together and friendship among the workers of all the nations, helps to build within the students a healthy feeling of internationalism. Through the study of geography and especially in the extracurricular forms of work, the students develop good comradely relations, a collective spirit, and self-discipline. The evenings of geography at school, the work in the geographic circles, the excursions, and field trips are a genuine school for the communist education of the students. Evening Programs in Geography 24 One of the outcomes of the circle in geography is the evening programs on geographic themes. Such evening programs, however, may also be worked out by students who are not members of the circle and even in schools in which such circles do not exist. Evenings in geography are important events in the life of all the school, not only in the lives of those students who participate in them. When the programs are of interesting and realistic content, they remain for a long time in the memory of all those who have attended them. Preparation for an evening program in geography is a responsible and difficult task, requiring much time and hard labor, but for this reason its effectiveness is great. Many different themes exist around the topic of our fatherland which are suitable for an evening program in geography. The subject for such an evening may be the themes: "Along the Borders of Bulgaria," "The Natural Riches of Bulgaria — An Important Resource for Her Socialist Advancement," "The Working People — Builders of Socialism in Our Country," "The Socialist Construction of Bulgaria," "Comradeship with the USSR — The Sun and Air of Our Fatherland," "The Metallurgical Combine 'Klemikovtsi,'" "Rhodope Mountains — The Bulgarian Urals," "Our Land of Birth," "Our Town along the Path to Socialism," etc. Communist Education through the Study of Geography 25 In studying the topic, "The Natural Geographic Environment and Human Society," the basic scholarly conditions and principles must be explained to the students regarding the interactivity of the natural geographic environment and human society. . . . The question about the mutual influences between the natural geographic environment and mankind is not only a scholarly geographical question but also a scholarly philosophical one, about which, as it is well known, there are different interpretations. The teacher of geography is obliged to develop the topic from the viewpoint of Marxist geography and the understandings of Marxist-Leninist philosophy [my italics]. The interpretations of bourgeois geogC2783

APPENDIX F raphy and philosophy with respect to these questions are presented to the students only to the extent necessary to understand their intellectual shortcomings and their use as a "scholarly" justification for the series of economic and political acts that have as their purpose the enslavement, oppression, and exploitation of the various peoples in the world. The Methodology and a Suggested Outline for Teaching the Separate Lessons in a General Overview of Bulgaria's Economic Development26 Objectives for the Lesson. To acquaint the students with the backwardness of our economy under capitalism and its rapid and many-sided development under socialism by which the great advantages of socialist production are presented as against those of capitalism. Before beginning work on the lesson, the teacher will explain that the study of the geography of our country will be completed by a survey of its economy. On the blackboard in large letters, the teacher writes the heading "Our National Economy," and underneath it in smaller letters, she writes the theme of the lesson. The development of the lesson may be carried on according to the following plan: 1. The character of the economy under capitalism — a meager, primitive, unproductive, agricultural economy, [and] a poor and undiversified development of industry. 2. The national economy along the path of socialism — agrarian reforms, the nationalization of factories, banks, the natural resources, etc. The main objective [of the government] is [to achieve] a planned, rapid development of the economy. 3. The main branches of the economy — industry and agriculture. 4. The development of the economy in the future — completion of the socialist system and beginning the transition to communism. 5. The unselfish help of the USSR and the other socialist countries — an important condition in building socialism in our country. Primarily by means of lectures, our economy under capitalism is [to be] described, with its meager, primitive, and poor agricultural economy, with its poorly developed industries and its unexplored natural wealth, with its extremely backward transportation system which exported to the foreign market chiefly raw agricultural products. During the second part of the lesson, "The Natural Economy under Socialism," the lecture has to be interwoven with discussions. Here such questions as these may be posed: Which historical event opened the road for the socialist development of our country? Which measures of the people's government made the factories, banks, and natural resources the property of the people? Later, primarily by means of lectures, it should be explained that these and a series of other measures created the free conditions for the building of socialism in our land, and that through socialism, the economy is developed according to government plans, each of which ordinarily is scheduled for a period of five years. It must also be explained to the students that our socialist economy is developing at a very rapid pace as a result of which greater possibilities are C2793

