Settlement Archaeology in a Fjordland Archipelago: Network Analysis, Social Practice and the Built Environment of Western Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada since 2,000 BP 9781841711713, 9781407352725

Network Analysis, Social Practice and the Built Environment of Western Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada since

165 72 97MB

English Pages [110] Year 2001

Report DMCA / Copyright

DOWNLOAD FILE

Polecaj historie
The Contemporary British Novel Since 2000 9781474403740
The Contemporary British Novel Since 2000 9781474403740

Focuses on the novels published since 2000 by twenty major British novelists The Contemporary British Novel Since 2000

188 45 2MB Read more

Sasquatch Canada: Beyond British Columbia 9781954528574
Sasquatch Canada: Beyond British Columbia 9781954528574

191 45 632KB Read more

Prehistory in Practice: A Multi-Stranded Analysis of British Archaeology, 1975-2010 9781407310862, 9781407322568
Prehistory in Practice: A Multi-Stranded Analysis of British Archaeology, 1975-2010 9781407310862, 9781407322568

This study examines developments in British archaeology over the last 30 years or so (between 1975-2010), focusing in pa

161 86 58MB Read more

Synthetic and Degradative Processes in Marine Macrophytes: Proceedings of a Conference held at Bamfield Marine Station Bamfield, Vancouver Island, British Columbia May 16–18, 1980 9783110837988, 9783110084900
Synthetic and Degradative Processes in Marine Macrophytes: Proceedings of a Conference held at Bamfield Marine Station Bamfield, Vancouver Island, British Columbia May 16–18, 1980 9783110837988, 9783110084900

129 94 15MB Read more

The Settlement of the Chonos Archipelago, Western Patagonia, Chile [1st ed.] 9783030543259, 9783030543266
The Settlement of the Chonos Archipelago, Western Patagonia, Chile [1st ed.] 9783030543259, 9783030543266

This book describes an archaeological investigation of human occupation in the northern area of the Patagonian archipela

343 27 10MB Read more

Indigenous law and the state [Symposium 1983, Vancouver, British Columbia. Reprint 2019 ed.] 9783110854800, 9783110130782
Indigenous law and the state [Symposium 1983, Vancouver, British Columbia. Reprint 2019 ed.] 9783110854800, 9783110130782

177 43 28MB Read more

Funding Policies and the Nonprofit Sector in Western Canada: Evolving Relationships in a Changing Environment 9781442637016
Funding Policies and the Nonprofit Sector in Western Canada: Evolving Relationships in a Changing Environment 9781442637016

The chapters in this collection offer compelling and candid analyses of the realities of nonprofit funding in Western Ca

150 88 1MB Read more

The Archaeology of Summer Island: Changing Settlement Systems in Northern Lake Michigan 9781951519292, 9780932206398
The Archaeology of Summer Island: Changing Settlement Systems in Northern Lake Michigan 9781951519292, 9780932206398

This work interprets some aspects of the prehistory of the basin of northern Lake Michigan based on the excavation and a

180 86 20MB Read more

The Archaeology of Summer Island: Changing Settlement Systems in Northern Lake Michigan 9780932206398, 9781951519292
The Archaeology of Summer Island: Changing Settlement Systems in Northern Lake Michigan 9780932206398, 9781951519292

484 7 20MB Read more

Funding Policies and the Nonprofit Sector in Western Canada: Evolving Relationships in a Changing Environment 9781442637016
Funding Policies and the Nonprofit Sector in Western Canada: Evolving Relationships in a Changing Environment 9781442637016

The chapters in this collection offer compelling and candid analyses of the realities of nonprofit funding in Western Ca

168 55 2MB Read more

Settlement Archaeology in a Fjordland Archipelago: Network Analysis, Social Practice and the Built Environment of Western Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada since 2,000 BP 9781841711713, 9781407352725

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2—COMPLEXITY IN HUNTER-GATHERER SOCIETY
CHAPTER 3—SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL ASPECTS OF LIVING IN FJORDLAND ARCHIPELAGOS
CHAPTER 4—ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO VISUAL PERCEPTION
CHAPTER 5—MOBILITY, BUILDING, AND SOCIAL PRACTICE ON THE NORTHWEST COAST
CHAPTER 6—INTRODUCTION TO THE CASE STUDY
CHAPTER 7—RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CHAPTER 8—CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B

Citation preview

Settlement Archaeology in a Fjordland Archipelago Network Analysis, Social Practice and the Built Environment of Westem Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada since 2,000 BP

Quentin Mackie

BAR International Series 926 2001

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 926 Settlement Archaeology in a Fjordland Archipelago © Quentin Mackie and the Publisher 2001 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841711713 paperback ISBN 9781407352725 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711713 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2001. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

BAR

PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

E MAIL P HONE F AX

BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

ABSTRACT I nve s t iga t ion o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o f p eop le w ho l i ve b y h un t ing , g a the r ing a nd f i sh ing h a s f r equen t ly b een c once rned w i th t h e o r ig in s o f s oc ia l c omp lex i ty . Y e t , " soc ia l c omp lex i ty" i sn o t as t r a igh tf orwa rd v a r iab le , a nd t h e c a tego ry " comp lex h un te r -ga the r e r" m ay c r ea te mo re p rob lem st h an i ts o lve s . R e jec t ion o ft h ec a tego ry d oe sn o t , h oweve r , e l im ina te n o r a ccoun t f o r r e a l v a r ia t ion i n t h e s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion a nd a r chaeo log ica l s i gna tu r e s o fh un te r g a the re r s . A rchaeo log ica l a na ly se s o f h un te r -ga the r e r e conom ie s h ave f r equen t ly c on s ide r ed t ime -budge t ing c on s t ra in t s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e p roduc t ion , s t o rage , a nd r ed i s t r ibu t ion o f s u rp lu se s t o b e c en t ra l . H oweve r , e xam ina t ion o ft h e se t ime c on s t ra in t s s how t h a tt h ey a r en o t n ece s sa r i ly a c on s t ra in t u pon t h e d eve lopmen t o f s oc ia l c omp lex i ty , b u t a r e a n e xp re s s ion o f t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween i n d iv idua l h uman s a nd t h e i r e nv i ronmen t . S pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l c on s t ra in t s a r e m an if e s ted t h rough t h e i nd iv idua l 's b ody , a nd a r e e xp r e s sed t h rough t e chno logy , s e t t lemen t p a t te rn , a nd mob i l i ty p rac t ice . S ome s pa t ia l a pp roache s i n a r chaeo logy , s uch a s l o ca t iona l a na ly s i s , h ave f o cu sed o nt h ei n d iv idua l monad b u tf ew h ave d one s o i n am anne r t h a t a dequa te ly e xp r e s se s t h e p o s s ib i l i t ie s a nd c on s t ra in t so ft h ei nd iv idua l a nd i n d iv idua l a gency . I n s tead , mos t a na ly se s h ave c a s t t h e i nd iv idua l a s e i the r as imp le o p t im is ing " Homo e conom icu s" m ak ing r a t iona l d ec is ion s w i th in a n eu t ra l e nv i ronmen t , o r a s s ub jec t t o ah i gh ly n o rma t ive c u l tu re ,o rb o th . I ti sa r gued i nt h i st h e s i st h a tr e c oncep tua l i s ing t h e i n d iv idua l a s l i v ing w i th in a" hab i tu s" may b e c onduc ive t o u nde r s tand ing s ome a spec t s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . I n p a r t icu la r , c once iv ing o f t h e i nd iv idua l - e nv i ronmen t r e la t ion sh ip a s o ne o f n on C a r t e s ian mu tua l ism l e ad s t oa n a pp rec ia t ion o ft h e p a i r ed

i mpo r tance o ft h e mob i le i n d iv idua l i n ab u i l t e nv i ronmen t . F rom t h i s p e r spec t ive , ac a se s t udy f r om V ancouve r I s land o n t h e N or thwe s t C oa s t o f No r th Amer ica i si n t roduced . T he p -med ian mode l i n aL oca t ion -A l loca t ion a na ly s i s i s a pp l ied t o an e two rk f o rmed b y t r an spo r ta t ion l i nkage s b e tween 2 38 h ab i ta t ion z one s , c r ea ted b y c l u s ter ing 5 76 a r chaeo log ica l s i te s . I ti ss hown t h a t c en t ra l i ty o f p l ace w i th in a n e two rk m a t te r s , a s t h e mo re c en t ra l p l ace s a r e a l so l a rge r s i te s , b u t t h i s p a t te rn o n ly o ccu r s a t as pa t ia l s c a le d if i cu l t t o r e conc i le w i th d e l ibe r a te o p t im is ing b ehav iou r . I ti st h e ref o r e c onc luded t h a t t h i s d e scr ip t ive s pa t ia l g eome t ry i s i reconc i lab le w i th a ny p l au s ib le u nde r ly ing g ene ra t ive s oc ia l g eome t ry b a sed o n e i the r n o rma t ive c u l tu ra l r u le s o r d e l ibe ra te o p t im i sa t ion . R ecogn i t ion t h a t t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t i s a n i n te r rup ted p roce s s r a the rt h an ap l anned , f i n ished p roduc t , a l low s o ne t o a vo id i mpo s ing t h e " f a l lacy o f t h e r u le :" i n t h i s c a se a s c r ib ing t o t h e i n hab i tan t s o f t h e s t udy a r ea a t o ta l i sed d ec i s ion se t f o r s i te l o ca t ion a nd i n ten s i ty o fu se b a sed o n t h e l o ca t ion -a l loca t ion s o lu t ion s e t s . I n s tead , i ti sa r gued t h a t t h e o b served s pa t ia l p a t ter n ing i n t h e c a se s t udy i s b e t te r s e en a s t h e a r chaeo log ica l s i gna tu r e o f l o ng te rm , w ide sca le , p rac t ica l a c t iv i ty o f i n d iv idua l s w i th in a l a nd scape o f h ab i t . T he r e su l t i s t h e d i scove ry o f a n i mpor tan t t h r e sho ld i n t h e s pa t ia l s c a le o f t h e c u l tu ra l ly p e r ce ived e nv i ronmen t . D i scu s s ion f o l low s o f t h e i mp l ica t ion s o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f s oc ia l c omp lex i ty , f o rt h ep red ic t ive mode l l ing o fs i te l o ca t ion , f o r t h e e s tab l i shmen t o fr e levan t s pa t ia l u n i t s o fa na ly s i s , a nd f o r s uch f am i l ia r s pa t ia l e co log ica l v a r iab le s a s" popu la t ion d en s i ty ," o nt h e No r thwe s tC oa s ta nd e l sewhe re .

TABLE OF CONTENTS A b s t rac t T ab le o fC on ten t s L i s to fF igu r e s L i s to fT ab le s A cknow ledgmen t s

i i v i v

CHAPTER 1 .I NTRODUCT ION 1 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 3 . 1 . 4 . 1 . 5 . 1 . 6 .

I n t roduc t ion S oc ia lc omp lex i ty a nd f j o rd land a r chaeo logy . H un te r -ga the re r sa nd t h eb u i l te nv i ronmen t Mode l l ing t h eb u i l te nv i ronmen t A vo id ing t h ef a l lacy o ft h er u le S umma ry

1 1 2 2 3 3

CHAPTER 2 . CO MPLEX ITY I N HUNTER -GATHERER SOC IETY 2 . 1 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 5 . 2 . 6 .

I n t roduc t ion C omp lex i ty a nd " comp lex h un te r -ga the r e r s" D ef in ing c omp lex i ty C r i t iqu ing c omp lex i ty V a r iou st r a jec tor ie st owa rd ss oc ia l" comp lex i ty" C onc lu s ion s : s a lvag ing c omp lex i ty

4 4 5 7 8 1 0

CHAPTER 3 . S PAT IAL AND T E MPORAL ASPECTS OF L IV ING I NF JORDLAND ARCH IPELAGOS . 3 . 1 . 3 . 2 . 3 . 3 . 3 . 4 . 3 . 5 . 3 . 6 . 3 . 7 .

I n t roduc t ion " T ime s t re s s " a nd t h ee nv i ronmen t T ime b udge t ing b ehav iou ra nd t e chno logy Ac ompa r ison o fs ome t ime b udge t ing b ehav iou ra nd t e chno logy b e tween t h eT l ing i ta nd t h eY amana T ime g eog raphy T ime a nd s pace a sc u l tu ra l ly c r ea ted c a tegor ie s C onc lu s ion s : t ime a nd s pace i nt h ea r ch ipe lago

1 2 1 2 1 4 1 4 1 9 2 0 2 2

CHAPTER 4 . ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE ECOLOG ICAL APPROACH TO V ISUAL P ERCEPT ION 4 . 1 . 4 . 2 . 4 . 3 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 5 .

I n t roduc t ion A ni n t roduc t ion t ot h ee co log ica l a pp roach t ov i sua lp e rcep t ion Emp ty s pace so rv acan tp l ace s? T hough t s f r om t h e a r ch ipe lago G ibson ian p sycho logy a nd l o ca t iona l a na ly s i s C onc lu s ion s : P e rcep t ion , Mob i l i ty , a nd t h eA r chaeo logy o f A r ch ipe lago s

1

2 3 2 3 2 5 2 8 3 0

CHAPTER 5 . MOB IL ITY , BU ILD ING , AND S OC IAL P RACT ICE ON THE NORTH WEST COAST 5 . 1 . 5 . 2 . 5 . 3 . 5 . 4 . 5 . 5 . 5 . 6 . 5 . 7 . 5 . 8 . 5 . 9 .

I n t roduc t ion Mob i l i ty a nd p rac t ica l mob i l i ty Mob i l i ty ,t h eh ab i tu sa nd t h ep ra c t ica l ma s te ry o fs pace T he b u i l te nv i ronmen t E xamp le :w ha tm igh ti tmean t or e jec tt h e" f a l lacy o ft h er u le" i n as pa t ia la na ly s i s? T he N o r thwe s tC oa s ta s ab u i l te nv i ronmen t T he b u i l te nv i ronmen ta nd t h e" Fa l lacy o ft h eR u le" T he b u i l te nv ironmen ta nd moveab le ma ter ia lc u l tu r e C onc lu s ion s : t he l a nd scape o fh ab i tua la c t ion

3 2 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9

CHAPTER 6 . I NTRODUCT ION TO THE CASE S TUDY 6 . 1 . I n t roduc t ion . 6 . 2 . G eog r aph ica l I nf o rma t ion S y s tem sa nd a r chaeo log ica l" t ack ing ." 6 . 3 . G IS a nd t h ec oncep t ion o ft h ei n d iv idua l . 6 . 4 . G IS ,e nv i ronmen ta ld e te rm in i sm a nd l a nd scape h i s to ry . 6 . 5 . G IS ,t e chno log ica ld e te rm in i sm a nd a r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch . 6 . 6 . O u t l ine o ft h ec a se s t udy . 6 . 7 . I mp lememen ta t ion o ft h ec a se s t udy 6 . 8 . E s tab l i shmen to f an e two rk o fs i t e s 6 . 9 . L oca t ion -a l loca t ion a na ly s is . 6 . 10 .Conc lu s ion s : s i te n e two rk s , l o ca t ion -a l loca t ion mode l s ,a nd t h ea r chaeo logy o fa r ch ipe lago s

4 0 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 2 4 3 4 6 4 7 5 0 5 3

CHAPTER 7 . RESULTS AND D ISCUSS ION 7 . 1 . 7 . 2 . 7 . 3 . 7 . 4 . 7 . 5 .

I n t roduc t ion I mp lemen ta t ion a nd r e su l t so ft h ec a se s t udy D i scu s s ion o fr e su l t s F u tu r ei n t e rp re ta t ion so ft h e s o lu t ion s e t s C onc lu s ion s : q uan t i ta t ive p o s t -p roce s sua l i s ta r chaeo logy?

5 4 5 4 5 9 6 4 6 5

CHAPTER 8 . CONCLUS IONS 8 . 1 . 8 . 2 . 8 . 3 . 8 . 4 . 8 . 5 .

S umma ry S i ze t h r e sho ld sa nd t h ei d en t if ica t ion o fr e levan ts pa t ia lu n i t so fa na ly s i s R e levance o ft h is s t udy t o NWC a r chaeo logy . R e levance o ft h es t udy f o rp r ed ic t ive mode l l ing C ommen t sa nd f u tu r ed i rec t ion s

7 2 7 2 7 3 7 3 7 4

REFERENCES

7 5

APPEND IX A : TABLES AND F IGURES OF M IDDEN ZONE AREAS

8 6

APPEND IX B : SU MMARY OF R ESULTS

9 3

1 1

L IST OF F IGURES F igu r e6 . 1 . S tudy A rea F igu re 6 . 2 . .S tudy a r ea w i th m a jo rn amed r eg ion s a sp er A ppend ix A F igu r e6 . 3 . D e ta i lo fc r ea t ion o ft h e s i te n e two rk F igu r e6 . 4 . D e ta i lo ft h en o r th a r ea o ft h es i te n e two rk F igu re 6 . 5 . D e ta i lo ft h ec en t ra l a r ea o ft h e s i te n e two rk F igu re 6 . 6 . D e ta i lo ft h e s ou th a r ea o ft h es i te n e two rk F igu re 7 . 1 . R e su l t so f2 5 i t e ra t ion so ft h el o ca t ion -a l loca t ion mode l F igu re 7 . 2 . P lo t ted t e s t s o fs i gn if icance o fs i ze o fS o lu t ion S e t m idden z one s . F igu re 7 . 3 . R esu l t so f2 5 i t e ra ted s o lu t ion s e t sc ho sen a tr a ndom F igu re 7 . 4 . A ve rage d i s tance " t rave l led" w i th in e ach s o lu t ion s e t F igu re 7 . 5 . P lo ti lu s t ra t ing o p t im iza t ion o ft h ep -med ian mode l 's o b jec t ive f unc t ion F igu re 7 . 6 . S ca t te rp lo to fi n dependen tn e two rk a cce s s ib i l i ty o fm idden z one sv e r su st h e i rs i ze . F igu r e7 . 7 R obu s tne s so fc en t ra lm idden z one s . F igu re 7 . 8 D i s t r ibu t ion o fa l m idden z one sw i th k nown a r ea s F igu re 7 . 9 L oca t ion -a l loca t ion s e tf o r as i ng le c en t r e ( i t e ra t ion # 1) F igu re 7 . 10 L oca t ion -a l loca t ion s e tf o rt h ree c en t re s( i t e ra t ion # 3 ) . F igu re 7 . 11 L oca t ion -a l loca t ion s o lu t ion s e tf o rf i ve c en t re s( i t e ra t ion # 5 ) F igu re 7 . 12 L oca t ion -a l loca t ion s o lu t ion s e tf o rs i xc en t r e s ( i t e ra t ion # 6 ) F igu re 7 . 13 L oca t ion -a l loca t ion s o lu t ion s e tf o rs even c en t r e s ( i t e ra t ion # 7 ) F igu re 7 . 14 L oca t ion -a l loca t ion s o lu t ion s e tf o re i gh tc en t re s ( i t e ra t ion # 8 ) F igu re 7 . 15 L oca t ion -a l loca t ion s o lu t ion s e tf o rn ine c en t r e s( i t e ra t ion # 9 ) F igu re 7 . 16 C umu la t ive m ap o fa l lm idden z one s s e lec ted a tl e a s to nce d u r ing 2 5 i t e ra t ion s . F igu re A l . H i s tog ram o fi n d iv idua ls i te a r ea sw i th in s t udy a r ea , n= 5 76 . F igu re A 2 . H i s tog ram o fm idden z one a r ea sw i th in s t udy a r ea , n=2 38 . F igu re A 3 . H i s tog ram o fb a se 10 L oga r i thm o fm idden z one a r ea s

4 4 4 5 4 8 4 9 4 9 5 0 5 5 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 7 5 8 6 7 6 7 6 8 6 8 6 9 6 9 7 0 7 0 7 1 7 1 9 1 9 2 9 2

L IST T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le

5 8 6 6 8 6 9 3

OF 7 . 1 7 . 2 A l : B l :

TABLES R e su l t so ft e s t so fs i gn if icance b ys o lu t ion s e ta nd t a b le o fd i s tance s" t rave l led" R obu s tne s so fc en t ra lm idden z one s A rea sa nd a cce s s ib i l i t ie so fa l lm idden z one s L oca t ion -a l loca t ion s o lu t ion s e t sf o r2 5 i t e ra t ion so f t h ep -med ian mode l .

i v

ACKNO WLEDG MENTS T h i s v o lume i s as omewha t r ev i sed v e r s ion o f my 1 998 P h .D . t h e s i s f r om t h e Un ive r s i ty o f S ou thamp ton , U .K . I a r r ived i n S ou thamp ton w i th a r e sea r ch t op ic o n t h e " t ypo logy o f f i sh t rap s ." I s ha l l r ema in g r a tef u l t o my s upe rv i so r , C l ive G amb le , f o r a l low ing m e t o e s cape t h a t n e t a nd s w im f r ee ly i n to amuch b igge r p ond . C l ive g ave g ene rou s ly o fh i st ime , i n s igh t , e ncou ragemen ta nd p a t ience t h roughou t t h i s p ro jec t . N ea r t h e b eg inn ing o ft h i s p ro jec t s omeon e s a id t o m e o n l e a rn ing t h a t C l ive w a s my s upe rv i so rt h a t , " Id i dn ' t k now h ow l u cky Iw a s ." Ik now n ow . Ia m a l so g r a tef u l t o S t ephen S hennan f o r t ime ly i n s igh t , a nd t o J ame s S t ee le f o r m any s t imu la t ing d i scu ss ion s . D ave Whea t ley g ave c on s ide rab le h e lp w i th G IS a nd w i th UN IX c ompu t ing a nd a l so , t h rough h i s o wn r e sea rch ,s howed t h ew ay i n to h ow G IS c an b eu sed o u t s ide o f t h e n a r row f r ame o f s i te m anagemen t . T im S ly a l so p rov ided h e lp w i th t h e c ompu t ing s i de o f t h i s t h e s i s . Y vonne Ma r sha l l g ave m e r egu la rN or thwe s t C oa s t r e a l i ty c heck s , a nd w a s af r iend ly i n sp i ra t ion t h rough s ome o ft h e d og d ay s . Ma ry S tubb ing ton w a s ac on s tan t h e lp w i th t h e l o g i s t ic s o f b e ing a n o ve r sea s s t uden t . H e lp f r om t h e A rchaeo logy B ranch o f t h e P rov ince o f B r i t i sh C o lumb ia w a s e s sen t ia l : It h ank P radeep S i ngh , H ea the r Moon , J a ck F o s t e r a nd A lexande r Mack ie . S t eve L ip scomb o f T imbe r l in e R e sou rce s ( a nd k inde rga r ten ) h e lped w i th s ome A r c / Inf o s c r ip t s a nd k now -how . R o sa l ine C ane s sa , a i ded b y Amy D ean , p repa r ed t h e f i na l c op ie s o f m any o f t h e m ap s i n t h i s t h e s is . Ma rgo t W i l son - Moo re a nd G eo rge Mack ie h e lped p roof read t h e f i na l d r af t s . B en A lbe r t i a nd Y oe l le C a r te r Ma r t inez k ind ly h e lped m e s ubm i tt h is t h e s i s l o ng -d i s tance f r om C anada . C yn th ia L ake w a s i n d i spen sab le i n h e lp ing p r epa r e t h i s v e r s ion f o r p ub l ica t ion , a nd G o rdon F raze rg ave m eu se o fs ome o fh i s p ub l i sh ing s of twa re .

C r e s s ida F f o rde , S i än J one s , B en A lbe r t i , S t eve D o rney , R o se L ind sey , G i l Ma r sha l l , R ob H o sf ie ld , J ame s S t ee le , Y vonne Ma r sha l l , A nd r ew C ro sby , S t ephan ie Mo se r , T ony F i r th ,D ave O 'Regan , C la i re J ow i t t ,F ranc is Wenban -Sm i th , S t ephan ie Mose r , V ane s sa B a l loqu i , I nge r e th Macf a r lane , Magg ie R onayne , P ippa Sm i th , D a le S e r jean t son a nd t h e d en izen s o f F RU . J ane Hube r t a nd P e te r U cko p rov ided r ed w ine , c a rro t s , s t ick s a nd c r u t che s i n e qua l m ea su r e . T he m embe r s o f t h e d epa r tmen t a t t h e Un ive r s i ty o f S ou thamp ton c r ea ted af r iend ly a nd w e lcom ing i n te l lec tua l e nv i ronmen t : i na dd i t ion t ot h o se n amed a bove It h ank T im C hamp ion , S a ra C hamp ion , N ick B radf o rd , J u l ian T homa s , S imon K eay a nd B r ian S pa rke s f o rt h e i rm any s ma l l a c t s o f k indne s s . T he c h ico s a nd c h ica s i nA rgen t ina h e lped m e k eep my h ead s c rewed o n , i np a r t icu la r , G u s tavo Ma r t inez , G u s tavo P o l i t i s , D o lo r e s E lk in a nd Ma r ia G u t ie r rez . I n V ic to r ia , J enn if e r H opk in son , L i sa McGu inne s s , P ame la Sm i th , S u san C rockf o rd , B ecky W igen , H ea the r Moon , S and r a P eacock , A la s ta i r Mu r ray , S t eve L ip scomb , a nd t h e c r ew o ft h e F la t te ry a l l h e lped m e t h rough t h e w r i t ing u p . T he s uppo r t o f my f am i ly w a s , a s e ve r , e s sen t ia l . F r iend sh ip c omb ined w i th c h i ldm ind ing w a s g i ven b yB e th McM i l l in , K je r s t in Mack ie , G i l l ian Mack ie a nd Ange la Mu rphy . Ia l so t h ank A nne H e l lman , C laud ia v on K r euz igG r inne l l ,T racy Z o l l inge rT u rne ra nd Me l inda Mon tbr iand . B o th t h e S oc ia l S c ience a nd H uman i t ie s R e sea rch C ounc i l o f C anada a nd t h e A s soc ia t ion o f C ommonwea l th Un ive r s i t ie s ( U .K . D iv i s ion ) p rov ided g ene rou s f i nanc ia l s uppo r t . T he B r i t i sh C ounc i l a dm in i s te r ed t h e C ommonwea l th S cho la r sh ip v e ry ef i c ien t ly , a nd a l so f unded my s t imu la t ing r e sea r ch t r ip t o A rgen t ina d u r ing w h ich Id eve loped m any o ft h ei d ea sf ound i nt h is t h e s i s . T h i sv o lume i sd ed ica ted t oC ha r lo t te E l izabe th Mack ie .

Ia m f o r tuna te t oh ave made s om any g ood f r iend s wh i le i n E ng land , a nd It h ank t h em f o r t h e i r w a rm w e lcome a nd i n te l lec tua ls t imu la t ion : K a tha r ina H a l l( a nd J a ck !) ,

g ene ra l i sa t ion s l a ck ing h i s tor ica l c on tex t o r i n to h i s tor ica l g ene ra l i sa t ion st h a ta moun tt ol i t t le mo r et h an t e leo log ie s . I s ugge s tt h e t ime i sn ow r i gh t t oh eed I ngo ld 's c a l l t o move b eyond t h e d iv i s ion b e tween " t he ' s c ien t if ic ' s t udy o f a n a t empo ra l ized n a tu re , a nd t h e ' human i s t ic ' s t udy o f a d ema te r ia l ized h i s to ry ," wh ich w i l l o n ly b e a ccomp l i shed b y as ub t le u nde r s tand ing o f t h e " t empo ra l i ty" o f t h e l a nd scape ( I ngo ld 1 993 :172 ) .

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCT ION 1 . 1 I n troduc t ion T he a r chaeo logy o ft h e N o r thwe s t C oa s t o f Nor th Amer ica h a s b een d e scr ibed a s " f undamen ta l ly a t heo r e t ica l" ( Ma schne ra nd F agan 1 99 1 :92 1) . T yp ica l s t ud ie s f o cu s o n s ubs i s tence a nd e co logy , d r aw ing o n h igh ly d e ta i led p or t ra i t s o f o ne o r s eve ra l k ey s i te s , u s ing u nc r i t ica l a pp l ica t ion s o ft h e d i rec t h i s tor ic a pp roach ( Ma schne r a nd F agan 1 99 1 ;F ladma rk 1 982 :10 1) .

1 . 2 S oc ia lc omp lex i ty a nd f j ord land a rchaeo logy I nd igenou s s oc ie t ie s o f t h e N or thwe s t C oa s t h ave l o ng s t ood a s t h e e t hnog r aph ic a r che type o f t h e " comp lex h un te r -ga the re r ." T he se s oc ie t ie s h ave b een u sed a s e xcep t ion s t o p rove t h e r u le s a bou t " s imp le" h un te r g a the r e r s oc ie t ie s , a nd /o r h ave b een d e -h is tor ic i sed i n to a n e xemp la ry s t age o n t h e c on t inuum o f" comp lex i ty ," f u r the r " advancemen t" a l ong wh ich t h ey d i d n o t r e ach b ecau se t h ey n eve r d eve loped a g r icu l tu r e . T hu s , a r chaeo log ica l i n te r e s t i n t h e se s uppo sed c a se s o f a r r e s ted d eve lopmen t h a s c en t red o n w hen a nd h ow t h ey , a mong s t t h e w o r ld 's s t ra t if ied , s eden ta ry s oc ie t ie s , managed t o a ch ieve t h e " mo s tw i th t h e l e a s t ." T h is r e sea rch o r ien ta t ion i g no r ed t h e u nde r ly ing e vo lu t iona ry a s sump t ion s a nd o pe ra t iona l p rob lem s b eh ind t h e v a r iab le " comp lex i ty ," a nd i t s u nho ly p a r tne r , " t he c omp lex h un te r -ga the re r ." Wh i le t h e c on s t i tuen t s o f " comp lex i ty" a r e i mpo r tan t a nd o f r e a l a r chaeo log ica l i n te re s t , i t i s u nhe lpf u l t o b und le t h em t o ge the r i n a n omn ibu s v a r iab le w i thou t ab e t te r g r a sp o f t h e i r c omp lex mu tua l r e la t ion sh ip s . T o g a in s uch a n u nde r s tand ing a d if e ren t a pp roach i sn eeded , o ne w h ich c en t ra l ise s t h e t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l d imen s ion s u nde r ly ing m any o ft h ec on s t i tuen t so ft h ec omp lex i ty " b lack -box ."

S uch a t t en t ion t od e ta i lp l ace s No r thwe s tC oa s ta r chaeo logy f i rm ly w i th in t h e h o l is t ic , h i s tor ica l p a r t icu la r i sm o f B oa s ian a n th ropo logy . F ranz B oa s , w hose e t hnog raphy d om ina t e s t h e r eg ion , w a s G e rman b yb i r th a nd b y t r a in ing i ng eog raphy a nd p hy s ic s ( S tock ing 1 966 ) . B o th S t ock ing ( 1966 :87 1) a nd G rube r ( 1986 :176 ) h ave n o ted t h a t B oa s ' c oncep t o f c u l tu re w a s r oo ted i n aE u ropean t r ad i t ion . G rube rc ha rac ter i se st h i sa s , ap roduc to fa n e a r l ie r , p e r s i s ten t , a nd e s sen t ia l ly G e rman t h eme b o rne o f G e rman R oman t ic i sm i n w h ich a h uman g roup , t h e V o lk , p o s se s sed a h i s to r ica l u n i ty a nd p a r t icu la r i ty e xp re s sed i n t h e t o ta l r a nge o f e ve ryday b ehav iou r . ( Grube r 1 986 :176 ) I n te rp r e t ing p reh i s tor ic " cu l tu re s" i n t h i s m anne r n ece ss i t a te s ah o l is t ic a pp roach wh ich c an o n ly b e r e a l i sed a r chaeo log ica l ly t h rough m a s s ive a nd d i rec t u se o f e t hnog raph ic a na logy . E thnoh i s to r ic a nd e t hno a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s , l a rge ly p e rf o rmed b y a r chaeo log i s t s , h ave b u i l to nt h e s t r eng th so ft h em inu te ly -de ta i led B oa s ian c o rpu s w i th t h e a im o f e ve r imp roved a pp l ica t ion o f t h e d i rec t -h i s to r ica l a pp roach . S uch ar e sea rch p rog ramme h a s p robab ly s e emed f e a s ib le b ecau se m o s t e xcava t ion s h ave b een i ns he l l m idden s w h ich , b e ing c ha rac te r i sed b y g ood p re serva t ion o f f auna l r ema in s a nd p e r i shab le a r t if ac t s , o f f e r a lu r ing d e ta i l o n t h i s t o ta l r a nge o f e ve ryday b ehav iou r . P r eh i s to ry o n t h e N o r thwe s t C oa s t t hu s f r equen t ly c on s i s t s o f as imp le s t ack ing o f e co log ica l s nap sho t s . Y e t , f o r t h e F i r s t N a t ion s , t h e a n th ropo log ica l a r chaeo log is t 's s ea r ch f o r i n te rna l ly c on s i s ten t , h o l i s t ic , c u l tu ra l b ehav iou r h a s r e qu i red a " r emembe red p a s t t r an sf o rmed i n to a n e t hnog raph ic p re sen t ( G rube r 1 986 :177 ) ." O n ly r a re ly ( e .g . , Ame s 1 99 1b ; Ma r sha l l 1 993 ) a r e t h e p roce s se s o f c on t inu i ty a nd c hange g i ven e qua l p rom inence .

F jo rd land a r ch ipe lago s , s uch a s t ho se o f c oa s ta l B r i t ish C o lumb ia , a r e h i gh ly d i rec t iona l e nv i ronmen t s i n w h ich m any i mpo r tan t r e sou rce s , s uch a s s a lmon a r e b o th s pa t ia l ly a nd t empo ra l ly c i rcum scr ibed . T h i s g eog raph ic a spec th a sk nowab le i mp l ica t ion sw hen c on s ide r ed t o ge the r w i th t h e i n he r en t c on s t ra in t s a nd o ppo r tun i t ie s o f h uman m a te r ia l i ty a nd t h et e chno log ica l a nd a va i lab le s oc ia lm ean s o f c i r cumven t ing s uch c on s t ra in t s . T echno log ica l " so lu t ion s" i n c lude t r an spo r ta t ion , m a s s h a rve s t ing , a nd s t o rage t e chno log ie s , w h i le s oc ia l " so lu t ion s" m ay i n c lude a spec t s o f c ommun i ty s i ze , s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion , a nd t h e d i v is ion o fl a bou r . H oweve r , i ti si mpo r tan tn o tt os e pa ra te t h e se s o lu t ion s f r om e ach o t he r , n o r e i the r f r om t h e e nv i ronmen t i t se lf . S to rage , f o r e xamp le , i sc l o se ly b ound t o mob i l i ty , p rope r ty , owne r sh ip , s ha r ing , a nd s o f o r th . T ran spo r ta t ion c an a l te r t h e p e r cep t ion ( a nd t h u s p o s s ib i l i t ie s ) o f t h e e nv i ronmen t , w h i le t h e u se o f w a te r c raf t r eve r se s t h e i nhe ren t d i rec t iona l i ty o f f j o rd land a r ch ipe lago s . B y c hang ing t h e p a th s p eop le t a ke t h rough t h e e nv i ronmen t , i tc hange s t h e i r v e ry p e rcep t ion o f t h a t e nv i ronmen t ( G ib son 1 979 ) . I ndeed , f o l low ing I ngo ld ( 1 986 , 1 992 , 1 993 ) , i tw i l l b e s ugge s ted t h a t G ib son ian e co log ica l p sycho logy may p rov ide i n s igh t i n to i mpo r tan t g ene ra l c on s t ruc t s s uch a s " na tu r e ," " t he e nv i ronmen t ,"

I n i t s d ua l a leg iance s t oe co log ica l r e con s t ruc t ion a nd t h e e t hnog raph ic r e co rd ,t h ep reva i l ing a pp roach t ot h er e g iona l a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd h a s b een e xcep t iona l ly d a ta -d r iven . T he c ha l lenge o n t h e Nor thwe s t C oa s t i s t o e s cape s imp l i s t ic a na log ie s f r om t h e c on s t ruc ted e t hnog raph ic p re sen t w i thou t f a l l ing i n to e i the r t ime le s s , e co log ica l 1

" t he a r chaeo logy o fp l ace ," " emp ty s pace s ," " t e r r i to r ia l i ty ," a nd " soc ia l n e two rk s ." N eve r the le s s , a s w i l l b e s hown , e co log ica l p sycho logy a l one i sn o t p a r t icu la r ly u sef u l i n a r chaeo logy . I nt h i st h e s i s , i tw i l l b e made u sef u l b yb e ing a l l ied t o b o th s oc ia l t h eo ry a nd t o q uan t i ta t ive s pa t ia l a na ly t ic t o o ls .

n eu t ra l o b jec t s , n o r ac on ta ine r t h a t c an b e f i l led w i th m ean ing . R a the r , i te x i s t s o n ly i nr e la t ion t oo b serve r s , a nd i s f i l led w i th a f f o rdance s f o r t h o se o b se rve r s . T he se a f f o rdance s a r e s i tua t iona l , a cco rd ing t o t h e n eed s o f t h e o b serve r . Ak ey p o in t a bou t a n ima te o b se rve r s i st h a tt h ey a r e mob i le , a nd t h e i r p e r cep t ion a nd k now ledge o f , a nd r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e e nv i ronmen t i se xpe r ienced t h rough movemen t . S ome v ec to r s o f movemen t a r e mo r e f a vou r ed ( f o r s oc ia l o r e nv i ronmen ta l r e a son s ) , a nd s o i nd iv idua l s ' r ou te s b ecome b und le s o fc o l lec t ive m ob i l i ty , wh ich a f f o rd i n te rac t ion , a nd h e lp d e l im i t p ub l ic k now ledge . T he se r ou te s b o th s t ruc tu r e , a nd a r e s t ruc tu r ed b y , t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t .

T aken a l toge the r , t h i s a l low s ah uman i s t ic h uman e co logy , o f wh ich t h em a in f ou re l emen t sa r e : •

A n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e e nv i ronmen t r oo ted i n G ib son ian e co log ica l p sycho logy wh ich s t r e s se s t h e mu tua l i sm b e tween o b serve ra nd e nv i ronmen t ,

•

a n e mpha s i s o n p l ace s a nd r ou te s r a the r t h an s i te s a nd t h es pace sb e tween t h em ,

•

a n a c t ion -o r ien ted s oc ia l t h eo ry r oo ted i n t ime a nd s pace ,s uch a st h a to fP ie r r eB ou rd ieu ,

•

as u i t ab le m e thod o fq uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i s wh ich a l low s t h e d e te rm ina t ion o f r e a l s pa t ia l p a t te rn s w i thou t p rede t e rm in ing t h e i re xp lana t ion s .

1 . 4 Mode l l ing t he b u i l te nv ironmen t A b road d ef in i t ion o f " bu i ld ing" i su sed i nt h i s t h e s i s . A b u i ld ing i s , " any d u rab le s t ruc tu re i nt h e l a nd scape w ho se f o rm a r i se s a nd i ss u s ta ined w i th in t h e c u r r en t o f h uman a c t iv i ty" ( I ngo ld 1 993 :169 ) . T he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i s t h e r ef o r e ar e co rd o f t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t , t hough n o t n ece s sa r i ly a c omp le te o ne , g iven t h e v aga r ie s o f p r e se rva t ion , s i te f o rma t ion p roce s se s , e t c . I nC hap te r 5 ,i t i ss ugge s ted t h a t s he l l m idden s i te s o n t h eN o r thwe s t C oa s t

1 . 3 Hun ter -ga therer sa nd t he b u i l te nv ironmen t Mos t a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s o f mob i l i ty s t a r t w i th ak nown s e t o fs i te s a nd i n f e rt h e l i ke ly r ou te s t h a tw ou ld h ave b een f o l lowed i no rde rt of u lf i l s ub s i s tence n eed s . T he se r ou te s a r e d e te rm ined b y m a te r ia l c u l tu re a nd o t he r r ema in s f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i te s . I f , h oweve r , t h e r ou te s a r e k nown ( a s Ia rgue t h ey a r e i nf j o rd land a r ch ipe lago s ) , t h en t h e s t a r t ing p o in t c an b e q u i te d i f f e ren t . A t temp t s t ou nde r s tand t h e se r ou te s c an p r ecede d i scu ss ion o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , w h ich c an t h en b e i n t roduced l a te r t oa s se s s a ny c onc lu s ion sg a ined f r om s t udy ing t h er ou te s . T he a bove s ugge s t s t h a t t h e s pa t ia l d imen s ion i n a r chaeo logy c an b e c oncep tua l i sed i n r e la t ion t o t h e mob i l i ty p rof i le o f p eop le . I ndeed , movemen t c r ea te s a s en se o fs pa t ia l i ty ,w h ich d oe sn o to ccu ri na ne mp ty ,t h ree d imen s iona l C a r te s ian s pace . S uch a f o cu s o n movemen t a l so i mp l ie s t h e a dop t ion o f as o c ia l t ime f r ame ( Go sden 1 994 ) . W i thou t w an t ing t or educe t ime t o s pace , o r v i ce v e r sa , t h e t wo d imen s ion s a r e s u re ly l i nked i n e ve ryday l i f e , a s e xemp l if ied b y t h e S wed ish s choo l o f t ime g eog raphy ( e .g . , C a r l s te in 1 982 ) . C h rono log ica l a nd l i nea r c oncep t ion s o ft ime a r e c on s ide red t oh ave l i t t le b ea r ing o n e ve ryday l i f e , p a r t icu la r ly i n n on indu s t r ia l s oc ie t ie s . S oc ia l t ime i se qu iva len t t o at ime o f" p rac t ice" ( Bou rd ieu 1 977 ) , a nd i s r e levan t f o r t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l . I n p a r t icu la r , a s oc ia l t ime p e r spec t ive r e p lace s t h e i n ev i tab i l i ty o f t h e " f u tu re i nt h e p a s t" w i th a b e t te r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e m any p o s s ib le f u tu re s , t h e " t empo ra l map s" ( Chap te r 4 ; a nd G e l l 1 992 ) , t h a t w e re p o s s ib le a t a ny g i ven t ime i n t h e p a s t . T he c on s t i tu t ive a c t s o fb e ing i nt h e w o r ld a r e " p rac t ica l t a sk s ," w h ich c umu la t ive ly d ef ine a " t a sk scape ," t h e m ea su r e o f w h ich i ss oc ia lt ime ( I ngo ld 1 993 :158 ) . T he e nv i ronmen t i ss imp ly d ef ined a s t h e s u r round ing s o f a n ima te b e ing s ( G ibson 1 979 ) . I ti sn e i the r aN a tu re o f 2

d e sp i te w ha teve r s pec if i c f unc t ion s t h ey m ay h ave s e rved , a r e ad u rab le r e co rd o f g ene ra l a c t iv i ty . I nd iv idua l ly t h ey m ee t I ngo ld 's d ef in i t ion o f ab u i ld ing a nd c o l lec t ive ly t h ey c an b e c on s ide r ed a sp a r t o f ab u i l t e nv i ronmen t . T he s i ze o f t h e s he l l m idden h a s b een u sed a s a n i nd ica to r o f i n ten s i ty o fu se ( Ma schne r a nd S t e in 1 995 ) , a nd i ss o u sed h e r e . O the r a r chaeo log ica l s i te t ype s , s u ch a s r ock a r t , f i sh t rap s , b u r ia l s , e t c . , d o n o t n ece s sa r i ly r e co rd g enera l a c t iv i ty , a nd w h i le t h ey a r e p a r t o ft h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t , t h ey a r e n o t e a s i ly c ompa rab le t o t h e s o r t s o f g ene r a l a c t iv i ty m apped b ys he l lm idden s . T ak ing t h ek nown d i s t r ibu t ion o fs he l lm idden s a s as t a r t ing p o in t , t h e a lmo s t 6 00 s u ch s i te s w i th in t h e s t udy a r ea a r e c l u s te red i n to s ome 2 38 "M idden Z one s ," c once ived o fa s n ode s o r c oncen t ra t ion s o f g ene ra l a c t iv i ty i n t h e e nv i ronmen t . T he s t udy a r ea a nd c l u s te r ing p rocedu re a r e d i scu s sed i n C hap te r 6 . H av ing a s e t o f l o ca t ion s ( " bu i ld ing s" ) a nd k now ing t h e l i ke ly t r an spo r ta t ion r ou te s b e tween t h em ( Chap te r3 ) , i ti sp o ss ib le t op e r f o rm n e two rk a na ly s i s t o u nde r s tand t h e i r s pa t ia l i n te r r e la t ion sh ip s . I n p a r t icu la r , i n te rdependen t c en t ra l i ty i sc a lcu la ted u s ing t h e p -med ian L oca t ion -a l loca t ion mode l , a nd s u ch c en t ra l i ty i s f ound t oc o r r e spond ( a ts ome s c a le s )t oi n t en s i ty o fs i te u se . 1 . 5 A vo id ing t he " fa l lacy o ft he r u le" i na rchaeo log ica l e xp lana t ions H av ing mode l led a spec t s o f t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t o f t h e Nor thwe s t C oa s t , w i th i t s i mp l ica t ion f o r m ob i l i ty a nd f o r l ong t e rm h ab i tua l a c t ion , i tb ecome s i mpo r tan tn o tt om ake t h e e a sy m i s take o f c onf u s ing a d e sc r ip t ive g eome t ry o f s pace w i th a g ene ra t ive g r amma r o f i n ten t iona l s o c ia l b ehav iou r . I t i s a rgued t h a t t h e p a t t e rn s o f o p t ima l

b ehav iou r w h ich a r e d emon s t ra t ed i n t h i s s t udy a r e t h e r e su l t o f u n in t en t iona l o p t im i sa t ion a c ro s s ab road sca le l a nd scape o fh ab i t . T h i s s o r to fb ehav iou rm igh tb et e rmed " un in ten t iona l h a rmon ic a c t ion ," t h e p r ox ima l m ean s o f w h ich i sa na log i sed t os t igme rgen ic c ommun ica t ion . S u ch p a t t er n s a r e b e s t e xp la ined a st h e r e su l t o fn on t e leo log ica l a c t ion p e r f o rmed i n ah ab i tu s ( Bou rd ieu 1 977 ) r a the r t h an a se xp r e s s ion so fc a lcu la t ed o p t ima l f o r ag ing o rc en t ra l i sed p l ann ing . I ti sc onc luded t h a t t h e a r chaeo log ica l s i gna tu r e o f m ob i l i ty a nd g ene r a l a c t iv i ty c an i n c lud e p a t t e rn s w h ich m igh t b e i n t e rp r e t ed a s i n d ica t ing s o c ia l c omp lex i ty , b u t w h ich a r e m e r e ly e me rgen t s c a la r p rope r t ie s o f t h e i n d iv idua l :env i ronmen t r e la t ion sh ip . 1 . 6 S ummary A ny t h e s i s r e co rd s w o rk t h a t t a ke s p l a ce o ve r t ime a nd r e f le c t s c hang ing i d ea s . C ha l leng ing t h e u n i ta ry v a r iab le " s oc ia l c omp lex i ty" l e d t o ar e con s ide ra t ion o f t ime a nd s p a ce a nd t h e w ay t h a t t h e se a r e d if e ren t ly c on s t ru c t ed b y a r chaeo log i s t s t h an b y t h e p eop le w ho p r oduced t h e a r chaeo log ica l p a t ter n s w h ich a r e b e ing s t ud ied . T h e a dvan tage so f amo r e s ub t le , h uman i s t ic c oncep t ion o ft im e a nd s p a ce w e r e c l ea r , y e t n eeded t o b e w e ighed a ga in s t m o r e f o rma l m od e l s w h ich d ef ine r e a l s p a t ia l p a t ter n s . I n t h i s t h e s i s , m ob i l i ty , t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t , a nd h ab i tu s a r e u s ed t o b r idge t h e g ap b e tween a u s te r e , f o rma l ( b u t r e p l icab le ) m ode l s o f s p a ce a nd s ub t le , h uman i s t ic ( b u t d i ff i cu l tt oa pp ly ) s o c ia lt h eo r ie so ft ime a nd s p a ce .

3

o n mu l t i -cau sa l o r c on t ex tua l s oc ia l p roce s s . I n s uch a ccoun t s , c omp lex i ty i s r edef ined w h i le b e ing m ade o b so le te a s au n i ta ry v a r iab le ( e .g . , U pham 1 990a , 1 990b , o r , mo re c r i t ica l ly ,R ow land s 1 989 ) .

CHAPTER 2—CO MPLEX ITY I N HUNTER GATHERER SOCIETY 2 . 1 I n troduc t ion

F u r the r q ue s t ion s a bou t t h e i n he ren t u t i l i ty o ft h e c oncep t a r e r a i sed w hen i ti sc oup led t o t h e e conom ic c a tego ry " hun te r a nd g a the r e r ." B y d ef au l t t h i s c r ea te s a d i cho tomou s v a r iab le w i th t h e s t a te s " s imp le" a nd " comp lex ," l e av ing l i t t le r oom f o r i n te rmed ia t e p o s i t ion s . T he o r ig in s o r c ha rac te r i s t ic s o ft h i s f a l se d i cho tomy m ay t h en b ecome a s ub jec t o f i nqu i ry i n i t s o wn r i gh t ( e .g . , H ayden 1 994 ,K ee ley 1 988 ) .

A r chaeo log i s t s a nd a n th ropo log i s t s h ave u sed t h e t e rm " comp lex i ty" t o s umma r i se a v a r ie ty o f d if e r en t s oc io c u l tu ra l t r a i t s a nd p roce s se s , y e t t h e r e i s w ide sp read d i sag reemen t o ve r b o th i t s d ef in i t ion a nd a pp l ica t ion . S ome f a vou r af o rma l d ef in i t ion o f c omp lex i ty i n t h e a b s t rac t , a s a n e l emen t o r d er iva t ive o fs oc ia l t h eo ry ( e .g . , B ende r 1 989 , B rumf ie l 1 989 , Ma rqua rd t 1 985 ) . O the r s p ref e rt oc omp i le t r a i t l i s t s o fi d eo log ica l , s o c ia l o rm a te r ia l v a r iab le s t h a t c umu la t ive ly i n d ica te , o r c o r r e la te w i th , a n o the rw i se v ague n o t ion o fc omp lex i ty ( e .g . , A rno ld 1 993 , C ohen 1 985 , H ayden 1 992 , P r ice a nd B rown 1 985 , R ow ley -Conwy 1 983 ) . Wa son r e v iew s an umbe r o ft h e se s ou rce s i n al e ng thy c ommen ta ry o n t h e i n f e ren t ia l n a tu re o f a r chaeo log ica l a pp roache s t o s oc ia l c omp lex i ty , c onc lud ing t h a t t h e u se o f mu l t ip le l i ne s o f e v idence " e spec ia l ly t h o se t h a ta tf i r s ts e em i n compa t ib le" i st h eb e s t w ay t o p roceed (Wa son 1 994 :35 ) . N eve r the le s s , o t he r s a rgue a ga in s t t h e v e ry u se o f c omp lex i ty a s au n i ta ry v a r iab le , p ref e r r ing , f o rd i ve r se r e a son s , t oe i the rd i sman t le i ti n to mo re u sef u l a b s t rac t c omponen t s a nd /o r t oa bandon i ta l toge the r ( e .g . , B inf o rd 1 990 , G amb le 1 993 , McGu i re 1 983 ,R ow land s 1 989 ) .

I n t h i s c hap te r t h e t r oub le some n a tu r e o f t h e c on s t ruc t " soc ia l -cu l tu ra l c omp lex i ty" w i l l b e c r i t ica l ly e xam ined . A t ten t ion w i l l f o cu s m a in ly o n whe the r i ti sa pp rop r ia te t o u se t h e r e cen t ly p opu la r a na ly t ica l c a t ego ry " comp lex h un te r -ga the r e r" ; l e s s a t ten t ion w i l l b e p a id t o i s sue s o f c omp lex i ty i nr e la t ion t oa g r icu l tu r i s t s . F i r s t , ab r ief r e v iew o fh un te r -ga the r e rs t ud ie si sg i ven . 2 . 2 C omp lex i ty a nd " comp lex h un ter -ga therer s" A n th ropo log ica l p e r cep t ion s o fh un te r -ga the r e r s u nde rwen t af undamen ta l r e -eva lua t ion c o inc iden tw i th t h ep ub l ica t ion o f t h e c onf e r ence p roceed ing s Man t h e H un te r ( Lee a nd D eVo r e 1 968 ) . W i th in t h i s v o lume , Ma r sha l l S ah l in s s umma r ise st h e f o rego ing s t e reo type :

B o th o f t h e se g ene ra l a pp roache s h ave w eakne s se s . A b s t rac t d ef in i t ion s d eve loped f r om e t hnog raphy ( v ia e t hno logy o r s o c ia l t h eo ry ) mu s t b e r e la ted t o m a te r ia l c u l tu re o r v i s ib le p a t te rn ing o f o t he r r ema in s b ef o re t h ey c an b e a pp l ied a r chaeo log ica l ly . C onve r se ly , t r a i t l i s t d ef in i t ion s a r e s t a t ic , a nd s o r e qu i re d i rec t a nd d ef en s ib le r e la t ion t o ac u l tu ra l p roce s s o r d ynam ic . I ndeed , t h ey p robab ly d e r ive o r ig ina l ly f r om s ome s u ch p roce s se s , i n t roduc ing t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f c i rcu la r i ty o f a rgumen t . Ef o r t s t o u npack " comp lex i ty" r i sk m e r e ly s h if t ing t h e p rob lem o f d ef in i t ion t o ad i f f e ren t l e ve l o r s c a le , w h i le a rgumen t s f o ra bandonmen to ft h e t e rm mu s to f f e r av i ab le r ep lacemen to rr e p lacemen t sa st h e re s u re ly a r er e a l -enough s oc ia l p henomena w h ich t h e omn ibu s c on s t ruc t o f " comp lex i ty" i n adequa t e ly a dd r e s se s .

O u r t e x tbook s c ompe te t o c onvey a s en se o fi mpend ing d oom , l e av ing t h e s t uden t t o w onde r n o t o n ly h ow h un te r s m anaged t o make al i v ing , b u t whe the r , a f t e r a l l , t h i s w a s l i v ing? T he s pec t r e o f s t a rva t ion s t a lk s t h e s t a lke r i nt h e se p age s . H i s t e chn ica l i n compe tence i s s a id t o e n jo in c on t inuou s w o rk j u s t t o s u rv ive , l e av ing h im w i thou t r e sp i t e f r om t h e f ood q ue s t a nd w i thou t t h e l e i su re t o " bu i ld c u l tu re ." ...h e i sc ondemned t o p l ay t h e r o le o f b ad e xamp le , t h e " sub s i s tence e conomy ." ( Sah l in s 1 968 :85 )

A pa r t f r om u t i l i ty , d ef in i t ion , a nd a pp l ica t ion , t h e r e a r e a t l e a s tt h ree o t he r , g ene ra lp rob lem s i nt h eu se o fc omp lex i ty a s au n i ta ry v a r iab le . T he f i r s t i si t s c l o se a s soc ia t ion w i th o u tda ted s cheme s o f u n i l inea l e vo lu t ion : b and t r ibe c h ief dom s ta te c an t o o e a s i ly b e i n te rp re ted a s aq ua r t i le , o rd ina l t y po logy o f p rog re s s ive c omp lex i ty ( C lae s san 1 981) . T he s e cond p rob lem i st h ec l o se p o s i t ive a s soc ia t ion t h a t i s o f t en m ade b e tween c omp lex i ty a nd s oc ia l i n equa l i ty . " Ega l i ta r ian ism" i sd ef ined b y d ef au l t a s" l ack o fc omp lex i ty ," w i th t h e c on sequence t h a ts o c ia l e qua l i ty i s n a tu ra l ised a nd n o ts e en t on eed e xp lana t ion i ni t so wn r i gh t ( F lanagan 1 989 ) . T he t h i rd i s t h e c on t ra s t b e tween " comp lex i ty" a nd t h e g ene ra l d i sc ip l ina ry movemen t a way f r om c a tegor ica lt h ink ing t owa rd se xp lana t ion sw h ich f o cu s

T h i s H obbe s ian v i ew w a s r ep la ced b y o ne w h ich c ha rac ter i sed h un te r -ga the re r s a se x i s t ing i n as t a te o f" Zen a f f luence ," w i th t h e i rl im i ted w an t s a nd l im i ted n eed sb e ing s a t i sf ac to r i ly f i l led ( Sah l in s 1 968 ) . T hu s , t h e n o t ion o fa n " or ig ina l a f f luen t s oc ie ty" b ecame a n th ropo log ica l r e ce ived w i sdom , ad eve lopmen tt h a tc an p robab ly b e c l o se ly t i ed t o a1 960 s p o l i t ica l Z e i tge i s t o f e co log ica l a wa rene s s a nd a l ter na t ive l i f e s ty le s . B ehav iou ra l mode l s a nd d a ta d r awn f r om e t hnog raph ie s o f mob i le h un te r -ga ther e r s i n hab i t ing m a rg ina l e nv i ronmen t s , s u ch a st h e ! Kung a nd H adza , w e re

4

a nd , u l t ima te ly ,w i th r e f e rence t os t a te s .3 B ef o re d i scu s s ing t h e i mp l ica t ion s o f t h i s n ew c a tego ry , v a r iou s w ay s o f d ef in ing c omp lex i ty w i l lb er e v iewed .

t h en u sed a sa na logue s i n aw ide v a r ie ty o fa r chaeo log ica l a pp l ica t ion s . ' Ef ec t ive ly , h oweve r , o ne s t e reo type o f h un te r -ga the re r b ehav iou rw a s e xchanged f o r a no the r . G roup s s uch a st h e ! Kung S an o f t h e K a laha r i h ave s i nce h ad t h e i r h i s to ry r e s to red , a nd a r e n ow b e t te r u nde r s tood a s m a rg ina l i sed p eop le s s i tua t ed w i th in a w ide r c u l tu ra l e nv i ronmen t o r w o r ld s y s tem . S an a g r icu l tu ra l p u r su i t s , e n s lavemen t b y n e ighbou r ing g roups , a nd e ven t h e i r c on sc r ip t ion i n to t h e S ou th A f r ican a rmy w e re p a s sed o ve r b y b o th e t hnog r aphe r sa nd a r chaeo log is t s , p e rhap sb ecau se t h ey d i d n o t f i t t h e e x i s t ing f i xed i d ea s .2 R ea l i sa t ion t h a t t h e e t hnog raph ic m a ter ia l w a s b e ing o ve r s imp l if ied p l ayed a r o le i np unc tu r ing t h e e a s i ly a ff luen t s t e reo type o fh un te r s a nd g a the r e r s .

2 . 3 D ef in ing c omp lex i ty T he re a r e t wo r e la ted w ay s o fd ef in ing c omp lex i ty : e i the r a n a b s t rac t s oc ia l theo re t ica l d ef in i t ion i s f o rmu la ted , o r t r a i t s a r e l i s t ed w h ich a r e a s se r ted ( i n s ome c omb ina t ion )t o b e c o r re la t ed w i th ( o r t o c umu la t ive ly d ef ine ) t h e s oc ia l c a tego ry . T he f o rme rc an b es e en a s af i r s t -o rde rd ef in i t ion , i nt h a t i ti sd er ived d i rec t ly f r om s oc ia l o r a n th ropo log ica l t h eo ry . T he l a t te rc an b e s e en a s as e cond -o rde rd ef in i t ion , i nt h a t t h e t r a i t l i s t c anno t b e a r b i t ra ry , b u t mu s t i n s ome w ay r e la te t o a n a b s t rac t d ef in i t ion o r p r econcep t ion o f w ha t i s m ean t b y " comp lex i ty ." D e sp i te t h i s i n te r d ependence , a tt h i sp o in tt h ey w i l lb ed i scu s sed s epa ra te ly .

C oncu r r en t w i th t h i s r e v i s ion i s t e t hno log ica l p rog ramme h a s b een a n i n c rea sed a r chaeo log ica l i n te re s t i n v a r iou s w e l l -known e xcep t ion s t ot h e mob i le , s ma l l g roup , l im i ted n eed s s t e reo type , n ame ly , r e la t ive ly s eden ta ry h un te r g a the re r s , l i v ing i nl a rge g roup s , w i th s oc ia l i n equa l i ty a nd v oc if e rou s i n t e r - a nd i n t ra -g roup c ompe t i t ion . D i scu s s ion o f" comp lex h un te r -ga the re r s" w a s i n c luded i nt h e Man t h e H un ter v o lume , s uch a s t ho se o f n o r thwe s ter n No r th Amer ica ( Su t t le s 1 968 ) a nd t h e A inu o f n o r the rn J apan ( Wa tanabe 1 968 ) . H oweve r , o n ly i n mo r e r e cen t y ea r s h ave t h ey c ea sed b e ing s e en a s a noma lou s c a se s ( e .g . , K oyama a nd T homa s 1 981 , P r ice a nd B rown ( ed s . ) 1 985 ) . A rchaeo log ica l i n te re s t h a s b een a c compan ied b y mo re e t hno log ica l a t ten t ion t o " m id r ange" ( Upham 1 987 ) s oc ie t ie s : t h o se wh ich a r e c l a s s ica l ly —and u nea s i ly — k nown a s t r ibe s a nd , e spec ia l ly , a s c h ief dom s , b o th o f w h ich c a tego r ie s i n c lude h un te r -ga the re r s oc ie t ie s ( e .g . , D rennan a nd U r ibe 1 987 ; E a r le 1 987b , 1 99 1 ; G regg ( e d . ) 1 99 1) . I n c r ea sed f o cu s o n t h e se m id range s oc ie t ie s i n c luded i n t e r e s t i nt h e g ene s i s , r a th e r t h an t h e g ene ra l i sed e vo lu t iona ry o r h i s tor ica l t r a jec to r ie s , o f s oc ia l -cu l tu ra l c omp lex i ty . Ma ter ia l f r om h un te r -ga the re r a r chaeo logy a nd e t hnog raphy h ad a r o le t o p l ay i n t h is n ew f i e ld o f r e sea rch , a nd t h e r e su l t w a s t h e c r ea t ion o f t h e c a tego ry " comp lex h un t e r sa nd g a the re r s ," at e rm w h ich i nt h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s w ou ld h ave b o rde r ed o n t h e o xymo ron ic . T he t e rm w a s f o rmed b y t h e u nho ly a l l iance o f a l o ng e s tab l i shed e conom ic c a tego ry , " hun te r -ga the re r ," w i th a n e x is t ing s o c ia l c on s t ruc t , " comp lex i ty ," w h ich w a s d eve loped m a in ly w i th r e f e rence t o l a rge r -sca le s oc ie t ie s

2 . 3 .1 T ra i tl i s td e f in i t ion s o fc omp lex i ty T ra i t l i s t s a r e ap opu la r w ay o f d ef in ing c omp lex i ty a mong s th un te r -ga the r e r s . T he se l i s t s c an b e b o th l o ng a nd r edundan t . F o r e xamp le , K ee ley ( 1988 :373 -74 ) l i s t s t e n t r a i t s , P r ice a nd B rown ( 1985 :5 ) l i s t e l even ,4 w h i le C ohen ( 1985 :105 ) c omp i le s t we lve . T he i t em i sed t r a i t s o f a c omp lex h un t e r -ga the r e r w ay o f l i f e a r e s a id t o i n c lude , r e la t ive t o s imp le /gene ra l i sed h un te r g a the r e r s , t h e f o l low ing ( c omp i led f r om t h e a bove s ou r ces a nd H ayden 1 992 ) : 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 .

amo re c omp lex t e chno logy a ni n ten s if ied s ub s i s tence e conomy g r ea te rs eden t i sm l a rge r , mo re i n te rna l ly d i f f e ren t ia ted s e t t lemen t s s ome o ccupa t iona l s pec ia l isa t ion a ti nd iv idua l , f am i l ia l o rs e t t lemen tl e ve l 6 . g r ea te rt e r r i to r ia l i ty 7 . as ub s tan t ia l d ependence o n s t o r ed f ood s 8 . l a rge ra nd w ide ra moun t so ft r ade 9 . t h eu se o fs ome s o r t so fs t anda rd m ed ium so fe xchange 1 0 .n on -ega l i ta r ian a loca t ion o f w ea l th , a nd h ence t h e e x i s tence o fr ank s ,c l a s se so ri n c ip ien ts t ra t if ica t ion s 1 . d if e rence si n mo r tua ry p r ac t ice b eyond a ge sex g rade s . A t t h e o ppo s i te e x t r eme , E a r le ( 1987a :64 ) l im i t s h im se lf t o as i ng le , q u i te n a r row , t r a i t : " [ c raf t ] s pec ia l iza t ion i st h e e conom ic e s sence o fc omp lex s oc ie ty ." T he b enef i t o f s u ch l i s t s i st h e i r s u i tab i l i ty f o r c o r re la t ion w i th t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a s mo s t o ft h e t r a i t s ( bu tn o t

I .Y of f ee ( 1 993 )r a the rs a rdon ica l ly s ugge s t st h i si sb ecau se a r cha eo log i s t s w an ted t ou n i t ew i th e t hno log is t si n" one b i gh appy f am i ly o f a n th ropo log i s t s ." I tw ou ld b ei r on ic i ft h ep r omo t ion o fu n i l inea l e vo lu t iona ry t h ough tw e re a ni n s t i tu t iona l b y -p roduc to ft h ea n t i e vo lu t ion i s tB oa s ' f ou rs ub -d isc ip l ina ry c oncep t ion o fh o l i s t ic a n th ropo logy . 2. S e eM i r ac le e ta l( 199 1) a nd H ead land ( 1 997 )f o rg ene ra ld i scu s s ion so f r e v is ion i s th un te r -ga the re rs t ud ie s ; f o rt h eS an c a se s e eK upe r( 1993 ) , L ee a nd G ue n the r( 1 993 )W i lm sen ( 1989 ) ,a mong m any o t he rp ub l i shed d i scu s s ion s .

F o re xamp le ,G i lman ( 1 99 1 :146 )c an w r i te " ch ief dom sa r es o c ie t ie sa t t h et h r e sho ld o fs o c ia lc omp lex i ty ," i mp l ic i t ly r e se rv ing " comp lex i ty" f o r s t a te sa nd s t a te sa l on e . T h i si lu s t r a t e s ag ene r a lp r ob lem w i th c omp lex i ty : d ef in ing w he r ea nd w hen i ts t a r t s . A s ac oun te r -examp le , Sm i th ( 1993 :17 ) e xp l ic i t ly a c cep t st h e" evo lu t iona ry s c a le" a nd d ep lo r e sr e f e rence t o c omp lex i ty b e low c h ief dom l e ve l" even t oi n c lud eh un te r sa nd g a the re r s ," t h u sc on f la t ing c omp lex i ty ,p o l i t ica lo r gan isa t ion a nd s ub s i s tence ,d e sp i te h i sc a l l f o rg r ea te rr i gou ra nd b e t t e rp r ob lem o r ien ta t ion . 4.W r i t ing a l one ,B rown ( 1 985 :20 1-202 )o n ly l i s t ss even s u ch t r a i t s . 3.

5

a l l , e spec ia l ly b u r ia l s , s t o rage , a nd s ub s i s tence i n ten s i ty ) h ave r e la t ive ly d i r ec t a nd u np rob lema t ic ma te r ia l e xp r e s s ion . I ndeed , i ti sa r chaeo log is t s who s e em mo s t i n te re s ted i nt h i ss o r to fd ef in i t ion . F o rt h e mo s tp a r t , s oc ia l a n th ropo log i s t s a r e mo re a wa r e o f c r o s s -cu l tu ra l i d io sync ra s ie s a nd l e s s i n te re s t ed i n g ene ra l p roce s se s o f c u l tu ra l e vo lu t ion . D iff icu l t ie s i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l u se o f t h et r a i tl i s ta pp roach a r en ume rou s .

o n h i e ra rchy a nd t h e d om ina t ion o f e l i te s . N eve r the le s s , w hen u sed i n h e r c a se s t udy ( A rno ld 1 992 ; A rno ld 1 993 :102 107 ) , c omp lex i ty i st r acked b y s uch f e a tu r e s a s c r af t s pec ia l i sa t ion , mor tua ry p rac t ice , a nd t h e p r e sence o f e xo t ic d u rab le s . I t wou ld s eem t o b e a m a t t e r o f i nve s t iga to r p r ef e rence w he the r t h e se t r a i t s a r e c on s ide red d i rec t ly i nd ica t ive o f c omp lex i ty , o r w he the r t h ey a r e s ubsumed i n to h ighe r -o rde r s oc ia l -ana ly t ic c a tego r ie s , a s A rno ld d oe s . I n e i the r c a se , b o th t h e l e ng th a nd c ompo s i t ion o ft h e t r a i t l i s t i t se lf w i l l b e i n f luenced b y t h e p r econcep t ion s a bou t s oc ia l s t ruc tu re w h ich g over n i t s c r ea t ion . T h i si st h ev e ry r e a son g i ven b yA rno ld ( 1 993 :77 ) f o r a bandon ing mo s t d i rec t m a te r ia l c o r r e la te s o f c omp lex i ty , a sd i scu ssed a bove . A nd , i n d eed , n o t a l t r a i t l i s t d ef in i t ion s a r e s o s e em ing ly p r ec ise , a s R enouf i lu s t ra te s :

F i r s t , t h e r e i st h e a bove -no ted d i sag reemen t a bou t h ow many t r a i t s a r e n eeded t o d ef ine c omp lex i ty a s a n a n th ropo log ica l c on s t ruc t . P a r t ly , t h i s i s ap rob lem o ft h e s p l i t t ing a nd l ump ing o f mo r e g ene ra l i sed s oc ia l f e a tu re s . F o r e xamp le , i nt h e l i s t g i ven a bove , T ra i t 4( s i te s i ze a nd d i f f e r en t ia t ion ) a nd T ra i t 1 ( mo r tua ry d i f f e r en t ia t ion ) c ou ld b e s ub sumed a sn a tu ra l c o r r e la te s o fT ra i t 1 0 ( s oc ia l i n equa l i ty ) . H ence , a t r a i t l i s t w i th many o f t h e se r edundanc ie s m igh t a c tua l ly m ea su re a n u nknown o r u nacknow ledged n umbe ro fd imen s ion s o fs oc ia l s t ruc tu r e . T h i si sw e l li lu s t ra ted i nW i l l iam s ' t r a i tl i s t :5

T he t e rm c omp lex i ty i s i n exac t b ecau se t h e re i s at e ndency t ou se i ti n d i f f e ren tw ay s . Iu se t h et e rm t o mean s oc ia l h e te rogene i ty , f o r e xamp le t a sk s pec ia l i sa t ion , a nd w ea l th o r p owe r d i f f e r ence s , o r b o th . Ia l so u se t h e t e rm t or e f e r t oe conom ic e l abo ra t ion , s uch a s o rgan i sed c ommuna l h un t s , h i gh i n pu t o f l a bou r f o r d e layed r e tu rn s ( wh ich u sua l ly i n vo lve s s t o rage ) , a nd i n c rea sed p roduc t ion ( s ome t ime s c a l led i n ten s if i ca t ion ) . ( R enouf 1 991 :10 1)

C omp lex h un te r g a the re r s c an b e d e scr ibed a s t h o se g roup s w ho : a r e s eden ta ry o r s em i seden ta ry ; l i ve i n s i zeab le s e t t lemen t s w h ich a r e o f t en t e rmed ' v i l lage s ' ; c on s t ruc t l a rge , d u rab le s t ru c tu r e s a nd m an ipu la te t h e e nv i ronmen t i n w ay s t h a t a l te r t h e a va i lab i l i ty o ra bundance o fr e sou r ce s . S ome g roup s a l so s t o r e f ood o n a l a rge s ca le . (W i l l iam s 1 987 :310 -11)

B inf o rd ( 1990 ) c r i t ic i se s t r a i t l i s t d ef in i t ion s , a rgu ing t h a t c omp lex i ty i sn o t i n a ny s c ien t if i c w ay a v a r iab le , a nd h ence i tc anno th ave as i ng le i n s t rumen t( i . e . , at r a i tl i s t ) f o r i t s mea su rem en t . I n s tead , i ti s amu l t id imen s iona l v a r iab le ( cf . S cha lk 1 98 1) , t h e p e rcep t ion o f w h ich w i l l v a ry a cco rd ing t o t h e r e sea r che r 's q ue s t ion s . H oweve r , t h e re may w e l l b e , a cco rd ing t o B inf o rd ( 1990 ) , r e l iab le w ay s , ma in ly t h rough m idd le r ange t h eo ry , t o s e t u p s i tua t iona l m ea su remen t s o ft h e c omponen t s o f" comp lex i ty ." I ns uch ap rocedu re , R enouf w ou ld p re sumab ly h ave t o o u t l ine p r ec i se ly t h e c i r cum s tance s u nde r w h ich s he w ou ld c hoose b e tween t h ev a r iou so p t ion s s he l i s t s( c f . Z e id le r 1 987 :235 ) . O n t h e o t he r h and , a tl e a s t R enours s cheme ( i n ten t iona l ly o r o therw i se ) a cknow ledge s t h e o pe ra t iona l i mp r ec i s ion o f t h ec on s t ruc t" comp lex i ty ."

Apar t f r om t h e i nhe r en t a mb igu i ty i ns uch t e rm s a s" s em i s eden ta ry "a nd " l a rge s c a le ," t h ef i r s tt h ree i t em so nt h i sl i s t r edundan t ly f o cu s o n mu l t ip le c o r re la te s o f a s i ng le u nde r ly ing v a r iab le : s eden t i sm . I ne f f ec t , W i l l iam s i su s ing " seden ta ry" a s a n ea r synonym f o r " comp lex ," w h ich d e te rm ine sh e re mpha s i so n mound f e a tu re sa si n d ica to r so f " a mo re s eden ta ry o ccupa t ion o f s i te s (W i l l iam s 1 987 :317 ) ," a nd h ence ,g r ea te rc omp lex i ty . F u r the r ,t h e re i sa l so t h er e la ted p rob lem o fh ow m any , a nd t o wha te x ten t ,t r a i t sf r om ag i ven l i s t mu s tb ep re sen ti nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd b ef o re a v a l id i n f e r ence o f c omp lex i ty c an b e made . R ef e r r ing b ack t ot h e c ompo s i te l i s tc i ted a bove ,t h ev a r iou st r a i t si n c lude b o th i n t ra -s i te a nd i n te r -s i te d a ta , a nd o the r d a ta o n ly a va i lab le f r om s pec ia l c on tex t s s uch a s b u r ia l s . A rno ld ( 1993 :77 ) , f o r e xamp le , e xp l ic i t ly a vo id s r e f e r r ing t o " spec if ic s oc io -econom ic c ond i t ion s o r f e a tu r e s s u ch a s s t o rage , s l ave ry , c r af t s pec ia l i sa t ion , s eden t i sm , n umbe r o f l e ve l s o f a u tho r i ty , c ommun i ty s i ze , r eg iona l p opu la t ion s i ze , d ome s t ica t ion , a nd t h e l i ke" w hen c omp i l ing h e r t r a i t l i s t , wh ich f o cu se s

5.

T he s e cond m a jo r p rob lem w i th t r a i t l i s t d ef in i t ion s o f c omp lex i ty i st h a t t h ey may i n co rpo r a te c i rcu la rr e a son ing . I ft h e m ea su r e f o r c omp lex i ty i n c lude s av a r iab le s u ch a s p opu la t ion s i z e , i tw ou ld b e c i rcu la r t ou se t ha t m ea su r e t o t e s t f o r t h e c o r r e la t ion o f p opu la t ion s i ze a nd c omp lex i ty ( McGu i re 1 983 :96 ) . Y e t , i ft h e m ea su re i sd ropped t h en a p o ten t ia l ly v a luab le a na ly t ic t oo l i sl o s t( Upham 1 990b :90 ) . I n e s sence , t h e t r a i t s d e te rm ine t h e p re sence o r a b sence o f c omp lex i ty , w h ich i s a s oc ia l p henomenon t h ey

T h i st r a i tl i s ti sr e f e renced t oR ow ley -Conwy ( 1983 :1112 )b u tt h e r ei s

l i t t le c o r r e spondence t ot h a tw o rk . R ow ley -Conwy i n c lude sc omp lex t e chno logy ,i n c r ea sed t e r r i to r ia l i ty a nd r e sou r ce o wne r sh ip ,w h i le a s s ign ing s eden t i sm ac au sa t ive r o le .

6

I ns umma ry ,t r a i tl i s ta nd a b s t r ac td ef in i t ion so fc omp lex i ty e x i s tt o g e th e ri na nu n ea sy s t a t eo fm u tua li n t e rd epend ence . W i thou t s uppo r t f r om s o c ia l t h eo ry , t r a i t l i s t s c an b e n o mo r e t h an e mp i r ica l g ene ra l i sa t ion s f r om c r o s s -cu l tu r a l o r a r chaeo log ica l e v idence . S oc ia lt h eo r ie sw h ich d on o ts p in of a r cha eo log ica l ly i d en t if iab le c o r r e la t e s c an n eve r b e p rope r ly e va lua t ed . I nb o th c a se s , b r idg ing a rgum en t s a r e o f t en l i t t le m o re t h an e mp i r ica lg ene r a l i sa t ion s .

c umu la t ive ly h ope t od efme .6 T h i si l u s t ra t e st h en eed f o ra t i gh tc onnec t ion b e tw een t h e s o c ia l t h eo ry a nd i t sp ra c t ica l a pp l ica t ion t h rough t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f k nowab le c o r r e la t e s , a nd i n t roduce s t h e s e cond w ay o f d e f in ing c omp lex i ty : a b s t ra c td ef in i t ion sr oo t ed i ns o c ia lt h eo ry . 2 . 3 .2 A b s trac td ef in i t ion so fc omp l ex i ty Mo s t a b s t ra c t d ef in i t ion s o f c omp lex i ty f o cu s o n t h e a moun t o fi n t e rna l d i f f e r en t ia t ion w i th in as o c ie ty w i thou t a c tua l ly s p ec if y ing w h ich s o c ia l s t ru c tu r e s a r e a l ike o r d i f f e r en t , o r i n w ha t w ay . F o r e xamp le , B rumf i e l ( 1 989 :127 ) w r i t e s " s oc ia l c omp lex i ty i s c onven t iona l ly d ef in ed i n t e rm s o f t h e n umbe r o f u n l ik e p a r t s i n a n i n t eg ra t ed w ho le ." S im i la r ly , P ayn t e r s ugge s t s ( 1 989 :369 ) " t he c on cep to fc omp lex i ty c once rn s t h e d eg r ee o fi n t er n a l d if e r en t ia t ion a nd t h e i n t r ica cy o f r e la t ion s w i th in a s y s t em ," w h i le Ma rqua rd tc on t end st h a t :

2 . 4 C r i t iqu ing c omp lex i ty R ega rd le s s o f t h e m ann e r i n w h ich s o c ia l -cu l tu ra l c omp lex i ty i sd ef in ed , i tr ema in s ap r ob lema t ic c on s t ru c tt o a c tua l ly a pp ly . T h i s s e c t ion e xam ine s s ome s p ec if ic c r i t ic i sm st h a th av eb een m ade . P e rhap s t h e mo s t s p ec if i c c r i t ic i sm i st h a t c omp lex i ty i s g ene ra l ly u s ed a s am u l t id im en s iona l v a r iab le , wh ich m ay l ump t o g e the r a s pec t s o f s o c ia l o r gan i sa t ion o r s o c ia l s t ruc tu r e b e s t a na ly sed s e pa r a t e ly . T he i mpor tan tp ape rb y R anda l l McGu i r e B r eak ing D own C u l tura l C omp l ex i ty : I nequa l i ty a nd H e t e rog ene i ty ( 1 983 ) e xemp l if i e s t h i s c r i t ica l v i ewpo in t . A s t h e t i le s ugg e s t s , McGu i r e b e l ieve s t h a tt h e" b la ck b ox" o fc omp lex i ty n eed st ob ed ecompo sed i n to t wo c on s t i tu en t p a r t s s o t h a t i t s w o rk ing s m igh t b e i d en t if i ed ( 1 983 :92 ) . T he p rob lem w i th c omp lex i ty , McGu i r e n o t e s , i st h a t i ti n c lud e s t o o m uch , s u ch t h a t i t s u sage a s a u n i ta ry v a r iab le m ea su r ing e vo lu t iona ry c hange —wh i le s imu l taneou s ly p rov id ing a d i r ec t ion f o r t h a tc hang e —ob scu r e s an umbe ro fp o t en t ia l ly i n dependen t v a r iab le s ,m o s tn o tab ly h e te rogene i ty a nd i n equa l i ty .

C omp l ex i ty u sua l ly r e f e r s t o a c ond i t ion o r q ua l i ty o f b e ing c ompo sed o f m any e l abo ra t e ly i n t e r r e la t ed o ri n te r conn ec t ed p a r t s. . •T hu s c omp lex i ty i n c lud e sa s pec t s o f m u l t ip l i c i ty a nd i n teg ra t ion . An umbe r o f a n th ropo log i s t s a l so a dd d i f f e r en t ia t ion t o t h e c oncep t . ( Ma rqua rd t 1 985 :7 1) [ empha s i s i n o r ig ina l ] T h em a in p rob lem w i th a b s t ra c td ef in i t ion so fc omp lex i ty i s t h a t i no r de r f o r t h em t ob e a rchaeo log ica l l y i n ve s t iga ted , m a t e r ia l c o r r e la te s w i l l h ave t ob e r e cogn i sed a nd d ef in ed , b r ing ing t h ep roce s sb ack t o at r a i tl i s ta pp roa ch . I d ea l ly , a t i gh t c onn ec t ion b e tween t h e s o c ia l t h eo ry a nd t h e d e r ived c o r r e la t e sw ou ld p roduce amo r eu n if i ed a nd c ohe r en ts e to f t r a i t s . Y e t , w h i le t h e t r a i t l i s t s m ay b e s omewha t a r b i t r a ry b u t c omp r ehen s iv e , t h e c o rr e la t e s o f t h e a b s t rac t m od e l m ay b eh i gh ly s e lec t ive a nd b i a sed t owa rd s an a r row r a nge o f t h e s o c ia l t h eo ry f r om w h ich t h ey a r e d e r ived . Ma rqua rd t ( 1 985 ) , f o re xamp le , a f t e rp ropo s ing a n a b s t r a c t d ef in i t ion , a nd a f t e r ag en e ra l d i scu s s ion o f" comp lex i ty ," s e le c t s j u s t t h r ee m a t e r ia l c o r r e la te s w h ich h e c l a im s a r e r e levan t t o h i s w e s t e rn K en tucky c a se s t udy . A s im i la r p o in ti sd i scu s sed b yZ e id le r ( 1 987 :326 -27 )w ho n o t e s t h a t e mp i r ica l s t ud ie s n ece s sa r i ly d ecompo se s o c ie ty i n to v i s ib le , f u n c t ion ing t r a i t s . I d ea lt y pe sa r et h en r e con s t i tu t ed f r om t h e se a b s t ra c t c on cep t s , t h em s e lve s m e r e d e sc r ip t ive r e sume s o ft r a i t s a b s t rac ted f r om t h e w ho le t ow h ich t h ey b e long . T he i s su e t h u s b ecome s t h e r e la t iona l s p ec if i c i ty b e tw een t h e c o r r e la t e s a nd t h e d ynam ic s o f t h e s o c ia l s y s t em t h a t t h ey a dd re s s : n ame ly , i s t h e r e a d i r ec t r e la t ion sh ip? I ti st h i s g ap w h ich m idd le range t h eo ry i s s uppo sed t ob r idg e .

McGu i r e d ef ine s h e t e rog ene i ty a nd i n equ a l i ty w i th r e f e rence t ot h e mu l t ip le s o c ia l p e r sona e w h ich i n d iv idua l s h o ld , a nd w h ich c umu la t iv e ly d ef in e t h e s o c ia l s t ru c tu r e . O ve r lapp ing s o c ia lp a r ame t e r s , s u ch a sg ende r , a ge , w ea l th a nd r e l ig ion , d ef ine t h e s o c ia l p e r sona e , a nd a s o c ie ty i s " mo r e c omp lex" i fi tc on ta in s al a rge r n umbe r o fd i s t in c t s o c ia l p e r sonae ( McGu i r e 1 983 :10 1) . S oc ia l s t ru c tu r e i s t h u s d efmed b y t h e r e la t ive d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e p opu la t ion a c ro s s s o c ia l r o le s . C u l tu ra l e vo lu t ion , a c co rd ing t o McGu i r e ( 1 983 :110 ) , i sn o t as imp le p r oce s s o fl o ck s tep i n c r ea se si nh e te rogene i ty a nd i n equa l i ty . I n as im i la rv e in , P ayn te r ( 1 989 ) a r gue s t h a t t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween c omp lex i ty a nd i n equa l i ty h a sb een b ad ly m i s r ep r e sen t ed i n t h a t as t rong p o s i t ive c o r r e la t ion i so f t en a s sum ed , r a the r t h an d emon s t ra ted . A ccep t ing t h i s , i tf o l low s t h a t s t ud ie s t h a t h ave a s sumed t h a t s o c ia l h i e r a r ch ie s o rr a nk ing a r e a n i n teg r a l p a r t o f s o c ia l c omp lex i ty m ay b e m i s tak en . F o r e xamp le , N a sh ( 1 983 :v i i ) i n t rodu ce s t h e c oncep t w i th t h e w o rd s , " s oc ia l c omp lex i ty , i . e . , t h e s p ec ia l i sed o r h i e ra r ch ica l a r rangemen t s o f s t r a t if i ca t ion a nd r a nk ing ." B ende r( 1 989 :83 )w r i t e st h a t" comp lex i ty i n vo lve s ad eg r ee o f i n s t i tu t iona l i sed s o c ia l i n equa l i ty ," w h i le K e l ly ( 1 99 1) u se s s o c io -po l i t ica l i n equa l i ty a s av i r tua l s ynonym f o r c omp lex i ty .

T he r e cen tr e v iew a r t ic le b y Sm i th ( 1 993 )e xemp l if i e st h ed if i cu l ty o r u nw i l l ingn e s st om ake t h i st i gh tc onne c t ion . D e sp i t ee xp l ic i t ly b a s ing h i s a pp roach o n McGu i re ( 1 983 ) , Sm i th 's m a t e r ia lc o r r e la t e so fc omp lex i ty ( wh ich s t ruc tu r eh i sr e v iew )a r en owhe r es uppo r t ed e xcep tb ye mp i r ica l g ene ra l i sa t ion ,v ague a s se r t ion ,o ra ppea lt op e e rc on sen su s . 6.

7

c on t ra ry t o t h e n eo -evo lu t iona ry v i ew , a s soc ia ted w i th s t ab i l i ty . T ha t i s , c omp lex s y s tem s , w he the r s oc ia l o r e co log ica l , a r e n o t i n he ren t ly mo r e s t ab le t h an " s imp le" o ne s . P ayn t e rt h e r eby d ep r ive st h e e vo lu t iona ry f r amewo rk o f b o th i t s s t a r t ing p o in t a nd i t s t e leo log ica l t a rge t , a nd e ncou rage s m o r e i d io the t ic e xp lana t ion s f o r t h e h i s to r ica l d eve lopmen to fa ny g iven a r chaeo log ica lc a se s t udy .

Two i mpo r tan t p o in t s a r i se f r om McGu i r e 's a nd P ayn te r 's p ape r s . F i r s t , " comp lex i ty" i s h ope le s s ly l i nked t o a u n i l inea l ,t y po log ica l a pp roa ch t oc u l tu ra le vo lu t ion , a sw i l l b e d i scu s sed i n af u r the rs e c t ion o ft h i sc hap te r . S econd , b y u npack ing " comp lex i ty" i n to i t s c on s t i tuen t p a r t s , n o t o n ly a r e i n he ren t c on t rad ic t ion s w i th in t h e c oncep t e xposed , b u t a l so a r chaeo log ica l c o r r e la te s o f t h e d i sa s semb led c omponen t sa r e mo r ee a s i ly i d en t if ied a nd i nve s t iga ted .

T he mo s t s weep ing c r i t ic i sm o f c omp lex i ty i s g i ven b y R ow land s w ho s e e s t h e p r e sumed p rog re s s ion f r om s imp le t o c omp lex a s a n i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry " me ta -na r ra t ive o f w e s te rn t h ough t ," a m a s te r d i scou r se o f t h e e t ho s o f We s t er n mode rn i sa t ion w h ich c an b e t r a ced b ack t o t h e B ook o fG ene s i s ( Row land s 1 989 :31 ,36 ) . Mo r e c onc r e te ly , F lanagan ( 1989 :260 -6 1) s ugge s t s t h a t t h e p redom inan t ly p rog r e s s iv is t mode o f a n th ropo log ica l t h eor i s ing s i nce t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry h a sh ad t wo u n in tended c on sequence s : ( a ) E ga l i ta r ian f o rm s o f o rgan isa t ion a r e f i r s t i d ea l i sed , t h en n a tu ra l i sed , a nd c on sequen t ly i g no red . I ti s p o s s ib le t h is p roce s s c an b e i d en t if ied i nt h e r e cen t h i s to ry o f h un te r -ga the r e r s t ud ie s o u t l ined a bove : t h e o r ig ina l a ff luen t s oc ie ty i s a n i d ea l i sed c on s t ru c t t h a t q u ick ly b ecame e mb lema t ic o f a n a tu ra l ( i . e . , e co log ica l ly h a rmon iou s ) e x i s tence . H owev e r , f o l low ing t h e r ev i s ion i s t c r i t ique , t h e se g roup s h ave l o s t t h e i r s t a tu s a sl i v ing f o s s i l s a nd t h u s b ecome i n c rea s ing ly i re levan t t o a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s . Meanwh i le , a n th ropo log i s t s h av e s w i tched t h e i r f o cu s t ot h e h i s to r ica l p roce s se s i nt h e s u r round ing c u l tu ra l e nv i ronmen ta nd w o r ld s y s tem . ( b ) T he n a tu ra l isa t ion o fe qua l i ty w a s a n e qua l i ty o f m en , m a sk ing i n he ren t i n te rna l c on f l ic t s w i th in e ga l i tar ian s oc ie t ie s , a nd a l low ing t h e e qua t ion o f b io log ica l s ex w i th s oc ia lg ende r( F lanagan 1 989 ) .

