Social Criticism: The Unsolved Riddle of Social Justice and Other Essays 9781487586805

Table of contents :
Contents
An introduction
Selected Bibliography
Postscript
Greater Canada: an appeal
Literature and education in America
The apology of a professor: an essay on modern learning
The devil and the deep sea: a discussion of modern morality
The woman question
The tyranny of prohibition
The unsolved riddle of social justice
1. The troubled outlook of the present hour
2. Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness
3. The failures and fallacies of natural liberty
4. Work and wages
5. The land of dreams: the Utopia of the socialist
6. How Mr Bellamy looked backwards
7. What is possible and what is not

Citation preview

Social Criticism The Unsolved Riddle of Social Justice and Other Essays

Edited and introduced by Alan Bowker Stephen Leacock, long celebrated as Canada's foremost humorist and social satirist, has received little recognition for his considerable accom­ plishments as a serious thinker and social critic. In fact, Leacock was a professor of political economy, and more than half of his writings ad­ dressed the pressing issues of his day. This volume represents the ne­ glected aspect of Leacock's career, gathering together his writings on a range of subjects, including imperialism, education and culture, religion and morality, feminism, prohibition, and social justice. The collection begins with 'Greater Canada: an appeal,' which dates from 1907, when Leacock was a popular lecturer advancing the cause of imperialism. Bowker points out that, for Leacock, imperialism was more a spiritual mission than a political agenda, representing the opportunity to unite Canadians, to inspire allegiance to a lofty tradition, and thereby to combat the threat of materialism, urbanism, fragmentation, and con­ tinentalism. These themes resurface in subsequent essays, culminating in The UnsolvedRicklle ofSociallustice, which was published in 1920. Care­ fully selected, and prefaced with an updated introduction to Leacock's life and work, these essays contribute to our understanding of Leacock and illuminate his role as a major figure in Canadian intellectual history. is a foreign service officer in the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade.

ALAN BOWKER

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Social Criticism: The Unsolved Riddle of Social Justice and Other Essays STEPHEN LEACOCK EDITED AND INTRODUCED BY ALAN BOWKER

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS

Toronto Buffalo London

© University of Toronto Press 1996 Toronto Buffalo London First published in 1973 by University of Toronto Press as The Social Criticism of Stephen Leacock: The Unsolved Riddle of Social Justice and Other Essays Reprinted 2017

ISBN 978-0-8020-7799-8 (cloth) ISBN 978-1-4875-8691-1 (paper)

(§ Printed on acid-free paper Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data

Leacock,Stephen, 1869-1944 Social criticism : the unsolved riddle of social justice and other essays New ed. Earlier ed., 1973, has title: The social criticism of Stephen Leacock. ISBN 978-0-8020-7799-8 (bound). - ISBN 978-1-4875-8691-1 (Pbk.) 1. Social problems. I. Bowker, Alan, 1943II. Title. III. Title: The social criticism of Stephen Leacock. HN106.IA3 1996

300

C96-930089- l

University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial assistance to its publishing program of the Canada Council and the Ontario Arts Council.

Contents

Introduction, by Alan Bowker vii Selected bibliography xliv Postscript, by Alan Bowker xlix Greater Canada: an appeal 3 Literature and education in America 13 The apology of a professor: an essay on modern learning 27 The devil and the deep sea: a discussion of modern morality 41 The woman question 51 The tyranny of prohibition 61 The unsolved riddle of social justice 71 l The troubled outlook of the present hour 73 2 Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness 85 3 The failures and fallacies of natural liberty 93 4 Work and wages 103 5 The land of dreams: the Utopia of the socialist 115 6 How Mr Bellamy looked backwards 123 7 What is possible and what is not 133

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An introduction BY ALAN BOWKER

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Introduction

ix

'DO NOT ever try to be funny,' Stephen Leacock once told a young friend, 'it is a terrible curse. Here is a world going to pieces and I am worried. Yet when I stand up before an audience to deliver my serious thoughts they begin laughing. I have been advertised to them as funny and they refuse to accept me as anything else.' 1 Such has been Leacock's fate over the years. He is remembered as the best­ selling humorist in the English language from 1910 to 1925, the man who made three generations perceive their foibles and forget their troubles, the genial jester whose sunshine humour put Mariposa on the literary map of the world. A grateful public has named moun­ tains and schools and medals after him, has put his smiling comic face on a postage stamp, but has paid only grudging and even apolo­ getic recognition to the fact that he was also a professor of political economy, more than half of whose published writings were of a highly serious nature. In his later life, Leacock agreed to wear the comic mask his public demanded. Seeking affection and proud of his ability to conjure up laughter, he almost - but never quite - drowned his serious voice in a flood of mirth. The public then and since has been content to ignore Leacock the social scientist altogether. By doing so, we have deprived ourselves of a perceptive Canadian social critic who had much to say about his world - and ours; and we have made him seem a smaller, narrower, and less significant figure in our history than he actually was. This book is an attempt to remedy this distor­ tion by re-examining Leacock's life and thought in the years before 1921, and by presenting to the modern reader some of the best of his early writings on imperiaiism, education and culture, religion and morality, feminism, prohibition, and social justice. Stephen Leacock was born in England in 1869, and as a boy of six migrated with his family to a small backwoods farm near Sutton, Ontario. After private tuition, he was educated at Upper Canada College and at the University of Toronto, where he studied 'lan­ guages, living, dead, and half-dead,' and then was forced by poverty to enter school-teaching. From 1889 to 1899 he was Modern Language Master at Upper Canada, where, according to Principal (Sir) George Parkin, he 'gained the reputation of being a very excellent teacher.' 'In some ways,' Parkin told Leacock's later em­ ployer, Principal Peterson of McGill, 'he was the most clever, ready and versatile man that I had here on the whole staff.'2

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Upper Canada College must have been in many ways an interest­ ing place for a young master in the 1890s. Parkin was appointed principal in I 895, after having pursued a successful career as speaker and writer in the cause of imperial unity; he brought to the college high ideals, an acquaintance with men and affairs, and a zeal for the British Empire, which inspired masters and boys alike. Under his influence Upper Canada produced a disproportionate number of the leaders of the imperialist movement in the next generation. Lea­ cock's contemporaries as masters there included Pelham Edgar, W.L. Grant, and E.R. Peacock. But Leacock did not consider himself fortunate. He always hated school-teaching, which he called 'the most dreary, the most thank­ less, and the worst paid profession in the world.' Parkin noted this dissatisfaction. 'In some ways I do not think him exactly suited for being a school master, and especially a house master, as he was somewhat impatient of the infinite detail and routine necessary in a residential school. I always told him that Professorial work was more completely in his line than housemastership.' 3 feeling his considerable talents wasted in the routine of teaching, Leacock sought a way out. Between I 894 and 1898 he wrote a fairly large number of humorous sketches which were published in several Canadian and American magazines. But these brought slight fame and slighter remuneration, and this career was abandoned. A more promising avenue was political economy, which Leacock began to study privately about 1895. In 1899, he left teaching to begin gradu­ ate study at the University of Chicago. After a brilliant career there he presented his thesis on 'The Doctrine of Laissez-Faire' and was awarded hjs PH o. 'The meaning of this degree,' he later wrote, 'is that the recipient of instruction is examined for the last time in his life, and is pronounced completely full. After this, no new ideas can be imparted to him.' At Chicago, Leacock was exposed to the latest progressive poli­ tical economy. In the previous thirty years, German-trained Ameri­ can scholars had challenged the precepts of the classical economists and were propounding a far more positive role for the state in regu­ lating monopolies, influencing the economy, and caring for the wel­ fare of the citizen. Social Darwinism, once domjnant in economics and sociology, was being repudiated or at least modified to stress man's collective rather than his individual survival. Four teachers in

Introduction

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particular made an impression on Leacock: Henry Pratt Judson, Caspar Miller, J. Laurence Laughlin, and especially Thorstein Veblen.4 Leacock may have read Veblen's Theory of the Leisure Class before going to Chicago, and much of his later work bears the stamp of Veblen's ideas. It is worth noting, however, that Veblen did not impress Leacock as a teacher; and his cynicism, detachment, and proposals for technocracy were repugnant to his Canadian pupil. 5 Though Leacock returned to work in his native land and was an ardent imperialist, the influence of the Chicago school shows in all his social science writings and in his preoccupation with American problems in addition to those of Canada and the Empire. Now fortune began to smile on Leacock. In 1900 he married the grand-daughter of Sir Henry Pellatt, millionaire financier, imperialist, and later builder of Toronto's Casa Loma; the following year he began his thirty-five-year career as teacher of political economy at McGill. 'Personally, he is very taking,'6 wrote Principal Peterson after their first meeting, and the judgement was echoed in a few years by the students, the faculty, and many of the most influential men of Montreal. Finally occupying a position which challenged his abilities and satisfied his ambitions, Leacock rose so quickly that by 1905 he was being clearly marked out by his principal as the likely successor to the head of his department. 7 In 1906 Leacock c;apped his meteoric ascent by publishing a textbook, Elements of Political Science. It was immediately successful and remained throughout his life Leacock's best-selling book. More than three dozen American universities adopted it, but its greatest influence lay in the British Empire, China, and Japan, where it was used for two generations. The following year he published Baldwin, Lafontaine, Hincks: Responsible Government in the 'Makers of Canada' series, and accom­ panied this with several scholarly and popular papers on the winning of responsible government in Canada. Before 1914 he wrote three volumes in the 'Chronicles of Canada' series, one of which, The Dawn of Canadian History, was fairly original in its use of Icelandic sagas and recent scholarship regarding the Norse exploration of America. In a few short years, Leacock had established himself as a writer of considerable range and talent and a scholar of international reputation. As a young man in a new field of study in a growing country, Leacock had bright prospects for advancement, and ample oppor­ tunity for development. Just as he had escaped his personal Slough

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of Despond, so Canada itself at the turn of the century shook off a decade of pessimism and depression and embarked on a wave of expansion, prosperity, and optimism. 'The poor relation has come into her fortune,' wrote the British analyst, J .A. Hobson, 'a single decade has swept away all her diffidence, and has replaced it" by a spirit of boundless confidence and booming _enterprise.'8 Railways snaked into unpopulated territory, immigrants poured into the 'last, best west,' miners penetrated the rocky shield, and lumbermen ac­ celerated their assault upon the forest frontier. With the expansion of industry came urban growth; by 1911 more than half the people of Ontario and Quebec lived in cities and towns. The boom pro­ duced a class of very wealthy men, and it also produced poverty, slums, urban blight, and alienation. Intellectuals like Leacock, look­ ing at these rapid changes, gave their concerned attention to the new problems of materialism, urbanism, and an altered social structure. Moreover, the sense of fulfilled destiny brought by the great boom, coupled with the consciousness of new responsibilities and new dangers in a world beginning to lose the peace and security of pax Britannica, produced a heated debate about the relationship between mother country and colony. It was in this discussion of imperial relations that Leacock first made his public mark. In 1905 Governor-General Lord Grey, himself an ardent im­ perialist, asked Principal Peterson for a promising young lecturer to conduct a university extension course in the capital city. Peterson recommended Leacock as a man who could, as Grey put it, 'wake up Ottawa + keep it awake.'9 Leacock lived up to every expectation, dazzling the audience (which included not only the students, but Grey and his entourage, MP's, cabinet ministers, and senior civil servants) with a series of brilliant lectures on 'The British Empire,' which provoked widespread attention and debate. 10 As a result, Leacock was soon being asked to speak all over eastern Canada. In May 1906, the cream of Toronto's social elite packed Massey Hall to hear and cheer him. Early the following year a Montreal audience gave him a five-minute standing ovation. 11 Within a few months Leacock had established himself as one of the best platform orators in the country. In April 1907, he distilled the essence of his imperial­ ist ideas into a piece of perfervid rhetoric called 'Greater Canada: An Appeal' which he delivered as a speech and published as a pamphlet. This speech, which provoked considerable controversy, is the first of the selections reprinted in this volume.

Introduction

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As a popular lecturer Leacock displayed few of the trademarks of his later humorous performances. His eyes were steely blue, flashing more often than twinkling as he approached the climax of a theme. His body was straight and imposing, his great head commanding, his hair and his clothes as neat as was possible for Leacock. His greatest asset was his resonant voice, which moulded his carefully fashioned rhetoric into a powerful engine of persuasion. With all the arts of the actor he manipulated the emotions of his listeners, using now humour, now anger, now biting satire, now soaring idealism, now a boastful swagger, to sweep the audience up in his own imperialist fervour. He never chuckled. 12 The imperialist governor-general was enthusiastic about his new 'find.' 'He is an excellent lecturer [:] clear [,] crisp[,] condensed [,] comprehensive... ' 'He has all Parkin's enthusiasm for the Empire,' he told Peterson, 'and in style, matter, and general effectiveness he is Parkin's superior.' In 1907 Grey decided on 'turning Dr Leacock loose ... as an Imperial missionary,' 13 and enlisted the aid of influ­ ential friends in England and Canada to secure contacts and audi­ ences for Leacock around the Empire. His aim was to find an apostle of imperialism to replace the aging Parkin, who had made a similar tour twenty years earlier. Evidently he hoped that, inspired by his memorable experience, dazzled by his contact with those in high places,. and full of information and a sense of mission, Leacock would devote his life to the imperialist cause as Parkin had. With the exception of one incident, the tour was a personal triumph for Leacock. Glowing reports reached Grey and Peterson from all over the Empire testifying to the conspicuous success of their missionary. Leacock also fulfilled his other duty, of making contacts. 'I saw a great many people in London,' he wrote at the start of his tour; 'went to lunch with Mr Balfour, stayed in the country with Rudyard Kipling and saw a good deal of Jebb, 14 Fabian Ware (Editor, Morning Post) and Amery of the Times.' 15 Elsewhere in the Empire he had access to some of the political and intellectual leaders of the various Dominions, such as Smuts of South Africa, Prime Minister Deakin of New Zealand, and high officials of the Indian civil service. His tour, which lasted from April 1907 to March 1908, took him through eastern Canada, England, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the Canadian west. There were, however, certain aspects of Leacock's imperialist per­ formances which disquieted those who had hoped to use him.

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Imperial preaching was delicate business, fraught with the threat of offending sensibilities and touching off political explosions. Leacock was not the man to restrain his ebullience or to follow anyone else's 'line.' Grey's criticism of Leacock's Ottawa lectures was that they were too anti-American. 'It is quite possible to crow + flap one's wings without treading on one's neighbour's corns,' 16 he wrote. From the British point of view, which Grey represented, even im­ perial sentiment and Canadian nationalism could not be allowed to interfere with the cardinal principle of British policy, the achieve­ ment of rapport with the United States. Leacock made a much more serious blunder on his arrival in England in May I 907, by contri­ buting an article to the Morning Post which deplored the failure of the Imperial Conference to take the steps toward Imperial unity which he had advocated in 'Greater Canada.' The article, 'John Bull, Farmer.' was an allegory in American dialect comparing the colonies to the sons of a farmer too set in the old ways to realize the benefits of a family partnership. It concluded with this piece of colonial arrogance: The old man's got old and he don't know it; can't kick him off the place: but I reckon that the next time we come together to talk things over the boys have got to step right in and manage the whole farm. 17 This satire touched off a 'rumpus' which swept through the British and Canadian press and brought a good deal of editorial censure on Leacock's head. Winston Churchill called it 'offensive twaddle.' 18 Peterson tactfully told Leacock that 'your friends here feel that you have gone quite far enough on that tack.' Later he summarized the indictment: 'much of your offense consisted in rushing in where, by tacit compact, the genuine Canadian is afraid to tread.' 19 This feeling on the part of officials sensitive to political hazards, that Leacock was a man who might do more harm than good, may be one reason why he never achieved the career as imperial mission­ ary which had seemed to be marked out for him. In 19 I 3, in response to a suggestion from Lionel Curtis that Leacock write an article for the Round Table on the naval situation, George Wrong doubtless expressed the prevailing feeling among 'establishment' im­ perialists when he replied that he did not think this would be 'quite

Introduction

xv

safe.' 20 In any case, a man of Leacock's talents and ambitions prob­ ably had too many other interests to devote his life to a single cause. Indeed, he seems to have tired quickly enough of the hurly-burly world of proselytizing and politics, and longed to get away from it all; during the two summers following his return he gave up lucrative speaking tours to build his summer home on Old Brewery Bay near Orillia. Thus his withdrawal was largely voluntary. He never lost his zeal for the Empire, and continued to contribute brilliant articles on imperialism to English and Canadian magazines. He was a member of the Montreal Round Table group, though he was never very active and the group itself was usually moribund. Only once before the war did Leacock throw himself into a poli­ tical cause with the ardour he had shown for imperialism. In the 1911 election he campaigned actively against the proposed recipro­ city agreement with the United States. He wrote full-page articles for newspapers across the country, for which he was paid by the Cana­ dian Home Market Association, a front-group of the Canadian Manu­ facturers Association (which also paid for their distribution through a press service).2 1 He made a speaking tour through Quebec and the Maritimes, and he played a major role in the campaigns in Orillia and in Brome, where he helped a political unknown defeat a cabinet minister. He was exultant at the outcome, which he considered as 'a plebiscite of the eight million people of this half of the continent in expression of their earnest wish for an enduring union with the Empire.'22 After 1908 Leacock increasingly turned his attention to the writing of serious but informal essays on social problems. He derived much of his inspiration from his close friend (Sir) Andrew Macphail, who took over the University Magazine in 1907 and made it the most influential Canadian periodical of its day. Leacock helped in the editing of it (especially after Macphail went overseas during the war) and was a major contributor. Besides articles on imperialism, he produced in 1909 and 1910 a series of three balanced essays which fitted together and may have been intended as part of a larger cycle representing Leacock's views on life and social questions. These essays, 'Literature and Education in America,' 'The Apology of a Professor,' and 'The Devil and the Deep Sea,' are reprinted in this volume. If Leacock intended to write further essays along these lines, he never completed the task, though he later added one essay similar in theme

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Alan Bowker

and tone, 'The Woman Question' (1915), which is also reprinted here. Any plans Leacock may have had for a career as an essayist were shattered by a fortuitous occurrence which changed the course of his life. In 1910 he gathered the humorous sketches he had written at Upper Canada, added some new ones, and published Literary lapses. To his astonishment he suddenly found himself a best-selling humor­ ist with a public clamouring for more. To satisfy this demand Lea­ cock began to pour forth a stream of sketches, satires, and articles, which at the end of each year he would put into a book to catch the Christmas trade. Eventually his success as a humorist destroyed his effectiveness as a social scientist; for not even Leacock could hope to follow successfully two careers, either of which would have taxed the strength of an ordinary man. But the depletion of his academic resources did not become fully apparent until the 1920s. Initially Leacock 's effectiveness as a political economist and social com­ mentator was actually enhanced by his emergence as a humorist. Not only did he now have a wide audience, which devoured his every book, serious and silly, but he had found a new vehicle for his social ideas which was far more economical, inclusive, and persuasive than the relatively diffuse informal essay. By fusing humour with the insights of the social scientist, Leacock produced his finest achieve­ ments in either field, Sunshine Sketches of a Little Tow11 (I 912), and Arcadian Adventures with the Idle Rich (1914). The publication of Arcadian Adventures coincided with the out­ break of the First World War. For years Leacock had warned of the German menace, denouncing the German Empire as the home of autocracy and decadent aristocracy, not to mention most of the academic trends he detested. "This,' he announced, 'is the war of the free peoples against the peoples still in chains.... Who that believes in humanity or God, can doubt the end?'23 Leacock plunged eagerly into the war effort, supporting the militia movement at McGill, speaking at patriotic meetings and recruiting rallies, and producing articles and pamphlets such as National Organization for War (1917), which was distributed by the Canadian government and attracted favourable notice in England. His humour was put into war service as well; in sketch after sketch he lampooned Germany, attacked profi­ teers and shirkers, and extolled thrift, sacrifice, and patriotism. In 1916 he gave his first extended humorous lecture tour for the

Introduction

xvii

Belgian Relief Fund. He also entered a number of the debates which the war engendered. He favoured conscription, but opposed all coer­ cion of Quebec and defended the French Canadians from charges of slacking and disloyalty. He opposed female suffrage, criticized the manner of enacting the income tax, and attacked government owner­ ship of railways as economically disastrous. 24 With the end of the Great War, Leacock, like most thinking Cana­ dians, turned with trepidation to the problems of peace. One issue in particular that caught his attention was the movement for prohibi­ tion which in 19 I9 and 1920 swept across North America. engulf­ ing - or drying up - all opposition. Its proponents saw it as a triumph for the sentiments of moral uplift and spiritual regeneration brought to fever pitch by the war. Leacock denounced it as the work of a 'relentless and fanatical minority' which had donned the 'false mantle of religion and morality' to perpetrate 'the most un-British agitation that has come to us in half a century.' As one of the very few who dared to speak openly against the crusade, Leacock made it clear that he would lecture anywhere, any time, without fee, to any group combatting prohibition laws. His efforts stung the prohibition­ ists sufficiently that by 1921 some of them raised a clamour to have him removed from McGill. 25 He expressed his viewpoint most strong­ ly in 'The Tyranny of Prohibition' (I 919), which was published in Britain and the United States. The prohibition struggle was only a small part of the social crisis facing Canada and North America in 1919. The war had produced in all classes what Leacock called 'National Hysteria,' the sort of cru­ sading idealism and intolerance of opposition which animated the prohibitionists. While Leacock valued the wartime spirit of national solidarity and individual self-sacrifice, he realized also that such passions, out of control or misled by ignorant utopians or inept and selfish politicians, could produce social catastrophe. All the prob­ lems of the great boom, which for two decades had strained the fabric of Canadian society, were exacerbated by the war, and sud­ denly and peremptorily demanded solution. Business and labour were at daggers drawn. The drift of people from farms to cities accelerated, as did the growth of urban slums. Regionalism, racial conflict, and economic recession mocked the confidence of the young Dominion in its destiny. Each class or group in so­ ciety - women, returned soldiers, labourers, farmers, socialists,