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being created to satisfy the uninterrupted growth in the needs of the population and [provide] for an increase in the quantity of goods for export. In surveying the branches of the economy, it must be emphasized that from a poorly developed industrial-agrarian country under capitalism, our fatherland under socialism has been transformed into an industrially and agriculturally developed state. Finally, it must be emphasized that all these successes became possible thanks to the unselfish help of the Soviet Union and the other socialist countries, with whose help by 1980 the materialistic-technological base for socialism in our land will be completed and building shall begin of a materialistic-technological base for communism. The knowledge [of the pupils] may be reinforced through a discussion of such questions as these: What were the former characteristics of the economy of our country? With what historical event did the path of Bulgaria to socialism begin? With what measures of the people's government were the necessary conditions created for the building of socialism in our country? What significance has the rapid tempo of the development of our economy today? Likewise, an analysis may be made of the diagrams showing the situation between industry and the agricultural economy, and excerpts may be read from the Directives for the Development of the Country, based on the projected twenty-year plan. The Methodology and Development of a Projected Lesson on the General Characteristics of the National Economy 2T The Objectives of the New Lesson. To explain the general measures taken in the development of our national economy under capitalism and under socialism. To explain that under the existing, internationalist, socialist division of labor, our economy is tied to the economy of the other countries, the members of siv. To emphasize that the economic development of Bulgaria is unthinkable without the help of the Soviet Union and the other socialist countries. The Course of the Lesson. Reviewing the Material Previously Studied. At the beginning of the hour the following short questions should be asked: What is the origin of Bulgaria's population? What is its present ethnic structure? After this two students should be asked individually to answer the following questions: The first student should be asked (1) What is the population trend of the inhabitants? and (2) What is the significance of the Black and White seas in relation to the climate of Bulgaria? The second student should be asked (1) What are the classes and professional composition of the population? and (2) What is the economic significance of the rivers in Bulgaria? The development of the new material in the lesson may be carried out according to the following suggested plan: 1. The economy of Bulgaria under capitalism. 2. The economy of Bulgaria during the early days of socialism. 3. The present structure of the economy. 4. Prospects for the development of our socialist economy [during the period from 1961] to 1980. 5. The help of the USSR and the countries of srv in the development of our national economy.

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In order that the lesson may be more successfully carried out, the following audio-visual materials may be utilized: A diagram of the relation of the agricultural economy and industry under capitalism and as it existed in 1963; a picture of socialistic construction in our country; and the Directives of the Eighth Congress of the Bulgarian Communist Party. . . . Under the first heading the teacher must explain, by using the following facts, why the bourgeoisie in Bulgaria was unable to develop the industrial might of the country: (1) their desire for a rapid and easy profit, on the basis of which they invested their capital in light industries; (2) the great dependence of Bulgaria on foreign capital. It is especially important to point out that foreign capital had transformed our country into a source of agricultural raw products and a market for its industrial products and that one third of our national income was appropriated by the foreign capitalists for themselves. In developing the second point of the lesson, it is important that the measures of the people's government be pointed out which created the conditions for the planned development of our economy — such as the agrarian reform; the nationalization of the industrial enterprises, the banks, and the national resources; and the collectivism of the agricultural economy. In describing the organization of our economy under socialism, it is important to point out that [it was] the socialization of the means of production that resulted in the rapid development of industry in our country. From the diagrams comparing the industrial and agricultural economies during 1939 and during 1963, the students can draw the conclusion that Bulgaria developed in less than twenty years from a backward agricultural country under capitalism to a state of the first rank in industrial-agricultural production. In order to emphasize this point, the teacher can announce the following data: During 1962, in comparison with 1939, our industry produced about fifteen times more products. Now, in just eighteen days, our industries produce the same quantity of goods as was produced in all of 1939. It is pertinent to point out the importance of the positive role of the April Plenum of the Bulgarian Communist Party, which unleashed the peoples' might for creative labor. In surveying the perspectives for the development of our national economy, based upon the data taken from the Directive of the Eighth Congress of the Bulgarian Communist Party, it is necessary to describe the future developments of our economy to the students, which will involve completing the building of the materialistic-technological bases of socialism and the gradual evolution to the development of a materialistic-technological base of communism. The great political, cultural, and economic successes of our country are an inseparable part of the success of the entire socialist camp led by the USSR. For this reason, under the fifth point of the lesson, it is important that the tremendous role of the Soviet Union and siv be examined as it contributes to our economic development: to point out the necessity for coordinating the national plans, for a specialized production in the various branches of industry and the agricultural economy, and [for] coordinating the related industrial output among the nations that are members of siv. The material that has been studied may be reinforced in the minds of the students by reading in conclusion the following paragraph from the Constitu-

