Showing Time: Continuous Pictorial Narrative and the Adam and Eve Story: In Memory of Alberto Argenton 3031136616, 9783031136610

Table of contents :
Introduction
About This Book
A Note on Alberto Argenton
Alberto Argenton and the Creative Freedom of Science
A Brief Preamble to the Study
Contents
Part I: The Study
Chapter 1: Pictorial Representation of Stories
1.1 Theoretical Premises
1.1.1 The Perspective from Art History: Narrative Modes
1.1.2 The Perspective from Psychology and Neighbouring Fields
1.1.3 A Third Perspective: The View from the Psychology of Art
References
Chapter 2: A Study Project on Continuous Pictorial Narrative
2.1 The Project’s Core
2.1.1 Aims, Hypotheses, Method and Phases of the Study
2.2 The General Repertoire of Continuous Pictorial Narrative
2.3 The Thematic Repertoire of the Story of Adam and Eve
2.3.1 Comparison of the General Repertoire and the Thematic Repertoire on the Story of Adam and Eve
References
Chapter 3: First Research Phase on the Story of Adam and Eve
3.1 Pictorial Space and Scene Organisation
3.1.1 Identification and Classification of Episodes
3.1.1.1 Frequency of Scenes
3.2 Configuration of the Artworks of the Thematic Repertoire
3.2.1 Context
3.2.2 Number of Scenes
3.2.3 Narrative Progression
3.2.4 Spatial Disposition
References
Chapter 4: Second Research Phase on the Story of Adam and Eve
4.1 Perceptual–Compositional Arrangement
4.1.1 Segmentation of Episodes
4.1.2 Space/Time Separating Cues
4.1.3 Identification of Repeated Protagonists
4.1.4 Vectors of Direction
4.2 Data Analysis Results on Perceptual–Compositional Arrangement
4.2.1 Analysis of the Segmentation of Episodes
4.2.2 Analysis of the Space/Time Separating Cues
4.2.3 Analysis of the Identification of Repeated Protagonists
4.2.4 Analysis of the Vectors of Direction
4.2.5 Essential Considerations of the Results
4.3 Pictorial Identity and Variability: Iconographic Models
4.3.1 An Example: Michelangelo’s Fall and Expulsion
References
Part II: Reference Materials of the Study
Chapter 5: General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative
Chapter 6: Images of the Story of Adam and Eve
Chapter 7: Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve
Author Index
Subject Index

Citation preview

Laura Messina-Argenton Tiziano Agostini Tamara Prest Ian F. Verstegen

Showing Time: Continuous Pictorial Narrative and the Adam and Eve Story In Memory of Alberto Argenton

Showing Time: Continuous Pictorial Narrative and the Adam and Eve Story

Laura Messina-Argenton • Tiziano Agostini  Tamara Prest • Ian F. Verstegen

Showing Time: Continuous Pictorial Narrative and the Adam and Eve Story In Memory of Alberto Argenton

Laura Messina-Argenton Senior Scholar University of Padua Padova, Italy Tamara Prest Independent Researcher Padova, Italy

Tiziano Agostini Full Professor of Psychology Department of Life Sciences University of Trieste Trieste, Italy Ian F. Verstegen Associate Director Department of Visual Studies University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA, USA

ISBN 978-3-031-13661-0    ISBN 978-3-031-13662-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13662-7 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover illustration: The image on the cover is drawn from: Alberto Argenton, It can’t be love, 1988, oil on canvas, 47.5 × 63 cm. Private collection. Courtesy of the owner. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Art can be considered as ‘narration of stories’ – real, fantastic, imaginary, happy or sad, gentle or cruel, comic or tragic, entertaining or challenging; stories that recount events and experiences of human beings, speak of their thoughts, feelings, passions, emotions, aspirations, desires. Alberto Argenton, Arte e cognizione (1996, p. 286)

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About This Book Laura Messina-Argenton Padova, Italy In dedicating this book to Alberto Argenton, we wanted not only to honour the scholar of the psychology of art, but also, rightly, to acknowledge his authorship of the conception and design of the study on continuous pictorial narrative, which is the subject of the book itself. Fate halted Alberto Argenton’s life and scientific endeavours, moreover at short notice, and, together with Tiziano Agostini, Tamara Prest and Ian Verstegen, we assumed the task of developing and completing this study, designed by Argenton to investigate the ways of showing time in pictures. In fact, the study has “as a broad reference the representation of time realised through pictorial media” and, as a specific object, the representation of stories contained in “a single image” and narrated in the “continuous mode” (Argenton, 2003–2014). The study is based on a repertoire of 1000 artistic works referring to many different stories, collected by Argenton with the collaboration of Tamara Prest over several years, and deepens the analysis of 100 artworks, concerning the story of Adam and Eve. All these works were realised in the continuous narrative mode (Robert, 1881, 1919; Wickhoff, 1900; Weitzmann, 1947), in the period from the third to the seventeenth century  – mainly paintings and frescoes (more than 800 works), but also miniatures, prints, watercolours, mosaics, reliefs and intarsia. Essentially, the study was driven by a primary question: “how does the artist solve the problem of narrating a story and its unfolding, the episodes that compose it, which have a sequential and therefore temporal progression, using a static medium that both perceptually and representationally is distinguished only by spatial sign-elements?” (Argenton, 2003–2014). This question  – which is addressed in this book with specific attention to the perceptual aspect of artistic works – refers to the issue of the representability of time vii

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in the pictorial arts, widely discussed especially in the art-historical field (Lessing, 1766/2013), and subsumable under the debate developed within the psychology of art on differences and analogies between “spatial arts” and “temporal arts” (Arnheim, 1986; Verstegen, 2018), which has its roots in classical culture and in the reflections made by scholars on the canons of the arts. In his Poetics, Aristotle, reasoning about arts, also touches on images: “to be learning something is the greatest of pleasures [hēdiston], not only to the philosopher, but also to the rest of humanity, however small our capacity for it. The reason of the delight [khairousi] in seeing the picture [eikōn] is that one is at the same time learning [manthanein] – gathering the meaning of things [sullogizethai], e.g. that the man there is so-and-so; for if one has not seen the thing before, one’s pleasure [hêdonê] will not be in the picture as an imitation [mimêmapoiêsei] of it, but will be due to the execution [apergasian] or coloring [chroia] or some similar cause” (Poetics, 4, 1448b, 4–19).1 It would be beyond our scope to go into the examination of this argumentation, which refers also to the important question of the “active and intelligent” function that Aristotle attributes to perception and to the relationship between perception, “phantasia” and intellect (Ferrarin, 2005); what we are interested in highlighting here is the clear distinction made by Aristotle between two types of pleasure: one, of an intellectual type [manthanein kai sullogizethai], linked to the recognition of the thing represented – “that the man there is so-and-so”; the other, linked to compositional aspects, to the perception of shape (morphe)2 – “the execution or colouring or some similar cause” – which we might also understand as aesthetic pleasure (aisthêsis, i.e., sense-perception). Aristotle’s argumentation in fact seems to allude, albeit indirectly, to a fundamental question in the psychological study of art in general, which Argenton (1996, 2019) synthesises in the distinction between two types of meaning conveyed by the form of the artistic work: the “perceptual meaning” – immediate for any observer and in the enjoyment of whatever artwork – and the “representational meaning”. The “perceptual meaning”, which can also be qualified as “essential or primary” meaning, consists of what the shape of an artistic work, “considered as Gestalt, contains and transmits” (Argenton, 1996, p. 209) and which “we first and spontaneously grasp, even if we know nothing about the subject, the style or the culturally given meanings that the shape itself might represent” (Argenton, 2019, p. 48). This meaning is to be distinguished from the “representational meaning”, also conveyed by the shape and corresponding to “what the artist ‘wanted to say’ or ‘wanted to express’ with his work”, which allows a complete understanding of the artistic work, but “cannot be grasped without the concurrency of the understanding of the  The quotation is from Aristotle on the Art of Poetry, tr. by I. Bywater, ed. by G. Murray. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1920, p. 29. 2  In another work, Politics, Aristotle writes: “[For example], if someone delights in looking at the image of something for no other reason than because of its shape [morphe], it must necessarily be pleasant for him to look at the thing in itself, the image of what he is looking at” (Politics, 1340a, 25). The quotation is from Aristotle’s Poetics, tr. by R. Janko. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1987, p. 58. 1

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perceptual meaning”. The representational meaning, usually, for mainly cultural reasons – referring in particular to Western culture – “is believed to be the ‘true’ and ‘unique’ or, in any case, the ‘most relevant’ meaning that the artistic work contains and on which we believe we can or indeed have to exclusively base the understanding or ‘enjoyment’ of the work itself”. On the other hand, in order to understand the representational meaning – not always clearly identifiable, as shown, for example, by divergent critical-artistic readings of the same work – “the perceptual aspect or meaning must necessarily have been grasped” (Argenton, 1996, pp. 209–217). Inquiring into the “perceptual meaning” and the “perceptual reasonings” by which it originates has been a constant in Argenton’s scientific research, grounded on the assumption that artists, in order to conceive the mental representations of their works, mainly resort to visual thinking and elaborate their own “perceptual reasonings”, based on the handling of relations between “sensory qualities, such as size, movement, space, shape, or color” (Arnheim, 1966, p. 287), and between “the compositional elements of the visual language” (Argenton, 2019, p. 51). Argenton’s investigation into perceptual reasoning focuses principally on the analysis of the “perceptual-representational strategies” that “make explicit the results of its functioning” and that find evidence in the “compositional solutions devised by the artists to represent themes or meanings” (Argenton & Prest, 2008a, p. 289). And his studies of the close interaction existing between these two fundamental factors – perceptual reasoning and representational strategies – are pursued with a twofold purpose: “to ascertain the universal character and intentionality in the use of such strategies and the correspondence between said effects and the visual cognitive categories to which their employment can be traced back” (Argenton, 2019, p. xix), and with the ultimate goal “to understand, as far as it is possible, the functioning of the mind” (Argenton, 2019, p. xvii). The assumptions underpinning Argenton’s research, recalled here very briefly, and his studies, in particular those based on the analysis of extensive thematic repertoires of artistic works (Argenton, 2008, 2019), together with other theoretical contributions from the psychology of art, primarily by Arnheim (1969, 1974), and the psychology of perception, have guided the development of this study. The hypotheses investigated in the study are those already formulated by Argenton. The basic hypothesis is that “in the continuous pictorial representation of a story the arrangement of episodes or events is substantially based on the spatial configuration conceived by the artist first of all through perceptual-representational criteria of a spatial type”. The more specific hypothesis is that “from the analysis of an adequate number of pictorial representations of stories, it is possible to identify significant recurrences of perceptual-representational procedures or strategies of a spatial type that can be traced back to the functioning of ‘visual thinking’ (Arnheim, 1969)” (Argenton, 2003–2014). The methodological approach adopted in the study is that of phenomenological observation, in the mode suggested by Argenton, following Arnheim (1974) and Bozzi (1978, 2019a), aimed at investigating “the structure, configuration and form of the artistic image – the object under scrutiny – involving more observers […] with the aim of obtaining accurate descriptions and producing possible interpretations of the object itself” (Argenton, 2019, p. xx).

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The book consists of two interconnected parts. Part I presents the study and is composed of four chapters. Chapter 1 outlines some theoretical aspects concerning continuous pictorial narrative, as dealt with in the domains of art history, psychology and its neighbouring fields, and psychology of art, not with the intention of offering a classical theoretical background, but only of considering selected studies useful for framing issues relevant to this work. Chapter 2 goes into the substance of the study project on continuous pictorial narrative by describing the aims, hypotheses, method, and the phases of the study. Moreover, in this chapter the 1000 artworks of the general repertoire are analysed – considering author, title, date, technique, type of artefact, dimension, location, and themes dealt with in the narrated stories  – also making a comparison between its configuration and that of the thematic repertoire containing the 100 works on the story of Adam and Eve, from which we chose to start verifying the hypotheses formulated. Chapters 3 and 4 are devoted to presenting the specific research on the story of Adam and Eve, in its two constituent phases, and the results obtained. Chapter 3 regards the first research phase on this story, which was dedicated to identifying the episodes and events narrated in the 100 works of the thematic repertoire on the basis of the biblical text and the reference literature, especially the art-­ historical literature, recording the frequency with which they are represented in the artworks, and then to analysing their configuration through predefined descriptors: context of the work, number of scenes, narrative progression, and spatial disposition, reporting the quantitative results of these analyses. Chapter 4 presents the second research phase on the story of Adam and Eve, aimed at analysing the perceptual-compositional arrangement of the artworks in this thematic repertoire, entering more directly into the merits of the hypotheses formulated and above described, which have found timely confirmation. The data collected from the analysis of the perceptual-compositional organisation of the 100 works – based on four categories, i.e., segmentation of episodes, space/time separating cues, identification of repeated protagonists, and vectors of direction – show, in fact, that all the artists resort to analogous perceptual-representational strategies of a spatial type, which can be traced back to the functioning of visual thinking, in order to distinguish and connect the scenes depicted in the works and succeed in representing continuous narrative. At the same time, the data analysis shows a variability in the spatial configurations conceived by the artists to narrate this story, recurring above all to perceptual-representational criteria of a spatial type. This last aspect is also exemplified through the examination of a group of works depicting the same two episodes, namely, the Temptation and Fall and the Expulsion from the Garden of Eden, and further explored through a more detailed observation of Michelangelo’s fresco on this subject, in the Cappella Sistina in Rome. Part II comprises the reference materials of the study and is composed of three chapters. Chapter 5 regards the general repertoire of artworks of pictorial continuous narrative, curated especially by Tamara Prest, and contains the list of 1000 works included in it, which are subdivided by theme and are provided with ‘certain’ data for their identification: author, title of work, date, technique, dimension and location.

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Chapter 6 presents the 100 colour images of the continuous narrative artworks used in the research on the story of Adam and Eve and discussed in Chaps. 2, 3 and 4. Chapter 7 contains the images of the artworks reproduced in Chap. 6 on which the codes used to classify the biblical scenes depicted in them are superimposed. For ease of reading, before the images of the 100 artworks, the chapters of the Bible to which they refer and a table showing the correspondence between Bible verses, scenes and codes are reported. Although we are aware that the research could have been much richer if it had been carried out by the person who had planned it, we have attempted to develop it also with the intention of proposing a procedure, certainly perfectible, to study in depth continuous pictorial narrative and to stimulate a psychological approach to art, namely the phenomenological one of the Gestalt matrix, which continues to appear, to this day, “the royal road” to the study of works of art (Arnheim, 1992, p. 177). We hope that this ‘legacy’ will be welcomed by the scientific community and can also promote one of the scientific and cultural values that permeates Alberto Argenton’s work, which can be condensed in the closing of his Arte e cognizione (Argenton, 1996, p. 319): Art is problem solving, creation of worlds, invention, executive ability, use of intelligence and sentiment, aesthetic need, educational means, historical memory, pleasure, catharsis, suffering, fatigue, research, fantasy, communication, expression of values, qualities, ideas, feelings, conceptions, hypotheses and many other things that make it a privileged place of exercise, training, strengthening, manifestation of human cognition. Art is knowledge and understanding of the world, and the psychological knowledge and understanding of the artistic phenomenon is indispensable to contribute to knowing and understanding human nature.

A Note on Alberto Argenton Ian Verstegen Philadelphia, PA, USA I first learned the name Alberto Argenton (1944–2015) around 1990 when Rudolf Arnheim gave me a copy of his Italian Festschrift (Garau, 1986). Argenton’s (1986) essay on style was among a small group of excellent essays by psychologists like Argenton that were both psychologically rigorous and also aesthetically sensitive. I knew that Erwin Panofsky had quoted an American who had pronounced of the history of art that “its native tongue is German” (Panofsky, 1955, p.  322). Reading Argenton’s essays and some others, I felt that the native tongue of the psychology of art was Italian. Argenton was Professor of the Psychology of Art in the Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialisation at the University of Padua. He, and a number of colleagues primarily at the Universities of Padua, Trieste and Verona, applied Gestalttheoretical ideas to the study of art. Alberto’s work stands out for its scope (Argenton,

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2004a). Unlike the narrower discussions of perception and art of many Italian practitioners, Argenton was concerned synthetically with the psychology of art in all its expressive and cognitive guises, and Arnheim (1997) had reviewed his important textbook, Arte e cognizione (Argenton, 1996), with great approval. Over the years, it was my pleasure to get to know Argenton and his wife Laura Messina. One of my greatest experiences with Argenton was in 2010, when he took me to many site in Padua, where he had been living for many years. We saw, among other places, the Cappella degli Scrovegni, the Cathedral Baptistry and the Oratorio of San Giorgio. In every locale, we observed the iconography and perceptual-­ representational strategies the artists had used to tell their stories. Argenton of course was full of intelligent observations and pithy analyses, showing me, for example, in the Baptistery, Giusto de’ Menabuoi’s use of amodal completion to produce a “stroboscopic-like effect”, or the “cut by frame” employed by Giotto in the frescoes of the Cappella degli Scrovegni, which produces a particular type of amodal completion that Argenton (2019) calls “completion by frame”. I had the most satisfaction when we talked through Altichiero’s spatial rendering in the Oratorio of San Giorgio, and Argenton helped me articulate the way in which the artist had used empirical perspective in the corners to give the illusion of extension of side spaces beyond each wall (Verstegen, 2013). Born in Asmara, Eritrea – where his father, a doctor, had moved from Italy to practise his profession – Argenton grew up in Cividale del Friuli, until his move to Padua. He drew and painted his whole life, exhibiting publicly for many years. His large studio at home had an area dedicated to painting, including an easel with paintings in progress, and an area for his psychological research, thus creating also a physical ‘dialogue’ between his two primary interests. Practising as an artist gave Argenton’s psychological works a special authenticity and allowed him never to be bogged down in irrelevant questions. His paintings exhibit a biomorphic abstraction that is, however, rendered with scrupulous care, a feature found in his scholarship (www.albertoargenton.it). Argenton studied philosophy and psychology at the University of Trieste, with Gaetano Kanizsa, Paolo Bozzi, Giorgio Tampieri, Gian Franco Minguzzi and Giovanni Bruno Vicario, and completed his thesis under Carmela Metelli Di Lallo. Argenton began teaching at the University of Padua, where Di Lallo also taught, as her assistant in 1972, where he remained the rest of his career. In 1976, he joined the Facoltà di Magistero at the university, in the degree course in psychology, and later, since its foundation, the Faculty of Psychology. In those years, he began producing works for which he is best known, sometimes in collaboration with his wife, Laura Messina. Notable among his production are volumes on the aesthetic emotion (Argenton, 1993, 1998), the psychology of literature (Argenton & Messina, 2000), the theory of art restoration (Argenton, 2010; Argenton & Basile, 2003) and the enjoyment of sculpture by blind people (Argenton, 2011, 2012). Argenton’s most important book – in addition to Arte e cognizione (1996) – is Arte e espressione (2008), recently translated into English as Art and Expression (2019). This book exhaustively links perceptual dynamics to artistic expression by investigating a variety of problem areas, including the “swing effect” based on contour rivalry, amodal completion and obliqueness. Each simpler perceptual feature

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gives rise to tensions that are utilised by artists for expressive means. The book, based on phenomenological observation of remarkable thematic collections of artistic works, gives a rigorous account of expression from a gestalt point of view. The English translation of Art and Expression has fortunately made Argenton’s work better known in the English-speaking world.3 A further mark of respect can be seen in the Festschrift I was fortunate to help undertake with one of Argenton’s students, Carlo Maria Fossaluzza, including essays by international authors (Fossaluzza & Verstegen, 2014). This honour greeted Argenton at his retirement and just preceded, unfortunately, a sudden fatal illness that robbed him of a productive retirement. Argenton investigated many different phenomena and always did so thoroughly, compiling images and observations in well-organised binders and files. Among those were the basis of a complete study on the perception of continuous narrative in pictures, which had fascinated him over the years. It is my pleasure to have a hand in bringing Argenton’s study of such pictures to completion. May it stand as a testament to his visual intelligence, creativity and unceasing curiosity.

Alberto Argenton and the Creative Freedom of Science Tiziano Agostini Trieste, Italy Among the memories I have of Alberto Argenton, perhaps the most intense are linked to his ritual participation in the “Congressino di Primavera” (Spring Meeting). And not because I was the organiser. The Congressino di Primavera was established in 2001, continuing the tradition of the Trieste meetings on perception, founded on the initiative of Gaetano Kanizsa at the end of the 60s – “by informally institutionalising (excuse the apparent contradiction) the meetings which had sporadically been held at the Trieste Department, for a number of years” (Luccio & Gerbino, 1995, p. 77) – providing perceptologists, not only Italians, with an opportunity for each of them to present and discuss their research, with the proviso that it be still incomplete, in order to receive suggestions from others. It is an informal, residential event, lasting a couple of days, where, after the working sessions on perception, which proceed animatedly but in a friendly atmosphere, we meet again to talk, among other things, also about perception while enjoying a traditional dish or sipping a glass of good wine. In these meetings, Alberto Argenton would bring a breath of ‘libertarian’ science and artistic poeticism, which, at times, made the ‘pure experimentalists’ somewhat uneasy, but presumably would not have displeased Gaetano Kanizsa or Paolo Bozzi. The title of his speech at the first Congressino exemplifies in an extraordinary way  My Introduction to this volume (Verstegen, 2019) also contains a more extensive and analytic profile of Argenton’s scholarly work. 3

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this libertarian spirit that has always accompanied Argenton’s research: “Windmill illusion and pictorial representation of the windmill”. I still see the blades of those mills turning, whipped by the storm wind. Kanizsa would probably have had something to say about the “ratiomorphic” terms used by Argenton to indicate the modes of functioning of perception, just as he was critical of Arnheim (Kanizsa, 1980, pp. 83–115; 1985, pp. 26–28), and Bozzi would presumably have pushed him to be more daring in his experimentation, to take his phenomenological approach decisively towards this territory, in which, moreover, his research was moving (Bozzi, 1989, 2019a). But both would have agreed with the importance Argenton attributed to the study of the artistic work starting from what it phenomenally manifests – i.e., from the “phenomenal object” (Koffka, 1940)  – to try to understand the perceptual and cognitive processes “involved in artistic behaviour and aesthetic behaviour, that is to say in the creation and the enjoyment of works of art” (Argenton, 2019, p. xvii). This assumption would have found favour with Kanizsa, according to whom “experimental phenomenology and painting complement each other and, since the results emerging from these two fields cannot be in contradiction, one is a testing ground for the other” (Kanizsa, 1991, pp. 82–83, quoted in Argenton, 2019, p. 51). But it would also have been shared by Bozzi who, while declaring his limits with regard to the visual arts, showed great willingness to be guided towards their vision: “I’m personally fairly blind to the figurative arts – perhaps with the only exception of architecture. But if someone points out something in a painting, I see it. I do not see it taking shape in that precise moment. It is not born before my eyes thanks to the power of suggestion, but I discover it through prompting, in the same way as when a person is pointed out in a crowded street” (Bozzi, 2019b, p. 203 – translation slightly adjusted). We too, the participants in the meetings, shared Argenton’s assumption, especially those trained in the Trieste school of Gestalt Psychology, accustomed to study as “thingologists”, as Kanizsa liked to call himself (Luccio & Gerbino, 1995, p. 71), and to rely on “the direct evidence of what is observed” (Bozzi, 2019a, p. 28). And Argenton provided us with a lot of evidence during the meetings, punctually documented by many artistic images, showing us – “pointing with the index finger”, as Arnheim would say (1992, p. 181) – a number of phenomena that he was studying, such as: the dynamic effects of obliquity, exemplified through the pictorial representation of windmills (Argenton, 2001) and of timepieces (Argenton & Prest, 2003), or a particular type of “contour rivalry”, which he called the “swing effect”, present in various graphic and pictorial artistic genres (Argenton, 2004b)  – thus anticipating, and discussing with us, themes that he would later systematise in a book (Argenton, 2008, 2019); the perceptual reasons for the use of visual tropes in paintings and other types of images (Argenton, 2007); the perceptual devices used in the pictorial representation of stories (Argenton & Prest, 2008b), a prelude to the research presented in this volume; and many others. Essentially, Argenton showed us how, through a rigorous observation of extensive case studies (rich repertories of images), it was possible to discover and record regular recurrences – constants – in artists’ use of perceptual-representational strategies, which could be traced back, albeit inferentially, to categories of visual thought.

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This last step appeared arduous from an experimental point of view, not because the realm of inferences is not a precious hotbed of thought and also for the formulation of hypotheses, but because convention requires that postulations find experimental confirmation. And, although the exemplifications of the “categories of visual thought” indicated by Argenton were evident, one expected an experimental demonstration of their use by artists or, alternatively, a containment of the range of the phenomena he investigated, even at the cost of ‘sacrificing’ the research, reducing its complexity and, consequently, the “daunting number of variables” that hinder “experimental inquiry” (Vicario, 2001, p. 309, quoted in Argenton, 2019, p. 6). However, although legitimate, the criticisms spotted in Argenton’s libertarian scientific studies seemed to conceal almost a prejudice against a certain tradition of phenomenological research on art, however much based on solid and authoritative foundations – Arnheim’s studies (1974) being a reference for all. This supposition is perhaps not unfounded if, transcending the specific case, one tries to reflect on the decreasing importance attributed to phenomenological observation, especially after the turn of neuroimaging techniques – in no way wanting to diminish the importance of neuroscience. But perhaps, ultimately, the ‘raised eyebrow’ of the experimentalist might well have implied a hint of ‘envy’ towards Alberto, who could take the liberty to ironise, with full awareness, on the ‘reductive asepticism’ of the experimental method, to feed on art, to fly high with his careful phenomenological observations and with his intelligent postulations, and to discover representational marvels in the graphic-­ pictorial compositions perceptually reasoned by artists, with assured mastery of his field of research: the psychology of art.

A Brief Preamble to the Study Tamara Prest Padova, Italy It was around 2004, and the collection of images for the book Arte e espressione, on which Professor Alberto Argenton had been working for a long time and on which I had been given the honour of collaborating,4 was already well advanced. In order

 I first got to know Professor Alberto Argenton in 1994, attending, as a student of another faculty (Faculty of Letters and Philosophy at the University of Padua), his course on the psychology of art (held in the Faculty of Psychology at the same University), driven by curiosity for the subject matter. Thanks to his enthralling lectures, full of stimuli, I could satisfy many curiosities, I discovered new ways of looking at what I encountered in everyday life and new ways of looking at the arts, which allowed me to find coherence and connections between the notions I had learned so far. Rather to my surprise, after graduating, I had the opportunity to start collaborating with him in his scientific activity, thus having the chance to appreciate even more his passionate and reasoned dedication to research on Art – as a scholar, but also as an artist – the meticulousness of his work, the attention to detail, the moral rigour, the sensibility for life. The research activity that Prof. Argenton has allowed me to experience and share with him for several years has been very absorbing, enriching and valuable for my studies, but also for my life. 4

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to enrich the thematic repertoires on which some of the studies in this volume were to be based, we were looking for, among others, artworks in which the subjects depicted were “Judith and Holofernes”, the “Kiss of Judas” and “Timepieces”. Observing the different ways of depicting these themes, which seemed to imply different ways of representing time, Argenton was curious to take the exploration further. So, he entrusted me with the task of searching for pictures whose subject was, in a broad sense, the representation of time. The search for images on the representation of time immediately proved fruitful and continued in parallel with, but subordinate to, the drafting of Arte e espressione at which Argenton continued to work, with weekly sessions in which we examined together the images found, starting their cataloguing and finding bibliographic material on the individual works. After completing Arte e espressione, published in 2008 (later edited as Art and Expression by Ian Verstegen, in 2019), Argenton began to systematically observe the collected images, which by then constituted a considerable repertoire, outlining an initial subdivision into two broad typologies, with various internal articulations: one concerning the “portrayal of time”, namely, “the representation of our experience and conception of time”, which he had already examined, for example, in reference to works by Paul Klee (Argenton, 2019, p. 196); the other concerning the representation of stories and the episodes that constitute them in sequences of images or in single images (see textbox in Chap. 1: An exchange on the representation of time). Given the complexity of the iconographic scenario, Argenton chose to deepen the study of the subject by starting with the second of the two narrative typologies and to focus the research on artistic works in which “facts, events, episodes [...] are depicted [...] in a single image” and narrated in the continuous mode (Argenton, 2003–2014). From here, the research continued with the search for further works only of continuous narrative in books, catalogues, the Internet, by visiting galleries and museums, to observe de visu works of major interest or easily accessible (these visits turned out to be fruitful also for the discovery of new images), and with the systematisation of the data collected for the entire repertoire, which by now amounted to just under 1000 works. At the same time, Argenton was deepening both the theoretical study – of the perception of time (psychological side), of the representation of time (art-historical side), of the literature on visual narrative and continuous narrative, indexing the large bibliography and annotating by hand his progressive reflections in his notebooks – and the observation of the compositional schemes of artistic works, until he reached the formulation of the research hypotheses and the outlining of the research project, which this book deals with. The problems that arose during the classification of the works were manifold, linked to the intricate events in the history of art, starting with a number of identification indices, such as: ‘certain’ authorship of the works and the date of execution – in addition to frequently discordant attributions, or unexpected changes of authorship, it is very frequent to find different dates for the same work; ‘certain’ biographical data for the authors; titles of the works, often reported differently by

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the various sources, as well as in the different languages; for the dismembered works, their original structure often only deducible from study hypotheses; location of the works – reference sites often diligently report the provenance of a work, but not always its final destination; dimensions of the works – rarely reported in book sources (some of our on-site visits took place for this purpose) and, for works included in fresco or mosaic cycles, often unknown. Nor was it easy to resolve the many doubts that emerged during the classification of the works, even with regard to certain configurational indices – such as the context to which the works belonged, the identity of the episodes of the story narrated, the unfolding of the narrative in the stories depicted – for the definition of which it seemed necessary to proceed to an in-depth examination of the various themes narrated and to the search for detailed descriptions of the individual works, which were not always easy to find except for the best-known ones, but indispensable for a correct analysis. Nomen omen, all of this took a long time, but it must be said that, at the same time, Argenton was working on other research lines. As he commented: “frequenting the boundless world of the figurative arts with scientific intentions arouses a great deal of curiosity, constantly inviting one to make excursions into its various regions” (Argenton & Prest, 2008a, p. 255). Moreover, he was continuing to study the monoscenic and synoptic modes of representation  – an interest also aroused by many of the works traced for Arte e espressione, depicting the Gospel episode of the Kiss of Judas and the biblical story of Judith – presumably to try to find analogies and differences with the continuous mode and between the spatial configurations invented by artists, pursuing what was the leitmotif of his research in the psychology of art: the understanding of the functioning of visual thinking and the identification of the perceptual-representational strategies devised by artists to configure their works. The painted story of Judith, in particular, was to be the subject of a communication at the 2015 “Congressino di Primavera”, scheduled for 26–28 June in Ipplis (Udine, Italy). That year, too, he had received an invitation from Tiziano Agostini to participate, and so he replied: “... I would also like to present an in-depth study and continuation of a vast research project (carried out together with Tamara Prest on the pictorial representation of stories), the general outline of which I had already spoken about in Medana in 2008; despite my condition and when my condition allows me to do so, I manage to work both mentally and manually”.5 This was not to be, but the repertoire of works collected on the story of the biblical heroine Judith, together with those on many other stories, is in Chap. 5, for those who wish to consult it.  I am quoting from a letter of Alberto Argenton to Tiziano Agostini, dated 11 April 2015, which Laura Messina-Argenton very kindly let me read. Professor Argenton was very fond of the “Congressino di Primavera” and participated in it annually, also because it was consonant with his conceptions, as he recalls in his Art and Expression (Argenton, 2019, p. 36, n. 54). The paper presented at the 2008 “Congressino di Primavera”, mentioned in the above letter, was entitled The Pictorial Representation of Stories (Argenton & Prest, 2008b). 5

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References Argenton, A. (1986). Lo stile e la sua discriminazione. In A. Garau (Ed.), Pensiero e visione in Rudolf Arnheim (pp. 11–21). Franco Angeli. Argenton, A. (Ed.). (1993). L’emozione estetica. Il Poligrafo. Argenton, A. (1996). Arte e cognizione. Introduzione alla psicologia dell’arte. Raffaello Cortina Editore. Argenton, A. (1998). Emozione estetica. In V. D’Urso & R. Trentin (Eds.), Introduzione alla psicologia delle emozioni (pp. 188–194). Laterza. Argenton, A. (2001). Windmill illusion e rappresentazione pittorica del mulino a vento. Contribution presented at the “Congressino di Primavera”, Medana, Slovenia, 16 June 2001. Argenton, A. (2003–2014). La rappresentazione pittorica di storie. Unpublished autograph reflections and annotations. Argenton, A. (2004a). Aesthetic cognition. A tribute to Rudolf Arnheim. Gestalt Theory, 26(2), 128–133. Argenton, A. (2004b). L’effetto altalena: un fenomeno percettivo poco indagato. Contribution presented at the “Congressino di Primavera”, Medana, Slovenia, 18 June 2004. Argenton, A. (2007). Metafore e altri tropi nel linguaggio iconico. Contribution presented at the “Congressino di Primavera”, Medana, Slovenia, 15 June 2007. Argenton, A. (2008). Arte e espressione. Studi e ricerche di psicologia dell’arte. Il Poligrafo. Argenton, A. (2010). Convergences between conservation, restoration and psychology of art. In P.  Iazurlo & F.  Valentini (Eds.), Conservation of contemporary art: Themes and issues (pp. 31–40). Il Prato. Argenton, A. (2011). Comprehendere l’arte plastica. In A. Argenton (Ed.), Vedere con mano. La fruizione della scultura tra tatto e visione (pp. 17–34). Erickson. Argenton, A. (2012). The hand, touch and vision. In A. Pluchinotta (Ed.), Just the hand in modern and contemporary plastic art (pp. 44–50). Editoriale Bortolazzi Stei. Argenton, A. (2019). Art and expression. Studies in the psychology of art (I.  Verstegen, Ed.). Routledge. Argenton, A., & Basile, G. (2003). Restoration and the psychology of art: An occasion to test out Cesare Brandi’s “theory of restoration”. In G. Basile (Ed.), Restoration of Scrovegni Chapel. Surveys, project, results (pp. 544–558). Skira. Argenton, A., & Messina, L. (2000). L’enigma del mondo poetico. L’indagine sperimentale in psicologia della letteratura. Bollati Boringhieri. Argenton, A., & Prest, T. (2003). Le dieci e dieci circa: dinamica della percezione e rappresentazione grafico-pittorica degli orologi. Contribution presented at the “Congressino di Primavera”, Medana, Slovenia, 13 June 2003. Argenton, A., & Prest, T. (2008a). Il fuggi fuggi degli Apostoli. In A. Argenton, Arte e espressione. Studi e ricerche di psicologia dell’arte (pp. 271–289). Il Poligrafo. Argenton, A., & Prest, T. (2008b). La rappresentazione pittorica di storie. Contribution presented at the “Congressino di Primavera”, Medana, Slovenia, 12–14 June 2008. Arnheim, R. (1966). On inspiration. In Toward a psychology of art (pp. 285–291). University of California Press. Arnheim, R. (1969). Visual thinking. University of California Press. Arnheim, R. (1974). Art and visual perception. University of California Press. Arnheim, R. (1986). Unity and Diversity of the arts. In New essays on the psychology of art (pp. 65–77). University of California Press. Arnheim, R. (1992). But is it science? In To the rescue of art: Twenty-six essays (pp. 175–184). University of California Press. Arnheim, R. (1997). Arte e cognizione: Introduzione alla psicologia dell’arte. By Alberto Argenton. British Journal of Aesthetics, 37(1), 87–88. Bozzi, P. (1978). L’interosservazione come metodo per la fenomenologia sperimentale. Giornale Italiano di Psicologia, 5(2), 229–239. Bozzi, P. (1989). Fenomenologia sperimentale. Il Mulino.

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Bozzi, P. (2019a). Experimental phenomenology. In I. Bianchi & R. Davies (Eds.), Paolo Bozzi’s experimental phenomenology (pp. 11–38). Routledge. Bozzi, P. (2019b). Interobservation as a method for experimental phenomenology. In I. Bianchi & R. Davies (Eds.), Paolo Bozzi’s experimental phenomenology (pp. 198–206). Routledge. Ferrarin, A. (2005). Aristotle on Phantasia. In J. J. Cleary & G. M. Gurtler (Eds.), Proceedings of the Boston area colloquium in ancient philosophy (Vol. 21, pp.  89–123). Brill Academic Publishers. Fossaluzza, C.  M., & Verstegen, I. (2014). Ragionamenti percettivi: Saggi in onore di Alberto Argenton. Mimesis Edizioni. Garau, A. (Ed.). (1986). Pensiero e visione in Rudolf Arnheim. Franco Angeli. Kanizsa, G. (1980). Grammatica del vedere. Il Mulino. Kanizsa, G. (1985). Seeing and thinking. Acta Psychologica, 59(1), 23–33. Koffka, K. (1940). Problems in the psychology of art. In R. Bernheimer, R. Carpenter, K. Koffka, & M. Nahm (Eds.), Art: A Bryn Mawr symposium (pp. 180–273). Bryn Mawr College. Lessing, G.  E. (1766/2013). Laocoon: An essay upon the limits of painting and poetry (E. Frothingham, Trans.). Dover Publications. Luccio, R., & Gerbino, W. (1995). Gaetano Kanizsa (1913-1993) – Things and perceptions. Review of Psychology, 2(1–2), 71–80. Panofsky, E. (1955). Meaning in the visual arts. Anchor Books. Robert, C. (1881). Bild und Lied: archäologische Beiträge zur Geschichte der griechischen Heldensage. Weidmannsche Buchhandlung. Robert, C. (1919). Archaeologische Hermeneutik: Anleitung zur Deutung klassischer Bildwerke. Weidmannsche Buchhandlung. Verstegen, I. (2013). Cognitive iconology: How and why images explain psychology. Rodopi. Verstegen, I. (2018). Arnheim, gestalt and media: An ontological theory. Springer. Verstegen, I. (2019). Editor’s introduction. In A. Argenton, Art and expression. Studies in the psychology of art (pp. ix–xiv). Routledge. Vicario, G. B. (2001). Psicologia generale. I fondamenti. Laterza. Weitzmann, K. (1947). Illustrations in roll and codex. A study of the origin and method of text illustration. Princeton University Press. Wickhoff, F. (1900). Roman art: Some of its principles and their application to early Christian painting (A. Strong, Trans.). William Heinemann; The Macmillan Company.

Contents

Part I The Study 1

 Pictorial Representation of Stories��������������������������������������������������������    3 1.1 Theoretical Premises������������������������������������������������������������������������    3 1.1.1 The Perspective from Art History: Narrative Modes������������   20 1.1.2 The Perspective from Psychology and Neighbouring Fields������������������������������������������������������   26 1.1.3 A Third Perspective: The View from the Psychology of Art����������������������������������   32 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   39

2

 Study Project on Continuous Pictorial Narrative ����������������������������   47 A 2.1 The Project’s Core����������������������������������������������������������������������������   47 2.1.1 Aims, Hypotheses, Method and Phases of the Study�����������   48 2.2 The General Repertoire of Continuous Pictorial Narrative��������������   50 2.3 The Thematic Repertoire of the Story of Adam and Eve������������������   57 2.3.1 Comparison of the General Repertoire and the Thematic Repertoire on the Story of Adam and Eve������������������������������������������������������������������   58 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   61

3

 First Research Phase on the Story of Adam and Eve ��������������������������   63 3.1 Pictorial Space and Scene Organisation�������������������������������������������   63 3.1.1 Identification and Classification of Episodes������������������������   63 3.2 Configuration of the Artworks of the Thematic Repertoire��������������   78 3.2.1 Context����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   80 3.2.2 Number of Scenes ����������������������������������������������������������������   82 3.2.3 Narrative Progression������������������������������������������������������������   84 3.2.4 Spatial Disposition����������������������������������������������������������������   86 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   88

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Contents

 Second Research Phase on the Story of Adam and Eve ����������������������   91 4.1 Perceptual–Compositional Arrangement������������������������������������������   91 4.1.1 Segmentation of Episodes����������������������������������������������������   94 4.1.2 Space/Time Separating Cues������������������������������������������������   99 4.1.3 Identification of Repeated Protagonists��������������������������������  101 4.1.4 Vectors of Direction��������������������������������������������������������������  104 4.2 Data Analysis Results on Perceptual–Compositional Arrangement ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  106 4.2.1 Analysis of the Segmentation of Episodes����������������������������  106 4.2.2 Analysis of the Space/Time Separating Cues ����������������������  116 4.2.3 Analysis of the Identification of Repeated Protagonists ������  118 4.2.4 Analysis of the Vectors of Direction ������������������������������������  124 4.2.5 Essential Considerations of the Results��������������������������������  129 4.3 Pictorial Identity and Variability: Iconographic Models������������������  133 4.3.1 An Example: Michelangelo’s Fall and Expulsion����������������  139 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  144

Part II Reference Materials of the Study 5

General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative������������������������������������������������������������������������������  149

6

Images of the Story of Adam and Eve����������������������������������������������������  271

7

Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve����������������������������  327

Author Index����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  387 Subject Index����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  393

Part I

The Study

Chapter 1

Pictorial Representation of Stories

1.1 Theoretical Premises Narrative studies, flourishing since the middle of the last century, have progressively established a broad multidisciplinary field, in which different research perspectives, such as linguistics, semiotics, literary criticism, philosophy, anthropology, psychology, history and art criticism, converge, and to which further fields of investigation have gradually been added, such as neuroscience, computer science, ludology, geography, all together producing an ‘encyclopaedic’ domain (e.g. Herman et al., 2005). In their turn, studies on visual narrative (e.g. Cohn & Magliano, 2020; Steiner, 2004) also include different strands of inquiry, variously named: narrative art, visual storytelling, history painting, sequential art, comics, film, animation, pictorial stories, illustrated stories, etc. (Pimenta & Poovaiah, 2010). Essentially, these fields of research are brought together by an interest in general and specific aspects of one of the most ‘natural’ and deep-rooted forms of communication in human culture: “We organize our experience and our memory of human happenings mainly in the form of narrative – stories, excuses, myths, reasons for doing and not doing, and so on” (Bruner, 1991, p. 4). Visual narrative has accompanied human evolution since the earliest prehistoric traces (Argenton, 1996; Ranta et al., 2020; Robb, 2020), and the particular mode of narrating stories defined as continuous is also rooted in remote times and different cultures: for example, the Sumerian (McCaffrey, 2013), as shown by the Warka or Uruk Vase in Fig. 1.1, from the Protoliterate period;1 or the Assyrian (Watanabe, 2004), as can be seen in the Cultic Pedestal of Tukulti-Ninurta I, in Fig. 1.2, dated  According to McCaffrey (2013, p. 239), “the middle register of the Uruk Vase can also be read as a continuous narrative. Instead of a consecutive narrative about a file of anonymous priests transporting offerings to the temple, it can be understood as a continuous narrative that depicts the repeated actions of a single person”. 1

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 L. Messina-Argenton et al., Showing Time: Continuous Pictorial Narrative and the Adam and Eve Story, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13662-7_1

3

4 Fig. 1.1  Warka Vase, Uruk, c. 3500–3000 BCE, alabaster, height c. 105 cm, upper diameter 36 cm. National Museum of Iraq, Baghdad. Public domain

1  Pictorial Representation of Stories

1.1  Theoretical Premises

5

Fig. 1.2  Cultic Pedestal of Tukulti-Ninurta I, Assur, 1243–1207 BCE, alabaster, 58 × 57.5 cm. Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin. Public domain

Fig. 1.3  Book of the Dead of Hunefer, Hunefer’s judgement, frame 3, Thebes, Egypt, c. 1450 BCE, papyrus, 45 × 90.50 cm (frame). British Museum, London. Public domain

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around the late thirteenth century BCE;2 or the Egyptian (Kantor, 1957; Pinotti, 2004), an example of which is the picture from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer, shown in Fig. 1.3, dating from the nineteenth Dynasty.3 In its minimal form, narrative is defined as “the representation of real or fictive events and situations in a time sequence” (Prince, 1982, p. 1), or more specifically “the representation of at least two real or fictive events or situations in a time sequence, neither of which presupposes or entails the other” (Prince, 1982, p. 4), or, considering it also from the reader’s side, as “a perceived sequence of non-randomly connected events, typically involving, as the experiencing agonist, humans or quasi-­ humans, or other sentient beings, from whose experience we human can ‘learn’” (Toolan, 2001, p. 8). Some scholars consider the causal connection between events as a fundamental feature of narrative forms (Carroll, 2001); some, also with regard to narrative pictures, assume that narrative does not necessarily imply a causal connection (Nanay, 2009). With specific reference to painting, narrative can be defined as “a number of actions occurring at different moments”, involving, in the case of continuous pictorial narrative, “the same characters”, which “are presented together in a single unified space” (Andrews, 1998, p. 3). Continuous pictorial narrative, therefore, can be generically, and provisionally, meant as the representation within a single image of episodes or events, in which the depiction of a same character is repeated. “Pictorial” is used to refer generically to any kind of visual, static artwork, which is generally planar and can suggest depth. An episode can be considered as a series of related events through which a narrative unfolds, and an event can be regarded as “a change of state” (Van Dijk, 1975, p. 550), distinguishable in “actions and happenings” (Chatman, 1978, p. 19) or as “a significant nucleus of transformation considered in its unfolding” (Massironi, 1989, p. 239). Episodes or events find correspondence in the scenes represented on a pictorial surface, be it panel, canvas, wall, paper, stone, marble, etc., and the distance between scenes can correspond to the “time or interval” (Pierantoni, 1986, p. 86) between two episodes or events, regardless of the extent of the distance itself, which cannot be related to duration, in the sense that the “pictorial manipulations of time” can range “among moments, lifetimes, and centuries” (Acres, 1998, p. 422). Continuous pictorial narrative raises several questions, including, first of all, a widely debated issue, which concerns the distinction between the arts and is generally related to Lessing’s famous essay of 1766 and his attempt “to redefine poetry and painting and to assign to each its proper boundaries” (Lee, 1940, p.  202),  “In Assyria, the earliest example of the continuous style is a relief of Tukulti-Ninurta I from the late thirteenth century BC. The king appears twice in the scene: both facing an altar on his right with his right hand raised in front of his face in a gesture of humility” (Watanabe, 2004, p. 105). 3  The image represents the weighing of Hunefer’s heart “to ascertain his worthiness to enter heaven” (Quirke & Spencer, 1992, p.  171). Hunefer is portrayed three times: in the sequence above, Hunefer is in adoration before deities; in the sequence below, he is led by the jackal-headed Anubis towards the balance of judgement; and then he is conducted by Horus to a shrine in which Osiris sits enthroned. 2

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showing that the visual arts – arts of simultaneity – and the verbal arts – arts of succession – constitute two autonomous domains, even if this essay was not written “for the sake of this well-established distinction” (Gombrich 1964, pp. 294–295; see also Lee, 1940). Lessing claims: “Since painting, because its signs or means of imitation can be combined only in space, must relinquish all representations of time, therefore progressive actions, as such, cannot come within its range. It must content itself with actions in space; in other words, with mere bodies, whose attitude lets us infer their action” (Lessing, 1766/2013, p. 90). “Painting”, as Lessing (1766/2013, p. 92) again argues, “in its coexistent compositions, can use but a single moment of an action, and must therefore choose the most pregnant one, the one most suggestive of what has gone before and what is to follow”.4 If visual art can only represent the “pregnant moment”, and if narration presupposes the representation of events, actions or happenings, it follows that “visual arts seem least narrative, indeed, definitionally, antinarrative” (Steiner, 2004, p. 150). It is not by chance that the works of continuous pictorial narrative have been considered as “untroubled of the law of experience that only those events can be seen together which occur at the same time; and, therefore, that it is impossible for one and the same person to be seen several times at the same moment within the same space” (Wickhoff, 1900, p. 9).5 For similar reasons, the continuous pictorial narrative seems to induce various scholars, as Schmitt (2004, p. 124) critically observes, “to see that which occurs within the same image as necessarily giving the visual appearance of simultaneity”. For instance, for von Blanckenhagen (1957, p. 78), “the really interesting problem of continuous narrative arises only when events separated in time are represented as occurring simultaneously at the same place in the same setting. In a strict sense this is the case only when in the same setting one or more identical persons appear more than once”.

 It should be pointed out that, for Lessing, this issue also concerns “good taste”, since he also refers to paintings of stories, such as the “history of the prodigal son, his disorderly life, his misery, and his repentance”, painted by Titian, which, however, Lessing notes (1766/2013, p. 109), “is an encroachment upon the sphere of the poet, which good taste could never justify”. This issue calls into question another one, certainly relevant and widely debated, which we cannot address here, that is, whether the single moment can be considered a narrative. For a delineation of this question, we can refer, for example, to an essay by Nanay (2009), in which a further question is addressed, that is, whether the action in the narrative must necessarily be goal-directed or not. 5  Some scholars go so far as to consider continuous narrative as the result of a primitive or “child-­ like” method (Gardner, 1917, pp. 20–21). Gardner (1917, p. 20, our italics) underlines the widespread use of “the method of continuous narration, in which a hero appears several times in the same picture engaged in various actions. It is found all over the world, among Red Indians and Eskimo, as well as in Asia and Africa. It was regularly adopted in early Egyptian painting, for example in the illustrations to the Book of the Dead. It flourishes in the first sketch-books of clever children: it is in fact a childish method, and wherever art is in a childish condition it may be found. Naturally, in formed Greek art, and in the painting of the Renaissance, it exists only as a survival”. 4

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The complex issue of simultaneity6 is closely linked to that of the representability of time and the perception of time in the pictorial media (e.g. Elkins, 1991; Greenstein, 1999; Massironi, 2002; Souriau, 1949). The extensive debate developed on this subject essentially addresses, from various angles, the problem of “whether narration can actually take place in a visual medium” (e.g. Stansbury-O’Donnell, 1999, p. 8), or whether it can only “show” but not narrate (Barolsky, 2010), or “to what extent” paintings “can be narrative” (Wolf, 2003, p. 192), also entering into the question of the different types of “represented time” (Calabrese, 1987, p. 20 and ff.).7 Pächt (1962, p. 1) notes, in this regard, that “the history of narrative art is indeed but a series of repeated attempts to smuggle the time factor into a medium which by definition lacks the dimension of time”, even if, in his opinion, such attempts only partly were “successful and quite frequently ended in failure”. There is another decisive aspect to the question of the representability of time in pictorial narratives, deriving from a distinction established especially in the narratological-­literary field, which Chatman (1980, p.  122) labels “double time structuring”, and with which art historians are also inevitably confronted. “Double time” concerns the distinction already made by Propp (1928) between fabula – the plot, the what of narrative – and sjužet – the way of narrative - which Chatman correspondingly defines story and discourse (Chatman, 1978).8 As Chatman (1980, p. 122) points out, “a salient property of narrative is double time structuring. That is, all narratives, in whatever medium, combine the time sequence of plot events, the time of the histoire (‘story-time’) with the time of the presentation of these events in the text, which we call ‘discourse-time’. What is fundamental to narrative, regardless of medium, is that these two time orders are independent”. However, while considering double time applicable to whatever

 There are different interpretative perspectives on the question of the visual appearance of simultaneity in continuous narrative and also alternative proposals. For example, Small (1999, pp. 562–567), in his analysis of vase painting, shows that in several cases “the painting shows not simultaneous events but rather a sequence of events determined by their location in the painting” and “arranged spatially in their order of importance to the artist”. Small, therefore, proposes to consider, in addition to “hierarchical time”, the “spatial time”  – i.e. “the actual physical place where a scene occurs” – that can be connected to “geographical order” used by “classical historians”, who “in their writings often relate events out of chronological order”, proceeding by “location” (Small, 1999, p.  562). The “geographical” organisation is also referred to by Goodman (1980, pp. 111–114), regarding the “picture biography” of the Japanese Buddhist Prince Shotoku Taishi, painted by Hata no Chitei in 1069, in which the disposition of scenes could be organised “according to the place where the event occurred”. 7  Calabrese (1987) distinguishes four types of “temporality”, of “pictorial renderings” of time: the time of the story (succession of events), the time of the action (succession of movements), the time of the scene (frame of events), and the temporal scene (style and emotion), to which he adds two other types of time: the time of the artist (act of painting) and the time of the reader (dialogue with the painting). 8  Some scholars make further distinctions, for example, between story, i.e. the events that constitute it, text, i.e. their linguistic representation, and narrative, i.e. the act of narrating (Rimmon-­ Kenan, 1983), or between story, fabula, that is the narrative structure made of macro proposition, and “intreccio”, constituted by the micro propositions (Eco, 1979). 6

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medium, Chatman (1990, pp. 7–8) excludes paintings from the narrative universe, defining them as a communicative “non-narrative” object: “paintings present themselves as if they were holistic, verbal narratives as if they were linear. They do so regardless of how any given spectator or reader goes about perceiving any given work. The structure is one thing, the perception another. Temporality informs narrative texts in a way that it does not inform paintings (or non-narrative verbal texts, for that matter). Temporality is involved only in the spectator’s work in perceiving a painting; it is not part of the painting itself”. In other words, according to Chatman, paintings lack the “temporal ‘program’” inscribed in true narrative works. At the same time, Chatman (1978, p.  34) recognises the narrativity, even in a strictly narratological-­literary sense, of pictorial works of continuous narrative, such as the Bayeux Tapestry, a Norman work probably from the eleventh century, or Benozzo Gozzoli’s the Feast of Herod and the Beheading of Saint John the Baptist, from the fifteenth century, represented in Fig. 1.4 (see also Chap. 5). On the other hand, even visual narrative scholars seem to dismiss the problem of the representability of time when dealing with continuous pictorial narratives, such as, for example, Steiner (2004, p. 154): “in visual narrative the repetition of a subject is the primary means for us to know that we are looking at a narrative at all”. And Steiner (2004, p. 163) also refers, along with other works, to Benozzo Gozzoli’s the Feast of Herod and the Beheading of Saint John the Baptist: “the repetition of figures, so crucial to narrative recognition, is especially obvious here. Salome not

Fig. 1.4 Benozzo Gozzoli, The Feast of Herod and the Beheading of Saint John the Baptist, 1461–1462, tempera on panel, 23.8  ×  34.5  cm. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Public domain

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only appears in both the first and the third scenes with the same clothing, but her face is repeated in exactly the same profiled attitude”. Goodman (1980) also refers to works of continuous pictorial narrative, always reading them in the light of a dual register, which in this case he calls “order of occurrence”, that is, the succession of events, and “order of telling”, that is, their narrative rendering. For example, in analysing the Story of Psyche by Jacopo del Sellaio (Fig. 1.5; see also Chap. 5), Goodman (1980, p. 105) observes: “Here what is explicitly told takes time, and the telling has a definite order. Several incidents, with Psyche appearing in each, are shown strung across a landscape. The impossibility of the same person being in different places at the same time notifies us that difference in spatial position among scenes is to be interpreted as difference in temporal position among the events depicted. And, as with a written tale, although the whole story is presented at once, an order of telling is plainly established. The main sequence here conforms to linguistic convention”. Stories painted in the continuous mode are undoubtedly an emblematic example of narrativity: each work consists of episodes or events concerning the same repeated character or characters, but the concordance between the two ‘orders’, chronological and representational, cannot be taken as the sole or prevailing measure of narrativity. The essential point is that the sequential arrangement that characterises, for example, linguistic-verbal or audiovisual texts is quite different from the narrative arrangement of the pictorial composition, which is structured with a progression that may go from left to right, or vice versa, or with a series of other combinations of direction, and “such combinations only sometimes can fall into the categories of verbal, oral or written speech, such as flashback or flashforward” (Andrews, 1994, p. 85). As Arnheim (1974, p. 376) observes, “the order of a picture exists only in space, in simultaneity”, meaning, however, that a painting, unlike a book or a film, offers itself to the viewer in its entirety. Arnheim provides, as always, useful indications to clarify the question, considering it from a perceptual perspective: “The picture contains one or several dominant themes to which all the rest is subordinated. This hierarchy is valid and comprehensible only when all the relations it involves are grasped as being coexistent. The observer scans the various areas of the picture in

Fig. 1.5  Jacopo del Sellaio, The Story of Psyche, 1490 c., tempera and oil on panel, 42.1 × 151.8 cm. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Public domain

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succession because neither the eye nor the mind is capable of taking in everything simultaneously, but the order in which the exploration occurs does not matter. The path of the glance need not adhere to the vectorial directions created by the composition. A compositional ‘arrow’ leading from left to right may be perceived correctly even if the eye moves in the opposite direction, or indeed crosses the tract in an arbitrary zigzag” (Arnheim, 1974, p. 376, our italics). We may add in passing that, while not specifically dealing with continuous visual narrative, Arnheim does mention it. For example, in discussing simultaneity, he argues: “There are pictures that must be read in a prescribed sequence, e.g., from left to right like writing. Comic strips are of this kind, and so were certain narrative paintings, popular in the fifteenth century, in which one saw, from left to right, how Eve was created from the rib of Adam, how she presented him with the apple, how they were reprimanded by God and finally thrown out of paradise by the angel” (Arnheim, 1974, pp. 375–376). And among his objects of reflection, there is also the specific question of the representability of time: “Not only the ‘naive’ medieval painters combine more than one time moment of a story in their pictures. Michelangelo shows the temptation and the expulsion of Adam and Eve in one and the same scene, in which the couple appears twice. It is necessary further to combat the modern superstition that mature art limits the presentation to the one moment only” (Arnheim, 1952–1954). Arnheim (1986a) devotes one of his essays specifically to the distinction between “temporal arts” – drama, narrative, film, music, dance – and “spatial arts”: painting, sculpture and architecture. In the temporal arts, compositional elements are characterised by actions and sequences of events: “one thing follows the other in a linear dimension” (Arnheim, 1986a, p. 67). In the spatial arts, the relationships between the elements that compose a configuration are presented simultaneously in a two- or three-dimensional space and even events that are far apart in time can be synthesised in a single image. From a processual point of view, however, the differences between the arts are annulled by two main factors: sequentiality, which characterises perception in all aesthetic registers, and synopsis, which characterises the result of perception in all aesthetic registers. If, in the reception of a literary work, the reader ‘must’, compelled by the structure of the work, necessarily activate a sequential elaborative process, he or she is obliged to do the same in the observation of a painting: “The processing of information in the organism is essentially sequential. […] Although a painting is preferably viewed from a distance that lets it appear in its entirety within the visual field of the viewer, articulate perception is limited at any moment to a tiny area, and the painting can be comprehended only by scanning. Sequential perception, therefore, characterizes experience in all aesthetic media, the spatial as well as the temporal ones” (Arnheim, 1986a, pp. 69–70). Secondly, in all aesthetic registers, sequential elaborative processes produce a synoptic result. As Arnheim observes in another essay, “a musical composition, choreography, novel, play, or film, to be conceived as a whole, must be available in the form of a synoptic image. And this is so although the medium may be aural and

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the structure to be scrutinized not an immobile picture but a succession of happenings in time” (Arnheim, 1992b, p. 36). For these reasons, although the distinction between “fabula” and “sjuzet”, or “story” and “discourse”, or “order of occurrence” and “order of telling” may have its own raison d’être for descriptive purposes, it does not seem functional when considering the composition of the work and its reception in processual terms. And even among art historians who study pictorial narrative, some wonder, for example, “whether theories developed for the study of written literature can be applied to pictorial arts” (Stansbury-O’Donnell, 1999, p. 8) or, more resolutely, maintain that the “double-time ordering” of the linguistic-verbal narration, with everything related to it, is not applicable to the pictorial narrative (Andrews, 1998, p. 79). And it is not applicable not because “painting” lacks the “temporal program” of true narrative work (Chatman, 1990) but because the painting medium allows artists to solve the problem of narration in a different manner from verbal language, on the basis of its specificities: spatio-temporal and configurational. In essence, as Andrews (1998) shows in his book on continuous narrative in Renaissance art – assuming a critical position towards many scholars who consider as “paradoxical” the combination of two successive moments in a single composition or the repetition of the same person in different moments – “continuous narrative is really not paradoxical at all”, and its apparently paradoxical nature “is in the end simply a function of the paradoxical nature of pictorial representation in general” (Andrews, 1998, p. 119). In addition to those we have just mentioned, further problematic issues emerging from the study of continuous pictorial images have been highlighted by scholars: failing to consider them with the “sense of time” of the epoch or fostering the idea “that convincing images properly or even necessarily represent a moment in time” (Greenstein, 1999, p. 217); not contemplating the specific functions that pictorial images performed in different epochs, probably designed, as in the case of miniatures, “for repeated viewing” (Schmitt, 2004, p. 124), or, in the case of church frescoes, in early Christian art, aimed at “educating or converting” masses of illiterate people (Lubbock, 2006, p.  6), impressing salient facts of sacred stories on their memory.9 This educational principle is made explicit also in an epistle of Saint Gregory the Great (pope from 590 to 604), quoted by Greenstein (1990, p. 278): “Pictures are exhibited in churches so that those who are ignorant of letters might read by seeing on the walls what they are not able to read in books”. This epistle is reported also by

 In the fifteenth century, for example, techniques of interior visualization – prayer as an act of imagination, an itinerary through images of places and characters – were used to train for personal prayer. Baxandall (1988, p. 46) quotes in this regard a passage from Zardino de Oration, written in 1454: “The better to impress the story of the Passion on your mind, and to memorise each action of it more easily, it is helpful and necessary to fix places and people in your memory”. Italian edition: “La quale historia [della Passione] aciò che tu meglio la possi imprimere nella mente, e più facilmente ogni acto de essa ti si reducha alla memoria ti serà utile e bisogno che ti fermi ne la mente lochi e persone” (Baxandall, 1988, p. 163). 9

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Kessler (1985, p. 75), who, in his examination of the phenomenon, also adds other passages from the epistles of Saint Gregory the Great, further underlining the educational function of images: “painted likenesses [are] the instruction of the ignorant, so that they might understand the stories and so learn what occurred”. In essence, Kessler (2009, p.  25) claims, “pictures can serve as books for those who can not read”. Moreover, it should be considered that “especially in classic religious painting, painters did not decide which subject (or story or event or religious figure) to depict in a given work, because it was the patrons (i.e., the clergy, priests, bishops, monks, etc.) who decided with which subject they wanted to decorate the altar, the church chapel or whatever. […] The commissioner decided the content of the representation, the painter decided (but to a certain extent because he had to stay within certain iconographic conventions) the manner, the style of the representation”. And even “the arrangement of the composition itself – the before and after, the top and bottom, and so on – was conceived without any univocal rule”, except that of giving prominence to the scenes “on which it was desirable (by the patron) to focus the attention of the observer – that is, the faithful, who were for the most part illiterate and through images learned to fix them in their minds, or were encouraged to retrace the sacred story” – and that served to “identify, remember, memorise the story” to which those scenes refer (Argenton, 2013). An Exchange on the Representation of Time The text below reproduces a letter from Alberto Argenton to Giovanni Bruno Vicario (Argenton, 2004b). Both were interested, for different reasons, in the representation of time and for many years they discussed this issue through an epistolary exchange. Padua, 21 September 2004 Dear Gianni, Hereinafter, some considerations on what you wrote to me regarding the pictorial representation of time, hoping that they are, despite the necessary concision, sufficiently clear. They take into account the subdivision at the basis of your ‘theoretical framework’: time is considered under two aspects: (1) as person and (2) as a fact of nature. ‘As person’ The three ways of representing time by means of the human figure, indicated by you, are substantially correct, and can be defined as symbolic or allegorical; but there are still many other ways of using the human figure – the ‘person’ – to represent time, and always in allegorical form: just to give an uncommon example that you probably know or that is easy to find, Titian’s An Allegory of Prudence, kept at the National Gallery in London, where time is represented by three heads of men of different ages (youth, maturity, old age). There are then the themes of the Age of Man and the Age of the World, those of the Seasons, the Months, the various moments of the day (Dawn, Noon, Dusk, Night), the Hours and, finally, there are figurative representations of (continued)

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Life and its conclusion, Death. Well, all these themes can be traced back to the conception of Time in Western culture from its birth to the present day. ‘As a fact of nature’ The second aspect, which you qualify with the expression ‘fact of nature’ and specify as ‘representing the course of events in a painting’, is a different matter altogether and much more intricate. Even if with this specification you refer exclusively to what can be called stories – narratives of more than one episode or descriptions of more than one event  – the typology is already very varied. One type, very common and widespread, is the one you mention: a sequence of episodes depicted in a certain order that respects a chronological succession. The cases, especially in religious and ancient painting, are innumerable. Think of the frescoes of the Cappella degli Scrovegni, in Padua, where, with the so-called Expulsion of Joachim from the Temple, the Stories of the Virgin begin and then continue, through the canonical episodes, with that of Christ; or, to remain in Padua, think of the Battistero della Cattedrale and the frescoes by Giusto de’ Menabuoi who, starting from the Creation of the World, painted in succession the Stories of the Old and New Testaments. But there are exceptions, such as the Franciscan Legend painted by Giotto in the Basilica Superiore di San Francesco in Assisi, which does not follow a chronological but a thematic development. Frescoed chapels, polyptychs, tabernacle doors, antependia, altarpiece predella constitute a vast sample of this type of sequential representation. However, there are also ‘pieces’ of stories where the iconographic model adopted is the one you indicate (‘in the foreground is the scene of the present, in the background, smaller, the future of the story represented in the foreground’), but also others: (a) In the foreground there is the scene of the present, in the background on the left, smaller, the antecedent scene and in the background on the right, smaller, the scene following the one depicted in the foreground; see, for example, Luca Signorelli’s Lamentation over the Dead Christ, kept in the Museo Diocesano in Cortona – in this case the protagonist of the story is present in all three scenes; (b) In the foreground there is both the scene that constitutes the main subject of the representation and others connected to it; in the background, further away, are placed other scenes preceding and following that of the present, but without a precise order; see, for example, in the Chapel of San Brizio, in Orvieto Cathedral, Luca Signorelli’s great fresco entitled The Preaching of the Antichrist – in this case, in the concomitant scenes, the protagonist of the events may or may not be present; (c) Usually in the representation of miraculous events (see, for example, the tablets with miracles of St. Bernardine of Siena, kept in the Galleria Nazionale dell’Umbria, in Perugia), we can find: both the critical event (continued)

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and the miracle on the same plane; the critical event in the foreground and the miracle in the background; the miracle in the foreground and the critical event in the background. In all these cases it is obviously the miraculously-­healed person who is present in both scenes; (d) There are also numerous other cases involving episodes from mythology or the Bible (Diana and Actaeon, Adoration of the Golden Calf, Judith and Holofernes, to name but a few), each with its own particular iconographic scheme, which also undergoes variations with the passage of time. For example, the story of Judith and Holofernes, consisting of several episodes, is usually represented by Judith, armed with a sword, placing Holofernes’ head in the sack held by her maidservant Abra. In the background, or in the second plane, there may be the half-open tent of the Assyrian general (alluding to the preceding episode of seduction) and again in the background there may be the scene of the liberation of the city of Bethulia (an episode following the exposure of the head of Holofernes on the city walls), but the story can be condensed into a single image in which only Judith with sword and severed head appears. In the last case, leaving aside the conventional symbolic value of a cultural nature that the character and the painting assume, I ask you a question that, in my opinion, is crucial with respect to a research on the ‘pictorial representation of time’, however one wishes to carry out this research: Is, or is not also, the mere depiction of Judith with sword and severed head the pictorial representation of an event that took place over time and therefore implicitly consists of a sequence of episodes? (e) Returning to the types of representation of the ‘course of events’, again in the sphere of ancient art, I would like to remind you of one last case, which is somewhat reminiscent of the sequential stories mentioned earlier, but which in my opinion differs from them. It concerns two or more paintings which together describe or narrate significant moments in a historical fact that is not of a religious nature and is more or less contemporary to the period in which they were painted. The example that comes to mind in this respect concerns the three works painted by Paolo Uccello on the theme of the Battle of San Romano, works that together, placed in a room of Palazzo Medici, were meant to celebrate that military event (as you know, the three works are now one in the Louvre, in Paris, another in the National Gallery, in London, the third in the Uffizi, in Florence). This is the typology that comes to mind – and I have certainly overlooked many cases – with reference above all to the history of art from the classical age up to the end of the eighteenth century. From then on, and up to the present day, things have become more complicated, particularly with regard to the artistic productions of historical avantgardes, but I will talk with you about this when we will meet. A warm greeting, Alberto

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Pictorial narrative, as mentioned above, has a very long tradition, and from the twelfth century there was a “revival of story-telling”, which “started with an enactment of spoken narrative in visual form”, gradually proceeding “from the literal transcription of words to the visual realization of scenes and actions” (Pächt, 1962, p. 59). Andrews (2008, p. 885) maintains that continuous pictorial narrative was naturally used by artists, who did not find in it “any conflict or contradiction” and continued to be so used even after the introduction of one-point perspective, which indeed promoted its use because “it provided more space in which to situate different moments in time, an expanded narrative”. Styve (2015, p. 69) underlines that “Renaissance authors frequently discuss the events and persons of the storia in temporal terms as ‘moving freely’ in all directions within the pictorial space: performing, speaking and interacting with each other and with the beholder”. And artists resorted not just to one-point perspective, which “in the first half of the fifteenth century […] was only one of several perspective systems” (Styve, 2015, p. 82). In some cases, they “constructed space with plural distance points in order to lead the eye over the surface from one motif to another. Remarkably, in a number of paintings, drawings, and reliefs multiple vanishing points also correspond with the different moments in the narrative, thus relating the perception of various spaces to particular time-units” (Styve, 2015, p. 78). In addition, artists and theorists of the time made a clear distinction between represented and perceived time and based their works and theories on perception, more specifically on optics. Theories on vision “provided artists with a theoretical legacy for depicting a number of succeeding events in order to generate an impression that they unfold before our eyes, and, by objectifying the very mechanisms of vision, to absorb the beholder into the painting’s narrative structure” (Styve, 2015, p. 86). Lorenzo Ghiberti, for example, as Andrews recalls (1998, pp. 50–53), took up the well-known theories of Ibn-al-Haitham, better known as Alhazen (965–1039 CE), who considered perception “a successive operation, a process that occurs in stages” (Andrews, 1998, p. 53).10 And, as again Andrews (1998, p. 54) points out, Ghiberti also noted “that vision comprehends movement by perceiving the moving object in

 Ghiberti, in the Commentario terzo, expounds Alhazen’s theory: “The perception, therefore, of visual objects by the sense of sight will be in two ways: superficial perception which is a first impression, and perception by repeated looking. Perception of the first impression is uncertified perception, and attentive perception, that is by repeated looking, is perception by which the forms of visual objects are certified” (Andrews, 1998, p. 142, n. 15). See also Federici Vescovini (1965, p. 44). Italian edition: “la comprensione adonche di li visibili dal viso, serà sicondo dui modi: la comprensione superfitiale la quale è in lo primo aspecto, e la comprensione per lo risguardaminto. La comprensione per lo primo aspecto è comprensione non certificata; e la comprensione per intuitione, zioè per lo sguardaminto, è per comprensione, per la quale se certificano le forme di li visibili” (Federici Vescovini, 2003, p. 409). 10

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two different positions, in two different moments between which is a perceptible amount of time”.11 In essence, it does not seem that artists were troubled by the representability of time and the ‘paradoxicality’ of telling stories through a static medium, not even when, during the Renaissance, pictorial ‘realism’ became established. They were very attentive to the reception of their works and presumably were well aware that their spectators “were perfectly comfortable with such methods, were undisturbed by what we now find irrational”, perhaps also because we look at such methods “with post-Lessing or post-Daguerre eyes” (Andrews, 1998, pp. 14, 25). For artists, it was perfectly normal to narrate stories pictorially and perhaps even more pleasant than to narrate them poetically, as Leonardo da Vinci, for example, states in his Book on Painting (Richter, 1883, §653): “And if you, O poet, tell a story with your pen, the painter with his brush can tell it more easily, with simpler completeness, and less tedious to follow. And if you call painting dumb poetry, the painter may call poetry blind painting. Now which is the worse defect, to be blind or dumb?”.12 And Leonardo, in this book (Richter, 1883, §542) also indicates a precise “rule” for telling stories in a single image, which could be referred to the mode we today define as continuous: “and if you would (have me) tell you how to represent the life of a saint divided into several pictures [molte storie] on one and the same wall, I answer that you must set out the foreground with its point of sight on a level with the eye of the spectator of the scene, and upon this plane represent the more important part of the story large and then, diminishing by degrees the figures, and the buildings on various hills and open spaces, you can represent all the events of the history. And on the remainder of the wall up to the top put trees, large as compared with the figures, or angels if they are appropriate to the story, or birds or clouds or similar objects; otherwise, do not trouble yourself with it for your whole work will be wrong”.13 On the other hand, treatises on painting, contemporary with or preceding Leonardo da Vinci, are woven of rules devised by artists to resolve the various problematic aspects involved in pictorial composition. For example, Leon Battista  Italian edition: “Diremo addunque come il viso comprende el moto per comprensione della cosa visa mota, secondo due siti diversi in due ore diverse tra le quali è tempo sensibile” (Ghiberti, 1447–1455/1947, III, 16, p. 93). 12  Italian edition: “E se tu, poeta, figurerai una istoria con la pittura della penna, il pittore col pennello la farà di piú facile satisfazione, e meno tediosa ad esser compresa. E se tu dimanderai la pittura muta poesia, ancora il pittore potrà dire la poesia orba pittura. Or guarda qual è piú dannoso mostro, o il cieco, o il muto?” (Richter, 1883, §653). 13  Italian edtion: “e se tu volessi dire: che modo ho a fare la vita d’uno santo scompartita in molte storie ‘n una medesima faccia? a questa parte ti rispondo che tu debi porre il primo piano col punto all’altezza dell’occhio de’ riguardatori d’essa storia e in sudetto piano figura la prima storia grande, e poi diminuendo di mano in mano le figure e casamenti, in su diversi colli e pianure, farai tutto il fornimento d’essa storia. Sul resto della faccia, nella sua altezza, farai alberi grandi a comparazione delle figure, o angeli, se fossero al proposito dell’istoria, ovvero uccelli, o nuvoli, o simili cose; altrimenti non te n’impacciare, chè ogni tua opera sarà falsa” (Richter, 1883, §542). 11

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Alberti, in his De pictura,14 referring to the representation of action, to motion directionality, notes: “Everything which changes position has seven directions of movement, either up or down or to right or left, or going away in the distance or coming towards us; and the seventh is going around in a circle. I want all these seven movements to be in a painting” (Alberti, 1435–1436/1972, p. 83).15 This is a further proof that, as Arnheim (1986b, p. 81) argues, “visual dynamics is an indivisible unity, not broken down into space and time”. Continuous narrative depend on “the implicit temporality of pictorial space” (Andrews, 1998, p.  96) and can be a fertile territory to study “visual thinking” (Arnheim, 1969), since the undoubted difficulty of suggesting the course of time in static images challenges the artist to exercise his “perceptual reasoning” (Arnheim, 1966, p.  287) and to think, to figure out, the most appropriate “perceptual-­ representational strategies” to solve this problem (Argenton, 2019). The representational strategies observable in an artistic work “make explicit the results of the functioning of the artist’s perceptual reasoning” (Argenton & Prest, 2008, p. 289) and help one approach the reading of the artwork – “representation of a mental representation” (Argenton, 1996, p. 59) – with respect for its ideation. As Argenton (1996, p. 59) clarifies, “art is one of the forms of concrete translation and application – of representation – of that perceptual-representational activity which is at the basis of cognition [...]. The complex cognitive activity that presides over the ideation, creation, design and execution of the artistic work  – as well as over its reception – implies and demands an intense perceptual-representational activity and the synergetic use of multiple mental representations, which are translated into concrete or perceptible representations through the signs or symbols on which the languages of art, like the languages that man commonly uses to express himself and act in the world, are based”. And, not surprisingly, Leonardo da Vinci wrote: “and in effect, that which is in the universe by essence, presence, or imagination, he [the painter] has it first in his mind and then in his hands” (quoted in Kemp, 2007, p. 147).16  While scholars are fairly unanimous in dating the Latin and vernacular versions of Alberti’s treatise On Painting between 1435 and 1436, they are not so unanimous as to which of the two versions was written first. Some believe that the first version is the one in Latin – e.g. Spencer (1957, p. 31, n. 16) or Grayson (1972, p. 1) – others that it is the one in the local dialect of Tuscany, e.g. Sinisgalli (2011, p. 3). Here we quote passages from this treatise contained in the versions edited by Grayson (in English, in Italian, and in Latin) and by Spencer (in English), but this does not mean that we are leaning towards the first of the two positions in this philological debate, into the merits of which we certainly cannot enter. 15  Latin edition: “Res omnis quae loco movetur, septem habet movendi itinera, nam aut sursum versus aut deorsum aut in dexteram aut in sinistram aut illuc longe recedendo aut contra nos redeundo. Septimum vero movendi modus est is qui in girum ambiendo vehitur. Hos igitur omnes motus cupio esse in pictura” (Alberti, 1435–1436/1972, §43, p. 82). Italian edition: “Qualunque cosa si muove da luogo può fare sette vie: in su, uno; in giù, l’altro; in destra, il terzo; in sinistra, il quarto; colà lunge movendosi di qui, o di là venendo in qua; il settimo, andando attorno. Questi adunque tutti movimenti desidero io essere in pittura” (Alberti, 1435–1436/1973, vol. 3, §43, p. 74). 16  Italian edition: “ed in effetto ciò che è nell’universo per essenza, presenza o immaginazione, esso [il pittore] lo ha prima nella mente, e poi nelle mani” (Leonardo da Vinci, 1498–1515/2000, §9). 14

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It seems that Alberti (1435–1436/1966, p. 96) was also well aware of all this: “When we have an istoria17 to paint, we will first think out the method and the order to make it most beautiful; we will make our drawings and models of all the istoria and every one of its parts first of all; we will call our friends to give advice about it. We will force ourselves to have every part well thought out in our mind from the beginning, so that in the work we will know each thing ought to be done and where located”.18 This passage from Alberti, in which he recommends that the painter “work out his entire ‘invention’ in advance, before he sets brush to surface” (Grafton, 1999, p. 56), or, according to Spencer (1957, p. 38), should “have his composition completely thought out in advance before he ever begins the actual construction of his work of art”, would deserve to be glossed word by word analytically. In fact, each word alludes to fundamental constructs of the psychology of art of a Gestalt matrix: “we will first think out” (visual thinking, perceptual reasoning) “the method and the order to make it most beautiful” (perceptual-representational strategies); “we will make our drawings and models” (representations of mental representations) “of all the istoria” (Gestalt as a whole) “and every one of its parts” (the whole and its parts mutually determined); “we will call our friends to give advice about it” (sharing observations). “We will force ourselves to have every part well thought out in our mind from the beginning” (mental representation/mental image), etc. Visual thinking, perceptual reasoning and, in particular, perceptual-­ representational strategies devised by artists to narrate stories in a continuous mode constitute the pivotal points of our study into continuous pictorial narrative, which we shall enter into after a quick look at three areas of study, with the intention not to offer a theoretical background for each of them, but to briefly examine certain aspects that are functional to the presentation of the study itself: the history of art, in which continuous narrative has been studied in depth, focusing initially only on the narrative modes identified and analysed in this field, but resorting to it often in the course of this study to deal with the iconographic repertoire on which our study is based; psychological research, in which, unlike the history of art, specific studies concerning continuous narrative are few in number, and here we will be mentioning only some constructs and theoretical lines useful for contextualising the studies  Some scholars, as Spencer, use the term “istoria”, others, as Grayson, “historia”. For a review of relevant studies on these terms, see, for example, Grafton (1999). 18  Latin edition: “Caeterum cum historiam picturi sumus, prius diutius excogitabimus quonam ordine et quibus modis eam componere pulcherrimum sit. Modulosque in chartis conicientes, tum totam historiam, tum singulas eiusdem historiae partes commentabimur, amicosque omnes in ea re consulemus. Denique omnia apud nos ita praemeditata esse elaborabimus, ut nihil in opere futurum sit, quod non optime qua id sit parte locandum intelligamus” (Alberti, 1435–1436/1972, §61, pp. 102, 104, our italics). Italian edition: “E quando aremo a dipignere storia, prima fra noi molto penseremo qual modo e quale ordine in quella sia bellissima, e faremo nostri concetti e modelli di tutta la storia e di ciascuna sua parte prima, e chiameremo tutti gli amici a consigliarci sopra a ciò. E così ci sforzeremo avere ogni parte in noi prima ben pensata, tale che nella opera abbi a essere cosa alcuna, quale non intendiamo ove e come debba essere fatta e collocata” (Alberti, 1435–1436/1973, vol. 3, §61, p. 102, our italics). 17

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themselves; and the psychology of art of a Gestalt matrix, examining some research lines drawn by Arnheim (1969, 1974) and developed, particularly in some of his latest studies, by Argenton (2008, 2019), which, from both a theoretical and methodological point of view, is the perspective that guides the work itself, to which we will consistently resort in the course of the book.

1.1.1 The Perspective from Art History: Narrative Modes The number of art-historical studies on continuous narrative is considerable, and they extend from the earliest documentation of this genre, of which we have seen some examples before, to the post-Renaissance period, with numerous studies centred on individual art-historical periods, from which differences in definition and interpretation emerge, given the obvious diversity, for example, between a Greek vase or a Hellenistic frieze and a Renaissance painting. In studies on the topic, based on in-depth analyses and descriptions of the artistic works considered, a crucial, seemingly terminological, issue concerns the narrative modes used to represent stories. The categorical names identifying such modes are diverse, also due to the epochs and artistic products they refer to (e.g. Horváth, 2016). Stories, as we have seen, are about episodes or events and revolve around actions or happenings that occur and unfold in space and time. The artists, in addition to deciding which episodes or events of the story they want to represent, have to choose how they wants to arrange on the pictorial surface the scenes representing the selected episodes or events, “how to portray protagonists, how to represent the space or spaces” in which the story occurs and “how to shape the time during which the story unfolds”. Therefore, the artist must decide “the manner in which he wishes to compose” these episodes or events within the visual field (Dehejia, 1990, p. 374). The studies to which literature mainly refers to define the narrative modes are those by Robert (1881, 1919), Wickhoff (1900) and Weitzmann (1947), from which a categorical tripartition originated  – summarised in Table  1.1  – that forms “the foundation of discussion of narrative in ancient art” (Stansbury-O’Donnell, 1999, p. 1), as well as in the subsequent historic-artistic periods. Table 1.1  Taxonomy of narrative modes Robert (1881, 1919) Wickhoff (1900) Weitzmann (1947)

Narrative mode Complete (kompletive Verfahren) Complementary (komplettierend) Simultaneous

Narrative mode Situational (Situationsbilder) Isolating (distinguirend) Monoscenic

Narrative mode Chronicling (Chroniken-Stil) Continuous (kontinuirend) Cyclic continuous

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A first mode is defined complete (kompletive Verfahren) (Robert, 1919), complementary (komplettierend) (Wickhoff, 1900) or simultaneous (Weitzmann, 1947), in which several moments of a story are represented in the same image: “within the limits of a single scene several actions take place at the same time, that is, simultaneously”, without repeating any of the participants (Weitzmann, 1947, p. 14). A second mode of narration is called situational (Situationsbilder) (Robert, 1881), isolating (distinguirend) (Wickhoff, 1900) or monoscenic (Weitzmann, 1947), in which a scene or a moment of a story is represented in a single image or in which the essence of a story – the “pregnant moment”, according to Lessing – is distilled. The third narrative mode is identified with the terms chronicling (Chroniken-­ Stil) (Robert, 1881), continuous (kontinuirend) (Wickhoff, 1900) or cyclic (Weitzmann, 1947), by which Weitzmann (1947, p. 17), in reference to Hellenistic art, means “a series of consecutive compositions with separate and centered actions, repeating the actors in each and so observing at the same time the rules of the unity of time and place”. According to Weitzmann (1957, p. 83), the “continuous narrative” – “whereby the individual scenes are placed in front a unifying landscape” – would appear to be a derivation of the “cyclic narrative”. And Weitzmann (1947, p. 35) points out that “the term cyclic is not meant to be a substitution for continuous, but a wider and more general term, to which the latter is subordinated as a special case”. Wickhoff (1900, p. 8) takes as an example of continuous narration the first miniature contained in the Vienna Genesis (sixth century) (see Chap. 6, Fig. 6.32), which represents “the Temptation and Fall of Adam and Eve” and “is set in a landscape without any division of scenes, so that our first parents appear three times within the same boundary lines and on the same ground, first facing one another, at the moment of the fall, next hurrying to the bush, and finally cowering among its branches in order to conceal themselves from God”. As already pointed out, the repetition of characters is unanimously assumed by art scholars as a distinctive feature of the continuous mode, regardless of cultures or epoch, while another trait  – “unifying landscape” (Weitzmann, 1957, p.  83), or “same ground” (Wickhoff, 1900, p. 8) – frequently referred to as distinctive, would seem not to be uniformly referable to the entire artistic history of continuous narrative, presenting even substantial differentiations according to periods and/or artefacts; in other words, “the question of what constitutes a unified context remains a ticklish one” (Andrews, 1998, p. 122). For example, Brilliant (1984, p. 30) claims that continuous narrative “depends from repeated appearance of protagonistic characters”, and in his study of Roman art he cites among the classical examples the Tabula Iliaca Capitolina, in particular the panel showing “Aeneas fleeing from the doomed city of Troy in three successive phases, all contained within the same setting” (Brilliant, 1984, p. 56), or the Bayeux Tapestry, which recalls “the reliefs of Trajan’s Column in Rome, especially in the reiterated presence of principal protagonists of the historical drama, Harold and William” (Brilliant, 1997, p. 113).