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temperance men, religious revivalists, businessmen, scientists, intel­ lectuals, and politicians, - came forward with a blueprint for Utopia which it pressed noisily, dogmatically, and sometimes violently. Over the babble of discordant voices hung a black cloud of Bolshevism, which by mid-year was winning its civil war in Russia, had toppled governments in Hungary, Germany, and Bavaria, and was threatening elsewhere in Europe. The extent of this social passion and social bitterness was shown by the appalling suddenness with which the Winnipeg General Strike, in common with similar strikes in Seattle and Boston. broke down into class conflict and violence. It seemed to a jittery intelligentsia and panic-stricken governments to be a portent of the social chaos which threatened all North America. Daily reports by a sensational press of strikes, lockouts, riots, bomb­ ings, parades, lynchings. raids, and trials in the United States added fuel to these fears. 'Never ... ' wrote Leacock, 'was there a moment in which there was greater need for sane and serious thought.' (See page 75, infra.) In answer to this need Leacock wrote a series of articles for the New York Times in the fall of I 919, which he published in book form early the following year as The Unsolved Riddle of Social Justice. In it he tried to explain as simply as possible, to the largest audience he could reach, what had caused the present difficulties and what solutions were possible. To make the book widely relevant, Leacock refrained from references to specific places or incidents, and spoke only of those social problems which he took to be com­ mon to all industrial societies. Further, he published the book in a format designed to match that of his humorous publications and had it distributed with all the fanfare of a funny book. The jibes of his fellow academics were predictable, the reviews were mixed, but Lea­ cock had done what he had set out to do. No one who reads The Unsolved Riddle, however he may react to its overblown and rhetor­ ical style, or whatever his opinion of the solutions (or lack thereof) which Leacock offers, can fail to be impressed by the range of material covered, the persuasiveness of the argument, and the utter sincerity of tone which runs through the work. This was not a piece of hackwork for Leacock but a vitally important task which he performed to the best of his ability, and of which he was proud. The publication of The Unsolved Riddle ended a phase of Lea­ cock's career, though no man's life may ever be neatly cut up into

Introduction

xix

'periods' or 'phases.' After 1920 he gave his attention increasingly to his career as a humorist, and in 1921 he reached the peak of his fame with his highly successful English tour. Prosperity appeared to restore social harmony, though many of the riddles of social justice remain­ ed unsolved. Imperialism was a dead letter, as Leacock had to admit in revising the chapter on ·Imperial Federation' in Elements in 1921. A world seeking gaiety and novelty after the harsh experience of war provided an insatiable market for humour, and Leacock strained his talents to supply this demand. The Leacock who is most familiar to the public, the man with the crinkled face and twinkling eyes who made economics 'fun' and laughed away the summer in bucolic splendour at Old Brewery Bay, at last emerged triumphant. Leacock never entirely abandoned his use of humour as a vehicle for social commentary, but its tone became milder and its note more forced. The great depression and another war revived his crusading spirit and social concern, and he again produced pamphlets, books, articles. and speeches advocating imperial reorganization, national development. currency reform, and social action to solve what was now The Riddle of the Depression.' These proposals were in large part repetitious of his pre-1920 programmes, and they were in­ creasingly half-baked and badly written. While his economic theories and anti-socialist diatribes may have seemed comforting and plaus­ ible to men such as George Drew, Howard Ferguson, and R.B. Bennett, they became increasingly irrelevant and irritating to some of his younger students such as Eugene Forsey and David Lewis, who had other solutions to the riddle. What the public wanted from Leacock were funny stories and homely wisdom to drive away for a moment the dark clouds of depression and war, and to provide reassurance about the future; they treated his social concern merely as evidence of his goodness of heart, and his theories as the eccen­ tricities of a very funny man. The man who smiled on hearing the news of Leacock's death, because it provided the occasion for re­ printing some of his funny sayings, embodied the prevailing spirit of Canadians at the graveside of their most famous litterateur. Few, if any, mourned the passing of the social scientist, whose relevance, if not his spirit, had long since expired. 'I ... am an Imperialist because I will not be a Colonial,' Leacock proclaimed in 1907 in 'Greater Canada.' (p. 4) His imperialism

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was an expression of his pride and confidence in his country's future, but equally it was the product of his fears that the material­ ism and commercialism brought by the great boom would sap the moral fibre of the new nation. In two ways, then, Canada must become 'something greater or something infinitely less.' (p. 6) Continuing as a colony would be bad, but independence would be worse. Whatever her future prospects, Canada faced external threats in the present which she was simply too weak to counter. The United States, Leacock believed, had always harboured aggressive designs on Canada, and he regarded the Monroe Doctrine not as a protection against European foes. but as a blueprint for continental hegemony. Like many imperialists. he viewed the United States as a land sunk in materialism and corruption. He knew that an in­ dependent Canada would be irresistibly sucked into this vortex by overwhelming American political and economic power. Though Lea­ cock hoped that some day the United States would have a change of heart and rejoin the Empire. he would not tolerate annexation in any form. Canadian independence would only mean the exchange of colonial status for a lower form of subservience. Even more threatening was the emergence of Germany and Japan as naval powers. Japan was temporarily neutralized by the Anglo­ Japanese Treaty, but Leacock believed that she still cast covetous eyes on Canada's Pacific coast. Germany's naval programme threat­ ened the very lifelines of the Empire, and Leacock insisted that it was the duty of the colonies to contribute ships and men if possible, money if necessary, to a united imperial fleet. He was furious in 1913 when the Liberal-dominated Senate killed the Conservative Naval Bill which would have provided the money to build three dreadnoughts as an emergency contribution to the British navy. Moreover an independent Canada would be destroyed from with­ in by racial and religious strife. Baldwin and Lafontaine, he argued, had shown English and French Canadians how to work in mutual tolerance and forbearance, and Leacock was always careful to ac­ knowledge that the French Canadians were a founding race with equal rights in Canada. Nevertheless, he noted that 'except perhaps for a little bilingual chirruping of an artificial kind in the drawing­ rooms of Ottawa and Montreal,'26 the two races remained divided and racial and religious prejudices ran deep in both. Membership in the Empire would give Canadians a broader patriotism and a nobler

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m1ss10n which could unite the energies of the two peoples, while independence would only focus their jealous attention on local problems. What Canada had to do, then, was to take the lead in reorganizing the Empire into a federation of equal states under the leadership of the first among equals, Great Britain, with a common fleet, some sort of tariff union, and some kind of federal parliament in which all would be represented. Thus united, Leacock thought, the Anglo­ Saxon peoples could get on with their mission of civilizing the back­ ward races and maintaining the peace of the world, by force if necessary. Like most of the imperialists of his generation, Leacock was fond of boasting of the size and heterogeneity of the Empire, which was unlike anything the world had ever seen. rt could stand as an object lesson in what good government, justice, and strength in the hands of right, imperium et libertas, could achieve. As a branch of the Anglo-Saxon race, Canadians had the opportunity to partici­ pate in this noble enterprise; but they would seriously weaken the Empire's chances of performing it if they sulked silent in their tents. There was, however, a very ugly side to this sense of mission, a haunting fear of the coloured races which burst forth from time to time in Leacock's oratory. In a speech in 1908 he described world history as 'the question of the Aryan civilization of the West and the uncivilized, or at best semi-civilized, people of the Orient. ... There has never been peace and harmony between them.' 27 The British Empire, including Canada, was the front line of the white race in this battle against Asiatic encroachment. Leacock denied that the colour­ ed peoples of the Empire had the same rights as whites. The federa­ tion he preached was that of the white Dominions; he always opposed independence or Dominion status for India. In a 1910 article in the American Political Science Review he noted approving­ ly the intention of the South African white, if the native were to revolt, to 'shoot him into marmalade with machine guns.'28 Like the rest of him, Leacock's racial intolerance and prejudices were larger than life. Beyond the protection and the mission it offered, imperialism's greatest virtue in Leacock's view was the salutary effect wider hori­ zons and enhanced patriotism would have on Canadian culture and society in the midst of the great boom. As a young people in a new land, Canadians worshipped growth, size, and mastery of nature.

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Leacock told a British audience in 1909 that ' .. .if you would see the imaginative side of the Canadian talk with him of railways in the wilderness, of a grain flotilla on the Hudson's Bay and the valley of the Peace broken under the ploughshare. The attraction of the great unknown hinterland that called to it the voyageurs and the coureurs des bois still holds the soul of the Canadian people.'29 Leacock shared this fascination; all his life he was full of plans to develop the country, but always feared that great projects would lead to greater pork barrels. The feeling was abroad among Canadians that this was the time to grab a place in society before it was too late. 'We are still as a nation in the groping stage, groping for money,' he wrote in 1911; 'when we have got it, plenty of it, and enough of it, we may hope to turn honest men. '3° Canadian governments were too often the agencies by which contracts and patronage were distributed, the great hinterland too often a thing to be mined for a quick profit. The west was thrown wide open to 'mere herds of the proletariat of Europe,' and resources and property were lavishly given to specu­ lators and entrepreneurs. 'The development of the interior that should be planned with the majesty, certainty, and symmetry of the building of a Grecian temple, is conducted with the same eager haste as the erection of a circus tent.'31 Absorbed in this great quest for wealth and development, local­ ities fought for their share of government spending. Public works became 'words to conjure with,' for they brought growth and devel­ opment, or at least the appearance thereof. Possession of public office brought control of expending departments whose benefits 'fall upon the cons_tituencies in a fructifying shower';32 by shrewd spend­ ing, governments could entrench themselves in power almost forever, for people were not interested in political issues, but only in getting their share of the loot. Laurier's vaunted policy of national unity was thus to take people's minds off racial and religious questions by focussing their attention on material development, roasting whole the ox of the country's resources, and hoping that people would be eating too greedily to quarrel with each other or to notice that someone else was getting more. Canada was in danger of gaining a whole world but losing her own soul. This materialist and localist spirit, Leacock cried, must be purged 'in the pure fire of an Imperial patriotism, that is no theory but a passion. This is our need, our supreme need of the Empire - not

Introduction

xxiii

for its ships and guns, but for the greatness of it, the soul of it, aye for the very danger of it.' ('Greater Canada: An Appeai,' p. 8) Mem­ bership in the united Empire would make a 'greater Canada,' not only by fusing her in a larger unit with greater influence, but in the sense that it would liberate the true greatness of the Canadian people from the deadly grip of materialism. But though he saw a United Empire as the cure for his country's ills, Leacock was never very clear about how it would come into being, or what form it should take. Baldwin and Lafontaine had shown that self-government and nationhood could be consistent with membership in an Empire; now, Leacock felt, it was time to take the next step of establishing some sort of federal council. He hoped that imperial conferences or naval co-operation might be the first step; but his vagueness on these points made him vulnerable. 'Professor Leacock,' wrote the anti-imperialist John S. Ewart, '...ought to have some conception of what it is he is preaching about -- some notion, vague or otherwise, of what it is he wants us to do.' 33 What did Professor Leacock want us to do? In the final analysis, his imperialism was not a political programme, but a spiritual crusade, designed to create in Canadians that sense of mission and imperial patriotism which would be 'no theory but a passion,' which would save Canadian society from its profound malaise. The bulk of Leacock's prewar writings expressed his intense anti­ pathy to the materialism and hunger for wealth which seemed to pervade all Canadian society, and which he attacked in his imperial­ ist pronouncements. He could not refrain from expressing in essays and satires his disgust at 'the obvious and glaring fact of the money power, the shameless luxury of the rich, the crude, uncultivated and boorish mob of vulgar men and over-dressed women that masquer­ aded as high society.'34 What he said of his friend Macphail he might have said of himself: '...though frequenting the rich in his daily walk of life, [he] was never quite satisfied of their right to be.' 35 Leacock was too much the political economist, however, to ex­ pend all his energy in mere bad-tempered castigation of the rich. He knew that they were only the product of an ideology which perme­ ated all society, rich and poor, and of a series of technological changes which dated from the industrial revolution. This ideology he

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variously called 'individualism,' 'materialism,' and the 'commercial spirit'; and at diffen:mt times these terms could mean slightly dif­ ferent things. In general, however, he used these words to refer to something which is an amalgam of three concepts: individualism (or the right of the individual to be an independent and autonomous economic unit), materialism (the defining of things and people by their economic utility), and mastery of nature. After George Grant,36 we may call these things the animating ideology of the age of progress. The rise of this ideology and the changes wrought by indus­ trialism are best described in the opening chapters of The Unsolved Riddle. The beginnings of the machine age, said Leacock, brought a change in the life of man which separated our age from all that had gone before. Science and the factory system not only reorganized production, but they brought mastery of nature. 'No wonder,' he continued, that the first aspect of the age of machinery was one of triumph. Man had vanquished nature. The elemental forces of wind and fire, of rushing water and driving storm before which the savage had cowered low for shelter, these had become his servants. The forest that had blocked his path became his field. The desert blossomed as his garden. (p. 78] Man now saw himself not as a part of nature, but as separate from it, with the right and the power to reshape it to whatever use he thought fit. This idea of mastery, Leacock noted in 'Literature and Education in America' (I 909), reached its apogee in North America, and was likely to be equated with progress: The aspect of primeval nature does not call to our minds the vision of Unseen Powers riding upon the midnight blast. To us the mid­ night blast represents an enormous quantity of horse-power going to waste; the primeval forest is a first-class site for a saw mill, and the leaping cataract tempts us to erect a red-brick hydro-electric estab­ lishment on its banks and make it leap to some purpose. (p. 16] The industrial revolution broke the old social system. Aristocracy fell to democracy, and the individual was set free to pursue wealth,

Introduction

XXV

self-interest, and mastery of nature. In order to provide the free flow of capital and labour required to make the factory system function, the new science of political economy advocated the dissolution of all institutions and social, legal, or customary restrictions which might have stood in the way of this freedom. Not only navigation acts and the like, but all religious restrictions, social inhibitions, or philo­ sophical considerations which in any way impeded the free play of enlightened self-interest or mastery of nature had to go. Political economy argued that man was a selfish creature who looked after his own interests, the economic world ran according to certain natural laws; ergo, by letting men practise self-interest, the state would allow those natural laws to come into play and so regulate the production, distribution, and exchange of commodities that supply would tend to equal demand, the just price for everything would be established, each man would get what his labour was worth, and social justice would reign. Social Darwinism put its stamp of approval on this individualism and materialism by declaring that free competition between human beings was the way to ensure survival of the fittest. The old social fabric was thus unravelled, man's power over nature set loose, and all checks on his selfishness and greed were abandon­ ed. For some, this meant a world of wealth and comfort without restraint. For others, individualism was 'a sordid boon.' The factory system herded [the poor] into factories, creating out of each man a poor miser­ able atom divorced from hereditary ties, with no rights, no duties, and no place in the world except what his wages contract may con­ fer on him. Every man for himself, and sink or swim, became the order of the day. It was nicknamed 'industrial freedom.' (p. 54] However, the political economists' dreams did not come true. In

The Unsolved Riddle Leacock followed Veblen in noting that in

spite of the great total increase in wealth, riches and poverty still remained, with the rich getting richer and the poor never seeming to better their lot. Apparently it proved more profitable to manu­ facture slightly fewer goods than were needed, rather than to supply the entire demand; for this practice kept the price a little higher than it would otherwise have been, while on the other hand ensuring sufficient sales that large profits could be made and competition was

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not invited. Given this slight twist, the laws of the economists work­ ed perfectly, but worked to ensure scarcity, not abundance. Having produced fewer than enough essential commodities, men then turn­ ed to producing things which were somewhat less necessary, and not enough of those, and so on up the pyramid until a very few purely luxury goods were being made, and not even enough of those. Those who owned the means of production got very rich, and were able to display their wealth in conspicuous consumption, while others were kept permanently on the edge of star¥ation, with never quite enough to buy even the necessities of life. This poverty in turn kept wages down. The whole system was justified by the laws of economics, which had been expected to produce Utopia and had in fact spawned a nightmare. Unfortunately. in breaking down the institutions which stood in the way of the free play of these 'natural laws,' men had destroyed the very things which might have saved them or at least rendered their existence more tolerable. The decline of these institutions under the onslaught of the age of progress, and the effects of this decline. formed the subject of Leacock's unfinished essay cycle of 1909 and 1910. In 'The Devil and the Deep Sea,' Leacock analyzed the break­ down of organized religion. In the Middle Ages, he argued, fear of the Devil had impelled ignorant men to do good, and society had functioned. Then science explained away the Devil as a superstition, and a society seeking freedom brushed aside the old moral dogmas. New man-centred religions like Social Darwinism imposed no ex­ ternal imperatives, but justified whatever men decided to do in their own self-interest; and such religions could be changed if they got in the way. In the end, there was only one thing man could worship in a materialist and individualist society: success, however achieved. As the means were often dubious, 'the new morality shows signs of exalting the old-fashioned Badness in place of the discredited Good­ ness.... Force, brute force, is what we now turn to as the moral ideal, and Mastery and Success are the sole tests of excellence.' (p. 49) This was bad enough, but now men were reading 'Nitch' and in their folly deciding that they were supermen. This sort of Faustian arrogance, Leacock suggested, could only lead to destruction, as man was a deeply flawed creature who needed external control and

Introduction

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standards of discipline; yet the age of progress had removed all restraints on his selfish passions. A similar analysis was applied to the decline of learning and philosophy in 'The Apology of a Professor' ( 19 I 0). Again, the Mid­ dle Ages had accepted a certain body of ideas as final truth, and for this truth men would have endured hunger and privation. Then science attacked and disproved these concepts, and materialist and utilitarian values replaced the old dogmatic philosophy. Certitude turned to doubt, as a sceptical and speculative system stressed what man didn't know rather than what he knew. The professor, said Leacock, descended on the social scale from the possessor of price­ less truth and wisdom, to a mere 'expert' striving by 'research' to add his contribution to the rubbish-heap of meaningless knowledge; an unlikeable, useless relic knowing only an insignificant part of a minor field. At the same time, continued Leacock, under the pressure of a commercial society the university branched out into new but philosophically and educationally worthless subjects; its organization was bureaucratized, and its 'learning' cut up into 'de­ partments,' 'subjects,' and 'electives.' In the place of the old centre of thought and wisdom was now a mass dispensing agency handing out assorted bits of knowledge to students who faithfully copied and absorbed them in order to get out into their life's work. Soon, Leacock concluded, the professor would vanish altogether and be replaced by the 'Woman with the Spectacles,' 'who ... will dispense the elements of learning cut to order, without an afterthought of what it once has meant.' (p. 39) It was therefore not surprising that in spite of its mass education, North America in the nineteenth century had produced only a frac­ tion of the literature and general culture that were the glory of Great Britain during the same period. The reason, Leacock concluded in 'Literature and Education in America' (I 909), was that where an aristocratic society stressed human excellence, a commercial society stressed 'success': Social and intellectual values necessarily undergo a peculiar re­ adjustment among a people to whom individually the 'main chance' is necessarily everything. ... Hence all less tangible and provable forms of human merit, and less tangible aspirations of the human

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mind are rudely shouldered aside by business ability and commercial success. [p. 25] 'The Woman Question' showed how the industrial revolution had destroyed the traditional role of woman as wife, mother, and super­ visor of the household. As industrial society crowded people into cities and factories, as the individual became alienated from society, the unity of the family broke down; and women began to demand their 'rights,' i.e. to be considered as economic units to be put to work, produce, and consume, like men. Single women took up careers, and were exploited by being used in 'cheap' jobs such as clerking and school-teaching. The role of woman as wife and mother was vanishing with this change and with the rise of machines such as vacuum cleaners to relieve her of the burden of housework. Women were demanding the vote, and would get it; but something vital, Leacock argued, was being lost. 'No man ever said his prayers at the knees of a vacuum cleaner, or drew his first lessons in manliness and worth from the sweet old-fashioned stories that a vacuum-cleaner told.' (p. 58) Leacock firmly believed that a woman's place was in the home, and he had little respect for her ability at business or professional work; but his crotchety chauvinism is palliated by his concern for the decline of home and family life under the onslaught of the age of progress. The 'new' woman would not be free at all, but, like men, a slave to a harsh system of wage-contracts and poverty; and the home, which might have provided some stability and an alternative set of values, was being destroyed: The home has passed, or at least is passing out of existence. In place of it is the 'apartment' - an incomplete thing, a mere part of some­ thing, where children are an intrusion, where hospitality is done through a caterer, and where Christmas is only the twenty-fifth of December. [p. 55] In the ruthless system which.defined people simply by their ability to produce and consume, noi only must the lower class be forced to the poverty line and held there, but it must be stripped of those habits, rituals, and customs that were the anodynes of the bleak and bitter lives of working men; for these interfered with progress, work, and efficiency. Not only did a man lose his home and his family life, but even his mug of ale was to be snatched from his hand.