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tion of SIV: "The soviet for economic mutual help is founded on the principle of the sovereign equality of all states that are members of the soviet. The economic, scientific, and technical cooperation of the countries that are members of the soviet is realized in respect to the principle of complete independence, respect for the sovereignty and national interests, mutual benefit, and comradely mutual cooperation. The Field Trip in Geography Educational excursions and field trips in geography have an important educational and instructive significance in teaching the geography of Bulgaria. During the course of these experiences, the students have the opportunity to view directly the physical geographic and economic objects in the country, to become acquainted with the different industrial processes, with the laboring people, with the natural beauties of the fatherland, and with its rapid economic advance. By means of excursions, the geography of the birthplace can best be studied, and this is one of the basic purposes in the study of the geography of Bulgaria. The excursions in geography are schools for the communist education of the students. Through them, the feelings of comradeship, mutual aid, discipline, collectivism, and love to our socialist society are developed. Wellorganized and well-conducted excursions remain as permanent memories in the consciousness of the students and help the teacher directly in the new school work.28 The proposed routes [for geographic excursions] make it possible for the students to become acquainted also with the various branches and industries of the national economy of our country [sic]. This has tremendous importance, enabling the students to acquire their factual material in economic geography and also to establish closer ties with life. For example, the students all obtain a clear and more accurate understanding of the production of nitrogen fertilizers and cement if, after they have studied the problems of the chemical industry and the manufacture of building materials in our land, they visit a plant for the manufacture of nitrogen fertilizers and cement. Acquainting the students at an actual plant site with the organization of labor and production — with the utilization of raw materials, energy, and working time and with the purposes for which the goods are produced — has a tremendous significance for expanding the polytechnical understandings of the students. As they become acquainted at given enterprises with the achievements of the rationalizers, the innovators, and the udarniks [individuals producing above their norm] of socialist labor and with their ability to overcome hardships, the students are trained in the feeling of love of labor and our heroic working class; their feeling of national pride is developed with respect to our successes in socialist industry and construction.29 Branches of Animal Husbandry 30 In the development of this lesson, besides the lecture method, it is possible to implement widely the discussion method, to work with the agricultural maps of Bulgaria, with the diagrams illustrating the growth of the number of farm H 2823

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animals, and with the Directives of the Eighth Congress of the Bulgarian Communist Party, etc. In developing the subject of cattle raising, the attention of the pupils must be focused on that section of the Directives in which cattle raising is allotted the primary place. Then, briefly, through use of the lecture and discussion methods, the characteristics of the various breeds of cattle can be explained and the different rayons where they are raised can be surveyed. The students may also be able to describe the successes of a nearby dairy farm which they should have visited before the lesson. The many branches of animal husbandry are to be surveyed in the same manner. During the study of each of these branches of animal raising, the students are to use the map on page 93 of their school atlas to determine the chief rayons where the respective breeds of animals are raised. The state farms and the cooperative farms in the okrug that have reached the highest degree of success in animal husbandry must be singled out. In the study of the fishing industry, it must be pointed out that during the year 1964, with the help of the USSR, Bulgaria began to do ocean fishing.

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Notes and Bibliography

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NOTES

Chapter I. Introduction 1. Central Statistical Bureau of the Ministers' Soviet, Statisticheski godishnik na Narodna Republika B"lgariya, 1965 (Statistical Handbook of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, 1965) (Sofia: the author, 1965), pp. 12-68, 366-380. Data furnished is as of the census of 1956, revised as of 1965 on the basis of births and deaths recorded. 2. Constitution of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, Art. LXXIX, in Amos J. Peaslee, ed., Constitutions of Nations; 3 vols. (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1956), Vol. I, p. 242. Chapter II. The Bulgarian System of Education 1. Zakon za po-tyasna vr"zka na uchilishteto s zhivota i za po-natat"shno razvitie na narodnoto obrazovanie v Narodna Republika B"lgariya (Law for Closer Ties between School and Life and for the Further Development of National Education in the People's Republic of Bulgaria) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1960), Art. I, Sec. 1. The law will hereafter be cited as Law for Closer Ties between School and Life. 2. Ibid., Art. II, Sec. 6. 3. Ibid., Art. V. 4. The World of Learning 1963-1964 (London: Europa Publications, 1963), pp. 163-164. 5. Bulgarian Communist Party, Direktivi na Osmiya kongres na B"lgarskata komunisticheska partiya za razvitieto na Narodna republika B"lgariya prez perioda 1961-1980 (Directives of the Eighth Congress of the Bulgarian Communist Party for the Development of the People's Republic of Bulgaria during the Period 19611980) (Sofia: the author, 1961), p. 36. 6. Cf. ibid., pp. 36-40, and Bulgarian Communist Party, XXII kongres na KPSS: za programata na Komunisticheskata partiya na S"vetskiya s"uz (The Twenty-second Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union: Concerning the Program of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) (Sofia: the author, 1961), pp. 97-105. Of course, whether these plans will be achieved and what the quality of the education provided will be are other matters. Chapter III. The Social Education of Children in Bulgarian Elementary Schools 1. Carl J. Friedrich & Zbigniew K. Brzezinski, Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy, 2nd ed., rev. by Carl J. Friedrich (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,

SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH 1965), p. 22. See also Carl J. Friedrich, "The Unique Character of Totalitarian Society," in Totalitarianism: Proceedings of a Conference Held at the Academy of Arts and Sciences, March 1953. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1954), pp. 47-60. 2. Law for Closer Ties between School and Life. 3. Ibid., Art. l,Sec. 1. 4. Din'o Koev, Za partiinostta v"obuchenieto i v"zpitanieto (Concerning Party Partisanship in Education and Instruction") (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1962), p. 5. 5. Mit'o Pechev Pechevski, Metodika na obuchenieto na geografiya: uchebnik za progimnazialni uchiteli (The Methodology of Teaching Geography: A Textbook for the Institutes for Junior High School Teachers) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), p. 10. This book will hereafter be cited as The Methodology of Teaching Geography. 6. Law for Closer Ties between School and Life. 7. Nevena Popova, Povishavane efektivnostta na obuchenieto po istoriya (Improving Effectiveness in the Teaching of History) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1963), p. 3. 8. Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels, Manifesto of the Communist Party, in Lewis S. Feuer, ed., Marx and Engels: Basic Writings on Politics and Philosophy (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1959), p. 29. 9. Much of the material in this section is based upon the book by Georgi T. Gizdov, Pedagogika (Pedagogy) (Sofia: Meditsina i Fizkultura, 1963), hereafter cited as Pedagogy. 10. Ibid., p. 120. 11. Ibid., pp. 122-125. 12. Pechevski, The Methodology of Teaching Geography, p. 165. 13. See the story in Appendix E by Veselina Genovska, "P"rvomaiski znamena" ("Banners of the First of May"), from Ivan Todorova, N. Bobeva, R. Gundova, & L. Shivacheva, Chitanka za IV klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (A Reader for Grade 4 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1963), pp. 131-134, hereafter cited as A Reader for Grade 4. 14. Gizdov, Pedagogy, pp. 125-127. 15. Ibid., pp. 127-129. 16. Ibid., pp. 132-135. 17. For a further discussion of this topic, see John Georgeoff, "Elementary Education in Bulgaria," School and Society, XCIV (February 5, 1966), 71-74. 18. Interview with kindergarten teachers, December 13,1964. 19. Gizdov, Pedagogy, pp. 129-132. 20. Ibid. Chapter IV. The Relation of Social Education to Specific Subject Areas 1. Elka Petrova, Margarita Cherneva, & Gavril Khrusanov, Preduchilishtna pedagogika: uchebnik za uchitelskite instituti za detski uchitelki (Preschool Education: A Textbook for Teachers' Institutes for Preschool Teachers) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1963), p. 16. 2. Gizdov, Pedagogy, pp. 26-32. 3. A. A. Vargin & N. V. Speranskaya, Osnovni v"prosi ot metodikata na obuchenieto po istoriya v gornite klasove (Fundamental Problems of Methodology in the Teaching of History in the Upper Grades), trans, from the Russian by Nadya Uzunova & Boris Misirkov (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1962), pp. 3-4. 4. Popova, Improving Effectiveness in the Teaching of History, pp. 21-22. 5.1bid.,p. 132.