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Pächt (1962, p. 8, n. 1), in his study on the miniature, specifies that “it is the very essence of continuous narrative to render changes visible by comparing the same person in different movements or states”. Similarly, with reference to Hellenistic-Byzantine art, for Bianchi-Bandinelli (1955, p. 149) “continuous narrative” consists in “presenting the various episodes of a single narrative against the same background and, in effect, uniting them in the same composition, the same figures always being repeated for each episode”. The episodes or events can be only two and occur in different time periods but must show the same character, or the same characters, in at least two different actions, which are not “separated into definitively segregate regions of space. They share a background that may contain landscape or architectural element or may be completely blank, consisting of so-called negative space” (Von Dippe, 2007, p. 17). Of the same opinion is Lavin (1990, p. 2) who, in her notable study on the medieval fresco, analysing the episodes that appear in individual panels within cycles of frescoes, adopts the three categories identified by Wickhoff, thus summarising them: “monoscenic, in which the main elements of a story are concentrated into one framed scene – the main figures are shown once in a defined space, performing a single action that telescopes much of the story; polyscenic, meaning more than one moment is represented – the figures are still shown once but are doing more than one thing, moving the story ahead by more than one episode; and continuous, in which the same figure is seen more than once performing the actions of diverse episodes of the story in one continuous setting, whether landscape or architectural”. In his study on storytelling in Christian art, Lubbock (2006) also intends continuous narrative in the same way, identifying it in some artistic works, as, for example: a panel of the Pistoia pulpit, sculpted by Giovanni Pisano, in which “everything seems to be taking place simultaneously: Annunciation, St. Joseph, Mary on her bed adoring baby Jesus, the midwives washing him, the angels summoning the shepherds”, specifying that “this exemplifies one of the conventions for suggesting the sequence of events – continuous narration as it has been called” (Lubbock, 2006, p. 97); the Tribute Money, by Masaccio (see Fig. 1.6), an “example of continuous narration, on account of the two flanking episodes of St Peter fishing for money and paying the tax collector”, integrated with the central scene in which Christ is surrounded by his disciples, including St. Peter (Lubbock, 2006, pp. 212, 283); and the Jacob and Esau panel, on the Gates of Paradise kept in the Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, in Florence, in which “Ghiberti adopted so-called continuous narration […], showing as many as eight separate episodes” (Lubbock, 2006, p. 229). Schapiro (2002), reflecting on the differences between cyclic and continuous, proposes a subdivision of narrative modes into four categories: monoscenic, synoptic19  – a term introduced by Snodgrass (1982, p.  4) to refer to the first category described above, that is, the simultaneous mode: “within a single picture two or

 For the synoptic mode, see also Lowenstam (1992, pp. 173–174), Snodgrass (1987, pp. 135–146, 153–156), and Stansbury-O’Donnell (1999, pp. 5–7). 19

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more successive episode, but without repeating any individual figures” – cyclic and continuous. For cyclic, Schapiro intends, “a series of discrete episodes from a longer story that are physically separated from one another (e.g. metopes on a temple), and the figure of the protagonist is repeated in each episode”, and for continuous “a variant of the cyclic, in which there are no physical boundaries between the individual episodes” (Schapiro, 2002, p. 8). The progress of research produced further categorial terms to indicate the narrative modes and Stansbury-O’Donnell (1999, pp. 1–8), with reference to the studies on ancient art and naming them “types”, identifies eight modes (Table 1.2): monoscenic, synoptic/simultaneous, progressive, unified, cyclical, continuous, episodic

Fig. 1.6  Masaccio (Tommaso di ser Giovanni di Mone Cassai) (San Giovanni Valdarno, 1401– Rome, 1428), Tribute Money, 1424–1428, fresco, 255 × 598 cm. Cappella Brancacci, Chiesa di Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence. Public domain

Table 1.2  Modes of pictorial narrative Type Monoscenic Synoptic/simultaneous Progressive Unified Cyclical Continuous Episodic Serial

No. of scenes 1 1 1 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+

Characters No repeats No repeats No repeats No repeats Repeats Repeats No repeats No repeats

Adapted from Stansbury-O’Donnell (1999, p. 7)

Time One moment Multiple Multiple One Multiple Multiple Multiple Multiple

Space One space One Multiple Multiple Multiple One landscape Multiple Multiple

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and serial,20 indicating – and this is what we are interested to highlight here – the cyclical and continuous mode as the only ones in which a character/s is/are repeated within a single work. The situation is not different if one moves to other cultural contexts. For example, Dehejia (1997, p. 5), in accordance with the art historians considered above, underlines that in Buddhist art the repetition of a character “indicates that we are seeing him in different spaces at successive moments of time”, thus describing this narrative mode: “Continuous narratives depict successive episodes of a story, or successive events of an episode, within a single frame, repeating the figure of the protagonist in the course of the narrative. […] The comprehension of continuous narrative requires awareness that more than one moment of time is presented within a single visual frame, and that multiple appearances of the protagonist indicate successive phases of action” (Dehejia, 1997, p. 15). And, in analysing the narrative modes used by early Indian artists to present the “Buddhist legends”, Dehejia (1997) identifies seven modes: monoscenic – subdivided into two subcategories, “being in a state” (i.e. the representation of a single, climax episode in which the action has already taken place) and, on the contrary, “being in action” – synoptic (used in a wider sense than by Snodgrass, i.e. including in it the repetition of figures), continuous and linear (corresponding to cyclic), to which Dehejia adds “conflated”21 and “narrative networks”. Conflated narrative “is complementary to the synoptic mode” and is distinguished by the fact that “while multiple episodes of a story or multiple scenes of an episode are presented, the figure of the protagonist is conflated instead of being repeated from one scene to the next; this characteristic overlapping manner of presentation undermines temporal succession even further” (Dehejia, 1997, p. 25). However, it should be considered that some of these modes of narration can also be co-present, as shown, for example, by Schmitt (2004), who, analysing the Holkham Bible Picture Book and the Queen Mary’s Psalter, finds the combination of continuous and simultaneous modes within single images. In short, if, on the one hand, the study of artworks that are stylistically and technically different and belong to diverse historical periods or cultures induces scholars to make increasingly subtle distinctions between modes of narration, given also the  It is appropriate to give a brief definition of the other modes added to monoscenic, synoptic/ simultaneous, cyclical and continuous, that is of progressive, unified, episodic and serial, introduced by different scholars. Progressive refers to works in which there is no “repetition of characters” but “temporal progression from one part of the work to another”; unified narrative is used “for the case in which there are multiple scenes that belong to same moment of time, but each scene occupying a different space”; episodic narrative, which can be understood as a variant of “progressive”, identifies the representation of “several different episodes within a single story”; serial narrative, finally, refers to the “telling of a single myth on a series of contiguous yet self-contained panels, where the characters appear but once” (Stansbury-O’Donnell, 1999, p. 6). 21  “Conflation” is a term used by Weitzmann (1957). Dehejia (1990), while citing Weitzmann at the beginning of his essay, does not link the term to Weitzman’s studies and in fact seems to intend it in a different way. For Weitzman, as we shall see later, conflation is not a narrative mode but a compositional device. 20

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innumerable narrative solutions conceived by the artists, on the other, however, it shows a trend reversal. For example, Andrews, in his study of Renaissance art, proposes “to avoid the plethora of labels and the proliferation of categories”. Therefore, he suggests adopting only the syntagma continuous narrative “to describe all of the apparently paradoxical images in which the passage of time is represented within a unified context – whether the temporal flow is immediately obvious or somewhat disguised; whether the spaces of time involved are greatly extended, or of relatively brief duration; and whether or not the same actors appear over and over again” (Andrews, 1998, p. 126, our italics). The meticulous scrutiny of narrative modes reflects an analogous care taken by art historians in their studies of continuous narrative works, produced in different periods and with different media. These studies are mainly aimed at describing episodes or events narrated in the work  – e.g. the ‘physical appearance’ (i.e. dress, colouring, etc.) or other elements that allow the recognition of repeated characters, distinguishing them from other characters present in the scenes of the work  – at interpreting the work or its components and at illustrating technical-stylistic aspects that characterise it. As already pointed out, in the remainder of the work, we will resort to such studies, which, from our point of view, are very useful mainly for the description of artworks. As regards our research, these studies appear less useful for the analysis of artworks because they are centred on the ‘recognition’ of the characters, which is related to the ‘identification’ of the characters. As we see it, in the process of identification and recognition of characters, the first segment – identification – refers to discovering the same figure/s in the different scenes on the basis of perceptual features, while the second refers to recognising the identity of these figures. In such art-historical studies, the analysis is mainly focused on the “recognition” of the characters and therefore does not consider the aspect of primary interest to us, namely, the perceptual one that, as we shall see, also involves other dimensions of analysis. It is not within our scope to enter into the question of art historians’ choices of analysis nor of the definition of narrative modes. For the purposes of our research, based only on works realised in the continuous mode – in the sense generally shared by the scholars to whom we have referred – two points should be made in advance, which will be further specified in the course of this study. The first concerns the ‘setting’ or ‘context’ in which the scenes and repeated characters are represented, which several scholars read as a unitary background against which the various episodes of a narrative are presented (e.g. Wickhoff, 1900). This may well be true for certain works, yet very often, as we shall see, the ground is appropriately modulated in relation to the scenes represented; hence it seems appropriate to refer generically to a “same space” in which more than one event is shown (Andrews, 2009, p. 287). The second point, again resorting to Wickhoff, concerns the claim that the narrated episodes are “set in a landscape without any division of scenes”. As Schmitt (2004, p. 126) notes, “one can observe in the very example from the Vienna Genesis, the Temptation and Fall of Adam and Eve (see Chap. 6, Fig. 6.32) that Wickhoff used to establish his definition of continuous narration, that the three pairs of Adam and Eve are set off not only from one another but also from one another by trees”.

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Weitzmann (1947, pp. 29–31) also refers to separation devices when discussing the “distribution of scenes” or their “physical relation” in the artwork and shows how the solutions adopted in Greek art to distinguish and connect scenes are manifold. And Andrews, dealing with the same topic, also composes a rich catalogue of means used in Renaissance art to separate one action or episode from another (Andrews, 2009, p. 293 and ff.). Not only in the Vienna Genesis but also in the works analysed by the scholars just mentioned, as well as in the vast majority of the works in our study repertoire, and thus in the entire time span covered by it, the scenes in which there are repeated characters appear distinct from one another by separating devices, which act as perceptual cues used by the artist to organise the narration of his story, in the same way as other perceptual devices, as we will see in detail in the analysis of the study repertoire itself.

1.1.2 The Perspective from Psychology and Neighbouring Fields Though art historians have provided a significant contribution to the understanding of visual narrative, they have perhaps multiplied the labels of narrative modes with little chance of coordinating them. Yet psychologists have done much less, for specific research on continuous pictorial narrative is to our knowledge very scarce, even though for psychology stories and events constitute relevant objects of study. Research on stories is “one of the central targets of mainstream scientific psychology” (László, 2008, p.  1) and flourished with the rise of cognitivism (e.g. Argenton & Messina, 2000), in parallel with the development of theories on the architecture of the mind and the study of the cognitive structures used to process and represent knowledge: essentially, structures that represent a set of interrelated concepts, such as “frame” (Minsky, 1975), a data structure for representing stereotyped situations; “schema” (Rumelhart, 1975), the “building block” of knowledge; or “script” (Schank, 1975), a structure that represents a sequence of events. In this perspective, an event can be considered as “a segment of time at a given location that is conceived by an observer to have a beginning and an end” (Zacks & Tversky, 2001, p. 17, our italics), thus marking the cognitive and subjective characterisation of time, while story is examined by distinguishing two aspects: “story grammar”, considered as “a rule system devised for the purpose of describing the regularities found in one kind of text”, and “story schema”, meant as “a mental structure consisting of expectations about the way in which stories proceed”, assuming its existence as a basis for understanding stories (Mandler, 1984, p. 18). A ‘double register’ is therefore postulated here as well but, in this case, considering the structure of the story and the cognitive structures that the reader activates and instantiates in order to understand the events narrated in a story.

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The remarkable development of psychological research on stories has led to what is termed the “cognitive turn” in narrative studies and to fertile exchanges between different fields, primarily between psychology, artificial intelligence, linguistics and literary studies, giving rise to new disciplinary denominations, such as “cognitive narratology” (Herman, 2014). Considering only artistic narrative, the genres studied are varied and include “fictional genres such as poetry, plays, novels, short stories, and films” (Oatley & Djikic, 2018, p. 1) but also comics, graphic novels and digital storytelling, addressed with research approaches that constitute “a set of loosely confederated heuristic schemes” (Herman, 2009, p.  79). Recently, the definition of a field specifically dedicated to “visual narrative” has been proposed as a subfield of cognitive science, focused on the representation of sequential images, in which the relevant studies carried out “in a variety of sub-disciplines of cognitive science (event cognition, scene perception, psycholinguistics, clinical psychology, literacy, narrative comprehension, communications, cultural psychology, and more) could converge” (Cohn & Magliano, 2020, p. 216). In this vast and articulated panorama, which it is impossible to account for here, only rare studies on continuous pictorial narrative, moreover carried out not in the strict realm of psychology but in neighbouring fields, can be found. Ranta (e.g. 2002, 2011, 2021), referring to continuous and polyscenic pictorial narration and addressing this issue from a semiotic-cognitive perspective and in theoretical terms, postulates that the artist, in order to respond to the “demands and needs of a certain public” (Ranta, 2002, p. 346), may have chosen these narrative modes relying on activation in the beholders of those mental structures labelled with the terms schema or script and postulated by early cognitivism. Therefore, Ranta assumes that “the beholder interprets a work of art according to acquired category systems and habits that the work has been adapted to” (Ranta, 2011). The few experimental investigations into continuous pictorial narrative can, instead, be traced back to the field of perception, understood in a broad sense. Research has been studying the perception of events since Wundt (1893), and the extensive literature on the subject, with respect to the arts, mainly concerns musical perception (e.g. Wertheimer, 1910; see also Wertheimer, 2014) and the perception of apparent motion and motion pictures (e.g. Arnheim, 1932, 1957; Wertheimer, 1912). Few studies are concerned with the representation of events in static pictorial images, among which we can mention, for example, Cutting’s research mainly on monoscenic pictorial images, aimed however only at analysing the ways in which movement can be represented (e.g. Cutting, 2002),22 or Massironi’s research on the “visual indexes of time” (Massironi et  al., 1989) and on the “representation of  Cutting (2002, p. 1167) mentions stories, but does not seem to recognise the specificity of continuous narration: “Images in art, at least prior to the mid-nineteenth century […] are fashioned so that the composition reflects an event as it would have unfolded over some, often extended, period of time. Often multiple, related images  – triptychs, chapel walls and ceilings, scroll and cloud paintings, tapestries, and the like – tell a longer story with many episodes, each of which is captured in separately portrayed moments. In this manner the representation of motion only becomes a problem if one thinks of any picture as a frozen instant in time”. 22

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events in art” (Massironi, 2002, p. 187 and ff.). Massironi examines various types of artefacts: scientific sequential graphics, cartoon tables, continuous narrative works such as the Tabula Iliaca Capitolina and Trajan’s Column frequently cited in the literature on the subject, cycles of the Christian tradition narrated in several images, stories of secular life illustrated in tables and linear patterns created ad hoc. He assumes that “critical to creating a link between successive images is the presence of permanent features common to all of them. […] Permanences must be combined with meaningful variations. Permanences group images into a single sequence. Variations provide information about temporal ordering and highlight differences in temporal position. The perceived temporal evolution of a sequence of images is thus based on a trade-off between permanence and variation”. The trade-off between persistence and transformation “seems to stimulate a process that may be called cognitive drag. Information acquired during the observation of the first image is dragged onto the second and integrated with it” (Massironi, 2002, pp. 187, 199, our italics). Massironi does not seem to distinguish works of continuous narrative from the other types of works he examines, as would also emerge from a third factor characterising narration that he identifies, namely, the temporal distance between images: “to produce linkable images, one must provide visual information to specify their temporal distance. This information will thus define the temporal dimension of the narrative by connecting each pair of static images more or less strongly” (Massironi, 2002, p. 187). To Massironi’s work is related one of the three experimental studies we traced on continuous pictorial narrative, which intersects developmental psychology and the visual arts. This research, conducted by Actis-Grosso and Zavagno (2008), investigates the general hypothesis that “the evolution of the representation of the time course in visual arts is mirrored in the evolution of the concept of time in children, who, according to Piaget (1946), undergo three stages in their ability to conceptualize time” (Actis-Grosso & Zavagno, 2008, p. 315). The authors used as research materials reproductions of pictorial works of continuous narrative – The Drowning and Salvage of Saints Cosma and Damiano by Fra Angelico and Miracle of the Child Falling from the Balcony by Simone Martini (see Chap. 5)  – line-drawing cartoon versions of these paintings and a comic strip, presenting them to 4–7-yearold children engaged in different tasks on time comprehension. What is interesting to highlight here is that the research results show that continuous narrative is understood by those children who are at Piaget’s Stage II of time conceptualisation, leading the authors to think “about a painter like Simone Martini as someone who has reached an intuitive knowledge concerning the representation of a time course, knowledge which corresponds to Stage II in the understanding of the concept of time in children” (Actis-Grosso & Zavagno, 2008, p.  324). More in general, the results of the research “suggest that the study of the visual arts can aid our understanding of the development of the concept of time” (Actis-Grosso & Zavagno, 2008, p. 315).

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Another research concerning continuous pictorial narrative is that conducted by Kalkofen and Strack (2012, 2018). It can be traced, in a broad sense, to the field of experimental aesthetics or empirical aesthetics, which also dates back to the beginnings of psychology, in particular to Fechner (1876), promoter also of psychophysics (Fechner, 1860/1966), and was redefined by Berlyne (1971, 1974) and later flanked by neuroaesthetics, which studies two main issues: aesthetic experience and aesthetic appreciation (Skov & Nadal, 2020; for a clarification of terminology, see Carbon, 2018). This too is a huge field, which basically concerns the analysis of perceptual and cognitive processes and psychological mechanisms that allow humans to experience and appreciate art, and causes or reasons that can explain artistic and aesthetic behaviour, studying various topics such as the classic question of preference (Fechner, 1876; Palmer et al., 2013), as well as emotion, pleasure or displeasure, appreciation, judgement, evaluation and so on  – all preceded by the adjective aesthetic. Such studies are undertaken predominantly in laboratory settings to control stimulus properties and/or to manipulate systematically specific stimulus features to quantify their effects, with predefined limits on duration of exposure to stimulus (e.g. Locher, 2014, 2015; Pelowski et  al., 2017), even if demands of ecological validity are emerging, also with regard to the observation time of the works (e.g. Carbon, 2017; Wagemans, 2011). Studying similar topics, neuroaesthetics is instead aimed at identifying the neural activities inherent to aesthetic experiences and to map brain areas involved in it, prevalently through neuroimaging techniques (e.g. Nadal & Chatterjee, 2019; Pearce et al., 2016). The stimuli used in this kind of research may concern simple forms, such as the rectangles employed by Fechner (1865) to study preferences for the golden ratio, or reproductions of artistic works, or, in limited cases, real artistic works observed in “ecological” conditions, primarily museums (Carbon, 2019)  – of which, as a rule, certain features are isolated, analysed and controlled, those of interest to the study, while the peculiarities of the artistic works in and of themselves or their perceptual organisation are not frequently considered (e.g. Koenderink, 2015). Nor is it common to consider the artwork in itself in research concerned with the artist, as the focus is predominantly on his/her art-making or creative processes (e.g. Locher, 2010; Mace, & Ward, 2002) or the artist’s skills, for example, in perception and drawing tasks (e.g. Kozbelt & Seeley, 2007; Chamberlain et al., 2019). And the same occurs in studies that try to model the interface between art-­making and art-viewing, considering their processual phases (e.g. Tinio, 2013), but without giving due attention to the work – the central element of the “artistic phenomenon”, given by the “relationship artist→work←‘enjoyer’ [fruitore]” (Argenton, 1996,

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p. 178)23 – which can be considered “a sort of ‘protocol’” that documents the processes of its creation (Argenton, 2019, p. 51). Turning now to the research conducted by Kalkofen and Strack (2012, 2018), mentioned above, the main aim pursued was to assess person repetition detection (PRD) in artworks. The authors used 12 reproductions of narrative works, divided into four types: biblical stories, voyages of discovery, saints’ legends and Greco-­ Roman traditional stories, presenting them to 16 university students (excluding art history students). They recorded oculomotor responses – eye-movement recordings in area of interest (AOI) – and verbal responses (thinking aloud), checking also the formal stimulus properties, balanced for: (a) type token ratio (TTR), i.e. “the proportion of the number of different persons depicted (types) to the total number of person depictions (tokens)”, distinct in low, medium and high; “(b) format (horizontal/vertical, i.e. orientation of the picture’s major extension); and (c) artistic category (painting/engraving)” (Kalkofen & Strack, 2012, p.  236, p.  239). The experiment was directed to test three hypotheses: (1) the higher the level of face processing, the greater the probability of PRD; (2) TTR and PRD are inversely related; and (3) PRD requires Inter-AOI-Saccades. The experimental subjects were engaged in four tasks: aesthetic judgement of the works considered; estimation of the average age of the persons shown in the single pictures; recognition in each picture of persons particularly similar to each other; and selection of the pictures in which at least one person appears repeatedly (Kalkofen & Strack, 2012, pp. 240–243). The results of the research confirmed hypotheses 1 and 3 but rejected hypothesis 2 and, as far as is of interest here, showed that “person repetition detections only occurred when a very broad hint was given by the similarity search instruction”, leading the authors to assume that “person repetitions can’t serve as a time course cue in visual arts  – at least for lay persons today  – they mostly are neglected” (Kalkofen & Strack, 2018, p. 9). Another research also of some interest to our study was conducted by McNamara et al. (2012) and is a “psychophysical experiment” that interweaves psychophysics

 Argenton (1996) focused one of his most important studies on the analysis of the artistic phenomenon and on an in-depth examination of the two segments that make up the phenomenon itself: “artistic behaviour”, i.e. “the set of cognitive and executive processes that lead the artist to the realisation of the work and that characterise the artist→work relationship”, and “aesthetic behaviour, i.e. the set of cognitive and executive processes that lead the ‘enjoyer’ [fruitore] to establish the artistry of the work and to ‘enjoy’ it, and that thus characterise the work←‘enjoyer’ relationship” (Argenton, 1996, p. 178), devoting an extensive treatment to the artistic work itself, which is ultimately the fulcrum on which the two behaviours hinge. Argenton uses the terms “fruire”, “fruizione” and “fruitore”, respectively translated with “enjoy”, “enjoyment” and “enjoyer”. As Verstegen specifies in editing Argenton’s book (2019, p. xxi, n 1 Ed.), “these Italian terms refer not only to drawing pleasure or satisfaction from something, but also to the use of something. In this sense, ‘fruizione’ does not necessarily have only a positive characterisation but can also be connoted in an opposite sense, giving rise to an act of negative critical judgment, censure, disapproval, etc. On this question, see Argenton (1996, pp. 274–275)”. 23

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and computer science, turning to investigate the understanding of continuous24 narrative paintings, using 9 stimuli.25 The experiment explored “the impact of SGD [Subtle Gaze Direction] on performance during a viewing of narrative art works” and was aimed at comparing “task performance in digital images across two groups of stimuli”. In one group no image alterations were used; in the other “small modulations” were applied to image panels in an effort to direct the viewers’ gaze. The participant’s task was to specify the order which they believed matched the intended sequence of the story in each work. The results “indicate that using a subtle gaze direction technique, which modulates the appropriate panel in the intended sequence, does indeed improve the precision of panel ordering” (McNamara et  al., 2012, pp. 64, 68). The difference in performance between the two groups was significant, except for one of the works used as a stimulus, i.e. the Tribute Money by Masaccio (see Fig.  1.6), for which there were no significant differences in performance between the two groups. McNamara et al. (2012, p. 66) point out that this result may be related to luminance, as Masaccio “has gradually decreased the luminance of the narrative art over the story” and therefore “this luminance change in itself would provide a strong enough visual cue” to enable all the participants “to correctly navigate the story”. In essence, with respect to our research, the studies mentioned above offer few direct suggestions, mainly because they are aimed at investigating the ability of the experimental subjects to capture, in particular, the repetition of the characters in the artworks presented and not the compositional strategies employed to render the temporal continuity in the works themselves. Furthermore, the length of time the subjects were allowed to observe each stimulus should be taken into account: in the case of research by Kalkofen and Strack (2012), the stimulus lasted for 45 seconds, for each of the research questions; in the case of research by McNamara et al. each image was presented “for a period of time proportional to the number of episodes in the image”, before “the user was allowed to respond”, always set in seconds (McNamara et al., 2012, p. 65). When dealing with complex images, as artworks are, it is difficult to draw conclusions from limited observation periods. On the other hand, these experimentally correct durations contrast with the ‘natural’ observation of a work, as indeed  Actually, the authors use the term “synoptic” but clearly referring to continuous narrative (as the syntagma is used by us), namely, to works “in which a character, or characters, are portrayed multiple times within a frame to convey that multiple actions are taking place” (McNamara et  al., 2012, p. 63). 25  As McNamara et al. (2012, p. 65) specify, “eleven images served as stimuli for the experiment, two of which were used for observer training”. In reality, the Authors present seven works, five of which are continuous narratives: Miraculous Draught of the Fishes by Konrad Witz, Adoration of the Magi by Gentile da Fabriano, Tribute Money by Masaccio, Story of Joseph by Biagio d’Antonio, and Landscape with Perseus and Andromeda, by an Anonymous artist, in Boscotrecase (see, for the first four, Chap. 5). Of the other two works, one is synoptic: Christ Taken Prisoner by Duccio di Buoninsegna; the other is a grandiose composite work, Maesta Altarpiece by Duccio di Buoninsegna, which contains the above Christ Taken Prisoner and other panels also of continuous narrative. 24

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Kalkofen and Strack (2012, p. 234, our italics) themselves narrate in the introduction to their research: “Our concern with this neglected phenomenon originated in an unusually long visit to the Campo Santo museum in Pisa in 1984. After repeated examinations of the reproductions of paintings by Benozzo Gozzoli (fifteenth century) [Piero di Puccio, fourteenth century],26 the thus far neglected triple appearance of Cain and Abel in La morte di Abele suddenly became apparent to the senior author”. In short, the issues raised by these studies are certainly relevant with respect to a question that also concerns the semiotic-cognitivist side, as in the case of the aforementioned research by Ranta (2002, 2011, 2021), as well as the art-historical side, and which we have already mentioned – that is, whether the observers of continuous pictorial narratives can be “perfectly comfortable” with this method (Andrews, 1998, p. 25) – but the research approaches and procedures employed are quite different from our research interests and perspective, which we will describe below.

1.1.3 A Third Perspective: The View from the Psychology of Art McNamara et al. (2012), we have just seen, considering their subjects’ correct reading of Masaccio’s Tribute Money (Fig. 1.6; see also Chap. 5),27 suggest that “luminance changes could serve to guide direct gaze in imagery”, as it assumes “visual saliency” – i.e. “how likely people are to look at parts of an image” – similarly to other “image characteristics” that “draw the viewer’s attention” such as “color, size and orientation” (McNamara et al., 2012, pp. 64, 66). Andrews (1988, pp. 80–82) refers to the same painting, the Tribute Money, to exemplify the specificity assumed by continuous pictorial narrative during the Renaissance in terms of “interplay or interchange between two and three dimensions, between the two-bidimensional design and the illusion it creates”, examining how Masaccio organises “pictorial space” and “order of occurrence” of episodes and the careful orchestration of the “set of movements” of the characters into the “narrative flows” of the story.  As Kalkofen and Strack (2018, p.  4) clarify: “After repeated examinations of the coloured engravings of paintings by Piero di Puccio (fourteenth century) the thus far neglected triple appearance in La morte di Abele suddenly became apparent to the senior author”. The coloured engravings to which Kalkofen and Strack (2018) refer were realised by Carlo Lasinio in the nineteenth century (see Chap. 4). 27  The Tribute Money is a work already mentioned and studied also by psychologists. For example, the work is quoted by Kubovy (1986, p.  2) to illustrate some perspectival features: “Take, for instance, Masaccio’s Tribute Money […]. The slanted lines representing the horizontal features of the building that recede into the distance, often called orthogonals because they represent lines in the scene that are orthogonal to the picture plane, converge at a point known as the vanishing point for this perspective construction […]. The vanishing point falls slightly to the right of Christ’s head, thus drawing attention to the central actor in the drama Masaccio has represented”. 26

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And Giorgio Vasari too wrote about this work, more than a century after its completion, in his Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors and Architects (Vasari, 1568/1912–1915, vol. 2, pp.  183–190), considering it “most notable” (p.  189). According to Vasari, like all Masaccio’s art, this work was the fruit of intense study – “through continuous study he learned a lot” (p.  184); “he was very zealous at his labours, and a marvellous master of the difficulties of perspective” (p. 185) – and was a model for generations of painters “who have sought to learn that art have ever gone to this chapel [Cappella Brancacci, in Florence], to learn and to grasp the precepts and the rules for good work from the figures of Masaccio” (p. 190, our italics). Although Masaccio did not leave any written theorisations on art, unlike other artists of the Renaissance period, who also recognised his greatness, such as Leon Battista Alberti28 or Leonardo da Vinci29 – but it has to be remembered that Masaccio died at the age of 27 – it must be assumed that he was well aware of the rules he elaborated and employed to do art well. These rules may concern both devices used to organise the pictorial space and obtain certain “spatial effects” and “surface relationships”, as discussed, for example, by Andrews (1988, p.  80), as well as, according to the aforementioned McNamara et al. (2012), perceptual devices that may orient the reading order, such as “luminance”.30 It is not a coincidence that Kanizsa (1991) emphasises that “those who draw possess, in addition to a mastery of techniques, a more or less clear knowledge of the rules according to which the visual system processes the information contained in light”; a knowledge, in practice, of the “rules of vision”. Thus, artists know how to ensure that shapes or figures in their work “are seen as a group”, for example, by

 Leon Battista Alberti (1435–1436/1972, p.  33), in the dedication of Della Pittura to Filippo Brunelleschi, thus writes: “… I recognized in many, but above all in you, Filippo [Brunelleschi], and in our great friend the sculptor Donatello and in the others, Nencio [Ghiberti], Luca [della Robbia] and Masaccio, a genius for every laudable enterprise in no way inferior to any of the ancient who gained fame in these arts”. Italian edition: “… compresi in molti ma prima in te, Filippo [Brunelleschi], e in quel nostro amicissimo Donato [Donatello] scultore, e in quegli altri Nencio [Ghiberti] e Luca [della Robbia] e Masaccio, essere a ogni lodata cosa ingegno da non posporli a qual si sia stato antiquo e famoso in queste arti” (Alberti, 1435–1436/1972, p. 32). 29  Leonardo is even more direct: “Afterwards this [i.e., after Giotto] art declined again, because everyone imitated the pictures that were already done; thus it went on from century to century until Tomaso, of Florence, nicknamed Masaccio, showed by his perfect works how those who take for their standard any one but nature – the mistress of all masters – weary themselves in vain”. Italian edition: “Dopo questo [Giotto] l’arte ricadde, perché tutti imitavano le fatte pitture, e così andò declinando, insino a tanto che Tomaso fiorentino, scognominato Masaccio, mostrò con opra perfetta come quegli che pigliavano per altere altro che la natura, maestra de’ maestri, s’affaticavano invano” (Richter, 1883, §660). 30  Luminance refers to “the amount of light reflected by the surfaces reaching the retina”, and it “is the product of the incident light and the reflectance of the surfaces” (Soranzo et al., 2009, p. 463; see also Agostini & Galmonte, 2002). The agreement of perceptionists on the term brightness is not unanimous and sometimes it is also used as an alternative to lightness. Following Gilchrist’s clarification (2015, p.  342), “brightness is perceived luminance and lightness is perceived reflectance”. 28

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depicting them close together or pairing them by similarity of colour or giving them the same direction. Just as artists know that “in order to represent three-dimensional bodies”, they must use “certain devices (perspective, relative size, interposition, aerial perspective, chiaroscuro, shadows)” so that the treated surface “structures the light in such a way as to produce precisely the desired effects”. And again, they know how to “evoke in the viewer the impression of illumination and that of the characteristics of the various materials”. These “knowledge” and “rules” are part of the “profession of a visual operator” that, as Kanizsa continues, painters have discovered and used over the centuries without having to wait for the results of studies by Wertheimer on “principles of phenomenal unification”, by Gibson on texture gradients, by Katz on the “modes of appearance” of colours, by Hering and by Musatti on “chromatic contrast and equalization” and by Metelli on “phenomenal transparency” (Kanizsa, 1991, pp. 81–83, quoted in Argenton, 2019, pp. 50–51). Kanizsa (1991, p. 83) further adds that, “while the research of these scholars was aimed at discovering the laws of the functioning of visual perception in general”, that of painters tried to identify “the means to represent visual reality”, but nonetheless “they were doing research also into vision and every technical discovery was also a contribution to the knowledge of how the visual system works”. Consequently, according to Kanizsa, “experimental phenomenology and painting complement each other and, since the results emerging from these two fields cannot be in contradiction, one is a testing ground for the other” (Kanizsa, 1991, pp. 82–83, quoted in Argenton, 2019, pp. 50–51). In agreement with these considerations, Argenton (2019, p. 51) points out, however, that “painters have not been and are not driven exclusively to find ‘the means to represent visual reality’, which would otherwise mean that they are only excellent illustrators or experts in graphic or pictorial techniques. Above all, they are interested in facing and resolving their most important ‘professional’ problem  – the problem of style – namely, to identify the dynamic and expressive forms through which to make perceivable specific meanings that […] essentially concern the dynamics of human existence conditions, or, to put it another way, the vital aspects of human experience”.31 The question of the relationship between research on vision and pictorial research, by the way, is a recurring motif in psychological literature, where it is still suggested that “art and the science of vision can learn a lot from each other” (Spillmann, 2007, p. 427), and an experimentalist admits that, after collaborating with artists and observing artworks no longer as a ‘stimulus’, he looks “differently at art” and also his “view on visual perception has changed” (Wagemans, 2011, p. 672). However, it is not so much this question, although relevant, that we are interested in exploring here, as the gap between what the artist knows and puts into his works – perceptual knowledge and compositional knowledge  – and what scholars are

 With regard to style in art, considered as a relevant object of psychological research, see Argenton (1989, 1996, pp. 142–158). 31

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searching for in artworks. Leaving aside other disciplines and taking into account only the two areas mentioned above, art historians and critics, in addition to the attribution and dating of artistic works or the relationships between artworks, are mainly concerned with the reading of artworks in thematic, symbolic, stylistic and technical terms, not usually considering perceptological aspects. Conversely, experimental psychologists study works of art specially to find confirmation of perceptual phenomena, often single phenomena, bound as they are to the control of variables, generally avoiding to delve into art-historical aspects.32 We can add in passing that, considering the limits of the experimental inquiry into art, Arnheim (1992a, p. 176) appropriately notes that these are not only due to the constraints imposed by the use of the experimental method but also to the fact that “too many of the researchers trained as psychologists were insufficiently acquainted with the arts, their methods and objectives, their history and their makers”. And this remark seems to be shared also today by those interested in neuroaesthetics: “In isolation, the approach has its limitations. For example, neuroscientific approaches are not ideally suited for extracting the historical, social, and cultural context within which works are produced and appreciated. As such, multimodal and interdisciplinary approaches that incorporate neuroscientific approaches would appear to be particularly fruitful for advancing our understanding of aesthetic phenomena” (Chatterjee & Vartanian, 2016, p. 189). We might add, more simply, that in general psychology and art history have not found proper ways to make their findings amenable to each other, as Verstegen (2013) points out, although attempts to integrate the two sides are not lacking (Bullot & Reber, 2013). In essence, if we look globally at the two areas of study, limited only to research on the artist-work relationship, it is as if a split in the artist’s knowledge would appear  – on the one hand, attention to perceptual aspects and, on the other, to technical-­stylistic aspects – which contrasts with the multifaceted oneness of an artist’s ‘tools of the trade’ and his “artistic personality” (Argenton, 1996);33 one need

 With due exceptions, including a frequently cited study by Weisberg (2004), dedicated to reconstructing the compositional process of Picasso’s Guernica, in which, however, the analysis of the work follows criteria of a critical-artistic type, setting aside perceptual ones. For a different analysis of Guernica, see Arnheim (1962). 33  Argenton (1996, pp. 261–271) introduces the construct “artistic personality” to refer to what the artists “show us about themselves in a work, through their personal style, namely through the ‘unrepeatable and very personal’ cognitive and executive manipulation  – characterised by their skill and possible creativity – that each is able to perform in his executive field”. Argenton therefore makes a distinction from the general construct of “personality”, which scholars often use, in the belief that “an expert and careful reading of an artistic work provides all the data necessary to know or interpret the personality type or traits or the feelings or thoughts or eventually psychological disorders of the person who created it”. And Argenton makes this distinction between “personality” and “artistic personality”, inter alia, to underline once again how the artwork displays aspects that are closely connected with the personal, cognitive and executive activity of the artist, namely with his/her style. 32

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only think, for instance, of Leonardo da Vinci and his countless studies on the rules of both vision and composition (Messina Argenton & Prest, 2019). The psychology of art of a Gestalt matrix, among other things, tries to remedy this ‘split’, along the masterly lines traced by Arnheim, some of which we will briefly mention below and which we will go into in greater depth later in this study. Arnheim (1982, pp. 13–14) points out the unproductivity, “when considering the psychology of the arts as a science”, of “experimentation in the strict sense” and the weakness of studies of experimental aesthetics, since such studies have to restrict themselves to “questions of quantity, dimension, or intensity in order to use measurement and statistics” and, if they attempt to proceed “from simple configurations and mere combinations of colors to the analysis of real works of art, they come up against a very specific choice to make: either confine themselves to inquiring particular dimensions, or abandon the rigor of experimental verification”.34 The most appropriate perspective to inquire into the study of art is phenomenological research, namely, “the type of psychology that, though being just as scientific, when it comes to dealing with the complexities of the human mind relies on description, demonstration and informal interpretation” (Arnheim, 1982, p. 14, our italics). In his research Argenton, following Arnheim, adopts phenomenological observation as the privileged, if not the only, methodology to deal with the complexity and the variety of artistic works and proposes an extension of Arnheim’s approach35: “to study the structure, configuration and form of the artistic image – the object under scrutiny – involving more observers of differing expertise with the aim of obtaining accurate descriptions and producing possible interpretations of the object itself” (Argenton, 2019, p. xx), thus also taking up the suggestions offered by the interobservation method, pioneered by Bozzi (1978, 2019). As Bozzi argues (2019, p. 198), when “descriptions are generated by several observers working together under no constraints, the description will be more reliable and more valid than if it were produced by a single observer operating under constraints that seem irreproachable in conventional experimental practice”. The reasons for adopting a phenomenological procedure, in its basic lines, are well explained by Arnheim (1992a, p. 181): “The procedure I demonstrated is phenomenological. It presupposes some trust of the analyst in his own ability to view certain psychological appearances objectively and relevantly. His verdict, however, need not remain unchecked. It can and should be subjected to the judgment of other viewers, professional and otherwise. When, however, an object of research is too complex to be treated adequately with the experimental procedures now available, I have never been willing to reduce it to the level for which we now have the instruments. Without remorse I have settled for the most careful observation and description of which I was capable, this being my definition of science. The ostensive  A critical position, similar to Arnheim’s, is taken by other scholars, among whom Argenton (2019, Chap. 1) and Pizzo Russo (2004, passim). 35  Argenton, in his works, has always recognised “the heuristic value” of the studies carried out during his lifetime by Arnheim; see for example Argenton (2004a). 34

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method, the pointing with the index finger, the ‘Don’t you see that …?’ is not without risk, but, particularly in teaching, it has always been my choice”. Careful observation and description of artistic works are the constants of Arnheim’s studies, starting from the identification of elementary perceptual factors and their relations – i.e. “Wertheimer’s rules of grouping” – that embarks us “directly on the royal road to the understanding and experiencing of works of art or music” (Arnheim, 1992a, pp. 176–177, our italics). To these “rules” Arnheim devotes particular attention, recalling how they “tie visual items together” (Arnheim, 1974, p. 79) and find demonstration in “any organized pattern, be it simple or highly complex”: “Units close together in space will combine spontaneously as against others from which they are separated by distance. Units resembling one another as to size, shape, color, or motion connect with equal spontaneity. But structural ties of this nature serve not only to turn physical patches of shape or sound into organized patterns and thereby make them perceivable. What makes them so decisively valuable for the artist is that the formal connection thus established in the cortical projection areas of the receiver’s brain point to the very essence of the artist’s statement. This means no less that the innocence of vision, whose existence has been so eagerly but vainly denied by theoreticians, offers the most direct access to the very key of artistic expression” (Arnheim, 1992a, p. 177, our italics). What Arnheim argues for may find correspondence in later studies of neuroaesthetics, as in the case of Ramachandran and Hirstein (1999, pp. 17, 23), who maintain that “artists either consciously or unconsciously deploy certain rules or principles (we call them laws) to titillate the visual areas of the brain”, and that “perceptual grouping” can be in itself a source of “aesthetic experience”: “perceptual grouping to delineate figure and ground may be enjoyable in its own right, since it allows the organism to discover objects in noisy environments. Principles such as figure-ground delineation, closure and grouping by similarity may lead to a direct aesthetic response because the modules may send their output to the limbic system even before the relevant objects has been completely identified” (Ramachandran & Hirstein, 1999, p. 33). Concisely, as Koffka (1940, p.  198) observes, “the work of art as a perceived object comes into existence through the activity of an organism according to the laws of perception”. The artistic work can be analysed with an approach “from below” or “from above”: “Wertheimer used these terms to describe the difference between starting the analysis of a pattern with its components and proceeding to their combinations […] and beginning with the overall structure of the whole and descending from there to more and more subordinated parts” (Arnheim, 1974, p. 83). In both cases, phenomenological observation appears to be the royal road for direct access to the “essence” of the artist’s statement but also to the perceptual reasoning he elaborates while visually thinking about the composition of his work in order “to excogitate” (“excogitare”, Alberti; see note 18) the most appropriate perceptual-representational strategies to realise it.

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The “creative work” of the artist – which Arnheim calls “perceptual reasoning” – “involves the handling between sensory qualities, such as size, movement, space, shape, or color” (Arnheim, 1966, p. 287) and revolves around “the manipulation and combination of the compositional elements of visual language” (Argenton, 2019, p. 51). The composition, the artistic work, is the “concrete translation” – the “representation of a mental representation” (Argenton, 1996, p. 59) – and it “is the product of perceptual reasoning […] according to which an artist arranges in interaction with each other the separate forms – namely, the visual elements – […] that constitute the work itself on the surface, which acts as a support to his work”, after having thought of them in their interactions and in relation to the whole (Argenton, 2019, p. 53). The “sensory qualities” just mentioned by Arnheim, shape, colour, size, movement, space, as well as those previously quoted by Kanizsa (1991, pp. 81–83) or those recalled by Argenton (2019, pp. 54, 59–61), including lightness, brightness, spatial depth, transparency, etc., are all “categories of vision” through which the pictorial language finds a way to manifest itself and from which derive devices or representational strategies that artists can resort to in order to create their works. Any pictorial work stems from, and is fundamentally constituted by, “the grammatical and syntactic combinations of form and colour and by the more or less intense presence of values or dimensions related to space and light, but also by the variously regulated use of the numerous representational strategies that derive from these primary factors and pictorial media permit” (Argenton, 2019, pp.  60–61, translation slightly adjusted).36 This is one of the assumptions underpinning Argenton’s research (2008, 2019), aimed at identifying the perceptual-representational strategies utilised by artists to reach specific effects, pursuing this aim with a dual end: “to ascertain the universal character and intentionality in the use of such strategies and the correspondence between said effects and the visual cognitive categories to which their employment can be traced back” (Argenton, 2019, p. xix), and with the ultimate goal “to understand, as far as it is possible, the functioning of the mind” (Argenton, 2019, p. xvii). His research is based on the collection of a great number of images and their phenomenological analysis. One example can be The dynamics of obliqueness: windmills and timepieces (Argenton, 2019, pp.  134–203), based on systematic observation of the modes and frequency of use of obliqueness in the artistic representation of two mechanical artefacts: windmills – 515 artworks by 153 artists from the fifteenth to the twentieth century – and timepieces – 186 artworks by 85 artists from the eighteenth to the twentieth century. This research explores “the widespread use of oblique direction to maximise the dynamism and expressiveness of either a whole composition or of individual forms depicted in it”, suggesting that “obliquity is a superordinate category of visual thinking that plays a decisive and universal role in the representation of visual dynamics” (Argenton, 2019, p. xx).

 In distinguishing form and colour, Argenton (2019, p. 59) specifies however that “actually everything we see, including forms, depends on colour and brightness”. 36

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Another example can be Amodal completion and pictorial representation (Argenton, 2019, pp. 99–133) – which concerns a phenomenon induced, in pictorial perception, by the representation of overlapping – and the subsequent iconographic excursion, on the Flight [“fuggi fuggi”] of the Apostles, by Argenton and Prest (2008, pp. 271–289). This study examines 22 artworks created by 21 artists between the thirteenth and the fifteenth centuries, observing their use of overlapping to illustrate an event contained in the depiction of the episode known as the Betrayal of Judas or the Capture of Christ in the Garden of Gethsemane: the flight of the apostles. It shows that the depiction of the flight, beyond the formal variations, fruit of the inventiveness and imagination of the individual artist, presents representational constants, perceptually characterising that specific action, i.e. the flight itself. This iconographic excursion provides “further confirmation of the close interaction existing between the two fundamental factors that lead to the pictorial manifestation of a specific theme, of a specific meaning: the perceptual reasoning and the representational strategies that make the results of its functioning explicit; an interaction witnessed in this case by the different solutions devised to make the flight comprehensible through the expressiveness and dynamics of the form, varying, through personal style, the pre-established iconographic models” (Argenton & Prest, 2008, p. 289). The study on continuous pictorial narrative, presented in the next chapters, follows on from the research and iconographic excursions contained in Art and Expression (Argenton, 2008, 2019) and was designed by Argenton (2003–2014) also with the intention of further developing the model he elaborated to inquire “how artists’ representational intents are linked to both certain psychological ‘rules’ and certain historical-artistic conventions or constraints” (Verstegen, 2019, p. xiii), trying to join the two strands of research, psychological and art-historical and the two interconnected components of art-making – rules of vision and rules of composition – considering the knowledge of the artist in its cognitive wholeness and the artistic work in its Gestalt wholeness, as it is among the aims of the psychology of art.

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Spillmann, L. (2007). L’arte e la scienza della visione possono imparare molto l’una dall’altra: ma è questo quel che accade? Sistemi Intelligenti, 19(3), 427–461. Stansbury-O’Donnell, M.  D. (1999). Pictorial narrative in ancient Greek art. Cambridge University Press. Steiner, W. (2004). Pictorial narrativity. In M. L. Ryan (Ed.), Narrative across media: The languages of storytelling (pp. 145–177). University of Nebraska Press. Styve, P. S. T. (2015). The time of light in early renaissance painting. In A. Grung, M. Kartzow, & A. R. Solevåg (Eds.), Bodies, borders, believers: Ancient texts and present conversations (pp. 68–89). James Clarke & Co – The Lutterworth Press. Tinio, P. P. (2013). From artistic creation to aesthetic reception: The mirror model of art. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 7(3), 265. Toolan, M. (2001). Narrative: A critical linguistic introduction (2nd ed.). Routledge. Van Dijk, T.  A. (1975). Action, action description, and narrative. New Literary History, 6(2), 273–294. Vasari, G. (1568/1912–15). Lives of the most eminent painters, sculptors and architects. X Volumes (G. du C. de Vere, Trans.). Macmillan and The Medici Society. Verstegen, I. (2013). Cognitive iconology: When and how psychology explains images. Rodopi. Verstegen, I. (2019). Editor’s introduction. In A. Argenton, Art and expression. Studies in the psychology of art (I. Verstegen, Ed.). Routledge. von Blanckenhagen, P. H. (1957). Narration in Hellenistic and Roman art. American Journal of Archaeology, 61(1), 78–83. Von Dippe, R. D. (2007). The origin and development of continuous narrative in Roman art, 300 BC–AD 200. PhD dissertation. University of Southern California. Wagemans, J. (2011). Towards a new kind of experimental psycho-aesthetics? Reflections on the Parallellepipeda project. i-Perception, 2(6), 648–678. Watanabe, C. E. (2004). The ‘continuous style’ in the narrative scheme of Assurbanipal’s reliefs. Iraq, 66, 103–114. Weisberg, R. W. (2004). On structure in the creative process: A quantitative case-study of the creation of Picasso’s Guernica. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 22(1), 23–54. Weitzmann, K. (1947). Illustrations in roll and codex. A study of the origin and method of text illustration. Princeton University Press. Weitzmann, K. (1957). Narration in early Christendom. American Journal of Archaeology, 61(1), 83–91. Wertheimer, M. (1910). Musik der Wedda. Sammmelbände der Internationalen Musikgesellschaft, 11, 300–309. Wertheimer, M. (1912). Experimentelle Studien über das Sehen von Bewegung. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 61, 161–265. Wertheimer, M. (2014). Music, thinking, perceived motion: The emergence of Gestalt theory. History of Psychology, 17(2), 131. Wickhoff, F. (1900). Roman art: Some of its principles and their application to early Christian painting (A. Strong, Trans.). William Heinemann/The Macmillan Company. Wolf, W. (2003). Narrative and narrativity: A narratological reconceptualization and its applicability to the visual arts. Word & Image, 19(3), 180–197. Wundt, W. (1893). Grundzüge der Physiologischen Psychologie. W. Engelmann. Zacks, J. M., & Tversky, B. (2001). Event structure in perception and conception. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 3–21.

Chapter 2

A Study Project on Continuous Pictorial Narrative

2.1 The Project’s Core The study project on continuous pictorial narrative was designed by Alberto Argenton, and substantially developed with the collaboration of Tamara Prest, “to inquire into what can be called ‘painted stories’ that, as regards the content, correspond to the analogous narratives present in the religious, mythological and secular literature of Western culture, and constitute an important part of ancient and modern art history” (Argenton, 2003–2014). In particular, the study project was focused on the pictorial representation of stories in single artworks realised through the continuous narrative mode. Single artwork is meant both as an entire artefact, thus conceived and produced by an artist, or as a part of a work circumscribed by delimiting devices. Going back to the definition given at the beginning of this book (see Chap. 1) and proposed here in a more detailed manner, by continuous pictorial narrative, we mean a composition comprised of at least two scenes, enclosed in the ‘same space’, which represent episodes or events, consisting of actions and/or happenings related to a specific character or characters repeated in the scenes or in some of the scenes that constitute the composition itself. The term story here is meant as “a succession of episodes, events, facts that gives rise to a more or less complex narrative, enclosed within a more or less long lapse of time and, finally, thematically distinguished. An example of a religious nature may be the theme of the story of the Life of Christ, narrated in the Gospels, but also in the Apocrypha and other texts, and composed of a succession of episodes, events, facts – from the Nativity to the Ascension – which in turn constitute stories in themselves, such as that of the Passion of Christ. An example of a mythological nature may be the theme of the story of Diana and Actaeon, narrated by Ovid in the Metamorphosis, and substantially constituted by three single and well-­defined episodes” (Argenton, 2003–2014). © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 L. Messina-Argenton et al., Showing Time: Continuous Pictorial Narrative and the Adam and Eve Story, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13662-7_2

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A story is about a specific theme or subject and, as just said, includes a sequence of episodes, which in turn can be composed of more than one event. Going back to one of the previous examples, the story of the Passion of Christ includes several episodes: “entry into Jerusalem, expulsion of the merchants from the temple, washing of the feet, last supper, prayer in the garden, arrest, trial, mocking, flagellation, crowning with thorns, procession to Calvary, crucifixion, deposition from the cross, lamentation, burial, descent to Limbo, resurrection, and ascension. In turn, an episode, such as that of the arrest, includes more events: the kiss of Judas, the cutting of the ear of Malco by Peter, the flight of the apostles, and Mark’s escape” (Argenton, 2003–2014). Even a single episode, therefore, can give rise to a narrative sequence (Argenton & Prest, 2008a). The study project on the pictorial representation of stories, enclosed within single images and narrated in a continuous mode, was developed by Argenton, with the collaboration of Prest, after a preliminary collection of images having such characteristics, which has led to extending the collection itself to continuous narrative artworks realised with other techniques besides painting. However, painted stories constitute the largest corpus of artworks. This collecting of artworks took a long time and was accompanied by a parallel observation of the pictorial stories found, leading to the formulation of research hypotheses and the structuring of the research path.

2.1.1 Aims, Hypotheses, Method and Phases of the Study The main aim that drove the study was “to make a systematic exploration of pictorial artworks realised in the continuous narrative mode in order to ascertain which perceptual-representational strategies have been used to visually tell the story contained in the works themselves. In essence, the study’s primary question was: how does the artist solve the problem of telling a story and its unfolding, the episodes that compose it, which have a sequential and therefore temporal progression, using a static medium that both perceptually and representationally is distinguished only by spatial sign-elements?” (Argenton, 2003–2014). The hypotheses that guided the study were essentially two: “in the continuous pictorial representation of a story, the arrangement of episodes or events is substantially based on the spatial configuration conceived by the artist first of all through perceptual-representational criteria of a spatial type; from the analysis of an adequate number of pictorial representations of stories, it is possible to identify significant recurrences of perceptual-representational procedures or strategies of a spatial type that can be traced back to the functioning of visual thinking (Arnheim, 1969)” (Argenton, 2003–2014). Therefore, the study aimed at analysing and classifying the collected repertoire of pictorial works – single works realised in the continuous mode – in order to identify the spatial configurations created by artists to narrate the chosen stories and to ascertain the perceptual-representational strategies employed by them.

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The general research programme was planned as a progressive path, aimed at acquiring the data considered necessary to respond to the research aims and hypotheses, and was structured in several steps, as synthetically specified below, which we will describe in the course of this study. The first step consisted in the collecting and digitising of pictorial works in which two or more episodes or events of a story narrated in a continuous mode were present within a single image. The works were sought in the artistic production of Western culture through book sources, the Internet, visits to galleries, museums and exhibitions. At the same time and as far as possible, historical-critical material concerning each single work was collected. The second step was intended to trace the historical, stylistic, iconographic and iconological characterisation of the works found and to catalogue them on the basis of specific descriptors: author, title of work, date, technique, type of artefact, dimension and location, recording also the sources of information related to each work. The third step concerned the identification of the theme of the narrated story and the division of the general repertoire into separate repertoires on the basis of the theme covered. The research programme, therefore, envisaged a progressive approach to the examination of individual thematic repertoires, contemplating two research phases. The first of these two phases was designed to explore the organisation given by the artists to the continuous narrative of the works belonging to the individual thematic repertoires, analysing them on the basis of four indicators: context, number of scenes, narrative progression and spatial disposition.1 The second and final research phase was aimed at analysing the perceptual-­ compositional arrangement of the artworks included in the single thematic repertoires, in order to identify the procedures  – the perceptual-representational strategies – used to narrate stories in a continuous mode, to distinguish the episodes or events represented and to link them together. Given the nature of the study, the method adopted, as we have previously mentioned in Chap. 1, is phenomenological observation (Arnheim, 1974, 1982; Bozzi, 1989, 2019a), in the mode suggested by Argenton (2019, p. xx), addressing the observation “to examine the structure, configuration and form of the artistic image – the object under scrutiny – involving more observers […], with the aim of obtaining accurate descriptions and producing possible interpretations of the object itself”. As far as the procedures of analysis are concerned, the artistic works have been analysed by four experts, namely, the authors of this book, adopting a circular and iterative modality, consisting in a joint observation of the works and then in the  During the cataloguing of the artworks included in the general repertoire, Argenton and Prest entirely developed the first three steps of the study programme and had also analysed and recorded the occurrence of the four indicators envisaged for the first research phase of the individual thematic repertoires, aimed at analysing the compositional organisation, i.e. context, number of scenes, narrative progression and spatial disposition. However, given the complexity of the artworks, they then postponed the verification of data on these indicators, as well as the resolution of cases left in question, to the systematic analysis of the individual thematic repertoires. 1

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discussion and negotiation of individual observations – that is, “negotiation” in the sense adopted by Bozzi (2019b, p. 198) referring to Harré and Secord (1972, p. 236): “a negotiation consists in the pooling of viewpoints, and the subsequent correction of accounts”. In the cases of disagreement, the experts continued to examine together the work in question, during repeated sessions, until a unanimous agreement was reached. A digital spreadsheet was used to record and process data, registering frequencies for each of the predefined categories and leaving a space for verbal annotations. A frequency analysis for each of the categories considered was then carried out, reporting the raw data, as we shall see in the analysis of the data. Ultimately, the general research programme was conceived as a procedural proposal to study thematic repertoires of continuous pictorial narrative, replicable and perfectible, and expandable, in perspective, to deepen the research by involving more types of subjects, such as naïve or expert observers, perceptionists or art historians.

2.2 The General Repertoire of Continuous Pictorial Narrative The general repertoire of pictorial works of continuous narrative, as already mentioned, was built up through exploration in books, the Internet, galleries, museums and exhibitions, leading to the identification of a total of 1000 images.2 For each work, every effort has been made to find, in reliable sources, historical-critical and  The repertoire of pictorial stories narrated in a continuous mode, collected by Argenton and Prest, amounted to 968 works. We considered it opportune to enlarge the repertoire, giving us as a limit the number of 1000 works. This number was fixed in order to contain the exploration of works in time and is certainly susceptible to further enlargement. During the collection of works of continuous pictorial narrative, Argenton and Prest found several other works representing stories, only in part here considered. Among these, for example, in addition to the 19 works depicting the episode of Betrayal of Jesus included in the general repertoire, Argenton and Prest found 61 others on the same subject (for a total of 80 works), which however are represented in a synoptic mode and therefore were excluded from the general repertoire itself. Of another noteworthy number of works found by Argenton and Prest, in total 510, concerning the story of Judith and Holofernes, only 20 are realised in a continuous mode and therefore considered in the general repertoire analysed here, while the others are mainly monoscenic and, to a small extent, synoptic. We cite only these two themes because they were already discussed by Argenton (2019). In fact, in his study on “amodal completion and pictorial representation”, Argenton (2019) examines both the story of Judith and Holofernes represented in a painting attributed to Mantegna, Judith with the Head of Holofernes, and the episode of Betrayal of Jesus, especially in the representation by Giotto and Giusto de’ Menabuoi (Argenton, 2019, pp. 99–133), to illustrate the use of amodal completion as a perceptual-representational strategy, within the procedures involved in the “dynamics and expression”. The episode of Betrayal of Jesus is also included in the essay “Flight of the Apostles”, mentioned above and written by Argenton together with Prest, in which they inquire, through the analysis of 22 works by different artists, into the pictorial use of amodal completion (Argenton & Prest, 2008b, pp. 271–289). To these themes the authors of this work intend to dedicate specific research, starting from the corpus of works found by Argenton and Prest, of which, as said, 80 concern the episode of Betrayal of Jesus and 510 the story of Judith and Holofernes. 2

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technical information useful for the purposes of classification, although in some cases doubts remain, especially on their original context, when not yet resolved by critics. The 1000 works are listed in Chap. 5, subdivided into themes according to the narrated story and provided with identifying descriptors for each work. The 1000 artworks were analysed on the basis of the descriptors previously defined: author, title of work, date, technique, type of artefact, dimension, location, theme, and the data obtained are summarised below. As far as authorship is concerned, the majority of the works are by verified authors (688); others are attributed to authors more or less known (15); others have an uncertain attribution (8) or are from a workshop, a circle, a school (14); others are generically attributed to a follower of an artist (3); others are by masters identified with reference works or places where they operated (103); and a good number, especially miniatures, icons, mosaics, are by anonymous authors (169) (Table 2.1). Many of the artists are well-known and are present in general repertoire several times, as, for example, Benozzo Gozzoli (32 works), Fra Angelico (21), Sandro Botticelli (10), Hans Memling (10), Lorenzo Ghiberti (9), Lucas Cranach the Elder (7), Giotto (7), Joachim Patinir (4), Perugino (4), Hieronymus Bosch (3) and Piero della Francesca (3). Other outstanding artists are present with only one image3: for example, Donatello, Gentile da Fabriano, Quinten Massijs, Michelangelo, Nicolas Poussin, Raphael, Tintoretto, Titian and Velázquez. The dating of works goes from the third century CE4 to the seventeenth century CE,5 with the higher concentration in the fourteenth (179 works), fifteenth (419 works) and sixteenth centuries (252 works) (Table  2.2). For 7/1000 works dated between two centuries, for which a more precise date could not be found, the first date was used.6 Table 2.1  Distribution of the authorship in the general repertoire Verified author 688

Attributed author 15

Uncertain attribution 8

Workshop, circle, school Follower Master Anonymous 14 3 103 169

 It must be said that the collection of images, although quite systematic with respect to the available sources, was not extended to specific research on the individual artists, which could lead to the identification of further works represented in the continuous narrative mode. 4  In the general repertoire, the oldest works concern the third-century Dura Europos synagogue paintings, which are deemed to represent “the earliest continuous narrative cycle of biblical images known in art” (Gutmann, 1988, p.  25). For an analysis of these frescoes, see Kessler (1994, pp. 302–348). 5  Actually, some works from later centuries have been found, which have been excluded from the repertoire due to their very small number. 6  The works are: Anonymous, Crucifixion and Nativity, late thirteenth to early fourteenth century, Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai; Hendrick de Clerck, Garden of Eden with Fall of Man, 1597–1610; Master of Marradi, Judith and Holofernes, 1490–1510; Bartolomeo Montagna, St. Jerome in the Desert, c. 1470–1523; Luca Signorelli, St. George and the Dragon, 1495–1505; Veronese and Workshop, Judith Goes to the Camp of Holofernes, 1558–1631; and Veronese and Workshop, Judith at the Banquet of Holofernes, 1558–1631 (see Chap. 5). 3

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Table 2.2  Distribution over centuries of the works of the general repertoire 3rd 2

4th 2

5th 3

6th 5

9th 18

10th 15

11th 12

12th 40

13th 38

14th 179

15th 419

16th 252

17th 15

The artistic techniques used are numerous, and, among them, paintings in oil or tempera prevail, for a total of 514 works, distributed over a different time span: oil paintings from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century and tempera paintings from the ninth to the seventeenth century. The two techniques are used on different materials and are distributed as follows: 197 oil on panel, 37 oil on canvas, 1 oil on copper; 261 tempera on panel, 1 tempera on canvas, 1 tempera on leather and 16 oil and tempera on panel. The other techniques are distributed as follows: 310 fresco; 75 miniature; 36 mosaics; 24 relief, of which, 10 gilded bronze, 2 alabaster, 8 marble, 1 stone, 2 ivory and 1 turquoise cameo; 19 intarsia, of which, 17 choir-stalls and 2 marble floor inlays; 15 print, of which, 8 woodcut and 7 engraving; 5 watercolour on canvas; 1 drawing; 1 enamel on copper (Table 2.3). Table 2.3  Techniques used in the works of general repertoire Oil/ tempera 514

Fresco Miniature Mosaics Relief Intarsia Print Watercolour Drawing Enamel 310 75 36 24 19 15 5 1 1

The artefacts, shown in Table 2.4, are quite diversified and required an articulated classification. The largest group of works is represented by the painting category, which includes a total of 521 artistic works (in oil, tempera or mixed technique). Within this category, most of the works were classified as a part of painting (146), by which we refer to a part of a work in which clearly delimited continuous narrative scenes are represented and which we found in various artefacts: altarpiece, triptych, polyptych, pentaptych, niche, cross, dossal, banner, cupboard, reliquary and cassone. Another large group of works comprises single works, thus conceived and realised by the artists, and includes what we have classified as single painting (102), spalliera (30), telero, pairs of paintings and series of paintings (23)  – which we wanted to distinguish from single paintings because of their specificity – and desco da parto (3). The predelle have been classified as a separate group amounting to a total of 85 works, and only in 2/85 cases are they an entire predella, while in 83/85 cases they are individual panels of a predella, either still part of the whole predella or dismembered and exhibited individually in museums. We have also considered diptych, triptych and polyptych as a separate group, which amount to 75 works, when they consist of an entire central panel or an entire wing of such artefacts, while in the case of scenes contained within them and clearly delimited, they have been classified as “part of painting”. The cassoni (57) all consist of frontal panels of such an artefact. The only case of a continuous narrative scene contained in a frontal panel and clearly delimited was classified as a “part of painting”.

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Table 2.4  Artefacts present in the general repertoire Category of artefact Painting

Fresco Miniature Mosaics Print Cameo Drawing Plate Other

Type of artefact Part of a painting (altarpiece, triptych, polyptych, pentaptych, niche, cross, dossal, banner, cupboard, reliquary cupboard, reliquary, cassone) Single painting (single work created as such) Predella (whole or panel) Diptych, triptych, polyptych (central panel or wing) Cassone (frontal panel) Spalliera (single painting to decorate an interior) Telero (Venetian painting on canvas), pairs of paintings (works conceived as such), series of paintings (single work of a larger project) Desco da parto (single birth tray) Usually parts, rarely whole, mostly frescoed wall or vault of churches Illuminated whole or part or register (mostly, page of book) Part of mosaics in church or chapel Engraving or woodcut inserted in a book or loose Engraved turquoise gem Study Decorative enamelled plate Church choir-stall (panel) Door (panel) Building façade (part) Altar frontal (panel) Marble floor inlay (part) Sarcophagus (panel) Baptismal font (panel) Ivory casket (panel) Ivory diptych (part of a wing)

No. of works 146

Total

102 85 75 57 30 23

3 521 307 75 36 15 1 1 1 17 9 6 4 2 2 1 1 1 43 1000

Moving on to the other categories, frescoes are very numerous (307) and consist mainly of works belonging to cycles and, in 2 cases, single works. As for the other artefacts, the 75 miniatures include works mainly intended to decorate books and consist of illuminated whole works (38) or registers (22) or parts (15). The 36 mosaics are always parts of works placed in churches or chapels. The 15 prints, divided into engraving and woodcut, are mostly included in books, although there is no lack of individual works created as such. Furthermore, there are unique artefacts: 1 cameo relief on turquoise, 1 drawing and 1 enamelled plate.

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The last category, called “other”, comprises 43 works, consisting of parts, always clearly delimited, or panels of works: church choir-stall (17), door (9), building façade (6), altar frontal (4), marble floor inlay (2), sarcophagus (2), baptismal font (1), ivory casket (1) and ivory diptych (1). The dimension of the works – which was not always possible to find in consulted sources – is various: from the considerable size of many frescoes (e.g. The Death of Adam, by Piero della Francesca in the church of San Francesco, in Arezzo, measuring 390  ×  747  cm), or altarpieces (e.g. the Adoration of the Magi by Gentile da Fabriano, held in the Uffizi, in Florence, which measures 300  ×  282  cm), to the small dimensions of predelle, icons, miniatures, such as the miniature depicting the Baptism of Christ by Simon Bening, housed in Chester Beatty Library, in Dublin, which measures 12.1 × 8.6 cm, down to the miniscule size of a cameo on turquoise, by an Anonymous artist, kept at the Hermitage Museum, in St. Petersburg, which represents three main episodes of the Story of Adam and Eve and measures 1.7 × 2.2 cm. The location of works of the general repertoire is varied: famous museums (e.g. the Metropolitan in New York, the Louvre in Paris, the Musei Vaticani in Rome, the Prado in Madrid, the Uffizi in Florence, the Staatliche Museen in Berlin, the National Gallery in London, the Alte Pinakothek in Munich, the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna); small municipal and diocesan museums; churches of considerable importance (e.g. the Basilica di Santa Croce in Florence, the Cappella degli Scrovegni in Padua, the Basilica di San Francesco in Assisi, the Cappella Sistina in Rome, the Cattedrale di Santa Maria Nuova in Monreale, the Basilica di San Marco in Venice); country and parish churches; monumental libraries (e.g. the British Library in London, the Netherlands National Library in The Hague, the Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris); and private collections. Regarding the depicted themes, they mainly concern the religious sphere and the representation of episodes taken from the texts of Old and New Testaments, as shown in Chap. 5, in which, as mentioned above, all the 1000 works of the general repertory are listed, subdivided, precisely, by themes and accompanied by all the identification data found.7  For each work, the following data are provided: author, title of work, date, technique, dimension, when it could be traced, and location. Finding reliable data on these descriptors was very laborious. Dimension proved to be the most difficult descriptor: seldom mentioned in art history texts for any type of work, especially for frescoes, it seems to be often unknown to conservators and even restorers, and it is for this reason that the general repertoire lacks dimensions for about a quarter of the works. It is also difficult to find uniformity in the indication of the titles of the works but also of the techniques used, so we have chosen to report the data found on the official reference sites, where they exist. Finally, as far as the attribution is concerned, it should be pointed out that the intense work of art historians not infrequently leads to changes in authorship and, even if before the publication of this book we thoroughly checked this datum as well – finding a fair number of ‘surprises’  – it may well be that some authorships and consequently some dates have further changed. This may be due, on the one hand, to the intricate events that characterised the history of art in the centuries leading up to the Renaissance, for which documentation is often scarce or incomplete, and, on the other hand, to the increasingly in-depth studies of existing documents and, not least, to the use of new technologies that make it possible to obtain additional data (see Chap. 5). 7

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As regards the Old Testament, 20 themes have been identified (for a total of 254 works), of which the most frequent concern mainly Genesis: mostly, works on the story of Adam and Eve (100 works) and a smaller number on episodes from the stories of Abraham and Isaac (19 works), David (12 works), Jacob and Rebecca (10 works), Joseph (19 works), Judith (21 works) and Moses (22 works). The other themes regarding the Old Testament are represented by less numerous groups of works or by individual works.8 The most represented themes of the New Testament concern the Life of Christ (70 works), the Passion of Christ (125 works), the life of St. John the Baptist (28 works), the Feast of Herod (34 works) and the life of the Virgin Mary with 43 works, some of which refer to the Apocryphal Gospels, which are also a source of inspiration for other themes, such as the life of Anne and Joachim (18 works). The stories of Saints are numerous: in addition to those of the already mentioned St. John the Baptist, which we have distinguished from those of other saints because of their intertwining with the stories of Christ, the others regard 62 saints, whose life and martyrdom scenes are depicted in a total of 322 works. The highest frequencies concern Saint Anthony Abbot (20 works), Saint Benedict (34 works), Saint Bernardine (12 works), Saint Catherine of Alexandria (17 works), Saint Francis (23 works), Saint Peter (16 works), Saint Peter Martyr (10 works) and Saint Stephen (15 works).9 The reference source for the lives of the saints is often the medieval text the Legenda Aurea, from which the legend of the True Cross, present in the general repertoire with 19 works, is also taken. Allegories and other religious themes are represented less frequently. Allegories of the Bible are present in 10 works and regard, for example, the Annunciation, Redemption, Crucifixion; other religious themes are represented in 5 works and are linked to apocryphal texts or medieval legends such as the martyrdom of the Ten Thousand Martyrs, the miracle of the Consecrated Host, the Sermon and Deeds of the Antichrist, the Fall of Simon Magus and the story of the Holy Belt.

 The other 15 themes found in the Old Testament concern Amon and Tamar (2 works, second book of Samuel), Cain and Abel (8 works, book of Genesis), Creation of the World (1 work, Book of Genesis), Elijah (1 work, Book of Kings), Esther (7 works, Book of Esther), Jonah (3 works, Book of Jonah), Joshua (1 work, Book of Joshua), Lot (4 works, Book of Genesis), Noah (5 works, Book of Genesis), Samson (4 works, Book of Judges), Solomon (1 work, first Book of the Kings), Susanna (8 works, Book of Daniel) and Tobias (6 works, Book of Tobias). 9  The frequency of the other 175 stories is distributed as follows: 9 works for saints Augustine, Dominic, Paul; 7 works for saints Francis of Rome, James, Mark, Nicholas of Bari, Vincent Ferrer; 6 works for saints Jerome, Zenobius; 5 works for saints Anthony, Barbara, Rainerius, Ursula; 4 works for Blessed Agostino Novello and saints Andrew, Humility, John the Evangelist; 3 works for saints Ambrose, Cecilia and Valerian, Clement, Cosmas and Damian, Ephysius, George, Lawrence, Sebastian, Theodore, Veranus; 2 works for saints Bertin, Christopher, Corbinian, Denis, Lucy, Margaret, Roch, Sylvester, Thomas; and 1 work for saints Agnes, Alexius, Athanasius, Basil, Castrense, Catherine of Siena, Clare, Julian, Louis King of France, Martin, Mary Magdalene, Michael, Minias, Nicholas of Tolentino, Placidus, Romuald, Sigismund. 8

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The themes concerned with non-religious subjects are 34 in total and are represented in 72 works but all with low frequency. The majority of these themes cover mythology, literature and civil history up to Roman times, with categorical boundaries between the three domains not always clearly separable. Among these themes, those represented with a certain frequency refer to Giovanni Boccaccio’s works (10 works concern novellas from the Decameron, one work the Theseid), the stories of Cupid and Psyche (4 works), the tragic events of the Roman matron Lucretia (7 works) and the enterprises of Odysseus (5 works). All other themes are represented with fewer works.10 Finally, some works concern personages of civil life from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance: 2 works for Antonio Rinaldeschi, Emperor Otto III and Queen Theodelinda and 1 work for Borso D’Este. In summary, the data obtained from the first steps of the research programme show a continuity in the centuries of continuous pictorial narrative, with a greater concentration in the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, a variety in the techniques used to narrate the stories, in the kind of artefact and in the format in which they are enclosed, and a plurality of themes, to which groups of differing numbers of works pertain. The distribution over the centuries of the works of continuous pictorial narrative, which, as we have mentioned in Chap. 1, has a very long tradition, is in line with what art historians claim, namely, that from the twelfth century onwards, there was a “revival of story-telling” (Pächt, 1962, p. 59). And it is in line with the assumption that continuous narrative was ‘naturally’ used by artists even after the introduction of one-point perspective, which indeed promoted its use (Andrews, 1998). Among the themes of the general repertoire, the ones with the highest number of works concern the stories of the Passion of Christ (124 works) and the story of Adam and Eve (100 works). Since the latter presents the widest distribution over the centuries, it was decided to initiate the in-depth investigation foreseen in the study programme from this thematic repertoire, developing the two purposely planned research phases. Before tackling these two phases of research, which we will describe in the following chapters, it was considered appropriate preliminarily to make a comparison between this thematic repertoire and the general repertoire, the results of which are summarised below.

 The other works about mythology, literature and civil history up to the Roman era concern: 3 works for Antiochus and Stratonice, Orpheus and Eurydice, Theseus, Virginia; 2 works for Aeneas, Argonauts, Europe, Paris, Prometheus, Trajan; 1 work for Apollo and Marsyas, Artemisia, Brutus and Portia, Camilla, Cloelia, Coriolanus, Christine de Pizan (The Book of the City of Ladies), Enalus and Poseidon, Julius Caesar, Pasiphaë, Perseus and Andromeda, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tiberius and Cornelia, Tuccia. 10

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2.3 The Thematic Repertoire of the Story of Adam and Eve The thematic repertoire of the story of Adam and Eve consists of 100 artworks of pictorial continuous narrative,11 which can be traced back to the first three chapters of the Bible and partly to the fourth, up to verse 16: the Departure of Cain.12 The repertoire includes only the works of continuous narrative in which the figure of at least one of the three main protagonists is repeated: God, Adam or Eve. The 100 works are reproduced in Chap. 6, together with all the identification data found. We should remember that, as already written, artwork refers both to an entire artefact, thus conceived and produced by an artist, and to a part of a composite work defined by a frame or other devices of delimitation. In this respect, it is necessary to anticipate some clarifications that will be taken up later. Among the 100 works, there are 6 illuminated pages of Bibles, and each page represents the story of Adam and Eve through three or four well-demarcated registers, in vertical succession, which have been considered individually: San Paolo fuori le mura (Chap. 6, Figs. 6.7–6.9), Pantheon (Chap. 6, Figs. 6.13–6.15), Vivian (Chap. 6, Figs.  6.17–6.19), Moutier-Grandval (Chap. 6, Figs.  6.20–6.23), Alba (Chap. 6, Figs. 6.28–6.30) and Bamberg (Chap. 6, Figs. 6.35–6.37). Moreover, the narration of the story of Adam and Eve contained at the foot of the Tree of Life by Pacino di Buonaguida (Chap. 6, Figs. 6.83–6.84), markedly interrupted in the centre by an element – presumably “Mount Golgotha”, on which the cross with the crucified Christ is supposedly planted (Viggiani, 2011, p. 39) or, according to others, “Bonaventure/Francis (?)/John (?) in a cave” (Esler, 2015, p. 15) – led us with less doubt to the decision to consider separately the two parts to the left and the right of the mount/cave. Furthermore, the thematic repertoire also contains 3 registers of reliefs, from the Genesis pilaster, created by Lorenzo Maitani for the façade of the Basilica Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, in Orvieto (Chap. 6, Figs. 6.73–6.75);

 The images collected by Argenton and Prest numbered 93 and, as with the general repertoire, it was considered appropriate to arrive at a round number, namely 100. Indubitably, the search for works on a specific subject or phenomenon can never be considered complete, as Argenton acknowledges (2019, p. 96, n. 5), “since it is highly unlikely that other examples will not emerge from further research”. The works of continuous pictorial narrative about the story of Adam and Eve are certainly many more. Just think of the large number of existing illustrated Bibles, in which other continuous narratives are likely to be found. This is what happened to us during the analysis of the collected repertoire, coming across new images that we decided not to consider so as to set a time limit to the work. 12  The text used as a reference is The New Oxford Annotated Bible, edited by Coogan et al. (2010). We are aware that the long time span over which the works in the thematic repertoire are distributed and their cultural and geographical origin would have required a specific in-depth study of the biblical sources of reference for each work. However, in the economy of this work, it has not been possible to touch on this subject, as well as other historical-critical-artistic aspects. 11

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these too considered individually, according to the reference literature (Greenstein, 2016).13

2.3.1 Comparison of the General Repertoire and the Thematic Repertoire on the Story of Adam and Eve The thematic repertoire on the story of Adam and Eve has been re-examined according to the descriptors adopted for the general repertoire, that is, considering author, title of work, date, technique, type of artefact, dimension and location. The aim of this re-examination was to compare the data of the general repertoire with those of this thematic repertoire. As regards authorship, most of the works are by recognised authors (55), and others are attributed to more or less known authors (3). There are also works by the workshop (1) or generically attributed to a follower of an artist (1) or by authors identified with reference works or places where they worked (6). A good number, especially miniatures, are by anonymous authors (34). Unlike the general repertoire, none of the works are of uncertain attribution (Table 2.5). Many artists are famous, including Hieronymus Bosch, Lucas Cranach the Elder,14 Lorenzo Ghiberti, Giusto de’ Menabuoi, Jan Gossaert, Lorenzo Maitani, Michelangelo, Paolo Uccello, Tintoretto and Wiligelmo. The dating of the works goes from the sixth to the seventeenth century, with a concentration in the fourteenth (14 works), fifteenth (22 works) and sixteenth (36 works) centuries (Table 2.6). There are some differences with respect to the general repertoire: in the repertoire concerning the story of Adam and Eve, there are no works belonging to the third, fourth, fifth, tenth and eleventh centuries, with few Table 2.5  Distribution of the authorship in the thematic repertoire on the story of Adam and Eve Verified author 55

Attributed author 3

Uncertain attribution 0

Workshop, circle, school Follower Master Anonymous 1 1 6 34

 Greenstein (2016, Pl. VI), in describing Maitani’s Genesis pilaster, situates, for example, the Creation of Eve in the second register. White (1959, p. 294), in describing the same work, places the Creation of the World in the first register and the “Animation of Adam” in the second register. We have followed the suggestion of these scholars, although in reality the first two registers, from bottom to top, do not appear as clearly separated as the upper registers. In the second register, we have considered all three scenes present, although the Forming of Eve is partly separated by the ivy vine decoration, which, however, starting above the figures, does not seem to interrupt the narrative continuity. 14  There exists a copy made by Cranach of the left-hand panel of Bosch’s Last Judgment triptych included in the thematic repertoire of the story of Adam and Eve. Cranach’s copy has not been included in the repertoire. 13

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Table 2.6  Distribution over the centuries of the works of the thematic repertoire on the story of Adam and Eve 3rd 0

4th 0

5th 0

6th 2

9th 14

10th 0

11th 0

12th 7

13th 3

14th 14

15th 22

16th 36

17th 2

examples present in the general repertoire (see Table 2.2), and those belonging to the sixteenth century, in comparison with the general repertoire, are more numerous than those of the fifteenth century. As for the 14 exemplars ascribed to the ninth century, it should be noted that 13 of them consist of registers of the illuminated pages of the four Bibles considered by us, derived from a “Touronian model” (Kessler, 1971, p. 146): 3 of the four registers in the Bamberg Bible,15 4 registers in Moutier-Grandval Bible, 3 registers in the San Paolo fuori le mura Bible and 3 registers in the Vivian Bible. To these we must add a fresco by the Flower Painter of Matera. All the artistic techniques present in the general repertoire are also present in the thematic repertoire of the story of Adam and Eve (Table 2.7), with the exception of drawing, the only example being in the general repertoire. In addition, the thematic repertoire of the Adam and Eve story also lacks specific techniques, i.e. inlay floor and ivory relief, which are present in the general repertoire with two examples, and oil on copper, tempera on leather and tempera on canvas, each of which are present in the general repertoire with only one example. On the other hand, the thematic repertoire of the story of Adam and Eve includes two unique exemplars: cameo relief on turquoise and enamel on copper. Table 2.7  Techniques used in the works of the thematic repertoire on the story of Adam and Eve Oil/ tempera 24

Fresco Miniature Mosaics Relief Intarsia Print Watercolour Drawing Enamel 15 34 3 10 1 10 2 0 1

The prevalence of miniatures (34 works) is due to the fact that the repertoire of the story of Adam and Eve, in addition to the already mentioned 13 registers of the above-mentioned Bibles (Bamberg, Moutier-Grandval, San Paolo, and Vivian), also includes 6 further registers contained in other illuminated pages of the Bible: Alba Bible (3 registers) and Pantheon Bible (3 of 4 registers).16 Of the 24 works classified as oil/tempera, 17 are oil on panel, 4 are oil on canvas, 2 are tempera on panel and 1 is oil and tempera on panel. The other techniques are distributed as follows: 15 fresco, 3 mosaics, 10 relief (2 alabaster, 5 marble, 1 stone,  The Genesis frontispiece of the Bamberg Bible, in which the story of Adam and Eve is narrated, is divided into four registers. We have considered only the first three as single units because in the fourth register, representing “the burial of Cain” (Kessler, 1971, p. 155), there is no repetition of characters, except for the hand of God. 16  The page of the Pantheon Bible, in which the story of Adam and Eve is narrated, is divided into four registers. We have considered only three registers as single units because in the first one, representing scenes from chapter I of the Bible, there is no repetition of characters. 15

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1 gilded bronze, 1 turquoise cameo), 1 intarsia, 10 print (3 engraving, 7 woodcut), 2 watercolour and 1 enamel on copper. As far as type of artefact is concerned (Table 2.8), the main difference in respect to the general repertoire is the absence in the thematic repertoire on the story of Adam and Eve of cassoni, deschi da parto, predelle and the single drawing, which are present in the general repertoire. Some subtypes of artefacts are also missing in the thematic repertoire but no other categories. Turning to the distribution of artefacts in the thematic repertoire, 26 are paintings, of which 14 are single paintings, 3 are teleri and single works of a larger project, 2 are spalliere, 3 are triptych wings and 4 are parts of painting (altarpiece and banner). There are also 34 miniatures (10 whole, 19 registers, 5 parts), 15 frescoes, 10 prints, 3 mosaics, 1 cameo, 1 plate and 10 artefacts classified as “other”, namely, 1 church choir-stall, 2 altar frontals, 6 building façades and 1 door panel. Table 2.8  Artefacts present in the thematic repertoire on the story of Adam and Eve Category of artefact Painting

Miniature Fresco Print Mosaics Cameo Plate Drawing Other

Type of artefact Single painting (single work created as such) Part of a painting (altarpiece, banner) Telero (Venetian canvas painting), series of paintings (single work of a larger project) Triptych (wing) Spalliera (single painting to decorate an interior) Desco da parto (single birth tray) Cassone (frontal panel) Predella (whole or panel) Illuminated whole or part or register (mostly, page of book) Usually parts, rarely whole, mostly frescoed wall or vault of churches Engraving or woodcut inserted in book or loose Part of mosaics in church Engraved turquoise gem Decorative enamelled plate Possibly a study Building façade (part) Altar frontal (panel) Church choir-stall (panel) Door (panel) Marble floor inlay (part) Sarcophagus (panel) Ivory casket (panel) Ivory diptych (part of a wing)

No. of works 14 4 3

Total

3 2 0 0 0 26 34 15 10 3 1 1 0 6 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 10 100

References

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The dimension of the works is various also in this case: from the very small dimensions of the aforementioned cameo by an Anonymous artist (1.7 × 2.2 cm) to the large dimensions of a fresco by Piero di Puccio (715 × 810 cm), housed in distinguished locations, respectively, the State Hermitage Museum of St. Petersburg and the Camposanto Monumentale of Pisa. The location also reflects the distribution observed for the general repertoire: from large museums to famous buildings, historical libraries, small peripheral churches, etc. Overall, the data from the two repertoires do not show very relevant differences with respect to the indicators considered. Certainly, there are some differences, and the most salient concerns miniatures, which are proportionally more numerous in the thematic repertoire (34/100) than in the general repertoire (75/1000). This difference, in addition to the subdivision into registers, can presumably be linked to the theme of the story of Adam and Eve, treated in the illuminated manuscripts of the Bible or, for example, in the Books of Hours, and seems to be a distinctive feature of this thematic repertoire. On the other hand, all the other thematic repertoires have their own specificities, in terms of dating of works, or artefact types, or techniques and so on. However, the large number of miniatures in the thematic repertoire of the story of Adam and Eve affects the values of certain variables. This specificity was taken into account in the two planned phases of research, which will be presented in the following chapters, aimed at studying in depth, respectively, the geometrical disposition of scenes in pictorial space of the artworks in this thematic repertoire and the perceptual-compositional organisation given to them by the artists.

References Andrews, L. (1998). Story and space in Renaissance art. Cambridge University Press. Argenton, A. (2003–2014). La rappresentazione pittorica di storie. Unpublished autograph reflections and annotations. Argenton, A. (2019). Art and expression. Studies in the psychology of art (I.  Verstegen, Ed.). Routledge. Argenton, A., & Prest, T. (2008a). La rappresentazione pittorica di storie. Contribution presented at the “Congressino di Primavera 2008”, Medana, Slovenia, 12–14 June 2008. Argenton, A., & Prest, T. (2008b). Il fuggi fuggi degli Apostoli. In A. Argenton, Arte e espressione. Studi e ricerche di psicologia dell’arte (pp. 271–289). Il Poligrafo. Arnheim, R. (1969). Visual thinking. University of California Press. Arnheim, R. (1974). Art and visual perception. University of California Press. Arnheim, R. (1982). Le arti e la psicologia. In L.  Pizzo Russo (Ed.), Estetica e psicologia (pp. 13–15). Il Mulino. Bozzi, P. (1989). Fenomenologia sperimentale. Il Mulino. Bozzi, P. (2019a). Experimental phenomenology. In I. Bianchi & R. Davies (Eds.), Paolo Bozzi’s experimental phenomenology (pp. 11–18). Routledge. Bozzi, P. (2019b). Interobservation as a method for experimental phenomenology. In I. Bianchi & R. Davies (Eds.), Paolo Bozzi’s experimental phenomenology (pp. 198–206). Routledge.

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Coogan, M.  D., Brettler, M.  Z., Newsom, C.  A., & Perkins, P. (Eds.). (2010). The new Oxford annotated Bible: New revised standard version with the Apocrypha. Oxford University Press. Esler, P.  F. (2015). Pacino di Bonaguida’s Tree of Life: Interpreting the Bible in paint in early fourteenth-­century Italy. Biblical Reception, 3(3), 1–29. Greenstein, J. M. (2016). The Creation of Eve and Renaissance naturalism: Visual theology and artistic invention. Cambridge University Press. Gutmann, J. (1988). The Dura Europos synagogue paintings and their influence on later Christian and Jewish art. Artibus et Historiae, 9(17), 25–29. Harré, R., & Secord, P. F. (1972). The explanation of social behaviour. Blackwell. Kessler, H. L. (1971). Hic Homo Formatur: The Genesis frontispieces of the Carolingian Bibles. The Art Bulletin, 53(2), 143–160. Kessler, H. L. (1994). Studies in pictorial narrative. Pindar Press. Pächt, O. (1962). The rise of pictorial narrative in twelfth century England. Oxford University Press. Viggiani, C. (2011). L’Italia di Giotto: itinerari giotteschi. Gangemi Editore. White, J. (1959). The reliefs on the façade of the Duomo at Orvieto. Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 22(3/4), 254–302.

Chapter 3

First Research Phase on the Story of Adam and Eve

3.1 Pictorial Space and Scene Organisation As described in Chap. 2, after the cataloguing of the 1000 artworks of continuous pictorial narrative included in the general repertoire and their subdivision into thematic repertoires (reported in full in Chap. 5), the study programme envisaged an examination in depth of the individual thematic repertoires, and we have chosen to focus specifically on the story of Adam and Eve, which consists of 100 works. To this end, the study programme provided for two research phases, aimed at exploring different problems: the first, the geometrical disposition of scenes in pictorial space of the artworks belonging to the thematic repertoire on the Adam and Eve story and, the second, the perceptual-compositional organisation given by the artists to them in order to narrate this story. In the first of these two phases, dealt with in this chapter, we proceeded to explore the configuration of the 100 artworks concerning the story of Adam and Eve, analysing the thematic repertoire on the basis of four categories: context, number of scenes, narrative progression and spatial disposition. Before tackling these analyses, it proved necessary to analyse the corpus of the 100 artworks constituting the thematic repertoire on the basis of the biblical texts and reference literature that we were able to find, in order to identify and classify the episodes depicted.