Introduction

xxi..x

Prohibition, Leacock pointed out in 'The Tyranny of Prohibition,' was enacted in the name of morality by certain groups for the 'Benefit' of certain other groups; few who voted for it did so on the assumption that they might have to stop drinking! The South voted to keep liquor from the Blacks, farmers and shopkeepers voted each other dry, and employers supported it because they 'thought that drinkless men would work better.' (p. 68) Thus all the ideas or institutions which might have put a brake on the human selfishness set loose by the rise of individualism, or might have modified or ameliorated its worst aspects, were in fact destroy­ ed by progress. At the same time, Leacock was chronicling the cor­ ruption of politics and government, which were likewise succumbing to the blandishments of a material age. The ideas of materialism, individualism, and mastery of nature were supreme in North America. The result was a dynamic, but increasingly one-dimensional society, a society without critics, without opposition, in which man, pursuing his selfish individual ends in the name of an ideology which perpetuated injustice, headed for moral breakdown and social catastrophe. 'The new government of the money power,' he wrote in 1917, was without a soul. It knew nothing of the ancient pride of place and race that dictated a certain duty towards those below. The creed that was embodied in the words noblesse oblige has vanished with the nobility. The plutocrat, unfettered by responsibility, seem[s] as rapacious and remorseless as the machinery that has made him.37

This depressing picture was given force and depth in Leacock's most ambitious works of fiction, Arcadian Adventures with the Idle Rich and Sunshine Sketches of a Little Town. In Arcadian Adventures the gloom of the essays is translated into a corrosive satire of an imaginary City in which the values of the age of progress have achieved untrammelled sway. The rich have amassed great wealth, and have arranged the City, and nature itself, according to their will. They live on the 'best' street at the top of the hill, where only 'the most expensive kind of birds'38 sing in the trees. Their lives are spent at the Mausoleum Club, an artificial environment of rubber plants, electric lighting, white linen, and soft carpets. They are described as

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wholly predatory creatures. glaring at each other like greedy and suspicious animals. The slums are kept carefully hidden from them, though the rich are uncomfortably aware of their presence. In general the poor accept their lot, and share the values of the rich. The plutocrats were not always the inhuman denizens of the Mausoleum Club. They lost their moral sense, taste, and capacity for love during their climb from the slums, or from Mariposa, where many of them originated. This process of transition is depicted in 'L'Envoi' of Sunshine Sketches, which connects the two books. We are told that when the plutocrat first came to the City from Mari­ posa to make his fortune, he dreamed of returning as a rich man to build a frame house on the main street. But when he made money, he built instead a sandstone house in the costlier part of the City, and forgot the small town. Many years later, he and the narrator are going home on the train to Mariposa. 'No,' the narrator tells him, 'don't bother to look at the reflection of your face in the window­ pane shadowed by the night outside. Nobody could tell you now after all these years. Your face has changed in these long years of money-getting in the city.' 39 In other words, the rich master not only nature but themselves: they suppress all values non-essential to money-making. and identify themselves with what they make and do. In the process they cut themselves off from their own pasts, and from history in general. Life becomes an eternal 'now,' dynamic, fluid, in which everyone and everything is judged by present worth and utility. and discarded when these are gone. The institutions which might have preserved a sense of the past are powerless in this society, and are captured and moulded by its values. The family is merely a group of people under the same roof, with the father making money, the mother pursuing pseudo­ avocations, and sons and daughters seeking pleasure. The university, the churches, and the government are treated in more detail. In each case Leacock is careful not only to describe the institution, but to show how it got that way. Plutoria University has grown from a quiet building under the elms to a modern knowledge factory with science buildings 'com­ paring favourably with the best departmental stores or factories in the City.'40 President Boomer was once a fat little boy in a classical academy stuffing himself with Greek irregular verbs as he would have done with oysters. But he adapted himself to new ideas, made

Introduction

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his peace with the businessmen, and now spends his days tearing down old buildings and throwing up new ones, firing professors, enlarging and changing the curriculum, and seeking new bene­ factions. He and his university survive, a significant accomplishment in a world which worships only survival and success, but the univer­ sity is a mere parody of what it once was. The older ideal is repre­ sented by the pathetic figure of Dr McTeague, vainly trying to reconcile Hegel with St Paul, and being damned with the charac­ teristic words of the age: 'He is not up to date.' 41 Religion is likewise an empty shell. Both the churches on Plutoria Avenue climbed with their parishioners from the slums, losing their creeds along the way. The Episcopal rector is a nice young man whose sermons explain away hell, who performs 'society' weddings and funerals and never goes near the slums, who 'wears a little crucifix and dances the tango.'42 The Presbyterian church retaliates by bringing in a hellfirc-and-damnation minister who rails at the poor and puts on a good slww until he is lured to another congrega­ tion by a better salary. The plutocrats solve this ruinous competition by a business-style merger of the churches; each member of the congregation is allowed to hold whatever doctrine he wishes, with disputed points to be settled by a majority vote of the shareholders. Honesty in the politics of such a society is clearly impossible. A 'Clean Government' movement begins in response to the corruption of the City Council. With cynical clarity Leacock describes how the plutocrats capture the movement, use it to put their own men in power, and reward their civic virtue with coal and traction contracts, power and light franchises, and other good things. Only once do nature and human goodness triumph over the mastery of Plutoria Avenue. Tomlinson, a poor back township farmer, becomes suddenly rich when gold is discovered on his land. He moves to the Grand Palaver Hotel where he and his family de­ generate in unaccustomed and unwanted luxury. He decides to lose his fortune by investing in worthless stocks, but such is his reputa­ tion as a 'wizard of finance' that everything he touches jumps in value. Just as he is about to donate his money to the university, it is discovered that the gold claim was 'salted,' and the fortune is lost. Tomlinson and his family return to their farm and begin to remove the mining company's equipment. 'Nature reached out its hand and drew its coverlet of green over the grave of the vanished Eldorado.'43

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Tomlinson had acquired his reputation as a 'wizard' by refusing to sell part of his land to the mining company because his father was buried there. The company, thinking that there must be more gold on that part of the land, increased their offer; the plutocrats thought this story of the father's grave merely a clever trick to get more money. Tomlinson and his farm survive the embrace of Plutoria Avenue, but only at the price of humiliation and poverty; this, Leacock implies, is a price most people will not and cannot pay. The City of Arcadian Adventures is thus a kind of heH in which the rich, along with the poor and the professional classes, are com­ pelled to exist in a state in which every decent emotion of man hides its opposite, in which, cut off from history, with everything judged by its money value and its utility, men go through the motions of being doctors, professors, ministers, lawyers, and businessmen, with little or no conception of what they are doing or why they are doing it, only that they must continue in order to survive. It is a jungle, but one without beauty or purpose. Leacock allows no affirmations in this book. Like Diogenes, he shines his lantern into every dark corner seeking honesty and finding only corruption and hypocrisy. Is Mariposa any different? Of course, it is a happier and more innocent place, which has not yet become Plutoria Avenue. But fundamentally, both places believe in the same things: materialism, individualism, and mastery of nature. 'Ask any of its inhabitants if Mariposa isn't a busy, hustling, thriving town.... ask any of them if they ever knew a more rushing go-ahead town than Mariposa,' 44 says the narrator. Mariposa is the boyhood home of the plutocrat; it is the historical .antecedent of the City; and at present it is the satellite of the City, aping its values, styles, and ideas, and certainly no more high-minded· in religion or in politics. 'It is not for nothing that Mr Leacock is a student of economics and sociology,' said the august Review of Historical Publications Relating to Canada (breaking this once its rule of never reviewing fiction): he has been able to grasp many of the typical features of the Ontario town.... Students of Canadian political ·conditions would do well to ponder Mr Leacock's account of the political career of Mr Josh Smith ... they will find it to contain more instructive matter than many a treatise of a more pretentious character.

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Mariposans, Leacock seems to say, should enjoy the sunshine while they can. What was Leacock's answer to this grim world he presented? Did he see it as inevitable that Mariposa should become Plutoria? Was Arcadian Adventures merely a warning, or was it Leacock's vision of a society that already existed? What did Professor Leacock want us to do? In analyzing other people's panacaeas he again held up the lantern of Diogenes. Technocracy, or the rule of experts who would use the new machinery to ensure abundance and justice, was the solution reached by Veblen after a similar analysis of industrial society. Leacock rejected this solution because he felt that the technocrats, being themselves the products of a machine age, might be more efficient than the plutocrats, but would be no more humane. He had a deep fear of the dehumanizing effect of a dynamic technology; during the war and especially in the twenties he poured out a stream of sketches lampooning efficiency crazes. fads, and the worship of new inventions like the motor car, the movies, and the radio. Behind the fun lurked the fear that man was becoming the slave of his machines and his technique, and was losing his individuality and sense of purpose. Technocracy would simply aggravate the problem. Likewise he rejected socialism, a creed whose full meaning Lea­ cock never really understood. In his only scholarly discussion of it, a chapter in Elements, he treated it superficially, overstressing the utopians and giving Bellamy's looking Backward far more attention than it deserved. Thereafter, in The Uns9lved Riddle and elsewhere, he centred his discussions of socialism entirely on Bellamy's book. Even in the thirties he could never see socialism as anything but the misguided utopianism of middle-class idealists. He professed sym­ pathy with socialism as he understood it, but feared that it would not 'work'; it would simply replace the rule of plutocrats with that of ignorant and selfish bosses, and like technocracy, it would place too much emphasis on technology and technique instead of on the human spirit. Often his criticisms of these two systems blended, for he felt that both would create a grey, lifeless world. From all the analysis which has preceded, we can clearly see that Leacock was a conservative, indeed, a Tory. Surely, then, he looked

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back to some long-dead golden age? The fact is, however, that Lea­ cock strongly believed in certain kinds of progress, and declared that no age in the past was better than his own. 'Only a false mediaeval­ ism,' he said in The Unsolved Riddle, 'can paint the past in colours superior to the present.' (p. 80) In 'Literature and Education in America,' he concluded that North America's lack of culture may be the price paid for the achievement of feeding, clothing, housing, and educating its people; if this were the case, the price was not too high. Elements is charged throughout with the assumption that history is a story of scientific, economic, and social progress. This would seem a strange paradox. How can a man condemn the results of the age of progress and believe in progress at the same time? Some have suggested that this was an unresolved conflict in a supremely eclectic mind, which set up an intellectual tension that could only be resolved by humour.46 There is truth in this, but the paradox is not as large as it seems. Our clue is in the last section of Elements. where Leacock examined and rejected 'Individualism' and 'Socialism' and came to the conclusion that 'The Modern State' would be essentially individualistic, but would blend strong state control to curb plutocratic excesses, regulate business in the public interest (but not indulge in public ownership), and provide social welfare services. It was implied that this was but one more step on a road of progress which took men from the closed, hierarchical poverty of the Middle Ages to the age of industrialism, and would lead in the future to an age in which the power of machinery and the mediaeval sense of social obligation would be combined. But while he believed in the possibility of this progress, Leacock did not see it as automatic. Men had to make their own world. The problem was that those agencies which might have transferred the spirit of collectivism and provided the germ for the new society were fatally weakened; therefore men had to be made aware of the short­ comings of individualism so that they could acquire the new spirit which alone could make the new world function in the interests of all and prevent social upheaval. '... [E]ven democracy,' he said in 1917, 'is valueless unless it can be inspired by the public virtue of the citizen that raises him to the level of the privileges that he enjoys .... We must manage to create as the first requisite of our commonwealth a different kind of spirit from that which has hither­ to controlled us.' 47 The imperial movement would create such a

Introduction

XXXV

spirit of patriotism and duty to one's fellow man, but it could not do so alone. Here the artist came to the aid of the political econo­ mist. The only answer for a man who did not believe in Utopia, and could not take refuge in the past, was to hold up a mirror to men so that they could see themselves as they were and were becoming, and be convinced of the need for spiritual regeneration. This answer alone explains the extreme cynicism and bitterness of Arcadian Ad­ ventures. It was not about a real city, though like any artist Leacock had his models. It was a world of the not-too-distant future, a warn­ ing to men. That Arcadian Adventures, about a wholly fictional city, should have been set in the United States, and that Sunshine Sketches, about a demonstrably real town, should have been set in Canada, shows that on the eve of the Great War Leacock believed that there was still hope, if he could only reach his audience in time. The wartime experience of Canada and the United States made Leacock more optimistic, for it seemed to bring into being the sort of political change and spiritual revival he desired. Canadians united in the spirit of patriotism. Imperial unity began to take on reality, as men and supplies poured across the sea to a beleaguered motherland in larger flotillas than the world had yet seen. Thousands laid down their lives in an unprecedented display of self-sacrifice. Old economic theories were discarded as governments took an active role in controlling production and distribution, regulating business and mediating labour disputes, conserving resources, and supervising rail­ ways. The state became a war machine, directing the citizen in his consumption and use of goods. The old free-wheeling individualism was gone, Leacock hoped forever. Particularly Leacock supported conscription as the embodiment of this new national solidarity; but he carried the idea further and called for conscription of wealth as well as of men. Only a nation in which every citizen was giving of his goods until none were left, he argued, could order a soldier to die for it. If people would not voluntarily contribute, a government 'of iron power' should make them. Canada, he said, now knew her destiny. That is the supreme meaning of the war to us. ... It is the glad cry of a people that have found themselves.' 48 Leacock fervently hoped that the United States would come into the war, joining the British Empire in the great struggle and ex­ periencing the same purifying influences Canada was receiving. He bitterly attacked Wilson's neutrality and did all he could to dispose

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the Americans favourably to the British cause. When the United States did enter the war, Leacock's delight knew no bounds. Never again in his writings was he hostile to that country. His feelings are clearly expressed in a 1917 sketch, 'Father Knickerbocker, a Fantasy.' The symbol of New York escorts the narrator through the city's night clubs. orders a big meal with drinks, eyes the girls lascivi­ ously, and wallows in luxury. As the narrator is about to conclude that Knickerbocker is hopelessly lost in self-indulgence, the booming of far-off guns is heard and the whole picture changes. 'War!' cried Father Knickerbocker, rising to his full height, stern and majestic and shouting in a stentorian tone that echoed through the great room. ·war! War! To your places, every one of you! Be done with your idle luxury! Out with the glare of your lights! Begone you painted women and worthless men!'... And I knew that a great nation had cast aside the bonds of sloth and luxury, and was girding itself to join in the fight for the free democracy of all mankind.49 If the land of Arcadia11 Adventures could rise to its duty, could catch the spirit of patriotism and valour and sacrifice, then surely all things were possible. The Unsolved Riddle. then, was written with mixed feelings. There was on the one hand the fear that the idealism and sacrifice of the war, perverted into 'National Hysteria,' could lead to chaos; but on the other hand there was the profounder hope that this spirit, now finally roused to its duty, could be channelled into the building of a new world 'in which there may be achieved some part of all that has been dreamed in the age-long passion for social justice.' (p. 75) The book was in a sense a final acceptance by Leacock both of industrial society and of the ability of men of good will to resolve their own problems. He had preached at them, complained to them, satirized them; now he reasoned with them. The message ls basically the same. There is no Utopia. Leacock makes proposals to improve the situation. '[T]he government of every country,' he concludes, ·ought to supply work and pay for the unemployed, maintenance for the infirm and aged, and education and opportunity for the children' (p. 140), though '[t ]he vast mass of human industrial effort must still lie outside of the immediate control of the government.'

Introduction

x.xxvii

(p. 141) But even this modest programme of social benefit, he cau­ tions, 'must depend at every stage on the force of public spirit and public morality that inspires it.' (p. I 36) But Diogenes must have the last word on a point this hopeful. In an unpublished essay in which Leacock outlined similar programmes to those advocated in The Unsolved Riddle, he confessed to misgivings: I don't ... say that such a picture of the new regime is altogether an attractive one. To those of us who grew up under the older dis­ pensation and, with all its faults, flourished under it, the outlook is perhaps distressing. This new world, with its fussy interfering govern­ ment in which everybody's business is everybody else's business, in which everybody works and nobody drinks, where a tiresome and orderly efficiency takes the place of a largehearted and genial waste­ fulness - such a world, I say, may prove to many of us but a sorry place to live in. But a generation is a passing thing. Our little taper flickers and dies out, and new lights appear. ... Perhaps in a broader illumination the latter-comers will look back with something like horror to what seems the dark appalling confusion+ injustice in which we dwelt.50 And so the humorist served notice that though he accepted the new world, he reserved the right to laugh at it, too. Stephen Leacock was part of that curious and perhaps indigenous­ ly Canadian species which has been given the name of 'Red Tory.'51 Troubled by the intellectual and physical results of the age of progress, he refused to live in the past, yet feared the social uphetlval rapid change might cause. While we may feel that at times Leacock doubted too much and hoped too little, we cannot question his sincerity in ardently promoting those measures of re­ form which he felt were within the limits of the possible. His im­ perialism, his essays, and his best humour all show various aspects of this social concern, and each serves to dei;pen our under­ standing of the others. Leacock the humorist no less than Leacock the man is not fully comprehensible unless his intellectual pre­ occupations and his relationship to the age in which he lived are clearly understood.

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Alan Bowker

Literary critics for a generation have vexed themselves with the question: Why didn't Leacock write the Great Canadian Novel? 52 From a historical viewpoint, several other questions are equally rele­ vant. Why didn't he go into politics? ('I think that if he had chosen to go into politics, he could easily have become prime minister,' said his student and colleague Eugene Forsey;53 Leacock on several occa­ sions was offered safe seats but declined, though he did jokingly say that he would accept a seat in the Canadian Senate at a moment's notice.) Why didn't he continue as an essayist writing witty and biting pieces on all phases of Canadian life, like the ones in this book? Why didn't he fulfil the promise of Elements and become a great political scientist if not a great economist? The answers to all these questions have been suggested in this introduction; the point is that Leacock never achieved that supreme excellence which was potentially his in almost everything he did. By focussing attention exclusively on the question of novel-writing, these critics are adopt­ ing a highly arbitrary standard for judging human greatness, even literary greatness, and they are forcing upon the events of Leacock's life an order of importance which was not his. Leacock the man cannot be brushed aside in favour of Leacock the humorist. Leacock the man was concerned with social and poli­ tical problems, deeply involved in the affairs of his age. He used all his many and varied talents to define these problems to himself and his contemporaries, and to advocate solutions to them as persuasive­ ly as he knew how. Only after 1922 did he see himself primarily as a humorist; before this time, in large measure, his humour was but one of the weapons he brought to bear on social problems. He could not see his humour, or any of his other talents, in a vacuum, existing apart from the audiences he wanted to reach or the problems he wanted to solve. Whatever may be the relative literary merits of these writings, however much critics with their hindsight may lament that his genius moved in what seems to them a false direction, we must understand that, given the man Leacock was and the times in which he lived, the path which led from Elements through 'Greater Canada,' the essays, Sunshine Sketches and Arcadian Adventures, and the wartime humour and propaganda, to The Unsolved Riddle, was the only one he could have followed. Even had novel-writing been high on Leacock's list of priorities, his genius probably did not lie in that direction. H.A. Innis, Canada's

Introduction

xxxix

greatest economist, rightly remarks that the social sciences gave Leacock 'an interest in institutions rather than persons.'54 The truth of this can best be illustrated by examining the two books which are alleged to be the sign that Leacock was moving toward the writing of novels: Sunshine Sketches and Arcadian Adventures. In both books the human characters, however subtly and sympa­ thetically drawn, serve primarily to illustrate the workings of social institutions. The real main characters which emerge are not any of the pe0ple, but Mariposa and the City themselves. And this was exactly what Leacock intended. What indication is there that he wanted to say more, or had more to say, about people or about humanity? Novel writing with its demands for psychological insight and rounded characterization would have been foreign both to Leacock's genius and to his major concerns.55 If we really want to understand him we must cease to fantasize about the novelist who might have been and concentrate our attention on the social scientist who was; for it was a social scientist, not an embryo novelist, who wrote Leacock's best humour. If we are thus forced to accept Leacock as a relatively stunted plant instead of the mighty oak which might (or might not) have been, there are compensations. To the historian, studying Leacock's many-faceted life against the backdrop of a dramatic and formative period in our history, Leacock's failure to write the Great Canadian Novel or to do any of the other things he might have done is no tragedy; it could be so only to those preoccupied with works and not with lives. If he had specialized more in any field Leacock might have left a more lasting monument, but he would have been a lesser man. As a social scientist, with forays into politics, imperialism, and humour, Leacock stands out in the intellectual history of Canada. He anticipated several trends in later Canadian thought: not only the 'Red Toryism' of Grant, but the preoccupation with technology and its relation to the Canadian identity which marked the later career of Innis and has produced Marshall McLuhan. Leacock was one of the first Canadian academics to fuse the insights of the American pro­ gressives with the British and Canadian conservative tradition in order to develop an analysis of the United States and North Ameri­ can society which was uniquely Canadian. He needs no apology for either his humour or his social science. 'There are simple minds,' said

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Alan Bowker

Harold Innis, 'which adopt Leacock's own statement that political economists regarded him as a humorist and that humorists regarded him as a political economist. According to the lights of this econo­ mist [Innis] he did much to save the soul of both in a period in which they were in grave danger.'56 Leacock the social scientist rich­ ly deserves Robertson Davies' description of Leacock the humorist: 'A great countryman of ours: a man to thank God for.' 57

NOTES

1 Robert M. Bingay, 'The Angels Laughing,' reprinted from the Detroit Free Press in the Orillia Packet and Times, 6 Apr. 1 944 2 McGill University Archives, Peterson Papers, file 70, Parkin to Peter­ son, 19 Jan. 1900 3 Ibid.

4 Peterson Papers, file 70, Leacock to Peterson, 18 Jan. 1900; 5 May 1900 5 An interesting discussion of Veblen (which shows the debt of The Unsolved Riddle's opening chapters to him), and of Soddy and The Technocrats, is found in My Discovery of the West, 171-6. 6 McGill University Archives, Peterson Letterbooks, I, 408, Peterson to James Mavor, 26 Apr. 1900 7 University of Toronto Archives, James Loudon Papers, James Mavor, notes on applicants for Associate Professor of Political Science [ 1905] 8 J.A. Hobson, Canada Today (London 1906), 4 9 Peterson Papers, file 65, Grey to Peterson, 4 Nov. 1905 10 As an example of the reaction to Leacock's lectures and the debate stirred by them, at one of his lectures Sir Frederick Borden, Minister of Militia, stood up and disagreed with his contention that the Mon­ roe Doctrine was not a protection for Canada and questioned Lea­ cock's statement of the need for a navy. Leacock replied on the spot, and the resulting debate was the subject of much newspaper controversy and an exchange in the House of Commons. See, for example, the Orillia Packet, 22 Mar. 1906. 11 See the Orillia Packet, 7 Mar. 1907.