A mo r e p o l i t ica l c r i t ic i sm o f c omp lex i ty i sg iven b y L ee ( 1990 :226 ) w ho s ugge s t s t h a t t h e v e ry i n d ice s u sed b y a r chaeo log i s t s t o d e te rm ine s oc ia l c omp lex i ty a r e i n f a c t i nd ice s o f s o c ia l i n equa l i ty . T he i n va r ian t l i nk ing o f i n equa l i ty t o c omp lex i ty h a s t h e e f f ec t o f n a tu ra l i s ing e qua l i ty w i th in " s imp le" s o c ie t ie s , ac a tego ry c r ea ted b yt h e u n rea sonab le d i cho tom iza t ion o fh un te r s a nd g a the re r s i n to t wo g roup s : s imp le a nd c omp lex . C a tegor ica l o r d ef in i t iona l t h ink ing i si mpo sed b y t h is d i v is ion ( Gamb le 1 993 ) . I tt h en b ecome s a l l t o o e a sy t or e la te t h i s a r t if ic ia l d i cho tomy t o o t he r v a r iab le s , e spec ia l ly e co log ica l o ne s s uch a s c l ima te o r c on t inen ta l i ty ( e .g . , K ee ley 1 988 ) . F u r the rmo r e , F lanagan ( 1989 ) a rgue s t h a t " s imp le" s oc ie t ie s a c t a s a " p r e -po l i t ica l" s t a r t ing p o in t f o r e vo lu t iona ry s t ud ie s , a nd h ence b ecome n a tu ra l ised b y b e ing p l aced i n o ppo s i t ion t o " comp lex" s oc ie t ie s . T h i s d i s t inc t ion i s m i s lead ing a nd i s " t ied t o a n o u tmoded p rog r e s s iv i sm w h ich p rom i se s much mo r e t h an i td e l ive r s ( F lanagan 1 989 :248 ) ." K e l ly e l abo ra te s t h i s p o in t w hen s umma r i s ing h i sp rob lem si nu s ing c omp lex i ty : U se o f t h e t e rm c omp lex h un ter g a therer s i mp l ie s t h a t t h e re i s mo re g o ing o n —a g r ea te r n umbe r o f i n t e r re la t ion sh ip s b e tween v a r iab le s— i n s ome s oc ie t ie s t h an i n o t he r s a nd t h a t mob i le h un te r g a the r e r s c an b e u nde r s tood i n s imp le t e rm s , d i f f e ren t f r om t h o se o f " comp lex" o ne s . I d i sag ree w i th s u ch a ni mp l ica t ion f o ra v ar ie ty o f r e a son s , i n c lud ing , a s I p o in t o u t i n t h e t e x t , t h e f a c t t h a t " comp lex" h un te r g a the re r s p robab ly h ave f ewe r i n t e rg roup r e la t ion s t h an " s imp le" h un te r -ga the re r s . ( Ke l ly 1 99 1 :153 )

T h i s c on t ra s t b e tween t h e i d eo logy a nd s o c ia l r e a l i ty o f e qua l i ty h a s l o ng b een n o ted . F o r e xamp le , t h e B o l shev ik L en in i mp l ied t h a t s t r ic t e qua l i ty c ou ld n o t e x i s t w hen h e d e sc r ibed i t a s t h e " unwo rkab le c ond i t ion i n w h ich e ve ryone d oe s e ve ry th ing , a nd n o th ing g e t s d one ( Len in i n R ayne r 1 988 :20 ) ." 2 . 5 V ar ious t r a jec tor ie st oward s s oc ia l" comp lex i ty" G iven t h a t t h e r e i sd i sag reemen t e ven i nt h e d ef in i t ion o f s oc ia l c omp lex i ty , i ti sn o t s u rpr i s ing t h a t t h e r e s hou ld b e d i sag reemen t o ve r h ow i t a r i se s a nd i s ma in ta ined . A rgumen t s c oncer n ing t h e g ene s i s o fs oc ia l c omp lex i ty f a l l i n to t wo m a in c a tego r ie s : t h o se w h ich i n voke e x t e rna l f a c to r s i n to ab a s ica l ly s y s tem ic mode l o fs oc ie ty , a nd t h o se w h ich f o cu sm a in ly o nt h e i n ter na l d ynam ics , c on f l ic t s , a nd c on t rad ic t ion s w i th in s oc ie t ie s . B rown a nd P r ice ( 1985 :439 -40 ) n o te o the r o ppo s i t iona l l a be l s , s uch a s : s oc iet a l :i nd iv idua l , e xogenou s :e ndogenou s ( c f . A rno ld 1 993 ) , l ong te rm :sho r t te rm , a nd e co log ica l :s t ru c tu ra l ,

H oweve r , a s n o ted a bove , K e l ly h im se lf e mp loy s c omp lex i ty a s ad e scr ip t ive t e rm r ough ly s ynonymou s w i th s oc io -po l i t ica l i n equa l i ty . I n a ny c a se , t h e p o in t i st h a t ma in ta in ing a nd r ep roduc ing s o -ca l led s imp le o re ga l i ta r ian s oc ie t ie s r e qu i r e s a s much ( o r mo re ) e f f o r t a nd r egu la t ion a s ma in ta in ing c omp lex o r h i e ra rch ica l s oc ie t ie s ( Rayne r 1 988 ; F lanagan 1 989 ) . C omp lex i ty i st y p ica l ly s e en a s a p rob lem s o lve r , n o t ap rob lem c r ea to r , w i th t h e i mp l ica t ion t h a t " s imp le" s oc ie t ie s a r e " p rob lem f r ee" ( Payn te r 1 989 :374 ) . P ayn te rc ha l lenge s t h i sv i ew b y c i t ing av a r ie ty o f e xamp le s w h ich s how t h a t ( a ) " comp lex i ty" c r ea te s a s many p rob lem s a t i ts o lve s , a nd ( b ) c omp lex i ty i sn o t ,

8

n eve r the le s s t h e i n ter n a l :ex te rna l d if e rence s e em s mo s t c en t r a l a nd w i l lb ef o l lowed h e re . '

A s u sed h e r e , t h e t e rm " comp lex" r e f e r s t o c h iefdom l ike i n o rgan iza t ion , w i th a n e mpha s i s o n f e a tu re s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s imp le c h ief dom . ( A rno ld 1 993 :77 )

2 . 5 .1 E xp lana t ion si nvok ing e x terna l c au sa t ion T he e x t e rna l a pp roach i s c l o se ly a l l ied w i th t h e n eo e vo lu t iona ry s choo l o f t hough t , a nd i st r aceab le b ack t o L e s l ie Wh i te ( 1949 ) , i fn o t f u r the r .8 T he e vo lu t ion o f l i v ing t h ing s c an b e b road ly s e en a s a s equen ce o f i n c rea s ing c omp lex i ty : f r om s i ng le -ce l led t o mu l t i -ce l led t o mu l t i -o rganed i nvo lve s i n c r ea s ing t h e n umbe r , t h e h e te rog ene i ty , a nd t h e c on t ro l h i e ra r chy o f as y s tem . I ti s b u t as ma l ls t ep t oi mpo se t h i so n to c u l tu re sa sw e l l :

I n o the r w o rd s , A rno ld u se s t h e t e rm " ch ief dom" ( a n i n terva l o n as c a le o fr e la t ive s oc ia l c omp lex i ty ) t od ef ine t h a tw h ich i tm ea su r e s . As im i la rp rob lem w i th t h i sk ind o f t y po log ica l t h ink ing i s wha t S hennan ( 1993 :54 ) c a l l s t h e " f a l lacy o f af i rm ing t h e c on sequen t :" t y pe s ( t r ibe s a nd c h ief dom s i n h i s e xamp le ) a r e p r econce ived a nd h ave a r chaeo log ica l d a ta f unne l led i n to t h em w i thou t a u tonomou s l i ne s o fr e a son ing . F o r e xamp le , i n ar e cen t c anon ica l w o rk o n No r thwe s t C oa s t a r chaeo logy , c omp lex i ty i s" ach ieved" w hen t h e " deve loped" N or thwe s t C oa s t e t hnog raph ic p a t te rn b ecome s a r chaeo log ica l ly v i s ib le c a . 2 , 500 y ea r s a go ( Ma t son a nd C oup land 1 995 :199 )

T he s e cond l aw o f t h e rmodynam ic s t e l l s u s t h a t t h e c o smo s a s awho le i s b r eak ing d own s t ruc tu ra l ly a nd r unn ing d own d ynam ica l ly ...B u t i n at i ny c o rne ro ft h e c o smo s , n ame ly i n l i v ing m a ter ia l s y s tem s t h e d i rec t ion o f t h e c o sm ic p roce s s i s r eve r sed : ma t te r b ecome s mo r e h igh ly o rgan ized a nd e ne rgy mo r e c oncen t ra ted . (Wh i te 1 949 :367 )

F u r the rmo re , t ypo log ica l t h ink ing m ay d i s to r t t h e v e ry e vo lu t iona ry r e a son ing f r om w h ich i t a r i se s . P ayn te r ( 1989 :376 -80 ) d i spu te s whe the r b ounded s oc ia l e n t i t ie s — t h e s i tua t iona l m an if e s ta t ion s o f t h e i d ea l e vo lu t iona ry t y pe s —a r e f e a s ib le u n i t s o f i n te rp re ta t ion f o r a r chaeo log ica l s t udy . T he i r u se a r o se p r ima r i ly a s a r e ac t ion t ot h e e xce s se s o fd i f f u s ion i sm , y e tb ounded s o c ia l e n t i t ie s a r e t h e u n i t sw h ich , i ns ome s en se , c ompe te a ga in s t e ach o t he r i n a n e vo lu t iona ry mode l ( Payn te r 1 989 ) . A p rob lem i st h a t u se o fb ounded , i n teg ra ted s oc ia l u n i t s o f a na ly s i s d i scou rage s c on s ide ra t ion s o f r eg iona l s oc ia l s y s tem s , m a t ing , a l l iance a nd i n f o rma t ion n e two rk s , a na ly s i s o f c o r e :pe r iphe ry r e la t ion s , n o t t o m en t ion t h e a gency o r f i tne s s o f i n d iv idua l s . A l l o f t h e se a r e o f p o ten t ia l i mpo r tance i n e vo lu t iona ry e xp lana t ion s a nd , i n deed , i n o the r e xp lana to ry f r amewo rk s . Mo re c on s ide ra t ion o fd ef in ing b ounded u n i t s o fa na ly s i s w i l l b e g i ven i n C hap te r s 4a nd 5 , wh i le p rob lem s i n a na ly t ica l s c a le a r e d i scu s sed i n C hap te r 5a nd 6 . T he b enef i t s o f a bandon ing b ounded s oc ia l u n i t s c an b e f ound i n t h e d i scu s s ion o ft h ec a se s t udy : C hap t e r7 .

Wh i t e 's w o rk p aved t h ew ay f o rn eo -evo lu t ion i s ts t ud ie s o f c omp lex i ty , p a r t icu la r ly t h e t y po log ie s o f b and t r ibe c h ief dom s ta te p ropo sed o r e l abo ra ted b y h i s s t uden t s , n o tab ly E lman S erv ice ( 1962 ) .9 T h i s s oc ia l t y po logy h ad s eve ra l d i sadvan tage s f o r t h e s t udy o f c u l tu ra l e vo lu t ion . F i r s t , b y e ncou r ag ing t y po log ica l t h ink ing i tm ay h ave c au sed r e sea rche r s t o l o ok f o r s udden j ump s o r t r an sf o rma t ion s r a the r t h an s moo th p rog re s s ion s ( P r ice 1 98 1) .1 ° S econd , t h e r e a r e m any c l ea r e xamp le s , b o th b i o log ica l a nd c u l tu ra l , w he r e s t ru c tu re s b ecome s imp le r o ve r t ime , o r move t h rough c yc l ica l c hange s . A s P ayn te r ( 1989 :386 ) n o te s " t he m e tapho r o fs imp le t o c omp lex i s n ow d i sc r ed i t ed b ecau se i tc an b e e mp i r ica l ly d i sp roved i n m any c a se s ." N eve r the le s s , i n ar e la t ive ly r e cen t w o rk G regg ( 1 991 :xv i i ) w r i te s t h a t h e r e d i ted v o lume e x i s t s w i th in a " con s t ruc t o f s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion i n w h ich t h e t r a je c to ry o f d eve lopmen t i n ev i tab ly p rog re s se s f r om s imp le t oc omp lex ." S ome t ime s , t h e c i rcu la r a rgumen t i s j o ined c omp le te ly ,a si na no the rr e cen ts t udy :

2 . 5 .2 E xp lana t ions i nvok ing i n terna lc au sa t ion T he se s o r t s o f e xp lana t ion f a l l i n to t wo g ene r a l t y pe s : c l a s s ic Ma rx i s t e xp lana t ion s a r e b a sed s o le ly o n t h e r e la t ion s o f p roduc t ion a nd o the r Ma rx is t o r m a ter ia l is t c on s t ruc t s ; w h i le h yb r id e xp lana t ion s a l low f o r s ome d eg ree o fe x ter na l i nf luence .

G ou ld ( 1 985 )h a sl a be l led t h e se mode so fe xp lana t ion a s" adap ta t ion i s t " a nd " t ran sf o rma t iona l i s t" . B rown a nd P r ice ( 1985 :439 -40 )c r i t ic i se G ou ld 's u sage ,a rgu ing t h a tt h ef o rme ri sm a c ro -evo lu t ion ,w h i l s tt h el a t te r e mpha s i s e sm ic ro -evo lu t iona ry p roce s s . I nt h i sw ay ,t h ey r e ca s tB ende r ( 1985 )a s as ma l l -g roup e co log i s t . Ir e ta in t h eu se o f" ex te rna l" a nd " i n ter na l" b ecau se i te ncap su la te st h ef undamen ta l d if e r en ce ,b u tI a cknow l edge t ha t mo s te xp lana t ion sc on ta in e l emen t so fb o th w hen a c tua l ly a pp l ied . 8. D i scu s s ion o fe vo lu t iona ry t r ad i t ion si na n th ropo logy w i th r e levan ce f o r t h es imp le :comp lex d eba te c an b ef ound i nF l anagan a nd R ayne r( 1 988 ) , C la e s san ( 1 981) ,N e t t ing ( 1990 ) ,a nd U pham ( 1990 ) . 9. U pham ( 1 990b :89 )t r a ce st h ep rob lem so ft y po log ica lt h ink ing i na n e vo lu t iona ry c on t ex te ven f u r the r ,t oL ew i sH en ry Mo rgan . I ° .A rno ld ( 1993 )s ugge s t st h ep unc tua t ed -equ i l ibr ium mode lo fe vo lu t ion m ay h e lp e xp la in c e r ta in i n s tance so fr a p id c hange i ns ome a r cha eo log ica l s equence s . I nf a c t , t h i si so n ly ad i f f e rence i nt h e s hape o ft h ep rog r e s s ive s l ope ,a si ts t i l l d oe sn o ta l low f o ra ny " back s l id ing ." 7.

Ma rx is t o rh i s tor ica l -ma te r ia l i s t e xp lana t ion s a r e d ef ined a s t h o se i n w h ich t h e c on t rad ic t ion s a nd c onf l ic t s b e tween p eop le b ea r ing d i f f e ren t r e la t ion s t o t h e m ean s o f p roduc t ion a r e g ran ted p r ecedence ( Pe ru sek 1 994 ) . C la s s b a sed e xp lana t ion s m ay s e em t o h ave l i t t le r e levance t o h un t ing a nd g a the r ing s oc ie t ie s i n w h ich p roduc t ion o r e x t rac t ion m ay b e b a sed o n h ou seho ld o r k insh ip l i ne s . A t temp t s t od i scu s s c l a s s ica l Ma rx i s t c oncep t s u sua l ly a r e

9

I n c on t ra s t t o o t he r s , t h e r ef o r e , w ho t e nd t o s e e s oc ie t ie s b u i l t u p i n t h e k i n -o rde red mode a s e ga l i ta r ian , I a rgue i n s tead t h a tt h ey a r er ep le t e w i th r e a l i n equa l i t ie s a nd p l agued b y r e su l t ing t e n s ion s . T hey a t temp t t o c ope w i th c on f l ic t sb ya t om i s ing t h em , b y g ene ra l is ing a nd d i sp lac ing t h em o n to t h e s uper na tu ra l , o r b y b r eak -up a nd f i s s ion . U n l ike s oc ie t ie s b u i l t u p o n t h e t r ibu ta ry o r c ap i ta l i s t mode , t h ey l a ck t h e a b i l i ty t oa gg r ega te a nd m a r sha l s oc ia l l a bou r a pa r t f r om p a r t icu la ra te r e la t ion sh ip s , a nd t h e ref o re t h ey a l so l a ck t h e m ean s o f h o ld ing s oc ie ty t o ge the r , i n te rna l ly o r e x t er na l ly , b y i n ter na l a nd e x ter na l v i o lence t h a t e n su re s t h e c on t inu i ty o f c l a s s d om ina t ion a nd c on t rad ic t ion . (Wo lf 1 981 :55 )

f o r ced o n to as ma l l e nough s ca le t h a t mo r e v i ta l i s t ic f o r ce s t a ke o ve r . A rno ld ( 1993 , c f . H ayden 1 994 ) , f o r e xamp le , h a s a t temp ted t o s yn the s i se v a r iou s e xp lana t ion s f o r " comp lex i ty" i n to a d i scu s s ion o f e me rg ing e l i te c on t ro l o ve r l a bou r u nde r c e r ta in d emog raph ic a nd e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s . T h i s i n te r e s ti nt h e e merg ence o fc omp lex i ty i s c l ea r ly t i ed t ot h e n o t ion o f mo s t h un te r s a nd g a the re r s a s t h e z e ro p o in t o n t h e c omp lex i ty s c a le , a sd i scu s sed a bove , a nd r e su l t s i n A rno ld r e ly ing o n r e la t ive ly v i ta l i s t ic a s se r t ion sa bou th uman n a tu re . T h i s i sp robab ly ac ommon p rob lem t o mo s t c l a s s ic Ma rx is t a pp roache s t os ma l l sca le s oc ie t ie s , a pp roache s t h a t w e re , a f t e r a l l , p ropo sed i n t h e c on tex t o fs t a te c ap i ta l i sm . T hu s , t h e se e xp lana t ions r e f e r t o n on c l a s s -ba sed c onf l ic t b e tween i n te r e s t g roup s o r a scr ibed c a tego r ie s . I n t h e se e xp lana t ion s i t i s u sua l ly a s se r ted t h a t s upe r s t ruc tu ra l c hange i s o pe ra t ing i n dependen t ly o f , o r p recede s , t h e h i s tor ica l d eve lopmen t o f t h e f o rce s o f p roduc t ion . Ar no ld ( 1992 , 1 993 ) , a s n o ted , move s f r om a s yn the t ic a na ly s is o ft h e r e la t ion s o fp roduc t ion t oo ne t h a t i n co rpo ra te sh uman i n ten t iona l i ty . Ma schne r( 199 1 :931) i s mo r e d i r ec t , i n vok ing t h e " h ie r a rch ic s t r iv ing s" o f t h e " h ighe rp r ima te s" t oe xp la in e me rgen t c omp lex i ty a mong s t t h e T l ing i t . S im i la r ly , C oup land ( 1988 ) a s cr ibe s e me rgen t c omp lex i ty a mong s tt h e T s im sh ian t oi n d iv idua l s ' a t temp t s t oc on so l ida te t h e i rc h ief ly l e ade r sh ip .

Wo lf s e e s i n equa l i ty a s ab y -p roduc t o f t h e mode o f p roduc t ion . I nt h ek in -o rde red mode , i n equa l i ty s t em s f r om f a c t iona l i sa t ion ( i nc lud ing g ende r a nd a ge i n te re s t ) a nd i nd iv idua l i n ten t iona l i ty . T he m echan i sm s f o r t h i s c an b e s ub t le , a nd r e qu i re s ub t le u nde r s tand ing o f( of ten t oo r i g id ) a n th ropo log ica l c on s t ruc t s s uch a s e t hn ic i ty a nd k in sh ip . F o r e xamp le , F ox ( 1994 :200 -0 1) d i scu s se s t h e d e l ibe ra te f a c t iona l m an ipu la t ion o f m a l leab le e t hn ic i t ie s a nd my tho log ica l i d en t i t ie s i n t h e c on tex t o f t h e p o s t -C la s s ic Maya . I ts e em s c l ea r t h a t a ny a t temp t t o d eve lop t h e se l i ne s o f a rgumen t a bou t i n te re s t -g roup c on f l ic t a nd s t ruc tu r ed i n equa l i t ie s i n to u sef u l a r chaeo log ica l a pp l ica t ion s w i l l h ave t o a bandon o ve r re l iance o n b o r rowed e t hno log ica l t y po log ie s o r c on s t ruc t s , a nd t h a t t h i s a bandonmen t l e ad s d i r ec t ly t o am or e h i s tor ic i s ing mode o fe xp lana t ion .

A f o cu s o n i n d iv idua l a c t ion i s b o th t h e s t reng th a nd w eakne s s o ft h e se a rgumen t s . T he p roce s se s , wh ich c an l o ose ly b e l a be l led u nde r h ead ing s s uch a sd om ina t ion a nd r e s i s tance , o r f a c t iona l i sa t ion , a nd wh ich c an a l so i n c lude t hose wh ich e mpha s i se g ende ra nd a ge r e la t ion s , l i e o u t s ide s anc t ioned s oc io -po l i t ica l s t ruc tu re s . T hey c an b e , a nd a r e , f ound a ts oc ie t ie s o fa l l s c a le s ," a nd s o a r e n o t f a ta l ly t i ed t o n o t ion s o f p rog re s s ive u n i l inea l c omp lex i ty . F o r e xamp le , f a c t iona l a c t iv i ty i nc h ief dom s c an s ow t h e s e ed s o f r e pea ted o rgan i sa t iona l c o l lap se ( Yof f ee 1 993 :63 ) , wh ich i s n o t c ompa t ib le w i th u n i l inea l p rog re s s ive e vo lu t ion . A s ser t ion s a bou tt h e r o le o ff a c t iona l i sa t ion c an b eq u i te a mb i t iou s :

2 . 6 C onc lus ion s : s a lvag ing c omp lex i ty? C omp lex i ty i s ap rob lema t ic c on s truc tn o to n ly b ecau se i ti s p oo r ly a nd v a r iou s ly d ef ined , b u t b ecau se o f i t s c l o se a s soc ia t ion w i th u n i l inea l e vo lu t ion i s t t y po log ie s . When u sed i n c on junc t ion w i th t h e e conom ic c a tego ry " hun te r g a the re r ," a t wo -s ta te o rd ina l t ypo logy o f s imp le a nd c omp lex h un t e r -ga the r e r s h a s r e su l ted . T h is i s as pu r iou s c a tego r i sa t ion t h a t h a s b een i n voked t oe xp la in p reh i s to r ic s oc ia l c hange , a nd , wo r se , h a s o cca s iona l ly b ecome a n o b jec t o f i n ve s t iga t ion i n i t s o wn r i gh t . A v a r ie ty o f s o lu t ion s t o t h e w ide ly r e cogn i sed p rob lem s w i th u s ing c omp lex i ty a s a s oc ia l v a r iab le h ave b een s ugge s ted , r ang ing f r om a b s t rac t r e def in i t ion s o f i t s c on s t i tuen t d imen s ion s ,t os ugge s t ion st h a ti tb ea bandoned a l toge the r .

T he o f t en -c i ted f a c to r s o f p opu la t ion g row th /u rban i sm , h e red i ta ry l e ade r s h ip / s t ra t if i ca t ion a nd e co log ica l s ymb io s i s / t rade e me rge a s c onse q uence s o f f a c t iona l i sa t ion ( Fox 1 994 :205 ) . O n t h e o t he r h and , s uch s t a temen t s m ay f a l l i n to e a sy a s ser t ion s o f v i ta l i sm o r n a ive v o lun ta r ism ( Bende r 1 990 :257 ) . I n a n e a r ly e xp lo ra t ion o f t h i s t h eme o f d ynam ic e ga l i ta r ian s oc ie t ie s , Wo lf s umma r i se s :

C omp lex i ty m ay b e m ean ing le s s , o r a t l e a s t u ndef inab le , w hen u sed a s au n i ta ry m ea su r emen tf o r ag ene r a l ised p rog r e s s ion o r s oc ia l e vo lu t ion . H oweve r , i ti sa rguab ly w or thwh i le t o " unpack" c omp lex i ty i n to i t s c on s t i tuen t

I .A c ogen te xamp le i sR ayne r 's ( 1988 )d i scu s s ion o ft h ei r on ie so f f a c t iona l i sa t ion i nt h eT ro t sky is tI n te rna t iona l Ma rx i s tG roup .

1 0

c omponen t s , wh ich m igh t s i ng ly o r i n c omb ina t ion b e w or thy o f f u r the r s t udy . F o r e xamp le , t h r ee s ub c omponen t s o f s ome i mpo r tance a r e mob i l i ty / seden t i sm , t h ep roduc t ion o fs u rp lu s , a nd t h ep roce s s ing / s to rage o ft h e s u rp lu s . H oweve r , when a rgumen t s a r e made u s ing t h e se t r a i t s , d if e r en t c au sa l s equence s h ave b een i n voked . F o r e xamp le , B ende r ( 1990 :253 ) s t a te s t h a t " s eden t i sm p e rm i t s s t o rage a nd f a c i l i ta te s t h e i r on ing o u t o f s e a sona l a nd a nnua l f l uc tua t ion s i n s upp l ie s" w h i le c onve r se ly , T e s ta r t ( 1982 :524 ) c l a im s t h a t " t he a ccumu la t ion o f s t ock s u rge s p eop le t o a dop t as e t t led w ay o f l i f e ." C roe s a nd H ackenbe rge r ( 1988 :27 ) s ugge s t " i n ten s if ied r e sou rce u se a nd i n c r ea sed s t o rage p e rm i t ted h i ghe r h uman c a r ry ing c apac i t ie sa nd i n c rea sed t h e s eden t ism o fs oc ia l g roup ing s ," c on t rad ic t ing K ee ley ( 1988 :404 ) w ho c l a im s t h a t s t o rage d ependence i s a c on sequence r a the r t h an a c au se o f p opu la t ion p r e ssu re . Whe the r i n a c a se s t udy o r ag ene ra l i s ing mode o f e xp lana t ion , t h e re w i l l e v iden t ly b e an eed t o c hoo se b e tween t h e se c on t rad ic to ry , a nd c umu la t ive ly c i r cu la r , a rgumen t s . T he c omponen t s o f " comp lex i ty ," s uch a s s t o rage , s e den t ism , s t ra t if ica t ion , a nd s o f o r th , a r e s u r e ly r e a l e nough a nd w ide sp r ead . F o r f u r the r a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion t ob e p roduc t ive t h ey mu s t b e r emoved f r om t h e l im i t s o fc a tegor ica l t h ink ing i mpo sed b y c on s t ra in ing t h em a s s ub -componen t s o f" comp lex i ty ." T he f o l low ing c hap te rc ommence s t h e c r ea t ion o f am e thod t ou npack t h e " por tman teau c omp lex i ty" ( Upham 1 990a ) a nd h ence r e hab i l i ta te d i scu s s ion o f t h e v a r ied s oc ia l p roce s se s c on ta ined t h e re in .

1

l a rge ly d evo t ed t ot h e t h eme o fh uman i s t ic e nv i ronm en t s , p a th s , a nd p l ace s , a c co rd ing t o t h e t h eo r ie s o f t h e e co log ica l p sy cho log i s t J ame s G ib son . H ow eve r , c onven t iona l n o t ion s o f" t ime" a nd " s pa ce" a r e u s ed i nt h e f o l low ing s e c t ion s , w h ich d i scu s s a c e r ta in k i nd o f e nv i ronmen t , t h e f j o rd land a r ch ipe lago , a nd a spec t s o ft h e s ub s i s tence o ft wo g r oup s o fp eop le w ho i n hab i t t h em : t h e T l ing i to fS ou th E a s t A la ska a nd t h eY amana o fT i e r r a d e l F uego .

CHAPTER 3—SPAT IAL AND TE MPORAL A SPECTS OF L IV ING I NF JORDLAND ARCH IPELAGOS 3 . 1 I n troduc t ion T he p r ev iou sc hap t e rc onc luded t h a tt h ec a t ego ry " comp lex h un te r -ga the r e r " w ou ld r ema in a tb e s t m ean ing le s s a nd a t w o r s tm i s lead ing u n le s s t h e r e w a s g r ea t e ru nde r s tand ing o f h ow i t s d i ve r se " con ten t s" r e la t e t o o ne a no th e r . T h i s c hap te r s t a r t s t h a t p r oce s s o f " unpa ck ing c omp lex i ty" b y e xam in ing t h e s p a t ia l a nd t empo r a l d imen s ion s o fs ome o f i t s c o r e c on s t i tu en t s . I n p a r t icu la r , i tw a s p r ev iou s ly s ugge s ted t h a t t h e t r i ad o f s u rp lu s , s t o rage a nd s e d en t i sm w a s c en t r a l t o m any d i scu s s ion s o f c omp lex i ty a mong s t h un t e r -ga the r e r s a nd m igh tb e a n e n t ry p o in tt ot h e d eba te . G ene ra l i s ing s t a temen t s a bou t t h e i n t e r r e la t ion sh ip s o f t h e se m ay d epend o n t h e r e sea r che r s t h eo r e t ica l s t ance ( e .g . , B ende r 1 990 ; K ee ley 1 988 ; T e s ta r t 1 982 ) , i nw h ich t h e r e la t ion s b e tween s u rp lu s r e la t ed o r r e la t ive m ob i l i ty f a c to r s a r e f i t t ed i n to p r econce ived i d eo log ie s o r e x i s t ing m ode l s , w i th o n e o ra no the rb l e s sed a st h e " p r im e m ove r ." T h i s m ean s t h a t o ne c ou ld a dop t an ew a p r ior i p r ime m ove r , m ak e ac on t r ibu t ion t ot h e d eba t e , a nd h ope t h a t a t s ome p o in t ac on sen su sw i l l e me rge . B u t s u ch a na pp roa ch m ay e a s i ly r e su l t i nc i r cu la r a r gumen t s , i fn o t w i th in a ny g i ven c on t r ibu t ion , c e r ta in ly w h en d i f f e r en t r e sea r che r s ' l i ne s o f r e a son ing a r e o v e r lapped . A t i s sue i sn o t t h a t d i f f e r en t i n ve s t iga to r s r e a ch d i f f e r en t c onc lu s ion s , w h ich i s t ob ee xpec ted ,b u tt h a tt h e i rc on c lu s ion sa r eo f t en mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive , c on t r ad ic to ry , o r c umu la t ive ly c i r cu la r . T he l i nkage s o ft h e se c i r cu la ra r gumen t s mu s tb ei d en t if i ed a nd , i fp o s s ib le , c u t . A t t h e l e a s t , s ome c ommona l t ie s a r e n eeded w h ich c an b e u sed t o c r ea t e a" l anguage" t o f a c i l i ta te d i scu s s ion o ft h e p rob lem . Wh i le t h i s a pp roa ch i mp l ie s al owe s t c ommon d enom ina to r a nd h ence m ay n o t b e t e r r ib ly p r of ound , i td oe s d epa r t f r om t h e i ra t iona l f r a c t iona t ion o fp r ev iou ss t ud ie s .

3 . 2 " T ime s t re s s" a nd t h ee nv ironmen t R ob in T o r r en ce ( 1 983 ) i n t rodu ce s t h e c on cep t o f " t ime s t r e s s" a s ak ey f a c to r i nd e sc r ib ing a n e nv i ronm en t a nd a na ly s ing t h e b ehav iou r o f t h e p eop le w ho l i v ed i n i t . Y e sne r ( 1 994 :153 ) n o t e s t h a t s t re s s r e su l t s w hen t h e r e i sa " t ime l a gb e tween t h e o n se to ft h e [ e nv i ronmen ta l ] s t r e s so r a nd t h e a me l io ra t ive [ c u l tu ra l ] r e spon se ." I tm igh t b e p r ef e rab le t o d i scu s s t h e t empo r a l u n evenne s s o f t h e e nv i ronmen t a s c on s is t ing o f c on s t ra in t s1 2 a nd o ppo r tun i t ie s , s ome o fw h ich m ay h ave a n e f ec t o n s o c ia l o r gan i sa t ion o rs ub s is t ence t h rough t h e p r ox ima t e c au se o f " t ime s t r e s s ." T hu s , Iw i l l s p eak o f e nv i ronm en ta l c on s t ra in t a nd s o c ia l s t r e s s , i ne f f ec t s e pa r a t ing " a e t io logy" f r om " symp tom ." T he k i nd a nd q uan t i ty o f b eh av iou r i n f luenced b y e nv i ronmen ta l c on s t r a in t i ss a id b yT o r r ence ( 1 983 :1114 ) t o h ave d i r ec t c o r r e la te s i n t h e m a t e r ia l c u l tu r e a nd h ence i sr ef l ec t ed i nt h e a r ch a eo log ica l r e co rd . T o r r ence 's a na ly s i so ft i me b udge t ing h a st h ec ha r a c t e ro fa " gene ra lt h eo ry" w h ich c an b e d emon s t r a t ed w i th r e f e r en ce t o e t hnog raph ica l ly -de sc r ibed m a t e r ia l c u l tu r e , b u t s h e s ugge s t s ( 1 983 :2 1) t h a t t o b e a pp l icab le t o t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd t h e r e i s a n e ed f o r b r idg ing a r gumen t s . O f p a r t icu la r i n te r e s t t o a r chaeo log i s t s a r e s p a t ia l a nd t empo r a l c on s t r a in t s , d i scu s sed b e low . F u r the r b e low , t h e m o r e p ro sa ic c on s t r a in t s o ft h e h uman b ody i n t h e m a t e r ia l w o r ld a r e d i scu s sed i nr e la t ion t ot h e f i e ld o f T ime G eog raphy .

O ne a pp rop r ia t e c ommon d enom ina to r i st h e t empo ra l a nd s p a t ia l s t ru c tu r e o ft h e p hy s ica l a nd c u l tu ra l e nv i ronmen t . T h i s a pp roach i su sef u l b ecau se t h e " s oc ia l c omp lex i ty b und le" c on ta in s m any f e a tu r e s t h a t c an b e e xp r e s sed o r a na ly sed w i th t h e c ommon l a nguage o f t ime a nd s p a ce . S t o r age , f o r e xamp le c an p a r s imon iou s ly b e d ef ined a s " behav iou r o r t e chno logy w h ich a c t s t o i n t rodu ce a n a r t if i c ia l t ime d e lay b e tw een p rodu c t ion a nd c on sump t ion ." T r an spo r ta t ion t e chno logy c an b e d ef ined a s " t echno logy w h ich a i d s o r i n c r ea se s i n te ra c t ion b e tween t wo p o in t s i n s p a ce ." U n t ended m a s s -cap tu r e f a c i l i t ie s c an b e d ef ined a s " t echno logy w h ich s t o r e s l a bou r t ime a nd r e lea se s i ta s n eed ed ." A l l t h e se t e chno log ie s a r e t h u s s o lu t ion st ot ime b udge t ing p r ob lem s s e tb yt h e n a tu ra l o rc u l tu ra l w o r ld . I t i sh oped t h a t t h i s a pp roa ch w i l l a t l e a s t b r ing a s ub t le r u nd e r s tand ing o ft h e se c on s t ra in t s a nd p r ov ide ac ohe r en t w ay t od i scu s s a ny c l o se ly r e la ted t e chno log ica l a nd s o c ia l c ond i t ion s . L a te r s e c t ion s d i scu s s m o r e p h i lo soph ica l a s pec t s o ft ime a nd s pace , w h i le t h e f o l low ing c hap t e r i s

3 . 2 . 1 S pa t ia lc on s tra in t S pa t ia lc on s t r a in t si n c lude b o th t h ep hy s i ca ln a tu r e / shape o f t h e l a ndf o rm a nd t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fr e sou rce s a c ro s s t h a t l a ndf o rm ,a sd i scu s sed b e low . T he L andf orm a s a" Pu sh F ac tor ." T he k ey c omponen t o f t h e l a ndf o rm i sw ha t Iw i l l t e rm " d i r ec t iona l i ty ." S ome l a ndf o rm s , s u ch a sp l a in s ,m ay h ave v e ry l ow i n he r en t d i r ec t iona l i ty s i nce , a l e l se b e ing e qua l , a c ce s s t oa ny s e to fp o in t s o fe qua l d i s tan ce f r om as t a r t ing p o in t i ss im i la r . O n t h e o t he r h and , am oun ta inou s r e g ion m ay f a vou r m ovemen t a l ong v a l ley f l oo r s , r e su l t ing i na n i n -bu i l t d i r ec t iona l i ty w i th u navo idab le r e pe rcu s s ion s f o r m ob i l i ty . Iu s e t h e t e rm " i nhe r en t" d i r ec t iona l i ty b e cau se t r an spo r ta t ion t e chno logy c an a l te r t h i s a s pec t o f t h e

2. C on s t ra in t sc an a l so b eo ppo r tun i t ie s ,o fc ou r se . F o re xamp le , t empo ra l o rs pa t ia lc i rcum scr ip t ion m ay , d epend ing o no ne 's p e r spe c t ive , e i the rr e qu i re o ra low m a s sh a rve s t ing o fc e r ta in r e sou rce s .

1 2

e nv i ronmen t . F o r e xamp le , c oa s ta l T ie r ra d e l F uego , B r i t i sh C o lumb ia a nd N orway a r ef l ooded moun ta in r ange s . I n t h e p r e sence o f w a te rc r af t , t h i s h e igh ten s t h e d i rec t iona l i ty b ecau se t h e c on t ra s t b e tween t h e ma r ine a nd t e r re s t r ia l a spec t s mean s t h a t s ome mob i l i ty v ec to r s a r e h igh ly f a vou red . I n t h e a b sence o fw a te r c raf t , t h e f o rme r v a l ley f l oo r s ( t he f j o rd s ) b ecome t h e b a r r ie r s , a nd t h e f o rme r t e r re s t r ia l b a r r ie r s ( t he s l ope s ) b ecome t h e o n ly p os s ib le r ou te s f o r m ob i l i ty . H ence , t h e i n he ren t d i rec t iona l r e la t ion b e tween a n u nf looded moun ta in r ange a nd af l ooded o ne i sr ough ly i nve r se ( p rov ided t h e l a nd a nd w a te ra r er ough ly m i r ro ri mage s ) . T he a c tua ld i rec t iona l i ty i s af un c t ion o ft h e t r an spor tt e chno logy . A no the re xamp le i st r an spor ta t ion c o r r ido r s a c ro s s d e se r t s , i nw h ich ap l ana r e nv i ronmen t , p unc tua ted b y w a te r h o le s , i sg i ven d i rec t ion b y t h e d r ink ing n eed s o f c ame l s , o r f o r t h a t ma t te r , t h e r e fue l l ing n eed so fa u tomob i le s . H oweve r ,t h i sd i f f e r sf r om t h e m a r ine c a se i nt h a t t h e d i rec t iona l i ty i sn o t n ece s sa r i ly i n ve r ted : t h e c ame l a nd r oad r ou te s m ay a l so b e t h e a pp rop r ia te f oo t r ou te s . T he d if e r ence p robab ly l i e s i n w he the rt h e t e chno logy c an a f f o rd s uppor t i nn ew p a r t s o f t h e m ed ia l 3 ( G ib son 1 979 , a nd s e e C hap te r 4 ) : w a te rc raf t a nd a i r c raf t g i ve o the rw i se u nava i lab le a cce s s t h rough a i r a nd w a t e r ,w h ich p rev iou s ly d id n o ts uppo r t mob i l i ty .

A no the r s uch e xamp le i s t h e A egean type a r ch ipe lago , w he r e , g i ven b oa t s , a ny d e s t ina t ion s o f s im i la r d i s tance s c an b e r e ached w i th s im i la r c o s t s ( i . e . , l a rge d i s tance s b e tween s ma l l i s land s m ean s i ti sl a rge ly i re levan t wh ich s i de o ft h e i s land y ou t r ave l t o ) , b u t s ome d e s t ina t ion s a r e c oa s t l ine s a nd o t he r s a r e o pen w a te r . A n e xamp le o f a l i nea r , p unc tua ted e nv i ronmen t i st h e A leu t ian a r ch ipe lago , i n w h ich a 1 , 600 k i lome t re l i nea r i ty i sb roken i n to s hor t ( a bou t 1 5 k i lome t r e ) s egmen t s . I no t he rw o rd s , t od e scr ibe t h e p hy s ica l e nv i ronmen t i s t o p a r t ia l ly d e sc r ibe t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft e r re s t r ia lr e sou r ce s .

I tm ay b eu sef u l t oc once ive o fl ow d i r ec t ion e nv i ronmen t s a s a pp roach ing a n e ven p l ane , w h i le h igh ly d i rec t iona l e nv i ronmen t s ( e .g . , m a jo r r i ve r c o r r ido r s ) a pp roach c omp le t e l i nea r i ty . I nt h i s s en se , i n c rea s ing l i nea r i ty i sa r edu c t ion i nt h e n umbe ro fp o ss ib le o ra t t rac t ive movemen t v ec to r s ,r a the rt h an a" s t ra igh ten ing" o fe x i s t ing v ec to r s .

3 . 2 .2 T empora l c on s tra in t O ve r lay ing t h e p a tch ine s s o f t h e e nv ironmen t o n t h e d i r ec t iona l i ty o f t h e l a ndf o rm i s ag ood s t a r t t owa rd s d eve lop ing ar e a l i s t ic p i c tu re o ft h e p u sh a nd p u l l f a c to r s w h ich m ay i n f luence f o rag ing b ehav iou r . B u t as e cond o ve r lay 1 5 i sn eeded . T he c hange o ve rt ime ( whe the rc yc l ica l o rn o t )i nt h er e sou r ce s , a nd t o al e s se re x ten t ,t h ec hange i n t h ep hy s ica l e nv i ronmen t mu s ta l so b e c on s ide red . I no the r w o rd s , t h e t empo ra l p a tch ine s s o ft h e e nv i ronmen t mean s p eop le n o t o n ly w an t t o b e i n ac e r ta in p l ace t o g e t r e sou r ce s , t h ey w an t t ob e t h e re a t ac er ta in t ime . G ood t im ing d epend s o n k now ledge o ft empo ra l v a r ia t ion i nb o th t h e p hy s ica l a nd b i o log ica l w o r ld s , wh ich t oge the r t r an scend s imp le s e a sona l i ty . B o th k ind s o fv a r ia t ion c an b e s tb e s e en a tf ou r s c a le s , w h ich w o rk t oge the rt oc r ea te a c omp lex ,b u tn o tw ho l ly u np red ic tab le ,p a t te rn o fv a r ia t ion .

B u t u nequa l s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o fr e sou rce s r e f lec t s many o t he r e nv i ronmen ta l f e a tu r e s a nd i ss omewha t i n dependen t o f t h e g ro s s l a ndf o rm . A s ab a s ic c oncep t i n c u l tu ra l e co logy i t i s n o t n ece s sa ry t o d i scu s s b io log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion s a nd t h e i r u nde r ly ing c au se s i n d e ta i l ; i ti s e nough t o n o te t h a t f o r wha teve r r e a son , t h e l i v ing i n hab i tan t s o ft h e e a r th a r e n o t e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted o ve r i t s s u rf ace . O f i n te r e s t i n t h e s t udy o f c oa s t l ine s i s t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fm a r ine r e sou rce s , f r equen t ly h idden , wh ich mu s tp o se s pec ia l p rob lem s i nb o th p e rcep t ion ( s ee C hap te r 4 ,S ec t ion 4 . 3 ) a nd i nc r ea t ing a" men ta l m ap" ( e .g . , G e l l 1 985 ) .

R esour ce sa s " Pu l lF ac tor s ." T he s e cond ma in c omponen t o fe nv i ronmen ta l c on s t ra in t i s t h e i n h e ren t s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f r e sou r ce s a c ro s s t h e l a ndf o rm , e xp re s sed a s r e la t ive h omogene i ty a nd h e te rog ene i ty . R e sou r ce s a r eh e re d ef ined s imp ly a st h ing s p eop le b o th k now a bou t a nd w an t . " Pa tche s" o fr e sou r ce s c an b e s e pa ra ted b y " emp ty s pace" 1 4 o r b y o t he r s o r t s o f p a tche s , a nd t h ey c an b e o fa ny s i ze a nd s hape . I ti st h e se r e sou r ce n ode s wh ich a t t rac tp eop le t oc e r ta in p l ace s . I ft h e d i rec t iona l i ty o f t h e e nv i ronmen t i s i n cong ruen t w i th r e spec t t ot h e se n ode s , t h en at r an spor ta t ion o r s chedu l ing s o lu t ion i sr equ i red .

• H ou r ly v a r ia t ion i n l i gh t , t empe ra tu re , a nd t i de s i s f undamen ta l t ot h e s t ruc tu r e o ft h e d ay , a nd t o h uman a c t iv i ty . I ti ss o f undamen ta l t h a t i tc anno t b e i g no red , e ven a tt h er i sk o fa ppea r ing b ana l .

T he i n he ren t n a tu re o ft h e l a ndf o rm c an d i r ec t ly i nf luence t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fr e sou r ce s . Ag ood e xamp le o f ap l ana r b u t p unc tua ted l a ndf o rm i sc e r ta in a r ea s o f t h e C anad ian S h ie ld , w he re a b a s ica l ly p l ana r e nv i ronmen t i s r i dd led w i th s ma l l l a ke s . A s sum ing t r ave l i sb y f oo t o n ly , a ny p o in t c an b e r e ached w i th a pp rox ima te ly e qua l c os t , b u t t h e r e a r e " ho le s" ( l ak e s ) i n t h e p hy s ica l f a br ic t h a t c ou ld o n ly b e f i l led i n w i th t e chno logy s u ch a s w a te rc raf t .

• D a i ly v a r ia t ion s i n c lude t h e p ha se s o f t h e moon ( and t h e i r i n f luence o n t i de s a nd n oc tu rna l a c t iv i t ie s ) , d ay t o d ay w ea the r , t h e i n te r sec t ion o fd ay l igh t a nd t i de s , a nd t h er e la ted b ehav iou ro fp l an t sa nd a n ima ls . • A nnua l v a r ia t ion s i n c lude t h e s e a sona l i ty o f w ea the r a nd s o la r c y c le s , a nd o bv iou s r e la ted c hange s i np l an t s

1 3 . G ibson ( 1979 :16 -19 )d ef ine sm ed ia a ss ub s tance st h rough w h ich d e ta ched o b jec t sc an move w i th r e la t ive ly l i t t le r e s is tance , s uch a sa i ro r w a te r . " . D i scu s s ion o ft h e f a l la cy o fe mp ty s pa ce sw i th in a ne nv i ronmen ti s f ound i nC hap te r4 .

1 5 . U se o ft h et e rm " ove r lay" h a sb een c r i t ic i sed b yI ngo ld ( 1993 :171-72 ) , s i nce i ti mp l ie s an eu t ra l e nv i ronmen to rn a tu r et h a ti so ve r la in w i th h uman m ean ing ,i n su la t ing h uman e co logy f r om t h ee x is tence o ft h e p eop le w ho a c tua l ly d we l li nt h o se e nv i ronmen t s . I t su se i nt h i s C hap te r e choe si t st e chn ica l u se i nG IS ( Chap te r6 ) .

1 3

a nd a n ima l s , s uch a sr e p roduc t ion , mo r ta l i ty , m ig ra t ion , h i be rna t ion ,a nd s of o r th . • I n te r -annua l v a r ia t ion i n c lude s c hange s i n t h e d eg ree a nd p ropor t ion o fa l l t h e a bove p hy s ica l a nd b io log ica l c omponen t s , w h ich a r r ive i n ad if e ren t m ix tu r e e ach y ea r . S ome t ime s t h is c hange i sp r ed ic tab le , a si ns ome g ame o r f i sh c y c le s , b u t o f t en i ti sn o t . T h i s c a tego ry a l so i n c lude s s i ngu la r e ven t s s u ch a s t s unam i s a nd l a nd s l ide s . T he se v a r ia t ion s p a r t ia l ly s e t c on s t ra in t p rob lem s r e su l t ing i ns uch t ime s t r e s se s a st h e d e s i r e t od o t wo t h ing s a to nce , a nd t h e d e s i re t ob e i nt wo p l ace s a to nce . I ti sa ppa ren t t h a t " t ime b udge t ing" i n c lude s a s pa t ia l c omponen t . I ndeed , a sG e l l ( 1992 :198 )n o te s , a ny d iv i s ion o fl a bou r— w he the r o ne 's p e r sona l l a bou r b udge t ing o r mo r e c o o pe ra t ive e f f or t s — a r e i nt h e mo s t b a s ic s en se g eome t r ic p rob lem s r equ i r ing p rox ima te g eome t r ic ( no t t o m en t ion u l t ima te s oc ia l ) s o lu t ion s( c f .G o sden 1 994 :184 ) .

I nt h e f i r s tc a se , t h e s hor te rt ime a va i lab le t op e r f o rm at a sk w i l l f a vou r m o re e f f ic ien t t e chno logy t oi n c r ea se t h e s peed a t wh ich t h e t a sk i sd one . I nt h e s e cond c a se , t h e r e m igh t b e p l en ty o f t ime o ve ra l l , b u t d if e ren t a c t iv i t ie s w i l l b e c ompe t ing f o r t h i s t ime a nd s o t a sk s w i l l b ej ugg led . O ne m e thod o f j ugg l ing t ime i s s chedu l ing , a no the r i s e mbedd ing . Embedd ing h a s b ecome a c ommonp lace c oncep t i n a r chaeo logy s i nce B inf o rd ( 1978 ) s ugge s ted " embedded p rocu r emen t" w a s u sed a s a m ean s o f a l lev ia t ing s ub s i s tence a nd p rocu remen t s chedu l ing d if i cu l t ie s a mong s t t h e Nunam iu t . H oweve r , a s am o r e g ene ra l t ime b udge t ing s o lu t ion i th a s n o t b een w id e ly o r e xp l ic i t ly a na ly sed . F o re xamp le , s uch a c t iv i t ie sa sc h i ldca re a nd t o o l manuf ac tu re a r e f r equen t ly e mbedded i n o the r t a sk s . Embedd ing c an b e s e en a s a n i nd ica to r o ft ime -budge t ing " oppo r tun i ty c o s t s ," i . e . , t h e r e c ip roca l o ft ime -budge t ing : h ow t ob udge t w ha t c anno tb e d one , d e lay ed o re mbedded . T he f o l low ing d i scu s s ion , h oweve r , c en t re s o n m a ter ia l c u l tu r e r a the r t h an t h e b ehav iou ra l o rgan i sa t ion o f t ime managemen t .

3 . 2 .3 Add i t iona le nv ironmen ta l c on s tra in t s T h is f r amewo rk f o r a na ly s ing t h e s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l n a tu r e o ft h e p hy s ica l a nd b i o log ica l e nv i ronmen t d oe s n o t s t and a l one ; i t mu s t n o t b e f o rgo t ten t h a t t h e c u l tu ra l e nv i ronmen t i s a l so i mpo r tan t . M in ima l ly , t h i s c an b e t a ken a s ac au t ion t h a t t h e p r inc ip le o f l e a s t e f or t a nd " op t ima l i ty s e ek ing" may n o tb eu sef u l ( o ra tl e a s t mu s tb e d emon s t ra ted ) , b ecau se p u r e ly c u l tu r a l p u sh ing ( a gg re s s ive n e ighbou r s ) a nd p u l l ing ( t rade f o r e xo t ica ) w i l l a c t t o f u r the rw a rp a nd w r ink le t h et empo r a l spa t ia ll a nd scape .1 6

3 . 4 A c o mpar i son o f s ome t ime b udg e t ing b ehav iour a nd t e chno logy b e tween t he T l ing i ta nd t he Y amana T he f o l low ing s e c t ion s o u t l ine s ome o ft h e w ay s i nw h ich e t hnog raph ic m a t e r ia l h e lp t h ink ing a bou t t h e a r chaeo logy o f a r ch ipe lago s . C ompa ra t ive e t hnog raph ic m a te r ia l d e scr ib ing t h e T l ing i t a nd t h e Y amana , w ho t r ad i t iona l ly i nhab i ted f j o rd land a r ch ipe lagos , i si n t rodu ced .

I n s umma ry , e nv i ronmen ta l c on s t ra in t o ccu r s a l ong s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l d imen s ion s a s t h ey a r e p e r ce ived a nd m i t iga ted b y c u l tu ra l b ehav iou r . T he d eg r ee o ft ime s t re s s e xper ienced b ea r sn oi nhe r en tr e la t ion t ot h ep roduc t iv i ty o f t h e r e sou r ce s . I ti sm e re ly aw ay o fd e sc r ib ing w he r e a nd w hen r e sou r ce sa r ea va i lab le a nd h ow p eop le m igh ta r range t h e i rb ehav iou rt ob ea b le t oe xp lo i tt h e se r e sou r ce st ot h e i r p e r ce ived a dvan tage .

3 . 4 .1 E nv ironmen ta l a nd e thnograph ic p rof i le s o f t he Y amana a nd t he T l ing i t T l ing i t a nd Y amana t r ad i t iona l t e r r i to r ie s s t and o u tb ecau se o f g ro s s s im i la r i ty i n t h e u nde r ly ing l a ndf o rm s , l a t i tude s , p r ec ip i ta t ion r e g ime s , a nd ma r ine o r ien ta t ion , w h i le t h e e t hnog raph ie s s how d i f f e rence s i n m any a r ea s o f s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion . N o t ab ly , t h e T l ing i t s t and a sa n a r che type o f a" comp lex" h un te r -ga the r e r g roup , w i th t h e Y amana a s t h e i r " s imp le" c oun te rpa r t ( d i scu s s ion o ft h e se t e rm s f ound i n C hap te r 2 ) . T h i s e nab le s d i scu ss ion o f t h e i r e nv i ronmen t s w h ich p rec lude s as imp l i s t ic c onc lu s ion o f e nv i ronmen ta l d e te rm in i sm f o r t h e d i f f e rence s i n e t hnog raph ic p rof i le .

3 . 3 T ime B udge t ing B ehav iour a nd T echno logy . H av ing d ef ined t h i s l ump ine s s i n t ime a nd s pace , i ti s n ece s sa ry t ol o ok a tt h e w ay s i nw h ich p eop le m igh t a c t t o s moo th o u t t h e w r ink le s o r f i l l i nt h e h o le s . A s T o r rence p u t si t : G iven t h e b a s ic a s sump t ion t h a t t ime b udge t ing i sc ruc ia l t oh un te r -ga the r e r b ehav iou r , t h e t e chno logy u sed b y t h e se g roup s c an b e e xpec ted t ov a ry a cco rd ing t ob o th t h e s eve r i ty a nd t h e c ha rac te r o f t ime s t re s s . ( To r r ence 1 983 :12 )

P hy s ica lG eog raph ic P rof i le . B o th t e r r i to r ie s e ncompa s s f j o rd land a r ch ipe lago s , c ha rac te r i sed b y a my r iad o f l a rge a nd s ma l l , m a in ly moun ta inou s i s land s s epa ra ted b yn a r row c hanne l s o fw a te r u p t o3 00 f a thom s d eep . T he ma in land c oa s t s a r e v o lcan ic a nd moun ta inou s w i th s im i la r d eg r ee s o f r e l ief , a nd e x ten s ive g l a c ie r s t h a t o cca s iona l ly r e ach t h e w a te r . B o th t e r r i to r ie s i n c lude s t re tche s o f s t ra igh t , n on invo lu ted c oa s t l ine , s ome e xpo sed t o t h e o pen o cean , b u t mo re t yp if ied b y am ix tu re o fb roken c oa s t l ine w i th b o th e xpo sed o u te r c oa s t a nd r e la t ive ly s he l te r ed " i n s ide" c oa s t a nd

1 6 . I nC hap t e r 4i tw i l l b ea r gued t h a tt h ee nv i ronmen tn e ce s sa r i ly i n c lude s t h e se c u l tu r a l f a c to r s ,a nd ,i n deed ,t h ec oncep to f an eu t ra ln a tu r ea sa b a ckd rop t oh uman b ehav iou ri si t s e lf ac u l tu r a lc ons t ruc t ion t h a tb ea r s l i t t le r e la t ion t oh ow p eop le p e r ce ive a nd d we l li nt h ee nv i ronmen t .

1 4

w a te rway s . W in te r( J une / Janua ry )m ean t empe ra tu re sa r e2 d eg r ee s i n Y amana t e r r i to ry a nd 5 d eg r ee s i n T l ing i t t e r r i to ry . S umme r m ean s a r e a bou t 1 2 a nd 1 5 d eg r ee s r e spe c t ive ly , wh i le p rec ip i ta t ion i so ve r2 , 000 mm a nnua l ly i nb o th a r ea s , w i th o ve r 2 00 d ay s o fr a in o r s now ay ea r . Y amana t e r r i to ry l i e s b e tween s ou th l a t i tude s 5 4 a nd 5 6 , wh i le T l ing i t t e r r i to ry l i e s b e tween n o r th l a t i tude s 5 5 a nd 6 0 . B o th i n c lude f r on tage o n s ome o ft h e r oughe s t o cean w a te r i nt h e wo r ld . Wh i le T ie r ra d e l F uego i sc oo led b y A n ta r c t ic w ind s , t h e A la skan c oa s t i ss ub jec t t o p e r iod ic c o ld f r on t s w h ich e s cape t h e i r c on t inen ta l c onf ine s . T he o ve r a l l c l ima te a nd d eg r ee o f" con t inen ta l i ty" i sr e a sonab ly s im i la r .

d i r ec t ion , t o a p ro to -h i s to r ic d ec l ine i n a ppa r en t " comp lex i ty" a mong s tt h eY amana ( Ye sne r 1 990 ) . E thnog raph ic P rof i le . T he re i sn o r oom a tt h i s p o in t f o r ad e ta i led r e cap i tu la t ion o fT l ing i t a nd Y amana s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion . I ti ss uff ic ien t t or em ind t h e r e ade r t h a t t h e T l ing i t w e r e s eden ta ry f o r a t l e a s t f ou r mon th s o f t h e y ea r , l i ved i n l a rge , p e rmanen t h ou se s o rgan i sed i n to v i l lage s o f s e ve ra l h und r ed i nd iv idua l s , k ep t l a rge n umbe r s o fs l ave s , h ad ah e red i ta ry , r anked a r i s toc ra cy , w e re o rgan i sed i n to w e l l -def ined n e s ted k in g roup s c u lm ina t ing i n e xogamou s mo ie t ie s , a nd h ad d eve loped n o t ion s o f p r iva t e p rope r ty , e x tend ing t o owne r sh ip o fr e sou r ce s a nd monopo l i sa t ion o fc e r emon ia l k now ledge . T he i rp o l i t ica l o rgan i sa t ion i su sua l ly r e f e r r ed t o a sb e ing a t" ch ief dom" l e ve l , wh ich i s av e ry n ebu lou s t e rm . A u tho r i ty w a s a c tua l ly q u i te d ecen t ra l i sed , a nd m a in ly k i n spec if ic . Among t h e i r n e ighbou r s w e r e p ee r " comp lex" g roup s ( e .g . , t h e• Ha ida a nd t h e T s im sh ian ) , a s w e l l a s " T l ing i t i sed" I nu i t g roup s ( e .g . , t h e E yak ) a nd " s imp le" b o r ea l -f o re s t h un te r s a nd g a the re r s ( e .g . , t h e T ah l tan ) . T l ing i t s ub s i s tence w a s l a rge ly c en t r ed o n f i sh , s he l lf i sh , a nd m a r ine mamma l s , w i th a r e la t ive ly m ino r p l an t , l a nd m amma l , a nd b i rd c omponen t ( af t e r d e L aguna 1 990 , O be rg 1 973 , K rau se 1 956 ) . T he a r chaeo logy o ft h e T l ing i t a r ea s how s a t l e a s t 9 , 000 y ea r s o f c on t inuou s o ccupa t ion , w i th ah eavy ma r i t ime f o cu s d u r ing a tl e a s t t h e mo s tr e cen t5 , 000 y ea r s( Dav i s 1 990 ) .

W i th in t h e s e t o f c oa s ta l e nv i ronmen t s , t i gh t ly p acked a r ch ipe lago sh ave s ome s p ec ia l f e a tu re s . T he mo s to bv iou s i st h e i n c r ea se i nl i nea r c oa s t l ine t h a t i sg a ined f o r ag i ven a r ea . F o r e xamp le , T l ing i t t e r r i to ry c an b e e ncompa s sed w i th in ap o lygon m ea su r ing 8 00 b y 2 00 km . Ap e rf ec t ly s t ra igh tc oa s t l ine l o ng i tud ina l ly b i sec t ing t h i sb ox w ou ld b e 8 00 km l o ng . H oweve r , t h e a c tua l l e ng th o f c oa s t l ine w i th in T l ing i t t e r r i to ry i sa bou t 3 , 800 km . T h i s g ive s a n " i nvo lu t ion i ndex" ( a c tua l c oa s t l ine d i v ided b ye xpec ted )o f 4 . 75 :1 . Y amana t e r r i to ry w ou ld f i t w i th in ap o lygon 3 75 km b y 1 25 km . T he a c tua l l e ng th o f c oa s t l ine i sa bou t 2 , 000 km ( J ack son a nd P oppe r [ 1 980 :4 1 ] e s t ima te 9 70 k i lome t r e s b u t I u se a h ighe r f i gu r e t o ma in ta in c ompa rab i l i ty w i th my T l ing i t e s t ima te ; t h e se e s t ima te s a r e a l so s ub jec t t o s c a la r m ea su remen t p rob lem s ) , g i v ing a n i n dex o f5 . 33 :1 . I ti sp o s s ib le i nt h i s w ay t oc ompa r e t h e i n vo lu t ion o fd i f f e r en ta r ch ipe lago s .1 7

T he Y amana , o n t h e o the r h and , w e re r e la t ive ly mob i le t h roughou t t h e y ea r , r a re ly a gg r ega t ing , l i ved i ne xped ien t s he l te r s , w e r e r ough ly " ega l i ta r ian ," h ad l i t t le n o t ion o f p r iva te p rope r ty , a nd w e r e a tt h e t a pe r ing e x t r em i ty o f a c on t inen t w i th s im i la r ly a dap t ed h un t e r -ga the re r s f o r a t l e a s t s eve ra l h und red m i le s n o r thwa rd s . T he i r s ub s i s tence w a s b a sed o n m a r ine mamma l s , s he l lf i sh , a nd b i rd s , w i th m ino r c on t r ibu t ion f r om f i sh a nd p l an t s p ec ie s . T hey a r e s t e reo typed a s at yp ica l " band leve l" s o c ie ty f r om t h e " u t te rmo s t e nd s o f t h e e a r th ( Gamb le 1 992 ) . 1 8 Y e sne r ( 1990 ) g ive s a c onc i se a s se s smen t o f t h e F ueg ian e t hnog r aph ic r e co rd , a rgu ing t h a th i s to r ica lc hange s l e ad ing t ot h e " e thnog raph ic p re sen t" p roduced ah i gh ly m i s lead ing p i c tu r e o f Y amana c u l tu re , w h ich h ad d eve loped o ve r a 7 , 000 y ea r s pan i n to a s oph i s t ica ted s e a m amma l h un t ing a dap ta t ion .

T h i s e mpha s is o n t h e c oa s ta l z one h a s i mp l ica t ion s f o r i n d ice ss u ch a sp opu la t ion d en s i ty . F o re xamp le , am ea su r e o f " pe r son s p e r c oa s ta l k i lome t r e" i s m o r e r e a l i s t ic f o r p r edom inan t ly ma r ine a dap ta t ion s t h an " pe r son s p e r s qua r e k i lome t r e ." T he f i gu r e s o b ta ined u s ing c on tac t p opu la t ion e s t ima t e s a r e : Y amana 1 .5 p e r c oa s ta l k i lome t re ( c km ) ( 3 ,000 p eop le , 2 , 000 c km ) , a nd T l ing i t -2 .63 /ckm ( 10 ,000 p eop le , 3 , 800 c km ) . T he se f i gu r e s , w h i le p r e l im ina ry , a r e mo r e s im i la r t oo ne a no the r t h an m igh t b e e xpec ted b a sed o n t h e v e ry d i f f e r en t l e ve l s o f " comp lex i ty ." T hey a r e c er ta in ly mo r e s im i la rt h an t h ep opu la t ion d en s i t ie s u sua l ly c i ted i n d ica te : a bou t 0 . 1-0 .26 p e r km 2 f o rt h e Y amana a nd 2 . 6 p e r km 2 f o r t h e T l ing i t ( g iven i nK ee ley 1 988 ) . T h i s r a i se s a n i n te re s t ing q ue s t ion . Wa s ( p r eh i s tor ic ) Y amana s ub s i s t ence r e a l ly l e s s i n ten s ive t h an t h a t o ft h e T l ing i t , o r o n ly a ppa ren t ly s ob ecau se t h a t s ub s i s tence w a s d i f f e r en t ly o rgan i sed? T h i s s o r t o f a na ly s is l e ad s d i rec t ly t o s chedu l ing i s sue s a nd c omp lemen t s t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a t a f r om T ie r ra d e l F uego , w h ich s e em t o p o in t i n as im i la r

H i s tory S i nce E uropean C on tac t . T he b e s t e s t ima te s o fT l ing i t p opu la t ion i n d ica te ad ec l ine f r om p r eh i s to r ic l e ve ls o fa bou t 1 0 ,000 , t o4 , 500 i n 1 890 , r ebound ing t oa bou t 1 4 ,000 i n 1 986 ( d e L aguna 1 990 :205 , B oyd 1 990 :136 ) . T h is d epopu la t ion t o ok p l ace i n s even d i s t inc t e p i sode s o ve rt h e f i r s t 1 00 y ea r s ( Boyd 1 990 :147 ) . A l l w r i te r s o n t h e Y amana r e f e r t om a s s ive d epopu la t ion ,

1 7 .O r ,m o r es pecu la t ive ly t h em o r ep a cked a na r ea i sw i th i s land s ,t h e mo r e mu l t i -d i r ec t iona li tb ecome s ,u l t ima te ly a pp roa ch ing af o rm o f " p lan a r i t y ," a nd t h el e s sp rob lema t ic i tb ecome st oe xchange i n f o rma t ion a nd m a in ta in s oc ia lt i e sa c ro s st h e f u l le x ten to ft h es o c ia ln e two rk . T hu s , ac oa s ta la r ch ipe lago m igh ta c ta s ab r idgehead f o rf u l ly m a r ine -o r ien ted ma r i t im ec u l tu r e s ,a st h ey m ay a vo id t h ec o s t so fl i nea r i ty o u t l ined b y Wob s t( 1976 ) .

1 8 .T he T l ing i ta r ea c tua l ly mo re g eog raph ica l ly m a rg ina lr e la t ive t o E u rope ,i fo ne c on s id e r sb o th t h a tt h ey a r en ' to nt h ew ay t oa nywhe re i n p a r t icu la r ,a nd w e re c on ta c ted s eve ra lc en tu r ie sl a t e r ;b u tt h en " u t t e rmo s t n e s s" i s as t a te o ft h e We s te rn m en ta lm ap .

1 5

s o r t s o ft ime -budge t ing p rob lem s t h ey m ay h ave f a ced .2 ° I t f o l low s t h e w o rk o f R ob in T o r r ence , w ho s ugge s t s t h a t t h e r e i s ac l o se r e la t ion sh ip b e tween c e r ta in s phe re s o f a m a te r ia l c u l tu re a nd t h e t ime p r e s su re s o ft h e s oc ia l u n i t s , b u t w i l l e xpand b eyond t h e r e la t ive c omp lex i ty o f ma te r ia l c u l tu r et oi n c lude s t o rage , m a s sh a rve s t ing a nd mob i l i ty .

f r om p e rhap s3 , 000 i nd iv idua l st os eve ra l h und r ed . C oope r ( 1946 :83 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h ep opu la t ion d ec l ined b y 8 0% , t o 4 00 i nd iv idua l s , i nt h e p e r iod 1 881-1886 a l one , m a in ly d ue t o m ea s le s a nd r e sp i ra to ry d i sea se s , c o inc iden t w i th i n c rea s ing c on tac t w i th E u ropean s a nd r ou t ine o r p e rmanen ts e t t lemen ti nl a rge g roup s a r ound m i s s ion s . T he Y amana b ecame e x t inc t i n t h e m id twen t ie th c en tu ry ( J ack son a nd P oppe r 1 980 :4 1) .

T he " S t ruc ture" o fP rocuremen tT echno logy . T o r rence ( 1983 :13 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h e t ime s t re s s o f a n e nv i ronmen t h a s d i rec t c o r r e la te s i n t h e c ompo s i t ion , d i ve r s i ty a nd c omp lex i ty o f t h e s ub s i s tence a s semb lage . H e r a r gumen t i s t h a t t h e r e i s l e s s r oom f o r f a i lu r e i n a c t iv i t ie s t h a t a r e t empo ra l ly c i rcum sc r ibed , a nd t h i s f a vou r s u se o f e ff ic ien t , s pec ia l -pu rpo se , o f t en mu l t i -pa r t t o o l s . F o r e xamp le , t ime c an b e i n ves ted i nm anuf ac tu r ing ac omp lex t oo l w i th r e p laceab le p a r t s i ft h e p ayof fi sl e s s t ime s pen t o n t oo l m a in tenance d u r ing u se , w hen t ime i s mo re v a luab le . B u t i ft h e r e i sn o t ime s t re s s d u r ing u se , t h e r e i sn o i n cen t ive t ob udge t i ti nt h i s m anne r . T o r r en ce d emon s t ra te s t h i s b y e xam ina t ion o f e t hnog raph ica l ly d e scr ibed f ood p rocu r emen tt e chno log ie s . H e rs cheme r un s i n to s ome t r oub le b ecau se , a s s he r e cogn i se s , s ome p rocu r emen t t e chno log ie s a r e i n he ren t ly mo r e c omp l ica t ed r e ga rd le s s o f t h e t empo ra l s t ru c tu r e o f t h e r e sou r ce . F o r e xamp le , h a rpoon s mu s t s e rve t h e d ua l f u nc t ion o fk i l l ing a nd r e t r iev ing w he rea s s pea r s o n ly h ave t ok i l l . T h i s s ay s n o th ing a bou t t h e t ime s t re s se s i n vo lved i n h un t ing s e a l v e r su s d ee r . F rom r e ad ing t h e e t hnog raphy i ti sc l ea r t h e Y amana h ave ar e la t ive ly l ow t e chno log ica l d i ve r s i ty ( t he n umbe r o f d i f f e ren t k i nd s o f t o o l s ) , a nd t h e T l ing i t r e la t ive ly h igh d i ve r s i ty , b u t b o th g roup s h ave s im i la r l e ve l s o f t e chno log ica l c omp lex i ty , e xp r e ssed a s t h e n umbe ro f" t echno -un i t s" ( O swa l t 1 976 )p e rt o o l .

Q u i te a pa r tf r om t h eh o r r ify ing c on sequence sf o ri n d iv idua l a nd s oc ia l mo ra le , i ne co log ica l t e rm s t h e se d epopu la t ion s a c ted t o r educe p opu la t ion t o w e l l b e low " ca r ry ing c apac i ty ," a s sum ing t h e p r e -con tac t p opu la t ion a pp roached t h i s d en s i ty . T h i sa l one c ou ld h e lp a ccoun tf o rt h ea ppa ren t l ow in ten s i ty s ub s i s tence o ft h e e t hnog raph ic Y amana a nd t h e i r p er iphe ra l p l ace i n t h e c o lon ia l e conom ic s y s tem . A no the r p o s s ib le c on t r ibu t ing f a c to r i st h a t t h ey may h ave b een p rac t i s ing amob i l i ty s t ra tegy t h a td e l ibe ra te ly a vo ided E u ropean s , af o rm o fr e s is tance t od om ina t ion t h a th a sb een s ugge s ted f o rt h e n e ighbou r ing S e lk 'nam ( Ona ) b y B o r re ro ( 1994 :256 -259 ) .1 9 O n t h e o t he rh and , t h e r e cen t h i s to ry o f t h e T l ing i t s ugge s t s af ew k ey d i f f e rence s . Whe rea s t h e Y amana h ad l i t t le t oo f f e rc o lon i s t s a nd e xp lo re r s a nd t h e i r p hy s ica l p re sence i mpeded t h e s p read o f E u ropean e xp lo i ta t ion , t h e T l ing i t h ad much t o of e r a nd t h e i r p a r t ic ipa t ion i nt h e h i s tor ic e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e r e sou r ce s o f t h e Nor thwe s t C oa s t w a s i n d i spen sab le . T he T l ing i t w e re i mpor tan t p l aye r s i nb o th t h e m a r i t ime a nd t e r re s tr ia l f u r t r ades , w h ich d om ina te t h e e a r ly h i s tor ica l e conomy o ft h e Nor thwe s t C oa s t . T rade r s c ou ld d epend o n t h i s p oo l o f l o ca l l a bou r t o g a the r t h e f u r s ( wh ich a r e d i spe r sed i n conven ien t ly a c ro s s t h e l a nd scape ) , t os e l lt h em r e la t ive ly c heap ly a nd t o a c t a s m idd lemen a nd o rgan i se t r an spo r ta t ion t o t h e c on t inen ta l i n te r io r . T hu s , t h e r e w a s l i t t le n eed t oh au l l a bou r a c ro s s t h e P ac if ic o r a r ound t h e H o rn , a nd t h e e n su ing f i nanc ia l a dvan tage s w e re t r emendou s . I nc on t ra s t , t h e m a in c omme r c ia l r e sou r ce s o f T ie r ra d e l F uego w e re w ha l ing a nd s heep r a i s ing ,n e i the ro f wh ich w a s e a sy t o i n teg ra te i n to t h e e x i s t ing i n d igenou s e conom ic s t ruc tu r e . Add i t iona l ly , t h e r e sou rce s o f t h e N o r thwe s t C oa s t w e re " h igh ly l i qu id" i n t h e s en se t h a t t h e re w a s ar e ady ma rke t f o r f u r s , f i sh a nd l umbe r . H ence , c a sh p aymen t s f o r g ood s s t imu la ted b o th w h i te a nd n a t ive i n t e re s t i n e xp lo i ta t ion w i thou t t h e n eed f o r much i n ve s tmen t i n" i nf ra s t ruc tu r e ." T he n e t r e su l t m ay b e t h a t h i s tor ica l f o rce s c au sed i n t en s if ica t ion a nd e xagge r a t ion ( a nd as h if ti nf o cu s ) o fa n e x is t ing T l ing i t e conomy , w h i le t h eY amana e xper ienced a no ppo s i te e f ec t .

S t orage . S t o rage i s d ef ined s imp ly a s c u l tu ra l b ehav iou r t h a t i n t roduce s ad e lay b e tween p rocu remen t a nd c on sump t ion . T he m o t iva t ion f o r s t o rage n eed n o t b e t os ave f ood f o r a t ime w hen i ti su nava i lab le , a l though t h i s i sp e rhap s t h e mo s tr e levan tu se . T he T l ing i tp repa r e s t o re s f o rt wo q u i t e d if e ren t r e a son s : w in te r s ub s i s tence /f ea s t ing a nd s umme r f e a s t ing / t rade . B o th mo t iva t ion s r e su l t i n af o rm o ft ime b udge t ing . E x ten s ive u se o f s t o rage t e chno logy i s aw e l l -known c ha rac t er i s t ic o ft h e N or thwe s t c oa s t c u l tu re a r ea , a nd t h e T l ing i t a r e n o e xcep t ion . F ood s s t o red i n c lude , i n a pp rox ima te d e scend ing o rde r o f i mpor tance ( af t e r O be rg 1 973 ) , s a lmon , f i sh -o i l , h e r r ing , o the r f i sh , b e r r ie s a nd r oo t s , s e a l o i l a nd o the r m ea t . A s i lu s t ra ted b y O be rg ( 1 973 :76 ) , t h e s t o rage a c t iv i t ie s o ft h e T l ing i t s how ac l ea r

3 . 4 .2 Y amana a nd T l ing i tt ime b udge t ing I n t h is s e c t ion t h e ma ter ia l c u l tu re a nd s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion o ft h e Y amana a nd T l ing i t a r e e xam ined f o rc l ue s a st ot h e

S y s t ema t ic i n f o rma t ion o nt ime a loca t ion i sr a r e ly p r e sen ti n e t hnog raphy ,p e rhap sb ecau se o f Wob s t 's ( 1 978 )g ene ra lc ommen t so n e t hnog raph ic l i m i ta t ion s . E xcep t ion si n c lud et h er e la t ive ly d e ta i led ( y e t p r ob lema t ic )i n f o rma t ion i nO be rg ( 1973 ) ,a nd t h eo f t en c i ted s t udy f r om A rnhem L and ( McCa r thy a nd MacCa r thu r 1 961) . T im e a loca t ion s t ud ie s a r eb ecom ing p opu la ri nh uman e vo lu t iona ry e co logy ( e .g . ,H ame s 1 992 ) . 2 0 .

S u ch af o rm o fr e s i s tance ( s ee C hap te r2 )w ou ld b ea r cha eo log ica l ly v i s ib le a s ac hange i nt h e mob i l i ty s t ra t egy , a nd i nt h ea pp rop r ia t e p r eh i s to r ic c on t ex tm igh tb e au sef u la d junc tt ou nde r s tand ing l a rge rs c a le i n te r -a c t ion a nd " s oc ia l c omp lex i ty ." I ta l so r e la te st oY e sne r 's ( 1990 ) c ommen t so nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd o fB eag le C hanne l ,n o ted a bove . 1 9

.

1 6

T hey a r e a lway s i n ten t o n p rov id ing t h em se lve s w heneve r p o s s ib le w i th t h e i r f a vou r i te b lubbe r s au sage s b ecau se t h ey d o n o t w an t t o b e w i thou t b lubbe r f o r l o ng . G u s inde 1 961 :325 )

b imoda la nnua ld i s t r ibu t ion .2 1 T he s p r ing t ime s t o rage f l u r ry i sc oncen t ra ted o n f i sh , s he l lf i sh , f i sh -o i l , s eaweed s a nd p l an t s . T he l a te s umme r /f a l l f l u r ry i sd om ina ted , o fc ou r se , b yt h e s a lmon h a rve s ti nS ep tembe r ,b u ta l so b yt h e s t o rage o fb e r r ie sa nd m ea t . Du r ing t h e s l ack s umme r mon th st h e r e i s ma in ly d i rec t c on sump t ion o f f r e sh f ood , a s al o t o f s t o red f o od s a r e c on sumed i nh uge c h ie f ly f e a s t s , t r ade o r a r e g iven a way . M i tche l l a nd D ona ld ( 1988 ) , w o rk ing w i th ( ) be rg 's f i gu r e s , c ha rac te r i se t h e T l ing i t a nnua l r ound a s f i ve mon th s i n wh ich s ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie s ( p rocu remen t a nd s t o r age ) o ccupy mo r e t h an 6 5% o ft h e a va i lab le t ime , a nd a no the r f i ve whe r e i to ccup ie s l e s s t h an 1 5% o f t h e t ime . " Ce r emon ia l i sm a nd l e i su r e" o ccupy g r ea te r t h an 5 0% o f t h e t ime f o r n o l e s s t h an 7 mon th s o f t h e y ea r . H oweve r , t h e w in te r mon th s a r e b u sy t ime s f o r t o o l m anuf a c tu r e a nd ma in tenance , w h ich m ay b e e mbedded w i th in s o -ca l led l e i su r et ime ,o rv i ce v e r sa .

T he b lubbe r f r om ab eached wha le w ou ld b e c u t i n to s l ab s , t r an spo r ted b ack t ot h e f am i ly 's b a se c amp , a nd s t o red i na s wamp . G u s inde ( 1 96 1 :337 ) d e scr ibe s c anoe load s o f b lubbe rb e ing s t o r ed i nt h i s manne r , w h ich w ou ld k eep f o r mon th s o r e ven a y ea r . I f o ne c on s ide r s h i s e a r l ie r s t a temen t t h a t aY amana c anoe c an c a r ry as l a in s ea l ion , t h en p o ten t ia l ly al o t o fb lubbe r i sb e ing s t o red . F ung i a r e d r ied b u t a r e n o t s a id t o b e o f a ny d i e t a ry i mpo r tance . H onou r ab le m en t ion i nt h e s t o rage c a tego ry mu s t g o t ot h e p rac t ice o f p rocu r ing b a rk f o r c anoe s i n t h e s pr ing a nd k eep ing i ts t o red i n s wamp s o r w a te r i n c a se o f n eed ( Gu s inde 1 961 :115 ) . T he se s t o re s o fb a rk m ay i n f a c t b e mo r e v i ta l t o s ub s i s tence t h an t h e s t o r e s o f f ood , i f G u s inde 's p ro te s ta t ion s a bou tt h en ea rt o ta l n on r e l iance o n s t o r ed f ood a r et ob eb e l ieved .

D e sp i te t h e a moun t s s t o red , s ome h unge r ( bu t n o t a c tua l s t a rva t ion ) d u r ing t h e w in te rw a s p robab ly n o tu ncommon , b a sed o n r e co rd s o f t h e v e ry e a r ly h i s tor ic p e r iod s ou thwa rd s a t Noo tka o n V ancouve r I s land ( Boyd 1 990 ) . T he s t o red f o od i t se lf c ou ld a l so b ecome u npa la tab le i nt h e l a te w in te r ( Obe rg 1 973 :73 ) . M i t che l l a nd D ona ld ( 1988 :320 ) c i te as he lf l if e o fs i x m on th s f o r d r ied f i sh o n t h e No r thwe s t C oa s t a nd s ugge s t t h a t t h i s e xp la in s t h e e mpha s i s o n t h e f a l l s a lmon r un s , r a the r t h an t h e e qua l ly l a rge o rl a rge r s umme rr un s , wh ich w ou ld b e s po i led c ome m id -w in t e r . T h i s i sp o s s ib ly e ven t r ue rf o rt h e T l ing i t t h an f o r p eop le i na r ea s w i th al onge r s a lmon s pawn ing s e a son a nd a d r ie r c l ima te .2 T he f a l l s t o r age f l u r ry a mong s t t h e T l ing i t mu s t , t h e r ef o r e , b e a imed m a in ly a tl a y ing i nw in te r s t ock s , w i th t h e r e s idua l s p r ing s t o r e s a c t ing a s i n su rance a ga in s t ap oo rf a l ls a lmon r un .

I n a ny c a se , i ts e em s u n l ike ly t h a t t h e r e w a s ap red ic tab le t ime e ach y ea r w hen l a rge a moun t s o f f ood c ou ld b e p rocu red a nd s t o red . J a ck son a nd P oppe r ( 1980 :45 ) d i ag ram t h e a nnua l f l uc tua t ion s i nr e sou rce a va i lab i l i ty f o r Y amana t e r r i to ry . I nt h e i ra na ly s i s , a lmo s ta l r e sou rce s a r e e ven ly a va i lab le y ea r round . E xcep t ion s i n c lude b i rd e gg s , h e r r ing , a nd s ome m ig ra to ry w a te rf ow l . O the r s a r e mo r e a cce s s ib le a t c e r ta in t ime s o f t h e y ea r b ecau se o f t h e i r h ab i t s o r l o ca l m ig ra t ion s , b u t a r e n eve r the le s s a va i lab le y ea rr ound . T he se i n c lude t h e mo r e d i e ta t i ly i mpo r tan t f u r s e a l a nd e l ephan t s e a l . H oweve r , t h e c r i t ica l r e sou rce s o f s e a l ion , b i rd s , mu s se l s , mo l lu sc s , a nd f i sh s how l i t t le v a r ia t ion . Wha le s a r e a mo r e d if i cu l t c a se t o a s se s s a s t h e i r a va i lab i l i ty i ss e rend ip i tou s i na ny c a se a nd r e co rded e xp lo i ta t ion p a t te rn s m ay r e f lec t c omme rc ia l wha l ing p rac t ice s a s w e l l a s n a tu ra l m ig ra t ion s . Y amana s t o rage w a s o ppo r tun is t ic , a nd t h i s d ove ta i l s w i th t h e g ene ra l ly t r an shuman t l i f e s ty le e mpha s i sed b y G u s inde . S eem ing ly o bv iou sc and ida te s f o rs t o rage s uch a s mo l lu scs a nd h e r r ing w e r en o te xp lo i ted .

T he Y amana , b y c on t ra s t , d id n o t e ngage i n much p l anned s t o rage a c t iv i ty . Howeve r , t h ey w e r e c e r ta in ly a wa r e o f s ome p r inc ip le s o fs t o rage , a nd G u s inde r e f er s many t ime s t oc e r ta in f o od st h a tw e re s t o r ed . I ti sa sd i ff icu l t t oa s se s s t h e d i e ta ry r o le t h e se p l ayed a s i t i s f o r a ny o the r s ub s i s t ence s e c to r . G u s inde 's ( 196 1 :336 ) o wn r ema rk t h a t " i n o rd e rt op r e se rve f ood o ne w ou ld h ave t og ot h rough a l k ind s o f c omp l ica ted p repa ra t ion s" ( due t o t h e i n c lemen t w ea the r ) , i ss l igh t ly u nde rm ined b y h i s o wn o b se rva t ion s a nd b y t h e s im i la rw ea the r i nt h e T l ing i t a r ea . Aj ud ic iou s r e ad ing b e tween t h e l i ne s , w he re o ne c on t inua l ly p i ck s u p h i n t so f mo re i n ten se s ub s i s tence a nd s e t t lemen tb ehav iou r s a l so u nde rm ine s Gu s inde . T he m a in i t em s s t o red b y t h e Y amana w e r eo i la nd b lubbe r , a nd f u ng i . O i lw a ss t o red b y t h e c r ea t ion o fi n tes t ina l s au sage s s t uf f ed w i th o i l , b lubbe r , a nd e n t ra i l s ( Gu s inde 1 96 1 :320 -321) . G u s inde l a te r c ommen t s ,

Ma s s C ap ture . C ap tu r e o fa n ima l s u s ing u n tended o rt e nded f a c i l i t ie s i sa n i mpo r tan tw ay o fb udge t ing t ime . I ne f f ec t , t h e se f a c i l i t ie s " wo rk o n t h e i r own" a nd f r ee l a bou r f o r o the r p u rpo se s . U n t ended f a c i l i t ie s s o lve t h e g eome t r ic p rob lem o fb e ing i n t wo p l ace s o rd o ing t wo t h ing s a to nce , i n c rea se t h e s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l " r each ," o r a lev ia te l im i t ing t empo ra l c on s t ra in t s s uch a s n oc tu rna l f i sh r un s . T ended f a c i l i t ie s p e r f o rm t h e w o rk o f c o r ra l l ing a n ima l s s o t h ey c an b e s y s tema t ica l ly a nd e ff ic ien t ly k i l led . T he f o l low ing o n ly d i scu s se st e nded f a c i l i t ie sa imed a tm a s sc ap tu re .

.T he se f i gu re sa r en o tw i thou td i ff icu l ty : t h ey s e ldom a dd u pt o1 00% f o re xamp le ,n o rd ot h ey i n c lude i mpor tan ta c t iv i t ie ss uch a st h er a id ing o f s t o re sf r om o t he rg roup s . 2 2 .S ee S cha lk ( 1977 , 1 98 1) f o r ab road d i scu s s ion o ft h es t ruc tu r eo f a nad ramou sf i sh r e sou rce s . 2 1

T he T l ing i t h ad s eve ra l ma s s h a rve s t ing t e chn ique s . T he f i sh t rap a nd w e i r a r e f o remos t a mong s t t h e se . O fv ar iou s

1 7

p l an s a nd e l abo ra t ion s , u sed f o r b o th e u lachon ( a n o i ly s me l t p roce s sed i n to a b u t te r l ike s ub s tance ) a nd s a lmon , t h e se e nab led e f f ic ien tp rocu r emen to ff i sh . T he se f i sh t h en r equ i r ed c on s ide rab le f u r the r i nve s tmen t i n t ime t o p re serve . N o s pec if i c d a ta a r e a va i lab le f o r t h e T l ing i t b u t i n as im i la rs i tua t ion o nt h eF r a se rR ive ri ns ou the rn B r i t i sh C o lumb ia ,i ti sr epor ted t h a t as i ng le f i she r( g ene ra l ly m a le ) a t at r ap o rw e i r , o rw i th ad i pne t , c ou ld c a tch u pwa rd s o f 2 00 s a lmon p e r n igh t , w h i le a s i ng le p e r son ( gene ra l ly f ema le )w ou ld o n ly b ea b le t op roce s s3 0 -70 f i sh p e rd ay , i n f a vou rab le c ond i t ion s ( Hayden 1 992 :532 ) . I no the rw o rd s , t h e re i s ap roduc t iv i ty i mba lance a c ro s s t h e s exua l d i v i s ion o f l a bou r , wh ich i t se lf i n t roduce s t ime s chedu l ing d i f f icu l t ie s . T he T l ing i t a l so h ad d ev ice s s uch a su n tended l o ng l ine sf o rh a l ibu t ,b i rd n e t s , a nd s of o r th .