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NOTES 6. V. Cholakova, S. Veleva, & I. Ivanov, Otechestvena istoriya: uchebnik za IV klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (A History of the Fatherland: A Textbook for Grade 4 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1963), pp. 14-16; hereafter cited as A History of the Fatherland. lono Mitev, Voin Bozhinov, Aleksand"r Velev, Tsvetana Kazandzhieva, & Zlatka Stancheva, Istoriya na B"lgariya: uchebnik za VII klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (The History of Bulgaria: A Textbook for Grade 7 of the General Polytechnical Schools') (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), pp. 31, 271; hereafter cited as The History of Bulgaria. losif Shopov, Khristo Botusharov, & Angel Stoilov, Istoriya na srednite vekove: uchebnik za VI klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (History of the Middle Ages: A Textbook for Grade 6 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), pp. 40-42; hereafter cited as History of the Middle Ages. I. Cholakova et al., A History of the Fatherland, pp. 11-12, and Mitev, The History of Bulgaria, pp. 21-22. 8. Cholakova et al., A History of the Fatherland. St. Clement founded a famous monastery school near Lake Ohrid. 9. Cholakova et al., A History of the Fatherland, pp. 16-17. 10. Shopov et al., History of the Middle Ages, p. 79; see also pp. 77-85. I I . Ibid., p. 77. 12. Ibid., p. 78. 13. Ibid., pp. 74-75. 14. Cholakova et al., A History of the Fatherland, pp. 26-59. 15. Ministry of Education & Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Pedagogical Institute, Uchebni programi za obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta, I-XI klas (The Course of Study for the General Polytechnical Schools, Grades 1-11) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), p. 55. 16. Pechevski, The Methodology of Teaching Geography, p. 7. 17. N. K'osev, P. Lazarov, & D. Atanasov, Metodika na obuchenieto po geografiya na B"lgariya (The Methodology of Teaching the Geography of Bulgaria) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), p. 5. 18. Pechevski, The Methodology of Teaching Geography, pp. 15-17. 19. K'osev et al., The Methodology of Teaching the Geography of Bulgaria, pp. 6-7. 20. Pechevski, The Methodology of Teaching Geography, p. 165. 21. D. Dimitrov, P. Penchev, V. Nikolov, & K. Kr"stev, Obshta fizicheska geografiya: uchebnik za VIII klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (General Physical Geography: A Textbook for Grade 8 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), pp. 124-126; hereafter cited as General Physical Geography. 22. Pechevski, The Methodology of Teaching Geography, pp. 15-17. 23. Ibid., p. 16. 24. Ibid. 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid. 27. Ibid. 28. Ibid. The Bulgarian Course of Study states: "Successes in the economic development of the USSR and the People's Republic of Bulgaria are to be studied in depth in order to show the superiority of the socialist system over the capitalist" (Ministry of Education & Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Pedagogical Institute, 1964, p. 11). Approaches to the teaching of economic geography have been discussed in a special teachers' manual by Pavlina Velikska, Myastoto na ikonomicheskata geografiya na B"lgariya pri os"shtestvuvane na politekhnicheskoto obuchenie (The Place of

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH the Economic Geography of Bulgaria in the Realization of Poly technical Education) (Sofia: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1960). 29.1 bid., p. 16. 30. Ibid., pp. 31-36. 31.76«*.,pp.39-61. 32. Ibid., pp. 37-38. 33. Ibid., p. 40. 34. Kyasev et al., The Methodology of Teaching the Geography of Bulgaria, p. 32. Whether all these objectives are actually outcomes of field trips may be questioned, but Bulgarian methods textbook writers appear to think that they are. 35. Stoyan Dinchev, Stoyan Stavrev, & Svetlin Kiradshiev, Vchebni geografski ekskurzii (Educational Field Trips in Geography) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1962), p. 4. 36. S. Karaivanova, ed., Prilozhenie na primernata programa za v"zpitanie na uchenitsite (A Proposal for a Model Program for the Education of Students) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1963), pp. 120-122. 37. Ibid., p. 124. 38. Pechevski, The Methodology of Teaching Geography, pp. 15-17. 39. Ibid., p. 18. 40. Ibid., p. 46. 41. Ministry of Education & Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Pedagogical Institute, The Course of Study for the General Poly technical Schools, Grades 1-11, p. 17. 42. Ministry of Education, Programa po osnova na komunizma za obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta, srednite profesionalnotekhnicheski uchilishta i tekhnikumite (Course Guide on "The Fundamentals of Communism" for the General Poly technical, the Secondary Professional, and the Secondary Technical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), p. 3. 43.Ibid. 44.Ibid. 45.Ibid. 46. Veselina Genovska, "Banners of the First of May," in Todorova et al., A Reader for Grade 4, pp. 131-134. 47. Dimitrov et al., General Physical Geography, p. 125. 48. Pet"r Bratoev, Nyakoi v"prosi na ateistichnoto v"zpitanie pri obuchenieto po literatura (Some Problems in Atheistic Education during Instruction in Literature) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1963), pp. 111-112. 49. Ibid., p. 111. 50. Ibid., pp. 111-112. 51. Karaivanova, A Proposal for a Model Program for the Education of Students, p. 126. 52. K. Vasilev, I. lordanov, L. Milefa, G. Beselinov, & P. Ivanov, Bukvar i p"rva chitanka (An Alphabet Book and First Reader) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), p. 80; hereafter cited as An Alphabet Book. 53. Ministry of Education & Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Pedagogical Institute, The Course of Study for the General Polytechnical Schools, Grades 1-11, pp. 14-30. 54. L. Andreychin, K. Popov, & S. Stoyanov, B"lgarska gramatika: uchebnik za shesti klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (A Bulgarian Grammar: A Textbook for Grade 6 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1963), p. 16; hereafter cited as A Bulgarian Grammar. 55. Ibid., p. 8.