Introduction

xii

12 This description of Leacock's speaking style is gleaned from news­ paper reports too numerous to mention. Two articles give the best picture of Leacock as orator in the years before the war: C. Lentern Sibley, 'Stephen Leacock,' Globe, 28 Dec. 1912, and Trevor Lautens Lautens, reprinted from the Hamilton Spectator in the Orillia Packet and Times, Article #3, 27 Aug. 1956. 13 Peterson Papers, file 65, Grey to Peterson, 30 Jan. 1906 (first quote) and re imperial missionary) ibid., file 46, Grey to Peterson, 25 Mar. 1907 14 Richard Jebb was a leading English imperialist propagandist who had travelled all over the empire and the world ( 1897-190 I), and had achieved wide fame with his book, Studies in Colonial Nationalism (1905). In 1906 he visited Canada, Australia, and South Africa. Other books by Jebb include The Britannic Question (1913) and The Imperial Conference (1911). 15 Peterson Papers, file 46, Leacock to Peterson, 24 May 1907 16 Peterson Papers, file 65, Grey to Peterson, 30 Jan. 1906 17 'John Bull, Farmer,' Orillia Packet, 30 May 1907 18 John S. Ewart, 'A Perplexed Imperialist,' 90. The Canadian Annual Review for 1907 (p. 374) attributes the statement to L. V. Harcourt. 19 Peterson Letterbooks, XI, 226, 18 July 1907, Peterson to Leacock; Xll, 12, 16 Nov. 1907, Peterson to Leacock. Interestingly, Rudyard Kipling and Richard Jebb liked Leacock's article and thought it was just what was needed. 20 Quoted in J. Eayrs, 'The Round Table Movement in Canada, 19091920,' in C. Berger, ed., Imperial Relations in the Age of Laurier (Toronto 1969), 67 21 Canadian Home Manufacturers Association Minute Book, in the possession of Professor R. Craig Brown, University of Toronto 22 'The Great Victory in Canada,' 392, See also the Orillia Packet during the election period. 23 McGill University Library, Rare Books Department, Stephen Leacock Collection, Mss, Box 7, 'War Time in Canada' 24 Ibid., in box with Mss 'Arcadian Adventures,' 'The Fallacies and Failures of the Income Tax,' and Box 14, 'The Present Crisis.' The attack on public ownership of railways is well known: see for the fullest statement of his position, My Discovery of the West, eh. 13, 265-77. Leacock never relented in his attack on the CNR, and was a

xiii

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

Alan Bowker

close personal friend of Sir Edward Beatty, Chancellor of McGill and President of the CPR. See Canadian Annual Review, l 921, 554-5, and Sir John Willison, 'From Month to Month,' Canadian Magazine, LVII, 1964-5. 'Sir Wilfrid Laurier's Victory,' 828 'The Asiatic Problem in the British Empire,' 6 'The Union of South Africa,' 503 'Laurier's Victory,' 833 Ibid., 832 'Canada and the Immigration Problem,' 323, 327 'Laurier's Victory,' 831 'Perplexed Imperialist,' 90 'Democracy and Social Progress,' 17 'Andrew Macphail,' in The Boy I left Behind Me, 138 lament for a Nation (Toronto 1965). See p. 56; 'To modern poli­ tical theory.. .' to end of paragraph. See also pp. 64, 66. The similarities between Leacock and Grant in their views of liberalism and progress are striking. 'Democracy and Social Progress,' 15-16 Arcadian Adventures (New Canadian Library), I Sunshine Sketches (New Canadian Library), I 52 Arcadian Adventures, 39 Ibid., 104 Ibid., l 02 Ibid., 55-6 Sunshine Sketches, 2-3 G.M. Wrong and H.H. Langton, eds., Review of Historical Publica­ tions Relating to Canada, XVII, 111, 112 The point is most explicitly made in Donald Cameron, Faces of Lea­ cock (Toronto 1967), 3-5; 16-7. F.W. Watt, 'Critic or Entertainer: Leacock and the Growth of Materialism,' hints at this point too. He analyzes Leacock's refusal to glorify the past and his criticism of the present, and suggests that humour was Leacock's way of making life acceptable to his audiences and himself. Leacock is thus both critic· and entertainer. I think that H.A, Innis is closer to the truth in his analysis of the origins of Leacock's humorous urge when he writes: 'The social scientist and especially the student of political economy is compelled to make his peace with satire or humour. The callous

Introduction

47 48

49 50 51 52

53 54 55

56 57

xliii

vulgarity which characterizes the medical profession is paralleled by cynicism in the social sciences.' Innis, 'Stephen Butler Leacock,' 221 'Democracy and Social Progress,' 31-2 McGill Library, Leacock Mss, Box 7, 'War Time in Canada.' See also, for Leacock's analysis of the economic implications of the war and their effect on the postwar world, 'Old Theories and New Facts The Ec0nomic World After the War,' unpublished ms, Box 14, and The Economic Aspect of War,' Journal of the Canadian Bankers' Association, XXIV, 302-15. Frenzied Fiction (New Canadian Library), 33-4 'Old Theories and New Facts - The Economic World After the War' Vide G. Horowitz, Canadian Labour in Politics (Toronto 1968), 3-57 The best summary of the various positions in this debate, as well as the most persuasive (but in my mind unconvincing) argument that Leacock could have been a novelist, is found in D. Cameron, Faces of Leacock, 138-54. CBC Times, 8-14 June 1958, 3 Innis, 'Stephen Butler Leacock,' 223 Leacock himself recognized that he was not primarily interested in writing about people except as they represented types or the work­ ing of human institutions. 'I can invent characters quite easily,' he once wrote, 'but I have no notion as to how to make things happen to them. Indeed I see no reason why anything should. I could write awfully good short stories if it were only permissible, merely to in­ troduce some extremely original character and at the end of two pages announce that at this point a brick fell on his head and killed him. If there was room for a school of literature of this kind I should offer to head it.' Quoted in Innis, 'Stephen Butler Leacock,' 224 Ibid., 226 Robertson Davies, 'Stephen Leacock,' in C.T. Bissell, ed., Our Living Tradition, First Series (Toronto 1957), 149

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Alan Bowker

Selected Bibliography I SELECTED ARTICLES BY LEACOCK WRITTEN BEFORE 1921 WHICH ARE NOT REPRINTED IN BOOK FORM

1906 'The Imperial Crisis,' in Addresses Delivered Before the Canadian Club of Toronto, season 1905-6 (Toronto [ 1906]), 114-18 1907 'Greater Canada: An Appeal,' University Magazine, VI, 132-41 'John Bull, Farmer,' Orillia Packet, 30 May 1907 'Responsible Government in the British Colonial System,' American Political Science Review, I, 355-92 'Education and Empire Unity,' Empire Club Speeches, Being Ad­

dresses Delivered Before the Empire Club of Canada During its Session of 1906-07 (Toronto 1907), 276-305

1908 'The Limitations of Federal Government,' American Political Science Association Proceediilgs, v, 37-52 'The Asiatic Problem in the British Empire,' Orillia Packet, 21 May 1908 1909 'Canada and the Monroe Doctrine,' University Magazine, VIII, 351-74 'Sir Wilfrid Laurier's Victory,' National Review (London), LII, 826-33 'The Political Achievement of Robert Baldwin,' Addresses Delivered Before the Canadian Club of Ottawa, 1903-1909 (Ottawa 1910), 161-4 'The International Tax Conference and Canadian Public Finance,' University of Toronto Monthly, IX, 8-12 1910 'The Union of South Africa,' American Political Science Review, IV, 498-507

Introduction

xiv

1911

'What Shall We Do About the Navy?' University Magazine, x, 535-53 'Canada and the Immigration Problem,' National Review, LVII, 316-27 'The Great Victory in Canada,' National Review, LVII, 381-92 1913 'The University and Business,' University Magazine, XII, 540-9 'The Canadian Senate and the Naval Bill,' National Review, LXI, 986-98 'The High Cost of Living,' Addresses Delivered Before the Canadian Club of Montreal, season 1913-14. ((n.p.] (n.d. ]), 44-52 1914 'The American Attitude,' University Magazine, xm, 595-7 'The Canadian Balance of Trade,' Journal of the Canadian Bankers' Association, XXII, 165-77 1916 'Is Permanent Peace Possible?,' Maclean 's, XXIX (August), 7-8, 77-99; (October), 12-13, 92-3 'The Economic Aspect of War,' Journal of the Canadian Bankers' Association, XXIV, 302-15 1917 'Our National Organization for the War,' in J.O. Miller, ed., The New Era in Canada·:· (London 1917), 409-21 'Democracy and Social Progress,' ibid., 13-33 'Ten Million Dollars For the Asking,' Maclean's, XXX (March), 9-12 1918 'Inside the Tank,' Maclean 's, XXXI (January), 38-40 1919

'The Tyranny of Prohibition,' Living Age, CCCII, 301-6

xlvi

II

Alan Bowker

BOOKS

A Pre-1921 Elements of Political Science (Boston 1906; rev. 1921) Baldwin, Lafontaine, Hincks: Responsible Government (Toronto

1907) Adventures of the Far North, A Chronicle of the Frozen Seas

(Toronto 1914) The Dawn of Canadian History: A Chronicle of Aboriginal Canada and the Coming of the White Man (Toronto 1914) The Mariner of St Malo; A Chronicle of the Voyages of Jacques Cartier (Toronto 1914) Essays and Literary Studies (Toronto 1916). The first four essays in this book were published in the University Magazine in 1910, 1910,

1909, and 1907 respectively. 'The Woman Question' was first published in Maclean 's in 1915.

The Hohenzollerns in America: With the Bolsheviks in Berlin and Other Impossibilities (London & New York 1919) The Unsolved Riddle of Social Justice (Toronto 1920)

B The following books are easily available in the McClel/and & Stewart New Canadian Library Series, so that full bibliographical information is not necessary: Literary Lapses ( 1910) Nonsense Novels (I 911) Sunshine Sketches of a Little Town (I 912) Behind the Beyond ( 1913) Arcadian Adventures With the Idle Rich (I 914) Moonbeams From the Larger Lunacy (1915) Further Foolishness ( 1917) Frenzied Fiction (I 919) My Discovery of England ( 1922) Winnowed Wisdom (1926) Short Circuits ( 1928) My Remarkable Uncle and Other Sketches ( 1941) Last Leaves (1945)

c The student with a special interest in Leacock's ideas of politics, economics, education, and history, should consult the following books published after 1922:

Introduction

xlvii

Afternoons in Utopia: Tales of the New Time (Toronto [ 1932]} Canada and the Sea (Montreal 1944) Canada: The Foundations of its Future (Montreal 1941) Economic Prosperity in the British Empire (Toronto 1930) Here Are My Lectures and Stories (New York 1937) My Discovery of the West: A Discussion of East and West in Canada (Toronto 1937) Too Much College: or Education Eating Up Life, With Kindred Essays in Education and Humour (New York 1939) The Pursuit of Knowledge: A Discussion of Freedom and Compul· sion in Education (New York [c. 1934]) Our Heritage of Liberty; Its Origin, Its Achievement, Its Crisis: A Book for War Time (London [ 1942])

III

WORKS ABOUT LEACOCK

A Books Cameron, D. Faces of Leacock: An Appreciation (Toronto 1967) Curry, R. Stephen Leacock, Humorist and Humanist (Garden City, NY 1959) Davies, R. Stephen Leacock (Toronto [ 1970]) Kimball, E. The Man in the Panama Hat (Toronto [ 1970]) Legate, D. Stephen Leacock: A Biography (Toronto 1970) MacArthur, P. Stephen Leacock (Toronto [ 1925])

See also: Berger, C. The Sense of Power: Studies in the Ideas of Canadian Imperialism (Toronto 1970) Articles Ewart, J.S. 'A Perplexed Imperialist,' Queen's Quarterly, xv, 90-100 Caldwell, W. 'Impressions of Ontario v: A Visit to a Canadian Author,' Canadian Magazine, LIX, 55-60 Innis, H. 'Stephen Butler Leacock,' Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, X, 216-30 Bissell, C. 'Haliburton, Leacock and the American Humourous (sic) Tradition,' Canadian Literature 39 (winter 1969), 5-19 Watt, F .W. 'Critic or Entertainer? Stephen Leacock and the Growth of Materialism,' Canadian Literature 5 (summer 1960), 33-42 B

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Alan Bowker

Cook, G.R. 'Stephen Leacock and the Age of Plutocracy,' in John S. Moir, ed., Character and Circumstance: Essays in Honour of Donald Grant Creighton (Toronto 1970), 163-81

c Bibliography

Lerner, G.H. Stephen Leacock: A Check-List and Index of His Writings(Ottawa 1954)

Postscript BY ALAN BOWKER

This page intentionally left blank

of this book after twenty-two years provides a wel­ come indication that Leacock still has something to say to us through his social criticism as well as through his humour. It ensures that these ex­ amples of his social criticism will remain available to interested readers. And although my introduction has not been revised, I have in this Post­ script' an opportunity to look back over two decades and consider whether anything in it should be repented. In 1973 interest in Leacock was high, but writers were divided into various camps. Those who had 'known' Leacock recalled his character and idiosyncracies. Literary critics debated whether Leacock was a kindly, Tory humorist or a darker character whose best humour was anything but gentle, as well as whether Leacock could have been a novelist. Frank Watt, Carl Berger, and Ramsay Cook portrayed Leacock as an influential social critic during the period before 1914, with an important place in Canadian intellectual history. My introduction reinforced this thesis, but also attempted to relate Leacock's life and social criticism to his humour. I hoped, as one reviewer noted, that 'henceforth it should be impossible for literary critics to consider, for example, Sunshine Sketches in isola­ tion from "Greater Canada: an appeal."' 2 This has only partly come to pass. A hopeful sign was the 1977 col­ laboration between a literary critic and an economist on a perceptive study of ArcadianAdventures and Sunshine Sketches. 3 A 1986 'reappraisal' dem­ onstrated that any attempt to fully understand Leacock must be multidisciplinary.4 Graeme Patterson examined Leacock's work on re­ sponsible government and concluded that Leacock chose to overlook the excesses of patronage that resulted from it because he regarded its achieve­ ment as crucial in making imperialism compatible with liberty and progress.5 Other than this, however, there has been little further historical study of Leacock. Recent biographies have added to our knowledge of Leacock's life and character and have taken some account of the impor­ tance of Leacock's social criticism, but have not been able to shed much new light on his historical milieu, his social science, or their relation to his humour.6 Most literary scholars have continued to treat Leacock's humour without much reference to his social criticism. Where they have recognized it, some have been so repelled by his imperialism (which they reduce to racism), his view of women (chauvinism), and his conserva­ tism (Toryism without the 'Red'), that their estimation of Leacock has been reduced, not enhanced. 7 Nor has my approach always been fully understood or accepted. R.D.

THE REPRINTING

Iii

Alan Bowker

MacDonald suggests that I regard Leacock's fiction 'merely' as a vehicle for the insights of the social scientist and his characters only as illustra­ ting the workings of social institutions. I therefore not only 'dismiss the literary "monument" as a measure of Leacock's importance' but dismiss 'fiction itself as a source of genuine truth.' 8 It was not my intention to substitute one two-dimensional picture of Leacock for another. My the­ sis, that Leacock the humorist cannot be fully understood without aware­ ness of his social criticism, was intended to cut in both directions and to point the way to a three-dimensional portrait. The finest of Leacock's humour transcends the ideas it expresses, just as it goes beyond prosaic analyses of his characterizations, his use of satire and irony, or the con­ struction of his books, to become a profound expression of the human condition. That is why it is art, and not simply rhetoric, on the one hand, or 'half a gallon of myosis [mixed] with a pint of hyperbole,' 9 on the other. Writing against a tradition that had laid all the emphasis on the artist and was only beginning to recognize the 'other' Leacock, I did not emphasize that point but simply took it for granted. In an essay published the same year as 'Greater Canada' and three years before Literary Lapses, Leacock asserts that humour reflects 'the sad contrast of our aims and our achievements' and provides a palliative to the ills that mankind cannot cure.'° This is the ambiguous social out­ look of a Red Tory who believes in progress but recognizes human imperfectability, and it is the best explanation of his finest humour. Leacock's stress on progress in humour, from a primitive triumph at others' misfortune to a healing, uplifting art 'from which all selfish exultation has been chastened by the realization of our common lot of sorrows,' parallels his view of social progress from aristocracy through a dehu­ manizing industrialism toward a world which will no longer accept pov­ erty and inequality as the natural lot of humanity. 11 Leacock's ability in his best humour to express the 'incongruities of human life' where 'hu­ mour and pathos mingle and become one,' also allows him to convey social commentary with rare power. From the opposite angle, Ian Ross Robertson commented that I was 'mistaken' in describing the City in Arcadian Adventures as 'wholly fic­ tional'; it was Montreal 'whatever Leacock may have indicated to the contrary.' This was important, in his view, since because I saw Mariposa as a 'demonstrably real' Canadian town and the City as imaginary and American, I believed Leacock had hope. But if Leacock found 'nothing admirable in the small town,' if Mariposans are already 'dreaming the

A Postscript

!iii

dreams of Arcadians,' and if the City is Montreal, 'then the picture changes somewhat, and Leacock's social commentary becomes more intelligible as a totality.' There is neither optimism nor any hope of escape except through social regeneration. 12 If Leacock had been that pessimistic there would have been little point in appealing for a social or spiritual regeneration that he would have known was futile. Whatever his 'darker side,' however shrill some of his criti­ cism of the excesses of his age, it is inconceivable that he believed the city where he lived and worked, and the people who were his friends, comprised the irredeemable jungle depicted in this mordant satire. Plutoria University is not McGill, but a fictional representation of the impossibil­ ity of true academic ideals in a society wholly dominated by material values. The story of St Asaph's and St Osoph 's is an attack on the perver­ sion of religious values in the age of progress, not on church union or high Anglicanism: 'Like any artist,' I also wrote, 'Leacock had his mod­ els' (infra, xxxv); he undoubtedly drew inspiration from people and events in Montreal, particularly civic politics. 13 But by locating the City in the United States, by not giving it a name, and by carefully exploring the same themes as in Sunshine Sketches, he universalizes his message and gives it added force both as art and as social criticism. Arcadian Adven­ tures is a fictional warning of where his world was headed, not a mere polemic against what his city had become. If anything needs to be qualified it is my description of Mariposa as a 'demonstrably real town.' It is, but only in the sense that it is every Cana­ dian town, and not just Orillia. Leacock makes this clear not only in his preface (where he may be reacting to the hurt feelings of Orillians), but in the narrator's dialogue with his listener throughout the book. 'I don't know whether you know Mariposa,' he begins, 'If not, it is of no consequence, for if you know Canada at all, you are probably well-acquainted with a dozen towns just like it.' 14 In his original version Leacock not only had committed a social faux pas, but had made an artistic error by allowing his readers to assume he was writing only about specific people and places. However, many literary critics over the past two decades have argued that Mariposa is not 'real' even in this sense. Instead, they suggest vari­ ously that it is a regional idyll, that it exemplifies 'kindly' humour, that it represents a memory, or that the changing viewpoint of the narrator shows that Leacock may have been ambiguous or uncertain in his vision. 15 MacDonald argues that unlike Sinclair Lewis, whose characters serve only as platforms for his rhetoric and, in many cases, objects of his revul-

!iv

Alan Bowker

sion, Leacock 'sees more actively and single-mindedly around and through his characters, who thereby become more than mouthpieces in a polemi­ cal argument' or small-town stereotypes, and take on 'an otherness, a spiritual dimension.' Mariposa is portrayed as in stasis, with characters and events always cycling back to the point of origin. What seems failure is providential. What seems dullness is peace. But 'in this imagined re­ membrance nothing is meant to go anywhere but where it was, and "do­ ing" and even "telling" is merely the holding action of a charmed world.' Mariposa is 'realized as a stilled world in which we cannot live; we can only talk about it or dream of it.' 16 How can this be reconciled with my introduction, which argued that Leacock's Mariposa is a fictional commentary on the life, ethics, social relationships, and politics of the small towns of his day? Or with 'The Great Election in Missinaba County,' which echoes 'Greater Canada' and the 1911 election and is depicted with little of the loving irony found in the rest of the book? Is one point of view right and the other wrong? Is Sunshine Sketches a flawed book in which Leacock couldn't make up his mind what he thought of Mariposa? Or does Mariposa exist on different planes at the same time? I continue to believe that Leacock intended to portray Mariposa as a small town in the Canada of his day; there are too many topical refer­ ences (long distance telephones, for example) for it to be simply a memory. The City impinges on every aspect of Mariposan life, from the city news­ papers to the Hosanna Pipe and Steam Organ Co. (Limited) that holds the mortgage on the Church. Mariposans ape the City and their aspirations are those of the age of progress; Dean Drone's dream of a bigger church and the demolition of the old one parallels in a milder way the story of the churches in Arcadian Adventures. Neither Mariposans nor the narrator are 'kindly.' In addition to the dishonesties, the hypocrisies, and the sharp social distinctions, we need look only at the almost cruel treatment of young Fizzlechip, whom everyone thought 'a worthless jackass' until he became rich and who then committed suicide within a few days. Or the 'sallow' girl at the telephone exchange. Or the high school teachers, in­ cluding the 'one who drank.' Or Edward Drone, 'a somewhat weaker copy of his elder brother, with a simple, inefficient face and kind blue eyes' who told high school boys 'about the lessons to be learned from the lives of the truly great,' while Bagshaw told them 'about the lessons learned from the lives of the extremely rich.... Even the youngest boy in the school could tell that Drone was foolish. Not even the school teachers would have voted for him.' 17

A Postscript

Iv

But I should have gone further, for Leacock goes further. Throughout the book he expresses his love for Mariposa, which spreads its square streets and its maple trees in the 'sunshine of the land of hope.' 18 The image of the people on the Mariposa Belle, on a darkened lake in the shadow of the pine forest singing 'O CAN-A-DA,' has etched itself into the Canadian consciousness.19 There is magic in the very smallness and innocence of the place, its harmony, its closeness to nature. Mariposans remain, like the people on the Mariposa train, slightly out of sync with tt,e city, and sometimes they even get the better of it, as with Judge Pepperleigh's treatment of the insurance investigators. The narrator's naivete is a pose in which the listener is complicit, and his ambiguity towards his characters is deliberate. He draws exaggerated comparisons between Mariposa and other places because he knows, as does his listener, that you can only enter its life by adjusting your percep­ tions to the Mariposan reality. Characters such as Pupkin who are intro­ duced as rather pejorative caricatures reappear as more rounded human beings. Once you get past appearances and see Mariposans through Mariposan eyes, they are all as special as their street is wide. That is why Pupkin fears to tell his friends of his rich father: 'Just imagine him in Mariposa! Wouldn't he be utterly foolish there? Just imagine him meet­ ing Jim Eliot and treating him like a druggist merely because he ran a drug store! ... Why, a thing like that could ruin young Pupkin in Mariposa in half a day, and Pupkin knew it.' 20 Occasionally the narrator drops his mask and reveals his own wider awareness, as when he admits he had 'perhaps borne [Jefferson Thorpe] a grudge for what seemed to me his perpetual interest in the great capitalists,' 21 until he realized that what Thorpe admired was their philanthropy. Leacock establishes Mariposa itself as the main character by taking several pages to set the stage and not allowing any action to begin until 'you feel you know the town well enough to be admitted into the inner life and movement of it,' and by evoking in the concluding sentence the memory of the 'little Town in the Sunshine that once we knew.' 22 Mariposa is thus depicted both as a real town and as an enchanted world. Mariposa and the City exist in symbiosis, but all Mariposas need not become the City. Because their basic values are those of the City, Mariposans are always perilously close to being corrupted by them. But unlike the City people, they have not suppressed all the values that would impede the making of money - Dean Drone at least suggests that a use be found for the materials in the old church. They retain their ability to love; they can s·ee people as individuals and value them for their humanity,

lvi

Alan Bowker

rather than for what they make and do; they have a sense of community, a link with the past, and a love of nature (even if only as fishing and duck­ hunting) - in other words, they can still see the world through Mariposan eyes. This optic allows a horse-faced bank teller and a feather-brained judge's daughter to find 'enchanted' love. It also distorts Mariposans' vision of the City, so that even their attempts to imitate it, such as the whirlwind campaign or the 'caff,' end in providential failure. They are thus rescued from their follies and returned to their starting point, which Leacock tells us (in the case of Jefferson Thorpe) is the best place to be. Because Mariposan virtues are already attenuated, outside Mariposa they have little protection against the pervasive values of the City. Those who leave to make their fortunes easily become Plutorians. Only those few City people who can remember who and what they once were can return, like Pupkin senior. Or, on another level, if they come back occa­ sionally (literally or figuratively) they can preserve their humanity. But for the members of the Mausoleum Club, Mariposa can exist only in a dimly remembered past.23 Mariposa is thus at the same time a small town of Leacock's day, sadly in need of spiritual regeneration, and a place where there survive some of the values on which such a regeneration could be built, if society as a whole could remember or rediscover them. This complex, ambivalent message explains why serious critics have reached such divergent conclusions about Sunshine Sketches, and why most now regard it, rather than Arcadian Adventures, as Leacock's finest book. Both books are, however, 'literary monuments' of the first rank, as well as profound social criticism. Does anyone still care that they are not novels? Finally, I offer a measure of repentance for appearing to write off most of Leacock's work after 1921. It is true that, beginning even before then, he strained his talents writing 'funny pieces' in which bad humour is often, ironically, 'merely a vehicle' for shallow social criticism. It is also true that he did hack writing on history, literature, and other subjects. Despite his sincere concern about the depression and his advocacy of government in­ tervention to provide work and welfare, Leacock's attempts after 1930 to provide 'common-sense' solutions cannot in the end be regarded as serious economics. 24 Some of his less attractive opinions deepened with age and literary self-indulgence. But in one important area Leacock did find a new voice. His 1922 book My Discovery ofEngland renewed his skills as an essayist, with an informality and sureness of touch that surpassed his pre­ war work. This voice of Leacock grew with the years. Beginning in the mid-thirties, with his other wells of inspiration running dry, he wrote a

A Postscript

!vii

number of thoughtful and interesting essays on education, history, and au­ tobiography which deserve to be widely read today. Except for these comments I would not write the introduction much differently today. The essays in this book demonstrate that Leacock would have been an important figure in Canadian intellectual history if he had never written a line of humour, but even in these serious essays the hu­ morist is just behind the curtain. In any case, he did write great humour of profound impact which expressed his deepest thoughts and took his so­ cial criticism to a higher plane. We still need the 'holistic interpretation' Ian Ross Robertson called for in 1986.25 Until then, perhaps even then, Leacock will continue to charm us, challenge us, and elude us, all the while finding new ways to speak to us from a receding past.