T h i s l a s t c ommen t s eem s r e a sonab le i nv i ew o ft h e l a ck o f a nad ramou s o ro t he rf i sh s u i tab le f o rs u r e -f i r ew e i rc ap tu re , b u t i n te r t ida l f i sh t rap s w ou ld d oub t le s s b e p roduc t ive i n T ie r r a d e l F uego . O the r t e chn ique s t h a t c ou ld g ene rou s ly b e c on s ide r ed a s ma ss h a rve s t ing i n c lude mu l t i -noo sed b i rd s na re s a nd mu l t i -hooked f i sh l ine s . T he i mpo r tan t a spec t i s t h a t t h e Y amana u nde r s tood t h e p r inc ip le s o f ma s s c ap tu re e ven i ft h ey d i dn o tp rac t ice t h em . T ranspor ta t ion . T o r rence d oe s n o t d i scu s s t r an spo r ta t ion t e chno logy , p re sumab ly b ecau se s he l im i t s h e r se lf t o " p rocu r emen t t e chno logy ," w h ich i sa n a rguab le e xc lu s ion : t h e r o le o f t r an spo r ta t ion i na l lev ia t ing e nv i ronmen ta l c on s t ra in t s mu s t b e c r i t ica l . I ndeed , t r an spo r ta t ion i ss oc l o se ly b ound u p i n t h e c oncep t o f c on s t ra in t t h a t i t a l one d e te rm ine s t h e d if e r ence b e tween t h e i n h e ren t a nd a c tua l d i r ec t iona l i ty o f t h e e nv i ronmen t .

T he Y amana s e ldom m ade u se o f ma s sc ap tu re t e chno logy , a nd e ven t h en a s u rp lu s w a s o n ly o cca s iona l ly g ene ra ted . T he mo s t f r equen t t e chn ique w a s t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f d en se ly s choo l ing f i sh w i th s imp le b a ske t s . G u s inde v iv id ly d e scr ibe s t h e t ime s t re s s r e su l t ing f r om o pe ra t ing w i th in t h e se c on s t ra in t s :

C anoe s . T he T l ing i t h ad a v a r ie ty o f g ene ra l a nd s pec ia l p u rpo se d ugou t c anoe t y pe s . T he se i n c luded r i ve r c anoe s , s e a l ing c anoe s a nd t r an spor t c anoe s . L a rge e xamp le s o ft h e l a t te r c ou ld h o ld mo r e t h an 5 0 p eop le o r c a r ry u p t o 7t o n s o f f r e igh t . Many w e re made i nT l ing i t t e r r i tory , b u t t h e b e s t a nd l a rge s t w e r e o b ta ined i nt r ade , m a in ly f r om t h e H a ida , b u t a l so f r om a s f a r s ou th a s V ancouve r I s land . U s ing d o l la rv a lue s f r om K rau se ( 1956 :119 ,133 ) , i ti sp o s s ib le t o c a lcu la te t h a t al a rge c anoe c os t ing $ 150 w a s e qu iva len t i n v a lue t oa bou t3 0b ea rs k in s( a l though s ome o t he rf u r sw e r e mo re v a luab le ) . Manuf ac tu re o f ac anoe w a s s k i l led w o rk , wh ich p robab ly t o ok i n t h e o rde r o f t wo w eek s . T he p roduc t w a s ah i gh ly s e awo r thy w a te r c raf t c apab le o f r a id ing a nd t r ad ing t r ip s a sf a r a way a sV ic to r ia , 9 00 m i le s t o t h e s ou th ( Obe rg 1 973 :7 1) . R ugged w hen w a te rbo rne , t h ey r equ i red s p ec ia l c a r e a nd d e l ica t e h and l ing w hen h au led o u t a st h ey w e re v e ry l i ke ly t oc r a ck i fk nocked o r d r ied o u t . A g ood c anoe c ou ld l a s t s e ve ra l y ea r s t o a d ecade ( Obe rg 1 973 ) .

N o h and s c an b e i d le ! I nl e s s t h an a n h ou rt h e o ccupan t s o f ac anoe , i ft h ey k eep b u sy , c an f i l l i ts o f u l l t h a t t h ey mu s t h ead f o r s ho r e . Q u ick ly t h ey t a k e t h e a n ima l s [ h e r r ing o r macke r e l ] t o s ho re a nd s e t o u t a ga in , f o r t h ey k now t h a t t h e l a rge r t h e s hoa l i s , t h e mo re q u ick ly i tw i l l b e p u shed o u t a ga in t o t h e o pen s e a . T hey c anno t d r aw o ni tu n in te r rup ted f o r mo r et h an aw ho le d ay . Af t e r t h e e xe r t ion o f s uch g r ea t h a s te t h ey c an f e a s t f o r d ay so nt h ev a r ied [ i nc lude sl a rge rf i sh a nd mamma l s c augh t c ha s ing t h e s choo l ] b oo ty a nd m eanwh i le r e s t u p t ho rough ly . ( Gu s inde 1 96 1 :27 1) I ti sn o tab le t h a t n o m en t ion i s made o f s t o rage o f t h e p roduc t , w h ich mu s t h ave a moun ted t os eve ra l h und red o r t h ou sand k i lo s o ff i sh . H oweve r , i ng ene ra l , f i sh s e em t o h ave p l ayed am ino ro rs upp lemen ta ry r o le i nY amana d i e t ( Gu s inde 1 96 1 :264 ) . A no the r ma s s h a rve s t ing t e chn ique s i sd esc r ibed b y Gu s inde :

T rad i t iona l Y amana c anoe s w e re o f as i ng le t y pe . T hey w e re m ade o f aw ooden f r ame w i th b a rk c ove r ing b u tw e re , n ever the le s s , s e awo r thy s i nce v oyage st ot h er emo te i s land s s ou th o f C ape H orn a r e r e co rded ( Gu s inde 1 96 1 :128 ) . Gu s inde i so n t h e who le h i gh ly c omp l imen ta ry a bou t t h e c anoe s ( d e sp i t e t h e i r l e ak ine s s , wh ich mu s t r e la te t ot h e i r f l ex ib i l i ty ) , a nd n o te s t h a t o ne c ou ld h o ld 6 10 p eop le o ra l a rge s e a l ion ( 1 96 1 :128 ) . T he l a t te r , i ft r u e , w ou ld i mp ly a p ay load o fp e rhap s 4 00 k i lo s , wh ich i sr e spec tab le e ven i f n o t i nt h e s ame c l a s s a s t h e T l ing i t c anoe s . C anoe s w e r e u sua l ly p rope l led b y as i ng le w oman a nd p rog re s s w a s a lway s s l ugg i sh e ven i f a man h e lped p add le . T he i mp r e s s ion g i ven b y Gu s inde i so f ac r af tb u i l ta nd h and led i n aw ay s u i tab le f o r t h e m eande r ing l i f e s ty le t h a t i st h e Y amana s t e r eo type , b u t e qua l t o mo r e d emand ing t a sk s i f n ece s sa ry . T o b u i ld ac anoe " t ook a n i n du s t r iou s m an t wo t o t h r ee w eek s , i fh e w a s u nd i s tu rbed a nd c ou ld f i nd t h e

I n e xcep t iona l c a se s t h e m en a l so b u i ld w e i r s . T hey d ec ide t o d o t h i s w hen t h e re a r e s eve ra l f am i l ie s a s semb led a nd i t i s i mpo s s ib le t o t r ave l , b u t a s hor tage o f f ood t h r ea ten s . We i r s a r e u sed v e ry l i t t le , b ecau se , Iw a s t o ld , t h ey c an b e e r ec ted o n ly a m id a l l k i nd s o f i n conven ience a nd b ecau se t h ey d o n o t p rom i se s u r e s ucce s s . ( Gu s inde 1 96 1 :273 )

1 8

p a r t s n ea rby ." W i th c a ref u l u se i tm igh t l a s t as i ng le y ea r ( Gu s inde 1 96 1 :108 -128 ) .

s pace .2 3 T o t h i s p o in t , t ime a nd s pace h ave b een t a k en a s c u l tu ra l ly n on spec if ic u n ive r sa l s . H oweve r , i t s e em s a pp ropr ia te g iven t h e i r c en t r a l i ty i n t h i s r e sea r ch , t o i n t roduce s ome t h eo r e t ica la spec t so ft h e se d imen s ion s .

P or tage s . P o r tage s a r e o f p a r t icu la r i n te re s t i n a n a na ly s i s o f s chedu l ing a c t iv i t ie s . T hey a c t a s s hor t c u t s a c ro s s t h e i n he r en t d i r ec t iona l i ty o f t h e l a ndf o r tn , a nd s hou ld b e p rope r ly c on s ide r ed a s as e pa ra t e c l a s s o f t r an spor ta t ion t e chno logy . G u s inde r e co rd s t h ree d ef in i te a nd t h ree " hea r say" p or tage s i nY amana t e r r i to ry . E ach c r o s sed a n i s thmu s o r n a r row p o in t o fa n i s land " i n o rde r t oa vo id a d ange rou s o rc i rcu i tou s r ou te ( Gu s inde 1 96 1 :379 ) ." T hey c on s i s ted o f c o rdu roy r oad s o ve r wh ich c anoe s c ou ld b e d r agged . F rom c ompa r i son w i th ama r ine c ha r t ,t h el onge s t o f t h ese p o r tage s i sa bou t 3n au t ica l m i le s ( 5 km ) . T he m ax imum t r ave l s av ing i sa bou t 3 5 n au t ica l m i le s o n t h e w a te r ( a bou t 6 0 k in ) . T hey r ep re sen t ac on s ide rab le a moun to fl a bou ri n ve s tmen ta nd o rgan i sa t ion , s e em ing ly a t o dd s w i th t h e g ene ra l p i c tu r e o f " s imp l ic i ty" p a in ted b y G u s inde . K rau se ( 1956 :51) n o te s t h a t , f o r t h e T l ing i t , " many p o r tage s s hor ten d i s tance s whe r e t h e r e i sn o d i r ec t c onnec t ion f r om o ne i n le t t o a no the r ." D oub t le s s o t he r i n f o rma t ion i sa va i lab le f o rt h eT l ing i ta nd o t he rg roup s , a s p o r tage s a r e a r e la t ive ly c ommon f e a tu r e a c ro s s t h e N or thwe s tc oa s t .

3 . 5 T ime g eography T ime g eog raphy i sg rounded i na n a na ly s i s o f ' c ho reog raph ing ' s oc ia l a c t iv i t ie s , g i ven t h e f a c t t h a t a c t iv i t ie s h ave t o b e c a r r ied o u t i n s pec if ic t ime s , b y s pec if i c a c to r s , i n c on junc t ion w i th s pec if i c o t he r s . ( Ge l l 1 992 :19 1) T h i s i s d one i n a n a na ly t ica l f r amewo rk e xp l ic i t ly c once rned w i th t h e c on s t ra in t s o ft h e m a te r ia l w o r ld , a nd t hu s i sa n e xp lo ra t ion o ft h ep o s s ib le a nd i t s r am if ica t ion s . H äge r s t rand ( i n C a r l s te in 1 982 :49 ) s umma r i se s t h e b a s ic c ond i t ion s wh ich g over n h uman s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l a c t iv i ty a s : 1 . T he i n d iv is ib i l i ty o f t h e h uman b e ing ( and o f o the r b e ing sa nd e n t i t ie s ) , 2 .T he l im i ted l e ng th o fe a ch h uman l i f e ( a nd t h a t o fo the r b e ing sa nd e n t i t ie s ) , 3 .T he l im i ted a b i l i ty o f t h e h uman b e ing t o t a ke p a r t i n mo re t h an o ne a c t iv i ty a t at ime , 4 .T he f a c tt ha te ve ry a c t iv i ty h a s ad u r a t ion , 5 .T he f a c tt h a t movemen tc on sume st ime , 6 .T he l im i ted p ack ing a b i l i ty o fs pace , 7 .T he l im i ted o u te rs i ze o ft e r re s t r ia l s p ace , 8 .T he f a c tt h a te ve ry s i tua t ion i sr oo ted i np a s ts i tua t ion s .2 4

S now shoe s , a nd m i sce l laneou st r an spor ta t ion a id s . T he r e i s n o r e co rd o f t h e Y amana m ak ing o r u s ing s now shoe s , d e sp i t e t h e f r equen t p re sence o f s now o n t h e g round . S now shoe s a r e e s sen t ia l i n s nowy e nv i ronmen t s s u ch a sb o r ea l f o re s t s , b u t t h e Y amana p robab ly h ad l i t t le n eed t o e n te r t h e i n te r io r . T he T l ing i t u sed s now shoe s a g r ea t d ea l o n t h e i r i n te r io r t r ad ing t r ip s , ma in ly o b ta in ing t h em f r om t h e i r A thapa skan t r ad ing p a r tne r s . T he T l ing i t a l so h ad a v a r ie ty o f s pec ia l i sed b oxe s , b ag s , b a ske t s , b a ckpack s a nd o t he r a i d s f o r t h e t r an spo r t o fg ood s . T he Y amana s e em t o h ave h ad a r e la t ive ly mode s t s e t o f c on ta ine r s , b u t , a s t h ey g ene ra l ly d id n o t c a r ry much f ood f r om p l ace t op l ace ,t h i si st ob ee xpec t ed .

T he a bove " f ac t s o f l i f e" c an b e c l a s sed i n to t h ree c a tego r ie s o f c on s t ra in t : C apab i l i ty c ons tra in t s a r e t h e l im i t s t o a c t ion i mpo sed b y t h e p hy s ica l i ty o f t h e a c to r ( Ca r l s te in 1 982 :25 ) . T hey i n c lude s i ze , a ge , s e x , s en so ry r e ach a nd l i f e span , a l l r e f e r r ing t o ah uman b ody w h ich i s i n d iv i s ib le . T he i n d iv i s ib i l i ty o f t h e h uman b ody i s i mpo r tan t b ecau se i tf o r ce s ac on t inua l c ho ice o fw he re t o p u t t h a tb ody , o r" p lace a loca t ion" ( Ca r l s te in 1 982 :26 ) . A s ucce s s ion o ft h e se c ho ice s , o ve rt h e i rt empora l a nd s pa t ia l s h if t s , i n scr ibe a c ha rac ter is t ic p a th ( Ca r l s te in 1 982 :46 ) , w h ich c an b e g raphed i n t h e f am i l ia r t ime g eog raph ic manne r( e .g . , C a r l s te in 1 982 :38 -51) . E ach s t a te o ft h ep a th c on s t ra in s t h e f o l low ing s t a t e , h ence c on t inu i ty i mp l ie s c on t igu i ty . C oup l ing c on s t ra in t s a r e t h e l im i t s t o a c t ion i mpo sed b y t h e n eed t o c o -o rd ina te a c t iv i t ie s w i th o the r p eop le i no rde rt op er f orm t a sk st h a ta ni n d iv idua l c anno to r w i l l n o t p er f o rm a l one ( Ca r ls te in 1 982 :25 -26 ) . T h is

S ummary . T he se f ou r a spec t s o f m a te r ia l c u l tu r e ( p rocu r emen t t e chno logy , s t o rage , m a s s c ap tu r e a nd t r an spo r ta t ion ) a r e s ugge s t ed t ob ec l o se ly l i nked t ot ime -budge t ing b ehav iou r . O the r s c ou ld b e e xam ined , n o tab ly t h e d eg ree o f mu tua l e mbedd ing o ri n te r -pene t ra t ion o fa c t iv i t ie s( e .g . , e mbedded p rocu remen to fl i t h ic r e sou rce s ; c h i ldca re e mbedded i nt o o l m anuf a c tu r e t ime , e t c . ) . I n s umma ry , h oweve r , i ta ppea r s t h a tb o th t h eY amana a nd T l ing i tw e re a cqua in ted w i th t h e f u l l r ange o fT o r r ence 's m a te r ia l r e spon se s t ot ime s t re s s , p lu s t h ey h ad a pp rop r ia te t r an spor ta t ion t e chno logy . T he r e la t ive p re sence o ra b sence o fa ny g i ven f e a tu r e c anno tb e e xp la ined w ho l ly b y t e chno log ica l i g no rance , r aw m a ter ia l d ep r iva t ion o re nv i ronmen ta l p o s s ib i l i sm , b u t mu s t i n c lude a spec t s o f c ho ice a nd n eed i n t h e c on tex t o f t ime a nd

2 3 .A nd ,

a s Wob s t( 1990 :327 )n o te s , i ti so n ly t h e" env i ronmen ta l ly a c t ive" p a r t so f ma te r ia lc u l tu re t h a ts hou ld s how c o r r e spondence w i th t ime s t re s s . 2 4 . T h is l a s tc ond i t ion i sp a r t icu la r ly i n t e r e s t ing i nl i gh to fs oc ia lt h eo ry w h ich s t re s se st h ei mpo r tance o fh i s tor ica l ly s i tua ted ,r e cu r s ive " p r ac t ice ," s uch a sB ou rd ieu ( 1977 )a nd G idden s( 1984 ) .

1 9

c oup l ing c an b e i nt h e f o rm o fc o -p r e sence , s e r ia l p r e sence , o r c ommun ica t ion . R egu la tory o r s t eer ing c on s t ra in t s ( Ca r ls te in 1 982 :48 )o ra u thor i ty c on s t ra in t s ( Ge l l 1 992 :192 ) a r e t h e s oc ia l l im i t s t o a c t ion , w i th in wha t C a r ls te in ( 1982 :45 ) c a l l s t h e c on t ro l a r ea o r d oma in . T hey i n c lude t h e v o l i t iona l , n o rma t ive a nd i n s t i tu t iona l c hanne l l ing o f a c t iv i t ie s . T he se t h ree c a tego r ie s a r e , o fc ou r se , i n te rpene t ra ted , a nd i t i su n rea sonab le t o c on s ide r t h em i n i s o la t ion . A s G e l l ( 1992 :192 ) n o te s , t h e f a c t t h a t ab ank d oo r i sl o cked o n a S unday i s a c apab i l i ty c on s t ra in t t o t h e a c t ion o f w i thd raw ing c a sh ,t h ef a c tt h a tt h e re a r en ot e l le r sp r e sen ti s ac oup l ing c on s t ra in t , w h i le t h e f a c tt h a tt h e b ank i sc l o sed o n S unday s i sa na u thor i ty c on s t ra in t . I ti st hu st r ue b u tn o t t e r r ib ly p rof ound t o s ay t h a t o ne c anno t w i thd raw c a sh b ecau se t h e b ank d oo r i s l o cked . H oweve r , f r om a n a r chaeo log ica l v i ewpo in t , c apab i l i ty , a nd t o al e sse r e x ten t , c oup l ing c on s t ra in t s m ay b e mo re k nowab le , a s m ay t e chno logy t h a td i r ec t ly a dd re s se st h em . T ime g eog raphy a s sume s c l o se r e la t ion b e tween t ime a nd s pace , w i thou t e xp l ic i t ly o r w ho l ly r edu c ing o ne t o t h e o t he r . I tc on s ide r s a n e xpe r ien t ia l s pace o n ly i nt h e s en se o ft h e p o s s ib i l i t ie s o pen t ot h e h uman b ody , a nd i sl im i ted t o al i nea r i n c remen ta l t ime , a s i n d ica ted b y t h e z ax i s o f t h ep a th -g raph s . T ime a nd s pace mu s tb er e la ted i n aw o r ld i n wh ich p eop le move , s i nce movemen t t a ke s t ime . A c o ro l la ry o f t h e t ime g eog raph ic a pp roach , w h ich t r ea t s t ime a nd s pace a sr e sou r ce s t ob e b udge ted , i st h e c oncep t o fo ppo r tun i ty c o s t s ( Becke r 1 965 , C a r l s te in 1 982 :32 1-27 , G e l l 1 992 :206 -220 ) . A n o ppor tun i ty c o s t i st h e c o s t o f a c t iv i ty f o r egone . T o t h e e x ten t t h a t a c t iv i t ie s c anno t b e e mbedded i n o ne a no the r , o r n on -adve r se ly d e layed , t h en t h e r e i sa n i mp l ic i t c o s t i nvo lved i n d o ing a ny a c t iv i ty , n ame ly t h eo ppor tun i ty c o s to fd o ing s ome th ing e l se . A s en se o ft h e d u ra t ion a nd l o ca t ion o f s oc ia l a c t iv i ty i s c en t ra lt ot ime g eog raphy :

1 994 :80 ) . A s w i l l b e a rgued i n C hap te r 4 , i ti s mo re r e a l i s t ic t ot h ink o fp eop le l i v ing i n as pa t ia l e nv i ronmen t t h a t s u r round s a nd e x i s t s i n mu tua l r e c ip roc i ty t o t h e o b serve r , s uch a s t h e s o r t o f e nv i ronmen t e nv i saged b y G ib son ( 1979 ) a nd I ngo ld ( 1986 , 1 992 , 1 993 ) . F u r the rmo r e , a sd i scu s sed b e low , i tm ay n o tb e a pp ropr ia te t ot h ink o f" t ime" s imp ly a sa n e ven , l i nea r p rog re s s ion o r c h rono logy , o r a s ar e sou rce t h a t i sb udge ted l i ke o t he r r e sou r ce s . Whe the r t ime -geog raphy c an a ccommoda te a mo r e h uman i s t ic v i s ion i s u nce r ta in . T he n ex t s e c t ion i n t roduce s t h e s t udy o ft ime a nd s pace a sc u l tu ra l ly c r ea ted c a tego r ie s . 3 . 6 T ime a nd s pace a sc u l tura l ly c rea ted c a tegor ie s H uman b ehav iou r o ccu r s i n t ime a nd s pace , o r r a the r d ur ing t ime s a nd a t p l ace s . I n o t he r w o rd s , i ti sb o th h i s tor ica l a nd l o ca ted . A rchaeo log i s t s c an s t udy t h e m a ter ia l c o r re la te s o f t h i s b ehav iou r i n an umbe r o f d if e ren t w ay s , b u t a l l w i l l h ave b o th s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l d imen s ion s . S pace a nd t ime a r e n a tu ra l d imen s ion s b u t a r e a l so c u l tu ra l ly c on s t ruc ted . T he p rob lem f o ra r chaeo logy i s r e cogn i s ing a nd a ccoun t ing f o r t h e s t ruc tur ing e f f ec t ( s ) o f a s cr ib ing We s te rn i n du s t r ia l -age s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l c oncep t st op a s t s oc ie t ie s . Moder nt ime i sm ea su r ed , l i nea r c h rono log ica l , a nd c l ock -or ien ted , w h i le moder n s pace i s m ea su red b y C a r te s ian g eome t ry a nd s c a led map p ro jec t ion s . T ime a nd s pace a r e n ow j o ined , b o th c oup led t o g l oba l s t anda rd s .2 5 T he r e i se ve ry r e a son t o b e l ieve , h oweve r , t h a t t ime a nd s pace a r e l i ved i na nd e xpe r ienced i nq u i t e d i f f e ren t w ay s t ot ho se i mp l ied b y t h e c l ock a nd t h em ap ( e .g . , B loch 1 989 ; G e l l 1 985 , 1 992 ; G o sden 1 994 ) , a nd t h a t t h e se e xper ien t ia l t ime s a nd s pace s c on t r ibu te t o t h e s t ruc tu re o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T he n ece s sa r i ly b r ief d i scu s s ion wh ich f o l low s a dd re s s t h e se i s sue s w i th r a the r mo r e e mpha s i s o n t ime t h an o n s pace , a st h e l a t te r i s a l so d ea l tw i th a tl e ng th i nC hap te r4 . S pace . T he n a tu r e ( and v e ry e x i s tence ) o ft ime a nd s pace i so ne o f t h e o l de s t t h eme s i nw e s te rn p h i lo sophy . I n sp i red b y t h e p h i lo sophe rB ha ska r , G o sden ( 1994 ) a rgue s f o r ar e a l i s t ( a s o pposed t oe i the r p o s i t iv i s t o r c on s t ruc t iv i s t ) e p i s temo logy o f t ime a nd s pace . T he e s sence o f r e a l i sm i s t h e a cknow ledgemen tt h a tb o th

T empo ra l i ty i s c en t ra l t o t h e g ene ra t ion a nd p e rpe tua t ion o f s oc ia l f o rm s , n o t i n c iden ta l t o i t , a nd t empo ra l i ty i n t u rn make s n o s en se w i thou t c oncep t s o f s pa t ia l p r e sence a nd a b sence . ( Ca r l s te in 1 981 :43 )

t h e w o r ld e x is t s i n dependen t ly o f u s a nd w ec an o n ly a t temp tt ou nde r s tand t h e n a tu re o f t h e w o r ld 's e x i s tence . H oweve r , w e n eve r a pp r ehend t h e w o r ld a s o b jec t ive o bserve r s , a s p o s i t iv i s t s c l a im w e c an , b u ta sb e ing s

T he t ime g eog raphe r 's e conom ic a pp roach a nd t h e f o rma l l im i t s o ft h e i r g raph ing t e chn ique i n co rpo ra te s ap ro jec t ion o f a C a r te s ian g eome t r ic mode l o f s pace a nd l i nea r , m ea su red t ime , b o th t r ea ted a s r e sou r ce s . T he re i sl i t t le d oub t t h a t i ti sv e ry v a luab le t os how r ou te s , c on f l ic t s a nd c on s t ra in t s . Y e t , p eop le d o n o t l i ve i n s uch a r e c t i l inea r w o r ld o rt h rough s uch l i nea rt ime . T ime g eog raphy f a i l st o c on s ide r t h e s oc ia l p roce s s ( e .g . , p eop le 's p ro jec t s a r e t r acked b y t h e i r p a th s t h rough s pace t ime , b u t w he r e d o t h e se p ro jec t s o r ig ina te? ) o r h ow t h e re i s amu tua l , r a the r t h an d e te rm in ing , r e la t ion sh ip w i th s pace ( Go sden

.G o sden ( 1994 :2 , 131133 )n o te st h a ta ne f ec to fw o r ld t ime w a st o h igh l igh tt h ed if e r ence sc r os s -cu l tu ra l ly i nt empo ra lp e r cep t ion . O ne c ou ld make as im i la ra r gumen tt h a tc r ea t ion o f aw o r ld " p r eh i s tor ic t ime" t h rough c a rbon d a t ing h a sh e lped s ub sume t h ep o s s ib i l i t ie so fp r eh i s to r ic e xpe r ien t ia lt ime , a nd a tw ha tc o s t ? 2 5

2 0

i n vo lved i n t h e w o r ld a nd i n s oc ia l r e la t ion s . ( Go sden 1 994 :10 ) .

T ime . Two r e cen tb ook s b yG e l l ( 1992 ) a nd G o sden ( 1994 ) a g ree t h a t h uman t ime i ss oc ia l ly c on s t ruc ted : e ve ryday l i f e i s d om ina ted b y t h e t ime s o f b e ing , o f h ab i t , o f p rac t ice , r ega rd le s s o fc a lend r ica l o rc h rono log ica l s uper impo s i t ion s . B o th a g r ee t h a t c a lend r ica l d ev ice s a r e o f ten r oo ted i n p owe r s t ruc tu re s , a nd b ea r a na ly s i s o n t h e se t e rm s . N eve r the le s s ,t h ew o rk sa r eq u i te d i f f e ren t .

B u t t h e se p o s i t ion s o fi n te r e s ted , e ngaged o b serva t ion a r e n o t t h e s o le d e te rm inan t s o f k now ledge . R a the r , " know ledge a r i se s f r om b e ing , a nd i sa n e l emen t o f o u r a c t ion i nt h e wo r ld ( Go sden 1 994 :11) ." P a r t o ft h i s a c t ion p roduce s m a ter ia l c u l tu re , w h ich i ni t se lf i sp roduc t ive o f f u r th e r a c t ion . F u r the rmo r e , m a te r ia l c u l tu r e i st o s ome e x ten t d u r ab le , a nd s o s oc ia l l a nd scape s , b u i ld ing s , a nd p or tab le m a ter ia lc u l tu re a r er end e r ed " t he m ed ium t h rough wh ich h ab i t s a r e i n cu lca ted ( Go sden 1 994 :11) ." G o sden 's ( 1994 :17 ) c on ten t ion t h a t ma te r ia l t h ing s a r e n o t " pa s s ive b ru t eo b jec t sb u ta r ee ngaged i nr ef lex ive r e la t ion sh ip sw i th t h e p eop le who c r ea te o ru se t h em" i s as im i la rp o s i t ion t o t h e T ime G eog raphe r s ' r e f u sa l t o s e e i n an ima te t h ing s a s n on soc ia l , a s se r t ing t h a t t h e r e e x is t s a n " eco logy o f t e chno logy ( Ca r l s te in 1 982 :8 -9 ) ."

G o sden ( 1994 1 26 , 1 3 1138 ) s t a te st h e re a r e many l e ve l s o f t ime ,b u td i s t ingu i she sb e tween t h ree c a tego r ies : t h et ime o f h ab i t , p ub l ic t ime , a nd r e cu r s ive t ime . T he f i r s t c o r re spond s t o t h e t ime o f e ve ryday l i f e , o f " pe r sona l e x i s tence b ounded b y b i r th a nd d ea th ," a nd i si n t ima te ly c onnec ted t o t h e b ody , t o b e ing , a nd t o dwe l l ing i n t h e w o r ld ( Go sden 1 994 :137 ) . P ub l ic t ime s t em s f r om t h et ime o f h ab i t . Mo r e s p ec if ica l ly , i td e r ive s f r om c on sc iou s r e spon se sw hen u ncon sc iou sh ab i ti sc onf ounded b yo u t -of t h e -o rd ina ry s i tua t ion s ( Go sden 1 994 :125 ) . I ti sm a rked b y c on sc iou s ly m an ipu la ted s ymbo l s , m ean ing s , a nd n a r ra t ive s , w h ich u l t ima te ly , t h rough r epe t i t ion , m ay b ecome u ncon sc iou s ly s ub sumed w i th in h ab i tua l t ime s . R ecu r s ive t ime p u l l s t h e p r e sen t i n to t h e p a s t a nd c r ea te s a n t ic ipa t ion s f o r t h e f u tu r e . I ti s s o l id ly r ep re sen ted i n m a te r ia l c u l tu re , e ndu r ing f o rm s o f w h ich p rov ide a " f ee l ing o fr i gh tne s s" t o h ab i tua l t ime ( Go sden 1 994 :137 3 8 ) . G o sden m ake s n o p a r t icu la r c l a im s f o rt h e a c tua l w ay i n w h ich p eop le e xpe r ience t h e se s o r t s o f t empo r a l i t ie s b ecau se h eb e l ieve s t h a tt ime i sc r ea ted t h rough a c t ion , a nd i sn o t am ed ium t h rough w h ich a c t ion u nf o ld s ( 1994 :165 ) .

E xpe r ien t ia l s pace a nd t ime a r e a l so p a r t ia l , i n t h e s en se t h a t n o s i ng le p e r son h a s c omp le t e k now ledge o f t h e i r e n t i r e d oma in . Y e t , e t hnog raph ie s f r equen t ly c o l la te t h e c umu la t iv ek now ledge o f mu l t ip le i n f o rman t s , t hu sb u ry ing t h i s f r a c t iona t ion o f k now ledge . B ou rd ieu ( 1977 :106 ) s ugges t s t h a t t h e a dop t ion o f t h i s " ana ly t ica l p r iv i lege o f t o ta l i sa t ion" p rec lude st h ea sk ing o f" que s t ion so fp rac t ice ." K ind s o ft o ta l i sed i n f o rma t ion i n c lude d e scr ip t ion s o fa ny b road s c a le s pa t ia l o r t empo ra l a c t iv i ty , s uch a s r e sou r ce map s a nd t h e o rgan i sa t ion o f t h e a nnua l r ound . T he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i t se lf , w i th i t s t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l s cope , c ou ld b e c on s ide r ed at o ta l i sed p henomenon , b u t i t a l so c on ta in se v idence f o rs i ng le o rl i nked e ven t s ,2 6 a sl i t h ic r e -f i t t ing s t ud ie se xemp l if y . A v ery d if e ren t a pp roach t o s pa ce i s o u t l ined b y t h e c ogn i t ive a n th ropo log i s t s P inx ten e ta l( 1983 :183 -85 ) w ho c r ea t e a" Un ive r sa l F rame o fR ef e r ence" ( UFOR ) , i n tended t o b e af i e ld manua l o r "Mun se l l b ook" f o r t h e c r o s s c u l tu ra l i d en t if ica t ion o fs pa t ia l c oncep t s . D eve loped i na n a ppa ren t ly r i go rou s a nd c u l tu ra l ly sen s i t ive m anne r d u r ing f i e ldwo rk a mong s t t h e N avaho , t h e UFOR i sl im i ted t o c a tego r i s ing s t a temen t s o fc u l tu r a l b e l ief s a bou t t h e s pace i nw h ich t h eN avaho l i ve . I td oe sn o td raw ac o r re spond ing s yn the s i s o f s pa t ia l p e r cep t ion ( j u s t a s t h e Mun se l l b ook d oe sn o tg i ve au n ive r sa lc o lou r ) , a nd s o ,a pa r tf r om b e ing a s ou r ce o fs ome w e l l d eve loped s pa t ia l v ocabu la ry , i ti so f l i t t le u s e a r chaeo log ica l ly . I ts t and s i nc l ea rc on t ra s tt ot h e n o t ion o f ah uman -cen t red e nv i ronmen ta l " p lace" o u t l ined b y G ib son ( 1979 ) a nd o t he r s , t h e i mp l ica t ion s o fw h ich a r e d i scu s s ed i nt h eC hap te r4 .

. T he v i sua le co log ica lv i ew o ft h ee nv i ronmen t( Chap te r4 ) ,w i th i t s e mpha s i so nt h ep r iva te ( p a r t ia l )e nv i ronm en to fi n d iv idua l sa nd t h e c on s t ruc t ion o fp ub l ic k now ledge o rc on sen su st h rough c o -pe r cep t ion a nd i n te ra c t ion ,c ou ld b ec on s ide r ed a s an on to ta l i s ing a na ly t ica l f r amewo rk . B ecau se i ti sb a sed o np u ta t ive ly u n ive r sa lt h eo r ie so fp e r cep t ion a nd i n f o rma t ion p i ckup ,i tm ay p r ov ide ar ou t et ot h ea r chaeo log ica la na ly s i s o fe xpe r ien t ia lp r ac t ice o ve rt i me a nd s p a ce .

P ub l ic t ime i sp a r t icu la r ly i n te re s t ing b ecau se i ti ss a id t ob e t h er e su l to ft h ough tf u l a c t ion o ra na ly s i s w hen h ab i t m ee t s t h e u nexpec t ed ( Go sden 1 994 :184 ) . Mu l t ip le p o s s ib le w o r ld s c an u nf o ld f r om a ny g i ven momen t . T he p a s t i s c ruc ia l i n a n t ic ipa t ing t h e f u tu r e , n o t j u s t t h rough e xpe r ience , b u t t h rough h ab i t a nd t h e p e r s is tence o f m a ter ia l c u l tu r e .2 7 A n t ic ipa t ion o ff u tu r e c on t ingenc ie s c an b em apped ( Ge l l 2 29 -60 ) . T hu s , " t he p r e sen t" i nt h ep a s ti s c ruc ia l t oa n a r chaeo log ica l c on s ide ra t ion o fs oc ia lp rac t ice , e spec ia l ly i n i t s c on t ingen t r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e v aga r ie s a nd r egu la r i t ie s o fs ub s is tence . T he r o le o ft e chno logy i s e xemp l if ied b y s t o r age , i n w h ich c e r ta in o f t h e p o s s ib le w o r ld s — s t a rva t ion o rs u rv iva l — a r e p red ica ted u pon t h e e x i s tence a nd i mp lemen ta t ion o f a c e r ta in k ind o f t e chno logy . G e l l a s ser t s t h a t s o c ia l t ime ( t he s o -ca l led A -ser ie s t ime ) i s u nde rp inned b y au n ive r sa l a ccep tance o fl i nea rp rog r e s s ion a nd s equen t ia l l o g ic ( B se r ie s t ime ) . T hu s , h i s m a in p o in t o fd epa r tu r e w i th G o sden i sa s se r t ing b o th a n e x te rna l a nd

. F o l low ing G e l l( 1992 :323 ) ,t h i sb r ing st h ee conom ic a pp roa ch o f o ppor tun i ty c o s t sc l o se rt o a" t heo ry o fp r ac t ice" b ecau se i te ngage st h e m a te r ia lw o r ld w i th c on t ingen t ,u n rea l i sed f u tu r ew o r ld st h a ta r e a n t ic ipa ted t h rough t h er e cu r s ive p a s ti nt h ep r e sen t . I ti st h is a n t ic ipa t ion o fa nu nknown f u tu r et h a tB ou rd ieu ( 1977 :8 -9 )c l a im si s af a l la cy o f p ro jec t ing l i nea rt ime b a ckwa rd s : i tm ake st h ed ynam ic n ego t ia t ion so f s o c ia lp r ac t ice a ppea rt e leo log ica li nr e t ro spec t .

2 6

2 7

2 1

c ommod if ica t ion o ft ime . D raw ing o n e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s o f b o th h un te r -ga the re r s a nd B r i t i sh R a i l l o como t ive d r ive r s , I ngo ld n o te s t h a t b o th s pend much o ft h e i rt ime i n p u r su i t o f a ppa r en t l e i su r e a c t iv i t ie s ( c ha t t ing , n app ing , p l ay ing c a rd s ) r a the r t h an s ub s is tence p u r su i t s ( hun t ing , d r iv ing t r a in s ) , t ot h e d i smay o fC ap i ta l i s tc ommen ta to r s .2 9 I ngo ld 's ( 1995 :5 ) c onc lu s ion i st h a t " c lock t ime i sa sa l ien t o u s a s i ti st o t h e p eop le o fp re indu s t r ia l s oc ie t ie s : t h e o n ly d i f f e r ence i sw eh ave t od ea lw i th i t . " " F ree t ime" ( t he t ime o f c on sump t ion ) i n w e s ter n d i scou r se i sd ef ined i n c on t ra s tt o" wo rk ," ( t he t ime o fp roduc t ion ) . I ngo ld ( 1995 ) e xp l ic i t ly c a s t s t h e c on t ra s t a s b e ing b e tween a " dwe l l ing p er spec t ive" a nd a" commod i ty p e r spec t iv e ," ap o in tw h ich w i l lb er e i te ra ted i nt h e f o l low ing c hap t e r s .

a n i n ter na l B se r ie s , w i th t h e A se r ie s a s t h e e xpe r ien t ia l t ime i n t h e m idd le , u nde rp inned a nd o ve r r idden b y B s e r ie s . I ne f ec t , G e l l c l a im s( 1992 :29 1-92 )t h a te xpe r ien t ia l t ime i s " mapped o n to" a n u nde r ly ing s e r ie s o f B -se r ie s r ep re sen ta t ion sd u r ing i n te rp r e ta t ion . H e g ive s t h e e xamp le o f t h e Umeda l u na r c a lenda r . I n t h i s m e thod o f t ime r e ckon ing , t h e moon i sb e l ieved t og row l i ke av ege tab le , s ome t ime s q u ick ly a nd s ome t ime s s l ow ly . Emp i r ica l ly t h i s i sn o t t r ue , a s t h e p rog re s s ion o f l u na r p ha se s p roceed s r egu la r ly . Y e t , G e l lc l a im s o ne d oe sn o th ave t oa ccep tt h a t s oc ia l ( A se r ie s ) t ime a mong s tt h e Umeda i ss haped b yt h i s p e rcep t ion . R a the r , t h i s b e l ief i t se lf i ss haped b yt h e b e l ief t h a t t h e moon i s al a rge v ege tab le . H ence , t h e i rb e l ief s a r e d i f f e ren tt h an o u r own b u ta r eb a sed o n as im i la ru nde r ly ing l o g ic , n ame ly t h a t o fB ser ie s t ime . H is d ef in i t ion o fB s e r ies i sf l ex ib le e nough t o a l low f o r i tt o b e " moda l ly u nce r ta in a nd m e t r ica l ly u nca l ib ra t ed ," b u t i ti su l t ima te ly l o g ica l : c au se s p r ecede t h e i r e f ec t s , f o r e xamp le . H ence , h e a rgue st h e r e i sn o r e a son t ob e l ieve t h e re i s ad i f f e rence b e tween We s ter ni n du s t r ia l s oc ie ty ( B -ser ie s e mpha s i s ) a nd t h e a n th ropo log ica l o t he r ( A se r ie s e mpha s i s ) , d e sp i t e s uch w e l l -known c a se s t ud ie s s u ch a s t h e r i tua l c a lenda r s o f B a l i :

3 . 7 C onc lus ion s : T ime a nd s pace i nt h ea rch ipe lago

T he re i s n o f a i ry land w he r e p eop le e xpe r ience t ime i n aw ay t h a t i s ma rked ly u n l ike t h e w ay i n wh ich w e d o o u r se lve s , w he r e t h e r e i sn o p a s t , p r e sen t , a nd f u tu re , whe r e t ime s t and s s t i l l , o r c ha se s i t s o wn t a i l , o r s w ing s b a ck a nd f o r th l i ke ap endu lum . A l l t h e se p o s s ib i l i t ie s h ave b een s e r iou s ly t ou ted i nt h e l i t e ra tu re ... b u t t h ey a r e a l l t r ave s t ie s , e ngende r ed i n t h e p roce s se so fs cho la r ly r ef lec t ion . ( Ge l l 1 992 :315 ) T h i s " f a i ry land" i ss ome th ing o f as t raw m an f o rG e l l . P a r t o fG e l l 's a rgumen t i st h a t a l h uman s e xper ience A -ser ie s t ime a s t h e ( l og ica l ly u nde rp inned ) t ime o f e ve ryday p rac t ice ( Bou rd ieu 1 977 ; c f . G o sden 1 994 :114 126 ) . T hu s , wh i le i tm ay b ea r gued t h a tt h e B se r ie st ime i ss im i la rt oa g ene ra t ive g r amma r o f t empo ra l i ty , a nd a cco rd ing ly t ime d oe sn o tr un b ackwa rd s , G e l lw ou ld p robab ly a g ree t h a tt h e d ive r s i ty a nd i mmed iacy o fs oc ia l t ime s i sg a ined t h rough " be ing i nt h ew o r ld ," a nd t h a ti ti st h e se p ercep t ion so ft ime ( wh ich i n c lude s " na tu ra l" c yc le s a nd r hy thm s ) wh ich h ave i mpo r t f o r m a te r ia l c u l tu r e , s i te f o rma t ion , a nd o t he r m a t te r s o fa r chaeo log ica l i n te re s t . T he q ue s t ion t h e ref o re d evo lve s t o w ha t e f f ec t t h e t ime s a nd mo t ion s o f s oc ia l p rac t ice h ave o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a nd i n t e rp re t ive a pp roache st oi t( c f . S hennan 1 993 ) .2 8 I n te re s t ing ly , I ngo ld r e so lve s t h e A se r ie s : B ser ie s d i cho tomy b y a s ser t ing t h a t t h e l a t te r i s m e re ly a n a spec t o f t h e w e s ter n

. S hennan 's a pp roach t os oc ia lp ra c t ice i sv i ag ame theo r e t ic m od e l l ing i nw h ich t ime p a s se sa s as e r ie so fd ec i s ion sa nd t h e i rc on sequen ce sa nd s pace i sa bs t ra c t ed .

2 8

2 2

T he t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l c on s t ra in t s o f t h e e nv i ronmen t c on t r ibu te t o ,b u td on o td e te rm ine , t h e" chor eog raphy" o f d a i ly l i f e . T h i s c ho reog raphy i st h e " en t ir e e n semb le o f t a sk s ,3 ° i nt h e i r mu tua l i n te r lock ing ( I ngo ld 1 993 :158 ) ," i n o t he r w o rd s , t h e " t a sk scape ." I t i s t h e t o ta l i sed e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s o f t h e t a sk scape w h ich h ave b een u sed t o c r ea t e t h e d i cho tomy o f " comp lex" a nd " s imp le" h un te r s a nd g a the r s . T he d i sc ip l ine o ft h e c l ock h a s b een f a l se ly e mbedded a s as t age i nt h e d i scou r se o fp rog re s s ion f r om s imp le t oc omp lex . S o , i fi tw e r ep o s s ib le t oi n f o rm a t ime -geog raph ic o r o t he r q uan t i ta t iv e g eog raph ica l a pp l ica t ion w i th t h e s oc ia l t ime r ep re sen t a t ion o f p rac t ice o r d we l l ing , i tw ou ld b ecome a " s ca le mode l" o f t h e t a sk scape . I n i t s a u s te r e a bs t rac t ion o f e xpe r ien t ia l t ime a nd s pace ,t h e s c a le mode lw ou ld b et ot h er e a l t a sk scape a s amu s ica l s co re i st ot h e p e rf ormance , a st h e p e rf o rmance o f p a in t ing i st o t h e p a in ted p i c tu r e , a nd a s t h e a c t o f d we l l ing i st ot h e l a nd scape i t se lf . Y e t , s u ch a n a pp roach t ot ime g eog raphy p e rhap s a n swe r s I ngo ld 's ( 1993 ) c a l l f o r a r chaeo log i s t s t o d o w ha t t h ey d o b e s t : i n ve s t iga te t h e t empo ra l i ty o f t h e n on -Cap i ta l i s t l a nd scape , a nd n o t j u s t c r ea t e i d ea l i sed s co re s o r d e s ign s f o r d we l l ing . T he f o l low ing c hap te r s s t a r t t oi mp lemen t t h i s p rog ram , f i r s t ly b y d i scu s s ing t h e r o le o f mob i l i ty i nt h e p e r cep t ion o ft h e e nv i ronmen t , a nd s ub sequen t ly b y d i scu s s ing t h e n a tu re o f t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t i n aF jo rd land a r ch ipe lago . F rom t h e r e , a n e mp i r ica l i nve s t iga t ion o f mob i l i ty w i th in s u ch a n e nv i ronmen ti so u t l ined a nd d i scu ssed .

.I ngo ld ( 1 995 :24 -25 )n o te st h a tt h eA n th ropo log i s t s 'Z en -a f luen t c ha ra c te r isa t ion o ft h eh un te r -ga the rl i f e s ty le c o in c ide sw i th t h ev i ew o f t h eE ng l ish g en t ry t h a tt h ew o rk ing c l a s se sw e r ei n do l en t ,u n -f o re s igh tf u l , p rof l iga t e ,k ep ti regu la rh ou r s ,a nd w e r eb en to ni n s tan tg r a t if ica t ion a nd m e r r imen t . 3 ° .I ngo ld e l sewhe r e( 1 995 :6 )d efme s at a sk a s" an a c t iv i ty e mbedded i na s o c ia lr e la t ion ." 2 9

p e r spec t iv e s t ruc tu r e . ..( G ib son 1 979 :197 ; e mpha s i si no r ig ina l )

CHAPTER 4—ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE ECOLOG ICAL APPROACH TO V ISUAL P ERCEPT ION .

G ib son b e l ieve st h a tm ovemen ti sc en t r a lt op e r cep t ion ,t h a t t h e " mean ing " o ft h ing s i nt h e e nv i ronmen tc an b e d i r ec t ly p e r ce ived ( t h e t h eo ry o f a f f o rd ance s ) , a nd s o t h e e nv i ronm en t b ecom e s k nown t h rough d i r ec t m ean ingf u l i n pu t , a s ap e r son o r ap e r son ' s e ye t r ave r se s ( a nd v i sua l ly s amp le s ) p a th s o rr ou te s t h rough t h a t e nv i ronmen t . T hu s , t h e r e i sn o f i xed p o in t o fo b se rva t ion , b u t r a the r p a th s o f o b se rva t ion , w h ich c an b e c on ce ived o f a s u n if y ing movemen t s d u r ing w h ich t h e i n va r ian t s t ru c tu r e o f t h e e nv i ronmen ti sr e v ea led t h rough af l ow ing p e r spec t ive .

4 . 1 I n t roduc t ion T h ep r ev iou sc hap t e ro u t l ined s ome w ay so fl o ok ing a tt ime a nd s p a ce i n r e la t ion t o h un te r -ga th e r e r l i f e i n c oa s t a l a r ch ipe lago s . T h i s c hap t e r i n t rodu ce s t h e e co log ica l a pp roa ch t ov i sua l p e r cep t ion a nd d i scu s se s s ome a r ea s i n w h ich i tm ay b e a b le t oi n f o rm a r cha eo log ica l m e thod a nd t h eo ry . I n p a r t icu la r , t h e e mpha s i s p l a ced b y t h e p sycho log i s tJ . J . G ib son ( 1 979 )o nr ou t e sa nd p a th st h rough t h e e nv i ronmen t , a nd o n t h e g ap s b e tw een t h e se r ou te s , i s s ugg e s t ed t ob e r e levan t t o as p a t ia l a pp roa ch c omb in ing n e two rk a nd l o ca t iona l a na ly s i s , l o ca t ion -a l loca t ion m od e l l ing , a nd g eog raph ic i n f o rma t ion s y s t em s . D e ta i l s o f t h i s p r opo s ed a pp roa ch a r e d i scu s sed i n s ub sequ en t c hap t e r s .

C omb in ing t h e a bov e w i th o t he r a s pec t s o f h i s t h eo ry , G ib son ( 1 979 :2 19 -222 ) c on c lude s t h a t p e r cep t ion s hou ld n o t b e c on ce ived o f a s " snap sho t s" t h a t s omehow g e t m e lded t o ge the r i n t h e b r a in , b u t a s a d i a ch ron ic , c on t inuou s p r oce s s i n wh ich t h e o b se r ve r i s , i ne f f ec t , i n mo r et h an o n ep l ace o fo b serva t ion a ta ny g i ven t im e . T h i s s e em ing p a radox i s r e so lved i f o ne a c cep t s G ib son ' s a r gumen tt h a tp e r cep t ion i t se lf i si n ar e a l s e n se at ime le s s p h enomenon .3 1 A c o ro l la ry o f t h i s a r gumen t i st h a t t h e e nv i ronmen t c an b e ( a nd u sua l ly i s ) p e r ce iv ed f r om t h e p o in to fv i ew o fa no the ro b se rve r :

4 . 2 A ni n troduc t ion t ot he e co log ica l a pproach t ov i sua l p erc ep t ion J am e s G ib son ( 1 979 ) p r e sen t s au n i f ied t h eo ry o f v i sua l p e r cep t ion t h a t h a s w id e i mp l ica t ion s f o r o t he r d i sc ip l ine s , i n c lud ing a r cha eo logy . I ti si mpo s s ib le t o c ond en se a l a s pe c t s o fh i s a r gum en ti nt h i s s e c t ion . R a the r , t h a t a s pec t w h ich i so fm o s t i mmed ia te i n t e r e s t w i l l b e d i scu s sed : h i s a s se r t ion t h a t r e a l -wo r ld v i sua l p e r cep t ion c anno t b e u nd e r s tood w i thou t a cknow ledg ing t h a t t h e e y e s w ive l s i n t h eo r b i t ,t h a tt h eo rb i ti sa t ta ched t o as w ive l l ing h ead ,a nd t h a t t h e h ead i ss uppo r t ed b y f e e t a nd m ove s t h rough t h e e nv i ronmen t . D ep th i sp e r ce iv ed m a in ly v i a t h e o cc lu s ion o f s u r f a ce s a nd e dge s a s o b jec t s a nd o b se rve r m ove i n r e la t ion t o e a ch o t he r , r a the r t h an p u r e ly a s ar e su l t o f b i no cu la rv i s ion . T he w ho le b ody , i n c lud ing t h e o r b i t a nd t h e n o se ( wh ich f o rm t h e mo s t b a s ic o cc lud ing e dge a nd w h i ch u n if yt h ee nv i ronmen tw i th t h eb ody )i sat o t a lv i sua l s y s t em . C on s tan t m o t ion o f t h e e ye i st h e r u le , a nd t h e f i xed p o in t o f o b se rva t ion , t h e n o rm i n m o s t l a bo ra to ry e xpe r imen t s o n v i sua l p e r cep t ion d u r ing w h ich t h e h ead i s i mmob i l i sed , i s ar a r e e xcep t ion w h ich s hou ld p rope r ly b e c on ce iv ed o fa s ap au se i n l o como t ion ( G ib son 1 979 :75 ) . I nd eed , h e n o t e s t h a t p eop le a c tua l ly s e e b e t t e r d u r ing l o como t ion :

T he c ommon a s se r t ion , t h en , t h a t ' I c an p u t my se lf i ny ou r p o s i t ion ' h a s m ean ing i n e co log ica l o p t ic s a nd i s n o t am e r ef i gu r e o fs p eech . T oa dop t t h e p o in to fv i ew o fa no the rp e r son i s n o t a n a dvanced a ch iev emen t o f c oncep tua l t h ough t . I tm ean s , Ic an p e r ce ive s urf ace s h i dd en a tm yp o in t o fv i ew b u t u nh idd en a ty our s . T h i s m ean s Ic an p er ce iv e as urf ace t h a ti s b eh ind a no ther . A nd i fs o , w e c an b o th p e r ce ive t h es ame w or ld . ( G ib son 1 979 :200 ; e mpha s i si no r ig ina l ) S o " pub l ic k now ledge" ( G ib son 1 979 :200 ) o f t h e e nv i ronmen t i sn o t s o le ly b a sed o n c ommun ica t ion , b u t o n w ha t m igh t b e c a l led l e arned ,3 2 s har ed c o -pe r cep t ion : a n ew t h eo ry o f i n f o rma t ion e x chang e . I t i s i mpo r tan t b ecau se G ib son ' s d ef in i t ion o ft h ee nv i ronm en ti sr e la t iona l t o i n d iv idua l s . T he e nv i ronmen t i s d ef ined a s t h e s u r round ing s o ft h o se o rgan i sm s t h a tp e r ce ive a nd b ehave . T h e w o rd s a n ima l a nd e nv ironmen t m ak e a n i n sepa rab le p a i r , e a ch t e rm i mp ly ing t h e o t h e r .3 T he " spa ce" o ft h e

S ee ing t h e w o r ld a t at r av e l l ing p o in t o f o b se rva t ion , o v e r al o ng e nough t i me f o r as uf i c ien t ly e x t end ed s e t o f p a th s , b eg in s t o b e p e r ce iv ing t h e w o r ld a ta l lp o in t so fo b se rva t ion ,a si f o n e c ou ld b e e ve rywhe r e a to n ce . .. E a ch o b jec ti ss e en f r om a l s i d e s , a nd e a ch p l a ce i ss e en a sc onn ec t ed t oi t s n e ighbou r . T he w o r ld i sn o t v i ewed i n [ s ing le p o in t ] p e r spe c t ive . T he u nd e r ly ing i n va r ian t s t ruc tu r e h a s e me rged f r om t h e c hang ing

.G ib son d oe sn o tu se t h et e rm s ,b u ti ti sc l ea rt h a tp e rcep t ion o ccu r s o u t s ide o ft h eA -a nd B se r ie st empo ra lc a tego r i sa t ion ( s ee C hap te r3 ) . 3 2. I nt h es en se o ft h eo n tog eny o fp e rcep t ion d i scu s sed e l sewhe r eb y G ib son ( 1979 ) . 3 3 .C on s id e rR iva l 's ( 1996 :148 )d e sc r ip t ion o f h un t ing w i th t h eH uao r an i : " One 's b ody t a ke st h es me l lo ft h ef o r e s ta nd c ea se st ob ee x t r aneou st o t h ef o r e s tw o r ld . O ne l e a rn st op e rce ive t h ee nv i ronmen ta so t he ra n ima l s d o .O ne b ecome s a' dw e l le r ' d eep ly i n vo lved i n as i len tc onve r sa t ion w i th s u r round ing p l an t sa nd a n ima l s ." 3 1

2 3

I ft h e se c oncep t s a r e a ccep t ed , t h en o ne m ay s t a r t t og ra sp w ha t aG ib son ian v i ew o fs oc ie ty m igh t e n ta i l , a pa r t f r om t h e b ana l r e a l i sa t ion t h a tw e a l l l i ve i nt h e s ame w o r ld . A l l s oc ia l a c t ion i se mbedded i n" behav iou ra l l o op s :"

e nv i ronmen t m u s t b e u nde r s tood i nt e rm s r e levan t f o r t h e a n ima l s i ts u r round s ; G ibson ( 1979 :7 -44 ) a rgue s t ha t t h e se a r e n o t t h e t e rm s o fp hy s ic s , m a thema t ic s o r p h i lo sophy , s uch a s p l ane s , p o in t s a nd v ec to r s , b u t t e rm s wh ich mo r e a dequa te ly d e sc r ibe t h e e xpe r ien t ia l w o r ld , s uch a s s u rf ace s , p l ace s a nd p a th s . C o l lec t ive ly , t h e s u r round ing s o f a n a n ima l a r e t h e s ame a s t h o se o f a l l , b u t i n t h e i r s pec if i c s t h ey a r e d i f f e r en t : r e so lu t ion o ft h is c on t rad ic t ion l i e s i nc on s ide ra t ion o fa ny a n ima la s au n ique ,b u t m ov ing , p o in to fo b se rva t ion .

Wha t o ne a n ima l a f f o rd s t h e o b se rve r i sn o t o n ly b ehav iou r , b u t a l so s o c ia l i n te rac t ion ...A n u nd e r s tand ing o f l i f e w i th o ne ' s f e l low c r ea tu re s d epend s o n a n a dequa te d e sc r ip t ion o f wha tt h e se c r ea tu r e s of e r , a nd t h en o n a n a na ly s i s o fh ow t h e se of e r ing s a r e p e r ce ived . ( G ib son 1 979 :42 )3 5

N eve r the le s s , t h a t i nd iv idua l s a r e t h e c en t re s o ft h e i r own p r iva te e nv i ronmen t s a nd t h a t t h ey f i gu re i n t h e s u r round ing s o f o t he r i nd iv idua l s i mmed ia te ly r a ise s t h e q ue s t ion o f s o c ia l b ehav iou r . S oc ia l r e la t ion s a r e e nve loped w i th in t h e t h eo ry o f a f f o rdance s ( G ib son 1 979 :127 146 ) . A n a f o rdance i ss ome th ing ( o r s omeone ) i nt h e e nv i ronmen t a nd t h e v a lue o rm ean ing o ft ha t t h ing , a nd s o c an o n ly b e k nown r e la t ive t o a n o b se rve r . Wh i le t h ep hy s ica lw o r ld a nd i t si nva r ian ts t ruc tu r e i sr e a l e nough , t h ee xpe r ien t ia le nv i ronmen to fv a lue a nd m ean ing c an o n ly b e u nde r s tood b y r e f e r ence t o t h e a n ima te b e ing t h a t p e r ce ive st h o se m ean ing s :

B u t G ib son i sv ague o n wha t c on s t i tu te s s o c ie ty . T h i s i s p r e sumab ly f o r t wo r e a son s . Mo s t i mpo r tan t ly , s poken l a nguage i sc r i t ica l t os oc ia l i n te rac t ion , b u t i tf a l l s o u t s ide t h er e a lm o fv i sua lp e rcep t ion , a l though t h e r ei sp re sumab ly a n a u ra l a na logue t o t h e a mb ien t o p t ica l a r ray . I ti sa d eba tab le p o in th ow much s ymbo l ic a c t iv i ty c an o ccu rt h a t i sn o t m ed ia ted o r i n f o rmed b y l a nguage . T h is i sn o t t o s ugge s t t h a t l a nguage i s t h e o n ly f o rm o f s ymbo l ic b ehav iou r , b u t i ti ss u r e ly ac ruc ia l o ne . S econd , w r i t ing a nd a r t ( wh ich a r e b o th v i sua l ly p e r ce ived ) a r e c on s ide r ed a s as pec ia l c l a s s o f o b jec t s w h ich d i sp lay " med ia ted" ( r a the r t h an d i r ec t ) k now ledge . I ti st h e se d ev ice s , i n sof a r a s t h ey a r e d u rab le , w h ich p e rm i t " t he s t o rage o f i n f o rma t ion , a nd t h e a ccumu la t ion o f i n f o rma t ion i n s t o r ehou se s , i ns ho r t , ' c iv i l iza t ion ' ( G ib son 1 979 :42 ) . 3 6 A g l imp se i n to a G ib son ian v i ew o f s oc ie ty i sh i s c ommen t ( 1979 :14 1) t h a t c h i ld ren s t a r t t o b e s o c ia l ised when t h ey c an p e r ce ive a f f o rdance s f o r o t he r s a s w e l l a s f o r t h em se lve s .

B u t , a c tua l ly , a n a f o rdance i sn e i the r a n o b jec t ive p rope r ty n o r as ub jec t ive p rope r ty ; o r i ti sb o th i fy ou l i ke . A n a f f o rdance c u t s a c ro s s t h e d i cho tomy o f s ub jec t ive -ob jec t ive a nd h e lp s t o u nde r s tand i t s i n adequacy . I t i s e qua l ly af a c t o ft h e e nv i ronmen t a nd af a c to fb ehav iou r . I ti sb o th p hy s ica l a nd p sych ica l , y e t n e i the r . A n a f f o rdance p o in t s b o th w ay s , t o t h e e nv i ronmen t a nd t o t h e o b serve r . ( G ib son 1 979 :129 )

I n p l ac ing s o much w e igh t o n t h e i n d iv idua l , G ib son i s m e r e ly f o l low ing a n e co log ica l a genda , a si se xp l ic i t i nt h e t i t le o f h i s b ook , a nd s o h e c anno t b e f a u l ted f o r t h a t a l one .3 7 N eve r the le s s , b y f a i l ing t o e xp l ic i t ly d i scu s s t h e c o l lec t ive n a tu r e o f s oc ie t ie s , g roup i n te rac t ion , c ommun ica t ion a nd r i tua l , c o rpo ra t e i n te r e s t s a nd s o f o r th , G ib son mak e s i td i ff icu l t t o a pp ly h i s t h eo ry i n as o c ia l c on tex t . I ti s ah uman is t ic e co logy b a sed o n t h e i nd iv idua l , b u t o ne t h a t f a i l s t os uff ic ien t ly s oc ia l i se e i th e rt h e e co logy o rt h e h uman . N eve r the le s s i tm ay p rov ide t h e f r amewo rk f o r mo r eh uman is t ic s oc ia l s t ud ie s( Reed 1 988 :123 ) .

P eop le a r e d ef ined ( G ib son 1 979 :135 ) a s" de tached o b jec t s w i th t o po log ica l ly c l o sed s u r f ace s ," who se r i ch a nd v a r ied a f f o rdance s f o r e ach o the r c umu la t ive ly c omp r ise t h e t o ta l r e a lm o f s o c ia l s i gn if i cance f o r t h e h uman s . S oc ia l i n te rac t ion b e tween p eop le i su nde r s tood a st h e i r reduc ib le , r e c iproca l a nd d i rec t p e r cep t ion o f s i tua t iona l , mu tua l a f f o rdance .3 4 S uch p e r cep t ion s a r e i n ev i tab ly much mo r e c omp lex t h an t h o se b e tween p eop le a nd i n an ima te o b jec t s . " Behav iou r a f f o rd s b ehav iou r ," a nd t h e s ub jec t ma t te r o f t h e s oc ia l s c ience s i s a n e l abo ra t ion o f t h i s b a s ic f a c t ( G ib son 1 979 :135 ) .

F o r e xamp le , t h e s oc ia l a n th ropo log i s t T im I ngo ld h a s t a ken a G ib son ian a pp roa ch t o h un te r s , g a the r e r s a nd " . I ti si n te re s t ing t on o te t h a tG ib son d oe sn o ts e em t om ake aq ua l i ta t ive d i s t in c t ion b e tween a n ima l sa nd p eop le ( c f . R eed 1 988 ) . H ence ,t ot h e e x ten tt h a ts ha r ed c o -pe r cep t ion i s ak ind o fc ommun ica t ion ,p eop le a nd a n ima l sc an s ha r e ad eg r ee o fp ub l ic k now ledge a nd c an b es a id t o c ommun ica t e . 3 6 .T he se d ev ice sm ay a l so p e rm i tc ohe s ive h uman g roup st oe xpand a bove t h em ag ic n umbe rt h re sho ld ss uppo sed ly i mpo sed b yi n f o rma t ion p roce s s ing o rm emo ry managemen tc on s t ra in t s( e .g . ,K o s se 1 990 ) . 7. S ee Sm i th a nd W in te rha lde r( 1992 :39 -4 1) f o r ad i scu s s ion o f m e thodo log ica l i nd iv idu a l i sm i nr e la t ion t ot h es oc ia ls c ience s ;a l so s e e B e l l( 1994 : 2 81-311) a nd R ocha ( 1996 ) .

3 4 .T h i s

r e la t e st ot h ed i scu s s ion o fc omp lex i ty a nd e ga l i ta r ian i sm i n C hap te r2 . I n ah i e ra r ch ica ls y s tem t h e se a f f o rdance sw i l lb er educed f o r t h o s ea bove a nd b e low o ne ,a st h e s t ra t if ica t ion r edu ce st h ed ay t od ay s oc ia ln ego t ia t ion . I na ne ga l i ta r ian s y s tem ,t h ea f o rdance so fo ne ' sp ee r s m igh tb es oc omp l ica ted b yt h er u le st h a tk eep t h em e qua lt h a ta ne f ec t ive u pp e rl im i to nt h es i ze o ft h es oc ia lu n ive r se w ou ld r e su l t . T h i si s an ove l v a r ia t ion o nt h eu sua ls c a la rs t r e s sg roup s i ze l im i ta t ion a rgumen t s ,o r o th e rs u ch a r gumen t s .

2 4

t h e e nv i ronmen t , a nd h e lp ing i n f o rm mo r et r ad i t iona l f o rm s o fa r chaeo log ica l s pa t ia la na ly s i s .

p a s to ra l i s t s . H en o te s , e cho ing G ib son , t h a t " we n eed as e t o ft e rm s t od e sc r ibe t h e g eome t ry n o t o fa bs t rac t , i s o t rop ic s pace , b u t o ft h e s ub s tan t ia l e nv i ronmen t i nw h ich h uman s a nd o t he r a n ima l s move , p e rce ive a nd b ehave ( I ngo ld 1 986a :147 ) ." B y d ef in ing mob i l i ty i n t e rm s o f r ou te s t h rough t h e e nv i ronmen t ( unde r s tood i n a G ib son ian f r amewo rk ) , I ngo ld r e ache s a c a tegor i sa t ion o f t h ree d i f f e r en t k ind s o ft e nu re :3 8 t h e z e ro -d imen s iona l t e nu r e o f p lace s , t h e o ne -d imen s iona l t e nu re o fp a th s a nd t r ack s , a nd t h e t wo -d imen s iona l t e nu r e o ft h e e a r th o r g round s u r f a ce . T he l a s t k i nd o f t e nu re i s s a id t o b e c ha rac te r i s t ic o f a g r icu l tu ra l g roup s ( c f . S ch lee 1 992 ) . Mo re i n te re s t ing ly , i nh i s d i scu s s ion o fo ne -d imen s iona l t e nu re I ngo ld s t re s se s t h a tt h e r ei sn oi mp l ica t ion o fa r ea lc on t ro lo ra pp ropr ia t ion . R a the r , n a tu re i s a pp ropr ia ted v ec to ra l ly : " t he h un te r a pp rop r ia te s o n ly t h o se a n ima l s w ho se p a th h e s ucceed s i n c ros s ing ( I ngo ld 1 986a :151) ." T hu s , t e nu re a mong h un te r s a nd g a the re r s c on s i s t sn o t o fs u rf ace a r ea sb u to f" s i te s a nd p a th s w i th in a l a nd scape ( I ngo ld 1 986a :153 ) ." B ounda ry f o rm a t ion o r ma in tenance b ehav iou r s may t h e ref o r e b e u nnece s sa ry —and , i fp r e sen t , a c t a s " s ignpo s t s r a the r t h an f e nce s" ( I ngo ld 1 986a :156 ) —and ac on t ro l led p e rmeab i l i ty o f i n te r -g roup r ange s i si n t rodu ced . T he i mp l ica t ion f o r a r chaeo logy , o nce a ga in , i s t h e n ece s sa ry a dop t ion o f r eg iona l p e r spec t ive s t o wh ich t h e se mob i l i ty p roce s se s a r e s ubo rd ina te , a nd i np a r t icu la r , t h e a vo idance o fu n ju s t if ied c r ea t ion o r i mpo s i t ion o f h a rd -edged s oc ia l o r s pa t ia l b ounda r ie s .

4 . 3 Emp ty s pace s o rv acan tp lace s? T hough t s f r om t he A rch ipe lago . A g ene r a l e mpha s i s o n p a th s a nd r ou te s , n ode s a nd n e two rk s , o f mob i le p eop le s a nd t h e i r w e l l t rodden ( o r w e l l -padd led ) p a th s c anno t b e f u l ly r e a l i sed w i thou t d ue c on s ide ra t ion t o t h o se p a r t s o f t h e w o r ld wh ich a r e l e s s w e l l t rodden , o r , i n deed , u n t rodden . Wh i le t h e f avou rab le r ou te s o n ac oa s t l ine o r c oa s ta l a r ch ipe lago a r e l a rge ly d e te rm ined b y t h e i n he ren t o r a c tua l d i rec t iona l i ty o f t h e l a nd scape ( Chap te r 3 ) , t h a t w h ich l i e s b e tween t h e se p a th s , i . e . t h e " emp ty s pace s ," 3 9 m u s t a l so b e c on s ide r ed . T h i s s e c t ion i s ap r e l im ina ry d i scu s s ion o ft h e se e mp ty s pace s , w i th p a r t icu la r a t ten t ion t o a r chaeo logy i n a r ch ipe lago s , r a the r t h an i nl e ss d i r ec t iona l e nv i ronmen t s . I np a r t icu la r , t h ek ey d i s t inc t ion so fp lace v s .s pace a nd o ft h ep reh i s to r ic o ccupa t ion v s . t h e r e su l tan t m a ter ia l r e cord w i l l b e d i scu s sed , a s w e l l a s t h e p e renn ia l q ue s t ion o f s ca le . F ina l ly t h e i mp l ica t ion s f o r o ne k ey e co log ica l m ea su remen t ,p opu la t ion d en s i ty ,a r eb r ief ly c on s ide r ed .

I n s umma ry , t h i s s e c t ion h a s i n t roduced s ome a spec t s o f G ib son ian e co log ica l p sycho logy a nd n o ted a n a n th ropo log ica l a pp l ica t ion o fi t . T he m a jo r p o in t s a r e a s f o l low s : ( a ) P eop le p e r ce ive t h e i re nv i ronmen tw i th at o ta l ( c o rpo r ea l ) v i sua l s y s tem , w h ich c on s t i tu te s a c on t inua l ly m ov ing p o in to fo b serva t ion . ( b ) U nde r s tand ing mob i l i ty i sl i ke ly t ob e c en t ra l t ou nde r s tand ing t h ep e r cep t ion o fa nd r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h el a nd scape i n ah un te r -ga the r e rs oc ie ty . ( c ) S ome p a th so rr ou te so f mob i l i ty ( a nd h ence o f p e r cep t ion ) a r e mo r e c ommon t h an o t he r s . T he re i s ab und l ing o f i n d iv idua l mob i l i ty v ec to r s ( a s d i scu s sed i n C hap te r 3 ) , a nd t h e r ef o r e " emp ty s pace s" b e tween p a th sa r ed ef ined b yd ef au l t . No c onc lu s ion s h ave y e t b een d r awn a bou t t h e u sef u lne s s o f aG ib son ian a pp roa ch i n a r chaeo logy , a l though i th a s b een u sed i n a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s o f a r t ( Mo lyneaux 1 99 1) , m a te r ia l c u l tu r e ( G rave s 1 990 ) a nd P a laeo l i th ic s oc ie ty ( Gamb le 1 995 ) . T he f o l low ing s e c t ion s a t temp t t o e s tab l i sh t wo d if e r en t p o in t s o f u t i l i ty o f e co log ica l p sycho logy : c r ea t ing amo re s oph i s t ica ted u nde r s tand ing o f

4 . 3 .1 Emp ty s pace a nd v acan tp lace I ft h e t h eo r ie s o ft h e e co log ica l p sycho log i s t J ame s G ib son a r e u sed a s as t a r t ing p o in t f o r t h e d i scu s s ion o f h un te r g a the re r b ehav iou r , t h e t e rm " emp ty s pace" mu s t b e a bandoned . F o r G ib son , s pace i sa n a b s t rac t c oncep t a nd c anno t b e p a r t o fa n e nv i ronmen t , f o r a n e nv i ronmen t o n ly e x i s t s r e c ip roca l ly t oa n o b se rve r ( G ib son 1 979 :7 10 , 4 3 ) . I n s tead , j u s t a s ap l ane i s ag eome t r ic c oncep t w i th a s u rf ace a si t se nv i ronmen ta l a na logue , s pace i sa na logou st o " a m ed ium" w h ich i nt h e c a se o fh uman s i sa i r , a nd i nt h a t o f f i sh , i s w a te r ( G ib son 1 979 :33 ) . T he c on t inuou s , t ime le ss , " ho l i s t ic" p e rcep t ion o ft h e e nv i ronmen t ( G ib son 1 979 : 2 53 -255 ) m ean s t h a t t h e r e c an b e n o t r ue e mp t ine s s i n a n e nv i ronmen t , o n ly l o ca t ion s o fr e la t ive h idden -ne s s , p auc i ty o f a f f o rdance , o r v acancy . T he r e c ip roca l o f n o th ing i sp erce ived i sn o tn o th ing i sa f f ord ed . O ne c anno t t a lk o f e mp ty s pace s a s a f o rdance le s s : t h e v a r ie ty o f p o t en t ia l a f o rdance s o f t h e se p l ace s c ou ld i n c lude s ub s i s tence , h ea l ing , c ommun ica t ion w i th a nce s to r s , b u r ia l , o r f u lf i lmen t o fa ny n umbe r o fh uman a genda s . H oweve r , b e ing b o th l im i ted i n a f o rdance a nd s e ldom p e r ce ived m ean s , t h ey w i l l n o t l i ke ly h ave a l a rge v a r ie ty o f m ean ing s . No r a r e s uch p l ace s n ece s sa r i ly d i s tan t o r o b scu re : t h ey c an e qua l ly i n c lude " unde r t h e f l oo rboa rd s" o r" t he h o r izon ;" " t he d i s tan t moun t a in top" o r" t he b o t tom o ft h e s e a ." R a the rt h an e mp ty , ab e t te rt e rm i sv acan t . F o r

I n go ld ( 1 986a :157 )c on t ra s t st e nu r ew i th t e r r i tor ia l i ty . T e r r i to r ia l i ty i s p ra c t i ca lb ehav iou ri n t ended t om anage t h ee xp lo i ta t ion o fr e sou r ce s i na g i ven a r ea , a nd i se s sen t ia l ly c o -ope ra t ive . T enu r e , b yc on t ra s t ,c oncer n s t h e s o c ia la pp rop r ia t ion o fn a tu re ,m an if e s ted a se xc lu s iv i ty o fa c ce s s ,t h e c a s t ing o fn a tu r ei n at empo ra lc on t inuum ,a nd t h e i mpu ta t ion o fc r ea t ive p o ten cy t oi t .

3 9 .I ti si mpo r tan tn o tt oc ha rac te r i se t h e se i na ny s en se a sn ega t ive s pa ce s , b u ta sp l ace sn o tn ece s sa r i ly f u l lo fa f f o rdance so rb ehav iou r s ,o rt h e a r chaeo log ica l s i t e st h a tm ay r e su l t . T he d i spu te o ve rt h eS t e in R ive r v a l ley i nB r i t i sh C o lumb ia ,w he r e al a ck o fa r cha eo log ica l e v idence a l ong t h ev a l ley t r ad ing t r a i lw a su sed t oc l a im i tw a se mp ty o fp r eh i s to r ic o ccupancy a nd t h u sc ou ld b el o gged ( W ickw i r e 1 992 :6 1-62 ) s how st h a t t h i sq ue s t ion o fv acancy i sn o tm e r e ly a na b s t ra c tp r ob lem .

3 8 .

2 5

s e a o f t r ee s .4 1 T he l a you t o f t h e f o re s t i s r e la t ive ly i n va r ian t , t h e l o ca t ion s o f t h e t r ee s a nd b e r r ie s a nd m ed ic ine a nd t h e o the r a f o rdance s c hange o n ly a t av e ry l o ng t empo ra l s c a le o r t ot h e r egu la r r hy thm o f as e a sona l c yc le . T he c r owded m a s s o f v i sua l s o l id a ng le s a nd t h e r e la t ive l a ck o f g ood e a t ing f o r a n ima l s make i t a n u na t t rac t ive p l ace t oh un t . P eop le t hu st e nd t op ene t ra te t h e f o re s t o n ly when t h ey h ave a s pec if ic t a sk i n m ind , a nd t h e r ei st r an sm i t ted k now ledge o fw ha ta nd w he re t h e f o r e s t a f f o rd s . N av iga t ion i s a t a p rem ium , a l though r e conna i s sance w i l l s u re ly b ee mbedded i ni t .

G ib son , t h e r e i s al a rge d if e rence b e tween v acancy a nd emp t ine s s . T he f o rme r w ou ld b e k nown e i the r t h rough p rev iou s d i r ec t p e rcep t ion o r i nd i rec t ly k nown t h rough p red ica t ion , w h ich r e spec t ive ly p roduce e i the r e xp l ic i t k now ledge o r t a c i t k now ledge ( G ib son 1 979 :260 ) . I n c on t ra s t , e mp t ine s s i s ap h i losoph ica l a b s t rac t ion t h a t n o t e ven a n a s t ronau t e xpe r ience s , b e ing e nve loped i n a p o r tab le e nv i ronmen t . B yd ef in i t ion , e mp ty s pace w ou ld b e b o th u nknown a nd ,q u i te l i t e ra l ly ,m ean ing le s s . G ib son ' s b road t e rm f o r l o ca t ion s i s" p lace s :" al o ca t ion i n a n e nv i ronmen ta sc on t ra s ted w i th ap o in ti ns pace . H ence , ap lace b y d ef in i t ion c an o n ly b e w i th in a n e nv i ronmen t , a nd t h e h ab i ta t o f a n a n ima l i s made u p o fm any p l ace s . P lace sn eed n o th ave s ha rp b ounda r ie s , a nd c an b en e s ted a t many s c a le s ( s ee b e low ) . N eve r the le s s , i tm ay b e p o s s ib le t o l ook f o r n a tu ra l o r o t he r b reak s i n t h e p a t te rn ing o f p l ace s , a nd n e two rk a na ly s i s may b e a b le t oh e lp d esc r ibe a nd a na ly se t h e se p a t ter n s( Chap te r6 ) .

S econd , t h e u nde rwa te r m ed ium i s s im i la r ly c oncea led . Wh i le o cca s iona l ly c ond i t ion s m ay b e r i gh t t o s e e d eep ly i n to t h is e nv i ronmen t , a nd wh i le s ome o fi t s mo re mob i le o r b uoyan t i n hab i tan t s may make as u r f ic ia l a ppea rance , t h e r e i s much mo r e h idden t h an v i s ib le . I tb ea r s as upe rf ic ia l r e semb lance t ot h e s ub -vege ta t iona l t e r re s t r ia l e nv i ronmen t , b u t t h e s ubma r ine e nv i ronmen t i s much mo r e c omp lex . I t i sh ome t o amuch w ide r r ange o f l i f e a nd h ence ar i che r v a r ie ty o f a f o rdance s , w h ich i n c lude s t ap le s ub s is tence .4 2 F o r h uman s i ti s , i n e f f ec t , as ub s tance , w he rea s f o r i t s i nhab i tan t s i ti s am ed ium ( G ib son 1 979 :2 1-22 ) . E xcep t i n t h e mo s t s upe rf i c ia l a nd t r an s ien t w ay i tc anno t b e v i s i ted b y h uman s . K now ledge o f i ti sg a ined b y p e rce iv ing i t s a f f o rdance s i n d i rec t ly f r om s u r f ic ia l p henomena , o r b y p rob ing i tw i th f i sh ing g ea r o r o t he r i n s t rumen ta t ion . T he s ubma r ine e nv i ronmen t i s t o al a rge e x ten t k nown ( t he f i sh ing g round s a nd t h e make -up o f t h e b o t tom , f o r e xamp le ) , b u t t h rough wha t s en se i si tp e r ce ived? H ow d oe s o ne p e rce ive ah a l ibu t l y ing o n t h e b o t tom? I tc ou ld b e a rgued t h a t f i sh ing ( a t l e a s tw i th al i ne ) i sb o th a n a c to f s ub s i s tence a nd a n a c t o fp e rcep t ion , t h a t o ne i se mbedded i nt h e o t he r , a nd h ence t ou nde r s tand o ne i st oa pp roach a n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e o t he r . T h i s i s , Ib e l ieve , ag ood e xamp le o fI ngo ld ' s ( 1993 :158 ) c oncep t o ft h e " t a sk scape :" " t he e n t i re e n semb le o ft a sk s i nt h e i r mu tua l i n te r lock ing ," e mbedded i ns oc ia l i ty a nd t empo ra l i ty . T h i rd ,t h ec oa s ta lz one i sp unc tua ted b yp l ace so fl e s se ra nd g r ea te r a f f o rdance . A t t h e e x t reme o f f ew a f f o rdance s , a p l ace m ay b e d e f ac to v acan t . E ven i fs u ch a p l ace i s f r equen t ly p e r ce ived , i ts e ldom o rn eve r c on s t i tu te s ap o in t o f o b serva t ion . N eve r the le s s , i ti sp a r t o f t h e f a b r ic o f f l ow ing p e r spec t ive t h a t o r ien t s p eop le t ot h e i r r ou te s a nd

4 . 3 .2 V acan tp lace sa nd f j ord land a rch ipe lago s T he a bove t h eo r e t ica l d i scu ss ion c an p e rhap s b e b e t te r p u t i n to f o cu s t h rough t h e d ev ice o f a n i d ea l i sed m a r i t ime s oc ie ty l i v ing i n a f j o rd land a r ch ipe lago , i n w h ich t r an spo r ta t ion i s a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly b y w a te r c raf t . E s sen t ia l ly , t h e se p eop le l i ve o n o n ly o ne p l ane : s e a l e ve l . T hey h ave l im i ted d i rec t p e r cep t ion o fe i the r t h e f o re s t o r t h e s ubma r ine e nv i ronmen t .4 ° Movemen t i st h rough a n a r ch ipe lago o f v i s ta s a nd b a r r ie r s : p e r cep t ion i s o f a c omp lex s equence o fg o ing -ou t -of a nd c om ing in to s i gh t . No t o n ly m ob i l i ty b u t a l so t h e v i ew i sc hanne l led . I n a n a r ch ipe lag ian m aze o fo cc lud ing e dge s , t h e r e w i l l n a tu ra l ly b e many p l a ce s t h a t a r e h idden a ta ny g i ven t ime : t h e f a r s i de s o f i s land s , b ay s b eh ind h ead land s , a nd s o f o r th . D e sp i te t h e i r t r an s ien t h i dden -ne s s , t h e se a r e p a r t o f t h e b und le o f w e l l -padd led r ou te s , a nd c ou ld w e l l b e a n " occup ied p o in t o f o b se rva t ion" a t a ny t ime , o n ly t h e o ccupan t i s s omeone o t he r t h an t h e s e lf . T hey a r e n o t n eces sa r i ly v acan t . Wha t i so fi n te re s t i nt h i s s e c t ion a r e t h e r ou te s a nd p l ace s w h ich a r e n o rma l ly v acan t . T he re a r e a t l e a s t t h r ee k ind s o f n o rma l ly v acan t p l ace i n t h i s i d ea l ised a r ch ipe lago : t h e i n land t e r re s t r ia l s u rf ace , t h e s ubma r ine a nd b en th ic e nv i ronmen t s , a nd v acanc ie s a l ong t h ec oa s ta ls t r ip . E ach b ea r sb r ief m en t ion .

4' .I ti si r on ic

t h a tt h ec anopy o ft h ef o r e s ti si t sm o s tp e r ce ived y e tl e a s t v i s i ted a s pec t . 4 2 . H e r et h e re i sac r uc ia ld i s t inc t ion b e tween t h es ub -ma r ine l a you t ( phy s ica l f a br ic a nd n on -mob i le s pe c ie s ) ,w h ich i sr e la t iv e ly p e r s i s ten t , a nd t h eb ehav iou ro ft h ed e ta ched o b jec t s( i . e . , f i sh ) ,w h ich a r e mob i le . A s G ib son ( 1 979 :199 -200 )n o te s ,t h ep o s i t ion o fd i sp la ceab le d e ta ched o b jec t s mu s tb er e lea rned ( o r mon i to red )c on t inua l ly . O u to ft h is mon i to r ing w i l lg r ow k now ledge o ft h eh ab i tua lo rc ha ra c te r i s t ic b ehav iou ro ft h es p ec ie s . As pec ia le xamp le o ft h i si sk now ledge o f m ig ra to ry a n ima l s ,e spec ia l ly t h o se , s u ch a sf i sh ,w h ich a r el a rge ly h i dden . I nt h i sc a se , ad i s t i l led k now ledge o ft h eh ab i tua lb und le so fr ou te s , o ro f s e conda ry i n d ica to r s ,o ft h ea n ima li sw ha tm a t te r s . T he a ppa r en tl a ck o f a f f o rdance so ft h eg i ven i n te r cep t ion s po t mu s tb eo ve r -r idden b y e xpec ta t ion b a sed o nc u l tu ra l ly t r an sm i t t ed k now ledge . T h is n eed n o tb e d i r ec t ly v e rba l ,i tc ou ld b ev i at h ed i sp lay o fa r to rt h ed i sp lay o fb u i l t f a c i l i t ie s ,o re mbedd ed i n my th .

F i r s t , t h e mo s t o bv iou s v acanc ie s f r om a m a r i t ime v i ewpo in t a r e t h e i n te r io r l a nd s u rf ace s o ft h e i s land s a nd ma in land w h ich f o rm t h e a r ch ipe lago . T he se a r e r e la t ive ly s e ldom v i s i ted . F u r the rmo r e , h eavy v ege ta t ion c ove r c an c oncea lt h e f o r e s tf l oo ra nd a l l t h a to ccu r st h e re . H ence , i n d ay t o d ay c oa s ta l l i f e , mos t o f t h e l a nd i s , i n e f ec t , i nv i s ib le : i t s mu l t ip le a f f o rdance so n ly h in ted a tb yt h e e ven

4 ° .I n

f a c t ,t h ea f o rdance so ft h ef o re s ta r ea b so lu te ly e s sen t ia lt oF i r s t N a t ion so ft h eN or thwe s tC oa s t : t r an spo r ta t ion , s h e l t e r , s t o rage ,c l o th ing , m ed ic ine ,s ub s i s tence a nd s p i r i tua lc ommun ion . F o rs imp l ic i ty 's s a ke ,t h i s i so ve r looked a tp r e sen t .