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NOTES 56. From field notes kept by this writer during his observations of classes in Bulgaria. 57. Two Bulgarian books published in the mid-1960's discuss the role of children's literature in the Communist education of the child: Zhecho Atanasov, Knigata i deteto (The Book and the Child) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1963), and Vasil Aleksandrov & Dimit"r Ugrin, compilers, V'prosi na detskata literatura (Problems in Children's Literature) (Sofia: Dom na Detskata Kniga, 1964). 58. Elena I. Guilemetova & Ekaterina A. Dimitrova, English for the VIII Class (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), p. 79. 59. N. Pavlov, Z. Popova, R. Baeva, & N. Pencheva, Aritmetika: uchebnik za p"rvi klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politechnicheski uchilishta (Arithmetic: A Textbook for Grade 1 of the General Poly technical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1963), p. 98. 60. Ibid., pp. 1-97. 61. Stefan Khristov & Jordan Markov, Aritmetika: uchebnik za 111 klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (Arithmetic: A Textbook for Grade 3 of the General Poly technical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), p. 81. 62. V. Bozarov et al., Estestvoznanie: uchebnik za IV klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (Nature Study: A Textbook for Grade 4 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1963), pp. 6-7; hereafter cited as Nature Study. 63. Ibid., pp. 53-54. 64. D. D. Popov & K. V. Shaposhnikov, Fizika za VI klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (Physics for Grade 6 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), p. 5; hereafter cited as Physics for Grade 6. 65. P. Targov & K. Popova, Fizika: uchebnik za VII klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (Physics: A Textbook for Grade 7 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), p. 57. Other excerpts from these texts are included in Appendix E. 66. Andrei Kotsev, Milka Marcheva, & Ivan Penev, Botanika: uchebnik za VI klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (Botany: A Textbook for Grade 6 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1963), p. 5; hereafter cited as Botany. 67. Dimit"r Dimitrov, compiler, Za esteticheskoto v"zpitanie na pionerite (Concerning the Aesthetic Education of Pioneers) (Sofia: Narodna Mladezh, 1961), p. 34. 68. Ministry of Education, & Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Pedagogical Institute, The Course of Study for the General Polytechnical Schools, Grades 1-11, p. 73. 69. Ibid. 70. Ibid., p. 74 71. Lilyana Vitanova-Staleva, Gencho Gaitandzhev, & Elena Toncheva, compilers, Antologiya na b"lgarskata detska i uchilishtna pesen (An Anthology of Bulgarian School and Children's Songs) (Sofia: Nauka i Izkustvo, 1964), p. 254. A more detailed breakdown appears in Appendix D. 72.1bid.,p. 61. 73. Dimitrov, Concerning the Aesthetic Education of Pioneers, p. 23. 74. Ibid., pp. 27-28. 75. Ibid., p. 29. 76. Ibid., p. 19.