NOTES

1 I acknowledge the kindness of Michael Bliss and Carl Berger for reading a draft of this postscript. 2 Ian Ross Robertson, Review of Social Criticism, Canadian Historical Review (hereinafter cited as CHR), 57, 209 3 J. Kushner and R.D. MacDonald, 'Leacock: Economist/Satirist in Arcadian Adventures and Sunshine Sketches.' D.J. Dooley pursued this theme in Moral Vision in the Canadian Novel, 1-12 4 David Staines, ed., Stephen Leacock: A Reappraisal 5 Graeme Patterson, History and Communications, 56-9, 197-205; see also Ian Ross Robertson, 'The Historical Leacock,' in Staines, ed., Reappraisal, 48 6 See bibliography. The Moritz biography is the most comprehensive in relating Leacock's social criticism to his humour. Taylor's book sets Leacock within a Canadian tradition. 7 For example, Doyle, Leacock, 75 8 R.D. MacDonald, 'Measuring Leacock's Mariposa Against Lewis' Gopher Prairie,' 87 9 'Humour as I See It,' Further Foolishness. Toronto (NCL), 1968, 156: 'I am willing to admit, since the truth is out, that it has long been my custom in preparing an article of a humorous nature to go down to the cellar and mix up half a gallon of myosis with a pint of hyperbole.' 10 Essays and Literary Studies (hereinafter cited as ELS), 114. The perceptive reader will see the similarity between humour as a palliative

Iviii

11 12 13

14 15

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Alan Bowker

and the workingman's glass of ale in 'The Tyranny of Prohibition,' infra, 67, 68. Note also that Leacock's early discussion of humour has more balance and 'bite' than his later insistence on 'kindly' humour. ELl, 114. This is paralleled by Leacock's view of literature as a whole; that Dickens, 0. Henry, and Twain are superior to Chaucer and Shake­ speare, and that Homer is merely primitive literature. Robertson, 'Historical Leacock,' 41; see also his CHR review. A number of other writers have regarded Arcadian Adventures as a direct commentary on Montreal, particularly its politics. Leacock himself in his 1942 book on Montreal, commented at length on the municipal reform movement and on the rich, whom he described as living in a 'fairyland of this Plutoria under the elms.' While these comments are revealing (especially his description of the demise of this world of the rich - a victim of war, economic depression, and income tax) they do not vitiate my contention that while Arcadian Adventures may have been modelled on Montreal, it was not, as an imaginative work of fiction, about Montreal. See Leacock, Leacock s Montreal, Toronto, 1963, 227-35 Sunshine Sketches (NCL), l (hereafter SS) Besides the works of Staines, Dooley, and Lynch (who has valuable ideas but pushes many of them too far) cited in the bibliography, the best critical articles are: Francis Zichy, 'The Narrator, the Reader, and Mariposa: The Cost of Preserving the Status Quo in Sunshine Sketches of a Little Town,' Joumal of Canadian Studies, 22: 1, 51-65; Ian Ferris, 'The Face in the Window: Sunshine Sketches Reconsidered,' Studies in Canadian Literature (SCL), 3:2, 178-85; T.D. MacLulich, 'Mariposa Revisited,' SCL, 4:1, 167-76; J.M. Zezulka, 'Passionate Provincials: Imperialism, Regionalism and Point of View,' Journal of Canadian Fiction, 22, 80-92; and B.J. Rasporich, 'New Eden: The Source of Canadian Humour: McCulloch, Haliburton and Leacock,' SCL, 7:2, 227-40. MacDonald, op cit., 101, 96, 98 SS, 26-7, 46, 9, 132 SS, xvi; contrast this with the opening page of Arcadian Adventures. Douglas Bush, 'Stephen Leacock' in Staines, ed., Canadian Imagination, 140-3 has an extended discussion of the 'Canadianness' of SS. SS, 105 SS, 33 SS, 153 Their inability to re-enter Mariposa is paralleled by the inability of

A Postscript

lix

Homer Tomlinson or the 'Little Girl in Green' in Arcadian Adventures to have any impact on the values or perceptions of the Mausoleum Club. Norah is innocent, but is also a City dweller without a Mariposan community, or alternative values, to sustain her; the Tomlinsons are temporarily corrupted but do survive and escape. 24 Myron J. Frankman, 'Stephen Leacock, Economist: An Owl Among the Parrots' in Staines, ed., Reappraisal, 51-8 argues, unconvincingly in my view, that Leacock should be taken seriously as an economist. 25 Robertson, 'Historical Leacock,' 49 Supplementary Bibliography BOOKS

Anderson, Allan, Remembering Leacock (Ottawa1983) Dooley, D.J., Moral Vision in the Canadian Novel (Toronto1979) Doyle, James, Stephen Leacock: The Sage of Orillia (Toronto1992) Lynch, Gerald, Stephen Leacock: Humour and Humanity (Kingston and Montreal1988) Moritz, Albert and Theresa, Leacock: A Biography (Toronto1985) Patterson, Graeme, History and Communications: Harold Innis, Marshall McLuhan, The Interpretation of History (Toronto1990) Staines, David ed., Stephen Leacock: A Reappraisal (Ottawa1986) Taylor, Charles, Radical Tories: The Conservative Tradition in Cal'J,{lda (Halifax 1982) ARTICLES

Berger, C., 'The Other Mr. Leacock,' Canadian Literature,55 (Winter 1973),23-40 Bush, D., 'Stephen Leacock,' in David Staines, ed., The Canadian Imagination: Dimensions of a Literary Culture (Cambridge Mass, 1977),123-51 Kushner, J. and R.D. MacDonald, 'Leacock: Economist/Satirist in Arcadian Adventures and Sunshine Sketches,' Dalhousie Review, 56 ,493-509 MacDonald, R.D., 'Measuring Leacock's Mariposa Against Lewis' Gopher Prairie: A Question of Monuments,' Dalhousie Review, 70: I,84-103

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The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

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Greater Canada: an appeal

4

The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

NOW, IN THIS month of April, when the ice is leaving our rivers, the ministers of Canada take ship for this the fourth Colonial Conference at London. What do they go to do? Nay, rather what shall we bid them do? We - the six million people of Canada, unvoiced, untaxed, in the Empire, unheeded in the councils of the world - we, the six million colonials sprawling our over-suckled in­ fancy across a continent - what shall be our message to the mother­ land? Shall we still whine of our poverty, still draw imaginary pictures of our thin herds shivering in the cold blasts of the North, their shepherds huddled for shelter in the log cabins of Montreal and Toronto? Shall we still beg the good people of England to bear yet a little longer, for the poor peasants of their colony, the burden and heat of the day? Shall our ministers rehearse this worn-out fiction of our 'acres of snow,' and so sail home again, still untaxed, to the smug approval of the oblique politicians of Ottawa? Or, shall we say to the people of England, 'The time has come; we know and realize our country. We will be your colony no longer. Make us one with you in an Empire, Permanent and Indivisible.' This last alternative means what is commonly called Imperialism. It means a united system of defence, an imperial navy for whose support somehow or other the whole Empire shall properly con­ tribute, and with it an imperial authority in whose power we all may share. To many people in Canada this imperialism is a tainted word. It is too much associated with a truckling subservience to English people and English ideas and the silly swagger of the hop-o'my­ thumb junior officer. But there is and must be for the true future of our country, a higher and more real imperialism than this - the imperialism of the plain man at the plough and the clerk in the counting house, the imperialism of any decent citizen that demands for this country its proper place in the councils of the Empire and in the destiny of the world. In this sense, imperialism means but the realization of a Greater Canada, the recognition of a wider citizenship. I, that write these lines, am an Imperialist because I will not be a Colonial. This Colonial status is a worn-out, by-gone thing. The sense and feeling of it has become harmful to us. It limits the ideas, and circumscribes the patriotism of our people. It impairs the mental vigor and narrows the outlook of those that are reared and educated in our midst. The English boy reads of England's history and its

Greater Canada: an appeal

5

glories as his own; it is his navy that fought at Camperdown and Trafalgar, his people that have held fast their twenty miles of sea eight hundred years against a continent. He learns at his fire-side and at his school, among his elders and his contemporaries, to regard all this as part of himself; something that he, as a fighting man, may one day uphold, something for which as a plain citizen he shall every day gladly pay, something for which in any capacity it may one day be his high privilege to die. How little of this in Canada! Our paltry policy teaches the Canadian boy to detach himself from the England of the past, to forget that Camperdown and Copenhagen and the Nile are ours as much as theirs, that this navy of the Empire is ours too, ours in its history of the past, ours in its safe-guard of the present. If this be our policy and plan, let us complete our teaching to our children. Let us inscribe it upon the walls of our schools, let us write it in brass upon our temples that for the Navy which made us and which defends us, we pay not a single penny, we spare not a solitary man. Let us add to it, also, that the lesson may bear fruit, this 'shelter theory' of Canada now rampant in our day; that Canada, by some reason of its remoteness from European sin and its proximity· to American republicanism, is sheltered from that flail of war with which God tribulates the other peoples of the world, sheltered by the Monroe Doctrine, by President Roosevelt and his battleships, sheltered, I know not how, but sheltered somehow so that we may forget the lean, eager patriotism and sacrifice of a people bred for war, and ply in peace the little craft of gain and greed. So grows and has grown the Canadian boy in his colonial status, dissociated from the history of the world, cut off from the larger patriotism, colour­ less in his idea8. So grows he till in some sly way his mind opens to the fence-rail politics of his country side, with its bribed elections and its crooked votes - not patriotism but 'politics,' maple-leaf politics, by which money may be made and places and profit fall in a golden shower. Some time ago Theodore Roosevelt, writing with the pardonable irresponsibility of a Police Commissioner of New York and not as President of the United States, said of us here in Canada, that the American feels towards the Canadian the good-natured condescen­ sion that is felt by the free-born man for the man that is not free. Only recently one of the most widely circulated of American

6

The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

magazines, talking in the same vein, spoke of us Canadians as a 'subject people.' These are, of course, the statements of extravagance and ignorance; but it is true, none the less, that the time has come to be done with this colonial business, done with it once and forever. We cannot in Canada continue as we are. We must become some­ thing greater or something infinitely less. We can no longer be an appanage and outlying portion of something else. Canada, as a colony, was right enough in the days of good old Governor Simcoe, when your emigrant officer sat among the pine stumps of his Cana­ dian clearing and reared his children in the fear of God and in the love of England - right enough then, wrong enough and destructive enough now. We cannot continue as we are. In the history of every nation as of every man there is no such thing as standing still. There is no pause upon the path of progress. There is no stagnation but the hush of death. And for this progress, this forward movement, what is there first to do? How first unravel this vexed skein of our colonial and im­ perial relations? This, first of all. We must realize, and the people of England must realize, the inevitable greatness of Canada. This is not a vain-glorious boast. This is no rhodomontade. It is simple fact. Here stand we, six million people, heirs to the greatest legacy in the history of mankind, owners of half a continent, trustees, under God Almighty, for the fertile solitudes of the west. A little people, few in numbers, say you? Ah, truly such a little people! Few as the people of the Greeks that blocked the mountain gates of Europe to the march of Asia, few as the men of Rome that built a power to dominate the world, nay, scarce more numerous than they in England whose beacons flamed along the cliffs a warning to the heavy gal­ leons of Spain. Aye, such a little people, but growing, growing, growing, with a march that shall make us ten millions to-morrow, twenty millions in our children's time and a hundred millions ere yet the century runs out. What say you to Fort Garry, a stockaded fort in your father's day, with its hundred thousand of to-day and its half a million souls of the to-morrow? What think you, little river Thames, of our great Ottawa that flings its foam eight hundred miles? What does it mean when science has moved us a little further yet, and the wheels of the world's work turn with electric force? What sort of asset do you think then our melting snow and the roaring river-flood of our Canadian spring shall be to us? What say

Greater Canada: an appeal

7

you, little puffing steam-fed industry of England, to the industry of Coming Canada. Think you, you can heave your coal hard enough, sweating and grunting with your shovel to keep pace with the snow-fed cataracts of the north? Or look, were it but for double conviction, at the sheer extent and size of us. Throw aside, if you will, the vast dis­ tricts of the frozen north, confiscate, if you like, Ungava still snow­ covered and unknown, and let us talk of the Canada that we know, south of the sixtieth parallel, south of your Shetland Islands, south of the Russian Petersburg and reaching southward thence to where the peach groves of Niagara bloom in the latitude of northern Spain. And of all this take only our two new provinces, twin giants of the future, Alberta and Saskatchewan. Three decades ago this was the 'great lone land,' the frozen west, ·with its herds of bison and its Indian tepees, known to you only in the pictured desolation of its unending snow; now crossed and inter-crossed with railways, settled 400 miles from the American frontier, and sending north and south the packets of its daily papers from its two provincial capitals. And of this country, fer­ tile as the corn plains of Hungary, and the crowded flats of Belgium, do you know the size? It is this. Put together the whole German Empire, the republic of France and your England and Scotland, and you shall find place for them in our two new provinces. Or take together across the boundary from us, the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut - all the New England States and with them all the Middle States of the North - New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, and Wisconsin, till you have marked a space upon the map from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and from the Ohio to the lakes - all these you shall put into our two new provinces and still find place for England and for Scotland in their boundaries. This then for the size and richness of our country. Would that the soul and spirit of its people were commensurate with its greatness. For here as yet we fail. Our politics, our public life and thought, rise not to the level of our opportunity. The mud-bespattered politicians of the trade, the party men and party managers, give us in place of patriotic statescraft the sordid traffic of a tolerated jobbery. For bread, a stone. Harsh is the cackle of the little turkey-cocks of Ottawa, fighting the while as they feather their mean nests of sticks and mud, high on their river bluff. Loud sings the little Man of the Province, crying his petty Gospel of Provincial Rights, grudging the

8

The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

gift of power, till the cry spreads and town hates town and every hamlet of the country side shouts for its share of plunder and of pelf. This is the tenor of our politics, carrying as its undertone the voice of the black-robed sectary, with narrow face and shifting eyes, snarling still with the bigotry of a by-gone day. This is the spirit that we must purge. This is the demon we must exorcise; this the disease, the canker-worm of corruption, bred in the indolent securities of peace, that must be burned from us in the pure fire of an Imperial patriotism, that is no theory but a passion. This is our need, our supreme need of the Empire - not for its ships and guns, but for the greatness of it, the soul of it, aye for the very danger of it. Of our spirit, then, it is not well. Nor is it well with the spirit of those in England in their thoughts of us. Jangling are they these twenty years over little Ireland that makes and unmakes ministries, and never a thought of Canada; jangling now over their Pantaloon Suffragettes and their Swaddled Bishops, wondering whether they shall still represent their self-willed Lords nose for nose in the coun­ cils of the Empire or whether they may venture now to scale them down, putting one nose for ten. One or ten, what does it matter, so there is never a voice to speak for Canada? Can they not see, these people of England, that the supreme English Question now is the question of Canada: that this Conference of the year of grace 1907 might, if it would, make for us the future of the Empire? Or will they still regard us, poor outlying sheltered people of Canada, as something alien and apart, sending us ever of their youngest and silliest to prate in easy arrogance of 'home,' earning the livelihood their island cannot give, still snapping at the hand that feeds them? And what then can this Colonial Conference effect after all, it is asked? Granting, for argument's sake, the spirit of the people that might prove it, our willingness to pay, their willingness to give us place and power, what can be done? Hard indeed is the question. Hard even to the Ready Man in the Street with his glib solution of difficulties; harder still to the thoughtful; hardest of all to those who will riot think. For if we pay for this our Navy that even now defends us, and yet speak not in the councils at Westminster, then is that Taxation without Representation; straightway the soul of the Anglo-Saxon stands aghast; the grim deaths-head of King John grins in the grave, while the stout ghost of old Ben Franklin hovers again upon our frontier holding in its hand the proffer of independence.

Greater Canada: an appeal

9

But if you admit us to your councils, what then? Ah, then indeed an awful thing befalls! Nothing less than the remaking of your constitu­ tion, with a patching and a re-building of it, till the nature-growth of precedent and custom is shaped in the clumsy artifice of clause and schedule, powers and prohibitions, measured and marked off with the yard-stick of the ultra-vires attorney. This surely is worse than ever. This perhaps you might have done, save for the bare turn of a majority, for Irksome Ireland. But for Uncomplaining Canada, not so. So there we stand, we and you, pitched fast upon the horns of a dilemma. You cannot tax us, since you will not represent us. We cannot be represented because we will not be taxed. So we stand stock still, like the donkey in the philosophic fable, balanced between two bales of hay, nibbling neither right nor left. So are we like to stand, till some one of us, some of you and us, shall smite the poor donkey of our joint stupidity there where it most profits that a donkey shall be smitten, and bid it move! Yet is the difficulty perhaps not impossible of solution. The thing to be achieved is there. The task is yours to solve, men of the council table. Fin·d us a way whereby the burden and the power shall fall on all alike; a way whereby, taxed, we shall still be free men, free of the Imperial citizenship, and your historic constitution unshattered in the progress. Is it then so difficult? We come of a race that has solved much, has so often achieved the impossible. Look back a little in the ages to where ragged Democracy howls around the throne of defiant Kingship. This is a problem that we have solved, joining the dignity of Kingship with the power of democracy; this, too, by the simplest of political necromancy, the trick of which we now ex­ pound in our schools, as the very alphabet of political wisdom. Or look back to where the scaffolds of a bigot nation run with blood for the sake of rival creeds that know not yet the simple code of toleration, to be framed now in an easy statute with an artful stroke of a pen. Have we done all this and shall we balk at this poor colonial question? At it then, like men, shrewd representatives of Ottawa and Westminster, trained in the wisdom of the ages. Listen not to those who would block the way with a non possumus on this side, a non volumus on that. Find us a way, shew us a plan, a mere beginning if you will, a widow's mite of contribution, a mere whispering of representation, but something that shall trace for us the future path of Empire.

10

The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

Nor is guidance altogether lacking in the task. For at least the signs of the times are written large as to what the destiny of Canada shall not be. Not as it is - not on this colonial footing, can it indefinitely last. There are those who tell us that it is best to leave well alone, to wait for the slow growth, the evolution of things. For herein lies the darling thought of the wisdom of the nineteenth century, in ·this same Evolution, this ready-made explanation of all things; hauled over from the researches of the botanist to meet the lack of thought of the philosopher. Whatever is, is: whatever will be, will be - so runs its silly creed. Therefore let everything be, that is: and all that shall be, shall be! This is but the wisdom of the fool, wise after the fact. For the solution of our vexed colonial problem this profits nothing. We cannot sit passive to watch our growth. Good or bad, straight or crooked, we must make our fate. Nor is it ever possible or desirable that we in Canada can form an independent country. The little cry that here and there goes up among us is but the symptom of an aspiring discontent, that will not let our people longer be colonials. 'Tis but a cry forced out by what a wise man has called the growing pains of a nation's progress. Independent, we could not survive a decade. Those of us who know our country realize that beneath its surface smoulder still the embers of racial feud and of religious bitterness. Twice in our generation has the sudden alarm of conflict broken upon the quiet of our pros­ perity with the sound of a fire bell in the night. Not thus our path. Let us compose the feud and still the strife of races, not in the artificial partnership of an Independent Canada, but in the joint greatness of a common destiny. Nor does our future lie in Union with those that dwell to the southward. The day of annexation to the United States is passed. Our future lies elsewhere. Be it said without concealment and without bitterness. They have chosen their lot; we have chosen ours. Let us go our separate ways in peace. Let them still keep their perennial Independence Day, with its fulminating fireworks and its Yankee Doodle. We keep our Magna Charta and our rough and ready Rule Britannia, shouting as lustily as they! The propaganda of Annexation is dead. Citizens we want, indeed, but not the prophet� of an alien gospel. To you who come across our western border we can offer a land fatter than your Kansas, a government better than Montana, a climate kinder than your Dakota. Take it, Good Sir, if

Greater Canada: an appeal

11

you_ will: but if, in taking it, you still raise your little croak of annexation, then up with you by the belt and out with you, breeches first, through the air, to the land of your origin! This in all friendliness. Not independence then, not annexation, not stagnation: nor yet that doctrine of a little Canada that some conceive - half in, half out of the Empire, with a mimic navy of its own; a pretty navy this - poor two-penny collection, frollicking on its little way strictly within the Gulf of St Lawrence, a sort of silly adjunct to the navy of the Empire, semi-detached, the better to be smashed at will. As well a Navy of the Province, or the Parish, home-made for use at home, docked every Saturday in Lake Nipigon! Yet this you say, you of the Provincial Rights, you Little Canada Man, is all we can afford! We that have raised our public charge from forty up to eighty millions odd within the ten years past, and scarce have felt the added strain of it. Nay. on the question of the cost, good gentlemen of the council, spare it not. Measure not the price. It is not a commercial benefit we buy. We are buying back our honour as Imperial Citizens. For, look you. this protection of our lives and coast, this safe-guard from the scourge of war, we have it now as much as you of England: you from the hard-earned money that you pay, we as the peasant pensioners on your Imperial Bounty. Thus stands the case. Thus stands the question of the future of Canada. Find for us something other than mere colonial stagnation, something sounder than independence, nobler than annexation, greater in purpose than a Little Canada. Find us a way. Build us a plan, that shall make us, in hope at least, an Empire Permanent and Indivisible.