3.1.1 Identification and Classification of Episodes Resorting to biblical texts to identify the episodes or events narrated in the pictorial story of Adam and Eve is inevitable, as it is for all other kinds of literary stories, whether religious or mythological or of other genres. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 L. Messina-Argenton et al., Showing Time: Continuous Pictorial Narrative and the Adam and Eve Story, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13662-7_3

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As Weitzmann (1957, p. 83) points out referring to the origin of this genre, “the depiction of a story by pictorial means involves the problem of a relationship between literature on the one hand and the representational arts on the other. From the time script was invented and literature came into being down to the period from which we have the earliest extant codices with extensive picture cycles a slow, evolutionary process, in spite of deviations and regressions, can be observed with regard to this relationship. At the beginning it is rather vague and general, and the artist did not always consult a literary source but relied at times on an oral tradition whenever he wanted to represent a myth or an episode from history. As time went on, however, the relationship became more precise and more specific to the same degree that the literary sources were more often and more intensively consulted by an artist who set out to render a literary content with greater exactitude”. Schapiro (1973, p. 9) also maintains that “a great part of visual art in Europe from late antiquity to the 18th century represents subjects taken from a written text. The painter and sculptor had the task of translating the word – religious, historical, or poetic – into a visual image”. It follows that, ultimately, the intelligibility of an image “rests finally on its correspondence to a known text through the recognizable forms of pictured objects and actions signified by the words”. However, the religious image had to be intelligible in itself, as “mute preaching addressed to the illiterate” (Schapiro, 1973, p. 11). This is not always the case, and it is not always easy to identify the correspondence between the scenes painted in a work and the passage/s of reference texts, as we shall see from the analysis undertaken to define to which Bible verse or group of verses the scenes depicted in each of the 100 works on the story of Adam and Eve could correspond. Accepting a suggestion by Argenton (2019, p.  111), who recalls Schapiro, in order to allow the reader to follow “the description of an image with the verbal passage from which it originates”, in Chap. 7 we have reported the chapters of the Bible considered in their entirety  – that is to say, as already written in Chap. 2, Bible chapters I, II, III and IV up to verse 16: Departure of Cain1 – which we shall refer to here by the numbering of biblical verses. In Table 3.1 the correspondence between biblical verses and the scenes depicted in the 100 artworks of the thematic repertoire is reported, and we will use these two parameters to describe these works, which are reproduced in colour in the figures of Chap. 6. Moreover, Table 3.1 also shows the codes we have assigned to the single scenes for the purpose of analysing the frequency of their representation, which we will examine in the following subsection (§ 3.1.1). The same codes are displayed on the figures of the 100 artworks in Chap. 7. Therefore, we will complement the description of each of the works mentioned in this chapter with a reference to the  It was decided to use The New Oxford Annotated Bible, edited by Coogan et al. (2010), for our analyses. Apart from the linguistic formulation, which can certainly imply religiously significant differences, and with regard to the chapters considered here, from the point of view of narrative and verse order, this version of the Bible does not show substantial differences from other versions used by scholars, such as The King James Bible or The New American Bible. 1

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Table 3.1  Correspondence between Bible verses and scenes represented in the 100 works of the thematic repertoire on the story of Adam and Eve and classification codes assigned to the scenes Bible verses

Gen., I, 1–25 Gen., I, 1–23 Gen., I, 3 Gen., I, 4–5 Gen., I, 20–25 Gen., I, 26–27 Gen., II, 7 Gen., II, 8; Gen., II, 15 Gen., II, 15–17 Gen., II, 19–20 Gen., II, 21 Gen., II, 22a Gen., II, 22b–24 Gen., II, 22–24 Gen., II, 16–17 Gen., III, 1–6 Gen., III, 1–6a Gen., III, 6b Gen., III, 1–19 Gen., III, 7–8 Gen., III, 7–19 Gen., III, 9–13 Gen., III, 9–19 Gen., III, 14–23a Gen., III, 23a, 24 Gen., III, 23a, Gen., III, 24 Gen., III, 23b, IV, 1–2 Gen., IV, 3–5 Gen., IV, 8 Gen., IV, 9–15 Gen., IV, 16

Scenes God in Mandorla Fall of Rebel Angels First Five Days First Five Days (without creation of terrestrial animals) Creation of Light Separation of Light from Darkness Creation of the Animals Creation of Humankind/Man (works in which there is a double scene of the Creation) Creation of Man/Adam Translation of Adam into the Garden of Eden

Code A B 1 2 3 4 5 6

Introduction of Adam into the Garden of Eden and Admonition Naming of the Animals Creation of Woman/Eve (Extraction of Adam’s rib) Creation of Woman/Eve (Forming of Eve) Introduction of Adam and Eve (works in which the Forming of Eve is also represented) Introduction of Adam and Eve Admonition to Adam/Admonition to Adam and Eve Temptation and Fall (Eve and Adam with the serpent) Temptation and Fall (Eve and the serpent, almost always without Adam) Temptation and Fall (works in which there is a double scene) From Temptation to Punishment Covering with Fig Leaves (hereafter, Shame), Hiding from God (hereafter, Hiding) From Shame to Punishment God Calling, Denial of Guilt From God Calling to Punishment Punishment, Clothing, Mercy, Expulsion Expulsion Expulsion (before the gate of Paradise) Expulsion (outside the gate of Paradise) Labour (linked to Gen., III, 16–17) and Adam and Eve’s children

9 10 11 12 13

Sacrifices of Cain and Abel Cain Killing Abel Reproval and Curse of Cain Departure of Cain Adam and Eve Mourning Abel Lamech Slaying Man Adam and Eve tell Boccaccio their story

29 30 31 32 C D E

7 8

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

The Bible chapters considered in the thematic repertoire are chapters I–III and partially chapter IV, up to verse 16, Departure of Cain. Items codified with the letters A, B, C, D and E are not comprised in the above chapters or in the Bible at all

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number of the corresponding colour figure in Chap. 6 and the number of the corresponding figure in Chap. 7, on which the classification codes of the represented scenes are reproduced. The identification of the episodes or events narrated was quite complex, for a series of reasons: the intricacy of biblical sources, written and illustrated, in the time span in which the thematic repertory on the story Adam and Eve is distributed (e.g. Mavroska, 2009; Murdoch, 2003; Ross, 1996); the “reductive imagery”, “rich in connotations and symbolized values” (Schapiro, 1973, p.10), which characterises visual narrative; the modes of “abbreviation” that differentiate the compositional choices of different artists, even when dealing with the same episodes,2 which Weitzmann (1957, pp.  88–89) distinguishes into three types  – namely, omission (elimination of scenes), condensation (reduction of the constituent elements of scenes) and conflation (combination, or fusion, of originally separate scenes); the variability of the compositional schemes used by artists (Argenton & Prest, 2008), which we will deal with in the course of this study; and, not least, our attempt to indicate for each artwork the biblical reference verses. With some exceptions¸ referred in particular to illustrated bibles, it is rare to find in the literature descriptions or analyses of artistic works punctually accompanied by the biblical verses to which the narration refers, and, also in these cases, interpretations are not always univocal. With respect to the artworks included in the thematic repertoire, we have found several problems in trying to establish a correspondence between the episodes or events represented in the scenes constituting the works and the verses of the Bible chapters considered. Studies dealing with illustrated bibles have been particularly helpful in solving these problems (e.g. Gaehde, 1971; Kessler, 1971, 1977; Weitzmann, 1984; Weitzmann & Kessler, 1986). Before entering into the analysis, it should be recalled that we will refer to the cited artworks by specifying in brackets the same numbers with which they appear in colour in Chap. 6 and, with the classification codes of the scenes, in Chap. 7. In the works of the thematic repertoire representing episodes or events referring to the first chapter of the Bible, there are compositions of great density, but not difficult to classify, as, for example, the first register of the Genesis pilaster, by Lorenzo Maitani, on the façade of the Basilica Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, in Orvieto (Figs. 6.73, 7.73). This register encloses in the first scene “a conflation” of the first five days “of the hexameron” (Taylor, 1970, p. 60) and, in the next two scenes, the Creation of the Animals and the Creation of the Humankind/Man. Even more dense  There are different interpretations of biblical episodes or events in the works of the thematic repertoire as, for example, the mosaics of the Genesis Dome in the Basilica di San Marco, in Venice (Figs. 6.10, 6.11, 6.12, 7.10, 7.11, 7.12) or the reliefs of the façade of the Basilica Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, in Orvieto, by Lorenzo Maitani (Figs. 6.73, 6.74, 6.75, 7.73, 7.74, 7.75) (e.g. Bradley, 2008; De Francovich, 1927–8; Fumi, 1891; Gaehde, 1971; Greenstein, 2016; Guardia, 2016; Jolly, 1997; Kessler, 1971, 1977; Mazure, 1967; Moskowitz, 2009; Pächt, 1943; Pennacchi, 1873; Petrangeli, 1930; Riccetti, 1988; Stoddard, 1981; Taylor, 1970; Weitzmann, 1984; Weitzmann & Kessler, 1986; White, 1959). 2

3.1 Pictorial Space and Scene Organisation

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is the Flemish school medium-sized painting the Creation of the World, attributed to Johann Melchior Bocksberger (Figs. 6.42, 7.42), who also adds an episode not comprised in Genesis, the Fall of the Rebel Angels, then continuing his narration with the entire story of Adam and Eve up to the Expulsion. The Creation of the Animals should require a distinction based on the type of animals created and the related biblical verses, but we preferred to include in a single category the four works of the thematic repertoire in which it is represented, classifying it as Gen., I, 20–25: the Creation and Fall of Man, by Mariotto Albertinelli (Figs. 6.1, 7.1); the Creation of the World, Animals and Man, by Lorenzo Maitani (Figs. 6.73, 7.73); the Creation of Animals and Creation of Adam, by Paolo Uccello (Figs. 6.85, 7.85)3; and the Story of Adam and Eve, by Sano di Pietro (Figs. 6.91, 7.91). It must be said that references to the creation of the universe and the various species by which it is populated are present in other works, such as the Paradise, by Herri met de Bles (Figs. 6.41, 7.41), where the round painting depicting four episodes – from the Creation of Eve to the Expulsion – is surrounded by two concentric spheres: the outer one alludes to the water and initial emptiness of the world; the inner one alludes to the creation of the sun, the moon and the firmament. In this work, the depictions of the universe and living species seem to serve as a scenery to frame the nucleus of the painting and have not been considered as episodes in themselves, lacking a protagonist, in this case God. Simpler, from an iconographic point of view, but more complex from a classification point of view, is the representation of the episode concerning the Creation of

 For this classification we also considered the state of conservation of the works, in particular the Creation of Animals and Creation of Adam, by Paolo Uccello (Figs. 6.85, 7.85), where currently only terrestrial animals seem to be visible, even if Vasari identifies all animal species in it. As Vasari wrote (1568/1912–1915, vol. 2, p. 135), the fresco by Paolo Uccello seems to represent all animals and not just terrestrial ones: “Afterwards he was commissioned to paint some scenes in the cloister of Santa Maria Novella; and the first, which are at the entrance from the church into the cloister, represent the Creation of the animals, with an infinite number and variety of kinds belonging to water, earth, and air. And since he was very fanciful and took great delight, as it has been said, in painting animals to perfection, he showed in certain lions, who are seeking to bite each other, the great ferocity that is in them, and swiftness and fear in some stags and fallow-deer; not to mention that the birds and fishes, with their feathers and scales, are most lifelike”. Italian edition: “Gli fu fatto poi allogagione nel chiostro di S. Maria Novella d’alcuna storie, le prime delle quali sono quando s’entra di chiesa nel chiostro: la creazione degli animali con vario e infinito numero d’acquatici, terrestri e volatili. E perché era capricciosissimo e, come si è detto, si dilettava grandemente di far bene gl’animali, mostrò in certi lioni, che si voglion mordere, quanto sia di superbo in quelli, et in alcuni cervi e daini la velocità et il timore; oltre che sono gli uccelli ed i pesci con le penne e squamme vivissimi …” (Vasari, 1568/1991, p. 296). 3

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Humankind/Man/Adam,4 which is narrated in chapter I (Gen., I, 26–27) and in chapter II (Gen., II, 7). Kessler (1971, 1977), Weitzmann (1957, 1984) and Weitzmann and Kessler (1986) distinguish three phases in Adam’s Creation: forming, enlivenment and animation. Weitzmann (1957, p.  90), referring to the Cotton Genesis, describes the three phases thus: “(1) the ‘Shaping of Man’ by the Creator seated on a throne; (2) ‘Man’s Enlivenment’ through the touch of the head whereby the Creator bends over Adam’s head from behind; and (3) his ‘Animation’ by the induction of a winged Psyche as the symbol of the immortal soul which the Creator holds by the wings while facing Adam in a standing pose”. Examining the “Touronian Bibles”, Kessler (1977, p. 25) identifies in them two of these phases and perhaps all three: “Enlivenment of Adam (perhaps combined with Forming)” in the San Paolo fuori le mura Bible (Figs. 6.7, 7.7) and in the Moutier-Grandval Bible (Figs. 6.20, 7.20); “Animation of Adam” in the Vivian Bible (Figs. 6.17, 7.17) and in the San Paolo fuori le mura Bible (Figs. 6.7, 7.7); and a fusion of “Enlivening and Animation” in the Bamberg Bible (Figs. 6.35, 7.35), referring to verse 7 of chapter II of Genesis, while the first phase, Forming, would refer also to Gen., I, 26 (Kessler, 1971, pp. 146–148). Extending the analysis of this episode to other artworks, Greenstein (2016, pp. 66–67) confutes the distinction between forming, enlivenment and animation – theologically inseparable according to the authoritative sources quoted by Greenstein, such as Augustine and Peter Lombard – underlining how in no existing image, if not in the reconstruction of the folio 7 of the Cotton Genesis made by Weitzmann and Kessler (1986), there are the three phases postulated by these scholars but always and only two. The classification problem, with respect to our study, arises in particular when the representation of an episode is divided into two different scenes. In the repertoire of the Story of Adam and Eve, a double scene of the Creation of Man is present in the first two scenes of the first register of the San Paolo fuori le mura Bible (Figs. 6.7, 7.7), in the last scene of the first register and in the first scene of the second register of the Genesis pilaster, by Lorenzo Maitani (Figs. 6.73, 6.74, 7.73, 7.74).

 With respect to the chapters of the Bible we have considered (I, II, III and IV up to verse 16), in the version we used, The New Oxford Annotated Bible, edited by Coogan et al. (2010), the name Adam never appears, and he is always referred to as “man”, although the footnotes mention the Hebrew version “adam”. The name “Eve” appears for the first time in Gen., III, 20. The same happens in other Bibles, such as The New American Bible, where the name “Eve” appears for the first time in Gen., III, 20 and Adam is referred to as “man”, unlike other Bibles, such as The King James Bible, where the name Adam appears for the first time in Gen., II, 19, while here too Eve is mentioned in Gen., III, 20. It should also be pointed out that in chapter I of the Bible, in verses 26 and 27, The New Oxford Annotated Bible does not mention Adam or “man”, but “humankind” (“Then God said, ‘Let us make humankind ...’”; “So God created humankind ...”), although the Hebrew version “adam” is specified in the footnotes for both verses. Instead, the Vatican Catholic Bible, The New American Bible, in verses 26 and 27 of chapter I, mentions “man” (“Then God said: ‘Let us make man …’”; “God created man…”). The King James Bible too mentions “man” (“And God said, Let us make man …”; “And God said, Let us make man”). 4

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Kessler (1971, p.147), in describing the two scenes of the San Paolo Bible, concerning the Creation of Adam, indicates the first as “Enlivening (perhaps infused with elements of the Forming)”, the second as “Animation”. Greenstein (2016, p. 75, our italics), analysing the two scenes of the Creation of Adam in the Genesis pilaster, by Lorenzo Maitani, specifies: “the first scene emphasized that Adam was ‘formed’ from earth and water by a gesture of command … . The second scene focused on the issue given the most attention by theologians, the creation of man, body and soul”.5 Ultimately, for Greenstein, the two scenes are a “different exposition of the same event”, analogously to the narration of the San Marco mosaics: “The double rendition at Orvieto updated the creation of man sequence at San Marco. In both cycles, the creative act of Genesis I:26–28 was associated with the formation of man recounted at Genesis 2:7”, even if “the ‘form’ of man was differently conceived” (Greenstein, 2016, p. 75). Actually, this question – the merits of which we certainly cannot go into, even though it appears relevant from an interpretative point of view – does not affect the reading of the only two images in our repertoire that present two phases of the Creation of Humankind/Man/Adam. Therefore, we have used a double classification. In order to distinguish the first scene, in the two cases of Adam’s Creation mentioned above – i.e. the first two scenes of the first register of the San Paolo fuori le mura Bible (Figs. 6.7, 7.7) and the last scene of the first register and the first scene of the second register of the Genesis pilaster, by Lorenzo Maitani (Figs. 6.73, 6.74, 7.73, 7.74) – the images have been catalogued as Gen., I, 26–27.6 In order to identify the second scene in the above-mentioned works and in all the other cases in which the Creation of Adam is narrated in a single scene the reference verse used is Gen., II, 7. This does not indicate our position in this intricate debate but only a simplification, dictated by the need to make a twofold classification when there is a double scene. Some difficulty of classification also concerns the episode in which God leads Adam into the Garden of Eden, present in three works of our repertoire: two miniatures on the Story of Adam and Eve, by the Master of the Duke of Bedford (Figs. 6.78, 6.79, 7.78, 7.79) and a fresco by Piero di Puccio (Figs. 6.87, 7.87). In the miniature contained in f. 14 of the Bedford Hours by the Master of the Duke of Bedford (Figs. 6.79, 7.79),7 which includes eleven scenes, in the bottom-left corner, God and Adam are represented in two contiguous scenes. Both Bartz (2006) and  Taylor (1970, pp.  66–67), a pupil of Weitzmann, interprets the two scenes of the Creation of Adam, by Lorenzo Maitani, in the Genesis pilaster, of the Basilica Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, in Orvieto, thus: the first as Enlivenment, the second as Animation, even with some doubts. 6  Although Greenstein (2016, p. 75) suggests the classification Gen., I, 26–28, we have preferred to refer only to the verses closely related to the Creation of Humankind/Man/Adam, i.e. Gen., I, 26–27. 7  The Bedford Hours, an opera by the Master of the Duke of Bedford, has also been studied in relation with Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, an opera by the Limbourg Brothers, both of which are included in our thematic repertoire. Some attempts have been made to identify who the Master of the Duke of Bedford was, hypothesizing that he might be Haincelin de Haguenau. For a summary of the debate on this subject, see Villela-Petit (2008). 5

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König (2007) identify one scene as the Creation of Adam and the other as the Introduction into the Garden of Eden: “God, having created him, takes Adam in his arms to bring him into the Garden of Eden” (Bartz, 2006, p.63). A similar description is in König (2007, p. 90): “He hovers outside the Paradise to animate the body of Adam, whom he then carries over the wall into the garden”. The iconography of this second scene – similar to that of the other miniature by the Master of the Duke of Bedford (Figs. 6.78, 7.78), with the variant that in this case he who leads Adam into the Garden of Eden is an angel and not God – is quite different from the only other scene in our repertoire that represents, along with Adam’s Introduction into the Garden of Eden, the Admonition: the Creation of the World, by Piero di Puccio (Figs. 6.87, 7.87). In this fresco, consisting of seven scenes, the first scene represents the Creation of Adam, and the second represents God  – erect  – who takes Adam by the hand – also erect and at his side – and introduces him into the Garden of Eden pointing, with the other arm, to the tree of good and evil (Bertolini & Bucci, 1960, pp. 105–106). This is the only work in the entire thematic repertoire, as we will see below, in which the scene of the Admonition is represented following the order and content of the biblical verses, where the Introduction into the Garden of Eden (Gen., II, 15) is succeeded by the Admonition of God to Adam alone (Gen., II, 16–17). We have not found in the literature-specific indications of the verses of reference for the scenes of these three works; therefore we have classified the two miniatures by the Master of the Duke of Bedford (Figs. 6.78, 6.79, 7.78, 7.79) in the same category, naming it “Translation of Adam into the Garden of Eden” and referring it to the verse Gen., II, 8 – “And the Lord God planted a garden in Eden, in the east; and there he put the man whom he had formed”– and to the verse Gen., II, 15: “The Lord God took the man and put him in the garden of Eden to till it and keep it”. Instead, for the classification of the scene of the fresco by Piero di Puccio (Figs. 6.87, 7.87), in which he conflates the two episodes of the Introduction of Adam into the Garden of Eden and the Admonition, it was necessary to create a separate category, indicated as Gen., II, 15–17. In the other works of the thematic repertoire, the Admonition – in the biblical text addressed by God only to Adam, prior to the Creation of Eve  – is regularly depicted after the Creation of Eve and addressed to both, except, as we have just seen, in the fresco by Piero di Puccio. Scholars interpret this ‘mistake’ as an iconographic convention (e.g. Greenstein, 2016; Jolly, 1997; Kessler, 1971, 1977; Stoddard, 1981; Weitzmann, 1984). Therefore, we have classified the scene referring to the Admonition after the Creation of Eve, while maintaining the reference to the specific verse of Genesis, i.e. Gen., II, 16–17. The representation of the episode of the Creation of Eve takes on a dual configuration, which may concern either the Extraction of Adam’s rib – and in this case only God and Adam are represented – or the forming of Eve from Adam’s body, with the representation of the three protagonists. Therefore, we have made a distinction, classifying the first case as the Extraction of Adam’s rib (Gen., II, 21), and the second as the Forming of Eve (Gen., II, 22a). In general, in the whole thematic repertoire, the two types of representations are present alternatively, but in three

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cases both appear: in the San Paolo fuori le mura Bible, they appear in the last scene of the first register and in the first scene of second register (Figs. 6.7, 6.8, 7.7, 7.8); in the Creation of Eve, in the mosaics of the Basilica di San Marco, in Venice (Figs. 6.10, 7.10); and in the Creation of Adam and Creation of Eve, by Lorenzo Maitani (Figs. 6.74, 7.74), they appear in the same panel or register. The subsequent episode, the Introduction of Adam and Eve, is not frequently depicted but also required a double classification. When there are two scenes in the work, one concerning the Forming of Eve and the other the Introduction of Adam and Eve, the episode was classified as Gen., II, 22b–24, and this regards the second register of the San Paolo fuori le mura Bible (Figs. 6.8, 7.8) and a miniature by Taddeo Crivelli and Franco dei Russi contained in the Bible of Borso d’Este (Figs. 6.56, 7.56). When the Forming of Eve is not present, that is, in the other seven works in which the scene of the Introduction of Adam and Eve is depicted, the episode was classified as Gen., II, 22–24. The episode with which chapter III of the Bible begins, namely, the Temptation (Gen., III, 1–5) and the Fall (Gen., III, 6) on which the story of Adam and Eve hinges, is represented with different solutions. In most cases, artists condense the two events in a single scene (Gen., III, 1–6). Sometimes they choose to show the events in two scenes: in one, they combine the temptation of the serpent with a first part of verse 6, thus showing Eve attracted by the serpent or picking the fruit (Gen., III, 1–6a); in the other, following partially or fully the second part of verse 6, they depict Eve offering the fruit to Adam or both in the act of sinning (Gen., III, 6b). Only rarely is there a single scene in which Eve alone is depicted facing the serpent or holding out a hand towards the forbidden fruit, as in the sequence of the fresco of the Genesis by an Anonymous painter depicted in the Abbaye de Saint-Savin sur Gartempe (Figs. 6.6, 7.6).8 We have classified this scene as Gen., III, 1–6a, also taking into account the fact that, as often happens in pictorial cycles and in this case too, the narration continues in other scenes; in this case, “the story of the Original Sin continues in the next bay, with three scenes” (Sarrade, 2012, p 404). In another case, the Tree of Life by Pacino di Buonaguida (Figs. 6.83, 6.84, 7.83, 7.84)  – inspired by the Lignum Vitae composition by San Bonaventura di Bagnoregio – the scheme is different yet again. Pacino di Buonaguida represents two series of scenes at the base of the Tree of Life, clearly separated, according to some, from Mount Golgotha on which it is planted (Viggiani, 2011, p.  39) or, according to others, from a “cave” in which is enclosed “Bonaventure/Francis (?) / John (?)” (Esler, 2015, p. 15). The last scene in the series to the left of Golgotha, or the cave, represents “Adam and Eve speaking with the serpent draped around the tree” (Esler, 2015, p. 15); the first scene in the series to the right of Golgotha, or the cave, repeats the same iconographic solution, omitting only the serpent: “Adam and  “At Saint-Savin, restoration was made in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when the middle axis of the barrel vault was repaired, and very heavy restorations were carried out in the nineteenth century on the lower registers”. The heaviest one concerns the register considered here, where the scene of the Fall is preceded by the Introduction of Adam and Eve “in which the nineteenth-­ century painter gave each of the three protagonists a bearded face” (Angheben, 2013, p. 3). 8

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Eve taking from the Tree” (Esler, 2015, p. 15). Despite its singularity, it was considered appropriate to classify the first scene, in which Adam also is present, as Gen., III, 1–6a and the second as Gen., III, 6b. Actually, even with regard to the episode of the Temptation and Fall, often conflated into a single scene, a distinction should be made, because some works represent Adam and Eve naked, some already covered with fig leaves (Gen., III, 7). In certain cases, the reference to verse Gen., III, 7 is obvious: e.g. in the Creation of Eve and Original Sin, by an Anonymous painter in the Chiesa di Santa Croce ai Lagnoni, in Andria (Figs. 6.26, 7.26); in the Original Sin, by an Anonymous painter, from the Hermitage of the Vera Cruz de Maderuelo (Figs. 6.31, 7.31); in the Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve, and Original Sin, by Wiligelmo (Figs. 6.97, 7.97); and in the Fall and Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise and the Fall of Man, by Michael Wolgemut (Figs. 6.99, 6.100, 7.99, 7.100). In other cases, the presence of leaves seems to be dictated by the artist’s scruple of concealing the pudenda: e.g. in the Garden of Eden with Fall of Man, by Hendrick de Clerck (Figs. 6.48, 7.48); in the Paradise, by Hendrick de Clerck and Denis van Alsloot (Figs. 6.49, 7.49); and in the Original Sin, by Tintoretto (Figs. 6.94, 7.94). Even in these cases the distinction does not affect the identification of the scene, so it was considered appropriate to refer the scenes in which Adam and Eve sin, whether naked or covered with leaves, to the same group of verses: Gen., III, 1–6. Episodes following the Temptation and Fall and preceding the Expulsion – the Shame and Hiding (Gen., III, 7–8), God Calling and the Denial of Guilt (Gen., III, 9–13), the Punishment (Gen., III, 14–19) and the Clothing and Mercy (Gen., III, 21–22) – find different representational solutions with a prevailing tendency to conflate the episodes comprised from the Shame to the Punishment (Gen., III, 7–19), as often happens in the Touronian Bibles (Gaehde, 1971) but also, in other cases, to distinguish some of these episodes. This latter solution can be found, for example, in Folio 1r of the Vienna Genesis (Figs. 6.32, 7.32), which comprises three scenes, as described by Wickhoff (1900, p. 8): “The very first illustration shows us Adam and Eve at the moment when the woman is in the act of offering him the apple; then the two bowed down by the shame of the sin they recognise. We see how they conceal themselves in the bush, while the hand reaching out of the clouds indicates the Lord who demands vengeance. The whole is set in a landscape without any division of scenes, so that our first parents appear three times within the same boundary lines and on the same ground, first facing one another at the moment of the fall, next hurrying to the bush, and finally cowering among its branches in order to conceal themselves from God”. Besides the Sin, therefore, represented in the first scene on the left (Gen., III, 1–6), the Vienna Genesis miniature contains, in the central scene, a combination of the Shame (Gen., III, 7) and Hiding (Gen., III, 8), while the third scene, on the right, could represent God Calling and the Denial of Guilt (Gen., III, 9–13). The central scene of the Vienna Genesis page finds a parallel in the fourth scene of the second register of the Bamberg Bible (Figs. 6.36, 7.36), which Kessler (1977, p. 151) refers to as “to the Hiding reported in Gen. 3:8”, and shows Adam and Eve already covered with fig leaves (Gen., III, 7). The continuation of the story,

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contained in the first scene of the third register of the Bamberg Bible, in this case, could extend to the episode of the Punishment (Gen., III, 9–19). The representation of the Shame and Hiding can also be found in one of the two scenes of the Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise by Mariotto Albertinelli, housed in the Strossmayer Gallery of Old Masters, in Zagreb (Figs. 6.2, 7.2), which however shows only Eve in a demure attitude and partly hidden by bushes.9 In our classification we considered it appropriate to include the scenes of the three works representing the Shame and Hiding in the same category, referring to the relative verses: Gen., III, 7–8. The wider conflation with respect to the episodes we are dealing with is in the third scene of the second register of the San Paolo fuori le mura Bible (Figs. 6.8, 7.8), which also depicts the Temptation and Fall. The scene represents God with his arm raised, near to Adam and Eve, who are committing the Original Sin. According to Kessler (1977, p. 19), the scene – an example of “extreme conflation” – might include verses 7–10 of chapter III of the Bible, in addition to those referring to the Temptation and Fall (Gen., III, 1–6), that is, essentially Gen., III, 1–10. It seems to us, comforted also by the analysis of other scholars (Cohen & Derbes, 2001; Gaehde, 1971),10 that the position and expression of Adam and Eve can also evoke the Denial of Guilt and those of God, who is represented with an outstretched arm, also the announcement of the Punishment, given that in the scene immediately following – the first scene in the third register – the Expulsion is already represented. Therefore, we have classified this scene as Gen., III, 1–19. Other works seem to enclose in a single scene the episodes from the Shame or Hiding to the Punishment (Gen. III, 7–19), even if it is difficult to establish exactly which episodes they are, given the imaginative solutions invented by artists. For example, Lucas Cranach the Elder, in his painting the Garden of Eden, kept in the

 The painting by Albertinelli could be one of three “little scenes” (“storiette”) commissioned by the Florentine banker Giovan Maria Benintendi for his family’s palace in Florence, mentioned by Vasari (1568/1912–1915, vol. 4, p.  168): “For Giovan Maria Benintendi he painted three little scenes with his own hand”. This painting could be part of a set originally comprising the Creation and Fall of Man (Figs. 6.1, 7.1) and also a third painting, a panel representing Cain and Abel kept in the Accademia Carrara, in Bergamo (Borgo, 1974). Therefore, it should be considered also taking into account the missing parts (Dulibić & Pasini Tržec, 2012, n. 9). 10  Gaehde (1971, p. 367) very effectively captures in a series of schematised figures the distribution of verses in the Touronian Bibles, indicating verses Gen., III, 7–19 for the scene representing the episodes after the Fall and before the Expulsion. Cohen and Derbes (2001, p. 35), referring also to another famous artwork, the bronze doors on Hildesheim cathedral, specify: “The four Touronian bibles each selected slightly different episodes from the Early Christian model. Closest to the Hildesheim panel is the Grandval Bible, which shows the Reproval of Adam and Eve as an element of the Denial of Blame. In the Bamberg Bible, two distinct scenes show Adam and Eve hiding and God reproving them as they deny blame. In the Vivian Bible, Adam and Eve hide from the approaching Creator; except for slightly different hand gestures, the scene looks very much like the Reproval/Denial in the Grandval Bible. In the San Paolo Bible, finally, the Reproval is conflated with the Fall itself, so that Adam and Eve are not represented interacting with God as he reproves them. In general, however, the three bibles from Tours itself (that is, excluding San Paolo) all include some comparable scene between the Fall and the Expulsion”. 9

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Kunsthistorisches Museum, in Vienna (Figs. 6.55, 7.55), inserts, alongside that of the Expulsion, a scene depicting only the face of God, who, appearing from the clouds, apostrophes Adam and Eve, half hidden by bushes, leaving the observer the freedom to imagine whether the discovery of the fall is accompanied by reproval or punishment (or both). In fact, as in the other works of the thematic repertoire, the next scene is the Expulsion. A slightly different case is that of a miniature by the Master of the Duke of Bedford (Figs. 6.79, 7.79). In this work, in the scene that condenses the episodes from the Shame to the Punishment, Adam and Eve are depicted as they turn their backs on God, heading towards the gate of Paradise, and, in the next scene, they are already portrayed at work, while the angel is guarding the gate. The scene of the Punishment, therefore, could also comprise the Expulsion, but we could not find in the museum’s descriptive notes or in essays on these episodes (e.g. Gough, 1794, p. 8) confirmation of our supposition. Therefore, we have classified the scene in question as Gen. III, 7–19. In general, when there is only one scene in the work that refers to such episodes, it was decided to consider the whole group of verses: Gen., III, 7–19, as Gaehde (1971) suggests, except in the two cases previously mentioned. One consists in the first scene of the third register of the Bamberg Bible (Figs. 6.37, 7.37) that represents a conflation of the episodes following the Shame and Hiding (Gen., III, 7–8), which are represented in the fourth and last scene of the previous register. The other case concerns the first page of the Vienna Genesis (Figs. 6.32, 7.32), in which the Shame and the Hiding are preceded by the Original Sin. In both cases, the classification of the conflation of the episodes from God Calling to Punishment can only start from the verse following the Hiding: Gen., III, 9–19. Moreover, deepening the analysis of the scenes concerning these episodes, in particular the Punishment, another distinction could be made if we consider the works in which, besides Adam and Eve, there is also the serpent – e.g. the third register of the Pantheon Bible (Figs. 6.14, 7.14) – and therefore the curse inflicted by God on the serpent is also considered (Gen., III, 14–15). However, observing other works in the thematic repertoire, we judged that a further subdivision was not necessary in the context of this study. The last two episodes of chapter III, the Expulsion and the Labour, when both are present, are almost always represented in adjacent or consecutive scenes with various compositional choices. Referring to the Touronian Bibles, Kessler (1977, p. 20) describes the episode of the Expulsion as follows: “Two types of Expulsion scenes occur in the four manuscripts …. In the Bamberg and Grandval Bibles …, an angel rests his hand on Adam’s shoulder and escorts the couple from Eden. Adam and Eve are clothed in long tunics and gaze longingly back. In the Vivian and San Paolo Bibles …, the couple is nude and Eve raises her hand to her face in an expression of despair. In the San Paolo Bible, the gentle angel has been replaced by a vigorous young man who brandishes a sword”. Actually, in the Vivian Bible, Adam and Eve do not appear naked, but Kessler (1977, p.  20, n. 28) believes that “the togas are certainly an addition”.

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Thus, the biblical reference verse for the Expulsion in the Vivian Bible and San Paolo fuori le mura Bible should be Gen., III, 23; in Bamberg Bible and Grandval Bible, it should be Gen., III, 24. Furthermore, in the San Paolo Bible, there is a reference to the verse Gen., III, 24, indicating the Whirling Sword. In this case, too, the thematic repertoire presents various solutions: the one who expels Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden is sometimes God himself, e.g. in the Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, by Mariotto Albertinelli (Figs. 6.2, 7.2), as it should be according to the biblical text, or an angel who brandishes the sword towards Adam and Eve, who may be dressed, as in a fresco by Giusto de’ Menabuoi (Figs. 6.65, 7.65), or with the pudenda wrapped in veils as in a painting by Jacopo Bertucci (Figs. 6.40, 7.40). For the purposes of our work, we have not considered it appropriate to go into this question – certainly relevant from an iconographic point of view but not as much as for the identification of the scene – given the canonical collocation of the Expulsion, where present, after the Punishment and before the Labour, if represented. Therefore, we have included in a single category – Gen., III, 23a, 24 – the reference to the first part of verse 23: “therefore the Lord God sent him forth from the garden of Eden”, and to verse 24: “He drove out the man; and at the east of the garden of Eden he placed the cherubim, and a sword flaming and turning to guard the way to the tree of life”. However, there are two particular cases in the thematic repertoire: the first two scenes in the third register of the Story of Adam and Eve, contained in the Alba Bible (Figs. 6.30, 7.30), and the two scenes contained in the second page of the Vienna Genesis (Figs. 6.33, 7.33). In these works, the episode of the Expulsion has a double representation and a different complexity too: “before the gates” and “again outside Eden”, to use Kessler’s terminology (1971, p.  150).11 Moreover, especially the first scene on the second page of the Vienna Genesis evokes further episodes. Wickhoff (1900, pp. 8–9) describes the second image of the Vienna Genesis as follows: “Adam and Eve approach in abject humiliation the gate of the beautiful garden; we again see them outside, received by a deeply significant figure symbolising the bitter days in store for them, and between stands the guarding Cherub before the fateful gate. We thus take in at a glance their last moments in Paradise, their new misery, and the impossibility of return”. It should be noted that the first of the two scenes on this page also depicts a flashy serpent twisted around the tree of knowledge, and Adam and Eve are not naked, according to the usual iconographic scheme, but have “hips and breasts covered with short olive grey sleeveless tunics and skirts of leather or fur” (Buberl, 1937), and their heads shyly lowered for God’s punitive words, represented only by his arm, as they approach the gate of Paradise to depart. In these two cases, a different classification was clearly necessary. For the Alba Bible (Figs. 6.30, 7.30), in the third register, we distinguished the first scene from  Kessler (1971, p. 150), mentioning Wickhoff, makes explicit reference to the Vienna Genesis as a case in which the Expulsion is depicted twice, specifying that this type of representation is also found in the Octateuchs and that “some evidence exists that the Cotton Genesis recension also had a double Expulsion”. 11

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the left with Gen. III, 23a, when Adam and Eve are before the gate, and the second scene with Gen. III, 24, when they are outside the gate. For the second page of the Vienna Genesis (Figs. 6.33, 7.33), a still different classification has been made: the first scene was identified with Gen., III, 14–23a, since the narration on the previous page (Figs. 6.32, 7.32) stops at Gen., III, 13, and this scene, in addition to the Expulsion, also evokes the Curse of the Serpent and the Punishment, the Clothing and perhaps Mercy; the second scene, similarly to the Alba Bible, was classified as Gen., III, 24. Turning to the Labour episode and again resorting to Kessler’s analysis of the Touronian Bibles, the references he indicates are Gen., III, 16–19 (Kessler, 1971, p. 152). In the description of the Labour scene, Kessler (1971, p.150) states that “in all four manuscripts, Adam is shown bending over a mattock tilling the soil while Eve sits nursing a child. Although his clothing, like Eve’s, varies according to that worn in the Expulsion, Adam is virtually the same in all four depictions. Slight, insignificant differences appear in the figure of Eve. In the Grandval and San Paolo Bibles … she nurses the child; in the Vivian Bible … the child sits upright in her lap and Eve gestures toward Adam … .” The condemnation to Labour, in reality, is narrated in verses Gen., III, 16–19, but is also mentioned in the second part of verse 23 of chapter III: “to till the ground from which he was taken”. Moreover, in other works of the thematic repertoire that represent Adam and Eve condemned to a hard earthly life, Eve, in particular, is represented in various ways: while she works holding a spindle and distaff, as shown, for example, in a relief of an Anonymous artist on the North portal of Freiburg Cathedral (Figs. 6.27, 7.27), in a miniature, by the Boucicaut Master and workshop, included in the edition of Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium kept in the Paul Getty Museum, in Los Angeles (Figs. 6.46, 7.46), in a miniature by Taddeo Crivelli and Franco dei Russi, contained in the Bible of Borso d’Este (Figs. 6.57, 7.57), and in a fresco by Martino di Bartolomeo in the Oratorio di San Giovanni, in Cascina (Figs. 6.76, 7.76); while she is tilling the soil mirroring Adam, as in a relief by Wiligelmo on the Duomo of Modena (Figs. 6.98, 7.98); with both sons, Cain and Abel, as, for instance, in the miniature by an Anonymous illuminator, included in the edition of Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium kept in the Pierpont Morgan Library, in New York, where Eve nurses the nude infant Abel and beside her the nude infant Cain, perhaps, plays (Figs. 6.34, 7.34); with both a spindle and distaff and children, as in a fresco by Giovanni di ser Giovanni Guidi (lo Scheggia) and Francesco D’Antonio in the Chiostro Verde of the Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, in Florence (Figs. 6.67, 7.67); and finally, while giving birth, as in the third scene of the third register of the Alba Bible (Figs. 6.30, 7.30), where verse 1 of chapter IV is explicitly represented: “Now the man knew his wife Eve, and she conceived and bore Cain, saying, ‘I have produced a man with the help of the Lord’”. Therefore, in consideration of the compositional choices made by the artists for numerous works in our repertoire and given that the scene of Labour is always placed after the Expulsion, it was decided to record this episode by referring it back to the second part of verse 23 of chapter III, taking for granted its connection with

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verses 16–19 of chapter III of the Bible. Moreover, since some artists extend the story of Adam and Eve to verse 16 of chapter IV of the Bible, which recounts the story of Cain and Abel, it was deemed appropriate to consider, together with the representation of the Labour, the first two verses of chapter IV that recount the birth of Cain and Abel, obviously when they are depicted in that episode. The works in which there are scenes referable to chapter IV of the Bible do not present classification problems. It should be noted, however, that there is a problem of decipherment in some works that concerns, in particular, the scene probably representing the Sacrifices of Cain and Abel – e.g. in the History of Adam and Eve, by Jost Amman (Figs. 6.5, 7.5), which is not very legible in the reproductions we found and is not mentioned in the bibliographical sources consulted. One last aspect to be mentioned is the discrepancy between biblical text and images. With reference to the registers of the Touronian Bibles, Kessler (1971, pp. 154–155) notes: “certain iconographic elements in our miniatures do not find explanation in the biblical text and hence deserve special consideration. These are: (1) an angel in prayer at the Creation of Adam; (2) Eve anachronistically present at the Admonition; (3) the tree of knowledge represented as a fig tree; (4) the tempter as a combed and bearded serpent; (5) an angel rather than the Lord God as the Expeller; (6) Eve sitting in a booth after the Expulsion; and (7) the burial of Cain”. Considering the other works of our repertoire, we must add to these deviations still other episodes or events not present in the Bible or in the chapters we considered: the representation of “God in a mandorla”, supported by two angels – who holds an open book where we read the hexameter “lux ego sum mundi, via verax, vita perennis” (Frugoni, 1999, p. 14) – in the first scene of the relief of Genesis on the façade of the Duomo di Santa Maria Assunta in Cielo e San Geminiano, in Modena, by Wiligelmo (Figs. 6.97, 7.97); the Fall of the Rebel Angels represented in three paintings, one attributed to Johann Melchior Bocksberger (Figs. 6.42, 7.42) and two by Hieronymus Bosch (Figs. 6.43, 6.44, 7.43, 7.44); the representation of Adam and Eve mourning Abel and Lamech slaying a Man (Cain) in two scenes of the same miniature, by an Anonymous illuminator, included in the edition of Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium kept in the Pierpont Morgan Library, in New York (Figs. 6.34, 7.34); and finally, Adam and Eve telling Boccaccio their story, represented in the same miniature as above and in an another miniature, by the Boucicaut Master and workshop, included in the edition of Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium kept in the Paul Getty Museum, in Los Angeles (Figs. 6.46, 7.46). As far as possible, in classifying the scenes depicted, we have tried to find a balance between the need to simplify non-substantial differences with respect to the reading of the scenes and the need to respect the peculiarities with which each artist has chosen to represent the story of Adam and Eve, in order to avoid diminishing the nuances of the individual imagination, again as far as this proved possible. The resulting classification is broad, but, as we will see, the frequency of scenes we identified shows a predilection for some of them.

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3.1.1.1 Frequency of Scenes In practical terms, the classification of the scenes was made using a graphics program. The classification code, already shown in Table  3.1, was inserted on each scene of each of the 100 works of the thematic repertoire, and the works so classified can be consulted in Chap. 7. Table 3.2 shows the frequency with which the scenes, distinguished according to Bible verses, and, in turn, classification codes, are present in the works of the thematic repertoire. In the 100 works, there are in total 316 scenes represented, distributed in 37 categories. The pictorial narration of the story of Adam and Eve focuses more on chapters II and III of the Bible, in which the most frequently represented episodes are also found. The Temptation and Fall is the episode with the highest frequency, presenting 73 occurrences (codes 16, 17, 18). After that, in decreasing order, there are the Expulsion (59 occurrences, codes 25, 26, 27), the Creation of Eve (50 occurrences, codes 11, 12) and the Creation of Adam (29 occurrences, codes 6, 7). Again, in chapters II and III of the Bible, there are other relatively frequent episodes: all those included from the Shame to the Punishment (23 occurrences, codes 20, 21, 22, 23), the Labour (19 occurrences, code 28), the Admonition (16 occurrences, code 15) and the Introduction of Adam and Eve (9 occurrences, codes 13, 14). For other episodes in chapter II, as well as in chapters I and IV of the Bible, the frequencies are very low and sometimes present as a single occurrence in cases where a specific category had to be created for a scene that could not be assimilated to other works. In general, the overall data obtained from the identification and classification of episodes, while giving some indication of the artists’ content and compositional preferences, serve mainly as a guide for reading the artworks and as an indispensable basis for their subsequent analysis in the last two phases of the research programme.

3.2 Configuration of the Artworks of the Thematic Repertoire The identification and classification of the episodes or events narrated in the 100 works ascribed to the thematic repertoire on to the story of Adam and Eve have made it possible to tackle the first of the two last phases of the research programme and, therefore, to analyse the works on the basis of the predefined and previously mentioned categories: context of the work, number of scenes represented, narrative progression and spatial disposition of scenes.

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Table 3.2  Frequency with which the scenes identified in the thematic repertoire on the story of Adam and Eve according to the biblical verses of reference and distinguished by progressive codes are represented Bible verses

Gen., I, 1–25 Gen., I, 1–23 Gen., I, 3 Gen., I, 4–5 Gen., I, 20–25 Gen., I, 26–27 Gen., II, 7 Gen., II, 8; Gen., II, 15 Gen., II, 15–17

Scene God in Mandorla Fall of Rebel Angels First Five Days First Five Days (without creation of terrestrial animals) Creation of Light Separation of Light from Darkness Creation of the Animals Creation of Humankind/Man (works in which there is a double scene of the Creation) Creation of Man/Adam Translation of Adam into the Garden of Eden

Introduction of Adam into the Garden of Eden and Admonition Gen., II, 19–20 Naming of the Animals Gen., II, 21 Creation of Woman/Eve (Extraction of Adam’s rib) Gen., II, 22a Creation of Woman/Eve (Forming of Eve) Gen., II, 22b–24 Introduction of Adam and Eve (works in which the Forming of Eve is also represented) Gen., II, 22–24 Introduction of Adam and Eve Gen., II, 16–17 Admonition to Adam/Admonition to Adam and Eve Gen., III, 1–6 Temptation and Fall (Eve and Adam with the serpent) Gen., III, 1–6a Temptation and Fall (Eve and the serpent, almost always without Adam) Gen., III, 6b Temptation and Fall (works in which there is a double scene) Gen., III, 1–19 From Temptation to Punishment Gen., III, 7–8 Covering with Fig Leaves (hereafter, Shame), Hiding from God (hereafter, Hiding) Gen., III, 7–19 From Shame to Punishment Gen., III, 9–13 God Calling, Denial of Guilt Gen., III, 9–19 From God Calling to Punishment Gen., III, Punishment, Clothing, Mercy, Expulsion 14–23a Gen., III, Expulsion 23a, 24 Gen., III, 23a, Expulsion (before the gate of Paradise) Gen., III, 24 Expulsion (outside the gate of Paradise) Gen., III, 23b, Labour (linked to Gen., III, 16–17) and Adam and Eve’s IV, 1–2 children Gen., IV, 3–5 Sacrifices of Cain and Abel Gen., IV, 8 Cain Killing Abel

Code Occurrence A 1 B 3 1 2 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 4 6 2 7 8

27 2

9

1

10 11 12 13

3 9 41 2

14 15 16 17

7 16 58 8

18

7

19 20

1 3

21 22 23 24

18 1 1 1

25

56

26 27 28

1 2 19

29 30

4 7 (continued)

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80 Table 3.2 (continued) Bible verses Gen., IV, 9–15 Gen., IV, 16

Scene Reproval and Curse of Cain Departure of Cain Adam and Eve mourning Abel Lamech Slaying Man Adam and Eve tell Boccaccio their story

Code 31 32 C D E

Occurrence 1 1 1 1 2

The cells with letters in the third column refer to episodes or events that are not contained in the Bible or in the Bible chapters we have considered (the Bible verses, scenes and codes are listed as in Table 3.1)

3.2.1 Context The category context refers to the ‘pertinential’ configuration of the works, which has been divided into three indicators: unique representation, by which we refer to a single work created as such, an autonomous painting or print, or to images contained in volumes that are not accompanied on the same page or on the flanked page by other images, as in the particular case of prints or miniatures; frontal sequence, in which the continuous narrative may be contained in a page, for example, illuminated or illustrated, flanked by another illuminated or illustrated page, or in a panel flanked by other panels, as in the case of predelle, or in a frame surrounded by other scenes, as, for example, in the case of miniatures; sequence on more than one front, finally, refers to representations in which the work is inserted in a large pictorial complex that develops on several sides, such as fresco or mosaic cycles. Table 3.3 shows that, in the thematic repertoire, works classified as frontal sequence (45) are more numerous than works classified as unique representation (30) and works belonging to a sequence on more than one front (25). Table 3.3  Classification of the 100 works of the thematic repertoire by context No. of works

Unique representation 30

Frontal sequence 45

Sequence on more than one front 25

This classification proved to be quite problematic for acquiring reliable data about the original configuration of works currently appearing as unique representations but also about the actual placement of works that belong, for instance, to illuminated or illustrated codex or volumes. Therefore, there are various aspects to be taken into account with respect to the classification made. One of these concerns the fact that among the works of the repertoire classified as unique representation (30 works), there are cases in which the continuous narrative presented to the observer as a single image is linked to other previous or subsequent non-flanked images. Consider, for example, the Vienna Genesis, of which only 24 of the original 96 sheets are preserved. The narration in the first surviving miniature of the Vienna Genesis (f. 1r) (Figs. 6.32, 7.32), which contains three scenes representing the Temptation and Fall, Shame and Hiding, and God Calling and Denial of Guilt,

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continues on the next page (f. 1v) (Figs. 6.33, 7.33) with other scenes that include the Punishment, Clothing, Mercy and Expulsion before the gate and again after the gate of Paradise. In cases like these, the reading of the work cannot but take into account the subsequent or previous images and the overall structuring of the work, which led the artist to choose how many and which episodes to include in each folio. An analogous question concerns the works classified as frontal sequence, which often refers to works that may have been dismembered, such as the Creation and Fall of Man by Mariotto Albertinelli (Figs. 6.1, 7.1) – which could have been, as already noted (see note 9), one of the three “little scenes” (“storiette”) of which Vasari (1568/1912–1915, vol. 4, p. 168) writes – as well as to works in which the continuous narrative, clearly circumscribed, is surrounded by other scenes, as, for example, the two miniatures by Taddeo Crivelli and Franco dei Russi contained in two consecutive pages of the Bible of Borso d’Este. In the first miniature, the Creation of Eve and the Admonition are represented (Figs. 6.56, 7.56) and, in the second, the Expulsion and the Labour (Figs. 6.57, 7.57). The other episodes, narrated in non-continuous mode in the two miniatures, in both cases chronologically precede those represented in the continuous narratives. In the first miniature, the Creation of Animals, the Creation of Adam, the Introduction of Adam into the Garden of Eden and Admonition, and the Naming of the Animals are depicted; in the second miniature, the Temptation and Fall. Therefore, the choice of the episodes included in the continuous narratives necessarily cannot be considered except in relation to the other scenes contained in the same pages. A further example may be a woodcut by Michael Wolgemut (Figs. 6.99, 7.99), a page contained in the Nuremberg Chronicle, which represents two episodes: the Temptation and Fall and the Expulsion. On the previous and flanked page, the Creation of Eve is represented as a single scene, and on the preceding pages, always in single scenes, there are the Creation of the Universe and the Creation of Adam. Obviously, the question is all the more true for the continuous narratives inserted among panels with single scenes, for example, in fresco or mosaics cycles, such as the continuous narrative in the San Marco mosaics, in Venice (Figs. 6.10, 6.11, 6.12, 7.10, 7.11, 7.12), or the panel Fall and Expulsion in the vault of the Cappella Sistina, by Michelangelo (Figs. 6.81, 7.81). The mention of these last works allows us to recall another aspect linked to the variable context, namely, the positioning of the work, which undoubtedly affects the artist’s conception of the work itself. It is one thing to conceive and realise a work on a vault placed at 20.70 m from the ground that beholders will observe from this distance and inside a frescoed cycle of 800 m2 (Montacutelli et al., 1990), as it is in the case of Michelangelo, and another to conceive an image for a book of hours, which users could hold in their hands and observe at close distance. This last aspect, in turn, recalls another question linked to the context, namely, the destination of the work. Considering the unique representations included in the thematic repertoire, some artists choose a compositional arrangement rich in episodes, as in the case of a miniature of the early decades of the fifteenth century, by the Master of the Duke of Bedford, contained in the Bedford Hours, which depicts

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in eleven scenes the entire story of Adam and Eve (Figs. 6.79, 7.79). Others choose to represent the story through two or three episodes, as, for example, in the painting on canvas the Earthly Paradise, attributed to Jan Bruegel II the Younger, which contains merely three pregnant episodes: the Creation of Adam, the Creation of Eve and the Temptation and Fall (Figs. 6.47, 7.47). These cases can serve to highlight how compositional choices can also be linked to the function or destination of use of the work and even to the patron’s requests, obviously within the perimeter of the stylistic conventions of the epoch. Context, in short, is a very wide and multifaceted variable, of which here we have outlined only a few aspects that are essential not only for the overall reading of the work, but also for the analysis of other variables considered in the research.

3.2.2 Number of Scenes The number of scenes refers to the counting of the scenes represented in each image, which have been classified according to these indicators: two scenes, three scenes, four scenes and more than four scenes. As Table 3.4 shows, the most frequent representation consists of two scenes and is found in 51 of the 100 works considered, while the other solutions show differences: 21 works represent three scenes, 14 works four scenes and 14 works more than four scenes. In the latter case, 3 works contains five scenes, 4 works six scenes, 4 works seven scenes, 1 work eight scenes, 1 work nine scenes and 1 work eleven scenes. The quantitative distribution of the scenes, which may be affected by the variable context of the work, in any case reflects choices made by the artist and presents solutions that are not obvious and varied. On the basis of the analysis of the number of scenes represented in the works of the thematic repertoire (see § 3.1.1. Frequency of the scenes), it might be inferred that the salient episodes, those presenting a higher frequency, are concentrated in two-scene works, but this is not the case. Considering the 51 works composed of two scenes, 10 are unique representation, 24 frontal sequence and 17 sequence on more than one front. The most frequent scenes in the thematic repertoire, the Temptation and Fall and the Expulsion, are contained in 16 works in the whole group of 51 works with two scenes. Even if we consider only the unique representation, which is the ‘purest’ mode to grasp the compositional choices of the artist, such episodes are the subject of 5/10 works. In other respects, it might be supposed that works with the largest number of scenes tend to represent the whole story, as indeed is often the case, as opposed to works with two scenes, but, even in this case, this is not the way things always are. Table 3.4  Classification of the 100 works of the thematic repertoire by number of scenes No. of works

Two scenes 51

Three scenes 21

Four scenes 14

More than four scenes 14

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For example, the only work by Fra Bartolomeo included in the thematic repertoire (Figs. 6.62, 7.62) – a unique representation consisting of two scenes – shows the creation of Eve from Adam’s body and the couple now a part of earthly life portrayed with both children. The work therefore synthesises a large part of the story, while, at the same time, it requires viewers to make a daring ‘cognitive conflation’, enabling them to integrate the two episodes depicted with the numerous omitted episodes. Of the 21 works consisting of three scenes, 6 are unique representations, 11 are frontal sequences and 4 are sequences on more than one front. In the case of unique representations, 4/6 works contain the most frequently depicted episodes: the Temptation and Fall, the Expulsion and the Creation of Eve from Adam’s body, as, for example, in a painting by the workshop of Hieronymus Bosch (Figs. 6.45, 7.45), which do not appear together in any of the works with three scenes classified as frontal sequence and sequence on more than one front. Of the 14 works presenting four scenes, 4 are unique representations, 9 frontal sequences, and 1 sequence on more than 1 front. In all 4 unique representations, two scenes depict the Temptation and Fall and the Expulsion, and one scene the creation of one of the protagonists: the Creation of Adam, in a miniature by Jean Dreux, the Master of Margaret of York and Jean Hennecart (Figs. 6.58, 7.58); the Creation of Eve from Adam’s body, in a painting by Hendrick de Clerck and Denis van Alsloot (Figs. 6.49, 7.49); and the Creation of Eve from Adam’s rib in other two cases, namely, a painting by Herri met de Bles (Figs. 6.41, 7.41) and an engraving by Virgil Solis (Figs. 6.92, 7.92). It should be noted that, in the latter two cases – and this is not frequent in our repertoire – the Creation of Eve from Adam’s rib is made clearly visible to the viewer, and the depiction is almost identical: Adam is in a prone position, and God, kneeling near him, holds in his hand a conspicuous rib ending in a curly little face. The fourth scene is varied: in the work by Jean Dreux, the Master of Margaret of York and Jean Hennecart, the Introduction of Adam and Eve is depicted (Figs. 6.58, 7.58); in the works by Herri met de Bles and Virgil Solis, the Admonition (Figs. 6.41, 6.92, 7.41, 7.92); and in the work by Hendrick de Clerck and Denis van Alsloot, the First Five Days (Figs. 6.49, 7.49). In all of the remaining 10 works depicting four scenes, classified either as frontal sequence or sequence on more than one front, the Temptation and Fall episode is represented in one of the three codifications – mainly Gen., III, 1–6 – and in six of these, also the Expulsion is depicted. For the remaining works with four scenes, the artists’ choices are varied, and no prevailing preferences emerge. In the 14 works with more than four scenes, the narrative becomes more detailed, always including, as far as the unique representations are concerned, the Temptation and Fall, the Expulsion, the Creation of Eve or of Adam or both, and giving a particular slant to the story that either starts from the Fall of the Rebel Angels, as in a painting attributed to Johann Melchior Bocksberger (Figs. 6.42, 7.42) or extends to the last verse we consider, namely, the Departure of Cain, as in a miniature by the Master of the Duke of Bedford (e.g. Figs. 6.79, 7.79). A much more detailed analysis should be devoted to each group of works, as well as to each work with its own specificities, but the variability and creative richness

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that characterise the artists’ compositional choices should continue to emerge from these few notes. This variability also emerges from the works that are to some extent ‘obliged’ to adhere to specific models, such as the illuminated frontispieces of the Genesis, which also present different solutions starting from the layout: for example, four registers in Bamberg and Moutier-Grandval and three registers in San Paolo fuori le mura and Vivian and, within them, peculiar choices with regard to the scenes depicted, as well as the way of depicting them.

3.2.3 Narrative Progression Taking account of the identification of episodes and events based on biblical texts (see § 3.1 Identification and Classification of Episodes) and the data related to context and number of scenes, narrative progression – the narrative order of the story – was analysed considering five indicators: from left to right, from right to left, from top to bottom, from bottom to top and other, when it does not fall into one of the four previous indicators. As shown in Table 3.5, in most of the works – 58 – the narrative follows a progression from left to right, but we must consider that in this number are included 18/19 registers of the 6 illuminated pages that narrate the whole story of Adam and Eve – with the exception of a register, as we will see later – in which the narration is ‘necessarily’ linear from left to right.12 The unfolding of the narrative named other regards 30 works, while in a small number – 7 works – the narrative goes from top to bottom and from right to left in 5 works. No work has been classified with a bottom to top progression, though a case might be made for a painting by Hieronymus Bosch, the left-hand panel of the Last Judgment Triptych, kept in the Gemäldegalerie, in Vienna (Figs. 6.43, 7.43), which shows an order of the episodes concerning the story of Adam and Eve exactly inverted compared to that of another painting by Bosch, the left-hand panel of the Haywain Triptych, kept in the Museo del Prado, in Madrid (Figs. 6.44, 7.44). Both paintings consist of four similar scenes: one represents the Fall of the Rebel Angels, Table 3.5  Classification of the 100 works of the thematic repertoire by narrative progression No. of works

Left to right 58

Right to left 5

Top to bottom 7

Bottom to top 0

Other 30

 “The sequence of miniatures [follows] the Genesis text almost verse by verse” (Kessler, 1977, p.  26), although with frequent recourse to “conflation” (Weitzmann, 1957), and, therefore, the iconic progression mirrors the linear reading. It is a “formal means” present since ancient times that of representing the scenes from “left to right in such a way that the beholder is induced to move from one scene to the next just as his eyes read consecutive lines of writing” (Weitzmann, 1957, p. 84). 12

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placed in both works at the top, and three concern Adam and Eve. In the left-hand panel of the Haywain Triptych, the narrative follows a top to bottom progression: in order, the Fall of the Rebel Angels, the Creation of Eve, the Temptation and Fall and the Expulsion. In the left-hand panel of the Last Judgment Triptych, the narration of the story seems to progress from bottom to top: the Creation of Eve, the Temptation and Fall and the Expulsion, but it is crowned at the top, as already noted, by the Fall of the Rebel Angels, leading us to classify this work as other, since this last episode temporally precedes the others. The large group of works – 30 in all – classified as other, offers examples of ‘artistic license’, namely, of compositional choices that do not respect the chronological order. This is the case, for example, of two paintings by Lucas Cranach the Elder (Figs. 6.54, 6.55, 7.54, 7.55), one kept in the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, in Dresden, and the other in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, in Vienna, with a similar layout – the setting is the Garden of Eden13 – and centred on the same focal scene: the Admonition, which is surrounded by five other scenes, all in the background. In the latter painting (Figs. 6.55, 7.55), which can be divided horizontally into two sections, the Admonition is placed in the centre of the lower half, while the other scenes are placed in the upper half, almost on the same line, vertically separated by a conspicuous tree aligned with the Admonition. The scenes on the right represent, always starting from the centre, the Creation of Eve from Adam’s Rib, the Temptation and Fall and the Creation of Adam. The scene of the Temptation and Fall emerges more than the other two thanks especially to its slightly larger size, thus assuming a certain relevance. The scenes to the left of the Admonition represent, starting from the centre, the Punishment and the Expulsion. The other painting by Cranach (Figs. 6.54, 7.54) offers an even more different disposition of scenes. It is similar in layout to the previous one, with horizontal division into two sections, where, in this case, the lower part presents a scenario populated by animals. In the upper part there are six scenes, disposed as follows: in the centre, again the Admonition, larger than the other five scenes and behind and in line with it, slightly shifted to the left, the Creation of Adam; to the right of the Admonition, and starting from the centre, the Punishment and the Creation of Eve; and to the left, again starting from the centre, the Temptation and Fall and the Expulsion. Apart from works in which artists are ‘obliged’ to conform to a certain scheme, as is, for example, the case with the Genesis frontispieces (with due exceptions, as we will see later), a similar kind of compositional freedom is found especially in works of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries when artists can exploit new conceptions of spatial representation, composing their works on a space unified by a one-point  In these as in other cases, the first chapter of Genesis, in which the creation of the universe and living species is narrated, has not been considered, because, unlike other works, these episodes do not seem to be expressly represented as such but rather serve as a scenario in which the chosen episodes are set – see above, for example, the description of the Paradise, by Herri met de Bles (Figs. 6.41, 7.41). 13

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perspective (Andrews, 1998) or using “plural vanishing points”, which “allowed for depictions of a variety of time-units” (Styve, 2015, p. 85).

3.2.4 Spatial Disposition Spatial disposition concerns the placement of scenes on the surface of the artwork and depends largely on the epoch, the iconographic conventions and the kind of artefact, but it is nevertheless indicative of the whole configuration conceived by the artist. This category has been analysed by considering how episodes or events are depicted in the work and distinguishing three indicators: coplanar, multiplanar and perspective. Table 3.6 shows the frequencies of these indicators for the 100 works in the thematic repertoire. The coplanar disposition refers to the placing of the scenes on the same plane, mostly in linear succession, even independently of the compositional design of the entire work. In the repertoire of Adam and Eve story, the coplanar solution is the most frequent, but it must always be considered that the 47 works include the 6 frontispieces of Genesis, and, of the 19 registers considered by us, 18 are coplanar. The only exception is the last register of the Moutier-Grandval Bible (Figs. 6.23, 7.23), where three scenes are depicted: on the left is the Expulsion, on the right is the Labour and, in the background of the Labour, a tiny scene depicts the Killing of Abel. This scene is on a different plane from the two coplanar scenes in the foreground and therefore the work has been classified as multiplanar. Coplanar disposition is also used when the sequence of scenes does not follow the biblical text in detail and the artist chooses to represent only some salient episodes, as in a fresco from the Hermitage of the Vera Cruz de Maderuelo (Segovia) by an Anonymous painter (Figs. 6.31, 7.31). This fresco represents the episodes of the Creation of Adam and the Temptation and Fall, which does not seem to be preceded or followed by other scenes from the story of Adam and Eve. Certainly, this mode of representation was widely adopted in medieval pictures but was also used in the Renaissance for different reasons, not only technical or related to the type of artefact but also plausibly semantic, even by excellent artists such as Michelangelo, as exemplified in his work in the Cappella Sistina (Figs. 6.81, 7.81), which we will examine in Chap. 4. Another example can be the two miniatures in the Bible of Borso d’Este, by Taddeo Crivelli and Franco dei Russi, in which two types of representation are used: the coplanar representation in the miniature that depicts the Creation of Eve and the Admonition (Figs. 6.56, 7.56) and the Table 3.6  Classification of the 100 works of the thematic repertoire by spatial disposition No. of works

Coplanar 47

Multiplanar 11

Perspective 42

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central perspective in the miniature that depicts the Expulsion and the Labour (Figs. 6.57, 7.57). Being works produced with the same technique and contained in the same Bible, the different spatial disposition can be assumed to depend on compositional choices. Multiplanar representation, which refers to the condition in which the scenes lie on two or more planes, is present in 11 works and appears as an attempt to introduce more depth in a picture than coplanar representation. An example can be the miniature, by the Boucicaut Master and workshop, included in the edition of Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium kept in the Paul Getty Museum, in Los Angeles, already mentioned (Figs. 6.46, 7.46). In the full page of the miniature, in which Adam and Eve tell Boccaccio their story, the artist has created “an elaborate frame” that encloses, beside the illuminated scenes, the opening lines of the biblical text. “It includes a sequence of painted vignettes depicting the Creation of the World, commencing at the upper right and proceeding clockwise” with the creation of Adam and then Eve (Kren, 1997, p. 74). In a large square in the upper half of the miniature, the artist located a salient part of the Adam and Eve story recurring to continuous narrative and “ingeniously organizing the sequence of events around the tall hexagonal walls of the Garden of Eden”. Leaving aside the identified geometric shape, in the representation of the continuous narrative, we can identify three planes: in the centre of the middle plane, and of greater size, there are the episodes of the Temptation and Fall and then the Expulsion from the garden through the gate at the left; in the plane above, the now smaller couple are beyond the garden walls, and “they assume their fates toiling in the fields and spinning”; in the plane below, at the same scale as above, “we see Adam and Eve, now elderly and stooped, approaching the author to tell their story. Boccaccio is elegantly robed in red” (Kren, 1997, p.  74). The image has a sort of three-­ dimensionality, but it lacks the peculiarity of perspective representation: the effective rendering of the third dimension, that of depth, on a two-dimensional space. Perspective representation  – referred here to the condition in which episodes appear closer or farther away than others according to a consistent spatial gradient – is present in 42 works. A gradient is “the gradual increase or decrease of some perceptual quality in space and time” (Arnheim, 1974, pp. 275–276) and, in perspective, concerns the gradual change in size of the shapes represented. Among the works in the thematic repertoire, we can mention, for example, the painting by Hendrick de Clerck, the Garden of Eden with Fall of Man (Figs. 6.48, 7.48), which shows the Temptation and Fall, as a central narrative episode, and two smaller scenes: on the left, the Creation of Eve, on the right, the Expulsion. The interval between the Temptation and Fall in the foreground, the previous episode, the Creation of Eve, and its subsequent causal result, the Expulsion, is marked by a coherent space so that the groups are also well separated through pictorial depth. Andrews (1998, p. 17) maintains that “one-point perspective need not curtail or eliminate the representation of passing time, that is, continuous narrative; one-point perspective can also lead in the opposite direction” because it provides the depth space in which more episodes can be introduced, as, for example, in the Fall of Man, by Jan Gossaert (Figs. 6.66, 7.66), consisting of seven scenes. But apart from the

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number of episodes or events included in works created using this method, which may be as few as two, perspective composition offers the artist a further tool for managing the temporal representation of the story, through the variation of the size of the scenes or characters. In short, the analysis carried out so far shows how the same theme, in this case the story of Adam and Eve, can be open to multiple variations in terms of number of scenes represented, narrative progression and spatial disposition, regardless of the artistic periods, but also of other variables such as technique or type of artefact (see Chap. 2). These variations, as we shall see in the following chapter, do not contrast with, but rather accompany, the adoption of similar perceptual-representational strategies.

References Andrews, L. (1998). Story and space in Renaissance art. Cambridge University Press. Angheben, M. (2013). L’apport des relevés stratigraphiques à Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe. L’exemple du Sacrifice de Noé. In Situ. Revue des Patrimoines, 22. https://doi.org/10.4000/ insitu.10636. Argenton, A. (2019). Art and expression. Studies in the psychology of art (I. Verstegen, Ed.). Routledge. Argenton, A., & Prest, T. (2008). Il fuggi fuggi degli Apostoli. In A. Argenton, Arte e espressione. Studi e ricerche di psicologia dell’arte (pp. 271–289). Il Poligrafo. Arnheim, R. (1974). Art and visual perception. University of California Press. Bartz, G. (2006). Adam wird ins Paradies getragen. In J. F. Hamburgher & A. S. Korteweg (Eds.), Tributes in honor of James H. Marrow: Studies in painting and manuscript illumination of the late middle ages and northern Renaissance (pp. 59–64). Brepols Publishers. Bertolini, L., & Bucci, M. (Eds.). (1960). Camposanto Monumentale di Pisa: affreschi e sinopie. Opera della Primaziale Pisana. Borgo, L. (1974). Mariotto Albertinelli’s smaller paintings after 1512. The Burlington Magazine, 116(854), 245–250. Bradley, J. (2008). ‘You shall surely not die’: The concepts of sin and death as expressed in the manuscript art of Northwestern Europe, C. 800–1200 (Vol. 4). Brill. Buberl, P. (1937). Die byzantinischen Handschriften. I. Der Wiener Dioskurides und die Wiener Genesis. Verlag von Karl W. Hiersemann. Manuscripta Mediaevalia http://bilder.manuscripta-­ mediaevalia.de/hs/katalogseiten/HSK0787_b083_jpg.htm. Verified on 15.03.2022. Cohen, A. S., & Derbes, A. (2001). Bernward and Eve at Hildesheim. Gesta, 40(1), 19–38. Coogan, M. D., Brettler, M. Z., Newsom, C. A., & Perkins, P. (Eds.). (2010). New revised standard version with the Apocrypha. Oxford University Press. De Francovich, G. (1927–8). Lorenzo Maitani scultore e i bassorilievi della facciata del Duomo di Orvieto. Bolletino d’Arte, VII, 339–372. Dulibić, L., & Tržec, I. P. (2012). New information on the 19th century provenance of Albertinelli’s Old Testament cycle. RIHA Journal, 35(6). https://doi.org/10.11588/riha.2012.0.69257 Esler, P.  F. (2015). Pacino di Bonaguida's Tree of Life: Interpreting the Bible in paint in early fourteenth-­century Italy. Biblical Reception, 3(3), 1–29. Frugoni, C. (1999). La facciata, le porte, le metope: un programma coerente. In C. Frugoni (Ed.), Il Duomo di Modena (pp. 9–38). Franco Cosimo Panini. Fumi, L. (1891). Il Duomo di Orvieto e i suoi restauri. Monografie storiche condotte sopra i documenti. La Società Laziale Tipografico-Editrice.

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Gaehde, J. E. (1971). The Turonian sources of the Bible of San Paolo Fuori Le Mura in Rome. Frühmittelalterliche Studien, 5(1), 359–400. Gough, R. (1794). An account of a rich illuminated missal executed for John Duke of Bedford: Regent of France under Henry VI, and afterwards in the possession of the late Duchess of Portland. J. Nichols. Greenstein, J. M. (2016). The Creation of Eve and Renaissance naturalism: Visual theology and artistic invention. Cambridge University Press. Guardia, M. (2016). Iratusque est Cain vehementer… . Cain being wroth: A gap in the iconographic transmission in the Pyrenees. Convivium, 3(1), 136–153. Jolly, P. H. (1997). Made in God’s image?. Eve and Adam in the Genesis Mosaics at San Marco, Venice (Vol. 4). University of California Press. Kessler, H. L. (1971). Hic Homo Formatur: The Genesis frontispieces of the Carolingian Bibles. The Art Bulletin, 53(2), 143–160. Kessler, H. L. (1977). The illustrated Bibles from Tours. Princeton University Press. König, E. (2007). The Bedford Hours: The making of a medieval masterpiece. The British Library. Kren, T. (1997). Giovanni Boccaccio, Des Cas des Nobles Hommes et Femmes, Paris, circa 1415. In I. T. Kren, E. C. Teviotdale, A. S. Cohen, & K. Barstow (Eds.), Masterpieces of the J. Paul Getty Museum: Illuminated manuscripts. J. Paul Getty Museum. Mavroska, V.  V. (2009). Adam and Eve in the Western and Byzantine art of the Middle Ages. Doctoral thesis, University of Frankfurt. Mazure, A. (1967). Le thème d’Adam et Eve dans l’art. In J. D. Rey, A. Mazure, & J. M. Lacroix (Eds.), Adam et Ève (pp. 87–123). Éditions d’art Lucien Mazenod. Montacutelli, R., Tarsitani, G., Maggi, O., & Gabrielli, N. (1990). Il restauro della “Cappella Sistina”: studio microbiologico finalizzato alla conservazione dell’opera. Annali di Igiene, Medicina Preventiva e di Comunità, 2, 127–136. Moskowitz, A. F. (2009). The façade reliefs of Orvieto Cathedral. Harvey Miller Publishers. Murdoch, B. (2003). The medieval popular Bible: Expansions of Genesis in the Middle Ages. D. S. Brewer. Pächt, O. (1943). A Giottesque episode in English mediaeval art. Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 6, 51–70. Pennacchi, F. (1873). Cenni storici e guida di Orvieto. Tipografia Comunale Tosini. Petrangeli, L. (1930). Lorenzo Maitani e la sua opera nel Duomo di Orvieto. Tipografia Cav. Marsili. Riccetti, L. (1988). Il Duomo di Orvieto. Laterza. Ross, L. (1996). Medieval art: A topical dictionary. Greenwood Publishing Group. Sarrade, C. (2012). Les relevés stratigraphiques des peintures de la nef de Saint-Savin-sur-­ Gartempe. Revue d’Auvergne, 403–408 (halshs.archives-­ouvertes.fr/halshs-­01565954). Verified on 15.03.2022. Schapiro, M. (1973). Words and pictures: On the literal and the symbolic in the illustration of a text. Mouton. Stoddard, B.  W. (1981). A Romanesque master carver at Airvault (Deux-Sèvres). Gesta, 20(1), 67–72. Styve, P. S. T. (2015). The time of light in early Renaissance painting. In A. Grung, M. Kartzow, & A.  Solevåg (Eds.), Bodies, borders, believers: Ancient texts and present conversations (pp. 68–89). James Clarke & Co - The Lutterworth Press. Taylor, M. D. (1970). The iconography of the façade decoration of the Cathedral of Orvieto. PhD thesis. Princeton University. University Microfilm International. Vasari, G. (1568/1991). Le vite dei più eccellenti pittori, scultori e architetti. Newton. Vasari, G. (1568/1912–1915). Lives of the most eminent painters, sculptors and architects. X Volumes (G. du C. de Vere, Trans.). Macmillan and The Medici Society. Viggiani, C. (2011). L’Italia di Giotto: itinerari giotteschi. Gangemi Editore.

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Villela-Petit, I. (2008). Les Très Riches Heures de Jean de Berry et les Heures de Bedford. Floraison d’études sur deux œuvres majeures de l’enluminure du xve siècle. Perspective. Actualité en histoire de l’art, 1, 145–150. Weitzmann, K. (1957). Narration in early Christendom. American Journal of Archaeology, 61(1), 83–91. Weitzmann, K. (1984). The Genesis Mosaics of San Marco and the Cotton Genesis miniatures. In O.  Demus (Ed.), The Mosaics of San Marco in Venice, II (pp.  105–142). The Chicago University Press. Weitzmann, K., & Kessler, H. L. (1986). The illustration in the manuscripts of the Septuagint, volume I: The Cotton Genesis British Library, Codex Cotton Otho B VI. Princeton University Press. White, J. (1959). The reliefs on the façade of the Duomo at Orvieto. Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 22(3/4), 254–302. Wickhoff, F. (1900). Roman art: Some of its principles and their application to early Christian painting (A. Strong, Trans.). William Heinemann/The Macmillan Company.

Chapter 4

Second Research Phase on the Story of Adam and Eve

4.1 Perceptual–Compositional Arrangement The last phase of the research on the Adam and Eve story was specifically aimed at analysing the perceptual–compositional arrangement of the artistic works of continuous narrative in the collected thematic repertoire. In particular, this research phase was devoted to examining the “perceptual-representational procedures or strategies of a spatial type that can be traced back to the functioning of visual thinking (Arnheim, 1969)” conceived and employed by the artists “to solve the problem of representing the story and its unfolding, the episodes that compose it, which have a sequential and therefore temporal progression, using a static medium that both perceptually and representationally is distinguished only by spatial sign-elements” (Argenton, 2003−2014). It was assumed that the problem could have consisted for the artist in a series of questions: How to indicate the temporal unfolding of the story? How to arrange the selected episodes or events on the surface of the work? How to distinguish one from another? How to link them? How to make repeated protagonists recognisable? The adopted procedure envisaged a perceptual analysis of the artworks included in the thematic repertoire according to the criteria previously defined (see Sect. 2.1.1). The perceptual analysis of the works was performed after having examined them in the light of the biblical texts, and whenever possible of reference literature, and having tried to identify the context of the works and to define the number of scenes, narrative progression and spatial disposition (see Chap. 3). Therefore, the intention was to try to deduce which procedures or perceptual– representational strategies artists may have employed in order to narrate the story of Adam and Eve through a static medium and, more specifically, to help the viewer understand that the works represent narratives of different episodes or events of a specific story, which happened over time to the protagonists of the story itself.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 L. Messina-Argenton et al., Showing Time: Continuous Pictorial Narrative and the Adam and Eve Story, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13662-7_4

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The analysis of the artworks in the repertoire of the story of Adam and Eve was undertaken in line with those conducted by Argenton on the “perceptual meaning” of the artistic work. The “perceptual meaning” of an artwork, which can be also qualified as “essential or primary” meaning, “is given by the perceptual forces and dynamic qualities that its shape, considered as Gestalt, contains and transmits” (Argenton, 1996, p. 209), and it is “what we first and spontaneously grasp, even if we know nothing about the subject, the style or the culturally given meanings” that the shape itself might represent (Argenton, 2019, p. 48). According to Argenton, this meaning is to be distinguished from the “representational meaning”, still conveyed by the shape of the artistic work, which allows observers to reach its complete understanding and concerns “what the artist intended to ‘tell’ or ‘express’”. The representational meaning, usually, for mainly cultural reasons – in particular referring to Western culture – “is believed to be the ‘true’ and ‘unique’ or, in any case, the ‘most relevant’ meaning that the artistic work contains, and therefore the comprehension or the ‘enjoyment’ of the work itself is often believed to be or should be exclusively based on it”. However, in order to grasp the representational meaning – not always clearly identifiable, as shown for example by divergent critical-artistic readings of the same work  – “the perceptual aspect or meaning must necessarily have been grasped” (Argenton, 1996, p. 213). The analysis of the artistic works on the Adam and Eve story did not concern the “perceptual meaning” in itself, as intended by Argenton, nor the “expressive qualities” that convey it (Argenton, 2019), but focused on other primary perceptual factors that can contribute to render the specificity of the continuous pictorial narrative. Notwithstanding the knowledge acquired about the works during the previous analyses, we tried to assume a “neutral” attitude and in any case devoid of “personal tastes, preferences and possible idiosyncrasies” (Argenton, 1996, pp. 183–184). Before going into the analysis of the works, it is necessary to point out some limitations of a general nature: the first one concerns the fact that the analysis was based on photographic reproductions, albeit of good quality, and, therefore, it is almost inevitable that differences may exist compared to an analysis based on the originals; the second, linked to the first, concerns the discrepancy between the “mediated and direct vision” of an artwork and, consequently, the gap between frontal viewing of the reproduced images and in situ viewing. For example, considering “wall paintings – unless they were painted at eye level – they generally can be found at different heights from the ground, and sometimes at a considerable height, which means that the observer cannot see them directly in front, but has to look up at them from bottom to top and from different angles; this is exactly the opposite of what happens when we look at the photograph in a book, which, to show accurately the paintings, cannot but be presented frontally” (Argenton, 2019, pp. 111–112). The analysis of the perceptual–compositional arrangement of the artworks enters more directly into the merits of the visual thinking exercised by the artist to compose a story. The composition, as already mentioned in Chap. 1, “is the product of perceptual reasoning […] according to which an artist arranges in interaction with each other

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the separate forms  – namely, the visual elements […]  – that constitute the work itself on the surface, which acts as a support to his work” (Argenton, 2019, p. 53). The syntagma “perceptual reasoning” – we mentioned this as well, in Chap. 1 – is used by Argenton with the same sense with which Arnheim (1966, p. 287) uses it to refer to the “creative work that involves the handling of relations between sensory qualities, such as size, movement, space, shape, or color”, and that, as Argenton (2019, p. 51) points out, revolves around “the manipulation and combination of the compositional elements of visual language”. In our case, perceptual reasoning must also deal with narrativity and in particular with the iconic continuity of narrative, devising modalities to distinguish and to link the episodes or events constituting a story. In analysing the Adam and Eve repertoire, we expected that the artists, seeking to organise the spatial configuration of the story, had resorted primarily to various perceptual–representational devices, aimed at distinguishing and connecting the scenes. Therefore, it was assumed that, in order to distinguish the scenes represented and make them figural units, they had to resort to the principles of perceptual organisation (Wertheimer, 1923; Arnheim, 1974) and to pictorial signs of separation. Instead, in order to connect the scenes to each other, it was assumed that the artists had paid particular attention to make the repeated protagonists identifiable – conditio sine qua non for the continuous narrative  – and had recourse to other devices that could orient the observer to follow the unfolding of the story and find connections between the scenes. Therefore, the analysis was based on four categories that encompass the compositional strategies employed by artists, which together contribute to the arrangement of the pictorial space of the represented story. Two categories concern modalities to distinguish the episodes or events represented on the pictorial surface – segmentation of episodes and space/time separating cues – and two concern modalities to link together the episodes or events represented on the pictorial surface: identification of repeated protagonists and vectors of direction. Each category is subdivided into factors – we will describe them later together with the essence of the categories themselves – which must always be considered in interaction with each other as regards the representational rendering of the continuous pictorial narrative. In the individual works, generally all four categories can be found, with rare exceptions where there are only some of them; in the same way, the factors subsumed in each of the four categories can be present in all the constitutive scenes of the work or only in some scenes, or they can be absent. The analysis of the works, as already said in Chap. 2, was carried out by four experts, namely, the authors of this work, examining each category according to the criteria described below. As far as the segmentation of episodes is concerned, the presence of perceptual organisation factors in the scenes represented in each work was examined. The scenes, as we have seen, were classified according to four indicators: two scenes, three scenes, four scenes, more than four scenes, which range from five to eleven

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scenes (see Sect. 3.2.2). Therefore, for individual works, the number of times each factor appears was recorded. For the category space/time separating cues, since these are pictorial signs placed between the scenes, presence/absence was recorded for each factor. With regard to the category identification of repeated protagonists, how many of them were identifiable and recognisable on the basis of the factors considered was recorded for the individual works. Finally, for the category vectors of direction, the presence/absence in the single works of factors that can contribute to orient the observer to grasp the ordering of scenes and the unfolding of the story was recorded. In defining the category factors for the analysis of the perceptual–compositional arrangement, the procedure followed several passages: first, the four experts jointly examined some images of the general repertoire, chosen at random, and tried to identify possible factors for the analysis; then, each expert individually examined some works belonging to the thematic repertoire in order to verify the adequacy of the factors already identified and, if necessary, to integrate them; subsequently, the four experts jointly examined the works in the thematic repertoire, discussing and negotiating their opinions until reaching an agreement on the factors to be used, their essence and their denomination; finally, and on this basis, the experts together carefully analysed the individual works belonging to the thematic repertoire. The analysis presented several problematic aspects – we will outline them when describing the individual categories – which were discussed at length by the authors before proceeding with the quantitative collection of data. In analysing the perceptual–compositional arrangement of the 100 works in the thematic repertoire on the story of Adam and Eve, we will refer to the colour images in Chap. 6, indicating the number of the figure to which each image in question refers.