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF B U L G A R I A N YOUTH 77. Ibid., p. 22. See also, P. Penchev, ed., Detska stsena (Children's Drama) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964). 78. Ibid., pp. 21-22. 79. Ministry of Education & Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Pedagogical Institute, The Course of Study for the General Polytechnical Schools, Grades 1-11, p. 97. 80. Ibid. Sl.Ibid.,p.98. 82. Ibid., p. 84. Some of the material in this section is also based upon the book by Georgi Mavrov, V'zpitavane na trudovi umeniya (Education in the Concepts of Labor) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1960). 83. Ministry of Education & Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Pedagogical Institute, The Course of Study for the General Polytechnical Schools, Grades 1-11, p. 84. 84. Ibid., p. 87. 85. Ibid.

Chapter V. Materials Used in Social Education 1. V. Nedelcheva & N. Manolova, Geografiya na Evropa, Aziya, Avstraliya i Antarktida: uchebnik za VI klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (The Geography of Europe, Asia, Australia, and Antarctica: A Textbook for Grade 6 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), p. 2; hereafter cited as The Geography of Europe, Asia, Australia, and Antarctica. 2. Ibid. 3. Bozarov et al., Nature Study, pp. 3-4. 4. Ekaterina Mechkova&Pef'r Lazarov, Geografiya: uchebnik za V klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (Geography: A Textbook for Grade 5 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), p. 114; hereafter cited as Geography. 5. Ibid., p. 49. 6. Ibid., pp. 58-59. 7. Tsocho Petrov, "Izpolzuvane proizvedeniyata na izobrazitelnoto izkustvo pri obuchenieto po rodna istoriya" ("Utilizing Art Illustrations in Teaching the History of the Fatherland"), in Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Pedagogical Institute, Dokladi ot pedagogicheskite cheteniya po istoriya prez 1960 g. (Papers from Pedagogical Readings in History Presented during I960) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1961), p. 13.

Chapter VI. The Bulgarian Schoolteacher 1. Sofia State University, Clement of Ohrid, Razpis na lektsiite, uchebna godina, 1964-1965 (Description of the Lectures for the 1964-1965 School Year) (Sofia: the author, 1965), pp. 9-25. 2. Central Institute for the Improvement of Teachers, Ucheben plan (Program of Study) (mimeographed material in the files of the writer), p. 2. 3.Ibid.,p.3. 4. Dimitrov Communist Youth League, Ustav na Dimitrovskiya komunisticheski mladezhki s"uz (The Statute of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League) (Sofia: Narodna Mladezh, 1963), p. 3. 5. Ibid., p. 4. 6. Ibid., Art. VII, Sec. 42.

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NOTES Chapter VII. Social Education through the Pioneer and Komsomol Organizations 1. Dimitrov Communist Youth League, Statute of the Dimitrov Communist Youth League, pp. 39-40. 2. Assen Boseva, Fifteen Years of the Septemvriiche Dimitrov Pioneer Organization, trans, by Elena Mladenova (Sofia: Foreign Languages Press, 1959), p. 7; hereafter cited as Fifteen Years of the Septemvriiche. 3. Ibid., p. 10. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid., pp. 12,14. 6.1 bid., p. 16. 7. Much of the material in this section on the responsibilities of the Pioneer Organization for education in labor is based upon the book by Ivan Pavlov, Rolyata na pionerskata organizatsiya za os"shtestvyavane na politekhnicheskoto obuchenie (The Role of the Pioneer Organization in Achieving Poly technical Education} (Sofia: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Pedagogical Institute, 1956). 8. Boseva, Fifteen Years of the Septemvriiche, p. 18. 9. Narodna mladezh, September 24, 1964, p. 1. 10. Boseva, Fifteen Years of the Septemvriiche, p. 12. 11. Much of the material in this section is taken from Ivan Pavlov, Rolyata na Dimitrov'skata pionerska organizatsiya, Septemvriiche, za povishavane uspekha na uchenitsite (The Role of the Dimitrov Pioneer Organization, Septemvriiche, in Improving the Success of Students [in School]) (Sofia: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Pedagogy, 1953). Although the book is somewhat dated, it still presents an accurate picture of the Pioneer program of activities. 12. K'osev et al., The Methodology of Teaching the Geography of Bulgaria, p. 34. 13. Todor Samodumov, Rolyata na uchilishteto i semeistvoto za sotsialisticheskoto v"zpitanie (The Role of the School and Family in Socialist Education) (Sofia: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1957). 14. The most exhaustive study of this method in terms of the Pioneer program is by D. A. Oshanin, Samodeinost i r"kovodstvo v pionerskata organizatsiya (Self-Direction and Leadership in the Pioneer Organization) (Sofia: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1953). 15. These statements are based upon the book by Ivan Pavlov, Trudovoto v"zpitanie v pionerskite lageri (Work Education in the Pioneer Camps) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1963). 16. Based upon an interview which the writer had with members of the staff of the Station of Young Technicians, January 3, 1965. 17. Dimitrov Communist Youth League, Statute, pp. 4-5. 18. Ibid., p. 5. 19. Ibid., pp. 9-12. Appendix C. Translations from Speeches, Newspapers, and Pronouncements 1. Translated from Narodna mladezh, September 24, 1964, p. 1. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid. 4. Translated from a story in Vecherni Novini, September 15, 1964, p. 1, and printed here with the gracious permission of the publisher. Appendix D. Translations from Courses of Study and Educational Documents 1. Translated from the Ministry of Education & Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Pedagogical Institute, "Programa po geografiya" ("The Program in Geography"),