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. Literature and education in America

14

The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

IT MAY be well to remind the reader at the outset of this article that Canada is in America. A Canadian writer may therefore with no great impropriety use the term American, for want of any other word, in reference to the literature and education of all the English­ speaking people between the Rio Grande and the North Pole. There is, moreover, a certain warrant of fact for such a usage. Canadian literature - as far as there is such a thing - Canadian journalism, and the education and culture of the mass of the people of Canada approximates more nearly to the type and standard of the United States than to those of Great Britain. Whatever accusations may be brought against the literature and education of the American repub­ lic apply equally well - indeed very probably apply with even greater force - to the Dominion of Canada. This modest apology may fittingly be offered before throwing stones at the glass house in which both the Canadians and the Americans proper dwell. Now it is a fact which had better be candidly confessed than indignantly denied that up to the present time the contribution of America to the world's great literature has been disappointingly small. There are no doubt great exceptions. We number at least some of the world's great writers on this side of the Atlantic. American humour, in reputation at any rate, may claim equality if not pre­ eminence. And the signs are not wanting - they are seen in the intense realism of our short stories, and the concentrated power of our one-act' plays - that we may some day come into our own. But in spite of this, the indictment holds good that up to the present we have fallen far short of what might have been properly expected of our civilisation. I am quite aware that on this point I shall meet denial at the outset. I once broached this question of the relative inferiority of the literary output of America to that of the old world to a gentleman from Kentucky. He answered, 'I am afraid, sir, you are imperfectly acquainted with the work of our Kentucky poets.' In the same way a friend of mine from Maryland has assured me that immediately before the war that state had witnessed the most remarkable literary development recorded since the time of Plato. I am also credibly informed that the theological essayists of Prince Edward Island challenge comparison with those of any age. It is no doubt not the

Literature and education in America

15

fault of the Islanders that this challenge has not yet been accepted. But I am speaking here not of that literature which, though excellent in its way, is known only to the immediate locality which it adorns, but rather of those works of such eminent merit and such wide repute as to be properly classed among the literature of the world. To what a very small share of this, during the last hundred years of our history, can we in America lay claim. This phenomenon becomes all the more remarkable when we reflect upon the unparalleled advance that has been made in this c:>untry in the growth of population, in material resources, and in the purely mechanical side of progress. Counted after the fashion of the census taker, which is our favourite American method of com­ putation, we now number over a hundred million souls. It is some seventy years since our rising population equalled and passed that of the British Isles: a count of heads, dead and alive, during the century would show us more numerous than the British people by two to one: we erect butldings fifty stories high: we lay a mile of railroad track in twenty-four hours: the corn that we grow and the hogs that we raise are the despair of aristocratic Europe; and yet when it comes to the production of real literature, the benighted people of the British Islands can turn out more of it in a twelvemonth than our hundred million souls can manufacture in three decades. For proof of this, if proof is needed, one has but to consider fairly and dispassionately the record of the century. How few are the names of first rank that we can offer to the world. In poetry Longfellow, Bryant, Lowell, Whittier, Whitman, with two or three others exhaust the list: of historians of the front rank we have Bancroft, Motley, Prescott, and in a liberal sense, Francis Parkman: of novelists, tale writers and ':ssayists we can point with pride to Irving, Poe, Cooper, Hawthorne, Emerson, James, and some few others as names that are known to the world: of theologians we have Colonel Ingersoll, Mrs Eddy, and Caroline Nation. But brilliant as many of these writers are, can one for a moment compare them with the imposing list of the great names that adorn the annals of British literature in the nineteenth century? Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley, Keats, Tennyson, Browning, Swinburne are household names to every educated American. Novelists and tale writers such as Dickens, Thackeray, Eliot, Meredith, Kipling, and Stevenson cannot be matched in our country. How seldom are essayists and historians

16

The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

of the class of Carlyle, Macaulay, Gibbon, Green, Huxley, Arnold, Morley, and Bryce produced among our hundred million of free and enlightened citizens. These and a hundred other illustrious names spring to one's mind to illustrate the splendour of British literature in the nineteenth century. But surely it is unfair to ourselves to elaborate needlessly so plain a point. The candid reader will be fain to admit that the bulk of the valuable literature of the English­ speaking peoples written within the last hundred years has been produced within the British Isles. Nor can we plead in extenuation that inspiration has been lacking to us. Indeed the very contrary is the case. What can be conceived more stimulating to the poetic imagination than the advance of American civilisation into the broad plains of the Mississippi and the Saskatchewan, the passage of the unknown mountains and the descent of the treasure seekers upon the Eldorado of the coast? What finer background for literature than the silent untravelled forests and the broad rivers moving to unknown seas? In older coun­ tries the landscape is known and circumscribed. Parish church, and village, and highway succeed one another in endless alternation. There is nothing to discover, no untraversed country to penetrate. There is no mystery beyond. Thus if the old world is rich in history, rich in associations that render the simple compass of a village green a sacred spot as the battleground of long ago, so too is the new world rich in the charm and mystery of the unknown, and in the lofty stimulus that comes from the unbroken silence of the primeval forest. It was within the darkness of ancient woods that the spirits were first conceived in the imagination of mankind and that litera­ ture had its birth. A Milton or a Bunyan, that could dream dreams and see visions within the prosaic streets of an English country town - would such a man have found no inspiration could he have stood at night where the wind roars among the pine forests of the Peace, or where the cold lights of the Aurora illumine the endless desolation of the north? But alas, the Miltons and the Bunyans are not among us. The aspect of primeval nature does not call to our minds the vision of Unseen Powers riding upon the midnight blast. To us the midnight blast represents an enormous quantity of horse­ power going to waste; the primeval forest is a first-class site for a saw mill, and the leaping cataract tempts us to erect a red-brick hydro­ electric establishment on its banks and make it leap to some purpose.

Literature and education in America

17

The fact of the matter is that despite our appalling numerical growth and mechanical progress, despite the admirable physical appliances offered by our fountain pens, our pulp-wood paper, and our linotype machine, the progress of literature and the general diffusion of literary appreciation on this continent is not commen­ surate with the other aspects of our social growth. Our ordinary citizen in America is not a literary person. He has but little instinct towards letters, a very restricted estimation of literature as an art, and neither envy nor admiration for those who cultivate it. A book for him means a thing by which the strain on the head is relieved after the serious business of the day and belongs in the same general category as a burlesque show or a concertina solo: general in­ formation means a general knowledge of the results of the last election, and philosophical speculation is represented by speculation upon the future of the Democratic party. Education is synonymous with ability to understand the stock-exchange page of the morning paper, and culture means a silk hat and the habit of sleeping in pyjamas. Not the least striking feature in the literary sterility of America is the iact that we are, at any rate as measured by any mechanical· standard, a very highly educated people. If education can beget literature, it is here in America that the art of letters should most chiefly flourish. In no country in the world is more time, more thought, and more money spent upon education than in America. School books pour from our presses in tons. Manuals are prepared by the million, for use either with or without a teacher, manuals for the deaf, manuals for the dumb, manuals for the deficient, for the half-deficient, for the three-quarters deficient, manuals of hygiene for the feeble and manuals of temperance for the drunk. Instruction can be had orally, vocally, verbally, by correspondence or by mental treatment. Twelve million of our children are at school. The most skilful examiners apply to them every examination that human cruelty can invent or human fortitude can endure. In higher educa­ tion alone thirty-five thousand professors lecture unceasingly to three hundred thousand students. Surely so vast and complicated a machine might be expected to turn out scholars, poets, and men of letters such as the world has never seen before. Yet it is surprising that the same unliterary, anti-literary tendency that is seen through­ out our whole social environment, manifests itself also in the

18

ll1e social criticism of Stephen Leacock

peculiar and distorted form given in our higher education and in the singular barrenness of its results. There can be no greater contrast than that offered by the system of education in Great Britain, broad and almost planless in its outline. yet admirable in its results and the carefully planned and organised higher education of America. The one, in some indefinable way, fosters, promotes, and develops the true instinct of literature. It puts a premium upon genius. It singles out originality and mental power and accentuates natural inequality, caring less for the com­ monplace achievements of the many than for the transcendent merit of the few. The other system absurdly attempts to reduce the whole range of higher attainment to the measured and organised grinding of a mill: it undertakes to classify ability and to measure intellectual progress with a yard measure, and to turn out in its graduates a 'standardised' article similar to steel rails or structural beams, with interchangeable parts in their brains and all of them purchasable in the market at the standard price. The root of the matter and its essential bearing upon the question of literary development in general is that the two systems of educa­ tion take their start from two entirely opposite points of view. The older view of education, which is rapidly passing away in America, but which is still dominant in the great universities of England, aimed at a wide and humane culture of the intellect. It regarded the various departments of learning as forming essentially a unity. some pursuit of each being necessary to the intelligent com­ prehension of the whole, and a reasonable grasp of the whole being necessary to the appreciation of each. It is true that the system followed in endeavouring to realise this ideal took as its basis the literature of Greece and Rome. But this was rather made the starting point for a general knowledge of the literature, the history and the philosophy of all ages than regarded as offering in itself the final goal of education. Now our American system pursues a different path. It breaks up the field of knowledge into many departments, subdivides these into special branches and sections, and calls upon the scholar to devote himself to microscopic activity in some part of a section of a branch of a department of the general field of learning. This specialised system of education that we pursue does not of course begin at once. Any system of training must naturally first devote itself to the

Literature and education in America

19

acquiring of a rudimentary knowledge of such elementary things as reading, spelling, and the humbler aspects of mathematics. But the further the American student proceeds the more this tendency to specialisation asserts itself. When he enters upon what are called post-graduate studies, he is expected to become altogether a special­ ist, devoting his whole mind to the study of the left foot of the garden frog, or to the· use of the ablative in Tacitus, or to the history of the first half hour of the Reformation. As he continues on his upward way, the air about him gets rarer and rarer, his path becomes more and more solitary until he reaches, and encamps upon, his own little pinnacle of refined knowledge staring at his feet and ignorant of the world about him, the past behind him, and the future before him. At the end of his labours he publishes a useless little pamphlet called his thesis which is new in the sense that nobody �ver wrote it before, and erudite in the sense that nobody will ever read it. Meantime the American student's ignorance of all things except his own part of his own subject has grown colossal. The unused parts of his intellect have ossified. His interest in general literature, his power of original thought, indeed his wish to think at all, is far less than it was in the second year of his undergraduate course. More than all that, his interestingness to other people has completely departed. Even with his fellow scholars so-called he can find no common ground of intellectual intercourse. If three men sit down together and one is a philologist, the second a numismatist, and the third a subsection of a conchologist, what can they find to talk about? I have had occasion in various capacities to see something of the working of this system of the higher learning. Some years ago I resided for a month or two with a group of men who were specialists of the type described, most of them in pursuit of their degree of Doctor of Philosophy, some of them - easily distinguished by their air of complete vacuity - already in possession of it. The first night I dined with them, I addressed to the man opposite me some harmless question about a recent book that I thought of general interest. 'I don't know anything about that,' he answered, Tm in sociology.' There was nothing to do but to beg his pardon and to apologise for not having noticed it. Another of these same men was studying classics on the same plan. He was engaged in composing a doctor's thesis on the genitive of value in Plautus. For eighteen months past he had read nothing

20

The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

but Plautus. The manner of his reading was as follows: first he read Plautus all through and picked out all the verbs of estimating followed by the g�nitive, then he read it again and picked out the verbs of reckoning, then the verbs of wishing, praying, cursing, and so on. Of all these he made lists and grouped them into little things called Tables of Relative Frequency, which, when completed, were about as interesting, about as useful, and about as easy to compile as the list of wholesale prices of sugar at New Orleans. Yet this man's thesis was admittedly the best in his year, and it was considered by his instructors that had he not died immediately after graduation, he would have lived to publish some of the most daring speculations on the genitive of value in Plautus that the world has ever seen. I do not here mean to imply that all our scholars of this type die, or even that they ought to die, immediately after graduation. Many of them remain alive for years, though their utility has of course largely departed after their thesis is complete. Still they do and can remain alive. If kept in a dry atmosphere and not exposed to the light, they may remain in an almost perfect state of preservation for years after finishing their doctor's thesis. I remember once seeing a specimen of this kind enter into a country post-office store, get his letters, and make a few purchases, closely scrutinised by the rural occupants. When he had gone out the postmaster turned to a friend with the triumphant air of a man who has information in reserve and said, 'Now wouldn't you think, to look at him, that man was a d_d fool?' 'Certainly would,' said the friend, slowly nodding his head. 'Well, he isn't,' said the postmaster emphatically; 'he's a Doctor of Philosophy.' But the distinction was too subtle for most of the auditors. In passing these strictures upon our American system of higher education, I do not wish to be misunderstood. One must of course admit a certain amount of specialisatioP. in study. It is quite reason­ able that a young man with a particular aptitude or inclination towards modern languages, or classical literature, or political economy, should devote himself particularly to that field. But what I protest against is the idea that each of these studies is apt with us to be regarded as wholly exclusive of the others, and that the moment a man becomes a student of German literature he should lose all interest in general history and philosophy, and be content to remain as ignorant of political economy or jurisprudence as a

Literature and education in America

21

plumber. The price of liberty, it has been finely said, is eternal vigilance, and I think one may say that the price of real intellectual progress is eternal alertness, an increasing and growing interest in all great branches of human knowledge. Art is notoriously long and life is infamously short. We cannot know everything. But we can at least pursue the ideal of knowing the greatest things in all branches of knowledge, something at least of the great masters of literature, something of the best of the world's philosophy, and something of its political conduct and structure. It is but little that the student can ever know, but we can at least see that the little is wisely distributed. And here perhaps it is necessary to make a further qualification to this antagonism of the principle of specialisation. I quite admit its force and purpose as applied to rnch things as natural science and medicine. These are branches capable of isolation from the human­ ities in general, and in them progress is not dependent on the width of general culture. Here it is necessary that a certain portion of the learned world should isolate themselves from mankind, immure themselves in laboratories, testing, dissecting, weighing, probing, boiling, mixing, and cooking to their heart's content. It is necessary for the world's work that they should do so. In any case this is real research work done by real specialists after their education and not as their education. Of this work the so-called researches of the graduate student, who spends three years in writing a thesis on John Milton's god-mother, is a mere parody. Nor is it to be thought that this post-graduate work upon the preparation of a thesis, this so-called original scholarship is difficult. It is pretentious, plausible, esoteric, cryptographic, occult, if you will, but difficult it is not. It is of course laborious. It takes time. But the amount of intellect called for in the majority of these elaborate compilations is about the same, or rather less, than that involved in posting the day book in a village grocery. The larger part of it is on a level with the ordinary routine clerical duties performed by a young lady stenographer for ten dollars a week. One must also quite readily admit that just as there is false and real research, so too is there such a thing as a false and make-believe general education. Education, I allow, can be made so broad that it gets thin, so extensive that it must be shallow. The educated mind of this type becomes so wide that it appears quite flat. Such is the education of

22

The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

the drawing-room conversationalist. Thus a man may acquire no little reputation as a classical scholar by constant and casual refer­ ence to Plato or Diodorus Siculus without in reality having studied anything more arduous than the Home Study Circle of his weekly paper. Yet even such a man, pitiable though he is, may perhaps be viewed with a more indulgent eye than the ossified specialist. It is of course not to be denied that there is even in the field of the humanities a certain amount of investigation to be done - of research work, ii one will - of a highly specialised character. But this is work that can best be done not by way of an educational training - for its effect is usually the reverse of educational, but as a special labour performed for its own sake as the life work of a trained scholar, not as the examination requirement of a prospective candidate. The pretentious claim made by so many of our univer­ sities that the thesis presented for the doctor's degree must represent a distinct contribution to human knowledge will not stand examina­ tion. Distinct contributions to human knowledge are not so easily nor so mechanically achieved. Nor should it be thought either that, even where an elaborate and painstaking piece of research has been carried on by a trained scholar, such an achievement should carry with it any recognition of a very high order. It is useful and meritorious no doubt, but the esteem in which it is held in the academic world in America indicates an entirely distorted point of view. Our American process of research has led to an absurd admira­ tion of the mere collection of facts, extremely useful things in their way but in point of literary eminence standing in the same class as the Twelfth Census of the United States or the Statistical Abstract of the United Kingdom. So it has come to pass that the bulk of our college-made books are little more than collections of material o�t of which in the hands of a properly gifted person a book might be made. In our book-making in America - our serious book-making, I mean - the whole art of presentation, the thing that ought to be the very essence of literature, is sadly neglected. 'A fact,' as Lord Bryce once said in addressing the assembled historians of America, 'is an excellent thing and you must have facts to write about; but you should realise that even a fact before it is ready for presentation must be cut and polished like a diamond.' 'You need not be afraid to be flippant,' said the same eminent authority, 'but you ought to have a horror of being dull.' Unfortunately our American

Literature and education in America

23

college-bred authors cannot be flippant if they try: it is at best but the lumbering playfulness of the elephant, humping his heavy posteriors in the air and wiggling his little tail in the vain attempt to be a lamb. The head and front of the indictment thus presented against American scholarship is seen in its results. It is not making scholars in the highest sense of the term. It is not encouraging a true culture. It is not aiding in the creation of a real literature. The whole bias of it is contrary to the development of the highest intellectual power: it sets a man of genius to a drudging task suitable to the capacities of third-class clerk, substitutes the machine-made pedant for the man of letters, puts a premium on painstaking dullness and breaks down genius, inspiration, and originality in the grinding routine of the college tread-mill. Here and there, as is only natural, conspicuous exceptions appear in the academic world of America. A New Eng­ land pr9fessor has invested the dry subject of government with a charm that is only equalled by the masterly comprehensiveness of his treatment: a Massachusetts philosopher held for a lifetime the ear of the educated world, and an American professor has proved that even so abstruse a subject as the history of political philosophy can be presented in a form at once powerful and fascinating. But even the existence of these brilliant exceptions to the general rule cannot invalidate the proposition that the effect of our Ameri­ can method upon the cycle of higher studies is depressing in the extreme. History is dwindling into fact lore and is becoming the science of the almanac; economics is being buried alive in statistics and is degenerating into the science of the census; literature is stifled by philology, and is little better than the science of the lexicographer. Nor is it only in the higher ranges of education and book-making that the same abiding absence of general literary spirit is manifest in American life. For below, or at least parallel with the universities we have the equally notable case of our American newspapers and journals. In nearly all of these the art of writing is relegated entirely to the background. Our American newspapers and journals (with certain notable and honourable exceptions) are not written 'up­ wards' (so to speak) as if seeking to attain the ideal of an elevated literary excellence, but 'downward,' so as to catch the ear and capture the money of the crowd. Here obtrudes himself the

24

The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

everlasting American man with the dinner pail, admirable as a poli­ tical and industrial institution but despicable as the touch-stone of a national literature. Our newspapers must be written down to his level. Our poetry must be put in a form that he can understand. Our sonnets must be tuned to suit his ear. Our editorials must speak his own tongue. Otherwise he will not spend his magical one cent and our newspaper cannot circulate. Hence it is that the bulk of our current journalistic literature is strictly a one-cent literature. This is the situation that has evolved that weird being called the American Reporter, tireless in his activity, omnipresent, omnivorous, and omni-ignorant. He is out looking for facts, but of the art of present­ ing them with either accuracy or attraction he is completely inno­ cent. He has just enough knowledge of shorthand to be able completely to mystify himself; and in deciphering his notes of events, speeches, and occurrences, to fall back upon his general edu­ cation would be like falling back upon a cucumber frame. I cannot do better to illustrate the amount of literary power possessed by the American reporter than to take an actual illustra­ tion or at any rate one that is as good as actual. I will take a selection from President Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address and will present it first as Lincoln is known to have written it, and secondly as the Washington reporters of the day are certain to have reported it. Here is the original: 'Fondly do we hope, fervently do we pray, that this mighty scourge of war may soon pass away. Yet if God wills that it continue until all the wealth piled by the bonds­ man's two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid with another drawn with the sword; as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said, "the judgments of the Lord are true and righteous altogether." ' Here is the reproduction of the above at the hands of the Ameri­ can reporter, piecing out his meagre knowledge of stenography by the use of his still more meagre literary ability: 'Mr Lincoln then spoke at some length upon the general subject of prayer. He said that prayer was fond and foolish, but that war would scourge it out. War was a nightly scourge. It would pile up two hundred and fifty million dollars of unpaid bonds. He recommended the lash as the most appropriate penalty, and concluded by expressing his opinion that the judgments of the Lord were altogether ridiculous.'

Literature and education in America

25

The ultimate psychology of this decided absence of literary power in our general intellectual development would be difficult to appreciate. It may be that the methods adopted in our education are a consequence rather than a cause, and it may well be also that, even if our educative system is a contributory factor, other causes of great potency are operative at the same time. One of these no doubt is f ound in the distinct bias of our whole American life towards com­ mercialism. The vastly greater number of us in America have always been under the shameful necessity of earning our own living. This has coloured all our thinking with the yellow tinge of the dollar. Social and intellectual values necessarily undergo a peculiar re­ adjustment among a people to whom individually the 'main chance' is necessarily everything. Thus it is that with us everything tends to find itself 'upon a business basis.' Organisation and business methods are obtruded everywhere. Public enthusiasm is replaced by the manufactured hysteria of the convention. The old-time college presi­ dent, such as the one of Harvard who lifted up his voice in prayer in the twilight of a summer evening over the 'rebels' that were to move on Bunker Hill that night, is replaced by the Modern Business Presi­ dent, alert and brutal in his methods, and himself living only on sufferance after the age of forty years. A good clergyman with us must be a hustler. The only missionary we care for is an advertiser, and even the undertaker must send us a Christmas calendar if he desires to retain our custom. Everything with us is 'run' on business lines from a primary election to a prayer meeting. Thus business, and the business code, and business principles become everything. Smart­ ness is the quality most desired, pecuniary success the goal to be achieved. Hence all less tangible and provable forms of human merit, and less tangible aspirations of the human mind are rudely shoulder­ ed aside by business ability and commercial success. There follows the apotheosis of the business man. He is elevated to the post of national hero. His most stupid utterances are taken down by the American Reporter, through the prism of whose intellect they are refracted with a double brilliance and inscribed at large in the pages of the one-cent press. The man who organises a soap-and-glue com­ pany is called a nation builder; a person who can borrow enough money to launch a Distiller's Association is named an empire maker, and a man who remains in business until he is seventy-five without getting into the penitentiary is designated a Grand Old Man.