4.1.1 Segmentation of Episodes Segmentation of episodes represented in the image space concerns the criteria used by artists to distinguish episodes and make them separated units, i.e. parts of a whole. These criteria, not surprisingly, reflect the main factors of perceptual organisation described by Wertheimer (1923) and adopted by the psychology of art: “those simple demonstrations intended as a first introduction to the inherent structure of gestalt patterns” (Arnheim, 1992, pp. 176–177), which “impose themselves spontaneously and with phenomenal evidence on our direct experience of them” (Argenton, 2019, p. 8). As Paolo Bozzi (1993, p. 211) clarifies with masterful simplicity, “Wertheimer did not describe ‘laws’, as is commonly said, but ‘factors’ or ‘conditions’ by which – in the immediate experience of the external world – certain segmentations between objects necessarily occur: the elementary ingredients discernible in the sphere of observation on the one hand group together, aggregate among themselves in definite

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ways, becoming constituent parts of unitary objects, and on the other hand segregate, precisely because they are elements of those separate units. This grouping and segregation do not normally indicate a process in progress, but a state of affairs that has already taken place and can be seen before our own eyes”. By virtue of direct and immediate observation we segregate and group units, as in the natural world, as in a laboratory of experimental psychology, as in an artwork, even if the things phenomenologically “encountered”, in our case in an artwork, have a complexity that is both “concentrated” with respect to the natural world – an artwork condenses “meaningful aspects of human experience” (Argenton, 2019, p. 45)1 – and “watered down” with respect to the laboratory. Again Bozzi (1989, pp. 40−41), recalling Metzger’s concept of “encountered” (Metzger, 1963), clarifies the distinction between laboratory “things” and real world “things” as follows: “real, hard, external, ‘encountered’ things – as Metzger said – perhaps possess a complexity in which the play of ingredients observable in the laboratory is dispersed or watered down”. We might add that the ‘play’ of ingredients in an artwork very rarely occurs in ‘mathematical’ conditions  – with all the problems that this causes, as we shall see later, for the perceptual analysis of those complex objects that are, precisely, artistic works. Given these brief premises, we can now turn to the factors of perceptual organisation on which the analysis is based, holding firmly to what Arnheim (1974, p. 92) points out: “First, similarity and difference are relative judgments. Whether objects look alike depends on how different they are from their environment”. In this sense, certain forms, e.g. round shapes, can “resemble each other compellingly despite their differences” because they are surrounded by totally different shapes, e.g. angular, straight-lined shapes. “Second, in the complexity of artistic composition the factors of grouping are often set against one another”, but they can also counterbalance each other, as, for instance, in cases where “difference of color is counteracted by similarity of shape”, and can also reinforce each other. The factors considered in the analysis of the works in the thematic repertoire, which contribute to the constitution of figural units, are the following: proximity, similarity – in particular of shape, colour, size, orientation – continuity of direction, and closure, which Wertheimer (1923, p.  325) considers among the “whole

 In one of his books, Argenton, examining the differences between the notational, decorative and artistic use of graphic-pictorial language, writes: “One of the main distinctive traits that contributes to qualifying as artistic the result of the use of graphic-pictorial language resides, therefore, in the complexity and relevance of its meanings and in the multiplicity of its functions; a use that is still symbolic, as it is in ideographic and ornamental production, but that plays the role of representing, through the form, for certain purposes, something – meanings, contents of thought, imagination, fantasy, etc. – that neither the ideogram nor the decoration is adequate to represent”. In short, “the artistic form possesses the greatest representational potentialities: it condenses within itself multiple meanings, expresses the most relevant meanings relative to the social and cultural context in which it finds manifestation, fulfils the greatest number of representational functions and the most complex representational functions within that context” (Argenton, 1996, p. 129, p. 131). 1

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properties” (Ganzeigenschaften).2 To these, we added a further factor named “facingness”, meant as face-to-face positioning of protagonists. Proximity – by which visual elements that are closer to each other are grouped together – is a prime determiner for the aggregation of figures and for distinguishing one scene from another. In the case of the stories of Genesis, the artist tries to represent the figures of Adam and Eve, often accompanied by God, with such a degree of closeness that they are perceived as a whole, distinct from other adjacent groups, regardless of the number of scenes represented in the artwork. Proximity is very important for segmentation of scenes, but quite often artists strengthen the distinction among them also employing the principle of similarity: “the tendency of like parts to band together” (Wertheimer, 1923/1938, p. 75). In its broad meaning (Musatti, 1931; Arnheim, 1974),3 this principle leads observers to group together figures sharing visual features, such as shape, colour, size, orientation – taking into account that the similarity of objects, as already said, depends on their difference from the environment in which they are placed and that the similarity can also be not absolute (Arnheim, 1974, p. 92). As again Arnheim (1974, p. 44) specifies, “we identify an acquaintance at long distance by nothing more than the most elementary proportions or motions”, and this happens, mutatis mutandis, in many works of the thematic repertoire. Shape helps to group together visual elements that have a more similar, even if not identical, configuration. In our case, where the grouping concerns mainly Adam and Eve and often God, this factor is generally limited to ‘humanoid’ figures that stand out from other elements  – naturalistic, animal, etc.  – in the composition. Shape is not an infallible factor for grouping, both because the characters that make up the individual scenes of an artistic work obviously cannot have, except very rarely, an identical form in different scenes, being only generically comparable, and because sometimes one might tend to group elements with similar shape present in different scenes, for example, God with God in the various scenes in which he is present. Colour is a factor that can contribute to perceptual grouping when visual elements share similar chromatic or achromatic properties. In our case, where the grouping mainly concerns God, Adam and Eve, the three characters are  In this regard, it should be noted that some scholars make a distinction between perceptual grouping principles, or factors, and figure-ground principles, or factors, specifying that they are intimately connected, but not always agreeing on the factors ascribable to the two groups. For example, Spillmann (2012, p. 191, our italics), referring to Wertheimer’s work (1923), indicates “symmetry, parallelism, good continuation, and closure for figure-ground organisation and proximity, similarity, and common fate for grouping”. Wagemans (2018, p. 12, our italics) specifies that “proximity, similarity, common fate, and good continuation are grouping principles, while symmetry, parallelism, closure, convexity and other characteristics of good forms, are principles determining figureground organisation”, while past “experience”, “Prägnanz” and “set” (context conditions) “are general principles applying to all forms of perceptual organisation”. 3  As Arnheim (1974, p. 29) underlines, “in his pioneering study of 1923, Wertheimer described several of the properties that tie visual items together. A few years later, Cesare L. Musatti showed that Wertheimer’s rules could be reduced to one, the rule of homogeneity or similarity”. 2

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differentiated: God is depicted dressed, often in coloured cloaks, while Adam and Eve are mostly naked. Moreover, by iconographic convention, the skin tone of Adam and Eve is often slightly different – a little darker that of the former, a little lighter that of the latter.4 In the works in which all three protagonists appear, therefore, the possibility of grouping by similarity of colour is rare. In works in which only Adam and Eve appear, the more or less slight difference in skin tone could lead, for example, to connect an Eve from one scene with another Eve from another scene (or an Adam with another Adam), but, for the most part, also thanks to the proximity of the figures, and often the difference in colour between the figures and the background, the similar chromatic gradation contributes to their grouping.5 In achromatic prints, in our case, woodcuts and engravings, similarity is entrusted to the texture of the figures, determined by the distribution of “repeated signs set next to each other”, which Arnheim calls “hatch lines” (Arnheim, 1974, pp. 219–220), or other types of graphic signs and the gradation of grey. Size – by which visual elements that have a more similar dimension are grouped together – contributes to organising figures into distinct scenes. This is the case for Adam and Eve and often also God, who appear approximately of the same size within the single scenes. Orientation is another factor by which figures may be grouped together according to the similar directional placement in space. For example, the similar orientation of the pose or posture of Adam and Eve (and God) can help to constitute a unified scenic group. Continuity of direction refers to the tendency to group figures if they are in some way aligned with each other. Although not very frequent in our repertoire, this factor contributes to the perceptual grouping, as happens, for example, when parts of Adam’s and Eve’s bodies align with one another, contributing to configure a perceptual whole. Closure here refers to the tendency to group together elements if their contour segments create a single perceptual unit. This factor too, not very frequent in the artworks of our repertoire, contributes to perceptual grouping especially in the scenes in which the artist wants to highlight, for example, the close interconnection between the figures in the occurrence of an event, as can happen in the representation of the Creation of Eve from Adam’s body. The last factor, which we have named facingness, does not refer, as it does in art history studies, to the painting-beholder relationship (e.g. Fried, 2020). Rather, its meaning can be approximated to that which it takes on in certain studies of social cognition, where it is used to refer to the “mutual perceptual accessibility of agents”

 In art, Adam and Eve are almost always depicted with a different skin tone: “Eve, as a biblical prefiguration of Mary, is characterised by a pale pearly skin (unlike Adam who is decidedly darker), and has long blond hair” (Ferrari, 2004, p. 641, our italics). We have doubts about the “decidedly”, as the difference in skin tone between Adam and Eve is frequently very slight. 5  As Quinlan and Wilton (1998, p. 417) underline, grouping by colour often operates “within and between groups of elements that are initially identified on the basis of proximity”. 4

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(Papeo, 2020, p.  477).6 In some ways, this factor, which is quite frequent in the thematic repertoire, might bring to mind symmetry, but it does not fully possess its distinctive features, in some cases, parallelism, in others convexity (Wagemans et al., 2012). In essence, facingness refers to the artist’s tendency to segment the pictorial space by outlining the characters in such a way that they appear face to face (or almost so), thus helping to distinguish a scene from the adjacent ones. The miniature representing the Garden of Eden, by the Limbourg Brothers (Fig. 6.72), is one of the works that can serve to illustrate the employment of the aforementioned factors, as all of them in this case are present, even if not in all the scenes, and to indicate their contribution to perceptual grouping. The artists place the episodes they have chosen to narrate the story in Eden, depicted “like a garden enclosed by a circular boundary wall”, in which Adam and Eve appear several times “moving between the source of life, the tree of knowledge and the gate of Paradise, a very high golden Gothic arch” (Galli Michero, 2004, p. 617) – a “vision” similar to other works, such as the Story of Adam and Eve, by the Master of the Duke of Bedford (Fig. 6.79), in which “great relief is given to the fountain, a true Gothic architecture, equipped with pointed and rampant arches, spires and three-light windows” (Galli Michero, 2004, p. 617). The Garden of Eden, by the Limbourg Brothers (Fig. 6.72) presents, from left to right, four scenes: the Temptation, the Fall, from the Shame to the Punishment and the Expulsion (see Chap. 3). The proximity of the figures facilitates the creation of four groups, corresponding to the scenes represented. While each figure is placed next to elements such as architecture or trees, the similarity of shape of the ‘humanoid’ figures contributes to the creation of groups, even resorting to amodal completion, in the case of the serpent with the female bust in the Temptation scene,7 and of God in the scene that seems to conflate the episodes from the Shame to the Punishment. This does not happen in the last scene on the right, which represents the Expulsion, given the conspicuous and particular shape of the angel. The colour of God’s mantle as well as the colour of the angel is very different from that of Adam and Eve, whose colouring, in this case, differs in chromatic gradation, unlike that of Eve and the human bust serpent, whose similar gradation contributes to the grouping in the first scene. The size of the protagonists is similar in the two central scenes. At the same time, the figures within each scene show a common orientation, which contributes to tying them together. Eve and the tempting serpent are also linked by the continuity of direction that is determined between the arm that offers and the one that receives the forbidden fruit, just as continuity of direction can be perceived in the interweaving of arms in the scene of the Fall, in which closure also  Several studies of social cognition inquire into the peculiarities of situations defined as “face-to-­ face”/“facing”/“facingness”, using iconic stimuli, with an interest in the perception of social interaction (e.g. Vestner et al., 2019), but also in the social function of vision and its neuropsychological basis (e.g. Papeo, 2020). 7  Some might have objections to the grouping by similarity of shape – as well as of colour – in the first scene on the left above, which represents Eve and the serpent with human torso, but we will explain the reasons in the analysis of the data. 6

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intervenes, thanks also to the Adam’s foot overlapping those of Eve. The scene of the Temptation and especially that which represents the episodes from the Shame to the Punishment, in the centre of the work, exemplify the factor, very frequent in the thematic repertoire, that we have termed facingness. Rarely in the works included in this thematic repertoire, as we will see in the data analysis, are all the factors of perceptual grouping present, and in no work are the factors present in all the scenes. Moreover, this does not mean that the factors identified cover exhaustively the artists’ intentions of perceptual organisation; a more in-­ depth reading or one carried out by other investigators might reveal other factors. Furthermore, other processual aspects involved in the perception of the artworks have not been analytically considered and classified, such as amodal completion (Kanizsa, 1980) – which we have just mentioned and which intervenes in the composition of almost all the works in the thematic repertoire – or spatial parallelism (Arnheim, 1974), or the dynamic effects within the scenes, both perceptual (e.g. Arnheim, 1974; Argenton, 2019) and “geometric” (e.g. Rudrauf, 1949), which could constitute a further mine of research.

4.1.2 Space/Time Separating Cues Space/time separation cues are another category of factors contributing to the arrangement of composition and refer to pictorial devices used to mark the partition of the story in episodes or events and, consequently, the passing of time. These devices seem to be ad hoc, as they depend on whether a theme is conceived and represented outdoors, in an interior or in some other way (Schmitt, 2004). As Andrews (2009, pp. 293−294) argues, referring to the Renaissance period, artists devised various “means of separating one action or episode from another, dividing one scene or moment from the next, while maintaining the continuity of the narrative and the basic unity of the image; in so doing they availed themselves of landscape and architecture, of setting and space, to structure the action and clarify the meaning”. And he identifies various means of division, distinguishing outdoor narratives from indoor narratives and narratives based on “contrasts between interior and exterior”. For those narratives “which take place out-of-doors, in natural settings”, which are similar to those of our thematic repertoire, “elements of the landscape frequently provided a useful form of division disguised or embedded in the setting as a whole”. Among these elements, Andrews includes rock formations, crevices and outcroppings, trees, rivers or streams, and so on, but also “man-made objects such as poles or columns”, which “served a similar function”. In the case of the Adam and Eve story, always conventionally represented outdoors, the cues employed by artists to distinguish episodes can be comprised in five factors: position of protagonists, tree, naturalistic/landscape element, architectural element, decorative element. Position of protagonists refers to the use of figures or group of figures with opposing postures to separate the scenes. This factor could be related to the

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perceptual organisation factor that we have called “facingness”, but it has some distinctive features. In the latter case, all the figures constituting a scene are represented in front of (or almost) one another. In the case of the specific factor considered here, at least one of the figures constituting a scene is portrayed from behind at least one of the figures present in the previous or next scene, but the figures are not necessarily face-to-face with each other within the scene in question, as, for example, in the third register of the Genesis Frontispiece of the Bamberg Bible (Fig. 6.37). In this illuminated register, in the first scene there is the facingness factor, in the second it is absent, but the position of the protagonists in the second scene, of the angel in particular, is opposed to Adam and Eve portrayed in the first scene, thus contributing to the separation of the two scenes, together with other factors, primarily, in this case, the tree. The tree acts as a vertical device useful to organise the pictorial space and separate the scenes. Although it could be part of the naturalistic/landscape element, the tree is here considered as a distinct factor, given its frequent presence and specificity in the narration of this story. The tree, which has a relevant role in the story of Adam and Eve, was obviously considered when it acts as a device of separation between scenes and not in cases where it is represented in the middle or behind Adam and Eve, as often happens in the episode of the Temptation and Fall. Perhaps the clearest example of the separation function of the tree is the entire Genesis frontispiece of the Bamberg Bible (Figs. 6.35, 6.36, 6.37), where all the scenes are divided by trees, which take on particular configurations (Cook, 2007). Naturalistic/landscape element – e.g. stone, bush, cave, river – performs a function similar to that of the other devices. The artist makes use of various naturalistic elements that create a satisfying perceptual separation between groups, which are not easy to list as they can be any example or combination of terrain, rock, plant and water course. An analogous function of separation among scenes is accomplished by the architectural element – e.g. wall, portal, fountain of life – that is, the utilisation of a man-­ made structure to separate space and scenes. Finally, decorative element – i.e. a sculpted ornamental motif or a single form painted, for instance, as a grotesque – can separate the scenes by differentiating the background on which they are placed. It is not a frequently used device but, when used, it has a considerable separating ‘force’ and, like architecture, acts as an artificial counterpart to the naturalistic/landscape element. In the work cited above by the Limbourg Brothers (Fig. 6.72), some separating cues can be seen, i.e. architecture, tree, position of the protagonists, which clearly mark the separation between scenes. Another example may be the panel of the Gates of Paradise by Ghiberti – Adam and Eve (Fig. 6.63) – where “a stream divides the creation of Adam from that of Eve, which is in turn separated from the following episode, the Temptation, by means of the prominent trees standing in between, along with the rows of angels” (Andrews, 2009, p. 293). In rare cases, the artist uses all the factors together, as in the fresco by Giusto de’ Menabuoi in the Battistero della Cattedrale, in Padua, representing the Original Sin, Expulsion from Paradise and scenes from the story of Cain and Abel (Fig. 6.65).

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Giusto de’ Menabuoi organises a scheme on two planes, from left to right, livening up the fresco with a zigzagging low-high-low sequence of scenes that represent this part of the story. The first scene at the bottom left, the Temptation and Fall, is separated from the second at the top – a “conflation” (Weitzmann, 1957) of episodes leading up to the Punishment – by a naturalistic element, i.e. plants. To separate these scenes from the following two scenes, Giusto offers other cues of separation, two of which are iconically similar: the third scene, the Expulsion, is separated by an architectonic element, the gate of Paradise, through which the angel expels the sinners, and the fourth scene, the Sacrifices of Cain and Abel, by a frieze with a decorative motif similar to that of the gate. Giusto also adds another cue of separation, consisting in a different configuration of the terrain. The scene of the Sacrifices, in particular, is framed by an earth formation, which creates a boundary between it and the following scene, Cain killing Abel, but also the preceding scene, the Expulsion; these last two, in turn, are separated from each other by a tree. In the next scene, the Departure of Cain, besides being placed on a terrain with a different configuration, the protagonist is represented in profile and in a position counterposed to his previous appearance, as a further distinction between the two scenes.

4.1.3 Identification of Repeated Protagonists If, on the one hand, artists try to distinguish scenes from each other using perceptual segmentation factors and space/time separation cues, on the other hand they tend – in a certain sense, they are obliged by the pictorial genre – to create links between scenes to give a sense of continuity to the story. The primary device – which is, moreover, a distinctive feature of continuous narrative – is the repetition of the protagonists, who must be somehow identifiable and recognisable in the different scenes represented. Accordingly, as Andrews (2009, p. 288) underlines, “considerable care had to be given to details of dress and physical appearance, which had to be zealously maintained in every scene in order to achieve the requisite clarity”. And this has to be somehow achieved even “when the character or characters in question undergo some kind of transformation, such as coming of age or growing old. In this case the appearance of the characters may change a great deal, conceivably to the point where it becomes difficult to recognize them, but some elements must remain constant – enough at least to offset the variables” (Andrews, 2009, p. 289).8 Identification of repeated protagonists concerns, therefore, the devices used by the artists to make the principal characters repeated in the different scenes identifiable and recognisable and, in a wider sense, to connect parts (elements) “dispersed” in various ways in the visual space of the work. These types of devices have their  There are other means of identification that can be used, such as the labelling of figures, adding names directly into the scene or placing fuller explanatory captions within the scene (Andrews, 2009, pp. 290–291), as is the case of, for instance, the frontispieces of illuminated bibles. 8

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own peculiarity, in that they refer to a process that goes “beyond the relations between the parts” and concerns “similarities definable only in reference to the whole pattern” (Arnheim, 1974, p. 87). The question that guided the analysis of this category was similar to that relating to the segmentation of the episodes or events, namely, which factors allow observers to recognise that a same figure is repeated in different scenes. The analysis was therefore focused on factors that facilitate the identification and recognition of the three protagonists, namely, God, Adam and Eve, which consist in two of the main factors of perceptual similarity, i.e. shape and colour, and in two further factors: physiognomy and attribute. To these factors must be added, and with considerable relevance, “past experience or habits” (Wertheimer, 1923/1938, p. 86) as a top-down factor that influences the stimulus perception and, in this case, the recognition of the same character. With “past experience”, we refer here to the process of “recognition of objects” (in our case, of characters), to which knowledge – or memory – offers considerable and constant aid (Argenton, 2019, p. 101). In other words, we refer to the process that “the mind performs on the results of primary segmentation” (Kanizsa, 1991, p. 77), guided by the “process of vision” (Arnheim, 1974, p. 46). Very effectively, Arnheim encapsulates the role of past experience in a lapidary reflection on pictorial representation of the Madonna: “but it takes more than vision to recognize a woman, let alone a Madonna” (Arnheim, 1966, p. 220). Turning to the description of factors, shape concerns the ‘human’ figure of protagonists, as a whole and in its possible poses. In the case of repeated characters, the identification can be entrusted to the similarity of body or drapery or other aspects of the figure that can help the beholder to identify and recognise the same protagonist in the various scenes represented. Obviously, the figure in the different scenes can be represented with changes in pose or posture, but there is always some perceptual hint that can help in identification and recognition. Physiognomy can be considered a sub-species of shape and concerns the facial features (if visible) of a figure. It has been decided to distinguish the two factors, since in several works the physiognomy of the characters is not clearly visible in all the scenes represented and therefore the identification is entrusted only to other aspects of shape, whereas in rare cases it is the physiognomy rather than the shape which is helpful in identifying a character. Colour refers to chromatic or achromatic qualities that allow the same repeated figure to be identified and recognised. The figure of God, many times, is repeated with the same colouring, but in some cases the artist portrays it with a different coloured mantle. The skin tone of Adam and Eve, as already described, is often slightly different by iconographic convention – a little darker for the former, a little lighter for the latter. This slight difference, which in the segmentation of the scenes does not always hinder perceptual grouping, makes it possible to disambiguate which figure is repeated in the different scenes, facilitating the identification and recognition of the two protagonists. Attribute is often used in religious stories, specially about saints, as an object “particularly associated with the figures in question, usually tied to an episode in the

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life of the saint” (Andrews, 2009, p. 290), and here it is meant as a conventional symbol, characterising the three protagonists: in the case of God, a halo, globe, sceptre, various types of gesture (blessing, admonition, reproval, punishment, etc.); in the case of Adam, mattock or hoe; in the case of Eve, spindle and/or distaff. While God’s attributes, when present, are often repeated within the same work, in the case of Adam and Eve this happens only in one work: the Expulsion and Labour of Adam and Eve, in the San Marco mosaics, in Venice (Fig. 6.12), where they are represented with their distinctive attributes in both scenes. In general, the attributes of the couple are depicted, if at all, in the episode of Labour and can help to identify Adam and Eve, as their configuration usually appears different from that of the other episodes: for example, they appear clothed, rather than naked, and therefore differentiated also by colour, or aged and therefore differentiated by physiognomy and sometimes by posture. There is another ‘attribute’ that has not been considered, namely, the child/ren who, in the scene of the Labour, is/are often depicted together with Eve, while Adam tills the soil, anticipating “proleptically” (Kessler, 1971, p. 151) the actual conception and birth of Cain and Abel, that, as we have seen, is recorded only in Gen., IV, 1–2 (see Chaps. 3 and 7). Another possible attribute omnipresent in the scenes that represent the episode of the Temptation and Fall, i.e. the forbidden fruit, likewise has not been considered, since the various representations of it by artists make it a ‘common’ attribute, that is, an attribute of the episode itself, if one can say so. In fact, the fruit can be depicted both in the jaws of the serpent and in the hand of Eve, who detaches it from the tree – a tree often adorned with several identical fruits – or bites it or hands it to Adam, or in either Adam’s hand or mouth. An attribute, however, is not only a conventional factor, but also a perceptual one. The knowledge of attributes that distinguish God, Adam and Eve can help to recognise the figures, bearing in mind that a halo, for instance, can be recognised as an attribute of God by virtue of one’s religious knowledge, but first of all it is perceived as a circular form, which does not require any “secondary processing” (Argenton, 2019, p. 109). In this regard, a reflection by Arnheim (1966, p. 220) can be recalled, which also underlines the primacy of perception: “the triangle that symbolizes the hierarchic conception inherent in much Renaissance art is directly seen by the eye”. To exemplify the factors described, we can briefly examine the first register of the Alba Bible (Fig. 6.28), one of many examples in the repertoire that shows their co-presence. In fact, the artist uses all four of them to represent the scenes included in this register, in sequence from left to right: the Creation of Adam, the Creation of Eve and the Admonition. The detection of the repeated figures is entrusted to shape (although in the central scene there is the interlocking of the figures of Adam and Eve, mentioned earlier), physiognomy and colour of the skin or drapery in all the three scenes. God’s halo serves as an attribute that helps to detect the repetition of his figure.

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4.1.4 Vectors of Direction The last category identified, through which artists can create links between scenes, concerns vectors of direction, meant as devices used to orient the observer’s gaze to follow the space-time unfolding of the story.9 In a certain sense, vectors of direction act as a sort of “compositional arrow” that leads beholders to follow “the vectorial directions” created by elements in the composition (Arnheim, 1974, p. 376). Vectors of direction are not always present and can be divided into the following factors: orientation of protagonists, orientation of parts of protagonists, size of protagonists. In this case too, as we will see in the data analysis, past experience (Wertheimer, 1923) can have relevance and often it can help to orient observers in respect to the unfolding of events in the story of Adam and Eve. There is no work in the thematic repertoire in which all the three factors considered are present, so we will accompany their definition with illustrative examples. The factor orientation of protagonists refers to the disposition of the characters in the various scenes of an artwork and consists in configuring them in such a way as to direct the gaze from one scene to another. This factor has been considered for three conditions: when it serves to link the scenes to each other giving indications of the order in which the story unfolds; when it can perform another function, which is suggesting the conclusion of the story, especially when the scene is placed at the borders of the artwork; and in other cases where even a single scene can give indications of the unfolding of the story, as we will see in the data analysis. The first function can be identified, for example, in a fresco by Giovanni di ser Giovanni Guidi (lo Scheggia) and Francesco D’Antonio in the Chiostro Verde, of the Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, in Florence (Fig. 6.67), consisting of two scenes, the Expulsion and the Labour, in succession from left to right. The artist represents the first scene on the left outlining the figures of the angel, Adam and Eve with a posture in ‘movement’ towards the next scene, reinforced by the arm of God and the sword of the angel indicating the same direction, leading the observer’s gaze towards the second scene: the Labour. The other function that the factor orientation of protagonists can play – namely, to suggest which scene could indicate the conclusion of the story – is often found in the episode of the Expulsion. One of the many possible examples to illustrate this function is the painting Paradise, by Herri met de Bles (Fig. 6.41), in which, in the central tondo, four scenes are represented: the Creation of Eve, the Admonition, the Temptation and Fall, and the Expulsion. There are no hints to suggest to the eye in what order the story unfolds, but the location of the group at the borders of the  Kress and Van Leeuwen (1996, p. 59) also use the term “vector”, but in a different context of reasoning: “When participants are connected by a vector, they are represented as doing something to or for each other”. In reference to sequentially constructed stories, i.e. comics, Cohn (2013, p. 414) uses, in a sense somewhat similar to ours, the syntagm “navigational component”, meaning it as a component of a “visual grammar”, which “tells us where to start the sequence and how to progress through”. 9

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painting and the position of characters – Adam and Eve cast out by the angel – could indicate that the story is being concluded there. Sometimes the artist also uses elements surrounding the protagonists that can help orientate the gaze, as in the case of the fresco by a Flemish-Veneto Painter, Original Sin and Expulsion from the Garden of Eden, kept in the Sala dei Battuti, in Conegliano (Fig. 6.59), in which the two birds above the Expulsion have the same orientation as the protagonists. Orientation of parts of protagonists consists in the use of posture and angle of figures, or more frequently of parts of figures, to direct the gaze from one scene to another. Taking as an example the painting by Mariotto Albertinelli, the Creation and Fall of Man (Fig. 6.1), the artist depicts four scenes in sequence from left to right, but he also inserts a ‘distractor’, placing in the central part, in the background, a group of angels oriented inversely to the scenes in the foreground. The observer’s gaze could wander around the scenes in search of an order to follow, but it could be then attracted by Adam’s profiles and limbs that assume a certain perceptual salience pointing in the same direction. In the Creation of Adam (second scene from the left), Adam is facing right with his left arm and his left leg stretched out in that direction. In the next scene, the Shaping of Eve, the body is tilted to the right and Adam’s arm is still facing the next scene to the right. A similar pose of Adam’s body, with one arm again stretched to the right, appears in this last scene, the Temptation and Fall. Even though the representation of God and Eve change in the pose, that of Adam maintains a similar orientation in the three scenes and provides a narrative anchor that can help the observer to follow the progression of the story. The last factor, size of protagonists, refers to the dimensions of the protagonists, which was held to play a guiding role in reading the works, especially in those tending towards pictorial ‘realism’. Artists can increase/decrease the size of protagonists, so that a gradient of magnitude can suggest the progression of the story. This factor is linked to visual weight (Arnheim, 1974) and its distribution, which determine a hierarchic gradient between perceptual units. In the small cameo, by an Anonymous artist, kept in the State Hermitage Museum, in St. Petersburg (Fig. 6.38), with scenes from right to left, the artist skilfully exploits this factor: the protagonists in the scene on the right, the Creation of Eve, are larger in size than the protagonists in the central scene, the Temptation and Fall, which, in turn, are larger in size than those of the last scene on the left, the Expulsion. The graduation of the size of the protagonists in the three scenes can help the viewer to infer the narrative order from the Creation of Eve to the Temptation and Fall and then to the Expulsion, also by virtue of the distribution of the visual weight and the scalar gradient generated among the three groups. And the artist further facilitates this order of reading, also through the orientation of the protagonists in the last episode at the extreme left border, in which they are leaving the scene.

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4.2 Data Analysis Results on Perceptual– Compositional Arrangement Recalling that the aim of the research was to deduce which devices the artists may have conceived in order to be able to narrate the story of Adam and Eve in a single image, through a static medium, and to help the viewer distinguish and connect episodes or events occurring in time to the same characters, in the following we will examine the data obtained from the analysis of the four categories concerning the perceptual–compositional arrangement, pointing out, for each category, the problems that arose during the observation and classification of the 100 artworks, especially with regard to perceptual segmentation. We shall consider the categories individually, bearing in mind that they all contribute to the solution of the problem of telling the story of Adam and Eve and representing its temporal unfolding, just as the factors into which each category is divided contribute to the same ends. Three of the four categories referring to the perceptual–compositional arrangement have similar high frequencies, and the factors into which they are subdivided are frequently found in the works of the thematic repertoire in combination with each other. Overall, the data from the analyses of the four categories show this frequency: segmentation of episodes is found in 99/100 works; space/time separating cues in 97/100 works; identification of repeated protagonists in 100/100 works; vectors of direction, however, appear in 68/100 works, and we will see the reasons for this later. As previously mentioned, the factors included in the four categories are not always present together and are very rarely present in all the scenes of individual works. Presumably, artists choose whether and which factors to use in relation to the ideation of the composition, the organisation of the scenes in the compositional space and their personal style.

4.2.1 Analysis of the Segmentation of Episodes During the analysis of the works regarding perceptual segmentation of episodes, several problems emerged, which must be made explicit before presenting the collected data, because the classification choices that had to be made affect the data obtained. Essentially, the problematic aspects can be traced back to the perceptual complexity of the pictorial works (Arnheim, 1974) and to the fact that the factors of perceptual grouping obviously rarely appear with the precision and unambiguousness of laboratory stimuli, which are mostly geometric figures millimetrically calibrated with respect to the effect they should have and placed in a neutral context, usually an ‘aseptic’ space.

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Let us say that, in the shared and negotiated analysis of the works, we have followed a criterion that can be briefly summarised as ‘more yes than no’, which means that we have rarely found factors in their ‘pure’ form (in Gestalt terms) except for proximity, and, therefore, we arrived at the decision to record their presence when it seemed they sufficiently corresponded to the Gestalt models. Overall, as we have seen, in the 100 works of the thematic repertoire there are in total 316 scenes represented, distributed in 37 categories (see Sect. 3.1.1.1), in which the three protagonists of the story – God, Adam and Eve – appear, and at least one of whom is repeated in the different scenes that make up a work, as required by continuous narrative. Obviously, the protagonists are set in a scenario that is often composite, in which animals, naturalistic, architectural or other elements are also represented, even if not in the function of separation between the scenes, but, precisely, as scenery. Taking into account the deductive intentions that have guided the observation of the works, carried out in the light of the previous identification of the scenes on the basis of the biblical texts (see Sect. 3.1.1), our analysis has only considered the protagonists emerging from the landscape background, even when this has its own relevance or is populated by other figures, such as angels or animals – e.g. in the works by Jost Amman (Fig. 6.4), Jan Bruegel II the Younger (Fig. 6.47), Hendrick de Clerck (Fig. 6.48), Lucas Cranach the Elder (Figs. 6.54, 6.55) – unless such elements play a precise role in the episode, that is are explicitly mentioned in the biblical text. For example, animals were considered when the artist intended to represent in the artwork the biblical episode of their creation or the attribution of their names, as for example in the case of Mariotto Albertinelli (Fig. 6.1), the Anonymous illuminator of the first register of the Bamberg Bible (Fig. 6.35), Lorenzo Maitani (Fig. 6.73), the Master of the Duke of Bedford (Fig. 6.79), Paolo Uccello (Fig. 6.85) and Sano di Pietro (Fig. 6.91). Moreover, in the 37 categories in which we have distinguished the episodes of the Genesis chapters considered, in addition to God, Adam and Eve, there are two other important characters: the angel-expeller and the serpent, respectively, in the episodes the Expulsion and the Temptation and Fall, which have raised particular problems of classification. In the Bible, the Expulsion episode is narrated in two verses of the chapter III: [23] “therefore the Lord God sent him forth from the garden of Eden, to till the ground from which he was taken”; [24] “He drove out the man; and at the east of the garden of Eden he placed the cherubim, and a sword flaming and turning to guard the way to the tree of life”.10 The Bible does not mention the intervention of an angel at the decisive moment of the expulsion from Paradise, and “in early Christian art it is always God who expels the sinners” (Mazure, 2017, p. 67). The angel casting out Adam and Eve is, according to some, “an ‘error’ or a ‘deviation’” from the Bible (Bernabò, 1979,

 The text we used is The New Oxford Annotated Bible, edited by Coogan et al. (2010). See notes on this in Chaps. 2 and 3. 10

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p. 270),11 according to others it is “an artistic invention of painters” (Pfeiffer, 2007, p. 186), which starts at a certain time. From the fifth and sixth centuries onwards, in fact, “God is replaced in this function by an angel”, although in later centuries there are examples where “God intervenes in person” (Mazure, 2017, p. 67). The depiction of an angel in the biblical function of guardian of the Paradise gate is found, for example, in the miniature of the Vienna Genesis in Fig. 6.33, in which “God, after having expelled Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden, places an angel armed with a sword in the form of a wheel in front of the gate to forbid access” (Mazure, 2017, p. 67). In the same function, the angel is depicted in a fresco by Martino di Bartolomeo (Fig. 6.76), in a scene of a miniature contained in the Bedford Hours, by the Master of the Duke of Bedford (Fig. 6.79), and in the fourth register of the Pantheon Bible (Fig. 6.15), which, moreover, is one of the two works in the thematic repertoire, together with a work by Jan Gossaert (Fig. 6.66), in which the angel is repeated, being represented both as an expeller and as a guardian of the gate of Paradise. In the 58 works in the thematic repertoire in which the Expulsion episode is depicted (in reality, the occurrences are 59, but in third register of the Alba Bible the scene is repeated twice), the actors of the banishment from the Garden of Eden are either God or the angel or both. Specifically: –– in 3 works – a panel of the mosaics of San Marco, in Venice (Fig. 6.12), a miniature of the Vienna Genesis (Fig. 6.33) and a miniature by Taddeo Crivelli e Franco dei Russi in the Bible of Borso d’Este (Fig. 6.57) – the expeller is one of the three protagonists of the story, that is God himself, of whom, in one case (Fig. 6.33), only the arm and hand reaching out to Adam and Eve are depicted; –– in 2 works, one by Lorenzo Ghiberti (Fig. 6.63) and the other by Giovanni di ser Giovanni Guidi (lo Scheggia) and Francesco D’Antonio (Fig. 6.67), the expellers are both God and the angel; –– in 1 work, a painting by Mariotto Albertinelli (Fig. 6.2), the expeller is God, depicted together with the angel; –– in 52 works, the expeller is the angel, who often holds a sword to cast out Adam and Eve, who are depicted either clothed – e.g. in a fresco by Giusto de’ Menabuoi (Fig. 6.65)  – or with their pudenda covered with veils  – e.g. in a painting by Jacopo Bertucci (Fig. 6.40). Other angels appear in the artworks of the thematic repertoire, mainly as background elements, which have not been considered in the analysis of the artworks, while the angel has obviously been considered in the following cases: in the 52 works in which he plays the role of expeller; in the 3 above-mentioned works in which he acts as guardian of the gate of Paradise (in the second folio of the Vienna Genesis in Fig. 6.33, the fresco by Martino di Bartolomeo in Fig. 6.76 and the miniature by the Master of the Duke of Bedford in Fig. 6.79); in the 2 above-­mentioned  Bernabò (1979, p. 270), referring to Kessler (1977), assumes the hypothesis that the presence of the angel is based on an extra-biblical source: the Life of Adam and Eve, a text widespread in the Middle Ages and presumably dating from the first century CE. 11

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works in which the angel is represented twice, as expeller and as guardian (in the fourth register of the Pantheon Bible in Fig. 6.15 and the painting by Jan Gossaert in Fig. 6.66); in another work – the miniature in the edition of Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium, by the Master of the Duke of Bedford, kept in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, in Paris (Fig. 6.78) – in which it is an angel who transports Adam to Paradise, instead of God, who usually plays this role in the Bible, as appears in other works in our repertoire, for example the miniature in the Bedford Hours, by the Master of the Duke of Bedford, in Fig. 6.79. Often the angel-expeller is represented slightly away from the sinful couple – as is the case with God – but easily groupable by proximity to them in the same scene, considering the organisation of the pictorial space in its entirety. A further complication in the scenes in which, together with Adam and Eve, God or the expelling or guardian angel appear concerns the factor shape. In the scenes depicting the Expulsion, God or the angel are depicted covered in robes: God sometimes with a conspicuous mantle, and the angel with more or less broad wings and often holding a sword. Apart from the distinctions between the sinful couple and God or the angel marked out by artists with the use of different colours, the undoubted differences in some parts of the shape seem mostly to be compensated by the possibility of amodally completing the figures of God and the angel, whose face and/or limbs, moreover, seem to take on perceptual salience. This leads to the completion of the parts hidden by the clothing, and to perceive halos or wings in the background, thus contributing to the perceptual unity of the scene. After all, this is the case in almost all the scenes in which the three protagonists appear, where Adam and Eve are usually depicted naked, while God is dressed in robes or draped with a mantle and often has a halo or other attributes. The presence of the serpent character in the works of our repertoire is more complex. The serpent is the main character, together with Eve or both Eve and Adam, in the episode of the Temptation and Fall, which we classified in three scenes: Gen., III, 1–6; Gen., III, 1–6a; Gen., III, 1–6b (see Sect. 3.1.1. Identification and Classification of Episodes), and it is present overall in 65 works of the thematic repertoire. The analysis of this episode was particularly debated, given the appearances that the serpent takes on: –– in 30 works, it is represented as a reptile,12 sometimes conspicuous, sometimes barely visible, and most often twisted around the tree of good and evil and placed either between or next to Adam and Eve, as for example in a woodcut by Jost

 Even when represented as a reptile, the serpent can take on sui generis features. For example, “in the Grandval and Vivian Bibles […] the serpent has a spotted back, dark underside, and bears a vermilion comb. In the Vivian Bible, he also has teeth. The peculiar features of this animal conform to those of a mythical python-like beast described in classical writings and named dragoon” (Kessler, 1971, p. 155). 12

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Amman, a painting by a Follower of Pieter Coecke van Aelst and a woodcut by Michael Wolgemut (Figs. 6.5, 6.61, 6.100); in 3 works, it is represented as a reptile facing only Eve, e.g. in the third register of the Moutier-Grandval Bible (Fig. 6.22); in 16 works, it is represented with the body of a serpent and a human face and placed between or next to Adam and Eve, e.g. in the miniature of the Holkham Bible in Fig. 6.25; in 2 works, it is represented with the body of a serpent and a human face and opposite only Eve, e.g. in the painting by Marcellus Coffermans in Fig. 6.50; in 13 works, it is represented as an even more hybrid reptile, with the lower half serpent-like and the upper half as a human torso, mostly with as much emphasis as Adam and Eve, e.g. in the painting by Lucas Cranach the Elder in Fig. 6.55; in 1 work, it is represented as a reptile with a human torso, facing only Eve, namely, in the miniature by the Limbourg Brothers in Fig. 6.72; in 2 works, the serpent is not represented: a panel of the San Marco mosaics, in Venice (Fig. 6.11), and the first folio of the Vienna Genesis (Fig. 6.32).13

The threefold configuration of the serpent – reptile, reptile with a human face, reptile with a human torso – affects the quantification of the presence of certain factors of perceptual organisation used by artists to distinguish scenes from one another and to give unity to individual scenes through the grouping of characters represented in them. The proximity principle is no different in the Temptation and Fall than in the other episodes: it is the primary principle of perceptual unification. The similarity principle, however, is problematic. In the 33 works in which the serpent character is depicted as a reptile next to Adam and Eve or only Eve, obviously these characters are never, and cannot be, united by the shape factor; very rarely can they be grouped according to colour and size factors, whereas this grouping often happens due to their similar orientation. In such cases, therefore, the constitution of the scenic unit is entrusted firstly to the proximity of the characters and to their orientation, but also to other factors, such as continuity of direction or closure or facingness, as for example in the woodcut by Virgil Solis in Fig. 6.92. In the 18 works in which the serpent is present with a reptiliform body and a human face, next to Adam and Eve or only to Eve, the depiction is more articulated: often the serpent’s body is conspicuous in size or colour, which could lead one to differentiate it clearly from Adam and Eve; at the same time, however, the serpent’s face takes on perceptual salience, because, in many cases, it is collinear to the faces

 In the mosaics of San Marco, the serpent is depicted in a panel preceding the one in our repertoire, which represents the Temptation and is not a continuous narrative as it only depicts the serpent and Eve. The first folio of the Vienna Genesis depicts the Fall only with Adam and Eve, without the serpent, which is depicted on the next folio in the scene where God condemns the sinners. 13

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of the protagonists Adam and Eve and has a similar colouring, in addition to assuming, in many cases, physiognomic traits similar to those of Eve.14 In this group of works, moreover, the human face often appears abruptly grafted onto the reptiliform body, as if the artist wanted to emphasise the perception of two parts, at once connected and distinct, almost giving the serpent’s body a ‘ground’ role. The face becomes the salient part of the serpent, drawing the attention to focus on the faces of the characters, as for example in the fresco by Niccolò di Tommaso in Fig. 6.82 – somewhat in line with psychological research, according to which the perception of the face is different from that of other visual objects (e.g. Farah et al., 1998). In such situations, therefore, when classifying the presence of the factors of perceptual organisation and exclusively with regard to colour, only the face of the snake was considered, except in two cases: a miniature by Jean Dreux, the Master of Margaret of York and Jean Hennecart (Fig. 6.58), in which the reptiliform body of the serpent, equipped with pseudo-arms, has a certain conspicuousness, clearly differentiating itself from Adam and Eve; a painting by Marcellus Coffermans (Fig. 6.50), in which the difference in colour between Eve and the visage of the snake is quite distinct, thus hindering grouping by colour. In the 14 works in which the serpent is presented as a hybrid with a human torso, the tendency of the artists is to emphasise the humanoid part, leading to its amodal completion, for example, behind the tree of good and evil, or to lessen the relevance of the reptiliform part, leading to the unification of the serpent, Adam and Eve by similarity of shape and colour, in addition to other perceptual factors. There is only one exception, i.e. the left panel of the Haywain Triptych, by Hieronymus Bosch (Fig. 6.44), because in this work the serpent-like features seem to prevail in shape and colour over the humanoid ones, thus differentiating the serpent from Adam and Eve. The problems in the classification of works in which the serpent is present do not end there. In fact, the serpent is also depicted in three other different conditions:

 This group of works also includes a work by Piero di Puccio, a panel containing the entire story of Adam and Eve (Fig. 6.87), frescoed in the Camposanto Monumentale in Pisa, which suffered ruinous damage following the bombing of 27 July 1944 and the subsequent fire that destroyed the art treasures contained there. Carlo Lasinio, who was appointed curator of the Cemetery in 1807, had fortunately previously produced a complete series of watercolour engravings of the fresco cycles to prevent their memory from being lost, and in the one showing the fresco we are considering, realized in 1812, the female face of the serpent can be distinguished very clearly, as can be seen in photos from the Zeri Archive and Alinari Archive. This fresco has recently been restored and the face of the serpent now appears as a lacuna, but it has not been possible to find documentation on this choice because there seems to be no literature on the restoration carried out. In the classification of perceptual factors, Lasinio’s watercolour engraving of the panel frescoed by Piero di Puccio supported the choices made. These choices were not easy, since, as Argenton and Basile (2003, p. 552) point out, in the case of lacunae, “we are faced by a true perceptual disturbance caused by the fact that the ‘figurative tissue’ of the work is interrupted by random and irregular shapes – but well-defined in figural, quantitative and dimensional terms, as well as by their intensity and quality of colour”. 14

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–– as a character in the events, we classify God Calling and Denial of Guilt (see Chap. 3), in which it is invoked in exculpation of sin, according to the verse Gen., III, 13: “Then the Lord God said to the woman, ‘What is this that you have done?’ The woman said, ‘The serpent tricked me, and I ate’”. In this role, it is depicted in 7 works: a woodcut by Jost Amman (Fig. 6.5), the third registers of the Pantheon Bible (Fig. 6.14), the Moutier-Grandval Bible (Fig. 6.22), the Bamberg Bible (Fig. 6.37), a painting by Marcellus Coffermans (Fig. 6.50), a fresco by Giusto de’ Menabuoi (Fig. 6.65) and a miniature by the Master of the Duke of Bedford (Fig. 6.79)15; –– as an element that may evoke the episode of the Temptation and Fall and thus depicted in 5 works: a woodcut by Jost Amman (Fig. 6.4), a miniature of the Vienna Genesis (Fig. 6.33), a painting by Marcellus Coffermans (Fig. 6.50), a fresco by Martino di Bartolomeo (Fig. 6.76) and a fresco by Piero di Puccio (Fig. 6.87)16; –– as a background element also with other animals, and this is the case of 3 works: two woodcuts by Jost Amman (Figs. 6.4, 6.5) and the first register of the Bamberg Bible (Fig. 6.35).17 In line with the general criteria adopted for the analysis, the serpent character has been considered as such – in addition to the episode of the Temptation and Fall – only in the scenes concerning the first condition, namely, with reference to the episode of the Denial of Guilt, where it is explicitly mentioned in the biblical text (Gen., III, 13); in the other cases, it has been considered as an element that, together with others, forms part of the setting in which the artist places the scenes. In reality, problematic aspects of classification occur for other episodes and concern in particular the similarity of shape and colour. In addition to those above discussed, shape is a problematic factor, for example, in the scene of the Creation of Eve, when God, Adam and Eve created from Adam’s body appear together, as emerges in 39 works (Gen., II, 22a) (see Chap. 3). In some cases, it might be perceived as a scene made up of two figures: that of God and that given by the interlocking of Eve’s body in Adam’s body (e.g. in the fresco by an Anonymous painter, in the Chiesa di Santa Croce ai Lagnoni, in Andria, in Fig. 6.26), but very often this interlocking is perceptually disentangled by the artist, allowing the observer to amodally complete the figure of Eve behind Adam’s body  In the miniature from the Bedford Hours, by the Master of the Duke of Bedford (Fig. 6.79), the serpent in the Reproval episode appears in a different configuration, unique in the thematic repertoire: “like a goose, with feet, wings, and a curved tail” (Gough, 1794, p. 8). 16  In the case of the Martino di Bartolomeo’s frescoes, the serpent is depicted in the episode of the Expulsion (Fig. 6.76), while the episode of the Temptation and Fall is depicted in a panel not included in our repertoire, as it contains a single scene without repetition of characters and, in this case, the serpent is depicted as a reptile with a human visage. In the Vienna Genesis, the episode of the Temptation and Fall is depicted on the previous folio, also included in our repertoire (Fig. 6.32), where the serpent is not depicted. 17  In essence, in three works the serpent is repeated three times: two woodcuts by Jost Amman (Figs. 6.4, 6.5) and a painting by Marcellus Coffermans (Fig. 6.50). 15

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(e.g. in the painting by Jacob de Backer in Fig. 6.39), and therefore to group the three figures, God, Adam and Eve, by similarity of shape. As regards the colour factor, in addition to what has been pointed out for the biblical episodes in which the serpent is one of the main characters, classification problems also concern the different colouring of Adam and Eve, who, as already mentioned, are often represented with more or less accentuated nuances of skin tone due to an iconographic convention (Ferrari, 2004, p. 641). In the thematic repertoire, apart from a few very deteriorated works in which this factor could not be taken into account (e.g. the fresco by an Anonymous painter in the Abbaye de Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe, in Fig. 6.6), the works show some differences: in the 19 registers of Bibles, Adam and Eve are depicted with similar hues, with the exception of the last register of the Vivian Bible (Fig. 6.19), where Adam and Eve are clothed in tunics that are not of the same colour18; in some works the colour of the protagonists’ skin is markedly different – e.g. in the first folio of the Vienna Genesis (Fig. 6.32), or in a painting by Jan Bruegel II the Younger (Fig. 6.47); in other works, the colour of the skin is indeed different, but it is a matter of nuances of the same chromatic scale – e.g. in the painting by Jacob de Backer in Fig. 6.39, or in the miniature in an edition of Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium, by the Master of the Duke of Bedford, in Fig. 6.78. Moreover, for the latter group of works, the contribution of colour to the grouping of the figures also seems to depend on the background against which the figures are placed: when the colour of the background contrasts strongly with that of the figures, grouping by colour is facilitated. Similar differences appear in achromatic works. For example, in the woodcuts, the artist in some cases establishes a fairly clear distinction between figures and background, but also between Adam and Eve through the density and direction of the hatch lines, as in the Expulsion scene in a work by Lucas van Leyden (Fig. 6.96); in other cases, the artist populates the scenic context with other naturalistic or animal elements, with a texture similar to that of the figures of the protagonists, complicating the grouping of the figures, as for example in the woodcut by Jost Amman in Fig. 6.4. This is also the case for the three engravings in our repertoire – by Cornelis Cort, Johan Sadeler and Virgil Solis (Figs. 6.53, 6.90, 6.92) – where the artists tend to differentiate the brightness of the characters depicted, except in one case, the Expulsion scene in the engraving by Cornelis Cort in Fig. 6.53, where the artist seems to want to unite Adam, Eve and the angel through a similar play of chiaroscuro. Furthermore, it should be said that the colour factor was not considered when the material of the work was stone, marble, alabaster, metal or pietra dura. Overall, in trying to deduce the artists’ representational intents with respect to perceptual grouping, the classificatory uncertainties were many and not easily resolvable, especially for colour. Every decision undoubtedly has its limits, as does every analysis; as far as possible, we have tried to balance our knowledge of the  As specified in Chap. 3, Kessler (1977, n. 28) believes that in the scene on the left of the third register of the Vivian Bible, in which Adam and Eve do not appear naked, “the togas are certainly an addition”. 18

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episodes, based on the study of the biblical texts and the reference literature, with what the observation of the works – the perception – suggested and, in any case, trying to “strip” ourselves of “personal tastes, preferences and possible idiosyncrasies” and to assume a “neutral” attitude (Argenton, 1996, pp. 183–184). Turning now to the analysis of the category segmentation of episodes described in Sect. 4.1.1, Fig. 4.1 shows the overall frequency of the eight factors of perceptual organisation in the 100 works of the thematic repertoire according to the number of scenes represented in the works themselves: two, three, four and more than four scenes. For ease of reading the data, we recall the distribution of works by number of scenes: 51 works consist of two scenes; 21 works, of three scenes; 14 works, of four scenes; 14 works, of more than four scenes (see Sect. 3.2.2). In the latter case, 3 works contain five scenes; 4 works, six scenes; 4 works, seven scenes; 1 work, eight scenes; 1 work, nine scenes; 1 work, eleven scenes. Proximity is present in 98/100 works – one of the two missing works is the only one of the entire thematic repertoire in which none of the factors of perceptual organisation has been identified (i.e. the painting by Mariotto Albertinelli in Fig. 6.2) – and similarity of shape is also present in 98/100 works. Size and orientation are found in 87/100 works, facingness in 63/100 and the other factors to a lesser extent; in descending order: colour in 39/100, continuity of direction in 36/100, closure in 19/100.

Fig. 4.1  Frequency of the eight factors of perceptual organisation considered in the 100 works of the thematic repertoire according to the number of scenes represented in the works, subdivided into four categories – 2, 3, 4 and more than 4 scenes – and number of works in which each factor is present in relation to the total number of works falling under each of the four categories

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Proximity is confirmed to be the strongest grouping factor, as evidenced by a previous analysis on which the overall data shown in Fig. 4.1 are in part based: it is present in all the scenes in more than half of the works in the thematic repertoire, i.e. in 59/100 works, unlike shape (31/100 works), colour (3/100 works), size (17/100 works), orientation (16/100 works), continuity of direction (2/100), closure (1/100) and facingness (6/100 works). An interesting datum is that the factors with a lower frequency, namely, colour, continuity, closure, are more frequent in works with a higher number of scenes. This datum does not seem to depend on any of the variables previously considered – i.e. context, number of scenes, narrative progression and spatial disposition (see Sect. 3.2) – and must therefore be referred once again to the compositional choices of the artist. Another interesting datum is that the presence of the same factor in all the constituent scenes of a work is found in works with few scenes and rarely in works with more than four scenes – the sole exceptions are a miniature by Sano di Pietro (Fig. 6.91), in which the proximity factor is present in all its five scenes, and an enamelled plate by Pierre Reymond (Fig. 6.88), in which similarity of shape is present in all its five scenes. In this case, too, this datum does not seem to depend on any of the previously considered variables (see Sect. 3.2) but should be read in relation to the artist’s compositional choices. However, it should always be considered that the relevance and ‘strength’ of individual factors can be due to the concourse of other factors in the perceptual grouping, and this concerns almost all the works analysed. An example may be that of the work just cited by Sano di Pietro (Fig. 6.91), in which proximity is identifiable in all its five scenes, but thanks also to the perceptual ‘help’ provided by other factors; especially in the two scenes of the Creation of Eve and the Temptation and Fall, grouping by proximity is favoured – or permitted – in particular by the factor of facingness. This factor appears crucial also in disambiguating perceptual ‘crowding’ in other works, as in the case, for example, of the first two registers of the San Paolo fuori le mura Bible (Figs. 6.7, 6.8), where the protagonists, especially of the first two scenes of both registers, are depicted very close together and the facingness factor seems to be the one that most helps to constitute distinct phenomenal units. The use of certain factors of perceptual organisation is related to the specificity of the episodes depicted but is also dictated by the compositional peculiarities and choices made by the artists, even when the works are inspired by similar models, for example the Touronian Bibles, as historical–critical analyses show (e.g. Kessler, 1971), and even more so when the artist is less bound to the literalness of the biblical text. For example, we can compare the portrayal of the most depicted episode, the Temptation and Fall, in two of the four unique representations consisting of four scenes: Paradise, by Herri met de Bles (Fig. 6.41), and Paradise, by Hendrick de Clerck and Denis van Alsloot (Fig. 6.49). These are works executed about fifty years apart, both with the narrative progression we called “other” (see Sect. 3.2.3) and with a spatial disposition in perspective (see Sect. 3.2.4), in which the serpent is represented as a reptile. Both artists resort to proximity to give unity to the scene,

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but, having chosen to depict the serpent as a reptile, they renounce unification by shape and colour, and also by size and orientation. Bles, however, uses continuity of direction and facingness to tie the three characters and give unity to the scene, which is not the case in the work by de Clerck and van Alsloot. In the work by Bles, the serpent is noticeably a protagonist, thanks also to the face-to-face position with Adam and Eve, reinforced by the continuity of direction between Eve’s arm with the fruit in her hand and the gaping jaws of the serpent from which she seems to have just taken it. In the work by de Clerck and van Alsloot, the serpent assumes a decidedly marginal role, determined also by the posture of Adam and Eve, who, idyllically portrayed in the act of sharing the forbidden fruit, turn their backs on it, as if to exclude it from the scene, thanks also to the intertwining of their bodies. De Clerck and van Alsloot also exploit the continuity between Adam’s and Eve’s arms to marginalise the serpent, and Bles exploits the continuity between Eve – slightly superimposed on Adam, with whom she almost forms a whole – and the serpent to incorporate it into the scene and reinforce the perceptual unity. Although colour does not act as a unifying factor in either case, it also contributes to the two different results: de Clerck and van Alsloot employ a colouring of the snake that is similar to the foliage of the tree around which it is coiled, almost as if to camouflage it; Bles employs a colouring of the serpent that is quite different from the tree around which it is coiled and with a brightness that is not very different from that of Adam and Eve, from which it differs anyway in chromatic gradation. In general, a considerable mastery in the combined use of the factors of perceptual organisation appears, not only in the works of famous artists, as we shall see later by analysing a fresco by Michelangelo in the Cappella Sistina (Fig. 6.81), but also in those of anonymous miniaturists, all of which would merit individual qualitative analyses. And it is fair to assume that such analyses would show how the presence or absence of individual factors and their combination can be closely related to the particular configuration designed to represent certain scenes and the overall organisation of the pictorial space. From this point of view, the frontispieces of Genesis in Bibles inspired by the Touronian model could be a specific, significant example, given the constraints of having to enclose in the space of a single page the whole story of Adam and Eve narrated in compliance with the literalness of biblical texts.

4.2.2 Analysis of the Space/Time Separating Cues Decidedly less problematic is the category space/time separating cues, described in Sect. 4.1.2, for which two types of analysis were applied: analysis of the frequencies of the factors into which it is subdivided, shown in Table 4.1, and analysis of the combination of factors (Table 4.2). Altogether, space/time separating cues are present in 97/100 works and Table 4.1 shows the number of works in which each of the factors considered is present. In decreasing order, naturalistic/landscape element is present in 65/100 works, tree in

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Table 4.1  Frequency of factors comprised in the space/time separating cues category in the 100 works considered

No. of works

Position of protagonists 49

Architectural Tree element 55 23

Naturalistic/landscape Decorative element element 65 3

Table 4.2  Frequency of combinations of the factors belonging to the category space/time separating cues in the 100 works considered, where 0 indicates absence and 1 indicates presence of the factors, in the same order as in Table 4.1: position of protagonists, tree, architectural element, naturalistic/landscape element, decorative element Combination of space/time separation cues 00000 00010 00100 00110 01000 01010 01011 01100 10000 10001 10010 10100 10110 11000 11010 11100 11110 11111 Total

No. of works 3 11 3 10 4 17 1 2 6 1 9 1 1 13 12 2 3 1 100

55/100 works, position of protagonists in 49/100 works, architectural element in 23/100 works and decorative element in 3/100 works. No one factor, therefore, is used in all the works as a separating device between scenes, although overall the use of such devices is very frequent. It should be specified that the presence of trees or naturalistic and architectural elements has not been recorded blindly, but only when these elements perform a separating function between scenes. For example, the fountain of life, which is often represented in the thematic repertoire, does not always act as a separator between scenes, as for instance in the Paradise, by Herri met de Bles (Fig. 6.41), and therefore, in cases like this one, it has not been counted.

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Such pictorial devices often serve not only to separate the scenes, but also to expressively characterise the protagonists, acting in concordance with the factors of perceptual organisation, as, for example, in the second register of the Vivian Bible (Fig. 6.18): the thin, flexuous tree separating the two scenes follows the orientation of Adam and Eve in the second scene, bent over in shame for their sin. The factors of space/time separation are always used in combination with the factors of perceptual organisation and, in the only case in the repertoire in which none of the latter is present, that is in the Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, by Mariotto Albertinelli (Fig. 6.2), they compensate for this absence with three of the five factors: position of protagonists, tree, naturalistic/landscape element. Moreover, the factors of space/time separation are frequently used in combination with each other. As can be seen from Table 4.2 – where 0 indicates absence and 1 indicates presence of the factors – only in 3/100 works is none of the five separation factors present, and only in 1/100 works are all of them present. For the rest, in 24/100 works only one factor is used; in 53/100 works, two factors; in 16/100 works, three factors; in 3/100 works, four factors. The most frequent combinations are: tree and naturalistic/landscape element (17/100 works); position of protagonists and tree (13/100 works); position of protagonists, tree and naturalistic/landscape element (12/100 works). The frequency of the combination of factors is not related to the number of scenes (see Sect. 3.2.2): in the work with the highest number of scenes – i.e. eleven scenes  – by the Master of the Duke of Bedford (Fig. 6.79), only two, but very salient, separation factors were observed, whereas all five factors were found in a previously analysed work with six scenes by Giusto de’ Menabuoi (Fig. 6.65) and, of the 3/100 works in which four of the five factors are present  – a painting by Pacino di Buonaguida (Fig. 6.84), a fresco by Piero di Puccio (Fig. 6.87) and a woodcut by Michael Wolgemut (Fig. 6.99) – the work by Wolgemut consists of only two scenes. Moreover, the combination of factors covers the entire time horizon we considered (see Table 2.2) and is not related to either narrative progression or spatial disposition (see Sects. 3.2.3 and 3.2.4), since it concerns, overall, all the indicators considered for the two aforementioned categories.

4.2.3 Analysis of the Identification of Repeated Protagonists Before entering into the analysis of the factors belonging to the category identification of repeated protagonists, described in Sect. 4.1.3, it was considered appropriate to register the number of repeated protagonists in each work, considering the three main characters, God, Adam and Eve, and adopting a classification with five indices: –– 1/2, when two protagonists are depicted in the work and only one is repeated; –– 2/2, when two protagonists are depicted in the work and both are repeated; –– 1/3, when three protagonists are depicted in the work and only one is repeated;

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–– 2/3, when three protagonists are depicted in the work and only two are repeated; –– 3/3, when three protagonists are depicted in the work and all three are repeated. Overall, the protagonists are identifiable in all the works in the repertoire (100/100), but not all the protagonists are always identifiable in the same work. Table 4.3 shows the number of works in which the five indices were recorded, distinguished in as many classes. As regards the first index – 1/2 – the repetition concerns 3 works: God 2 times (in the works by Lorenzo Maitani and Paolo Uccello in Figs. 6.73, 6.85) and Eve 1 time (in the San Marco mosaics in Fig. 6.11). As for the second index – 2/2 – the repetition regards 28 works: God and Adam 3 times (in the first registers of the San Paolo fuori le mura, the Moutier-Grandval and the Bamberg Bibles in Figs. 6.7, 6.20, 6.35) and Adam and Eve 25 times (e.g. in a miniature contained in the Horae Beatae Mariae Virginis, by an Anonymous illuminator, kept in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, in Paris, and reproduced in Fig. 6.16). Regarding the third index – 1/3 – the repetition concerns 4 works: God 1 time (in the mosaics of San Marco in Fig. 6.10), Adam 1 time (in the anonymous fresco from the Hermitage of the Vera Cruz de Maderuelo in Fig. 6.31) and Eve 2 times (in the painting by Mariotto Albertinelli and in the fresco by Paolo Uccello in Figs. 6.2, 6.86). As regards the fourth index – 2/3 – repetition is found in 33 works, and concerns God and Adam 6 times (e.g. in the watercolour by Oswalt Kreusel in Fig. 6.70), Adam and Eve 27 times (e.g. in the relief by Hans Ruprecht Hoffmann in Fig. 6.69). Finally, all three protagonists are repeated in 32 works, even if not in all the scenes (e.g. in the panel by Lorenzo Ghiberti in Fig. 6.63). The most frequently repeated protagonists, as shown in Table 4.4, are Adam and Eve (52 works) and all three, Adam, Eve and God (32 works), and then, always in decreasing order, Adam and God (9 works), and finally just Eve (3 works), God (3 works) and Adam (1 work). On the whole, Adam is repeated in 94 works, Eve in 87 works and God in 44 works (Table 4.4), in accordance with the privileged episodes and the artists’ compositional choices. In most of the works, 60/100 (Table 4.3), the artist repeats all the Table 4.3  Number of works in which the three protagonists – God and/or Adam and/or Eve – are repeated, according to the five classes of repetition indices Repetition indices 1/2 2/2 1/3 2/3 3/3 Total

No. of works 3 28 4 33 32 100

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Table 4.4  Number of works in which the three main characters, God, Adam and Eve, are repeated Repeated protagonists Adam Adam and Eve Adam, Eve and God Adam and God Eve God Total

No. of works 1 52 32 9 3 3 100

protagonists of the episodes depicted and, even in this case, their number and their identity depend partly on the episodes represented and partly on the compositional choices. For example, the Creation of Eve, as we have seen frequently represented and for the time span between the ninth and the seventeenth centuries, is portrayed, in the two constituent events – the Extraction of Adam’s rib and the Forming of Eve – only in 3 works, moreover with different solutions. In fact, in the San Paolo fuori le mura Bible, the last scene of the first register (Fig. 6.7) represents Adam and God extracting a rib from his body; the first scene of the second register represents God who is shaping Eve (Fig. 6.8). Similarly, it occurs in a panel of the San Marco mosaics (Fig. 6.10). In the second register of the Genesis Pilaster, by Lorenzo Maitani (Fig. 6.74), the second scene is similar to the 2 works above, while, in the Formation of Eve, all three protagonists are depicted, as is much more common, and “the emerging Eve is rendered as if she was complete” (Greenstein, 2016, p. 76) – thanks to amodal completion. In all the many other cases in which this episode is represented, the artist privileges one of the two events and therefore also which of the protagonists to depict, representing only God extracting Adam’s rib or God forming Eve from Adam’s body, but also only Eve emerging from Adam’s body, without the presence of God, to whom a ray of light descending from heaven can allude, as occurs in a painting by Cornelis Cornelisz. van Haarlem (Fig. 6.51). In this regard, it should be noted that God appears either in his entirety or with various configurations: represented only by his arm and whole hand (e.g. in the two miniatures of the Vienna Genesis in Figs. 6.32, 6.33), or, together with the arm, by two fingers of the hand that appear as an identifying feature (e.g. in the fresco by the Flower Painter of Matera in Fig. 6.60), or only as a half-bust (e.g. in the fresco by Niccolò di Tommaso in Fig. 6.82), or even cut off from the “frame” of the work (in the second register of the Alba Bible in Fig. 6.29), or emerging from a cloud (e.g. in the works by Mariotto Albertinelli, Jost Amman, Martino di Bartolomeo in Figs. 6.2, 6.5, 6.76), or immersed in a cloud and a cloud himself (in the painting by Cornelis Cornelisz. Van Haarlem in Fig. 6.52), or with two heads (in the miniature by the Master of the Duke of Bedford in Fig. 6.79). More regular is the representation of Adam and Eve, portrayed in their entirety or semi-entirety  – often and in several episodes the artists partially overlap their

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bodies, inducing their amodal completion – as always with the necessary exceptions that will be specified later when examining the shape factor. Turning to the factors to which the identification of repeated protagonists is entrusted, we analysed the frequencies of the individual factors in the works of the thematic repertoire, distinguishing them according to the number of repeated protagonists. Table 4.5 shows: the four identification factors, namely, shape, physiognomy, colour and attribute; the five classes into which the 100 works have been divided according to the number of repeated protagonists in each work, considering the three main personages, God, Adam and Eve, i.e. 1/2, 2/2, 1/3, 2/3, 3/3 (see Table 4.3); the number of occurrences for each factor: 0, when the factor is absent, 1, 2, 3, depending on whether the factor present in the different classes concerns one protagonist or two protagonists or three protagonists. It should be remembered that a factor has been considered present if it contributes to making the protagonist identifiable and recognisable in all the constituent scenes of a work and absent if identifiable only in some scenes or in none. It should also be premised that the factors should be considered ‘wide mesh’, since, similarly to the segmentation of episodes, their recording has often been based on a ‘more yes than no’ criterion. Shape appears to be the decisive factor for the identification of repeated protagonists, presenting the highest frequency, in absolute terms but, as data show, not Table 4.5  Number of works in which the factors belonging to the category identification of repeated protagonists  – shape, physiognomy, colour, attribute  – are present. The works are distinguished according to the five classes into which they have been divided considering the repeated protagonists (first column from the left) and the number of occurrences for each factor (second column from the left) Shape Classes 1/2 2/2

1/3 2/3

3/3

Protagonists 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3

3

28 4

33 4 3 25 Total 100 Presence 100

Physiognomy

Colour

Attribute

3 7 5 16

1 2 9 4 15

4 6 1 26 5 3 3 21 Total 100 Presence 82

4 9 1 23 4 7 5 16 Total 100 Presence 77

1 2 18 8 2 3 1 19 8 6 27 5 Total 100 Presence 59

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always for all repeated protagonists – as can be seen in the 3/3 protagonists class. This may be due to the ambiguity of the depiction or to restorations – as in the case of the fresco by an Anonymous painter in the Abbaye de Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe (Fig. 6.6), where the nineteenth-century restorer gave Adam and Eve “a bearded face” (Angheben, 2013, p. 3) (see Chap. 3) – or to the state of conservation of the works  – as in the case of the fresco by an Anonymous painter in the Cripta del Peccato Originale, in Matera (Fig. 6.60) – or to the depiction of the same character at different stages of his existence. The latter case concerns, for example, the little Adam depicted in the scene of his creation by Lucas Cranach the Elder (Figs. 6.54, 6.55), quite different from the Adam in the other scenes of the same works, and the little Eve in the process of her creation, with a hint of a bust – a rib already developed into a human form but not yet complete – portrayed by Taddeo Crivelli and Franco dei Russi (Fig. 6.56), by Herri met Bles (Fig. 6.41) and by Virgil Solis (Fig. 6.92), also in these cases quite different from the Eve depicted in other scenes of the same works. The other three factors show a progressively lesser presence: physiognomy is present in 82/100 works, colour in 77/100 works and attribute in 59/100 works. The reasons why these three factors have a lesser presence are various and can be illustrated with some examples. As regards physiognomy, the total absence concerns 18/100 works, consisting of a different number of scenes. Of these 18 works, 7 works consist of two scenes, 3 works of three scenes, 5 works of four scenes, 3 works of more than four scenes. With respect to the 7 works consisting of two scenes, in five of them the repeated protagonists are 2/2 – God and Adam in one work, Adam and Eve in four works – and in the remaining 2 works they are 2/3, again Adam and Eve. Considering only the 4 works in which the repeated protagonists are Adam and Eve, some of the possible reasons for the absence of the physiognomy factor already appear. All four works represent the same episodes: the Temptation and Fall and the Expulsion, and the scene in which the physiognomy of the repeated protagonists is not clearly visible is the Expulsion: in the painting by Alessandro Allori in Fig. 6.3, the artist deliberately conceals the faces of both, portraying Adam with hands in his hair and Eve with her torso turned away, to emphasise, with great expressiveness, the shame and despair for the sin committed and the abandonment of the Earthly Paradise; in the woodcut by Lucas van Leyden in Fig. 6.95, Adam and Eve are portrayed from behind and the same happens, with a very different expressive rendering, in the painting by Tintoretto in Fig. 6.94; in the painting by a Flemish-Veneto Painter in Fig. 6.59, the faces of Adam and Eve banished by the angel are fully visible but appear quite different from the sinners in the previous scene. It is difficult to state whether the non-identifiability in the latter case is due to intentionality or inaccuracy, whereas in the other three cases it clearly seems a compositional choice. In other episodes too, the depiction from behind or with the face not clearly visible – e.g. in the painting of Cornelis Cornelisz. van Haarlem in Fig. 6.52 – or barely outlined – e.g. in the woodcut by Virgil Solis in Fig, 6.93 – is a frequent reason for the physiognomy not being recognisable. But the reasons may also be related to technique, as in the illuminated registers of the Bamberg Bible (Figs. 6.36, 6.37, in

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which the colouring of Adam and Eve does not help to make the facial features clearly recognisable, as well as to the type of material used and the tiny size of the artefact – e.g. the cameo kept in the State Hermitage Museum, in St. Petersburg, in Fig. 6.38 – or, not least, to the state of conservation of the works – e.g. the fresco by the Flower Painter of Matera in Fig. 6.60. Regarding the factor colour, as in the case of segmentation of episodes, this factor was not considered when the material of the work was stone, marble, alabaster, metal or pietra dura, and so, of the total 23 missing data, 10 refer to works made of these materials. In general, identifiability by colour tends to be maintained for God but with several exceptions, such as the Creation and Fall of Man, by Mariotto Albertinelli (Fig. 6.1), where the artist depicts him in three of the four scenes constituting the work by varying the colour of the mantle in all three. The same is true for Adam and Eve in the episodes in which they are depicted naked, thanks also to the almost regular, slight difference in colour between the two. This is not the case in works in which Adam and Eve are shown in scenes of the same work both naked and clothed, as in some depictions of the episodes Expulsion and Labour (e.g. in the fresco by Giusto de’ Menabuoi in Fig. 6.65), thus excluding identification by colour. The last factor, attribute, mainly concerns God, and refers, as already mentioned, to the conventional symbols that distinguish him: halo, globe, sceptre, various types of gesture (blessing, admonition, reproval, punishment, etc.). Of the 44/100 works in which God is repeated, in 41 at least one of his attributes is replicated, sometimes appropriately, when he would be difficult to identify as a repeated character on the basis of the other factors (e.g. in the painting by Hieronymus Bosch in Fig. 6.44). In the remaining 3 works, attributes of God are depicted in some of the constituent scenes but are not repeated. In the case of Adam and Eve, the attributes, as already mentioned, are respectively mattock or hoe, and spindle and/or distaff, represented in the Labour episode. However, as always, there are exceptions: in the Labour episode sculpted by Wiligelmo on the façade of the Duomo di Santa Maria Assunta in Cielo e San Geminiano, in Modena (Fig. 6.98), they are both represented tilling the soil; in the panel of the mosaics of San Marco, in Venice, containing the Expulsion and Labour of Adam and Eve (Fig. 6.12), they are represented with their specific attributes, in both the Labour scene and the preceding scene depicting the Expulsion; in the fresco by Giusto de’ Menabuoi portraying the Original Sin, Expulsion from Paradise and scenes from the story of Cain and Abel (Fig. 6.65), Adam is represented with his attribute in the Expulsion episode, but it must be said that the Labour episode is not represented in this part of the work. In all the 19/100 works representing the Labour, while Adam is always depicted with a mattock or hoe, Eve is distinguished, in some cases, by her canonical attributes, spindle and/or distaff, in other cases by a child in her arms or suckling, in still other cases by both children or by all these attributes: children, spindle and distaff, e.g. in the fresco by Giovanni di ser Giovanni Guidi (lo Scheggia) and Francesco

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D’Antonio in the Chiostro Verde of the Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, in Florence, in Fig. 6.67. Unlike God, who is almost always identifiable independently of attributes, Adam and Eve, in works in which the Labour episode is also depicted, would hardly be recognisable as repeated characters and, for this reason, the use of attributes seems an effective device. And it is interesting to note how the artist skilfully exploits identification factors to compensate for the inevitable differences between the characters depending on the episodes depicted or when the character or characters in question undergo some kind of transformation, such as coming of age or growing old (Andrews, 2009, p.  289). For example, in the Story of Adam and Eve, the Boucicaut Master (Fig. 6.46) depicts in the central scene Adam and Eve, of conspicuous size and canonically naked – given that this is the episode of the Temptation and Fall – and similarly naked in the following scene, the Expulsion, making them recognisable by shape, physiognomy and colour. In the next scene, which represents the condemnation to Labour, they are both covered by yellow robes and Adam is portrayed from behind, but with a hoe that serves to identify him, and Eve also has her attribute, spindle and distaff, well displayed, and her physiognomy is clearly visible. The artist uses the yellow colour of the couple’s robes – which in the Labour scene contrasts with the colour of the protagonists in the two previous scenes – to connect the next scene, in which Adam and Eve are portrayed aged, as shown by both their posture and physiognomy, but they wear yellow robes similar to those in the previous scene, thus allowing the recognition of the protagonists and the narrative continuum.

4.2.4 Analysis of the Vectors of Direction The connection between the represented scenes can be in part accomplished also through the factors enclosed in the category vectors of direction, described in Sect. 4.1.4, namely, orientation of protagonists, orientation of parts of protagonists, size of protagonists. For this category, similarly to the space/time separating cues, two types of analysis were done: frequency analysis, reported in Table 4.6, and factor combination analysis (Table 4.7). Overall, vectors of direction were found in 68/100 works. The data therefore indicate that in about a third of the works there are no vectors to help the viewer’s eyes follow the unfolding of the story. These data do not depend on the time of composition of the work, since it covers most of time span considered, nor on the Table 4.6  Distribution of factors pertaining to the vectors of direction category in the 100 works of the thematic repertoire

No. of works

Orientation of protagonists 49

Orientation of parts of protagonists 6

Size of protagonists 31

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Table 4.7  Frequency analysis of the combinations of factors of the category vectors of direction in the 100 works of the thematic repertoire, where 0 indicates absence and 1 indicates presence of the factors, in the same order as in Table 4.6: orientation of protagonists, orientation of parts of protagonists, size of protagonists Combination of vectors of direction 000 001 010 011 100 101 Total

No. of works 32 13 5 1 32 17 100

context (it concerns indifferently unique representations, frontal representations, representations on more than one front), nor on the number of scenes (they range from 2 to 10) nor on the spatial disposition (the works are coplanar, multiplanar and in perspective) (see Sect. 3.2). The only dimension concerned is the narrative progression (see Sect. 3.2.3): among the 32 works which do not show the presence of vectors of direction, there are no works whose progression is right-left, but no distinctive reason seems to be found in the 5 works thus classified, some of which were moreover created by artists who use vectors of direction in other works of the thematic repertoire. We might think that the absence of vectors of direction in the group of these 32 works can be compensated, for example in registers of the frontispieces of the Genesis derived from a Touronian model, by the layout or the “tituli” or by the linearity of the representation, which regards also mosaics and frescoes but, in reality, in these cases the absence concerns only some registers of the same work or only some panels. Therefore, once again, it should be assumed that the absence of vectors of direction is the fruit of the artist’s compositional choices, as indeed occurs for other works in which it is difficult to identify a compositional organisation that follows the narrative order of the biblical text (e.g. in the painting by Marcellus Coffermans in Fig. 6.50). As shown in Table 4.6, orientation of protagonists is present in 49/100 works, orientation of parts of protagonists in 6/100 works, size of protagonists in 31/100 works. Among the 49/100 works in which it is present, orientation of protagonists fulfils in 20 works the first function it should perform, that is to link the episodes together by indicating the order in which the story unfolds. In 25 works the factor regards only the Expulsion episode and, therefore, the other function this factor may play, namely, to suggest that the scene in which it is present might indicate the conclusion of the story (see Sect. 4.1.4). Finally, in 4 works, the factor concerns single scenes that can give some indication of the development of the story. One of these is the last scene in the second register of the Bamberg Bible, representing the Shame and the

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Hiding (Fig. 6.36), in which Adam and Eve are depicted in profile, from left to right, ready to leave not the scene, in this case, but the register itself, and then reappear in the next register. The other three cases regard again the Expulsion scene in 3 works described below (Figs. 6.34, 6.46, 6.66), in which however it is not the last of the scenes depicted and therefore does not serve to indicate the conclusion of the story but in some way its unfolding. In the miniature contained in the edition of Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium, by Anonymous, kept in the Pierpont Morgan Library, in New  York (Fig. 6.34), the scene of the Expulsion is almost central to the seven scenes that make up the miniature and the depiction of the angel, Adam and Eve, in diagonal single file, connects the two previous scenes, set within the Garden of Eden surrounded by walls, with the next four scenes concerning earthly life, thanks also to the skilful use of architectural and naturalistic elements that harmonise with the disposition of the scenes. In the miniature by the Boucicaut Master and workshop, in Fig. 6.46, the Expulsion scene follows the Temptation and Fall scene, placed in the centre, inside the polyhedron that defines the enclosed wall in which the artist sets them. The configuration of the angel, who appears from behind the central scene and orthogonal to Adam and Eve, who are depicted coming out of the only visible large opening in the polygon (the gate of Paradise), may suggest to the observer that the story continues, as indeed it does, in the upper part of the miniature, given also the connection that the architecture – which includes the gate through which the three characters are about to exit  – creates with the scene in the upper part. Again, the Expulsion scene acts as a connection between life in the Garden of Eden and earthly life. In his painting the Fall of Man (Fig. 6.66), Gossaert depicts the episode of the Temptation and Fall in the foreground, giving Adam and Eve considerably larger dimensions than in the other six scenes depicted in the background. The first three scenes – from left to right, the Admonition, Creation of Eve and Expulsion – are represented along a horizontal line, ideally connecting them, and perpendicular to the sinners in the foreground. The other three scenes, the Labour, Cain Killing Abel, the Sacrifices of Cain and Abel, are depicted on the right-hand side of the painting in a misaligned vertical progression. Here too the Expulsion scene, placed at the extreme right of the horizontal sequence, serves as a connection between life in the Garden of Eden and earthly life, underlined by the double representation of the angel, as already mentioned, in the dual role of expeller and guardian. There are few works in which the factor orientation of parts of the protagonists has been observed. In addition to the already cited painting by Albertinelli (Fig. 6.1), the factor has been found in 5 other works, between the ninth and eleventh centuries, and, in reference to the posture or arm of God, in some of the symbolic gestures that distinguish him (e.g. in the second register of the Pantheon Bible in Fig. 6.13). The factor size of protagonists, as mentioned above, is linked to “visual weight” and its distribution (Arnheim, 1974, pp. 23–26), which also determine a hierarchical gradient between the perceptual units. This factor, which was considered when

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giving indications about the unfolding of the story according to the biblical text, is absent in 69/100 works. Of these 69 works, 44, including 18 Bible registers, have been classified as coplanar and tell the story in the order of the biblical text, from left to right without varying the size of the protagonists. Of the remaining 25 works, 8 are multiplanar and the size of the protagonists does not change from one scene to another, but the scenes are arranged in an order that is difficult to relate to that of the biblical narrative, and 17 are in perspective and the sizes of the characters in the individual scenes are different, but this gives no indication of the order of succession. On the other hand, the factor size of protagonists is present in 31/100 works, configured as follows with respect to the variables dating, context, number of scenes, narrative progression and spatial disposition: the works range from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century; they are divided between unique, frontal and more than one front representations; the number of scenes is various; narrative progression includes all the indicators considered as well as spatial disposition (see Sect. 3.2). In this group of 31 works, the size of protagonists may suggest the narrative unfolding of the story, but not always unambiguously. The group includes works with a diverse number of scenes, from two to more than four (seven to be exact). The variation in size of the protagonists or of the scenic group is ordered consistently with the biblical text, but with some differences: in 19 of these 31 works, the artist’s choice is that of giving a smaller size to the episode/s or event/s following the one to which he gives the greater size and which is, chronologically, the first in the story or episodes narrated (e.g. in the small cameo kept in the State Hermitage Museum, in St. Petersburg, in Fig. 6.38); in 12 works the preceding episode/s or event/s is/are represented in a smaller size (e.g. in the painting by Mariotto Albertinelli in Fig. 6.2). The ability to grasp the sense of the difference in size between scenes and to understand how the hierarchical gradient guides the narrative sequence is thus entrusted to the observer, but it is a binary choice, easily resolvable: either from small to large or from large to small. In a group of 3 works, this task is in a sense facilitated by the inversion of a norm to which pictorial composition usually adheres. These are two miniatures in the Holkham Bible Picture Book, by an Anonymous illuminator, kept in the British Library, in London (Figs. 6.24, 6.25), and a miniature in the Horae Beatae Mariae Virginis, by an Anonymous illuminator, kept in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, in Paris (Fig. 6.16). These works consist of two scenes, have a narrative progression from top to bottom and a spatial disposition, in the first two cases coplanar, in the other multiplanar. The scenes represent, in the first work, the Creation of Adam and the Creation of Eve, and in the other two, the Temptation and Fall and the Expulsion. In these works, the gradient of size goes from large to small – the antecedent episode is larger and the subsequent episode smaller in size – and, from a compositional point of view, this contrasts with what should be the ‘correct’ distribution of visual weight. As Arnheim (1974, pp. 30−31) explains, “visually an object of a certain size, shape, or color will carry more weight when placed higher up. Therefore, balance in

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the vertical direction cannot be obtained by placing equal objects at different heights. The higher one must be lighter”. Therefore, by tradition the trend is “to make the bottom part of a visual object look heavier”. In the works we are considering, however, the episode represented at the top, instead, ‘weighs’ on the one at the bottom and is the one that is perceived first, thus providing an aid to the correct reading of the work. As for the combination of factors – shown in Table 4.7 by 0, if absent, and 1, if present  – the data concern even fewer works, regardless of the variables dating, context, number of scenes, narrative progression and spatial disposition (see Sect. 3.2). Only 18/100 works present two factors together; precisely, in 17 works there is the co-presence of orientation of protagonists and size of protagonists; in 1/100 works there is the co-presence of orientation of parts of protagonists and size of protagonists. The coexistence of the factor of orientation of protagonists – in its first function, that is linking the episodes to each other by indicating the order in which the story unfolds – and the factor of size of protagonists occur in 3 works: the Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, by Mariotto Albertinelli (Fig. 6.2), the Fall of Man and Expulsion, by Jost Amman (Fig. 6.4) and the first folio of the Vienna Genesis (Fig. 6.32), while in the other 14 works the factor of orientation of protagonists performs its secondary function, referring to a single scene which can however give indications on the unfolding of the story. The first folio of Vienna Genesis (Fig. 6.32), besides being an example of the combination of these two factors, also shows another aspect relevant to grasping the direction of the narrative. This folio contains one of the most famous images discussed in the literature on continuous narrative (Wickhoff, 1900), which comprises three scenes: the Fall, on the left; the Shame and the Hiding, at the centre; God Calling and the Denial of Guilt, on the right. There is a common orientation of the main characters, Adam and Eve, in all three scenes, and their size decreases slightly from the first scene, on the left, to the next, in the centre, and even more so in the last on the right. The orientation of the sinful couple is also marked by a similar orientation of scenic elements, trees and foliage, which are vertical in the first scene on the left and then bent to the right in the following scenes, contributing to the chronologically correct reading of the pictorial narrative, which is also facilitated by the appearance of an arm of God in the upper central part of the miniature – that induces amodal completion – oriented in the same direction. In the same image (Fig. 6.32), a particular effect can also be observed, named the “stroboscopic effect” (Arnheim, 1974) or “simil stroboscopic effect” (Argenton, 2019)  – “the immobile equivalent of stroboscopic motion” (Arnheim, 1974, p. 434)19 – that marks the sequence of episodes, representing slightly different forms  This type of apparent movement, studied systematically by Wertheimer (1912), is called beta movement or also more commonly stroboscopic movement and “has an ‘equivalent’ in pictorial representation and perception” (Argenton, 2019, p. 62, n. 8). 19

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or “successive phases of an action in different parts of a figure”, and so inducing movement (transition from one position to another) and the passage from one scene to the next (Arnheim, 1974, pp. 434–435). This effect, however, is extremely rare in the entire thematic repertoire and we observed it clearly only in this miniature of the Vienna Genesis, where the successive downward change of pose (to crouching among the trees of the garden) is such that the figures appear as if in an unfolding motion.

4.2.5 Essential Considerations of the Results The main goal that moved the research was to perform an analysis, as systematic as possible, of a group of pictorial works of continuous narrative concerning the same theme, the story of Adam and Eve, “in order to identify which perceptual-­ representational strategies have been used by artists to visually tell the story contained in the works themselves”. An objective, in turn, aimed at trying to deduce how they solved “the problem of narrating a story and its unfolding, the episodes that compose it, which have a sequential and therefore temporal course, using a static medium, which both perceptually and representationally is characterized exclusively by spatial sign elements” (Argenton, 2003–2014). Consequently, we followed a research procedure aimed at analysing the composition of the work, trying to go back to the strategies “excogitated” (Alberti, see Chap. 1) by the artist to narrate the story into a single pictorial space. The procedural steps were numerous and articulated according to a logic of progressive deepening of the thematic repertoire on the story of Adam and Eve: cataloguing of artworks (author, title, date, technique, type of artefact, dimension, location, theme) (see Chap. 2); analysis of the works based on the biblical texts and identification of the scenes represented in the single works (see Chap. 3); analysis of the configuration of works (context, number of scenes, narrative progression, spatial disposition) (see Chap. 3); analysis of perceptual–compositional arrangement of the single works (segmentation of episodes, space/time separating cues, identification of repeated protagonists, vectors of direction) (Chap. 4). In this last phase of analysis, we tried to follow an approach based, essentially, on phenomenological observation. And it is in this direction that the research models assumed in this study move, primarily those of Argenton (2008, 2019) and Arnheim (1974), based on a phenomenological approach of gestaltist matrix, which have been modulated in relation to the objectives of the study itself (see Chap. 1). The analysis of the perceptual–compositional arrangement of the repertoire of artworks on the story of Adam and Eve seems to support the positions of art history scholars, such as Andrews (1998), who, albeit from a different theoretical and methodological approach, recognise the ‘naturalness’ of continuous narrative and the artists’ skill in handling this pictorial genre, which appears clearly in the pictorial production included in the thematic repertoire.

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However, the data collected lead one to reflect on the tendency of art historians to focus the study of continuous narrative mainly on the repetition of characters, who are entrusted with the role of markers of different temporal moments – given the impossibility “for one and the same person to be seen several times at the same moment within the same space” (Wickhoff, 1900, p. 9) – privileging in their studies the dimension related to the recognition of protagonists. Art historians tend to describe how “all the characters, or at least the main characters” are portrayed in such a way that they can be “easily recognised and distinguished from each other”, holding that “this sort of consistency is a defining condition” of continuous narrative (Andrews, 2009, p. 288). This does not mean that they do not deal with other relevant compositional aspects, such as “the distribution of scenes” on the pictorial surface, or “what might be called their physical relation”, considering it however as “a purely formal problem” (Weitzmann, 1947, p. 29, our italics). Nor do we want to say that the fine art-historical studies, from which we have benefited a great deal, are not a valuable aid for reading the artworks. It is unquestionable that the presence of repeated characters is the distinctive feature of continuous narrative and necessarily indicates the unfolding of facts over time, but this can be understood only once one has activated a process that “the mind performs on the results of primary segmentation” (Kanizsa, 1991, p. 77), which is guided by the “process of vision” (Arnheim, 1974, p. 46). And to this end, the contribution – substantial – given by several perceptual factors in the configuration of the whole work of continuous narrative, and obviously of the individual scenes, would seem evident. On the other hand, the repetition of characters is not only called upon to characterise continuous narrative and to show the representation of time, but also to verify the understanding of this specific pictorial genre. And here the reflection goes towards psychological research, which believes it is problematic for observers to detect “person repetition” in painting and that therefore “person repetitions can’t serve as a time course cue in visual arts” (Kalkofen & Strack, 2018, p. 9). The results of our research have nothing to say about this last aspect, since the ability of the observers to read the works of art as a continuous narrative is not among its aims, and in reality, from our observations, the recognition of the characters may not always be easy, but conclusions such as the one quoted above could only be shared, from our perspective, if the research were conducted by allowing the experimental subjects observation time proportionate to what we can imagine to be the ideational time spent by the artists to find a way to make the repeated characters identifiable and recognisable while changing their appearance and contextualisation according to the different events, actions or facts represented. Not by chance Paul Klee (1920/1958, p. 7, our italics) observed: “Does a pictorial work come into being at one stroke? No, it is constructed bit by bit, just like a house. And the beholder, is he through with the work at one glance? (Unfortunately, he often is.) Does not Feuerbach say somewhere that in order to understand a picture one must have a chair? Why the chair? So that your tired legs won’t distract your mind. Legs tire after prolonged standing. Hence, time is needed”. We will not reveal the duration of our observations of the artworks, but they have been prolonged and repeated, ritually discovering other compositional subtleties in

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compositional procedures at each new observation of individual works, guided primarily and ‘coercively’ by the factors of perceptual organisation, well before the recognition of repeated characters. Undoubtedly, the thematic repertoire on the story of Adam and Eve is only a small part, exactly 10%, of the collected general repertoire on continuous pictorial narrative (see Chaps. 2 and 5), which is, in turn, a small part of the artistic production of continuous narrative. We can assume that this is the case considering the many works we found after deciding to stop the search and, even more so, taking into account that, in the construction of the general repertoire, both Western art prior to the third century CE, from which it starts  – for example, Hellenistic art, vase painting, Roman art (e.g. Bianchi-Bandinelli, 1955; Small, 1999; von Blanckenhagen, 1957; Weitzmann, 1947)  – and art of other cultures, such as Buddhist (Dehejia, 1997), were not considered.20 Notwithstanding these limits, the thematic repertoire on the story of Adam and Eve covers a fairly significant time span, from the sixth to the seventeenth century, in which different styles succeeded one another and stylistic revolutions took place, allowing for some general considerations about the “perceptual-representational strategies” (Argenton, 2019) employed by artists to narrate the story of Adam and Eve in a continuous mode, which could be confirmed, developed or even disconfirmed through the analysis of the other thematic repertoires collected by Argenton and Prest (see Chap. 5), or the involvement in the study of a larger number of observers, with different types and degrees of expertise, or even by extending the research to historical periods and cultures not considered. Essentially, according to the analysis results of the 100 works included in the thematic repertoire, the artists consistently employ similar perceptual devices to represent their continuous narratives, which can be ascribed to four categories:  In the same way, the question of continuous pictorial narrative has not been addressed after the period we have considered. It is believed that in the contemporary age, starting with the productions of the artistic avant-garde, there has been a progressive abandonment of this pictorial genre. Among our open research questions is whether the avant-gardes eliminated explicit narrative content, whether artists have dismissed one of the most ‘natural’ and rooted forms of communication in human culture (Bruner, 1991) and have silenced the desire for narrating or, rather, they have abandoned the narration of “extrinsic” stories, inventing new ones. For example, the person who designed this study, Alberto Argenton, who was also an abstract painter, entitled some of his works of the 1980s Events, Scenes of life, Stories, Dances, Songs, Fairy tales, ‘Verselets’, enclosing some examples in one of the galleries of his website: “This gallery includes examples of works belonging to several variously named series but all of which relate to the narrative dimension that characterizes artistic production in general […]. In essence, in entitling these series I started from the assumption that the contents of art reflect significant aspects of the dynamics of human experience, finding a natural manifestation in the narrative dimension. In terms of style and without any ‘artistic’ pretence, in the case of these works it could be said that the crazy line – the line that develops itself ‘freely’, ‘autonomously’, continuing beyond the limits of the paper or canvas and that largely characterised my pictorial research – here is fittingly enclosed, circumscribed, detailed, interwoven into a sort of plot, within the completed narrative of something: state of mind, thought, idea, and, in fact, a story” (https://www.albertoargenton.it/events-scenes-of-life-stories-dances-songs-fairytales-pieces-of-verse-1980s). The image on the cover of this book reproduces a painting by Alberto Argenton that is part of the series of Stories. 20

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segmentation of episodes and space/time separating cues, used to separate scenes; identification of repeated protagonists and vectors of direction, used to link the episodes or events represented on the work surface and indicate their unfolding. This confirms the first of the two hypotheses that guided the research: “from the analysis of an adequate number of pictorial representations of stories it is possible to identify significant recurrences of procedures or perceptual–representational strategies of a spatial type ascribable to the functioning of visual thinking” (Argenton, 2003–2014) (see Chap. 2). Artists pay great attention to making the episodes represented in their works clearly separate, almost all regularly resorting to factors of perceptual segmentation and displaying that mastery in their use acknowledged by authoritative psychologists (Arnheim, 1974; Kanizsa, 1991). Moreover, almost all artists facilitate and enhance the perceptual configuration of scenes by using pictorial signs of separation placed between the scenes and using such space/time separating cues to mark the distinction between scenes and facilitate the constitution of figural units. At the same time, the artists tend to make the protagonists of the story repeated in the different scenes identifiable and recognisable, and thus to connect the episodes to each other, with a skilful pictorial play again entrusted to perceptual factors, to the shape in the first place, to the physiognomy and colour, but also to the attribute. The artists do not seem to care as much about using vectors to orient the reading of the narratives, which in any case, in most works – 58/100 – follow a linear course from left to right, which is in itself a “formal means” to indicate the reading direction of a work, leading “the beholder to move from one scene to the next just as his eyes read consecutive lines of writing” (Weitzmann, 1957, p. 84). In many of the works in the thematic repertoire, especially from the Renaissance period, the reading suggestions become weak, requiring the viewer to make a careful exploratory effort to be able to identify the progression of the story and, when at times there is no vector suggesting it, a knowledge of the story itself seems essential to understand its unfolding. On the other hand, albeit in different terms, this aspect also emerges in works in which the narrative is linear, and the scenes follow one after the other, but not infrequently with “conflations” (Weitzmann, 1957) such as to require careful observation and probably recourse to knowledge of the facts narrated. What also must be taken into account is the dialectic between the separation and conjunction procedures of the scenes and between the factors ascribed to the four above-mentioned categories, distinguished by us for the purposes of analysing the works, but calibrated by the artist in function of their interaction. Some examples of this interaction have already been discussed, and it will be further deepened by examining a fresco by Michelangelo in a later section. Similarly, it is also necessary to take into account the interaction between the factors identified and other perceptual aspects, for example overlapping and amodal completion (Arnheim, 1974; Kanizsa, 1980), widely used in the entire thematic repertoire as already mentioned, parallelism, balance and dynamics in their “global” and “local” use (Argenton,

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2019), which we could not deal with analytically, although we inevitably observed their substantial compositional contribution. On the other hand, observing continuous pictorial narratives cannot be accomplished in a single glance  – if this is ever indeed possible for any artistic work (Arnheim, 1986) – not only because of the richness of the spectrum of procedures – albeit based on the same dimensions – conceived to render the temporal unfolding of a story, to represent events that occurred over time to the same character or characters, but also because of the variability of the compositional schemes devised by the artists to narrate an identical story, in which it seems arduous to identify a general rule, in confirmation of the second hypothesis that guided the research work: “in the continuous pictorial representation of a story, the arrangement of episodes and/or events is essentially based on the spatial configuration conceived by the artist primarily by means of perceptual-representational criteria of a spatial type” (Argenton, 2003–2014) (see Chap. 2). If, therefore, on the one hand, the artists show a unanimous convergence on the use of specific perceptual–representational strategies, this in no way gives rise to a monotonous similarity between the works, precisely because of the great variability in compositional choices, relating not only to the episodes included in the individual works, but especially to the variations on the theme. This is determined by the more or less skilful or sometimes excellent use of the ‘tools of the trade’ (Kanizsa, 1991) and by the personal style of the artist – meant as the peculiar way in which he/she resolves the problem that lies at the basis of representation: “to make perceptible, through certain shapes, certain meanings for certain purposes” – and is generically ascribable “under the aegis of representational and communicational intents” (Argenton, 1996, p. 152). Compositional variability should have already emerged from the different analyses of the thematic repertoire – starting from the identification and classification of the episodes (see Sect. 3.1), where the differentiation of compositional choices for narrating not only the whole story, but also individual episodes, clearly appears – and it is confirmed for each of the categories of analysis considered. To touch on this important aspect, we will refer to the construct of iconographic model, resorting to an example that regards the most frequently depicted episodes: the Temptation and Fall and the Expulsion.