2 6

C hacoan c a se s t udy , U pham ( 1992 ) s ugge s t s t ha t h un te r s a nd g a the r e r s o ccup ied t h e a ppa ren t ly v acan t g ap s i n i n f o rma t ion s pace b e tween t h e mo re s eden ta ry c ommun i t ie s . " Emp ty" s pace s t hu s c r ea t e a n i mpor tan t d ynam ic i n r e g iona l , p an reg iona l o r w o r ld s y s tem s . H e c l a im s t h ey a r e n o t a menab le t oa na ly s i s b y t h e u sua l s o r t o fs pa t ia l t e chn ique s . Y e t , i tm igh tb e p o s s ib le t ha t amo r e s ub t le u nde r s tand ing o f e mp t ine s s v e r su s v acan cy i n p e r cep tua l t e rm s m igh t a i d a na ly s i s o ft h e se " non reg ion s ," a nd b r ing t h em f u l ly i n to a c o r e -pe r iphe ry o r s pa t ia l i n te rac t ion mode l . Ma rg ina l i sa t ion o f g roup s l i v ing a ta l owe r i n ten s i ty o r p roduc ing l e s s d u rab le ma te r ia l c u l tu re c ou ld b e ap rob lem a lmo s t a nywhe re s uch a r chaeo log ica l v a r ia t ion e x i s t s , i n c lud ing , a t s ome s c a le o r d eg r ee o f r e so lu t ion , c oa s ta l a r ch ipe lago s o ccup ied b y h un te r s a nd g a the re r s .4 3 I ti sw o r th n o t ing t h a tm any p reh i s tor ic h un te r g a the re r e nv i ronmen t s— e spec ia l ly f j o rd land a r ch ipe lago s —a re b road ly r i dd led w i th v acanc ie s , b ecau se t r an spor ta t ion t e chno logy d id n o t a low much c ro s scu t t ing o ft h e i n he ren td i r ec t iona l i ty ( Chap t e r3 ) . T h i s i si mpo r tan t b ecau se , a sI ngo ld ( 1 986a :157 ) s ugge s t s , t oi g no re t h ea r ea s b e tween s i te s i st ot u rn s omewhe r e i n to n owhere , a nd t hu s d eny as a t i sf y ing n o t ion o fi n d igenou sl a nd t e nu re ."

p l ace s . I n t h e a r ch ipe lago , t h e p a tchy l a ndf o rm o f c on t inuou s a nd d i scre te s pace s ( San t ley 1 992 ) m ean s s ome p l ace s w i l l b e h igh ly f a vou r ed f o rc e r ta in k ind s o fa c t iv i ty . C r i t ica l ly f o r t h e r eg iona l a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , o ne i mpo r tan tk i nd o fp l ace i s as ho r e l in et h a t a f f o rd s l a nd ing a w a te r craf t . T he t e r re s t r ia l e nv i ronm en t may b e a cce s sed b y al im i ted n umbe r o f t h e se " br idgehead s ," wh ich a c t a s d oo r s i n f r om t h e m a r ine p a s sageway s , a nd may b e c o r r e spond ing ly l i ke ly t oh ave a r cha eo log ica l s i te s . O n t h e o t he r h and , s ome p l ace s a r e v acan t p rec i se ly b ecau se o f w ha tt h ey a f f o rd , s uch a sa c tua lo rs upe rna tu ra ld ange r . 4 . 3 .3 V acancy a nd s ca le I nc ommon w i th a ny o t he rp l ace , ap l ace d ef ined a sv acan t o n t h e b a s i so fr e la t ive u naf f o rdance o rf o re xp l ic i tc u l tu ra l r e a son sm ay b eo fa ny s i ze . I ti st h rough ac on s ide ra t ion o f s c a le t h a t t wo c u r ren t i s sue s i n a r chaeo logy c ome i n to f o cu s : l a nd scape o ro f f s i te a r chaeo logy , a nd t h e d ef in i t ion o fb ounded c u l tu ra lu n i t s . T he s pa t ia lp a t te rn ing o fp eop le 's a c t ion i nt h e wo r ld d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly e qua l t h e s pa t ia l c oncen t ra t ion o f ma te r ia l r ema in s . D oub t le s s F o ley ( 1981) i sr i gh t i ns t a t ing t ha tt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i ss pa t ia l ly c on t inuou sy e tn o th omogeneou s , a nd t h a tt h e h omogene i ty r e su l t s f r om b o th b ehav iou r a nd s i t e -f orma t ion p roce s se s . T h i s i se qu iva len tt ot h e d eba te o fh ow a nd w he re t od ef ine a n a r chaeo log ica l s i te ( e .g . , D unne l l 1 992 , B inf o rd 1 992 ) . B u t F o ley ' s F igu re 1( Fo ley 1 98 1) , f o r e xamp le , s ugge s t s a d i rec t l i nk b e tween t h e w e l l t rodden p a th s a nd t h e p a t ter n o fm a te r ia l r ema in s , w he r ea s i ti sb y n o m ean s c l ea r t h a t r e pea ted t r ave l l ing o n r ou te s , e spec ia l ly t ho se r ep re sen t ing d ay t r ip s , w i l l l e ave a ny l a s t ing a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . D oe s o ne c on s ide rt h e mu l t ip le p o in t s o fo b serva t ion i nt h e s ame w ay t h a t al a nd scape a r chaeo log i s t l o ok s a ta r t if ac t s s c a t te red a c ro s s t h e t e r ra in? O r , d oe s o ne l o ok a t t h e c l u s te r s a nd d ef ine t h em a s s i t e s , i n wh ich c a se o ne i s l o ok ing f o r b und le s o r n ode s o f p e rcep t ion ( r ou te s a nd o ccup ied p l ace s )? D unne l l ( 1992 :36 ) c r i t ic i se s t h e u se o f t h e n o t ion " s i te" b ecau se , a mong s t o the r r e a son s , a s a mu l t ip lex a r chaeo log ica l c on s t ru c t as i te 's mo s t i mpo r tan t a t t r ibu t e , i t s l o ca t ion w i th in a l a nd scape , i so f t en l o s t . A mo r e s oph i s t ica ted a pp roach w ou ld b e t ot r y t ou nde r s tand t h e l o ca t ion s i n t h e l a nd scape w i th n o r e f e rence , a tl e a s t i n i t ia l ly , t o whe r e a r chaeo log ica l s i te s a r e . G ib son ian t h eo ry o f f e r s a w ay t o u nde r s tand l o ca t ion s i n t h e e nv i ronmen t i n t e rm s o f t h e i r r e f lex ive r e la t ion sh ip w i th h uman s .

I n ap rev iou s s e c t ion i tw a sb r ief ly d i scu s sed h ow av i ew o f t e r r i to r ia l i ty t h a t f o cu sed o n r ou te s a nd p a th s n ece s sar i ly m ade i t mo r e d i ff icu l t t ot h ink i nt e rm s o fg eog raph ica l ly b ounded s oc ia l g roup s . S uch b ounda r ie s t h a t a c tua l ly d o e x i s t m ay b e much mo r e p e rmeab le t h an c ommon ly t h ough t , w i th b ounda ry s i gn -po s t ing a l ong t h e r ou te s b e ing mo re c ommon t h an p er ime te r m a rk ing ( I ngo ld 1 986b ) . W i th amode l o fr ou te s t h rough v acan t p l ace s , b ounda r ie s b e tween g roup s b ecome e ven mo r e n ebu lou s . Mos t o ft h e b o rde r w i l l i nf a c t c on s i s t o fa d jo in ing v a canc ie s . A ga in , t h is i sn o t t o s ay t h e re i sn o k now ledge , i n te re s t i n , o r t r ave r sa l o f t h e se v acan t a r ea s , m e r e ly t h a t c l ea r d ema rca t ion i n t h e a b sence o f c on s i s ten t o ccupa t ion o r d i r ec t p e rcep t ion i ss ome th ing t h a t n eed s t o b e e xp la ined r a the r t h an a s sumed . F o r e xamp le , t h e a ppa ren t ly w e l l d ef ined t e r r i tor ie s o ft h e No r thwe s t C oa s t , a nd t h e i n te r e s t i np r iva te o wne r sh ip o fr i gh t s t op l ace s ( R icha rd son 1 982 ) c ou ld b e a t l e a s t p a r t ia l ly a n i lu s ion . W i th t h e p a th s ( s eaway s ) s o w e l l i n g ra ined , e t hnog raphe r s c ou ld h ave m i s taken t h e " s ignpo s t s" a l ong t h e l i nea r r ou te s a s " t e r r i to r ia l m a rke r s" a nd c onnec ted t h em t h rough t h e i n te r ly ing v acanc ie s i n to a n on -ex i s ten t t wo -d imen s iona l s y s tem o ft e nu r e . I tw ou ld b e n ece s sa ry t o q ue s t ion w ha t s o r t o f p rec i s ion w a s u sed i nd igenou s ly t o d e l inea te t e r r i to ry o f ft h e se r ou te s , i nt h e i n te r io r o ft h e i s land s o ri n t h e mo r e o pen o cean , a nd t o c on s ide r w he the r s uch o f f -

A t ab road e r s ca le i st h e k ind o f v acancy d i scu s sed b y U pham ( 1 992 :139 ) : " emp ty s pace s i n r eg iona l a nd p an r eg iona l s y s tem s a r e t h o se a r ea s b e tween ma jo rp opu la t ion c en t re s : a r ea s w i thou t o b t ru s ive o r d i s t inc t ive e v idence o f o ccupa t ion ." T h i s d ef in i t ion i sb a sed o n r e la t ive d en s i ty o f a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s , y e t U pham s how s h ow t h e se " emp ty s p ace s" h e lped i n t eg ra te s oc ie t ie s a t t h e p an r eg iona l l e ve l . U pham ( 1992 :140 ) f u r the r s t a te s t h a t t h e n eg lec to fe mp ty s pace i sm i r ro r ed i na n e mpha s i so n e i the r c o re o r p e r iphe ry , b u t n o t t h e i n -be tween p l ace s , w h ich " l eave s l a rge r u ra l u nde rc la s se s w i thou t h i s to ry ." I n h i s

.A t ab road s c a le ,t h eN o r thwe s tC oa s tc ou ld b es e en a s al i nea rc o r e , w i th al a rge c on t inen ta lp e r iphe ry , ac a se ,p e rhap s ,o ft h ec en t re a tt h e e dge . 4 .T hu sg round ing t h en e two rk a pp roach d eve loped l a te ri nt h is t h e s is i n

4 3

a ne t h ica l ly s a t i sf y ing c on tempo ra ry s oc ia lc on tex t ,a si ti se nab led t h o rugh s imu l taneou sc on s ide ra t ion o fm a te r ia le v iden ce a nd t h en on m a te r ia l ly e v iden tc on s t ra in t so nh uman l i f e .

2 7

b und le s , o rf ewe r s t rand s i ne ach b und le? A nd w ha t i st h e e f f ec t o n t h e v acanc ie s? I t c ou ld b e t h a t " popu la t ion d en s i ty" i se f f ec t ive ly t h es ame ,o n ly w i th mo re h o le si nt h e r ou te n e two rk . E qua l ly , t h i s w i l l r e qu i r e a n u nde r s tand ing o ft h e a n ima t e e nv i ronmen t , a nd h ow ar e duc t ion i nr ou te s w i l l a f ec t s t ra teg ie s o fi t s " vec to ra l a pp rop r ia t ion ( I ngo ld 1 986a ) ," s ome o f wh ich s t ra teg ie s m ay l e ave d i s t inc t a r chaeo log ica l s i gna tu re s .

r ou te d ema rca t ion mo r e c l o se ly r e semb le I ngo ld ' s ( 1986a ) u nde r s tand ing o ft e r r i tor ia l i ty a nd t e nu r e . 4 . 3 .4 R ou te s , v acancy a nd p opu la t ion d en s i ty P opu la t ion d en s i ty i su sua l ly c a lcu la ted a s t h e n umbe r o f p eop le p e ru n i t a r ea o fl a nd , a sd i scu s sed i nC hap te r 3 . I n t ha t c hap te r , s ome o bv iou s p rob lem s w i th t h i s a r ea l a pp roach t o " ca r ry ing c apac i ty" w e r e n o ted . T o s umma r i se : • a n ima l r e sou r ce s e x i s t i n an a tu ra l r a t io w he r ea s n eed s a r ec u l tu ra l , f o re xamp le , a cqu i s i t ion o fs uff i c ien t m ea t may s t i l lr e su l ti n ad ef ic i to fh i de s ; •

•

4 . 4 G ibson ian p sycho logy a nd l o ca t iona la na ly s i s T he p r ev iou s s e c t ion s h ave i n t roduced G ib son ian p sycho logy a nd d i scu s sed i t s p o t en t ia l r e levance i n a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ie s . T h i s s ec t ion w i l l d i scu s s p o in t s o f c ommon i n te re s t b e tween t h e e co log ica l p sycho logy o f J ame s G ib son ( 1979 ) a nd s pa t ia l a na ly s i s i n a r chaeo logy , p a r t icu la r ly t h e l o ca t iona l a na ly s is o f p r eh i s tor ic h un t e r s a nd g a the re r sa se xpounded b y Ma r t in Wob s t( 1976 ) .

mea su r emen to ft h eu n i ta r ea i n to w h ich t h e n umbe ro f p eop le i sd iv ided i sp rob lema t ic , a si st h e c en su s , s i nce b o th r e ly o n as imp l i s t ic v i ew o f b ounded t e r r i to r ia l a nd s oc ia lu n i t s ; a nd , c a r ry ing c apac i ty m igh t l o g ica l ly b e c on s ide red i n l o nge r t e rm s o f b i o log ica l r e p roduc t ion , h ence t h e b a se l ine s ca le t e r ra in u n i t f o r c a lcu la t ion o f c a r ry ing c apac i ty s hou ld r e la te t o t h e c onnub ium , r a the r t h an s ome p opu la t ion u n i t o t herw i se d ef ined . T he p rob lem r ever t s t o , " how i s i tb ounded?" A nd , t hu s s im i la r q ue s t ion so fd e f in i t ion a nd c i r cum sc r ip t ion a r i se .

T o t h e se p o in t s c an n ow b e a dded t h e n ew p rob lem s r a i sed when o ne s t a r t s t o c oncep tua l ise t e r r i to ry a s r ou te s a nd v acanc ie s : e ven i ft h e r e w e r eb ounded t e r r i tor ia lu n i t s , t h en t h e i n t er n a l e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e se m ay b e d if e ren t ia l ly p a t te rned . Two a r ea s o f t h e s am e s i ze m igh t h ave q u i te d i f f e r en tr ou te s t ruc tu r e s . T he a c tua l b und le s a nd n ode s o f o ccupa t ion wh ich d e te rm ine t h e d en s i ty o r i n ten s i ty o f o ccupancy m igh t b e q u i te d i f f e r en t y e t a r chaeo log ica l ly i nd i s t ingu i shab le , e spec ia l ly i n as i t e -ba sed a pp roach . T h i s i s mo s t c l ea r ly e xpo sed o n t h e c oa s t , w he r e l a nd a r ea i s much l e s s r e levan t f o r c a r ry ing c apac i ty t h an t h e l e ng th , i nvo lu t ion a nd p roduc t iv i ty o f t h e c oa s ta l a nd f l uv ia l e co tone s . I ti st h e h e te rogene i ty o f t h e o ccupa t ion , t h e e f f ec t ive b und l ing a nd r ou t in i sa t ion o f d a i ly h ab i t t h a t c on s t i tu te st h e e xp lo i t ed a r ea . T h i sw i l l d if e ra cco rd ing t o t h e t e r ra in a nd t h ec u l tu ra lp rac t ice , m ak ing a ny i n te r -g roup c ompa r ison s p rob lema t ic , a p rob lem c ompounded f o r a r chaeo log i s t s b y t a phonom ic a nd o t he r p re serva t iona l f a c tor s . A b e t te r u nde r s tand ing o f mob i l i ty , u s ing G ib son 's a nd I ngo ld ' s t h eor ie s a s a s t a r t ing p o in t , m ay e nab le t h e s imp l i s t ic a nd mo r ibund e co log ica l v a r iab le o fp opu la t ion d en s i ty t ob e e i the rr ev ived w i th n ew v igou r , o rl a id t or e s t a l toge the r . F o r e xamp le , r ange s i ze i ss a id t ob e r e s tr ic ted b y mob i l i ty c o s t s , s uppo sed ly l im i t ing t h e r ad iu s o f t h e r ange t o ad i s tance t h a t c an b e c ove r ed r ound t r ip i n ad ay ( Mand ryk 1 993 :43 ) . T h i sr e la t ion sh ip i ss a id t ob e s oc l o se t h a t e v idence o fl a rge r a nge s i ze s c an b e t a ken a se v idence o f i n c rea sed mob i l i ty ( R igaud a nd S em ik , i n Mand ryk 1 993 ) , a nd c a r r ie s a n i mp l ica t ion o f l owe r p opu la t ion d en s i ty . I n aG ibson ian s cheme , l a rge r r ange s i mp ly a l owe r d en s i ty o fp a th s p e r s qua re u n i t a r ea . B u t , d oe s t h i s mean a n u n -b ra id ing o ft h e b und le s o f mob i l i ty , o r f ewe r

2 8

Wob s tb eg in sh i s 1 976 p ape rb yc ha l leng ing t h ep r imacy o f t h e " s i te" a s a n a r chaeo log ica l u n i t o fa na ly s i s , s ugge s t ing t h a t a mo re a pp ropr ia te s c a le i so ne t h a t c o r re spond s t o s uch c on s t ru c t s a s " soc ie ty" o r " popu la t ion ." U s ing as i te a st h e b ounda ry f o r d a ta c o l lec t ion , l i m i t s t h e r e sea r che rt o i nve s t iga t ing as i ng le s c a le o f s oc ia l r e la t ion s . C on s t ruc t s w i th l a rge r b ounda r ie s , s uch a s t h e m a t ing n e two rk ( c onnub ium ) ,a l low f o rd i f f e ren ts ca le so fs o c ia lr e la t ion st o b e i nve s t iga t ed , a nd a l low as t r eng th o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd ( i t ss pa t ia la nd t empo ra l s cope )t ob ee xp lo i ted . D e sp i te i t s a ppa ren t s cope o f t e n s o ft h ou sand s o fs qua re k i lome t re s , Wob s t ' s ( 1974 , 1 976 ) s pa t ia l a na ly s i s i sr oo ted i n t h e s imu la ted d ec i s ion mak ing a nd l i f e h i s to r ie s o f i nd iv idua l s . T he se d ec i s ion s a r e m ade a cco rd ing t o s t a t i s t ica l l i ke l ihood s ( s uch a s mor ta l i ty a nd f e r t i l i ty r a te s ) o r f r om r u le s a na log i sed f r om e t hnog raphy ( s uch a s t h e i n ce s t t a boo a nd v a r ia t ion s o n e xogamy ) . T he e f ec t s o n t h e g roup a r et h e s um o ft h e i nd iv idua l e ven t s , a nd o ft h e i r i n te rac t ion s . F o r e xamp le , t h e d ea th o f as pou se m ay h ave ar i pp le e f f ec to n t h e g roup d emog raphy a st h e s u rv ivo rr e e n te r s t h e ma t ing e l ig ib i l i ty p oo l . I tw ou ld b e am i s take t o n a ïve ly c o l lec t iv i se t h e se i n d iv idua l a c t ion so rd ec i s ion s , a s Wob s te l sewhe r en o te s : T he p o ten t ia l d ange r i s t h a t t h e se n ew ly c o ined e n t i t ie s , s u ch a s t h e m in ima l ma t ing n e two rk , a r e t r ea ted a so pe ra t iona l u n i t s i nt h e i ro wn r i gh t . A t l e a s t f o r mo s t h un t e r -ga the re r s t h e se e n t i t ie s h ave b ehav iou ra l r e levance o n ly t ot h e e x ten t t h a t t h ey l i nk i nd iv idua l s h or izon ta l ly a nd t empo ra l ly . (Wob s t 1 98 1 :222 ; e mpha s i si no r ig ina l ) O ne o bv iou s p rob lem w ou ld b e t os t a r ta s c r ib ing a gency o r c o rpo ra te i d en t i ty o r c o l lec t ive w i l l t o t h e se h eu r i s t ic

1 992 ) . G ib son ian t h eo ry a ccoun t s p oo r ly f o r c ommun ica t ion , e xcep t a s e i the r c o -pe r cep t ion o r v i sua l d i sp lay .

e n t i t ies ,4 5 w h i le p e rhap s al e s s o bv iou sd ange ri st h e s imp le a c t o f i n te rp r e t ing t h e h exagon s a s b ounded s oc ia l g roup s w h ich h av e ad i r ec t l i nk t o ap a r ce l o fl a nd . R ega rd le s s o f t h e i r d e r iva t ion f r om e t hnog raph ic " mag ic n umbe r s" ( wh ich i n a ny c a se a r e s u spec t ) , a t i s sue h e r e i s t h e c omp l ica ted p rob lem o ft h e c l o su r e o fe t hn ic g roup s . T he i n ten t o f Wob s t ' s a na ly s i s , a nd t h a t o fs im i la r s t ud ie s s uch a s Mand ryk ( 1 993 ) , i st o mode l i n f o rma t ion f l ow a c ro s s a n i d ea l i sed s o c io -geog raph ica l mode l . Wob s t a t temp t s t o s how t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween i n d iv idua l s a c t ing w i th in c u l tu ra l a nd d emog raph ic p a rame te r s a nd t h e l a rge s c a le , l o ng t e rm i mp l ica t ion s o f t h e se c umu la t ive d ec i s ion s . H oweve r , at i gh te r l i nk b e tween i n d iv idua l d ec is ion s a nd t h e i r s oc ia l c on tex t w ou ld b e h e lpf u l . G ib son , a pa r t f r om h i s a bove n o t ed s t a temen t s o n p ub l ic k now ledge , d oe s n o t a t temp t t o d i scu s s t h e e f f ec t s o f i n d iv idua l p e rcep t ion o n g roups , o rv i ce v e r sa . B y c on t ra s t , I ngo ld c a r r ie s h i s i d ea f u r the r , a rgu ing t h a t d i rec t p e r cep t ion a nd i n f o rma t ion p i ckup i s e s sen t ia l t o as ha r ed s en se o f " be ing in the w o r ld ,"4 6 a nd h ence s oc ia l i ty i s :

N e i the ra pp roach h a s i mpac ta tt h em ed ium s oc ia l s c a le t h a t c o r re spond s t o h ou seho ld o r l o ca l g roup s o c ia l s t ruc tu re . F o r Wob s t , t h i s m ed ium s c a le i sc on s ide r ed o n ly a s ag r id f o r r u le s , s u ch a s e xogamy a nd t h e i n ce s t t a boo . T he s u rv iva l o ft h e g roup a c ro s s g ene ra t ion s i si mpor tan t , a s i t i sa n e xp re s s ion o f mu l t ip le i n d iv idua l l i f e h i s tor ie s , b u t i s s ub serv ien t t o t h e s u rv iva l o f t h e m a t ing n e two rk a s a w ho le , wh ich i si n dependen t o f a ny o ne g roup ' s s u rv iva l . Wob s t i sn o t i n te re s ted i n t h e ( h ab i ta t ion ) s i te , wh ich i s a rguab ly t h e mo s t c ohe ren t a r chaeo log ica l e xpre s s ion o f t h i s s oc ia l g roup . I n aG ib son ian a pp roach , t h e p a th s t a ken b yi nd iv idua l si ng roup s f o rm b und le so fc o -pe rcep t ion , a nd a r e c r i t ica l f o r t h e f o rma t ion o fp ub l ic k now ledge a nd a n u n spoken c on sen su s o f r e a l i ty . T he mo s t i n ten se a nd c omp lex a f f o rdance s a r e t h o se o f o ne ' s c l o se s t f e l low h uman s , w ho a r e a l so i mpo r tan t i n t h e p roce s s o f s oc ia l i sa t ion t o t h e p e r cep t ion o f c u l tu ra l ly s pec if ic a f f o rdance s , a l though G ib son p ay s l i t t le a t ten t ion t o t h is o n togeny o fp e r cep t ion .

G iven f r om t h e s t a r t , p r ior t o t h e o b jec t if ica t ion e xpe r ience i n c u l tu ra l c a t ego r ie s , i n t h e d i r ec t p e rcep tua l i n vo lvemen t o f f e l low s ub je c t s i mme r sed i nj o in t a c t ion i nt h e s ame e nv i ronmen t . ( I ngo ld 1 992 :47 ; e mpha s is i no r ig ina l )

A t as t i l l b roade r s c a le , Wob s t c on s ide r s t h e c onnub ium c ruc ia l t o a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s b ecau se i n te r -g roup i n te ra c t ion s s hape i n t ra -g roup b ehav iou r a t i n d iv idua l s e t t lemen t s( 1976 :49 ) , a nd t hu si n f luence t h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . G ib son d oe s n o t d i scu s s t h e se b road s ca le s b u t t h e re i sn o r e a son w hy o ne c anno t e x t end t h e b und le s o f f am i l ia lo rl o ca lp a th st oc onnec tw i th e ach o t he r .

T he d i r ec t p e r cep t ion o f t h e a f f o rdance s o f o the r p eop le b ypa sse s t h e f i l te r o fs oc ia l r u le s a nd c a tego r ie s , a l though t h e se a r e f u ndamen ta l t ot h e w ay " i n wh ich w e c a l l o t he r s ' s o c ia l a c t ion i n to a ccoun t ...s oc ia l l i f ew i thou tr u le si sn o t c hao t ic ( I ngo ld 1 992 :54 ) ." J u s ta sn a tu re i s as e cond -o rde r c on s t ruc t o n ly e nab led b y s e lf -con sc iou s ly d i sengag ing f r om t h e e xpe r ien t ia l w o r ld , s o s o c ie ty a s t h e o rde re r o f h uman b ehav iou rs t em s f r om s e e ing h uman n a tu re a se i the r i n he r en t ly d i so rgan i sed o r a s m e re p o ten t ia l ( I ngo ld 1 992 :54 ) .

D if f e r ing n o t ion s o fg eog r aph ica l s c a le a r e u sed b y Wob s t a nd b yG ibson . T he l a t te rc ommen t st h a tt h e l a you t , a nd t h e e nv i ronmen t i n g ene ra l , i s c ha rac ter i sed b y s c a la r p henomena i nw h ich e nv i ronmen ta l u n i t s n e s tw i th in l a rge r u n i t s : T he r e a r en o a t om ic u n i t so ft h ew o r ld c on s ide red a sa ne nv i ronmen t . I n s tead t h e r e a r e s ubo rd ina te a nd s upe ro rd ina te u n i t s . ( G ib son 1 979 :9 )

I n s umma ry , Wob s t w o rk s f r om t h e ( p a r t ia l ly s oc ia l ly d e te rm ined ) a c t ion s o ft h e i n d iv idua l , b u tw i th t h e i n ten to f b u i ld ing a n u nde r s tand ing o f l a rge r s c a le p roce s se s . C ommun ica t ion i s c once ived o f a s a n e ven f l ow o ve r i d ea l ised s o c ia l a nd o t he r l a nd scape s . I n G ib son ian a na ly s i s , t h e i n d iv idua l i s c en t ra l . N eve r the le s s , t h e a pp roa ch w o rk s i nwa rd s f r om t h e t o ta l v i sua l s y s t em t o d i s so lve t h em ind : b ody d i s t inc t ion a nd o u twa rd t od i s so lve n a tu re :cu l tu r ea nd o the rd i v i s ion s( G ib son 1 979 :14 1 , I ngo ld

G ib son l im i t s h im se lf t o t h e s c a le o f t h e d i rec t ly p e r ce ivab le , o n ly e l im ina t ing o b jec t s w h ich r equ i r e a t e le scope o r am ic ro scope , o r w h ich r e qu i r e p i c tu re s o r w r i t ing t o a pp rehend . T h i s l i s t t hu s a ppea r s t o e xc lude m ap s , o ra ny f o rm o fb i rd 's -eye o ra e r ia l r e p re sen ta t ion o f t h e e nv i ronmen t . Am ap i ss a id t ob e au sef u l a r t if ac t ,b u ti t i s am i s take t o n o t s epa ra te t h e a r t if a c t f r om t h e s t a te o f m ind i ti sp roduced b y o r p roduce s . I n s t ead , c ompo s i te p i c tu r e s o f t h e e nv i ronmen t a r e b u i l t u p , b u t n o t a s t h e s t i tch ing t o ge the r o f r ememb rance . R a the r , an o t ion o f t empo ra l ly a nd s pa t ia l ly n on spec if i c d i r ec t p e rcep t ion i s i n t roduced , i n w h ich t h e e nv i ronmen t i s c on t inuou s ly p e r ce ived f r om a l p l ace s /pa th s a to nce ( G ib son 1 979 :198 2 00 , I ngo ld 1 992 :45 . E ven t empo ra r i ly h i dden p l ace s a r e d i r ec t ly p e r ce ived . U n l ike e i the r ac ogn i t ive o r ap ape r

.W ob s t( 1 976 :55 )a ppea r st od ot h i sh im se lf : " t oc oun te r ac tt h e se d i s rup t ive t e nden c ie s ,s eve ra l s o c ia lm echan i sm sa r ea va i lab le t ot h e s o c ie ty i nq u e s t ion ." T he j ump f r om ap a t t er np roduced b yi n d iv idua l st o t h e f e edba ck m e chan i sm st h a tm a in ta in g r oup s u rv iva li sb yn om ean s c l ea r . T h i si sp a r t icu la r ly a p ti nl i gh to f Wob s t 's c once rn w i th f i nd ing t h e a pp ropr ia t ea r cha eo log ica l s c a le f o ru nde r s tand ing l a rge sca le p roce s se s t h a te f ec tb ehav iou ra ts e t t lemen t s . . I n go ld ( 1 993 )e l sewhe r et a ke st h i ss e em ing ly s imp le n o t ion o f e x is tence a nd ,u nnece s sa r i ly i nm yv i ew , c l oak si ti nt h ep h i lo sophy o f H e id egg e r . 4 5

4 6

2 9

d if e rence b e tween at r end a nd s t ocha s t ic f l uc tua t ion . T h i s i s r e levan t i n s ma l l g roup d emog raph ics whe r e m ino r d ec l ine s i n r e p roduc t ive s ucce s s c an l e ad t o l o ng te rm r ep roduc t ive f a i lu re a nd e x t inc t ion o f t h e l o ca l g roup (Wob s t 1 974 ) . G ib son ' s e mpha s i s o n t h e r e la t ive ly s ho r t t e rm o fh uman l i f e t ime s may b e d i ff icu l t t or e con c i le w i th t h et empo ra lr e so lu t ion p o s s ib le i nt h e P a laeo l i th ic . O n t h e o the r h and , t h e " t ime le s sne s s" o fh i s t h eo ry o fp e r cep t ion l e ave s i tf l ex ib le e nough t o a ccommoda te a v a r ie ty o f a pp roache st ot h en a tu re ( s )o ft ime .

map , t h e re i si nn o s en se ac i r c le l a be l led " you a r e h e r e ." R a the r ," you a r ee ve rywhe re ." T h i s s o r to fa na ly s i s a tf i r s t g l ance a ppea r s t oh ave l i t t le i n c ommon w i th Wob s t ' s a pp roach . H oweve r , ak ey p o in t a bou t l o ca t iona l a na ly s i s i st h a t i ti sl a rge ly a bou t s oc ia l o r i n f o rma t ion g eog raphy . T he u se o fi s o t rop ic s u rf ace s a nd r egu la r h exagon s i s as imp l if y ing c onven ience , a n a i d t o t hough t a bou t t h e s o r t s o f t r ade -of f s t h a t mu s t b e m ade b e tween c os t s a nd b enef i t s o f g a in ing i n f o rma t ion a nd t u rn ing t h a t i n f o rma t ion i n to s ub s tance . I n t h i s c a se t h e " subs tance" i s m a t e s , mode l led w i th a l a nd scape o f d emog raphy , s imp le m a t ing r u le s a nd p opu la t ion d en s i ty . T hu s , t h e u se o f h exagon s c anno t b e c r i t iqued a s a n o ve r s imp l if ica t ion o f t h e t e r re s t r ia l e nv i ronmen t b ecau se t h ep l ane i s mo r e ar e p r e sen ta t ion o fb ehav iou ra l s pace t h an o f t e r r e s t r ia l s pace , a l though i td oe s h ave i mp l ica t ion s ( g iven c e r ta in a s sump t ion s d e r ived f r om e t hnog raphy ) f o r r e a l w o r ld s pa t ia l s i tua t ion s . I tw ou ld b e am is take t o i n te rp r e t t h e h exagon s a s t e r r i to r ia l b ounda r ie s : t h ey a r e g raph ic c onven ience s i n a mode l t h a t i s b a sed o n p reh is tor ic s oc ia l g roup s d ef ined b y s oc ia l / inf o rma t ion c r i ter ia . I tm ay b e mo r e a pp rop r ia te t o t h ink i n t e rm s o f n e two rked " soc ia l f i e ld s" ( Le s se r 1 96 1) w i th p e rmeab le b ounda r ie s r a the r t h an i nt e rm s o fc l o sed b oundedne s s , a t l e a s t i ns ome c on tex t s o ra ts ome s c a le s . T he d i scove ry o f s uch s c a le si sd i scu s sed i nC hap te r7 .

I n s umma ry , i t h a s b een s hown t h a t t h e re a r e s ome i n te re s t ing s im i la r i t ie s a nd c on t ra s t s b e tween Wob s t ' s l o ca t ion -cen t r ed a pp roach a nd G ib son ian e co log ica l p sycho logy . S pec if ica l ly , ap a ra l le l a pp roach u n if y ing b o th m igh tb ea b le t o : • h e lp i n t roduce o rr ef ine t h ec ruc ia l e l emen to fm ob i l i ty , wh ich i so therw i se a d ependen t v a r iab le i n Wobs t ' s a na ly s i s , ar ef ined v i ew o f mob i l i ty wh ich l e ad s t o a l ter na te c oncep t ion s o f t e r r i to r ia l i ty a nd m ay b e c ongruen tw i th Wob s t 's p e rmeab le h exagon s ; •

g round a l o ca t iona l a nd /o r n e two rk a pp roa ch i n a h uman i s t ic f r amewo rk , i nw h ich s u ch c ro s s -cu l tu ra l ly d if i cu l t d i cho tom ie s a s n a tu re :cu l tu r e a nd m ind :body a r ed i s so lved .

Howeve r , t h e c onnec t ion b e tween t h e i nd iv idua l a nd s oc ie ty i sp rob lema t ic i nb o th a pp roache s . G ib son l a rge ly a vo id s t h e q ue s t ion , w he rea s Wob s t h a s c u l tu ra l r u le s a nd d emog raph ic f a c t s b u t l i t t le i n t e r e s t i n " cu l tu ra l n ego t ia t ion" o r " d ia lec t ic s" o r a ny o t he r s o r t o f d ynam ic s oc ia l p roce s s . T he s o lu t ion m ay b e t o a dop t ar e g iona l p e r spec t ive i n wh ich i nd iv idua l b ehav iou r s a r e i n te rp re ted a t al a rge e nough s c a le t h a t m idd le o rde r s oc ia l p roce s s i s s ubo rd ina ted . I ndeed , Wob s t ( 1978 ) h a s a rgued t h a t i ti s t h i s c onnec t ion t h a t a l low s e s cape f r om t h e " pa roch ia l" mode l o f h un te r s a nd g a the re r s , a nd h ence f r om t h e " t y ranny o ft h ee t hnog raph ic r e co rd ."

T hu s , a l though t h e e ye i s d rawn t o t h e h a rd e dge s a nd f o rma l i sed b ounda r ie s o f Wob s t ' s h exagon s , n o t t oo much s hou ld b er e ad i n to t h em . T he h ea r to ft h e 1 976 p ape rr e s t s o n a n a s sump t ion o fp e rmeab le s o c ia l b ounda r ie s b e tween t h e g roup s a nd i ti st h e r e su l t ing v ec to r s ( wh ich c ou ld b e a na log i sed t ow e l l t rodden p a th s ) o fc ommun ica t ion w h ich d ef ine o r p rodu ce t h e r e la t ive s o c ia l b oundedne s s o f t h e g roup . F u r the rmo r e ,t h en e two rk a s aw ho le c an b e mo r eo r l e s so pen o rc l o sed . Wh i le Wob s tm ay a s s ign al e ad ing r o le t o g roup s i ze a nd d en s i ty , h i s s cheme i sn o t a s r i g id a s i t g raph ica l ly a ppea r s , n o r f a r r emoved f r om I ngo ld 's o ne d imen s iona lt e nu r ec oncep t . I tm ay b ep o s s ib le t o" d rape" a l o ca t iona l mode l o ve r a n e nv i ronmen t u nde r s tood i n G ib son ian t e rm so fs u rf ace s , m ed ium s ,p l ace s , a nd s o f o r th , w h ich c ou ld b e af i r s t s t ep t owa rd s ah uman i s t ic h uman e co logy .

4 . 5 C onc lu s ion s : p ercep t ion , mob i l i ty ,a nd t he a rchaeo logy o fa rch ipe lago s

T empo ra l ly , G ib son ( 1979 :1112 ) l im i t s h im se lf t o e ven t s a t ah uman s c a le , i n t h e c ou r se o f ad i scu s s ion w h ich d i spen se s w i th " soc ia l i sed t ime" a sb e ing i r r e levan t t ot h e s t udy o f v i sua l p e rcep t ion . I n c on t ra s t , Wob s t r un s h i s mode l o ne y ea r a t at ime , b u i ld ing u p al o ng t e rm p a t te rn w h ich i n i t s t o ta l i ty i s o u t s ide t h e l im i t s o f h uman p e r cep t ion o r a pp rehen s ion . N eve r the le s s , a s w i th G ib son ( 1979 :12 ) , h e m igh t a g ree t h a t " t he f l ow o fa b s t rac t e mp ty t ime ...h a s n o r e a l i ty f o r t h e a n ima l . We p e r ce ive n o t t ime b u t p roce s se s , c hange s , s equence s , o r s o Is ha l l a s sume ." T he q ue s t ion i s ,h ow d oe st h ep e r cep t ion o ft h e se s equence s i n i t ia te b ehav iou ra l r e spon se s i ft h e l ong te rm r e su l t i sn eve r a pp r ehended? I n o t he r w o rd s , t h e re i sa

3 0

G ib son ' s t h eo ry o f v i sua l p e r cep t ion c an h e lp s t ruc tu re t h ink ing a bou t s eve ra l i mpo r tan ta spec t s o ft h e a r chaeo logy o f h un te r s a nd g a the re r s . G ib son ian p sycho logy a s se r t s , a bove a l l , t h a t mob i l i ty i sc r uc ia l t oa c t ive e ngagemen tw i th t h e w o r ld a sa n e nv ironmen t . B u t p a t ter n s o f mob i l i ty a r e n o t r andom . T hey a r e b ra ided t oge the r i n to b und le s i n d i f f e ren tw ay s a td if e ren t s c a le s . T h i s m ay b e t h e d a i ly o r y ea r ly a c t iv i t ie s o fa n i n d iv idua l o r o f ag roup , a nd i tm ay c on s t i tu te r ou te s t h rough d a i ly s pa ce o f i n d iv idua l s o r s up ra reg iona l s pace o f mu l t ip le i n d iv idua ls . E i the r w ay , s ome p a t ter n s o f movemen t m ay b e f a vou r ed , b ecau se o f h ab i t ,t h el a ndf o rm ,t h eb u i l t e nv i ronmen t , r i tua l t opog raphy ( Sch lee 1 992 ) o r av a r ie ty o fo the rr e a son s . T he e f f ec ti st ol i nea r i se o r mu l t i l inea r i se mob i l i ty w i th in t h e e nv i ronmen t .

T he i n s igh t i n to r ou te s i sw e l l s u i ted t oi n f o rm b o th t ime g eog raph ic a pp roache s t o h uman e co logy a nd n e two rk o r l o ca t iona la na ly s i so fs pa t ia lp a t te rn ing . I tm ay o f f e r aw ay t oh uman i se h uman e co logy , b ecau se w h i le i ti sc en t red o n t h e i nd iv idua l , i ti s i nd iv idua l s w ho a r e i n t ima te ly a nd a c t ive ly e ngaged i n t h e i r e nv i ronmen t ( I ngo ld 1 992 :44 ) . R a the r t h an r e if y ing c u l tu r e a s ap r e sc r ip t ive a gen t o r p a s s ive p roduc t o fh uman e co logy , i t" l eave s i to u t o ft h e e qua t ion ( I ngo ld 1 992 :53 ) ." C u l tu r a l c on s t ruc t ion o f t h e e nv i ronmen ti su nde r s tood a s as e cond -o rde rp henomenon f ounded o n h uman d i scou r se , a n o p t iona l e p i logue r a the r t h an ap re lude t op rac t ica la c t ion ( I ngo ld 1 992 :52 ) . T he i n s igh ti n to r ou te sa nd mob i l i ty t h a tG ib son ian t h eo ry a l low s i sp a r t icu la r ly a pp rop r ia te f o rt h e s t udy o f ma r i t ime h un t e r sa nd g a the r e r s ,w ho se mob i l i ty m ay b ec on s t ra ined t ow a te rway s . T he se w a te rway r ou te s ,a sd i scu s sed i n C hap te r3 ,h ave t h ec r uc ia la t t r ibu te o fb e ing k nown . T hu s , r a the rt h an s t a r t ing f r om as i te -ba sed p e r spec t ive a nd i mpu t ing r ou te so fc ommun ica t ion b e tween t h es i te s ,w i th a l lt h eu nce r ta in ty t h i sn ece s sa r i ly e n ta i l s ,i tb ecome s p o s s ib le t os t a r tw i th t h ek nown r ou te sa nd ,w i th t h eb ody o ft h eo r e t ica ls uppo r to u t l ined i nt h es ub sequen tc hap t e r , d eve lop h ypo the se sa bou tt h eh uman e co logy o fa na r ea , w h ich w i l lt h en p e rhap sb et e s tab le a ga in s tt h ek nown s i te s t ruc tu r e . C r i t ica l ly ,k nown s i te l o ca t ion sa nd e t hnog raph ic i n f o rma t ion a r en o ti n t roduced u n t i l l a te rs t age so ft h e a na ly s i s . A so u t l ined i nC hap te r6 ,t h em e thod o fs uch a n a na ly s i sw i l li n c lude u s ing ag eog raph ica li n f o rma t ion s y s tem t oh e lp c r ea te a nd a na ly se as c hema t ic n e two rk r ep r e sen ta t ion o ft h es t udy a r ea .

3 1

5 . 2 Mob i l i ty a nd p rac t ica l mob i l i ty

CHAPTER 5—MOB ILITY , BU ILD ING , AND SOCIAL PRACT ICE ON THE NORTH WEST COAST

H un te r s a nd g a the re r s h ave l o ng b een c ha rac te r ised a s mob i le p eop le s . A cco rd ing ly , a r chaeo log i s t s h ave u sua l ly c on s ide red mob i l i ty a s ac o l lec t ive s t ra tegy o r r e spon se t o e nv i ronmen ta l c i rcum s tance s . I n a p roce s sua l i s t a r chaeo log ica l p a rad igm , mob i l i ty i sn o rma l ly c on s ide r ed a sa na dap t ive s t ra tegy , w i th t h ei mp l ic i ta s sump t ion t h a ti t s a c tua l p a t te rn r e la te s t o o p t ima l e xp lo i ta t ion o f n a tu ra l ly e x i s ten t r e sou r ce s t ruc tu re s ( Ke l ly 1 983 ) . T he e n su ing s e t t lemen tp a t ter n -l og i s t ica l o rr e s iden t ia l ( B inf o rd 1 979 ) t h en i mpo se s c er ta in c ond i t ion s o r p o s s ib i l i t ie s o n o t he r " cu l tu ra l s ub sy s tem s ." I ndeed , mob i l i ty h a s b een c on s ide r ed s ome th ing o f ap r ime move r i nh un te r -ga the r e r s o c ie t ie s , r e spon s ib le f o r t h e i r s imp le a nd l i gh twe igh t m a te r ia l c u l tu re , t h e i r s ma l l s e t t lemen t s , a nd o t he r c ha rac ter is t ic s o f " s imp le b and s oc ie ty ," a s c r i t ica l ly r e v iewed i n C hap te r 2( s ee , f o r e xamp le , K e l ly 1 983 ; T o r rence 1 983 ; K ee ley 1 988 ; R enouf 1 99 1) .

5 . 1 . I n troduc t ion P r ev iou s c hap te r s d emon s t ra ted t h a t c oa s t l ine s s hou ld n o t b e s t e reo typed a sl i nea re nv i ronmen t s( c on t ra Wob s t 1 976 ) . R a the r , as u rpr i s ing d eg ree o f p l ana r i ty o r mu l t i l inea r i ty c an b e a ch ieved t h rough t h e p re sence o fi n le t s a nd i s land s . T he i mp l ica t ion f o r a r chaeo log ica l s pa t ia l a na ly s i s o n c oa s t l ine s i st h a t t h e d emog raph ic a nd s oc ia l c o s t s , w h ich Wob s t c l a im s a r e p roduced b y t h e s hape o f t h e p hy s ica l / soc ia l e nv i ronmen t , a r e r e -opened a sp rob lem s f o r i n ve s t iga t ion . I ti ss ugge s ted t h a t t h e se c o s t s c anno t b e d e r ived f r om c r o s s -cu l tu ra l e t hnog raph ic a na logy ( made o pe ra t iona l t h rough l o ca t iona l a na ly s i s ) a l one . L oca t iona l a nd many o t he r a r chaeo log ica l s pa t ia l a na ly se s e mp loy a n i d ea l ised g eome t ry o f t h e w o r ld . T he se mode l s a r e p opu la ted b y i n d iv idua l s ma in ly k nown t h rough e mpa thy , c ommon s en se a nd t h rough n a ive a pp l ica t ion s o f t h e p r inc ip le o f l e a s t e f or t . T he a rgumen t s i n C hap te r 4 r ega rd ing t h e i n d iv idua l a nd t h e e nv i ronmen t l e d t o d i rec t c r i t ic ism o ft h e se mode l s , y e t h e ld o u t t h e h ope f o r t h e i r r ehab i l i ta t ion i n amod if ied " human i s t ic h uman e co logy ." I ti ss ugge s ted h e re t h a t amu tua l is t ic r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h ei nd iv idua la nd t h ee nv i ronmen tn eed st ob e f r amed i na n a n t i -cogn i t iv i s t , a n t i -Ca r te s ian w o r ld v i ew . S uch a f r amewo rk a vo id s t h e i nhe r en t p rob lem s i n u ncr i t ica l ly u n ive r sa l i s ing e i the r : ( a ) t h e s e cond -o rde r c on s t ruc t ion o f n a tu re a s a n eu t ra lg eome t r ic s pace t ob ee n te red a nd a dap ted t o ;o r , ( b ) t h e r e a rwa rd p ro jec t ion o f a ny p a r t icu la r h i s tor ica l o r e t hnog raph ic wo r ldv iew , i . e . , t h e " t y ranny o f t h e e t hnog raph ic r e co rd" (Wob s t 1 978 ) e xp re s sed v i a s imp l i s t ic a pp l ica t ion so ft h ed i rec t -h is to r ic a pp roach .

H oweve r , r a the r t h an b e ing n ece s sa ry s o c ia l f e a tu r e s o fa p a r t icu la r w ay o f l i f e , t h e se c an b e s e en a s t h e p ragma t ic e f ec t s o ft h e t ime space -ene rgy c on s t ra in t s o n t h e h uman b ody ( l i s ted a bove i nC hap te r3 ) . S ome o ft h e se c on s t ra in t s c an b e r e laxed w i th t e chn ica l a pp l ica t ion o r i nnova t ion , s u ch a st h e u se o fu n tended f a c i l i t ie s o rw a t e rc raf t , b u t , a s n o ted , m any o ft h e i n he ren t c on s t ra in t s o ft h e h uman b ody f o rm au n ive r sa l b a se l ine o ft ime space a c t iv i ty . T hu s , t h e mob i l i ty o fi nd iv idua l s , wh i le i n ev i tab ly o ccu r r ing w i th in a c u l tu ra l ly spec if ic s e t t lemen t a nd s ub s i s t ence m i l ieu , i s i n t r in s ica l ly i mpo r tan t . F o r e xamp le , I ngo ld make s a c ompe l l ing c a se f o r r e -concep tua l i s ing m ob i l i ty . H e n o te s ( 1 986 :179 -81) t h a t i ti sn o t e nough t o s imp ly l o ok a tt h e a moun t o ft r ave l t h a t p eop le d o b u t t h e p a t t er n ing o ft h a t t r ave l , a nd d i scu s se s t h e a c tua l i mp l ica t ion s o f h un te r g a the r e r mob i l i ty p a t ter n s f o r t h e i r r e la t ion sh ip t ob o th t h e l a nd scape a nd t o t h e n a tu ra l w o r ld . T o r e cap , I ngo ld d i s t ingu i she s b e tween l a nd t e nure — t h e a pp ropr ia t ion o f p l ana r , t wo -d imen s iona l t r ac t s o fl a nd — a nd t e r r i tor ia l i ty — t h e a c t iv i ty o f p eop le a l ong o ne -d imen s iona l p a th s , b e tween z e ro -d imen s iona l p l ace s , w i th t h e a pp ropr ia t ion o f n a tu re o ccu r r ing d u r ing e ncoun te r s a nd i n te r cep t ion s . T he p a th s a nd t r ack s t h a t p eop le f o l low " impo se a h ab i tua l p a t t er n o n t h e movemen t o f p eop le ( J a ck son i n I ngo ld 1 993 :167 ) ," y e t t h ey a r e a l so a r e su l t o f t h a t movemen t a c ro s s t h e l a nd scape . T hu s , i ti s a rgued t h a t mob i l i ty p roduce s n o t o n ly t h e " mu scu la r c on sc iou sne s s ( I ngo ld 1 993 :167 )" o fp rac t ica l a c t iv i ty , b u t a l so s ed imen t s i n to t h e l a nd scape a n e two rk o f p a th s a nd t r ack s w h ich c umu la t ive ly r e p r e sen t t h e a c t iv i ty o f ac ommun i ty . A s w i l l b e o u t l ined f u r the r b e low , s uch am ob i l i ty n e two rk i s p a r t o f" t he t a sk scape made v i s ib le ( I ngo ld 1 993 ) ," a nd i s a n i mpo r tan t t o o l t ob r ing s hape a nd s c a le i n to t h e h ea r t o f a n a r chaeo log ica l s pa t ia l a na ly s i s . A h i gh ly d i r ec t iona l e nv i ronmen t r ou t in ize s mob i l i ty a nd i mp l ie s ap a r t ia l ly k nowab le p r eh is to r ic l a nd scape o fh ab i t . T hu s , t h e r e i sa n o ppo r tun i ty t o e s cape f r om t h e b i rd 's e ye v i ew , m ap -

I nt h i s c hap te rt h e se t wo l i ne s o fa r gumen t ( t he i mpo r tance o ft h e a c t ive i n d iv idua l r a the rt h an t h em e r ea u toma ton , a nd t h e s t ruc tu r ing f e a tu r e so ft h e e nv i ronmen ta l g eome t ry )w i l l b e b rough tt oge the ru nde rt h e umb re l la o fG o sden 's ( 1994 ) c oncep t o ft h e " l and scape o f h ab i t ." I ti ss ugge s ted t h a t s oc ia l t h eor ie s o fp rac t ice a nd t h e h ab i tus ( Bou rd ieu 1 977 ) a r e r e levan t t o t h e a r chaeo logy o f t h e No r thwe s t C oa s t ( N WC ) , p a r t icu la r ly a s t h ey c an b e a pp l ied t o i mp rov ing o u r u nde r s tand ing o f mob i l i ty . F u r the r , i tw i l l b e s hown t h a t i ti sr e a sonab le , e ven n ece s sa ry , t ot h ink o ft h e NWC l a nd scape a s ab u i l t e nv ironmen t , w i th i mp l ica t ion s f o r s pa t ia l a nd h i s to r ica l a na ly s i s o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T aken t oge the r , t h i s d i scu s s ion w i l l t h en l e ad t o as pec if ic p rog ram o fa na ly s i s o fa r chaeo log ica l d a ta f r om t h e We s t C oa s t o f V ancouve r I s land , i mp lemen ted u s ing a G eog raph ic I n f o rma t ion S y s tem a sd e scr ibed i nC hap te r s 6 a nd 7 .

3 2

o r ien ted C a r te s ian s pa t ia l a na ly se s c r i t ica l ly f e a tu red i n C hap te r4 .

a f f o rdance s ( G ib son 1 979 ; C hap te r 4 ) a s , i n as en se , t h e p rox ima l m echan i sm f o r p rac t ica l a c t iv i ty i n t h e wo r ld . B ou rd ieu c on s ide r s i tu nhe lpf u l t o t h ink o f g oa l d i rec ted b ehav iou r a s t h e r e a l i sa t ion o f t h e " exp l ic i t ly s t a ted p u rpo se s o f ap ro jec t o rp l an ( 1977 :72 ) ," af a l lacy h e t e rm s t h e" f ina l i s ti lu s ion" b ecau se i tr educe sh i s tor ica l ly s i tua ted a nd s oc ia l ly c on t ingen t s oc ia l p rac t ice t o a mechan ica l r e ac t ion . I n o t he r w o rd s , t h e p u rposef u l p ro jec t s o f t h e i nd iv idua l a r e a lway s mod if ied b yt h e i re mbededne s si nt h e h ab i tu s .4 7 T he c oncep t o ft h e h ab i tus d oe s n o tr ead i ly l e nd i t se lf t o s umma ry . B ou rd ieu ( 1977 :72 ) d ef ine s i t a s " s t ruc tu r ed s t ruc tu r e s p r ed ispo sed t o a c t a s s t ru c tu r ing s t ruc tu r e s . .h i s to ry t ur n ed i n to n a tu re ." O r , a s G e l l ( 1985 :273 ) p u t s i t ," t he s e t o f i n cu lca ted d i spo s i t ion s [ c f . B ou rd ieu 1 977 :214 , f n . 1 ] t o r e spond t o s i tua t ion s i n a n u n re f lec t ive , s oc ia l ly p a t ter n ed w ay ." I ne f f ec t , t h e h ab i tu s i s ah igh ly s ub t le c oncep tt h a t d e sc r ibe s h ow t h e g ene ra to r , o r s t ruc tu r e r , o f a n i n d iv idua l 's s oc ia l p rac t ice i s s imu l taneou s ly s t ruc tu red b y t h a tp rac t ice . Af t e rd i spos ing o ft h e " f ina l i s t i lu s ion ," B ou rd ieu g oe s o n t oc r i t ic ise t h e o ppo s i te e x t reme , w h ich i st h a t i n d iv idua l s a r e b ound b y r u le s . Wha t i sl ef t , t h en , i st h e r i ch m idd le g round o ft h e h ab i tu s :

5 . 3 Mob i l i ty , t he h ab i tu s , a nd t he p rac t ica l ma s tery o f s pace A s d i scu s sed i ne a r l ie r c hap te r s , i ti sc u s toma ry t or e ly o n m ap s i na r chaeo log ica l s pa t ia l a na ly s i s . Maps a r e mode l s o f a l l p o s s ib le r ou te s , a nd s how a C a r te s ian s pace ( Ge l l 1 985 :273 ) .H oweve r ," p rac t ica lw ay -f ind ing ( Ge l l 1 985 )" i s m ap le s s a nd i sc onduc ted i nt e rm s o fc o -o rd ina te s c en t r ing o n t h e a gen t . A rgu ing t h a t t h e c ogn i t ive t h eo ry o fm en ta l m ap s c on f la te s t h e m ap -a s -a r tef ac t w i th t h e s t a te o fm ind t h a t i tp roduce s , G e l l s ugge s t s t h a t p eop le o r ien t t o t h e e nv i ronmen t t h rough m ap le s sp rac t ica l m as tery , ac oncep t d e r ived f r om t h e wo rk o f t h e F r ench s oc io log i s t P i e r r e B ou rd ieu ( 1977 ) . B ou rd ieu , o f c ou r se , d oe s n o t d i rec t ly a dd r e ss h un t e r -ga the re r mob i l i ty . H oweve r , h e d oe s ( 1977 :73 -78 ) d i scu s st h en o t ion so f" p rac t ica l ma s te ry" a nd " s t ra t egy ," a nd t h e se a r er e levan ti n sof a ra st h ey h e lp o ne t o u nde r s tand t h e p a t te rned movemen t o f p eop le t h rough s pace . B y t a k ing a n i n d iv idua l -cen t r ed v i ew o f mob i l i ty , t h e c on cep t o fm ob i l i ty a sc o l lec t iv i s t s t ra tegy i si mp l ic i t ly r e jec t ed i n t h i s t h e s i s . F o r e xamp le , t h e f o rag ing v s . c o l lec t ing d i cho tomy h a sb een r e if ied a sc a tego r ica l o p t ion s t h a t g roup s o fp eop le c hoose , r a the r t h an d e scr ip t ion s o f w ha tt h ey d o . B ou rd ieu i n d i rec t ly c r i t ic i se s s uch t o ta l is ing c a tegor ie s i nh i s o f ten -quo ted c r i t ic i sm o ft h e a na logy t h a t c u l tu re i sl i ke amap :

T he h ab i tu s i s t h e s ou r ce o f t h e se s er ie s o f move s wh ich a r e o b jec t ive ly o rgan i sed a s s t ra teg ie s w i thou t b e ing t h e p rodu c t o f a g enu ine s t ra teg ic i n ten t ion . ( Bou rd ieu 1 977 :73 ) I t c an b e s ugge s ted t h en , t h a t mob i l i ty p a t ter n s i n t r in s ica l ly p a r to ft h eh ab i tu s .

I ti st h e a na logy wh ich o ccu r s t o a n o u t s ide r w ho h a s t o f i nd h i s w ay a r ound a f o r e ign l a nd scape a nd who c ompen sa te s f o r h i s l a ck o f p r ac t ica l m a s te ry , t h e p r e roga t ive o ft h e n a t ive , b y t h e u se o f amode l o fa l p o ss ib le r ou te s . T he g u lf b e tween t h i s p o ten t ia l , a b s t rac t s pace , d evo id o f l a ndma rk s o r a ny p r iv i leged c en t re — l i ke g enea log ie s , i n w h ich t h e e go i s a s u n rea l a s t h e s t a r t ing p o in t i n a C a r te s ian s pace —and t h e p rac t ica l s pace o f j ou rney s a c tua l ly m ade , o r r a the r o f j ou rney s a c tua l ly b e ing m ade , c an b e s e en f r om t h e d i f f icu l ty w eh ave i nr e cogn is ing f am i l ia rr ou te s o n am ap o r t own -p lan u n t i l w e a r e a b le t ob r ing t oge the r t h e a xe s o ft h e f i e ld o fp o ten t ia l i t ie s a nd " t he s y s tem o f a xe s l i nked u na l te rab ly t o o u r b od ie s , a nd c a r r ied a bou t w i th u s w he r eve r w e g o ," a s P o inca r e p u t s i t , w h ich s t ruc tu re s p rac t ica l s pace i n to r i gh t a nd l ef t , u p a nd d own , i n f r on t a nd b eh ind . ( Bou rd ieu 1 977 :2 )

a r e

T o s t a r t ad i f f e r en t a pp roach , w e mu s t d i scu s s whe re t h e " f a l la cy o ft h e r u le" c ome s f r om . A cco rd ing t oB ou rd ieu , r u le s d e sc r ibed b y i n f o rman t s a r e af o rm o fr a t iona l isa t ion f o r t h e b ehav iou r t h a t t h e h ab i tu s p red i spo se s . When q uer ied a bou t ab ehav iou ra l a r ena o ve r w h ich t h ey h ave " p rac t ica l m a s t e ry ( 1977 :19 ) ," i n f o rman t s b ecome " sem i t h eo r e t ica l ( 1977 :18 ) ," a s t a te o f d i scu r s ive s e lf -de lu s ion c oncer n ing t h e i r o wn a c t ion s i n t h e w o r ld . I n t h is , t h e a n th ropo log is t o r " l ea rned q ue s t ione r" a nd t h e i n f orman t s ha re a s im i la r t h ough t p roce s s , a l though t h e i r d er ived c on s t ruc t sw i l l , o fc ou r se ,d i f f e r : ( a )b ehav iou ri so b served , o rr ef lec ted u pon . ( b ) ar u le i sc oncoc ted wh ich f i t st h eb ehav iou r . ( c ) t h e m i s taken a s sump t ion i s made t h a t t h e r u le t h a tf i t st h eb ehav iou ra c tua l ly g u ide si t . ( d ) t h e c onc lu s ion i sr e ached t h a t t h e b ehav iou r i s c au sed b yt h er u le . R a the r , B ou rd ieu b e l ieved t h a t t h e t r ue n a tu r e o fp rac t ica l m as tery i s " l ea rned i g no rance , a mode o f p rac t ica l k now ledge n o tc ompr i s ing k now ledge o fi t s o wn p r inc ip le s ( 1977 :19 ) ." T he i mpor tance o ft h i s f o rt h e a pp rehen s ion o f mob i l i ty i st h a t m a s te ry o f s pace i sn o t b a sed o n men ta l

T hu s , p r a c t ice i sc en t r ed o n t h e b ody , a nd i ti sp os s ib le t o s e e G ib son ian e co log ica l p e r cep t ion a nd t h e t h eo ry o f

.P re sumab ly t h eh ab i tu sd if e r sf r om " t rad i t ion" i nt h a ti ti sd oub le e nded : b o th as t ruc tu r ing a nd s t ruc tu r ed s t ru c tu r e .

4 7

3

o ft h e d u rab le r e co rd o fp rac t ica l a nd o t her a c t iv i ty i nt h e wo r ld .

maps , w h ich a r e c en t ra l t o a C a r te s ian e go -cen t r ic , " mechan ica l -cybe rne t ic ( Ge l l 1 992 :263 ) ," c ogn i t ive mode l o f t h e i n d iv idua l . A s n o ted i n t h e p r ev iou s c hap te r , e co log ica l p sycho logy r e jec t s t h e t h eo ry o fm en ta l m ap s i n f a vou r o ft h e n on -cogn i t iv i s t f r amewo rk o fp l ace s , p a th s , a nd e ncoun te r s . I t may b e p o s s ib le t o a s se r t , t h en , t h a t e co log ica l p sycho logy c on s t i tu te s t h e p rox ima l m echan i sm b y wh ich p rac t ica la c t iv i ty i nt h ew o r ld i se nab led .4 8

F u r the r , e ven t h e d i s t inc t ion b e tween b u i ld ing s a nd n on b u i ld ing s s hou ld n o t b e s e en a s a b so lu te . R a the r , t h i s i s a no the r r e c r ea t ion o f t h e f a lse d i cho tomy b e tween n a tu re a nd c u l tu re , r e f e r r ed t o e a r l ie r . I ngo ld ( 1993 ) i lu s t ra te s t h i s p o in t w i th r e f e rence t o al a nd scape p a in t ing b y t h e a r t i s t P i e te r B ruege l t h e E lde r , s how ing p ea san t s i n t h e med ieva l N e the r land s a t h a rve s t t ime . W i th in t h e l a nd scape , t h e c hu r ch , t h e f i e ld s a nd t h e p a th s a r e a l s e lf e v iden t ly p a r t o f t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t , i n t h a t t h ey a r e d u rab le a nd a r i se o u t o f h uman a c t ion . L e s s o bv iou s ly , when c ompa r ing t h e t r ee w i th t h e c hu r ch , I ngo ld ( 1993 :170 ) s ugge s t s t h a t " t he f o rm o f b o th i s a n e mbod imen t o f ad eve lopmen ta l o rh i s to r ica l p roce s s ," a nd t ha tt h ep eop le a r e " a s much b ound u p i nt h e l i f e o ft h et r ee a st h e t r ee i nt h e l i ve s o ft h e p eop le ." T hu s , b u i ld ing s a nd t r ee s b o th e me rge f r om t h e c on t inua l s e lf t ran sf o rma t ion o f t h e w o r ld . I ti sg a the r ed i n to t h e t a sk scape b ecau se o fi t s a f f o rdance s ( f ru i t , s he l te r , e t c . ) y e t , a s ap o in t o fr e f e r ence , i ti si t se lf ap l ace a nd g a the r st h e l a nd scape i n to i t .

B a r r e t t ( 1994 :13 ) d e sc r ibe s t h e r e levance o ft h e f a l lacy o f t h e r u le t o t h e a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s o f a monumen ta l l a nd scape . H e n o te s t h a t t h e re i sn o u se i n a pp ly ing o r i mpo s ing a " de scr ip t ive g eome t ry" o f t h e l a nd scape a nd t h en l o ok ing f o r t h e u nde r ly ing " gene ra t ive g eome t ry ," b ecau se N eo l i th ic monumen t s s uch a sA vebu ry w e re n eve r c once ived o fa s as i ng le p ro jec t . A s a l e p i sode s o ft h i s r e f a sh ion ing a nd r e newa lw e r er e -wo rk ing s o f wha th ad g one b ef o re , t h e f a l la cy w a s t o c onve r t r egu la r i t ie s i n ma ter ia l c u l tu re t o ar u le . T hu s , i na cco rdance w i th h ab i tu s , n e i the r a b so lu t e f r ee w i l l n o r s imp le g oa l -d i r ec tedne s s w a s r e spon s ib le f o r t h e a r chaeo log ica l l a nd scape . T h is s o r t o f a na ly s i s i so f o bv iou s i mpor tance f o r a l a r chaeo log ica l s pa t ia l a na ly se s o fb u i l t e nv i ronmen t s a nd w i l l b e r ev i s i ted b e low , i n ad i scu s s ion o fw he r e t h e l i ne s hou ld b e d rawn b e tween n a tura la nd b u i l te nv i ronmen t sa nd , i n deed , i fs uch al i ne s hou ld b e d r awn a t a l . T h roughou t , i t mu s t b e r e a l ised t h a t , a s f o rmu la ted b y B ou rd ieu , h ab i tus i s e s sen t ia l ly at empo ra l c oncep t , b u t w i th al a ten t s pa t ia l i ty . G o sden ( 1994 ) h a s a t temp t ed t o d raw o u t s ome o f t h e s pa t ia l i mp l ica t ion s o f B ou rd ieu ' s t h eo ry o f p rac t ice w i th h i sc oncep to ft h e l a nd scape o fh ab i t . I ft h eh ab i tus i st ob e o f u se a r chaeo log ica l ly , t h en i t mu s t b e l i nked t o b o th ma ter ia lc u l tu r ea nd t os pace . A sn o ted a bove i ti su sef u l i n t h e a na ly s i s o fb u i l t e nv i ronmen t s . T he f o l low ing s e c t ion s d i scu s s t h e n o t ion o f ab u i l t e nv i ronmen t , s t a r t ing w i th a d ef in i t ion o f ab u i ld ing .

E xp l ic i t r e cogn i t ion t h a t t h e h un te r -ga the re r e nv i ronmen t i s ab u i l t e nv i ronmen t i so ve r ad ecad e o l d , w i th s ome o f t h e i mp l ica t ion s n ow b e ing w ide ly r e cogn i sed . F o r e xamp le , C onkey e choe s B ou rd ieu ( whom s h e d oe s n o t c i te )w hen s h ew r i te st h a t , H uman s h ave b ecome m a s te r s a t e nv i ronmen ta l s t ruc tu r a t ion : " a t r an sf o rmed e nv i ronmen t i s ag ood a l ter na t ive t o ab igge r b r a in ( Wagne r 1 972 :x i )" . N o t o n ly d o h uman s s t ruc tu re t h e i re nv i ronmen t s , b u tt h e se s t ruc tu r ing a c t s s t ruc tu r e h uman s , f r om o b jec t m an ipu la t ion t o t h e a r ch i tec tu re t h a t o bv iou s ly c on s t itu te s ab u i l t e nv i ronmen t . E nv i ronmen ta l s t ru c tu ra t ion i s s oc io spa t ia l i n i t s g ene s i s a nd i n i t s p e rpe tua t ion . ( Conkey 1 984 :266 )

5 . 4 T he b u i l te nv ironmen t I n t h e p r ev iou s c hap te r t h e c oncep t s o f p l ace , p a th a nd v acancy w e r e s hown t o b e c r i t ica l i n u nde r s tand ing mob i l i ty w i th in af r amewo rk o fh uman i s t ic h uman e co logy . I n t h is s e c t ion , i tw i l l b e f u r the r a rgued t h a t t h e l a nd scape o fp l ace s a nd p a th s c an b ek nown a r chaeo log ica l ly , a nd b e c on s ide red a s a" bu i l t e nv i ronmen t ," e ven w hen t h ey a r e r ep r e sen t ed b y t h e e pheme ra l a nd d i scon t inuou s ma te r ia l r ema in s o f ah un te r -ga the r e r a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . A b u i ld ing i s d ef ined a s " any d u rab le s t ruc tu re i n t h e l a nd scape w ho se f o rm a r i se s a nd i ss u s ta ined w i th in t h e c u r r en to fh uman a c t iv i ty" ( I ngo ld 1 993 :169 ) . T hu s , i td oe s n o t r e f e r o n ly t o a r ch i tec tu ra l s t ruc tu re s , b u t a l so t o t h e a ccumu la t ion o f m a te r ia l i t em s r e su l t ing f r om h uman a c t iv i ty . E nv i ronmen t c on t inue s t o b e d ef ined o n ly i n r e la t ion t o a n o b serve r , a s d i scu s sed i n C hap te r 4 . M in ima l ly , t h en , t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t h a s ar i ch m ean ing

4 8

.T he

F u r the r , s he g oe s o n t o n o te t h a t h un t e r -ga the r e r s a r e n o t o f t en t h ough t o f a s c on t r ibu to r s t o ab u i l t e nv i ronmen t , p a r t ly b ecau se o nt h ew ho le t h ey d on o tc ons t ruc tr e la t ive ly p e rmanen t a r ch i tec tu re o r o t he r s t r uc tu re s . H oweve r , s he s ugge s t s t h a t t h ey c e r ta in ly d o g ene ra te a s t ruc tu r ed e nv i ronmen t , " i f o n ly b y mean s o f t h e d i f f e r en t ia l d ep loymen t o fp e r sonne l t h roughou t t h e l a nd scape a nd o f t h e l o ca t ion s t h a t t h ey s e t t le a nd u se" ( Conk ey 1 984 :267 ) . C onkey s ugge s t s t h a t a" s e t t lemen t s y s tem" i t se lf i s af o rm o fb u i ld ing , b u t ab u i ld ing t h a t i sa n e me rgen t p rope r ty o f p roce s s , n o t a s t h e r e su l t o f ap l an o r b l uep r in t . T hu s , C onkey i sa r gu ing a ga in s t t h e i mpo s i t ion o ft h e f a l la cy o f t h e r u le . T h i s l i ne o ft h ough t e dge s t h e m a te r ia l r e co rd o f s i te s c l o se r t o t h e n on -ma ter ia l r e co rd o f s t ruc tu red ( a nd s t ruc tu r ing ) mob i l i ty w i th in a c on s t ra in ed l a ndf o rm .

i mpo r tance o ft h i sr ema rk w i l lb ecome c l ea re ri nC hap te r7 . 3 .3 .

3 4

d ua l is tt h ink ing a bou tt h e e nv i ronmen tw a sn o ted . I nhe ren t i nt h i s w a s ac r i t ic i sm o ft h e c oncep t o f" eco log ica l n i che" a s s ome th ing t h a t e x i s t s i n dependen t ly o ft h e o rgan i sm , a s s ome th ing o u t t h ere , w a i t ing t o b e f i l led . T he n i che i s mo re p rope r ly s e en a s a n a c t ive c on s t ruc t ion o f t h e o rgan i sm :

K enne th Ame s e choe s t h i s w hen h e n o te s t h a t t h e s e t t lemen t s y s t em i t se lf i s ak ind o f a r t if ic ia l ly c r ea ted l a nd scape : B o th s eden t i sm a nd s em i seden t i sm m igh t b e b e t te r t h ough t o f a s p ar t icu la r k i nd s o f s oc ia l g eog raph ie s ( Conkey 1 984 ) o r a s p a r t icu la r k ind s o f a r t if ic ia l ly c on s t ruc ted l a nd scape s i n w h ich r e s iden t ia l p a t ter n s a nd a s soc ia ted s o c ia l a nd c u l tu ra l p a t te rn s b ecome f i xed a nd m a in ta ined a t c er ta in p l ace s f o rs ome p e r iod o ft ime . I n as ense , r e s iden t ia l s i te s b ecome p ar t o ft h ef urn i ture o ft h e l a nd scape [ empha s i sa dded ] .( Ame s 1 991a :109 )

O rgan i sms a s semb le t h e ir e nv ironmen t s o u t o f t h e b i t s a nd p iece s o f t h e w or ld . I ndeed , a n e nv i ronmen t i sn a tu re o rgan i sed b y a n o rgan i sm . . . .o rgan i sms a l ter t h e ir e nv ironmen t s . I t i s af undamen ta l f e a tu re o f l i f e t h a t o rgan i sm s b o th c r ea te a nd d e s t roy t h e c ond i t ion s f o r t h e i r o wn e x i s tence b y p hy s ica l a l te ra t ion st ot h e i rm i l ieu [ empha s i s i n o r ig ina l ] . ( Lewon t in 1 982 :160 )

Ame s c a r r ie s o n t o d i scu s s t h e l o ngue d urie a spec t s o f mob i l i ty s t ra tegy a nd r e sou rce d i s t r ibu t ion o n t h e C o lumb ia R ive r P l a teau , b u t i ti si mpor tan t n o t t o s e e t h e h un te r g a the re r b u i l t e nv i ronmen t a s a m e re r e f lec t ion o f e co log ica l s t ruc tu r e . A s ap re lude t o a r gu ing a ga in s t t h i s p o in t , G osden ( 1 995 ) r e cap i tu la te s i t :t h eb u i l t e nv i ronmen t c ou ld b e s a id t o b e n o th ing mo re t h an t h e r e s idue o f e conom ic a c t iv i ty ,a nd i td oe sn o tr e a l ly s t ruc tu re a c t ion" s o much a s i ti ss t ruc tu r ed b y e nv i ronmen ta l ( "non -cu l tu ra l ," t h ough c u l tu ra l ly p e r ce ived ) p a t ter n ing i nr e sou r ce s . I nt h e c ou r se o f d i scu s s ing w hy t h e h un te r -ga the re r :f a rme r d i s t inc t ion h a s b ecome d i s t inc t ly u nhe lpf u l i n A u s t ra l ian a nd P apua -New G u inean p reh i s to ry , G o sden n o te s t h a t p r ima ry e mpha s i s o n t h e " r equ i r emen t s" o f s ub s i s tence l e ad s t o e nv i ronmen ta l a nd e conom ic d e te rm in i sm s , s uch a s ,

T h is i s e v iden t ly c ong ruen t w i th G o sden 's ( 1994 :82 , f o l low ing B ou rd ieu 1 977 )c ommen t st h a te ach g ene ra t ion i s b o rn a nd s oc ia l i sed i n to " a p a r t icu la r l a nd scape a nd t h i s b ecome s s ome th ing t h a t [ t hey ] a r e ." P eop le n eve r a pp roach t h e w o r ld " f rom w i thou t , a s af o r e ign o b jec t ," r a the r ,t h ey a r ea lway sw i th in i t : A f am i l ia r l a nd scape i sn o t n a tu re i n o ppo s i t ion t oo u rc u l tu r e , b u t aw eb o f c onnec t ion s w h ich p eop le h ave b ecome u sed t o w a rp ing i n s pec ia l w ay s . ( Go sden 1 994 :82 ) B y l a nd scape , G o sden d oe s n o t m ean p u re ly c u l tu ra l o r s ymbo l ic c on s t ruc t ion s ,r a the r , l a nd scape sa r e :

t h e r equ i r emen t s o f t h e s ub s i s tence r ound a r e s a id t od e te rm ine t h e n a tu re a nd p a t ter n o f movemen t o r s eden t i sm , w h i le t h e p roduc t s d e r ived f r om s ubs i s tence i n f luence t h e l e ve l s o f p opu la t ion p o s s ib le a nd t h e a moun t s o f t r ade o r e xchange , c r af t s pec ia l i sa t ion , e t c . ... S ub s i s tence i s t h e b a se o n w h ich a l o t he r e l emen t s o fs o c ia l l i f e mu s tb eb u i l t . ( 1995 :807 )

S pace s c a rved o u t b y p a t t er n s o f a c t ion , w h ich t h en h e lp t o p a t te rn f u tu re a c t ion . T he s ymbo l ic a s pec t o f t h e l a nd scape i s d e r ived f r om t h e a c t ion s c a r r ied o u t w i th in i t : a c on sc iou s g l o s so nu n though tp rac t ice . ( Go sden 1 994 :81) T hu s , e ven t h e mo s t e pheme ra l a r chaeo log ica l s i te s , a nd e ven t ho se s i te s a tw h ich i n te rac t ion o ccu r s b u tn o m a te r ia l r ema in s d eve lop , a r e i n c luded w i th in t h e l a nd scape . A f u r the r e x ten s ion t ot h i s a rgumen t i st oa dd o t he r f e a tu re s . T he c on s t ruc t ion o f as o c ia l l a nd scape ( Gamb le 1 995 ) , f o r e xamp le , r e su l t s i n an e two rk o f s i gn if i can t p eop le , w ho t h rough t h e i r ( mov ing ) o ccupa t ion o f s pace , c an b e c oncep tua l ised a sn amed ,m ean ingf u lp lace s .

T o a vo id t h i s d e te rm in ism , G o sden p ropo se s t h a t t h e s t a r t ing p o in tb e ,i ne f f ec t ,t h eb u i l te nv i ronmen t : F ood a nd d r ink a r e a v i ta l c on s ide ra t ion w hen c r ea t ing a w o r ld , b u tt h ey a r e an ece s sa ry , r a the rt h an a s uff ic ien tc ond i t ion i nt h i ss hap ing [ o f t h e w o r ld ] [ empha s i s a dded ] . ( Go sden 1 995 :807 )

5 . 5 E xamp le : wha t m igh t i tm ean t or e jec t t he " Fa l lacy o ft he Ru le" i n as pa t ia la na ly s i s? A c en t ra l t h eme o f t h i s r e sea r ch i s t h e i mpor tance o f t h eo r is ing t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween i n d iv idua l s a nd l a nd scape . I n al o ca t iona l mode l ( e .g . , Wob s t 1 974 , 1 976 ) ,

G o sden 's c r i t ique b ea r s s t rong i mpo r t f o r much N o r thwe s t C oa s t e co log ica l ly -o r ien ted c u l tu r e h i s to ry , wh i le i n t h e p rev iou sc hap t e rt h ec r o s s -d isc ip l ina ry c onve rgence o fa n t i -

3 5

u s ing a G IS imp lemen ted l og i s t ic r eg re s s ion mode l , i na n a t temp tt ob u i ld ap red ic t ive mode lo fs i te l o ca t ion .

t h i s r e la t ion sh ip , wh i le c en t ra l , i sc omp le te ly r u le -bound . A s e t o f " cu l tu ra l a s sump t ion s g ove rn s a l l [ c ompu te r s imu la t ion ] r un s" (Wob s t 1 974 :165 ) . Among s t t h e se a r e s u ch n o rma t ive p r e scr ip t ion s a s : ( a ) ama te s ea r che s f o rt h e c l o se s t a va i lab le p a r tne r ; ( b ) t h e r eg iona l p opu la t ion i s 1 00% e ndogamou s ; a nd ( c ) m embe r s o f am in imum b and move o n ly i f t h ey ma r ry , o r n eed t o e i the r d iv ide o r a ma lgama t ew i th n e ighbou r ing g roup s .

T hey f ound t h a t a l l t h e m idden s i t e s w e re o n f l a t , w e l l d ra ined p l ace s : b u t c ruc ia l ly , t h ey d i d n o t e xp lo r e w he the r t h i s i s ad e sc r ip t ion o ft h em idden i t se lf o ro ft h e a f o rdance o fi t s p l ace . I no the r wo rd s , t h e m idden -a s -bu i ld ing ( bu i l t t h rough l o ng te rm p rac t ica l a nd o t he r a c t iv i ty ) i sw rong ly m ixed i n to t h e mode l a s a n e nv i ronmen ta l v a r iab le . T h i s m a t te r s ,b ecau se o ne e l emen ti nt h e mode lt h a tc ou ld n o tb e e xp la ined w a s " s i te a r ea ." T hey c onc lud e i nn o u ncer ta in t e rm st h a t ,

C lea r ly , t h e se p re scr ip t ion s w e r e a n ece s sa ry e v i l t o f a c i l i ta te t h e c ompu te r p rog ramm ing . I ndeed , s ome o f t h em m ay w e l l r e f lec t c r o s s -cu l tu ra l n o rm s . B u t c ruc ia l ly f o r Wob s t ' s mode l , t h e p eop le a b ide b y t h e r u le s u n t i l c er ta in t h r e sho ld s a r e c r o s sed , w hen n ew r u le s a b rup t ly r ep lace t h e o ld . T he mo s t i mpor tan t o ft h e se t h r e sho ld s , a nd t h eo ne o f mo s ti n te r e s tt o Wob s t 's g ene ra l c onc lu s ion s , i st h e a c tua l e x t inc t ion o ft h e l o ca l g roup s o r , c umu la t ive ly , o f t h e c onnub ium . Wob s t h o ld s t h a t t h i s d emog raph ic c r a sh land ing r e su l t s f r om t h e i n te rp lay o f f e r t i l i ty , mor ta l i ty a nd g roup s i ze , p l ayed o u t a cco rd ing t o t h e f unc t iona l i s tr u le so ft h es imu la t ion . H oweve r ,t h e mode l i s a c tua l ly d ependen t o n t h e t ype o f i n d iv idua l mode l led : l emm ing l ike , t h ey b l ind ly f o l low n o rma t ive r u le s o ve r t h e d emog raph ic c l if f .4 9

i n ten s i ty o f o ccupa t ion b y N a t ive T l ing i t i n hab i tan t s w a s c omp le te ly i n dependen t o f t h e se [ e nv i ronmen ta l ] f a c to r s . . .w e s t i l l h ave n o u nde r s tand ing o f t h e v a r iab le s t h a t i nf luenced h ow l o ng , o r a tl e a s t w i th w ha t i n ten s i ty , as i te w i l l b e o ccup ied . ( Ma schne ra nd S t e in 1 995 :932 ) T he a n swe rt ot h e i rp rob lem p robab ly l i e s i nt h e i rf a i lu r e t o t a ke ab u i l t l a nd scape a pp roach . I n s tead , t h ey c omb ine t h e l o ca t iona l a spec t s o f t h e s i te s i n r e la t ion t o t h e l a ndf o rm a nd t ot h e a f f o rdance s o ft h e e nv i ronmen t ( i nc lud ing o t he r s i te s ) , a nd t h e r e f lex ive c on s ide ra t ion o f t h e r eg iona l h ab i tu s ( t he l a nd scape o fh ab i t ) . T h i s r e su l ted i ns ome s he l l m idden s i te s b ecom ing mo r e i n ten se ly u sed t h an o t he r s . T h i s i st os ay t h a t ac omb ina t ion o fn e two rk a nd l o ca t iona l a na ly s i s p e rf o rmed w i th in t h e s pace o f t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t m igh t h ave a dded s i gn if ican t ly t o t h e i r f i nd ing s . T he i r a ppa ren t a nd r e pea ted ( c f . Ma schne r 1 997 ) f a i lu re w a s t o n e i the r c on s ide r mo re t h an o ne s c a le o f a na ly s i s , n o r mo re t h an o ne s o r t o f s pace , n o r mo r e t h an p r agma t ic s i te spec if ic d ec is ion -mak ing ; b u t t o o n ly c on s ide r t h e n eu t ra l s pace o f n a tu r e , a nd t h e s c a le o f t h e s i te 's i mmed ia te m ic ro -env i ronmen t . T hu s , t h e r e m ay b e r e a son f o r c on s ide rab le i n te re s t i n b u i ld ing a n e two rk o f h ab i ta t ion s i t e s t oe xp lo r e t h e i r l o ca t iona l r e la t ion sh ip s a ta mo re mac ro sca le . T o d o s o i ti sn ece s sa ry t oc once ive o f t h eN o r thwe s tC oa s t l a nd scape a s ab u i l t e nv i ronmen t . T he b u i l t e nv i ronmen t i s a n u nf in ished e d if ice , a nd a s s uch c anno t b e t h e s imp le r e su l t o f d ec i s ion m ak ing v ar iab le s a nd t h e i rp rox ima l e f f ec t s .

I ti sv e ry d i ff icu l t t ot h ink o f aw ay i n wh ich t h e h ab i tu s c ou ld b e mode l led i ns uch as imu la t ion , wh ich w a s m ean t t oc on s ide rd emog raph ic v a r iab le s , a nd w a s n o t m ean t a sa h o l i s t ic s imu la t ion o f s oc ie ty . I tw ou ld n o t b e e nough t o h ave t h e p rog ram a s se s s t h e h i s tor ica l ly a r r ived -a tp re sen t , " l ook" s eve ra l g ene ra t ion s i n to t h e f u tu re a nd t h en c hoo se t h e p r e sen t move t h a t m ax im ise s f u tu r e s ucce s s . A p rog ram t h a tl o ok sa head , l i ke ac he s sp l aye r ,w ou ld m e r e ly b e ar ef inemen t o f o p t im i sa t ion s t ud ie s a nd w ou ld , i n e f f ec t , b e at e leo log ica l v e r s ion o f Wob s t ' s s imu la t ion i n w h ich t h e c ompu te r p rog ram w a s s pec if ica l ly d e s igned t o n o t o n ly b ehave a cco rd ing t o n o rma t ive r u le s b u t t o r e p roduce p re -o rda ined a n th ropo log ica l c on s t ruc t s . Wo rk ing t owa rd s d ef in i t ion s i n t h i s w ay w ou ld n o t n ece s sa r i ly b e o f much n ove l i n te r e s t . I t m igh t s e em c oun te r -p roduc t ive t oa t temp t t o mode l ac on s t ruc t s uch a s t h e h ab i tu s , a s t h i s m igh t r equ i re t h e i n app rop r ia te i mpo s i t ion o f r u le s o n to a n e s sen t ia l ly r u le le ss a r ena . N eve r the le s s , i ti sw o r thwh i le t ot a ke o nb oa rd t h ee s sen t ia l i d ea s o f t h e d i a lec t ic b e tween o b jec t iv i s t a nd s ub jec t iv i s t s t ru c tu re s .

5 . 6 T he N or thwe s tC oa s ta s ab u i l te nv ironmen t T he r e cen t p ape r b y Ma schne r a nd S t e in ( 1995 ) i lu s t r a te s t h i s p o in t . T he a u tho r s d e sc r ibe a G IS a pp l ica t ion i nt h e A lexande r A rch ipe lago o f t h e S ou thea s ter n A la skan " panhand le ," t r ad i t iona l t e r r i to ry o ft h e T l ing i tp eop le . T he a u tho r s c ompa red s i te m ic ro -env i ronmen t ( s lope , d ra inage , c a rd ina l a nd c l ima t ic e xpo su r e , i s land s i ze a nd d i s tance t o f r e sh w a te r ) a nd am ea su r e o fi n ten s i ty o fu se ( s i te a r ea ) ,

L ook ing a tt h ev a r ied a nd s ub s tan t ia la r chaeo log ica l s i te so f t h e Nor thwe s t C oa s t l e ad s o ne t o t h e c onc lu s ion t h a t t h e l a nd scape a s a w ho le i s a p t ly c on s ide red a s ab u i l t e nv i ronmen t . T he se s i te s i n c lude b o th d e l ibe ra t e s pec ia l p u rpo se c on s t ruc t ion s ( e .g . , f i sh t rap s , r ock a r t , c anoe s k id s ) o r t h e l e s s d e l ibe ra te —bu t s ub s tan t ia l— r e s idue s o f e ve ryday l i f e ( e .g . , s he l l m idden s ; b each l i t h ic s c a t te r s ) .5 °

.T h i si s ab r eak f r om t h eu sua lc r i t ic ism o f Wob s t ' sa pp roa ch ( e .g . , B e t t inge r 1 980 ) : t h a ti td epend st o o much o ni d ea l i sed g roup s oc ia l c on s t ruc t sa nd u nd if f e ren t ia ted s pace .