26

The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

But it may well be that there is a reason for our literary inferior­ ity lying deeper still than the commercial environment and the exis­ tence of an erroneous educational ideal, which are but things of the surface. It is possible that after all literature and progress-happiness­ and-equality are antithetical terms. Certain it is that the world's greatest literature has arisen in the darkest hours of its history. More than one of the masterpieces of the past were written in a dungeon. It is perhaps conceivable that literature has arisen in the past mainly on the basis of the inequalities, the sufferings and the misery of the common lot that has led humanity to seek in the concepts of the imagination the happiness that seemed denied by the stern environ­ ment of reality. Thus perhaps American civilisation with its public school and the dead level of its elementary instruction, with its simple code of republicanism and its ignorance of the glamour and mystery of monarchy, with its bread and work for all and its univer­ sal hope of the betterment of personal fortune, contains in itself an atmosphere in which the flower of literature cannot live. It is at least conceivable that this flower blossoms most beautifully in the dark places of the world, among that complex of tyranny and heroism, of inexplicable cruelty and sublime suffering that is called history. Per­ haps this literary sterility of America is but the mark of the new era that is to come not to America alone, but to the whole of our western civilisation; the era in which humanity, fed to satiety and housed and warmed to the point of somnolence, with its wars abolished and its cares removed, may find that it has lost from among it that supreme gift of literary inspiration which was the comforter of its darker ages.

The apology of a professor: Ail essay on modern learning

28

The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

1 KNOW no more interesting subject of speculation, nor any more calculated to allow of a fair-minded difference of opinion, than the enquiry whether a professor has any right to exist. Prima facie, of course, the case is heavily against him. His angular overcoat, his missing buttons, and his faded hat, will not bear comparison with the double-breasted splendour of the stock broker, or the Directoire fur gown of the cigar maker. Nor does a native agility of body compensate for the missing allurement of dress. He cannot skate. He does not shoot. He must not swear. He is not brave. His mind, too, to the outsider at any rate, appears defective and seriously damaged by education. He cannot appreciate a twenty-five-cent novel, or a melodrama, or a moving-picture show, or any of that broad current of intellectual movement which soothes the brain of the business man in its moments of inactivity. His conversation, even to the tolerant, is impossible. Apparently he has neither ideas nor en­ thusiasms, nothing but an elaborate catalogue of dead men's opinions which he cites with a petulant and peevish authority that will not brook contradiction, and that must be soothed by a toler­ ating acquiescence, or flattered by a plenary acknowledgment of ignorance. Yet the very heaviness of this initial indictment against the pro­ fessor might well suggest to an impartial critic that there must at least be mitigating circumstances in the case. Even if we are to admit that the indictment is well founded, the reason is all the greater for examining the basis on which it rests. At any rate some explanation of the facts involved may perhaps serve to palliate, if not to remove, demerits which are rather to be deplored than censured. It is one of the standing defects of our age that social classes, or let us say more narrowly, social categories, know so little of one another. For the purposes of ready reckoning, of that handy transaction of business which is the passion of the hour, we have adopted a way of labelling one another with the tag mark of a profession or an occupation that becomes an aid to business but a barrier to intercourse. This man is a professor, that man an 'insurance man,' a third - terque quaterque beatus - a 'liquor man'; with these are 'railroad men,' 'newspaper men,' 'dry goods men,' and so forth. The things that we handle for our livelihood impose themselves upon our personality, till the very word 'man' drops out, and a gentleman is referred to as a 'heavy pulp and paper interest' while another man is a prominent 'rubber

The apology of a professor

29

plant,' two or three men round a dinner table become an 'iron and steel circle,' and thus it is that for the simple conception of a human being is substituted a complex of 'interests,' 'rings,' 'circles,' 'sets,' and other semi-geometrical figures arising out of avocations rather than affinities. Hence it comes that insurance men mingle with in­ surance men, liquor men mix, if one may use the term without

afterthought, with liquor men: what looks like a lunch between

three men at a club is really a cigar having lunch with a couple of plugs of tobacco. Now the professor more than any ordinary person finds himself shut out from the general society of the business world. The rest of the 'interests' have, after all. some things in common. The circles intersect at various points. Iron and steel has a certain fellowship with pulp and paper, and the whole lot of them may be converted into the common ground of preference shares and common stock. But the professor is to all of them an outsider. Hence his natural dissimilarity is unduly heightened in its appearance by the sort of avocational isolation in which he lives. Let us look further into the status and the setting of the man. To begin with, history has been hard upon him. For some reason the strenuous men of activity and success in the drama of life have felt an instinctive scorn of the academic class, which they have been at no pains to conceal. Bismarck knew of no more bitter taunt to throw at the Free Trade economists of England than to say that they were all either clergymen or professors. Napoleon felt a life-long abhorrence of the class, broken only by one brief experiment that ended in failure. It is related that at the apogee of the Imperial rule, the idea flashed upon him that France must have learned men, that the professors must be encouraged. He decided to act at once. Sixty­ five professors were invited that evening to the palace of the Tuileries. They came. They stood about in groups, melancholy and myopic beneath the light. Napoleon spoke to them in turn. To the first he spoke of fortifications. The professor in reply referred to the binomial theorem. 'Put him out,' said Napoleon. To the second he spoke of commerce. The professor in answer cited the opinions of Diodorus Siculus. 'Put him out,' said Napoleon. At the end of half an hour Napoleon had had enough of the professors. 'Cursed idealogues,' he cried; 'put them all out.' Nor were they ever again admitted.

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The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

Nor is it only in this way that the course of history has been unkind to the professor. It is a notable fact in the past, that all persons of eminence who might have shed a lustre upon the aca­ demic class are absolved from the title of professor, and the world at large is ignorant that they ever wore it. We never hear of the author of The Wealth of Nations as Professor Smith, nor do we know the poet of Evangeline as Professor Longfellow. The military world would smile to see the heroes of the Southern Confederacy styled Professor Lee and Professor Jackson. We do not know of Professor Harrison as the occupant of a President's chair. Those whose talk is of dreadnoughts and of strategy never speak of Professor Mahan, and France has long since forgotten the proper title of Professor Guizot and Professor Taine. Thus it is that the ingratitude of an undiscern­ ing public robs the professorial class of the honour of its noblest names. Nor does the evil stop there. For, in these latter days at least, the same public which eliminates the. upward range of the term, applies it downwards and sideways with indiscriminating generality. It is a 'professor' who plays upon the banjo. A 'professor' teaches swimming. Hair cutting, as an art, is imparted in New York by 'pro­ fessors'; while any gentleman whose thaumaturgic intercommunica­ tion with the world of spirits has reached the point of interest which warrants space advertising in the daily press, explains himself as a 'professor' to his prospective clients. So it comes that the true professor finds all his poor little attributes of distinction - his mock dignity, his gown, his string of supplementary letters - all taken over by a mercenary age to be exploited, as the stock in trade of an up-to-date advertiser. The vendor of patent medicine depicts himself in the advertising columns in a gown, with an uplifted hand to shew the Grecian draping of the fold. After his name are placed enough letters and full stops to make up a simultaneous equation in algebra. The word 'professor' has thus become a generic term, indicating the assumption of any form of dexterity, from hair-cutting to run­ ning the steam shovel in a crematorium. It is even customary - I am informed - to designate in certain haunts of meretricious gaiety the gentleman whose efforts at the piano are rewarded by a per capita contribution of ten cents from every guest - the 'professor.' One may begin to see, perhaps, the peculiar disadvantage under which the professor labours in finding his avocation confused with the various branches of activity for which he can feel nothing but a

The apology of a professor

31

despairing admiration. But there are various ways also in which the very circumstances of his profession cramp and bind him. In the first place there is no doubt that his mind is very seriously damaged by his perpetual contact with the students. I would not for a moment imply that a university would be better off without the students; although the point is one which might well elicit earnest discussion. But their effect upon the professor is undoubtedly bad. He is sur­ rounded by an atmosphere of sycophantic respect. His students, on his morning arrival, remove his overshoes and hang up his overcoat. They sit all day writing down his lightest words with stylographic pens of the very latest model. They laugh at the meanest of his jests. They treat him with a finely simulated respect that has come down as a faint tradition of the old days of Padua and Bologna, when a professor was in reality the venerated master, a man who wanted to teach, and the students disciples who wanted to learn. All that is changed now. The supreme import of the professor to the students now lies in the fact that he controls the examinations. He holds the golden key which will unlock the door of the temple of learning - unlock it, that is, not to let the student in, but to let him get out - into something decent. This fact gives to the professor a fictitious importance, easily confounded with his personality, similar to that of the gate keeper at a dog show, or the ticket wicker man at a hockey match. In this is seen some part of the consequences of the vast, organ­ ised thing called modern education. Everything has the merits of its defects. It is a grand thing and a possible thing, that practically all people should possess the intellectual-mechanical arts of reading, writing, and computation: good too that they should possess pigeon­ holed and classified data of the geography and history of the world; admirable too that they should possess such knowledge of the prin­ ciples of natural science as will enable them to put a washer on a kitchen tap, or inflate a motor tire with a soda-syphon bottle. All this is splendid. This we have got. And this places us collectively miles above the rude illiterate men of arms, burghers, and villeins of the middle ages who thought the moon took its light from God, whereas we know that its light is simply a function of 1r divided by the square of its distance. Let me not get confused in my thesis. I am saying that the univer­ sal distribution of mechanical education is a fine thing, and that we

32

The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

have also proved it possible. But above this is the utterly different thing - we have no good word for it, call it learning, wisdom, en­ lightenment, anything you will - which means not a mechanical acquirement from without but something done from within: a power and willingness to think: an interest, for its own sake, in that general enquiry into the form and meaning of life which constitutes the ground plan of education. Now this, desirable though it is, cannot be produced by the mechanical compulsion of organised edu­ cation. It belongs, and always has, to the few and never to the many. The ability to think is rare. Any man can think and think hard when he has to: the savage devotes a nicety of thought to the equipoise of his club, or the business man to the adjustment of a market price. But the ability or desire to think without compulsion about things that neither warm the hands nor fill the stomach, is very rare. Re­ flexion on the riddle of life, the cruelty of death, the innate savagery and the sublimity of the creature man, the history and progress of man in his liitle earth-dish of trees and flowers - all these things taken either 'straight' in the masculine form of philosophy and the social sciences, or taken by diffusion through the feminised form literature, constitute the operation of the educated mind. Of all these things most people in their degree think a little and then stop. They realise presently that these things are very difficult, and that they don't matter, and that there is no money in them. Old men never think of them at all. They are glad enough to stay in the warm daylight a little longer. For a working solution of these problems different things are done. Some people use a clergyman. Others de­ clare that the Hindoos know all about it. Others, especially of late, pay a reasonable sum for the services of a professional thaumaturgist who supplies a solution of the soul problem by mental treatment at long range, radiating from State St, Chicago. Others, finally, of a native vanity that will not admit itself vanquished, buckle about themselves a few little formulas of 'evolution' and 'force,' co-relate the conception of God to the differentiation of a frog's foot, and strut through life emplumed with the rump-feathers of their own conceit. I trust my readers will not think that I have forgotten my profes­ sor. I have not. All of this digression is but an instance of reculer pour mieux sauter. it is necessary to bring out all this back-ground of the subject to show the setting in which the professor is placed.

The apology of a professor

33

Possibly we shall begin to see that behind this quaint being in his angular overcoat are certain greater facts in respect to the general relation of education to the world of which the professor is only a product, and which help to explain, if they do not remove, the dislocated misfit of his status among his fellow men. We were saying then that the truly higher education - thought about life, mankind, literature, art - cannot be handed out at will. To attempt to measure it off by the yard, to mark it out into stages and courses, to sell it at the commutation rate represented by a college sessional fee - all this produces a contradiction in terms. For the thing itself is substituted an imitation of it. For real wisdom - obtainable only by the few - is substituted a nickel-plated make-believe obtainable by any person of ordinary intellect who has the money, and who has also, in the good old Latin sense, the needful assiduity. I am not saying that the system is bad. It is the best we can get; and inciden­ tally, and at back-rounds it turns out a by-product in the shape of a capable and well-trained man who has forgotten all about the im­ mortality of the soul, in which he never had any interest any way, but who conducts a law business with admirable efficiency. The result, then, of this odd-looking system is, that what ought to be a thing existing for itself is turned into a qualification for some­ thing else. The reality of a student's studies is knocked out by the grim earnestness of having to pass an examination. How can a man really think of literature, or of the problem of the soul, who knows that he must learn the contents of a set of books in order to pass an examination which will give him the means of his own support and, perhaps, one half the support of his mother, or fifteen per cent of that of a maiden aunt. The pressure of circumstances is too much. The meaning of study is lost. The qualification is everything. Not that the student finds his burden heavy or the situation galling. He takes the situation as he finds it, is hugely benefited by it at back-rounds, and, being young, adapts himself to it: accepts with indifference whatever programme may be needful for the qualifica­ tion that he wants: studies Hebrew or Choctaw with equal readiness; and, as his education progresses, will write you a morning essay on transcendental utilitarianism, and be back again to lunch. At the end of his course he has learned much. He has learned to sit - that first requisite for high professional work - and he can sit for hours. He can write for hours with a stylographic pen: more than that, for I

34

The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

wish to state the case fairly, he can make a digest, or a summary, or a reproduction of anything in the world. Incidentally the speculation is all knocked sideways out of him. But the lack of it is never felt. Observe that it was not so in Padua. The student came thither from afar off, on foot or on a mule; so I picture him at least in my ignorance of Italian history, seated droopingly upon a mule, with earnest, brown eyes hungered with the desire to know, and in his hand a vellum-bound copy of Thomas Aquinas written in long hand, priceless, as he thinks, for the wisdom it contains. Now the Padua student wanted to know: not for a qualification, not because he wanted to be a pharmaceutical expert with a municipal licence, but because he thought the things in Thomas Aquinas and such to be things of tremendous import. They were not; but he thought so. This student thought that he could really find out things: that if he listened daily to the words of the master who taught him, and read hard, and thought hard, he would presently discover real truths the only things in life that he cared for - such as whether the soul is a fluid or a solid, whether his mule existed or was oniy a vapour, and much other of this sort. These things he fully expected to learn. For their sake he brought to bear on the person of his teacher that reverential admiration which survives faintly to-day, like a biological 'vestige,' in the attitude of the college student who holds the over­ coat of his professor. The Padua student, too, got what he came for. After a time he knew all about the soul, all about his mule - knew, too, something of the more occult, the almost devilish sciences, perilous to tackle, such as why the sun is suspended from falling into the ocean, or the very demonology of symbolism - the AL-GEB of the Arabians - by which x + Y taken to the double or square can be shown after many days' computation to be equal to x2 + 2xv + v2• A man with such knowledge simply had to teach it. What to him if he should wear a brown gown of frieze and feed on pulse! This, as beside the bursting force of the expanding steam of his knowledge, counted for nothing. So he went forth, and he in turn became a professor, a man of profound acquirement, whose control over malign comets elicited a shuddering admiration. These last reflections seem to suggest that it is not merely that something has gone wrong with the attitude of the student and the professor towards knowledge, but that something has gone wrong with knowledge itself. We have got the thing into such a shape that

The apology of a professor

35

we do not know one-tenth as much as we used to. Our modern scholarship has poked and pried in so many directions, has set itself to be so ultra-rational, so hyper-sceptical, that now it knows nothing at all. All the old certainty has vanished. The good old solid dogmatic dead-sureness that buckled itself in the oak and brass of its own stupidity is clean gone. It died at about the era of the country squire, the fox-hunting parson, the three-bottle Prime Minister, and the voluminous Doctor of Divinity in broadcloth imperturbable even in sobriety, and positively omniscient when drunk. We have argued them off the stage of a world all too ungrateful. In place of their sturdy outlines appear that sickly anaemic Modern Scholarship, the double-jointed jack-in-the-box. Modern Religion, the feminine angularity of Modern Morality, bearing a jug of filtered water, and behind them, as the very lord of wisdom, the grinning mechanic, Practical Science, using the broadcloth suit of the defunct doctor as his engine-room over-alls. Or if we prefer to place the same facts without the aid of personification, our learning has so watered itself down that the starch and consistency is all out of it. There is no absolute sureness anywhere. Everything is henceforth to be a development, an evolution: morals and ethics are turned from fixed facts to shifting standards that change from age to age like the · fashion of our clothes: art and literature are only a product, not good or bad, but a part of its age and environment. So it comes that our formal studies are no longer a burning quest for absolute truth. We have long since discovered that we cannot know anything. Our studies consist only in the long-drawn proof of the futility for the search after knowledge effected by exposing the errors of the past. Philosophy is the science which proves that we can know nothing of the soul. Medicine is the science which tells that we know nothing of the body. Political Economy is that which teaches that we know nothing of the laws of wealth; and Theology the critical history of those errors from which we deduce our ignorance of God. When I sit and warm my hands, as best I may, at the little heap of embers that is now Political Economy, l cannot but contrast its dying glow with the generous blaze of the vainglorious and triumphant science that once it was. Such is the distinctive character of modern learning, imprint with a resigned agnosticism towards the search after truth, able to refute everything and to believe nothing, and leaving its once earnest

36

The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

devotees stranded upon the arid sands of their own ignorance. In the face of this fact can it be wondered that a university converts itself into a sort of mill, grinding out its graduates, legally qualified, with conscientious regularity? The students take the mill as they find it, perform their task and receive their reward. They listen to their professor. They write down with stylographic pens in loose-leaf note books his most inane and his most profound speculations with an undiscriminating impartiality. The reality of the subject leaves but little trace upon their minds. All of what has been said above has been directed mainly towards the hardship of the professor's lot upon its scholastic side. Let me turn to another aspect of his life, the moral. By a strange confusion of thought a professor is presumed to be a good man. His standing association with the young and the history of his profession, which was once amalgamated with that of the priesthood, give him a con­ nexion at one remove with morality. He therefore finds himself in that category of men - including himself and the curate as its chief representatives - to whom the world at large insists on ascribing a rectitude of character and a simplicity of speech that unfits them for ordinary society. It is gratuitously presumed that such men prefer tea to whiskey-and-soda, blindman's buff to draw poker, and a fresh­ men's picnic to a prize fight. For the curate of course I hold no brief. Let him sink. In any case he has to console him the favour of the sex, a concomitant perhaps of his very harmlessness, but productive at the same time of creature comforts. Soft slippers deck his little feet, flowers lie upon his study table, and roµnd his lungs the warmth of an embroidered chest­ protector proclaims the favour of the fair. Of this the ill-starred professor shares nothing. It is a sad fact that he is at once harmless and despised. He may lecture for twenty years and never find so much as a mullein stalk upon his desk. For him no canvas slippers, knitted by fair fingers, nor the flowered gown, nor clock-worked hosiery of the ecclesiastic. The sex will have none of him. I do not mean, of course, that there are no women that form exceptions to this rule. We have all seen immolated upon the academic hearth, and married to professors, women whose beauty and accomplishments would have adorned the home of a wholesale liquor merchant. But the broad rule still obtains. Women who embody, so St Augustine has told us, the very principle of evil, can only really feel attracted towards bad men. The professor is too good for them.

The apology of a professor

37

Whether a professor is of necessity a good man, is a subject upon which I must not presume to dogmatise. The women may be right in voting him a 'muff.' But if he is such in any degree, the conventional restrictions of his profession tend to heighten it. The bursts of pro­ fanity that are hailed as a mark of business energy on the part of a railroad magnate or a cabinet minister are interdicted to a professor. It is a canon of his profession that he must never become violent, nor lift his hand in anger. I believe that it was not always so. The story runs, authentic enough, that three generations ago a Harvard professor in a fit of anger with a colleague (engendered, if I recall the case, by the discussion of a nice point in thermo-dynamics) threw him into a chemical furnace and burned him. But the buoyancy of those days is past. In spite of the existence of our up-to-date ap­ paratus, I do not believe that any of our present professoriate has yielded to such an impulse. One other point remains worthy of remark in the summation of the heavy disadvantages under which the professor lives and labours. He does not know how to make money. This is a grave fault, and one that in the circumstances of the day can scarcely be overlooked. It comes down to him as a legacy of the Padua days wJ->.en the professor neither needed money nor thought of it. Now when he would like money he is hampered by an 'evoluted' inability to get hold of it. He dares not commercialise his profession, or does not know how to do so. Had he the business instinct of the leaders of labour and the master manufacturers, he would long since have set to work at the problem. He would have urged his government to put so heavy a tax on the import of foreign professors as to keep the home market for himself. He would have organised himself into amalgamated Brotherhoods of Instructors of Latin, United Greek Workers of America, and so forth, organised strikes, picketed the houses of the college trustees, and made himself a respected place as a member of industrial society. This his inherited inaptitude forbids him to do. Nor can the professor make money out of what he knows. Somehow a plague is on the man. A teacher of English cannot write a half-dime novel, nor a professor of dynamics invent a safety razor. The truth is that a modern professor for commercial purposes doesn't know anything. He only knows parts of things. It occurred to me some years ago when the Cobalt silver mines were first discovered that a professor of scientific attainments ought

38

The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

to be able, by transferring his talent to that region, to amass an enor­ mous fortune. I questioned one of the most gifted of my colleagues. 'Could you not,' I asked, 'as a specialist in metals discover silver mines at sight?' 'Oh, no,' he said, shuddering at the very idea, 'you see I'm not a metallurgist; at Cobalt the silver is all in the rocks and I know nothing of rocks whatever.' 'Who then,' I said, 'knows about rocks?' 'For that,' he answered, 'you need a geologist like Adamson; but then, you see, he knows the rocks, but doesn't know the silver.' 'But could you not both go,' I said, 'and Adamson hold the rock while you extracted the silver?' 'Oh, no,' the professor answered, 'you see we are neither of us mining engineers; and even then we ought to have a good hydraulic man and an electric man.' 'I suppose,' I said, 'that if I took about seventeen of you up there you might find something. No? Well. would it not be possible to get somebody who would know something of all these things?' 'Yes,' he said, 'any of the fourth-year students would, but personally all that I do is to reduce the silver when I get it.' 'That I can do myself,' I answered musingly, and left him. Such then is the professor; a man whose avocation in life is hampered by the history of its past: imparting in the form of statutory exercises knowledge that in its origin meant a spontaneous effort of the intelligence, whose very learning itself has become a profession rather than a pursuit, whose mock dignity and fictitious morality remove him from the society of his own sex and deny to him the favour of the other. Surely, in this case, to understand is to sympathise. Is it not possible, too, that when all is said and done the professor is performing a useful service in the world, unconsciously of course, in acting as a leaven in the lump of commercialism that sits so heavily on the world to-day? I do not wish to expand upon this theme. I had set out to make the apology of the professor speak for itself from a very circumstances of his work. But in these days, when money is everything, when pecuniary success is the only goal to be achieved, when the voice of the plutocrat is as the voice of God, the aspect of the professor, side-tracked in the real race of life, riding his mule of Padua in competition with an automobile, may at least help to soothe the others who have failed in the struggle. Dare one, as the wildest of fancies, suggest how different things might be if learning counted, or if we could set it on its feet again, if students wanted to learn, and if professors had anything to teach, if

The apology of a professor

39

a university lived for itself and not as a place of qualification for the junior employees of the rich; if there were only in this perplexing age some way of living humbly and retaining the respect of one's fellows; if a man with a few hundred dollars a year could cast out the money question and the house question, and the whole business of competitive appearances and live for the things of the mind! But then, after all, if the mind as a speculative instrument has gone bankrupt, if learning. instead of meaning a mind full of thought, means only a bellyful of fact, one is brought to a full stop, standing among the littered debris of an ideal that has passed away. In any case the question. if it is one, is going to settle itself. The professor is passing away. The cost of living has laid its hold upon him, and grips him in its coils; within another generation he will be starved out, frozen out, 'evoluted' out by that glorious process of natural selection and adaptation, the rigour of which is the only God left in our desolated Pantheon. The male school-teacher is gone, the male clerk is going, and already on the horizon of the academic market rises the Woman with the Spectacles, the rude survivalist who, in the coming generation, will dispense the elements of learning cut to order. without an afterthought of what it once has meant.