4.3 Pictorial Identity and Variability: Iconographic Models Critical-historical investigations that examine a particular theme across artistic epochs are quite frequent. Arnheim cites Lucien Rudrauf’s study on “variations of a plastic theme”, namely, the Annunciation, in which Rudrauf (1949) “shows how differently the famous encounter has been interpreted, depending on which moment of the event the artist chose and how his imagination distributed active and passive function, dominance and submission, and so on”. And Arnheim adds that “the same

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story, the same composition, or the same posture lives on for centuries as an indelible contribution to the way man visualizes his world” (Arnheim 1974, p. 144). Studies on variations of themes also concern continuous pictorial narrative and we can cite in this regard, for example, the interesting analysis by Andrews (1994) of the compositional variations introduced on the theme of the Martyrdom of John the Baptist, exemplified by the works of Benozzo Gozzoli, Filippo Lippi, Rogier van der Weyden and Hans Memling, and their different compositional choices based above all on the “interplay or exchange between two and three dimensions, between the two-dimensional design and the illusion it creates” (Andrews, 1994, p. 85). It is not our intention to undertake an art-historical analysis of the episodes Temptation and Fall, and Expulsion, nor a perceptual analysis of the individual works in which they are represented, but rather to examine the different configurations with which artists have represented these two episodes in the works of the thematic repertoire that contain only these two episodes, focusing on the compositional scheme or “iconographic model” (Argenton, 2004) that characterises them. By “iconographic model”, we are referring here to the “structure of the composition”, that is, the organisation of pictorial space, to the arrangement of the elements represented, dictated by the norms and conventions in force in the figurative production of the various epochs, and to the deviations from a certain model made by the artists “through individual and original representational variations”, also on the basis of their own personal style. These variations document – and this is the aspect of particular interest from the study perspective of the psychology of art – “possible procedures and outcomes that perceptual reasoning is able to adopt and pursue in order to solve the always problematic task of pictorially representing a given subject or theme or meaning” (Argenton & Prest, 2008, pp. 285–286). The Temptation and Fall, and the Expulsion are the most frequently represented episodes in the 100 works of the thematic repertoire, each of which is present overall, respectively the former with 73 occurrences and the latter with 59 occurrences (see Sect. 3.1.1, Table 3.2). Of these works, 16 works present only these two episodes (Gen., III, 1–6; Gen., III, 23a, 24) and thus consist of two scenes. Table 4.8 reports the 16 works representing the story of Adam and Eve only through these two episodes and shows data relative to seven elements already used in the analysis of the thematic repertoire and described in Chaps. 2 and 3 – author, date, technique, dimension, context, narrative progression and spatial disposition – and to a new element, namely, iconographic model. The works are dated between the fourteenth and sixteenth century, with a predominance of sixteenth century works (11/16). Different techniques are used: oil on panel, oil on canvas, watercolour on canvas, miniature, fresco, woodcut and engraving. The dimension ranges from 11 × 15.4 cm of the woodcut by Jost Amman (Fig. 6.4) to 280 × 570 cm of the fresco by Michelangelo (Fig. 6.81). The works are, in almost equal numbers, unique, frontal and more than one front representations, as in the thematic repertoire. The progression of the narrative includes all the indicators present in the thematic repertoire: left-right, right-left, top-bottom and “other”, so does the spatial disposition, covering coplanar, multiplanar and perspective works, with a prevalence of perspective works (11/16).

Fresco

1564 1560–1575

1470 c.

1508–1512

Cornelis Cort (Fig. 6.53) Jacopo Bertucci (fig. 6.40)

Master of the Champion des Dames (Fig. 6.77) Michelangelo (Fig. 6.81)

Anonymous (Fig. 6.25)

Anonymous (Fig. 6.16)

Lucas van Leyden (Fig. 6.95) Follower of Pieter Coecke van Aelst (Fig. 6.61) Lucas van Leyden (Fig. 6.96) Master of the Redención del Prado (Fig. 6.80) Michael Wolgemut (Fig. 6.99)

Miniature

1550–1553

Tintoretto (Fig. 6.94)

1430–1440 c. 1327–1335

Miniature

Miniature

Woodcut

1493

40.6 × 26.6 cm (folio) Frontal sequence 35.2 × 22.5 cm (detail) 21.2 × 14.8 cm (folio) Frontal sequence c. 12.5 × 7.2 cm (detail) 28.5 × 21 cm (folio) Frontal sequence

Unique representation Frontal sequence

Woodcut 24.2 × 17.2 cm (folio) Oil on panel 195 × 77 cm

1516–1519 1450 c.

Sequence on more than one front Unique representation Sequence on more than one front Unique representation

Context Sequence on more than one front Frontal sequence Sequence on more than one front Frontal sequence

1514 c. Woodcut 41.1 × 29.3 cm 1520–1530 c Oil on panel 106.7 × 64.8 cm

280 × 570 cm

36 × 26 cm (folio)

18.5 × 24.1 cm 160 × 163 cm

150 × 220 cm

120 × 95 cm

11 × 15.4 cm 270 × 155 cm

Dimension 120 × 230 cm c.

Sequence on more than one front Unique representation Unique representation

Watercolour on canvas Oil on canvas Engraving Oil on panel

Woodcut Fresco

Technique Fresco

1593

Date 1560–1564 c. 1551–1564 1593

Jost Amman (fig. 6.4) Flemish-­Veneto Painter (Fig. 6.59) Oswalt Kreusel (Fig. 6.71)

Author Alessandro Allori (Fig. 6.3)

No. 4

No. 4

Multiplanar No. 8

Perspective No. 6 Perspective No. 7

Perspective No. 5 Perspective No. 6

Coplanar

Coplanar

Perspective No. 2 Perspective No. 3

Perspective No. 1

Perspective No. 1

Perspective No. 1 Perspective No. 1

Spatial Iconographic disposition model Perspective No. 1

Top to bottom Coplanar

No. 9

Top to bottom Multiplanar No. 9

Right to left

Right to left Other

Left to right Right to left

Left to right

Left to right

Right to left Left to right

Left to right

Left to right

Left to right Left to right

Narrative progression Left to right

Table 4.8  Data on the 16 works representing the story of Adam and Eve through only two episodes, i.e. the Temptation and Fall, and the Expulsion, concerning author, date, technique, dimension, context, narrative progression, spatial disposition, iconographic model

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With regard to the four categories comprised in the perceptual–compositional arrangement, described in this chapter, this group of works also reflects the distribution of factors observed in the thematic repertoire, with the exception of two works, albeit with some doubts, especially in the second case: the woodcut by Jost Amman in Fig. 6.4, in which there seems to be no space/time separating cues and the miniature by the Master of the Champion des Dames in Fig. 6.77, in which there seems to be no vectors of direction. In the 16 works, there are as many as nine different compositional schemes, indicated again in Table 4.8, in the last column as iconographic model and numbered 1 to 9, and visible in the reproduction of these works in Table 4.9 (as well as in Chap. 6 in larger reproductions). For this classification, we follow the one exemplificatively outlined by Argenton (2004) and shared with Giovanni Bruno Vicario, in their epistolary exchanges on the pictorial representation of time (see textbox in Chap. 1: An exchange on the representation of time). A first compositional scheme is found in five works: a fresco by Alessandro Allori, in the Cappella Montauto of the Basilica della SS. Annunziata, in Florence (Fig. 6.3); a woodcut by Jost Amman, kept in the Herzog August Bibliothek, in Wolfenbüttel (Fig. 6.4); a fresco by a Flemish-Veneto Painter, in the Sala dei Battuti, in Conegliano (Fig. 6.59); a watercolour by Oswalt Kreusel, kept in the Stiftskirche, in Millstatt (Fig. 6.71); a painting by Tintoretto, kept in the Gallerie dell’Accademia, in Venice (Fig. 6.94). In these works, the arrangement of the scenes is similar: ANTECEDENT episode in FOREGROUND to the LEFT and SUBSEQUENT episode in BACKGROUND to the RIGHT (Iconographic model No. 1). Within the identical scheme, the differences are nevertheless considerable and concern, to give just a few generic examples: the size of the groups of figures, not very different in some works, i.e. the works by Allori, Kreusel and the Flemish-Veneto Painter, and considerably different in others, i.e. the works by Amman and, especially, by Tintoretto; the position of the characters, similar in the works by the Flemish-Veneto Painter and Kreusel and quite different in the work by Tintoretto; the scenery in which the two episodes are represented, ranging from the essential and rarefied in the work by Allori to the densely populated with naturalistic elements and animals in the work by Amman. The second model reverses the first and is found in an engraving by Cornelis Cort, kept in the Art Institute, in Chicago (Fig. 6.53): ANTECEDENT episode in FOREGROUND to the RIGHT and SUBSEQUENT episode in BACKGROUND to the LEFT (Iconographic model No. 2). The third model is found in a painting by Jacopo Bertucci, kept in the Pinacoteca Comunale, in Faenza (Fig. 6.40), where it is the ANTECEDENT episode that is in BACKGROUND to the LEFT and the SUBSEQUENT episode in FOREGROUND to the RIGHT (Iconographic model No. 3). The fourth model – ANTECEDENT and SUBSEQUENT in FOREGROUND on the SAME LINE (Iconographic model No. 4) – concerns two very different works: a miniature by the Master of the Champion des Dames, kept in the Bibliotheque Inguimbertine, in Carpentras (Fig. 6.77), and a fresco by Michelangelo in the

Fig. 6.96

Fig. 6.61

Fig. 6.40

Fig. 6.53

Model No. 7

Model No. 3

Model No. 2

Model No. 6

Fig. 6.4

Fig. 6.3

Model No. 1

Fig. 6.80

Fig. 6.77

Model No. 4

Fig. 6.59

Fig. 6.99

Model No. 8

Fig. 6.81

Fig. 6.71

Table 4.9  Iconographic models adopted in 16 works on the episodes Temptation and Fall, and Expulsion

Fig. 6.16

Model No. 9

Fig. 6.94

Fig. 6.25

Fig. 6.95

Model No. 5

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Cappella Sistina, in the Vatican City (Fig. 6.81). Not without repeated doubts, Michelangelo’s fresco has been classified as coplanar, in the category of spatial disposition. However, the two scenes, as we shall better see later, are arranged on the same plane. The fifth model concerns a woodcut by Lucas van Leyden, kept in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, in New  York (Fig. 6.95), where the antecedent episode is in FOREGROUND in the CENTER and the subsequent episode is in BACKGROUND to the RIGHT (Iconographic model No. 5). In another woodcut by the same artist, Lucas van Leyden, kept in the National Gallery of Art, in Washington D.C. (Fig. 6.96), the model is the opposite, and this model is also used by a Follower of Pieter Coecke van Aelst in a painting kept in the Dulwich Picture Gallery, in Dulwich (Fig. 6.61): the antecedent episode is in FOREGROUND in the CENTER and the subsequent is in BACKGROUND but to the LEFT (Iconographic model No. 6). The seventh model is found in a painting by the Master of the Redención del Prado, kept in the Museo del Prado, in Madrid (Fig. 6.80), where the antecedent episode is in BACKGROUND in the CENTER and the subsequent episode is in FOREGROUND in the CENTER (Iconographic model No. 7). An even different model is adopted by Michael Wolgemut, in a woodcut kept in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, in Los Angeles (Fig. 6.99): antecedent episode in FOREGROUND TOP RIGHT and subsequent episode in FOREGROUND BOTTOM LEFT (Iconographic model No. 8). The last model, in which the antecedent episode is in FOREGROUND TOP-­ CENTER and the subsequent episode is in FOREGROUND BOTTOM-CENTER (Iconographic model No. 9), regards two works, although the arrangement of the episodes is not quite the same: a miniature contained in the Horae Beatae Mariae Virginis, by an Anonymous illuminator, kept in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, in Paris (Fig. 6.16), and a miniature contained in the Holkham Bible Picture Book, by an Anonymous illuminator, kept in the British Library, in London (Fig. 6.25). In the first case, the subsequent episode is depicted from right to left and in the second case from left to right. The considerable diversity of compositional schemes already gives indications of the different perceptual reasoning developed by the artists to conceive the narration of these two episodes of the story of Adam and Eve, but obviously only a qualitative analysis of the individual works could account for the artists’ ideational and compositional richness and allow us to delve into the artist’s perceptual reasoning. It would be unreasonable in the economy of this work to undertake such an analysis, which would in any case be partial, since it would concern the representation of only two episodes of the entire story of Adam and Eve and 16/100 works; we will therefore make only a brief excursion, by way of example, into the most famous of the 16 works: the fresco by Michelangelo, trying to outline the spatial configuration conceived by the artist.

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4.3.1 An Example: Michelangelo’s Fall and Expulsion The Cappella Sistina ceiling – a cycle of frescoes painted between 1508 and 1512, measuring 800 m2 and located 20.70 m from the ground in a structure with a base of 40.50 × 13.20 m (Montacutelli et al., 1990, p. 128) – comprises “about one hundred and seventy-five picture units”: “nine scenes from Genesis along the longitudinal axis, four Old Testament histories in the corner spandrels, seven prophets and five sibyls on thrones, forty ancestors of Christ in the lunettes and spandrels above, ten medallions depicting events from the Old Testament, and a multitude of nude figures adorning a fictive architectural framework” (Bull, 1988, p. 597). It is a monumental work, which left people “astonished and dumb” (Vasari, 1568/1912−1915, vol. 9, p. 39), “thought as a whole” (Wölfflin, 1890, p. 267) and so realised bearing in mind the viewer on the floor of the chapel, even if the possibility of a “total view of the ceiling from one place and at one moment in time is a physical impossibility” (Seymour, 1972, p. xiii)21 The nine scenes along the longitudinal axis represent in chronological sequence: the Separation of the Light from the Darkness; the Creation of the Sun, Moon and Plants; the Separation of the Firmament from the Waters; the Creation of Adam; the Creation of Eve; the Temptation and Fall and the Expulsion; the Sacrifice of Noah; the Deluge; the Drunkenness of Noah. The specific story of Adam and Eve is therefore contained in three panels “made up of a few large figures arranged in the first plane” (De Tolnay, 1945, p. 42), and the panel in which the two episodes of the Temptation and Fall and the Expulsion are frescoed is the sole continuous narrative among these three panels. In describing this work (Fig. 6.81), we will follow the categories of analysis adopted for the thematic repertoire. This panel was presumably begun by Michelangelo “around September 1509” and executed “by his own hand in every detail” (Pfeiffer, 2007, p. 185). It measures 280 × 570 cm and is obviously a part of a sequence on more than one front. Following the biblical text and considered on its own, it presents a narrative progression from left to right, and the spatial disposition of the two scenes, although the organisation of the entire composition is based on perspective, is coplanar, as the two scenes are placed on the same plane (see Chap. 3). Michelangelo organises the pictorial space in such a way as to immediately produce a perceptual distinction in two scenes, slightly different in size, the one on the left being a little larger, and slightly different in visual weight, the one on the left being just slightly heavier.

 Given the vast amount of literature on the Cappella Sistina and Michelangelo’s frescoes, it is not possible here to delve into the reading of the entire work or into the problem of the arrangement of the stories taken from Genesis, the pictorial execution of which many consider to begin with the Stories of Noah, nor into the thematic or theological choices. For the basic studies, see, for example, the anthology edited by Seymour (1972). 21

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In the scene on the left, the Temptation and Fall, the figures are arranged in such a way as to induce a grouping on the basis of several of the factors considered: proximity, which is also enhanced by the partial overlapping between Adam and Eve; similarity of shape, which also concerns the serpent, whose features are similar to those of Adam and Eve and can be completed amodally behind the tree on which two tubular forms are twisted; colour, although not identical, but belonging to a chromatic gradation that we might call “stone- or bronze colour” (Wölfflin, 1899/1952, p. 50); continuity of direction, especially between the arms of Eve and the serpent. In the scene of the Expulsion, proximity is weaker, given the distance between the group of Adam and Eve, partly overlapped, and the angel, but it is nonetheless present and reinforced by an even more evident continuity of direction, particularly between the angel and Adam.22 The similarity of shape between the two protagonists and the angel is less pronounced – as it is throughout the thematic repertoire in which this scene is depicted – while the colour clearly differentiates the angel from Adam and Eve, who still share a similar gradation of “stone- or bronze colour”. Michelangelo reinforces the distinction between scenes by means of two space/ time separating cues: a tree, which in this case is the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, placed almost on the vertical median axis of the work, which in the opinion of Andrews (2009, p. 294) “not only divides the image but also unifies the drama”; and a naturalistic element, in this case, the conformation of the ground, which changes considerably from the first scene to the second – from rocky to flat, from grey-green to ochre, respectively, in the two scenes Temptation and Fall, and Expulsion. At the same time, the artist takes great care in connecting the two scenes, easing the identification of the repeated protagonists, Adam and Eve, by shape, physiognomy and colour, although Eve’s colour in the two scenes has a slightly different nuance. Apparently, Michelangelo gives no indication of the order in which the story is to be read, using a clear vector of direction only in the Expulsion scene. However, the decisive orientation of the protagonists in this scene, from left to right, and the opposing posture of the serpent and the angel – the latter in part occluded by the serpent – may lead to reading the succession of scenes in accordance with the biblical text: from the antecedent episode, placed on the left, to the subsequent episode on the right. Michelangelo exploits all these devices both to render the distinction between scenes and to relate the scenes and the narrative, manipulating with great mastery the combination of factors of perceptual organisation, including in particular the continuity of direction, which he also seems to privilege in other panels of the same fresco cycle; one need only think of the Creation of Adam, hinged on the conjunction of the index finger of God’s right arm and the index finger of Adam’s left arm.

 As an aside, the use of continuity of direction in all the scenes of a work is very rare in the thematic repertoire, where, apart from Michelangelo’s fresco, it is only found in one other work, i.e. the Creation of Adam and Creation of Eve, a watercolour on canvas by Oswalt Kreusel, kept in the Stiftskirche, in Millstatt (Fig. 6.70). 22

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Moreover, as we have seen and as occurs in almost all the works of the thematic repertoire, Michelangelo skilfully exploits amodal completion, to which he adds, in this painting, “parallelism” (Arnheim, 1974, p. 123 and passim),23 contributing to staging a ‘pantomime’ of arms, which would seem to show the fulcrum of the perceptual reasoning developed by him to conceive a unitary spatial configuration and give continuity to the narration of this part of the story of Adam and Eve. In the episode of the Temptation and Fall, Eve’s left arm is aligned with the serpent’s left arm, and Adam’s right arm is outstretched parallel to his left arm and, again parallelly, to the arm of the serpent aligned with that of Eve, almost joining the index finger of his hand to the serpent’s face. In the Expulsion, the angel’s left arm prolonging into the sword grazes Adam’s neck, parallelly to Adam’s right arm which, in the opposite direction, grazes the angel’s left arm. At the same time, the angel’s right arm continues amodally under the serpent’s torso, creating a strong connection with the previous scene, given also by the parallelism between the visible part of the angel’s right arm and the visible part of the serpent’s right arm, which in turn is completed amodally, partly behind the tree trunk, partly by the “cut by frame” that produces a “completion by frame” (Argenton, 2019, pp. 116–128). This ‘pantomime’, expressed above all through the ‘dialogue’ between continuity of direction, parallelism and amodal completion, unifies and sustains the entire composition  – a strongly balanced but also highly dynamic whole, in which the figures of the serpent and the angel, almost embedded in each other but with opposing postures, distinguish the two scenes and unify the narration. Michelangelo devises his work placing the two episodes on the same plane, perhaps for symbolic reasons, plausibly for reasons dictated by his representational intents – which might consist in wanting to give similar emphasis to the two episodes  – and perhaps even by his bearing in mind the viewer on the floor of the chapel, as already noted. The panel is “a tour de force” (Hibbard, 1974, p. 134), but also, we may say, a concentrate of “perceptual forces” (Arnheim, 1974, Chap. 1), which unleash a highly dynamic expressiveness (Argenton, 2019, Chap. 2). Everything in this painting ‘moves’, as is well noted in one of the art-historical readings of the work, in our

 In our analysis of the thematic repertoire, we have not considered “parallelism” among the factors of perceptual organisation, like some other infrequent factors. It should be pointed out that “parallelism” is understood here in visual terms, following Arnheim (1974), who is also cited by Wagemans et al. (2012, p. 1190) as the researcher to whom we owe the identification of this factor. 23

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opinion, most attentive to its visual aspects24: “As Satan coils around the Tree of Knowledge, all the figures in the fresco rotate. Participating actively in sin, the Adam still in Eden twists to pull on the branch of the tree, while Eve rotates suggestively away from the body of Adam, with which she has seemingly been intimately associated the moment before. Not only does the angel on the other side of the tree extend its arm laterally but, radically foreshortened, it corkscrews through space toward us in a spiral nearly perpendicular to that of Satan’s coiled form. When Adam and Eve are expelled from Eden, both their heads and bodies rotate in visual counterpoint” (Barolsky, 1997, p. 84). Barolsky glosses his observations on the work as follows: “These parallel forms, interwoven with the above-mentioned intercoilings of form, are part of a broad, cursive, arch-like composition that swells fluidly across the pictorial field, fusing all of the complexly interrelated elements of this seemingly simple whole. Michelangelo’s ability to weave forms, to condense them, to create such visive rhymes, analogies, or correspondences, lies at the core of his poetic imagination” (Barolsky, 1997, p. 85). Borrowing the words of the psychologist of art (Argenton, 2019, p. 129, our italics), used to examine the work of another artist, but which fit well with Michelangelo’s panel, we could say that “the continuity and unity [of the story] are played, inter alia, on inferential operations of a visual type, thought of as, and made active by, representational effects” based on procedures and spatial devices of a perceptual nature. “Together with links, references, combinations, contrasts, similarities, parallelisms and such like, always of a visual nature, these operations are all part of the complex perceptual reasoning” enacted by Michelangelo and so richly documented by the perceptual–representational strategies with which he conceived and composed the fresco examined here. With another borrowing, this time from Arnheim (1974, p. 92, our italics), taken from one of his comments, also in this case, on another work, we can add that “the interplay of similarities and corresponding dissimilarities in this picture creates a

 Barolsky’s article (1997), while not citing experimental or psychological literature, identifies some compositional elements similar to those we have described. Actually, Barolsky gives prominence to symmetry and parallelism, which however he identifies also in parts of the composition in which, in our opinion, they are less visible, such as: “the extended arm of the angel is symmetrical with the branch on the other side of the tree” (Barolsky, 1997, p. 83). He also mentions aspects of “continuity”, but with a different meaning from the perceptological one: “Michelangelo composes a multiplicity of relationships based on the coils of his serpentine Satan. The right arm of Satan, wrapped around the Tree of Knowledge, continues the coiling of Satan’s snaky body below; the right arm of the angel emerges from behind the tree as if it continued the motion of the coiled body of Satan; and the giant branch of the Tree, approximating in breadth the body of Satan, is thus perceived in relation to its coiled body, as if continuous with it” (Barolsky, 1997, p. 84). 24

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tight-knit relational network” and that the “counterpoint of connection and segregation enhances the richness of the artist’s conception”.25 Connecting and distinguishing are fundamental procedures for orienting oneself and acting in the world, and they have, like all other basic procedures of knowledge, a perceptual foundation,26 intervene, in all likelihood, in the conceiving of any visual narrative work, and, in the case of continuous pictorial narrative, become the indispensable cornerstones on which visual thinking hinges and engages, in an attempt to solve the problem of telling a story through “a medium which by definition lacks the dimension of time” (Pächt, 1962, p. 1) or, better, through a “static medium that both perceptually and representationally is distinguished only by spatial sign-elements” (Argenton, 2003–2014); in the end, a medium that allows artists to represent time and, agreeing with Andrews (1998), to tackle a problem that is not as “paradoxical” for artists as some theorists on the subject would believe. On the other hand, this is exactly what happens in all the works of the thematic repertoire, no matter how structurally simple they may be, where the continuity of the narrative is sustained by procedures or perceptual–representational strategies conceived by the artists through their perceptual reasonings and proposed to the visual thinking of the observer, by means of their ‘tools of the trade’, to help him/ her to separate and, at the same time, to join together the narrated episodes of the story and to grasp their temporal unfolding. Certainly, the results of the artists’ perceptual reasonings, the works offered to the beholders’ gaze, show a different expressive power, and beauty, which is entrusted not only to the ‘mastery of the brush’, but also to the subtleties of visually conceived configurations (Arnheim, 1969). And certainly, the work by Michelangelo just examined is one of the most masterful examples of continuous narrative, full of refined perceptual devices that enrich the basic representational strategies used. But many other devices “excogitated” (Alberti, see Chap. 1) by the artists to manage showing time could emerge from the artworks in the thematic repertoire, deepening their qualitative analysis with the tools that the psychology of art of a Gestalt matrix offers to discover what lies beneath the immediacy of the “perceptual meaning” and of “expressive qualities” that convey it, on which, ultimately, the attractiveness of the artistic work depends (Argenton, 1996, 2019).

 Appropriately, Ramachandran and Hirstein (1999, p. 27) reasoning also about art recall two principles involved in the perception of stimuli, namely, “grouping” and “contrast”, which usually “occurs between dissimilar features that are physically close together”, maintaining that “even though the two processes seem to be inconsistent, they actually complement one another in that they are both concerned with the discovery of objects – which is the main goal of vision. (Contrast extraction is concerned with the object’s boundaries whereas grouping allows recovery of the object’s surfaces and, indirectly, of its boundaries as well)”. 26  Similar procedures are involved in one of the basic human capacities, categorising, which implies the capacity to detect similarities and differences (e.g. Rosch, 1978), and which has also an adaptive perceptual basis, linked to the aesthetic principle (on this subject, see Argenton, 1996, pp. 162–165). 25

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Vestner, T., Tipper, S. P., Hartley, T., Over, H., & Rueschemeyer, S. A. (2019). Bound together: Social binding leads to faster processing, spatial distortion, and enhanced memory of interacting partners. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 148(7), 1251–1268. von Blanckenhagen, P. H. (1957). Narration in Hellenistic and Roman art. American Journal of Archaeology, 61(1), 78–83. Wagemans, J. (2018). Perceptual organization. In J. T. Wixted (Series Ed.) & J. Serences (Vol. Ed.), The Stevens’ handbook of experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience (Vol. 2, pp. 803–872). Wiley. Wagemans, J., Elder, J.  H., Kubovy, M., Palmer, S.  E., Peterson, M.  A., Singh, M., & von der Heydt, R. (2012). A century of Gestalt psychology in visual perception: I. Perceptual grouping and figure–ground organization. Psychological Bulletin, 138(6), 1172–1217. Weitzmann, K. (1947). Illustrations in roll and codex. A study of the origin and method of text illustration. Princeton University Press. Weitzmann, K. (1957). Narration in early Christendom. American Journal of Archaeology, 61(1), 83–91. Wertheimer, M. (1912). Experimentelle Studien über das Sehen von Bewegung [experimental studies of the seeing of motion]. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 61, 161–265. Wertheimer, M. (1923). Untersuchungen zur Lehre von der Gestalt. II. Psychologische Forschung, 4(1), 301–350. Wertheimer, M. (1923/1938). Laws of organization in perceptual forms. In W. D. Ellis (Ed.), A source book of Gestalt psychology (pp. 71–88). Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company. Wickhoff, F. (1900). Roman art: Some of its principles and their application to early christian painting (A. Strong, Trans.). William Heinemann/The Macmillan Company. Wölfflin, H. (1890). Die Sixtinische Decke Michelangelos. Repertorium für Kunstwissenschaft, 13, 264–272. Wölfflin, H. (1899/1952). Classic art (P. L. Murray, Trans.). Phaidon.

Part II

Reference Materials of the Study

Chapter 5

General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

This chapter contains the list of the 1000 artworks of the general repertoire considered in the study on continuous pictorial narrative, subdivided by theme. Each artwork is specified by the following descriptors, already utilised in Chap. 2 to analyse the whole repertoire1: author, title of work, date, technique, dimension (when it could be traced) and location. Finding reliable data on these descriptors was very laborious. Dimension proved to be the most difficult descriptor: it is seldom mentioned in art history texts for any type of work, especially for frescoes, and in the latter case seems to be often unknown to curators and even restorers. For this reason, the general repertoire lacks dimensions for about a quarter of the works. In addition, it is difficult to find uniformity in the indication of the titles of the works, and also of the techniques used, so we have chosen to report the data found on the official reference sites, where they exist. Finally, as far as the authorship is concerned, it should be pointed out that the intense work of art historians not infrequently leads to changes in attribution and, even if before the publication of this book we thoroughly checked this datum as well – finding a fair number of ‘surprises’, i.e. changes in authorship – it may well be that some attributions, and consequently some dates, have further changed. This may be due, on the one hand, to the intricate events that characterised the history of art in the centuries leading up to the Renaissance, for which documentation is often scarce or incomplete, and, on the other hand, to the increasingly in-depth studies of existing documents and, not least, to the use of new technologies that make it possible to obtain additional data. The general repertoire containing the 1000 works of continuous pictorial narrative is analysed mainly in Chap. 2 of this book, even if references to the works can

 All of these factors are analysed in global form in Chap. 2, where another descriptor not reported here, i.e. type of artefact, was also used for further analysis in that phase of the study. For information about this descriptor, in aggregate form, see Chap. 2. 1

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 L. Messina-Argenton et al., Showing Time: Continuous Pictorial Narrative and the Adam and Eve Story, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13662-7_5

149

150

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

obviously be found in other chapters. In this chapter, the quantitative results of the analysis of 1000 artworks based on the above-mentioned descriptors are presented. List of themes Adam and Eve Other themes from Old Testament (more than 10 works per theme) Abraham and Isaac David Jacob and Rebecca Joseph Judith Moses Other themes from Old Testament (less than 10 works per theme) Amon e Tamar Cain and Abel Creation of the World Elijah Esther Jonah Joshua Lot Noah Samson Solomon Susanna Tobias Themes from New Testament and Apocryphal Gospels Anne and Joachim Life of Christ Passion of Christ Saint John the Baptist The Feast of Herod Virgin Mary Saints (more than10 works per theme) Saint Anthony Abbot Saint Benedict Saint Bernardine Saint Catherine of Alexandria Saint Francis Saint Peter Saint Peter Martyr Saint Stephen (continued)

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

151

Saints (less than 10 works per theme) Blessed Agostino Novello Saint Agnes Saint Alexius Saint Ambrose Saint Andrew Saint Anthony Saint Athanasius Saint Augustine Saint Barbara Saint Basil Saint Bertin Saint Castrense Saint Catherine of Siena Saint Cecilia and Saint Valerian Saint Christopher Saint Clare Saint Clement Saint Corbinian Saint Cosmas and Saint Damian Saint Denis Saint Dominic Saint Ephysius Saint Frances of Rome Saint George Saint Humility Saint James Saint Jerome Saint John the Evangelist Saint Julian Saint Lawrence Saint Louis King of France Saint Lucy Saint Margaret Saint Mark Saint Martin Saint Mary Magdalene Saint Michael Saint Minias Saint Nicholas of Bari Saint Nicholas of Tolentino Saint Paul Saint Placidus Saint Rainerius Saint Roch Saint Romuald Saint Sebastian (continued)

152

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Saint Sigismund Saint Sylvester Saint Theodore Saint Thomas Saint Ursula Saint Veranus Saint Vincent Ferrer Saint Zenobius True Cross Allegories and other religious themes Allegories Other religious themes Non-religious themes Aeneas Antiocus and Stratonice Antonio Rinaldeschi Apollo and Marsyas Argonauts Artemisia Boccaccio Borso d’Este Brutus and Portia Camilla Christine de Pisan Cloelia Coriolanus Cupid and Psyche Emperor Otto III Enalus and Poseidon Europa Julius Caesar Lucretia Odysseus Orpheus and Eurydice Paris Pasiphaë Perseus and Andromeda Prometheus Pyramus and Thisbe Queen Theodelinda Theseus Tiberius and Cornelia Trajan Tuccia Virginia

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Amman, Jost (Zurich, 1539 – Nuremberg, 1591) Amman, Jost (Zurich, 1539 – Nuremberg, 1591) Anonymous

Author Albertinelli, Mariotto (Florence, 1474–1515) Albertinelli, Mariotto (Florence, 1474–1515) Allori, Alessandro (Florence, 1535–1607) Fresco

Woodcut Fresco

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

1560–1564 c.

1551–1564 1580 1100 c.

870–875 c.

870–875 c.

870–875 c.

History of Adam and Eve

Creation of Eve, Presentation of Eve to Adam, and Temptation of Eve San Paolo fuori le mura Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 1 San Paolo fuori le mura Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 2 San Paolo fuori le mura Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 3

Woodcut

Oil on panel

1514 c.

Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise Original Sin and Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise Fall of Man and Expulsion

Technique Oil on panel

Date 1513–1514

Title Creation and Fall of Man

44.4 × 35 cm (folio), c. 12 × 28.4 cm (register) 44.4 × 35 cm (folio), c. 12.5 × 28.4 cm (register) 44.4 × 35 cm (folio), c. 11 × 28.4 cm (register)

250 × 510 cm c.

27.5 × 19 cm

11 × 15.4 cm

120 × 230 cm c.

56.8 × 55 cm

Dimension 56.2 × 165.5 cm

Adam and Eve Adam and Eve

Abbazia di San Paolo fuori le mura, Rome Abbazia di San Paolo fuori le mura, Rome

(continued)

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve Adam and Eve Adam and Eve

Theme Adam and Eve Adam and Eve Adam and Eve

Abbazia di San Paolo fuori le mura, Rome

Location Courtauld Institute of Art Gallery, London Strossmayerova Galerija starih majstora, Zagreb Cappella Montauto, Basilica della SS. Annunziata, Florence Herzog August Bibliothek, Wolfenbüttel New York Public Library, New York Abbaye de Saint-Savin-sur-­ Gartempe, Saint Savin sur Gartempe

Adam and Eve (in alphabetical order by artist. Anonymous artists are listed in alphabetical order by the site in which works are located)

List of the 1000 Artworks Subdivided by Theme

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 153

Pantheon Bible; Scenes from Genesis, f. 4v, register 3

Pantheon Bible; Scenes from Genesis, f. 4v, register 4

Horae Beatae Mariae Virginis; Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, f. 14v Vivian Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 10v, register 1 Vivian Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 10v, register 2 Vivian Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 10v, register 3 Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 5v, register 1

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Title Genesis Dome; Creation of Eve Genesis Dome; Eva Plucking Fruit and Giving It to Adam Genesis Dome; Expulsion and Labour of Adam and Eve Pantheon Bible; Scenes from Genesis, f. 4v, register 2

Author Anonymous

830–840 c.

845–846

845–846

845–846

1430–1440 c.

1100 c.

1100 c.

1100 c.

1220–1230

1220–1230

Date 1220–1230

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

Mosaics

Mosaics

Technique Mosaics

45.4 × 28.5 cm (folio), c. 8.6 × 18.8 cm (register) 45.4 × 28.5 cm (folio), c. 8.3 × 19 cm (register) 45.4 × 28.5 cm (folio), c. 7.3 × 19 cm (register) 21.2 × 14.8 cm (folio), c. 12.5 × 7.2 cm (detail) 49.5 × 34.5 cm (folio), c. 10.3 × 23.5 cm (register) 49.5 × 34.5 cm (folio), c. 10 × 23.5 cm (register) 49.5 × 34.5 cm (folio), c. 10.5 × 23.5 cm (register) 51 × 37.5 cm (folio), c. 8.2 × 28.5 cm (register)

124.9 × 244.8 cm

123.5 × 147.6 cm

Dimension 128 × 228 cm

British Library, London, Add MS 10546

Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Latin 1

Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Latin 1

Basilica di San Marco, Venice Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Vat. lat. 12958 Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Vat. lat. 12958 Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Vat. lat. 12958 Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Rothschild 2535 Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Latin 1

Location Basilica di San Marco, Venice Basilica di San Marco, Venice

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve Adam and Eve

Theme Adam and Eve Adam and Eve

154 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Anonymous

Original Sin (Vera Cruz de Maderuelo)

Alba Bible; Story of Adam and Eve, register 2 Alba Bible; Story of Adam and Eve, register 3

Anonymous

Anonymous

Alba Bible; Story of Adam and Eve, register 1

Title Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 5v, register 2 Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 5v, register 3 Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 5v, register 4 Holkham Bible Picture Book; Creation of Adam and Eve, f. 3r Holkham Bible Picture Book; Fall and Expulsion, f. 4r Creation of Eve and Original Sin Story of Creation

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Author Anonymous

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

830–840 c.

1327–1335

1327–1335

1125 c.

1422–1430

1422–1430

1422–1430

1354–1385

Fresco

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

Stone relief

Fresco

Miniature

830–840 c.

1300 c.

Technique Miniature

Date 830–840 c.

145 (sn) – 125 (dx) × 260 cm 162 × 215 cm (whole) c. 70 × 215 cm (detail) 40.5 × 28.7 cm (folio), c. 8.2 × 16 cm (register) 40.5 × 28.7 cm (folio), c. 7 × 18 cm (register) 40.5 × 28.7 cm (folio), c. 9 × 18.7 cm (register) 203 × 207 cm

28.5 × 21 cm (folio)

Dimension 51 × 37.5 cm (folio), c. 8.5 × 28.5 cm (register) 51 × 37.5 cm (folio), c. 8.5 × 28.5 cm (register) 51 × 37.5 cm (folio), c. 9.2 × 28.5 cm (register) 28.5 × 21 cm (folio) Adam and Eve

British Library, London, Add MS 10546

Museo del Prado, Madrid

Fundación Casa de Alba, Palacio de Liria, Madrid Fundación Casa de Alba, Palacio de Liria, Madrid

Chiesa di Santa Croce ai Lagnoni, Andria Freiburg Cathedral, North portal, Freiburg Fundación Casa de Alba, Palacio de Liria, Madrid

British Library, London, Add MS 47682

(continued)

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve Adam and Eve Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

British Library, London, Add MS 10546

British Library, London, Add MS 47682

Theme Adam and Eve

Location British Library, London, Add MS 10546

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 155

1570–1591

1560–1575

1541–1550 c.

Bamberg Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 7v, register 2

Bamberg Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 7v, register 3

Story of Adam and Eve

Garden of Eden

Original Sin and Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise

Paradise

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Backer, Jacob de (Antwerp, c. 1555 – c. 1585) Bertucci, Jacopo (Jacopone da Faenza) (Faenza, c. 1502–1579) Bles, Herri met de (Bouvignes, c. 1500–10 – ? Antwerp, c. 1550 – before 1567)

Anonymous

Giovanni Boccaccio, De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Original Sin, f. 1r Bamberg Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 7v, register 1

Anonymous

1401–1450 c.

834–843

834–843

834–843

1480 c.

530 c.

Vienna Genesis; Expulsion from Paradise, f. 1v

Anonymous

Date 530 c.

Title Vienna Genesis; Original Sin, f. 1r

Author Anonymous

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Turquoise cameo Oil on panel

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

Technique Miniature

46.6 × 45.5 cm

160 × 163 cm

108 × 77.5 cm

47.4 × 35.3 cm (folio), c. 6 × 22.1 cm (register) 47.2 × 35.5 cm (folio), c. 5.7 × 22.3 cm (register) 47.2 × 35.5 cm (folio), c. 5.5 × 22.2 cm (register) 1.7 × 2.2 cm

38.3 × 27.6 cm

Dimension 31.7 × 23.5 cm (folio), c. 14 × 22.4 cm (detail) 31.7 × 23.5 cm (folio), c. 15 × 21 cm (detail)

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Pinacoteca Comunale, Faenza

State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg Groeningemuseum, Bruges

Staatsbibliothek, Bamberg, Msc. Bibl. 1

Staatsbibliothek, Bamberg, Msc. Bibl. 1

Staatsbibliothek, Bamberg, Msc. Bibl. 1

Location Österreichische National­ bibliothek, Vienna, Cod. Theol. gr. 31 Österreichische National­ bibliothek, Vienna, Cod. Theol. gr. 31 Pierpont Morgan Library, New York, MS G.35

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Theme Adam and Eve

156 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Author Bocksberger, Johann Melchior (Salzbourg, c. 1535 – Regensburg, c. 1587), attributed to Bosch, Hieronymus (s’Hertogenbosch, c. 1450–1516) Bosch, Hieronymus (s’Hertogenbosch, c. 1450–1516) Bosch, Hieronymus (s’Hertogenbosch, c. 1450–1516), workshop of Boucicaut Master and workshop (active c. 1390–1430) Bruegel, Jan II the Younger (Antwerp, 1601–1678), attributed to Clerck, Hendrick de (Brussels, c. 1570–1630) Clerck, Hendrick de (Brussels, c. 1570–1630) and van Alsloot, Denis (Malinas, 1570 – Brussels, 1628) Miniature

Oil on canvas

1504–1514

1413–1415 c.

1630 c.

Garden of Paradise

Giovanni Boccaccio, De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Story of Adam and Eve, f. 3 Earthly Paradise

Garden of Eden with Fall of Man Paradise

Oil on panel

1512–1515

Haywain Triptych, left panel

Oil on panel Oil on panel

1597–1610 1606–1609

Oil and tempera on panel Oil on panel

1504–1508

Last Judgment Triptych, left panel

Technique Oil on panel

Date 1570–1580 c.

Title Creation of the World

58 × 74 cm

131.8 × 175 cm

42 × 29.6 cm (folio), c. 18.8 × 18 cm (detail) 81 × 118 cm

27 × 40.6 cm

Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles Museo del Prado, Madrid

(continued)

Adam and Eve Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles Musée Auguste Grasset, Varzy

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Theme Adam and Eve

Art Institute, Chicago

Gemäldegalerie der Akademie der bildenden Kunste, Vienna Museo del Prado, Madrid

164 × 60 cm

136.1 × 47.7 cm

Location Musée des Beaux-Arts, Strasbourg

Dimension 131 × 120 cm

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 157

1599

1592

1564

1530

1530

1455–1461

Adam and Eve

Fall of Man

Adam and Eve and Expulsion from Paradise

Garden of Eden

Garden of Eden

Borso d’Este Bible; Creation of Eve and God Instructing Adam and Eve, f. 6r

Cornelisz. van Haarlem, Cornelis (Haarlem, 1562–1638) Cornelisz. van Haarlem, Cornelis (Haarlem, 1562–1638) Cort, Cornelis (Hoorn, 1533 – Rome, before 1578) Cranach, Lucas the Elder (Kronach, 1472 – Weimar, 1553) Cranach, Lucas the Elder (Kronach, 1472 – Weimar, 1553) Crivelli, Taddeo (Ferrara, 1425 – Bologna, 1479) and Franco dei Russi (Mantua, active fifteenth century)

Date 1549 c.

Title Story of Adam and Eve

Author Coffermans, Marcellus (active in Antwerp, c. 1549–1581), attributed to

Miniature

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Engraving

Oil on canvas

Oil on canvas

Technique Oil on panel

37.5 × 26.5 cm (folio), 9.2 × 14.5 cm (detail)

81 × 114 cm

80 × 118 cm

18.5 × 24.1 cm

273 × 220 cm

183.3 × 139 cm

Dimension 41.3 × 34.3 cm

Biblioteca Estense, Modena, MS V.G. 12

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden

Art Institute, Chicago

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Location Private collection, documented in: Sotheby’s (2001). Arts of the Renaissance. Auction, New York, January 25, 2001, Lots 1–91. New York: Sotheby’s Muzeum Narodowego, Warsaw

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Theme Adam and Eve

158 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Follower of Pieter Coecke van Aelst (active sixteenth century) Fra Bartolomeo (Baccio della Porta) (Florence, 1472–1517) Ghiberti, Lorenzo (Pelago, Florence, 1378–1455) Giusto de’ Menabuoi (Florence, c. 1330 – Padua, c. 1391)

Author Crivelli, Taddeo (Ferrara, 1425 – Bologna, 1479) and Franco dei Russi (Mantua, active fifteenth century) Dreux, Jean (active 1448–1468), Master of Margaret of York (active fifteenth century) and Hennecart, Jean (active 1454–1470) Flemish-Veneto Painter (active end sixteenth century) Flower Painter of Matera (active ninth century) Miniature

Fresco

Fresco

Oil on panel

1450–1460 c.

1593

826–843 c.

1520–1530 c.

1510 c.

1425–1452

1378

Aegidius of Roya, Compendium Historiae Universalis; Scenes from the Garden of Eden, f. 1r

Original Sin and Expulsion from the Garden of Eden

Creation of Light and Darkness, Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve, and Original Sin Fall of Man

Creation of Eve

Gates of Paradise; Adam and Eve

Creation of Man and Woman

Fresco

Gilded bronze relief

Oil on panel

Technique Miniature

Date 1455–1461

Title Borso d’Este Bible; Expulsion from the Eden Garden, f. 6v

320 × 554 cm (average width)

80 × 79 cm

54.3 × 32.1 cm

106.7 × 64.8 cm

262 × 674 cm

270 × 155 cm

36.2 × 25.6 cm (folio), c. 16.2 × 15.4 cm (detail)

Dimension 37.5 × 26.5 cm (folio), 8.2 × 9.2 cm (detail)

Battistero della Cattedrale, Padua

Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence

Seattle Art Museum, Seattle

Dulwich Picture Gallery, Dulwich

Cripta del Peccato Originale, Matera

(continued)

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Nationale Bibliotheek van Nederland, The Hague, RMMW 10 A 21

Sala dei Battuti, Conegliano

Theme Adam and Eve

Location Biblioteca Estense, Modena, MS V.G. 12

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 159

Gossaert, Jan (Mabuse) (Maubeuge, c. 1478 – Middelburg, 1532) Guidi, Giovanni di ser Giovanni (lo Scheggia) (San Giovanni Valdarno, 1406 – Florence, 1486) and D’Antonio, Francesco (Florence, 1393 – after 1433) Hoffmann, Hans Ruprecht (Worms, c. 1540–43 – Trier, 1616) Hoffmann, Hans Ruprecht (Worms, c. 1540–43 – Trier, 1616) Kreusel, Oswalt (Kreuselius) (active sixteenth century) Kreusel, Oswalt (Kreuselius) (active sixteenth century) Limbourg Brothers; Pol de Limbourg, Jean de Limbourg and Herman de Limbourg (active around 1400–1416)

Author Giusto de’ Menabuoi (Florence, c. 1330 – Padua, c. 1391)

Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry; Garden of Eden, f. 25v

Miniature

Watercolour on canvas

1593

1411–1416 c.

Watercolour on canvas

1593

Alabaster relief

1590 c.

Millstatt Lenten Veil; Creation of Adam and Creation of Eve Millstatt Lenten Veil; Fall and Expulsion

Alabaster relief

1590 c.

Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve, and Warning of the Tree of Knowledge Fall and Expulsion from Paradise

Fresco

Oil on panel

Technique Fresco

1425–1430

1525–1530 c.

Date 1378

Expulsion from Paradise and Labour of Adam and Eve

Title Original Sin, Expulsion from Paradise, and Scenes from the Story of Cain and Abel Fall of Man

29.2 × 21.3 cm (folio)

120 × 95 cm

120 × 95 cm

58 × 59 cm

58.5 × 58.5 cm

262 × 455 cm

170 × 114 cm

Dimension 320 × 554 cm (average width)

Musée Condé, Chantilly

Stiftskirche, Millstatt

Stiftskirche, Millstatt

Bischöfliches Dom- und Diözesanmuseum, Trier

Bischöfliches Dom- und Diözesanmuseum, Trier

Chiostro Verde, Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, Florence

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Location Battistero della Cattedrale, Padua

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Theme Adam and Eve

160 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Master of the Duke of Bedford (active c. 1405–1465) Master of the Redención del Prado (active c. 1433–1466) Michelangelo (Buonarroti, Michelangelo) (Caprese Michelangelo, 1475 – Rome, 1564)

Master of the Duke of Bedford (active c. 1405–1465)

Triptych of the Redemption; Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise Fall and Expulsion

Giovanni Boccaccio, De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Adam and Eve Picking the Forbidden Fruit, f. 6v Giovanni Boccaccio, De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Story of Adam and Eve, f. 6v Bedford Hours; Story of Adam and Eve, f. 14r

Master of the Champion des Dames (active c. 1465–1475)

Martino di Bartolomeo (Siena, 1365–70 – 1435)

Maitani, Lorenzo (Siena, c. 1270 – Orvieto, 1330)

Maitani, Lorenzo (Siena, c. 1270 – Orvieto, 1330)

Title Genesis pilaster; Creation of the World, Animals and Man, register 1 Genesis pilaster; Creation of Adam and Creation of Eve, register 2 Genesis pilaster; Fall and Reproach, register 3 right side Original Sin and Expulsion

Author Maitani, Lorenzo (Siena, c. 1270 – Orvieto, 1330)

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

Oil on panel

Fresco

1470 c.

1415–1420 c.

1410–1430 c.

1450 c.

1508–1512

Marble relief

1320–1330 c.

Fresco

Marble relief

1320–1330 c.

1398

Technique Marble relief

Date 1320–1330 c.

280 × 570 cm

195 × 77 cm

26 × 18.5 cm

44 × 32 cm (folio)

Dimension 640 × 360 cm (whole), 67 × 360 cm (first register) 640 × 360 cm (whole), 103 × 360 cm (second register) 640 × 360 cm (whole), 108 × 360 cm (third register) 160 × 540 cm (bottom width), 160 × 340 cm (top width) 36 × 26 cm (folio) Adam and Eve Adam and Eve

Basilica Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, Orvieto Oratorio di San Giovanni, Cascina

Cappella Sistina, Vatican City

Museo del Prado, Madrid

British Library, London, Add MS 18850

Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Francais 226

(continued)

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Basilica Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, Orvieto

Bibliotheque Inguimbertine, Carpentras

Theme Adam and Eve

Location Basilica Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, Orvieto

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 161

Author Niccolò di Tommaso (active in Florence, c. 1346–1376) Pacino di Buonaguida (active in Florence, 1302 – before 1340) Pacino di Buonaguida (active in Florence, 1302 – before 1340) Paolo Uccello (Paolo di Dono) (Pratovecchio, 1397 – Florence, 1475) Paolo Uccello (Paolo di Dono) (Pratovecchio, 1397 – Florence, 1475) Piero di Puccio da Orvieto (active c. 1355–1400) Reymond, Pierre (Limoges, 1513 – c. 1584) Rosso, Francesco (active c. 1501–1550), Capoferri, Giovan Francesco (? c. 1497 – ? 1534) and Cabrini, Nicolò (? – ? 1524) Sadeler, Johan I (Brussels, 1550 – ? Venice, 1600)

Date 1372

1310–1315

1310–1315

1425–1430

1425–1430

1389–1391

1560 c.

1523 c.

1583

Title Original Sin and Reproach by the Lord

Tree of Life; Genesis, lower part, left side

Tree of Life; Genesis, lower part, right side

Creation of Animals and Creation of Adam

Creation of Eve and Original Sin

Creation of the World

Creation of the World

Creation of Eve

Adam and Eve in Paradise

Engraving

Choir intarsia panel

Enamel on copper

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Technique Fresco

20.5 × 26.7 cm

45 × 43 cm

46.67 × 46.67 cm

715 × 810 cm

245 × 478 cm

210 × 451 cm

248 × 151 cm (whole)

248 × 151 cm (whole)

Dimension 250 × 769 cm

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo

Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles

Chiostro Verde, Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, Florence Chiostro Verde, Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, Florence Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence

Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence

Location Chiesa di Sant’Antonio Abate o del Tau, Pistoia

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Theme Adam and Eve

162 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Marble relief; pink Verona breccia Marble relief; pink Verona breccia Woodcut Woodcut

1514 c. 1516–1519 1100–1110

1491

Fall of Man

Adam and Eve

Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve, and Original Sin

Reproach, Expulsion and Labour

Fall and Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise Fall of Man

Wiligelmo (active in Modena, c. 1099–c. 1120)

Wolgemut, Michael (Nuremberg, 1434–1519) Wolgemut, Michael (Nuremberg, 1434–1519)

1493

1100–1110

Oil on canvas

1550–1553

Woodcut

Woodcut

Woodcut

1581

Engraving

1560 c.

Solis, Virgil (Nuremberg, 1514–1562) Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti) (Venice, 1518–1594) van Leyden, Lucas (Leiden, c. 1494–1533) van Leyden, Lucas (Leiden, c. 1494–1533) Wiligelmo (active in Modena, c. 1099–c. 1120)

Technique Miniature

Date 1460 c.

Title Breviarum Fratrum Minorum; Story of Adam and Eve, f. 148r Creation, Fall of Man and Expulsion from Eden Garden Reusner’s Emblemata; Fall of Man Original Sin

Author Sano di Pietro (Ansano di Pietro di Mencio) (Siena, 1405–1481) Solis, Virgil (Nuremberg, 1514–1562)

40.6 × 26.6 cm (folio), 35.2 × 22.5 cm (detail) 25.8 × 17.9 cm

100 × 278.6 cm

100 × 282 cm

24.2 × 17.2 cm (folio)

41.1 × 29.3 cm

150 × 220 cm

5.8 × 7.3 cm

5.4 × 24 cm

Dimension 31.5 × 23.5 cm (folio)

Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles Universitätsbibliothek, Heidelberg

Duomo di Santa Maria Assunta in Cielo e San Geminiano, Modena

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC Duomo di Santa Maria Assunta in Cielo e San Geminiano, Modena

Universitätsbibliothek, Heidelberg Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice

Kupferstichkabinett, Berlin

Location Biblioteca Comunale, Siena

Adam and Eve Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve Adam and Eve Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve

Theme Adam and Eve

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 163

1530

1425–1452

1425–1452

Isaac Sends Esau to Hunt

Sacrifice of Abraham

Gates of Paradise; Abraham

Gates of Paradise; Isaac

Cranach, Lucas the Elder (Kronach, 1472 – Weimar, 1553) Ghiberti, Lorenzo (Pelago, Florence, 1378–1455) Ghiberti, Lorenzo (Pelago, Florence, 1378–1455)

1180–1190

1140–1170 1140–1170

432–440

Anonymous

Anonymous Anonymous

Anonymous

540–547

1230–1240

Stories of Abraham

Hospitality of Abraham and Sacrifice of Isaac Vision of Abraham and Hospitality of Abraham Hospitality of Abraham Sacrifice of Isaac

Date 1591

Title Sacrifice of Isaac

Anonymous

Author Allori, Alessandro (Florence, 1535–1607) Anonymous

Abraham and Isaac

Gilded bronze relief

Gilded bronze relief

Oil on panel

Mosaics

Mosaics Mosaics

Mosaics

Mosaics

Mosaics

Technique Oil on panel

599 × 462 cm (whole)

599 × 462 cm (whole)

83.5 × 116.7 cm

Dimension 94 × 131 cm

Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence

Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence

Cattedrale di Santa Maria Nuova, Monreale Staatsgalerie in der Neuen Residenz, Bamberg

Location Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence Basilica di San Marco, Venice Basilica di San Vitale, Ravenna Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome Cappella Palatina, Palermo Cappella Palatina, Palermo

Abraham and Isaac

Abraham and Isaac

Abraham Abraham and Isaac Abraham and Isaac Abraham and Isaac

Abraham

Abraham

Theme Abraham and Isaac Abraham

Other Themes from Old Testament (more than 10 works per theme, in alphabetical order by artist for each theme. Anonymous artists are listed in alphabetical order by the site in which works are located).

164 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Author Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556) Martino di Bartolomeo (Siena, 1365–70 – 1435) Niccolò di Tommaso (active in Florence, c. 1346–1376) Choir intarsia panel Fresco Fresco

1468–1472

1468–1472

1468–1474

1468–1474

1524 1398 1372

Abraham Victorious over the Assyrians

Stories of Hagar and Abraham

Youth and Sacrifice of Isaac

Marriage of Isaac and Rebecca

Sacrifice of Isaac

King of the Canaanites and Sarah Sacrifice of Isaac

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

1468–1471

Abraham and the Worshippers of Baal

Technique Fresco

Date 1468–1472

Title Departure of Abraham and Lot

180 × 310 cm

44 × 46 cm

313 × 795 cm

340 × 813 cm

345 × 863 cm

320 × 765 cm

361 × 782 cm

Dimension 345 × 725 cm

Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo Oratorio di San Giovanni, Cascina Chiesa di Sant’Antonio Abate o del Tau, Pistoia

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Location Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Abraham and Isaac Abraham and Sarah Abraham and Isaac

Abraham and Isaac

Abraham and Isaac

Abraham

Abraham

Abraham

Theme Abraham

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 165

Twelfth century 1485–1490

1425–1452

1468–1484

1526

Gates of Paradise; David

Battle of Jericho and Story of David and Goliath

David Leaves Jerusalem with the Ark of the Covenant of Good

Gherardo di Giovanni di Miniato (Florence, 1446–1497), Monte di Giovanni di Miniato (Florence, 1448–1529) and Attavante degli Attavanti (Castelfiorentino, 1452 – after 1525) Ghiberti, Lorenzo (Pelago, Florence, 1378–1455) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556)

1450–1460 c.

Casket of Sens; Saul Tries to Kill David Bible of Matthias Corvinus; Stories of King David, f. 2v

Anonymous

Anonymous

Date 1440 c.

Title Scenes from the Legend of David and Goliath David Slaying Goliath

Author Anonymous

David

Choir intarsia panel

Fresco

Gilded bronze relief

Miniature

Technique Tempera on panel Tempera on panel Ivory rilief

44 × 46 cm

330 × 1180 cm

599 × 462 cm (whole)

53.3 × 36.7 cm (folio)

42.1 × 127 cm

Dimension 58.5 × 59.5 cm

Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence

Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, Pluteo 15 codd. 15–17

Tresor de la Cathédrale, Sens

Location Loyola University Museum of Art, Chicago Museo Horne, Florence

David

David and Goliath

David

David

Theme David and Goliath David and Goliath David

166 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Author Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556) Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556) Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556) Pesellino (Francesco di Stefano) (Florence, 1422–1457) Salviati, Francesco (Florence, 1510 – Rome, 1563) 1526 1526 1445–1455 c.

1556

David and Goliath

Story of David and Goliath

Bathsheba Visiting David

Date 1526

Title Absalom, Hushai and Ahithophel in Council David’s Lament

Fresco

Technique Choir intarsia panel Choir intarsia panel Choir intarsia panel Tempera on panel 250 × 90 cm

45.5 × 179.2 cm

68 × 101 cm

44 × 46 cm

Dimension 44 × 46 cm

Salone dell’Udienza, Palazzo Sacchetti, Rome

Location Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo National Gallery, London

David and Goliath

David and Goliath David and Goliath

David

Theme David

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 167

1468–1474

1468–1474

1468–1474

1372

1372

Dream of Jacob and Marriage of Jacob and Rachel

Stories of Esau and Jacob

Meeting of Jacob and Esau and Rape of Dinah

Wives of Esau

Deception of Rebecca and Jacob

Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Niccolò di Tommaso (active in Florence, c. 1346–1376) Niccolò di Tommaso (active in Florence, c. 1346–1376)

Anonymous

Anonymous 530 c.

1140–1170

1180–1190

Jacob Wrestling with the Angel Rebecca at the Well and Voyage of Rebecca Vienna Genesis; Rebecca at the Well, f. 7r

Anonymous

Date 1140–1170 1180–1190

Title Dream of Jacob Dream of Jacob

Author Anonymous Anonymous

Jacob and Rebecca

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Miniature

Mosaics

Mosaics

Technique Mosaics Mosaics

330 × 1150 cm

345 × 765 cm

338 × 1150 cm

31 × 26 cm (folio)

Dimension

Chiesa di Sant’Antonio Abate o del Tau, Pistoia

Chiesa di Sant’Antonio Abate o del Tau, Pistoia

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, Cod. Theol. gr. 31 Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Location Cappella Palatina, Palermo Cattedrale di Santa Maria Nuova, Monreale Cattedrale di Santa Maria Nuova, Monreale Cappella Palatina, Palermo

Rebecca

Jacob and Esau

Jacob and Esau

Jacob and Esau

Jacob

Rebecca

Rebecca

Jacob

Theme Jacob Jacob

168 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

1482 c. 1482 c. 1487 c.

Story of Joseph

Story of Joseph

Story of Joseph

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

1515 c.

1515 c.

Oil on panel

1515–1520

Jacob Receiving the News of the Presumed Death of Joseph Joseph Receives His Brothers

Antonio Di Donnino del Mazziere (Florence, c. 1490–1547) Bacchiacca (Ubertini, Francesco) (Borgo San Lorenzo, 1494 – Florence, 1557) Bacchiacca (Ubertini, Francesco) (Borgo San Lorenzo, 1494 – Florence, 1557) Biagio d’Antonio (Florence, 1446–1516) Biagio d’Antonio (Florence, 1446–1516) Biagio d’Antonio (Florence, 1446–1516) and Bartolomeo di Giovanni (Florence, active c. 1475 – c. 1500–05)

Joseph Pardons His Brothers

Technique Mosaics

Date 1260–1270

Title Stories of Joseph

Author Anonymous

Joseph

43.2 × 164.4 cm

66.7 × 149.2 cm

68.6 × 149.9 cm

36.2 × 141.6 cm

36.2 × 142.2 cm

78 × 173 cm

Dimension

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge

National Gallery, London

National Gallery, London

Location Basilica di San Marco, Venice Galleria Borghese, Rome

(continued)

Joseph

Joseph

Joseph

Joseph

Joseph

Joseph

Theme Joseph

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 169

Ghiberti, Lorenzo (Pelago, Florence, 1378–1455) Giusto de’ Menabuoi (Florence, c. 1330 – Padua, c. 1391) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497)

Author Biagio d’Antonio (Florence, 1446–1516) and Bartolomeo di Giovanni (Florence, active c. 1475 – c. 1500–05) Bourdichon, Jean (active 1457–1521)

Date 1487 c.

1465–1475 c.

1425–1452

1378

1468–1477

1468–1477

Title Story of Joseph

Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews; Joseph Thrown into the Well, f. 25r Gates of Paradise; Joseph

Stories of Jacob and Joseph

Innocence of Joseph

Joseph Called to Pharaoh’s Court

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Gilded bronze relief

Miniature

Technique Tempera on panel

318 × 995 cm

350 × 995 cm

599 × 462 cm (whole)

21–22.5 × 18 cm

Dimension 43.2 × 164.8 cm

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Battistero della Cattedrale, Padua

Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence

Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris, Français 247

Location Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge

Joseph

Joseph

Joseph

Joseph

Joseph

Theme Joseph

170 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Author Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556) Master of Affligem (active c. 1490–1500) Pontormo, Jacopo da (Carrucci, Jacopo) (Empoli, 1494 – Florence, 1556) Pontormo, Jacopo da (Carrucci, Jacopo) (Empoli, 1494 – Florence, 1556) Sarto, Andrea del (Florence, 1486–1530) Sarto, Andrea del (Florence, 1486–1530) Oil on panel Oil on panel

1515 c.

1515 c.

1515 c. 1515 c.

Joseph with Jacob in Egypt

Pharaoh with His Butler and Baker

Episodes from the Early Life of Joseph Joseph Interprets Pharaoh’s Dream

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

1500 c.

Joseph and Potiphar’s Wife

Technique Choir intarsia panel Oil on panel

Date 1524

Title Joseph Sold by His Brothers

98 × 135 cm

98 × 135 cm

61 × 51.7 cm

96.5 × 109.5 cm

155 × 156.4 cm

Dimension 44 × 46 cm

Palazzo Pitti, Florence

Palazzo Pitti, Florence

National Gallery, London

National Gallery, London

Location Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Joseph

Joseph

Joseph

Joseph

Joseph

Theme Joseph

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 171

1590–1595 c.

1531

1473

1490–1510 1480–1490

Judith Dining with Holofernes

Story of Judith

Judith and Holofernes

Judith and Holofernes

1300–1399

1190–1200 c.

1050–1100

Judith

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Collaert, Jan Hans (Antwerp, c. 1561 – c. 1620) Cranach, Lucas the Elder (Kronach, 1472 – Weimar, 1553) Martini, Francesco di Giorgio (Siena, 1439– 1501) and Anonymous intarsia-­worker Master of Marradi (active 1470–c. 1510) Master of Marradi (active 1470–c. 1510)

Date 1175–1200

Title Bible of Souvigny; Judith and Holofernes, f. 291v Judith Leaving Bethulia, Judith and Holofernes, Death of Holofernes, and Return of Judith to Bethulia, f. 134v Holofernes Beheaded by Judith with His Own Sword and Judith with the Head before the Gates of Bethuliah, f. 43r sc. 2B Book of Judith; Judith Beheads Holofernes, f. 204v

Author Anonymous

Judith

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

Marble floor inlay

Oil on panel

Engraving

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

Technique Miniature

56 × 56 cm

40 × 148.6 cm

98.5 × 72.5 cm

15.4 × 8.8 cm

9 × 6.5 cm

50 × 33 cm c. (folio)

Dimension 59 × 39 cm (folio)

Museo di San Matteo, Pisa

Dayton Art Institute, Dayton

Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, Siena

Castle Museum Schloss Friedenstein, Gotha

Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, Codex Vindobonensis Palatinus 1191 British Museum, London

Nationale Bibliotheek van Nederland, The Hague, KB 76 F 5

Location Bibliothèque Municipale, Moulins, MS 1 Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Biblia Sancti Petri Rodensis. Latin 6 (3)

Judith

Judith

Judith

Judith

Judith

Judith

Judith

Judith

Theme Judith

172 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Masters of Otto van Moerdrecht (active c. 1420–1430) Palmezzano, Marco (Forlì, 1460–1539) Paolo Fiammingo (Franck, Pauwels) (Antwerp, c. 1540 – Venice, 1596) Paolo Fiammingo (Franck, Pauwels) (Antwerp, c. 1540 – Venice, 1596) Passarotti, Bartolomeo (Bologna, 1529–1592) Pellegrino di Mariano Rossini (active 1449–1492) Saenredam, Jan (Zaandam, c. 1565 – Assendelft, 1607) Veronese (Caliari, Paolo) (Verona, 1528 – Venice, 1588), workshop of Veronese (Caliari, Paolo) (Verona, 1528 – Venice, 1588), workshop of

Author Master of the Soane Josephus (active c. 1475–1485) Master of the Soane Josephus (active c. 1475–1485) Master RR (German?)

1558–1631

1558–1631

Oil on canvas

Oil on canvas

1449–1492

Judith at the Banquet of Holofernes

Tempera on panel Engraving

1550–1592

Judith and Holofernes (recto) Judith Beheading Holofernes Judith with the Head of Holofernes Judith Goes to the Camp of Holofernes 1575–1607

Drawing

1580–1590 c.

Judith at the Banquet of Holofernes

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel Oil on panel

1525 1580–1590 c.

Miniature

1430 c.

Engraving

1540 c.

Judith Speaks with the Elders and Judith Arrives at Holofernes’ Camp, f. 7r Judith with the Head of Holofernes Judith Brought before Holofernes

Miniature

1470–1479 c.

The Bible Historiale of Edward IV; Death of Holofernes, f. 66v Judith and Holofernes

Technique Miniature

Date 1473–1480 c.

Title Chronique of Baudouin d’Avennes; Judith, f. 137v

28.3 × 21 cm

28 × 32 cm

25 × 37.8 cm

30 × 60 cm

30 × 60 cm

59 × 94.5 cm

6 × 9 cm

13.4 × 10.2 cm

43.5 × 32 cm (folio)

Dimension 46.5 × 32.5 cm (folio)

Documented in the Archivio Zeri, Bologna

Musée des Beaux-Arts, Rennes Museo Diocesano d’Arte Sacra, Siena Fine Arts Museums, San Francisco Documented in the Archivio Zeri, Bologna

Castello Sforzesco, Milan

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Nationale Bibliotheek van Nederland, The Hague, KB 78 D 38 II Musées d’art et d’histoire, Geneva Castello Sforzesco, Milan

British Library, London, Royal 15 D I

Location British Library, London, Royal 18 E V

Judith

Judith

Judith

Judith

Judith

Judith

Judith

Judith

Judith

Judith

Judith

Theme Judith

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 173

Moses and the Burning Bush, Moses Grazing the Flock, and Taking off His Sandals Moses Presenting the Tablets of Law to the Israelites and Death of Moses Moses and the Burning Bush and Moses Receiving the Tablets of the Law Moses and the Burning Bush and Moses Receiving the Tablets of the Law Finding of Moses (from Dura Europos Synagogue)

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Title San Paolo fuori le mura Bible; Moses’ Departure from His People and His Death, f. 50v San Paolo fuori le mura Bible; Episodes of the Life of Moses Stories of Moses

Author Anonymous

Moses

244–245 c.

Seventeenth century

Seventeenth century

432–440

540–547

1260–1280

870–875 c.

Date 870–875 c.

Fresco

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Mosaics

Mosaics

Mosaics

Miniature

Technique Miniature

31.5 × 38.5 cm

40.5 × 31.5 cm

44.8 × 34.5 cm (folio)

Dimension 44.8 × 34.5 cm (folio)

National Museum, Damascus

Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai

Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai

Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome

Basilica di San Marco, Venice Basilica di San Vitale, Ravenna

Abbazia di San Paolo fuori le mura, Rome

Location Abbazia di San Paolo fuori le mura, Rome

Moses

Moses

Moses

Moses

Moses

Moses

Moses

Theme Moses

174 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Author Beccafumi, Domenico di Jacopo di Pace (Montaperti, 1486 – Siena, 1551) Botticelli, Sandro (Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi) (Florence, 1444–45 – 1510) Botticelli, Sandro (Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi) (Florence, 1444–45 – 1510) Bouts, Dirk (Haarlem, c.1410 – Leuven, 1475), attributed to Daniele da Volterra (Volterra, 1509 – Rome, 1566) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) 1468–1480

Moses and the Tablets of the Law

Oil on panel

1540 c.

1468–1478

Oil on panel

1465–1470 c.

Moses and the Burning Bush and Moses Removing His Shoes Moses on Mount Sinai

Childhood and Early Life of Moses

Fresco

1481–1482

Punishment of the Rebels

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

1481–1482

Trials of Moses

Technique Marble floor inlay

Date 1531

Title Stories of Moses on Sinai

316 × 837 cm

350 × 850 cm

139 × 99.5 cm

44.8 × 35.6 cm

348.5 × 570 cm

348.5 × 558 cm

Dimension

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden

Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia

Cappella Sistina, Vatican City

Cappella Sistina, Vatican City

Location Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, Siena

(continued)

Moses

Moses

Moses

Moses

Moses and Aaron

Moses

Theme Moses

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 175

Signorelli, Luca (Cortona, c. 1450–1523)

Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556) Master of the Dresden Prayerbook (active c. 1465–1515) Perugino (Vannucci, Pietro di Cristoforo) (Città della Pieve, 1445–50 – Fontignano, 1523) Rosselli, Cosimo (Florence, 1439–1507)

Author Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Jacopo di Paolo (Bologna, active 1371–1429)

Moses on Mount Sinai and Adoration of the Golden Calf Testament and Death of Moses 1482

Fresco

Fresco

1482 c.

1481–1482

Fresco

1497 c.

Fresco

Technique Fresco

Choir intarsia panel Miniature

1370–1380

God Gives Moses the Tablets of Law (from the Church of Sant’Apollonia di Mezzaratta) Moses Receiving the Tablets of the Law The Breviary of Isabella of Castile; Stories of Moses f. 155v Moses’s Journey into Egypt and Circumcision of His Son 1525

Date 1468–1481

Title Rod of Aaron and Miracle of the Brazen Serpent

350 × 572 cm

350 × 572 cm

350 × 572 cm

23 × 16 cm (folio)

44 × 46 cm

Dimension 316 × 820 cm

Cappella Sistina, Vatican City

Cappella Sistina, Vatican City

Cappella Sistina, Vatican City

Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo British Library, London, Add MS 18851

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Bologna

Location Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Moses

Moses

Moses

Moses

Moses

Moses

Theme Moses

176 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Author Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556) Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556) Albertinelli, Mariotto (Florence, 1474–1515) Ghiberti, Lorenzo (Pelago, Florence, 1378–1455) Kreusel, Oswalt (Kreuselius) (active sixteenth century) Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556) Niccolò di Tommaso (active in Florence, c. 1346–1376) Niccolò di Tommaso (active in Florence, c. 1346–1376) Niccolò di Tommaso (active in Florence, c. 1346–1376) Piero di Puccio da Orvieto (active c. 1355–1400) Choir intarsia panel Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

1510–1515 1425–1452

1593

1524 1372

1372

1372

1389–1391

Cain Killing Abel

Gates of Paradise; Cain and Abel

Millstatt Lenten Veil; Cain and Abel

Dead of Abel

Eve and Her Children and Adam Praying with Cain and Abel Sacrifices of Cain and Abel, Killing of Abel, and Curse of Cain Cain Builds the City of Enoch and Lamech Kills Cain Stories of Cain and Abel

Watercolour on canvas

Gilded bronze relief

1525

Amnon Killed by Absalom

Technique Choir intarsia panel Choir intarsia panel Oil on panel

Date 1525

Title Amnon Rapes Tamar

360 × 715 cm

44 × 46 cm

120 × 95 cm

599 × 462 cm (whole)

56.2 × 68.2 cm

44 × 46 cm

Dimension 44 × 46 cm

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Chiesa di Sant’Antonio Abate o del Tau, Pistoia

Chiesa di Sant’Antonio Abate o del Tau, Pistoia

Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo Chiesa di Sant’Antonio Abate o del Tau, Pistoia

Stiftskirche, Millstatt

Location Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo Accademia Carrara, Bergamo Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence

(continued)

Cain and Abel

Cain and Abel

Cain and Abel

Cain and Abel Cain and Abel

Cain and Abel

Theme Amon e Tamar Amon e Tamar Cain and Abel Cain and Abel

Other Themes from Old Testament (less than 10 works per theme, in alphabetical order by theme and by artist for each theme. Anonymous artists are listed in alphabetical order by the site in which works are located)

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 177

Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556)

Anonymous Anonymous

Author Kreusel, Oswalt (Kreuselius) (active sixteenth century) Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556) Botticelli, Sandro (Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi) (Florence, 1444–45 – 1510) and Lippi, Filippino (Prato, c. 1457 – Florence, 1504) Burgkmair, Hans (Augsburg, 1473–1531) Jacopo del Sellaio (Florence, c. 1441–1493) Jacopo del Sellaio (Florence, c. 1441–1493) Jacopo del Sellaio (Florence, c. 1441–1493) Lippi, Filippino (Prato, c. 1457 – Florence, 1504) Master of Jean Rolin (active 1440–1465) 1475 c.

1528 1485 c. 1485 c. 1485 c. 1480 c.

Lamentation of Mordecai, Esther and Ahasuerus, Grand Vizier Aman and Esther

Story of Esther

Banquet of Ahasuerus

Banquet of Vashti

Triumph of Mardocheus

Story of Esther and Ahasuerus Heinrich Suso, Little Book of Eternal Wisdom; Stories of Esther and Haman, f. 39r Stories of Jonah Stories of Jonah

Jonah

1528

Elijah Escapes from Jezebel

1525

300–325 300

1455–1460 c.

Date 1593

Title Millstatt Lenten Veil; Creation of the World

Choir intarsia panel

Marble relief Marble relief

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel Tempera on panel Tempera on panel Miniature

Oil on panel

Choir intarsia panel Tempera on panel

Technique Watercolour on canvas

44 × 46 cm

220 × 125 cm 66 × 223 cm

37 × 25.5 cm (folio)

47 × 131 cm

44.5 × 60 cm

44.5 × 81 cm

44.5 × 62 cm

103 × 156.3 cm

48 × 132 cm

44 × 46 cm

Dimension 120 × 95 cm

Duomo, Cripta, Osimo Museo Pio Cristiano, Musei Vaticani, Vatican City Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo

Bibliothèque Royal Albert I, Brussels, Ms. IV. 111

Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence Musée Condé, Chantilly

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo Musée du Louvre, Paris

Location Stiftskirche, Millstatt

Jonah

Jonah Jonah

Esther

Esther

Esther

Esther

Esther

Esther

Esther

Elijah

Theme Creation of the World

178 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

1425–1452

1378

1468–1469

1468–1470

Construction of the Ark and Flood

Drunkenness of Noah

Curse of Canaan

1565

Lot and His Daughters

Gates of Paradise; Noah

1563

Lot and His Daughters

Ghiberti, Lorenzo (Pelago, Florence, 1378–1455) Giusto de’ Menabuoi (Florence, c. 1330 – Padua, c. 1391) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497)

1528

Lot and His Daughters

1180–1190

1528

Lot and His Daughters

Drunkenness of Noah

Date 1425–1452

Title Gates of Paradise; Joshua

Anonymous

Author Ghiberti, Lorenzo (Pelago, Florence, 1378–1455) Cranach, Lucas the Elder (Kronach, 1472 – Weimar, 1553) Krodel, Wolfgang (active c. 1500–c. 1561) Massys, Jan (Antwerp, c. 1509 – before 1573) Massys, Jan (Antwerp, c. 1509 – before 1573)

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Gilded bronze relief

Mosaics

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Technique Gilded bronze relief

340 × 813 cm

320 × 630 cm

599 × 462 cm (whole)

148 × 204.5 cm

151 × 171 cm

53.7 cm × 39.2 cm

56 × 37 cm

Dimension 599 × 462 cm (whole)

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Battistero della Cattedrale, Padua

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels Cattedrale di Santa Maria Nuova, Monreale Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Location Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence

(continued)

Noah

Noah

Noah

Noah

Noah

Lot

Lot

Lot

Lot

Theme Joshua

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 179

Pesellino (Francesco di Stefano) (Florence, c. 1422–1457), attributed to Pinturicchio (Bernardino di Betto) (Perugia, 1454 – Siena, 1513)

Ghiberti, Lorenzo (Pelago, Florence, 1378–1455) Altdorfer, Albrecht (? c. 1480 – Regensburg, 1538) Görtschacher, Urban (Görtschach, c. 1495–1530) Guidi, Giovanni di ser Giovanni (lo Scheggia) (San Giovanni Valdarno, 1406 – Florence, 1486) Master of Jean Rolin (active 1440–1465)

Author Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556) Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556) Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556) Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556)

1425–1449

1455–1460 c.

Story of Susanna

Heinrich Suso, Little Book of Eternal Wisdom; Stories of Susanna, f. 39r Scenes from the Story of Susanna

Susanna and the Elders

1520 c.

Story of Susanna

1492–1494

1450 c.

1526

1425–1452

1530

1530

1529

Date 1529

Susanna in the Bath and Stoning of the Elders

Title Samson’s Parents Make a Sacrifice Samson Sends the Foxes into the Standing Grain Samson Kills the Philistines with the Jawbone of an Ass Samson Betrayed by Delilah, Blinded and Put to Work at the Mill Gates of Paradise; Solomon

Fresco

Oil on panel

Miniature

Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Gilded bronze relief

Technique Choir intarsia panel Choir intarsia panel Choir intarsia panel Choir intarsia panel

42 × 163 cm

37 × 25.5 cm (folio)

41 × 127.5 cm

99 × 132 cm

74.8 × 61.2 cm

599 × 462 cm (whole)

44 × 46 cm

44 × 46 cm

44 × 46 cm

Dimension 44 × 46 cm

Sala dei Santi, Appartamento Borgia, Vatican City

Musée du Petit Palais, Avignon

Bibliothèque Royal Albert I, Brussels, Ms. IV. 111

Museo di Palazzo Davanzati, Florence

Belvedere, Vienna

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence

Location Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo

Susanna

Susanna

Susanna

Susanna

Susanna

Susanna

Solomon

Samson

Samson

Samson

Theme Samson

180 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Reggio, Raffaellino da (Motta, Raffaello) (Codemondo, 1550 – Rome, 1578)

Liberale da Verona (Bonfanti, Liberale) (Verona, c. 1445 – 1527–29)

Bugiardini, Giuliano (Florence, 1475–1554) Bugiardini, Giuliano (Florence, 1475–1554)

Bicci di Lorenzo (Florence, 1373–1452)

Author Schöpfer, Hans d. A. (? c. 1505 – Munich, 1569) Strozzi, Zanobi (Florence, 1412–1468) Bicci di Lorenzo (Florence, 1373–1452) 1425–1450

Tobias Bids Farewell to His Father, Tobias and the Archangel Raphael on Their Journeying, and Tobias Takes the Heart, Liver and Gall from the Fish Marriage of Tobias and Sara and Archangel Leaves Tobit and Anne Tobias Leaving Sarah after a Banquet Tobias Taking Leave of His Parents, Journeying with Raphael, and Catching the Fish Tobias and the Angel

Tobias (Tobiolo) and the Angel

1450 c.

Susanna and the Elders

1570 c.

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

1500 c.

1468–1469

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

Technique Oil on panel

1500 c.

1425–1450

Date 1537

Title Story of Susanna

107 × 69 cm

36 × 116 cm

60 × 159 cm

60 × 159 cm

22 × 51 cm

22 × 51 cm

41 × 168 cm

Dimension 100.8 × 149.9 cm

Private collection, London, documented in: M. Vinco, Catalogo della “pittura di cassone” a Verona dal Tardogotico al Rinascimento. PhD dissertation, University of Padua, 2012 Galleria Borghese, Rome

Staatliche Museen, Berlin

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Musée du Petit Palais, Avignon Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Location Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Tobias

Tobias

Tobias

Tobias

Tobias

Tobias

Susanna

Theme Susanna

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 181

Meeting of Joachim and Anne at the Golden Gate

Joachim Expelled from the Temple and Dream of Joachim Dream of Joachim and Meeting of Joachim and Anne at the Golden Gate

Gaddi, Agnolo (Florence, c. 1350–1396)

Gaddi, Agnolo (Florence, c. 1350–1396)

Gaddi, Taddeo (Florence, 1295–1300 – 1366)

Giovanni da Milano (Giovanni di Iacopo di Guido) (Caversaccio, Como, active 1346–1369)

Fresco

1541–1543

1346–1369

1328–1330

1392–1395 c.

1392–1395 c.

Oil on panel

1500 c.

Polyptych of the Life of the Virgin; Meeting of St. Joachim and St. Anne Annunciation of the Angel to Joachim, Annunciation of the Angel to Anne, and Meeting at the Golden Gate Expulsion of Joachim from the Temple

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

1500–1512

Expulsion of Joachim from the Temple

Technique Fresco

Date 1488

Title Anne and Joachim

Author Biazaci (Biasacci), Tommaso (active 1463–1488) Clemer, Hans (Maestro d’Elva) (active 1490– c. 1512) David, Gerard (Oudewater, c. 1460 – Bruges, 1523), circle of Ferrari, Gaudenzio (Valduggia, 1475–80 – Milan, 1546)

Anne and Joachim

215 × 270 cm

190 × 135 cm

187.5 × 98 cm

Dimension

Cappella Rinuccini, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence

Cappella della Sacra Cintola, Cattedrale di Santo Stefano, Prato Cappella della Sacra Cintola, Cattedrale di Santo Stefano, Prato Cappella Baroncelli, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence

Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan

Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Evora

Chiesa Parrocchiale, Elva

Location Chiesa di Santa Maria Assunta, Piani di Imperia

Anne and Joachim

Anne and Joachim

Anne and Joachim

Anne and Joachim

Anne and Joachim

Anne and Joachim

Anne and Joachim

Theme Anne and Joachim

Themes from New Testament and Apocryphal Gospels (more than 10 works per theme, in alphabetical order by artist for each theme. Anonymous artists are listed in alphabetical order by the site in which works are located).

182 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Signorelli, Luca (Cortona, c. 1450–1523)

Master of San Martino (active 1265–1290) Master of San Martino (active 1265–1290) Master of the Life of the Virgin (active in Koln, c. 1460–1490) Niccolò di Tommaso (active in Florence, c. 1346–1376) Schotten Master (active second half fourteenth century)

Master of Alkmaar (Alkmaar, active 1500– c. 1515) Master of Alkmaar (Alkmaar, active 1500– c. 1515) Master of San Martino (active 1265–1290)

Author Giovanni da Rimini (active 1292 – after 1338)

Oil on panel

1370–1375 c.

1490 c.

Tempera on panel

Fresco

1470–1480

1250–1274 c.

1372

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel Tempera on panel Oil on panel

1250–1274 c.

Dossal of St. Martin; Meeting of Joachim and Anne at the Golden Gate Dossal of St. Martin; Dream of Joachim Dossal of St. Martin; Annunciation to St. Anne Altarpiece of the Life of the Virgin; Joachim and Anne at the Golden Gate Annunciation to Joachim and Meeting of Joachim and Anne at the Golden Gate Altapiece of the Liebfrauen kirche; Announcement to Joachim and Meeting of Joachim and Anne at the Golden Gate Scenes from the Lives of Joachim and Anne

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Technique Fresco

1250–1274 c.

1500 c.

1500 c.

Date 1300–1310 c.