4 9

5 ° .I ft h e

i n te re s ti si nt h eh ab i tu st h e se s hou ld n o tb ec on s ide r ed s imp ly a s " a r chaeo log ica ls i te s" b u ta sa gg lome ra t ion so fm a te r ia l a s pe c t so ft h e

3 6

T he se a r e b r ief ly d e sc r ibed i mmed ia te ly b e low , wh i le t h e i r i n te r e s t f r om a l a nd scape p e r spec t ive o f t h e se w i l l b e d i scu ssed i ns ub sequen ts e c t ion s . ( a )V i l lage s i te sa nd m idden s . T he se a r el o ca ted s omewha t p ragma t ica l ly a cco rd ing t ot h e a f f o rdance so ft h e l a ndf o rm . T h i s s i t ing i ss u r e ly e nhanced b y t h e m idden i t se lf , wh ich n o rma l ly c on s t i tu te s af l a t , w e l l -d ra ined t e r race . I n a ny c a se , a s d i scu s sed b e low , a n i mpor tan t q ue s t ion i sn o t s o much e xac t ly w hy a ny g i ven s i te i sw he re i ti s( m ic ro e nv i ronmen ta l q ue s t ion s o f d r a inage , s l ope a nd s o f o r th h av ing b een i n ve s t iga ted a nd f ound i mpo r tan tb y Ma schne r a nd S t e in 1 995 ) , b u t wha t i n f luence s t h e i n te r s i te s pa t ia l p a t ter n ing a nd r eg iona l s i te h i e ra r chy . T hey a r e ap u r e ly a r chaeo log ica l t y pe , w i th t h e a c t iv i t ie s —gene ra l h ab i ta t ion —wh ich l e ad t ot h e i r f o rma t ion h av ing o n ly t h e d i sca rd o f mo l lu sc a nd o t he rs h e l ls i nc ommon . ( b ) D ef en s ive s i te s . T he se f r equen t ly c on ta in s he l l m idden st h em se lve s . T he se a r e s im i la ri nd e r iva t ion t ot h e a bov e , b u t a r e e ven mo r e c on s t ra ined i n l o ca t ion b y t h e e x igenc ie s o f d ef ence . T hey m ay h ave a r ef lex ive r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e l o ca t ion o f m idden s : i . e . , s ome v i l lage s a r e l o ca ted n ea r d ef en s ive p o s i t ion s , w h i le o the r d ef en s ive s i te s a r e l o ca ted n ea r v i l lage s ( Mo s s a nd E r land son 1 992 ) . ( c ) C anoe s k id s . T he se a r e c l ea r ed p a thway s f o r l a nd ing c anoe s t h rough ac obb le /bou lde r s ho r e l ine . T hey a r e o f ten a s soc ia ted w i th m idden s , b u t n o t a lway s : t h ey o f f e r g a teway s f r om t h e ma r i t ime e nv i ronmen t t o t h e g ene ra l t e r re s t r ia l e nv i ronmen t a sw e l l a s t o s i te s . T hey p robab ly p e r s i s t e ven a f t e r a ny a s soc ia ted s i te s a r e a bandoned o r c hange u se , a nd t hu s h ave a d i f f e ren t u se l if e w i th in t h e b u i l te nv i ronmen t . ( d ) F i sh t rap s /we i r s . A s i st h e c a se f o r c anoe s k id s , t h e se m ay b e p ragma t ica l ly s i ted ( t hey mu s t b e i n a pp rop r ia te p l ace s t oc a tch f i sh ) . T hey p re sumab ly r e qu i r ed a n i n i t ia l p l anned a nd o rgan i sed c on s t ruc t ion , f o l lowed b y s ome d eg r ee o f r ou t ine a nnua l ma in tenance . S ome i n d iv idua l f i shwe i r s i n A la ska a r e k nown t o h ave b een u sed o ve r a t h ou sand y ea rs pan ( Mo s se ta l1 989 ) . ( e ) C u l tu ra l ly Mod if ied T r ee s ( C MT s ) . T he se a r e t r ee s ( l iv ing a nd d ead ) w h ich b ea r e v idence o f b a rk s t r ipp ing , p l ank a cqu i s i t ion , h ou se f r ame a nd c anoe log a cqu i s i t ion a nd m ed ic ina l u se s . I n e s sence t h ey a r e q ua r r ie s f o r o rgan ic p roduc t s . T he se a r e n ume rou s , a nd c an b e s u rp r is ing ly d u rab le , w i th o ne r e cen t ly d i scove r ed l i v ing c eda r f r om B a rk ley S ound b ea r ing a b a rk s t r ip d a t ing t o o ve r8 00 y ea r sb ef o re p r e sen t( E ld r idge ,p e r s . c omm . ) . ( 0 H uman B u r ia l s . B u r ia l s a r e w ide ly r e cogn i sed a s p o ten t ia l ly o fi mmen se s i gn if icance i nt h e l a nd scape , a nd , i n o t he r p a r t s o f t h e w o r ld , p rovoked t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f monumen t s . O n t h e Nor thwe s t C oa s t , b u r ia l c ave s a r e p robab ly ah i s to r ic p henomenon a nd b u r ia l sw i th in m idden s a r e o f l im i ted i n te re s t i n t h e a s se s smen t o f b u i l t e nv i ronmen t . I n s ome a r ea s , mor tua ry p o le s a nd g rave h ou se s w e r e e r ec ted . " Bu r ia l s" i nt r ee s , a way f r om o the r

t a sk scap e . T ha ti s ,t h ey s hou ld n o tn ece s sa r i ly b ec once ived i ns i t e t y po log ica lt e rm s .

3 7

s i te s , a r e p o t en t ia l ly o f ag rea t d ea l o f i n te re s t f r om a l a nd scape p e r spec t ive .5 I ( g ) R ock a r t . P i c tog raph s a nd p e t rog lyph s a r e c ommon i n s ome a r ea s , t h ough n o t o n t h e w e s t c oa s t o f V ancouve r I s land . T hey a r e o f o bv iou s i mpo r tance a s d u rab le a nd o cca s iona l ly h igh ly v i s ib le a l te ra t ion s o f t h e e nv i ronmen t ( c f . C onkey 1 984 ) .5 2 ( h ) F u r the r , t h e r e a r e t h o se p henomena t h a t a r ise f r om t h e a c t iv i t ie s o f p eop le b u t m igh t n o t b e c on s ide red a s a r chaeo log ica l s i te s t h em se lve s . F o r e xamp le , t r ee f e l l ing may e ncou rage b e r ry g row th a nd t h e s c rap w ood l ef t f r om p l ank a cqu is i t ion m ay m ake au sef u l s upp ly o fs pa r e p a r t s ( e xped ien tw edge s , s k id s , w o rk space c l ea r ing s , s c af f o ld ing ) a nd t h u s e ncou rage f u r the ru t i l isa t ion o f ac e r ta in a r ea . T he i mpac t c ou ld a l so b e n ega t ive , a sb a rk s t r ipped t r ee s , w h i le t h ey c on t inue t ol i ve , a r e u sua l ly u n su i tab le f o rp l ank , p o s t , o r c anoe log a cqu i s i t ion . Ano the r e xamp le i s Monk s ' ( 1987 ) s ugge s t ion t h a t f i sh t rap s a c ted t oe nhance t h e l o ca l t r oph ic p roduc t iv i ty a nd t hu s a l te r ed t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f r e sou r ce s , q u i te a pa r t f r om t h e i r f unc t iona l r o le i nc a tch ing f i sh . S he l l m idden s t h em se lve s , e ven w hen a bandoned , r ema in f o r c en tu r ie s a sl a rge , u nna tu ra l ly f l a t , w e l l -d ra ined a r ea s w i th d i f f e r en t v ege ta t ion . I n t h e se a nd o t he r w ay s ( v e ry b r ie f ly r ev iewed b y Ame s 1 99 1b :942 ) , t h e r e sou r ce s t ruc tu r e o ft h e e nv i ronmen tw a s i n ten t iona l ly o ro therw ise man ipu la ted . I n sof a r a s i ti s ad u rab le a l te ra t ion , a r i s ing a nd s u s ta ined i nh uman a c t iv i ty , t h i s q ua l if ies a s ab u i ld ing o f t h e e nv i ronmen t , r ega rd le s s o f t h e d eg ree o f i n ten t iona l i ty b eh ind t h ep roces s . T he p ragma t ic s i t ing a t am ic ro -env i ronmen ta l s c a le o f many o ft h ea bove i sn o t ap rob lem w hen a rgu ing f o r ab u i l t e nv i ronmen t . C on s t ra in t i n s i t e l o ca t ion i s o f mo s t i mmed ia te i n te re s t i fa t temp t ing p r ed ic t ive mode l l ing ( s ee d i scu s s ion o f Ma schne r a nd S t e in 1 995 a bove ) , o r i n deed a ny s pa t ia l a na ly s i s w i th a mode l o f u ncons t ra ined o ppo r tun i ty f o r s i te l o ca t ion a nd w h ich t h en d i r ec t ly c ompa r e s i d ea l o ro p t ima l l o ca t ion t oa c tua l l o ca t ion . T he d if e rence i n t r ea t ing t h e No r thwe s t C oa s t a s ab u i l t e nv i ronmen t i st h e i n t roduc t ion o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l s i te s t h em se lve s ( i n t h e b roade r s en se o f " bu i ld ing s" ) a s s t ruc tu red / s t ruc tu r ing f e a tu r e so ft h e e nv i ronmen t . 5 . 7 T he b u i l t e nv ironmen t a nd t he " Fa l lacy o f t he Ru le" H av ing d ef ined t h eN or thwe s t C oa s te nv i ronmen t a s ab u i l t e nv i ronmen t , i ti sc r i t ica l w e n o t c once ive o fi ta s h av ing a r i sen f r om ap l an . R a the r , ar eg iona l a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd i sa n i n te r rup ted p roce s s . Ma schne ra nd S t e in a r e t h e r ef o r e s ub jec t t o B a r re t t 's c r i t ic i sm t h a t s ome a r chaeo log is t s u t i l i se a d e scr ip t ive g eome t ry w hen c onduc t ing s pa t ia l 5' .T he p ra c t ice o ft r ee b u r ia lw ou ld b ea no ppo r tun i ty f o ra ne xam ina t ion o ft h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h eb ody a nd t h el a nd scape : t h eb ody i st a ken o u to ft h es o c ia l s phe r ea nd p u ti nt h e" na tu ra l" e nv i ronmen t ,w h ich p robab ly c ou ld b ea na ly sed a s ar e -mapp ing o ri n scr ip t ion p roce s s . 5 2 . P e rhap se qu iva len ti ns ome w ay st o amonumen t ,o rt ot h ec hu r ch i n I ngo ld ' s( 1993 )d i scu s s ion — i tq ua l if ie sa s ab u i ld ing .

w a s a c u l tu ra l r e spon se t o t h i s v a r ia t ion [ i n s a lmon d i s t r ibu t ion a nd d en s i ty ] . T e r r i tor ie s g rouped s t r eam s t o ge the r i n aw ay t h a t n o t o n ly r educed t h e v a r ia t ion i n r e sou r ce s ... " I nt h e i r e xamp le , t h e d e sc r ip t ive g ramma r o fs a lmon e s capemen t s i su sed t og ene ra t e c u l tu ra l p ro jec t s o fr i sk -buf f er ing r e sou r ce s t ab i l i sa t ion .

a na ly se s , a nd t h en g o l o ok ing f o rt h eu nde r ly ing g enera t ive g eome t ry . T h i si ss a id b yB a r re t tt ob ee r roneou sb ecau se i t s t a r t s w i th a n a s sump t ion t h a t , i nh i s e xamp le , monumen t s w e re c once ived o fa s as i ng le p ro jec t : [ Avebu ry ] i st h ep hy s ica lr emnan to fa n umbe ro fa bandoned p ro jec t s a nd n o t t h e c u lm ina t ion o f as e r ie s o fp l anned p ha se s . T he se p ro jec t s w e r e u nde r taken a t d i f f e ren t l o ca t ion s w i th in t h e l a nd scape , a nd a t t h e se l o ca le s a c t ion s a nd e xchange s b e tween p eop le c r ea ted t h e m a te r ia l c ond i t ion s w h ich t h en h e lped , i nt u rn , t o s u s ta in t h e se p a r t icu la r h uman r e la t ion s . ( Ba r r e t t 1 994 :13 ; e mpha s i s i no r ig ina l )

5 . 8 T he b u i l t e nv ironmen t a nd moveab le ma ter ia l c u l ture Wh i le J eanne A rno ld m ake s s ome i n te re s t ing p o in t s ,5 i na n e f f o r t t oa vo id b o th t e chno log ica l d e te rm in ism a nd ad en ia l o f t h e i mpor tance o f t e chn ica l i nnova t ion , s he a s s ign s p r ime move r s t a tu s t o" agg r and i se r s" ( A rno ld 1 995 ) . W i th t h e i r p e r sona l i t ie s l i f t ed s t ra igh t f r om t h e e t hnog raph ic p r e sen t( a lmo s t e n t i re ly f r om D rucke r ( 1951) T he N or thern a nd C en t ra l N oo tkan T r ibe s ) , t h e se i nd iv idua l s e ngage i n l a bou r c on t ro l , c ap i ta l i n ve s tmen t , a nd p owe r , d ep loy ing t e chno logy a ga in s t a s t rong ly d e te rm in i s t ic n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t . T hu s , t h eh i s to r ica l p a r t icu la r i t ie s o fh e rc a se s t ud ie s ( Nuu -chah -nu l th V ancouve r I s land a nd t h e C huma sh C hanne l I s land s o fc en t ra l C a l if or n ia ) a r e u n i ted : "Whe re r aw ma te r ia l s5 6 a pp ropr ia te f o r t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f l a rge b oa t s o ve r lapped w i th s uch [ c omp lex -a rch ipe lag ic ] z one s , c ond i t ion s w e re c onduc ive t o t h e a dop t ion o f r e l iab le w a t e rc raf t " ( Ar no ld 1 995 :35 ) . R e l iab le w a te r c raf t a r e t h en n o ted t o b e c ruc ia l i n ad e sc r ip t ive c a ta logue o f NWC s ub s i s tence a nd s o c ia l p u r su i t s— f rom f i sh ing t o t r ade t o m a r r iage p ropo sa l s t o d en ta l ia p rocu remen t . A cco rd ing ly , A rno ld ( 1995 :743 ) c onc lude s t h a t d i f f e r en t ia l owne r sh ip o f t h e se r e l iab le b oa t s i s a n i mpo r tan t c on t r ibu to r t o NWC s oc ia l c omp lex i ty i ng ene ra l a nd t h a t t h e r eg iona l p a t ter n ing o fr e sou r ce s i st h u s c r uc ia l i n t h e o b served s pa t ia l h e te rogene i ty i n r e la t ive l e ve ls o f " comp lex i ty ," a c ro s s t h e NWC a s aw ho le . T he t w is t i n t h i sv e r s ion o ft h ec u l tu ra l -comp lex i ty a r gumen tf o rmu la ted e l sewhe r e b y A rno ld ( e .g . , 1 992 , 1 993 ) i st h a t s he s ugge s t s t h a t a dvanced w a te r c raf t w e r e p a r t o f as t r a tegy o f e l i te d om ina t ion .5 7 H oweve r , Iw ou ld n o t g i ve p r io r i ty t o t h e p a r t icu la r i t ie s o f t h e t r an spo r ta t ion t e chno logy , b u t r a the r d i scu s s t h e w ay s i n wh ich t e chno logy a l te r s t h e p e r cep t ion o ft h e e nv i ronmen t . Wh i le Ih ave n o ted i nC hap te r 3t h a t t h e d i rec t iona l i ty o ft h e e nv i ronmen t c an o n ly b e a s se s sed

T he f a l la cy w a s t o c onve r t t h e r egu la r i t ie s i n m a te r ia l c u l tu r e i n to a r u le a s , i n a cco rd w i th h ab i tu s , n e i the r u na l loyed f r ee w i l l n o r s imp le g oa l -d i rec ted b ehav iou rw a s r e spon s ib le f o r t h e a r chaeo log ica l l a nd scape . B a r re t t i s m a in ly c once rned w i th t h e b u i l t a r chaeo log ica l ( i ndeed , p r ima r i ly monumen ta l ) l a nd scape , b u t as im i la r p o in t i s g iven e a r l ie r a nd mo re r e levan t e xpo s i t ion b y C onkey ( 1987 ) . C r i t ic i s ing t h eu se o fr eg iona l / tempo ra l l a be l l ing o f m apped a r chaeo log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion s , s he n o te s ( 1987 :67 ) t h a t " t h i s p l ace s e mpha s is o n s i te s ( o rb one h a rpoon s , e t c . ) a s p roduc t s , a s c u l tu ra l o u tpu t s , r a the r t h an a s p roce s se s ." I nf a c t ,t h ep r iv i leg ing o ff o rm o ve rp roce s s , o ft h ep roduc t s o fa c t ion o ve rt h e a c t ion i t se lf , i sp a r t o f a" we s ter nm e ta n a r ra t ive" ( I ngo ld 1 993 ) .5 3 I ngo ld ' s s o lu t ion ( 1993 :158 ) i s t o e mpha s ise t h a t t h e " l and scape" i s r e a l ly j u s t t h e " t a sk scape c ongea led ." T he t a sk scape i s " t he e n t i re e n semb le o ft a sk s , i nt h e i r mu tua l i n t e r lock ing ...i ti st o l a bou rw ha t t h e l a nd scape i st ol a nd" ( I ngo ld 1 993 :158 ) . I t mu s t b e r i gh t , t h en , t o c on s ide r mob i l i ty p a t te rn s , w h ich d ef ine t h es pace t ime g eog raphy o ft h e c on s t i tu t ive t a sk s o f d we l l ing , a s ap a r t o f t h e l a nd scape . I ft h i s i sa ccep ted , t h en t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t ( a s " mu tua l i s t ic p roce s s ," n o t " dua l i s t ic f o rm" ) i sc oncep tua l ly i n sepa rab le f r om ( o r , a t l e a s t , l o g ica l ly i n c lude s ) t h e d i rec t iona l i ty o f t h e l a ndf o rm .5 4 T he c oncep t o f t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t i st h e ref o re u sef u l b ecau se i ta l low s t h e i n teg ra t ion o fp a t te rned a c t iv i ty o ve r t ime w i th t h ee nv i ronmen ti n aw ay t h a td oe sn o te mpha s ise p roduc to ve rp roce ss , n o rs e tu p af a l se d i cho tomy b e tween n a tu re a nd c u l tu re . T he a pp l icab i l i ty o fs uch ac r i t ique t o t h e No r thwe s t C oa s t i s o bv iou s i n t h e c a se o f s uch n o rma t ive a na ly se s a s Ma schne r a nd S t e in ( 1995 ) , a nd D ona ld a nd M i tche l l ( 1994 :115 ) , w ho s ugge s t t h a t " t he re

. F o re xamp le , i np a s s ing s he d e sc r ip t ive ly n o te ss ome i s sue so fc oa s ta l c onf igu ra t ion , s u ch a sl o ca t iona ld i sadvan tage a nd c oa s ta l" ga teway s" t h a t a r eo f much p o ten t ia li n t e r e s tt ot h i st h e s i s . Iw ou ld a r gu et h a t s h en eed s t ot h ink much m o r ea bou tt h e se i s su e sb ef o r el a un ch ing h e r se lf i n to aj u s t s o Ma rx i s tt a le o fa gg rand i s ing ,w ea l th a nd p owe r ,e s pec ia l ly a ss h es e em s t oh ave r e ad l i t t le l i t e ra tu r ef r om t h eN uu -chah -nu l th a r ea s h ed i scu s se s , a ppa ren t ly c onf u s ing , f o re xamp le ,P uge tS ound ( S ea t t le a r ea )w i th N oo tka S ound . .A na r gumen tr em in i scen ti ns ome w ay so fo t he re co log ica lp r im e m ove r s , s u ch a st h ec l imax c eda r -f o r e s td e te rm in i sm o fH ebda a nd Ma thewe s( 1 984 ) . .I np r in c ip le , Ia mn o to ppo sed t ot h ei d ea o f" agg rand i se s ." I ti sa w e l come f o cu so nt h ei n d iv idua la nd o nf a c t iona l i sa t ion t h a th e lp sc a l li n to q ue s t ion a no the r NWC s t e r eo type ,t h a tt h ew in te rv i l lage w a s au n if ied s o c ia lg roup ing o r ac o l le c t ion o fc ompe t ing k i n -o rde r ed f a c t ion s . T h is i s u s ef u l t or emembe rg i ven t h a tw in te rv i l lage sl e ave a sr e s idue t h el a rge s t a nd m o s ti mp r e s s ive m idden s . 5 5

5 '

.A no the ra r chaeo log ica li lu s tra t ion i sp r e sumab ly t h er e cen td i scove ry o ft h ei mpo r tance o fb ehav iou ra lu s e l if eh i s to r ie sf o rE th ic a na ly s i s , a nd t h ee s cape f r om t h em en ta l temp la te ( f orm -p r iv i lege ) s t e reo type . 5 3

5 7

. A nd t h u so ne o nce a ga in a r r ive sa t ap owe r f u lc r i t ique o f Ma schn e ra nd S t e in ( 1995 ) ,w ho se G ISe nab led p r ed ic t ive mode lo fs i t el o ca t ion o n ly c on s ide r sl o ca l i sed m ic ro -env i ronmen ta l v a r iab le s . 5 4

3 8

5 . 9 C onc lu s ion s : t he mar i t ime l and scape o f h ab i tua l a c t ion

r e la t ive t o t e chno logy ,5 8 as t ronge r s ugge s t ion c ou ld b e m ade t h a t t h e t r an spo r ta t ion t e chno logy i t se lf , a l ong w i th t h e mob i l i ty p a t te rn s i tb o th s t ruc tu re s a nd i ss t ruc tu red b y , f o rm a n i n teg ra lp a r to ft h e l a nd scape o fh ab i t . T or e tu rn t o G o sd en :

T he b u i l t e nv i ronmen t m a t te r s t o a r chaeo log ica l t h eo ry . T he h ab i tu s c an a c ta s au n if y ing c oncep tt ol i nk b ehav iou r w i th t h e s pa t ia l p a t ter n ing o f m a te r ia l r ema in s w i thou t i mp l ica t ion s o f e i the r d e l ibe ra te o p t im i sa t ion o r n a ive t o ta l i sa t ion o f d ec i s ion m ak ing . A f ounda t ion o f t h e r e sea rch t h a t f o l low s i st h a t t h e v ec to r s o f mob i l i ty i nt h e a r ch ipe lago a r ek nowab le ,a nd a r ei mpo r tan tb ecau se ,

Ah uman ly c r ea ted w o r ld h a st h es ame d imen s ion s a s t h e p hy s ica l w o r ld i t o ccup ie s . I th a s e x ten s ion i n s pa ce a nd d ep th i nt ime . E x ten s ion i ns pace d epend s u pon t h e r egu la r movemen t s t h a tp eop le make i nc a r ry ing o u tt a sk s a nd ma in ta in ing s oc ia l c onnec t ion s . .. .Movemen t a nd c onnec t ion a lway s h ave ma ter ia l d imen s ion , d epend ing o n mode o f t r an spo r t a nd t h e u se o f m a te r ia l , i n c lud ing f ood t o b ind a nd d i v ide g roup s . ( Go sden 1 995 :807 -08 )

t h e f a c t t h a t i s land s a r e a lway s c onnec ted t o o t he r a r ea s p rov ides a c ha l lenge t o t h e n o t ion o f l a nd scape w hen a pp l ied t o i n su la r s i tua t ion s . I nd iv idua l i s land l a nd scape s r e spond t o t h e n e two rk o f c onnec t ion s i n w h ich t h ey a r e e nme shed a nd t h e d emand s t h a t t h e se n e two rk s c r ea te . ( Go sden a nd P av l ide s 1 994 :169 )

A rno ld w ou ld e mbed t r an spo r ta t ion t e chno logy i n a r e a rwa rd p ro jec t ion o f e t hnog raph ic c u l tu re . I tm igh t b e mo re u sef u l ( i n i t ia l ly a tl e a s t ) t os e e i te mbedded a so ne o f t h e m a t er ia l c o r re la te s i n ah ab i tu s . I ndeed , t h e c oncep t o f t h e h ab i tu s e xp l ic i t ly d ef ea t s t e leo logy ( Bou rd ieu 1 977 :73 ) . Mo re c onc r e t e ly , a s G o sden ( 1994 :24 ) n o te s , t h e d en s i ty , a r rangemen t a nd c onnec t ion s b e tween h uman g roup s u nde r l ie s s o c ia l l i f e , a r ise s f r om p a s t s oc ia l f o rma t ion a nd h e lp s c r ea te f u tu re f o rma t ion . T h i s e choe s C onkey ' s p o in t a bov e , t h a t p a r t o f e nv i ronmen ta l s t ruc tu ra t ion i s t h e d i f f e r en t ia l d ep loymen t o f p e r sonne l , a v i ew t h a t i s v i r tua l ly T ime -Geog raph ic /G idden s ian . Wa te r c raf t , a s movab le m a t e r ia l c u l tu re t h a t f a c i l i ta t e f u r the r movemen t , c an b e s e en a s p a r t o f t h e b u i l t l a nd scape , r a the r t h an a s p a s s ive o b jec t sr e spond ing t oh uman n eed . I ndeed ,t h ey a r e movab le p a r t s o ft h e e nv i ronmen t , a lmo s te x ten s ion s o ft h e b ody , a nd c an e a s i ly b e c once ived o f a s t e chno logy t h a t b lu r s t h e d i v i s ion b e tween t h e b ody a nd t h e e nv i ronmen t . F u r the r , b y d ef in ing t h e s pa t ia l e x ten t a nd c ha rac t e r o ft h e l a nd scape o f h ab i t , w a te rc raf t a c t a s ab r idge f o r t h e e x ten s ion o ft h eb u i l te nv i ronmen tt oi n c lude t h e r ou t in ised p a t te rn s o f mob i l i ty i n a s oc ia l g eog raphy o f t h e a r ch ipe lago . T he n o t ion o fl a nd scape s hou ld b ee x t ended

U n if y ing t h e l i ne s o ft h ough t o u t l ined i nC hap te r s 3 , 4a nd 5l e ad s t o an ew a nd p o ten t ia l ly u sef u l a pp roach c omb in ing s o c ia l t h eo ry a nd n e two rk -ana ly t ic t o o l s t h a t c an b e i mp lemen ted t h rough a G eog raph ic I n f o rma t ion S y s tem . T he n ex t c hap te r i n t roduce s ac a se s t udy t h a t i mp lemen t s t h i st h eo re t ica la pp roach .

s o t h a t l a nd scape s a nd s e a scape s a r e c on s ide red j o in t ly a nd s e en t o h ave d if e ren t p owe r s o f s epa ra t ion a nd c onnec t ion a t v a ry ing p e r iod s o f h i s to ry . T he s ea i sn o t n ece s sa r i ly a b r idge o r ab a r r ie r : i ti sw ha t p eop le m ake i t . J u s t a st h e l a nd c an b e made a nd r emade b y h uman i n f luence , s o c an t h e s ea . ( Go sden a nd P av l ide s 1 994 :170 )

5 8 .F o r

e xamp le ,t h ed i rec t iona l i ty o ft h e NWC e nv i ronmen ti sb o th " i nve r ted" t os ome e x t en t( t ran spor ta t ion s w i t che sf r om s e at ol a nd ) ,a nd f u ndamen ta l ly d i f f e ren t( i s land sa r e i n a cce s s ib le )i nt h ea b sen ce o f w a te r c raf t .

3 9

CHAPTER 6— INTRODUCT ION TO THE CASE S TUDY 6 . 1 I n troduc t ion T he p r ev iou s c hap te r s h ave o u t l ined t h e g ene ra l t h eo r e t ica l d i rec t ion o f ar e sea r ch p rog ram d e s igned t oi n ve s t iga te t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween i n d iv idua l a c t ion , p e r cep t ion , a nd t h e p hy s ica l e nv i ronmen t . Au n if ied l a nguage o fd i scou r se i n wh ich t h ee nv i ronmen t i sc once ived a s an e two rk o fp l ace s , r ou te s , a nd v acanc ie s h e lp s b r idge t h e g ap b e tween t h e i nd iv idua l a nd s oc ie ty . T he d i s t i l la t ion o fp rac t ica l a c t iv i ty a c ro s s t h a tn e two rk , a sp rox ima l ly m ea su r ed b y t h e d en s i ty o f s he l l m idden a ccumu la t ion , p e rm i t s i n ve s t iga t ion o f c e r ta in a spec t s o f t h e l a nd scape o fh ab i tua l a c t ion . T h i s c hap te r o u t l ine s h ow t h e r e sea rch p rog ram i s p u t i n to p rac t ice t h rough i t e ra t ive l o ca t ion -a l loca t ion mode l l ing i na G eog raph ica l I n f o rma t ion S y s tem ( G IS ) . D iscu s s ion o f c e r ta in a spec t so ft h em e thod a nd t h eo ry o fG IS i sf o l lowed b y a n i n t roduc t ion t ot h e c a se s t udy a nd t h e n a tu re o ft h e a va i lab le d a ta . F ina l ly , t h e m e thod a nd t h eo ry o fl o ca t ion a l loca t ion a na ly s i s i s o u t l ined , a l ong s ide i t s p rac t ica l a pp l ica t ion t o t h e c a se s t udy . T he r e su l t s a nd d i scu s s ion a r e ma in ly c oncen t ra ted i nt h ef o l low ing c hap te r . 6 . 2 G eograph ica lI nf orma t ion S y s tem sa nd a rchaeo log ica l" tack ing"

( c ) t h e r e a r e u sua l ly n o k nown , i n he ren t , i n t e rna l p a r t i t ion s t o e nab le t h e p r io r e s tab l ishmen t o f n e s ted s pa t ia lu n i t s , a nd ( d ) t r ad i t iona l s t a t is t ic s a r e n o t e qu ipped t od ea l w i th t h e s imu l taneou s d e sc r ip t ion a nd c o r re la t ion o f mu l t ip le f o rm so ve rs pace . F aced w i th t h e se p rob lem s , a G IS of e r s b o th m e thodo log ica l s o lu t ion s a nd t h eo r e t ica l f e edback i n t h e c ou r se o fa n a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s ( G reen 1 990 :4 ) . B o th K vamme ( 1989 :142 143 ) a nd Ma rb le ( 1990 :16 17 ) n o te t h a t much o f t h e v a lue o f a G IS i s t o s peed b o th m ea su r emen t a nd g raph ica l d i sp lay o f s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing , w h ich c an c ome f r om a ny s ou rce . Ma rb le ( 1990 ) c i te s t h e e xamp le o ft h e g eog raphe r H äge r s t rand ,w ho i nt h e 1 950 s h ad at e am o fg radua te s t uden t s manua l ly e ncode r e a l a nd s imu la ted s pa t ia l d a ta c e l l b y c e l l f o r a n a r ea o f s ou ther n S weden . S uch a n i n ten s ive e f f o r t c ou ld b e r e p rodu ced i na m a t te r o f w eek s o n as ma l l G IS , w i th s upe r io r r e su l t s . S im i la r ly , C a r ls te in ' s ( 1 982 ) e xhau s t ive w o rk a pp ly ing t ime -space " p r ism s" c ou ld t r an s la te i n to a n i n te re s t ing G IS e nab led a pp roach ( O 'Ke l ly 1 994 :71) , a s c ou ld t h e t r an spo r ta t ion g eog raphy o u t l ined b y L owe a nd Mo ryada s ( 1977 ) . Ma rb le 's p o in ti st h a t aG IS i si n te rac t ive b ecau se i t i sf a s t a nd p rov ide s f e edback . T h i s h e lp s b o th e xp lo ra to ry d a ta a na ly s i s a nd t h e d eve lopmen t o fh ypo the se s i n aw ay s t r ik ing ly r em in iscen t o f Wy l ie 's ( 1993 ) p h i lo soph ica l r e f lec t ion so na r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch . Wy l ie ( 1993 :23 ) p ropo se s a n a na logy a rgumen ti s mo r e l i ke ac ab le t h an ac ha in :

G eog r aph ica l i n f o rma t ion s y s tem s w e r e f i r s t d eve loped i n t h e 1 960 s b y C anad ian g eog raphe r s ( Ma r t in 1 990 :29 ) . B u r rough ( 1986 :6 )d ef ine s aG IS a s a" powe rf u l s e to ft o o l s f o r c o l lec t ing , s t o r ing , r e t r iev ing a tw i l l , t r an sf o rm ing a nd d i sp lay ing s pa t ia l d a ta f r om t h e r e a l w o r ld f o r ap a r t icu la r s e t o f p u rpo se s ." S avag e ( 1990a :23 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h e c r ea t ion o fn ew d a t av i at h e t r an sf o rma t ion o fe x is t ing d a ta i s wha t s epa ra te s aG IS f r om ac ompu te r a s s is ted mapp ing o r d raf t ing s y s tem . T he s pa t ia l d a t a e n te r ed i n to a G IS d e scr ibe so b jec t sf r om t h er e a lw o r ld i nt e rm so f : ( a ) t h e i r p o s i t ion r e la t ive t o a n e s tab l ished c o o rd ina te s y s tem o fa ny s c a le , ( b ) t h e i r a t t r ibu te s w h ich a r e u n re la ted t o t h e i r p o s i t ion , s uch a sc o lou r , e l eva t ion , c o s t , i n c idence o fd i sea se ,o ra ny o t he ra t t r ibu te m ea su rab le a ta ny s c a le ,a nd ( c ) t h es pa t ia l i n te r re la t ion sb e tween t h e se o b jec t s , i . e . t h e i r t o po log ica l r e la t ion sh ip ( a f te r B u r rough 1 986 :7 ) . I ne f ec t ,t h en , aG IS f unc t ion s a s ar e la t iona l d a taba se w i th t h e c apab i l i ty f o r g r aph ica l d i sp lay a nd s t a t i s t ica l a na ly s i s i n wh ich d a ta a r e r e f e renced t o g eog raph ic c o -o rd ina te s ( Cu r ran i n Ma r t in 1 99 1 :45 ) . G reen ( 1990 :4 ) s ugge s t s t h a t G IS h ave b een a dop ted b y a r chaeo log i s t s b ecau se t r ad i t iona l m e thod s o fa r chaeo log ica l s pa t ia l a na ly s i s f a ced a n i n t ra c tab le s e to ff ou rp rob lem s : ( a ) s t a t i s t ic s a r e d if i cu l tt ou se f o rd e sc r ib ing a nd a na ly s ing c on t inuou s , s pa t ia ld a ta , ( b ) s pa t ia l d a ta o f t en h ave n o b ounda r ie s , s o t h a t c l a ss ic s e tt h eo ry c anno tb ea pp l ied ,

t h a t

s c ien t if ic

T he a rgumen t s u sed t o e va lua te i n commen su rab le t h eo r ie s t y p ica l ly p roceed n o t b y al i nea r [ l ink -by l ink ] movemen t f r om p r em i se s t o c onc lu s ion s o r f r om i n d iv idua l ' f ac t s ' t o g ene ra l i sa t ion s , b u t r a the r b y e xp lo i t ing mu l t ip le s t rand sa nd d ive r se t y pe s o f e v idence , d a ta , h unche s , a nd a rgumen t s . S t ab i l i sa t ion , o rw ha t H odde r ( 1992 ) t e rm s " cohe rence" o f t h e se s o r t s o fa rgumen t , i st h en a ch ieved b y t a ck ing b a ck a nd f o r th b e tween t h e t h eo ry a nd t h e d a ta , w i th t h e l a t te r g i v ing a r egu la r " r ea l i ty c heck" a nd p r even t ing t h e a r chaeo log i s t f r om d i sappea r ing i n to e i the r an ih i l i s t ic r e la t iv i sm o r amode l induced v i r tua l r e a l i ty . F u r the rmo r e , o n b o th s i de s o ft h e t a ck t h e re i sw ha t s he c a l l s " ve r t ica l t a ck ing ," r e inf o rc ing t h e s t rand s o ft h e a r gumen t -a s -cab le . I t i s h e r e t h a t t h e b r idg ing a rgumen t o u t l ined i n t h e p r ev iou s c hap te r i ss i tua ted : as t rand t a cked i nt o c onnec t t wo o t he r s t rand s ( I ngo ld -Land scape ( I ngo ld 1 993 ) a nd Wob s tNe two rk (Wob s t 1 976 ) o n t h e t h eo ry s i de . A s Wy l ie n o te s ,t h e mo r eo ft h e se s t rand st h eb e t te r : I ti st h e i ndependence o fs ou rce s , a nd t h e ref o re o ft h e c on s t i tuen t a r gumen t s a bou t e v iden t ia l s i gn if icance , wh ich

4 0

t h e i n d iv idua l a r eu n sa t i sf ac to ry . I nt h i s s e c t ion Iw i l l l o ok a t s ome o f t h e a l te rna t ive s , w i th r e f e rence t o G IS i mp lemen ta t ion s .

e n su re s t h a t t h e s t rand s o f t h e r e su l t ing c ab le s a r e n o t j u s t mu tua l ly r e inf o rc ing ,b u ta r ea l so ,a nd c r uc ia l ly , mu tua l ly c on s t ra in ing . (Wy l ie 1 993 : 2 5 ) T hu s , r a the rt h an c ondemn ing r e sea r ch p ro jec t s t h a t a r e , a t l e a s t o cca s iona l ly , " da ta d r iven ," Wy l ie ( p e rhap s m ak ing a v i r tue o f an ece s s i ty ) a r gue s t h a t t a ck ing b ack a nd f o r th b e tween t h eo ry a nd d a ta l e ad s t o ag a in i n k now ledge a t e ach s t age . H e r p o s i t ion i sb a sed i n am idd le g round b e tween o b jec t iv i sm a nd r e la t iv i sm (Wy l ie 1 993 :25 ) . E s sen t ia l ly , t h is a moun t s t o as t ance o f p h i lo soph ica l r e a l i sm ( c f . B ha ska r 1 989 ; G o sden 1 994 :10 11) : o u r c omp lex p r e suppos i t ion s a r e n o t a l -pe rva s ive , b u t a r e t empe r ed b yt h er e s is tance o ft h e d a ta . S u ch r e s i s tance c an o ccu r , b u t d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly o ccu r , w i th in af r amewo rk o ff o rma l h ypo the s is t e s t ing . I ti s ar e cogn i t ion o ft h e n on p l a s t ic i ty a nd /o r i n con s i s tency o ft h e d a ta t h a t p rovoke s a c o r r e spond ing w i l l ingne s s t o r e -exam ine c o r e b e l ief s a nd s uppo s i t ion s a nd , b y i mp l ica t ion , a cknow ledge s t h a t t h e re i s ar e a lw o r ld . T he r e sea r ch p re sen ted i nt h i s a nd t h e f o l low ing c hap te r s o ccu r s m a in ly i nt h e s e cond s t age o ft h i sp roce s s , i nw h ich ac a se s t udy p rov ide s a n e x te rna l r e a l i ty t o c ha l lenge a nd p rov id e s ap l a tf orm f o r ar e tu rn t a ck t ot h eo ry . T he " co re b e l ief s a nd a s sump t ion s" a t h and 5 9 a r e t ho se r e la t ing t o e nv i ronmen t a nd l a nd scape a nd t ot h e b r idg ing a rgumen t s p re sen t ed i n C hap te r 5 . O ne o b jec t o f t h e r e sea rch i s , t h e r ef o r e ,t oe xam ine t h e se c o re b e l ief s i n ar e a l i s t c on tex t . Kva rnme 's ( 1989 ) a nd Ma rb le 's ( 1 990 ) c onc lu s ion t h a t G IS s a r ep a r t icu la r ly s u i tab le f o r e xp lo ra to ry d a ta a na ly s is a l so m ak e s t h em p a r t icu la r ly u sef u l f o r i mp lemen t ing Wy l ie 's g ene ra l ised r e sea rch p h i lo sophy . Mo re s pec if ica l ly , a G ISe nab led s pa t ia l i n te rac t ion a na ly s is s hou ld b e a n i t e ra t ive e xe r c i se t h a t c yc le s b ack a nd f o r th f r om v i sua l isa t ion a nd a na ly s i s t o t h e o pe ra t ing a s sump t ion s b eh ind t h e mode l , a n e s sen t ia l p roce s s t h a t O 'Ke l ly ( 1994 :7 1) n o t e s i so f t en r e p laced b y e xp r e s s ive , y e t f u t i le , " handwav ing ." P r io rt od i scu s s ing t h e s pec if ic s o f t h i s r e sea r ch o r ien ta t ion , i ti su s ef u l t o l o ok b r ief ly a t t h r ee o t he r r e levan t a r ea s o ft h eo r e t ica l d eba te i n c ur r en t a r chaeo log ica la pp l ica t ion so fG IS .

L and scape a pp roache st op reh i s to ry m ay i nvo lve a ne xp l ic i t c on s ide ra t ion o f t h e p e r spec t ive o f i nd iv idua l s ( e .g . , T homa s 1 993 ; T i l ley 1 994 , L lobe ra 1 996 ) . I n G ISba sed i mp lemen ta t ion s s uch a n i nd iv idua l -cen t red a pp roach m ay a l so b e t e nde r ed , b u t w i th t h e a t t r ibu te s o ft h e i n d iv idua l d i sgu ised . F o r e xamp le , c umu la t ive v i ew shed a na ly s i s ( e .g . , Whea t ley 1 993 , 1 995 ) e mpha s i se s t h e i n te rv i s ib i l i ty o f monumen t s . T he b a s ic u n i t o fv i s ib i l i ty i s , a nd c an o n ly b e , w ha t a n i nd iv idua l h uman p e r cep to r c an s e e f r om a ny g i ven v an tage p o in t , o r , a s mo r eo f t en f o rmu la ted ,t h e s e to f p l ace s f r om wh ich ag i ven p o in tc an b e s e en . P rac t i t ione r s o f s uch a pp roache s h ope t o d i scove r p a t ter n s o f i n te r v i s ib i l i ty ,w h ich g ive c l ue st ot h ec u l tu ra l mo t iva t ion f o rt h e s i t ing o r f o rm o f monumen t s ( Gaf f ney e ta l 1 995 ) . T he a pp roach m ay b e v u lne rab le t ot h e c ha rge s o ft o ta l i sa t ion a nd t h e f a l lac ie s o f t h e r u le , a s p r ev iou s ly o u t l ined , a l though i td oe s h o ld p rom i se f o r b ypa s s ing e conom ic d e te rm in i sm s a nd t r iv ia l e co log ica l a s soc ia t ion s , t h e r eby a cce s s ing a n e m ic c u l tu ra l l a nd scape . F ur the rmo re , o ne a dvan tage o f s uch a pp roache s m igh t b e t h e c r ea t ion , t h rough v i ew shed s o r s ome o the r i nd iv idua l -cen t r ic a pp roach ,o f aj u s t if iab le a na ly t ic r eg ion o rs ca le o fa na ly s i s w h ich i t se lf i si n dependen t o fm a te r ia l c u l tu re , a l though i t m ay b e d ef ined r e la t ive t o monumen t s o r o the r i t em s o f m a ter ia l c u l tu re . T he i mpor tance o fd e r iv ing s uch ap r ior i s pa t ia l -ana ly t ic u n i t s s hou ld n o tb eu nde r es t ima ted . T he se a pp roache s a r e c l ea r ly r e la ted t o R enf r ew ' s ( e .g . , 1 994 ) c ogn i t ive -p roce s sua l a r chaeo logy o f t h e m ind , a c en t ra l t e ne t o fw h ich i st h a t p eop le 's a c t ion s a r e p a t te rned b yb e l ief . T h rough t h e a r chaeo log ica l s t udy o ft h e m a te r ia l c o r re la te s o ft h e se b e l ief s , i n f e rence s c an b e d r awn a bou t p r eh i s tor ic c ogn i t ion ( c f . G af f ney e ta l 1 995 :51-6 1) . T he p o s s ib i l i ty r ema in s o pen , h oweve r , t h a t s uch i n d iv idua l c en t r ed a pp roa che s c an b e i mp roved b y s imu l taneou s c on s ide ra t ion o f s uch c on tex tua l f a c to r s a s t h e l a nd scape h i s to ry ; b y mo r e s ub t le mode l s o ft e chno logy , s uch a s t h e c hä ine o pera to ir e ( Le ro i -Gou rhan 1 993 ) ; a nd , Iw ou ld a rgue , b y c on s ide ra t ion o f t h e c on s t r a in t s a nd f r eedom s of e r ed b yt h ei n te rp lay o fe nv i ronmen ta nd h ab i tu s . Wh i le a mb i t iou s , t h i s d oe s n o t g o a s f a r a s s ome r e sea rche r s , who h ave a r gued f o r a pp l ica t ions t h a t s e em u na t ta inab le . S t ead ( 1995 :314 ) , f o r e xamp le , a r gue s t h a t " pe r cep t ion s u rf ace s ," r e p re sen t ing p a s t p e rcep tua l f r amewo rk s , " cou ld b e u sed t od i s tor t C a r te s ian m ap s i n to a n e t hnocen t r ic m ap b a se f o rt h e s t udy p e r iod a nd c u l tu r e ." I n o the r w o rd s , S t ead s ugge s t s map s c ou ld b e " rubbe r s hee ted" t or e p r e sen t o r f i t s pec if ic c u l tu ra l p e r cep t ion s o f t h e e nv i ronmen t , s uch a s am a r ine r ' s i mp r es s ion o ft h e s i ze a nd s hape o ft h ec oa s ta l e nv i ronmen t , o ro t he rs u ch " men t a l m ap" c oncep t ion s .

6 . 3 G IS a nd t he c oncep t ion o ft he i nd iv idua l Many s p a t ia l a pp roache s e i the r h av e ar u le -bound , r a t iona l d ec is ion m ak ing i nd iv idua l a sa n i n pu t ( e .g . , Wob s t 1 976 ) , o r e l se s e ek t o e xp la in o b served p a t t er n ing o f a r cha eo log ica l d a ta i n t h e se t e rm s ( e .g . , R enf rew 1 973 ; I rw in 1 985 ) , a nd s ome G IS b a sed a pp roache s a r e n o e xcep t ion ( e .g . , Ma schne ra nd S t e in 1 995 ) . T he a rgumen t s h ave b een made i np r ev iou s c hap t e r s w hy t h e se mode l s o f

.N one o ft h e se c ou ld b es a id t ob ec o r eb e l ief sf o r mos tN o r thwe s t C oa s ta r cha eo log is t s . 5 9

4 1

e xp l ic i t ly i n co rpo ra t ing t h e s pa t ia l i ty o f h ab i tu s , t h e t empo ra l i ty o ft h e l a nd scape a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . I no the rw o rd s , t h e a im i sn e i the r as t a t is t ica l d e scr ip t ion o f ad a ta s e t , n o r a mode l o fc ogn i t ive u nde r s tand ing o ft h e e nv i ronmen t( v an L eu sen 1 995 :380 ) . R a the r , t h i s r e sea r ch a ccep t s t h e c omp re s s ion o f t ime a t as he l l m idden a s a c umu la t ive s ed imen ta t ion o f g ene ra l a c t iv i ty , a nd t h u s a n i n scr ip t ion o fh ow " soc ia l b e ing" ( Go sden 1 994 ) b u i ld s t h e e nv i ronmen t .

6 . 4 G IS , e nv ironmen ta l d e term in i sm a nd l a nd scape h i s tory F o r a l l t h e i r u t i l i ty i n a na ly s ing s pa t ia l p rob lem s , G ISs p er f o rm r a the rp oo r ly a te xp l ic i t ly a ccoun t ing f o rt empo ra l v a r ia t ion ( S tead 1 993 :42 ) . Mo s t G ISs e mp loy mu l t ip le o ve r lay s a t" snap sho t" i n te rva ls t or ep re sen t as e quence o f e ven t s , a na logou s t o a mov ie f i lm . T he n umbe r a nd i n terva l o fs equen t ia lt ime s l ice s( f rame s )o f f e r st h e i lu s ion o f movemen t t h rough t ime . T h i s p r e sen t s t h e d ua l p rob lem s o fo ve r s imp l if ica t ion ( v ia e l im ina t ion o fp o ten t ia l a l te rna t ive s a t a ny s t age ) a nd h uge d a ta s t o rage a nd p roce s s ing r equ i remen t sw i th e n su ing c omp lex i t ie s .

6 . 5 G IS ,t e chno log ica ld e term in i sm ,a nd a rchaeo log ica l r e search .

G eog raphe r s a r e p a r t icu la r ly c once rned w i th t empo ra l r ep re sen ta t ion a nd mode l l ing w hen i n ve s t iga t ing s uch p henomena a s h ou r ly o r s e a sona l c hange s i nr e sou r ce u se o r d i s t r ibu t ion . C lea r ly , a t t h e t empo ra l s ca le s u sua l ly e mp loyed i n a r chaeo logy t h i s m ay n o t b e ap rob lem a s m any k ind s o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta h ave i n suff ic ien t t empo ra lr e so lu t ion t om ake t h et ime s l ice e f ec t ap rob lem . S t ead ( 1993 ) s ugge s t s i tm igh t b e p os s ib le t o i n c lude a f ou r th v a r iab le w hen e ncod ing f o r e ach d a ta e l emen t , g i v ing d imen s ion s x ,y , za nd t ) , a nd i ti si nt h i s g ene ra l d i rec t ion t h a tt e chn ica l a dvance s a r e b e ing m ade ( f o r af u l l d i scu s s ion , s e e L ang ran 1 993 ) . Whe the r b ecau se o f t e chn ica l u n soph is t ica t ion o rt h eo r e t ica l s hor tcom ing s , i ti s s t i l lt h ec a se t h a t ,a s Ma r t i jn v an L eu sen s umma r i se sd u r ing h i s l i ve ly d eba t e w i th G af f ney ( Gaf f ney a nd v an L eu sen 1 995 :379 ) , t h e t ime -s l ice e f ec t o f G IS c ru she s t h e l a nd scape h i s to ry i n to t wo d imen s ion s , a nd " make s u s f o rge t a bou t t h e p rev iou s h i s to ry o ft h e l a nd scape a nd t h e f a c tt h a ti ti sp a r to ft h el i v ing s oc ia ls y s tem ." H oweve r , t h e re i s as o lu t ion t o p rob lem s s t emm ing f r om b o th al a ck o fe xp l ic i t t empo ra l d a ta ( wh ich i su n l ike ly t o e ve rb e s a t isf ac to r i ly s o lved i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l c a se ) a nd t ot e chn ica l s ho r tcom ing s . T he s o lu t ion i st oa bandon t h e e f f o r t s t o r e p roduce c h rono log ica l t ime i n a mode l a nd , i n s tead , t of ocu s o n a spec t s o ft h e a rchaeo log ica l r e cord w h ich i mp l ic i t ly h ave a s oc ia l t empora l i ty . No rma l ly , c h rono log ica l c on t ro l i s d if i cu l t t o a t ta in o ve r l a rge r r eg ion s b ecau se , e ven i n t h e r e la t ive ly r a r e p r e sence o f mu l t ip le w e l l -da ted s i te s , f i ne s c a le ( e .g . , a nnua l ) c on tempo rane i ty o r s e a sona l i ty o f s i te , u se i sd if i cu l t o r i mpo ss ib le t o d emon s t r a te . B o th c on tempo rane i ty a nd s ea sona l i ty r e qu i re c on s ide rab le e xcava t ion a nd s i te i n te rp r e ta t ion , a nd , e ven t h en , m i ss ing d a ta f r om u nexam ined , u nknown o r d e st royed s i te s r ema in s a p rob lem . I ti sn o rma l t h a t t h e r e a r e many mo r e k nown s i te s o f u nknown a ge t h an t h e r e a r e o f k nown a ge : s i t e l o ca t ion i se a s ie r t oa scer ta in t h an s i te c h rono logy . S i nce w e h ave s e en t h rough t h ew o rk o ft h et ime g eog raphe r st h a t h uman s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l b ehav iou r i si n he ren t ly l i nked , t h e re wou ld b e c l ea r a dvan tage s f o r r eg iona l a na ly s i s i n a r chaeo logy i f s uch a l i nkage c ou ld b e u t i l i sed f o r a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch . A s o u t l ined i n C hap te r 5 , t h e c oncep t o f t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t p rov ide s s uch al i nk b y

4 2

A rchaeo log i s t s h ave u sua l ly w o rked w i th a va i lab le s pa t ia l d a ta s e t s . I np a r t icu la r ,t h ey h ave a lmo s ta lway s wo rked , a s t h i s r e sea r ch d oe s , w i th e x i s t ing d ig i t i sed m ap c ove rage s o r m ap s hee t s . T he p roduc t ion o ft h e se s h ee t s —p lanome t r ic , e l eva t ion m ode l s , v ege ta t ion , d ra inage , a nd s o f o r th — i s v a s t ly t ime c on sum ing a nd e xpen s ive . I na ny c a se , i th a s u sua l ly a l ready b een d one w i th in o th e r d i sc ip l ine s o r b y g ove rnmen t a genc ie s , s u ch a s g eog raphy , f o re s t ry , e ne rgy r e sou r ce managemen t , a nd s o f o r th . E ven i ng ove rnmen t , w he re t h e r e h a s b een a g rea t d ea l o f i n te r e s t i n a r chaeo log ica l G IS a s at o o l f o r p red ic t iv e m ode l l ing a nd s i te reco rd m anagemen t , a r chaeo log i s t s h ave o f t en w o rked u nde r t h e u mb r e l la o f b roade r p rog ram s , u s ing g ene r ic s pa t ia l d a ta a nd a dd ing s u ch a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a s t h ey a l ready p o s se s s o r a c t ive ly s e ek i n t h e c ou r se o f t h e i r r e sea rch . T h i s h a s mean t t h a t G IS a r chaeo log i s t s h ave b een , m o re t h an mo s t a r chaeo log i s t s , c on sume r s o f d a ta . C omb ined w i th t h e i r c on sump t ion o f G IS t e chno logy , u sua l ly i n ar e la t ive ly o f f the she lf w ay , a nd w i th t h e i r u t i l i sa t ion o fe x i s t ing a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , i ti sf a i r t o s ay t h a t , mo r e t h an mo s t f i e ld s o fa r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch , G IS i na r chaeo logy i s ac on sume r o fd a ta , t h eo ry , a nd m e thod . I na l l t h r ee a r ea s , t h e re i st h e p o s s ib i l i ty f o r u n th ink ing o r c on s t ra ined a dop t ion o fi n app ropr ia te t o o l s . F o r e xamp le , K vamme ( 1995 ) n o te s t h e h igh p r ice o f t o p -end UN IX b a sed G IS p l a tf o rm s , s of twa r e , a nd p e r iphe r a ls , i mp ly ing t h i s c hanne l s r e sea rche r s i n to u s ing c heape r d e sk top s y s tem s s uch a s I DR IS I , w h ich , w i th t h e i r f undamen ta l ly d if e ren t d a ta s t ruc tu re s a nd c apab i l i t ie s , m ay i n f luence t h e r e sea rch d e s ign . F u r the rmo re , a na ly t ic n eed s s pec if ic t o a r chaeo logy m ay n o t b e m e t b y c omme r c ia l p ackage s , a nd t h e i n s ign if ican t m a rke t t h a t a r chaeo log i s t s r e p re sen tt ot h e m anuf ac tu re r s m ean s t h e i r n eed s p robab ly n eve r w i l l b e m e t , e xcep t b y c u s tom i sed p rog ram s . T he a r chaeo log is t i s t hu s f o rced t oa ccep te i the r an on idea l a na ly s i s , o rt od e lve f u r the r i n to t h e r emo te a nd a b s t rac t w o r ld o f c ompu t e r p rog ramm ing . T h i s c an , o f c ou r se , h ave t h e p o s i t ive b enef i t o fd e ta i led u nde r s tand ing , b u t i sn o ta n o p t ion o pen t o a l l a r chaeo log i s t s w ho w i sh t o i mp lemen t as pec if i c r e sea rch p rog r am w i th a G IS , r a the r t h an i mp lemen t a s pec if i c G ISb a sed r e sea r ch p rog ram . I n c on t ra s t , S t ead ( 1 993 :42 ) l i s t s f ou r c u r ren t a r ea s o f r e sea r ch i n w h ich a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a r e u sed t h a t a l so a dvance g ene ra l G IS m e thod a nd t h eo ry . T he se a r e : d i ach ron ic s t ud ie s , c o s t s u rf ace a na ly se s , c u l tu ra l p e r cep t ion s o ft h e e nv i ronmen t ,

a nd t h e p rob lem o f G IS " ove r p r ec i s ion" ( c f . C lax ton 1 995 ) . T h i s t e ndency t owa rd s t e chno log ica l d e te rm in i sm d oe s n o t a pp ly t ot h e G ISba sed a t temp t t oi mp lemen t t h e p rog ram s e to u t i nc hap te r s 3 ,4 ,a nd 5f o rs e ve ra lr e a son s . F i r s t , t h e p rob lem i si n he ren t ly s pa t ia l , a nd n o t o ne i n wh ich t h e s pa t ia l a s pec t s a r e g iven p r imacy b ecau se o f ad e s i re t ou se aG IS . T h i s i so bv iou s i n t h e c a se o ft h e d i scu s s ion o f e nv i ronmen ta l c on s t ra in t a nd l i nea r i ty , a nd l o ca t iona l a pp roache s . T he se f a l l w e l l w i th in c onven t iona l g eog raph ica l a pp roache s a nd a G IS i s s e lf -ev iden t ly s u i tab le f o r t h e i r i nve s t iga t ion . F u r the rmo r e , i tc an b e a r gued t h a tk ey a spec t so ft h e t empo r a l i ty o ft h e l a nd scape , s uch a st h ep a th s , p l ace s a nd p roce s s o fb u i ld ing , a r e mo re r e ad i ly u nde r s tood t h rough t h e i r a r chaeo log ica l s pa t ia l c omponen t s , i n t h i s c a se s t udy b ecau se o f t h e " knowab i l i ty" o f t h e l a nd scape a nd t h e n a tu r e o f s he l l m idden s i t e s . S pace i st r ea ted a s au n if y ing d imen s ion f o r t h e p u rpo se o f aw ide r a na ly s i s o f mo re v a r ied t o p ic s , i n c lud ing i n d iv idua l b ehav iou r , p e r cep t ion , mob i l i ty , a nd s oc ia l p r ac t ice . T he G ISs pace i sn o t c on s ide r ed t ob e a n ece s sa ry m app ing o f s oc ia l s pace : i n o the r w o rd s , t h e f a l la cy o f t h e r u le ( d e sc r ip t ive g eome t ry = g ene ra t ive g eome t ry ) i sa vo ided . S econd , a nd mo re s pec if ica l ly , t h e u se o fn e two rk a nd l o ca t ion -a l loca t ion a na ly s i s i sp r ima ry . A r c / Inf o , a w ide ly -u sed c omme r c ia l G eog raph ic I nf o rma t ion S y s tem w a s c ho sen t oi mp lemen t t h e r e sea r ch d e s ign b ecau se i tc on ta ined n e two rk a nd s pa t ia l i n te rac t ion modu le s , r a the r t h an n e two rk a na ly s i s b e ing p e rf o rmed s imp ly b ecau se A rc / Inf o c ou ld d o i t . T he c oncep t ion o r mode l l ing o f s oc ie ty a s an e two rk h a s al ong h i s to ry i n s oc ia l a n th ropo logy a nd a r chaeo logy ( F i r th 1 951 , L e s se r 1 96 1 , H anne rz 1 992 , 1 994 ; c f . C hap t e r s 4a nd 5 ) , a l though i t s a dop t ion h e re s t em s f r om i t sp e r c e ived u t i l i ty a s an ove l w ay o f i mp lemen t ing I ngo ld 's p rog ramma t ic p ape r s o n mob i l i ty a nd l a nd scape , a nd u n if y ing t h em w i th t h e e nv i ronmen ta l -con s t ra in t a rgumen t s p r ev iou s ly r ev iewed . A rc / Inf o p rov ide s a n a b i l i ty t o s e am le s s ly c omb ine t h e n e two rk o f e nv i ronmen ta l c on s t r a in t w i th t h e a c tua l a r chaeo log ica l l a nd scape . O the r G IS p rog ram s w ou ld b e u nab le t oi mp lemen t an e two rk a na ly s i s t h em se lve s , w h i le f r ee s tand ing n e two rk a na ly s is p rog ram modu le s s uch a s UC INET ( Bo rga t t i a nd F reeman 1 992 ) h ave n o s pa t ia l a na ly t ic c apab i l i ty a pa r t f r om t h e i mp l ied a l geb ra ic s pa t ia l i ty o f ac onnec t iv i ty ma t r ix . F i na l ly , aG IS c an b e a v e ry v i sua l ly -or ien ted a na ly t ic t o o l ,w h ich h a sw o rked t oi t s d e t r im en t : c r i t ic s m ay d i spa rag e i ta s n o th ing b u t p re t ty p i c tu r e s w h i le p rac t i t ione r s m ay b e s educed b y t h e v i sua l d i sp lay p o s s ib i l i t ie s o f wha t m ay b e o therw i se s obe r a nd s o l id r e sea r ch ( Kvamme 1 995 :6 -7 ) . I dea l ly , a s K vamme p o in t s o u t , f o rma l s t a t is t ica l m e thod s a nd v i sua l p re sen t a t ion s hou ld b e i n p a r a l le l e v idence , a l low ing a mo r e r ounded a s se s smen t o ft h e r e sea r ch p rog ram . I nt h e p re sen t r e sea r ch , t h e a r ch ipe lago i s u nde r s tood a s , a nd

4 3

r ep re sen ted b y , a t wo -d imen s iona l p l an ime t ry o f c on t inuou sa nd d i sc re te s pace , f r om wh ich n e two rk f e a tu re s c an b ed er ived . U nde rt h e se c i r cum s tance s , n o th ing w ou ld b e g a ined b y i lu s t ra t ion s w h ich s howed t h e n e two rk a ga in s t , f o re xamp le ,t h et h r ee d imen s iona l d i g i ta l e l eva t ion mode l o ft h e s t udy a r ea , o rs ome o t he rv i sua l ly s t r ik ing b u t i r re levan tc on s t ruc t ion . 6 . 6 Ou t l ine o ft he c a se s t udy T he s t udy a r ea i sl o ca ted o n t h e w e s t c oa s t o fV ancouve r I s land , f r om P o in t Owen , i mmed ia t e ly n or th o f P o r t R enf r ew , t o t h e s ou thwe s t c o rne r o f Kyuquo t C hanne l ( F igu r e 6 . 1) . F rom s ou th t o n or th i ti n c lude s t h e m a jo r t opog raph ica l f e a tu re s o ft h eN i t ina t L ake s , B a rk ley S ound a nd A lbe rn i I n le t , t h e L ong B ea ch a r ea , C layoquo t S ound , F lo re s I s land , H e squ ia t H a rbou r , N oo tka S ound a nd a s soc ia ted f j o rd s , a nd t h e Nucha t l i tz I n le t /No r th N oo tka I s land a r ea s ( F igu r e 6 . 2 ) . Wh i le t h e s t udy a r ea m ea su re s 2 50 km i n l e ng th b y 5 0 -80 km i n w id th , t h e l e ng th o f c oa s t l ine i nt h ea r ch ipe lago i s much g r ea t e r . T he s t udy a r ea w a s c ho sen b ecau se i th a s s e en c on s ide rab le a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch , a nd s o h a s ar e a sonab ly e x ten s ive r e co rd o f a r chaeo log ica l s i te s . I ta l so o f f e r s av a r ied t o pog raphy o f s eve ra l a r ch ipe lag ic s ound c omp lexe s c onnec ted b y , o r l e ad ing t o , much mo r e l i nea r s t r e tche s o f c oa s t l ine o r f j o rd s . I t i s t hu s u sef u l f o r e xam in ing t h e c oa s ta l p rope r t ie so u t l ined i nC hap te r3 . T he re e x i s t s as ub s tan t ia l e t hnog raph ic r e co rd f o rt h i s a r ea , wh ich w i l l n o t b e d rawn o n u n t i l t h e d i scu s s ion . Ma jo r s ou r ce s i n c lude D rucke r ( 1951) a nd A r ima ( 1983 ) , wh i le a r e cen t s umma ry i sf ound i n A r ima a nd D ewh i r s t ( 1990 ) . S umma r ie s o ft h e r eg iona l c u l tu r e h i s to ry i n c lude M i tche l l ( 1990 ) a nd Ma t son a nd C oup land ( 1 995 ) , t h e l a t te r a l so s umma r i se ag ene ra lN o r thwe s tC oa s tc u l tu r eh i s to ry . T he d a ta u sed i nt h i s s t udy a r e f r om t wo s ou rce s k ep ta tt h e A rchaeo logy B ranch o ft h e P rov ince o f B r i t i sh C o lumb ia ( AB ) : d i g i t i sed b a se m ap s a nd a n a r chaeo log ica l s i te i n ven to ry d a taba se . T he f o rme r a r e p roduced b y t h e P rov inc ia l g ove rnmen t i nt h e c ou r se o fi t s o ve ra l l r e sou rce managemen t s t ra teg ie s . T he l a t te rd er ive f r om an umbe ro f s epa ra te a r chaeo log ica l s u rvey p ro jec t s , mo s t n o tab ly , H agga r ty ( 1 982 ) ; Ma r sha l l ( 1993 ) ; A r ea s A ssoc ia te s ( 1986 ; 1 987 ) ; Mack ie ( 1983 ) ; a nd McM i l lan a nd S t . C la i r e ( 1982 ) . A c omp le te b ib l iog raphy o n d i sk , A r chaeo log ica l F ie ld R e search i nB r i t i sh C o lumb ia , i sa va i lab le o n d emand f r om t h e AB , u pda ted q ua r t e r ly . A lmo s ta l o ft h e r e f e r ence s a r e t ou npub l i shed r e po r t s ,t h e se sa nd o t he rg r ey l i t e ra tu re . As e r ie s o fd i g i t ised m ap s o ft h e s t udy a r ea w a s p rov ided b y t h e AB . Wh i le n o t iona l ly a t as c a le o f 1 : 250 ,000 , t h e se m ap s h ave much b e t te rs pa t ia l r e so lu t ion a nd a ccu racy t h an t h a t s ugge s t s . T hey c o r r e spond t o t h e G ove rnmen t o f

F ig . 6 . 1 S tudy A rea .

V ancouver

I s land

P ac if i c

O cean

B r i t i sh C o lumb ia \

C

S tudy a rea

4 0 km

V ancouve r " \ _ 1 -

W a sh ing ton

7— U S A

4 4

F ig . 6 . 2 S tudy a r ea w i th ma jo rn amed r eg ion sa sp er A ppend ix A .

Kyuquo t N o r th Noo tka N oo tka S ound

H e squ ia F lo res C layo q uo

L ong B each

P ac i f i c

B a rk ley S ound S ou th C oa s t a nd N i t ina t

O cean

A

4 0k m W a sh ing ton

t oge the ri n aw ay s u i tab le f o rt h is a na ly s i s . S ome f e a tu re s , s uch a s mudf la t s , w e r e m anua l ly e l im ina ted , a nd s ome c l ean ing o f f a l se p o lygon s a nd d ang l ing v e r t ice s w a s p e rf ormed . C on t ro l r e f e r ence w a s t op ape r c op ie s o ft h e a pp ropr ia te h yd rog raph ic c ha r t s , w h ich p rov ide a h i gh ly a ccu ra te r e nd i t ion o ft h ec oa s t l ine a nd c oa s ta l f e a tu r e s .

C anada s h ee t s 9 2C , 9 2F , a nd 9 2E . E ach d ig i ta l m ap shee t w a s c ompo sed o f an umbe ro fs epa ra te l a ye r s . O ft h e se , t h e c oa s t l in e , i s land a nd a r chaeo log ica l s i te l o ca t ion l a ye r s w e re o f t h e mo s t u se . D ra inage , w a te r b ody , a nd p l ace n ame l a ye r sw e r eu sed m a in ly f o ri lu s t ra t ive o rr e f e renc ing p u rpose s . O the r n a tu ra l l a ye r s , s u ch a s v ege ta t ion a nd e l eva t ion , a nd mode rn f e a tu re l a ye r s , s u ch a sr oad s , t own s , p i cn ic a r ea s ,a nd s of o r th ,w e r en o tu s ed . T he a r chaeo log ica l s i te l a ye r s how s t h e s i te s a s d i sc re te p o in t f e a tu r e s , r e ga rd le s s o ft h e i r a c tua l p o lygona l s i ze o r s hape . A t t h e s c a le o fa na ly s i s o ft h i s p ro jec t , t h i s i sn o t c on s ide r ed t ob e ap rob lem — the l a rge s ts i te i sl e s st h an 5 00 m e t re s i n max imum d i ame te r . A s soc ia ted w i th t h i s l a ye r w a s m in ima l i d en t if y ing i n f o rma t ion a bou t e ach s i te , m a in ly t h e s i te r e co rd n umbe ra nd i t sm ap g r id ( l a t i tude a nd l o ng i tud e , a nd UT M ) l o ca t ion . T h i s l a ye r w a s c a ref u l ly c o r rec ted f o re r ro r s a nd om i s s ion s a ga in s t t h e s i te d a taba se ( s ee b e low ) . I nc a se s o fd i sc r epanc ie s , t h i rd p a r ty s ou r ce s o r AB s t af fw e re c on su l ted .

Much mo r e i n f o rma t ion a bou t e ach s i te w a s c on ta ined i na s epa ra te d a taba se . T he se d a ta a r e o r ig ina l ly d er ived f r om a mu l t i tude o fd if e ren t a r chaeo log ica l p ro jec t s , i n c lud ing t h e ma jo r s u rvey s n o ted a bove a nd m any m ino r s u rvey s o r i n f o rma l r e co rd ing s . T he d a taba se i sm a in ta ined b y t h e A r chaeo logy B ranch a s p a r t o f a n a t ion -w ide a r chaeo log ica l s i te r e co rd , t h e C anad ian H e r i tage I n f o rma t ion N e two rk ( CH IN ) . CH IN d a ta a r e as ub se t o f d a ta h e ld i nt h e s i te r e co rd f i l e s a tt h e AB . S ome i mpo r tan t i n f o rma t ion i sm is s ing f r om CH IN , n o tab ly s i te m ap s a nd p ho tog r aph s . T he i n f o rma t ion t a ken f r om CH IN w a s i nt h e f o rm o f at e x t f i l e t h a t c ou ld b e i mpo r ted i n to c omme r c ia l s p read shee to rd a taba se p rog ram s .

A l l t h e m ap s hee t s a nd l a ye r s w e r e p rov ided i n d i g i ta l f o rma t e xpor ted f r om t h e A rc / Inf o 6 . 1 .1 . g eog raph ica l i n f o rma t ion s of twa re r e lea se . T hey w e r e r e impo r ted i n to A r c / Inf o r e lea se 7 . 0 .3 . r unn ing o n aS i l icon G raph ic s I nd igo w o rk s ta t ion o pe ra t ing u nde rI R IX 5 . 3 . T he r e levan t m apshee t s a nd l a ye r s o f t h e m ap c ove rage s w e r e l i nked

T he q ua l i ty o fi n f o rma t ion o n CH IN i sv a r iab le , r e f lec t ing t h e o r ig ina l s i te r e co rd ing p roce s s . S ome s i te s a r e e x t r eme ly t h o rough ly r e co rded , w h i le o t he r s h ave l i t t le mo re t h an s i te t ype a nd l o ca t ion . F u r the rmo re , i nt e rm s o f s pa t ia l e xhau s t ivene s s , t h e s i te r e co rd f o r t h e s t udy a r ea i s b yn o m ean s c omp le te ( s ee E ld r idge a nd Ma ck ie 1 993 f o ra

4 5

g ene r a l d i scu s s ion o ft h e q ua l i ty o ft h e B r i t i sh C o lumb ia a r chaeo log ica l s i te i n ven to ry ) . N eve r the le s s , t a k en t o ge the r , t h e s i t e l o ca t ion a nd a t t r ibu t e i n f o rma t ion f o rm a r ema rk ab le a nd s u rp r i s ing ly c omp r ehen s ive d a t a s ou r ce f o r t h i s l e ng thy s t r e tch o fc oa s t l ine w h ich i s , a f t e r a l , m a in ly r emo te a nd i n a cce s s ib le . R e levan t p rob lem s i n t h e s i t e i n ven to ry w i l lb ed i scu s sed f u r the rb e low . T he c omb ina t ion o f d i g i t i sed m ap s , a r cha eo log ica l s i t e l o ca t ion a nd ad a taba se o fa r chaeo log ica l s i t e i n f o rma t ion e nab led t h e u se o f ag eog raph ic i n f o rma t ion s y s t em . T he s y s tem c ho sen a s m o s t s u i tab le w a s A r c / Inf o , d e sc r ibed b e low . 6 . 7 I mp lemen ta t ion o ft h ec a se s t udy T he f o l low ing s e c t ion s d e scr ibe t h e G IS , a nd t h e d a t au sed i nt h ec a se s t udy . 6 . 7 .1 A r c / Inf oa nd t he G eograph ic I nf orma t ion S y s tem A r c / Inf o i s ac omme r c ia l ly p roduced s o f twa r e f o r u se i na G eog r aph ic I n f o rma t ion S y s tem . An on t echn ica l ( i fd a t ed ) d e sc r ip t ion o f i t s b a s ic f e a tu r e s i sg i ven i n P euqu e t a nd Ma rb le ( 1 990 ) . Ma in ly d e s igned t o r u n o n UN IX a nd r e la ted w o rk s ta t ion s , aDOS v e r s ion i sa l so a va i lab le ,w h ich i sc on s id e rab ly l e s s p owe r f u l . Af u l ly c apab le v e r s ion o f A r c / Inf o 7i s f o r thcom ing f o r h i gh -end P en t ium P C s . A r c / Inf o i st h e m o s t c omp r ehen s ive a nd v e r sa t i le o f G IS s o f twa r e p ack age s , h av ing s oph i s t ica t ed m odu le s f o r b o th v ec to r ( p o in t l ine ) a nd r a s t e r ( g r id ) d a ta f o rma t s . I mpo r t an t ly f o r t h e g oa l s o f t h i s r e sea r ch , i t h a s a n a dvan ced a b i l i ty t o h and le b o th g r aph theo r e t ic t o po log ic m a t r ix s t ruc tu r e s ( n e two rk s , r ou t e s y s t em s a nd d ynam ic s egmen ta t ion ) a nd s pa t ia l i n t e r a c t ion m ode l s ( i nc lud ing t h e f am i ly o f g r av i ty mode l s a nd l o ca t ion -a l loca t ion a na ly t ic t o o l s ) . S uch a na ly se s c an t h e r ef o r e b e d on e i n a c a r tog raph ic s e t t ing , r a the r t h an i n a n on -g raph ic m a thema t ica l m a t r ix , w h ich a i d s i n tu i t ion , e xp lo r a to ry d a ta a na ly s i s , e r ro rc o r r ec t ion , a nd t h e c r o s s -check ing o fr e su l t s . D rawba ck st ot h i s s of twa r ei n c lude e xpen s ive l i cen s ing a nd s y s t em r e qu i r emen t s , ad i ff i cu l t u se r i n te r f ace a nd a n i d io sync r a t ic t e rm ino logy t h a t i sa to dd s w i th m o s t G IS p a ckage s . 6 . 7 .2 D a ta : d e scr ip t ion a nd p re -proce s s ing T he f o l low ing s ub sec t ion s d e sc r ibe t h e d e r iva t ion o ft h e d a ta u sed i nt h i s s t udy , a nd s ome s t ep s t a ken t om ake i t s u i tab le f o rt h eq ue s t ion sa th and . M idd en D ef in i t ion . S i t e s i n CH IN a r e c l a s s if i ed i n to an umbe ro fd i f f e r en t s i t e t y pe s , a r ranged h i e ra r ch ica l ly i n af o rma t d e l im i t ed b y c omma s a nd s em i -co lon s . T hu s as i ng le p l ace i n t h e l a nd scape m ay b e c a t ego r i sed a s : " g ene r a l p u rpo se , h ab i ta t ion , s h e l l m idden ; r e sou r ce p rocu r emen t , t r ee , b a rk s t r ip ; p e t rof o rm , c anoe s k id ." E ach o ft h e se f e a tu r e s m ay h ave ad if e r en t s i te n umbe r , o r , t h ey m ay a l b e s ub sumed u nd e r as i ng le s i te n umbe r . T he AB s i t e m anagemen t

4 6

p roce s s h a s r e cen t ly s e en s t ep s t a k en t o i n c r ea se t h e c on s i s tency o f s i t e t y pe a s s ignmen t a nd s i t e d e s igna t ion , m a in ly b y s p l i t t ing c omp lex , mu l t i -pu rpo se s i t e s i n to s e pa ra te ly n umbe r ed s i ng le f e a tu r e s i t e s , w h ich m ay h ave o ve r lapp ing b ounda r ie s . N eve r the le s s , i tw a s p o s s ib le t o r e ad t h rough t h e c omp le t e CH IN f i l e f o r e a ch o ft h e s i t e s w i th in t h e s t udy a r ea , s e lec t ing a l t h o se w i th a ny s h e l l m idden c omponen t , r e ga rd le s s o f w h e the r t h i s w a s t h e r e co rded p r ima ry s i t e t y pe o rw a s m e r e ly n o t ed i n am emo o ro t he rf i e ld . A l l s i te s w i th as h e l l m idd en c omponen t w e r e i n c lud ed i n t h e g ene ra l c a t ego ry o f " she l l m idden ." I n ev i tab ly , t h i s m ay h av e i n c lud ed s ome s p ec ia l p u rpo se s i te s , s u ch a s l o okou t s , d ef en s ive s i t e s , o r s h e l l p r oce s s ing s t a t ion s . S im i la r ly , s ome g ene ra l p u rpo se s i t e s m ay w e l l h ave b een e l im ina t ed , s u ch a sl i t h ic s c a t t e r sa nd i n t e r t ida l s i t e s ,n o tt o m en t ion a l t h e g ene ra l a c t iv i ty s i t e s w h ich d o n o t l e ad t o l a s t ing m a t e r ia l r ema in s . I tw a s f e l t t h a t , a pa r t f r om t h e r e a son s f o rf o cu s ing o n s h e l l m idden s d i scu s sed i nC hap t e r 5 ,c on s i s t ency o fc ompa rab i l i ty w a s g a ined b y l i m i t ing t h e s t udy t o s h e l l m idden s . F o r e xamp le , w he the r c ompa r ed w i th e a ch o t he r o r t o s h e l l m idden s , t h e s i t e a r ea s o f f i sh t rap s , r o ck a r t , b u r ia l s a nd l i t h ic s c a t t e r s a r e p r obab ly i re levan t i nt e rm s o fi n t en s i ty o fu se o ft h e l a nd scape . A d if e r en t r e s ea r ch p rog ram c ou ld d oub t le s s b e d ev i sed w h ich i n c lud ed a l s i t e t y pe s , b u t i tm igh t w e l l h ave d i ff i cu l ty u s ing s imp le s i te a r ea a s am ean ingf u lv a r iab le . M idd en C lu s t er ing P rocedur e . S i te d ef in i t ion a nd t h e m ean ing o ft h e n o t ion " s i t e" i so f w ide sp r ead c on ce rn i n a r cha eo logy , a nd i sa tt h e c o r e o f b o th l a nd scape a nd o f s i te a r cha eo logy ( e .g . , F o ley 1 98 1 , D unne l l 1 992 , B inf o rd 1 992 ) . Many o ft h e s h e l l m idd en s w e re e x t r eme ly c l o se t o ge the r , y e t w e r e o ff i c ia l ly d e s igna t ed a s s e pa r a te s i t e s o n t h e b a s i s o fd i scon t inuou s d epo s i t s . O the r s w e r e l a rge , b u t t h e r e w a s n o r e co rd o f s u ff ic ien t t e s t ing t o e s tab l i sh c on t inu i ty o f d epo s i t a c ro s s t h ee n t i r ea r ea d e s igna t ed a s" s i t e ." I no r de rt om i t iga te t h i s p rob lem , i n d iv idua l s h e l l m idden s i t e sw e r ej o ined t o g e the r i n to s h e l l m idd en " s i t e a r ea s ." T he m e thodo logy u s ed t o d e t e rm ine m idd en z on ea r ea sw a st ob uf f e re a ch s i t e( wh ich a r e r e p r e sen t ed a s ap o in t , r e ga rd le s s o ft h e i r a c tua l s i ze ) w i th ac i r c le o f 5 00m r a d iu s . A l l s i t e s w i th i n t e r sec t ing b uf f e r s w e r e t h en c on s ide r ed a s as i ng le m idd en z one , w i th in w h ich t h e a r ea s o fi n c luded s i ng le s h e l l m idd en w a s t o ta l led i n to a m ea su r e o f c umu la t ive m idden a r ea . I n m any c a se s ,n oo t he rs i t e s f e l l w i th in t h eb uf f e rz on e ,w h i le i no ne e x t r em e c a se , 4 6 s i t e s c ha ined t o ge the r t oc r ea t e a m a c ro c l u s t e r a r ea . T h e se d a ta a r e s umma r i sed i n A ppend ix A . T he r e su l t w a s t or e duce t h e n umbe r o fs i t e s f r om 5 76 i n d iv idua l m idd en s t o2 38 m idden z one s . T h i s w a sd e s i rab le n o tj u s tb ecau se i ts imp l if i ed t h en e two rk ,b u t b ecau se t o s ome e x t en t i tr e duced t h e e mpha s i s o n t h e n o t ion " s i t e ." I no t he r w o rd s , s i nce t h e s h e l l m idd en s a r e a l t o o ne d eg r ee o r a no the r " gene r a l p u rpo se" s i t e s , t h e e f f ec t o f t h e b uf f e r ing w a s t o i d en t if y z one s o f g ene ra l p u rpo se a c t iv i ty w i th in t h e a r chaeo log ica l l a nd scape .

A l though s ome o ft h e se z one s c on ta in o n ly a s i ng le s i te , t h ey a r e s t i l lc ompa rab le a st h eu sef u l ly a mb iguou sc oncep t o f " gene ra l a c t iv i ty" d i s so lve s t h e i n t ra s i te : in te r s i te d i cho tomy .

t h i s manne r an e two rk i sc r ea ted , e nab l ing t h e a pp l ica t ion o f n e two rk a na ly t ic t o o l s t o t h e t o po log ica l r e la t ion s b e tween s i te s . T he me thod o fl i nk ing t h e z one s w a s s imp le , b u t e n ta i led s ome u navo idab le a pp l ica t ion s o fj udgemen t . A l l z one sa r e j o ined t o a l l o the r s , a tl e a s t t h rough i n te rven ing o ne s . I n o t he r wo rd s , a ny t wo m idden z one s a r e l i nked b y o ne o r mo re p a th s , a nd s ot h e n e two rk i sd e sc r ibed a s" connec ted" (W i lson 1 984 :4 ) . T he n ode s o ft h e n e two rk a r e m idden z one c en t ro id s ( s ing le s i te s o r c l u s te r ed s i te s ) , wh i le t h e v e r t ice sa r er ou te s c onnec t ing z one sw i th e ach o t he r , a nd s o t h e n e two rk d e sc r ibe s t h e t r ave l s pa ce o fm idden -or ien ted g ene ra l a c t iv i ty . No l im i t w a s p l aced o n t h e n umbe r o f v e r t ice s t h a t c ou ld j o in an ode . D i rec t c onnec t ion s w e r e m ade b e tween s i te s u n le s s a n i n d i rec t p a th v i a a no the r s i te d i d n o t a ppea r t ob e s i gn if ican t ly s ho r t e r . S uch d ec i s ion s w e r e made b y j udgmen ta l a s se s smen t , a s s ome s i te s h ad m any p o s s ib le p a th c omb ina t ion s a nd i tw a sn o tp o s s ib le t o q ua l i ta t ive ly a s se s s e ach p e rmu ta t ion . H oweve r , i n m os t c a se s , i tw a s o bv iou s w h ich l i nk s s hou ld b e a dded . U n l ike B e l l e t a l 's ( 1988 ) c a se s t udy , t h e r e w e re n o e x t er na l i n d ica to r s o f h ow t h e n e two rk m igh t b e s t ruc tu red ,6 ° n o r d i rec t e v idence i nt h e f o rm o fb u i l t r oad s . No r w a s t h e r e e v idence f o r wh ich d i rec t r ou te s m igh t b e a b sen t , u n l ike M i l ic ic 's ( 1993 ) c a se s t udy , i nw h ich h i s to r ic t r ad ing a nd p a r ish r e co rd s w e re u sed t ob u i ld an e two rk mode l o ft h e V ene t ian p e r iod D a lma t ian a r ch ipe lago . I nt h e a b sence o f s u ch d i rec t e v idence ( wh ich , i n a ny c a se , r un s t h e r i sk o f b u i ld ing c i rcu la r i ty i n to t h e mode l ) , t h e s imp le p rocedu r e u sed i nt h i s c a se s t udy i st h e mo s t d ef en s ib le . O ve ra l l , t h e s i t e n e two rk i s ar e a sonab le a nd i n ter na l ly c on s i s ten t s c hema t ic r ep re sen ta t ion o f t h e s pa t ia l r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween s i te s . T he who le n e two rk a nd i t sd e ta i l s a r e s hown i n F igu re s 6 . 4 , 6 . 5 a nd 6 . 6 t o g i ve a n i d ea o f i t s c on s t ruc t ion . F igu r e s 7 . 9 -7 . 16 ( pp . 6 9 -72 ) a l so s how t h e w ho le n e two rk . T he v e r t ice s o ft h e n e two rk a r e m ea su red i nm e t re s a nd k i lome t re s . I fr e l iab le d a ta e x i s ted o na ve rage s peed o f t r ave l b y c anoe , i tw ou ld b e at r iv ia l t a sk t o c onver t t h e u n i t s o fm ea su r emen t i n to m inu te s , h ou r s a nd d ay s , t hu s t r an sf o rm ing t h e n e two rk i n to a s chema t ic o f " t rave l t ime s pace" ( Be l l e ta l 1 988 ; G o r enf lo a nd G a le 1 990 ) , a s sum ing t h a t a l l u n i t s o fd i s tance w e re t r ave r sed i n t h e s ame u n i t s o ft ime . I ti s mo re r e a sonab le a nd c au t iou s t oa s sume t h e i s o t rop ic p l ana r i ty o ft h e w a t e r s u rf a ce t h an t oe n te r i n to a( n ece s sa r i ly d i ff icu l t ) a s se s smen t o fr e la t ive d if i cu l ty o f movemen t , a sd i c ta ted b y w ind , t i de , d i s tance f r om s ho r e . S uch a s se s smen t s o f p r eh i s to r ic s e aman sh ip a nd p e r cep t ion w ou ld b e a r guab le a tb e s t a nd , i na ny c a se , w ou ld l i ke ly e ven o u t a tt h e s c a le o fa na ly s i s e mp loyed i n t h i s s t udy . I ft h e i s o t ropy o ft r ave l o ve rw a te r i sa ccep ted , t h en t r ave l t ime a nd d i s tance a r e l i nea r ly r e la ted , a nd o n ly r e qu i re c a l ib ra t ion v i s -à -v i se ach o the r .

F ina l ly , t h e c en t ro id s o f t h e p o lygon s p roduced b y t h e i n te r sec t ing b uf f e rz one sw e r e c a lcu la ted , a nd w e r e u sed a s n ode s f o rt h es i t en e two rk ( s ee F igu r e6 . 3 ,p .4 8 ) . I nz one s w i th as i ng le s i te , t h e c en t ro id n ode w a s , b y d e f in i t ion , t h e s ame a st h es i te l o ca t ion , wh i le i nz one sw i th mu l t ip le s i te s , t h e c en t ro id c ou ld b e i n an on s i te l o ca t ion , i n c lud ing l o ca t ion so nt h ew a te ro ri n land . S he l lM idden S i te a nd Z one A rea s . O ft h e 5 76 k nown s he l l m idden s i te s i nt h e s t udy a r ea , s i te a r ea i sk nown f o r 5 26 . T he m i ss ing v a lue s a r e m a in ly d ue t oi n comp le te s i te r e co rd ing o rs i t e d e s t ruc t ion . I ns ome o f t h e se c a se s , aq ua l i ta t ive a s se s smen t o f t h e s i te s i ze i s p o s s ib le . F o re xamp le , s ome s i te r e co rd sn o te t h a tt h e re a r e mu l t ip le h ou se p l a tf o rm s p re sen t ( s ugge s t ive o fl a rge s i ze ) , w h i le o t he r s e mp loy q ua l if ie r s s ugge s t ive o f s ma l l s i ze , s u ch a s" pocke tm idd en ." Wh i le t h e se a r e s ugge s t ive , t h e s i te a r ea o ft h e se s i te s w a s l e f t c oded a s " unknown" a nd s u ch q ua l i ta t ive a s se s smen t s a r eo n ly r e f e r red t oi nr e levan t d i scu s s ion . When g a the red i n to s i t e c l u s te r a r ea s w i th t h e p rocedu re d e scr ibed a bove , 2 1 o f t h e 2 38 m idden z one s h ave n oa r ea ld a ta ( Append ix A ) . F o r c on s i s tency , a l l s i te a r ea s w e r e t a ken f r om t h e CH IN d a taba s e s i te a r ea f i e ld . T h i s f i e ld i s c a lcu la ted b y mu l t ip ly ing l e ng th t ime s w id th , t a k ing n o a ccoun t o f t h e s hape o f t h e s i te p o lygon , i . e . , w he the r i ti st r apezo ida l , c u rved , o ro t herw i se i regu la r . I ns ome c a se st h i s f i e ld w a s m anua l ly c a lcu la ted f r om CH IN l e ng th a nd w id th d a ta . F u r the r i n f o rma t ion w a s s ome t ime s a va i lab le i n a r chaeo log ica l r e po r t s . Wh i le i n s ome c a se s t h i s m ay o b jec t iv e ly h ave b een mo r e a ccu ra te , i tw a s a l so c e r ta in ly l e s s c on s i s ten t , r e f lec t ing t h e i d io sync ra s ie s o f i n d iv idua l r e co rde r s , s ome o f w hom c a lcu la te s i te a r ea w i thou t o bv iou s r e f e r ence t o l e ng th a nd w id th . I n a ny c a se , a ccu ra te ly r e co rd ing t h e s i ze o f as h e l l m idden i s ad i ff icu l t t a sk o n t h eN o r thwe s t C oa s t , r e qu i r ing c on s ide rab le s hove l t e s t ing a nd s o i l p rob ing ( of t en t h rough d eep , r oo t laden o ve rbu rden ) , a nd u sua l ly p e rf ormed i nc ond i t ion s o fd en se , v i nou s u nde rg row th ( s ee Mack ie 1 986 o n c oa s ta l s u rvey t e chn ique s , a nd S t e in ( 1 992 ) o r C laa s sen ( 199 1) o n s he l l m idden s t ruc tu re a nd t a phonomy ) .