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The devil and the deep sea: A discussion of modern morality

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The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

is passing out of fashion. After a long and honourable career he has fallen into an ungrateful oblivion. His existence has become shadowy, his outline attenuated, and his personality dis­ pleasing to a complacent generation. So he stands now leaning on the handle of his three-pronged oyster fork and looking into the ashes of his smothered fire. Theology will have none of him. Genial clergy of ample girth, stuffed with the buttered toast of rectory tea, are preaching him out of existence. The fires of his material hell are replaced by the steam heat of moral torture. This even the most sensitive of sinners faces with equanimity. So the Devil's old dwell­ ing is dismantled and stands by the roadside with a sign-board bearing the legend, 'Museum of Moral Torment, These Premises to Let.' In front of it, in place of the dancing imp of earlier ages, is a poor make-believe thing, a jack-o'lantern on a stick, with a turnip head and candle eyes, labelled 'Demon of Moral Repentance, Guaranteed Worse than Actual Fire.' The poor thing grins in its very harmlessness. Now that the Devil is passing away an unappreciative generation fails to realise the high social function that he once performed. There he stood for ages a simple and workable basis of human morality; an admirable first-_hand reason for being good, which needed no ulterior explanation. The rude peasant of the Middle Ages, the illiterate artisan of the shop, and the long-haired hind of the fields, had no need to speculate upon the problem of existence and the tangled skein of moral enquiry. The Devil took all that off their hands. He had either to 'be good' or else he 'got the fork,' just as in our time the unsuccessful comedian of amateur night in the vaudeville houses 'gets the hook.' Humanity, with the Devil to prod it from behind, moved steadily upwards on the path of moral development. Then having attained a certain elevation, it turned upon its tracks, denied that there had been any Devil, rubbed itself for a moment by way of investigation, said that there had been no prodding, and then fell to wandering about on the hill-tops without any fixed idea of goal or direction. In other words, with the disappearance of the Devil there still remains unsolved the problem of conduct, and behind it the riddle of the universe. How are we getting along without the Devil? How are we managing to be good without the fork? What is happening to our conception of goodness itself? THE DEVIL

The devil and the deep sea

43

To begin with, let me disclaim any intention of writing of morality from the point of view of the technical, or professional, moral philosopher. Such a person would settle the whole question by a few references to pragmatism, transcendentalism, and esoteric synthesis - leaving his auditors angry but unable to retaliate. This attitude, I am happy to say, I am quite unable to adopt. I do not know what pragmatism is. and I do not care. I know the word transcendental only in connexion with advertisements for 'gents' furnishings.' If Kant, or Schopenhauer, or Anheuser Busch have already settled these questions, I cannot help it. In any case, it is my opinion that now-a-days we are overridden in the specialties, each in his own department of learning, with his tags, and label, and his pigeon-hole category of proper names, precluding all discussion by ordlnary people. No man may speak fittingly of the soul without spending at least six weeks in a theological college; morality is the province of the moral philosopher who is prepared to pelt the intruder back over the fence with a shower of German commentaries. Ignorance, in its wooden shoes, shuffles around the portico of the temple of learning, stumLling among the litter of terminology. The broad field of human wisdom has been cut into a multitude of little professorial rabbit warrens. In each of these a specialist burrows deep, scratching out a shower of terminology, head down in an unlovely attitude which places an interlocutor at a ·grotesque conversational disadvantage. May I digress a minute to show what I mean by the inconvenience of modem learning? This happened at a summer boarding-house where I spent a portion of the season of rest, in company with a certain number of ordinary, ignorant people like myself. We got on well together. In the evenings on the verandah we talked of nature and of its beauties, of the stars and why they were so far away - we didn't know their names, thank goodness - and such-like simple topics of conversation. Sometimes under the influence of a double-shotted sentimental­ ism sprung from huckleberry pie and doughnuts, we even spoke of the larger issues of life, and exchanged opinions on immortality. We used no technical terms. We knew none. The talk was harmless and happy. Then there came among us a faded man in a coat that had been black before it turned green, who was a PH o of Oberlin College. The first night he sat on the verandah, somebody said how

44

The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

beautiful the sunset was. Then the man from Oberlin spoke up and said: 'Yes, one could almost fancy it a pre-Raphaelite conception with the same chiaroscuro in the atmosphere.' There was a pause. That ended all nature study for almost an hour. Later in the evening, some one who had been reading a novel said in simple language that he was sick of having the hero always come out on top. 'Ah,' said the man from Oberlin, 'but doesn't that precisely correspond with Nitch's idea (he meant, I suppose, Nietzsche, but he pronounced it to rhyme with "bitch") of the dominance of man over fate?' Mr Hezekiah Smith who kept the resort looked round admiringly and said, 'Ain't he a terr?' He certainly was. While the man from Oberlin stayed with us, elevating conversation was at an end, and a self­ conscious ignorance hung upon the verandah like a fog. However, let us get back to the Devil. Let us notice in the first place that because we have kicked out the Devil as an absurd and ridiculous superstition, unworthy of a scientific age, we have by no means eliminated the super-natural and the super-rational from the current thought of our time. I suppose there never was an age more riddled with superstition, more credulous, more drunkenly addicted to thaumaturgy than the present. The Devil in his palmiest days was nothing to it. In despite of our vaunted material common-sense, there is a perfect craving abroad for belief in something beyond the compass of the believable. It shows itself in every age and class. Simpering Seventeen gets its fortune told on a weighing machine, and shudders with luxurious horror at the prospective villainy of the Dark Man who is to cross her life. Senile Seventy gravely sits on a wooden bench at a wonder­ working meeting, waiting for a gentleman in a 'Tuxedo' jacket to call up the soul of Napoleon Bonaparte, and ask its opinion of Mr Taft. Here you have a small tenement, let us say, on South Clark St, Chicago. What is it? It is the home of Nadir the Nameless, the great Hindoo astrologer. Who are in the front room? Clients waiting for a revelation of the future. Where is Nadir? He is behind a heavily draped curtain, worked with Indian serpents. By the waiting clients Nadir is understood to be in consultation with the twin fates, Isi� and Osiris. In reality Nadir is frying potatoes. Presently he will come out from behind the curtain and announce that Osiris has spoken (that is, the potatoes are now finished and on the back of the stove) and that he is prepared to reveal hidden treasure at 40 cents a

The devil and the deep sea

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revelation. Marvellous, is it not, this Hindoo astrology business ? And any one can be a Nadir the Nameless, who cares to stain his face blue with thimbleberry juice, wrap a red turban round his forehead, and cut the rate of revelation to 35 cents. Such is the credulity of the age which has repudiated the Devil as too difficult of belief. We have, it is true, moved far away from the Devil; but are we after all so much better off? or do we, in respect of the future, contain within ourselves the promise of better things. I suppose that most of us would have the general idea that there never was an age which displayed so high a standard of morality, or at least of ordinary human decency, as our own. We look back with a shudder to the blood-stained history of our ancestors; the fires of Smithfield with the poor martyr writhing about his post, frenzied and hysterical in the flames; the underground cell where the poor remnant of humanity turned its haggard face to the torch of the entering goaler; the madhouse itself with its gibbering occupants converted into a show for the idle fools of London. We may well look back on it all and say that, at least, we are better than we were. The history of our little human race would make but sorry reading were not its every page imprinted with the fact that human ingenuity has invented no torment too great for human fortitude to bear. In general decency - sympathy - we have undoubtedly progress­ ed. Our courts of law have forgotten the use of the thumbkins and boot; we do not press a criminal under 'weights greater than he can bear' in order to induce him to plead; nor flog to ribbands the bleeding back of the malefactor dragged at the cart's tail through the thoroughfares of a crowded city. Our public, objectionable though it is, as it fights its way to its ball games, breathes peanuts and peppermint upon the offended atmosphere, and shrieks aloud its chronic and collective hysteria, is at all events better than the leering oafs of the Elizabethan century, who put hard-boiled eggs in their pockets and sat around upon the grass waiting for the 'burning' to begin. But when we have admitted that we are better than we were as far as the facts of our moral conduct go, we may well ask as to the principles upon which our conduct is based. In past ages there was the authoritative moral code as a guide - thou shalt and thou shalt not - and behind it the pains, and the penalties, and the three­ pronged oyster fork. Under that influence, humanity, or a large part

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The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

of it, slowly and painfully acquired the moral habit. At present it goes on, as far as its actions are concerned, with the momentum of the old beliefs. But when we turn from the actions on the surface to the ideas underneath, we find in our time a strange confusion of beliefs out of which is presently to be made the New Morality. Let us look at some of the varied ideas manifested in the cross sections of the moral tendencies of our time. Here we have first of all the creed and cult of self-development. It arrogates to itself the title of New Thought, but contains in reality nothing but the Old Selfishness. According to this particular outlook the goal of morality is found in fully developing one's self. Be large, says the votary of this creed, be high, be broad. He gives a shilling to a starving man, not that the man may be fed but that he himself may be a shilling-giver. He cultivates sympathy with the destitute for the sake of being sympathetic. The whole of his virtue and his creed of conduct runs to a cheap and easy egomania in which his blind passion for himself causes him to use external people and things as mere reactions upon his own personality. The immoral little toad swells itself to the bursting point in its desire to be a moral ox. In its more ecstatic form, this creed expresses itself in a sort of general feeling of 'uplift,' or the desire for internal moral expansion. The votary is haunted by the idea of his own elevation. He wants to get into touch with nature, to swim in the Greater Being, 'to tune himself,' harmonise himself, and generally to perform on himself as on a sort of moral accordion. He gets himself somehow mixed up with natural objects, with the sadness of autumn, falls with the leaves and drips with the dew. Were it not for the complacent self-sufficiency which he induces, his refined morality might easily verge into simple idiocy_ Yet, odd though it may seem, this creed of self-development struts about with its head high as one of the chief moral factors which have replaced the authoritative dogma of the older time. The vague and hysterical desire to 'uplift' one's self merely for exaltation's sake is about as effective an engine of moral progress as the effort to lift one's self in the air by a terrific hitching up of the breeches. The same creed has its physical side. It parades the Body, with a capital B, as also a thing that must be developed; and this, not for

The devil and the deep sea

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any ulterior thing that may be effected by it but presumably as an end in itself. The Monk or the Good Man of the older day despised the body as a thing that must learn to know its betters. He spiked it down with a hair shirt to teach it the virtue of submission. He was of course very wrong and very objectionable. But one doubts if he was much worse than his modern successor who joys consciously in the operation of his pores and his glands. and the correct rhythmical contraction of his abdominal muscles, as if he constituted simply a sort of superior sewerage system. I once knew a man called Juggins who exemplified this point of view. He used to ride a bicycle every day to train his muscles and to clear his brain. He looked at all the scenery that he passed to develop his taste for scenery. He gave to the poor to develop his sympathy with poverty. He read the Bible regularly in order to cultivate the faculty of reading the Bible, and visited picture galleries with painful assiduity in order to give himself a feeling for art. He passed through life with a strained and haunted expression waiting for clarity of intellect, greatness of soul, and a passion for art to descend upon him like a flock of doves. He is now dead. He died presumably in order to cultivate the sense of being a corpse. No doubt, in the general scheme or purpose of things the cult of self-development and the botheration about the Body may. through the actions which it induces, be working for a good end. It plays a part, no doubt, in whatever is to be the general evolution of morality. And there, in that very word evolution, we are brought face to face with another of the wide-spread creeds of our day, which seek to replace the older. This one is not so much a guide to conduct as a theory, and a particularly cheap and easy one, of a general meaning and movement of morality. The person of this persuasion is willing to explain everything in terms of its having been once something else and being about to pass into something further still. Evolution, as the natural scientists know it, is a plain and straightforward matter, not so much a theory as a view of a succession of facts taken in organic relation. It assumes no purposes whatever. It is not - if I may be allowed a professor's luxury of using a word which will not be understood - in any degree teleological. The social philosopher who adopts the evolutionary theory of morals is generally one who is quite in the dark as to the true conception of evolution itself. He understands from Darwin, Huxley,

48

The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

and other great writers whom he has not read, that the animals have been fashioned into their present shape by a long process of twisting, contortion, and selection, at once laborious and deserving. The giraffe lengthened its neck by conscientious stretching; the frog webbed its feet by perpetual swimming; and the bird broke out in feathers by unremitting flying. 'Nature' by weeding out the short giraffe, the inadequate frog, and the top-heavy bird encouraged by selection the ones most 'fit to survive.' Hence the origin of species, the differentiation of organs - hence, in fact, everything. Here, too, when the theory is taken over and mis-translated from pure science to the humanities, is found the explanation of all our social and moral growth. Each of our religious customs is like the giraffe's neck. A manifestation such as the growth of Christianity is regarded as if humanity broke out into a new social organism, in the same way as the ascending amoeba breaks out into a stomach. With this view of human relations, nothing in the past is said to be either good or bad. Everything is a movement. Cannibalism is a sort of apprenticeship in meat-eating. The institution of slavery is seen as an evolutionary stage towards free citizenship, and 'Uncle Tom's' over­ seer is no longer a nigger-driver but a social force tending towards the survival of the Booker Washington type of negro. With his brain saturated with the chloroform of this social dogma, the moral philosopher ceases to be able to condemn anything at all, measures all things with a centimetre scale of his little doctrine, and finds them all of the same length. Whereupon he presently desists from thought altogether, calls everything bad or good an evolution, and falls asleep with his hands folded upon his stomach murmuring, 'survival of the fittest.' Anybody who will look at the thing candidly, will see that the evolutionary explanation of morals is meaningless, and presupposes the existence of the very thing it ought to prove. It starts from a misconception of the biological doctrine. Biology has nothing to say as to what ought to survive and what ought not to survive; it merely speaks of what does survive. The burdock easily kills the violet, and the Canadian skunk lingers where the humming-bird has died. In biology the test of fitness to survive is the fact of the survival itself - nothing else. To apply this doctrine to the moral field brings out grotesque results. The successful burglar ought to be presented by society with a nickel-plated 'jimmy,' and the starving cripple left

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to die in the ditch. Everything - any phase of movement or reli­ gion - which succeeds, is right. Anything which does not is wrong. Everything which is, is right; everything which was, is right; every­ thing which will be, is right. All we have to do is to sit still and watch it come. This is moral evolution. On such a basis, we might expect to find, as the general outcome of the new moral code now in the making, the simple worship of success. This is exactly what is happening. The morality which the Devil with his oyster fork was commissioned to inculcate was essen­ tially altruistic. Things were to be done for other people. The new ideas, if you combine them in a sort of moral amalgam - to develop one's self, to evolve, to measure things by their success - weigh on the other side of the scale. So it comes about that the scale begins to turn and the new morality shows signs of exalting the old-fashioned Badness in place of the discredited Goodness. Hence we find, satur­ ating our contemporary literature, the new worship of the Strong Man, the easy pardon of the Unscrupulous, the Apotheosis of the Jungle, and the Deification of the Detective. Force, brute force, is what we now turn to as the moral ideal, and Mastery and Success are the sole tests of excellence. The nation cuddles its multi-millionaires, cinematographs itself silly with the pictures of its prize fighters, and even casts an eye of slantwise admiration through the bars of its penitentiaries. Beside these things the simple Good Man of the older dispensation, with his worn alpaca coat and his obvious inefficiency, is nowhere. Truly, if we go far enough with it, the Devil may come to his own again, and more than his own, not merely as Head Stoker but as what is called an End in Himself. I knew a little man called Bliggs. He worked in a railroad office, a simple, dusty, little man, harmless at home and out of it till he read of Napoleon and heard of the thing called a Superman. Then somebody told him of Nitch, and he read as much Nitch as he could understand. The thing went to his head. Morals were no longer for him. He used to go home from the office and be a Superman by the hour, curse if his dinner was late, and strut the length of his little home with a silly irrita­ tion which he mistook for moral enfranchisement. Presently he took to being a Superman in business hours, and the railroad dismissed him. They know nothing of Nitch in such crude places. It has often seemed to me that Bliggs typified much of the present moral movement.

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The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

Our poor Devil then is gone. We cannot have him back for the whistling. For generations, as yet unlearned in social philosophy, he played a useful part - a dual part in a way, for it was his function to illustrate at once the pleasures and the penalties of life. Merriment in the scheme of things was his, and for those drawn too far in pleasure and merriment, retribution and the oyster fork. I can see him before me now, his long, eager face and deep-set, brown eyes, pathetic with the failure of ages - carrying with him his pack of cards, his amber flask, and his little fiddle. Let but the door of the cottage stand open upon a winter night, and the Devil would blow in, offering his flask and fiddle, or rattling his box of dice. So with his twin incentives of pain and pleasure he coaxed and prodded humanity on its path, till it reached the point where it repudiated him, called itself a Superman, and headed straight for the cliff over which is the deep sea. Qua vadimus,7

The Woman Question

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The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

1 WAS sitting the other day in what is called the Peacock Alley of one of our leading hotels, drinking tea with another thing like myself, a man. At the next table were a group of Superior Beings in silk, talking. l couldn't help overhearing what they said - at least not when I held my head a little sideways. They were speaking of the war. 'There wouldn't have been any war,' said one, 'if women were allowed to vote.' 'No, indeed,' chorused all the others. The woman who had spoken looked about her defiantly. She wore spectacles and was of the type that we men used to call, in days when we still retained a little courage, an Awful Woman. 'When women have the vote,' she went on, 'there will be no more war. The women will forbid it.' She gazed about her angrily. She evidently wanted to be heard. My friend and I hid ourselves behind a little fern and trembled. But we listened. We were hoping that the Awful Woman would explain how war would be ended. She didn't. She went on to explain instead that when women have the vote there will be no more poverty, no disease, no germs, no cigarette smoking and nothing to drink but water. It seemed a gloomy world. 'Come,' whispered my friend, 'this is no place for us. Let us go to the bar.' 'No,' I said, 'leave me. I am going to write an article on the Woman Question. The time has come when it has got to be taken up and solved.' So I set myself to write it. The woman problem may be stated somewhat after this fashion. The great majority of the women of to-day find themselves without any means of support of their own. I refer of course to the civilised white women. The gay savage in her jungle, attired in a cocoanut leaf, armed with a club and adorned with the neck of a soda-water bottle, is all right. Trouble hasn't reached her yet. Like all savages, she has a far better time - more varied, more interesting, more worthy of a human being - than falls to the lot of the rank and file of civilised men and women. Very few of us recognise this great truth. We have a mean little vanity over our civilisation. We are touchy about it. We do not realise that so far we have done little but

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increase the burden of work and multiply the means of death. But for the hope of better things to come, our civilisation would not seem worth while. But this is a digression. Let us go back. The great majority of women have no means of support of their own. This is true also of men. But the men can acquire means of support. They can hire themselves out and work. Better still, by the industrious process of intrigue rightly called 'busyness,' or business, they may presently get hold of enough of other people's things to live without working. Or again, men can, with a fair prospect of success, enter the criminal class, either in its lower ranks as a house breaker, or in its upper ranks, through politics. Take it all in all a man has a certain chance to get along in life. A woman, on the other hand, has little or none. The world's work is open to her, but she cannot do it. She lacks the physical strength for laying bricks or digging coal. If put to work on a steel beam a hundred feet above the ground, she would fall off. For the pursuit of business her head is all wrong. Figures confuse her. She lacks sustained attention and in point of morals the average woman is, even for business, too crooked. This last point is one that will merit a little emphasis. Men are queer creatures. They are able to set up a code of rules or a standard, often quite an artificial one, and stick to it. They have acquired the art of playing the game. Eleven men can put on white flannel trousers and call themselves a cricket team, on which an entirely new set of obligations, almost a new set of personalities, are wrapped about them. Women could never be a team of anything. So it is in business. Men are able to maintain a sort of rough and ready code which prescribes the particular amount of cheating that a man may do under the rules. This is called business honesty, and many men adhere to it with a dog-like tenacity, growing old in it, till it is stamped on their grizzled faces, visibly. They can feel it inside them like a virtue. So much will they cheat and no more. Hence men are able to trust one another, knowing the exact degree of_ dishonesty they are entitled to expect. With women it is entirely different. They bring to business an unimpaired vision. They see it as it is. It would be impossible to trust them. They refuse to play fair. Thus it comes about that woman is excluded, to a great extent, from the world's work and the world's pay.

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The social criticism of Stephen Leacock

There is nothing really open to her except one thing - marriage. She must find a man who will be willing, in return for her society, to give her half of everything he has, allow her the sole use of his house during the daytime, pay her taxes, and provide her clothes. This was, formerly and for many centuries, not such a bad solution of the question. The women did fairly well out of it. It was the habit to marry early and often. The 'house and home' was an important place. The great majority of people, high and low, lived on the land. The work of the wife and the work of the husband ran closely together. The two were complementary and fitted into one another. A woman who had to superintend the baking of bread and the brewing of beer, the spinning of yarn and the weaving of clothes, could not complain that her life was incomplete. Then came the modern age, beginning let us say about a hundred and fifty years ago. The distinguishing marks of it have been machin­ ery and the modern city. The age of invention swept the people off the land. It herded them into factories, creating out of each man a poor miserable atom di·,orced from hereditary ties, with no rights, no duties, and no place in the world except what his wages contract may confer on him. Every man for himself, and sink or swim, became the order of the day. It was nicknamed 'industrial freedom.' The world's production increased enormously. It is doubtful if the poor profited much. They obtained the modern city - full of light and noise and excitement, lively with crime and gay with politics and the free school where they learned to read and write, by which means they might hold a mirror to their poverty and take a good look at it. They lost the quiet of the �ountry side, the murmur of the brook and the inspiration of the open sky. These are uncon­ scious things, but the peasant who has been reared among them, for all his unconsciousness, pines and dies without them. It is doubtful if the poor have gained. The chaw-bacon rustic who trimmed a hedge in the reign of George the First, compares well with the pale slum-rat of the reign of George v. But if the machine age has profoundly altered the position of the working man, it has done still more with woman. It has dispossessed her. Her work has been taken away. The machine does it. It makes the clothes and brews the beer. The roar of the vacuum cleaner has hushed the soun