Meeting of Joachim and Anne

Title Expulsion of Joachim from the Temple and Apparition of the Angel to Joachim Annunciation to Joachim

24 × 43 cm

132 × 84 cm

165 × 129.5 cm (whole) 165 × 129.5 cm (whole) 85.3 × 106.8 cm

165 × 129.5 cm (whole)

72.2 × 28.8 cm

72.7 × 26 cm

Dimension

Private collection, London, documented in the Archivio Zeri, Bologna

Liebfrauenkirche, Schotten

Chiesa di Sant’Antonio Abate o del Tau, Pistoia

Museo Nazionale di San Matteo, Pisa Museo Nazionale di San Matteo, Pisa Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Museo Nazionale di San Matteo, Pisa

Frans Hals Museum, Haarlem

Frans Hals Museum, Haarlem

Location Chiesa di Sant’Agostino, Rimini

Anne and Joachim

Anne and Joachim

Anne and Joachim

Anne and Joachim Anne and Joachim Anne and Joachim

Anne and Joachim

Anne and Joachim

Anne and Joachim

Theme Anne and Joachim

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 183

Nativity and Adoration of the Magi Presentation at the Temple and Dream of Joseph Pursuit of Elizabeth, Calling of John the Baptist, John Preaching, John Bowing, Jesus’ Baptism, and Wedding at Cana Water to Wine Miracle, Calling of the Apostles, Blessing of Food, Multiplication of Food, Healing Blind Man, and Raising Lazarus Adoration of Magi, Massacre of Innocents, Flight into Egypt, and Murder of Zechariah Nativity

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Title Christ Healing the Blind Man of Jericho Temptation of Christ

Author Anonymous

Life of Christ

960 c.

915 c.

915 c.

915 c.

432–440

1406–1443

1215 c.

Date 1050–1099

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Mosaics

Fresco

Mosaics

Technique Fresco

Dimension 110 × 200 cm c.

Buckle Church, New Tokali Church, Göreme Open Air Museum

Buckle Church, Old Tokali, Göreme Open Air Museum

Buckle Church, Old Tokali Church, Göreme Open Air Museum

Location Abbazia di Sant’Angelo in Formis, Capua Basilica di San Marco, Venice Basilica di Santa Caterina, Galatina Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome Buckle Church, Old Tokali Church, Göreme Open Air Museum

Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Theme Life of Christ Life of Christ Life of Christ Life of Christ Life of Christ

184 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Nativity

Nativity

Nativity

Nativity

St. Clare Triptych; Temptation of Christ St. Clare Triptych; Healing of the Cripple

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Title Meeting of John the Baptist and Christ, Baptism, Temptation, Calling of the Apostles, and Wedding at Cana Miracles of Jesus, Entry into Jerusalem, and Last Supper

Nativity and Adoration of Magi Dream of Joseph and Flight into Egypt Temptation of Christ in the Desert Episodes from the Nativity

Anonymous

Anonymous

Author Anonymous

1300–1320 c.

1300–1320 c.

1030–1070 c.

1050 c.

1150 c.

Fourteenth century 1264–1283

1490–1500 c.

1140–1170

1140–1170

960 c.

Date 960 c.

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

Fresco

Fresco

Mosaics

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Mosaics

Mosaics

Fresco

Technique Fresco

133 × 110 cm (whole)

133 × 110 cm (whole)

Dimension

Chapelle Saint-Sébastien, Lanslevillard Chiesa SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Spoleto Chiesa di Santa Maria ad Cryptas, Fossa Chiesa di Santa Maria dell’Ammiraglio (Martorana), Palermo Church of Sandals, Göreme Open Air Museum Church of the Monastery, Eski Gumus Civico Museo Sartorio, Trieste Civico Museo Sartorio, Trieste

Cappella Palatina, Palermo

Buckle Church, New Tokali Church, Göreme Open Air Museum Cappella Palatina, Palermo

Location Buckle Church, New Tokali Church, Göreme Open Air Museum

(continued)

Life of Christ Life of Christ Life of Christ Life of Christ

Life of Christ Life of Christ Life of Christ Life of Christ Life of Christ Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Theme Life of Christ

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 185

Codex Aureus Epternacensis; Scenes from the Life of Christ, f. 54 r Codex Aureus Epternacensis; Scenes from the Life of Christ, f. 54 r Codex Aureus Epternacensis; Scenes from the Life of Christ, f. 54 r Nativity

Temptation of Christ by the Devil (from the Church of San Baudelio de Berlanga) Healing of the Blind Man and Raising of Lazarus (from the Church of San Baudelio de Berlanga) Homilies of Gregory Nazianzenus; Nativity of Christ, f. 91r Crucifixion and Nativity

Nativity

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Title Nativity

Author Anonymous

Late thirteenth to early fourteenth century 1250–1299

1136–1155

1129–1134 c.

1129–1134 c.

901–999

1030 c.

1030 c.

1030 c.

Date 1050 c.

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Miniature

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

Technique Fresco

33.7 × 24.9 cm

43.9 × 34 cm (whole)

165.1 × 340.4 cm

176.5 × 299.7 cm

44.6 × 31 cm (folio)

44.6 × 31 cm (folio)

44.6 × 31 cm (folio)

Dimension

Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai

Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai

Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai, Codex 339

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Location Dark Church, Göreme Open Air Museum Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nurenberg, Hs 156142 Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nurenberg, Hs 156142 Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nurenberg, Hs 156142 Kılıçlar Kilise, Nevşehir Göreme Open Air Museum Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Theme Life of Christ Life of Christ

186 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Bonfigli, Benedetto (Perugia, c. 1420–1496), attributed to Botticelli, Sandro (Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi) (Florence, 1444–45 – 1510) Broederlam, Melchior (Ypres, 1355–1411)

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Author Anonymous

Tempera on panel

1175–1199

Tempera and oil on panel

1392–1399

Altarpiece of the Crucifixion; Presentation in the Temple and Flight into Egypt

Tempera on panel

1465–1475 c.

Fresco

Fresco

232 c.

1481–1482

Tempera on panel Fresco

Late twelfth century 1263 c.

850–900

Technique Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

Date 1101–1150

Temptations of Christ

Christ Healing the Paralytic (from Dura Europos Synagogue) Adoration of the Kings and Christ on the Cross

Title Nativity and Infancy of Christ Nativity, Presentation in the Temple, Ascension, and Pentecost Iconostasis with Scenes from the Life of the Virgin and the Dodekaorton; Nativity Tetraptych with the Dodekaorton; Nativity Birth of Christ

167 × 130 cm

345 × 555 cm

37.5 × 49.5 cm

145 × 88 cm

57 × 41.8 cm (whole)

41.5 × 140 cm (whole)

36.5 × 14.2 cm

Dimension 36.3 × 21.2 cm

Musée des Beaux-Arts, Dijon

Cappella Sistina, Vatican City

National Gallery, London

Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai Oratorio di San Pellegrino, Bominaco Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven

Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai

Location Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai

(continued)

Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ Life of Christ Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Theme Life of Christ Life of Christ

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 187

Coter, Colyn de (Brussels, c. 1450–55 – 1539–40), circle of David, Gerard (Oudewater, c. 1460 – Bruges, 1523) Duccio di Buoninsegna (Siena, c. 1255 – 1318–19) Gentile da Fabriano (Gentile di Niccolò) (Fabriano, c. 1370 – Rome, 1427) Ghirlandaio (Bigordi, Domenico) (Florence, 1448–49 – 1494) Giotto (Giotto di Bondone) (Vespignano del Mugello, Florence, c. 1267 – Florence, 1337) Giovanni da Rimini (active 1292 – after 1338) Giovanni di Francesco (Florence, 1412–1459)

Author Cenni di Francesco di Ser Cenni (Florence, active 1369–1415) Cernotto, Stefano (active in Venice, 1530–1548) 1536

Christ Heals the Sick and Expels the Merchants from the Temple Nativity with a Donor and Circumcision 1515 c.

1308–1311

1423

1481–1482

1308–1311 c.

1305 c. 1455–1459

Rest on the Flight into Egypt

Maestà Altarpiece; Healing of the Man Born Blind

Adoration of the Magi

Calling of the Apostles

Nativity

Nativity

Nativity and Adoration of the Magi

1500 c.

Date 1390 c.

Title Nativity and Resurrection of Christ

Tempera on panel Oil on panel

Fresco

Fresco

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on canvas

Technique Tempera on panel

52.5 × 34.5 cm (whole) 21 × 117 cm

349 × 570 cm

300 × 282 cm

45.1 × 46.7 cm

60 × 39 cm

153.3 × 143.6 cm

237 × 306 cm

Dimension 20.9 × 70.4 cm

Galleria Nazionale d’Arte Antica, Rome Musée du Louvre, Paris

Basilica Inferiore di San Francesco, Assisi

Cappella Sistina, Vatican City

Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

National Gallery, London

Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels Museo del Prado, Madrid

Fondazione Giorgio Cini, Venice

Location Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven

Life of Christ Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Theme Life of Christ

188 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Master of the Holy Kinship (active in Cologne, c. 1500) Master of the Monogram A. H. (active c. 1500) Master of the Monogram A. H. (active c. 1500) Master of the Monogram A. H. (active c. 1500) Master of the Monogram A. H. (active c. 1500) Master of the Monogram A. H. (active c. 1500)

Author Goes, Hugo van der (Ghent, c. 1440 – Rode Klooster, Brussels, 1482) Guetl, Lorenz (active 1520–1563) or disciple of Albrecht Altdorfers Jacopo da Verona (Verona, c. 1355 – after 1442) Klontzas, Georgios (active c. 1540–1608) Master of Affligem (active c. 1490–1500) Oil on panel

1495 c.

1500–1510

1505–1510 1505–1510 1505–1510 1505–1510 1505–1510

Triptych of the Abbey of Affligem; Nativity and Adoration of the Magi Circumcision of Christ

Adoration of the Magi

Baptism of Christ

Entry into Jerusalem

Nativity

Presentation in the Temple

Oil on canvas

Oil on canvas

Oil on canvas

Oil on canvas

Oil on canvas

Tempera on panel Oil on panel

1604 c.

Icon of the Virgin; Nativity

Fresco

Tempera on panel

1530

1397

Technique Oil on canvas

Date 1460–1482

Nativity and Adoration of the Magi

Title Triptych of Adoration of the Magi; Meeting of Mary and Elizabeth and Circumcision Resurrection of Lazarus

120 × 70.5 cm

120.5 × 70 cm

120.5 × 69.5 cm

121.5 × 70 cm

120.5 × 70 cm

102 × 196.5 cm

148 × 120 cm

106.5 × 81 cm (whole)

243 × 142 cm

Dimension 96.3 × 109.2 cm (whole)

Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon

Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon

Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon

Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon

Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon

Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Oratorio di San Michele, Padua

Museo Diocesano, Bressanone

Location State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg

(continued)

Life of Christ Life of Christ Life of Christ Life of Christ Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Theme Life of Christ

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 189

Simone dei Crocefissi (Simone di Filippo Benvenuti) (Bologna, active 1355–c. 1399) Veronese (Caliari, Paolo) (Verona, 1528 – Venice, 1588)

Pietro da Rimini (active c. 1324–1338) Pinturicchio (Bernardino di Betto) (Perugia, 1454 – Siena, 1513) Pseudo-­Jacopino di Francesco (Bologna, active c. 1320–c. 1340) Rosselli, Cosimo (Florence, 1439–1507) Signorelli, Luca (Cortona, c. 1450–1523) and Assistant

Pietro da Rimini (active c. 1324–1338)

Author Müller, Georg, of Bamberg (active sixteenth century) Pietro da Rimini (active c. 1324–1338) 1310–1325

Christ Disputing with the Doctors and Return of the Holy Family to Nazareth Nativity and Other Episodes from the Childhood of Christ Nativity

Oil on panel

Oil on canvas

1520 c.

Altarpiece of the Assumption of the Virgin; Flight into Egypt and Christ among the Doctors Healing of the Paralytic and Probatic Pool (from the Church of Sant’Apollonia di Mezzaratta) Baptism and Temptations of Christ

Fresco

1582 c.

1481–1482

Sermon on the Mount

Tempera on panel

Fresco

1325–1330 c.

Nativity and Adoration of the Magi

Tempera on panel Oil on panel

Tempera on panel

Fresco

Technique Tempera on panel

1355–1399

1473–1480 c.

Crucifixion between Saints Christopher and Jerome

1325–1330

1330 c.

Date 1596

Title Altar of the Magi

248 × 450 cm

22.4 × 68.9 cm

349 × 570 cm

52.7 × 80.3 cm

59 × 40 cm

20 × 16 cm

17 × 20 cm

Dimension 90 × 102 cm

Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Bologna

Cappella Sistina, Vatican City Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City

North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh

Galleria Borghese, Rome

Fundación Colección Thyssen-­Bornemisza, Pedralbes Musée Fabre, Montpellier

Basilica di San Nicola, Tolentino

Location Museo Diocesano, Bressanone

Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Life of Christ

Theme Life of Christ

190 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Andrea dei Bruni (active, 1355–1377)

Author Altichiero da Zevio (active 1369–1393), circle of Altichiero da Zevio (active 1369–1393), circle of Altichiero da Zevio (active 1369–1393), circle of Andrea da Firenze (Andrea di Bonaiuto) (active Florence, 1346 – ? Florence, c. 1377) Andrea da Firenze (Andrea di Bonaiuto) (active Florence, 1346 – ? Florence, c. 1377) Andrea de’ Bartoli (active c. 1349–1369)

Passion of Christ

Fresco

1360–1377

Jesus and the Apostles in the Garden of Gethsemane, St. Peter Cuts the Ear of Malchus, Kiss of Judas, and Capture of Christ

Fresco

1367–1368

Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane

Fresco

1366–1367

Resurrection

Fresco

Tempera on panel

1370–1399

1366–1367

Tempera on panel

1370–1399

Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane and Kiss of Judas Last Supper and Washing of the Feet

Crucifixion

Technique Tempera on panel

Date 1370–1399

Title Flagellation of Christ and Christ Mocked

27 × 27 cm

27 × 27 cm

Dimension 27 × 27 cm

Cappella di San Lorenzo, Basilica Inferiore di San Francesco, Assisi Abbazia, Pomposa

Cappellone degli Spagnoli, Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, Florence

Cappellone degli Spagnoli, Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, Florence

Art market, documented in the Archivio Zeri, Bologna

Art market, documented in the Archivio Zeri, Bologna

Location Art market, documented in the Archivio Zeri, Bologna

(continued)

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Theme Passion of Christ

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 191

Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane Grimani Breviary; Washing of the Feet and Last Supper, f. 219v Deposition, f. 8r

Floreffe Bible; Last Supper, f. 4r Carrying of the Cross, Crucifixion, Deposition, Entombment, Empty Tomb, and Resurrection Triumphal Entry, Last Supper, Judas’ Betrayal, and Jesus’ Trial Entrance of Christ in Jerusalem and Last Supper Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane Entry in Jerusalem and Last Supper Christ before the Sanhedrin, Mocked, and before Pilate

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Title Last Supper, Crucifixion, Resurrection, and Burial of Christ Kiss of Judas

Author Andrea del Castagno (Castagno nel Mugello, c. 1421 – Florence, 1457) Anonymous

1420 c.

1420 c.

1180–1190

1180–1190

915 c.

915 c.

1170 c.

850–900 c.

1510–1520 c.

Fresco

Fresco

Mosaics

Mosaics

Fresco

Fresco

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

Mosaics

Fresco

1370–1380 c. 1215–1230

Technique Fresco

Date 1447

37.5 × 24.5 cm (folio)

30.7 × 21 cm (folio)

28 × 19.5 cm (folio)

Dimension 453 × 975 cm

Buckle Church, Old Tokali Church, Göreme Open Air Museum Cattedrale di Santa Maria Nuova, Monreale Cattedrale di Santa Maria Nuova, Monreale Chiesa del Castello dei Marchesi di Saluzzo, Manta Chiesa del Castello dei Marchesi di Saluzzo, Manta

Bibliothèque municipale, Angers, Ms. 0024 British Library, London, Add MS 17738 Buckle Church, Old Tokali Church Göreme Open Air Museum

Basilica di San Marco, Venice Biblioteca Marciana, Venice, cod. Lat. I, 99

Abbazia, Viboldone

Location Cenacolo di Sant’Apollonia, Florence

Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ

Theme Passion of Christ

192 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Arrest of Christ

Crucifixion of Christ

Christ Carrying the Cross and Crucifixion Burial and Resurrection of Christ Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane and Kiss of Judas

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Title Washing of the Feet, Agony, and Kiss of Judas Last Supper and Washing of the Feet Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane Christ before Herod

Christ Stripped and Led back to Pilate St. Clare Triptych; Agony in the Garden Christ Carrying the Cross

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Author Anonymous

Oil on panel Mosaics

1050 c.

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel Oil on panel

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Technique Fresco

1485

1485

1520 c.

1500 c.

1510–1520 c.

1300–1320 c.

1400–1466

1400–1466

1400–1466

1400–1466

Date 1420 c.

223 × 67 cm

223 × 67 cm

181 × 178 cm

173 × 110 cm

47 × 49.5 cm

133 × 110 cm (whole)

Dimension

Katholikon Nea Moní, Chios

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Location Chiesa del Castello dei Marchesi di Saluzzo, Manta Chiesa di Santa Maria della Misericordia, Ascona Chiesa di Santa Maria della Misericordia, Ascona Chiesa di Santa Maria della Misericordia, Ascona Chiesa di Santa Maria della Misericordia, Ascona Civico Museo Sartorio, Trieste Fine Arts Museums, San Francisco Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

(continued)

Theme Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 193

Passion of Christ

Crucifixion Altar; Crucifixion of Christ Crucifixion Altar; Lamentation of Christ Passion Triptych from the St. Laurentius Church in Cologne; Christ before Pilate Crucifixion of Christ

Anonymous

Baegert, Derick (Wesel, c. 1440 – after 1502) Baegert, Derick (Wesel, c. 1440 – after 1502) Baegert, Derick (Wesel, c. 1440 – after 1502)

Baegert, Derick (Wesel, c. 1440 – after 1502) Bartolomeo di Tommaso (Foligno, 1408–11 – Rome, before 1454)

Anonymous

Lamentation and Entombment

Kiss of Judas and Arrest of Christ Deposition, f. 84v

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Title Lamentation of Christ, Arrest of Christ and Flight of the Disciples, Carrying of the Cross, and Suicide of Judas Descent from the Cross, Burial of Christ, Christ’s Descent into Limbo, and Resurrection Passion of Christ

Author Anonymous

Oil on panel

1498 c.

1445–1450 c.

Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

1498 c.

1475 c.

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Miniature

Fresco

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Technique Oil on panel

1498 c.

1470–1490

980 c.

1263 c.

1500–1510

1495–1500 c.

Date 1525–1550 c.

20.3 × 41 cm

230 × 390 cm

132 × 78.5 cm

132.9 × 79.3 cm

131.7 × 168.7 cm

148.6 × 101.7 cm

27 × 21 cm (folio)

196 × 206 cm

163.8 × 55.5 cm

Dimension 48.8 × 64.8 cm

Propsteikirche St. Johannes Baptist, Dortmund Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Museu Nacional do Azulejo, Lisbon Oratorio di San Pellegrino, Bominaco Stadtbibliothek Weberbach, Trier, Ms. 24 Stedelijk museum Vander Kelen-Mertens, Leuven Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Museo Thyssen-­Bornemisza, Madrid

Location Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Passion of Christ Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Theme Passion of Christ

194 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Bouts, Dirk the Elder (Haarlem, c. 1410 – Leuven, 1475) follower of (or Master of the Munich Betrayal) Bouts, Dirk the Elder (Haarlem, c. 1410 – Leuven, 1475) follower of (or Master of the Munich Betrayal) Bronzino (Agnolo di Cosimo Torri) (Florence, 1503–1572)

Author Bartolomeo di Tommaso (Foligno, 1408–11 – Rome, before 1454) Benedetto di Bindo (Castiglione di Valdorcia, ? 1380–85 – Perugia, 1417) Bening, Simon (? Ghent, c. 1483 – Bruges, 1561) Birago, Giovanni Pietro (active c. 1471–74 – 1513) Bosch, Hieronymus (s’Hertogenbosch, c. 1450–1516) Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

1500 c.

1464–1480 c.

1464–1480 c.

1560–1561

Scenes from the Passion of Christ and the Pelican with Her Young (reverse of St. John the Evangelist on Patmos) Altarpiece from the Church of St. Laurentius in Cologne; Capture of Christ

Altarpiece from the Church of St. Laurentius in Cologne; Resurrection of Christ

Deposition of Christ

Oil on panel

Miniature

Miniature

1525–1530 c. 1490–1494

Tempera on panel

1411–1412

Credo Cycle of the Siena Cathedral Sacristy; Article of the Nicaean Creed Lamentation, f. 317v

Sforza Hours; Last Supper, f. 138v

Technique Tempera on panel

Date 1430–1435

Title Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane

349 × 254 cm

105.2 × 68.4 cm

105 × 68.4 cm

62.80 × 43.20 cm (outer frame)

13 × 9.5 cm

16.8 × 11.4 cm (folio)

Dimension 23 × 53 cm

Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, Ms. Ludwig IX 19 British Library, London, Add MS 34294

Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Siena

Location Pinacoteca Vaticana, Vatican City

(continued)

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Theme Passion of Christ

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 195

Cavallini, Pietro (? c. 1240 – ? c. 1330), school of Caylina, Paolo (il Giovane) (Brescia, c. 1485 – c. 1566) Claesz Van Utrecht, Jacob (? Utrecht, c. 1480 – ? Lubeck, after 1530) Cleve, Joos Van (Cleve, c. 1485 – Antwerp, 1540–41) and a collaborator

Author Bruegel, Jan I the Elder (Brussels, 1568 – Antwerp, 1625) Bruyn, Bartholomaus the Elder (Wesel or Cologne, 1493 – Cologne, 1555) Byzantine Master of the Crucifix of Pisa (active early thirteenth century) Caliari, Benedetto (Verona, 1538 – Venice, 1598) Campi, Antonio (Cremona, 1524–1587) 1530–1535

1201–1210

1582

1569

Altar of the Lamentation; Lamentation of Christ

Crucifix n. 20; Meeting and Supper at Emmaus

Last Supper and Washing of the Feet

Mysteries of the Passion, of the Resurrection and of the Ascension of Christ Capture of Christ and Pilate Delivers Christ to the Jews 1525–1530 c.

1513

1520 c.

Resurrection

Triptych with the Descent from the Cross; Deposition

Crucifixion with Saints and a Donor

1310–1320

Date 1604

Title Calvary

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Fresco

Fresco

Oil on canvas

Oil on canvas

Tempera on leather

Oil on panel

Technique Oil on panel

98.4 × 74.3 cm

108 × 170.5 cm

164.6 × 203.5 cm

282 × 366 cm

321 × 235 cm (whole)

113.9 × 78.5 cm

Dimension 62 × 42 cm

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Coro delle Monache, Chiesa di Santa Maria Donnaregina Vecchia, Naples Coro delle Monache, Monastero di Santa Giulia, Brescia Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Musée du Louvre, Paris

Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice

Museo Nazionale di San Matteo, Pisa

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Location Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Theme Passion of Christ

196 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Author David, Gerard (Oudewater, c. 1460 – Bruges, 1523) David, Gerard (Oudewater, c. 1460 – Bruges, 1523) David, Gerard (Oudewater, c. 1460 – Bruges, 1523), circle of Dreux Budé Master, possibly André d’Ypres (active 1425–26 – 1450) Duccio di Buoninsegna (Siena, c. 1255 – 1318–19) Engebrechtsz, Cornelis (Leiden, c. 1462–1527) Engebrechtsz, Cornelis (Leiden, c. 1462–1527) Engebrechtsz, Cornelis (Leiden, c. 1462–1527) First Master of the Bible of Jean de Sy (active in Paris, c. 1350–1380) and others Fra Bartolomeo (Baccio della Porta) (Florence, 1472–1517) Oil on panel

1500–1510 1515 c. 1371–1372

1506 c.

Lamentation of Christ

Arrest of Christ, f. 491v

Noli Me Tangere

Oil on panel

Miniature

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

1500 c.

Crowning of Christ with Thorns Capture of Christ

Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

1450 c.

1308–1311

Oil on panel

1530–1537 c.

Polyptych of the Esporão Chapel; Resurrection of Christ Crucifixion

Maestà Altarpiece; Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane

Oil on panel

1510 c.

Christ Carrying the Cross and Crucifixion

Technique Oil on panel

Date 1510 c.

Title Resurrection with Pilgrims of Emmaus

57 × 48 cm

7 × 14.8 cm

71.5 × 39.9 cm

69 × 59.5 cm

38 × 41 cm

51 × 76 cm

48.6 × 71.1 cm

76 × 87 cm

86.4 × 27.9 cm

Dimension 86.4 × 28.2 cm

Musée du Louvre, Paris

Museo casa Rodolfo Siviero, Florence Museum voor Schone Kunsten, Gent Nationale Bibliotheek van Nederland, The Hague, MMW 10 B 23

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Siena

Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles

Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Evora

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Location Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

(continued)

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Theme Passion of Christ

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 197

Isenmann, Gaspard (Colmar, active c. 1430–1484)

Isenmann, Gaspard (Colmar, active c. 1430–1484)

1465

1465

1465

Oil on panel

1465

Isenmann, Gaspard (Colmar, active c. 1430–1484)

Oil on panel

1490–1495 c.

Crucifixion with St. Jerome and St. Dominic and Scenes from the Passion Altarpiece of the Passion of Christ for the Collegiate Church of St. Martin; Entry of Christ in Jerusalem and Last Supper Altarpiece of the Passion of Christ for the Collegiate Church of St. Martin; Agony in the Garden and Arrest Altarpiece of the Passion of Christ for the Collegiate Church of St. Martin; Flagellation and Crowning with Thorns Altarpiece of the Passion of Christ for the Collegiate Church of St. Martin; Lamentation and Entombment Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Fresco

1491–1494

Kiss of Judas

Technique Oil on canvas

Gatti, Saturnino (Pizzoli, c. 1463 – L’Aquila, c. 1518) Geertgen tot Sint Jans (? Leiden, active c. 1475–1495), follower of Isenmann, Gaspard (Colmar, active c. 1430–1484)

Date 1630 c.

Title Last Supper

Author Francken, Frans II (Antwerp, 1581–1642) and Francken, Frans III (Antwerp, 1607–1667)

107 × 155 cm

87 × 183 cm

107 × 155 cm

107 × 183 cm

24.4 × 18.4 cm

Dimension 55.3 × 41.3 cm

Musée d’Unterlinden, Colmar

Musée d’Unterlinden, Colmar

Musée d’Unterlinden, Colmar

Musée d’Unterlinden, Colmar

National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh

Location Private collection, documented in: Phaidon Press (2000). Last Supper. New York: Phaidon Press Chiesa di San Panfilo, Tornimparte

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Theme Passion of Christ

198 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Master of the Aachen Altars (active late fifteenth century to early sixteenth century)

Author Kreusel, Oswalt (Kreuselius) (active sixteenth century) Luini, Bernardino (Dumenza, c. 1481 – Milan, 1532) Mariotto di Nardo (active in Florence, 1394–1424) or Lorenzo Monaco (Piero di Giovanni) (? 1370–71 – ? Florence, c. 1425) Master of Delft (active early sixteenth century) Master of Marradi (active 1470–c. 1510), attribuited to Master of Montiglio (active fourteenth century) Master of Montiglio (active fourteenth century) Master of Saint Severin (active c. 1485–1515) Fresco

Fresco

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

1390–1399

1510 c. 1500–1510

1340–1349 c.

1340–1349 c.

1490 c.

1515–1520

Prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane (from the Convento delle Oblate)

Crucifixion

Kiss of Judas and Episodes of the Passion of Christ

Stories of the Life and Passion of Christ

Stories of the Life and Passion of Christ

Crucifixion and Scenes from the Life of St. John the Baptist Crucifixion

Fresco

Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

Fresco

1529

Stories of the Passion of Christ

Technique Watercolour on canvas

Date 1593

Title Millstatt Lenten Veil; Last Supper

143 × 242 cm

128 × 216 cm

53 × 39 cm

98.2 × 105 cm

Dimension 120 × 95 cm

Domschatzkammer, Aachen

Cappella di Sant’Andrea al Castello, Montiglio Monferrato Cappella di Sant’Andrea al Castello, Montiglio Monferrato Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

National Gallery, London

Polo Museale Fiorentino, Museum Storage, Florence

Chiesa di Santa Maria degli Angeli, Lugano

Location Stiftskirche, Millstatt

(continued)

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Theme Passion of Christ

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 199

Author Master of The Collins Hours (active in Amiens, c. 1440) Master of the Monogram A. H. (active c. 1500) Master of the Monogram A. H. (active c. 1500) Master of the Monogram A. H. (active c. 1500) Master of the Sacro Speco (active fourteenth century), circle of Master of the Schotten Altarpiece (active in Vienna, c. 1460–1480) Master of the Wasservass Crucifixion (active in Cologne, c. 1415–1435) Masters of the Dark Eyes (active late fifteenth century to early sixteenth century) Masters of the Dark Eyes (active late fifteenth century to early sixteenth century) Memling, Hans (Seligenstadt, 1433 – Bruges, 1494) Oil on canvas

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel

1505–1510 1505–1510 1505–1510 1360–1370 c.

1470 c.

1420–1430 c.

Washing of the Feet

Incredulity of St. Thomas

Judgment of Pilate; Procession to Calvary

Altarpiece from the Schotten kirche, in Vienna; Lamentation of Christ Calvary of the Wasservass Family

Miniature

Oil on panel

1490 c.

1470 c.

Arrest of Christ, Peter cutting off the Ear of Malchus, and Agony in the Garden, f. 50r Scenes from the Passion of Christ

Miniature

1490 c.

Arrest of Christ, Kiss of Judas, and Agony in the Garden, f. 62v

Fresco

Oil on canvas

Oil on canvas

Technique Oil on panel

Date 1440 c.

Title Triptych with Scenes from the Life of Christ; Crucifixion Pentecost

56.7 × 92.2 cm

10 × 7.5 cm

11 × 7.5 cm

131 × 180 cm

87 × 80 cm

120.2 × 69.8 cm

120.5 × 70 cm

120.5 × 69.5 cm

Dimension 78 × 134 cm (whole)

Galleria Sabauda, Turin

Nationale Bibliotheek van Nederland, The Hague, KB 76 G 9

Nationale Bibliotheek van Nederland, The Hague, KB 135 E 9

Wallraf-Richartz-­Museum, Cologne

Sammlung Belvedere, Vienna

Chiesa Superiore del Sacro Speco, Subiaco

Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon

Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon

Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon

Location Museo del Prado, Madrid

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ

Theme Passion of Christ

200 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Perugino (Vannucci, Pietro di Cristoforo) (Città della Pieve, 1445–50 – Fontignano, 1523) Pietro da Rimini (active c. 1324–1338)

Paolo Veneziano (Venice, active 1333 – 1358–62)

Author Memling, Hans (Seligenstadt, 1433 – Bruges, 1494) Memling, Hans (Seligenstadt, 1433 – Bruges, 1494) Michele di Matteo da Bologna (active 1410–1469) Mostaert, Gillis (Hulst, c. 1528–29 – Antwerp, 1598) Ortolano (Benvenuti, Giovanni Battista) (Ferrara, c. 1485 – after 1527) Paolo Veneziano (Venice, active 1333 – 1358–62) Oil on panel

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel Fresco

1518–1521

1349 c.

1349 c.

1490 c.

Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane

1320–1325

Oil on canvas

1570 c.

Entry of Christ into Jerusalem and Scenes of the Passion Descent from the Cross

Coronation of the Virgin Polyptych; Resurrection and Noli Me Tangere Coronation of the Virgin Polyptych; Agony in the Garden and Arrest of Christ Last Supper

Fresco

1447

Agony in the Garden

Fresco

Oil on panel

1491

Passion Altarpiece; Procession to Calvary

Technique Oil on panel

Date 1491

Title Passion Altarpiece; Resurrection

435 × 794 cm

167 × 285 cm (whole)

167 × 285 cm (whole)

241 × 181.5 cm

110.5 × 128.3 cm

202.5 × 64.5 cm

Dimension 202.5 × 64.5 cm

Basilica di San Nicola, Tolentino

Cenacolo del Fuligno, Florence

Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice

Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice

Galleria Borghese, Rome

Haggerty Museum of Art, Milwaukee

Battistero di San Giovanni, Siena

Museum für Kunst- und Kulturgedichte, Lubeck

Location Museum für Kunst- und Kulturgedichte, Lubeck

(continued)

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Theme Passion of Christ

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 201

Rosselli, Cosimo (Florence, 1439–1507) and Biagio d’Antonio (Florence, 1446–1516)

Reichlich, Marx (Brixen, c. 1460 – ? c. 1520) Roberti, Ercole de’ (Ferrara, c. 1455–56 – 1496)

Ratgeb, Jerg (Schwabisch-­Gmund, c. 1480 – Pforzheim, 1526) Ratgeb, Jerg (Schwabisch-­Gmund, c. 1480 – Pforzheim, 1526)

Author Pleydenwurff, Hans (? Bamberg, c. 1420 – Nurnberg, 1472) Pleydenwurff, Hans (? Bamberg, c. 1420 – Nurnberg, 1472) Pleydenwurff, Hans (? Bamberg, c. 1420 – Nurnberg, 1472) Ratgeb, Jerg (Schwabisch-­Gmund, c. 1480 – Pforzheim, 1526) 1465

1460–1470

1519

Hofer Altarpiece; Resurrection of Christ

Crucifixion of Christ

Herrenberger Altarpiece; Flagellation, Crowning with Thorns, and Mocking of Christ Herrenberger Altarpiece; Crucifixion, Carrying of the Cross, and Entombment Herrenberger Altarpiece; Last Supper, Christ’s Agony in the Garden, and His Arrest Sts. James and Stephen Altarpiece; Flagellation Altarpiece from the Church of San Giovanni in Monte, Bologna; Agony in the Garden and Capture of Christ Last Supper Fresco

Oil on panel

1482–1486

1481–1482

Oil on panel

Oil and tempera on panel Oil and tempera on panel

Oil and tempera on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Technique Oil on panel

1506

1519

1519

Date 1465

Title Hofer Altarpiece; Crucifixion of Christ

349 × 570 cm

35 × 118.5 cm

124 × 79.3 cm

274 × 147 cm

274 × 147 cm

274 × 147 cm

192 × 181 cm

177 × 112 cm

Dimension 178 × 114 cm

Cappella Sistina, Vatican City

Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart

Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart

Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Location Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Theme Passion of Christ

202 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Signorelli, Luca (Cortona, c. 1450–1523) Signorelli, Luca (Cortona, c. 1450–1523) Signorelli, Luca (Cortona, c. 1450–1523) and Genga, Girolamo (Urbino, 1476–1551) Spanzotti, Giovanni Martino (Casale Monferrato, c. 1455 – Chivasso, c. 1528) Taddeo di Bartolo (Siena, c. 1362 – c. 1422) Taddeo di Bartolo (Siena, c. 1362 – c. 1422) Vanni, Andrea (Siena, c. 1332 – c. 1414) Vecchietta (Lorenzo di Pietro) (Siena, 1410–1480) Weyden, Rogier van der (Tournai, c. 1399 – Brussels, 1464)

Author Sacchi, Gaspare (Imola, active 1517–1536) Signorelli, Luca (Cortona, c. 1450–1523) Signorelli, Luca (Cortona, c. 1450–1523)

1502 1507 c.

1486–1491

1401 1400–1405 1380 c. 1445

1445 c.

Lamentation of Christ

Christ on the Mount of Olives

Washing of the Feet

Assumption of Virgin Triptych; Betrayal of Judas Christ in Gethsemane

Agony in the Garden

Reliquary Cupboard; Procession to Calvary

Miraflores Altarpiece; Christ Appearing to His Mother

Oil on panel

1512–1520

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

Fresco

Tempera on canvas Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

Oil on canvas

1502–1505

1502–1505 c.

Technique Oil on canvas

Date 1517–1536 c.

Title Scenes from the Life of Christ Crucifix with Mary Magdalene Agony in the Garden, Arrest of Christ, and Way to Calvary Crucifixion

74.3 × 45 cm

56.9 × 116.4 cm (whole) 273 × 187 cm (whole)

23 × 32 cm

35 × 40 cm

258 × 240 cm

212 × 157 cm

32.5 × 204.5 cm (whole)

247 × 165 cm

Dimension 93 × 170 cm

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, Montepulciano Musée Thorwaldsen, Copenhagen Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, DC Santa Maria della Scala, Siena

Chiesa di San Bernardino, Ivrea

Lindenau Museum, Altenburg

Museo Diocesano, Cortona

Museo Civico, San Sepolcro

Location Museo di Palazzo Vecchio, Florence Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ

Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ

Theme Passion of Christ Passion of Christ Passion of Christ

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 203

Contreiras, Diogo de (active 1521–1560) David, Gerard (Oudewater, c. 1460 – Bruges, 1523) Della Chiesa, Matteo and Della Chiesa, Giovanni (active 1494–1519)

Bartolomeo di Giovanni (Florence, active c. 1475 – c. 1500–05) Bening, Simon (? Ghent, c. 1483 – Bruges, 1561) Brill, Paul (Antwerp, 1554 – Rome, 1626)

Baronzio, Giovanni (active c. 1326 – before 1362), attributed to

Author Baronzio, Giovanni (active c. 1326 – before 1362)

Saint John the Baptist

1600 c.

Landscape with Baptism of Christ and Preaching of the Baptist Birth of St. John the Baptist 1505

1495–1500 c.

Triptych of Jean Des Trompes; Baptism of Christ

Baptism of Christ

1552–1554

1540–1545

1490–1495

1330–1340

Date 1335 c.

Baptism of Christ, f. 24v

Title Altarpiece of St. John the Baptist; Birth, Naming, and Circumcision of St. John the Baptist Altarpiece of St. John the Baptist; Young Baptist Led by an Angel into the Wilderness Scenes from the Life of St. John the Baptist

Fresco

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on copper

Miniature

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Technique Tempera on panel

127.9 × 96.6 cm

124 × 95.5 cm

45 × 35 cm

12.1 × 8.6 cm (folio)

74 × 150.4 cm

48 × 40 cm

Dimension 46.4 × 38.3 cm

Museo Civico, Lodi

Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Évora Groeningemuseum, Bruges

Chester Beatty Library, Dublin Galleria Borghese, Rome

Art Institute, Chicago

Pinacoteca Vaticana, Vatican City

Location National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC

Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Baptist Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Baptist Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Baptist

Theme Saint John the Baptist

204 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Tempera on panel

1400–1410

St. John the Baptist Pointing out Christ as the Lamb of God and Baptism of Christ

Mariotto di Nardo (active in Florence, 1394–1424)

Fresco

1452–1465

St. John Taking Leave of His Parents

Lippi, Filippo (Florence, c. 1406 – Spoleto, 1469)

Fresco

Oil and tempera on panel Oil on panel

1506–1507 c.

1452–1465

Fresco

1378

Birth and Naming of St. John the Baptist

Oil on panel

1484 c.

1500–1510

Technique Fresco

Date 1384–1385 c.

Scenes from the Life of St. John the Baptist

Preaching of John the Baptist and Baptism of Christ Scenes from the Life of St. John the Baptist

Title Baptism of Christ and Neophites Burning of the Bones of St. John the Baptist

Author Gaddi, Agnolo (Florence, c. 1350–1396) Geertgen tot Sint Jans (? Leiden, active c. 1475–1495), follower of Giusto de’ Menabuoi (Florence, c. 1330 – Padua, c. 1391) Granacci, Francesco (Villamagna Chieti, 1469 – Florence, 1543) Granacci, Francesco (Villamagna Chieti, 1469 – Florence, 1543) circle of Lippi, Filippo (Florence, c. 1406 – Spoleto, 1469) 77.4 × 228.6 cm

77.6 × 151.1 cm

172 × 139 cm

Dimension

Cappella Maggiore, Cattedrale di Santo Stefano, Prato Cappella Maggiore, Cattedrale di Santo Stefano, Prato Chiesa di San Domenico, San Miniato

Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Battistero della Cattedrale, Padua

Location Cappella Castellani, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

(continued)

Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Baptist

Theme Saint John the Baptist Saint John the Baptist

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 205

Paolo di Giovanni Fei (Siena, 1347–1410) Patinir, Joachim (Dinant or Bouvignes, c. 1480 – Antwerp, 1524) Patinir, Joachim (Dinant or Bouvignes, c. 1480 – Antwerp, 1524) Patinir, Joachim (Dinant or Bouvignes, c. 1480 – Antwerp, 1524) Perugino (Vannucci, Pietro di Cristoforo) (Città della Pieve, 1445–50 – Fontignano, 1523)

Master of the Apollo and Daphne Legend (active c. 1480–1510) Master of the Saint Ursula Legend (? 1436 – Bruges, 1504–05)

Author Master of Santa Coloma de Queralt (active c. 1350–1375)

Baptism of Christ

Baptism of Christ and Preaching of John the Baptist Triptych of Penitence of St. Jerome; St. John Baptizing Christ Landscape with Preaching of St. John the Baptist

St. Anne Trinitarian Surrounded by St. John the Baptist, St. Louis, St. Catherine and St. Barbara St. John Preaching

Title Altarpiece of the Saints John; Meeting of the Virgin Mary and Elizabeth and Birth of Saint John the Baptist Birth of St. John the Baptist

Oil on panel

1500–1524

1482 c.

Fresco

Oil on panel

1512–1515 c.

1521–1524

Tempera on panel Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel

Technique Tempera on panel

1390–1399

1475–1499

1500 c.

Date 1356 c.

335 × 540 cm

36.5 × 45 cm

120.7 × 35.6 cm

59.7 × 76.3 cm

37.2 × 37.2 cm

82 × 125 cm

60 × 100.3 cm (whole)

Dimension 220.5 × 209.8 cm (whole)

Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels Cappella Sistina, Vatican City

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Fogg Art Museum, Harvard

Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels

Howard University Gallery of Art, Washington, DC

Location Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona

Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Baptist Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Baptist

Theme Saint John the Baptist

206 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Author Pseudo-­Boccaccio Boccaccino (active early sixteenth century) Salimbeni, Lorenzo (San Severino Marche, 1374 – c. 1420) and Salimbeni, Jacopo (San Severino Marche, 1370–80 – c. 1426) Salimbeni, Lorenzo (San Severino Marche, 1374 – c. 1420) and Salimbeni, Jacopo (San Severino Marche, 1370–80 – c. 1426) Zurbarán, Francisco de (Fuente de Cantos, 1598 – Madrid, 1664) 1659

St. John the Baptist

Oil on canvas

Fresco

Fresco

1416

1416

Technique Tempera on panel

Date 1501–1515

Birth of the Baptist, Circumcision, and Mary and Joseph Take Leave of Zechariah

Title Preaching of John the Baptist and Baptism at the River Jordan Annunciation to Zechariah, Zechariah Noting Down the Angel’s Message, and Visitation and Meeting of Mary and Zechariah

119 × 196 cm

Dimension 36.5 × 56.2 cm

Private collection, documented in: I. Cano Rivero (Ed.). (2013). Zurbarán. Ferrara: Fondazione Ferrara Arte

Oratorio di S. Giovanni Battista, Urbino

Oratorio di S. Giovanni Battista, Urbino

Location Lindenau Museum, Altenburg

Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Baptist

Theme Saint John the Baptist

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 207

Tempera on panel

1330–1335

1484–1491

Salome Brings Herod the Head of John the Baptist

Altarpiece of St. John the Baptist; Feast of Herod and Beheading of the Baptist Sacramental Tabernacle; Feast of Herod and Beheading of John the Baptist

Antoniazzo Romano (Antonio di Benedetto Aquilio) (active 1452–1512) Baronzio, Giovanni (active c. 1326 – before 1362) Botticini, Francesco (Florence, 1446–67 – 1498) and Botticini, Raffaello (Florence, active 1474–1520) Della Chiesa, Matteo and Della Chiesa, Giovanni (active 1494–1519)

Anonymous

Beheading of the Baptist and Feast of Herod

Tempera on panel

1490 c.

Beheading of St. John the Baptist and Salome Offering the Head to Her Mother, f. 30v sc. 1B Feast of Herod

1495–1500 c.

1570–1580

1190–1200

1200 c.

Anonymous

Anonymous

Fresco

Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

Miniature

Fresco

Fresco

Beheading of John the Baptist Feast of Herod

Technique Fresco

Anonymous

Date Late fourteenth century 1220–1230 c.

Title Beheading of John the Baptist

Author Anonymous

The Feast of Herod

44.1 × 49.8 cm

30 × 45.3 cm

153.6 × 109.5 cm

9 × 7 cm

Dimension

Museo Civico, Lodi

Museo della Collegiata di S. Andrea, Empoli

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Tiroler Landesmuseum Ferdinandeum, Innsbruck Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Location Battistero di San Giovanni, Chiesa di Santa Maria Extra Moenia, Antrodoco Battistero di San Giovanni Battista, Parma Benediktinerinnenkloster St. Johann, Müstair Nationale Bibliotheek van Nederland, The Hague, KB 76 F 5

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod Feast of Herod Feast of Herod

Theme Feast of Herod

208 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Lorenzetti, Pietro (Siena, c. 1280–85 – c. 1348), and school

Lippi, Filippo (Florence, c. 1406 – Spoleto, 1469)

Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497)

Giusto de’ Menabuoi (Florence, c. 1330 – Padua, c. 1391)

Author Donatello (Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi) (Florence, 1386–1466) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Giotto (Giotto di Bondone) (Vespignano del Mugello, Florence, c. 1267 – Florence, 1337) Giovanni di Paolo (Siena, 1399–1482) Tempera on panel Fresco

Tempera on panel

1455–1460

1378

1461–1462

The Head of St. John the Baptist Brought before Herod Beheading of John the Baptist and Salome Presents the Head of John the Baptist to Her Mother Herodias Altarpiece of the Confraternity of the Purification of the Virgin; Feast of Herod and Beheading of St. John the Baptist Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod, Dance of Salome, and Beheading of John the Baptist

Fresco

1318–1322 c.

Feast of Herod

Fresco

Fresco

1452–1465

1331–1335

Tempera on panel

1425–1450

Beheading of John the Baptist and Feast of Herod

Technique Gilded bronze relief

Date 1427

Title Feast of Herod

23.8 × 34.5 cm

66.1 × 38.1 cm

280 × 450 cm

21.5 × 32.7 cm

Dimension 60 × 60 cm

Cappella Maggiore, Cattedrale di Santo Stefano, Prato Santa Maria dei Servi, Siena

National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC

Battistero della Cattedrale, Padua

Art Institute, Chicago

Cappella Peruzzi, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence

Musée du Louvre, Paris

Location Battistero di San Giovanni, Siena

(continued)

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Theme Feast of Herod

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 209

Masolino da Panicale (Tommaso di Cristoforo Fini) (Panicale in Valdarno, 1383 – ? Florence, c. 1440) Massijs, Quinten (Leuven, 1456–1466 – Antwerp, 1530) Master of Miraflores (active c. 1490–1500)

Martorell, Bernat (Sant Celoni, c. 1400 – Barcelona, 1452)

Luini, Evangelista (active sixteenth century), Biagio Arcimboldi (active sixteenth century) and Giuseppe Arcimboldi (Milan, 1527–1593) Mariotto di Nardo (active in Florence, 1394–1424)

Author Lorenzo Monaco (Piero di Giovanni) (? 1370–71 – ? Florence, c. 1425)

Altarpiece of the Guild of the Joiners; Beheading of John the Baptist Beheading of John the Baptist

St. John the Baptist Warns Herod and Herodias and Dance of Salome Altarpiece of the Saints John; Beheading of St. John the Baptist and Salome Presenting His Head to Herod Feast of Herod

Title Altarpiece from the Nobili Chapel of Santa Maria degli Angeli in Florence; Feast of Herod Martyrdom of St. John the Baptist

Oil on panel

Oil and tempera on panel

1490–1500

Fresco

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Fresco

Technique Tempera on panel

1511

1435 c.

1435–1445

1400–1410

1545

Date 1387–1388

98 × 54 cm

260 × 120 cm

344 × 261.5 cm (whole)

Dimension 33.8 × 67.7 cm

Museo del Prado, Madrid

Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten, Antwerp

Battistero, Castiglione Olona

Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona

Chiesa di San Domenico, San Miniato

Cappella Carretto, Chiesa di San Maurizio al Monastero Maggiore, Milan

Location Musée du Louvre, Paris

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Theme Feast of Herod

210 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Terzo Maestro di Sant’Antonio in Polesine (active first half fourteenth century) Weyden, Rogier van der (Tournai, c. 1399 – Brussels, 1464)

Memling, Hans (Seligenstadt, 1433 – Bruges, 1494) Sadeler, Johan I (Brussels, 1550 – ? Venice, 1600) Semino, Andrea (Genoa, 1525–1595) Starnina, Gherardo (Florence, c.? 1360–1413)

Master of the Apollo and Daphne Legend (active c. 1480–1510) Masters of Otto van Moerdrecht (active c. 1420–1430)

Master of Santa Coloma de Queralt (active c. 1350–1375)

Author Master of Saint Severin (active c. 1485–1515)

The Altar of St. John; Beheading of St. John

1455 c.

1330–1350

1396–1398

Altarpiece of Friar Bonifacio Ferrer; Beheading of St. John the Baptist Beheading of John the Baptist and Dance of Salome Oil on panel

fresco

Tempera on panel

Oil on canvas

Engraving

1580–1590

1560 c.

Oil on panel

Miniature

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Technique Oil on panel

1479 c.

1430 c.

1500 c.

1356 c.

Date 1490 c.

St. John Beheaded

Beheading of St. John the Baptist and Salome Offers the Head to Her Mother, f. 162r St. John Altarpiece; Beheading of St. John the Baptist Beheading of St. John the Baptist

Title Crucifixion and Scenes from the Life of St. John the Baptist; Feast of Herod Altarpiece of the Saints John; Beheading of John the Baptist and Presentation of His Head to Herodias Martyrdom of St. John the Baptist

78.7 × 49.2 cm

284 × 191 cm (whole)

141 × 146 cm

25.2 × 20 cm

176 × 78.9 cm

6.5 × 9 cm

59.7 × 94.3 cm

220.5 × 209.8 cm (whole)

Dimension 127 × 100 cm

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Monastero di Sant’Antonio in Polesine, Ferrara

Musei di Strada Nuova, Palazzo Bianco, Genoa Museo de Bellas Artes, Valencia

British Museum, London

Musea Brugge, SintJanshospitaal, Bruges

Nationale Bibliotheek van Nederland, The Hague, KB 78 D 38 II

Howard University Gallery of Art, Washington, DC

Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona

Location Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Feast of Herod

Theme Feast of Herod

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 211

Dream of Joseph and Flight into Egypt Annunciation, Visitation, and Nativity Dormition of the Virgin

Annunciation, Journey to Bethlehem, and Nativity Triptych with Scenes from the Life of the Virgin; Dormition of the Virgin

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Annunciation, Visitation, and Trial by Water

915 c.

Annunciation, Visitation, Trial by Water, Journey to Bethlehem, and Nativity Birth of the Virgin

1250–1260 c.

1001–1050 c.

1150 c.

1400–1466

963–969

963–969

1486–1493

Date 1450 c.

Title Presentation of the Virgin

Anonymous

Anonymous

Author Angelos (Akotantos, Angelos) (active fifteenth century), attributed to Anonymous

Virgin Mary

Tempera on panel

Fresco

Mosaics

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Technique Tempera on panel

53.7 × 21.7 cm (whole)

Dimension 39.4 × 33 cm

Cavusin Church, Göreme Open Air Museum Chiesa di Santa Maria della Misericordia, Ascona Chiesa di Santa Maria dell’Ammiraglio (Martorana), Palermo Cistern Church, Göreme’s Zemi Valley Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai

Buckle Church, Old Tokali Church, Göreme Open Air Museum Cappella delle Grazie, Chiesa di Santa Maria delle Grazie, Varallo Cavusin Church, Göreme Open Air Museum

Location Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Theme Virgin Mary

212 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Cavallini, Pietro (? c. 1240 – ? c. 1330) Cozzarelli, Guidoccio (Siena, 1450 – 1516–17)

Aspertini, Amico (Bologna, 1474–75 – 1552) Broederlam, Melchior (Ypres, 1355–1411)

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Author Anonymous

Annunciation and Journey to Bethlehem

Altarpiece of the Crucifixion; Annunciation and Visitation Dormition of the Virgin

Title Iconostasis with Scenes from the Life of the Virgin and the Dodekaorton; Presentation in the Temple and Annunciation Tetraptych with the Dodekaorton; Dormition of the Virgin Diptych with Stories of the Virgin, Crucifixion and Last Judgment; Annunciation and Visitation Annunciation, Visitation, and Trial by Water Journey to Bethlehem and Nativity Episodes from the Life of the Virgin Tempera on panel Ivory relief

Late twelfth century Late thirteenth century 1290 c. 901–999

Tempera and oil on panel

1392–1399

1480–1490 c.

Tempera on panel

Mosaics

Oil on panel

1500–1505 c.

1290–1299

Fresco

901–999

Fresco

Technique Tempera on panel

Date 1175–1199

67.9 × 54 cm

166.5 × 125 cm

32.7 × 216.5 cm

57 × 41.8 cm (whole)

Dimension 41.5 × 140 cm (whole)

Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere, Rome Lowe Art Museum-­ University of Miami, Miami

Musée des Beaux-Arts, Dijon

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Bologna

Pancarlik Kilise, Ortahisar

Pancarlik Kilise, Ortahisar

Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence

Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai

Location Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai

(continued)

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Theme Virgin Mary

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 213

Author David, Gerard (Oudewater, c. 1460 – Bruges, 1523), circle of Del Pacchia, Girolamo (Siena, c. 1477 – after 1533) Delitio, Andrea (Lecce nei Marsi, c. 1420 – ? Atri, c. 1495) Delitio, Andrea (Lecce nei Marsi, c. 1420 – ? Atri, c. 1495) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Gaddi, Taddeo (Florence, 1295–1300 – 1366) Ghirlandaio (Bigordi, Domenico) (Florence, 1448–49 – 1494) Ghirlandaio (Bigordi, Domenico) (Florence, 1448–49 – 1494) and workshop Giotto (Giotto di Bondone) (Vespignano del Mugello, Florence, c. 1267 – Florence, 1337) 1460 c.

1430 c.

1328–1338 1485–1490

1485–1490

1301–1306

Flight into Egypt

Annunciation Altarpiece; Scenes from the Life of the Virgin

Annunciation and Visitation

Birth of the Virgin

Death and Assumption of the Virgin

Birth of the Virgin

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Tempera on panel

Fresco

Fresco

Oil on panel

1518

1480 c.

Technique Oil on panel

Date 1500 c.

Episodes from the Infancy of the Virgin

Title Polyptych of the Life of the Virgin; Annunciation and Visitation Annunciation and Visitation

200 × 185 cm

17 × 145 cm c.

258 × 199 cm

Dimension 190 × 98 cm

Cappella degli Scrovegni, Padua

Cappella Baroncelli, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence Cappella Tornabuoni, Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, Florence Cappella Tornabuoni, Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, Florence

Museo Diocesano, Cortona

Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, Atri

Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, Atri

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Siena

Location Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Evora

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Theme Virgin Mary

214 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Master of the Erfurt Regler Altar (active in Erfurt, c. 1450–1460) Master of the Erfurt Regler Altar (active in Erfurt, c. 1450–1460) Master of the Saint Ursula Legend (? 1436 – Bruges, 1504–05)

Luini, Bernardino (Dumenza, c. 1481 – Milan, 1532) Master of Affligem (active c. 1490–1500)

Klontzas, Georgios (active c. 1540–1608) Lippi, Filippo (Florence, c. 1406 – Spoleto, 1469)

Author Giusto di Ravensburg (active fifteenth century) Klontzas, Georgios (active c. 1540–1608)

1480 c.

Pagagnotti Triptych; Virgin and Child

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

1460 c.

1460 c.

Oil on panel

1495 c.

Dormition of the Virgin

Triptych of the Abbey of Affligem; Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple and Annunciation Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple

Tempera on panel

1500 c.

1452–1453 c.

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

1604 c.

Icon of the Virgin; Episodes of the Life of Mary and Joseph Icon of the Virgin; Dream of St. Joseph Madonna with the Child and Scenes from the Life of St. Anne Virgin and Child 1604 c.

Technique Fresco

Date 1451

Title Annunciation

96 × 73 cm

160.5 × 59.3 cm

159 × 58 cm

151 × 118 cm

62.4 × 44.2 cm

135 × 135 cm

106.5 × 81 cm (whole)

106.5 × 81 cm (whole)

Dimension 304 × 370 cm

Musée Thomas-Henri, Cherbourg-­Octeville

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels

Keresztény Múzeum, Esztergom

Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai Galleria Palatina, Florence

Location Convento di Santa Maria di Castello, Genoa Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai

(continued)

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Theme Virgin Mary

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 215

Pietro da Rimini (active c. 1324–1338) Salimbeni, Lorenzo (San Severino Marche, 1374 – c. 1420) and Salimbeni, Jacopo (San Severino Marche, 1370–80 – c. 1426) Schaffner, Martin (? 1477 – Ulm, 1549) Torriti, Jacopo (active c. 1270–1300)

Author Memling, Hans (Seligenstadt, 1433 – Bruges, 1494) Paolo Veneziano (Venice, active 1333 – 1358–62) Piero di Cosimo (Florence, c. 1462–1521) 1333 1500–1505 c.

Dormition of the Virgin

Incarnation of Christ and Sts. Philip Benizi, John the Evangelist, Catherine of Alexandria, Margaret, Peter and Antoninus Pierozzi Visitation

Oil on panel Mosaics

1523–1524 1296 c.

Wettenhauser Altarpiece; Annunciation and Visitation Dormition of the Virgin

Fresco

1416

Fresco

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

Technique Oil on panel

Visitation and Mary and Elizabeth Meet Zechariah

1310–1325

Date 1480

Title Seven Joys of the Virgin

300 × 158 cm

206 × 172 cm

112 × 77 cm

Dimension 81.3 × 189.2 cm

Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome.

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Basilica di San Nicola, Tolentino Oratorio di S. Giovanni Battista, Urbino

Pinacoteca di Palazzo Chiericati, Vicenza Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

Location Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Virgin Mary

Theme Virgin Mary

216 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Bartolo di Fredi (Siena, c. 1330–1410), workshop of

Bartolo di Fredi (Siena, c. 1330–1410), workshop of

Andrea del Cagno (active around 1450)

Andrea del Cagno (active around 1450)

Andrea del Cagno (active around 1450)

Author Andrea del Cagno (active around 1450)

Saint Anthony Abbot

Title Young Anthony Listening to the Gospel and Anthony Distributing His Wealth to the Poor Anthony Leaves the Monastery of Patras and Is Beaten by Devils Arrival in the Desert of the Water Sent by the King of Palestine and St. Anthony Defeating a Dragon Appearing in a Spring Devil Sprinkling St. Anthony Abbot with Holy Water and Appearing to Him in the Guise of a Princess Meeting of Anthony with Agathon, then with Paul, and Miraculous Meal of the Two Hermit Saints Death and Burial of St. Paul and Agathon Resumes Human Form

Technique Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Date 1450 c.

1450 c.

1450 c.

1450 c.

1380–1390

1380–1390

32.5 × 88.2 cm

32.7 × 88.2 cm

Dimension

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Cappella di Sant’Antonio Abate, Chiesa di San Francesco, Montefalco

Cappella di Sant’Antonio Abate, Chiesa di San Francesco, Montefalco Cappella di Sant’Antonio Abate, Chiesa di San Francesco, Montefalco

Location Cappella di Sant’Antonio Abate, Chiesa di San Francesco, Montefalco

Saint Anthony Abbot (continued)

Saint Anthony Abbot

Saint Anthony Abbot

Saint Anthony Abbot Saint Anthony Abbot

Theme Saint Anthony Abbot

Saints (more than 10 works per theme, in alphabetical order by theme and by artist for each theme. Anonymous artists are listed in alphabetical order by the site in which works are located).

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 217

1500 c.

1430–1435 c.

1430–1435 c.

1372

1372

Legend of St. Anthony the Hermit

Meeting of St. Anthony and St. Paul

St. Anthony Distributing His Wealth to the Poor

Vocation and Charity of St. Anthony Abbot

Escape from the Monastery and Miracle of Water

Master of the Holy Kinship (active in Cologne, c. 1500) Master of the Osservanza (Sienese, active late 1420s – early 1440s) or Sano di Pietro (Ansano di Pietro di Mencio) (Siena, 1405–1481) Master of the Osservanza (Sienese, active late 1420s – early 1440s) or Sano di Pietro (Ansano di Pietro di Mencio) (Siena, 1405–1481) Niccolò di Tommaso (active in Florence, c. 1346–1376) Niccolò di Tommaso (active in Florence, c. 1346–1376)

1384–1385 c.

Temptation and Blessing of St. Anthony Abbot

Gaddi, Agnolo (Florence, c. 1350–1396)

Date 1384–1385 c.

Title St. Anthony Hearing the Gospel and Giving Alms

Author Gaddi, Agnolo (Florence, c. 1350–1396)

Fresco

Fresco

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

Fresco

Technique Fresco

46.4 × 33.6 cm

46.5 × 33.4 cm

108.2 × 190.1 cm

Dimension

Chiesa di Sant’Antonio Abate o del Tau, Pistoia

Chiesa di Sant’Antonio Abate o del Tau, Pistoia

National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC

National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Cappella Castellani, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence

Location Cappella Castellani, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence

Saint Anthony Abbot Saint Anthony Abbot

Saint Anthony Abbot

Theme Saint Anthony Abbot Saint Anthony Abbot Saint Anthony Abbot Saint Anthony Abbot

218 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Vitale da Bologna (Bologna, c. 1310 – c. 1360)

Vitale da Bologna (Bologna, c. 1310 – c. 1360)

Author Niccolò di Tommaso (active in Florence, c. 1346–1376) Sacchi, Pier Francesco (Pavia, 1485 – Genoa, 1528) van Leyden, Aertgen Claesz (Leiden, c. 1498 – c. 1564) Velazquez, Diego Rodriguez de Silva (Seville, 1599 – Madrid, 1660) Vitale da Bologna (Bologna, c. 1310 – c. 1360) 1523

1530 c.

1634 c.

1340–1345

St. Anthony Abbot, St. Paul the Hermit and St. Hilarion

Calling of St. Anthony

Sts. Anthony Abbot and Paul the Hermit

St. Anthony Holds Effron’s Body and St. Anthony Resuscitates Three Men Killed by the Wild Animals Sophia, Daughter of Emperor Constantine, Possessed by the Devil and Sofia at the Funeral of Anthony St. Anthony Leaves the Monastery of Patras and St. Anthony Defeats the Dragon that Appears in a Fountain 1340–1345

1340–1345

Date 1372

Title St. Anthony Abbot Goes Back to the Desert

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Oil on canvas

Oil on panel

Oil on canvas

Technique Fresco

79 × 37 cm

78.5 × 38.5 cm

78.5 × 38. 5 cm

261 × 192.5 cm

132.5 × 96.3 cm

168 × 142 cm

Dimension

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Bologna

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Bologna

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Bologna

Museo del Prado, Madrid

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Musei di Strada Nuova, Palazzo Bianco, Genoa

Location Chiesa di Sant’Antonio Abate o del Tau, Pistoia

Saint Anthony Abbot

Saint Anthony Abbot

Saint Anthony Abbot

Theme Saint Anthony Abbot Saint Anthony Abbot Saint Anthony Abbot Saint Anthony Abbot

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 219

Matteo di Pacino (active 1359–1394)

Lorenzo Monaco (Piero di Giovanni) (? 1370–71 – ? Florence, c. 1425)

Lorenzo Monaco (Piero di Giovanni) (? 1370–71 – ? Florence, c. 1425)

Giovanni di Consalvo (active 1435–1439) Lippi, Filippo (Florence, c. 1406 – Spoleto, 1469)

Bergognone (Ambrogio da Fossano) (? Milan, c. 1453–1523) Consolo (magister Conxolus) (active second half thirteenth century)

Author Bergognone (Ambrogio da Fossano) (? Milan, c. 1453–1523)

Saint Benedict

Title Altarpiece of St. Benedict; Prayer of St. Benedict, Miracle of the Sieve, and Departure for Subiaco Altarpiece of St. Benedict; Temptation and Penance of St. Benedict Miracle of the Sieve, Voyage to the Church of Affile, Vestition, and Withdrawal into the Cave Miracle of the Poisoned Bread St. Benedict Orders St. Maurus to Rescue St. Placidus Altarpiece of St. Benedict; St. Benedict Freeing a Monk from Temptation and Saving a Young Man Altarpiece of the Coronation of the Virgin; St. Benedict and St. Scholastica, and St. Maurus Saving St. Placidus Triptych of the Apparition of the Virgin to St. Bernard; St. Benedict Orders St. Maurus to Rescue St. Placidus and St. Maurus Saves St. Placidus 1365 c.

1414

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

1445–1450

1407–1409 c.

Fresco

Fresco

1250–1299

1436–1439

Tempera and oil on panel

Technique Tempera and oil on panel

1490 c.

Date 1490 c.

23 × 28.5 cm

28.5 × 52 cm

40 × 69.5 cm

27 × 48 cm

Dimension 27 × 42 cm

Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence

Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

Pinacoteca Vaticana, Vatican City

Chiostro degli Aranci, Badia Fiorentina, Florence National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC

Chiesa Inferiore del Sacro Speco, Subiaco

Musée des Beaux Arts, Nantes

Location Musée des Beaux Arts, Nantes

Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict

Theme Saint Benedict

220 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Sodoma (Bazzi, Giovanni Antonio) (Vercelli, 1477 – Siena, 1549)

Signorelli, Luca (Cortona, c. 1450–1523) and workshop

Signorelli, Luca (Cortona, c. 1450–1523)

Second Collaborator of Consolo (active thirteenth century) Second Collaborator of Consolo (active thirteenth century) Second Umbrian Master (active fifteenth century) Signorelli, Luca (Cortona, c. 1450–1523)

Author Polack, Jan (? c. 1450–1519)

Fresco

Fresco

Tempera on panel

Fresco

1497–1498

1497–1498

1515–1516 c.

1505–1508

Benedict Reproves the Brother of the Monk Valerian for Having Violated His Fast Placido Is Saved by the Waters and Benedict Revives a Monk Crushed by a Wall, Throws Himself Naked into the Brambles, and Retires into a Cave Priest Brings Benedict Food on Easter Day

Fresco

1400–1450 c.

Recovery of the Possessed Monk Benedict Revives a Monk Crushed by a Wall

Fresco

Fresco

1250–1299

1250–1299

Technique Oil on panel

Date 1483–1489

Miracle of the Sickle

Title Weihenstephan Altarpiece; St. Benedict as the Father of Western Monasticism (reverse side) Stealing of the Poisoned Bread

22 × 170 cm

Dimension 147 × 129 cm

Abbazia Santa Maria di Monte Oliveto Maggiore, Asciano

Museo Diocesano, Cortona

Chiesa Superiore del Sacro Speco, Subiaco Abbazia Santa Maria di Monte Oliveto Maggiore, Asciano Abbazia Santa Maria di Monte Oliveto Maggiore, Asciano

Chiesa Inferiore del Sacro Speco, Subiaco

Chiesa Inferiore del Sacro Speco, Subiaco

Location Alte Pinakothek, Munich

(continued)

Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict

Theme Saint Benedict

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 221

Sodoma (Bazzi, Giovanni Antonio) (Vercelli, 1477 – Siena, 1549) Sodoma (Bazzi, Giovanni Antonio) (Vercelli, 1477 – Siena, 1549) Sodoma (Bazzi, Giovanni Antonio) (Vercelli, 1477 – Siena, 1549) Sodoma (Bazzi, Giovanni Antonio) (Vercelli, 1477 – Siena, 1549)

Sodoma (Bazzi, Giovanni Antonio) (Vercelli, 1477 – Siena, 1549)

Author Sodoma (Bazzi, Giovanni Antonio) (Vercelli, 1477 – Siena, 1549) Sodoma (Bazzi, Giovanni Antonio) (Vercelli, 1477 – Siena, 1549) Sodoma (Bazzi, Giovanni Antonio) (Vercelli, 1477 – Siena, 1549) Sodoma (Bazzi, Giovanni Antonio) (Vercelli, 1477 – Siena, 1549) Fresco

Fresco

1505–1508

1505–1508

Fresco

Fresco

1505–1508

1505–1508

Benedict Obtains Flour in Abundance and with It Restores the Monks Benedict Appears to Two far-off Monks and Shows Them the Design for the Construction of the Monastery

Fresco

Fresco

1505–1508

1505–1508

Fresco

Fresco

1505–1508

1505–1508

Technique Fresco

Date 1505–1508

Florentius Sends Evil Women to the Monastery

Title Benedict, Tempted by Impurity, Overcomes Temptation Benedict, with the Sign of the Cross, Breaks a Glass of Poisoned Wine Benedict Delivers a Possessed Monk by Scourging Him Benedict, Entreated by Monks, Produces Water from the Top of the Mountain Benedict Causes the Blade of a Scythe that has Fallen to the Bottom of the Lake to Return to its Handle Florentius Tries to Poison Benedict

Dimension

Abbazia Santa Maria di Monte Oliveto Maggiore, Asciano Abbazia Santa Maria di Monte Oliveto Maggiore, Asciano Abbazia Santa Maria di Monte Oliveto Maggiore, Asciano Abbazia Santa Maria di Monte Oliveto Maggiore, Asciano

Abbazia Santa Maria di Monte Oliveto Maggiore, Asciano

Location Abbazia Santa Maria di Monte Oliveto Maggiore, Asciano Abbazia Santa Maria di Monte Oliveto Maggiore, Asciano Abbazia Santa Maria di Monte Oliveto Maggiore, Asciano Abbazia Santa Maria di Monte Oliveto Maggiore, Asciano

Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict

Theme Saint Benedict

222 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Spinello Aretino (Arezzo, 1350–52 – 1410) Spinello Aretino (Arezzo, 1350–52 – 1410) Spinello Aretino (Arezzo, 1350–52 – 1410)

Spinello Aretino (Arezzo, 1350–52 – 1410)

Spinello Aretino (Arezzo, 1350–52 – 1410)

Spinello Aretino (Arezzo, 1350–52 – 1410) Spinello Aretino (Arezzo, 1350–52 – 1410) Spinello Aretino (Arezzo, 1350–52 – 1410)

Author Sodoma (Bazzi, Giovanni Antonio) (Vercelli, 1477 – Siena, 1549)

Benedict Frees a Novice from Possession by the Devil Vestition of Benedict by Romanus, a Devil Breaking the Bell with a Stone, and Romanus Providing Nourishment to Benedict Priest Inspired by God Brings Benedict Food on Easter Day Benedict’s Blessing Causes the Cup of Poison to Shatter Miraculous Rescue of Placidus from Drowning Temptation of St. Benedict and St. Benedict Throwing Himself Naked into the Brambles

Title Benedict Has the Body of Christ Placed on the Body of the Monk Whom the Earth Would Not Receive Benedict Restores to Life a Monk Crushed by a Wall Funeral of St. Benedict

Fresco Fresco Fresco

1387–1388 c. 1387–1388 c.

Fresco

Fresco

1387–1388 c.

1387–1388 c.

1387–1388 c.

Fresco

Fresco

1387–1388 c. 1387–1388 c.

Fresco

Technique Fresco

1387–1388 c.

Date 1505–1508

Dimension

Basilica di San Miniato al Monte, Florence Basilica di San Miniato al Monte, Florence Basilica di San Miniato al Monte, Florence

Basilica di San Miniato al Monte, Florence

Basilica di San Miniato al Monte, Florence

Basilica di San Miniato al Monte, Florence Basilica di San Miniato al Monte, Florence Basilica di San Miniato al Monte, Florence

Location Abbazia Santa Maria di Monte Oliveto Maggiore, Asciano

Saint Benedict Saint Benedict Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict

Saint Benedict Saint Benedict Saint Benedict

Theme Saint Benedict

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 223

Tempera on panel

1473

1473

Recovery of Giovanni Antonio Tornano

Miracle of Giovanni Antonio da Parma Wounded by a Shovel St. Bernardine Releases a Prisoner

Pierantonio di Niccolò del Pocciolo (active 1471–1478) Pierantonio di Niccolò del Pocciolo (active 1471–1478) Pinturicchio (Bernardino di Betto Betti) (Perugia, c. 1452 – Siena, 1513) Pinturicchio (Bernardino di Betto) (Perugia, 1454 – Siena, 1513)

Death of St. Bernardine

Tempera on panel

1473

Scenes form the Life of St. Bernardine

1484–1486

1477

Fresco

Tempera on panel

Fresco

Fresco

Gian Giacomo da Lodi (Lodi, active 1451–1490)

1477

Scenes from the Life of St. Bernardine

Technique Fresco

Gian Giacomo da Lodi (Lodi, active 1451–1490)

Date 1477

Title Scenes from the Life of St. Bernardine

Author Gian Giacomo da Lodi (Lodi, active 1451–1490)

Saint Bernardine

76 × 57 cm

76 × 57 cm

76 × 57 cm

Dimension

Cappella Bufalini, Santa Maria in Aracoeli, Rome

Galleria Nazionale dell’Umbria, Perugia

Galleria Nazionale dell’Umbria, Perugia

Location Cappella di San Bernardino, Chiesa di San Francesco, Lodi Cappella di San Bernardino, Chiesa di San Francesco, Lodi Cappella di San Bernardino, Chiesa di San Francesco, Lodi Galleria Nazionale dell’Umbria, Perugia

Saint Bernardine

Saint Bernardine

Saint Bernardine

Saint Bernardine

Saint Bernardine

Saint Bernardine

Theme Saint Bernardine

224 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Tempera on panel Fresco

1470 c.

1473

1461

St. Bernardine Reviving a Drowned Infant

St. Bernardine Heals Nicola di Lorenzo da Prato Gored by a Bull St. Bernardine Heals a Woman and a Man

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

1470 c.

Possessed Woman Is Exorcised

Technique Tempera on panel

Sano di Pietro (Ansano di Pietro di Mencio) (Siena, 1405–1481) Sano di Pietro (Ansano di Pietro di Mencio) (Siena, 1405–1481) Sante di Apollonio del Celandro (active c. 1475–1486) Vincioli, Jacopo (Spoleto, active 1444–1495)

Date 1470 c.

Title St. Bernardine Restoring the Child Carino to Life

Author Sano di Pietro (Ansano di Pietro di Mencio) (Siena, 1405–1481)

76 × 57 cm

28.8 × 39.8 cm

25.2 × 40.9 cm

Dimension 21.6 × 40.2 cm

Cappella di San Bernardino, Chiesa di San Francesco, Montefalco

Location Private collection, documented in: K. Christiansen, L. B. Kanter & C. B. Strehlke (Eds.). La Pittura Senese nel Rinascimento. Siena: Monte dei Paschi di Siena, 1989 Private collection, documented in the Archivio Zeri, Bologna Private collection, documented in the Archivio Zeri, Bologna Galleria Nazionale dell’Umbria, Perugia Saint Bernardine

Saint Bernardine

Saint Bernardine

Saint Bernardine

Theme Saint Bernardine

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 225

1389–1390

Altarpiece from the Church of St. Gaggio in Florence; Beheading of St. Catherine of Alexandria Beheading of St. Catherine

Luini, Bernardino (Dumenza, c. 1481 – Milan, 1532) Masolino da Panicale (Tommaso di Cristoforo Fini) (Panicale in Valdarno, 1383 – ? Florence, c. 1440)

Conversion and Beheading of Empress Faustina

1370–1375

Beheading and Burial of St. Catherine

Giovanni del Biondo (Pratovecchio, active 1356–1398) Lorenzo Monaco (Piero di Giovanni) (? 1370–71 – ? Florence, c. 1425)

Anonymous

1427–1431

1530

1480 c.

1241–1255

1368 c.

1368 c.

Dispute and Arrest of St. Catherine (from the Cathedral of La Seu d’Urgell) Scenes from the Life of St. Catherine of Alexandria

Andrea de’ Bartoli (active c. 1349–1369)

Andrea de’ Bartoli (active c. 1349–1369)

Anonymous

Date 1368 c.

Title Conversion and Mystical Marriage of St. Catherine of Alexandria Beheading of St. Catherine and Translation of Her Body to Mount Sinai Martyrdom and Beheading of the Empress Faustina

Author Andrea de’ Bartoli (active c. 1349–1369)

Saint Catherine of Alexandria

Fresco

Fresco

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Technique Fresco

43.3 × 58 cm

74 × 99 cm

164.5 × 179.5 cm

Dimension

Cappella Besozzi, Chiesa di San Maurizio al Monastero Maggiore, Milan Cappella Branda Castiglioni, Chiesa di San Clemente, Rome

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence

Location Cappella di Santa Caterina, Basilica Inferiore di San Francesco, Assisi Cappella di Santa Caterina, Basilica Inferiore di San Francesco, Assisi Cappella di Santa Caterina, Basilica Inferiore di San Francesco, Assisi Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona Palazzo Reale, Genoa

Saint Catherine of Alexandria Saint Catherine of Alexandria

Theme Saint Catherine of Alexandria Saint Catherine of Alexandria Saint Catherine of Alexandria Saint Catherine of Alexandria Saint Catherine of Alexandria Saint Catherine of Alexandria Saint Catherine of Alexandria

226 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Spinello Aretino (Arezzo, 1350–52 – 1410)

Author Masolino da Panicale (Tommaso di Cristoforo Fini) (Panicale in Valdarno, 1383 – ? Florence, c. 1440) Masolino da Panicale (Tommaso di Cristoforo Fini) (Panicale in Valdarno, 1383 – ? Florence, c. 1440) Master of the Holy Kinship (active in Cologne, c. 1500) Master of the Legend of Saint Catherine (active in Brussels, c. 1475–1500) Master of the Munich Crucifixion Altar of 1517 (active in Cologne, c. 1500–1550) (Pierre des Mares?) Master of the Munich Crucifixion Altar of 1517 (active in Cologne, c. 1500–1550) (Pierre des Mares?) Signorelli, Luca (Cortona, c. 1450–1523) 1517 c.

1490 c.

Beheading of St. Catherine

Bichi Altarpiece; Martyrdom of St. Catherine of Alexandria Mystic Marriage of St. Catherine 1387–1395

1517 c.

Oil on panel

1480 c.

St. Catherine Refusing to Worship Idols

Tempera and oil on panel

1503 c.

Holy Kinship Altarpiece; Mystic Marriage of St. Catherine Episodes from the Life of St. Catherine

Fresco

Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Fresco

1427–1431

Beheading and Burial of St. Catherine

Technique Fresco

Date 1427–1431

Title St. Catherine Disputing with Scholars

29.6 × 92.4 cm

123.5 × 84 cm

120 × 83.7 cm

134.6 × 101.5 cm

141 × 186 cm

Dimension

Oratorio di S. Caterina all’Antella, Bagno a Ripoli

Clark Art Institute, Williamstown

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Wallraf-­Richartz-­Museum, Cologne

Cappella Branda Castiglioni, Chiesa di San Clemente, Rome

Location Cappella Branda Castiglioni, Chiesa di San Clemente, Rome

Saint Catherine of Alexandria Saint Catherine of Alexandria

Saint Catherine of Alexandria

Saint Catherine of Alexandria Saint Catherine of Alexandria Saint Catherine of Alexandria

Saint Catherine of Alexandria

Theme Saint Catherine of Alexandria

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 227

Gaddi, Taddeo (Florence, 1295–1300 – 1366)

Dalmasio degli Scannabecchi (Bologna, c. 1310 – c. 1375) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Gaddi, Taddeo (Florence, 1295–1300 – 1366)

Author Berlinghieri, Bonaventura (Lucca, c. 1210 – c. 1287) Berlinghieri, Bonaventura (Lucca, c. 1210 – c. 1287) Berlinghieri, Bonaventura (Lucca, c. 1210 – c. 1287) Bicci di Lorenzo (Florence, 1373–1452)

Saint Francis

1235

1235

1400–1449

1343 c.

1429

1335–1340

St. Francis Healing a Man with the Broken Leg

Miracle of the Girl with the Twisted Neck

St. Francis of Assisi Revives a Child Fallen from the Window of a Palace Dream of Innocent III

Funeral of St. Francis

Cupboard of the Sacristy of Santa Croce; Dream of Innocent III Cupboard of the Sacristy of Santa Croce; Death of Francis 1335–1340

Date 1235

Title Miracle of the Pear

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Fresco

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Technique Tempera on panel

40.5 × 36.5 cm

40.5 × 36.5 cm

29 × 70.7 cm

18 × 27 cm

153 × 111 cm (whole)

153 × 111 cm (whole)

Dimension 153 × 111 cm (whole)

Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence

Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Cappella Maggiore, Chiesa di San Francesco, Pistoia

Documented in the Archivio Zeri, Bologna

Chiesa di San Francesco, Pescia

Chiesa di San Francesco, Pescia

Location Chiesa di San Francesco, Pescia

Saint Francis

Saint Francis

Saint Francis

Saint Francis

Saint Francis

Saint Francis

Saint Francis

Theme Saint Francis

228 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Ghirlandaio (Bigordi, Domenico) (Florence, 1448–49 – 1494) Giotto (Giotto di Bondone) (Vespignano del Mugello, Florence, c. 1267 – Florence, 1337) Giotto (Giotto di Bondone) (Vespignano del Mugello, Florence, c. 1267 – Florence, 1337) Giotto (Giotto di Bondone) (Vespignano del Mugello, Florence, c. 1267 – Florence, 1337) Giunta Pisano (Giunta di Capitinio da Pisa) (active 1236–1254) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497)

Author Gaddi, Taddeo (Florence, 1295–1300 – 1366)

Tempera on panel Fresco

Fresco

1325 c.

1240–1260 c.

1452

1452

Death and Ascension of St. Francis

St. Francis Dossal; Healing of a Cripple

Birth of St. Francis, Prophecy of the Birth by a Pilgrim, and Homage of the Simple Man St. Francis Giving away His Clothes and Vision of the Church Militant and Triumphant

Fresco

Fresco

1296–1299 c.

Death and Ascension of St. Francis

Fresco

Fresco

1483–1486

1308–1311 c.

Technique Tempera on panel

Date 1335 c.

Raising of a Child Fallen from a Tower

Title Cupboard of the Sacristy of Santa Croce; Resurrection of a Child Resurrection of ta Boy

270 × 220 cm

304 × 220 cm

155 × 132.3 cm (whole)

280 × 450 cm

270 × 230 cm

Dimension 48.2 × 43 cm

Cappella del Coro, Chiesa di San Francesco, Montefalco

Cappella del Coro, Chiesa di San Francesco, Montefalco

Museo Nazionale di San Matteo, Pisa

Cappella Bardi, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence

Basilica Superiore di San Francesco, Assisi

Basilica Inferiore di San Francesco, Assisi

Cappella Sassetti, Basilica di Santa Trinita, Florence

Location Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

(continued)

Saint Francis

Saint Francis

Saint Francis

Saint Francis

Saint Francis

Saint Francis

Saint Francis

Theme Saint Francis

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 229

Author Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Master of San Francesco Bardi (active 1200–1260) Sassetta (Stefano di Giovanni di Consolo) (Siena o Cortona, c. 1400 – Siena, 1450) Sassetta (Stefano di Giovanni di Consolo) (Siena o Cortona, c. 1400 – Siena, 1450) 1452

1452

1250–1260

Death and Ascension of St. Francis

Death of the Knight of Celano

Healing of Bartholomew of Narni San Sepolcro Altarpiece; Mystic Marriage of St. Francis

San Sepolcro Altarpiece; St. Francis and the Poor Knight and Francis’s Vision

1452

Dream of Innocent III and Confirmation of the Rule

1437–1444

1437–1444

Date 1452

Title St. Francis Preaching to Birds and Blessing Montefalco

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Technique Fresco

87 × 52.5 cm

95 × 58 cm

234 × 127 cm (whole)

304 × 220 cm

270 × 220 cm

304 × 220 cm

Dimension 270 × 220 cm

National Gallery, London

Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence Musée Condé, Chantilly

Cappella del Coro, Chiesa di San Francesco, Montefalco

Cappella del Coro, Chiesa di San Francesco, Montefalco

Cappella del Coro, Chiesa di San Francesco, Montefalco

Location Cappella del Coro, Chiesa di San Francesco, Montefalco

Saint Francis

Saint Francis Saint Francis

Saint Francis

Saint Francis

Saint Francis

Theme Saint Francis

230 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Masaccio (Tommaso di ser Giovanni di Mone Cassai) (San Giovanni Valdarno, 1401 – Rome, 1428)

Jacopo di Cione (Florence, active 1365 – 1399–1400) Lippi, Filippino (Prato, c. 1457 – Florence, 1504)

Bartolomeo di Giovanni (Florence, active c. 1475 – c. 1500–05) Della Robbia, Luca (Florence, 1399–1400 – 1482) Giovanni dal Ponte (Giovanni di Marco di Giovanni) (Florence, 1385 – 1437–38) Guido di Graziano (? c. 1230 – ? c. 1290)

Anonymous

Author Anonymous

Saint Peter

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel Fresco

Fresco

1430 c.

1250–1299

1370–1371

1481–1482

1424–1428

St. Peter Poliptych; St. Peter Liberated from Prison

St. Peter Enthroned and Stories of St. Peter; Liberation of St. Peter Altarpiece for the Church of San Pier Maggiore; St. Peter Released from Prison Disputation with Simon Magus and Crucifixion of Peter Tribute Money

Marble relief

1439

St. Peter Liberated from Prison

Tempera on panel

Miniature

Technique Mosaics

1479

1350 c.

Date 1180–1190

St. Peter Liberated from Prison

Title Resurrection of Tabitha and Meeting of Peter and Paul Liberation of St. Peter

255 × 598 cm

230 × 598 cm

38.9 × 52.4 cm

100 × 141 cm (whole)

42.5 × 52 cm

69 × 78 cm

24 × 224 cm (whole)

17.5 × 16.5 cm

Dimension

Cappella Brancacci, Chiesa di Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence Cappella Brancacci, Chiesa di Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence

Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Siena

Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence

Location Cattedrale di Santa Maria Nuova, Monreale Musée Marmottan Monet, Paris Cattedrale di San Martino, Lucca

(continued)

Saint Peter

Saint Peter

Saint Peter

Saint Peter

Saint Peter

Saint Peter

Saint Peter

Saint Peter

Theme Saint Peter

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 231

Author Masaccio (Tommaso di ser Giovanni di Mone Cassai) (San Giovanni Valdarno, 1401 – Rome, 1428) and Lippi, Filippino (Prato, c. 1457 – Florence, 1504) Masolino da Panicale (Tommaso di Cristoforo Fini) (Panicale in Valdarno, 1383 – ? Florence, c. 1440) Perugino (Vannucci, Pietro di Cristoforo) (Città della Pieve, 1445–50 – Fontignano, 1523) Raphael (Sanzio, Raffaello) (Urbino, 1483 – Rome, 1520) Toscani, Giovanni di Francesco (Florence, c. 1372–1430) Umbrian Master of the fifteenth century Witz, Konrad (Rottweil, 1400–10 – Basel, c. 1444–47)

Date 1424–1428

1424–1425 c.

1481–1482

1513 c.

1424–1425

1400–1450 c. 1444

Title Raising of the Son of Theophilus and St. Peter Enthroned

Healing of the Cripple and Raising of Tabitha

The Delivery of the Keys

Liberation of St. Peter

Nevin Polyptych; St. Peter Liberated from Prison

Miracle of the Cripple

Altarpiece of St. Peter; Liberation of St. Peter

Oil on panel

Fresco

Tempera on panel

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Technique Fresco

133.7 × 156.5 cm

240 × 220 cm (whole)

660 cm (at the base)

335 × 550 cm

260 × 599 cm

Dimension 232 × 597 cm

Chiesa Superiore del Sacro Speco, Subiaco. Musée d’art et d’histoire, Geneve

Schloss Crottorf, Friesenhagen

Stanza di Eliodoro, Palazzi Vaticani, Vatican City

Cappella Sistina, Vatican City

Cappella Brancacci, Chiesa di Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence

Location Cappella Brancacci, Chiesa di Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence

Saint Peter

Saint Peter

Saint Peter

Saint Peter

Saint Peter

Saint Peter

Theme Saint Peter

232 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Author Degli Erri, Agnolo (active in Modena, 1442–1497) and Degli Erri, Bartolomeo (active in Modena, 1450–1479) Degli Erri, Agnolo (active in Modena, 1442–1497) and Degli Erri, Bartolomeo (active in Modena, 1450–1479) Degli Erri, Agnolo (active in Modena, 1442–1497) and Degli Erri, Bartolomeo (active in Modena, 1450–1479) Degli Erri, Agnolo (active in Modena, 1442–1497) and Degli Erri, Bartolomeo (active in Modena, 1450–1479) Degli Erri, Agnolo (active in Modena, 1442–1497) and Degli Erri, Bartolomeo (active in Modena, 1450–1479)

Saint Peter Martyr Technique Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Date 1450 c.

1450 c.

1450 c.

1450 c.

1450 c.