6 . 8 E s tab l i shmen to f an e twork o fs i te s A s a rgued i n C hap te r 3 ,t h e h igh ly c on s t ra ined p hy s ica l t o pog raphy o ft h e Nor thwe s t C oa s tm ean s t h a tt h e s hape o f t h e p reh i s tor ic t r an spo r ta t ion e nv i ronmen t i s , i nt h e m a in , k nowab le . F o l low ing f r om t h i s , a nd a s sum ing t h e e x i s tence o f w a te r c raf t , t h e s pa t ia l r e la t ion s b e tween t h e m idden z one s c an b e s chema t ica l ly r e p r e sen ted a s s ho r te s t -pa th d i s tance s a c ro s s t h e w a te r . I n l i nk ing t h e z one s t oge the r

.S pan ish C o lon ia lm ap ss howed t h a tl a rge c en t r e sw e r e mo r ed i r e c t ly c onnec ted t oe a ch o t he rt h an s imp le t o po logy w ou ld i n d ica te . F u r the r , t h ey u sed af o rmu la t or e la t el a nd s l ope t ow a lk ing s p eed i no r de rt o c a lcu la te t r ave l t ime , ar e f inemen tn o tn ece s sa ry i nt h ec u r ren ts t udy . 6 °

4 7

F ig . 6 . 3 D e ta i lo fc r ea t ion o ft h e s i te n e two rk . S haded c i rc le sa r es i te b uf f e r sw h ich d ef ine m idden z one s ; d o tr ep re sen t st h e c en t ro id o ft h o se z one sw h ich i su sed a st h en ode f o rn e two rk c r ea t ion .

V ancouver I s land

4 490

1km

• 1 232 0

Mob i l i ty n e two r k M idd en z one ( 1 1 cm b uf f e r s ) M idd en z one c en t ro id C umu la t iv em idd en a r ea ( m 2) U nknown m idd en a r ea

B ark ley

1 7485 S ound

4 8

F ig . 6 . 4 D e ta i lo ft h en o r th a r ea o ft h es i te n e two rk .

4 0 km

V ancouver I s land

R I

8 3

8 4

8 7

--- Mob i l i ty n e two rk • M idden z one c en t ro id a nd i d en t if ie r

F ig . 6 . 5 D e ta i l o ft h ec en t ra la r ea o ft h es i te n e two rk .

5 6

Mob i l i ty n e two rk M idd en z on ec en t ro id a nd i d en t if i e r 16 7 4

1 43

1 ,8 1 30

1 22 10

1 4 2

1 29 1 3 1

1 23 1 26 1 54 1 5_ 1 56 1 57 1 58

4 9

F ig . 6 . 6 D e ta i lo ft h es ou th a r ea o ft h es i te n e two rk

2 37

2 0 1 19 9

2 35fr . / 2 36 2 02

2 19 2 34 2 20 2 29 2 25

. -- Mob i l i ty n e two rk 5 60 M idd en z one c en t ro id a nd i d en t if ie r

6 . 9

26

2 27 2 30

p opu la t ion , c ap i ta l , g ood s , c ogn i t ive ( p e r ce ived ) d i s tan ce , d i s tance e xp r e s sed a st r ave l t ime , e ven f r equency o fp l ace n ame s( Tob le ra nd W inebu rg 1 971) .

L oca t ion -a l loca t ion a na ly s i s

T he f o l low ing s e c t ion s d i scu s s l o ca t ion -a l loca t ion a na ly s i s a nd i t si mp lemen ta t ion i nt h ep r e sen ts t udy .

L oca t ion -a l loca t ion a na ly s i s w a s d eve loped t o h e lp s o lve s i te s e lec t ion p rob lem s i nt h e p ub l ic a nd p r iva te e conom ic s e c to r f o r f a c i l i t ie s s uch a s r e ta i l o u t le t s , s choo l s , f i re s t a t ion s a nd m ed ica l f a c i l i t ie s ; n ame ly , i ns i tua t ion s w he re a n o rgan i sa t ion n eed s t o o b ta in t h e mo s t ef i c ien t d i s t r ibu t ion o f as y s tem o f f a c i l i t ie s a c co rd ing t o v a r iou s ( ma rke t o rn on -ma rke t ) c r i te r ia . F o r e xamp le , r u le sc an b e a pp l ied , s uch a s : n o c h i ld s hou ld l i ve mo r e t h an t wo k i lome t re s f r om a s choo l ; n o h ou se s hou ld b e mo r e t h an f i ve m inu t e s f r om a f i re -ha l l ; o r h ambu rge r o u t le t s s hou ld b e o p t ima l ly s i ted w i th r e f e r ence t ol u nch t ime t r af i c . T he u n ique a spec t o f l o ca t ion -a l loca t ion i st h e a b i l i ty t os o lve t h e p rob lem f o ra l l f a c i l i t ie s i nt h e s y s t em a tt h es ame t ime ( d e sp i te u s ing p a i r -w i se c ompar i son s ) , t hu s i n co rpo ra t ing t h e i n terdependence o fc en t ra l p l ace s w i th e ach o t he r i n to t h e s o lu t ion . F o r e xamp le , t h e l o ca t ion o fo ne s c hoo l o r o ne f i r e -ha l l n ece s sar i ly a f f ec t s t h e p o t en t ia l l o ca t ion o fa l l o the r s .

6 . 9 .1 I n troduc t ion L oca t ion -a l loca t ion i s at y pe o fs pa t ia l i n te rac t ion a na ly s i s . S pa t ia l i n te rac t ion m e thod s m in ima l ly d ea l w i th a t l e a s t p a i r s o f p o in t s o r a r ea s i n s pace b e tween wh ich t h e r e i s p o s i ted t o b e s ome s o r t o f f l ow o f p eop le , g ood s o r i n f o rma t ion ( Ba i ley 1 994 ) . T he mo s t c ommon ly u sed g ene ra l s pa t ia l i n te rac t ion mode l i st h e f am i ly o f g r av i ty mode ls ( Hayne s a nd F o the r ingham 1 984 ) . T he se w e r e w ide ly u sed i ng eog raphy a nd a r chaeo logy o n a n i n tu i t ive , " even m e taphy s ica l" ( Tob le ra nd W inebu rg 1 971 :40 ) , b a s i s b ef o re b e ing t h eo re t ica l ly j u s t if ied a st h eg ene ra ls o lu t ion t o a n e n t ropy m ax im i sa t ion p rob lem ( Ba i ley 1 994 :34 -35 ) . I n t h e g rav i ty mode l , i n te rac t ion b e tween p a i r s o f p o in t s o r p l ace si sr e la ted t ob o th t h e i rr e la t ive s i ze sa nd t h e i rr e la t ive d i s tance a pa r t . I ti s i mpo r tan t t o r e a l ise t h a t s i ze a nd d i s tance d o n o t n ece ssa r i ly h ave t ob e p hy s ica l ma s s n o r l i nea rd i s tance ,b u tc an r e f e rt o

5 0

Ac en t r en od e ( u sua l ly r e f e r red t oi nt h e l o ca t ion -a l loca t ion l i t e ra tu r e a s a" f ac i l i ty ," o cca s iona l ly a s a" de s t ina t ion n ode" ) i se i the r af i xed c and ida te , o r a mob i le c and ida te c ho sen o n t h eb a s i s t h a t i to p t im i se s t h e o b jec t ive f unc t ion . I n t h e c a se o f as i ng le -cen t r e s o lu t ion i n t h e p -med ian mode l , t h e c and ida te n ode t h a t m in im i se s t h e t o ta l d i s tance t r ave l led a c ro s st h en e two rk w i l lb e s e lec t ed . I nt h ec a se o f at wo -cen t re s o lu t ion , t h e c ho sen c and ida t es w i l l b e t ho se wh ich t o ge the r m in im i se t h i s o b jec t ive f unc t ion , a nd s o f o r th . I tc an b e s e en t h a tc en t r e sw i l l i n f luence e ach o t he r 's l o ca t ion ,a nd t h a tc en t ra l i ty i st hu sm ea su r ed r e la t ive ly .

I nl o ca t ion -a l loca t ion m ode l l ing , as e t o fp o in t s o rp l ace s i s a s s igned t o ac en t re o rt o as e to fi n t e r -dependen tc en t r e s i n aw ay t h a t o p t im i se s s ome o b jec t ive f unc t ion , s uch a s m in im i sa t ion o f t o ta l d i s tance t r ave l led f r om p l ace s t o c en t re s . T he p roce s s i sd e scr ibed i n mo re d e ta i l b e low , i n wh ich r e f e rence i s t o t h e s imp le s t m ode l , t h e p -med ian , u sed i n t h i s a na ly s i s . T he f o l low ing t e rm ino logy i s e mp loy ed , w h ich r ef lec t s t h e mode l ' s o r ig in s i n moder n r e ta i l , s e rv ice , a nd t r an spor ta t ion g eog raphy . T e rm ino logy i s g i ven f o r t h e n e two rk i mp lemen ta t ion o f l o ca t ion a l loca t ion ,w h ich c an a l so b e i mp lemen ted f o r ac on t inuou s s u rf ace .

I n t h e p roce s s o f s o lu t ion , mob i le c and ida te s a r e f r ee t o e i the r e n te r t h e s o lu t ion s e t , o r n o t t o e n t e r i t . Whe rea s f i xed c and ida t e s m u s t b e p a r t o f t h e s o lu t ion , n on c and ida te s a r e , o fc ou r se , u nab le t ob e d e s igna ted a sc en t re n ode s . F ixed c and ida te s a r e u sed i n a pp l ica t ion s w he re s ome f a c i l i t ie s a l ready e x i s t . F o r e xamp le , g i ven t h e e x i s tence o f n i ne h ambu rge r o u t le t s i n ac i ty , l o ca t ion a l loca t ion c an f i nd a n o p t ima l l o ca t ion f o r at e n th . I ns uch a n a pp l ica t ion , t h e n i ne e x i s t ing r e s tau ran t s w ou ld b e d e s igna t ed a s f i xed c and ida te s , w h i le t h e s e t o f s u i tab le p l ace s f o r t h e t e n th o u t le t w ou ld b e d e s igna ted mob i le c and ida te s , a nd t h eo p t ima l ly l o ca ted o ne o ft h e se w ou ld b e c ho sen a cco rd ing t o i t s m ax im i s ing p rope r t ie s r e la t ive t o t h e o b jec t ive f unc t ion . As im i la rp roce s s c ou ld b e u sed t o s imu la te p r eh i s tor ic c o lon i sa t ion o r o t he r l a nd scape i n f i l l ing p roce s se s , a sd i scu s sed i nt h en ex tc hap te r .

6 . 9 .2 T erm ino logy u sed i nl o ca t ion -a l loca t ion a na ly s i s A n o r ig in n ode i s an ode o n t h e n e two rk t h a t c on ta in s t h e p o ten t ia l f o r i n te rac t ion w i th a c en t re . T h i s m igh t b e a h ou seho ld w i th aq uan t if ied d e s i r e t op u r cha se h ambu rge r s o r ac e r ta in n umbe ro fs choo l -age c h i ld ren ; o ri tm igh tb e a mo r e a b s t rac t ly d ef ined n o t ion , s u ch a s " po ten t ia l f o r i n te r ac t ion" ( ESR I 1 995 ) . I n t h i s c a se s t udy , t h e m idden z one s a r e t h e o r ig in n ode s . A s r e co rd s o fg ene ra l h uman a c t iv i ty , t h ey a r e w i tne s se s t o a c tua l i n te rac t ion . I n t h e l o ca t ion -a l loca t ion mode l , t h e i r o n ly a t t r ibu te o fi n te re s t i s t h e i rl o ca t ion o nt h en e two rk . T he s imp le s ti mp lemen ta t ion i st h a ta l o r ig in n ode sc on ta in t h e s ame p o ten t ia l f o r i n te rac t ion , i . e . , p o ten t ia l i n te rac t ion i sh omogenou s a c ro s s t h e n e two rk n ode s , i nf luenced o n ly b y r e la t ive s e pa ra t ion . T h i s i se qu iva len t t oa s se r t ing t h a t , f o r e xamp le , a l l h ou seho ld s h ad a n e qua l d e s i re t o b uy h ambu rge r s . T he p o s s ib i l i ty e x i s t s t ow e igh t t h e p o ten t ia l b y s ome e x ter na l v a r iab le : s u rvey d a ta m igh t s how t h a t r e s id en t s o f s ome a r ea s p u rcha sed m o re h ambu rge r s , a nd t h i s c ou ld a f ec t t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e h ambu rge r r e s tau ran t . Wh i le i ns ome a r chaeo log ica l a pp l ica t ion s s uch w e igh t ing m igh t b e p o ss ib le ( s ee B e l l e t a l ( 1988 ) f o r s uch a n e xamp le ) , i n t h is s t udy o f p reh i s tor ic g ene ra l -pu rpo se a c t iv i ty l o ca t ion , n o s u ch v a r iab le w a s c on s ide red p l au s ib ly k nowab le . T hu s , p o ten t ia l i n te rac t ion i su nwe igh ted a nd e qua la c ro s st h en e two rk , e xcep ta sa f ec ted b yd i s tance . Ac and ida te n ode i s an ode o n t h en e two rk d eemed s u i tab le f o r t h e p o s s ib le l o ca t ion o f ac en t r e ( s ee b e low ) . I nr e ta i l o r o t he r c on tempo ra ry i mp lemen ta t ion s , c r i ter ia s uch a s z on ing l aw s , u n su i tab le i n f ra s t ruc tu r e a nd o t he r l og i s t ic s w i l lr u le o u ts ome l o ca t ion s . T hu s , o fm any v acan tl o t s i na c i ty , o ne s ub se t may b e c on s ide r ed s u i tab le f o r l o ca t ing a s choo l , w h i le a no the r ( l ike ly d i f f e r en t ) s ub se t may b e s u i tab le f o r ar e cyc l ing f a c i l i ty . A n e x ter n a l -c r i ter ion -f ree i mp lemen ta t ion i su sed i nt h is s t udy : a l o r ig in n ode s a r e a l so c and ida te s f o r t h e d e s igna t ion a s ac en t re . I n mo s t a pp l ica t ion s i np reh is tor ic c on tex t s t h e r ew i l l b e l i t t le o rn o ap r ior i k now ledge o fw ha t e x ter na l c r i te r ia m igh t a pp ly , a l though t h e i d en t if ica t ion o fs uch c r i te r ia i si t se lf am a jo r t o p ic o f r e sea rch t h rough p r ed ic t ive mode l l ing ( f o r No r thwe s t C oa s t e xamp le s , s e e Ma schne r a nd S t e in 1 995 ; B ea t t ie 1 995 ;E ld r idge a nd Mack ie 1 993 ) .

5 1

T he o b jec t ive f unc t ion s umma r i se s t h e g oa l o ft h e f o rmu la u sed b y t h e l o ca t ion -a l loca t ion mode l . I ti n co rpo ra te s t h e o b jec t ive ( s uch a s t o m in im i se d i s tance o r t o m ax im i se c ove rage ) a nd a ny c on s t ra in t s . F o r e xamp le , t h e o b jec t ive f unc t ion o ft h ep -med ian mode l ,u sed t h roughou tt h i s s t udy , i st o m in im i se t h e t o ta l d i s tance b e tween a l o r ig in n ode s a nd as e to fc en t re s ( H i l l sman 1 984 ) . P u ta no the rw ay , i ti s t o d e te rm ine t h e l o ca t ion o f ad e s igna ted n umbe r , p , o f c en t r e s , s uch t h a t t h e t o ta l d i s tance b e tween o r ig in n ode s a nd t h e se c en t r e s i sm in im i sed ( ESR I 1 995 ) . A l l o r ig in n ode s mu s t b e a s s igned t o ac en t re . T h i s p roce s s c an b e v i sua l ised a s am e thod o fc a lcu la t ing a l l t h e p o ss ib le p a th s b e tween a l l t h e o r ig in n ode s , a nd t h en f i nd ing t h e u n ique c omb ina t ion o fc en t re st h a tt o ge the rm ax im ise t h eo b jec t ive f unc t ion . B y c on t ra s t , a no the r mode l , t h e m ax ima l c over ing mode l , d e te rm ine s t h e l o ca t ion o f ad e s igna ted n umbe r o f c en t r e s s uch t h a t t h e n umbe r o f o r ig in n ode s w i th in a c e r ta in d i s tance t h re sho ld o f t h e c en t r e s i s max im ised . N o ta l o r ig in n ode sn eed b ec ove r ed . O ne c an v i sua l ise t h i s mode l a st h e p roce s s o fp l a c ing ad e s igna ted n umbe ro fd i sk s o f ap r e -de te rm ined d i ame te r o ve r as e t o f n ode s , s h if t ing t h em a r ound u n t i l t h e m ax imum p o s s ib le n umbe r o f n ode s a r e c ove r ed .6 1 T h i s m ode l h a s s e en o cca s iona l u se i na r chaeo logy ( Be l l e ta l 1 985 , C hu r ch a nd B e l l 1 988 , B e l l a nd C hu r ch 1 987 a nd 1 988 ; S t epona i t is

.T he d i s tance c ove r ed b yt h ed i sk sw ou ld ,i n an e two rk a pp l ica t ion ,b e m ea su red a l ong t h en e two rk p a th s ,a nd t hu st h ed i sk sw ou ldn ' tb er ound i n t h en o rma ls en se o ft h ew o rd . 6 1

1 978 ) . O the r mode l s i n c lude v a r iou s p e rmu ta t ion s o f c on s t ra ined , n e s ted , d i s tance -powe red , d i s tance -decayed v e r s ion s o ft h e a bove , a nd a t tendance mode l s . A l l o ft h e se r equ i re ap r ior ic on s t ra in t s ( e .g . , n on l inea rd i s tance e f f ec t s o r a s cr ibed c a tchmen t r ad i i ) a s i n pu t s ; i n ap r eh i s tor ic a r chaeo log ica l a pp l ica t ion t h e se c on s t ra in t sw i l ln ece ssa r i ly i nvo lve a r gumen t . Wh i le t h ep -med ian mode l i sc e r ta in ly n o t a s sump t ion f r ee , i ti sb a sed o n much mo r e g ene ra l p r inc ip le s o fl e a s te f f o r ta nd e n t ropy m ax im i sa t ion , a nd n o t o n c a se spec if ic c on s t ra in t s i mpo sed b y t h e i n ve s t iga to r . Ma thema t ica l ly , a l o ft h e se mode ls u l t ima te ly d evo lve t o t h e p -med ian mode l ( H i l l sman 1 984 :307 ) . N eve r the le s s , t h ey h ave q u i te d i f f e ren t a s sump t ion s , r e qu i re d i f f e ren t i n pu t k now ledge s e t s a nd p roduce ma rked ly d i f f e ren t s o lu t ion s .

m anua l a nd i n t roduc ing a n i mmen se t e chn ica l v ocabu la ry s pec if ic t o A r c / Inf o . O ne t e chn ica l p o in t o f i n te re s t t o a nyone c on temp la t ing a pp ly ing t h i s a na ly s i s i s t h a t A r c / Inf o u se s h eu r i s t ic s t o f i nd t h e t o ta l s e t o f s ho r t e s t p a th s . C ompu ta t ion o fa c tua l s ho r te s t p a th s o n an e two rk ( t he " t rave l l ing s a le sman p rob lem" ) i s ac ompu ta t iona l ly i n ten s ive p rob lem , u sed t ot e s t , a nd e ven t oc a l ib ra te , s upe r c ompu te r s . H eu r i s t ic s g ive ac ompa rab le s o lu t ion t oo ve r 9 8% a ccu racy , b u t i n af r ac t ion o ft h e t ime ( ESR I 1 995 ; c f . H i l l sman 1 984 ) . H oweve r , t h e p rog r am t h a t i mp lemen t s t h e d ef au l t h eu r i s t ic ( no t t h e h eu r i s t ic c ode i t se l f ) i n A r c / Inf o 7 . 0 .3 . i sf a u l ty , a nd w i l l n o t a c cep t am ix o ff i xed a nd mob i le c and ida tu re . F o r c on s i s tency i ti st h e ref o re n ece s sa ry t o u se a n o p t iona l , a nd e qua l ly a ccu ra t e ( ESR I 1 995 ) , h eu r i s t ic , b u tt h i sm ean st h ep rocedu re c anno tb er un t h rough A r c / Inf o 's g r aph ic m enu i n te r f ace . T h is p rob lem m ay b ef i xed i nf u tu re A r c / Inf or e lea se s .

6 . 9 .3 T he p -med ian a nd o ther l o ca t ion -a l loca t ion mode l s T he p -med ian p rob lem i s s o lved i n A r c / Inf o b y t h e f o l low ing f o rmu la ( ESR I 1 995 ) : n

6 . 9 .4 P rev ious u se s o fl o ca t ion -a l loca t ion i na rchaeo logy A s n o ted , l o ca t ion -a l loca t ion w a s d eve loped w i th in t h e c on tex t o f m ode rn s pa t ia l d ec is ion -mak ing a nd t h e re i sa w ide l i t e ra tu r e c over ing g eog raph ica l e xamp le s ( ESR I 1 995 ) . A r chaeo log ica l e xamp le s a r e mu ch l e s s c ommon ( s ee S t epona i t i s 1 978 ; B e l l a nd C hu r ch 1 985 ; B e l l e ta l 1 988 ; G o ren f lo a nd B e l l 1 992 ; C hu r ch a nd B e l l 1 988 ) . T h i s i sp re sumab ly b ecau se m any p e rmu ta t ion s o fl o ca t ion a l loca t ion a na ly s i sr equ i re d a ta t h a ta r en o tr e ad i ly a va i lab le i n a r chaeo log ica l c a se s t ud ie s , w he the r b ecau se d e ta i led c u l tu ra l mo t ive s o r p rac t ice s c anno t b e r e l iab ly s umma r ised , o rb ecau se t h e r e may b e i n suff ic ien t r e levan t l o ca t iona l d a ta . A g ood e xamp le i s a n a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s o ft h e A z tec P er iod B a s in o f Mex ico ( Be l l e ta l 1 988 ) , wh ich m ixe s a r chaeo log ica l , e t hnoh i s tor ic , h i s to r ic a nd e xper imen ta l d a ta t ob u i ld amode l o fs ub s i s tence a nd i n f o rma t ion f l ow .

m

Min Z =

w i d y x y i= 1 j= 1

s ub jec tt ot h ef o l low ing c on s t ra in t s : 1 . I »

p

:r e s t r ic t s

t h en umbe ro fc en t re n ode st op .

. i =1

2 .

x y =1 ,V i

s e rved . 3 . » 2 Xij, V i, V i

e n su re s t h a t e ve ry o r ig in n ode ii s

:

n ode ic an a s s ign o n ly t oji ft h e r e i sa n

o pen c en t r en ode a tj . 4 . y ; =0 , 1 ,V j :c en t re n ode l o ca t ion d ec is ion v a r iab le .

6 . 9 .5 S ummary o ft he a pp l ica t ion T he s i te n e two rk d ef ine s t h e b a s ic i n t e r s i te t o po logy . A l l s he l l m idden z one s h ave t h e s ame p o t en t ia l t ob e c ho sen a s ac en t ra lp l a ce , a nd a ny n umbe ro fn ode sc an b ea s s igned t o a ny c en t ra l p l ace . T he a pp l ica t ion i sn o t c oncer n ed w i th d if e ren t ia l " demand" a c ro s s t h e n e two rk , n o r w i th t h e c apac i ty o f c en t ra l p l ace s t o m ee t t h a t d emand . B o th o f t h e se f a c to r s a r e a s sumed t o b e c on s tan t . R a the r , t h e a pp l ica t ion , f i nd s s ub se t s o f t h e m idden z one s t h a t a r e " cen t r a l ly l o ca ted ." T he d ef in i t ion o f c en t ra l i ty i s a q uan t if iab le m ea su r e o f t h e t o ta l n e two rk d i s tance m in im i s ing p rope r t ie s o f t h e l o ca t ion , am ea su re t h a t , f u r the rmo r e , i n c lude s o p t im isa t ion r e la t ive t oo the r c en t ra l p l ace s .

5 . x y =0 , 1 ,d i ,V f :a l loca t ion d ec i s ion v a r iab le w he re : i= l o ca t ion o fo r ig in n ode j= l o ca t ion o fc and ida te c en t r e n= n umbe ro fo r ig in n ode s m =n umbe ro fc and ida te c en t re s p =n umbe ro fc en t ra ln ode st ol o ca te wi=w e igh ta to r ig in n ode i =s ho r te s td i s tance b e tween o r ig in ia nd c and ida te j yi = 1 ,i ff a c i l i ty i sl o ca ted a ts i t e] = 0o t he rw i se =1 ,i fd emand l o ca t ion ii ss e rved b y af a c i l i ty a ts i te ] =0o the rw i se

A st h e r e i sn op r io rr e a son t oa s sume t h a ta ny g i ven n umbe r o f c en t ra l p l ace s w i th in t h e s t udy a r ea i s t h e " r igh t n umbe r ," t h e a pp l ica t ion w a s t un i t e ra t ive ly f o r d i f f e r en t n umbe r s o fc en t ra l p l ace s . I nt h i s a pp l ica t ion , a n i t e ra t ion i s as o lu t ion s e t f o r ag i ven n umbe ro fc en t re s . I fa l o r ig in n ode s a r e m ob i le c and ida te s , t h en t h e s o lu t ion s e t i ss a id t o b e o p t ima l , a nd w i l l c on s t i tu te a d e sc r ip t ive g eome t ry o f

T he s o lu t ion s e ti sf ound f r om A rc / Inf o w i th t h e c ommand LOCATEALLOCATE . B ef o r e t h i s c ommand c an b e i s sued t h e r e a r e al a rge n umbe r o fs t ep s n ece s sa ry t o make o pe ra t iona l t h i s p rocedu re , s uch a s c on s t ruc t ing n e two rk t o po logy , c r ea t ing c en t r e s f i l e s , a nd a s s ign ing c and ida tu r e . T he se c anno t b e d e ta i led h e r e w i thou t r e cap i tu la t ing t h e

5 2

c en t ra l i ty . I fs ome o ft h e c and ida t e s a r e f i xed , t h en t h e s o lu t ion s e ti st e rmed s u b -op t ima l . M idden a r ea w i th in t h e m idden z one s ( o r ig in n ode s ) d oe s n o t e n t e r t h e c a lcu la t ion o f c en t r a l i ty . C umu la t ed m idd en a r ea , a s am ea su re o fi n t en s i ty o fs i t e u s e ( Ma s chne r a nd S t e in 1 995 ) c an t h e r ef o r e b e h e ld a s ad ependen t v a r iab le , a ga in s tw h ich t h es o lu t ion s e t sc an b ec ompa r ed t os e ei f t h e r ei s ar e la t ion sh ip b e tween al o ca t ion -a l loca t ion s o lu t ion s e to fi n t e rdependen tc en t r e s a nd t h e i n t en s i ty o ft h eu se o f t h e s ec en t ra lp l a ce s . 6 . 10 C onc lu s ion s : s i te n e twork s ,l o ca t ion -a l loca t ion m ode l s ,a nd t h ea rchaeo logy o fa rch ipe lago s T he s pa t ia lr e la t ion sh ip sb e tween s i t e sw i th in t h es t udy a r ea c an b e r e p r e sen ted a s a n e two rk , w h ich p r ov ide s a q uan t if i ed , s c hema t ic r e p r e sen ta t ion o f t h e s t ru c tu r e o f s om e a s pec t s o f p r eh i s to r ic g ene r a l -a c t iv i ty . L oca t ion a loca t ion i s ap o ten t ia l ly u sef u l p rocedu r e f o r p a r t i t ion ing t h e r e g ion -w ide g ene r a l a c t iv i ty i n to a ny n umbe r o f s u b r e g ion s , b a sed o n t r ave l d i s tance . T he se p a r t i t ion s c on s i s t o f as ub se to ft h e m idden z one s . O n e m idd en z on e i ne a ch p a r t i t ion i s i d en t if ied a s ac en t ra l p l a ce , b a sed o n i t s d i s tance -m in im i sa t ion c en t r a l i ty . I nt h e f o l low ing c hap t e r , m o r e d e ta i l o n t h e se s o lu t ion s e t s o fc en t r a l p l a ce s w i l l b e i n t roduced , a nd f u r th e rc ha r a c te r i s t ic s o ft h e m idden z one s w i l lb ed i scu s sed .

5 3

t oe x ter n a l c r i te r ia . T he p rocedu re f o l lowed i nt h e c u r ren t s t udy i sf u r the rd i scu s sed i nt h e f o l low ing p a rag raph s .

CHAPTER 7—RESULTS AND D ISCUSS ION 7 . 1 I n troduc t ion

I n e ach i t e r a t ion t h e r e w a s n o c on s t ra in t o n wh ich o r ig in n ode s ( m idden z one s ) c ou ld b e c on s ide r ed a s p o ten t ia l c en t r e n ode s . T ha t i s , a l d emand l o ca t ion s w e r e a l so c and ida te l o ca t ion s , a nd w e re d e s igna ted a s mob i le c and ida t e s i na l lr un s . E ach s e to fs e lec ted c en t re s w a st h en c ompa red t o t h e d a ta o n c umu la t ive s i t e a r ea w i th in t h e m idden z one s . T he r e su l t s a r e s hown i nA ppend ix B a nd g r aph ica l ly a sF igu re 7 . 1 ( p . 5 5 ) . I nt h e l a t te r , t h e X -ax i s r e co rd s t h e n umbe r o f c en t re s a sked f o r i n t h e i t e ra t ion . T he Y -ax i s s how st h e a ve raged s i te a r ea s o ft h e s e lec ted s e t o fc ho sen c en t re n ode s . T hu s , t h e f i r s t s ymbo l o n t h e l ef t s how s t h a t i n as i ng le c en t r e n ode s o lu t ion ( I te ra t ion # 1) , a m idden z one w i th a n a r ea o f 4 6 ,376 s qua re m e t r e s i s c ho sen . I nt h e f o l low ing i t e ra t ion , t wo m idden z one s w i th a n a ve rage s i ze o f6 , 816 s qua re m e t r e s a r e c ho sen , a nd s o o n . E ach s o lu t ion s e t i s o p t ima l i n r e spec t o f s imp le d i s tance -m in im i sa t ion , a nd t h e re i sn o n ece s sa ry c a r ry -ove r o f s e lec ted s i t e s b e tween i t e ra t ion s , a l though s uch c a r ry o ve r i sf r ee t oo ccu r , a nd d oe s o ccu r . F igu re s 7 . 9 t h rough 7 . 15 ( pp . 6 9 -72 ) s how t h e s o lu t ion s e t s f o r o ne , t h ree , a nd f i ve t h rough n ine c en t r e s , r e spec t ive ly . F igu r e 7 . 16 ( p . 7 1) s how s a l l m idden z one s s e lec ted a t l e a s t o nce i n t h e 2 5 i t e ra t ion s .

L oca t iona l a nd a t t r ibu te d a ta o n 1 , 069 a r chaeo log ica l s i te s — i n c lud ing 5 76 s he l l m idden s — f r om t h e s t udy a r ea d e scr ibed i n C hap te r 6w e r e e n te red i n aG eog raph ic I n f o rma t ion S y s tem . D ue t ot h ec on s t ra ined a nd d i rec t iona l t o pog raphy o f t h e s t udy a r ea a j u s t if iab le s e t o f mob i l i ty / t ran spor ta t ion l i nk s b e tween t h e s i te s c ou ld b e e s tab l ished , t h e r eby f o rm ing a s i te n e two rk . T he t opo log ica l r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t h e s he l l m idden s w e re a na ly sed u s ing t h e p -med ian l o ca t ion -a l loca t ion ( s pa t ia l i n te rac t ion ) mode l . I tw a s f ound t h a t s ome s o lu t ion s e t s o f s i te s ( i den t if ied a s c en t ra l s i te s i n t e rm s o f d i s tance m in im i sa t ion ) w e r e s i gn if i can t ly l a rge r t h an e xpec ted . F ea tu re s o ft h i s mode l a nd t h e r e su l t ing s e t s a r e d i scu s sed i n d ep th , a nd c onc lu s ion s a r e d rawn c once rn ing s c a le o f a na ly s i s . F u r the r d i scu s s ion f o l low s i n wh ich t h e r e su l t i s e xp la ined a s a n e xamp le o f t h e u t i l i ty o f i n co rpo ra t ing s oc ia l t h eor i e s o ft h e h ab i tu s a nd t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t i n o rde rt oa vo id t h et o ta l i s ing f a l lac ie so ft h er u le . T h i sr e su l t i s t h en p l a ced i n to a w ide r a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t i n C hap te r8 . 7 . 2 I mp lemen ta t ion a nd r e su l t so ft he c a se s t udy

Wh i le F igu r e 7 . 1 i sv i sua l ly p e r sua s ive , t h e r e su l t n eed s t o b e a s se s sed i nt e rm s o f s t a t i s t ica l s i gn if i cance . T ab le 7 . 1 ( p . 5 8 ) a nd F igu r e 7 . 2 ( p . 5) s how t h er e su l t s o ft h et e s to f s i gn if icance o n t h e s e t o f i t e ra t ion s . S tuden t 's t t e s t w a s u sed , b u t , b ecau se t h e s amp le i s n o t d rawn f r om a p opu la t ion w i th a n o rma l d i s t r ibu t ion , t h e v a lue s f o r t h e m idden a r ea w e re c onve r ted t o t h e i r n a tu ra l l o ga r i thm s . T h i s a pp rox ima te ly n o rma l i se s t h e l o g -no rma l d i s t r ibu t ion o f m idden z one a r ea s ( Append ix A , F igu re s A lA3 ) a nd a low st h eu se o f ap a rame t r ic d i f f e r ence -of -mean st e s ts u ch a s S tuden t 's t ( Mue l le r e t a l . 1 977 :399 , 4 34 ; S hennan 1 988 :108 113 ) . T he l owe s t g r id l ine o n F igu re 7 . 2 i st h e 0 . 05 t h r e sho ld o f s t a t i s t ica l s i gn if i cance , a nd s o s o lu t ion s e t s wh ich f a l l b e low t h i s l i ne a r e s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t i n t e rm s o f t h e a ve rage s i ze o f t h e s e lec ted c en t ra l m idden z one s . T he s ymbo ls t r ack i n c rea s ing i t e r a t ion s f r om l ef tt o r i gh t , t h u s t h e l e f tmo s t s ymbo l r e p re sen t s I t e ra t ion # 1 ( t he s o lu t ion f o r as i ng le c en t r e ) , a nd s o f o r th . I tc an b e s e en t h a t t h e s e lec t ion o f M idden Z one 7 4 a s t h e s i ng le s e t i s s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t , d e sp i te i tc on s i s t ing o fo n ly as i ng le c a se . T he i mp l ica t ion s o ft h i s a r e d i scu s sed b e low . Mo r e i n te re s t ing i st h e s equence o f s i gn if i can t r e su l t s f r om t h e s o lu t ion s e t o ff i ve c en t re s t h rough t h e s o lu t ion s e t o fn ine c en t r e s . A f te r t h e s o lu t ion s e t f o r n ine c en t r e s a nd t h e reonwa rd s , t h ep -med ian mode l d oe sn o tp roduce s e t s o f m idden s w h ich a r e s i gn if ican t ly l a rge r t h an m igh t b e

T he c a se s t udy e mp loy s t h e f o l low ing m e thodo logy . Twen ty -f ive i t e ra t ion s o ft h e p -med ian l o ca t ion -a l loca t ion mode l w e r er un o nt h e s i te n e two rk t of i nd o p t ima l s o lu t ion s e t s f o r o ne c en t r e n ode t h rough 2 5 s uch n ode s . O u tpu t s w e re c onve r ted f r om n a t ive A rc / Inf o I R IX f o rma t t o s p read shee t ( M ic ro sof tE xce l ) f i l e s f o r a na ly s i s . A l l o r ig in n ode s w e r e e qua l i n t h e i r p o ten t ia l f o r i n te rac t ion . T he a r ea s o fm idden z one s w e re n o t a n i n pu t i nt h e mode l a nd t hu s h ad n o i n f luence o n t h e c ho ice o f c en t re n ode s . S im i la r ly , a l c and ida te n ode s w e re c on s ide red t oh ave a n u n l im i ted a b i l i ty t o a ccommoda te i n te rac t ion t o t h em , r ega rd le s s o ft h e i r a r ea o ra ny o t he r a t t r ibu te o ft h e k nown a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a tt h a t n ode . T he mode l r e semb le s s imp le n on -h ie ra rch ica l p a r t i t ive s pa t ia l c l u s te r ing p rocedu r e si nt h a tt h e s o lu t ion s e to fc en t ra l n ode si sc hosen w h ich b e s t m in im i se s t o ta l d i s tance " t rave l led" a c ro s s t h e n e two rk , u naf f ec t ed b y t h e c ha rac ter i s t ic s o f o r ig in o r c en t ra l n ode s , n o r b y a ny d i s tance e xponen t o t he r t h an 1 ( ESR I 1 995 ) . I ti s t hu s s im i la r t o k -mean s c l u s te r ing , e xcep tc l u s te r s f o rm i n an e two rk t o po logy r a the rt h an i na mu l t id imen s iona l a t t r ibu te s pace , a nd i t i s t h e c l u s te r c en t ro id s ( c en t ra l p l ace s ) w h ich a r e o f mo s t i mmed ia te i n te re s t , r a the r t h an c l u s t e r m embe r sh ip . A s i n k -mean s , t h e i nve s t iga to r a sk s f o r ac e r ta in n umbe r o fc l u s te r s , a nd t h e p rocedu r e c r ea te s t h em w he the r o r n o t t h ey t r u ly e x i s t ( Shennan 1 988 ) . C au t ion i n t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f a ny p a r t icu la r s o lu t ion s e t i st h e r ef o re e s sen t ia l . P a t ter n ing o r t r end s e xpo sed b y mu l t ip le i t e ra t ion s o f t h e mode l u nde r d i f f e r en tp a rame te r s a r e a s se s sed ( c f . S hennan 1 988 ; O r ton 1 980 ; H i l l sman 1 984 ; B e l l a nd C hu rch 1 985 ; C hu r ch a nd B e l l 1 988 ) , o rt h e r e su l tan tc l u s te r s a r e v a l ida ted a cco rd ing

5 4

F ig . 7 . 1 R esu l t so f2 5 i t e ra t ions o ft h el o ca t ion -a l loca t ion mode l . E ach s ymbo lr ep resen t st h ea ve raged a r ea o ft h em idden z ones s e lec ted w i th in e ach s o lu t ion s e t . Average Midden Z one A rea o fS o lu t ion S e ts

Ave rage M idden Z one A rea ( sq .m )

5 0 ,000 A

4 5 ,000 4 0 ,000 3 5 ,000

A

3 0 ,000

A A

2 5 ,000

A A

2 0 ,000

A A A

1 5 ,000 1 0 ,000

A

A A

A A

A

A

5 , 000

A ä_ A A A °

AA

0

A i

0

5

1 0

1 5

2 0

2 5

S o lu t ion S e t ( I tera t ion # )

F ig . 7 . 2

P lo t ted t e s t so fs i gn if icance o fs i ze o fS o lu t ion S e tm idden z ones . C a lcu la ted u s ing S tuden t 's t -

t e s t ,v a lue s g iven i nT ab le 7 . 1 . A l l s e t s whe re p< 0 . 05 ( l owe s tg r id l i ne )a r es t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t .

P lo t ted T e s t so fS ign if icance 1 . 00 0 . 95 0 . 90 0 . 85 0 . 80 0 . 75 0 . 70 0 . 65 0 . 60 0 . 55 . 50 c z 4 0 0 . 45 0 . 40 0 . 35 0 . 30 0 . 25 0 . 20 0 . 15 0 . 10 0 . 05 0 . 00

A

l e

A

ä

A r e

7 1

A

e r

A

A A

A 0

5

1 0

1 5 S o lu t ion S e t

5 5

2 0

2 5

s how s t h e r e su l t s o f a2 5 s tep i t e ra t ion i n wh ich M idden Z one sw e re c ho sen a tr andom . Wh i le t h i si so n ly as i ng le s e t o f r andom i t e ra t ion s , i td oe s i lu s t ra te h ow f a r t h e a c tua lr e su l td ev ia te s f r om ac hance o ccu r rence .

e xpec ted b y c hance a l one , a l though i td oe s c on t inue t o s e lec t s ome l a rge m idden s . I ti s my c on ten t ion t h a tt h e se f i ve s e t s b racke t a s c a la r p roper ty o f t h e c u l tu ra l e nv ironmen t , t h e n a tu re o f wh ich w i l l b e d i scu ssed f u r the rb e low . B yc ompa r i son , F igu r e7 . 3 ( b e low )

F ig . 7 . 3 R e su l t so f2 5 i t e ra ted s o lu t ion s e t sc ho sen a tr andom . E ach s ymbo lr e p re sen t st h e a ve raged a r ea so ft h em idden z one s s e lec ted w i th in e ach s o lu t ion s e t . N o te t h el a ck o fp a t te rn ing c ompa red t oF ig . 7 . 1 .

Rando mly Generated S olut ion S ets 5 0 ,000 4 5,000

S ize o fM idden Z one ( s q .m )

4 0 ,000 3 5,000 3 0 ,000 2 5,000 2 0 ,000

-

1 5,000

A

a

A .

1 0 ,000

A

a

A

5 ,000 0 0

5

1 0

1 5

2 0

2 5

S olut ion S et

H av ing e s tab l i shed t h a t t h e se s o lu t ion s e t s h ave i ndependen t ly v er if iab le s i gn if icance i nt e rm so ft h e s i ze o f t h e g ene ra l a c t iv i ty z one s , t h e s e t s c an t h en b e c ompa red b ack t o t h e o b jec t ive f unc t ion o ft h e mode l , i . e . , d i s tance m in im i sa t ion a c ros s t h e n e two rk a s a w ho le . T he p robab i l i ty s co r e so ft h e s o lu t ion s e t sa r ep l o t ted a ga in s tt h e o b jec t ive f unc t ion ( ave rage d i s tan ce t r ave l led f r om t h e c and ida te z one s t ot h e c en t ra l n ode s ) i nF igu r e 7 . 4 ( p . 5 7 ) , t h e v a lue s o f wh ich a r e l i s ted i nT ab le 7 . 1 . S e t t ing a s ide t h e a noma lou s s o lu t ion s e tf o r as i ng le c en t r e , i ti sp os s ib le t ob racke t of ab e tween -cen t re d i s tance r a nge w i th in w h ich c en t ra l i ty o fl o ca t ion i sc o r r e la ted w i th i n ten s i ty o fu se . F o r s o lu t ion s e t s 5t h rough 9 ,t h i s r ange i sf r om a pp rox ima te ly 1 2 t o a pp rox ima te ly 1 9 k i lome t re s . I n o t he r w o rd s , a t a ve rage t r ave l d i s tance s a c ro s s w a t e r o f u nde r 1 2 k i lome t r e sf a c to r so the rt h an r e la t ive c en t ra l i ty a r ep robab ly mo r e i mpo r tan t d e te rm inan t s o f s i t e l o ca t ion a nd /o r s i t e s i ze . W i th in t h e s cope o ft h e p re sen t s t udy i ti si mpo s s ib le t od e te rm ine e xac t ly wha t t h e se o the r f a c to r s m igh tb e , b u t l i ke ly c and ida te sa r el i s ted i nt h e g ene ra ld i scu s s ion ,b e low . A t d i s tance s o f o ve r a bou t 1 9 k i lome t r e s t h e o b se rved p a t ter n ing i s mo r e d i ff icu l t t o i n te rp r e t . T he l a ck o f

s i gn if icance m ay b e ar e su l t o f t h e s ma l le r n umbe r o f c en t r e s ( < 5 ) p re sen t i n t h e se e a r ly i t e ra t ion s , m ean ing m idden z one s o f e ven l a rge r a r ea s w ou ld n eed t o b e s e lec ted t o e s tab l i sh s t a t i s t ica l s i gn if icance -i . e . , a n e ven h ighe r s i ze t h r e sho ld w ou ld n eed t o b e c r os sed f o r t h e p a t ter n t o o b ta in s t a t i s t ica l s i gn if icance , a s c onven t iona l ly d ef ined a t p < 0 . 05 . E qua l ly , t h e l a ck o f s t a t i s t ica l s i gn if icance m ay b e ag enu ine t h re sho ld e f f ec t i n t h e c u l tu ra l ly p e r ce ived e nv i ronmen t . T he a ve rage d i s tance " t rave l led" i n as e t o f t h ree c en t re s ( t he s o lu t ion s e t a t wh ich t h e s t a r t o f t h e f i ve t h rough n ine c en t re s t r end i s j udgemen ta l ly o b se rved ) i s2 7 .9 km ( Tab le 7 . 1) . I n a ny c a se , g iven t h a t t h e u ppe r t h re sho ld i s d ef ined b y c a tego r i s ing t h e s t eep e nd o f t h e o b jec t ive f unc t ion 's l o ga r i thm ic d i s t r ibu t ion ( F igu re 7 . 5 , p . 57 ) i ti sp robab ly b e s t n o t t o s t r ive f o r o ve r -p rec i s ion a t t h i s e nd o f t h e b racke t . F igu r e 7 . 6 ( p .58 ) s how s t h a t t h e r e i s n o r e la t ion sh ip b e tween n on in terdependen t c en t ra l i ty ( a s m ea su red b y n e two rk " acce s s ib i l i ty" a s d ef ined b y E SR I ( 1995 ) , a nd s i te s i ze .

5 6

F ig . 7 . 4 A ve rage d i s tance " t rave l led" w i th in e ach s o lu t ion s e t . L ef tmo s ts ymbo l i sI t e ra t ion # 1 , i n c r ea s ing r i gh twa rd s . T he g roup ing o fs ymbo ls i nt h eu ppe rr i gh ti st h es e to fs i gn if ican ts o lu t ion s e t s . D i s tance " t rave l led" r e f e r st ot h ea ve rage d i s tance f r om n ode t oc en t re w i th in e a ch s o lu t ion s e t

Ave rage A rea o fM idden Z one (s )

M idden Z one A rea v s . O b jec t ive F unc t ion 5 0 ,000 A

4 5 ,000 4 0 ,000 : 3 5 ,000 : 3 0 ,000 :

A

2 5 ,000 A

2 0 ,000 : 1 5 ,000

A ä °

A

II

1 0 ,000 : A

5 , 000 : 0 c h

o o

r -

k n

i z r

A ve rage km D i s tance " T rave l led "

F ig . 7 . 5 P l o ti lu s t ra t ing o p t im iza t ion o ft h ep -med ian mode l 's o b jec t ive f unc t ion ( m in im iza t ion o ft o ta l d i s tance t r ave l led ) t h rough 2 5i t e ra t ion s .

O b jec t ive F unc t ion T h rough 2 5 I t e ra t ion s

D is tance " T rave l led " ( km s )

9 0 .00 8 0 .00 7 0 .00 6 0 .00 5 0 .00 4 0 .00 3 0 .00 2 0 .00 1 0 .00 0 . 00

I

I I I II— I

I I I I I I— I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5

S o lu t ion S e t

5 7

F ig . 7 . 6 S ca t te rp lo to fi ndependen tn e two rk a cce s s ib i l i ty o fm idden z one sv e r su st h e i rs i ze . I n c r ea s ing v a lue so ft h ex ax i s i nd ica te sg r ea te ra cce s s ib i l i ty o ft h em idden z one o nt h en e two rk .

Ne twork Access ib i l i ty o f Midden Z ones 1 , 000 ,000

1 00 ,000 1 0 ,000

C AI

k ä

A A

A

AA

0 . 002

A

A

A

A -

4

AA A

I

0 . 003

O t rA

A

1 0 1

A

A

rit iA w i l b t h

A4 14: e ää

1 , 000 - -6 A -1 00

A

A

A I

0 . 005

0 .006

,

d o t

A

A

I

0 . 004

A

0 . 007

A I

0 .008

I

0 .009

1

0 . 010

Access ib i l i ty

T ab le 7 . 1

R e su l t so ft e s t so fs i gn if icance b ys o lu t ion s e ta nd t a b le o fd i s tance s" t rave l led ."

,

So irt i on

M Z Ar ea

Av e rage Di s tance

S e t

( s q . m e-t r es )

" Tr avel led" ( km s )

P

1

4 6 ,376

7 8 .32

0 .03

2

6 ,816

4 1 .12

0 .84

3

2 2 ,014

2 7 .92

0 . 18

4

2 1 ,637

2 2 .04

0 . 14

5

3 0 ,174

1 8 .46

0 .01

6

2 6 ,445

1 5 .23

0 .01

7

2 6 ,709

1 3 .84

0 .01

8

2 3 ,484

1 2 .52

0 .02

9

2 7 ,743

1 .92

0 .00

1 0

1 8 ,300

1 .43

0 . 10

1

1 6 ,766

1 0 .56

0 . 16

1 2

1 5 ,408

1 0 .03

0 .22

1 3

1 4 ,872

9 .65

0 .25

1 4

1 3 ,810

9 .05

0 .25

1 5

1 3 ,097

8 .86

0 .31

1 6

1 ,855

8 .45

0 .45

1 7

5 ,712

7 .95

0 .53

,

1 8

5 ,420

7 .62

0 .46

1 9

5 ,604

7 .50

0 .47

2 0

5 , 504

7 . 18

0 .43

2 1

6 ,508

6 .95

0 .60

2 2

6 ,711

6 .65

0 .62

2 3

8 ,252

6 .51

0 .96

2 4

8 , 563

6 .27

0 .97

2 5

5 ,759

6 . 10

0 .95

KEY:

MZ = M idd en Z on e

p= t wo t a i led p robab i l i t y f r om t -T e s t ( bo ld ed a r e s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t )

5 8

f o r ced t op i ck s o lu t ion s e t s w i th s ma l le r a nd s ma l le r s i te s . T hu s , i ti sw o r th n o t ing t h a t 1 98 o ft h e 2 38 m idden z one s a r en eve rp i cked i na ny s o lu t ion s e t , i n c lud ing t h o se r anked •s t, PI a nd 5t h b y s i ze . Wh i le t h i s d i spe l s t h e n o t ion a l l l a rge z one s a r e p i cked , i ta l so i n d ica te s f a c to r s o the r t h an i n te rdependen tc en t ra l i ty a f f ec ti n ten s i ty o fu se .

7 . 3 D i scu s s ion o fr e su l t s T he f o l low ing d i scu s s ion h a st h ree p a r t s : •

D i scu s s ion o f S o lu t ion S e t s 1t h rough 4 , i . e . , t h o se b e low t h ez one o fs t a t is t ica l s i gn if i cance ,

•

D i scu s s ion o f S o lu t ion S e t s 1 0 a nd a bove , i . e . , t h o se a bove t h ez one o fs t a t is t ica ls i gn if icance , D i scu s s ion o f S o lu t ion S e t s 5t h rough 9 , i . e . , t h o se w h ich a r e s i gn if ican t ly c o r re la t ed w i th M idden Z one a r ea s . T h i s d i scu s s ion f l ow s i n to a mo re g ene ra l d i scu s s ion o f t h e s i gn if icance o f t h e r e su l t t o t h e t h eo r ie so u t l ined o rd eve loped i np r ev iou s c hap te r s .

•

S econd , i ti sv e ry u n l ike ly t h a t u nde r ly ing d a ta p rob lem s p r even t t h e s e lec t ion o f al a rge r n umbe r o f s i gn if ican t s o lu t ion s e t s . I no rde rf o rt h i st ob et h ec au se o ft h e d ec l ine i ns t a t is t ica l s i gn if icance , i n comp le tene s s o ft h e d a ta w ou ld h ave t ob e s y s tema t ic . I no t he r w o rd s , o ne w ou ld h ave t o a rgue t h a t t h e r e w a s a n u nde r ly ing p a t t e rn p re sen t b eyond S o lu t ion S e t 9 ,b u t t h a t t h i s p a t ter n w a s o bscu r ed b ecau se o fs y s tema t ic d a ta s kew . T he m a in p o ten t ia l s ou r ce s o fd a ta s kew , a so u t l ined i nC hap te r6 ,i n c lude s imp le m ea su remen t e r ro r , t h e u se o f d i f f e r ing c r i te r ia b y d i f f e r en t a r chaeo log i s t s i nr e co rd ing t h e s i ze o fs i te s , a nd i n comp le te c ove rage o f t h e s t udy a r ea . Wh i le t h e se f a c to r s a r e a cknow ledged t oi n f luence t h e s t udy a r ea d a ta -se t , t h e r e i s n o r e a son t ob e l ieve t h e d a ta i ss y s tema t ica l ly s k ewed i na w ay t h a t w ou ld p roduce a f a l se r e su l t o f t h e s or t e ncoun te red . I ndeed , t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f t h i s r e a l a nd r ep l icab le r e su l t f r om al a rge a nd h e te rogeneou s ly d e r ived d a ta s e ti si ni t s e lf a n i n d ica t ion t h a tt h e se d a ta , f o ra l l t h e i r f au l t s , a r en o ts kewed .

7 . 3 .1 S o lu t ion s e t s 1t hrough 4 T he s t a t i s t ica l s i gn if i cance o f S o lu t ion S e t 1p robab ly r e f lec t s t h e n umbe r o fl a rge s i te s i nC layoquo t S ound ; t h e s e lec t ion o ft h i s l a rge ( 46 ,376 m2,9 6t h p e rcen t i le o fk nown M idden Z one a r ea s ) s i te i st o s ome d eg r ee ar e su l t o ft h e c han ce o ccu r rence o fC layoquo t S ound i nt h e m idd le o ft h e s t udy a r ea . I n o the r w o rd s , t h i s s i gn if ican t s e lec t ion i s p robab ly a n a r t if ac t o ft h e a r b i t ra ry s t udy a r ea b ounda r ie s . I ndeed , t h e s i te i n q ue s t ion , M idden Z one # 74 ( t he i mpo r tan tK e l semah tv i l lage o fC loo thp i tch ( D rucke r 1 951) o n Mea r e s I s land ) i sn eve r a ga in s e lec ted i n a ny s o lu t ion s e t . 62 S o lu t ion S e t 2i sa l so c ompo sed o ft wo z one s ( # 171 a nd # 42 ) w h ich a r en eve r a ga in s e lec t ed , b u t t h e se s i te s a r e o n ly o fa ve rage s i ze , s ugge s t ing t h ey b ea r l i t t le r e la t ion sh ip t oi n t e rdependen tn e two rk c en t ra l i ty a c ro s st h e a r ch ipe lago . W i th S o lu t ion S e t 3 ,a l t h ree c en t r a l n ode s a r e o fg r ea te r t h an 1 4 ,000 m2,a nd a r e i n t h e t op 1 8% o f a l l s i te s w i th k nown a r ea s . Wh i le n o t s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t , t h i s i s s ugg e s t ive t h a tt h e 1 9 km t h re sho ld ( i . e . , f r om S o lu t ion S e t 5d ownwa rd s ) s hou ld n o t b e t a ken o ve r ly l i t e ra l ly , a nd t h e t h re sho ld c ou ld , p e rhap s s hou ld b e s e t a t S o lu t ion S e t 3 . L ook ing a t F igu re 7 . 5 , i tc an b e s e en t h a t i fs t a t i s t ica l s i gn if icance w e re t o s t a r t w i th S o lu t ion S e t 3 , t h en t h e u ppe r s i ze l im i t o ft h e b racke t o fs i gn if icance w ou ld b e a r ad iu s o f a pp rox ima t e ly 3 0 k i lom e t re s t r ave l d i s tance , r a the rt h an o ne o f1 9k i lome t r e s .

T h i rd , i ti s p o s s ib le t h a t a bove t h e u ppe r t h re sho ld o f s i gn if icance m ic ro -env i ronmen ta l v a r iab le s b ecome r e la t ive ly mo re i mpo r tan t d e te rm inan t s o fi n ten s i ty o f s i te u se c ompa red t os i te n e two rk c en t ra l i ty . F o re xamp le , l o ca l e nv i ronmen ta l f a c to r s s uch a s p rox im i ty t o f r e sh w a te r , p r e sence o f s u i tab le b eache s f o r c anoe l a nd ing , a nd e xpo su r e t o p r eva i l ing w ind s a r e k nown t o b e i mpor tan t e t hnog raph ica l ly ( Drucke r 1 95 1 , A r ima 1 983 ) , a nd h ave b een s hown t ob e i mpo r tan t f o r a r chaeo log ica l p r ed ic t ive mode l l ing i nt h e s im i la r e nv i ronmen t o f S ou thea s t A la ska ( Ma schne ra nd S t e in 1 995 , Ma schne r 1 997 ) , a sr e v iewed i n C hap te r 6 . S im i la r ly , s i ngu la r s t ra teg ic r e sou r ce s m ay b e i mpo r tan t d e te rm inan t s o f s i t e l o ca t ion . Ma r sha l l ( 1993 :100 146 d e scr ibe s an umbe r o f r e la t ive ly l o ca l e nv i ronmen ta l a nd s oc ia l f a c to r s w i th i n f e r red i mpo r tance f o r s i te s i ze i nN oo tka S ound . F o r e xamp le , p rox im i ty t o d ef en s ive s i t e s , t o s a lmon s t r eam s , s he l te red w a te rway s , a nd t o o t he r l o ca l i sed " t e the r ing" r e sou rce s m ay i n c rea se i n ten s i ty o fl o ca l g ene ra lp u rpo se a c t iv i ty , a sm ay " j o s t l ing" f o r p os i t ion o n t h e o u te r c oa s t . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t a f t e r a c e r ta in s pa t ia l t h r e sho ld i sc r o s sed , i n te rdependen t n e two rk c en t ra l i ty ( a s d ef ined i nt h e p -med ian m ode l ) m ay m a t t e r l e s s f o r s i te l o ca t ion t h an mo r e l o ca l f a c to r s . T he p rob lem w i th t h i s e xp lana t ion i s t h a t i t i mp l ie s t h a t c on sc iou s d ec i s ion -mak ing b ehav iou r p roduced t h e p a t ter n o b se rved i nS o lu t ion S e t s 5t h rough 9 . A st h i sp a t ter nc on s i s t so fs e t s o f i n terd epend en t c en t re s , t h en i tf o l low s t h a t d ec i s ion make r s mu s t h ave h ad b o th a n a pp rehen s ion o f t h e s t udy a r ea a s aw ho le a nd h ad s uff i c ien t c on t ro l t o c o l lec t ive ly i n ten s if y b ehav iou r a tt h o se o p t ima l p l ace s . I ti sw o r th

7 . 3 .2 S o lu t ion s e t s 1 0t hrough 2 5 Af t e r S o lu t ion S e t 9 , t h e mode l h a s p a s sed t h rough t h e g roup o f s o lu t ion s e t s w h ich a r e s i gn if i can t ly c o r re la ted w i th m idden z one a r ea a s z one s a r e a dded t ot h e s o lu t ion s e t s w i th e ach i t e ra t ion t e nd t ob e n o l a rge r t h an e xpec ted . T he m ean ing o ft h e b r acke ted s i gn if i can t s o lu t ion s e t s w i l l b e d i scu s sed f u r the r b e low ; a tt h i s p o in t d i scu s s ion w i l l b e l im i ted t ow hy t h e re m igh t b e a" t h r e sho ld" b eyond w h ich i t e ra t ion so ft h e mode l l o se t h e i rs i gn if icance . F i r s t , i ti si mpor tan t t od i spe l a ny i mp r e s s ion t h a t a l l b ig s i te s a r e p i cked , a nd t h a t a f t e rt h e t h r e sho ld i sp a s sed t h e re a r e n o f u r the r l a rge s i t e s l ef tt op i ck , a nd t hu s t h e mode l i s

' 2. I tm ay w e l lb ei n te re s t ing t h a tC layoquo tS ound h a s al a rge n umbe ro f l a rge s i t es ,a l though i ti sb eyond t h e s c ope o ft h i ss t udy t os p ecu la te w ha t f a c to r s -C u l tu r eH i s tor ica l ,d a ta i n con s i s tency ,o rc u l tu ra l ly r e levan t c en t ra l i ty , i sr e spon s ib le f o rt h i sa ppa r en tp a t te r n .

5 9

n o t ing a ga in t h a tt h el o ca t ion -a l loca t ion mode l d i dn o th ave a ny e nv i ronmen ta l o r c u l tu ra l v a r iab le s a s a n i n pu t , o n ly r e la t ive s i te l o ca t ion o n a s chema t ized t r an spor ta t ion n e two rk .

T h i s p a t ter n i s r e a l , a nd r ega rd le s s o f u nce r ta in ty i n d e te rm ina t ion a nd d e scr ip t ion o f i t s u ppe r a nd l owe r t h r e sho ld s , t h e m ean ing o f t h e o b se rved p a t te rn mu s t b e d i scu s sed .

F ou r th , t h e a nnua l r ound m ay m a sk t h e e f ec t a t al o ca l s c a le . I ti sw e l lk nown ( e .g . , D rucke r 1 951 :36 -5 1 , M i tche l l a nd D ona ld 1 988 ) t h a t , e t hnog raph ica l ly a t l e a s t , i n d igenou s p eop le i nt h i s a r ea m ade a tl e a s t t wo s e a sona l move s .6 3 A t t h e b road s c a le t h i s m igh t n o t i n f luence t h e r e su l t b ecau se f ewe r s o lu t ion s e t s t h an e t hnog raph ica l ly d ocumen ted l o ca l i nd igenou s g roup s a r e b e ing s e lec ted . O nce t h i s t h re sho ld i sp a s sed , t h en e ach l o ca l g roup w i l l h ave t wo o r mo r e f o c i o fi n ten s i ty o fu se ( aw in te ro ne a nd as umme r o ne ) a nd t h e mode l w i l l b e p ro jec ted o n to a b ina ry s pace o fd i scon t inuou so ccupa t ion .6 4 I no t he rw o rd s , e mpha s i s o n s he l l m idden s a sg enera l a c t iv i ty o ccupa t ion s i te s m ay ma sk s ome o the rp a t te rn s t h a tw ou ld b e r ef lec ted i n mo r e s pec if ic s i te t y po logy . O n t h e o t he r h and , t h e e mpha s i s i nt h i s s t udy i so ng ene r a l a c t iv i ty a c ro s s ar eg ion a s awho le : i ti si mpo s s ib le t oe xp la in a l l a spec t s o fh uman a c t iv i ty ,a nd p robab ly u nde s i rab le t ot r y .

7 . 3 .3 S o lu t ion s e t s 5t hrough 9 S ome r e a son s f o r t h e b racke t o f s i gn if i can t r e la t ion sh ip b e tween M idden Z one s i ze a nd p -med ian n e two rk c en t ra l i ty a r ed i scu s sed b e low .

F if th , t h e re m igh t b e e i the r h i s to r ica l c onnec t ion t op l ace s w h ich o ve rt ime b ecame n on -op t ima lw i th in ac on t inuou s ly mod if i ed b u i l t e nv i ronmen t , o r s u ch p l a ce s m igh t b ecome c i rcum sc r ibed b y c u l tu ra l l a nd scape inf i l l ing . S ign if ican t c omponen t s o ft h e b u i l te nv i ronmen t a r e a dded a tl o ca t ion s w h ich w e re o nce o p t ima l , b u t a r e n o l o nge r . T h i s s c ena r io h a s a ppea l f o r e xp la in ing t h e l a ck o f s i gn if icance a t t h e n a r rowe r s c a le s a s i td oe sn ' t c a l l f o r as imp le u nde r ly ing e nv i ronmen ta l d e te rm in i sm o f s i t e l o ca t ion , b u t a ccoun t s f o rh i s to r ica lp roce s s .

S econd , t h e m o s t o bv iou s r e a son f o r t h e o b served p a t ter n w ou ld b e t h a t p eop le w e re d e l ibe ra t e ly , c on sc iou s ly o p t im i s ing t h e i r movemen t s a c ros s t h e s t udy a r ea a s a w ho le , a nd t h e r eby c r ea t ing l a rge s i te s a t c en t ra l p l ace s . Wh i le s upe rf i c ia l ly a t t rac t ive , t h i s e xp lana t ion i s i mp lau s ib le b ecau se i tw ou ld i mp ly t h a t t h e re h ad b een l o ng s tand ing , c en t ra l ised , p o l i t ica l c on t ro l o ve r t h e w ho le s t udy a r ea w h ich r e cogn ised t h e l o ca t ion -a l loca t ion t y pe o f i n te r -dependen t n e two rk c en t ra l i ty , a nd i n ten s if i ed a t c en t ra lp l ace s a cco rd ing ly . O r , a tl e a s t i tw ou ld i mp ly t h a t t h e a r ch ipe lag ian l a nd scape o f t h e s t udy a r ea w a s a pp rehended i n t o to a nd d i s tance m in im isa t ion s o lu t ion s w e re t h en c a lcu la ted a nd a c ted u pon . B o th o f t h e se s c ena r io s a r e i mp lau s ib le f o r l o g ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic r e a son s , a nd b ecau se t h e r e i s n o o the r a r chaeo log ica l e v idence t h a t p o in t s t o s uch a s oc ia l o r p e r cep tua l u n i ty . T he se s c ena r io s w ou ld a l so n ece ssa r i ly i mp ly t h a t t h e 1 2 k i lome t r e t h r e sho ld i st h e r e su l t o f " cen t ra l i ty n o l o nge r b e ing i mpo r tan t t o d ec i s ion -mak ing ," w h ich s h if t s t h e b u rden o f e xp lana t ion e l sewhe re w i thou t s o lv ing i t . T he o p t im is ing e xp lana t ion t a ke s t h e m ax im i sa t ion o f t h e o b jec t ive f unc t ion o ft h e mode l t oo l i t e ra l ly : b ehav iou ra l c onve rgence o n " d i s tance m in im i sa t ion" i s t oo e a s i ly t o ta l i sed . I ti sb e s t c on s id e red , i nt h e a bsence o f at o ta l s oc ia l p henomena t h a t c on t ro l s t h e o p t im isa t ion o f t h e o b jec t ive f u nc t ion , t o b e a s imp le m ea su r e o f i n te rdependen t c en t ra l i ty w i th in a h o l i s t ic n e two rk . I ti sa s i ng le -a t t r ibu te d e scr ip t ive c l u s ter ing s o lu t ion wh ich s hou ld n o tb eu sed t og ene ra te r u le -ba sed b ehav iou ra l e xp lana t ion s

F i r s t , a s a bove , o ne may s u spec t t h a t d a ta p rob lem s o r a noma l ie s a r e c au s ing t h e e f f ec t t ob e mo re a ppa r en t t h an r e a l . T h i s s e em s e xcep t iona l ly u n l ike ly a s a ny s kew ing w ou ld h ave t o b e v e ry s t rong ly p a t ter n ed i n o rde r t o p roduce t h e o b served p a t ter n o f s e lec t ed l a rge c en t ra l M idden Z one s . T he r e i sn o o bv iou s w ay i n wh ich t h ed a ta , a l though i n comp le te i n t h e w ay s p r ev iou s ly n o ted , c ou ld c on ta in s u ch a s kew ing p a t ter n , e spec ia l ly a s t h e r e su l t h o ld s f o r as t udy a r ea wh ich a s aw ho le w h ich h a s n eve r p r ev iou s ly b een s ub jec t t o as i ng le a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s is a nd w ho se s i t e su rvey d a ta i su n l ike ly t oc on ta in e i the r a s i ng le o r as y s t ema t ic s kew ing f a c to r .

F ina l ly , i t mu s t b e n o ted t h a t a l l o r s ome o f t h e f i ve e xp lana t ion s a bove m ay b e a c t ing i n c omb ina t ion t o p roduce t h e 1 2 k i lome t r e t h re sho ld o f s i gn if icance . A s Ma r sha l l ( 1993 :119 ) n o te s , s ome l a rge Noo tka S ound s i te s a r e i ne spec ia l ly f a vou rab le l o ca l c ond i t ion s w h i le " o the r s d ef in i te ly [ a re ] n o t , s ugge s t ing f a c to r s o t he r t h an p hy s ica l t e r ra in w e re d i r ec t ing t h e s e lec t ion o f [ l a rge ] s i te l o ca t ion s ." I n s umma ry , i ts e em s p robab le t h a t , f o r r e a son s w h ich c anno t b e who l ly e xp la ined a t p r e sen t , t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s i te s i ze a nd p -med ian c en t ra l i ty d oe s n o t h o ld a f t e r t h e a r ch ipe lago i sp a r t i t ioned i n to mo r e t h an n ine i n te rdependen t r eg ion s . Y e t , w i th in t h e b racke t s o f S o lu t ion S e t s 5t h rough 9 , t h e r e la t ion sh ip d oe s h o ld .6 5 .A l though McM i l lan ( 1996 :26 )n o te st h a ts ome g r oup sm ay h ave b een d epend en to nl o ca lr e sou rce sy ea r round . 6 4 . T he r ei sa l so t h ep o s s ib i l i ty /p robab i l i ty ( Hagga r ty a nd I n g l i s 1 983 )o f mo re t h an t wo a nnua lm ove s , a nd f o rr eg iona lv a r ia t ion si nt h en umbe ro f move s -b u tt h em o r em ob i le t h ep opu la t ion t h e l e s st h ee xpec t ed s k ew ing e f ec to fa nnua lr ound a c t iv i ty ,i nt h a tg ene ra la c t iv i ty b ecome s mo r e d i spe r sed a c ro s st h el a nd scape a nd l e s ss y s tema t ica l ly b i a sed a tt h es c a le o ft h e s i gn i f ican ts o lu t ion s e t s . 6 5 .A sw i th t h el owe rt h re sho ld ,i ti si mpo r tan tt on o te t h a t ,w i th r e f e r en ce t oT ab le 7 . 1 , i fs t a t i s t ica l s i gn if i can ce i st a ken a s p< 0 .1 ,t h en s o lu t ion s e t 6 3

1 0( p =0 . 099 )i sa l so i n c luded i nt h eb racke to fs i g n if icance . H oweve r , t h ea r gumen ta bou ts amp le s i ze d oe sn o th o ld a si ts hou ld b ee ven e a s ie rt o o b ta in as i gn if ican tr e su l ta ti t e ra t ion # 10 t h an a ti t e ra t ion # 3 .

6 0

T h i rd , i nt h e p r e sence o f ar e a l p a t te rn o fo p t ima l mob i l i ty p a t t er n ing , a nd i n t h e a b sence o f ap l au s ib le , r a t iona l , d ec i s ion m ak ing s cheme t oa ccoun t f o rt h a t p a t te rn ing , o ne i s l e d t o c on s ide r t h a t t h i s p a t ter n w a s g ene ra ted n on d e l ibera te ly . I n C hap te r 5B ou rd ieu 's c oncep t o f t h e h ab i tu s w a s i n t roduced . T h i s t h eo r e t ica l c on s t ruc t w a s e x tended t o i n c lude s pa t ia l a nd ma t e r ia l i mp l ica t ion s b y G osden ( 1994 ) w i th h i s p ropo sed " l and scape o fh ab i t ." A s G osden n o t e s ,

s ugge s t ion made i n C hap te r 5t h a t G ib son ian P sy cho logy a nd t h e " f low ing a r ray" p rov ide t h e p rox ima l p e r cep tua l m echan i sm f o rp rac t ica l c on sc iou sne s sn ow a ppea r st oh ave k nowab le a r chaeo log ica l i mp l ica t ion s . F u r the r , w e s e et h a t u se o fG ib son ian P sycho logy a nd t h e h ab i tu s i sa c tua l ly a f o rm o f m e thodo log ica l i n d iv idua l ism , a nd a ss uch a vo id s t h e p rob lem s o f t h e r e if ica t ion o f " Cu l tu r e" a nd /o r t h e a s cr ip t ion o f a gency t o i l -def ined s pec ia l in te re s t c o l lec t ive s s uch a s" c la s s" o r" age -g rade ." B y i n s i s t ing o n a n i nd iv idua l -cen t red mon i s t a pp roa ch , I ngo ld 's ( 1992 , 1 996 ) d i s t inc t ion b e tween e nv i ronmen t f or a nd e nv i ronmen t o fb ecome s much mo r e u sef u l , a nd i n deed , a pp l icab le .

h ab i tu s , t h en , i s ag ene ra l , c oncer ted b u t u ncon sc iou s h a rmon iza t ion o f s o c ia l l i f e , as e cond n a tu re . H ab i tu si s n o t s o much a s t a te o f m ind , b u t a s t a te o fb ody . T he h uman b ody i st h e n exu s o ft h e h ab i tu s , w h ich o rgan ize s m ovemen t s t h rough s pace a nd t ime t h rough f o rm s o f d epor tmen t a nd m ovemen t . A s B ou rd ieu ( 1 990b :69 ) p u t s i t , " A rm s a nd l e g s a r e f u l l o f n umb i mpe ra t ive s . ( . .. ) w ha t i s l e ar n ed i n t h e b ody i sn o t s ome th ing o ne h a s , b u t s ome th ing o ne i s " ... B od i ly movemen t i sa l so c hanne l led t h rough t h e m a te r ia l w o r ld , d u r ing w h ich t ime d i spo s i t ion s a r e e nf o r ced a nd r e inf o r ced . ( Go sden 1 994 :119 )

H av ing e s tab l ished t h a t t h e se r e su l t s a r e mo s t e a s i ly e xp la ined w i th in a f r amewo rk o f b od i ly a nd p e rcep tua l r ou t in iza t ion i n al a nd scape o fh ab i t , i ti si n te re s t ing t on o te t h a tt h is b od i ly r e spon se t om ac ro -env i ronmen ta l c on s t ra in t " l eave s c u l tu re o u t o ft h e e qua t ion ," j u s t a s I ngo ld ( 1992 , 1 993 ) a dv i se s when d i scu s s ing t h e t a sk scape ( Chap te r 5 ) a nd h i s e xho r ta t ion t o a r chaeo log i s t s t o s t udy t h e " t empo ra l i ty o ft h el a nd scape ." F u r the r , h av ing a bandoned " cu l tu r e ," a tl e a s t t empo ra r i ly , w e a r e l e f t w i th a s ub t le mode l o f d i spo s i t ion s t owa rd s p rac t ica l b ehav iou r p l ayed o u t w i th in s c a la r t h r e sho ld s o f t h e l a nd scape o f h ab i t . T h i s r a i se s t h e i s sue s o f i n ten t iona l i ty , d ec i s ion -mak ing a nd v o lun ta r ism . A s R ocha ( 1996 :21) i mp l ie s , s oc ia l s c ience h a s b een s ub jec t t o a t a u to logy o fr a t iona l i ty , i nw h ich mode l s o fb ehav iou r h ad i n t en t iona l i ty a s as i len t i n pu t , r a the r t h an a s aq ue s t ion o r a s at op ic o f i nve s t iga t ion : " t he e conom i s t o n ly a l low s m ax im i sa t ion t o b e r a t iona l , t h e reby i n se r t ing a t a u to logy i n to h i s a rgumen t : t h e i n d iv idua l i ss e ek ing t o s a t i sf y h i s s a t isf ac t ion ." R ocha p ropo se s af i ve -f o ld t y po logy o fs oc ia l a c t ion :

B y " ma te r ia lw o r ld ," i ti sc l ea rh em ean sb o th t h e b u i l t a nd t h e u nbu i l t e nv i ronmen t s . I ti so bv iou s t h a t t h e h ab i tu s i s n o t j u s t a n a b s t ra c t b ehav iou ra l d oma in o f s t ruc tu red d i spo s i t ion s , b u t i t mu s t h ave s pa t ia l i mp l ica t ion s a s w e l l . T he l a nd scape o fa c t ion i si n sepa rab le f r om t h e l a nd scape o f c on sc iou sne s s ( Tr igge r 1 995 ) , a nd v i ce v er sa . T he c l ea r e s t w ay t oa pp roach t h e se i mp l ica t ion s i st h rough t h e c oncep to ft h e s oc ia lf i e ld . T h i s c oncep tw a s i n t roduced i n e a r l ie r c hap t e r s , a nd t i ed t on e two rk a na ly s i s t h rough t h e w o rk o f Wob s t ( 1974 , 1 976 ) a nd e spec ia l ly L e s se r ( 196 1) . I ti st h e r ef o r e i n t r igu ing t os e e t h e c oncep to ff i e ld b ecome i mpo r tan t o nce a ga in a t t h e s oc ia l theo r e t ic e nd o f t h i s b r idge -bu i ld ing t h e s i s . G o sden , f o r e xamp le , d i scu s se s t h e s pa t ia l i mp l ica t ion s o f t h e u ncon sc iou s r ou t in iza t ion o f b ehav iou r . T he i mp l ica t ion s o f t h e s c a la r t h re sho ld s i d en t if ied a bove a r e c on s i s ten t w i th G o sden 's d ef in i t ion o f a" f ie ld ," w h ich a l so c omp lemen t s t h e n e two rk a pp roach t o t h e h ab i tu s : " a f i e ld i s ag eome t r ic s pace i nw h ich p o in t s a r e c onnec ted b y as e r ie s o f r e la t ion sh ip s , i n wh ich t h e w ho l e i s g r ea ter t h an t h e s um o f t h e p ar t s ( Go sden 1 994 :119 , e mpha s is a dded ) ." I fw e a c cep t t h i s h o l i s t ic d ef in i t ion o f s oc ia l r e la t ion s w i th in a f i e ld , i tb ecome s e a s ie r t ou nde r s tand h ow c en t ra l i ty -op t im i sa t ion c an b e a n e me rgen tp roper ty o f al a nd scape o fh ab i t .

•

•

•

I n a dd i t ion t ot h e l i nk b e tween s oc ia l f i e ld s a nd f i e ld s o f p ra c t ice , af u r the r l i nk t oe a r l ie r c hap t e r s o ft h i s t h e s i s c an b e a s se r ted . B ou rd ieu 's ( 1 977 ) c oncep t o fh ex i s u n i te s t h e i n d iv idua l b ody t o t h e l a nd scape v i a t h e h ab i tu s i n aw ay r e sonan t w i th G ib son ian P sycho logy . I ndeed , t h e

•

6 1

T e leo log ica l A c t ion : t h e a c to r p u r sue s a n e nd o r a ch ieve s ac e r ta in d e s i red s t a te o fa f f a i r s b y c hoo s ing t h e mo s t c ong ruen t m ean s a nd a pp ly ing t h em i n t h e mo s te ff ic ien tm anne rp o s s ib le . I ns oc ia l s c ience t h is i s ma in ly mode l led t h rough s imp le o p t im i s ing t h eo ry , a nd a ss uch u nde rp in s much p roce s sua la r chaeo logy . S t ra teg ic A c t ion : t h e a c to r t a ke s t h e a c t ion o f o the r a c to r s i n to a ccoun t . T h i s i s m a in ly mode l led i n a r chaeo logy t h rough g ame theo r e t ic mode l s ( e .g . , S hennan 1 993 ) a nd h uman e vo lu t iona ry e co logy . T he se mode l s w e r e s pec if ica l ly d e s igned t o c oun te rba lance t h e i n d iv idua l -ac to r o f c l a s s ica l a nd n eo -c la s s ica le conom ic s ( Rocha 1 996 :19 ) No rm regu la ted A c t ion : a c to r s w o rk t o ge the r t o a ch ieve e nd s g u ided b y as e t o f c ommon g oa l s . I n a r chaeo logy , t h is i s t h e f ounda t ion o f n o rma t ive c u l tu r e -h i s tor ica l e xp lana t ion s . D rama t ic A c t ion : a c to r s p a r t ic ipa te i n as e r ie s o f i n te rac t ion s i nw h ich e a ch i s ap ub l ic o r s pec ta to r f o r t h e o t he r s , a nd t h e g oa l i s a ch iev ing a d e s i r ed i mp re s s ion o n t h e o the r a c to r s . I n a r chaeo logy , t h i s

•

c an b e s e en i n p e rf o rma t ive a na ly se s o f p owe r a nd g ende r . C ommun ica t ive A c t ion : a c to r s c o l lec t ive ly c r ea te t e x t s o f m ean ing , m ed ia ted t h rough l a nguage , b u t c on s t ra ined b o th b y s ha red n o rm s a nd i mpe rf ec t i n d iv idua l p e r cep t ion o fp henomena . I n a r chaeo logy , t h i s i sp robab ly b e s t s e en t h rough t h e " l and scape -a s t e x t" m e tapho r .

b een o p t im i s ing t h e i r b ehav iou r b y e i the r s ca le spec if ic c r i te r ia o r t h rough h ab i t , i ti sa p t t or ev i s i t t h e c ommen t s made p rev iou s ly a bou t t h e " f a l lacy o ft h e r u le ." We c an n ow g l imp se a n u nde r ly ing t r u th a bou t Ma rx 's f amou s d i c tum t h a t " man make s h im se lf , b u t n o t i nc i r cum s tance s o fh i s o wn c hoo s ing ." I ndeed , as im i la r p o in t w a s made mo r e c l ea r ly b y S a r t re : " wha t i se s sen t ia l i sn o t t h a t h uman b e ing s a r e m ade , b u t t h a tt h ey make t h a t w h ich m ade t h em ( Sa r t re i nR own t ree 1 986 : ) ." T he i mpo r tance o ft h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen ta s as t ruc tu re ro fd i spo s i t ion i sp rec i se ly t h a ti t i sn o ta lway st h er e su l to f ap l an , a nd i st h e ref o r e o ne o ft h e u ncho sen c i r cum s tance s w i th in w h ich " man m ake s h im se lf ." A nd , s i nce t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t a s a" wo rk i n p rog r e s s" i s a r chaeo log ica l ly a cce s s ib le , i t c anno t b e i g no r ed , a sB a r re t t( 1994 )h a sd emon s t ra t ed i nh i sN eo l i th ic c a se s t udy . B y e l im ina t ing o r m in im i s ing t e leo log ica l a c t ion t h e f a l lacy o ft h e r u le i sa vo ided , b o th i ns pace , a nd o ve r t ime . F o r e xamp le , t h e a rg umen t s i n Ma t son a nd C oup land ( 1995 ) c once rn ing t h e " ach ievemen t o f c omp lex i ty" o n t h e N or thwe s t C oa s t c an n ow b e s e en a s a s se r t ion s o f l o ng te rm , t e leo log ica l o p t im is ing b ehav iou r t a rge ted t owa rd st h e e t hnog raph ic p r e sen t .

R ocha 's a na ly s i s o f t h e d ec i s ion -mak ing " b lack b ox" i s i n s t ruc t ive , y e t i n comp le te . A rchaeo logy , w i th i t s g ra sp o f i mmen se t ime a nd s pace , mu s t c onf ron t a no the r s o r t o f a c t ion : w ha t c ou ld b e t e rmed u n in ten t iona l h a rmon ic a c t ion . I ti st h i s s or t o f a c t ion w h ich I c on s ide r t o b e r e spon s ib le f o r t h e o b served p a t te rn o fM idden Z one s i ze s d e scr ibed a bove . T hu s ,t oR ocha 's l i s t Iw ou ld a dd : •

U n in ten t iona l H a rmon ic A c t ion : a c to r s h ave t h e i r d i spo s i t ion s s t ruc tu red b y t h e h ab i tu s , w i th n e i the r c omp le t e d e te rm ina t ion n o r c omp le te f r ee w i l l . T he ref o r e , t h e t a sk scape i s n o t w ho l ly o rde red b y e ff ic iency -d i rec ted r a t iona l i ty .