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SOCIAL EDUCATION OF BULGARIAN YOUTH in The Course of Study for the General Poly technical Schools, Grades 1-11, pp. 142. 2. Ibid., p. 17. 3. Ministry of Education & Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Pedagogical Institute, The Course of Study for the General Polytechnical Schools, Grades 1-11, pp. 60-61. 4. Ibid., p. 67. 5. Ibid., p. 71. 6. Ibid., p. 72.

Appendix E. Translations from Textbooks 1. Pavlov et al., Arithmetic: A Textbook for Grade 1 of the General Polytechnical Schools, 1964. 2. lordan Markov, Aritmetika: uchebnik za vtori klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (Arithmetic: A Textbook for Grade 2 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964). 3. Khristov & Markov, Arithmetic: A Textbook for Grade 3 of the General Polytechnical Schools. 4. Metodi Khristov, Aritmetika: uchebnik za IV klas no [sic] obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (Arithmetic: A Textbook for Grade 4 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), pp. 67 and 66, respectively. 5. Marko Dimitrov, Sbornik ot zadachi po aritmetika za V klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (A Collection of Arithmetic Problems for Grade 5 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1965), p. 47. 6. Marko Dimitrov, Sbornik ot zadachi po aritmetika za VI klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (A Collection of Arithmetic Problems for Grade 6 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964). 7. P. Ivanov, D. T. Nakova, I. Anev, & P. Stambolov, Algebra: uchebnik za VII klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (Algebra: A Textbook for Grade 7 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), p. 132; hereafter cited as Algebra. 8.1. Anev & P. Stambolov, Algebra: uchebnik za VIII klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (Algebra: A Textbook for Grade 8 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), pp. 21-22, 73-74. Problem number 1 is on page 21, problems 2 and 3 on page 22, problem 4 on page 73, and problem 5 on page 74. 9. Bozarov et al., Nature Study, pp. 3-4. 10.1 bid., pp. 6-7. 11. Ibid., pp. 14,36,49. 12. Ibid., pp. 53-54, 55, 58-59. 13. Ibid., p. 71. 14. Kotsev et al., Botany, p. 5. 15. Popov & Shaposhnikov, Physics for Grade 6, p. 5. 16. Ibid., p. 95. 17. Ibid., p. 68. 18. Targov & Popova, Physics. 19.1bid.,pp.57,59. 20. M. lordanova, N. Melnishki, & M. Yaneva, Otechestvena geografiya: uchebnik za IV klas na obshtoobrazovatelnite trudovo-politekhnicheski uchilishta (A Geography of the Fatherland: A Textbook for Grade 4 of the General Polytechnical Schools) (Sofia: Narodna Prosveta, 1964), p. 5.

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NOTES 21. Ibid., pp. 60-61. 22. Ibid., p. 84. 23. Mechkova & Lazarov, Geography, pp. 111-112. 24. Ibid., p. 114. 25. Ibid., p. 115. 26. Ibid., p. 116. 27. Nedelcheva & Manolova, TTze Geography of Europe, Asia, Australia, and Antarctica, pp. 33-35. 28./Wd., pp. 40, 41. 29./«d.,p.41. 30.76fd.,pp. 46,47 31./6W.,pp.49,51. 32. Ibid., pp. 53, 57. 33.7Wd.,p. 62. 34. Ibid., p. 59. 35./Wd.,p.60. 36. Ibid., p. 64. 37. Ibid., p. 97. 38. 7^W., pp. 101,102, 103. 39.1bid.,p. 108. 40. /&/