Title Dossal of St. Peter Martyr; Young Peter Debates with His Uncle and Other Heretics

Dossal of St. Peter Martyr; Corporal Penance and Fasts of St. Peter

Dossal of St. Peter Martyr; Peter Heals a Youth in Cesena

Dossal of St. Peter Martyr; Peter Restores a Boy Burnt in a Fire

Dossal of St. Peter Martyr; St. Peter Receives the Message of the Pope

55 × 30 cm

55 × 30 cm

55 × 30 cm

55 × 30 cm

Dimension 55 × 30 cm

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Parma

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Parma

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Parma

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Parma

Location Pinacoteca Nazionale, Parma

(continued)

Saint Peter Martyr

Saint Peter Martyr

Saint Peter Martyr

Saint Peter Martyr

Theme Saint Peter Martyr

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 233

Author Degli Erri, Agnolo (active in Modena, 1442–1497) and Degli Erri, Bartolomeo (active in Modena, 1450–1479) Degli Erri, Agnolo (active in Modena, 1442–1497) and Degli Erri, Bartolomeo (active in Modena, 1450–1479) Degli Erri, Agnolo (active in Modena, 1442–1497) and Degli Erri, Bartolomeo (active in Modena, 1450–1479) Degli Erri, Agnolo (active in Modena, 1442–1497) and Degli Erri, Bartolomeo (active in Modena, 1450–1479) Degli Erri, Agnolo (active in Modena, 1442–1497) and Degli Erri, Bartolomeo (active in Modena, 1450–1479)

Date 1450 c.

1450 c.

1450 c.

1450 c.

1450 c.

Title Dossal of St. Peter Martyr; St. Peter Gives Life to a Still Born Baby

Dossal of St. Peter Martyr; St. Peter, while Preaching, Tames a Horse and Returns Speech to a Mute Boy

Dossal of St. Peter Martyr; St. Peter Presenting the Consecrated Host and Making a Demon Flee

Dossal of St. Peter Martyr; Martyrdom of St. Peter and His Death after an Ambush by Heretics

Dossal of St. Peter Martyr; St. Peter, Having Received the Message from the Pope, Leaves on a Special Mission

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Technique Tempera on panel

55 × 30 cm

55 × 30 cm

55 × 30 cm

55 × 30 cm

Dimension 55 × 30 cm

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Parma

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Parma

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Parma

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Parma

Location Pinacoteca Nazionale, Parma

Saint Peter Martyr

Saint Peter Martyr

Saint Peter Martyr

Saint Peter Martyr

Theme Saint Peter Martyr

234 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

1447–1449

1447–1449

1452–1465

Preaching of St. Stephen and Dispute in the Sanhedrin

St. Stephen Led to Martyrdom and His Stoning

St. Stephen Is Born and Replaced by Another Child

Disputation in the Synagogue

Martyrdom and Funeral of St. Stephen

Lippi, Filippo (Florence, c. 1406 – Spoleto, 1469)

Lippi, Filippo (Florence, c. 1406 – Spoleto, 1469)

1452–1465

1452–1465

Fresco

1447–1449

Ordination of St. Stephen by St. Peter and St. Stephen Distributing Alms

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Technique Fresco

Date 1328 c.

Title Martyrdom of St. Stephen

Author Daddi, Bernardo (? c. 1290 – ? c. 1348) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Lippi, Filippo (Florence, c. 1406 – Spoleto, 1469)

Saint Stephen

322 × 473 cm

322 × 412 cm

322 × 472 cm

Dimension 411 × 510 cm

Cappella Maggiore, Cattedrale di Santo Stefano, Prato Cappella Maggiore, Cattedrale di Santo Stefano, Prato Cappella Maggiore, Cattedrale di Santo Stefano, Prato

Cappella Niccolina, Musei Vaticani, Vatican City

Cappella Niccolina, Musei Vaticani, Vatican City

Location Cappella Pulci, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence Cappella Niccolina, Musei Vaticani, Vatican City

(continued)

Saint Stephen

Saint Stephen

Saint Stephen

Saint Stephen

Saint Stephen

Theme Saint Stephen Saint Stephen

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 235

Serra, Jaume (active in Barcelona, 1358 – 1389–95)

Memling, Hans (Seligenstadt, 1433 – Bruges, 1494) Reichlich, Marx (Brixen, c. 1460 – ? c. 1520)

Martino di Bartolomeo (Siena, 1365–70 – 1435)

Martino di Bartolomeo (Siena, 1365–70 – 1435)

Mariotto di Nardo (active in Florence, 1394–1424) Mariotto di Nardo (active in Florence, 1394–1424)

Author Mariotto di Nardo (active in Florence, 1394–1424)

Sts. James and Stephen Altarpiece; Disputation of St. Stephen Altarpiece of St. Stephen; Martyrdom of St. Stephen

Title St. Stephen Preaching and St. Stephen before the High Priest and Elders of the Sanhedrin Stoning St. Stephen and Burial of St. Stephen Devils Agitating the Sea as Giuliana Transports the Body of St. Stephen from Jerusalem to Constantinople and Reinterment of St. Stephen beside St. Lawrence in Rome Seven Scenes from the Legend of St. Stephen; Exchange and Abduction Seven Scenes from the Legend of St. Stephen; Return of St. Stephen and Burning of the Changeling St. Stephen

1385 c.

1506

1480 c.

1390 c.

1390 c.

1408

1408

Date 1408

Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

Technique Tempera on panel

185.7 × 186.5 cm (whole)

108.5 × 78.5 cm

47.5 × 16.2 cm

70 × 59 cm

74.3 × 58.8 cm

29 × 53.9 cm

29 × 53.9 cm

Dimension 30 × 57.3 cm

Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati

Städel Museum, Frankfurt am Main

Städel Museum, Frankfurt am Main

National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo

Location National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo

Saint Stephen

Saint Stephen

Saint Stephen

Saint Stephen

Saint Stephen

Saint Stephen Saint Stephen

Theme Saint Stephen

236 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Orley, Barent van (Brussels, c. 1488–1541)

Anonymous

Anonymous

Martini, Simone (Siena, c. 1284 – Avignon, 1344)

Martini, Simone (Siena, c. 1284 – Avignon, 1344)

Martini, Simone (Siena, c. 1284 – Avignon, 1344)

Author Martini, Simone (Siena, c. 1284 – Avignon, 1344)

Preaching of St. Ambrose

Title Blessed Agostino Novello Altarpiece; Miracle of a Child Bitten by a Wolf Blessed Agostino Novello Altarpiece; Miracle of the Baby Falling from the Balcony Blessed Agostino Novello Altarpiece; Miracle of the Knight Falling down a Ravine Blessed Agostino Novello Altarpiece; Miracle of the Baby Falling from the Crib Scenes from the Life of St. Agnes Legend of St. Alexius Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

1324

1324

End eleventh century 1510–1520 c. Oil on panel

Fresco

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel

1324

1480 c.

Technique Tempera on panel

Date 1324

95.5 × 63.6 cm

74 × 99 cm

200 × 256 cm (whole)

200 × 256 cm (whole)

200 × 256 cm (whole)

Dimension 200 × 256 cm (whole)

Basilica Inferiore di San Clemente, Rome Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Palazzo Reale, Genoa

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Siena

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Siena

Pinacoteca Nazionale, Siena

Location Pinacoteca Nazionale, Siena

Saint Alexius Saint Ambrose (continued)

Blessed Agostino Novello Saint Agnes

Blessed Agostino Novello

Theme Blessed Agostino Novello Blessed Agostino Novello

Saints (less than 10 works per theme, in alphabetical order by theme and by artist for each theme. Anonymous artists are listed in alphabetical order by the site in which works are located).

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 237

Michele di Matteo da Bologna (active 1410–1469) Corona (Requesta, Giovanni Antonio) (Padua, after 1481–1528) Filippo da Verona (active 1509–1515)

Manzini, Andrea di Giusto (Florence, c. 1400–1450) Michele di Matteo da Bologna (active 1410–1469)

Author Zenale, Bernardo (Treviglio, c. 1460 – Milan, 1526) and Butinone, Bernardino (Treviglio, c. 1450 – c. 1507) Zenale, Bernardo (Treviglio, c. 1460 – Milan, 1526) and Butinone, Bernardino (Treviglio, c. 1450 – c. 1507) Manzini, Andrea di Giusto (Florence, c. 1400–1450)

Meeting between St. Anthony and Ezzelino da Romano Appearance of St. Anthony to Luca Belludi

Fresco

Fresco

1510

Tempera on panel

1510 c.

1445–1450 c.

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

1445–1450 c.

1436

Adoration of the Magi Altarpiece; Preaching of St. Andrew and the Baptism of a Devotee Adoration of the Magi Altarpiece; Calling of the Apostles Peter and Andrew St. Andrew before the Proconsul Aegeus and St. Andrew Heals Maximilla and Converts Her Flagellation and Crucifixion of St. Andrew

Fresco

Tempera on panel

1489–1493

St. Ambrose Minister of Pace

Technique Fresco

1436

Date 1489–1493

Title St. Ambrose Minister of Justice

36 × 58 cm

36 × 57.5 cm

33 × 238 cm (whole)

33 × 238 cm (whole)

Dimension

Scuola del Santo, Padua

Scuola del Santo, Padua

Musée du Petit Palais, Avignon

Museo d’Arte Sacra della Collegiata di Santa Maria Assunta, Figline Valdarno Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio, Bologna

Museo d’Arte Sacra della Collegiata di Santa Maria Assunta, Figline Valdarno

Cappella Grifi, Chiesa di San Pietro in Gessate, Milan

Location Cappella Grifi, Chiesa di San Pietro in Gessate, Milan

Saint Anthony

Saint Anthony

Saint Andrew

Saint Andrew

Saint Andrew

Saint Andrew

Saint Ambrose

Theme Saint Ambrose

238 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497)

Author Sermei, Cesare (Città della Pieve, c. 1581 – Assisi, 1668) and workshop Tessari, Girolamo (Padua, c. 1490–1561) Titian (Vecellio, Tiziano) (Pieve di Cadore, c.? 1480–90 – Venice, 1576) Niccolò di Tommaso (active in Florence, c. 1346–1376) Fresco

Fresco

1372

1464–1465

1464–1465

1464–1465

Death of St. Monica

Funeral of St. Augustine

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

1511

Bishop Athanasius in the Refectory and Athanasius Taming the Monsters in the Desert Augustine Hears Ambrose Preach

Fresco

1524

St. Anthony Revives a Child Drowned in Hot Water Miracle of the Jealous Husband

Technique Fresco

Date 1610

Title St. Anthony Resuscitating a Drowned Boy

440 cm width

220 × 230 cm

220 × 230 cm

340 × 207 cm

Dimension

Cappella del Coro, Chiesa di Sant’Agostino, San Gimignano

Cappella del Coro, Chiesa di Sant’Agostino, San Gimignano

Cappella del Coro, Chiesa di Sant’Agostino, San Gimignano

Chiesa di Sant’Antonio Abate o del Tau, Pistoia

Scuola del Santo, Padua

Scuola del Santo, Padua

Location Cappella di Sant’Antonio da Padova, Basilica Inferiore di San Francesco, Assisi

(continued)

Saint Augustine

Saint Augustine

Saint Augustine

Saint Athanasius

Saint Anthony Saint Anthony

Theme Saint Anthony

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 239

Guariento di Arpo (Piove di Sacco, 1310–1370) Master of Saint Augustine (Netherlandish, c. 1490) Master of the Coro di Sant’Agostino (active first half fourteenth century) Master of the Coro di Sant’Agostino (active first half fourteenth century) Bartolomeo di Tommaso (Foligno, 1408–11 – Rome, before 1454) Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556) Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556) Master of the Legend of Saint Barbara (active in Brussels, c. 1470–1500) Ratgeb, Jerg (Schwabisch-­Gmund, 1480 – Pforzheim, 1526)

Author Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Guariento di Arpo (Piove di Sacco, 1310–1370)

St. Barbara Altarpiece; Life and Martyrdom of St. Barbara

Stories of St. Barbara (right side) Stories of St. Barbara (left side) Episodes from the Life of St. Barbara

Preaching of St. Augustine, St. Augustine’s Death, and Ascent to Heaven Capture of St. Barbara

Title Parable of the Holy Trinity, Augustine Visit to the Monks of Mount Pisano and Dictates the Rule Augustine in a Walled Garden and Augustine and Alypius Read the Acts of the Apostles Baptism and Vestition of Augustine Scenes from the Life of St. Augustine of Hippo St. Augustine Giving the Rule to His Companions

Oil on panel

1470–1499

Oil on panel

Fresco

1524

1510

Fresco

1524

Fresco

1449

Fresco

1315–1318

Fresco

Oil on panel

1490 c.

1315–1318

Fresco

Fresco

1362–1365

1362–1365

Technique Fresco

Date 1464–1465

73.2 × 124 cm

219 × 297 cm

137.8 × 149.9 cm

Dimension 220 × 230 cm

Cappella Suardi, Trescore Balneario Cappella Suardi, Trescore Balneario Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels Evangelische Stadtkirche, Schwaigern

Museo della Città Palazzo Trinci, Foligno

Chiesa di Sant’Agostino, Rimini

Chiesa degli Eremitani, Padua Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Chiesa di Sant’Agostino, Rimini

Chiesa degli Eremitani, Padua

Location Cappella del Coro, Chiesa di Sant’Agostino, San Gimignano

Saint Barbara

Saint Barbara Saint Barbara Saint Barbara

Saint Barbara

Saint Augustine

Saint Augustine Saint Augustine Saint Augustine

Saint Augustine

Theme Saint Augustine

240 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Altarpiece for the Hospital of Santa Maria della Scala; St. Catherine of Siena and the Beggar Cecilia and Valerian Crowned by an Angel

Giovanni di Paolo (Siena, 1399–1482)

Baptism of Valerian

Altarpiece of St. Bertin; Scenes from the Life of St. Bertin Altarpiece of St. Bertin; Scenes from the Life of St. Bertin Miracles of St. Castrensis

Marmion, Simon (Amiens, c. 1425 – Valenciennes, 1489) Marmion, Simon (Amiens, c. 1425 – Valenciennes, 1489) Anonymous

Bagnacavallo (Ramenghi, Bartolomeo) (Bagnacavallo, 1484 – Bologna, 1542) and Pupini, Biagio (active in Bologna, 1511–1551), attributed to Chiodarolo, Giovanni Maria (active 1490–1520) and Tamaroccio, Cesare (active first half of sixteenth century), attributed to

Title Dormition of St. Basil the Great

Author Anonymous

Mosaics Tempera on panel

Fresco

1180–1190 1460 c.

1504–1506

Fresco

Oil on panel

1459

1504–1506

58.5 × 146.4 cm

Oil on panel

28.7 × 28.9 cm

58.4 × 146.8 cm

Dimension 39.5 × 32.8 cm

Technique Tempera on panel

Date Early sixteenth century 1459

Oratorio di Santa Cecilia, Bologna

Oratorio di Santa Cecilia, Bologna

Cattedrale di Santa Maria Nuova, Monreale Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Location Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai

(continued)

Saint Cecilia and Saint Valerian

Saint Cecilia and Saint Valerian

Saint Castrense Saint Catherine of Siena

Saint Bertin

Saint Bertin

Theme Saint Basil

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 241

1349 c.

Coronation of the Virgin Polyptych; Vestition of St. Clare Miracles of St. Clement; Miracle of the Sea of Azov Scenes from the Life of St. Clement St. Clement Thrown in the Sea with an Anchor Tied to His Neck Weihenstephan Altarpiece; Death of St. Corbinian Weihenstephan Altarpiece; St. Corbinian and the Bear (reverse side)

Bartolomeo di Giovanni (Florence, active c. 1475 – c. 1500–05) Polack, Jan (? c. 1450–1519) Polack, Jan (? c. 1450–1519)

Anonymous

Oil on panel Oil on panel

1483–1489

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

Fresco

Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

Fresco

Technique Fresco

1483–1489

1479

End eleventh century 1250–1299

1480 c.

St. Christopher

Anonymous

1423–1426

Stories of St. Christopher

Bartolino de’ Grossi and Workshop (Parma, 1393–99 – 1464), attributed to Memling, Hans (Seligenstadt, 1433 – Bruges, 1494) Paolo Veneziano (Venice, active 1333 – 1358–62)

Date 1504–1506

Title St. Urban Converts Valerian

Author Costa, Lorenzo il Vecchio (Ferrara, c. 1460 – Mantua, 1535)

147 × 129 cm

147 × 129 cm

24 × 224 cm (whole)

93 × 169 cm

47.8 × 15.6 cm

Dimension

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Basilica Inferiore di San Clemente, Rome Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona Cattedrale di San Martino, Lucca

Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice

Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati

Cappella Valeri, Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, Parma

Location Oratorio di Santa Cecilia, Bologna

Saint Corbinian Saint Corbinian

Saint Clement Saint Clement Saint Clement

Saint Clare

Saint Christopher

Theme Saint Cecilia and Saint Valerian Saint Christopher

242 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Author Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Bartolomeo di Giovanni (Florence, active c. 1475 – c. 1500–05) Bellechose, Henri (Brabante, c. 1415 – Digion, 1440–44) Bartolomeo di Giovanni (Florence, active c. 1475 – c. 1500–05) Degli Erri, Bartolomeo (active in Modena, 1450–1479) Tempera on panel

Tempera and oil on panel

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

1443

1438–1440

1483

1416

1483

1467–1474

Annalena Altarpiece; Sts. Cosmas and Damian Saved from Drowning

St. Mark Altarpiece; Healing of Palladia by Sts. Cosmas and Damian

Martyrdom of St. Denis

St. Denis Altarpiece; Martyrdom of St. Denis

St. Dominic Resuscitating Napoleone Orsini

Altarpiece of the Church of St. Dominic, in Modena; St. Dominic Resuscitating Napoleone Orsini

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel

Technique Tempera on panel

Date 1438–1440

Title St. Mark Altarpiece; Attempted Drowning of Cosmas, Damian and Their Brothers

35.6 × 44.5 cm

19 × 227 cm (whole)

162 × 211 cm

19 × 227 cm (whole)

36.2 × 46.3 cm

38 × 45 cm

Dimension 37.8 × 46.9 cm

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

Musée du Louvre, Paris

Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC

Museo di San Marco, Florence

Location Alte Pinakothek, Munich

(continued)

Saint Dominic

Saint Dominic

Saint Denis

Saint Denis

Saint Cosmas and Saint Damian

Saint Cosmas and Saint Damian

Theme Saint Cosmas and Saint Damian

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 243

Author Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Tempera on panel

1438

1452–1455

Tempera on panel

1438

The Vision of Pope Innocent III; Sts. Peter and Paul Appearing to St. Dominic

Tempera on panel

1438

Cortona Triptych; Dream of Innocent III, Meeting of Sts. Dominic and Francis, and Apparition to Dominic of Sts. Peter and Paul Cortona Triptych; Resurrection of Napoleone Orsini Fallen from His Horse and Miracle of the Book Saved from the Flames Cortona Triptych; St. Dominic and His Companions Fed by Angels and Death of St. Dominic Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

1434–1435

Coronation of Virgin Altarpiece; Dispute of St. Dominic and Miracle of the Book

Technique Tempera on panel

Date 1434–1435

Title Coronation of Virgin Altarpiece; St. Dominic Resuscitating Napoleone Orsini

33.2 × 41.9 cm

23 × 56 cm c.

23 × 56 cm c.

23 × 56 cm c.

29.5 × 210 cm (whole)

Dimension 29.5 × 210 cm (whole)

Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven

Museo Diocesano, Cortona

Museo Diocesano, Cortona

Museo Diocesano, Cortona

Musée du Louvre, Paris

Location Musée du Louvre, Paris

Saint Dominic

Saint Dominic

Saint Dominic

Saint Dominic

Saint Dominic

Theme Saint Dominic

244 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Spinello Aretino (Arezzo, 1350–52 – 1410) Spinello Aretino (Arezzo, 1350–52 – 1410) Spinello Aretino (Arezzo, 1350–52 – 1410) Antoniazzo Romano (Antonio di Benedetto Aquilio) (active 1452–1512) Antoniazzo Romano (Antonio di Benedetto Aquilio) (active 1452–1512) Antoniazzo Romano (Antonio di Benedetto Aquilio) (active 1452–1512) Antoniazzo Romano (Antonio di Benedetto Aquilio) (active 1452–1512)

Author Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497)

1468

1468

1468

Healing of a Young Man with an Injured Arm

Miracle of the Wine

Death of St. Frances

Fresco

1391–1392

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

1391–1392

1468

Fresco

Technique Tempera on panel

1391–1392

Date 1461–1462

Blessed Frances Heals the Gangrenous Leg of Janni

Title Altarpiece of the Confraternity of the Purification of the Virgin; St. Dominic Revives Napoleone Orsini St. Ephysius Presented to Diocletian Conversion and Combat of St. Ephysius Martyrdom of St. Ephysius 342 × 843 cm

350 × 780 cm

350 × 800 cm

Dimension 25 × 35 cm

Monastero di Tor de’ Specchi, Rome

Monastero di Tor de’ Specchi, Rome

Monastero di Tor de’ Specchi, Rome

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa Monastero di Tor de’ Specchi, Rome

Location Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan

(continued)

Saint Frances of Rome

Saint Frances of Rome

Saint Frances of Rome

Saint Ephysius Saint Ephysius Saint Ephysius Saint Frances of Rome

Theme Saint Dominic

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 245

Lorenzetti, Pietro (Siena, c. 1280–85 – c. 1348) Lorenzetti, Pietro (Siena, c. 1280–85 – c. 1348)

Lorenzetti, Pietro (Siena, c. 1280–85 – c. 1348)

Author Antoniazzo Romano (Antonio di Benedetto Aquilio) (active 1452–1512) Antoniazzo Romano (Antonio di Benedetto Aquilio) (active 1452–1512) Antoniazzo Romano (Antonio di Benedetto Aquilio) (active 1452–1512) Altichiero da Zevio (active 1369–1393) Beck, Leonhard (Augsburg, c. 1480–1542) Signorelli, Luca (Cortona, c. 1450–1523) Lorenzetti, Pietro (Siena, c. 1280–85 – c. 1348)

1335–1340 c.

1335–1340 c.

1335–1340 c.

1335–1340 c.

Humility Escapes from the Convent and Crosses the River Lamone Humility Leaves Faenza and Arrives at the Gates of Florence Humility Resuscitates a Child Miraculous Discovery of Ice in August

1513–1514

1495–1505

Oil on panel

1379–1384

St. George Subjected to the Wheel of Torture St. George Fighting the Dragon

St. George and the Dragon

Fresco

1468

St. Frances Heals a Dying Youth

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

Fresco

Fresco

1468

St. Frances and the Miracle of the Grain

Technique Fresco

Date 1468

Title St. Frances Heals a Youth with Nine Wounds

43.5 × 33.7 cm

45 × 32 cm

45 × 32 cm

45 × 32 cm

55 × 77.5 cm

136.7 × 116.2 cm

Dimension

Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Oratorio di San Giorgio, Padua Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Monastero di Tor de’ Specchi, Rome

Monastero di Tor de’ Specchi, Rome

Location Monastero di Tor de’ Specchi, Rome

Saint Humility Saint Humility

Saint Humility

Saint George Saint Humility

Saint George Saint George

Saint Frances of Rome

Saint Frances of Rome

Theme Saint Frances of Rome

246 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Bartolomeo della Gatta (Pietro di Antonio) (Florence, 1448 – Arezzo, 1502)

Reichlich, Marx (Brixen, c. 1460 – ? c. 1520)

Fresco

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Fresco

1380–1395

1506

1506

1490–1493 c.

St. James before Herod and Martyrdom of St. James Sts. James and Stephen Altarpiece; St. James Baptizes Josiah and Execution of James Sts. James and Stephen Altarpiece; St. James’ Body Brought before Queen Lupa Penitent St. Jerome

Tempera on panel

1425 c.

Tempera on panel

Fresco

1379 c.

1451–1499 c.

Technique Fresco

Date 1379 c.

St. James with a Donor and Decapitation of St. James

Miracle of the Wild Bulls and Arrival of St. James’ Body to the Realm of Queen Lupa Translation of the Body of St. James

Altichiero da Zevio (active 1369–1393)

Giacomo di Nicola da Recanati (active fifteenth century) Master of Cruïlles (active second half fifteenth century) Master of the Cappella Manassei (active fourteenth century) Reichlich, Marx (Brixen, c. 1460 – ? c. 1520)

Title Martyrdom of St. James

Author Altichiero da Zevio (active 1369–1393)

308 × 215 cm

109.3 × 78.1 cm

109.3 × 78.1 cm

160 × 66 cm (whole)

37 × 78 cm

Dimension

Museo Diocesano d’Arte Sacra, Arezzo

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Cappella Manassei, Cattedrale di Santo Stefano, Prato Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona

Museo Diocesano Boccanegra, Camerino

Location Cappella di San Giacomo, Basilica di Sant’Antonio, Padua Cappella di San Giacomo, Basilica di Sant’Antonio, Padua

(continued)

Saint Jerome

Saint James

Saint James

Saint James

Saint James

Saint James

Saint James

Theme Saint James

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 247

Master of the Coro di Sant’Agostino (active first half fourteenth century) Memling, Hans (Seligenstadt, 1433 – Bruges, 1494)

Master of the Coro di Sant’Agostino (active first half fourteenth century)

Gaddi, Agnolo (Florence, c. 1350–1396)

Author Cornelisz van Oostsanen, Jacob (Oostzaanvor, c. 1470 – Amsterdam, 1533) Lotto, Lorenzo (Venice, c. 1480 – Loreto, 1556) Montagna, Bartolomeo (Orzinuovi, c. 1450 – Vicenza, 1523) Patinir, Joachim (Dinant or Bouvignes, c. 1480 – Antwerp, 1524) Provost, Jan (Mons, c. 1465 – Bruges, 1529) 1470–1523 c.

1512–1515 c.

1500–1525 c.

St. Jerome in the Desert

Penitence of St. Jerome

Penitence of St. Jerome

Fresco

Oil on panel

1479 c.

Fresco

Fresco

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Technique Oil on panel

1315–1318

1315–1318

1384–1385 c.

1509

Penitent St. Jerome

St. John the Evangelist Baptizing Crato and Gathering of Sticks and Stones St. John Praying, Destruction of the Temple of Diana, and Martyrdom of the Saint St. John in Patmos, Return to Ephesus, and Resurrection of Drusiana St. John Altarpiece; St. John the Evangelist on Patmos

Date 1511

Title Jerome Altar

176 × 78.9 cm

68.5 × 52.5 cm

117.5 × 81.3 cm

40 × 28.8 cm

80.5 × 61.7 cm

Dimension 176.5 × 113 cm

Musea Brugge, SintJanshospitaal, Bruges

Chiesa di Sant’Agostino, Rimini

Chiesa di Sant’Agostino, Rimini

Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels Cappella Castellani, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Museo Nazionale di Castel Sant’Angelo, Rome Thyssen-Bornemisza Museo Nacional, Barcelona

Location Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Saint John the Evangelist Saint John the Evangelist

Saint John the Evangelist

Saint John the Evangelist

Saint Jerome

Saint Jerome

Saint Jerome Saint Jerome

Theme Saint Jerome

248 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Author Masolino da Panicale (Tommaso di Cristoforo Fini) (Panicale in Valdarno, 1383 – ? Florence, c. 1440) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Master of the Battuti di Serravalle (active first half fifteenth century), attributed to Master of the Battuti di Serravalle (active first half fifteenth century), attributed to Marmion, Simon (Amiens, c. 1425 – Valenciennes, 1489) Altichiero da Zevio (active 1369–1393) Altichiero da Zevio (active 1369–1393) Jacopo di Paolo (Bologna, active 1371–1429) Fresco

1447–1449

1426–1450 c.

1426–1450 c.

1455 c.

1379–1384 1379–1384 1370–1380

St. Lawrence Judged before Decius, in Prison, and Martyrdom of the Saint

Beginning of the St. Lawrence Story

Other Episodes from the Life of St. Lawrence

St. Louis of France, f. 388r

Martyrdom of St. Lucy

Funeral of St. Lucy

Martyrdom of St. Margaret

Tempera on panel

Fresco

Fresco

Miniature

Fresco

Fresco

Technique Tempera on panel

Date 1425 c.

Title Carnesecchi Triptych; Devil Converses with St. Julian the Hospitaller and Julian Kills His Parents

37.3 × 22 cm

43 × 30 cm (folio)

271 × 473 cm

Dimension 22.1 × 38.6 cm

Oratorio di San Giorgio, Padua Oratorio di San Giorgio, Padua Fondazione Longhi, Florence

Bibliothèque Royal Albert I, Brussels, Mss. 9231–9232

Oratorio dei Battuti (or Oratorio dei Santi Lorenzo e Marco), Vittorio Veneto

Oratorio dei Battuti (or Oratorio dei Santi Lorenzo e Marco), Vittorio Veneto

Cappella Niccolina, Musei Vaticani, Vatican City

Location Musée Ingres, Montauban

Saint Margaret (continued)

Saint Lucy

Saint Louis King of France Saint Lucy

Saint Lawrence

Saint Lawrence

Saint Lawrence

Theme Saint Julian

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 249

Bassa, Arnau (active 1345–1348) Bassa, Arnau (active 1345–1348) Bassa, Arnau (active 1345–1348) Bassa, Arnau (active 1345–1348) Mansueti, Giovanni (Venice, active 1485 – 1526–27) Master of the Battuti di Serravalle (active first half fifteenth century), attributed to Master of the Pala di San Nicolò (active c. 1350–1399) Giotto (Giotto di Bondone) (Vespignano del Mugello, Florence, c. 1267 – Florence, 1337)

Author Master of the Cappella Manassei (active fourteenth century) Bassa, Arnau (active 1345–1348) 1346 c.

Altarpiece of St. Mark; St. Mark Heals a Wounded Shoemaker Altarpiece of St. Mark; Conversion of St. Mark Altarpiece of St. Mark; Conversion of Ananius Altarpiece of St. Mark; Martyrdom of St. Mark Altarpiece of St. Mark; Burial of St. Mark Episodes from the Life of St. Mark

Tempera on panel Fresco

1350–1399

1307–1308

Triptych with Madonna, Child and Saints; Episode from the Life of St. Martin Last Communion and Elevation of Magdalen’s Soul into Heaven

Fresco

1426–1450 c.

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel Tempera on panel Tempera on panel Oil on canvas

Tempera on panel

Technique Fresco

Episodes from the Life of St. Mark

1525–1527

1346 c.

1346 c.

1346 c.

1346 c.

Date 1400–1410 c.

Title St. Margaret of Antioch in Prison and Her Beheading

371 × 603 cm

226 × 250 cm (whole)

226 × 250 cm (whole)

226 × 250 cm (whole)

226 × 250 cm (whole)

226 × 250 cm (whole)

Dimension

Cappella della Maddalena, Basilica Inferiore di San Francesco, Assisi

Chiesa di San Niccolò, Florence

Oratorio dei Battuti (or Oratorio dei Santi Lorenzo e Marco), Vittorio Veneto

Colegiata de Santa María de la Aurora, Manresa Colegiata de Santa María de la Aurora, Manresa Colegiata de Santa María de la Aurora, Manresa Colegiata de Santa María de la Aurora, Manresa Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice

Location Cappella Manassei, Cattedrale di Santo Stefano, Prato Colegiata de Santa María de la Aurora, Manresa

Saint Mary Magdalene

Saint Martin

Saint Mark

Saint Mark

Saint Mark

Saint Mark

Saint Mark

Saint Mark

Saint Mark

Theme Saint Margaret

250 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Gaddi, Agnolo (Florence, c. 1350–1396)

Author Huguet, Jaume (Valls, c. 1412 – Barcelona, 1492) Jacopo del Casentino (Pratovecchio, c. 1297–1349) Bicci di Lorenzo (Florence, 1373–1452) Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Fresco

1437 c.

1437 c.

1437 c.

1384–1385 c.

Perugia Altarpiece; St. Nicholas Frees Three Condemned Innocents and Death of the Saint

Perugia Altarpiece; Birth of St. Nicholas, Vocation, and Donation to the Three Poor Girls

Perugia Altarpiece; Meeting of St. Nicholas with the Imperial Messenger and Miracle of the Saving of the Ship with Grain St. Nicholas and the Bad Debtor

Tempera on panel

1315–1325

1433–1435

Technique Tempera on panel

Date 1455–1460

Miracle of a Child Restored to His Parents

Title Altarpiece of St. Michael of the Retailers; Miracle of Mount Saint-Michel St. Minias Thrown into a Furnace

35 × 61.5 cm

35 × 61.5 cm

35 × 61.5 cm

30.5 × 25.5 cm

185 × 106 cm (whole)

Dimension 145.3 × 107 cm

Cappella Castellani, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence

Pinacoteca Vaticana, Vatican City

Pinacoteca Vaticana, Vatican City

Galleria Nazionale dell’Umbria, Perugia

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Basilica di San Miniato al Monte, Florence

Location Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona

(continued)

Saint Nicholas of Bari

Saint Nicholas of Bari

Saint Nicholas of Bari

Saint Nicholas of Bari Saint Nicholas of Bari

Saint Minias

Theme Saint Michael

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 251

Beccafumi, Domenico di Jacopo di Pace (Montaperti, 1486 – Siena, 1551) Holbein, Hans the Elder (Augsburg, 1460 – Issenheim, 1524)

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Basilica San Paolo fuori le mura; Baptism of St. Paul

1504

1515

1180–1190

1180–1190

1140–1170

1140–1170

1320–1325

St. Nicholas Listening to Father Reginald’s Sermon, Joining the Augustinian Order, and Being Crowned by the Angel Paul Preaching and Flight from Damascus Conversion of Saul on the Way to Damascus Paul Escapes from Damascus and Gives a Letter to Timothy Ananias Baptizes Paul and Paul Announces the Way to His Jewish Brothers St. Paul Enthroned

Anonymous

1658–1660

St. Nicholas of Bari

Zurbarán, Francisco de (Fuente de Cantos, 1598 – Madrid, 1664) Pietro da Rimini (active c. 1324–1338)

Date 1330–1335 c.

Title St. Nicholas Resuscitates a Young Boy

Author Lorenzetti, Ambrogio (Siena, 1290–1348)

Oil on panel

Oil on canvas

Mosaics

Mosaics

Mosaics

Mosaics

Fresco

Oil on canvas

Technique Tempera on panel

187.8 × 90.7 cm

230 × 150 cm

250 × 150 cm

Dimension 46 × 48 cm

Staatsgalerie, Augsburg

Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Siena

Cattedrale di Santa Maria Nuova, Monreale

Cattedrale di Santa Maria Nuova, Monreale

Cappella Palatina, Palermo

Cappella Palatina, Palermo

Basilica di San Nicola, Tolentino

Real Monasterio de Santa María, Guadalupe

Location Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

Saint Paul

Saint Paul

Saint Paul

Saint Paul

Saint Paul

Saint Paul

Theme Saint Nicholas of Bari Saint Nicholas of Bari Saint Nicholas of Tolentino

252 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Holbein, Hans the Elder (Augsburg, 1460 – Issenheim, 1524) Master of the Saint Ursula Legend (? 1436 – Bruges, 1504–05) Umbrian Master of the fifteenth century Andrea da Firenze (Andrea di Bonaiuto) (active in Florence, 1346 – ? Florence, c. 1377) Andrea da Firenze (Andrea di Bonaiuto) (active in Florence, 1346 – ? Florence, c. 1377) Andrea da Firenze (Andrea di Bonaiuto) (active in Florence, 1346 – ? Florence, c. 1377)

Author Holbein, Hans the Elder (Augsburg, 1460 – Issenheim, 1524)

1400–1450 c. 1376–1378

1376–1378

1376–1378

Martyrdom of St. Placidus

St. Rainerius in the Holy Land

Temptation and Miracles of St. Rainerius

Conversion of St. Rainerius

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

1504

1480 c.

Technique Oil on panel

Date 1504

Pagagnotti Triptych; St. Paul with Paolo Pagagnotti

Title Basilica San Paolo fuori le mura; Sermon, Beheading and Other Scenes from the Legend of St. Paul Basilica San Paolo fuori le mura; Funeral of St. Paul

337 × 767 cm

346 × 795 cm

335 × 779 cm

93.4 × 27.6 cm

189.8 × 92 cm

Dimension 217.2 × 125.5 cm

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Chiesa Superiore del Sacro Speco, Subiaco Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Staatsgalerie, Augsburg

Location Staatsgalerie, Augsburg

(continued)

Saint Rainerius

Saint Rainerius

Saint Placidus Saint Rainerius

Saint Paul

Saint Paul

Theme Saint Paul

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 253

Semitecolo, Nicoletto (Venice, active 1353–1370) Signorelli, Luca (Cortona, c. 1450–1523) Luini, Bernardino (Dumenza, c. 1481 – Milan, 1532) Maso di Banco (Florence, active 1335–1350)

Author Antonio Veneziano (Antonio di Francesco da Venezia) (active 1369 – ? Florence, c. 1419) Antonio Veneziano (Antonio di Francesco da Venezia) (active 1369 – ? Florence, c. 1419) Gualtiero Padovano (Dall’Arzere, Gualtiero) (Padua, c. 1510–1552) Master of San Rocco (active end of fifteenth century) Nardo di Cione (Florence, c. 1320 – before 1366) Bartolino de’ Grossi (Parma, 1393–99 – 1464) Tempera on panel Fresco

1490–1499

1365 1417–1426

St. Roch and His Pilgrimage (from the Oratorio of St. Rocco, Pallanza) Preaching of St. Romuald

Stories of St. Sebastian

St. Sigismund of Burgundy Presenting the Model of the Church to St. Maurice Miracle of the Dragon

Sebastian Clubbed to Death and Thrown into the Cloaca Massima Martyrdom of St. Sebastian

Fresco

1536–1545

Vision of the Angel and Dream of St. Roch

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel Fresco

Fresco

1367

1498 1522–1524

1340 c.

Fresco

Fresco

1384–1386

Death and Funeral of St. Rainerius

Technique Fresco

Date 1384–1386

Title Return of St. Rainerius to Pisa

288 × 175 cm

53.5 × 60.7 cm

28 × 52.5 cm

165 × 209 cm

295 × 784 cm

Dimension 294 × 837 cm

Cappella Bardi, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence

Pinacoteca Comunale, Città di Castello Chiesa di San Maurizio al Monastero Maggiore, Milan

Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence Cappella del Comune, Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, Parma Museo Diocesano, Padua

Museo del Paesaggio, Verbania

Oratorio di S. Rocco, Padua

Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Location Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa

Saint Sylvester

Saint Sebastian Saint Sigismund

Saint Sebastian

Saint Romuald Saint Sebastian

Saint Roch

Saint Roch

Saint Rainerius

Theme Saint Rainerius

254 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Morando, Paolo (Cavazzola), (Verona, 1486–1522) Orley, Barent van (Brussels, c. 1488–1541) Carpaccio, Vittore (Venice, c. 1460 – after 1526) Carpaccio, Vittore (Venice, c. 1460 – after 1526) Carpaccio, Vittore (Venice, c. 1460 – after 1526)

Anonymous

Anonymous

Anonymous

Author Maso di Banco (Florence, active 1335–1350)

Oil on canvas

1495

1495 c.

Oil on panel

1515 c.

Arrival of the English Ambassadors

Oil on canvas

1500–1524

Oil on canvas

Oil on canvas

Fresco

1514

1493

Fresco

Fresco

Technique Fresco

1514

1514

Date 1340 c.

Martyrdom of the Pilgrims and Funeral of St. Ursula

Title Constantine’s Recognition of the Portraits of Sts. Peter and Paul and Baptism of Constantine by St. Sylvester St. Theodore Heals the Widow’s Son St. Theodore Revives the Grandson of King Charles St. Theodore Restores the Hand to the Jew and Baptizes Him Incredulity of St. Thomas, Ascension of Christ, and Pentecost Altarpiece of Sts. Thomas and Matthias Meeting and Departure of the Betrothed Couple

275 × 589 cm

271 × 560 cm

279 × 610 cm

140 × 180 cm

136 × 162 cm

157 × 150 cm

157 × 150 cm

157 × 150 cm

Dimension

Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice

Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice

Museo di Castelvecchio, Verona

Chiesa di San Teodoro Vescovo, Pavia Chiesa di San Teodoro Vescovo, Pavia Chiesa di San Teodoro Vescovo, Pavia

Location Cappella Bardi, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence

(continued)

Saint Ursula

Saint Ursula

Saint Thomas Saint Ursula

Saint Thomas

Saint Theodore Saint Theodore Saint Theodore

Theme Saint Sylvester

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 255

Colantonio (active c. 1420 – Naples, after 1460) Degli Erri, Agnolo (active in Modena, 1442–1497) and Degli Erri, Bartolomeo (active in Modena, 1450–1479)

Master of San Verano (active thirteenth century)

Master of San Verano (active thirteenth century)

Author Memling, Hans (Seligenstadt, 1433 – Bruges, 1494) Memling, Hans (Seligenstadt, 1433 – Bruges, 1494) Master of San Verano (active thirteenth century)

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel

1450–1475 c.

Tempera on panel

1460 c.

Late thirteenth century

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Late thirteenth century Late thirteenth century

Oil on panel

1482–1489

Shrine of St. Ursula; Reception of St. Ursula by the Pope St. Veranus with Two Angels and Six Stories from the Saint’s Legend; Miracle of the Resurrected Child St. Veranus with Two Angels and Six Stories from the Saint’s Legend; St. Peter Baptises Veranus St. Veranus with Two Angels and Six Stories from the Saint’s Legend; Veranus with the Angel and the Exorcism of a Possessed Woman Polyptych of St. Vincent Ferrer; Miracle of the Chopped-Up Baby Dossal of St. Vincent Ferrer; Father Introduces the Boy Vincent to the Dominicans from Whom He Receives the Religious Habit

Technique Oil on panel

Date 1482–1489

Title Shrine of St. Ursula; Arrival in Cologne

61 × 34 cm

42.5 × 48.7 cm

157 × 97 cm (whole)

157 × 97 cm (whole)

157 × 97 cm (whole)

35 × 25.3 cm

Dimension 35 × 25.3 cm

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Chiesa di San Pietro Martire, Naples

Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan

Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan

Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan

Musea Brugge, SintJanshospitaal, Bruges

Location Musea Brugge, SintJanshospitaal, Bruges

Saint Vincent Ferrer Saint Vincent Ferrer

Saint Veranus

Saint Veranus

Saint Veranus

Saint Ursula

Theme Saint Ursula

256 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Author Degli Erri, Agnolo (active in Modena, 1442–1497) and Degli Erri, Bartolomeo (active in Modena, 1450–1479) Degli Erri, Agnolo (active in Modena, 1442–1497) and Degli Erri, Bartolomeo (active in Modena, 1450–1479) Degli Erri, Agnolo (active in Modena, 1442–1497) and Degli Erri, Bartolomeo (active in Modena, 1450–1479) Degli Erri, Agnolo (active in Modena, 1442–1497) and Degli Erri, Bartolomeo (active in Modena, 1450–1479) Degli Erri, Agnolo (active in Modena, 1442–1497) and Degli Erri, Bartolomeo (active in Modena, 1450–1479) Botticelli, Sandro (Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi) (Florence, 1444–45 – 1510) Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

1450–1475 c.

1450–1475 c.

Dossal of St. Vincent Ferrer; Visit of the Prior of Oreola to the Saint and Death of Gilabertus in Front of the Church Door Dossal of St. Vincent Ferrer; The Sick are Healed by the Blessing of the Saint

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

1450–1475 c.

Dossal of St. Vincent Ferrer; Miracle of the Chopped-Up Baby

1500 c.

Tempera on panel

1450–1475 c.

Dossal of St. Vincent Ferrer; Christ Appears to a Sick Vincent

Last Miracle and Death of St. Zenobius

Technique Tempera on panel

Date 1450–1475 c.

Title Dossal of St. Vincent Ferrer; Vincent Tempted by the Devil

66 × 182 cm

61 × 34 cm

61 × 34 cm

60.5 × 35.5 cm

60.5 × 35.5 cm

Dimension 61 × 35 cm

Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Location Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

(continued)

Saint Zenobius

Saint Vincent Ferrer

Saint Vincent Ferrer

Saint Vincent Ferrer

Saint Vincent Ferrer

Theme Saint Vincent Ferrer

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 257

Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497)

Author Botticelli, Sandro (Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi) (Florence, 1444–45 – 1510) Botticelli, Sandro (Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi) (Florence, 1444–45 – 1510) Botticelli, Sandro (Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi) (Florence, 1444–45 – 1510) Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) 1500 c.

1500 c.

1461–1462

Four Scenes from the Early Life of St. Zenobius

Three Miracles of St. Zenobius

Altarpiece of the Confraternity of the Purification of the Virgin; St. Zenobius Resuscitating a Child Altarpiece of St. Pier Maggiore; St. Zenobius Resuscitating a Child 1461 c.

Date 1500 c.

Title Four Miracles of St. Zenobius

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Technique Tempera on panel

39.4 × 45.7 cm

25.5 × 35.4 cm

64.8 × 139.7 cm

66.7 × 149.2 cm

Dimension 67.3 × 150.5 cm

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

National Gallery, London

National Gallery, London

Location Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Saint Zenobius

Saint Zenobius

Saint Zenobius

Saint Zenobius

Theme Saint Zenobius

258 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

1410

1410

1380–1390

Three Crosses are Unearthed and St. Helena Identifies the True Cross when a Cadaver Is Brought Back to Life Chosroes II, Having Refused Baptism, Is Executed, and Heraclius Carries the True Cross to Jerusalem Emperor Heraclius Beheads Chosroes and Enters Jerusalem with the True Cross Wood Works Miracles and Fabrication of the Cross

Gaddi, Agnolo (Florence, c. 1350–1396)

Gaddi, Agnolo (Florence, c. 1350–1396)

Cenni di Francesco di Ser Cenni (Florence, active 1369–1415)

Oil on panel

1530

Finding of the True Cross and St. Helena

Beham, Barthel (Nuremberg, 1502 – Bologna, 1540) Cenni di Francesco di Ser Cenni (Florence, active 1369–1415)

1380–1390

Fresco

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

1476–1500

1476–1500

Legend of the True Cross

Tempera on panel

1400–1415

Anonymous

Technique Fresco

Date 1425 c.

Legend of the True Cross

Title Queen of Sheba Venerates the Wood over the Kedron and Rides through the Water Solomon and the Queen of Sheba

Ambrogio di Baldese (Master of the Straus Madonna) (Florence, 1352–1429) Anonymous

Author Alberti, Antonio (Ferrara, c. 1390 – before 1449)

True Cross (in alphabetical order by artist).

101.1 × 149.8 cm

107.4 × 56.6 cm

107.3 × 57 cm

30.5 × 67 cm

Dimension

Cappella Maggiore, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence

Cappella Maggiore, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence

Chiesa di San Francesco, Volterra

Chiesa di San Francesco, Volterra

Musea Brugge, Sint-­ Janshospitaal, Bruges Musea Brugge, Sint-­ Janshospitaal, Bruges Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Private collection, documented in the Archivio Zeri, Bologna

Location Cappella Farfense, Montegiorgio

(continued)

True Cross

True Cross

True Cross

True Cross

True Cross

True Cross

True Cross

True Cross

Theme True Cross

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 259

Title Finding and Proofing of the Cross Chosroes Adored, Dream of Heraclius, and Duel between Heraclius and the Son of Chosroes Gaddi, Agnolo (Florence, Sheba Venerates the Wood c. 1350–1396) and Solomon Has the Wood Buried Gaddi, Agnolo (Florence, Seth Speaks to Archangel c. 1350–1396) Michael at the Gate of Paradise and Seth Plants the Wood over the Body of Adam Michele di Matteo da Polyptych of St. Helen; Jews Bologna (active in Council and Judah before 1410–1469) St. Helen Michele di Matteo da Polyptych of St. Helen; Bologna (active Judas Is Lowered into a 1410–1469) Well, then Reveals the Whereabouts of the True Cross and Starts Digging Michele di Matteo da Polyptych of St. Helen; Bologna (active Adoration of the True Cross 1410–1469) while Devils Flee Piero della Francesca (Borgo Death of Adam San Sepolcro, 1416–1492) Piero della Francesca (Borgo Discovery and Proof of the San Sepolcro, 1416–1492) True Cross Piero della Francesca (Borgo Adoration of the Holy Wood San Sepolcro, 1416–1492) and Meeting of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba

Author Gaddi, Agnolo (Florence, c. 1350–1396) Gaddi, Agnolo (Florence, c. 1350–1396)

Technique Fresco Fresco

Fresco

Fresco

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel Fresco Fresco Fresco

Date 1380–1390 1380–1390

1380–1390

1380–1390

1427

1427

1427

1453–1459 c. 1453–1459 c. 1453–1459 c.

336 × 747 cm

356 × 747 cm

390 × 747 cm

Dimension

Cappella Bacci, Chiesa di San Francesco, Arezzo Cappella Bacci, Chiesa di San Francesco, Arezzo Cappella Bacci, Chiesa di San Francesco, Arezzo

Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice

Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice

Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice

Cappella Maggiore, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence

Cappella Maggiore, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence

Location Cappella Maggiore, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence Cappella Maggiore, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence

True Cross

True Cross

True Cross

True Cross

True Cross

True Cross

True Cross

True Cross

True Cross

Theme True Cross

260 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Holbein, Hans the Younger (Augsburg, 1497–98 – London, 1543) Kemmer, Hans (? c. 1495 – Lübeck, 1561) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455) Fra Angelico (Guido di Pietro, Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) (Vicchio del Mugello, c. 1395–1400 – Rome, 1455)

Author Cranach, Lucas the Elder (Kronach, 1472 – Weimar, 1553) Cranach, Lucas the Elder (Kronach, 1472 – Weimar, 1553) Cranach, Lucas the Younger (Wittenberg, 1515 – Weimar, 1586)

1426 c.

1434–1436

Annunciation

Annunciation

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

1530 c.

1530–1561 c.

Oil on panel

1555

Epitaph-­Altarpiece of Johann Friedrich the Magnanimous; Crucifixion with the Allegory of Salvation Allegory of the Old and New Testaments

Allegory of Redemption

Oil on panel

1550 c.

Law and Grace

Technique Oil on panel

Date 1529 c.

Title Allegory of Law and Mercy

175 × 180 cm

162.3 × 191.5 cm

82 × 58 cm

64.2 × 74.2 cm

360 × 311 cm

19 × 25.5 cm

Dimension 72 × 59.7 cm

Museo Diocesano, Cortona

Szépmuvészeti Muzeum, Budapest Museo del Prado, Madrid

National Galleries of Scotland, Edinburgh

Stadtkirche St. Peter und Paul, Weimar

Location Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg Lutherhaus, Wittenberg

Allegories and Other Religious Themes (in alphabetical order by theme and by artist for each theme).

(continued)

Allegory

Allegory

Allegory

Allegory

Allegory

Allegory

Theme Allegory

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 261

Gozzoli, Benozzo (Benozzo di Lese) (Florence, c. 1420–22 – Pistoia, 1497) Gaddi, Agnolo (Florence, c. 1350–1396)

Author Giovanni di Paolo (Siena, 1399–1482) Neri di Bicci (Florence, 1418–1492) Provost, Jan (Mons, c. 1465 – Bruges, 1529), attributed to Pontormo, Jacopo da (Carrucci, Jacopo) (Empoli, 1494 – Florence, 1556) Serra, Jaume (active in Barcelona, c. 1358 – 1389–95) Signorelli, Luca (Cortona, c. 1450–1523) Fresco

1367–1381 c.

1500–1504

Altarpiece of the Virgin; Miracle of the Consecrated Host Sermon and Deeds of the Antichrist

Altarpiece of the Confraternity of the Purification of the Virgin; Fall of Simon Magus Death of Michele Dragomari and Procession of the Belt to the Pieve

Tempera on panel

1528–1530

Ten Thousand Martyrs

Tempera on panel

Fresco

1461–1462

1392–1395 c.

Oil on panel

1495 c.

Crucifixion

Technique Tempera on panel Tempera on panel Oil on panel

1475 c.

Date 1435 c.

Title Annunciation and Expulsion from Paradise Annunciation

24.3 × 34.5 cm

346.3 × 321 cm (whole)

67 × 73 cm

32.1 × 26 cm

Dimension 38.7 × 44.7 cm

Cappella della Sacra Cintola, Cattedrale di Santo Stefano, Prato

Cappella di San Brizio, Basilica Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, Orvieto Royal Collection Trust, London

Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona

Galleria Palatina, Florence

Location National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC Basilica di Santa Trinita, Florence Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Religious theme

Religious theme

Religious theme

Religious theme

Religious theme

Allegory

Allegory

Theme Allegory

262 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Bronzino (Agnolo di Cosimo Torri) (Florence, 1503–1572) Biagio d’Antonio (Florence, 1446–1516)

1531–1532

1465 c.

Flaying of Marsyas

Scenes from the Story of the Argonauts

1501

1501

Rinaldeschi Led from His Cell to Be Examined Rinaldeschi’s Confession and Being Led to Death

Anonymous

1465–1470

Antiochus and Stratonice

Guidi, Giovanni di ser Giovanni (lo Scheggia) (San Giovanni Valdarno, 1406 – Florence, 1486) Anonymous

1470 c.

Antiochus and Stratonice

1470 c.

1455–1460

Aeneas and Antenor Plot against Troy

Antiochus and Stratonice

Date 1460–1465

Title Stories of Aeneas

Ciampanti, Michele (active 1463–1521)

Author Apollonio di Giovanni (Florence, c. 1416–1465) and workshop Guidi, Giovanni di ser Giovanni (lo Scheggia) (San Giovanni Valdarno, 1406 – Florence, 1486) Ciampanti, Michele (active 1463–1521)

Tempera on panel

Oil on canvas

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Technique Tempera on panel

49.8 × 142.2 cm

48 × 119 cm

127.5 × 112.5 cm (whole) 127.5 × 112.5 cm (whole)

45 × 174.7 cm

43.2 × 109.2 cm

43.2 × 109.2 cm

42.9 × 155 cm

Dimension 44.2 × 132.2 cm

Non-religious Themes (in alphabetical order by theme and by artist for each theme).

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg

Museo Stibbert, Florence

Museo Stibbert, Florence

Huntington Library, Art Museum and Botanical Garden, San Marino Huntington Library, Art Museum and Botanical Garden, San Marino Musée national de la Renaissance, Ecouen

Musée national de la Renaissance, Ecouen

Location Musée national de la Renaissance, Ecouen

(continued)

Argonauts

Apollo and Marsyas

Antonio Rinaldeschi Antonio Rinaldeschi

Antiocus and Stratonice Antiocus and Stratonice Antiocus and Stratonice

Aeneas

Theme Aeneas

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 263

Master of the Cité des Dames (active c. 1400–1420)

Master of the Cité des Dames (active c. 1400–1420)

Master of the Cité des Dames (active c. 1400–1420)

Author Jacopo del Sellaio (Florence, c. 1441–1493) Griselda Master (active in Siena, c. 1490–1500) Apollonio di Giovanni (Florence, c. 1416–1465) and workshop De Gregori, Giovanni and De Gregori, Gregorio (Forlì, c. 1450 – c. 1529) Giovanni dal Ponte (Giovanni di Marco) (Florence, 1385–1437) Master of the Cité des Dames (active c. 1400–1420)

Giovanni Boccaccio, Decameron; Federigo degli Alberighi and Monna Giovanna, f. 174v Giovanni Boccaccio, Decameron; Bartolomea Is Abducted by the Corsair Paganino, f. 77r Giovanni Boccaccio, Decameron; King Charles of Anjou and the Twin Daughters of Messer Neri degli Uberti: Ginevra and Isotta, f. 301r Giovanni Boccaccio, Decameron; Master Albert, Madonna Malgherida de’ Ghisolieri and Other Ladies, f. 31r

Giovanni Boccaccio, Decameron; Story of Alatiel, Voyage of Alatiel Giovanni Boccaccio, Decameron; Master Alberto of Bologna Giovanni Boccaccio, Episodes from Theseid

Title Scenes from the Story of the Argonauts Artemisia

1414–1419

1414–1419

1414–1419

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

Miniature

Tempera on panel

1420–1430

1414

Woodcut

Technique Tempera on panel Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

1492

1460–1465

1498 c.

Date 1465 c.

29.4 × 22.3 cm (folio)

29.4 × 22.3 cm (folio)

29.4 × 22.3 cm (folio)

30 × 22.5 cm (folio)

55 × 159 cm

8.5 × 10.8 cm

46 × 158 cm

87.8 × 46.3 cm

Dimension 49.8 × 142.2 cm

Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Pal. lat. 1989

Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Pal. lat. 1989

Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Pal. lat. 1989

Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Pal. lat. 1989

Museo Civico Amedeo Lia, La Spezia

Fondazione Giorgio Cini, Venice

Museo Correr, Venice

Location Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Museo Poldi Pezzoli, Milan

Boccaccio

Boccaccio

Boccaccio

Boccaccio

Boccaccio

Boccaccio

Boccaccio

Artemisia

Theme Argonauts

264 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Cozzarelli, Guidoccio (Siena, 1450 – 1516–17) Vecchietta (Lorenzo di Pietro) (Siena, 1410–1480)

Del Cossa, Francesco (Ferrara, c. 1436 – Bologna, c. 1478) Jacopo del Sellaio (Florence, c. 1441–1493) Cozzarelli, Guidoccio (Siena, 1450 – 1516–17)

Pesellino (Francesco di Stefano) (Florence, 1422–1457) Toscani, Giovanni di Francesco (Florence, c. 1372–1430) Toscani, Giovanni di Francesco (Florence, c. 1372–1430)

Author Master of the Cité des Dames (active c. 1400–1420)

1480 c. 1460–1480

Story of Coriolanus

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Fresco

1469–1470

1470–1499

Tempera on panel

1420–1425 c.

Metabus Throws Camilla Tied to a Pole to the Other Side of the River Amasenus Legend of Cloelia

Tempera on panel

1420–1425 c.

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel

1450 c.

1485 c.

Technique Miniature

Date 1414–1419

Legend of Brutus and Portia

Title Giovanni Boccaccio, Decameron; Pyrrhus Observes Lidia and Nicostratus, f. 221r Giovanni Boccaccio, Decameron; Episodes from the Story of Griselda Giovann Boccaccio, Decameron; Bernabò and Ambrogiuolo Giovanni Boccaccio, Decameron; Story of Bernabò Visconti, Ginevra and Ambrogiuolo March; Borso d’Este Administers Justice

47 × 130 cm

38.4 × 109.9 cm

39.4 × 106.7 cm

48.9 × 149.9 cm

202 × 320 cm c.

42.8 × 144.4 cm

41.9 × 142 cm

43.2 × 109.6 cm

Dimension 29.4 × 22.3 cm (folio)

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Private collection, documented in the Archivio Zeri, Bologna

Fine Arts Museums, San Francisco Documented in the Archivio Zeri, Bologna

Private collection, documented in the Ente Nazionale Giovanni Boccaccio, Certaldo Salone dei Mesi, Palazzo Schifanoia, Ferrara

National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh

Accademia Carrara, Bergamo

Location Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Pal. lat. 1989

(continued)

Coriolanus

Cloelia

Brutus and Portia Camilla

Borso d’Este

Boccaccio

Boccaccio

Boccaccio

Theme Boccaccio

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 265

Liberale da Verona (Bonfanti, Liberale) (Verona, c. 1445 – 1527–29)

Fungai, Bernardino (Siena, c. 1460–1516)

Bouts, Dirk (Haarlem, c. 1410 – Leuven, 1475)

Jacopo del Sellaio (Florence, c. 1441–1493) Jacopo del Sellaio (Florence, c. 1441–1493) Master of the Argonauts (active in Florence fifteenth century) Master of the Argonauts (active in Florence fifteenth century) Bouts, Dirk (Haarlem, c. 1410 – Leuven, 1475)

Author Master of the Cité des Dames (active c. 1400–1420)

1470 c.

1470 c.

1473–1475

Story of Psyche (part 1)

Story of Psyche (part 2)

Justice of Emperor Otto III; Beheading of the Innocent Count Justice of Emperor Otto III; Trial by Fire

The Beloved of Enalus Sacrificed to Poseidon and Spared Rape of Europa

1490 c.

Story of Psyche

1473 c.

1512 c.

1471–1473

1490 c.

Date 1405 c.

Title Christine de Pizan, The Book of the City of Ladies; Miniature of Christine, Reason, Rectitude and Justice Building the Cité des Dames, f. 2r Story of Cupid and Psyche

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel

Tempera and oil on panel Tempera and oil on panel Tempera on panel

Technique Miniature

38 × 117 cm

51.7 × 201.9 cm

324.5 × 182 cm

323.5 × 181.5 cm

40 × 130 cm

40 × 130 cm

42.1 × 151.8 cm

43.8 × 152.8 cm.

Dimension 36 × 27 cm (folio)

Musée du Louvre, Paris

Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels Museum of Fine Arts, Houston

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Abegg Stiftung, Riggisberg

Location Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Français 607

Europa

Enalus and Poseidon

Emperor Otto III

Emperor Otto III

Cupid and Psyche

Cupid and Psyche Cupid and Psyche Cupid and Psyche

Theme Christine de Pizan

266 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Biagio d’Antonio (Florence, 1446–1516) Botticelli, Sandro (Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi) (Florence, 1444–45 – 1510) Breu, Jörg the Elder (Augsburg, 1475–1537) Breu, Jörg the Younger (Augsburg, 1510–1547) Cozzarelli, Guidoccio (Siena, 1450 – 1516–17) Jacopo del Sellaio (Florence, c. 1441–1493) or Lippi, Filippino (Prato, c. 1457 – Florence, 1504) Lippi, Filippino (Prato, c. 1457 – Florence, 1504) Anonymous

Author Veronese (Caliari, Paolo) (Verona, 1528 – Venice, 1588) Master of Marradi (active 1470–c. 1510)

1500 c.

1528 1541 1480–1481 1475–1499

1478–1480 1480–1490

Story of Lucretia

Story of Lucretia

Story of Tarquin and Lucretia Story of Lucretia

Story of Lucretia

Adventures of Odysseus

1480–1485

1480–1500

Assassination of Julius Caesar

Rape and Suicide of Lucretia Story of Lucretia

Date 1580

Title Rape of Europa

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel Tempera on panel

Miniature

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel Tempera and oil on panel

Tempera on panel

Technique Oil on canvas

42.8 × 153 cm

42 × 126 cm

34.2 × 120.6 cm

49.3 × 34.5 cm

103.5 × 148.5 cm

83.8 × 176.8 cm

53 × 133 cm

44.5 × 151.1 cm

Dimension 240 × 303 cm

Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool

Galleria Palatina, Florence

Eton College Library, Windsor, Ms. 92 Musée national de la Renaissance, Ecouen Crawford Collection, Edinburgh

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Spencer Museum of Art, The University of Kansas, Lawrence Galleria Franchetti alla Ca’ d’Oro, Venice Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston

Location Sala dell’Anticollegio, Palazzo Ducale, Venice

(continued)

Odysseus

Lucretia

Lucretia

Lucretia

Lucretia

Lucretia

Lucretia

Lucretia

Julius Caesar

Theme Europa

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 267

Tempera on panel Miniature

1480–1481

1460 c.

1430–1440

Story of Oenone and Paris

Judgment of Paris

Martini, Francesco di Giorgio (Siena, 1439–1501) Master of the Judgment of Paris (Florence, active 1420–1450)

1490 c.

Orpheus Making Music among Animals

Jacopo del Sellaio (Florence, c. 1441–1493)

1490 c.

1475–1480 c.

Tempera on panel

Tempera on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel

1460 c.

1490 c.

Technique Tempera on panel

Date 1460 c.

Orpheus and Eurydice in Hades

Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics; Odysseus Blinds Polyphemus and Escapes, f. 45v. Orpheus, Eurydice and Aristaeus

Title Odysseus and His Companions Escape from the Cave of Polyphemus and Odysseus and Circe Fight with Scylla Odysseus and the Sirens, Mercury and Calypso, Ulysses and Leucothea, Ulysses and Nausicaa, and Ulysses Arriving in Ithaca Voyage of Odysseus

Jacopo del Sellaio (Florence, c. 1441–1493)

Jacopo del Sellaio (Florence, c. 1441–1493)

Author Apollonio di Giovanni (Florence, c. 1416–1465) and Giamberti, Marco del Buono (Florence, 1403 – c. 1481) Apollonio di Giovanni (Florence, c. 1416–1465) and Giamberti, Marco del Buono (Florence, 1403 – c. 1481) Cozzarelli, Guidoccio (Siena, 1450 – 1516–17) Reginaldus Piramus from Monopoli (active c. 1490)

69 × 69 cm

34.9 × 109.1 cm

56 × 174 cm

59 × 175.5 cm

60 × 175 cm

42 × 28.5 cm (folio)

34 × 121.5 cm

52.5 × 173.5 cm

Dimension 52.5 × 173.5 cm

Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence

Paul Getty Museum, Malibu

Zamek Królewski na Wawelu, Kraków

Museum of Western and Oriental Art, Kyiv

Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam

Musée national de la Renaissance, Ecouen Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, Codex Phil. Gr. 4

Zamek Królewski na Wawelu, Kraków

Location Zamek Królewski na Wawelu, Kraków

Paris

Orpheus and Eurydice Orpheus and Eurydice Orpheus and Eurydice Paris

Odysseus

Odysseus

Odysseus

Theme Odysseus

268 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Master of the Cassoni Campana (active c. 1500–1530) Master of the Cassoni Campana (active c. 1500–1530)

Zavattari Family (active fifteenth century)

Poussin, Nicolas (Les Andelys, 1594 – Rome, 1665) Zavattari Family (active fifteenth century)

Author Master of the Cassoni Campana (active c. 1500–1530) Piero di Cosimo (Florence, c. 1462–1521) Piero di Cosimo (Florence, c. 1462–1521) Piero di Cosimo (Florence, c. 1462–1521) Oil on panel

Oil on canvas

Fresco

Fresco

Oil on panel

1510–1515 c. 1515 c.

1651

1444–1445

1444–1445

1510–1515

1510–1515

Prometheus Creates the First Man Prometheus Moulds the First Man, Meets Minerva, Steals the Fire from the Sun Chariot, and Is Punished by Zeus Landscape during a Thunderstorm with Pyramus and Thisbe Meeting of Authari and Theodelinda

Royal Couple Sets Out on a Hunt, Theodelinda’s Dream, and Her Search for a Church Site Legend of Theseus

Theseus and the Minotaur

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel Oil on panel

1510–1515 c.

Perseus Frees Andromeda

Technique Oil on panel

Date 1510–1515

Title Loves of Pasiphaë

69 × 155 cm

69 × 183 cm

191 × 274 cm

64 × 116 cm

66.4 × 118.2 cm

70 × 120 cm

Dimension 69 × 182 cm

Musée du Petit-Palais, Avignon

Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

Cappella di Teodolinda, Basilica Minore di San Giovanni Battista, Monza Cappella di Teodolinda, Basilica Minore di San Giovanni Battista, Monza

Städel Museum, Frankfurt am Main

Musée des Beaux-Arts, Strasbourg

Musée du Petit-Palais, Avignon Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Location Musée du Petit-Palais, Avignon

(continued)

Theseus

Theseus

Queen Theodelinda

Queen Theodelinda

Pyramus and Thisbe

Prometheus

Perseus and Andromeda Prometheus

Theme Pasiphaë

5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative 269

Balducci, Matteo (Fontignano,? end of 15th – Città della Pieve, after 1554) Botticelli, Sandro (Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi) (Florence, 1444–45 – 1510) Lippi, Filippino (Prato, c. 1457 – Florence, 1504) Schöpfer, Hans d. A. (? c. 1505 – Munich, 1569)

Author Master of the Cassoni Campana (active c. 1500–1530) Guidi, Giovanni di ser Giovanni (lo Scheggia) (San Giovanni Valdarno, 1406 – Florence, 1486) Guidi, Giovanni di ser Giovanni (lo Scheggia) (San Giovanni Valdarno, 1406 – Florence, 1486) Master of the Trionfi Landau Finaly (active in Florence, c. 1440–1460)

Oil on panel Oil on panel

1470–1480 1535

Three Scenes from the Story of Virginia Story of Virginia

Tempera and oil on panel

Oil on panel

Tempera on panel

1499–1500 c.

1455–1460

Trajan and the Widow

Tempera on panel

Story of Virginia

1450 c.

Justice of Trajan

Tempera on panel

1500–1554

1465–1470

Story of the Two Serpents

Technique Oil on panel

Vestal Virgin Tuccia

Date 1510–1515

Title Ariadne in Naxos

94.7 × 167.8 cm

45 × 126 cm

83.3 × 165.5 cm

51 × 169.5 cm

63 × 183 cm

41 × 156.5 cm

45 × 174.7 cm

Dimension 69 × 155 cm

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Musée du Louvre, Paris

Accademia Carrara, Bergamo

Private collection, Florence, documented in: C. Paolini, D. Parenti, L. Sebregondi, Virtù d’Amore. Firenze: Giunti, 2010 Musée de Beaux-Arts, Rouen

Private collection, Florence, documented in the Archivio Zeri, Bologna

Musée national de la Renaissance, Ecouen

Location Musée du Petit-Palais, Avignon

Virginia

Virginia

Virginia

Tuccia

Trajan

Trajan

Tiberius and Cornelia

Theme Theseus

270 5  General Repertoire of Artworks of Pictorial Continuous Narrative

Chapter 6

Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

The following pages include the images of the 100 continuous pictorial narrative artworks used in the research on the story of Adam and Eve, which range from the sixth century to the seventeenth century and are discussed in Chaps. 2, 3 and 4. In Chap. 2, the 100 works are analysed on the basis of the same descriptors used for the analysis of the general repertoire, containing 1000 continuous pictorial narrative artworks, and described in the same chapter – namely, author, title of work, date, technique, type of artefact, dimension, location and theme dealt with in the narrated stories – reporting the quantitative results of the analysis carried out according to these descriptors. In Chap. 3, the episodes or events of the story of Adam and Eve represented in the 100 artworks are classified, identifying for each scene in each work the biblical verses of reference (see also Chap. 7), and analysing the works on the basis of predefined indicators – i.e. context of the work, number of scenes, narrative progression and spatial disposition  – while reporting also in this case the results of the quantitative analysis. In Chap. 4, the 100 artworks are analysed considering the perceptual-­ representational strategies of a spatial type employed by artists to distinguish and connect the depicted episodes or events and succeed in representing continuous narrative, which are encompassed in four categories: segmentation of episodes, space/time separating cues, identification of repeated protagonists and vectors of direction. The images of the artworks are presented below in alphabetical order by artist, specifying the identifying descriptors, while in the above-mentioned chapters we refer to them only citing the corresponding number of the figure.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 L. Messina-Argenton et al., Showing Time: Continuous Pictorial Narrative and the Adam and Eve Story, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13662-7_6

271

272

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

List of Figures (Anonymous artists are listed in alphabetical order by the site in which works are located) Fig. 6.1

Fig. 6.2

Fig. 6.3

Fig. 6.4

Fig. 6.5 Fig. 6.6

Fig. 6.7

Fig. 6.8

Fig. 6.9

Fig. 6.10

Fig. 6.11

Fig. 6.12

Fig. 6.13

Fig. 6.14

Mariotto Albertinelli (Florence, 1474–1515), Creation and Fall of Man, 1513– 1514, oil on panel, 56.2 × 165.5 cm. Courtauld Institute of Art Gallery, London. Public domain Mariotto Albertinelli (Florence, 1474–1515), Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, c. 1514, oil on panel, 56.8 × 55 cm. Strossmayerova Galerija starih majstora, Zagreb. Courtesy of the Strossmayerova Galerija starih majstora, Zagreb Alessandro Allori (Florence, 1535–1607), Original Sin and Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, c. 1560–1564, fresco, c. 120 × 230 cm. Cappella Montauto, Basilica della SS. Annunziata, Florence. Public domain Jost Amman (Zurich, 1539 – Nuremberg, 1591), Fall of Man and Expulsion, 1551–1564, woodcut, 11 × 15.4 cm. Herzog August Bibliothek, Wolfenbüttel. Public domain Jost Amman (Zurich, 1539 – Nuremberg, 1591), History of Adam and Eve, 1580, woodcut, 27.5 × 19 cm. New York Public Library, New York. Public domain Anonymous, Creation of Eve, Presentation of Eve to Adam and Temptation of Eve, c. 1100, fresco, c. 250 × 510 cm. Abbaye de Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe, Saint Savin sur Gartempe. Public domain Anonymous, San Paolo fuori le mura Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 1, c. 870–875, miniature, folio 44.4 × 35 cm (register c. 12 × 28.4 cm). Abbazia di San Paolo fuori le mura, Rome. Courtesy of the Abbazia di San Paolo fuori le mura, Rome Anonymous, San Paolo fuori le mura Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 2, c. 870–875, miniature, folio 44.4 × 35 cm (register c. 12.5 × 28.4 cm). Abbazia di San Paolo fuori le mura, Rome. Courtesy of the Abbazia di San Paolo fuori le mura, Rome. Anonymous, San Paolo fuori le mura Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 3, c. 870–875, miniature, folio 44.4 × 35 cm (register c. 11 × 28.4 cm). Abbazia di San Paolo fuori le mura, Rome. Courtesy of the Abbazia di San Paolo fuori le mura, Rome Anonymous, Genesis Dome; Creation of Eve, 1220–1230, mosaics, 128 × 228 cm. Basilica di San Marco, Venice. Courtesy of the Procuratoria di San Marco, Archivio Fotografico della Procuratoria di San Marco Anonymous, Genesis Dome; Eva Plucking Fruit and Giving It to Adam, 1220– 1230, mosaics, 123.5 × 147.6 cm. Basilica di San Marco, Venice. Courtesy of the Procuratoria di San Marco, Archivio Fotografico della Procuratoria di San Marco Anonymous, Genesis Dome; Expulsion and Labour of Adam and Eve, 1220–1230, mosaics, 124.9 × 244.8 cm. Basilica di San Marco, Venice. Courtesy of the Procuratoria di San Marco, Archivio Fotografico della Procuratoria di San Marco Anonymous, Pantheon Bible; Scenes from Genesis, f. 4v, register 2, c. 1100, miniature, folio 45.4 × 28.5 cm (register c. 8.6 × 18.8 cm). Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Vat. lat. 12958. Image and permission: 2022, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana Anonymous, Pantheon Bible; Scenes from Genesis, f. 4v, register 3, c. 1100, miniature, folio 45.4 × 28.5 cm (register c. 8.3 × 19 cm). Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Vat. lat. 12958. Image and permission: 2022, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve Fig. 6.15

Fig. 6.16

Fig. 6.17

Fig. 6.18

Fig. 6.19

Fig. 6.20

Fig. 6.21

Fig. 6.22

Fig. 6.23

Fig. 6.24

Fig. 6.25

Fig. 6.26

Fig. 6.27 Fig. 6.28

Fig. 6.29

Fig. 6.30

273

Anonymous, Pantheon Bible; Scenes from Genesis, f. 4v, register 4, c. 1100, miniature, folio 45.4 × 28.5 cm (register c. 7.3 × 19 cm). Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Vat. lat. 12958. Image and permission: 2022, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana Anonymous, Horae Beatae Mariae Virginis; Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, f. 14v, c. 1430–1440, miniature, folio 21.2 × 14.8 cm (detail c. 12.5 × 7.2 cm). Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Rothschild 2535. Courtesy of the BnF, Paris Anonymous, Vivian Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 10v, register 1, 845–846, miniature, folio 49.5 × 34.5 cm (register c. 10.3 × 23.5 cm). Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Latin 1. Courtesy of the BnF, Paris Anonymous, Vivian Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 10v, register 2, 845–846, miniature, folio 49.5 × 34.5 cm (register c. 10 × 23.5 cm). Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Latin 1. Courtesy of the BnF, Paris Anonymous, Vivian Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 10v, register 3, 845–846, miniature, folio 49.5 × 34.5 cm (register c. 10.5 × 23.5 cm). Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Latin 1. Courtesy of the BnF, Paris Anonymous, Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 5v, register 1, c. 830–840, miniature, folio 51 × 37.5 cm (register c. 8.2 × 28.5 cm), British Library, London, Add MS 10546. Public domain Anonymous, Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 5v, register 2, c. 830–840, miniature, folio 51 × 37.5 cm (register c. 8.5 × 28.5 cm). British Library, London, Add MS 10546. Public domain Anonymous, Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 5v, register 3, c. 830–840, miniature, folio 51 × 37.5 cm (register c. 8.5 × 28.5 cm). British Library, London, Add MS 10546. Public domain Anonymous, Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 5v, register 4, c. 830–840, miniature, folio 51 × 37.5 cm (register c. 9.2 × 28.5 cm). British Library, London, Add MS 10546. Public domain Anonymous, Holkham Bible Picture Book; Creation of Adam and Eve, f. 3r, 1327–1335, miniature, folio 28.5 × 21 cm. British Library, London, Add MS 47682. Courtesy of the British Library Board Anonymous, Holkham Bible Picture Book; Fall and Expulsion, f. 4r, 1327–1335, miniature, folio 28.5 × 21 cm. British Library, London, Add MS 47682. Courtesy of the British Library Board Anonymous, Creation of Eve and Original Sin, c. 1300, fresco, 145 (sn) – 125 (dx) × 260 cm. Chiesa di Santa Croce ai Lagnoni, Andria. Courtesy of the Diocesi di Andria, Andria Anonymous, Story of Creation, 1354–1385, stone relief, 162 × 215 cm (the whole) (detail c. 70 × 215 cm). Freiburg Cathedral, North portal, Freiburg. Public domain Anonymous, Alba Bible; Story of Adam and Eve, register 1, 1422–1430, miniature, folio 40.5 × 28.7 cm (register c. 8.2 × 16 cm). Fundación Casa de Alba, Palacio de Liria, Madrid. Courtesy of the Fundación Casa de Alba, Madrid Anonymous, Alba Bible; Story of Adam and Eve, register 2, 1422–1430, miniature, folio 40.5 × 28.7 cm (register c. 7 × 18 cm). Fundación Casa de Alba, Palacio de Liria, Madrid. Courtesy of the Fundación Casa de Alba, Madrid Anonymous, Alba Bible; Story of Adam and Eve, register 3, 1422–1430, miniature, folio 40.5 × 28.7 cm (register c. 9 × 18.7 cm). Fundación Casa de Alba, Palacio de Liria, Madrid. Courtesy of the Fundación Casa de Alba, Madrid

274 Fig. 6.31 Fig. 6.32

Fig. 6.33

Fig. 6.34

Fig. 6.35

Fig. 6.36

Fig. 6.37

Fig. 6.38

Fig. 6.39 Fig. 6.40

Fig. 6.41

Fig. 6.42

Fig. 6.43

Fig. 6.44

Fig. 6.45

Fig. 6.46

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve Anonymous, Original Sin (Vera Cruz de Maderuelo), c.1125, fresco, 203 × 207 cm. Museo del Prado, Madrid. Public domain Anonymous, Vienna Genesis; Original Sin, f. 1r, c. 530, miniature, folio 31.7 × 23.5 cm (detail c. 14 × 22.4 cm). Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, Cod. Theol. gr. 31. Courtesy of the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna Anonymous, Vienna Genesis; Expulsion from Paradise, f. 1v, c. 530, miniature, folio 31.7 × 23.5 cm (detail c. 15 × 21 cm). Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, Cod. Theol. gr. 31. Courtesy of the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna Anonymous, Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Original Sin, f. 1r, c. 1480, miniature, 38.3 × 27.6 cm. Pierpont Morgan Library, New York, MS G.35. Image and permission: The Morgan Library & Museum, New York Anonymous, Bamberg Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 7v, register 1, 834–843, miniature, folio 47.4 × 35.3 cm (register c. 6 × 22.1 cm). Staatsbibliothek, Bamberg, Msc. Bibl. 1. Public domain Anonymous, Bamberg Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 7v, register 2, 834–843, miniature, folio 47.2 × 35.5 cm (register c. 5.7 × 22.3 cm). Staatsbibliothek, Bamberg, Msc. Bibl. 1. Public domain Anonymous, Bamberg Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 7v, register 3, 834–843, miniature, folio 47.2 × 35.5 cm (register c. 5.5 × 22.2 cm). Staatsbibliothek, Bamberg, Msc. Bibl. 1. Public domain Anonymous, Story of Adam and Eve, c. 1401–1450, turquoise cameo, 1.7 × 2.2 cm. State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. Courtesy of the State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg Jacob de Backer (Antwerp, c. 1555 – c. 1585), Garden of Eden, 1570–1591, oil on panel, 108 × 77.5 cm. Groeningemuseum, Bruges. Public domain Jacopo Bertucci (Jacopone da Faenza) (Faenza, c. 1502–1579), Original Sin and Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, 1560–1575, oil on panel. 160 × 163 cm. Pinacoteca Comunale, Faenza. Courtesy of the Pinacoteca Comunale, Faenza Herri met de Bles (Bouvignes, c. 1500–10 – ? Antwerp, c. 1550 – before 1567), Paradise, c.1541–1550, oil on panel, 46.6 × 45.5 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. Public domain Johann Melchior Bocksberger (Salzbourg, c. 1535 – Regensburg, c. 1587), attributed to, Creation of the World, c. 1570–1580, MNR 366, oil on panel, 131 × 120 cm. Musée des Beaux-Arts, Strasbourg. Photo: Musées de Strasbourg, M. Bertola; Courtesy of the Musée des Beaux-Arts, Strasbourg Hieronymus Bosch (s'Hertogenbosch, c. 1450–1516), Last Judgment Triptych, left panel, 1504–1508, oil and tempera on panel, 164 × 60 cm. Gemäldegalerie der Akademie der bildenden Kunste, Vienna. Public domain Hieronymus Bosch (s'Hertogenbosch, c. 1450–1516), Haywain Triptych, left panel, 1512–1515, oil on panel, 136.1 × 47.7 cm. Museo del Prado, Madrid. Public domain Hieronymus Bosch (s'Hertogenbosch, c. 1450–1516), workshop of, Garden of Paradise, 1504–1514, oil on panel, 27 × 40.6 cm. Art Institute, Chicago. Public domain Boucicaut Master and workshop (active c. 1390–1430), Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Story of Adam and Eve, f. 3, c.1413–1415, miniature, folio 42 × 29.6 cm (detail c. 18.8 × 18 cm). Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles. Public domain

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve Fig. 6.47

Fig. 6.48

Fig. 6.49

Fig. 6.50

Fig. 6.51 Fig. 6.52 Fig. 6.53

Fig. 6.54 Fig. 6.55 Fig. 6.56

Fig. 6.57

Fig. 6.58

Fig. 6.59

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Fig. 6.61

275

Jan Bruegel II the Younger (Antwerp, 1601–1678), attributed to, Earthly Paradise, c. 1630, oil on canvas, 81 × 118 cm. Musée Auguste Grasset, Varzy. Courtesy of the Musée Auguste Grasset, Varzy Hendrick de Clerck (Brussels, c. 1570–1630), Garden of Eden with Fall of Man, 1597–1610, oil on panel, 131.8 × 175 cm. Collection of Lynda & Stewart Resnick, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles. Image and permission: The Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles Hendrick de Clerck (Brussels, c. 1570–1630) and Denis van Alsloot (Malinas, 1570 ̶ Brussels, 1628), Paradise, 1606–1609, oil on panel, 58 × 74 cm. Museo del Prado, Madrid. Public domain Marcellus Coffermans (active in Antwerp, c. 1549–1581), attributed to, Story of Adam and Eve, c. 1549, oil on panel, 41.3 × 34.3 cm. Private collection, documented in: Sotheby’s (2001). Arts of the Renaissance. Auction, New York, January 25, 2001, Lots 1–91. New York: Sotheby’s Cornelis Cornelisz. van Haarlem (Haarlem, 1562–1638), Adam and Eve, 1599, oil on canvas, 183.3 × 139 cm. Muzeum Narodowego, Warsaw. Public domain Cornelis Cornelisz. van Haarlem (Haarlem, 1562–1638), Fall of Man, 1592, oil on canvas, 273 × 220 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. Public domain Cornelis Cort (Hoorn, 1533 – Rome, before 1578), Adam and Eve and Expulsion from Paradise, 1564, engraving, 18.5 × 24.1 cm. Art Institute, Chicago. Public domain Lucas Cranach the Elder (Kronach, 1472 – Weimar, 1553), Garden of Eden, 1530, oil on panel, 80 × 118 cm. Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden. Public domain Lucas Cranach the Elder (Kronach, 1472 – Weimar, 1553), Garden of Eden, 1530, oil on panel, 81 × 114 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Public domain Taddeo Crivelli (Ferrara, 1425 – Bologna, 1479) and Franco dei Russi (Mantua, active fifteenth century), Borso d'Este Bible; Creation of Eve and God Instructing Adam and Eve, f. 6r, 1455–1461, miniature, folio 37.5 × 26.5 cm (detail 9.2 × 14.5 cm). Biblioteca Estense, Modena, MS V.G. 12. Image and permission: Ministero della Cultura – Gallerie Estensi, Biblioteca Estense Universitaria Taddeo Crivelli (Ferrara, 1425 – Bologna, 1479) and Franco dei Russi (Mantua, active fifteenth century), Borso d'Este Bible; Expulsion from the Eden Garden, f. 6v, 1455–1461, miniature, folio 37.5 × 26.5 cm; (detail 8.2 × 9.2 cm). Biblioteca Estense, Modena, MS V.G. 12. Image and permission: Ministero della Cultura – Gallerie Estensi, Biblioteca Estense Universitaria Jean Dreux (active 1448–1468), Master of Margaret of York (active fifteenth century) and Jean Hennecart (active 1454–1470), Aegidius of Roya’s Compendium Historiae Universalis; Scenes from the Garden of Eden, f. 1r, c.1450–1460, miniature, folio 36.2 × 25.6 cm (detail c. 16.2 × 15.4 cm). Nationale Bibliotheek van Nederland, The Hague, RMMW 10 A 21. Public domain Flemish-Veneto Painter (active end sixteenth century), Original Sin and Expulsion from the Garden of Eden, 1593, fresco, 270 × 155 cm. Sala dei Battuti, Conegliano. Public domain Flower Painter of Matera (active ninth century), Creation of Light and Darkness, Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve and Original Sin, c. 826–843, fresco, 262 × 674 cm. Cripta del Peccato Originale, Matera. Courtesy of Massimo Limoncelli, Università di Palermo Follower of Pieter Coecke van Aelst (active sixteenth century), Fall of Man, c. 1520–1530, oil on panel, 106.7 × 64.8 cm. Dulwich Picture Gallery, Dulwich. Public domain

276 Fig. 6.62

Fig. 6.63

Fig. 6.64

Fig. 6.65

Fig. 6.66 Fig. 6.67

Fig. 6.68

Fig. 6.69

Fig. 6.70

Fig. 6.71

Fig. 6.72

Fig. 6.73

Fig. 6.74

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve Fra Bartolomeo (Baccio della Porta) (Florence, 1472–1517), Creation of Eve, c. 1510, oil on panel, 54.3 × 32.1 cm. Seattle Art Museum, Seattle. Image and permission: The Seattle Art Museum, Seattle Lorenzo Ghiberti (Pelago, Florence, 1378–1455), Gates of Paradise; Adam and Eve, 1425–1452, gilded bronze relief, 80 × 79 cm. Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Florence. Public domain Giusto de’ Menabuoi (Florence, c. 1330 – Padua, c. 1391), Creation of Man and Woman, 1378, fresco, 320 × 554 cm (average width), Battistero della Cattedrale, Padua. Image and permission: The Diocesi di Padova, Ufficio Beni Culturali, Padova Giusto de’ Menabuoi (Florence, c. 1330 – Padua, c. 1391), Original Sin, Expulsion from Paradise and Scenes from the Story of Cain and Abel, 1378, fresco, 320 × 554 cm (average width). Battistero della Cattedrale, Padua. Image and permission: The Diocesi di Padova, Ufficio Beni Culturali, Padova Jan Gossaert (Mabuse) (Maubeuge, c. 1478 – Middelburg, 1532), Fall of Man, c. 1525–1530, oil on panel, 170 × 114 cm. Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. Public domain Giovanni di ser Giovanni Guidi (lo Scheggia) (San Giovanni Valdarno, 1406 – Florence, 1486) and Francesco D'Antonio (Florence, 1393 – after 1433), Expulsion from Paradise and Labour of Adam and Eve, 1425–1430, fresco, 262 × 455 cm. Chiostro Verde, Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, Florence. Public domain Hans Ruprecht Hoffmann (Worms, c. 1540–43 – Trier, 1616), Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve and Warning of the Tree of Knowledge, c.1590, alabaster relief, 58.5 × 58.5 cm. Bischöfliches Dom- und Diözesanmuseum, Trier. Public domain Hans Ruprecht Hoffmann (Worms, c. 1540–43 – Trier, 1616), Fall and Expulsion from Paradise, c. 1590, alabaster relief, 58 × 59 cm. Bischöfliches Dom- und Diözesanmuseum, Trier. Image and permission: The Rheinisches Bildarchiv, Cologne Oswalt Kreusel (Kreuselius) (active sixteenth century), Millstatt Lenten Veil; Creation of Adam and Creation of Eve, 1593, watercolour on canvas, 120 × 95 cm. Stiftskirche, Millstatt. Public domain Oswalt Kreusel (Kreuselius) (active sixteenth century), Millstatt Lenten Veil; Fall and Expulsion, 1593, watercolour on canvas, 120 × 95 cm. Stiftskirche, Millstatt. Public domain Limbourg Brothers; Pol de Limbourg, Jean de Limbourg and Herman de Limbourg (active around 1400–1416), Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry; Garden of Eden, f. 25v, c. 1411–1416, miniature, folio 29.2 × 21.3 cm. Musée Condé, Chantilly. Public domain Lorenzo Maitani (Siena, c. 1270 – Orvieto, 1330), Genesis pilaster; Creation of the World, Animals and Man, register 1, c. 1320–1330, marble relief, 640 × 360 cm (the whole); first register 67 × 360 cm. Basilica Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, Orvieto. Photo: Massimo Achilli SABAP Umbria. Image and permission: The Museo Opera del Duomo di Orvieto, Orvieto Lorenzo Maitani (Siena, c. 1270 – Orvieto, 1330), Genesis pilaster; Creation of Adam and Creation of Eve, register 2, c. 1320–1330, marble relief, 640 × 360 cm (the whole); second register 103 × 360 cm. Basilica Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, Orvieto. Photo: Massimo Achilli SABAP Umbria. Image and permission: The Museo Opera del Duomo di Orvieto, Orvieto