I n o t he r w o rd s , R ocha d oe s n o t i n c lude h ab i tua l a c t ion w i th in h i s d i scu s s ion o f b ehav iou r t h a t l e ad s t o max im i sa t ion -y e t t h e re i sn o r e a son w hy i ts hou ld b e e xc luded , a nd t h i s t h e s i s o f f e r s a n e xamp le o f h ow i t s i n c lu s ion c an b e r e levan t a t t h e s pa t io tempo ra l s c a le s w i th in wh ich a r chaeo log i s t sr ou t ine ly w o rk . We h ave s e en t h a t Ma schne r a nd S t e in ( 1995 ) c ou ld n o t e xp la in v a r ia t ion i n" i n ten s i ty o fu se" ( a s m ea su red b y s i te a r ea ) b y c o r r e la t ion w i th m ic ro -env i ronmen ta l v a r iab le s a t t h e s ub reg iona l s c a le . Wha ts o r t so fe xp lana t ion s a r e l ef tt o e xp la in e ff ic ienc ie s t h a ta r e n o tr a t iona l ly -d i rec ted? I ngo ld a pp roache st h i sp rob lem i nh i sc r i t ique o fO p t ima l F o rag ing T heo ry ( 1996 ) . Af t e rr e jec t ing t h ep recep t so f OFT , I ngo ld ( 1996 ) p ropo se s a " r ece ived s t ra teg ic f r amewo rk ," a c on s t ruc t e s sen t ia l ly i nd is t ingu ishab le f r om t h e h ab i tu s . T he re i s f r equen t c onf u s ion b e tween a n i n d iv idua l 's c apac i ty f o r r a t iona l c ho ice s o f d i f f e r en t k i nd s a nd t h e c oncep t ion o fr a t iona l c ho ice a s am odu s o perand i -r e a l i ty a nd t h eo p t im i s ing me tapho rm ay h ave t h e i ru se s , b u tw hen f u sed , t h e c on sequence i st oi mpo se t h e f a l lacy o ft h e r u le . A s I ngo ld n o te s ,o ne mu s ta sk w he the rt h ec ho ice so fa c t ion a r e r e a l c ho ice s? I ft h ey a r e , t h ey c anno tb e b ound b yp a s t s e lec t ive p r e s su r e ; i ft h ey a r e n o t r e a l , t h en t h e re i sn o a c tua l c ho ice , a nd s o a c to r s a r e p r i sone r s o fe ncu l tu r a t ion . I ngo ld ( 1996 :33 ) t h en e choe s B ou rd ieu b y p ropo s ing a " p red i spo s i t ion" t o a c t ion a s am idd le g round t o e xp la in o p t im i s ing i nn on te leo log ica l t e rm s . I ndeed , a s B ou rd ieu ( 1990 :12 ) n o te s , t h e g ene ra t ive p r ed ic to r o fs oc ia l p rac t ice i sb e t te rc once ived o fa sa n o pu s o pera tum t h an a s am odu s o perand i : t h e f o rme r i su nce r ta in , c on t ingen t a nd f u zzy , w h i le t h el a t te ri sa x ioma t ic ,r i g id a nd p o s th oc . S ince t h eb u i l te nv i ronmen tc an n ow b e s e en a st h ew o rk i n p rog r e s s o fa c to r s w ho may o r m ay n o t i n ten t iona l ly h ave

6 2

I ti sw o r th c on s ider ing b u i l te nv i ronmen t s f r om o t he rl i v ing d oma in s , a nd h ow t h ey a r i se f r om u n in t en t iona l h a rmon ic a c t ion . S t igme rgy r e f e r s t o " t he g u idance o f w o rk p e rf o rmed b y s oc ia l i n sec t s t h rough e v idence s o f w o rk p rev iou s ly a ccomp l ished (W i lson 1 975 :186 ) ." I n e f f ec t , s t igme rgy i se qu iva len t t o ak ind o f c ommun ica t ion t h a t W i lson ( 1975 :186 ) c ha rac ter ise s a s a n " i nc r ea se i ns i gna l d u ra t ion ." T ake t h e e xamp le o ft e rm i te s : when b u i ld ing a n e s t t e rm i te s r andom ly d rop s ma l l b a l l s o f s a l iva laden e a r th . At e rm i te e ncoun te r ing s uch ab a l l i s mo re l i ke ly t o d rop a no the r o ne c l o se b y . P i l ing b ehav iou r i s t hu s r e inf o r ced , u n t i l ac er ta in t h re sho ld o f h e igh t i sr e ached , w hen o t he r t e rm i te h ab i t s s t a r t t oj o in t h e se t oge the r i n to a n e s t . T hu s , a s t ocha s t ic p roce s s p lu s e nv i ronmen ta l i n sc r ip t ion a l low so rde rt oe me rge b ys t ruc tu r ing h ab i t s : t h e mo r e o rde r e me rge s f r om c hao s , t h e mo re t h a t o rde r i s r e inf o r ced . A s H of fmeye r ( 1997 ) p u t s i t , " no d i rec t i n te rac t ion i s n ece s sa ry b e tween t h e a n ima l s , s i nce c o o rd ina t ion i sa s su r ed s o le ly t h rough t h e a r tef a c t s r e su l t ing f r om t h e i rb ehav iou r ." I no the rw o rd s ,t e rm i te sp rac t ice c o o pe ra t ion w i thou t c ommun ica t ion , a pa r t f r om t h e c ommun ica t ion m ed ium o f t h e m a te r ia l r e s idue o f t h e i r a c t ion , a nd t h e i r p r ed i spo sed r e ac t ion t o t h a t m a ter ia l . I t w ou ld b e ag ro s s s imp l if ica t ion t o a s se r t t h a t t h i s i s e qu iva len t t o a" t e rm i t e l a nd scape o f h ab i t ," y e t b o th e n tomo log i s t s a nd a r chaeo log i s t s s ha re a t o ta l i s ing p e r spec t ive o n t h e ma ter ia l p roduc t s o fa c t ion i nt h ew o r ld . J u s t a s a n e n tomo log i s t mu s t l e a rn t os e e t h e o rde r o ft h e t e rm i te n e s t a s a n e me rgen t p rope r ty o f i n cu lca ted d i spo s i t ion s w i th in a b u i l t e nv i ronmen t r a the r t h an o f c o l lec t ive t e rm i te d e s ign in te l l igence , s o mu s t t h e a r chaeo log i s tl e a rn t os e et h a t ,a tc er ta in s ca le s , o rde ri nt h e a r chaeo log ica l l a nd scape c an r e su l t f r om t h e d u rab le p roduc t s o f i n cu lca ted p r ed ispo s i t ion s , a s d emon s t ra ted i n t h i s t h e s i s . T hu s , t oe l abo ra te u pon B ou rd ieu , t h e s t ruc tu red

d i spo s i t ion s o ft h e h ab i tu s l e ad t o as t ruc tu red d epo s i t ion , w h ich i t se lf a c t sa s as t ruc tur ing d epo s i t ion . O ne c u r r en t , a nd a p t , a pp l ica t ion o fs t igme rgy i sf ound i n t h e o pe ra t ion a nd c on t ro l o f e l ec t ron ic c ommun ica t ion n e two rk s . T he c en t ra l i sed c on t ro l s y s tem f o r t h e B r i t i sh T e lecom n e two rk c on sume s o ve r 1 0 ,500 g igaby te s o f r e sou rce s , a nd ,b e ing c en t ra l i sed a nd c omp lex , i ti sp rone t o f a i lu r e a nd i n eff ic ienc ie s . A n a l te rna t ive i st h e u se o fs o c a l led " an t p rog ram s (Wa rd 1 998 )" wh ich r oam t h e n e two rk a u tonomou s ly , e ach w i th a s imp le s e t o f i n s t ruc t ion s . T he a n t s " ma rk t r a i l s" a c ro s s t h e n e two rk b y i n c rea s ing a v a lue t a b le a tn ode s o n t h e n e two rk . A n t s w h ich f i nd o p t ima l s o lu t ion s t r ave r se t h e n e two rk mo r e q u ick ly , a nd s o i n ag i ven t ime s pan , mo r e a n t s u se t h a t t r a i l . H oweve r , t h e m a rke r s i gna l d ecay s o ve r t ime , s o t h e re i sa l so t h e p o s s ib i l i ty — i n deed , t h e c e r ta in ty — o f i n nova t ive t r a i l s b e ing p i onee red o nce c e r ta in r ou te s b ecome o ve r loaded . D a ta a nd v o ice t r an sm i s s ion s a r e r ou ted a l ong t h e se " t ra i l s" i n aw ay t h a ti sb o th o p t ima l ,y e t r e su l t s f r om a d i f f u se , d i s t r ibu ted p roce s s a c ro s s t h e n e twork n o tu nde r ac en t ra lc on t ro l . I nf a c t , a s Wa rd n o te s , o ne o ft h e m o s tp rof ound i mp l ica t ion s o ft h i s d eve lopmen t i np rog ramm ing i sp r ec i se ly t h a t t h e n e two rk w i l l o pe ra te a nd c hange d ynam ica l ly i n aw ay t h a t i si mpo s s ib le f o r a c en t ra l c on t ro l le r ( whe the r h uman o r p rog ram ) t o a pp r ehend . T he r e su l t i sa n o p t ima l s o lu t ion a r r ived a tb y t h e c umu la t ive a c t iv i ty o fi n d iv idua l a gen t s a c ro s s ab road s c a le n e two rk ,w i th n o i mp l ica t ion o f ag ene ra t ive g ramma r o rt o ta l i sa t ion o n t h e p a r t o ft h e i n d iv idua l . S im i la r ly , b ee s wa rm s a s sume a n o p t ima l t e a r -d rop c onf igu ra t ion , b ehav ing l i ke as i ng le d rop o fl i qu id ( Ha r r i s 1 987 :135 ) . I t i sd i ff icu l t , b u t o ne mu s t b e o pen t ot h e p o ss ib i l i ty t h a t a t c er ta in s c a le s h uman b ehav iou r c an p roduce o p t ima l s o lu t ion st h a tl o ok l i ke t h ep roduc to fi n ten t iona l i ty , b u ta r e n o mo r es ot h an at e rm i te n e s ti st h er e su l to fi n te l l igence o r c ommun ica t ion . A s Wa rd ( 1998 :32 ) c ommen t s , ( r ea l w o r ld ) a n t s ucce s s a tf o rag ing s t em s n o t f r om i n te l l igence , b u t f r om " u s ing t h e w o r ld a s a p romp t" - a b u i l t e nv i ronmen to fp a th sa nd p l ace si n sc r ibed b yp he romone s . I n ac omp le te ly d if e r en t w ay , b i o log i s t s s e e an o t ion s im i la r t o t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t i n t h e p roce s s o f mo rphogene s i s . F ib rob la s t s a r e t h e s uppo r t ing c e l l s t h a t p opu la t e t h e e xt ra -ce l lu la r m a t r ix i n a du l t a n ima l s . Emb ryo log ica l ly , h oweve r , t h e se mo t i le c e l l s a r e b o th t h e s t ruc tu r e a nd t h e s t ruc tu r e r o f t h e a n ima l 's d eve lopmen t ( S topak a nd H a r r i s 1 982 ; H a r r i s 1 987 :132 ) . T he c on t rac t ion o f t h e se c e l l s a s t h ey m ove c r ea te s o r ien t ed r i dge s a nd f u r row s i nt h e c o l lagen t h a t t h ey s e c re te . T he se r i dge s a nd f u r row s t h en g u ide f u r the r d eve lopmen ta l p roce s se s , s uch a s l i nea r p a t te rn s o f mu sc le o r f e a the r f o rma t ion . T hu s , s imp le f i b rob la s tt r a c t ion c r ea te s as imp le m a te r ia l e f f ec t i n c o l lagen , a n e f f ec t w h ich g u ide s f u tu re movemen t , a nd u l t ima te ly , s hape s t h e g row th a nd d eve lopmen to ft h eb ody . I ti si n t r igu ing t h a tt h e l a nd scape o f h ab i t , w h ich I a r gue i s a p roduc t o f p rac t ica l c on sc iou sne s s e nab led v i a d i rec t p e r cep t ion , b ea r s t h e se

s im i la r i t ie s t o t h e i n ter na l l a nd scape o f t h e b ody a nd t o u n in ten t iona l c ommun ica t ion i ns oc ia l i n sec t s . B ody , n e s t a nd e nv i ronmen t m e rge t oge the r i n t h e r ubr ic o f n on t e leo log ica l r egu la r i ty . Wh i le s t igme rgy a nd f i b rob la s t t r ac t ion c anno t b e d i r ec t ly a pp l ied i n a r chaeo logy , t h e i r v e ry e x i s tence s t reng then s t h e c a se f o r l o ok ing b eyond t h e n a tu re :env i ronmen t a nd m ind :body d ua l i sm s , a nd f u lf i l l ing I ngo ld 's e xho r ta t ion t ol e ave " cu l tu r e" o u t o ft h e e qua t ion . I n s tead , t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t b ecome s a f o rm o f i n f o rma t ion s t o rage a nd am ed ium o fc ommun ica t ion wh ich c an a l so a c ta sa na mp l if ie ro fs uch i n f o rma t ion : S chwa r tz 's ( 1978 :229 ) c oncep t o f " ex the s is ." T h ink ing o f t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t a s i n c lud ing u ncon sc iou s , b u t r e a l , c ommun ica t ion w i th in a nd a c ro s s g ene ra t ions p r even t s o ne f r om i mpo s ing t h e f a l lacy o ft h e r u le , a st h e re i sn o w ay t o r e t rod ic tp roce s sf r om p roduc t . I ta l so f o l low s f r om t h e r e jec t ion o ft h e f a l lacy o ft h e r u le t h a t o ne mu s t a vo id t o ta l is ing t h e e nv i ronmen t :body r e la t ion sh ip ( c f . C hap te r s 4 a nd 5 ) . B y i mpo s ing a C a r te s ian d ua l i sm , a nd t h en a s sum ing t h a t a c to r s o pe ra ted w i th in t h i s d ua l ism , t h e mo t ive s o ft h e a c t ion c anno t h e lp b u tb e m i s taken . A s B a rna rd ( 1990 ) n o te s , o ne i mpu te s t h e a n th ropo log i s t 's v i ew o n to t h ep eop le t h em se lve s . T h rough t h i s i mpo s i t ion o f e t ic a na ly s i s o n to e m ic p e r spec t ive t h e i n f o rman t s a r e t u rned i n to " na ïve t h eo re t ic ian s" ( Bou rd ieu 's ( 1990 ) q ua s i theo r e t ica l s t a te ) , e ven i n p r eh is tor ic c a se s w i th a n a b sence o fd i rec t a n th ropo log ica l q ue s t ion ing . T hu sw e a r r ive a ta no the rt a ng ib le b enef i to ft h i s a t temp tt o c r ea te a h uman i s t ic h uman e co logy : t h e d i scove ry , r a the r t h an t h e i mpo s i t ion o f as c a le o fh ab i tua l a c t ion w h ich c an b e t r an spo sed i n to t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f mor e m ean ingf u l u n i t s o f s pa t ia l a na ly s i s . T he a dvan tage s o f af j o rd land m a r i t ime c a se s t udy a r e n ow c l ea r ly a ppa r en t : t h e " l cnowab i l i ty" o fe nv i ronmen ta l c on s t ra in t i st h e e n t ry p o in t i n to u nde r s tand ing t h e p rac t ice o f mob i l i ty .6 H av ing a p o in t o f e n t ry i n t h i s c a se s t udy i sw ha t a l low s s pec if ic c onc lu s ion s t o b e d rawn , a s w e l l a s t h e mo r e g ene ra l s pecu la t ion s i n C hap te r 8 . U l t ima te ly , t h e a b i l i ty t o i d en t if y as c a le i n w h ich h ab i tua l a c t ion make s b o th a s i gn i f ican t a nd r ecogn i sab le c on t r ibu t ion t o t h e a r chaeo log ica l s i gna tu r e i s a s i gn if ican t a dvance i n a r chaeo log ica l s pa t ia l a na ly s i s . A s S chwa r tz n o te s , s i ze i s ac on t inuou s v a r iab le , b u t w e w an t s ca le t os o r t i t se lf o u t i n to l e ve l s w i th d i f f e r ing o rgan iza t iona l a nd e xper ien t ia l i mp l ica t ions . We s hou ld b e l o ok ing f o r as e r ie s o f l e ve ls o r b r eak p o in t s i n s c a le , a l though o f c ou r se w e d o n o t e xpec t a brup t

.M o r es ub t le r e nder ing so ft h i s mode lc ou ld p robab ly i n c lude l o ca l e nv i ronmen ta lc ond i t ion ss uch a sw ind ,t i de ,a nd s i ze o fl a ndf o rm , p robab ly i n co rpo ra ted v i ad ynam ic segmen ta t ion o ft h en e two rk a nd t h rough c on s t r a in t so nt h en ode st of a c i l i ta te i n te ra c t ion . 6 6

6 3

b r eak s , b eyond t h e l owe r e nd o f t h e s i ze d imen s ion . ( Schwa r tz 1 978 :223 )

7 . 4

F u ture i n terpre ta t ions o ft he s o lu t ion s e t s

H av ing i d en t if ied a s ub se t o f m idden z ones w h ich a r e i n te r e s t ing b ecau se o f t h e i r i n te rdependen t c en t ra l i ty , a nd h av ing s e en t h a t t h i s c en t ra l i ty i sr e la ted t o m idden z one s i ze , al o g ica l n ex t s t ep w ou ld b e t o f u r the r i n ve s t iga te o the r a spec t s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd wh ich t h e se z one s m igh t s ha re . S uch i nve s t iga t ion w ou ld n eed t o b e u nder taken w i th c on s ide rab le c au t ion , a sd i scu s sed b e low .

I t i s f a i r t o s ay t h a t t h e r e su l t s o f t h i s t h e s i s s a t i sf y S chwa r tz 's e xpec ta t ion s .6 7 I ndeed , t h i s c a se s t udy p o in t s t h e w ay b eyond u s ing n e two rk s a s m e tapho r s f o r s oc ia l s pace s , a nd s how s h ow n e two rk s c an b e made o pe ra t iona l i na n e nv i ronmen t o fn on -Ca r te s ian s oc ia l g eog raphy . B y a l low ing t h e i n ve s t iga t ion o f t h e s c a la r p r inc ip le s o f i n ten t iona l b ehav iou r , t h e p o s s ib i l i ty i st h a t i tw i l l b ecome p os s ib le t o mode l a nd t e s t p ropo sa l s s uch a s G amb le 's ( 1995 , 1 998 ) r ega rd ing L oca l H om in id N e two rk s a nd S oc ia l L and scape s . K ey c omponen t s o f t h e se a r e d i f f e rence s i np l ann ing a nd a n t ic ipa to ry b ehav iou r , w h ich c ome w i th t h e w e igh ty b aggage o f i n ten t iona l i ty a nd i mposed s c a la r t h re sho ld s . I t i s i n t r igu ing t o s e e t h e p a ra l le l i sm b e tween G amb le 's ( 1995 :256 ) c a tego r i sa t ion o f ma ter ia l f r om d i s tance s o f3 0 -80 km r ad iu s f r om as i te a s " exo t ic" r aw m a ter ia l s ou r c ing : t h i s c ompa r e s w e l l t o t h e c a . 1 9 -78 km " ave rage d i s tance s t r ave l led" ( c once ived a s r ad i i o ft h e o b jec t ive f unc t ion ) o fS o lu t ion S e t s 1 4 i nt h i s s t udy .6 8 T he r ef o r e ,t h ei n ve s t iga t ion o ft h e s c a le o fh ab i tua l a c t ion may b e u sef u l i nf i nd ing o r c onf irm ing t h e s i ze o f r e levan ts pa t ia lu n i t so fa na ly s i s . I no t he rw o rd s , t h i st h e s i s p rov ide s m e thod b y w h ich a r chaeo log i s t s m ay b e a b le t o d i scove r t h e i r u n i t s o f s pa t ia l a na ly s i s r a the r t h an i mpose t h em , a nd o f f e r s a t tendan t b enef i t s f o r t h e c onf idence o f i n te rp r e ta t ion t h rough s o c ia lt h eo ry a nd e t hnog raphy .

I ti si n i t ia l ly a t t rac t ive t op ropo se t h a t o ne t a ke t h e s e t o f m idden z one s s e lec ted , e s pec ia l ly t h o se t h a t f a l l w i th in t h e b r acke t o f s i gn if icance d ef ined a bove , a nd e xam ine t h e k nown a r cha eo log ica l i n f o rma t ion f r om t h e se s i te s . F o r e xamp le , o ne c ou ld s ugge s t t h a t t h e se c en t ra l s i te s , i ft h ey a r e t o s ome e x ten t a" c ro s s road s" o f t h e a r ch ipe lago , m igh t c on ta in ag r ea te r p ropor t ion o fe xo t ic r aw ma te r ia l s o r o f n on loca l f a una l r ema in s . A l ter na t ive ly , i f t h e e xp lana t ion of e r ed a bove i sc o r rec t , t h e l a rge z one s w e r e n o t c onsc iou s ly r e cogn ised a s c en t ra l p l a ces , a nd t h e r ef o re m igh t h ave a n u nexpec ted ly " o rd ina ry" a r chaeo log ica l s i gna tu r e . Wha teve r t h e h ypo the s i s o r e xpec ta t ion , s uch r e sea rch w ou ld b e o ft r emendou s i n te r e s t i nc onf i rm ing o r d eny ing t h e e xp lana t ion o f f e red f o r t h e o bserved p a t ter n . H oweve r , s uch i n ve s t iga t ion i sn o t y e t p o s s ib le , f o r t h e f o l low ing r e a son s . I t w a s n o ted p r ev iou s ly t h a t t h e c a se s t udy t o ok i n to a ccoun t o n ly t wo a t t r ibu te s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd : s i te l o ca t ion a nd s i te s i ze . Wh i le t h e se h ave t h e i rp rob lem s , i n t e rm s o f d a ta v a l id i ty a nd r e l iab i l i ty , t h ey a r e much p r ef e rab le t oa ny o t he re x i s t ing d a ta f o rt h e s t udy a r ea a s a w ho le . Wh i le s ome s i te sh ave b een e x ten s ive ly e xcava ted , t h e v a s t m a jor i ty a r e v e ry p oo r ly k nown . Mos t h ave b een o n ly v i s i ted o nce o rt w ice b y a r chaeo log i s t s f o r am a t te ro f h ou r s , o r l e s s . T hu s , w h i le t h e A r chaeo logy B ranch d a taba se i n c lude s m any mo re d e sc r ip t ive f i e ld s t h an l o ca t ion a nd s i ze , t h e se a r e f r equen t ly b l ank . F u r the r , e ven i nt h o se c a se s w he re o t he r a t t r ibu te s ( s uch a s p r e sence o f f e a tu re s , a r t if ac t s , c ompo s i t ion o fm idden , e t c . ) a r e p r e sen t , t h e r e co rd ing p roce s s h a s b een u n sy s tema t ic a nd v a r iab le o ve r t h e l o ng t e rm . T he s t udy a r ea i sl a rge , a nd i sk nown f r om m any d i f f e ren t a r chaeo log ica l r e po r t s a u tho red b y m any d if e ren t a r chaeo log i s t s o ve r ap e r iod o f d ecade s . Wh i le l o ca t ion a nd s i ze a r e a rguab ly u sef u l a t t r ibu te s , t h e re i sn o o t he r s i ng le a t t r ibu te wh ich i sl i ke ly t ob e a su sef u l . F o r e xamp le , o ne m igh t p r ed ic t ar e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e p r e sence o f s upe rf ic ia l f e a tu re s , s u ch a s h ou se p l a tf o rm s , a nd t h e c en t ra l i ty / s ize s ub se t s o f s i t e s . H oweve r , h ou se p l a tf o rm s a r e o f t en d i ff icu l t t o s e e i nt h e d en se Nor thwe s t c oa s t v ege ta t ion , a r e c o r r e spond ing ly d i ff icu l t t o r e co rd , a nd m ay h ave a l im i ted p e r iod o f v i s ib i l i ty b ef o r e t h ey e r ode o r d i sappea r u nde r o ve rbu rden . T h i s p e r iod m ay b e l e s s t h an t h e a pp rox ima te ly 2 , 000 y ea r f r ame o fr e f e rence o ft h i s t h e s i s . T he r ef o r e , t h e d a taba se i n f orma t ion o n t h is a nd mo s t o t he r a t t r ibu te s w ou ld h ave t o b e h and led w i th e x t r eme c au t ion .

7 . 3 .4 R obu s t ic i ty o fn ode c en tral i ty T ab le 7 . 2 ( p . 6 6 ) s how s m idden z one s o rde red b y h ow o f t en t h ey e n te red i n to t h e 2 5 s o lu t ion s e t s . T he p e r s i s ten t s e lec t ion o f a s i te t h rough mu l t ip le i t e ra t ion s w i th i n c rea s ing n umbe r s o fs i te s s e lec ted o f f e r s a n i nd ica t ion o f t h e r obu s t ic i ty o ft h e c en t ra l i ty o f ap l ace ( Chu r ch a nd B e l l 1 985 ) . I tc an b es e en t h a tt h et op f ou rs e lec t ion s , a l lc ho sen i n mo r et h an 7 0% o ft h ei t e ra t ion s , a r er e la t ive ly l a rge s i te s . I n te re s t ing ly ,t h en ex t 5mo s tf r equen t ly c ho sen s i te sa r e a l l v e ry s ma l l . F igu re 7 . 7 ( p . 6 7 ) s how s t h i s p a t te rn , o n al og s ca le . B y c ompa r i son , F igu re 7 . 8 ( p . 6 8 ) , o f a l l m idden z one a r ea s , s how s t h a t t h ey a r e e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted i n t h e 1 , 000 t o 1 0 ,000 m2 r ange , ar ange w h ich i s u nde r r ep re sen ted i nt h e s e to ff r equen t ly c ho sen c en t re s ( F ig 7 . 7 ; T ab le 7 . 2 ) . T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t ab imoda l p a t te rn m ay h o ld f o r f r equen t ly s e lec ted m idden z one s w h ich m ay r e la te t o t h e m ic ro landf o rm . C en t ra l s i te s may b e l a rge i ft h ey c an b e , b u t many c en t ra l p l ace s a r e i n ev i tab ly o n i s le t s wh ich mu s t s eve re ly c on s t ra in t h e i r s i ze ( c f . Ma r sha l l 1 993 :124 ) . A l l s i te sc ho sen a tl e a s to nce i nt h e2 5 i t e ra t ion s a r ep l o t ted a sF igu re 7 . 16 ( p . 7 2 )

.W ha ti si n te r e s t ing , a nd p e rhap su nexpec ted ,i st h a tt h ef o cu so nt r ack s a nd p a th sk eep si n te rp r e ta t ion a way f r om s imp l i s t ic i mpu ta t ion o fb ounded s o c ia l u n i t s . R a the r ,t h ee f ec to f" f uzzy" s c a la rb r eak si st oe l im ina te t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o ff i nd ing s u ch u n i t sw i thou tc on s ide r ab le ,e x t er na ls ou r ce so f e v idence . .A l though t h i ss t udy d i f f e r si nt h a td i s tance sa r ec a lcu la ted a c ro s sw a te r w i th t h ea t tendan ts imp l ic i t ie so fa s sump t ion a nd e ff ic ienc ie so f t r an spor ta t ion 6 7

6 8

6 4

-b u tw i th ag a in i nk now ledge a nd p e r spec t ive , ag a in t h a t c ou ld i n f o rm r e sea r ch i nt h ey ea r st oc ome .

U nf o r tuna te ly , i ti sn o t r e ad i ly p o s s ib le t oc onduc t f u r the r f i e ldwo rk t ot e s t a ny h ypo the se s w h ich m igh t a r i se f r om t h i s t h e s i s . T he s t udy a r ea i sr emo t e a nd i n acce s s ib le . V i r tua l ly a ny p l a ce o fi n t e r e s ti so n ly a c ce s s ib le b yb oa t , i n m any c a se s a f t e r ar e la t ive ly l o ng p a s sage . F o r m any m on th s o ft h e y ea r s u ch p a s sage s a r e i mp rac t icab le o r , a t l e a s t , i l -adv i sed . When t h e l o g i s t ic s o f o pe ra t ing N o r thw e s tC oa s tf i e ldwo rk f r om E ng land a r ea dded i n ,t h en i tb ecome st r u ly i mp r ac t ica lt oc a r ry o u tt h es o r t sa nd s c a le s o ff i e ld r e sea r ch r e qu i r ed .

7 . 5 C hap ter c onc lus ion s : q uan t i ta t ive p o s t p roce s sua l i s ta rchaeo logy?

A no the r s e t o f e xpec ta t ion s o r h ypo the se s c once rn ing t h e s e t s o f s e le c t ed s i t e s m igh t r e la t e t ot h e e t hnog r aph ica l ly d e sc r ibed o r m ode rn w ay o f l i f e . A s a bove , t h e r e i sa c e r ta in l a ck o fc on s i s ten cy i nt h e e t hnog r aph ic d a ta a c ro s s t h e r eg ion a s aw ho le : s ome a r ea s a r e b e t t e r d ocumen ted t h an o t h e r s , a nd s ome m ay b e , e f f ec t ive ly , u ndocumen t ed . Af u r the r t wo p r ob lem s a l so a r i se . F i r s t , t h e e t hnog r aphy o f t h e r e g ion i sp a r t icu la r ly p r on e t o t h e c r ea t ion o f a n " e thnog r aph ic p r e sen t ," a " pu r e" c u l tu r a l m omen t t h a t n eve rw a s . T h i sa h i s to r ica l e t hnog r aphy i sn o tw e l ls u i ted t o a i d l o ng t e rm e xp lana t ion s i na r cha eo logy . A dded t ot h i s a h i s to r i c i ty a r em any k nown s ou r ce so fh i s to r ica ld i s to r t ion , s u ch a s d epopu la t ion , s e t t lemen t s h if t ing , a nd e conom ic c hange s a s soc ia ted w i th E u ropean c on ta c t . F o r e xamp le , p r io rt ot h ea r r iva lo fe t hnog r aphe r s ,t h e r ew a sc on s id e rab le d epopu la t ion d ue t o as e r ie s o f d i sea se e p id em ic s . O ne r e su l t w a s t h e a gg r ega t ion o f r e s idua l p opu la t ion s i n to a s ma l le rn umbe ro fl a rge c ommun i t ie s ( Hagga r ty a nd I ng l i s 1 983 ; Ma r sha l l 1 993 ) . T he s i ze a nd l o ca t ion o ft h e se w a s p robab ly s omewha t d e t e rm ined b y p r ox im i ty t oE u ropean s e t t lem en t s : i ne i the r c a se i ti su n l ike ly t h a t al o ng s tand ing s e t t lem en t s t ruc tu r e a nd m ob i l i ty p a t t er n c on t inued u na l t e r ed u p t ot h e m omen t o ft h e " e thnog raph ic p r e sen t ." A s e cond p r ob lem w i th t h e u se o f e t hnog r aphy i s mo r e f undamen ta l : e ven i ft h ee t hnog raph ic p r e sen tw e r e" va l id ," t h i s t h e s i s d e sc r ibe s a nd i n t e rp r e t s a p a t t er n w h ich d eve loped o ve r a pp rox ima t e ly 2 , 000 y ea r s o f u np lanned b ehav iou r . I ti sd i ff i cu l t t ot a k e s ynch ron ic e t hnog raph ic d a ta a nd d i s t i l f r om t h em s u i tab le e xp lana t ion s f o r s u ch l o ng t e rm , n on -d i scu r s ive b ehav iou r . I n e f f ec t , h av ing d i scov e r ed s u ch ap a t t er n i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , i t c ou ld b e c oun t e r -p roduc t ive t os imp l i s t ica l ly e xpec tt of i nd i t s e xp lana t ion i n t h e e t hnog r aph ic r e co rd : w h i le n o t i mpo s s ib le t h a t t h e r e c ou ld b e s ome r e levan t e t hnog r aph ic i n f o rma t ion , i t si n voca t ion w ou ld b e c on t ra ry t ot h e t h ru s t o f t h i s t h e s i s c oncer n ing t h e " f a l lacy o f t h e r u le" i n a r chaeo logy . A s a bove , t h en , e t hnog r aph ic i n f o rma t ion w ou ld h ave t ob eu sed w i th e x t r eme c au t ion . I ns umma ry , t h i s t h e s i s r e a ch e s i t s l o g ica l c on c lu s ion w i th t h e i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e s o lu t ion s e t s a nd t h e d emon s t r a t ion a nd d i scu s s ion o ft h e i r r e la t ion sh ip t oi n t en s i ty o fu s e . I n n o w ay i sf u r the r i n ve s t iga t ion p r ec luded , r a the r , t h i s s t udy r e tu rn s t o i t s s t a r t ing p o in t : t r ad i t iona l N o r thwe s t c oa s t a r chaeo logy - e co log ica l , e t hnog raph ic , c u l tu r e -h i s to r ica l -

6 5

T h e r e su l t s p r e sen t ed a nd d i scu s sed a bove s how t h e v a lue o f a n a pp roa ch t h a t i d en t if i e s r e a l s p a t ia l p a t t er n s i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , a nd s e ek s t oe xp la in t h em i n aw ay t h a t i sb ound t on e i the r s imp l i s t ic a pp l ica t ion o ft h e d i r ec t h i s to r ic m e thod n o r t o a r e duc t ion i s t r e l iance u pon d e l ibe r a t e o p t im i sa t ion . R a the r , t h e r e su l t s s h ow t h a t r e g iona l a r chaeo logy o n t h e N o r thwe s t C oa s t c an b e e nhan ced b y t h e c omb ina t ion o f q uan t i ta t ive g eog r aph ic m ode l s i n t e rp r e t ed t h rough r e f e r en ce t o s o c ia l t h eo ry . I d en t if y ing al o ng t e rm , w ide sca le p a t ter n a nd e xp la in ing i tw i th r e f e r en ce t o am od e l o fh uman b ehav iou r i sn o t a n ew a pp roach . H oweve r , a s Mu r r ay ( 1 997 :454 ) h a s s ugg e s t ed , " t he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i sn o t t h e s u b jec t o f c ommon sen se u nde r s tand ing s ," a nd s o a n e t hnog r aph ica l ly -d i s tan ced e xp lana t ion o f t h e o b se rved s p a t ia l p a t t e rn ing w a s s ough t . P a radox ica l ly , t h i s i n t e rp r e t ive d i s tanc ing , b y a low ing t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f mu l t ip le c au sa t ion a td if e r en t s c a le s , a c tua l ly b r ing s o ne c l o se rt o ah uman i s t ic h uman e co logy .

T ab le 7 . 2 R obu s tne s so fc en t ra lm idden z one sa sd ef ined b yt h en umbe ro f r e_ a ta p pea rance si n2 5 i t e ra t ion so fl o ca t ion -a l loca t ion mode l . ne . . . I D

#o fo ccurence s

MZ A rea

i n2 5 r un s .

( s q . m e tre s )

NN -G r ea te r Nu tcha t l i tz

2 2

3 3 , 105 KEY ( See F igure 6 . 2 ) :

2 26

S C - Whya c

2 1

3 1 , 100 KY =Kyuquo tC hanne l S ou th

2 14

AB -P tA lbe rn i S oma s sS

2 0

1 3

19

CL -Tofmo S tubb sI s .

,

9 , 200 , NN =N o r th Noo tka I s land 1 4 ,200 NK =N oo tka S ound

1 9 1 5

8 00 HQ =H e squ ia t

1 96

BK -T r evo rC h

1 4

2 25 F L =F lo re sI s land

1 34

CL - Mea re sS E

1 4

1 5 C L =C layoquo tS ound

1 82

BK -B roken G pN1

1 3

7 2 L B =L ong B each

2 4

8 3 5

,

D e scr ip tor

NN -Tah s i s /E spe ranza 1 ,

_ NK -Mucha la tG o ld R .W

1 3

k . S , KY -Kapoo se C

1 2

,

5 10 AB =A lbe rn i I n le t u nknown BK = Ba rk ley S ound

1 07

F L -M i l la rC h

1

3 , 125

9 4

HQ -He squ ia t

1 0

9 2 ,964

3 7

, NK -W . N oo tka I s .2

1 0

2 , 250

1 66

L B -Uc lu th NW

9

1 , 700

1 00

b r NE , HQ -He squ ia tH

9

1 62

8 9

NK -Ba r ce s te rB ay C

9

u nknown

5 8

NK -T lupana C 3

9

4 5

4 9

NK -B l igh I s . W 3

9

6 00

2 19

S C -Pa chena B ay S

8

4 50

1 45

CL - Ma t le se tN a r row s

7

2 , 375

5 2

NK -B l igh I s . NC

5

1 , 400

1 9

NN -L i t t le E sp ino sa S

5

1 , 120

1 8 1

BK -B roken GDNE C

4

5 , 392

1 7 1

BK -Geo rge F ra se rI s

4

4 , 232

1 38

CL Ind ian I sS E

4

2 0 ,576

8 5

NK -Mucha la t Ma t ch lee N

4

2 , 985

7 8

NK - Mucha la t SW 1

,

4

6 , 300

6 2

NK -T lupana C 1

4

2 , 250

4 2

NK -Yuquo tN1

4

9 , 400 ,

1 94

BK -Dee r GPC

3

2 , 800

1 70

BK -Chuuma ta

3

1 6 ,800

1 59

LB -W ickan inn i sh N

3

1 2 ,332

1 58

LB -Schoone rC ove S

3

3 , 600 ,

1 49

CL -Kennedy C ove

3

6 2 ,900 7 9 ,872

1 20

CL -O p i t s i t

3

2 35

S C -N i t ina tL kW C

2

5 , 175

1 83

BK -Dee rG p SW

2

3 7 .842 ,

1 69

BK -Tukwaa

2

2 3 .500

1 24

CL -E sow i s ta NW

2

5 3

NK -B l iah I s . NE

2

1 . 000

14

CL -Va rga s NE

1

2 . 800

11

CL -Va rga sA hou sB ay

1

1 . 360

1 02

HO -Ho tS tr ing s C ove

1

5 . 500

7 1

NK -Tah s i s SE nd

1

1 4 .000

5 1

NK -B l igh I s . W 1

1

3 75

7 4

CL -C loo thn i tch

1

4 6 .376

9

6 6

S C =S ou th C oa s t &N i t inah t

F ig . 7 . 7 R obu s tne s so fc en t r a lm idden z one s . T he x -ax i sd eno te st h en umbe ro fs o lu t ion s e t st h em idden z one a ppea r si n( max im tun=25 ) . N o t et h er obu s tg roup o ff ou rc en t ra lt ot h er i gh t , a nd t h eg roup o ff i ve s ma l lc en t ra lz one st ot h el ef to ft ho se .

Midden Zone A rea b y Appearances i n i n L oca t ion -A l loca t ion Mode l

M idden Z one A rea ( s q . m )

10 0, 0 0 0

1 0 ,000 1 , 000 1 00

IIIII!

l I 13 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 1 I

A 11111 : A _ g--A A -e -

AB I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I i

mel•

mem

II • •

A

I F .!

I W

A

W I ! il i v e l i m e e m i l er

A A i lemmemiumme e t 5 " ' A

0N emmem ä

31 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 31 11133 3 11 . 1 ! W

I

m

e

r n

me e e l

d e

e ue l a r

el l i e l

r nm emmil4semmesemmuloomeaummummi h WI!

M

A

10

!! !

0

01 1 3 II III!

5

I 31 1 11 111333

1 0

33 11 13311333

1 5

MI

2 0

Nu mber o f Appearances i n 2 5 i I era t ions

F ig . 7 . 8 D i s t r ibu t ion o fa l lm idden z one sw i th k nown a r ea s . No t ec oncen t ra t ion i n1 , 000 t o1 0 ,000 s q . m e t r eb and , i nc on t r a s tt oF ig . 7 . 7r obu s tc en t r e s .

6 7

2 5

F ig . 7 . 9 L oca t ion -a l loca t ion s e tf o r as i ng le c en t re ( i te ra t ion # 1) .

F ig . 7 . 10 L oca t ion -a l loca t ion s e tf o rt h ree c en t r e s ( i te ra t ion # 3 ) .

Mob i l i ty n e two rk • M idden z one c en t ro id 7 4*

S o lu t ion n ode

6 8

F ig . 7 . 11

L oca t ion -a l loca t ion s o lu t ion s e tf o rf i ve c en t re s( i te ra t ion # 5 ) .

F ig . 7 . 12

L oca t ion -a l loca t ion s o lu t ion s e tf o rs i xc en t re s( i te ra t ion # 6 ) .

6 9

F ig . 7 . 13

L oca t ion -a l loca t ion s o lu t ion s e tf o rs even c en t r e s ( i t e ra t ion # 7 ) .

F ig . 7 . 14 L oca t ion -a l loca t ion s o lu t ion s e tf o re i gh tc en t re s( i t e ra t ion # 8 ) .

7 0

F ig . 7 . 15

L oca t ion -a l loca t ion s o lu t ion s e tf o rn ine c en t re s ( i t e ra t ion # 9 ) .

F ig . 7 . 16 C umu la t ive m ap o fa l lm idden z one ss e lec ted a tl e a s to nce d u r ing 2 5 i t e ra t ion so ft h el o ca t ion -a l loca t ion mode l .

7 1

a na ly s ing l a rge s c a le s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing ( c f . S hennan 's ( 1 993 ) " af i rm ing t h e c on sequen t" ; T homa s ( 1993 ) o n " t o ta l i sa t ion" ) . I ti sa rgued t h a t G o sden 's c oncep t o ft h e L and scape o f H ab i t i s u sef u l , e spec ia l ly i f i t c an b e d i scover ed a s a s ca la r p roper ty o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l l a nd scape .

CHAPTER 8—CONCLUS IONS 8 . 1 S ummary o fr e search p rogram T he mu l t ip lex v a r iab le " soc ia l c omp lex i ty" n eed s t o b e u npacked . O ne w ay t o s t a r t t h i s p roce s s i sb y l o ok ing a t t ime space c on s t r a in t s , b ecau se t h ese a r e c en t ra lt os u rp lu s , s t o rage , s eden t i sm , t h e d i v i s ion o f l a bou r , s pec ia l isa t ion , a nd o the r t r a i t s o f " comp lex i ty ." T ime g eog raphy c an p rov ide t h e i n sp i ra t ion f o r t h i s u npack ing b y f o cu s ing a t ten t ion o n , a nd p rov id ing an o ta t ion f o r , t h e r egu la r i t ie s w h ich e me rge f r om t h e c o l lec t ive r ou t in ized b ehav iou r o f i n d iv idua l s . I n mo s t a r chaeo log ica l a pp l ica t ion s , k now ledge o ft h e r ou te s t h a t c onnec t s i te s a nd o t he r p l ace s i n t h e l a nd scape i s n o rma l ly l a ck ing , o r s eve r e ly i n comp le te . O n ly i n t h e r e la t ive ly r a re c a se s o f a n e x ten s ive b u i l t t r an spo r ta t ion i n f ra s t ruc tu re c ou ld t h i s b e k nown , a nd e ven t h en t h e k now ledge i s p robab ly i n comp le te . H oweve r , i n t h e c a se o f a f j o rd land a r ch ipe lago w i th i t sh i gh ly d i r ec t iona l t o pog raphy , many o f t h e se t ime space c on s t ra in t s a re k nowab le , e spec ia l ly mob i l i ty . Mob i l i ty i sc en t r ed o n t h e h uman b ody , a nd , i n a cco rdance w i th t ime -geog raph ic t h eo ry , mu s t b e c on s ide red i n r e la t ion sh ip t o u n ive r sa l c on s t ra in t s o n t h e b ody . An eed t h e r ef o re a r i se s f o r t h eo ry w h ich l i nk s t h e i n d iv idua l t o t h e e nv i ronmen t . S uch a t h eo ry c an b e p rov ided b y a ma lgama t ing l o ca t iona l a na ly s i s ( e spec ia l ly t h e r e cogn i t ion o f t h e i mpo r tance o f l i nea r i ty ) w i th e co log ica l p sycho logy a nd I ngo ld ian mon i sm : n ame ly a n a pp r ec ia t ion o f t h e i n d iv idua l c en t r ed t a sk scape , p a th s , r ou te s ,a nd t h eb u i l te nv i ronmen t .

T he r e sea rch p rog ram a ch ieved i n t h i s t h e s i s i s s e lf e v iden t ly u sef u l i nt h a tu s ing i tc an p u t ak i lome t r e s i ze a nd ab ehav iou ra lc on tex to n to d i scove red s p a t ia l -ana ly t ic u n i t s . I n c ompa r ison , T h ie s sen P o lygon s ( e .g . , R enf rew 1 973 ) s e em v e ry s t a t ic a nd r u le -bound a nd L oca t iona l A na ly se s ( e .g . , Wob s t 1 976 ) s e em v e ry u n rea l i s t ic a nd r u le -d r iven . T he s o r t s o f s pa t ia l u n i t s p os s ib le t h rough l o ca t ion a loca t ion n e two rk mode l l ing a r e mo r e c ompa rab le t o " hou seho ld a r chaeo logy" ( em ic u n i t s o f a na ly s i s ) t h an t o b l ock e xcava t ion q uad ra t s ( e t ic u n i t s o fa na ly s is ) . E ach a r e u sef u l , b u t mu s tb e d i r ec ted t owa rd sd if e r en tq ue s t ion s a nd of e rd i f f e ren tp o s s ib i l i t ie s .

T he se d i spa ra te a na ly t ica l t o o l s a r e s i tua ted a t o ppo s i te e nd s o f t h e t h eo re t ica l s pec t rum , y e t t h e h ab i tus , b y r e cogn i s ing t h ep a r t ia l ly -de te rm ined c on t ingency w h ich t h e i nd iv idua l f a ce s t h rough t h e i r l i f e -pa th , u n i te s q uan t i ta t ive g eog raphy w i th h uman i s t ic s o c ia l t h eo ry . T hu s , ar e sea rch p rog ram w a s n eeded w h ich c an d ea l w i th b o th e nd s o ft h e b ehav iou ra l s c a le ( i nd iv idua l / sho r t te rm a nd r eg iona l / long t e rm ) a nd c u t c u l tu r e o u t o ft h e m idd le . I n o rde r t oa t ta in t h i s , o ne mu s t a ccep t " soc ia l p rac t ice" a s ac on t r ibu t ing g ene r a to r o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , a nd a vo id " t o ta l i sa t ion" b y a s cr ib ing r e gu la r i t ie s i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd t o g oa l -d i r ec ted p l ann ing b ehav iou r . T h i s i s p a r t icu la r ly a p tb ecau se i nt h e c a se o fa n a r ch ipe lago , " t he s e a c an c r ea te ag r ea te r s en se o fc ommun i ty i nw h ich t h e w ho le i sq u i te d i f f e ren tt ot h e s um o fi t s p a r t s ( Go sden a nd P av l id e s 1 994 :163 ) ."

I n r e f e rence t o " mag ic n umbe r " a na ly se s o f s oc ia l s c a le , ( e .g . , K o s se 1 990 ; G amb le 1 995 ) w e c an s e e t h a t s pa t ia l " mag ic n umbe r s" m ay b e d er ivab le o n ac a se b yc a se b a s i s , a nd p e rhap s s ome c ro s s -cu l tu ra l g ene ra l i sa t ion s m igh t b e d e r ivab le . I n r e f e rence t o s oc ia l c omp lex i ty , o ne c an s e e t h a t ar eg iona l " s e t t lemen t h i e ra rchy" o f s i t e s i ze s i sn o t n ece s sa r i ly a n i n d ica to r o f s oc ia l c omp lex i ty . R a the r i t c ou ld b e a n e xamp le o fh ab i tua l a c t ion h a rmon i sed w i th t h e s hape o f t h e e nv i ronmen t . T he re i sl i ke ly a n i n s t ruc t ive r e f e r ra l t o t h e T ie r ra d e l F uego c a se ( s ee C hap te r 3 ) o f s ome q u i te l a rge s he l l m idden s i n te r spe r sed w i th s ma l l o ne s , i nt h e c on tex to fp r e sumed " soc ia l s imp l ic i ty ." B lake a nd C la rk ( 1985 :1) a rgued t h a t " t h e s hape o f t h e e nv i ronmen t , i nt h e v e ry b roade s t t e rm s , i sn o t u sua l ly a f a c to r t h a t a n th ropo log is t s e xam ine w hen s t udy ing t h e e vo lu t ion o fc i v i l iz t ion [ s ic ] ," t h e i rp o in tb e ing ,

T h i s p rog ram h a s b een a ch ieved i nt h i s t h e s i s u s ing aG IS a pp l ica t ion o ft h e n e two rk i mp lemen ta t ion o ft h e l o ca t ion a l loca t ion mode l . I ti sc once rned w i th r ou te s , p l ace s , a nd i nd iv idua l s ,b u to pe ra te so n as chema t ic map t h a tm e ld st h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t ( t he s i te s ) a nd t h e n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t ( r ou te s ) E x ter na l i n f o rma t ion ( s i te s i ze / i n ten s i ty o fu se ) w a s w i thhe ld f r om t h e mode l t o v a l ida te t h e r e su l t s . A s d i scu s sed i n t h e p r ev iou s c hap te r , ag ood r e su l t w a s o b ta ined w h ich d emon s t ra te s t h e " f a l la cy o ft h e r u le" w hen

T he p o ten t ia l f o r s oc ia l d eve lopmen t o f ac ommun i ty i s af unc t ion o f i t s a cce s s t o s oc ia l r e source s . s u ch a cce s s d epend s u pon r e la t ive t o pog raph ic p o s i t ion w i th in t h e r e g ion ." ( C la rk a nd B lake 1 994 :19 ; e mpha s i s i no r ig ina l ) .

T h is t h e s i s d oe s n o t a rgue t h a t a l l s pa t ia l p a t ter n ing i st h e r e su l to fh ab i tua l a c t ion . R a the r , o ne c an i s o la te as ub se to f t h e a r chaeo log ica l s i gna tu re wh ich i s mo r e l i ke ly t ob e t h e r e su l t o f t h a t k i nd o f a c t ion , wh i le l e av ing t h e r e s t ( e .g . , l a rge s i te s t h a t n eve r e n te r as o lu t ion s e t ) f o r s ome o t he r s o r t s o fa na ly s i s o r e xp lana t ion s . Wh i le t h e se a l ter n a t ive s w e r e n o t a b le t o b e e xp lo red i n t h i s t h e s is , t h ey a r e n one the le s sw or thy o fe xam ina t ion . 8 . 2 S i ze t hre sho ld s a nd t he i den t if ica t ion o fr e levan t s pa t ia l u n i t s o fa na ly s i s

7 2

C la rk a nd B lake 's f o cu s o nt h es hape o ft h ee nv i ronmen ti s l a udab le , y e t t h e i r u nde r ly ing a s sump t ion t h a t s hape i s d ef in ed b y t opog raph ic p o s i t ion ( a nd n o t t o t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t ) a nd i s av a r iab le t h a t i n s ome w ay i s a pp r ehended a nd a c ted u pon i sn o tc l ea r ly s uppor ted .

8 . 4 R e levance o ft he s t udy f o rp red ic t ive mode ll ing Adap t ing t h e c u r r en t s t udy mode l t oi n co rpo ra te t h e s hape o ft h ee nv i ronmen ta sa ni n pu tv a r iab le ( a nd h ence t oc r ea te an e two rk i n t h e a b sence o f s i te l o ca t ion s ) h a s e xc i t ing p o s s ib i l i t ie s f o r p r ed ic t ive mode l l ing . A ppa ren t ly , t h e r e i s n o t a n i n ten t iona l p l ann ing o f t h e o p t ima l i ty o f t h e l o ca t ion s , b u t ap a t ter n ing a r i s ing f r om t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h ei nd iv idua l a nd t h e e nv i ronmen t . T h i s i ss hown b y t h e f a c t t h a t s ome o ft h e s o lu t ion s e t m idden z one s a r e n o t " v i l lage s " o r e ven " b ig s i te s" b u t a gg lome ra t ion s o f many s ma l l s i te s , w h ich i t se lf d emon s t ra te s t h e u t i l i ty o fa n on s i t e l a nd scape a pp roach . A l so , s ome o f t h e s i te s c ho sen a r e v e ry s ma l l . B y s t a r t ing w i th t h e s i te n e two rk i t se lf , n o tw i th t h e l a nd scape , t h e mode l a si ts t and s c anno t b e g ene ra t ive , u n l ike t h e e nv i ronmen ta l v a r iab le s t h a t e n te r mo s tp r ed ic t ive mode l l ing . T he w ay f o rwa rd f o rp r ed ic t ive mode l l ing w i l l b e t h e i n c lu s ion o f r eg iona l l a ndf o rm s t ruc tu r e , t oge the r w i th m ic ro -env i ronmen ta l f e a tu re s a nd , a ss hown i nt h i s s t udy , ac on s ide ra t ion o ft h e l e s son s o ft h e e f f ec t o f t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen t . I n p red ic t ive mode l l ing p rope r , s i nce t h e a im i st o f i nd t h e s i te s r a the r t h an t o e xp la in t h e i rr e la t ion sh ip s , i fn e two rk a na ly s is i st ob e u sed o ne w ou ld n eed t od eve lop an e two rk t h a t i sn o t d ependen t o n s i te l o ca t ion , p e rhap s o ne g ene ra ted t h rough a n i t e ra t ive c o s t su rf ace p rocedu re .

E qua l ly , t h i s s t udy c a s t q ue s t ion o n to a r ea l e co log ica l c oncep t s s uch a s " popu la t ion d en s i ty ." P e r son s p e r s qua r e k i lome t r e i sn o t ar e levan t m ea su r e f o r h uman s ( s uch a s h un t e r s a nd g a the r e r s ) w ho t e nd n o tt oa pp rop r ia te t h e l a nd t wo -d imen s iona l ly , a s d ef ined b y I ngo ld ( 1986 ) . I t i s w e lcome t o s e e s uch s e em ing ly o dd t h eo r ie s a s I ngo ld 's a na ly s i s o fz e ro - a nd o ne -d imen s iona l l a nd t e nu re t u rn o u t t o h ave s uch d i r ec t u t i l i ty t o t h e s o lu t ion o f c en t ra l a r cha eo log ica lp rob lem s . 8 . 3 R e levance a rchaeo logy

o f

t h i s

s t udy

t o

N or thwe s t

C oa s t

A s w a s n o ted i n t h e I n t roduc t ion , a r chaeo logy o n t h e N or thw e s t C oa s t i s , i n g ene ra l , h ampe r ed b y a n o ve r ly n o rma t ive v i ew o fc u l tu r e ,a nd ac u l tu r e -h i s to r ica la pp roach d ependen t o n t h e d i rec t -h i s tor ica l m e thod . I n t h e l a t te r , e t hno l ingu is t ic g roup s h ave t h e i r c u r r en t t e r r i to r ie s t a ken a st h e s pa t ia l u n i t s o fa r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s . T he p re sen t i st h u s i mpo sed o n to t h e p a s t i n aw ay t h a t i sn o t a lway s j u s t if ied , o rj u s t if iab le . H oweve r , a dop t ion o ft h is m e thod o fd i scover ing u n i t s o fs pa t ia l a na ly s i sm igh tp o in tt h e w ay t o amo re s oph i s t ica ted d i rec t -h i s to r ica lo rc u l tu re -h i s to r ica l m e thod t h a t w a s n o t s o c l o se ly b ound t oa r t if ic ia l u n i t s o f a na ly s i s y e t w a s s t i l l s en s i t ive t ol o ng t e rm c on t inu i t ie s o f b ehav iou r . I nt h i sw ay , o ne m igh tw o rk t owa rd s a n swer ing t h e c a l l ( Dona ld a nd M i t che l l 1 988 :342 ) f o r mo r e a t ten t ion t ob eg i ven t ot h ed i r ec t -h i s tor ic a pp roach o nt h e No r thwe s t C oa s t .6 9 Mo r e g ene ra l ly , t h i s t h e s i s s how s t h e a dvan tage s o f i n t roduc ing s oc ia l t h eo ry i n p l ace o f ( o r a s p re lude t o ) e t hnog raphy , t hu s b r eak ing t h e c u lt u r e -h is tor ica l v i c iou s c i r c le . T he i n ten t ion o f b r eak ing f r om t h e e t hnog raph ic r e co rd w a s t or e -a r r ive a tt h e s t a r t ing p o in t , b u tw i th ag a in i nk now ledge . F rom t h i s n ew v an tage p o in t , i tw ou ld b e a n a tu r a l e x ten s ion o f t h i s p ro jec t t o e xam ine t h e m idden z one s i n c luded i n e ach s i gn if ican t s o lu t ion s e t f r om a n e t hnog raph ic a nd a r chaeo log ica l v i ewpo in t . D o t h ey s ha re a r chaeo log ica l c ha r ac te r i s t ic s , s u ch a s t r ade g ood s o r e xo t ica w h ich m igh t r e f lec t t h e i r i n te rdependen t c en t ra l i ty a c ro s s t h e n e two rk a s aw ho le? D o t h ey f e a tu re i n p a r t icu la r w ay s i no ra l t r ad i t ion o r f am i ly h i s to r ie s? S uch i n ve s t iga t ion w ou ld r equ i re ac on s ide rab le e x ten s ion o ft h i s r e sea rch i n to t h e r e a lm s o f " d i r t a r chaeo logy" a nd e t hno logy , i nw h ich t h e S o lu t ion S e t s t h em se lve s b ecome t h et o p ic o fa na ly s i s .

.I n te r e s t ing ly , G a l loway ( 1992 )c a l ls f o r ac on s ide ra t ion o fh ab i tu st oi n f o rm d i rec t -h i s tor ica la na logy i n aS pan ish c o lon ia lc a se s t udy . 6 9

7 3

I ndeed , Is e e t h e p r e sen t s t udy a s ap re l im ina ry s t ep i nt h i s p o ten t ia l ly w o r thwh i le a r chaeo log ica l m idd le g round . T he re i s c l ea r ly a n eed t o e xp lo r e t h e c a se s t udy m e thodo logy i n o the r f j o rd land s . T he s ou ther n Q ueen C ha r lo t te I s land s ( Gwa i i H aana s ) o f t h e n o r th B r i t ish C o lumb ian c oa s t h ave e xce l len t r e g iona l d a ta a nd as im i la r e co log ica l a dap ta t ion . I t w ou ld b e i n te re s t ing t o s e e w he the r s im i la r p a t te rn s e me rge t h e re a nd i fn o t , w hy n o t . E qua l ly , s ou ther n N ew Z ea land m igh t a f f o rd s ome i n ten s ive s t udy , w i th t h e a dded a dvan tage o f a n e ven n a r rowe r t ime d ep th o fh uman o ccupa t ion a nd t h e e n suen t p o s s ib i l i ty o f c l o se e xp lo ra t ion o f t h e c o lon i sa t ion o r l a nd scape inf i l l ing p roce s s . I n o t he r w o rd s , i tm igh t b e p o s s ib le t o e xp lo re s ome a spec t s o fh ow t h e e nv i ronmen t w a s " bu i l t" w i th in at ime p er iod t h a t i sr e la t ive ly s ha l low a nd r e a sonab ly w e l l d ocumen ted . I nT ie r ra d e l F uego a nd t h e C hono A r ch ipe lago , s hou ld s uff ic ien t s i te s u rvey d a ta b ecome a va i lab le , i tw ou ld b ei n te re s t ing t oe xp lo re i n mo r e d e ta i l e nv i ronmen ta l p o s s ib i l i sm a nd t hu s e xam ine t h e l i nk b e tween e nv i ronmen t a nd t h e d i f f e r en t a r chaeo log ica l s i gna tu r e so f" comp lex i ty ." L oca t ion -a l loca t ion a na ly s i s h a s b een a pp l ied i n s ome t e r r e s t r ia l s i tua t ion s w he re t h e re i s ab u i l t t r an spor ta t ion n e two rk ( Chu rch a nd B e l l 1 988 ) . I tm igh t b e p o s s ib le t o a pp ly i nt e r r e s t r ia l s i tua t ion s l a ck ing s uch b u i l t n e two rk s i f s ome c ond i t ion s w e r e m e t , m a in ly a d eg ree o f " I cnowab i l i ty" o ft h e d ec i s ion s e t s w h ich l e d p eop le t ot a ke c e r ta in r ou te s b e tween p l ace s . T h i s i s n o t n ece s sa r i ly i mpo s s ib le . F i r s t , t h e L oca t ion -A l loca t ion mode l d oe s n o t h ave t ob e i mp lemen ted o n an e two rk , i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t o

a na ly se s , t h e r e w ou ld b e n o s pa t ia l p a t ter nt od i scu s s . And , w i thou tt h e a i do fs oc ia l t h eo ry d eve loped i na r chaeo log ica l a nd s oc io log ica l c on tex t s i tw ou ld h ave b een e ven mo re d i ff i cu l tt of i ta n e xp lana t ion t ot h e o b served p a t t er n . T hu s , b y s imu l taneou s ly c on s ide r ing b o th t h e " I cnowab i l i ty" o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a nd t h e u n ive r sa l i ty o f c er ta in a spec t s o fh uman l i f e , t h i st h e s i s s how s o ne w ay o f mov ing b eyond t h e r h e to r ic o fp os t -p roce s sua l a r chaeo logy . T h i s m idd le g round i n a r chaeo logy , h e re m an if e s ted a s t h e a l l iance o f s oc ia l t h eo ry t o q uan t i ta t ive g eog raphy — t h e p roduc t ion o f d emon s t rab le , t e s tab le r e su l t s a nd t h e i r a l l iance t oh uman is t ic e xp lana t ion s— i sw ha t Iw ou ld t e rm ah uman i s t ic h uman e co log y . I np a r t icu la r , t h e u se o ft h e h ab i tu s a s ab r idg ing a rgumen t , s im i la r t o" m idd le r ange" t h eo ry ( a l though n o t a s e mp i r ica l ly g rounded ) , o f f e r s o ne p a th o u t o ft h e t h eo re t ica l c anyon b e tween w ha t P a t ty J o Wa t son ( 199 1 :170 ) h a s t e rmed t h e " me thod le s s s ou l" o f p o s t -p roce s sua l i s t a r chaeo logy a nd t h e " sou l le s s m e thod" o fp roce s sua l i s ta r chaeo log ie s .

i mp lemen t i ti n c on t inuou s s pace . I n t h e l a t te r , t h e p a th s b e tween p l ace sw ou ld b e d ef ined a st h e s hor te s tc onnec t ing p a th s , wh ich i s n o t r e ad i ly d ef en s ib le a s i t i g no re s t o pog raphy . H oweve r , t h e u se o f c o s t su r f a ce s c ou ld i n t roduce s ome s imp le p a rame te r s i n to s uch a mode l , w h ich , w i th in l im i t s , c ou ld make i tp o s s ib le t o e xp lo re s ome o ft h eu nde r ly ing a s sump t ion s o ft h ep r inc ip le o fl e a s t e f f o r t . S econd ,t h rough t h eu se o fc os t su rf ace s , i tm igh tb e p o s s ib le t ob u i ld o r i t e ra t ive ly g row an e two rk t h a t w a s a n a b s t rac t ion o f t h e t r an spo r ta t ion s pace i n a c e r ta in e nv i ronmen t . B y a ve rag ing o u tp os s ib le r ou te s a nd s e t t l ing o n o p t ima l o ne s , an e two rk c ou ld b e p o s tu la ted w h ich w a s i t se lf t h e t o p ic o f i nve s t iga t ion , r a the r t h an t h e m ean s o f i n ve s t iga t ion a s i tw a s i n t h i s s t udy . F u r the rmo r e , mo re s oph is t ica ted N e two rk A na ly t ic t oo l s , s uch a s d ynam ic s egmen ta t ion , c ou ld b e a pp l ied t ob r ing g r ea te r mode l l ing s ub t le ty t o l o ca l d if e rence s i n mob i l i ty p o t en t ia l a nd l a nd scape d i rec t iona l i ty . F o r e xamp le , i fo ne s t ar ted w i th Ma schne r a nd S t e in 's ( 1995 ) m e thod f o r p red ic t ing t h e l o ca t ion o f s i te s , o ne c ou ld t h en i d en t if y w h ich p l ace s i n t h e e nv i ronmen t a r e l i ke ly t oh ave s i te s , a nd t h en p r ed ic tv i aL oca t ion -a l loca t ion n e two rk a na ly s is w h ich o f t h e se p o ten t ia l s i te s m igh t b e l a rge . T hen o ne c ou ld g o o u ta nd f i e ld t e s ti t . I f Ma schne r a nd S t e in a r e c o r rec t i n t h e i r a s se s smen t o ft h e i r mode l 's u t i l i ty , t h en t h e p red ic ted s i t e l o ca t ion n e two rk s hou ld b e a lmos t a s g ood a tp r ed ic t ing s i te s i ze a s t h e o b ser ved s i te l o ca t ion n e two rk u sed i n t h i s t h e s is w i th a l l i t s a t tendan t d a ta i mpe r f ec t ion s . T h i s w ou ld b e u sef u l i n p oo r ly a cce ss ib le a r ea s w i th r e a sonab le t e r ra in mapp ing . F o r e xamp le , w i th i n c r ea s ing i n te re s t i n t h e c oa s ta l r ou t e o f N or th Ame r ican c o lon iza t ion , a nd w i th t h e f i ne sca le b a thyme t ry a va i lab le , o ne m igh t mode l t h e s ubme rged P l e i s tocene s ho re l ine sa nd p r ed ic t whe r eb o th s i te sa nd l a rge s i te s m igh t b e . T he se p red ic ted l a rge s i te l o ca t ion s , w h ich w ou ld b ed i ff icu l tt oa cce s sv i as cuba d i v ing a nd e xpen s ive t oa cce ss v i a s ubme r s ib le , c ou ld b e t a rge ted f o r i n expen s ive s amp l ing u s ing " c lam she l l" b ucke t s o r s ome s im i la r t e chno logy . B y n a r row ing t h e s amp l ing t o p red ic ted l a rge s i te l o ca t ion s , as t r a tegy wh ich w ou ld o t herw i se h ave a v e ry l ow s ucce ss -p robab i l i ty m igh t b e v i ab le . 8 . 5 C ommen t sa nd f u ture d i rec t ions T h i s t h e s i s r e -a f i rm s t h e i mpor tance o f t h eo ry — e spec ia l ly i n te rd isc ip l ina ry t h eo ry — to g u ide a r chaeo log ica l q ue s t ion s a nd t o i n te rp re t a noma lou s r e su l t s . W i thou t t h e g u idance f r om t h e e co log ica l p sycho log i s t J . J . G ib son t h e q ue s t ion s w ou ld n eve r h ave b een a sked a nd t h e mode l n eve r c on s t ruc ted b ecau se i tw a s s e lf -ev iden t f r om a n e t hnog raph ic a nd a r chaeo log ica l v i ewpo in t t h a t t h e re w a s n o r e a son t o t r ea t t h e s t udy a r ea a s ac ohe ren t u n i t o f a na ly s is . T hu s t h e d ec i s ion t o a bandon e t hnog raph ic i n f o rma t ion i np u r su i t o f a" pu r e" a r chaeo log ica l a pp roach w a s a l so e s sen t ia l . W i thou tm e thodo logy f r om q uan t i ta t ive g eog raphy a nd i n sp i ra t ion f r om Ma r t in Wob s t 's l o ca t iona l

7 4

B a rna rd ,A lan , 1 983 . C on tempo ra ry h un te rg a the re r s : c u r r en tt h eo r e t ica li s sue si ne co logy a nd s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion . A nnua lR ev iew o fA n thropo logy 1 2 : 193 -214 . B a rna rd ,H en ry , 1 990 . B ou rd ieu a nd e t hnog raphy : r e f lex iv i ty ,p o l i t ic sa nd p rax i s . P p . 5 8 -85 i nR . H a rke r , C . Maha ra nd C .W i lke s( e d s . )a n I n t roduc t ion t ot h e W ork o fP ier r eB ourd ieu . L ondon : Mac M i l lan . B a r re t t ,J ohn , 1 994 . F ragmen t sf rom A n t iqu i ty :A n a r chaeo log yo fs oc ia ll i f ei nB r i ta in , 2 , 900 -1 ,200 BC . O xf o rd : B lackwe l l . B ay l i s s -Sm i th , T imo thy , 1 977 . H uman e co logy a nd i s land p opu la t ion s : t h ep rob lem so fc hange . I nT .B ay l i s s Sm i th a nd R .F eachem ( e d s . )S ub s i s t ence a nd S ur v iva l : R ura le co logy i nt h eP ac if i c . L ondon : A cadem ic P r e s s . B ea t t ie , G ran t , 1 995 . A rchaeo log ica lL and scape so ft h e L ower Ma in land , B r i t i sh C o lumb ia : as e t t lemen t s t ud yu s ing aG eog raph ic I nf orma t ion S y s tem . M .A . T he s i s ,A n th ropo logy a nd S oc io logy , UBC . B ecke r , G a ry S . , 1 965 . At h eo ry o ft h ea loca t ion o ft ime . T he E conom ic J ourna l7 5 :493 -5 17 . B e l l ,J ame sA . , 1 994 . R econs t ruc t ing P reh i s tory : S c ien t i f ic m e thod i na rchaeo logy . P h i lade lph ia : T emp le Un ive r s i ty P re s s . B e l l , T homa sL .a nd R icha rd C hu r ch , 1 985 . L oca t ion a l loca t ion mode l l ing i na r chaeo log ica l s e t t lemen t p a t ter nr e sea r ch : s ome p re l im ina ry a pp l ica t ion s . W or ld A r chaeo logy 1 6 (3 ) :354 -7 1 . B e l l ,T homa sL .a nd R icha rd C hu r ch , 1 987 . L oca t ion a l loca t ion mode l ing i na r chaeo logy . P p . 7 6 100 i n A . G ho sh a nd G . R u sh ton ( e d s . )S pa t ia lA na ly s i s a nd L oca t ion -A l loca t ion Mode l s . N ew Y o rk : V an No s t rand R e inho ld . B e l l , T homa sL . ,R icha rd C hu r ch a nd L a r ry G o ren f lo , 1 988 . L a te h o r izon r eg iona l e ff ic iency i nt h e N or thea s ter nB a s in o f Mex ico : al o ca t ion -a l loca t ion p e r spec t ive . J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica l A rchaeo logy 7 :1 63 -202 . B ende r , B a rba ra , 1 985 . P r eh i s to r ic d eve lopmen t si nt h e Amer ican m idcon t inen ta nd i nB r i t tany ,N o r thwe s t F rance . P p . 2 1-57 i nT .D oug la sP r ice a nd J ame sA . B rown ( e d s . )P reh i s tor ic H un ter -Ga therer s : t h e e mergence o fc u l tura lc omp lex i ty .N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P r e s s . B ende r ,B a rba ra , 1 989 . T he r oo t so fi n equa l i ty . P p . 8 3 -95 i nD . M i l le re ta l( e d s . ) D om ina t ion a nd R e s i s tance . L ondon : U nw in Hyman . B ende r , B a rba ra , 1 990 . T he d ynam ic so fn onh ie ra r ch ica l s oc ie t ie s . P p . 2 47 -63 i nS .U pham ( e d . ) T he E vo lu t ion o fP o l i t ica lS y s tems :s oc iopo l i t ic s i n s ma l l sca le s ed en tar ys oc ie t ie s . C ambr idge : C ambr idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s .

REFERENCES A l len ,K . , S t an ton G reen a nd E z ra Z ub row , 1 990 . I n terpre t ing S pace : G IS a nd a rchaeo log y . L ondon : T ay lo ra nd F ranc i s . Ame s ,K enne th M . , 1 99 1a . S eden t ism : at empo ra ls h if to ra t r an s i t iona lc hange i nh un te r -ga the r e r mob i l i ty p a t te rn s? P p . 1 08 -34 i nS .G regg ( e d . )B e tween B and sa nd S ta te s . C a rbonda le I l ino i s : C en t e rf o r A rchaeo log ica lI nve s t iga t ion s , O cca s iona l P ape r No . 9 . Ame s , K enne th M . , 1 99 1b . T he a r chaeo logy o ft h el o ngue d uHe : t empo ra la nd s pa t ia l s c a le i nt h ee vo lu t ion o f s o c ia lc omp lex i ty o nt h e s ou the rn N or thwe s tC oa s t . A n t iqu i ty 6 5 :935 -45 . Ame s , K enne th M . , 1 994 . T he No r thwe s tC oa s t : c omp lex h un te r -ga the re r s , e co logy ,a nd s oc ia l e vo lu t ion . A nnua lR ev iew o fA n thropo log y2 3 : 2 09 -29 . A rca sA s soc ia tes , 1 989 . P a t tern so fS e t t lemen to ft h e A housah t( K e l semah t ) a nd C layoquo tB and s . U npub l i shed r epo r tp r epa r ed f o rA hou sah ta nd C layoquo tB and s . A r ima ,E ugene , 1 983 . T he W e s tC oa s tP eop le : T he N oo tka o fV ancouver I s land a nd C ape F la t tery .V ic to r ia , B .C . : B r i t i sh C o lumb ia P rov inc ia l Mu seum S pec ia l P ub l ica t ion No . 6 . A r ima ,E ugene a nd J ohn D ewh i r s t , 1 990 . N oo tkan so f V ancouve rI s land . P p . 3 9 1-4 11 i nW . S u t t le s( e d . ) H andbook o fN or th Amer ican I nd ians V o lume 7 : N or thwe s tC oa s t . Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . : Sm i th son ian P re s s . A rno ld ,J eanne , 1 992 . C omp lex h un te r -ga the r e r -f i she r so f p r eh i s tor ic C a l if or n ia : c h ief s ,s pec ia l i s t s ,a nd m a r i t ime a dap ta t ion so ft h eC hanne lI s land s . Amer ican A n t iqu i t y5 7 ( 1) :60 -84 . A rno ld ,J eanne , 1 993 . L abou ra nd t h er i se o fc omp lex h un te r -ga the re r s . T he J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica l A rchaeo logy 1 2 :75 119 . A rno ld ,J eanne , 1 995 . T ran spo r ta t ion i n nova t ion a nd s oc ia l c omp lex i ty a mong ma r i t ime h un te r -ga the re r s o c ie t ie s . Amer ican A n thropo log i s t9 7 (4 ) :733-47 . B a i ley ,G eof f rey , 1 983 . H un te r -ga the re rb ehav iou ri n p r eh i s to ry :p rob lem sa nd p ro spec t ive s . P p . 1 22 i n G . B a i ley , Hun ter -Ga therer E conomy i nP reh i s tory . C amb r idge : C ambr idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . B a i ley ,G eof f rey a nd J ohn P a rk ing ton ( e d s . ) , 1 988 . T he A r chaeo logy o fP reh i s tor ic C oa s t l ine s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P r e s s ,N ew D i r ec t ion si n A rchaeo logy . B a i ley ,T r evo rC . , 1 994 . Ar ev iew o fs t a t i s t ica l s pa t ia l a na ly s i si ng eog raph ica li n f o rma t ion s y s tem s . P p . 1 3 -44 i nS .F o ther ingham a nd P .R oge r son ( e d s . ) S pa t ia lA na ly s i sa nd G IS L ondon : T ay lo ra nd F ranc i s .

7 5

B rown ,J ame sA . a nd T .D . P r ice , 1 985 . C omp lex h un te r g a the re r s : r e t ro spec ta nd p ro spec t . P p .4 35 -42 i nT . D oug la sP r ice a nd J ame sA . B rown ( e d s . ) P reh i s tor ic Hun ter -Ga the rer s : t h ee mergence o f c u l tura lc omp lex i ty .N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic . B rumf ie l ,E l izabe th M . , 1 989 . F ac t iona lc ompe t i t ion i n c omp lex s oc ie ty . P p . 1 27 -39 i nD . M i l le re ta l( e d s . ) D om ina t ion a nd R e s i s tance . L ondon : U nw in H yman . B rumf ie l ,E l izabe th M . a nd J ohn F ox ( e d s . ) , 1 994 . F ac t iona lC ompe t i t ion a nd P o l i t ica lD eve lopmen ti n t h eN ew W or ld . C amb r idge : C ambr idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . B rumf ie l ,E l izabe th M . a nd T imo thy E a r le , 1 987 . S pec ia l iza t ion , e xchange ,a nd c omp lex s oc ie t ie s : a n i n t roduc t ion . P p . 1 9i nE .B rumf ie la nd T .E a r le ( e d s . )S pec ia l i za t ion , E xchange , a nd C omp lex S oc ie t ie s . C ambr idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s , N ew D i rec t ion s i nA r chaeo logy S e r ie s . B u ra , S t ephane , F . Guer in -Pace , H . Ma th ian , D . P uma in , a nd L .S ande r s , 1 996 . Mu l t iagen ts y s tem s a nd t h e d ynam ic so f as e t t lemen ts y s t em . G eog raph ica l A na ly s i s 2 8 (2 ) : 1 6 1-78 . B u r rough , P .A . , 1 986 . P r inc ip le so fG eog raph ica l I nf orma t ion S y s tem sf or L and R e source s A s se s smen t . O xf o rd : C la rendon P re s s . C a r ls te in , T ommy , 1 981 . T he s oc io logy o fs t ruc tu ra t ion i n t ime a nd s pace : at ime -geog raph ic a s se s smen to f G idden s ' t h eo ry . I nS vensk G eog raf i sk A r sbok 5 7 :4 1-57 . C a r l s te in ,T ommy , 1 982 . T ime R e source s , S oc ie ty a nd E co logy . V o lume 1 :P re indus t r ia lS oc ie t ie s . L ondon : A l len a nd U nw in . C a rve r ,M .O .H . , 1 990 . P re -V ik ing t r aff ic i nt h e No r th S ea . I nS . McG ra i l( e d . ) Mar i t ime C e l t s , F r i s ians a nd S axon s . C ounc i l f o rB r i t i sh A rchaeo logy : CBA R e sea r ch R epor t7 1 . C he r ry ,J ohn F . , 1 981 . P a t ter na nd p roce s si nt h ee a r l ie s t c o lon iza t ion o f Med i te r ranean i s land s . P roceed ing s o ft h eP r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 4 7 :4 1-68 . C hu r ch ,R icha rd L .a nd T homa sL .B e l l , 1 988 . A na na ly s i s o fa nc ien tE gyp t ian s e t t lemen tp a t ter n su s ing L oca t ion -a l loca t ion c over ing mode l s . A nna l so ft h e A s soc ia t ion o fAmer ican G eog raphe r s( 7 8 (4 ) :70 1 1 4 . C laa s sen , C he ry l , 1 991 . No rma t ive t h ink ing a nd s he l l b ea r ing s i te s . P p . 2 49 -98 i nM . S ch if f e r( e d . ) A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory 3 .T uc son : U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P re s s . C lae s sen , H .J .M . , 1 981 . R each ing f o rt h em oon? S ome p rob lem sa nd p ro spec t so fc u l tu ra l e vo lu t ion i sm . P p . 1 5 -40 i nS .E . v an d e rL eeuw ( e d . ) A rchaeo log ica lA pproache s t ot h eS t udy o f C omp lex i ty . Am s te rdam : Un ive r s i te i tv an Am s t e rdam .

B e t t inge r ,R . , 1 980 . E xp lana to ry /P red ic t ive mode l so f h un te r -ga the re ra dap ta t ion . P p . 1 89 -255 i nM . S ch if f e r( e d . )A dvance si nA rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heo ry , V o lume 3 . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk B ha ska r ,R oy , 1 989 . R ec la im ing R ea l i ty : ac r i t ica l i n t roduc t ion t oc on temporary p h i lo sophy . L ondon : V e r so . B inf o rd ,L ew i sR . , 1 978 . N unam iu tE thnoarchaeo logy . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P r e s s . B inf o rd ,L ew i sR . , 1 990 . Mob i l i ty ,h ou s ing ,a nd e nv i ronmen t : ac ompa ra t ive s t udy . T he J ourna lo f A n thropo log ica lR e search : 19 -52 . B inf o rd ,L ew i sR . , 1 992 . S ee ing t h ep re sen ta nd i n te rp re t ing t h ep a s t -and k eep ing t h ing s s t ra igh t . P p .4 3 -59 i nJ .R o s s igno l a nd L . Wand sn ide r( e d s . ) S pace , T ime a nd A rchaeo log ica lL and scape s . L ondon : P l enum . B loch ,M . , 1 989 . T he p a s ta nd t h ep re sen ti nt h ep re sen t . P p . 1 18 i nM . B loch : R i tua l , H i s tory a nd P ower : s e lec ted p aper s i na n thropo logy . L ondon S choo l o f E conom ic s , Monog raph so n S oc ia lA n th ropo logy N o . 5 8 . L ondon : A th lone . B oaz , J . S . a nd E .U lebe rg , 1 995 . T he p o ten t ia lo fG ISb a sed s t ud ie so fI r on A ge c u l tu ra l l a nd scape si n e a s te rn N orway . P p . 2 49 -59 i nG . L ock a nd Z . S t anc ic ( e d s . ) 1 995 : A rchaeo logy a nd G eog raph ica l I nf orma t ion S y s tems : aE uropean p er spec t ive . L ondon : T ay lo r&F ranc i s . B o rga t t i ,E ve r e t ta nd F reeman [ s ic ] , 1 992 . UC INET I V V er s ion 1 . 0R ef erence Manua l . C o lumb ia : A na ly t ic T echno log ie s . B o r re ro ,L u i sA lbe r to , 1 994 . T he e x te rm ina t ion o ft h e S e lk 'nam . P p . 2 47 -61 i nB u rch E .a nd L .E l lanna ( e d s . )K ey I s sue si n Hun ter -Ga ther er R e sear ch . O xf o rd :B e rg . B ou rd ieu ,P i e r r e , 1 977 . O u t l ine o f aT heo ry o fP rac t ice . C ambr idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s B ou rd ieu ,P i e r re , 1 990 . T he L og ic o fP rac t ice . C ambr idge : P o l i ty P r e s s . B oyd , R obe r tT . , 1 990 . D emog raph ic H i s to ry , 1 774 1874 . I n Wayne S u t t le s( e d . ) :H andbook o fN or th Amer ican I nd ians , v o l . 7 :N or thwe s t C oas t . Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion , Wa sh ing ton , 1 990 . B ro thwe l l ,D on a nd G eof f rey D imb leby ( ed s . ) , 1 981 . E nv i ronmen ta lA spec t s o fC oa s t sa nd I s land s . B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t sI n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 9 4 . O xf o rd : BAR B rown ,J ame sA . , 1 985 . L ong te rm t r end st os eden t i sm a nd t h ee me rgence o fc omp lex i ty i nt h e Ame r ican M idwe s t . P p .2 01-35 i nT .D oug la sP r ice a nd J ame s A . B rown ( ed s . )P reh i s tor ic Hun ter -Ga therer s : t h e e mergence o fc u l tura lc omp lex i ty . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic .

7 6

N or thwe s tC oa s t . Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion , Wa sh ing ton , 1 990 . D eL aguna ,F r eder ica , 1 990 . T l ing i t . P p . 2 03 -28 i n Wayne S u t t le s( e d . ) :H andbook o fN or th Amer ican I nd ians , v o l . 7 :N or thwe s tC oa s t . Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion , Wa sh ing ton , 1 990 . D ona ld , L e land a nd D ona ld H . M i tche l l , 1 994 . N a tu re a nd c u l tu r eo nt h e Nor thwe s tC oa s to f No r th Amer ica : T he c a se o f Waka shan s a lmon r e sou r ce s . P p . 9 5 17 i nE . B u r che a nd J .E l lanna ( e d s . ) :K ey I s sue si n Hun ter -Ga ther er R e search . O xf o rd : B e rg . D r ennan , R .a nd C .U r ibe ( e d s . ) , 1 987 . C h ief doms i nt h e Amer ica s . L anham MD : U n ive r s i ty P re s so ft h e Am er ica s . D rucke r ,P h i l ip , 1 951 . T he N or thern a nd C en t ra lN oo tkan T r ibe s . Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . : B u r eau o f Ame r ican E thno logy ,B u l le t in 1 44 . D unne l l ,R obe r tC . , 1 992 . T he n o t ion s i te . P p . 2 1-42 i nJ . R o s s igno l a nd L . Wand sn ide r( e d s . ) S pace , T ime a nd A rchaeo log ica lL and scape s . L ondon : P lenum . E a r le , T imo thy K . , 1 987a . S pec ia l iza t ion a nd t h e p roduc t ion o fw ea l th : H awa i ian c h ief dom sa nd t h e I nka e mp i re . P p . 6 4 -75 i nE .B rumf i e l a nd T .E a r le ( ed s . )S pec ia l i za t ion , E xchang e , a nd C omp lex S oc ie t ie s . C ambr idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s , N ew D i rec t ion si nA r chaeo logy . E a r le ,T imo thy K . , 1 987b . C h ief dom si na r chaeo log ica l a nd e t hnoh is tor ica lp e r spec t ive . A nnua lR ev iew o f A n thropo logy 1 6 :279 -308 . E a r le , T imo thy K . ( e d . ) , 1 99 1 . C h ief dom s :P ower , E conomy , a nd I d eo log y . C ambr idge : C ambr idge Un ive r s i ty P r e s s E a s ton ,N . A lexande r , 1 985 . T he U nd erwa ter A rchaeo log y o fC oa s tS a l i sh R eef N e t t ing . U npub l ished M .A . t h e s is i nA n th ropo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o fV ic to r ia , B r i t i sh C o lumb ia . E ld r idge , Mo r ley a nd A lexande r Mack ie , 1 993 . P red ic t ive Mod e l l ing a nd t h eE x i s t ing A r chaeo log ica l I nven tory i nB r i t i sh C o lumb ia . U npub l i shed n on p e rm i tr e po r tp repa red f o rt h eA r chaeo logy T a sk G roup o ft h eG eo logy , S o i l s , a nd A r chaeo logy T a sk F o r ce o ft h eR e sou r ce I nven to ry C omm i t tee , P rov ince o fB r i t i sh C o lumb ia . O n f i l e a tt h e A r chaeo logy B ranch , P rov ince o fB r i t i sh C o lumb ia , V ic to r ia . E ld r idge , Mo r ley a nd H ea the r Moon , 1 992 . A rchaeo log ica l I nven to ry i nB r i t i sh C o lumb ia . U npub l ished n on p e rm i tr e po r tp repa red f o rt h eA r chaeo logy T a sk G roup o ft h eG eo logy , S o i l s , a nd A r chaeo logy T a sk F o rce o ft h eR e sou r ce I nven to ry C omm i t tee , P rov ince o fB r i t i sh C o lumb ia . O nf i l e a tt h e A r chaeo logy B ranch , P rov ince o fB r i t i sh C o lumb ia , V ic tor ia . E l len , R oy , 1 996 . T he c ogn i t ive g eome t ry o fn a tu re : a c on tex tua la pp roa ch . P p . 1 03 -23 i nP .D e sco la a nd G . P a l s son ( e d s . )N a ture a nd S oc ie ty : A n thropo log ica lP er spec t ive s . L ondon : R ou t ledge .

C la rk ,J ohn E .a nd M ichae l B lake , 1 994 . T he p owe ro f p r e s t ige : c ompe t i t ive g ene ro s i ty a nd t h ee me rgence o fr a nk s oc ie t ie si nl ow land Me soame r ica . P p . 1 7 3 0i nE .B rumf ie l a nd J .F ox ( e d s . )F ac t iona l C ompe t i t ion a nd P o l i t ica lD ev e lopmen ti nt h eN ew W or ld . C ambr idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re ss . C lax ton ,J . B . , 1 995 . F u tu re e nhancemen t st oG IS : i mp l ica t ion sf o ra r chaeo log ica lt h eo ry . P p . 3 35 -48 i nG .L ock a nd Z .S t anc ic ( e d s . ) 1 995 : A rchaeo logy a nd G eog raph ica lI nf orma t ion S y s tems : aE uropean p e r spec t ive . L ondon : T ay lo r &F ranc is . C ohen , Ma rk N . , 1 985 . P reh i s to r ic h un te r -ga the re r s : t h e m ean ing o fs oc ia lc omp lex i ty . P p . 9 9 119 i nT . D oug la sP r ice a nd J ame sA . B rown ( e d s . ) P r eh i s tor ic H un ter -Ga ther er s : T he Emergence o f C u l tura lC omp lex i ty .N ew Y o rk :A cadem ic P re s s . C o l ten ,R oge rH . a nd A nd r ew S t ewa r t , 1 996 . A n a dap t ion i s t mode lo fe me rgen tc omp lex i ty a mong h un t e r -ga the re r si nt h eS an ta B a rba ra ,C a l if o rn ia r e g ion . R e search i nE conom ic A n thropo log y 1 7 : 2 27 -50 . C onkey , Ma rga re t , 1 984 . T of i nd o u r se lve s : a r ta nd s oc ia l g eog raphy o fp reh is tor ic h un t e rg a the r e r s . P p . 2 53 7 6i nS ch i-i r e ,C a rme l( e d . )P a s ta nd P re sen ti n H un ter G a therer S tud ie s . L ondon : A cadem ic P re s s . C onkey , Ma rga re t , 1 985 . R i tua lc ommun ica t ion , s oc ia l e l abo ra t ion ,a nd t h ev a r iab le t r a jec to r ie so f P a laeo l i th ic m a ter ia lc u l tu re . P p . 2 0 1-235 i n T .Doug la sP r ice a nd J ame sA .B rown ( e d s . ) P r eh i s tor ic H un ter -Ga the rer s : t h ee me rgence o f c u l tura lc omp l ex i ty .N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic . C onkey , Ma rga re t , 1 987 . I n t e rp r e t ive p rob lem si nh un te r g a the re rr eg iona l s t ud ie s : s ome t hough t so nt h e E u ropean Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic . I nS of f e r , O lga ( ed . ) T he P le i s tocene O ld W or ld :R eg iona lP er spec t ive s . L ondon : P lenum . C oope r ,J ohn M . , 1 946 . T he Y ahgan . I nJ u l ian S t ewa rd ( e d . ) Handbook o fS ou th Amer ican I nd ian s . Wa sh ing ton : B u reau o f Ame r ican E thno logy , B u l le t in 1 43 ( 1) . C osg rove ,D en is , 1 989 . G eog raphy i se ve rywhe re : c u l tu r e a nd s ymbo l i sm i nh uman l a nd scape s . P p . 18 -35 i n D .G rego ry a nd R . Wa lf o rd ( e d s . ) Hor i zons i n H uman G eog raphy . B a s ing s toke ,U .K . : Mac M i l lan . C oup land ,G a ry , 1 988 . P reh i s tor ic s o c ia la nd e conom ic c h ange i nt h eT s im sh ian a r ea . P p . 2 11-43 i nB . I s a ac ( ed . ) : R e search i nE conom ic A n thropo logy , S upp lemen t3 :P reh i s tor ic E conom ie so ft h e N or thwe s tC oa s t . G r eenw ich CT : J A IP re s s . C roe s ,D a le a nd S t even H a ckenbe rge r , 1 988 . H oko r i ve r a r chaeo log ica lc omp lex : mode l ing p reh i s to r ic n o r thwe s tc oa s te conom ic e vo lu t ion . P p . 1 9 -86 i n B .I s aac ( ed . ) :R e search i nE conom ic A n thropo logy , S upp lemen t3 :P reh i s tor ic E conom ie so ft h e N or thwe s tC oa s t . G r eenw ich CT : J A IP re s s . D av i s , S t an ley D . , 1 990 . P r eh i s to ry o fS ou thea s ter n A la ska . P p . 1 97 -202 i n Wayne S u t t le s( e d . ) : H andbook o fN or th Amer ican I nd ians , v o l . 7 :

7 7

G amb le , C l ive S . , 1 993 . T he c en t re a tt h ee dge . P p . 3 13 2 1 i nO lga S of f e ra nd N .D . P ra s lov ( e d s . )F rom K o s tenk it oC lov i s : U pper P a laeo l i th ic - P a laeo I nd ian A dap ta t ions . N ew Yo rk : P l enum . G amb le , C l ive S . , 1 995 . Mak ing T rack s :H om in id n e two rk sa nd t h ee vo lu t ion o ft h es o c ia l l and scape . P p . 2 53 -77 i nJ .S t ee le a nd S .S he rman ( ed s . ) T he A rchaeo logy o fH uman A nce s try :P ower , S ex a nd T rad i t ion . L ondon : R ou t ledge . G amb le , C l ive S . , 1 998 . P a laeo l i th ic s o c ie ty a nd t h e r e lea se f r om p rox im i ty : an e two rk a pp roach t o i n t ima te r e la t ion s . W or ld A rchaeo log y2 9 (3 ) :426 4 9 . G e l l ,A lf r ed , 1 985 . H ow t or e ad amap : r ema rk s o nt h e p rac t ica l l o g ic o fn av iga t ion . Man ( n .s . ) 2 0 : 2 7 1-86 . G e l l ,A lf red , 1 992 . T he A n thropo logy o fT ime : c u l tura l c ons t ruc t ions o ft empora lm ap sa nd i mage s . O xf o rd : B e rg . G ibson ,J . J . , 1 979 . T he E co log ica lA pproach t o V i sua l P ercep t ion . H i l l sda le ,N ew J e r sey : L aw rence E r lbaum A s soc . G idden s , A n thony , 1 984 . T he C on s t i tu t ion o fS oc ie ty . C amb r idge : P o l i ty P re s s . G i lman , A n ton io , 1 99 1 . T ra jec tor ie st owa rd ss oc ia l c omp lex i ty i nt h el a te rp reh is to ry o ft h e Med i te r ranean . P p . 1 46 -69 i nT .E a r le ( ed . ) C h ief doms :p ower , e conomy , a nd i d eo logy . C ambr idge : C ambr idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . G o renf lo , L .a nd N . G a le , 1 990 . Mapp ing r eg iona l s e t t lemen ti ni n f o rma t ion s pace . T he J ourna lo f A n thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 9 : 240 -74 G o renf lo , L .a nd T .B e l l , 1 992 . N e two rk a na ly s is a nd t h e s t udy o fp a s tr eg iona lo rgan iza t ion . P p . 8 0 -98 i nC . T n imbo ld ( e d . )A nc ien tR oad N e twork sa nd S e t t lemen tH ierarch ie si nt h eN ew W or ld . C ambr idge : C ambr idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . G o ren s te in , S h i r ley a nd H e len P .P o l la rd , 1 992 . X anhar i : p ro toh i s to r ic T a ra scan r ou te s . P p . 1 69 -85 i nC . T rumbo ld ( ed . )A nc ien tR oad N e twork sa nd S e t t lemen tH ierarch ie si nt h eN ew W or ld . C amb r idge : C ambr idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . G o sden , C h r i s tophe ra nd C h r i s t ina P av l ide s , 1 994 . A r e i s land si n su la r ? l a nd scape v s . s e a scape i nt h ec a se o ft h eA rawe I s land s ,P apua N ew G u inea . A rchaeo logy i nO cean ia 2 9 :162 -7 1 . G o sden , C h r i s tophe ra nd L e s ley H ead , 1 994 . L and scape : a u sef u l ly a mb iguou sc oncep t . A rchaeo logy i n O cean ia 2 9 :113 16 . G osden , C h r i s tophe r , 1 994 . S oc ia lB e ing a nd T ime . O xf o rd : B lackwe l l . G osden , C h r i s tophe r , 1 995 . A rbor icu l tu r ea nd a g r icu l tu r e i nc oa s ta lP apua N ew G u inea . A n t iqu i ty 6 9 : 8 07 17 . G ou ld ,R icha rd A . , 1 985 . ' Now L e t 's I nven t Ag r icu l tu r e ' . ..:ac r i t ica lr ev iew o fc oncep t so fc omp lex i ty a mong h un te r -ga the r e r s . P p . 4 27 -35 i nT . Doug la s P r ice a nd J ame sA . B rown ( ed s . )P reh i s tor ic Hun ter -Ga therer s : t h ee mergence o fc u l tura l c omp lex i ty .N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P r e s s .