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve Fig. 6.75

Fig. 6.76

Fig. 6.77

Fig. 6.78

Fig. 6.79

Fig. 6.80

Fig. 6.81

Fig. 6.82

Fig. 6.83

Fig. 6.84

Fig. 6.85

Fig. 6.86

Fig. 6.87

Fig. 6.88

277

Lorenzo Maitani (Siena, c. 1270 – Orvieto, 1330), Genesis pilaster; Fall and Reproach, register 3 right side, c. 1320–1330, marble relief, 640 × 360 cm (the whole); third register 108 × 360 cm. Basilica Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, Orvieto. Photo: Massimo Achilli SABAP Umbria. Image and permission: The Museo Opera del Duomo di Orvieto, Orvieto Martino di Bartolomeo (Siena, 1365–70 – 1435), Original Sin and Expulsion, 1398, fresco, 160 × 540 cm (bottom width) (340 cm, top width). Oratorio di San Giovanni, Cascina. Courtesy of Renato Guerrucci Master of the Champion des Dames (active c. 1465–1475), Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Adam and Eve Picking the Forbidden Fruit, f. 6v, c. 1470, miniature, folio 36 × 26 cm. Bibliotheque Inguimbertine, Carpentras. Public domain Master of the Duke of Bedford (active c. 1405–1465), Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Story of Adam and Eve, f. 6v, c. 1415–1420, miniature, folio 44 × 32 cm. Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Francais 226. Courtesy of the BnF, Paris Master of the Duke of Bedford (active c. 1405–1465), Bedford Hours; Story of Adam and Eve, f. 14r, c. 1410–1430, miniature, 26 × 18.5 cm. British Library, London, Add MS 18850. Public domain Master of the Redención del Prado (active c. 1433–1466), Triptych of the Redemption; Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, c.1450, oil on panel, 195 × 77 cm. Museo del Prado, Madrid. Public domain Michelangelo (Buonarroti, Michelangelo) (Caprese Michelangelo, 1475 – Rome, 1564), Fall and Expulsion, 1508–1512, fresco, 280 × 570 cm. Cappella Sistina, Vatican City. Image and permission: The Governatorato SCV – Direzione dei Musei Niccolò di Tommaso (active in Florence, c. 1346–1376), Original Sin and Reproach by the Lord, 1372, fresco, 250 × 769 cm. Chiesa di Sant'Antonio Abate o del Tau, Pistoia. Courtesy of Nicolò Begliomini, Giorgio Tesi Editrice, Pistoia Pacino di Buonaguida (active in Florence, 1302 – before 1340), Tree of Life; Genesis, lower part, left side, 1310–1315, tempera on panel, 248 × 151 cm (the whole). Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence. Photo:Rabatti-Domingie. Image and permission: The Gabinetto Fotografico delle Gallerie degli Uffizi, Florence Pacino di Buonaguida (active in Florence, 1302 – before 1340), Tree of Life; Genesis, lower part, right side, 1310–1315, tempera on panel, 248 × 151 cm (the whole). Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence. Photo: Rabatti-Domingie. Image and permission: Gabinetto Fotografico delle Gallerie degli Uffizi, Florence Paolo Uccello (Paolo di Dono) (Pratovecchio, 1397 – Florence, 1475), Creation of Animals and Creation of Adam, 1425–1430, fresco, 210 × 451 cm. Chiostro Verde, Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, Florence. Public domain Paolo Uccello (Paolo di Dono) (Pratovecchio, 1397 – Florence, 1475), Creation of Eve and Original Sin, 1425–1430, fresco, 245 × 478 cm. Chiostro Verde, Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, Florence. Public domain Piero di Puccio da Orvieto (active c. 1355–1400), Creation of the World, 1389– 1391, fresco, 715 × 810 cm. Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa. Image and permission: The Archivio Fotografico Opera del Duomo di Pisa, Opera della Primaziale Pisana, A.F.O.P. Pierre Reymond (Limoges, 1513 – c. 1584), Creation of the World, c. 1560, enamel on copper, 46.67 × 46.67 cm. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles. Public domain

278 Fig. 6.89

Fig. 6.90 Fig. 6.91

Fig. 6.92

Fig. 6.93 Fig. 6.94

Fig. 6.95 Fig. 6.96 Fig. 6.97

Fig. 6.98

Fig. 6.99

Fig. 6.100

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve Francesco Rosso (active c. 1501–1550), Giovan Francesco Capoferri (? c. 1497 – ? 1534) and Nicolò Cabrini (? – 1524), Creation of Eve, c.1523, choir intarsia panel, 45 × 43 cm. Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo. Image and permission: The Congregazione della Misericordia Maggiore di Bergamo – MIA, Bergamo. Johan Sadeler I (Brussels, 1550 – ? Venice, 1600), Adam and Eve in Paradise, 1583, engraving, 20.5 × 26.7 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. Public domain Sano di Pietro (Ansano di Pietro di Mencio) (Siena, 1405–1481), Breviarum Fratrum Minorum; Story of Adam and Eve, f. 148r, c. 1460, miniature, folio 31.5 × 23.5 cm. Biblioteca Comunale, Siena. Image and permission: The Biblioteca Comunale degli Intronati, Comune di Siena Virgil Solis (Nuremberg, 1514–1562), Creation, Fall of Man and Expulsion from Eden Garden, c. 1560, engraving, 5.4 × 24 cm. Kupferstichkabinett, Berlin. Public domain Virgil Solis (Nuremberg, 1514–1562), Reusner's Emblemata; Fall of Man, 1581, woodcut, 5.8 × 7.3 cm. Universitätsbibliothek, Heidelberg. Public domain Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti) (Venice, 1518–1594), Original Sin, 1550–1553, oil on canvas, 150 × 220 cm. Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice. Image and permission: The G.A.VE Archivio fotografico, su concessione del Ministero della Cultura Lucas van Leyden (Leiden, c. 1494–1533), Fall of Man, c. 1514, woodcut, 41.1 × 29.3 cm. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Public domain Lucas van Leyden (Leiden, c. 1494–1533), Adam and Eve, 1516–1519, woodcut, folio 24.2 × 17.2 cm. National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C. Public domain Wiligelmo (active in Modena, c. 1099–c. 1120), Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve and Original Sin, 1100–1110, marble relief; pink Verona breccia, 100 × 282 cm. Duomo di Santa Maria Assunta in Cielo e San Geminiano, Modena. Public domain Wiligelmo (active in Modena, c. 1099–c. 1120), Reproach, Expulsion and Labour, 1100–1110, marble relief; pink Verona breccia, 100 × 278.6 cm. Duomo di Santa Maria Assunta in Cielo e San Geminiano, Modena. Public domain Michael Wolgemut (Nuremberg, 1434–1519), Fall and Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, 1493, woodcut, folio 40.6 × 26.6 cm (detail 35.2 × 22.5 cm). Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles. Public domain Michael Wolgemut (Nuremberg, 1434–1519), Fall of Man, 1491, woodcut, 25.8 × 17.9 cm. Universitätsbibliothek, Heidelberg. Public domain

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.1  Mariotto Albertinelli, Creation and Fall of Man, 1513–1514

Fig. 6.2  Mariotto Albertinelli, Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, c. 1514

279

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6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.3  Alessandro Allori, Original Sin and Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, c. 1560–1564

Fig. 6.4  Jost Amman, Fall of Man and Expulsion, 1551–1564

Fig. 6.5  Jost Amman, History of Adam and Eve, 1580

Fig. 6.6 Anonymous, Creation of Eve, Presentation of Eve to Adam and Temptation of Eve, c. 1100

282

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.7 Anonymous, San Paolo fuori le mura Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 1, c. 870–875

Fig. 6.8 Anonymous, San Paolo fuori le mura Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 2, c. 870–875

Fig. 6.9 Anonymous, San Paolo fuori le mura Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 3, c. 870–875

Fig. 6.10 Anonymous, Genesis Dome; Creation of Eve, 1220–1230

Fig. 6.11 Anonymous, Genesis Dome; Eva Plucking Fruit and Giving It to Adam, 1220–1230

Fig. 6.12 Anonymous, Genesis Dome; Expulsion and Labour of Adam and Eve, 1220–1230

284

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.13 Anonymous, Pantheon Bible; Scenes from Genesis, register 2, c. 1100

Fig. 6.14 Anonymous, Pantheon Bible; Scenes from Genesis, register 3, c. 1100

Fig. 6.15 Anonymous, Pantheon Bible; Scenes from Genesis, register 4, c. 1100

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

285

Fig. 6.16 Anonymous, Horae Beatae Mariae Virginis; Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, c. 1430–1440

286

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.17 Anonymous, Vivian Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 1, 845–846

Fig. 6.18 Anonymous, Vivian Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 2, 845–846

Fig. 6.19 Anonymous, Vivian Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 3, 845–846

Fig. 6.20 Anonymous, Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 1, c. 830–840

Fig. 6.21 Anonymous, Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 2, c. 830–840

Fig. 6.22 Anonymous, Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 3, c. 830–840

Fig. 6.23 Anonymous, Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 4, c. 830–840

Fig. 6.24 Anonymous, Holkham Bible Picture Book; Creation of Adam and Eve, 1327–1335

Fig. 6.25 Anonymous, Holkham Bible Picture Book; Fall and Expulsion, 1327–1335

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.26 Anonymous, Creation of Eve and Original Sin, c. 1300

Fig. 6.27 Anonymous, Story of Creation, 1354–1385

289

290

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.28 Anonymous, Alba Bible; Story of Adam and Eve, register 1, 1422–1430

Fig. 6.29 Anonymous, Alba Bible; Story of Adam and Eve, register 2, 1422–1430

Fig. 6.30 Anonymous, Alba Bible; Story of Adam and Eve, register 3, 1422–1430

Fig. 6.31 Anonymous, Original Sin (Vera Cruz de Maderuelo), c.1125

Fig. 6.32 Anonymous, Vienna Genesis; Original Sin, f. 1r, c. 530

Fig. 6.33 Anonymous, Vienna Genesis; Expulsion from Paradise, f. 1v, c. 530

292

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.34  Anonymous, Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Original Sin, c. 1480

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.35 Anonymous, Bamberg Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 1, 834–843

Fig. 6.36 Anonymous, Bamberg Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 2, 834–843

Fig. 6.37 Anonymous, Bamberg Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 3, 834–843

293

294

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.38 Anonymous, Story of Adam and Eve, c. 1401–1450

Fig. 6.39  Jacob de Backer, Garden of Eden, 1570–1591

Fig. 6.40  Jacopo Bertucci (Jacopone da Faenza), Original Sin and Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, 1560–1575

Fig. 6.41  Herri met de Bles, Paradise, c.1541–1550

296

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.42  Johann Melchior Bocksberger, attributed to, Creation of the World, c. 1570–1580

Fig. 6.43  Hieronymus Bosch, Last Judgment Triptych, left panel, 1504–1508

Fig. 6.44  Hieronymus Bosch, Haywain Triptych, left panel, 1512–1515

Fig. 6.45  Hieronymus Bosch, workshop of, Garden of Paradise, 1504–1514

298

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.46  Boucicaut Master and workshop, Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Story of Adam and Eve, c.1413–1415

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.47  Jan Bruegel II the Younger, attributed to, Earthly Paradise, c. 1630

Fig. 6.48  Hendrick de Clerck, Garden of Eden with Fall of Man, 1597–1610

299

Fig. 6.49  Hendrick de Clerck and Denis van Alsloot, Paradise, 1606–1609

Fig. 6.50  Marcellus Coffermans, attributed to, Story of Adam and Eve, c. 1549

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

301

Fig. 6.51  Cornelis Cornelisz. van Haarlem, Fig. 6.52  Cornelis Cornelisz. van Haarlem, Fall of Adam and Eve, 1599 Man, 1592

Fig. 6.53  Cornelis Cort, Adam and Eve and Expulsion from Paradise, 1564

302

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.54  Lucas Cranach the Elder, Garden of Eden, 1530

Fig. 6.55  Lucas Cranach the Elder, Garden of Eden, 1530

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

303

Fig. 6.56  Taddeo Crivelli and Franco dei Russi, Borso d’Este Bible; Creation of Eve and God Instructing Adam and Eve, 1455–1461

304

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.57  Taddeo Crivelli and Franco dei Russi, Borso d’Este Bible; Expulsion from the Eden Garden, 1455–1461

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

305

Fig. 6.58  Jean Dreux, Master of Margaret of York and Jean Hennecart, Aegidius of Roya’s Compendium Historiae Universalis; Scenes from the Garden of Eden, c.1450–1460

Fig. 6.59  Flemish-Veneto Painter, Original Sin and Expulsion from the Garden of Eden, 1593

Fig. 6.60  Flower Painter of Matera, Creation of Light and Darkness, Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve and Original Sin, c. 826–843

Fig. 6.61  Follower of Pieter Coecke van Aelst, Fall of Man, c. 1520–1530

Fig. 6.62  Fra Bartolomeo, Creation of Eve, c. 1510

Fig. 6.63  Lorenzo Ghiberti, Gates of Paradise; Adam and Eve, 1425–1452

Fig. 6.64  Giusto de’ Menabuoi, Creation of Man and Woman, 1378

Fig. 6.65  Giusto de’ Menabuoi, Original Sin, Expulsion from Paradise and Scenes from the Story of Cain and Abel, 1378

Fig. 6.66  Jan Gossaert (Mabuse), Fall of Man, c. 1525–1530

Fig. 6.67  Giovanni di ser Giovanni Guidi (lo Scheggia) and Francesco D’Antonio, Expulsion from Paradise and Labour of Adam and Eve, 1425–1430

Fig. 6.68  Hans Ruprecht Hoffmann, Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve and Warning of the Tree of Knowledge, c.1590

Fig. 6.69  Hans Ruprecht Hoffmann, Fall and Expulsion from Paradise, c. 1590

Fig. 6.70  Oswalt Kreusel, Millstatt Lenten Veil; Creation of Adam and Creation of Eve, 1593

Fig. 6.71  Oswalt Kreusel, Millstatt Lenten Veil; Fall and Expulsion, 1593

312

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.72  Limbourg Brothers, Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry; Garden of Eden, c. 1411–1416

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

313

Fig. 6.73  Lorenzo Maitani, Genesis pilaster; Creation of the World, Animals and Man, register 1, c. 1320–1330

Fig. 6.74  Lorenzo Maitani, Genesis pilaster; Creation of Adam and Creation of Eve, register 2, c. 1320–1330

Fig. 6.75  Lorenzo Maitani, Genesis pilaster; Fall and Reproach, register 3 right side, c. 1320–1330

314

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.76  Martino di Bartolomeo, Original Sin and Expulsion, 1398

Fig. 6.77  Master of the Champion des Dames, Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Adam and Eve Picking the Forbidden Fruit, c. 1470

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

315

Fig. 6.78  Master of the Duke of Bedford, Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Story of Adam and Eve, c. 1415–1420

316

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.79  Master of the Duke of Bedford, Bedford Hours; Story of Adam and Eve, c. 1410–1430

Fig. 6.80  Master of the Redención del Prado, Triptych of the Redemption; Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, c.1450

Fig. 6.81 Michelangelo, Fall and Expulsion, 1508–1512

318

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.82  Niccolò di Tommaso, Original Sin and Reproach by the Lord, 1372

Fig. 6.83  Pacino di Buonaguida, Tree of Life; Genesis, lower part, left side, 1310–1315

Fig. 6.84  Pacino di Buonaguida, Tree of Life; Genesis, lower part, right side, 1310–1315

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.85  Paolo Uccello, Creation of Animals and Creation of Adam, 1425–1430

Fig. 6.86  Paolo Uccello, Creation of Eve and Original Sin, 1425–1430

319

320

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.87  Piero di Puccio da Orvieto, Creation of the World, 1389–1391

Fig. 6.88  Pierre Reymond, Creation of the World, c. 1560

Fig. 6.89  Francesco Rosso, Giovan Francesco Capoferri and Nicolò Cabrini, Creation of Eve, c.1523

Fig. 6.90  Johan Sadeler I, Adam and Eve in Paradise, 1583

322

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.91  Sano di Pietro, Breviarum Fratrum Minorum; Story of Adam and Eve, c. 1460

Fig. 6.92  Virgil Solis, Creation, Fall of Man and Expulsion from Eden Garden, c. 1560

Fig. 6.93  Virgil Solis, Reusner’s Emblemata; Fall of Man, 1581

Fig. 6.94 Tintoretto, Original Sin, 1550–1553

Fig. 6.95  Lucas van Leyden, Fall of Man, c. 1514

Fig. 6.96  Lucas van Leyden, Adam and Eve, 1516–1519

6  Images of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 6.97 Wiligelmo, Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve and Original Sin, 1100–1110

Fig. 6.98 Wiligelmo, Reproach, Expulsion and Labour, 1100–1110

325

Fig. 6.99  Michael Wolgemut, Fall and Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, 1493

Fig. 6.100  Michael Wolgemut, Fall of Man, 1491

Chapter 7

Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

The following pages include the 100 images of the artworks considered in the research on the story of Adam and Eve – the same images reproduced in colour in the figures of Chap. 6 – on which the codes we used to classify the biblical scenes represented in the works are superimposed. The codes refer to a verse or group of verses of the Bible in which the story of Adam and Eve is narrated, namely, to Bible chapters 1, 2, 3 and 4 up to verse 16. Even if the classification of scenes is referred to throughout all the chapters dealing with the research on the story of Adam and Eve, the problems raised in identifying the episodes or events narrated in the individual artworks are addressed mainly in Chap. 3 of this book, where they are analytically discussed with reference also to the art-historical literature. For ease of reading, we report here, before the images of the 100 artworks, the chapters of the Bible1 to which they refer and the table showing the correspondence between Bible verses and classification codes, already included in Chap. 3. Furthermore, the list of figures are provided, in alphabetical order by artist, specifying all the data useful to identify the artworks – namely, author, title of work, date, technique, dimension and location. The editing of the images was done by the authors using a graphics program.

 The New Oxford Annotated Bible, edited by M. D. Coogan, M. Z. Brettler, C. A. Newsom, & P. Perkins, and published in New York by the Oxford University Press, in 2010. 1

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 L. Messina-Argenton et al., Showing Time: Continuous Pictorial Narrative and the Adam and Eve Story, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13662-7_7

327

328

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Bible chapters considered in the research on thematic repertoire of the story of Adam and Eve: I - IV (up to verse 16) Chapter I Gen., I, 1 Gen., I, 2 Gen., I, 3 Gen., I, 4 Gen., I, 5 Gen., I, 6 Gen., I, 7 Gen., I, 8 Gen., I, 9 Gen., I, 10 Gen., I, 11 Gen., I, 12 Gen., I, 13 Gen., I, 14 Gen., I, 15 Gen., I, 16 Gen., I, 17 Gen., I, 18 Gen., I, 19 Gen., I, 20 Gen., I, 21

Gen., I, 22 Gen., I, 23 Gen., I, 24 Gen., I, 25

In the beginning when God created the heavens and the earth, the earth was a formless void and darkness covered the face of the deep, while a wind from God swept over the face of the waters. Then God said, “Let there be light”; and there was light. And God saw that the light was good; and God separated the light from the darkness. God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And there was evening and there was morning, the first day. And God said, “Let there be a dome in the midst of the waters, and let it separate the waters from the waters”. So, God made the dome and separated the waters that were under the dome from the waters that were above the dome. And it was so. God called the dome Sky. And there was evening and there was morning, the second day. And God said, “Let the waters under the sky be gathered together into one place, and let the dry land appear”. And it was so. God called the dry land Earth, and the waters that were gathered together he called Seas. And God saw that it was good. Then God said, “Let the earth put forth vegetation: plants yielding seed, and fruit trees of every kind on earth that bear fruit with the seed in it”. And it was so. The earth brought forth vegetation: plants yielding seed of every kind, and trees of every kind bearing fruit with the seed in it. And God saw that it was good. And there was evening and there was morning, the third day. And God said, “Let there be lights in the dome of the sky to separate the day from the night; and let them be for signs and for seasons and for days and years, and let them be lights in the dome of the sky to give light upon the earth”. And it was so. God made the two great lights – the greater light to rule the day and the lesser light to rule the night – and the stars. God set them in the dome of the sky to give light upon the earth, to rule over the day and over the night, and to separate the light from the darkness. And God saw that it was good. And there was evening and there was morning, the fourth day. And God said, “Let the waters bring forth swarms of living creatures, and let birds fly above the earth across the dome of the sky”. So, God created the great sea monsters and every living creature that moves, of every kind, with which the waters swarm, and every winged bird of every kind. And God saw that it was good. God blessed them, saying, “Be fruitful and multiply and fill the waters in the seas, and let birds multiply on the earth”. And there was evening and there was morning, the fifth day. And God said, “Let the earth bring forth living creatures of every kind: cattle and creeping things and wild animals of the earth of every kind”. And it was so. God made the wild animals of the earth of every kind, and the cattle of every kind, and everything that creeps upon the ground of every kind. And God saw that it was good. (continued)

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

329

Gen., I, 26 Then God said, “Let us make humankind in our image, according to our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the wild animals of the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth”. Gen., I, 27 So, God created humankind in his image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them. Gen., I, 28 God blessed them, and God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves upon the earth”. Gen., I, 29 God said, “See, I have given you every plant yielding seed that is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree with seed in its fruit; you shall have them for food. Gen., I, 30 And to every beast of the earth, and to every bird of the air and to everything that creeps on the earth, everything that has the breath of life, I have given every green plant for food”. And it was so. Gen., I, 31 God saw everything that he had made, and indeed, it was very good. And there was evening and there was morning, the sixth day.

Chapter II Gen., II, 1 Gen., II, 2 Gen., II, 3 Gen., II, 4 Gen., II, 5

Gen., II, 6 Gen., II, 7 Gen., II, 8 Gen., II, 9

Gen., II, 10 Gen., II, 11 Gen., II, 12 Gen., II, 13 Gen., II, 14 Gen., II, 15

Thus, the heavens and the earth were finished, and all their multitude. And on the seventh day, God finished the work that he had done, and he rested on the seventh day from all the work that he had done. So, God blessed the seventh day and hallowed it, because on it God rested from all the work that he had done in creation. These are the generations of the heavens and the earth when they were created. In the day that the Lord God made the earth and the heavens, when no plant of the field was yet in the earth and no herb of the field had yet sprung up – for the Lord God had not caused it to rain upon the earth, and there was no one to till the ground; but a stream would rise from the earth, and water the whole face of the ground – then the Lord God formed man from the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and the man became a living being. And the Lord God planted a garden in Eden, in the east; and there he put the man whom he had formed. Out of the ground, the Lord God made to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good for food, the tree of life also in the midst of the garden and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. A river flows out of Eden to water the garden, and from there it divides and becomes four branches. The name of the first is Pishon; it is the one that flows around the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold; and the gold of that land is good; bdellium and onyx stone are there. The name of the second river is Gihon; it is the one that flows around the whole land of Cush. The name of the third river is Tigris, which flows east of Assyria. And the fourth river is the Euphrates. The Lord God took the man and put him in the garden of Eden to till it and keep it. (continued)

330 Gen., II, 16 Gen., II, 17 Gen., II, 18 Gen., II, 19

Gen., II, 20 Gen., II, 21 Gen., II, 22 Gen., II, 23 Gen., II, 24 Gen., II, 25

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve And the Lord God commanded the man, “You may freely eat of every tree of the garden; but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat of it you shall die”. Then the Lord God said, “It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him a helper as his partner”. So out of the ground, the Lord God formed every animal of the field and every bird of the air, and brought them to the man to see what he would call them; and whatever the man called every living creature, that was its name. The man gave names to all cattle, and to the birds of the air and to every animal of the field; but for the man there was not found a helper as his partner. So, the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man, and he slept; then he took one of his ribs and closed up its place with flesh. And the rib that the Lord God had taken from the man he made into a woman and brought her to the man. Then the man said, “This at last is bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; this one shall be called Woman, for out of Man this one was taken”. Therefore, a man leaves his father and his mother and clings to his wife, and they become one flesh. And the man and his wife were both naked, and were not ashamed.

Chapter III Gen., III, 1

Now the serpent was more crafty than any other wild animal that the Lord God had made. He said to the woman, “Did God say, ‘You shall not eat from any tree in the garden’?” Gen., III, 2 The woman said to the serpent, “We may eat of the fruit of the trees in the garden; Gen., III, 3 but God said, ‘You shall not eat of the fruit of the tree that is in the middle of the garden, nor shall you touch it, or you shall die’”. Gen., III, 4 But the serpent said to the woman, “You will not die; Gen., III, 5 for God knows that when you eat of it your eyes will be opened, and you will be like God, knowing good and evil”. Gen., III, 6 So, when the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and that it was a delight to the eyes, and that the tree was to be desired to make one wise, she took of its fruit and ate; and she also gave some to her husband, who was with her, and he ate. Gen., III, 7 Then the eyes of both were opened, and they knew that they were naked; and they sewed fig leaves together and made loincloths for themselves. Gen., III, 8 They heard the sound of the Lord God walking in the garden at the time of the evening breeze, and the man and his wife hid themselves from the presence of the Lord God among the trees of the garden. Gen., III, 9 But the Lord God called to the man, and said to him, “Where are you?” Gen., III, 10 He said, “I heard the sound of you in the garden, and I was afraid, because I was naked; and I hid myself”. Gen., III, 11 He said, “Who told you that you were naked? Have you eaten from the tree of which I commanded you not to eat?” Gen., III, 12 The man said, “The woman whom you gave to be with me, she gave me fruit from the tree, and I ate”. (continued)

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

331

Gen., III, 13 Then the Lord God said to the woman, “What is this that you have done?” The woman said, “The serpent tricked me, and I ate”. Gen., III, 14 The Lord God said to the serpent, “Because you have done this, cursed are you among all animals and among all wild creatures; upon your belly you shall go, and dust you shall eat all the days of your life. Gen., III, 15 I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and hers; he will strike your head, and you will strike his heel”. Gen., III, 16 To the woman he said, “I will greatly increase your pangs in childbearing; in pain you shall bring forth children, yet your desire shall be for your husband, and he shall rule over you”. Gen., III, 17 And to the man he said, “Because you have listened to the voice of your wife, and have eaten of the tree about which I commanded you, ‘You shall not eat of it,’ cursed is the ground because of you; in toil you shall eat of it all the days of your life; Gen., III, 18 thorns and thistles it shall bring forth for you and you shall eat the plants of the field. Gen., III, 19 By the sweat of your face, you shall eat bread until you return to the ground, for out of it you were taken; you are dust, and to dust you shall return”. Gen., III, 20 The man named his wife Eve, because she was the mother of all living. Gen., III, 21 And the Lord God made garments of skins for the man and for his wife, and clothed them. Gen., III, 22 Then the Lord God said, “See, the man has become like one of us, knowing good and evil; and now, he might reach out his hand and take also from the tree of life, and eat, and live forever” – Gen., III, 23 therefore, the Lord God sent him forth from the garden of Eden, to till the ground from which he was taken. Gen., III, 24 He drove out the man; and at the east of the garden of Eden he placed the cherubim, and a sword flaming and turning to guard the way to the tree of life.

Chapter IV Gen., IV, 1 Gen., IV, 2 Gen., IV, 3 Gen., IV, 4 Gen., IV, 5 Gen., IV, 6 Gen., IV, 7 Gen., IV, 8

Now the man knew his wife Eve, and she conceived and bore Cain, saying, “I have produced a man with the help of the Lord”. Next, she bore his brother Abel. Now Abel was a keeper of sheep, and Cain a tiller of the ground. In the course of time, Cain brought to the Lord an offering of the fruit of the ground, and Abel for his part brought of the firstlings of his flock, their fat portions. And the Lord had regard for Abel and his offering, but for Cain and his offering he had no regard. So, Cain was very angry, and his countenance fell. The Lord said to Cain, “Why are you angry, and why has your countenance fallen? If you do well, will you not be accepted? And if you do not do well, sin is lurking at the door; its desire is for you, but you must master it”. Cain said to his brother Abel, “Let us go out to the field”. And when they were in the field, Cain rose up against his brother Abel, and killed him. (continued)

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

332 Gen., IV, 9 Gen., IV, 10 Gen., IV, 11 Gen., IV, 12 Gen., IV, 13 Gen., IV, 14

Gen., IV, 15

Gen., IV, 16

Then the Lord said to Cain, “Where is your brother Abel?” He said, “I do not know; am I my brother’s keeper?” And the Lord said, “What have you done? Listen; your brother’s blood is crying out to me from the ground! And now you are cursed from the ground, which has opened its mouth to receive your brother’s blood from your hand. When you till the ground, it will no longer yield to you its strength; you will be a fugitive and a wanderer on the earth”. Cain said to the Lord, “My punishment is greater than I can bear! Today you have driven me away from the soil, and I shall be hidden from your face; I shall be a fugitive and a wanderer on the earth, and anyone who meets me may kill me”. Then the Lord said to him, “Not so! Whoever kills Cain will suffer a seven-fold vengeance”. And the Lord put a mark on Cain, so that no one who came upon him would kill him. Then Cain went away from the presence of the Lord, and settled in the land of Nod, east of Eden.

Table showing the correspondence between Bible verses, scenes represented in the 100 works on the story of Adam and Eve and classification codes assigned to the scenes. Items codified with the letters A, B, C, D, E are not comprised in the above chapters or in the Bible at all (the same table in reported in Chap. 3) Bible verses

Gen., I, 1–25 Gen., I, 1–23 Gen., I, 3 Gen., I, 4–5 Gen., I, 20–25 Gen., I, 26–27 Gen., II, 7 Gen., II, 8; Gen., II, 15 Gen., II, 15–17 Gen., II, 19–20 Gen., II, 21 Gen., II, 22a Gen., II, 22b–24 Gen., II, 22–24 Gen., II, 16–17 Gen., III, 1–6 Gen., III, 1–6a

Scenes God in Mandorla Fall of Rebel Angels First Five Days First Five Days (without creation of terrestrial animals) Creation of Light Separation of Light from Darkness Creation of the Animals Creation of Humankind/Man (works in which there is a double scene of the Creation) Creation of Man/Adam Translation of Adam into the Garden of Eden

Code A B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Introduction of Adam into the Garden of Eden and Admonition 9 Naming of the Animals 10 Creation of Woman/Eve (Extraction of Adam’s rib) 11 Creation of Woman/Eve (Forming of Eve) 12 Introduction of Adam and Eve (works in which the Forming of Eve 13 is also represented) Introduction of Adam and Eve 14 Admonition to Adam/Admonition to Adam and Eve 15 Temptation and Fall (Eve and Adam with the serpent) 16 Temptation and Fall (Eve and the serpent, almost always without 17 Adam) (continued)

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve Bible verses Gen., III, 6b Gen., III, 1–19 Gen., III, 7–8 Gen., III, 7–19 Gen., III, 9–13 Gen., III, 9–19 Gen., III, 14–23a Gen., III, 23a, 24 Gen., III, 23a, Gen., III, 24 Gen., III, 23b, IV, 1–2 Gen., IV, 3–5 Gen., IV, 8 Gen., IV, 9–15 Gen., IV, 16

Scenes Temptation and Fall (works in which there is a double scene) From Temptation to Punishment Covering with Fig Leaves (hereafter, Shame), Hiding from God (hereafter, Hiding) From Shame to Punishment God Calling, Denial of Guilt From God Calling to Punishment Punishment, Clothing, Mercy, Expulsion Expulsion Expulsion (before the gate of Paradise) Expulsion (outside the gate of Paradise) Labour (linked to Gen., III, 16–17) and Adam and Eve's children Sacrifices of Cain and Abel Cain Killing Abel Reproval and Curse of Cain Departure of Cain Adam and Eve Mourning Abel Lamech Slaying Man Adam and Eve tell Boccaccio their Story

333 Code 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 C D E

List of Figures (Anonymous artists are listed in alphabetical order by the site in which works are located) Fig. 7.1 Fig. 7.2

Fig. 7.3

Fig. 7.4 Fig. 7.5 Fig. 7.6

Fig. 7.7

Fig. 7.8

Mariotto Albertinelli (Florence, 1474–1515), Creation and Fall of Man, 1513–1514, oil on panel, 56.2 × 165.5 cm. Courtauld Institute of Art Gallery, London Mariotto Albertinelli (Florence, 1474–1515), Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, c. 1514, oil on panel, 56.8 × 55 cm. Strossmayerova Galerija starih majstora, Zagreb Alessandro Allori (Florence, 1535–1607), Original Sin and Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, c. 1560–1564, fresco, c. 120 × 230 cm. Cappella Montauto, Basilica della SS. Annunziata, Florence Jost Amman (Zurich, 1539 – Nuremberg, 1591), Fall of Man and Expulsion, 1551–1564, woodcut, 11 × 15.4 cm. Herzog August Bibliothek, Wolfenbüttel Jost Amman (Zurich, 1539 – Nuremberg, 1591), History of Adam and Eve, 1580, woodcut, 27.5 × 19 cm. New York Public Library, New York Anonymous, Creation of Eve, Presentation of Eve to Adam and Temptation of Eve, c. 1100, fresco, c. 250 × 510 cm. Abbaye de Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe, Saint Savin sur Gartempe Anonymous, San Paolo fuori le mura Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 1, c. 870–875, miniature, folio 44.4 × 35 cm (register c. 12 × 28.4 cm). Abbazia di San Paolo fuori le mura, Rome Anonymous, San Paolo fuori le mura Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 2, c. 870–875, miniature, folio 44.4 × 35 cm (register c. 12.5 × 28.4 cm). Abbazia di San Paolo fuori le mura, Rome (continued)

334 Fig. 7.9

Fig. 7.10 Fig. 7.11 Fig. 7.12 Fig. 7.13

Fig. 7.14

Fig. 7.15

Fig. 7.16

Fig. 7.17

Fig. 7.18

Fig. 7.19

Fig. 7.20

Fig. 7.21

Fig. 7.22

Fig. 7.23

Fig. 7.24 Fig. 7.25 Fig. 7.26 Fig. 7.27

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve Anonymous, San Paolo fuori le mura Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 3, c. 870–875, miniature, folio 44.4 × 35 cm (register c. 11 × 28.4 cm). Abbazia di San Paolo fuori le mura, Rome Anonymous, Genesis Dome; Creation of Eve, 1220–1230, mosaics, 128 × 228 cm. Basilica di San Marco, Venice Anonymous, Genesis Dome; Eva Plucking Fruit and Giving It to Adam, 1220–1230, mosaics, 123.5 × 147.6 cm. Basilica di San Marco, Venice Anonymous, Genesis Dome; Expulsion and Labour of Adam and Eve, 1220–1230, mosaics, 124.9 × 244.8 cm. Basilica di San Marco, Venice Anonymous, Pantheon Bible; Scenes from Genesis, f. 4v, register 2, c. 1100, miniature, folio 45.4 × 28.5 cm (register c. 8.6 × 18.8 cm). Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Vat. lat. 12958 Anonymous, Pantheon Bible; Scenes from Genesis, f. 4v, register 3, c. 1100, miniature, folio 45.4 × 28.5 cm (register c. 8.3 × 19 cm). Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Vat. lat. 12958 Anonymous, Pantheon Bible; Scenes from Genesis, f. 4v, register 4, c. 1100, miniature, folio 45.4 × 28.5 cm (register c. 7.3 × 19 cm). Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Vat. lat. 12958 Anonymous, Horae Beatae Mariae Virginis; Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, f. 14v, c. 1430–1440, miniature, folio 21.2 × 14.8 cm (detail c. 12.5 × 7.2 cm). Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Rothschild 2535 Anonymous, Vivian Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 10v, register 1, 845–846, miniature, folio 49.5 × 34.5 cm (register c. 10.3 × 23.5 cm). Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Latin 1 Anonymous, Vivian Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 10v, register 2, 845–846, miniature, folio 49.5 × 34.5 cm (register c. 10 × 23.5 cm). Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Latin 1 Anonymous, Vivian Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 10v, register 3, 845–846, miniature, folio 49.5 × 34.5 cm (register c. 10.5 × 23.5 cm). Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Latin 1 Anonymous, Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 5v, register 1, c. 830–840, miniature, folio 51 × 37.5 cm (register c. 8.2 × 28.5 cm), British Library, London, Add MS 10546 Anonymous, Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 5v, register 2, c. 830–840, miniature, folio 51 × 37.5 cm (register c. 8.5 × 28.5 cm). British Library, London, Add MS 10546 Anonymous, Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 5v, register 3, c. 830–840, miniature, folio 51 × 37.5 cm (register c. 8.5 × 28.5 cm). British Library, London, Add MS 10546 Anonymous, Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 5v, register 4, c. 830–840, miniature, folio 51 × 37.5 cm (register c. 9.2 × 28.5 cm). British Library, London, Add MS 10546 Anonymous, Holkham Bible Picture Book; Creation of Adam and Eve, f. 3r, 1327–1335, miniature, folio 28.5 × 21 cm. British Library, London, Add MS 47682 Anonymous, Holkham Bible Picture Book; Fall and Expulsion, f. 4r, 1327–1335, miniature, folio 28.5 × 21 cm. British Library, London, Add MS 47682 Anonymous, Creation of Eve and Original Sin, c. 1300, fresco, 145 (sn) – 125 (dx) × 260 cm. Chiesa di Santa Croce ai Lagnoni, Andria Anonymous, Story of Creation, 1354–1385, stone relief, 162 × 215 cm (the whole) (detail c. 70 × 215 cm). Freiburg Cathedral, North portal, Freiburg (continued)

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve Fig. 7.28

Fig. 7.29

Fig. 7.30

Fig. 7.31 Fig. 7.32

Fig. 7.33

Fig. 7.34

Fig. 7.35

Fig. 7.36

Fig. 7.37

Fig. 7.38 Fig. 7.39 Fig. 7.40

Fig. 7.41 Fig. 7.42

Fig. 7.43

Fig. 7.44 Fig. 7.45 Fig. 7.46

335

Anonymous, Alba Bible; Story of Adam and Eve, register 1, 1422–1430, miniature, folio 40.5 × 28.7 cm (register c. 8.2 × 16 cm). Fundación Casa de Alba, Palacio de Liria, Madrid Anonymous, Alba Bible; Story of Adam and Eve, register 2, 1422–1430, miniature, folio 40.5 × 28.7 cm (register c. 7 × 18 cm). Fundación Casa de Alba, Palacio de Liria, Madrid Anonymous, Alba Bible; Story of Adam and Eve, register 3, 1422–1430, miniature, folio 40.5 × 28.7 cm (register c. 9 × 18.7 cm). Fundación Casa de Alba, Palacio de Liria, Madrid Anonymous, Original Sin (Vera Cruz de Maderuelo), c.1125, fresco, 203 × 207 cm. Museo del Prado, Madrid Anonymous, Vienna Genesis; Original Sin, f. 1r, c. 530, miniature, folio 31.7 × 23.5 cm (detail c. 14 × 22.4 cm). Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, Cod. Theol. gr. 31 Anonymous, Vienna Genesis; Expulsion from Paradise, f. 1v, c. 530, miniature, folio 31.7 × 23.5 cm (detail c. 15 × 21 cm). Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, Cod. Theol. gr. 31 Anonymous, Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Original Sin, f. 1r, c. 1480, miniature, 38.3 × 27.6 cm. Pierpont Morgan Library, New York, MS G.35 Anonymous, Bamberg Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 7v, register 1, 834–843, miniature, folio 47.4 × 35.3 cm (register c. 6 × 22.1 cm). Staatsbibliothek, Bamberg, Msc. Bibl. 1 Anonymous, Bamberg Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 7v, register 2, 834–843, miniature, folio 47.2 × 35.5 cm (register c. 5.7 × 22.3 cm). Staatsbibliothek, Bamberg, Msc. Bibl. 1 Anonymous, Bamberg Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, f. 7v, register 3, 834–843, miniature, folio 47.2 × 35.5 cm (register c. 5.5 × 22.2 cm). Staatsbibliothek, Bamberg, Msc. Bibl. 1 Anonymous, Story of Adam and Eve, c. 1401–1450, turquoise cameo, 1.7 × 2.2 cm. State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg Jacob de Backer (Antwerp, c. 1555 – c. 1585), Garden of Eden, 1570–1591, oil on panel, 108 × 77.5 cm. Groeningemuseum, Bruges Jacopo Bertucci (Jacopone da Faenza) (Faenza, c. 1502–1579), Original Sin and Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, 1560–1575, oil on panel. 160 × 163 cm. Pinacoteca Comunale, Faenza Herri met de Bles (Bouvignes, c. 1500–10 – ? Antwerp, c. 1550 – before 1567), Paradise, c.1541–1550, oil on panel, 46.6 × 45.5 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam Johann Melchior Bocksberger (Salzbourg, c. 1535 – Regensburg, c. 1587), attributed to, Creation of the World, c. 1570–1580, MNR 366, oil on panel, 131 × 120 cm. Musée des Beaux-Arts, Strasbourg Hieronymus Bosch (s'Hertogenbosch, c. 1450–1516), Last Judgment Triptych, left panel, 1504–1508, oil and tempera on panel, 164 × 60 cm. Gemäldegalerie der Akademie der bildenden Kunste, Vienna Hieronymus Bosch (s'Hertogenbosch, c. 1450–1516), Haywain Triptych, left panel, 1512–1515, oil on panel, 136.1 × 47.7 cm. Museo del Prado, Madrid Hieronymus Bosch (s'Hertogenbosch, c. 1450–1516), workshop of, Garden of Paradise, 1504–1514, oil on panel, 27 × 40.6 cm. Art Institute, Chicago Boucicaut Master and workshop (active c. 1390–1430), Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Story of Adam and Eve, f. 3, c.1413–1415, miniature, folio 42 × 29.6 cm (detail c. 18.8 × 18 cm). Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles (continued)

336 Fig. 7.47 Fig. 7.48

Fig. 7.49

Fig. 7.50

Fig. 7.51 Fig. 7.52 Fig. 7.53 Fig. 7.54 Fig. 7.55 Fig. 7.56

Fig. 7.57

Fig. 7.58

Fig. 7.59 Fig. 7.60

Fig. 7.61 Fig. 7.62 Fig. 7.63

Fig. 7.64

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve Jan Bruegel II the Younger (Antwerp, 1601–1678), attributed to, Earthly Paradise, c. 1630, oil on canvas, 81 × 118 cm. Musée Auguste Grasset, Varzy Hendrick de Clerck (Brussels, c. 1570–1630), Garden of Eden with Fall of Man, 1597–1610, oil on panel, 131.8 × 175 cm. Collection of Lynda & Stewart Resnick, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles Hendrick de Clerck (Brussels, c. 1570–1630) and Denis van Alsloot (Malinas, 1570 ̶ Brussels, 1628), Paradise, 1606–1609, oil on panel, 58 × 74 cm. Museo del Prado, Madrid Marcellus Coffermans (active in Antwerp, c. 1549–1581), attributed to, Story of Adam and Eve, c. 1549, oil on panel, 41.3 × 34.3 cm. Private collection, documented in: Sotheby’s (2001). Arts of the Renaissance. Auction, New York, January 25, 2001, Lots 1–91. New York: Sotheby’s Cornelis Cornelisz. van Haarlem (Haarlem, 1562–1638), Adam and Eve, 1599, oil on canvas, 183.3 × 139 cm. Muzeum Narodowego, Warsaw Cornelis Cornelisz. van Haarlem (Haarlem, 1562–1638), Fall of Man, 1592, oil on canvas, 273 × 220 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam Cornelis Cort (Hoorn, 1533 – Rome, before 1578), Adam and Eve and Expulsion from Paradise, 1564, engraving, 18.5 × 24.1 cm. Art Institute, Chicago Lucas Cranach the Elder (Kronach, 1472 – Weimar, 1553), Garden of Eden, 1530, oil on panel, 80 × 118 cm. Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden Lucas Cranach the Elder (Kronach, 1472 – Weimar, 1553), Garden of Eden, 1530, oil on panel, 81 × 114 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna Taddeo Crivelli (Ferrara, 1425 – Bologna, 1479) and Franco dei Russi (Mantua, active fifteenth century), Borso d'Este Bible; Creation of Eve and God Instructing Adam and Eve, f. 6r, 1455–1461, miniature, folio 37.5 × 26.5 cm (detail 9.2 × 14.5 cm). Biblioteca Estense, Modena, MS V.G. 12 Taddeo Crivelli (Ferrara, 1425 – Bologna, 1479) and Franco dei Russi (Mantua, active fifteenth century), Borso d'Este Bible; Expulsion from the Eden Garden, f. 6v, 1455–1461, miniature, folio 37.5 × 26.5 cm; (detail 8.2 × 9.2 cm). Biblioteca Estense, Modena, MS V.G. 12 Jean Dreux (active 1448–1468), Master of Margaret of York (active fifteenth century) and Jean Hennecart (active 1454–1470), Aegidius of Roya’s Compendium Historiae Universalis; Scenes from the Garden of Eden, f. 1r, c.1450–1460, miniature, folio 36.2 × 25.6 cm (detail c. 16.2 × 15.4 cm). Nationale Bibliotheek van Nederland, The Hague, RMMW 10 A 21 Flemish-Veneto Painter (active end sixteenth century), Original Sin and Expulsion from the Garden of Eden, 1593, fresco, 270 × 155 cm. Sala dei Battuti, Conegliano Flower Painter of Matera (active ninth century), Creation of Light and Darkness, Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve and Original Sin, c. 826–843, fresco, 262 × 674 cm. Cripta del Peccato Originale, Matera Follower of Pieter Coecke van Aelst (active sixteenth century), Fall of Man, c. 1520–1530, oil on panel, 106.7 × 64.8 cm. Dulwich Picture Gallery, Dulwich Fra Bartolomeo (Baccio della Porta) (Florence, 1472–1517), Creation of Eve, c. 1510, oil on panel, 54.3 × 32.1 cm. Seattle Art Museum, Seattle Lorenzo Ghiberti (Pelago, Florence, 1378–1455), Gates of Paradise; Adam and Eve, 1425–1452, gilded bronze relief, 80 × 79 cm. Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Florence Giusto de’ Menabuoi (Florence, c. 1330 – Padua, c. 1391), Creation of Man and Woman, 1378, fresco, 320 × 554 cm (average width), Battistero della Cattedrale, Padua (continued)

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve Fig. 7.65

Fig. 7.66 Fig. 7.67

Fig. 7.68

Fig. 7.69

Fig. 7.70

Fig. 7.71 Fig. 7.72

Fig. 7.73

Fig. 7.74

Fig. 7.75

Fig. 7.76

Fig. 7.77

Fig. 7.78

Fig. 7.79

Fig. 7.80

337

Giusto de’ Menabuoi (Florence, c. 1330 – Padua, c. 1391), Original Sin, Expulsion from Paradise and Scenes from the Story of Cain and Abel, 1378, fresco, 320 × 554 cm (average width). Battistero della Cattedrale, Padua Jan Gossaert (Mabuse) (Maubeuge, c. 1478 – Middelburg, 1532), Fall of Man, c. 1525–1530, oil on panel, 170 × 114 cm. Gemäldegalerie, Berlin Giovanni di ser Giovanni Guidi (lo Scheggia) (San Giovanni Valdarno, 1406 – Florence, 1486) and Francesco D'Antonio (Florence, 1393 – after 1433), Expulsion from Paradise and Labour of Adam and Eve, 1425–1430, fresco, 262 × 455 cm. Chiostro Verde, Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, Florence Hans Ruprecht Hoffmann (Worms, c. 1540–43 – Trier, 1616), Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve and Warning of the Tree of Knowledge, c.1590, alabaster relief, 58.5 × 58.5 cm. Bischöfliches Dom- und Diözesanmuseum, Trier Hans Ruprecht Hoffmann (Worms, c. 1540–43 – Trier, 1616), Fall and Expulsion from Paradise, c. 1590, alabaster relief, 58 × 59 cm. Bischöfliches Dom- und Diözesanmuseum, Trier Oswalt Kreusel (Kreuselius) (active sixteenth century), Millstatt Lenten Veil; Creation of Adam and Creation of Eve, 1593, watercolour on canvas, 120 × 95 cm. Stiftskirche, Millstatt Oswalt Kreusel (Kreuselius) (active sixteenth century), Millstatt Lenten Veil; Fall and Expulsion, 1593, watercolour on canvas, 120 × 95 cm. Stiftskirche, Millstatt Limbourg Brothers; Pol de Limbourg, Jean de Limbourg and Herman de Limbourg (active around 1400–1416), Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry; Garden of Eden, f. 25v, c. 1411–1416, miniature, folio 29.2 × 21.3 cm. Musée Condé, Chantilly Lorenzo Maitani (Siena, c. 1270 – Orvieto, 1330), Genesis pilaster; Creation of the World, Animals and Man, register 1, c. 1320–1330, marble relief, 640 × 360 cm (the whole); first register 67 × 360 cm. Basilica Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, Orvieto Lorenzo Maitani (Siena, c. 1270 – Orvieto, 1330), Genesis pilaster; Creation of Adam and Creation of Eve, register 2, c. 1320–1330, marble relief, 640 × 360 cm (the whole); second register 103 × 360 cm. Basilica Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, Orvieto Lorenzo Maitani (Siena, c. 1270 – Orvieto, 1330), Genesis pilaster; Fall and Reproach, register 3 right side, c. 1320–1330, marble relief, 640 × 360 cm (the whole); third register 108 × 360 cm. Basilica Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, Orvieto Martino di Bartolomeo (Siena, 1365–70 – 1435), Original Sin and Expulsion, 1398, fresco, 160 × 540 cm (bottom width) (340 cm, top width). Oratorio di San Giovanni, Cascina Master of the Champion des Dames (active c. 1465–1475), Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Adam and Eve Picking the Forbidden Fruit, f. 6v, c. 1470, miniature, folio 36 × 26 cm. Bibliotheque Inguimbertine, Carpentras Master of the Duke of Bedford (active c. 1405–1465), Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Story of Adam and Eve, f. 6v, c. 1415–1420, miniature, folio 44 × 32 cm. Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Francais 226 Master of the Duke of Bedford (active c. 1405–1465), Bedford Hours; Story of Adam and Eve, f. 14r, c. 1410–1430, miniature, 26 × 18.5 cm. British Library, London, Add MS 18850 Master of the Redención del Prado (active c. 1433–1466), Triptych of the Redemption; Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, c.1450, oil on panel, 195 × 77 cm. Museo del Prado, Madrid (continued)

338 Fig. 7.81

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Michelangelo (Buonarroti, Michelangelo) (Caprese Michelangelo, 1475 – Rome, 1564), Fall and Expulsion, 1508–1512, fresco, 280 × 570 cm. Cappella Sistina, Vatican City Fig. 7.82 Niccolò di Tommaso (active in Florence, c. 1346–1376), Original Sin and Reproach by the Lord, 1372, fresco, 250 × 769 cm. Chiesa di Sant'Antonio Abate o del Tau, Pistoia Fig. 7.83 Pacino di Buonaguida (active in Florence, 1302 – before 1340), Tree of Life; Genesis, lower part, left side, 1310–1315, tempera on panel, 248 × 151 cm (the whole). Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence Fig. 7.84 Pacino di Buonaguida (active in Florence, 1302 – before 1340), Tree of Life; Genesis, lower part, right side, 1310–1315, tempera on panel, 248 × 151 cm (the whole). Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence Fig. 7.85 Paolo Uccello (Paolo di Dono) (Pratovecchio, 1397 – Florence, 1475), Creation of Animals and Creation of Adam, 1425–1430, fresco, 210 × 451 cm. Chiostro Verde, Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, Florence Fig. 7.86 Paolo Uccello (Paolo di Dono) (Pratovecchio, 1397 – Florence, 1475), Creation of Eve and Original Sin, 1425–1430, fresco, 245 × 478 cm. Chiostro Verde, Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, Florence Fig. 7.87 Piero di Puccio da Orvieto (active c. 1355–1400), Creation of the World, 1389– 1391, fresco, 715 × 810 cm. Camposanto Monumentale, Pisa Fig. 7.88 Pierre Reymond (Limoges, 1513 – c. 1584), Creation of the World, c. 1560, enamel on copper, 46.67 × 46.67 cm. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles Fig. 7.89 Francesco Rosso (active c. 1501–1550), Giovan Francesco Capoferri (? c. 1497 – ? 1534) and Nicolò Cabrini (? – 1524), Creation of Eve, c.1523, choir intarsia panel, 45 × 43 cm. Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo Fig. 7.90 Johan Sadeler I (Brussels, 1550 – ? Venice, 1600), Adam and Eve in Paradise, 1583, engraving, 20.5 × 26.7 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam Fig. 7.91 Sano di Pietro (Ansano di Pietro di Mencio) (Siena, 1405–1481), Breviarum Fratrum Minorum; Story of Adam and Eve, f. 148r, c. 1460, miniature, folio 31.5 × 23.5 cm. Biblioteca Comunale, Siena Fig. 7.92 Virgil Solis (Nuremberg, 1514–1562), Creation, Fall of Man and Expulsion from Eden Garden, c. 1560, engraving, 5.4 × 24 cm. Kupferstichkabinett, Berlin Fig. 7.93 Virgil Solis (Nuremberg, 1514–1562), Reusner's Emblemata; Fall of Man, 1581, woodcut, 5.8 × 7.3 cm. Universitätsbibliothek, Heidelberg Fig. 7.94 Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti) (Venice, 1518–1594), Original Sin, 1550–1553, oil on canvas, 150 × 220 cm. Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice Fig. 7.95 Lucas van Leyden (Leiden, c. 1494–1533), Fall of Man, c. 1514, woodcut, 41.1 × 29.3 cm. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Fig. 7.96 Lucas van Leyden (Leiden, c. 1494–1533), Adam and Eve, 1516–1519, woodcut, folio 24.2 × 17.2 cm. National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C. Fig. 7.97 Wiligelmo (active in Modena, c. 1099–c. 1120), Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve and Original Sin, 1100–1110, marble relief; pink Verona breccia, 100 × 282 cm. Duomo di Santa Maria Assunta in Cielo e San Geminiano, Modena Fig. 7.98 Wiligelmo (active in Modena, c. 1099–c. 1120), Reproach, Expulsion and Labour, 1100–1110, marble relief; pink Verona breccia, 100 × 278.6 cm. Duomo di Santa Maria Assunta in Cielo e San Geminiano, Modena Fig. 7.99 Michael Wolgemut (Nuremberg, 1434–1519), Fall and Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, 1493, woodcut, folio 40.6 × 26.6 cm (detail 35.2 × 22.5 cm). Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles Fig. 7.100 Michael Wolgemut (Nuremberg, 1434–1519), Fall of Man, 1491, woodcut, 25.8 × 17.9 cm. Universitätsbibliothek, Heidelberg

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.1  Mariotto Albertinelli, Creation and Fall of Man, 1513–1514

Fig. 7.2  Mariotto Albertinelli, Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, c. 1514

339

340

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.3  Alessandro Allori, Original Sin and Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, c. 1560–1564

Fig. 7.4  Jost Amman, Fall of Man and Expulsion, 1551–1564

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

341

Fig. 7.5  Jost Amman, History of Adam and Eve, 1580

Fig. 7.6 Anonymous, Creation of Eve, Presentation of Eve to Adam and Temptation of Eve, c. 1100

342

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.7 Anonymous, San Paolo fuori le mura Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 1, c. 870–875

Fig. 7.8 Anonymous, San Paolo fuori le mura Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 2, c. 870–875

Fig. 7.9 Anonymous, San Paolo fuori le mura Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 3, c. 870–875

Fig. 7.10 Anonymous, Genesis Dome; Creation of Eve, 1220–1230

Fig. 7.11 Anonymous, Genesis Dome; Eva Plucking Fruit and Giving It to Adam, 1220–1230

Fig. 7.12 Anonymous, Genesis Dome; Expulsion and Labour of Adam and Eve, 1220–1230

344

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.13 Anonymous, Pantheon Bible; Scenes from Genesis, register 2, c. 1100

Fig. 7.14 Anonymous, Pantheon Bible; Scenes from Genesis, register 3, c. 1100

Fig. 7.15 Anonymous, Pantheon Bible; Scenes from Genesis, register 4, c. 1100

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

345

Fig. 7.16 Anonymous, Horae Beatae Mariae Virginis; Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, c. 1430–1440

346

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.17 Anonymous, Vivian Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 1, 845–846

Fig. 7.18 Anonymous, Vivian Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 2, 845–846

Fig. 7.19 Anonymous, Vivian Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 3, 845–846

Fig. 7.20 Anonymous, Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 1, c. 830–840

Fig. 7.21 Anonymous, Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 2, c. 830–840

Fig. 7.22 Anonymous, Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 3, c. 830–840

Fig. 7.23 Anonymous, Moutier-Grandval Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 4, c. 830–840

Fig. 7.24 Anonymous, Holkham Bible Picture Book; Creation of Adam and Eve, 1327–1335

Fig. 7.25 Anonymous, Holkham Bible Picture Book; Fall and Expulsion, 1327–1335

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.26 Anonymous, Creation of Eve and Original Sin, c. 1300

Fig. 7.27 Anonymous, Story of Creation, 1354–1385

349

350

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.28 Anonymous, Alba Bible; Story of Adam and Eve, register 1, 1422–1430

Fig. 7.29 Anonymous, Alba Bible; Story of Adam and Eve, register 2, 1422–1430

Fig. 7.30 Anonymous, Alba Bible; Story of Adam and Eve, register 3, 1422–1430

Fig. 7.31 Anonymous, Original Sin (Vera Cruz de Maderuelo), c.1125

Fig. 7.32 Anonymous, Vienna Genesis; Original Sin, f. 1r, c. 530

Fig. 7.33 Anonymous, Vienna Genesis; Expulsion from Paradise, f. 1v, c. 530

352

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.34  Anonymous, Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Original Sin, c. 1480

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.35 Anonymous, Bamberg Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 1, 834–843

Fig. 7.36 Anonymous, Bamberg Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 2, 834–843

Fig. 7.37 Anonymous, Bamberg Bible; Genesis Frontispiece, register 3, 834–843

353

354

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.38 Anonymous, Story of Adam and Eve, c. 1401–1450

Fig. 7.39  Jacob de Backer, Garden of Eden, 1570–1591

Fig. 7.40  Jacopo Bertucci (Jacopone da Faenza), Original Sin and Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, 1560–1575

Fig. 7.41  Herri met de Bles, Paradise, c.1541–1550

356

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.42  Johann Melchior Bocksberger, attributed to, Creation of the World, c. 1570–1580

Fig. 7.43 Hieronymus Bosch, Last Judgment Triptych, left panel, 1504–1508

Fig. 7.44  Hieronymus Bosch, Haywain Triptych, left panel, 1512–1515

Fig. 7.45  Hieronymus Bosch, workshop of, Garden of Paradise, 1504–1514

358

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.46  Boucicaut Master and workshop, Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Story of Adam and Eve, c.1413–1415

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.47  Jan Bruegel II the Younger, attributed to, Earthly Paradise, c. 1630

Fig. 7.48  Hendrick de Clerck, Garden of Eden with Fall of Man, 1597–1610

359

Fig. 7.49  Hendrick de Clerck and Denis van Alsloot, Paradise, 1606–1609

Fig. 7.50  Marcellus Coffermans, attributed to, Story of Adam and Eve, c. 1549

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.51  Cornelis Cornelisz. van Haarlem, Adam and Eve, 1599

361

Fig. 7.52  Cornelis Cornelisz. van Haarlem, Fall of Man, 1592

Fig. 7.53  Cornelis Cort, Adam and Eve and Expulsion from Paradise, 1564

362

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.54  Lucas Cranach the Elder, Garden of Eden, 1530

Fig. 7.55  Lucas Cranach the Elder, Garden of Eden, 1530

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

363

Fig. 7.56  Taddeo Crivelli and Franco dei Russi, Borso d’Este Bible; Creation of Eve and God Instructing Adam and Eve, 1455–1461

364

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.57  Taddeo Crivelli and Franco dei Russi, Borso d’Este Bible; Expulsion from the Eden Garden, 1455–1461

Fig. 7.58  Jean Dreux, Master of Margaret of York and Jean Hennecart, Aegidius of Roya’s Compendium Historiae Universalis; Scenes from the Garden of Eden, c.1450–1460

Fig. 7.59  Flemish-Veneto Painter, Original Sin and Expulsion from the Garden of Eden, 1593

Fig. 7.60  Flower Painter of Matera, Creation of Light and Darkness, Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve and Original Sin, c. 826–843

Fig. 7.61  Follower of Pieter Coecke van Aelst, Fall of Man, c. 1520–1530

Fig. 7.62  Fra Bartolomeo, Creation of Eve, c. 1510

Fig. 7.63  Lorenzo Ghiberti, Gates of Paradise; Adam and Eve, 1425–1452

Fig. 7.64  Giusto de’ Menabuoi, Creation of Man and Woman, 1378

Fig. 7.65  Giusto de’ Menabuoi, Original Sin, Expulsion from Paradise and Scenes from the Story of Cain and Abel, 1378

Fig. 7.66  Jan Gossaert (Mabuse), Fall of Man, c. 1525–1530

Fig. 7.67  Giovanni di ser Giovanni Guidi (lo Scheggia) and Francesco D’Antonio, Expulsion from Paradise and Labour of Adam and Eve, 1425–1430

Fig. 7.68  Hans Ruprecht Hoffmann, Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve and Warning of the Tree of Knowledge, c.1590

Fig. 7.69  Hans Ruprecht Hoffmann, Fall and Expulsion from Paradise, c. 1590

Fig. 7.70  Oswalt Kreusel, Millstatt Lenten Veil; Creation of Adam and Creation of Eve, 1593

Fig. 7.71  Oswalt Kreusel, Millstatt Lenten Veil; Fall and Expulsion, 1593

372

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.72  Limbourg Brothers, Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry; Garden of Eden, c. 1411–1416

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

373

Fig. 7.73  Lorenzo Maitani, Genesis pilaster; Creation of the World, Animals and Man, register 1, c. 1320–1330

Fig. 7.74  Lorenzo Maitani, Genesis pilaster; Creation of Adam and Creation of Eve, register 2, c. 1320–1330

Fig. 7.75  Lorenzo Maitani, Genesis pilaster; Fall and Reproach, register 3 right side, c. 1320–1330

374

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.76  Martino di Bartolomeo, Original Sin and Expulsion, 1398

Fig. 7.77  Master of the Champion des Dames, Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Adam and Eve Picking the Forbidden Fruit, c. 1470

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

375

Fig. 7.78  Master of the Duke of Bedford, Giovanni Boccaccio’s De Casibus Virorum Illustrium; Story of Adam and Eve, c. 1415–1420

376

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.79  Master of the Duke of Bedford, Bedford Hours; Story of Adam and Eve, c. 1410–1430

Fig. 7.80  Master of the Redención del Prado, Triptych of the Redemption; Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, c.1450

Fig. 7.81 Michelangelo, Fall and Expulsion, 1508–1512

378

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.82  Niccolò di Tommaso, Original Sin and Reproach by the Lord, 1372

Fig. 7.83  Pacino di Buonaguida, Tree of Life; Genesis, lower part, left side, 1310–1315

Fig. 7.84  Pacino di Buonaguida, Tree of Life; Genesis, lower part, right side, 1310–1315

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.85  Paolo Uccello, Creation of Animals and Creation of Adam, 1425–1430

Fig. 7.86  Paolo Uccello, Creation of Eve and Original Sin, 1425–1430

379

380

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.87  Piero di Puccio da Orvieto, Creation of the World, 1389–1391

Fig. 7.88  Pierre Reymond, Creation of the World, c. 1560

Fig. 7.89  Francesco Rosso, Giovan Francesco Capoferri and Nicolò Cabrini, Creation of Eve, c.1523

Fig. 7.90  Johan Sadeler I, Adam and Eve in Paradise, 1583

382

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.91  Sano di Pietro, Breviarum Fratrum Minorum; Story of Adam and Eve, c. 1460

Fig. 7.92  Virgil Solis, Creation, Fall of Man and Expulsion from Eden Garden, c. 1560

Fig. 7.93  Virgil Solis, Reusner’s Emblemata; Fall of Man, 1581

Fig. 7.94 Tintoretto, Original Sin, 1550–1553

Fig. 7.95  Lucas van Leyden, Fall of Man, c. 1514

Fig. 7.96  Lucas van Leyden, Adam and Eve, 1516–1519

7  Narrative Apparatus of the Story of Adam and Eve

Fig. 7.97 Wiligelmo, Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve and Original Sin, 1100–1110

Fig. 7.98 Wiligelmo, Reproach, Expulsion and Labour, 1100–1110

385

Fig. 7.99  Michael Wolgemut, Fall and Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, 1493

Fig. 7.100  Michael Wolgemut, Fall of Man, 1491

Author Index

A Acres, Alfred, 6 Actis-Grosso, Rossana, 28 Agostini, Tiziano, vii, xvii, 33 Alba Bible, 59, 75, 76, 103, 108, 120, 273, 290, 335, 350 Alberti, Leon Battista, 18, 19, 33, 37, 129, 143 Albertinelli, Mariotto, 67, 73, 75, 81, 105, 107, 108, 114, 118–120, 123, 126–128, 272, 279, 333, 339 Allori, Alessandro, 122, 135, 136, 272, 280, 333, 340 Altichiero da Zevio, xii Amman, Jost, 77, 107, 110, 112, 113, 120, 128, 134–136, 272, 280, 281, 333, 340, 341 Andrews, Lew, 6, 10, 12, 16–18, 21, 25, 26, 32, 33, 56, 86, 87, 99–101, 103, 124, 129, 130, 134, 140, 143 Angheben, Marcello, 71, 122 Anonymous, Abbaye de Saint-Savin-surGartempe, 71, 113, 122, 272, 281, 333, 341 Anonymous, Boscotrecase, 31 Anonymous, Cathedral, Freiburg, 76, 273, 289, 334, 349 Anonymous, Chester Beatty Library, Dublin, 54 Anonymous, Chiesa di Santa Croce ai Lagnoni, Andria, 72, 112, 273, 289, 334, 349 Anonymous, Hermitage of the Vera Cruz de Maderuelo, Museo del Prado, Madrid, 72, 86, 119, 138, 274, 275, 277, 291, 335, 351

Anonymous, Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai, 51 Anonymous, Pierpont Morgan Library, New York, 76, 77, 126, 274, 292, 335, 352 Anonymous, State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, 61, 105, 123, 127, 274, 294, 335, 354 Argenton, Alberto, v, vii–ix, xi–xvii, 3, 13, 18, 20, 26, 29, 30, 34–36, 38, 39, 47–50, 57, 64, 66, 91–95, 99, 102, 103, 111, 114, 128, 129, 131–134, 136, 141–143 Aristotle, viii Arnheim, Rudolf, viii, ix, xi, xii, xiv, xv, 10–12, 18, 20, 27, 35–38, 48, 49, 87, 91, 93–97, 99, 102–106, 126–130, 132–134, 141–143 B Bamberg Bible, 57, 59, 68, 72–75, 84, 100, 107, 112, 119, 122, 125, 274, 293, 335, 353 Barolsky, Paul, 8, 142 Bartz, Gabriele, 69, 70 Basile, Giuseppe, xii, 111 Baxandall, Michael, 12 Bayeux Tapestry, 9, 21 Bening, Simon, 54 Benintendi, Giovan Maria, 73 Berlyne, David E., 29 Bernabò, Massimo, 107, 108 Bertolini, Lucia, 70 Bertucci, Jacopo, 75, 108, 135, 136, 274, 295, 335, 355 Biagio d’Antonio, 31

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 L. Messina-Argenton et al., Showing Time: Continuous Pictorial Narrative and the Adam and Eve Story, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13662-7

387

388 Bianchi-Bandinelli, Rinuccio, 22, 131 Bles, Herri met, 67, 83, 85, 104, 115–117, 122, 274, 295, 335, 355 Boccaccio, Giovanni, 56, 65, 76, 77, 80, 87, 109, 113, 126, 274, 277, 292, 298, 314, 315, 333, 335, 337, 352, 358, 374, 375 Bocksberger, Johann Melchior, 67, 77, 83, 274, 296, 335, 356 Bonaventura di Bagnoregio, 71 Book of the Dead of Hunefer, 5, 6 Borgo, Ludovico, 73 Borso d’Este Bible, 71, 76, 81, 86, 108, 275, 303, 304, 336, 363, 364 Bosch, Hieronymus, 51, 58, 77, 83, 84, 111, 123, 274, 297, 335, 357 Botticelli, Sandro, 51 Boucicaut Master, 76, 77, 87, 124, 126, 274, 298, 335, 358 Bozzi, Paolo, ix, xii–xiv, 36, 49, 50, 94, 95 Bradley, Jill, 66 Brilliant, Richard, 21 Bruegel, Jan II the Younger, 82, 107, 113, 275, 299, 336, 359 Brunelleschi, Filippo, 33 Bruner, Jerome, 3, 131 Buberl, Paul, 75 Bucci, Mario, 70 Bull, Malcom, 139 Bullot, Nicolas J., 35 C Calabrese, Omar, 8 Carbon, Claus-Christian, 29 Carroll, Noël, 6 Chamberlain, Rebecca, 29 Chatman, Seymour, 6, 8, 9, 12 Chatterjee, Anjan, 29, 35 Clerck, Hendrick de, 51, 72, 83, 87, 107, 115, 116, 275, 299, 300, 336, 359, 360 Coecke van Aelst, Pieter, follower of, 110, 135, 138, 275, 306, 336, 366 Coffermans, Marcellus, 110–112, 125, 275, 300, 336, 360 Cohen, Adam S., 73 Cohn, Neil, 3, 27, 104 Coogan, Michael D., 57, 64, 68, 107, 327 Cook, Robin, 100 Cornelisz. van Haarlem, Cornelis, 120, 122, 275, 301, 336, 361 Cort, Cornelis, 113, 135, 136, 275, 301, 336, 361 Cotton Genesis, 68, 75

Author Index Cranach, Lucas the Elder, 51, 58, 73, 85, 107, 110, 122, 275, 302, 336, 362 Crivelli, Taddeo, 71, 76, 81, 86, 108, 122, 275, 303, 304, 336, 363, 364 Cultic Pedestal of Tukulti-Ninurta I, 3, 5, 6 Cutting, James E., 27 D D’Antonio, Francesco, 76, 104, 108, 124, 276, 309, 337, 369 De Casibus Virorum Illustrium (Giovanni Boccaccio), Bibliotheque Inguimbertine, Carpentras, 136, 277, 314, 337, 374 De Casibus Virorum Illustrium (Giovanni Boccaccio), Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, 109, 277, 315, 337, 375 De Casibus Virorum Illustrium (Giovanni Boccaccio), Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, 76, 77, 87, 274, 298, 335, 358 De Casibus Virorum Illustrium (Giovanni Boccaccio), Pierpont Morgan Library, New York, 76, 77, 126, 274, 292, 335, 352 De Francovich, Géza, 66 De Tolnay, Charles, 139 Dehejia, Vidya, 20, 24, 131 Della Robbia, Luca, 33 Derbes, Anne, 73 Djikic, Maja, 27 Donatello, 33, 51 Dreux, Jean, 83, 111, 275, 305, 336, 365 Duccio di Buoninsegna, 31 Dulibić, Ljerka, 73 E Eco, Umberto, 8 Elkins, James, 8 Esler, Philip F., 57, 71, 72 F Farah, Martha J., 111 Fechner, Gustav T., 29 Federici Vescovini, Graziella, 16 Ferrari, Rosanna, 97, 113 Ferrarin, Alfredo, viii Flemish-Veneto Painter, 105, 122, 135, 136, 275, 305, 336, 365 Flower Painter of Matera, 59, 120, 122, 123, 275, 306, 336, 366

Author Index

389

Fossaluzza, Carlo M., xiii Fra Angelico, 28, 51 Fra Bartolomeo, 83, 276, 307, 336, 367 Franco dei Russi, 71, 76, 81, 86, 108, 122, 275, 303, 304, 336, 363, 364 Fried, Michael, 97 Frugoni, Chiara, 77 Fumi, Luigi, 66

Horae Beatae Mariae Virginis, 119, 127, 138, 273, 285, 334, 345 Horváth, Gyöngyvér, 20

G Gaehde, Joachim E., 66, 72–74 Galli Michero, Lavinia M., 98 Galmonte, Alessandra, 33 Garau, Augusto, xi Gardner, Percy, 7 Gentile da Fabriano, 31, 51, 54 Gerbino, Walter, xiii, xiv Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 16, 17, 22, 33, 51, 58, 100, 108, 119, 276, 307, 336, 367 Gilchrist, Alan, 33 Giotto, xii, 14, 33, 50, 51 Giovanni Pisano, 22 Giusto de’ Menabuoi, xii, 14, 50, 58, 75, 100, 101, 108, 112, 118, 123, 276, 308, 336, 337, 368 Gombrich, Ernst H., 7 Goodman, Nelson, 8, 10 Gossaert, Jan, 58, 87, 108, 109, 126, 276, 309, 337, 369 Gough, Richard, 74, 112 Gozzoli, Benozzo, 9, 32, 51, 134 Grafton, Anthony, 19 Grayson, Cecil, 18, 19 Greenstein, Jack M., 8, 12, 58, 66, 68–70, 120 Guardia, Milagros, 66 Guidi, Giovanni di ser Giovanni (lo Scheggia), 76, 104, 108, 123, 276, 309, 337, 369 Gutmann, Joseph, 51

K Kalkofen, Hermann, 29–32, 130 Kanizsa, Gaetano, xii–xiv, 33, 34, 38, 99, 102, 130, 132, 133 Kantor, Helene J., 6 Kemp, Martin, 18 Kessler, Herbert L., 13, 51, 59, 66, 68–70, 72–77, 84, 103, 108, 109, 113, 115 Klee, Paul, xvi, 130 Koenderink, Jan J., 29 Koffka, Kurt, xiv, 37 König, Eberhard, 70 Kozbelt, Aaron, 29 Kren, Thomas, 87 Kress, Gunther, 104 Kreusel¸ Oswalt, 119, 135, 136, 140, 276, 311, 337, 371

H Haincelin de Haguenau, 69 Harré, Rom, 50 Hata no Chitei, 8 Hennecart, Jean, 83, 111, 275, 305, 336, 365 Herman, David, 3, 27 Hibbard, Howard, 141 Hildesheim doors, 73 Hirstein, William, 37, 143 Holkham Bible Picture Book, 24, 110, 127, 138, 273, 288, 334, 348

J Jacopo del Sellaio, 10 Jolly, Penny H., 66, 70

L Lasinio, Carlo, 32, 111 László, János, 26 Lavin, Marilyn A., 22 Lee, Rensselaer W., 6, 7 Leonardo da Vinci, 17, 18, 33, 36 Lessing, Gotthold E., viii, 6, 7, 17, 21 Limbourg Brothers, 69, 98, 100, 110, 276, 312, 337, 372 Locher, Paul J., 29 Lowenstam, Steven, 22 Lubbock, Jules, 12, 22 Luccio, Riccardo, xiii, xiv M Mace, Mary-Anne, 29 Magliano, Joseph P., 3, 27 Maitani, Lorenzo, 57, 58, 66–69, 71, 107, 119, 120, 276, 277, 313, 337, 373 Mandler, Jean M., 26 Martini, Simone, 28 Martino di Bartolomeo, 76, 108, 112, 120, 277, 314, 337, 374

390 Masaccio, 22, 23, 31–33 Massijs, Quinten, 51 Massironi, Manfredo, 6, 8, 27, 28 Master of Margaret of York, 83, 111, 275, 305, 336, 365 Master of Marradi, 51 Master of the Champion des Dames, 135, 136, 277, 314, 337, 374 Master of the Duke of Bedford, 69, 70, 74, 81, 83, 98, 107–109, 112, 113, 118, 120, 277, 315, 316, 337, 375, 376 Master of the Redención del Prado, 138, 277, 317, 337, 377 Mavroska, Vasiliki V., 66 Mazure, André, 66, 107, 108 McCaffrey, Kathleen, 3 McNamara, Ann, 30–33 Memling, Hans, 51, 134 Messina Argenton, Laura, xii, xvii, 26, 36 Metzger, Wolfgang, 95 Michelangelo, x, 11, 51, 58, 81, 86, 116, 132, 134–136, 138–143, 277, 317, 338, 377 Minsky, Marvin, 26 Montacutelli, Riccardo, 81, 139 Moskowitz, Anita F., 66 Moutier-Grandval Bible, 57, 59, 68, 73–76, 84, 86, 109, 110, 112, 119, 273, 287, 334, 347 Murdoch, Brian, 66 Musatti, Cesare L., 34, 96 N Nadal, Marcos, 29 Nanay, Bence, 6, 7 O Oatley, Keith, 27 P Pächt, Otto, 8, 16, 22, 56, 66, 143 Pacino di Buonaguida, 57, 71, 118, 277, 318, 338, 378 Palmer, Stephen E., 29 Panofsky, Erwin, xi Pantheon Bible, 57, 59, 74, 108, 109, 112, 126, 272, 273, 284, 334, 344 Paolo Uccello, 15, 58, 67, 107, 119, 277, 319, 338, 379 Papeo, Liuba, 98 Pasini Tržec, Iva, 73

Author Index Patinir, Joachim, 51 Pearce, Marcus T., 29 Pelowski, Matthew, 29 Pennacchi, Francesco, 66 Perugino, 51 Petrangeli, Luigi, 66 Pfeiffer, Heinrich W., 108, 139 Piaget, Jean, 28 Picasso, Pablo, 35 Pierantoni, Ruggero, 6 Piero della Francesca, 51, 54 Piero di Puccio, 32, 61, 69, 70, 111, 112, 118, 277, 320, 338, 380 Pimenta, Sherline, 3 Pinotti, Andrea, 6 Pizzo Russo, Lùcia, 36 Poovaiah, Ravi, 3 Poussin, Nicolas, 51 Prest, Tamara, vii, ix, x, xiv, xvii, 18, 36, 39, 47–50, 57, 66, 131, 134 Prince, Gerald, 6 Propp, Vladimir J., 8 Q Queen Mary’s Psalter, 24 Quinlan, Philip T., 97 Quirke, Stephen, 6 R Ramachandran, Vilayanur S., 37, 143 Ranta, Michael, 3, 27, 32 Raphael, 51 Reber, Rolf, 35 Reymond, Pierre, 115, 277, 320, 338, 380 Riccetti, Lucio, 66 Richter, Jean P., 17, 33 Rimmon-Kenan, Shlomith, 8 Robb, John, 3 Robert, Carl, vii, 20, 21 Rosch, Eleanor, 143 Ross, Leslie, 66 Rudrauf, Lucien, 99, 133 Rumelhart, David E., 26 S San Marco mosaics, 66, 69, 71, 81, 103, 108, 110, 119, 120, 272, 283, 334, 343 San Paolo fuori le mura Bible, 57, 59, 68, 69, 71, 73–76, 84, 115, 119, 120, 272, 282, 333, 334, 342

Author Index Sano di Pietro, 67, 107, 115, 278, 322, 338, 382 Sarrade, Carolina, 71 Schank, Roger, 26 Schapiro, Harvey A., 22, 23 Schapiro, Meyer, 64, 66 Schmitt, Natalie C., 7, 12, 24, 25, 99 Secord, Paul. E., 50 Seeley, William P., 29 Seymour, Charles Jr., 139 Signorelli, Luca, 14, 51 Sinisgalli, Rocco, 18 Skov, Martin, 29 Small, Jocelyn P., 8, 131 Snodgrass, Anthony M., 22, 24 Solis, Virgil, 83, 110, 113, 122, 278, 323, 338, 383 Soranzo, Alessandro, 33 Souriau, Etienne, 8 Spencer, Jeffrey, 6 Spencer, John R., 18, 19 Spillmann, Lothar, 34, 96 Stansbury-O’Donnell, Mark D., 8, 12, 20, 22–24 Steiner, Wendy, 3, 7, 9 Stoddard, Brooks W., 66, 70 Strack, Micha, 29–32, 130 Styve, Per S.T., 16, 86 T Tabula Iliaca Capitolina, 21, 28 Taylor, Michael D., 66, 69 Tinio, Pablo P., 29 Tintoretto, 51, 58, 72, 122, 135, 136, 278, 323, 338, 383 Titian, 7, 13, 51 Toolan, Michael, 6 Trajan’s Column, 21, 28 Tversky, Barbara, 26 V van Alsloot¸ Denis, 72, 83, 115, 116, 275, 300, 336, 360 Van Dijk, Teun A., 6 Van Leeuwen, Theo, 104 van Leyden, Lucas, 113, 122, 135, 138, 278, 324, 338, 384

391 Vartanian, Oshin, 35 Vasari, Giorgio, 33, 67, 73, 81, 139 Velázquez, 51 Veronese, 51 Verstegen, Ian, vii, viii, xii, xiii, xvi, 30, 35, 39 Vestner, Tim, 98 Vicario, Giovanni B., xii, xv, 13, 136 Vienna Genesis, 21, 25, 26, 72, 74–76, 80, 108, 110, 112, 113, 120, 128, 129, 274, 291, 335, 351 Viggiani, Claudia, 57, 71 Villela-Petit, Inès, 69 Vivian Bible, 57, 59, 68, 73–76, 84, 109, 113, 118, 273, 286, 334, 346 von Blanckenhagen, Peter H., 7, 131 Von Dippe, Roger D., 22 W Wagemans, Johan, 29, 34, 96, 98, 141 Ward, Tony, 29 Warka (Uruk) Vase, 3, 4 Watanabe, Chikako E., 3, 6 Weisberg, Robert W., 35 Weitzmann, Kurt, vii, 20, 21, 24, 26, 64, 66, 68–70, 84, 101, 130–132 Wertheimer, Max, 27, 34, 37, 93–96, 102, 104, 128 Wertheimer, Michael, 27 White, John, 58, 66 Wickhoff, Franz, vii, 7, 20–22, 25, 72, 75, 128, 130 Wiligelmo, 58, 72, 76, 77, 123, 278, 325, 338, 385 Wilton, Richard N., 97 Witz, Konrad, 31 Wolf, Werner, 8 Wölfflin, Heinrich, 139, 140 Wolgemut, Michael, 72, 81, 110, 118, 135, 138, 278, 326, 338, 386 Wundt, Wilhelm, 27 Z Zacks, Jeffrey M., 26 Zavagno, Daniele, 28

Subject Index

A Amodal completion, xii, 39, 50, 98, 99, 109, 111, 112, 120, 121, 128, 132, 140, 141 See also Overlapping Architectural element, 22, 99, 100, 107, 117, 126 Arts of simultaneity (spatial arts), 7–11 See also Arts of succession Arts of succession (temporal arts), 7, 11 See also Arts of simultaneity Attribute, 102, 103, 109, 121–124, 132

Continuity of direction, 95, 97, 98, 110, 114–116, 140, 141 Continuous pictorial narrative (definition of), 6, 47 Coplanar disposition, 86, 125, 127, 134, 138, 139 D Decorative element, 99, 100, 117 Distinguishing, 93, 143 See also Connecting Double time, 8, 12

B Brightness, 33, 113, 116 C Closure, 37, 95–98, 110, 114, 115 Cognitive drag, 28 Colour, 34, 38, 95–98, 102, 103, 109–116, 121–124, 132, 140 Composition (definition of), 38, 92–93 Compositional scheme, xvi, 66, 133, 134, 136, 138 Compositional variability/variation, 133, 134 Condensation of scenes, 66 Conflation of scenes, 24, 66, 73, 74, 84, 101, 132 Connecting, 93, 143 See also Distinguishing Context of the work, x, xvii, 25, 49, 63, 78, 80–82, 91, 115, 125, 127–129, 134, 271

E Episode (definition of), 6 Event (definition of), 6 F fabula (plot), 8, 12 Facingness, 96–100, 110, 114–116 Factors of perceptual organisation, 93–99, 110, 111, 114–116, 118, 131, 140, 141 See also Factors of perceptual segmentation; Grouping; Perceptual grouping Factors of perceptual segmentation, 132 See also Factors of perceptual organisation; Grouping; Perceptual grouping Frontal sequence (context), 80–83

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 L. Messina-Argenton et al., Showing Time: Continuous Pictorial Narrative and the Adam and Eve Story, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13662-7

393

394 G Grouping, 37, 95–98, 102, 110, 111, 113, 115, 140, 143 See also Perceptual Grouping; Factors of Perceptual Organisation; Factors of Perceptual segmentation I Identification of repeated protagonists, x, 93, 94, 101–103, 106, 118–124, 129, 132, 140, 271 Interobservation, 36 Istoria (Alberti), 17, 19 L Landscape, see Naturalistic/landscape element Lightness, 33, 38 Luminance, 31–33 M Monoscenic mode, xvii, 21, 27, 50 Multiplanar disposition, 86, 87, 125, 127, 134 N Narrative (definition of), 6 Narrative mode, 19–27, 47, 48 Narrative progression, x, 49, 63, 78, 84, 88, 91, 115, 118, 125, 127–129, 134, 139, 271 Naturalistic/landscape element, 99, 100, 116–118 Negotiation, 50 Number of scenes, x, 49, 63, 78, 82, 84, 88, 91, 96, 114, 115, 118, 122, 125, 127–129, 271 O Obliqueness, dynamics of, xii, 38 See also Visual dynamics Observation, see Phenomenological observation Omission of scenes, 66 Orientation, 32, 95–98, 105, 110, 114–116, 118, 128 Orientation of parts of protagonists, 104, 105, 124–126, 128 Orientation of protagonists, 104, 124, 125, 128 Overlapping, 39, 99, 132, 140 See also Amodal completion

Subject Index P Parallelism/spatial parallelism, 96, 98, 99, 132, 141, 142 Perception as temporal process (Alhazen), 16 Perceptual grouping, 37, 96–99, 102, 106, 113, 115 See also Grouping; Factors of perceptual organisation; Factors of perceptual segmentation Perceptual meaning, viii, ix, 92, 143 See also Representational meaning Perceptual reasoning, ix, 18, 19, 37–39, 92, 93, 134, 138, 141–143 Perceptual-representational strategies, ix, x, xii, xiv, xvii, 18, 19, 37, 38, 48–50, 88, 91, 129–133, 142, 143, 271 Permanence, 28 See also Variation Person repetition detection (PRD), 30 Perspective disposition, 86–88, 115, 125, 127, 134, 139 Phenomenological observation, ix, xiii, xv, 36, 37, 49, 129 Phenomenological research, xv, 36 Physiognomy, 102, 103, 121, 122, 124, 132, 140 Position of protagonists, 99, 100, 117, 118 Proximity, 95–98, 107, 109, 110, 114, 115, 140 R Representational intents, 39, 113, 133, 141 Representational meaning, viii, ix, 92 See also Perceptual meaning Representational strategy, see Perceptualrepresentational strategies S Saliency, see Visual saliency Schema, 26, 27 Script, 26, 27 Segmentation of episodes, x, 93–99, 106–116, 121, 123, 129, 132, 271 Sequence on more than one front (context), 80, 82, 83, 125, 127, 134, 139 Shape, viii, ix, 33, 37, 38, 92, 93, 95, 96, 98, 102, 103, 109–116, 121, 124, 127, 132, 133, 140 Similarity, 34, 37, 95–98, 102, 110–115, 140 Simultaneity, 7, 8, 10, 11 Size, ix, 32, 34, 37, 38, 87, 93, 95–97, 110, 114–116, 127, 128, 139

Subject Index Size of protagonists, 104, 105, 124–128 sjuzet (discourse), 8, 12 Space/time separation, x, 93, 94, 99, 101, 106, 116–118, 124, 129, 132, 136, 140, 271 Spatial configuration, ix, x, xvii, 48, 93, 133, 138, 141 Spatial disposition, x, 49, 63, 78, 86–88, 91, 115, 118, 125, 127–129, 134, 138, 139, 271 Story (definition of), 47, 48 Stroboscopic effect/simil stroboscopic effect, xii, 128 Style, viii, ix, 13, 34, 35, 39, 92, 106, 131, 133, 134 Subtle gaze direction (SGD), 31 Synoptic narrative, xvii, 22–24, 31, 50 T Tree, 25, 85, 98–101, 116–118, 128, 140 Type token ratio (TTR), 30

395 U Unique representation (context), 80–83, 115, 125 V Variation, 28 See also Permanence Visual dynamics, 18, 38 See also Obliqueness Visual narrative, xvi, 3, 9, 11, 26, 27, 66, 143 Visual saliency, 32 Visual thinking, ix, x, xvii, 18, 19, 38, 48, 91, 92, 132, 143 Visual weight, 105, 126, 127, 139 W Whole properties (Ganzeigenschaften), 95, 96