Emmon s ,G eo rge T ho rn ton , 1 99 1 . T he T l ing i tI nd ian s . F r eder ica d eL aguna ( ed . ) . A n th ropo log ica lP ape r s o ft h e Ame r ican Mu seum o fN a tu ra lH is to ry n o . 7 0 . Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . : Sm i th son ian . E SR I , 1 995 . A rcDoc 7 . 0( Re la t iona ld a taba se m anua l f o r A r c / Inf o ) .R ed land s , C a l if o rn ia : E nv i ronmen ta l S y s tem sR e sea rch I n s t i tu te . F i r th , R aymond , 1 953 . E lemen t so fS oc ia lO rgan i za t ion . L ondon : Wa t t s . F ladma rk ,K nu t , 1 982 . An i n t roduc t ion t ot h ep reh i s to ry o f B r i t ish C o lumb ia . C anad ian J ourna lo f A rchaeo logy 6 : 95 156 . F lanagan ,J ame sG . , 1 989 . H ie ra r chy i n' s imp le ' a nd ' e ga l i ta r ian ' S oc ie t ie s . A nnua lR ev iew o f A n thropo log y 1 8 :245 -66 . F lanagan ,J ame sG . a nd S t eve R ayne r , 1 988 . I n t roduc t ion . P p . 1 19 i nJ ame sG . F lanagan a nd S t eve R ayne r ( e d s . )R u l e s , D ec i s ions , a nd I nequa l i ty i n E ga l i tar ian S oc ie t ie s . A lde r sho tU .K . : G owe r . F le tche r ,R o land , 1 995 . T he L im i t so fS e t t lemen tG row th : a t h eore t ica lo u t l ine . C amb r idge : C ambr idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,N ew S tud ie si nA rchaeo logy . F o ley ,R ober t , 1 981 . A mode lo fr eg iona l a r chaeo log ica l s t ruc tu r e . P roceed ing so ft h eP reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 4 7 : 1 17 . F ox ,J ohn , 1 994 . C onc lu s ion s : mo ie ta lo ppo s i t ion , s egmen ta t ion ,a nd f a c t iona l i sm i nN ew Wo r ld p o l i t ica la r ena s . P p . 1 99 -206 i nE .B rumf ie l a nd J . F ox ( e d s . )F ac t iona lC ompe t i t ion a nd P o l i t ica l D eve lopmen ti nt h eN ew W or ld . C ambr idge : C ambr idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s . G af f ney V . a nd M .v an L eu sen , 1 995 . P o s t scr ip t- G IS , e nv i ronmen ta ld e te rm in i sm a nd a r chaeo logy : a p a ra l le lt e x t . P p . 3 66 -382 i nG . L ock a nd Z .S t anc ic ( e d s . ) 1 995 : A rchaeo logy a nd G eog raph ica l I nf orma t ion S y s tem s : AE uropean P er spec t ive . L ondon : T ay lo r &F ranc i s . G af f ney ,V incen t ,Z o ran S t anc ic a nd H e len Wa t son , 1 995 . Mov ing f r om c a tchmen t st oc ogn i t ion : t e n ta t ive s t ep st owa rd s al a rge ra r chaeo log ica lc on tex tf o r G IS . S co t t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew 1 5 :4 1-64 . G a ine s , S y lv ia ( e d . ) , 1 987 . C oa s t s , P la in sa nd D e ser t s : e s say si nh onor o fR eyno ld J .R uppe . A n th ropo log ica lR e sea rch P ape r s No . 3 8 ,A r izona S t a te U nve r s i ty . T emp le AZ . G a l loway ,P a tr ic ia , 1 992 . T he u nexam ined h ab i tu s : d i rec t h i s to r ic a na logy a nd t h ea r chaeo logy o ft h et e x t . P p . 1 78 -95 i nJ -C . G a rd in a nd C .P eeb le s( ed s . ) R epre sen ta t ion s i nA rchaeo logy . B loom ing ton : I nd iana U n ive r s i ty P re s s . G amb le ,C l ive S . , 1 986 . H un te r -ga the re r sa nd t h eo r ig in o f s t a te s . P p .2 3 -47 i nJ .A .H a l l( ed . )S t a te si nH i s to ry . O xf o rd : B a s i lB lackwe l l . G amb le ,C l ive S . , 1 987 . A rchaeo logy ,g eog raphy a nd t ime . P rog re s si nH uman G eog raphy 1 (2 ) :227 -46 . G amb le , C l ive S . , 1 992 . A r chaeo logy ,h i s to ry ,a nd t h e u t te rmo s te nd so ft h ee a r th - T a sman ia ,T ie r ra d e l F uego a nd t h eC ape . A n t iqu i ty 6 6 :7 12 -20 .

7 8

H a s t ing s , C . , 1 987 . I mp l ica t ion so fA ndean v e r t ica l i ty i n t h ee vo lu t ion o fp o l i t ica lc omp lex i ty : av i ew f r om t h e ma rg in s . P p . 1 45 157 i nJ .H aa s , S .P ozo r s l c i a nd T .P ozo r sk i ( ed s . ) T he O r ig ins a nd D eve lopmen t o ft h eA nd ean S ta te . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s . H ayden ,B r ian , 1 990 . N im rod s ,p i sca to r s ,p lucke r sa nd p l an te r s : t h ee me rgence o ff ood p roduc t ion . T he J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy : 9 :3 1-69 . H ayden ,B r ian , 1 992 . C onc lu s ion s : e co logy a nd c omp lex h un te r /ga the r e r s . P p . 5 24 -563 i nB .H ayden ( e d . ) A C omp lex C u l ture o ft h eB r i t i sh C o lumb ia P la teau . V ancouve r : U .B .C . P re s s . H ayden ,B r ian , 1 994 . C ompe t i t ion , l a bou r , a nd c omp lex h un te r -ga the re r s . P p . 2 23 -242 i nB u r ch E .a nd L . E l lanna ( ed s . )K ey I s sue si nH un ter -Ga therer R e search . O xf o rd : B e rg . H ayne s , K ing s ley a nd A .S . F o the r ingham , 1 984 . G rav i ty a nd S pa t ia lI n terac t ion Mode l s . S c ien t if ic G eog raphy S e r ie sv o l . 2 .L ondon : S age . H ead land , T homa sN . , 1 997 . R ev i s ion i sm i nE co log ica l A n th ropo logy . C ur ren tA n thropo log y3 8 (4 ) :605 -30 . H ebda ,R icha rd J .a nd R o lf W . Ma thewe s , 1 984 . H o locene h i s to ry o fc eda ra nd N a t ive I nd ian c u l tu re so ft h e No r th Ame r ican P ac if ic C oa s t . S c ience 2 25 :7111 3 . H i l lsman , E .L . , 1 984 . T he p -med ian s t ruc tu re a s au n if ied l i nea r mode l f o rl o ca t ion -a l loca t ion a na ly s i s . E nv ironmen ta nd P lann ing A 1 6 :305 18 . H odde r , I a n , 1 992 . T owa rd s ac ohe r en ta r chaeo logy . C hap te r 1 2i nI .H odde r( e d . ) T heor ya nd P rac t ice i n A rchaeo logy . L ondon : R ou t ledge . H of fmeye r ,J e spe r , 1 997 . T he s wa rm ing b ody . P ape r p re sen ted a tt h e 5 t hI ASS c ong re s s i nB e rke ley ,J une 1 995 ,P p . 9 37 -940 i nI rnenga rd R auch a nd G e ra ld F .C a r r( ed s . )S em io t ic sA round t h e W or ld . P roceed ing so ft h eF if th C ong re s so ft h e I n terna t iona lA s soc ia t ion f or S em io t ic S t ud ie s . B erke ley 1 994 .N ew Y o rk : Mou ton d e G ruy te r 1 997 . A l so w eb p ub l ished a t : h t tp : / /www .mo lb io .ku .dk /Mo lB ioPage s /ab l c /Pe r sona 1 P age s / Je spe r /Swa rm .h tm l I ngo ld , T im , 1 986a . T e r r i tor ia l i ty a nd t e nu re : t h e a pp rop r ia t ion o fs pace i nh un t ing a nd g a ther ing s oc ie t ie s . P p . 1 30 -64 i nT .I ngo ld ( e d . ) T he A ppropr ia t ion o fN a tur e . Manche s t e r : Manche s te r Un ive r s i ty P r e s s . I ngo ld , T im , 1 986b . T he p r inc ip le o fi nd iv idua l a u tonomy a nd t h ec o l lec t ive a pp ropr ia t ion o fn a tu r e . P p . 2 22 4 2 i nT .I ngo ld ( ed . ) T he A ppropr ia t ion o fN a ture . Manche s te r : Manche s te rU n ive r s i ty P r e s s . I ngo ld , T im , 1 992 . C u l tu re a nd t h ep e rcep t ion o ft h e e nv i ronmen t . P p . 3 9 -56 i nE .C ro l l a nd D . P a rk in ( e d s . )B u sh B ase : F ore s tF arm . C u l tur e , E nv ironmen ta nd D eve lopmen t . L ondon : R ou t ledge . I ngo ld , T im , 1 993 . T he t empo ra l i ty o ft h e l a nd scape . W or ld A rchaeo logy 2 5 (2 ) :152 -74 .

G rave s ,P au lM . , 1 990 . T he B io log ica la nd t h eS oc ia li n H uman E vo lu t ion . Unpub l ished P h .D .t h e s is , D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o f S ou thamp ton . G r een , S .W . , 1 990 . I n t roduc t ion .P p .3 8 i nA l len ,K .M .S . , S .W . G reen a nd E .B .W . Z ub row ( e d s . )I n terpre t ing S pace : G IS a nd A rchaeo log y . L ondon : T ay lo r& F ranc i s . G regg , S u san , 1 991 . I n t roduc t ion . t oS .G regg ( e d . ) B e tween B and sa nd S t a te s . C a rbonda le I l ino i s : C en te rf o rA rchaeo log ica lI nve s t iga t ion s , O cca s iona lP ape r No . 9 . G r egg , S u san ( ed . ) , 1 99 1 . B e tween B and sa nd S ta te s . C a rbonda le I l ino is : C en te rf o rA r chaeo log ica l I n ve s t iga t ion s ,O cca s iona lP ape rN o . 9 . G rube r ,J a cob W . , 1 986 . A rchaeo logy ,h i s to ry a nd c u l tu r e . P p . 1 63 -186 i nD . Me l tze r ,D . F ow le ra nd J .S ab lof f ( e d s . ) Amer ican A rchaeo logy P a s ta nd F u ture . Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . : Sm i th son ian P r e s s . G u s ind e , Ma r t in , 1 96 1 [ 1 931 ] . T he Y amana : t h eL if ea nd T hough to ft h e W a ter N omad so fC ape Horn . H uman R e la t ion sA rea F i le s ,N ew H aven , C onnec t icu t . B ound i nt h ree v o lume s . H age , P e ra nd F rank H a ra ry , 1 983 . S t r uc tura l Mod e l si n A n thropo logy . C amb r idge : C ambr idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s . H agga r ty ,J ame s , 1 982 . T he A rchaeo logy o fH e squ ia t H arbour : T he A rchaeo log ica lU t i l i ty o fa n E thnog raph ica l ly D ef ined S oc ia l U n i t . Unpub l i shed P h .D . t h e s i s , D epa r tmen to fA n th ropo logy , Wa sh ing ton S t a te U n ive r s i ty . H agga r ty ,J ame sa nd R icha rd I ng l i s , 1 983 . We s tcoa s t S i te s : a na r chaeo log ica l a nd m ac ro -env i ronmen ta l s yn the s i s . P p . 1 -33 i nR . g r eengo ( e d . )P reh i s tor ic P lace so n t h eS ou thern N or thwe s tC oa s t . S ea t t le : U n ive r s i ty o f Wa sh ing ton ,B u rke Mu seum . H ame s ,R aymond , 1 992 . T ime a l loca t ion . P p . 2 03 -235 i n Sm i th ,E .A . a nd B . W in te rha lde r( e d s . )E vo lu t ionary E co logy a nd H uman B ehav ior . H aw thor n ,N ew Y o rk : A ld ine d eG ruy te r . H anne r z ,U lf , 1 992 . T he g l oba le cumene a s an e two rk o f n e two rk s . P p . 3 4 -56 i nA . K upe r( e d . ) C oncep tua l i z ing S oc ie ty L ondon : R ou t ledge . H anne r z ,U lf , 1 994 . C u l tura lC omp l ex i ty :S t ud ie si nt h e S oc ia lO rgan i za t ion o fMean ing , N ew Y o rk : C o lumb ia Un ive r s i ty P re s s . H a r r i s ,A lbe r t , 1 987 . C e l l mo t i l i ty a nd t h ep rob lem o f a na tom ica lh omeo s ta s i s . J ourna lo fC e l lS c ience , S upp lemen t8 :1 2 1-40 . H a r r i s ,T .M . a nd G .R .L ock , 1 995 . T owa rd a ne va lua t ion o fG IS i nE u ropean a r chaeo logy : t h ep a s t ,p re sen t a nd f u tu re o ft h eo ry a nd a pp l ica t ion s . P p . 3 49 -365 i nG . L ock a nd Z .S t anc ic ( e d s . ) 1 995 : A rchaeo logy a nd G eog raph ica lI nf orma t ion S y s tems : AE uropean P e r spec t ive . L ondon : T ay lo r &F ranc i s .

7 9

K rau se , Au r e l , 1 956 [ 1 885 ] . T he T l ing i tI nd ian s . Ame r ican E thno log ica l S oc ie ty Monog raph n o . 2 6 . U n ive r s i ty o f Wa sh ing ton P re s s , S ea t t le . K upe r ,A dam , 1 993 . P o s t -moder n i sm ,C amb r idge , a nd t h e G r ea tK a laha r i D eba te . S oc ia lA n thropo logy 1 : 57 7 1 . K vamme , K enne th L . , 1 989 . G eog raph ic I n f o rma t ion S y s tem si nr eg iona la r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch a nd d a t a managemen t . P p . 1 39 -203 i nM . S ch if f e r( e d . ) A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory , V o lume 1 . T uc son : U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P r e s s . K vamme ,K enne th L . , 1 995 . Av i ew f r om a c ros st h ew a te r : t h eN o r th Ame r ican e xper ience i na r chaeo log ica l G IS . P p . 1 14 i nG . L ock a nd Z .S t anc ic ( e d s . ) 1 995 : A rchaeo logy a nd G eog raph ica lI nf orma t ion S y s tem s : aE uropean p er spec t ive . L ondon : T ay lo r& F ranc i s . L ang ran ,G a i l , 1 993 . T ime i nG eog raph ic I nf orma t ion S y s tems . L ondon : T ay lo r &F ranc i s . L ee , R icha rd , 1 990 . P r im i t ive c ommun i sm a nd t h eo r ig in o fs oc ia l i n equa l i ty . P p . 2 25 -246 i nS .U pham ( e d . ) T he E vo lu t ion o fP o l i t ica lS y s tem s :S oc iopo l i t ic si n S ma l l -S ca l eS ed en ta ry S oc ie t ie s . C ambr idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s L ee , R icha rd a nd I .D eVo r e( ed s . ) , 1 968 . Man t h eH un ter . C h icago : A ld ine . L ee , R icha rd a nd Ma th ia s G uen the r , 1 993 . P rob lem si n K a laha r ih i s tor ica l e t hnog raphy a nd t h et o le rance o f e r ro r s . H i s to ry i nA f r ica 2 0 :185 -235 . L e ro i -Go ruhan , A nd re , 1 993 . G e s ture a nd S peech . C ambr idge , MA : M IT P re s s . L e s se r ,A lexande r , 1 96 1 . S oc ia l f i e ld sa nd t h ee vo lu t ion o f s oc ie ty . I nS ou thwe s tern J ourna lo fA n thropo logy 1 7 : 4 0 -48 . L ewon t in ,R .C . , 1 982 . O rgan i sm a nd e nv i ronmen t . P p . 1 5 11 70 i nH . P lo tk in ( e d . )L earn ing , D eve lopmen t , a nd C u l ture . N ew Y o rk : J ohn W i ley & S on s . L igh tf oo t ,K en tG . , 1 984 . P reh i s tor ic P o l i t ica lD ynam ic s : ac a se s t ud yf rom t h e Amer ican S ou thwe s t . D eKa lb , I l ino i s :N IU P r e s s . L lobe ra , Ma r cu s , 1 996 . E xp lor ing t h et o pog raphy o fm ind : G IS , s oc ia ls pace a nd a r chaeo logy . A n t iqu i ty 7 0 : 6 12 -22 . L owe ,J ohn C .a nd S . Mo ryada s , 1 977 . T he G eog raphy o f Movemen t . B o s ton : H ough ton M if f l in . MacA r thu r , R obe r ta nd E dwa rd 0 . W i l son , 1 967 . T he T heory o fI s land B iog eog raphy . P r ince ton ,N J : P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty P re s s . Mack ie ,A lexande r , 1 983 . T he 1 982 Mear e sI s land A rchaeo log ica lS urvey :A n i n ven to ry a nd e va lua t ion o fh er i tag er e source s . Non -pe rm i tr e por to nf i l ea t t h eA r cha eo logy B ranch ,V ic to r ia ,B r i t i sh C o lumb ia . Mack ie , A lexande r , 1 986 . Ac l o se rl o ok a tc oa s ta l s u rvey r e su l t s . T he M idd en : v o l . x v i i i : 3 5 .

I ngo ld ,T im , 1 994 . F rom t r u s tt od om ina t ion : a na l te rna t ive h i s to ry o fh uman -an ima lr e la t ion s . P p . 1 22 i nA . Mann ing a nd J . S me l l( e d s . ) A n ima l sa nd Human S oc ie ty : C hang ing P er spec t ive s . L ondon : R ou t ledge . I ngo ld ,T im , 1 995 . Wo rk ,t ime a nd i ndu s t ry . T ime & S oc ie ty 4 9 ( 1) :5 -28 . I ngo ld ,T im , 1 996 . T he o p t ima lf o rage ra nd e conom ic man . P p .2 5 -44 i nP .D e sco la a nd G . P a l s son ( ed s . )N a tur e a nd S oc ie ty :A n thropo log ica lP er spec t ive s . L ondon : R ou t ledge . I ngo ld ,T im ( e d . ) , 1 996 . K ey D eba te si nA n thropo logy . L ondon : R ou t ledge . I ngo ld ,T im , 1 997 . T he p i c tu r ei sn o tt h et e r ra in . Map s , p a in t ing sa nd t h ed we l t in w o r ld .A rchaeo log ica l D ia logue s4 ( 1) :2 9 -31 . I rw in ,G eof f r ey , 1 974 . T he e me rgence o f ac en t ra lp l ace i n c oa s ta lP apuan p reh is to ry : at h eo r e t ica la pp roach . Mank ind 9 :2 68 -72 . I rw in ,G eof f rey , 1 985 . T he Emergence o f Ma i lu : a sa c en t ra lp lace i nc oa s ta lP apuan p reh i s tory . C anbe r r a : T e r ra A u s t ra l i sn o . 1 0 ,D epa r tmen to f P r eh i s to ry ,R e sea r ch S choo l o fP ac if ic S tud ie s , T he A u s t ra l ian N a t iona l Un ive r s i ty . I rw in ,G eof f rey , 1 992 . T he P r eh i s tor ic E xp lora t ion a nd C o lon i sa t ion o ft h eP ac if ic . C amb r idge : C ambr idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . J ack son ,H . E dw in a nd V i rg in ia P oppe r , 1 980 . C oa s ta l h un te r -ga the r e r s : t h eY ahgan o fT ie r r ad e lF uego . I n M ich igan D i scu s s ions i nA n thropo logy 5 ( 12 ) :40 -6 1 . J ohn son ,G rego ry A . , 1 982 . O rgan iza t iona ls t ruc tu re a nd s c a la rs t r e s s . P p . 3 89 -421 i nC . R enf rew ,M . R ow land sa nd B .A bbo t -Seag rave s T heory a nd E xp lana t ion i nA r chaeo logy . L ondon : A cadem ic P re s s . K ee ley ,L aw rence H . , 1 988 . H un te r -ga the re re conom ic c omp lex i ty a nd ' p opu la t ion p res su r e ' : ac r os s c u l tu ra la na ly s i s . T he J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica l A rchaeo logy : 7 : 373 :4 11 . K e l ly ,R obe r tL . , 1 983 . H un te r -ga the re r mob i l i ty s t ra teg ie s . J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lR e search 3 9 :277 -306 . K e l ly ,R obe r tL . , 1 99 1 . S eden t i sm , s oc io -po l i t ica l i n equa l i ty ,a nd r e sou rce f l uc tua t ion s . P p . 1 35 158 i n S .G regg ( e d . )B e tween B and sa nd S t a te s . C a rbonda le I l ino i s : C en t e rf o rA rchaeo log ica l I nve s t iga t ion s ,O cca s iona lP ape r No . 9 . K i r ch , P a t r ick V . ( e d . ) , 1 986 . I s land S oc ie t ie s : a rchaeo log ica la pproache s t oe vo lu t ion a nd t r ansf orma t ion . C ambr idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P r e s s . K o s se ,K r i sz t ina , 1 990 . G roup s i ze a nd s oc ie ta l c omp lex i ty :t h r e sho ld si nt h el ong te rm m emo ry . T he J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy : 9 : 2 75 -303 . K oyama , Sa nd D .T homa s( ed s . ) , 1 981 . Af f l uen tF orager s . O saka :N a t iona l Mu seum o fE thno logy , S en r i E thno log ica lS e r ie s No . 9 .

8 0

Madden , Ma rc ie , 1 983 . S oc ia ln e two rk s y s tem s a mong s t h un te r -ga the re r sc on s ide red w i th in s ou the rn N orway . P p . 1 9 1-200 i nG . B a i ley , Hun ter G a therer E conomy i nP reh i s tory . C ambr idge : C ambr idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . Mand ryk ,C a ro le A . S t e in , 1 993 . H un te r -ga the re rs oc ia l c o s t sa nd t h en onv iab i l i ty o fs ubma rg ina l e nv i ronmen t s . J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lR e search 4 9 :39 -7 1 . Ma rb le ,D uane F . , 1 990 . T he p o ten t ia lm e thodo log ica l i mpac to fg eog raph ic i n f o rma t ion s y s tem so nt h e s o c ia ls c ience s . I nA l len ,K a th leen M .S . , S t an ton G r een a nd E z ra Z ub row ( ed s . ) : I n terpre t ing S pace : G IS a nd a rchaeo logy . L ondon :T ay lo ra nd F ranc i s . Ma rqua rd t ,W i l l iam H . , 1 985 . C omp lex i ty a nd s c a le i nt h e s t udy o ff i she r -ga the re r -hun te r s : a ne xamp le f r om t h eE a s ter nU n i ted S t a te s . P p . 5 9 -98 i nT .D oug la s P r ice a nd J ame sA . B rown ( e d s . )P reh i s tor ic H un ter -Ga therer s : T he Emerg ence o fC u l tura l C omp lex i ty .N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s . Ma r sha l l ,Y vonne M . , 1 993 . AP o l i t ica lH i s to ry o ft h e N uu -Chah -N u l th P eop le : AC a se S t ud yo ft h e Mowachah ta nd Mucha lah t T r ibe s . U npub l i shed P hD t h e s is ,D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy , S imon F ra se r Un ive r s i ty , B u rnaby ,B r i t i sh C o lumb ia . Ma r t in ,D av id , 1 99 1 . G eog raph ic I nf orma t ion S y s tem sa nd t h e ir S oc ioeconom ic A pp l ica t ion s . L ondon : R ou t ledge . Ma schne r ,H . , 1 99 1 . T he e me rgence o fc u l tu ra lc omp lex i ty o nt h e Nor thwe s tC oa s t . A n t iqu i ty 6 5 :924 -34 . Ma schne r ,H . , 1 997 . S e t t lemen ta nd s ub s is tence i nt h el a te r p r eh i s to ry o fT ebenkof B ay ,K u iu I s land , S ou thea s t A la ska . A rc t ic A n thropo logy 3 4 (2 ) :74 -99 . Ma schne r ,H . a nd B r ian F agan , 1 99 1 . H un te r -ga the r e r c omp lex i ty o nt h ew e s tc oa s to fN o r th Ame r ica . A n t iqu i ty 6 5 :92 1-3 . Ma schne rH . a nd J .S t e in , 1 995 . Mu l t iva r ia te a pp roache st o s i t el o ca t ion o nt h eN or thwe s tC oa s to f No r th Ame r ica . A n t iqu i ty : 6 9 : 6 1-73 . Ma th ien ,F rance sJ oan , 1 992 . P o l i t ica l ,e conom ic , a nd d emog raph ic i mp l ica t ion so ft h eC ha co r oad n e two rk . P p . 9 9 110 i nC .T rumbo ld ( e d . )A nc ien t R oad N e twork sa nd S e t t lemen tH ierarch ie si nt h e N ew W or ld . C ambr idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s . Ma t son ,R .G . , 1 983 . I n ten s if ica t ion a nd t h eD eve lopmen t o fC u l tu ra l C omp lex i ty : T he N o r thwe s tV e r su st h e N o r thea s tC oa s t . P p . 1 25 -48 i nR ona ld .N a sh ( e d . ) T he E vo lu t ion o fMar i t ime C u l tur e so n t h e N or thea s ta nd N or thwe s tC oa s t so fAmer ica . B u rnaby ,B .C . : S imon F ra se rU n ive r s i ty D epa r tmen t o fA r chaeo logy P ub l ica t ion N o . 1 . Ma t son ,R .G . a nd G . C oup land , 1 995 . T he P reh i s to ry o f t h eN or thwe s tC oa s t . N ew Y o rk :A cadem ic P r e s s .

McCar thy ,F .a nd M . McA r thu r , 1 96 1 . T he f ood q ue s ta nd t h et ime f a c to ri na bor ig ina l e conom ic l i f e . P p . 1 45 9 4i nC . Moun tf o rd ( e d . )R ecord so ft h e Amer ican A u s t ra l ian S c ien t i f ic E xped i t ion t oA rnhem L and V o lume I :A n thropo logy a nd N u t r i t ion . Me lbou rne , Me lbou rne Un ive r s i ty P re s s . McCa r tney ,A .P . , 1 975 . Ma r i t ime a dap ta t ion si nc o ld a r ch ipe lagoe s : a na na ly s i s o fe nv i ronmen ta nd c u l tu re i nt h ea l eu t ian a nd o the ri s land c ha in s . P p . 2 81-338 i nW . F i tzhugh ( ed . ) P reh i s tor ic Mar i t ime A dap ta t ions o ft h e C i rcumpo lar Z one . T he H ague : Mou ton . McGu i re ,R anda l lH . , 1 983 . B r eak ing d own c u l tu ra l c omp lex i ty : i n equa l i ty a nd h e te rogene i ty . P p . 9 11 42 i nM . S ch if f e r( e d . ) Advance si nA rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory , V o lume 6 . L ondon : A cadem ic P r e s s . Mc M i l lan ,A lan D . , 1 996 . S i nce Kwa tya tL ived o nE ar th : A nE xam ina t ion o fN uu -Chah -N u l th C u l ture H i s to ry . Unpub l ished P h .D t h e s i s ,D epa r tmen to f A r chaeo logy , S imon F ra se rU n ive r s i ty ,B u rnaby , B r i t i sh C o lumb ia . Mc M i l lan , A l lan a nd D en i s S t . C la i r e , 1 982 . A lbern i P reh i s tor y :A rchaeo log ica la nd e t hnog raph ic i n ve s t iga t ions o n w e s tern V ancouver I s land . P or t A lbe rn i : T hey tu sB ook sa nd A lbe rn i V a l ley Mu seum . Meacham ,W i l l iam , 1 984 . C oa s ta l l a ndf orm s a nd a r chaeo logy i nt h eH ong K ong a r ch ipe lago . W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 6 ( 1) :128 135 . M i l ic ic , B o jka , 1 993 . E xchange a nd s o c ia l s t ra t if ica t ion i n t h ee a s ter n Ad r ia t ic : ag r aph theo r e t ic mod e l . E thno logy 3 2 (4 ) :375 -395 . M i l le r , B ruce G . , 1 989 . C en t ra l i ty a nd m ea su re so f r eg iona l s t ruc tu re i na bor ig ina lw e s ter n Wa sh ing ton . E thno logy 2 8 :265 -76 . M i rac le ,P r e s ton ,L .F i she ra nd J .B rown , 1 991 . F orager s i nC on tex t :L ong T erm , R eg iona l , a nd H i s tor ica l P er spec t ive si n Hun ter G a ther er S oc ie t ie s . A nn A rbo r : Un ive r s i ty o fM ich igan , M ich igan D i scu s s ion si n An th ropo logy V o lume 1 0 . M i tche l l ,D ona ld H . , 1 990 . P r eh i s to ry o ft h eC oa s t so f S ou ther nB r i t ish C o lumb ia a nd N o r the rn Wa sh ing ton . P p . 3 40 -58 i nW . S u t t le s( e d . ) Handbook o fN or th Amer ican I nd ian s V o lume 7 : N or thwe s tC oas t . Wa sh ing ton , D .C . : Sm i th son ian P re s s . M i tche l l ,D ona ld H . a nd L e land D ona ld , 1 988 . A r chaeo logy a nd t h es t udy o fN or thwe s tC oa s t e conom ie s . P p . 2 93 -35 1 i nI s aac , B( ed . )R e search i nE conom ic A n thropo logy , S upp lemen t3 . G r eenw ich , CT : J A IP r e s s . Mo lyneaux ,B .L . , 1 99 1 . P er cep t ion a nd S i tua t ion i nt h e A na ly s i so fR epre sen ta t ions . U npub l i shed P h .D . t h e s i s ,D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o f S ou thamp ton ,U .K . . Monk s , G reg , 1 987 . P rey a sb a i t . C anad ian J ourna lo f A rchaeo logy 1 :119 -42 .

8 1

P r ice ,T .D oug la s , 1 981 . C omp lex i ty i n' Non -Comp lex ' S oc ie t ie s . P p . 5-99 i nS .E . v an d e rL eeuw ( ed . ) A rchaeo log ica lA pproache s t ot h eS t udy o f C omp lex i ty . Am s te rdam : Un ive r s i t e i tv an Am s t e rdam . P r ice ,T .D oug la sa nd J ame sA . B rown , 1 985 . A spec t so f Hun te r -Ga the re rC omp lex i ty . P p . 3 -20 i nT . D oug la sP r ice a nd J ame sA . B rown ( e d s . ) P reh i s tor ic Hun ter -Ga therer s : t h ee merg ence o f c u l tura lc omp lex i ty .N ew Yo rk : A cadem ic P re s s . P r ice ,T .D oug la sa nd J ame sA . B rown ( e d s . ) , 1 985 . P reh i s tor ic Hun ter -Ga therer s : t h ee merg ence o f c u l tura lc omp lex i ty . N ew Yo rk : A cadem ic P re s s . R au tman ,A l ison E . , 1 993 . R e sou rce v a r iab i l i ty ,r i sk , a nd t h es t ruc tu r eo fs oc ia ln e two rk s : a ne xamp le f r om t h ep reh i s tor ic S ou thwe s t . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 8 (3 ) :403 -424 . R ayne r , S t eve , 1 988 . T he R u le st h a tK eep U sE qua l : c omp lex i ty a nd c o s t so fs oc ia l o rgan iza t ion . P p . 2 0 4 2 i nJ ame sG . F lanagan a nd S t eve R ayne r( ed s . ) R u le s , D ec i s ion s , a nd I nequa l i ty i nE ga l i tar ian S oc ie t ie s . A lde r sho tU .K . : G owe r . R eed , E dwa rd S . , 1 988 . T he a f f o rdance so ft h e a n ima te e nv i ronmen t : s oc ia l s c ience f r om t h ee co log ica l p o in to fv i ew . I nI ngo ld , T .( e d . ) W ha ti sa n A n ima l? L ondon : U nw in H yman . R enf rew , C o l in , 1 973 . Monumen t s , mob i l iza t ion a nd s o c ia l o rgan iza t ion i nN eo l i th ic We s sex . P p . 5 39 -58 i nC . R enf r ew ( e d . ) T he E xp lana t ion o fC u l ture C hang e : Mode l s i np reh i s tor y . L ondon : D uckwor th . R enf rew , C o hn , 1 994 . T owa rd s ac ogn i t ive a r chaeo logy . P p . 3 12 i nC . R enf rew a nd E .Z ub row T he A nc ien t M ind C ambr idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . . R enouf , M .A .P . , 1 99 1 . S eden ta ry Hun te r -Ga the r e r s : ac a se f o rn or the rn c oa s t s . P p . 8 9 107 i nS .G regg ( ed . ) B e tween B and sa nd S t a te s . C a rbonda le I l ino i s : C en te rf o rA rchaeo log ica l I nve s t iga t ion s , O cca s iona lP ape r No . 9 . R icha rd son ,A l lan S . , 1 982 . T he c on t ro lo fp roduc t ive r e sou r ce so nt h e Nor thwe s tC oa s to fN or th Ame r ica . P p . 9 3 -112 i nN . W i l l iam sa nd E .H unn ( ed s . ) R e source Manager s :N or th Amer ican a nd A u s t ra l ian Hun ter -Ga therer s . B ou lde r , C o lo rado : We s tv iew P re s s . R iva l ,L au ra , 1 996 . B lowp ipe sa nd S pea r s : T he s oc ia l s i gn if icance o f Huao ran it e chno log ica lc ho ice s . P p . 1 45 -64 i nP .D e sco la a nd G . P a ls son ( ed s . )N a ture a nd S oc ie ty :A n thropo log ica lP er spec t ive s . L ondon : R ou t ledge . R ocha , J o rge M . , 1 996 . R a t iona l i ty , c u l tu r e , a nd d ec i s ion mak ing . R e search i nE conom ic A n thropo logy 1 7 :13 -4 1 . R o s s igno l ,J a cque l ine a nd L uAnn Wand sn ide r( ed s . ) , 1 992 . S pace , T ime a nd A rchaeo log ica lL and scape s . L ondon : P l enum . R ow land s ,M ichae l , 1 989 . AQ ue s t ion o fC omp lex i ty . P p . 2 9 -40 i nD . M i l le re ta l( ed s . ) Dom ina t ion a nd R e s i s tance . L ondon : U nw in Hyman .

Mo s s , Madonna ,J .E r land son a nd R . S tucken ra th , 1 989 . Wood s t ake w e i r sa nd s a lmon f i sh ing o nt h e N o r thwe s tC oa s t : E v idence f r om s ou thea s tA la ska . C anad ian J ourna lo fA rchaeo logy . 1 4 :143 -58 . Mo s s , Madonna a nd J on E r land son , 1 992 . F o r ta nd r e f ugexx Mo ss , Madonna a nd J on E r land son , 1 995 . R e f lec t ion so n N o r th Ame r ican P ac if ic c oa s tp reh i s to ry . J ourna lo f W or ld P reh i s tory 9 ( 1) 1 45 . Mue l le r ,J ohn H . ,K a r l S chue s s le ra nd H e rbe r tC o s tne r , 1 977 . S t a t i s t ica lR ea son ing i nS oc io log y r iE d i t ion . B o s ton :H ough ton -M if f l in . Mu r ra ,J ohn V . , 1 985 . ' E la r c ipe lago v e r t ica l ' r ev i s i ted . P p . 3 13 i nS . Ma suda ( ed . )A ndean E co logy a nd C iv i l i za t ion s . T okyo : U n ive r s i ty o fT okyo . Mu r ray ,T im , 1 997 . D ynam ic mode l l ing a nd n ew s oc ia l t h eo ry o ft h em id -t ol ong t e rm . P p . 4 49 -63 i nJ . McG lade a nd S .v an d e rL eeuw ( e d s . ) T ime , P roce s sa nd S t ruc tured T ran sf orma t ion i n A r chaeo logy . L ondon : R ou t ledge . N a sh , R ona ld J . , 1 983 . P r ef ace . P p . v i -v i i ii nR .N a sh ( e d . ) T he E vo lu t ion o f Mar i t ime C u l ture so n t h e N or thea s ta nd t h eN or thwe s tC oa s t so fAmer ica . B u rnaby ,B .C . : S imon F ra se r Un ive r s i ty , A r chaeo logy P re s s ,P ub l ica t ion No . 1 . N e t t ing ,R obe r t McC . , 1 990 . P opu la t ion ,p e rmanen t a g r icu l tu re ,a nd p o l i t ie s : u npack ing t h ee vo lu t iona ry p or tman teau . P p . 2 1-6 1 i nS .U pham ( ed . ) T he E vo lu t ion o fP o l i t ica lS y s tems :s oc iop lo i t ic si n s ma l l sca le s eden tary s oc ie t ie s . C amb r idge : C ambr idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s O 'Ke l ly , Mo r ton E . , 1 994 . S pa t ia lA na ly s i sa nd G IS . P p . 6 5 -79 i nS .F o the r ingham a nd P .R oge r son ( e d s . ) S pa t ia lA na ly s i sa nd G IS . L ondon : T ay lo ra nd F ranc i s . O be rg ,K a lervo , 1 973 [ 1 937 ] . T he S oc ia lE conomy o ft h e T l ing i tI nd ians . Amer ican E thno log ica l S oc ie ty Monog raph n o . 5 . , Un ive r s i ty o f Wa sh ing ton P re s s , S ea t t le . O r ton ,C . , 1 980 . Ma thema t ic s i nA r chaeo logy . L ondon : C o l l in s . O swa l t , Wende l lH . , 1 976 . A nA n thropo log ica lA na ly s i so f F ood -Ge t t ing T echno logy . N ew Y o rk : W i ley . P ayn te r ,R obe r t , 1 989 . T he A rchaeo logy o fE qua l i ty a nd I n equa l i ty . A nnua lR ev iew o fA n thropo logy 1 8 :369 9 9 . P e ru sek ,G lenn , 1 994 . F ac t iona lc ompe t i t ion a nd h i s tor ica l m a te r ia l i sm . P p . 1 9 1198 i nE .B rumf ie la nd J .F ox ( e d s . )F ac t iona lC ompe t i t ion a nd P o l i t ica l D eve lopmen ti nt h eN ew W or ld . C amb r idge : C ambr idge Un ive r s i ty P r e s s . P euque t ,D onna J .a nd D uane F . Ma rb le ( e d s . ) , 1 990 . I n t roduc tory r ead ing si nG eog raph ic I nf orma t ion S y s tem s . L ondon : T ay lo ra nd F ranc i s . P inx ten ,R ik ,I ng r id v an D oo ren a nd F rank H a rvey , 1 983 . T he A n thropo logy o fS pace : e xp lora t ion s i n to t h e n a tura lp h i lo sophy a nd s eman t ic so ft h eN avaho . P h i lade lph ia : U n ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia P re s s .

8 2

R ow ley -Conwy ,P e te r , 1 983 . S eden ta ry Hun te r s : t h e E r tebo l le e xamp le . P p . 11126 i nG . B a i ley ( e d . ) H un t er -Ga therer E conomy i nP reh i s to ry , C amb r idge :Camb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . R own t r ee ,L e s te r , 1 986 . C u l tu ra l /human i s t ic g eog raphy . P rog re s si n Human G eog raphy 1 0 (4 ) :581-86 . S ah l in s , Ma r sha l l , 1 968 . N o te so nt h eO r ig ina l Af f luen t S oc ie ty . P p . 8 5 -89 i nR .L ee a nd I .D eVo r e( e d s . ) Man t h e Hun ter . C h icago :A ld ine . S a i t ta , D ean J . , 1 983 . O nt h ee vo lu t ion o f' t r iba l 's oc ia l n e two rk s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 8 (4 ) :820 -824 . S an t ley ,R obe r tS . , 1 992 . T he s t ruc tu r eo ft h eA z tec t r an spo r tn e two rk . P p . 1 98 -2 10 i nC .T rumbo ld ( e d . )A nc ien tR oad N e twork sa nd S e t t lemen t H ierarch ie si nt h eN ew W or ld . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . S avage ,S t ephen H . , 1 990a . G IS i na r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch . P p2 2 -32 i nA l len , K a th leen M .S . , S t an ton G r een a nd E z ra Z ub row ( e d s . ) : I n terpre t ing S pace : G IS a nd a rchaeo logy . L ondon : T ay lo ra nd F ranc i s . S avage ,S t ephen H . , 1 990b . Mode l l ing t h e l a te a r cha ic s o c ia ll a nd scape . P p . 30 -55 i nA l len ,K a th leen M .S . , S t an ton G r een a nd E z ra Z ub row ( ed s . ) : I n terpre t ing S pace : G IS a nd a r chaeo logy . L ondon : T ay lo ra nd F ranc i s . S cha lk ,R anda l l , 1 977 . T he s t ruc tu r eo fa na nad ramou s f i sh r e sou r ce . P p . 2 07 -49 i nB inf o rd ,L .R . ,F or T heory B u i ld ing i nA r chaeo logy . N ew Y o rk :A cadem ic P r e s s . S cha lk ,R anda l l , 1 981 . L and u se a nd o rgan i sa t iona l c omp lex i ty a mong f o rage r so fN or thwe s te rn No r th Ame r ica . P p . 5 3 -75 i nS .K oyama a nd D . T homa s ( e d s . ) :A f f luen tF orager s . S en r i E thno log ica l S e r ie s , N o .9 . O saka : N a t iona l Mu seum o fE thno logy . S ch lange r ,S a rah , 1 992 . R ecogn iz ing p e r s i s ten tp l ace si n A na saz is e t t lemen ts y s tem s . P p . 9 1112 i nJ . R o s s igno la nd L . Wand sn ide r( e d s . ) S pace , T ime a nd A rchaeo log ica lL and scape s . L ondon : P l enum . S ch lee ,G un the r , 1 992 . R i tua lt o pog r aphy a nd e co log ica l u se . P p . 10 -128 i nE .C ro l la nd D . P a rk in ( e d s . ) B u sh B ase :F or e s tF arm . C u l t ure , E nv ironmen ta nd D eve lopmen t . L ondon : R ou t ledge . S chwa r tz ,T heodo re , 1 978 . T he s i ze a nd s hape o f ac u l tu r e . P p .2 15 -52 i nF .B a r th ( ed . ) S ca le a nd S oc ia l O rgan i za t ion . O s lo : U n ive r s i t e t sf o r lage t s . S co t t , J ohn , 1 99 1 . S oc ia lN e twork A na ly s i s : ah andbook . L ondon :S age . S erv ice ,E lman , 1 962 . P r im i t ive S oc ia lO rgan iza t ion :a n e vo lu t ionary p er spec t ive . N ew Y o rk : R andom H ou se . S hennan ,S t ephen , 1 988 . Q uan te ing A rchaeo logy . E d inbu rgh : E d inbu rgh U n ive r s i ty P re s s . S hennan ,S t ephen , 1 993 . A f te rs o c ia le vo lu t ion : an ew a r chaeo log ica la genda? P p . 5 3 -59 i nN . Y of f ee a nd A . S he r ra t t( e d s . )A rchaeo log ica l T heo ry : w ho s e t s t h ea genda? C ambr idge : C ambr idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s .

S he r ra t t ,A nd r ew , 1 996 . ' S e t t lemen tp a t ter n s ' o r ' l and scape s t ud ie s? ' R econc i l ing r e a son a nd r omance . A rchaeo log ica lD ia logue s3 (2 ) :1 40 -59 . Sm i th ,E r ic A lden a nd B ruce W in te rha lde r( e d s . ) , 1 992 . E vo lu t iona ry E co logy a nd Human B ehav ior . H aw thor n ,N ew Y o rk : A ld ine d eG ruy te r Sm i th ,M ichae lE . , 1 993 . N ew Wo r ld c omp lex s oc ie t ie s : r e cen te conom ic , s o c ia l , a nd p o l i t ica l s t ud ie s . J ourna lo fA rchaeo log ica lR e search 1 ( 1) : 5 -42 . S t ah l ,A nn B rewe r , 1 993 . C oncep t so ft ime a nd a pp roache s t oa na log ica lr e a son ing i nh i s tor ica lp e r spec t ive . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 8 (2 )2 35 -60 . S t a rk , B a rba ra a nd B a rba ra V oo rh ie s( e d s . ) , 1 978 . P reh i s tor ic C oa s ta lA dap ta t ions : t h ee conomy a nd e co log yo fm ar i t ime m idd le Ame r ica . L ondon : A cadem ic P r e s s . S t ead , S t ephen , 1 993 . G IS i na r chaeo logy : ar e sea rch s umma ry . Mapp ing Awarene s s &G IS i nE urope 7 ( 3 ) :4 1-43 . S t ead , S t ephen , 1 995 . H uman sa nd P ETS i ns pace . P p . 3 13 17 i nG . L ock a nd Z .S tanc ic ( e d s . ) 1 995 : A rchaeo logy a nd G eog raph ica lI nf orma t ion S y s tems : aE uropean p er spc t ive . L ondon : T ay lo r& F ranc i s . S t e in ,J u l ie K . ( e d . ) , 1 99 1 . D ec ipher ing aS he l lM idden . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic . S t epona i t i s ,V inca sP . , 1 978 . L oca t ion T heo ry a nd C omp lex C h ief dom s : AM is s i s s ipp ian E xamp le . P p . 4 17 -53 i nB . Sm i th ( e d . )M i s s i s s ipp ian S e t t lemen t P a t tern s . L ondon : A cadem ic . S t ock ing , G eo rge , 1 966 . F ranz B oa s a nd t h ec u l tu re c oncep ti nh i s to r ica lp e r spec t ive . Amer ican A n thropo log i s t6 8 (3 ) :867 -82 . S t opak ,D av id a nd A lbe r tH a r r i s , 1 982 . C onnec t ive t i s sue mo rphogene s is b yf i b rob la s tt r a c t ion . D eve lopmen ta lB io logy 9 0 :383 -98 . S u t t le s . Wayne , 1 968 . C op ing w i th A bundance : S ub s i s tence o nt h eN o r thwe s tC oa s t . P p . 5 6 -68 i n R .L ee a nd I .D eVo r e ( e d s . ) Man t h e Hun ter . C h icago : A ld ine . T e s ta r t ,A la in , 1 982 . T he s i gn if icance o ff ood s t o rage a mong h un te r -ga the re r s : r e s idence p a t ter n s , p opu la t ion d en s i t ie s , a nd s oc ia li n equa l i t ie s . C ur r en tA n thropo logy 2 3 (5 ) :523 -537 . T homa s ,J u l ian , 1 993 . T he P o l i t ic s o fV i s ion a nd t h e A r chaeo log ie so fL and scape . P p . 1 9 -48 i nB . B ende r( e d . )L and scape : P o l i t ic sa nd P er spec t ive s . O xf o rd : B e rg . T h r if t ,N ige l , 1 977 . A nI n t roduc t ion t oT ime G eog raphy . C oncep t sa nd T echn ique si n Moder nG eog raphy N o . 1 3 . N o rw ich : G eoAb s t rac t s . T h r if t ,N ige l , 1 985 . B ea ra nd mou se o rb ea ra nd t r ee? A n thony G idden s ' r e con s t i tu t ion o fs oc ia l t h eo ry . S oc io log y 1 9 (4 ) :609 -23 . T i l ley , C h r i s tophe r , 1 994 . AP henomono logy o f L and scape . P a ths , P lace sa nd Monumen t s . O xf o rd : B e rg .

8 3

Wa t son ,P a t ty J o , 1 99 1 . AP a roch ia lP r ime r : T he N ew D i s sonance A s S een f r om t h eM idcon t inen ta lU n i ted S ta te s .P p . 2 65 -274 i nR .P reuce l ( e d . )P roce s sua l a nd P o s tproce s sua lA rchaeo log ie s : Mu l t ip le W ay s o fK now ing t h eP a s t . C a rbonda le : S ou the rn I l ion i s Un ive r s i ty P re s s ,C en te rf o rA r chaeo log ica l I nve s t iga t ion sO cca s iona l P ape r# 10 Whea t ley , D . , 1 99 . G o ing o ve ro ld g round : G IS , a r chaeo log ica lt h eo ry a nd t h ea c to fp e rcep t ion . . . .Pp . 1 33 -8 i nJ . And re sen ,J . Mad sen a nd I .S co l la r( e d s . ) C ompu t ing t h eP a s t : C ompu te rA pp l ica t ions a nd Q uan t i ta t ive Me thod si nA rchaeo lo gy 1 992 . A a rhu s : A a rhu sU n ive r s i ty P re s s . Whea t ley ,D . , 1 995 . C umu la t ive V iew shed A na ly s i s : A G IS b a sed me thod f o ri n ve s t iga t ing i n terv i s ib i l i ty , a nd i t sa r chaeo log ica l a pp l ica t ion . P p . 1 71-85 i nG . L ock a nd Z .S t anc ic ( e d s . )A rchaeo log ya nd G eog raph ica lI nf orma t ion S y s tem s : AE uropean p er spec t ive . L ondon : T ay lo ra nd F ranc is . Wh i te , L e s l ie A . , 1 949 . E ne rgy a nd t h eE vo lu t ion o f C u l tu r e . P p . 3 63 -96 i nL e s l ie Wh i te T he S c ience o f C u l tur e : as t ud yo fm an a nd c i v i l i za t ion . N ew Y o rk : G rove . W ickw i re , Wendy , 1 992 . E thnog raphy a nd a r chaeo logy a s i d eo logy : t h ec a se o ft h e S t e in R ive rV a l ley . BC S tud ie s9 1-92 : 5 1-78 . W i l l iam s ,E l izabe th , 1 987 . C omp lex H un te r -Ga the r e r s : a v i ew f r om Au s t ra l ia . A n t iqu i ty 6 1 : 3 10 -21 . W i lm sen , E dw in , 1 989 . L and F i l led w i th F l ie s : AP o l i t ica l E conomy o ft h eK a lahar i . C h icago : U n ive r s i ty o f C h icago P re s s . W i lson , E dwa rd 0 . , 1 975 . S oc iob io logy : T he New S yn the s i s . C amb r idge , MA : H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s . W i lson , R ob in J . , 1 984 . I n t roduc t ion t oG raph T heory ( 3 rd e d i t ion ) .N ew Y o rk : L ongman . Wob s t , Ma r t in , 1 974 . B ounda ry c ond i t ion sf o rp a laeo l i th ic s oc ia l s y s tem s : as imu la t ion a pp roa ch . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty :39 (2 ) :147 -78 . Wob s t , Ma r t in , 1 976 . L oca t iona lr e la t ion sh ip si n P a laeo l i th ic s oc ie ty . J ourna lo fH uman E vo lu t ion 5 : 49 -58 . Wob s t , Ma r t in , 1 978 . T he a r chaeo -e thno logy o fh un te r g a the r e r so rt h et y ranny o ft h ee t hnog raph ic r e co rd i na r chaeo logy Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 3 (2 ) :303 -309 . Wob s t , Ma r t in , 1 981 . P a laeo l i th ic A r chaeo logy some p rob lem sw i th f o rm , s pace a nd t ime . P p . 2 20 -25 i n G . B a i ley ( e d . )H un ter -Ga ther er E conomy i n P reh i s to ry . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . Wob s t , Ma r t in , 1 990 . Af t e rwo rd : m in i t ime a nd m ega space i nt h eP a laeo l i th ic a t1 8K a nd o t he rw ise . P p . 3 22 -34 i n0 . S of f e ra nd C .G amb le ( ed s . ) T he W or ld a t 1 8 ,000 B .P . L ondon : U nw in -Hyman . Wo lf , E r ic R . , 1 981 . T he m i l l so fi n equa l i ty : aMandan a pp roa ch . P p . 4 1-57 i nG . B e r reman ( ed . )S oc ia l I nequa l i ty : c ompara t ive a nd d eve lopmen ta l a pproache s . L ondon : A vadem ic P r e s s .

T ob le r ,W . a nd S .W inebu rg , 1 971 . AC appadoc ian s pecu la t ion . N a tur e2 31 :39 -4 1 . T o r rence ,R ob in , 1 983 . T ime b udge t ing a nd h un te r g a the re rt e chno logy . P p . 1 -22 i nG . B a i ley ( e d . ) H un ter -Ga therer E conomy i nP reh i s tory , C ambr idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s . T r igge r ,B ruce , 1 995 . E xpand ing m idd le range t h eo ry . A n t iqu i ty 6 9 :449 -58 . T rumbo ld C .( ed . ) , 1 992 . A nc ien tR oad N e twork sa nd S e t t lemen tH ierar ch ie si nt h eN ew W or ld . C ambr idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . U pham , S t eadman , 1 987 . AT heo r e t ica lC on s ide ra t ion o f M idd le R ange S oc ie t ie s . P p . 3 45 -68 i nR .D rennan a nd C .U r ibe ( e d s . ) C h ief dom si nt h e Amer ica s . L anham MD : U n ive r s i ty P re s so ft h e Ame r ica s . U pham , S t eadman , 1 990a . D ecoup l ing t h eP roce s se so f P o l i t ica lE vo lu t ion . P p . 1 17 i nS .U pham ( ed . ) T he E vo lu t ion o fP o l i t ica lS y s tem s :S oc iopo l i t ic si n S ma l l -S ca le S ed en ta ry S oc ie t ie s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s U pham , S t eadman , 1 990b . A na log o rD ig i ta l : T owa rd a G ene r ic F ramewo rk f o rE xp la in ing t h eD eve lopmen t o f Eme rgen tP o l i t ica l S y s tem s . P p . 8 7 115 i nS . U pham ( e d . ) T he E vo lu t ion o fP o l i t ica lS y s tems : S oc iopo l i t ic si nS ma l l -S ca le S ed en tar yS oc ie t ie s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P r e s s U pham , S t eadman , 1 992 . I n te rac t ion a nd I s o la t ion : T he Emp ty S pace si nP an reg iona lP o l i t ica la nd E conom ic S y s tem s . I nE .S chor tman a nd P .U rban ( ed s . ) R e source s , P ower , a nd I n ter -reg iona l I n terac t ion . NY : P l enum . V e th , P e te r , 1 989 . I s land si nt h eI n ter io r : amode lf o rt h e c o lon iza t ion o fA u s t ra l ia ' sa r id z one . A rchaeo logy i nO cean ia 2 4 :8 1-92 . Wa l lace , Dw igh tT . , 1 992 . T he C h incha r o ad s : e conom ic s a nd s ymbo l i sm . P p . 2 51-63 i nC .T rumbo ld ( e d . ) A nc ien tR oad N e twork sa nd S e t t lemen tH ierar ch ie s i nt h eN ew W or ld . C amb r idge : C ambr idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . Wan s leeben ,M i lco a nd L eo V e rha r t , 1 997 . G eog raph ica l I n f o rma t ion S y s tem s : Me thodo log ica lp rog r e s sa nd t h eo r e t ica ld ec l ine . A rchaeo log ica lD ia logue s 4 ( 1) :53 -64 . Wa rd , Ma rk , 1 998 . T he r e 's a na n ti n my p hone . N ew S c ien t i s t2 118 :32 -5 . Wa son ,P au lK . , 1 994 . T he A r chaeo logy o fR ank . C ambr idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,N ew S tud ie si nA rchaeo logy . Wa tanabe ,H i ro sh i , 1 968 . S ub s i s tence a nd E co logy o f N o r the rn F ood g a the re r sw i th S pec ia lR ef e rence t o t h eA inu . P p . 6 9 -77 i nR . L ee a nd I .D eVo re ( e d s . ) Man t h e Hun ter . C h icago : A ld ine .

8 4

Wy l ie ,A l i son , 1 993 A p ro l if e ra t ion o fN ew A r chaeo log ie s : B eyond o b jec t iv ism a nd r e la t iv i sm . P p .2 0 -26 i nN .Y of f ee a nd A . S he r ra t t( e d s . ) , A rchaeo log ica l T heory : w ho s e t st h ea genda? C ambr idge : C amb r idge U n iv e r s i ty P r e s s ,N ew D i r e c t ion si nA rchaeo logy . Y esne r ,D av id R . , 1 984 . P opu la t ion p r e s su r ei nc oa s ta l e nv i ronmen t s : a na r chaeo log ica lt e s t . W or ld A rchaeo log y 1 6 ( 1) :108 127 . Y esne r ,D av id R . , 1 990 . F ueg ian sa nd o the rh un te r g a the re r so ft h es uban ta rc t ic r e g ion : ' c u l tu ra l d evo lu t ion ' r e con s ide red . I n Meehan ,B .a nd N . Wh i t e( ed s . ) H un ter -Ga ther e rD emog raphy :p a s t a nd p re sen t . O cean ia Monog raph n umbe r3 9 , S ydney . Y esne r ,D av id R . , 1 994 . S ea sona l i ty a nd r e sou r ce ' s t re s s ' a mong h un te r -ga the r e r s : a r chaeo log ica ls i gna tu re s . P p . 1 5 1-67 i nB u rch E .a nd L .E l lanna ( e d s . )K ey I s sue si n Hun ter -Ga there rR e search . O xf o rd : B e rg . Y of f ee ,N o rman , 1 993 . T oo many c h ief s? ( o r , S af et e x t s f o rt h e' 9 0 s ) . P p . 6 0 -78 i nN .Y of f ee a nd A . S he r ra t t ( e d s . )A rchaeo log ica lT heo ry : w ho s e t st h ea genda? C ambr idge : C amb r idge U n iv e r s i ty P r e s s . Z e id le r ,J ame sA . , 1 987 . T he E vo lu t ion o fP reh i s tor ic ' T r iba l ' S y s tem sa sH i s tor ica lP roce s s : A r chaeo log ica l I nd ica to r so fS oc ia lR ep roduc t ion . P p . 3 25 -44 i nR . D rennan a nd C .U r ibe ( e d s . ) C h ief doms i nt h e Amer ica s . L anham MD : U n iv e r s i ty P re s so ft h e Amer ica s .

8 5

APPENDIX A : TABLES AND F IGURES OF MIDDEN ZONE AREAS T ab le A l : A rea sa nd a cce s s ib i l i t ie so fa l m idden z one s . MZ A rea ( m2 ) D e scr ip tor Z one I D#

R ank o f MZ A rea

N e twork A cce s s ib i l i ty

#o fS i tes i n Z one

1 00

2 04

0 . 00316

KY -Rugged P t .

1 , 250

1 48

0 . 00359

1

KY -Rugged P t . S

5 , 900

7 5

0 . 00370

4

4

KY -G ra s sy I s le t s

2 , 500

16

0 . 00370

2

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00386

1

4 00

1 86

0 . 00352

1

1

KY -Rugged P t .N

2 3

1

5

KY -Kapoo se C k . S

6

KY -Ta tchu C k .N

7

NN -Ta tchu P t .

6 , 000

7 2

0 . 00369

1

8

NN -Ta tchu P t . E

6 , 000

7 2

0 . 00390

1

9

NN -Ca ta la

3

I s .W

1 , 405

1 40

0 . 00421

1 0

NN -Ca ta la I s .E

3 , 400

1 04

0 . 00435

1

1

NN -Por tE l iza 1

1 9 ,500

2 9

0 . 00454

2

1 2

NN -Por tE l iza 2

1 3

NN -G r ea te r Nu tcha t l i tz

1 4

NN -Nu t cha t l i tz J c tS

1 5

NN -E spe ranza SW

1 6

NN -E sp ino sa SW

1 7

NN -E spe ranza S

1 8

2 , 400

19

0 . 00428

1

3 3 , 105

1 7

0 . 00449

1 6

5 , 500

8 2

0 . 00421

2

7 50

1 7 1

0 . 00448

4

2 , 000

1 29

0 . 00424

1

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00449

1

NN -Eha t i sah t

5 , 600

7 7

0 . 00406

1 2

_

1 9

NN -L i t t le E sp ino sa S

1 , 120

1 56

0 . 00429

2 0

NN -L i t t le E sp ino sa C

3 0

2 11

0 . 00437

1

2 1

NN -L i t t le E sp ino sa N

1 , 893

1 32

0 . 00404

2

2 2

NN -E sp ino sa NW

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00373

1

2 3

NN -Ceepeecee S

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00437

1

2 4

NN -Tah s i s /E spe ranza 1

8 00

1 68

0 . 00526

1

2 5

NN T ah s i s /E spe ranza 2

4 50

1 8 1

0 . 0052 1

1

2 6

NN -Tah s i s /E spe ranza 3

1 04

2 03

0 . 00481

1

2 7

NN -Tah s i sN o r th E nd

1 2 ,500

4 3

0 . 00384

1

2 8

NN -Tah s i sC en t ra l 1

1 0

2 14

0 . 00485

1

2 9

NN -Tah s is C en t ra l2

9 00

1 65

0 . 00522

1

3 0

NN -Tah s i sC en t ra l2

1 , 200

1 5 1

0 . 00550

1

3 1

NN -Tah s is C en t ra l3

8 00

1 68

0 . 00545

1

3 2

NN -Nu t cha t l i tz C

1 , 350

1 45

0 . 0036 1

3

3 3

NN -Nu t cha t l i tz S C

5 0

2 08

0 . 00360

2

3 4

NN -Nu tcha t l i tz E

4 , 000

9 5

0 . 00294

1

3 5

NN -Nu tcha t l i tz SW

1 , 100

1 57

0 . 00372

1

3 6

NK -W N oo tka I s . 1

5 , 600

7 8

0 . 00413

1

3 7

NK -W .N oo tka I s . 2

2 , 250

1 23

0 . 00446

1

3 8

NK -W N oo tka I s . 3

2 16

0 . 0044 1

1

3 9

NK -W .N oo tka I s .B a jo

3 3 ,750

1 6

0 . 00419

2

4 0

NK -S W N oo tka I s .

9 , 300

5 4

0 . 00428

1

4 1

NK -G rea te rY uquo t

1 08 ,254 '

0 . 00545

1

4 2

NK -Yuquo tN1

9 , 400

5 3

0 . 0066 1

1

4 3

NK -Yuquo t N2

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00652

1

4 4

NK -Zuc ia r te C h . SW

1 20

2 0 1

0 . 00582

1

4 5

NK -E sca lan te P t . S

1 , 200

1 5 1

0 . 00536

1

4

8 6

1

Z one I D#

D e scr ip tor

MZ A rea ( m2 )

R ank o f MZ A rea

#o fS i te si n Z one 1

4 6

NK -Zuc ia r te C h . C

3 00

1 91

N e twork A cce s s ib il i ty 0 . 00550

4 7

NK -B l igh I s . SW

1 , 200

1 5 1

0 . 00622

1

4 8

NK -B l igh I s Ew in I n le t

2 , 625

14

0 . 00473

1

4 9

NK -B l igh I s .W 3

6 00

1 75

0 . 00786

1

5 0

NK -B l igh I s .W 2

1 05

2 02

0 . 00770

1

5 1

NK -B l igh I s .W 1

3 75

1 89

0 . 00773

1

5 2

NK -B l igh I s . NC

1 , 400

1 41

0 . 00697

2

5 3

NK -B l igh I s . NE

1 , 000

1 6 1

0 . 00680

1

5 4

NK -Ho i s s C k .

2 0 ,050

2 7

0 . 00643

2

5

NK -A rgonau tP tW

1 4 , 100

3 9

0 . 0064 1

1 5

5 6

NK -Hanna C hanne l

2 2 ,582

2 4

0 . 00602

5 7

NK -E sca lan te P t .N

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00542

1

5 8

NK -T lupana C 3

4 5

2 10

0 . 00698

1

5 9

NK -T lupana H i sn i tS

7 , 650

6 1

0 . 00590

2

6 0

NK -T lupana H i sn i tN

2 , 800

11

0 . 00492

1

6 1

NK -T lupana C 2

8 25

1 66

0 . 0064 1

2

6 2

NK -T lupana C 1

2 , 250

1 23

0 . 006 16

1

6 3

NK -T lupana E

4 , 200

9 3

0 . 00535

1

6 4

NK -T lupana -T lupana R .

5 , 825

7 6

0 . 00453

2

6 5

NK -T lupana NE 1

3 00

1 9 1

0 . 00559

1

6 6

NK -T lupana Mou tcha 1

3 , 500

1 02

0 . 00496

1

6 7

NK -T lupana Mou tcha 2

1 , 525

1 38

0 . 00553

1

6 8

NK -T lupana NE 2

1 50

1 99

0 . 0056 1

1

6 9

NK -T lupana H ead B ay

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00486

1

7 0

NK -Cook C h .N

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00563

1

7 1

NK -Tah s i s SE nd

1 4 ,000

4 0

0 . 00609

1

7 2

NK -Bodega I sS

1 5 ,600

3 5

0 . 00560

1

7 3

NK -Bodega I sN

4 50

1 8 1

0 . 00536

1

0 . 00690

1

7 4

CL - Mea r e sC loo thp i t ch

7 5

NK -Mucha la t Mooyah

7 6

NK - Mucha la t NW

7 7

NK - Mucha la tK leep tee

7 8

NK - Mucha la t SW 1

7 9

NK - Mucha la t SW 2

8 0

NK -Mucha la tH ou s ton

8 1

NK - Mucha la t CE

8 2

NK - Mucha la tJ ack lah

8 3

4 6 ,376

8

3 , 400

1 04

0 . 00532

1

3 85

1 87

0 . 00535

1

1 2 ,300

4 7

0 . 00505

1

6 , 300

7 0

0 . 00530

1

3 , 750

9 8

0 . 00526

1

4 80

1 78

0 . 004 10

1

2 , 000

1 29

0 . 00392

1

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00405

1

NK - Mucha la tG o ld R .W

5 10

1 76

0 . 00452

1

8 4

NK - Mucha la tG o ld R .E

4 05

1 85

0 . 00433

2

8 5

NK - Mucha la t Ma tch lee N

2 , 985

10

0 . 00387

2

8 6

NK - Mucha la t Ma t ch lee C

5 00

1 77-

0 . 00369

1

8 7

NK -Mucha la tB u rman R .

6 , 250

7 1

0 . 00340

1

8

NK -Ba r ce s te rB ay N

3 , 600

9 9

0 . 0050 1

1

8 9

NK -Ba rce s te rB ay C

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00538

1

9 0

NK -Ba rce s te rB ay S

5 , 600

7 9

0 . 0052 1

1

9 1

NK -E s tevan P t .N

6 , 99 1

6 7

0 . 00460

1

9 2

NK -E s tevan P t .

5 , 500

8 2

0 . 00450

1

9 3

HQ - Ma t lahaw P t .

1 , 380

1 42

0 . 00463

1

8 7

-

D e scr ip tor

Z one I D#

MZ A rea ( m2 )

R ank o f MZ A rea

N e twork A cce ss ib il i ty

9 4

HQ -He squ ia t

9 2 ,964

9 5

HQ -He squ ia tH b r SW

3 7 ,000

1 3

0 . 00481

1

9 6

HQ -He squ ia tH b r NW

6 0

2 06

0 . 00483

1

9 7

HQ -Boa tB a s in SW

6 0

2 06

0 . 00499

1

9 8

HQ -Boa tB a s in NW

5 , 551

8 0

0 . 00455

1

9 9

HQ -Boa tB a s in NE

1 , 140

1 54

0 . 00405

2

1 00

HQ -He squ ia tH b r NE

1 98

0 . 00488

1

6 4

0 . 00470

1

1 627 , 442

2

0 . 00489

#o fS i te si n Z one 1

1 0 1

HQ -He squ ia tH b rS E

1 02

HQ -Ho tS pr ing sC ove

5 , 500

8 2

0 . 00397

3

1 03

F L -Sydney I n le t

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00323

1

1 04

F L -F lo re sI s .N

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00352

1

1 05

CL -F lo re sI sS

4 , 325

9 1

0 . 0049 1

1

1 06

F L -Ob s t ruc t ion I s

1 , 250

1 48

0 . 00352

1

1 07

F L -M i l la rC h

3 , 125

1 07

0 . 00377

1

1 08

F L -C l if f o rd P t .

4 , 550

8

0 . 00426

1

1 09

CL -Ba r t le t tI s .

1 2 ,375

4 5

0 . 0050 1

1

10

CL -B lunden I s

7 0 ,705

0 . 0050 1

6

11

CL -Va rga sA hou sB ay

0 . 00530

1

5

1 , 360

1 43

12

CL -Va rga s

1 0 ,750

5 0

0 . 00565

2

13

CL -Va rga s SW

4 0 ,0 16

1 0

0 . 00602

3

14

CL -Va rga s NE

2 , 800

11

0 . 00636

1

15

CL - Mea re s NW 1

1 , 519

1 39

0 . 00650

5

16

CL - Mea re s NW 2

1 , 004

1 60

0 . 0062 1

2

17

CL - Mea re s NW 3

4 20

1 84

0 . 00594

1

18

CL -Va rga sY a rk s i s

7 0 ,000

0 . 00663

1

19

CL -Tof ino S tubb sI s .

1 4 ,200

1 20

CL -O p i t s i t

7 9 ,872

1 21

CL -L emmen s S

1 22

CL -L emmen s CW

1 23

CL -Echach is I s

1 24

CL -E sow is ta NW

1 25

CL -McKenz ie B ch

1 26 1 27

A hou sP t .

6 3 8 4

0 . 00810

3

0 . 00811

2 1

9 66

1 63

0 . 00844

5 , 510

8 1

0 . 00785

2

0 . 00734

4

4 5 ,800

9 2 15

0 . 00795

1

1 9 ,099

3 0

0 . 00732

4

CL -Che s terman 1

4 60

1 80

0 . 00784

2

CL -Che s te rman 2

1 2 ,500

4 3

0 . 00743

2

1 28

CL -Lemmen s NW

7 , 250

6 6

0 . 007 10

5

1 29

CL -Lemmen s CE

8 , 894

5 7

0 . 00740

8

1 30

CL -Lemmen s NE

2 08

1 97

0 . 00605

1

1 3 1

CL -Lemmen s S E

8 , 879

5 8

0 . 00776

1

1 32

CL -T sapee N

2 , 152

1 25

0 . 00645

3

1 33

CL -T sapee S

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00564

1

1 34

CL - Mea r e sS E

1 5

2 13

0 . 00702

1

1 35

CL Ind ian I s SW

4 80

1 78

0 . 00697

1

1 36

CL Ind ian I s NW

1 37

CL -Hee lboom B ay

1 38

9

3 84

1 88

0 . 00662

1

3 , 062

1 08

0 . 00549

8

CL Ind ian I sS E

2 0 ,756

2 5

0 . 00649

1

1 39

CL -G r ice B ay N

1 , 000

1 6 1

0 . 00597

1

1 40

CL_G r ice B ay E

2 24

1 95

0 . 00528

1

1 4 1

CL - Mo squ i to I n le tS

1 2 ,6 15

4 2

0 . 00538

1 6

1 42

CL - Mo squ i to I n le tC

1 0 ,200

5 1

0 . 00526

2

_ _

8 8

D e scr ip tor

Z one I D#

MZ A rea ( m2 )

1 43

CL - Mo squ i to I n le tN

1 44

CL - Wa rn B ay

1 45

CL - Ma t le se tN a r row s

1 46

CL - Wa rn B ay N

1 47

CL -Bedwe l l S ound C

1 48

CL -Bedwe l l S ound N

1 49

CL -Kennedy C ove

6 2 ,900

1 50

CL -T ranqu i l I n le t

4 , 400

1 5 1

CL -Tof ino I n le tE

N e twork A cce s s ib i l i ty

R ank o f MZ A rea

#o fS i te si n Z one

1 , 638

1 35

0 . 00478

5

1 7 ,540

3 2

0 . 00475

6

2 , 375

1 21

0 . 00489

1

2 , 375

1 21

0 . 00421

1

1 , 950

1 31

0 . 00387

1

2 , 400

19

0 . 00343

1

0 . 00454

1

9 0

0 . 00364

1

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00333

1 1

7

1 52

CL -Tof ino I n le t NE

6 , 750

6 8

0 . 00311

1 53

CL -Kennedy L ake F oo t

9 , 100

5 6

0 . 00428

1

1 54

CL -Che s te rman C ox P t

2 , 030

1 28

0 . 00733

2

1 55

CL -Cox P tS

3 , 600

9 9

0 . 00647

1

1 56

L B -Schoone rC ove N

5 , 200

8 6

0 . 00636

1

1 57

LB -Schoone rC ove C

8 , 490

5 9

0 . 00655

2

1 58

L B -Schoone rC ove S

3 , 600

9 9

0 . 00637

1

1 2 ,332

4 6

0 . 006 11

7

1 , 360

1 43

0 . 00550

3

1 59

L B -W ickan inn i sh N

1 60

LB -W ickan inn i sh NE

1 6 1

L B -W ickan inn i sh C

2 0 ,000

2 8

0 . 00514

1

1 62

LB -W ickan inn ish S

2 0 ,500

2 6

0 . 00521

2

1 63

LB -F lo renc ia N

2 , 452

18

0 . 00542

5

1 64

LB -F lo renc ia C

3 , 404

1 03

0 . 00547

3

1 65

LB -F lo renc ia S

1 3 ,800

4 1

0 . 00559

1

1 66

LB -Uc lu th NW

2

1 67

LB -Uc lu th C

1 68

BK - Macoah P a s s SW

1 69

BK -Tukwaa

1 70

BK -Chuuma ta

1 7 1

BK -Geo rge F ra se rI s

1 , 700

1 34

0 . 0056 1

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00518

1

2 , 100

1 26

0 . 00554

1

2 3 ,500

2 3

0 . 00576-

1

1 6 ,800

3 4

0 . 00587

1

4 , 232

9 2

0 . 00559

2

.

1 72

BK -Uc lue le tC

1 , 575

1 37

0 . 00490

1

1 73

BK -Uc lue le tN

4 , 490

8 9

0 . 00440

3

1 74

BK -B roken G pW C

1 7 ,485

3 3

0 . 00617

9

1 75

BK -B roken G p NW C

1 , 312

1 46

0 . 00649

3

1 76

BK -B roken G pC

2 4 ,006

2 2

0 . 00652

6

1 77

BK -B roken G p SC

7 35

1 73

0 . 00650

2

1 78

BK -Broken G p S

3 6 ,829

1 4

0 . 00602 1

1 2

1 79

BK -Broken G p S E

2 5 ,048

2 0

0 . 00603

1 0

1 80

BK -B roken G p NC

3 5 ,24 1

1 5

0 . 00669

1 4

1 8 1

BK -B roken G p NE C

5 , 392

8 5

0 . 00685

2

1 82

BK -B roken G pN1

7 2

2 05

0 . 00694

1

1 83

BK -Dee rG p SW

3 7 ,842

1 2

0 . 00519

1 4

1 84

' BK -B roken O p NE 1

1 7 ,9 15

3 1

0 . 00642

1 7

1 85

BK -B roken G p NE 2

1 5 ,049

3 6

0 . 00601

3

1 86

BK -Secha r tE

9 60

1 64

0 . 00574

2

1 87

BK -B roken G p N2

9 , 7 16

5 2

0 . 00668

4

1 88

BK -Secha r tW

1 0 ,850

4 9

0 . 00584

2

1 89

BK -S toppe rI s

3 36

1 90

0 . 00578

1

1 90

BK -S t . I n e sI s

1 , 310

1 47

0 . 006 17

1

1 9 1

BK - Magg ie R ive r

8 16

1 67

0 . 00573

1

8 9

.

.

D e scr ip tor

Z one I D# 1 92

BK - Macoah

MZ A rea ( m2 )

R ank o f MZ A rea

1 5 ,000

3 7

0 . 00554

#o fS i te si n Z one 1 2

N etwork A cce ss ib i l i ty

1 93

BK -Toqua r t

7 , 580

6 2

0 . 004 14

1 94

BK -Dee rG p C

2 , 800

11

0 . 00544

1

1 95

BK -Dee rC r pN

1 , 050

1 59

0 . 00546

1

1 96

BK -T revo rC h

2 25

1 94

0 . 00520

1

1 97

BK -Tza r tu sI sS

8 00

1 68

0 . 00478

2

1 98

BK -Tza r tu sI s SW

4 , 000

9 5

0 . 00511

2

1 99

BK -G r ea te rB am f ie ld

8 6 ,29 1

0 . 00478

4 6

2 00

BK -Cape B ea le N

1 ,386

4 8

0 . 00475

6

2 0 1

' BK -Cape B ea le S

8 , 130

6 0

0 . 00474

4

2 02

-S C -Pachena

2 4 ,460

2 1

0 . 00455

2 1

B ay N

3

2 03

BK -Sa r i ta W

1 , 800

1 33

0 . 00449

2 04

BK -Sar i ta E

3 , 250

1 06

0 . 004 13

1

2 05

AB -A lbe rn i /Ba rk ley J c tN

2 , 100

1 26

0 . 004 10

1

2 06

AB -A lbe rn i /Ba rk ley J c tS

6 , 000

7 2

0 . 00387

1

2 07

BK -Sedda l l I s

1 36

0 . 004 14

1

2 08

AB -Uchuck le s i t

u nknown

0 . 00306

1

2 09

AB -Nahm in tB ay

1 93

0 . 00275

1

2 10

AB -F rank l in R ive r

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00268

1

2 11

AB -S tamp N a r row sW

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 0034 1

1

2 12

AB -S tamp N a r row sE

1 50

1 99

0 . 00356

1

2 13

AB -P tA lbe rn iP o l ly P t .

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00323

1

2 14

AB -P tA lbe rn i S oma s s S

9 , 200

5 5

0 . 00353

3

2 15

AB -Soma s s CS

2 , 500

16

0 . 00379

1

2 16

AB -Soma s s CN

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00363

1

2 17

AB -Soma s s

2 18

AB -Sp roa tL k

2 19

, ,

1 , 625 _ u nknown 2 40

3 1 ,300

1 8

0 . 00337

8

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00288

1

S C -Pachena B ay S

4 50

1 8 1

0 . 00420

1

2 20

S C -Pachena P t

2 20

1 96

0 . 004 12

1

2 2 1

S C -Da r l ing R ive r

3 0

2 11

0 . 004 18

1

2 22

S C -Da r l ing R ive rE

6 16

1 74

0 . 00396

2

2 23

S C -K lanawa R ive r

7 , 431

6 5

0 . 00379

3

2 24

S C -T su s ia t

3 , 975

9 7

0 . 0040 1

3

2 25

S C -T suquanah

6 , 600

6 9

0 . 00420

1

2 26

S C - Whyac

3 1 , 100

1 9

0 . 00454

4

2 27

S C -C lo -oose

2 28

S C -N i t ina tL kF oo t

2 29

7 , 472

6 3

0 . 00388

3

3 8 ,025

1

0 . 00436

3

S C -N i t ina tL k S

1 , 064

1 58

0 . 00386

1

2 30

S C -Da re P t

1 , 2 11

1 50

0 . 00367

4

2 31

S C -Ca rmanah P tN

3 , 000

1 09

0 . 00353

1

2 32

S C -Ca rmanah P tS

2 , 565

15

0 . 0032 1

1

2 33

S C -Bon i l la P t

4 , 050

9 4

0 . 00262

1

2 34

S C -N i t ina tL k EC

7 50

1 7 1

0 . 00292

1

2 35

S C -N i t ina tL kW C

5 , 175

8 7

0 . 00285

1

9 0

MZ A rea ( m2 )

D e scr ip tor

Z one I D# 2 36

S C -N i t ina tL k NE

2 37

S C -N i t ina tL k NW

2 38

CL -Kennedy R . I n land

R ank o f MZ A rea

#o fS i te s i n Z one 1

5 0

2 08

N e twork A cce s s ib i l i ty 0 . 00275

1 , 125

1 55

0 . 00255

1

u nknown

u nknown

0 . 00280

1

KEY ( s ee F ig .6 . 2 ,p .4 5) : KY =Kyuquo tC hanne l S ou th NN =N o r th Noo tka I s land NK =N oo tka S ound HQ =H e squ ia t F L =F lo r e sI s land CL =C layoquo tS ound L B =L ong B each AB =A lbe rn iI n le t BK =B a rk ley S ound S C =S ou th C oa s t &N i t inah t

F igu re A l :

H i s tog ram o fi n d iv idua ls i te a r ea sw i th in s t udy a r ea , n= 5 26 . H is tog ram o fI nd iv idua lM idden S i te A rea s 4 00 —

Numbe ro fM idden s

3 50 — 3 00 — 2 50 — 2 00 — 1 50 — 1 00 — 5 0 —

I 11 1 1 .1 99 - 1 -1 - 1 1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

0 C D C D

r s i

C :D O C D Ö , .

C: C t r \ R , —,

C C C tA. C N I

CD O t r \ CV ' ce l

C C o

^

Ö Ne

R Nt

© ^ IA' In

0 C v \

0 O S

C G

r N i \ . , z

Ö t --

R r ,

"

1

S i ze o fM idden ( s q . m e t re s )

9 1

C D 0

O 0

CD

t il

t r i c o

ri c. ,

MIIIII C :D 0

C 0

C D Ö c z , —

t r \ R C . —

F igu re A 2 : H i s tog ram o fm idden z one a r ea sw i th in s t udy a r ea , n=2 38 .

M idden Z one A rea s 1 40 — 1 20 — 1 00 —

C › . ) 1 9

8 0 6 0 — 4 0 — 2 0 —

I —

C >

C • I

0 C D

0 0

o 0

0 0 t r )

I — I — I — I o C > 0 r s -

o 0 0

—

I - 1 I

0 0 C T

M idden Z one A rea ( s q . m e t re s )

F igu r eA 3 : H i s tog ram o fb a se 10 L oga r i thm o fm idden z one a r ea s .

L oga r i thm ic M idden Z one s

3 5 — 3 0 —

1 0 — 5— I

f

I

I1 1

1

11 111

M1

0

B a se 10 L oga r i thm o fM idden Z one A rea

9 2

0 0

II C > C >

APPEND IX B : SU M MARY OF RESULTS T ab le B l : L oca t ion -a l loca t ion s o lu t ion s e t sf o r2 5 i t e ra t ion so ft h e p= m ed ian mod e l . S o lu t ion S e t

'

I D

#o fS i te si n MZ

MZ A rea ( s q . me tre s )

1

7 4

1

4 6 ,376

2

4 2

1

9 , 400

2

1 7 1

2

4 , 232

3

7 1

1

1 4 ,000

3

19

3

1 4 ,200

3

1 83

1 4

3 7 ,842

4

1 3

1 6

3 ,105

4

5 2

2

1 , 400

4

19

3

1 4 ,200

4

1 83

1 4

3 7 ,842

5

1 3

1 6

3 3 ,105

5

5 2

2

1 , 400

5

1 20

2

7 9 ,872

5

1 8 1

2

5 , 392

5

2 26

4

3 1 ,100

6

1 3

1 6

3 3 , 105

6

5 2

2

1 , 400

6

1 20

2

7 9 ,872

6

1 8 1

2

5 , 392

6

2 14

3

9 , 200

6

2 26

4

3 1 , 100

7

1 3

1 6

3 3 ,105

7

5 3

1

1 , 000

7

9 4

1

9 2 ,964

7

19

3

1 4 ,200

7

1 8 1

2

5 , 392

7

2 14

3

9 , 200

7

2 26

4

3 1 , 100

8

1 3

1 6

3 3 , 105

8

5 2

2

1 , 400

8

8 3

1

5 10

8

9 4

1

9 2 ,964

8

19

3

1 4 ,200

8

1 8 1

2

5 , 392

8

2 14

3

9 , 200

-

9 3

T ab le B i , c on t inued S o lu t ion S e t

I D

#o fS i te si n MZ

8

2 26

4

3 1 , 100

9

1 3

1 6

3 3 , 105

9

5 2

2

1 , 400

9

8 3

1

5 10

9

9 4

1

9 2 ,964

9

1 20

2

7 9 ,872

9

1 75

3

1 , 312

9

1 96

1

2 25

9

2 14

3

9 , 200

9

2 26

4

3 1 , 100

1 0

1 3

1 6

3 ,105

1 0

5 2

2

1 , 400

1 0

8 3

1

5 10

1 0

9 4

1

9 2 ,964

1 0

19

3

1 4 ,200

1 0

1 34

1

1 5

1 0

1 75

3

1 , 312

1 0

1 96

1

2 25

1 0

2 14

3

9 , 200

1 0

2 26

4

3 1 ,100

1

1 3

1 6

3 3 ,105

1

2 4

1

8 00

1

5 3

1

1 , 000

1

8 3

1

5 10

1

9 4

1

9 2 ,964

1

19

3

1 4 ,200

1

1 34

1

1 5

1

1 75

3

1 , 312

1

1 96

1

2 25

1

2 14

3

9 , 200

1

2 26

4

3 1 ,100

1 2

1 3

1 6

3 3 ,105

1 2

2 4

1

8 00

1 2

5 3

1

1 , 000

1 2

8 3

1

5 10

1 2

9 4

1

9 2 ,964

1 2

19

3

1 4 ,200

1 2

1 34

1

1 5

9 4

MZ A rea ( s q . m e tre s )

T ab le B i ,c on t inued S o lu t ion S e t

MZ A rea ( s q . me tre s )

I D

#o fS i te si n MZ

1 2

1 66

2

1 , 700

1 2

1 82

1

7 2

1 2

1 96

1

2 25

1 2

2 14

3

9 , 200

1 2

2 26

4

3 1 ,100

1 3

1 3

1 6

3 3 ,105

1 3

2 4

1

8 00

1 3

4 2

1

9 , 400

1 3

5 8

1

4 5

1 3

8 3

1

5 10

1 3

9 4

1

9 2 ,964

1 3

19

3

1 4 ,200

1 3

1 34

1

1 5

1 3

1 66

2

1 , 700

1 3

1 82

1

7 2

1 3

1 96

1

2 25

1 3

2 14

3

9 , 200

1 3

2 26

4

3 1 ,100

1 4

5

1

u nknown

1 4

1 3

1 6

3 3 ,105

1 4

2 4

1

8 00

1 4

4 2

1

9 , 400

1 4

5 8

1

4 5

1 4

8 3

1

5 10

1 4

9 4

1

9 2 ,964

1 4

19

3

1 4 ,200

1 4

1 34

1

1 5

1 4

1 66

2

1 , 700

1 4

1 82

1

7 2

1 4

1 96

1

2 25

1 4

2 14

3

9 , 200

1 4

2 26

4

3 1 ,100

1 5

5

1

u nknown

1 5

1 3

1 6

3 3 , 105

1 5

2 4

1

8 00

1 5

4 2

1

9 , 400

1 5

5 8

1

4 5

1 5

8 3

1

5 10

9 5

T ab le B i ,c on t inued S o lu t ion S e t

I D

#o fS i te s i n N IZ 1

1 1Z A rea ( s q . m e tre s )

1 5

9 4

1 5

1 07

1

3 , 125

1 5

19

3

1 4 ,200

1 5

1 34

1

1 5

1 5

1 66

2

1 , 700

1 5

1 82

1

7 2

1 5

1 96

1

2 25

1 5

2 14

3

9 , 200

1 5

2 26

4

3 1 , 100

1 6

5

1

u nknown

1 6

1 3

1 6

3 , 105

1 6

2 4

1

8 00

1 6

3 7

1

2 , 250

1 6

5 1

1

3 75

1 6

5 8

1

4 5

1 6

8 3

1

5 10

1 6

9 4

1

9 2 ,964

1 6

1 07

1

3 , 125

1 6

19

3

1 4 ,200

1 6

1 34

1

1 5

1 6

1 66

2

1 , 700

1 6

1 82

1

7 2

1 6

1 96

1

2 25

1 6

2 14

3

9 , 200

1 6

2 26

4

3 1 ,100

1 7

5

1

u nknown

1 7

1 3

1 6

3 3 , 105

1 7

2 4

1

8 00

1 7

3 7

1

2 , 250

1 7

4 9

1

6 00

1 7

5 8

1

4 5

1 7

8 3

1

5 10

1 7

8 9

1

u nknown

1 7

1 00

1

1 62

1 7

1 07

1

3 , 125

1 7

19

3

1 4 ,200

1 7

1 34

1

1 5

1 7

1 66

2

1 , 700

9 6

9 2 ,964

T ab le B i ,c on t inued S o lu t ion S e t

I D

#o fS i te si n W IZ

l V IZ A rea ( s q . me tre s )

1 7

1 82

1

7 2

1 7

1 96

1

2 25

1 7

2 14

3

9 , 200

1 7

2 26

4

3 1 ,100

1 8

5

1

u nknown

1 8

1 3

1 6

3 ,105

1 8

2 4

1

8 00

1 8

3 7

1

2 , 250

1 8

4 9

1

6 00

1 8

5 8

1

4 5

1 8

8 3

1

5 10

1 8

8 9

1

u nknown

1 8

1 00

1

1 62

1 8

1 07

1

3 , 125

1 8

19

3

1 4 ,200

1 8

1 34

1

1 5

1 8

1 66

2

1 , 700

1 8

1 82

1

7 2

1 8

1 96

1

2 25

1 8

2 14

3

9 , 200

1 8

2 19

1

4 50

1 8

2 26

4

3 1 ,100

1 9

5

1

u nknown

1 9

1 3

1 6

3 3 ,105

1 9

2 4

1

8 00

1 9

3 7

1

2 , 250

1 9

4 9

1

6 00

1 9

5 8

1

4 5

1 9

8 3

1

5 10

1 9

8 9

1

u nknown

1 9

1 00

1

1 62

1 9

1 07

1

3 , 125

1 9

1 24

1

1 9

1 38

1

2 0 ,756

1 9

1 45

1

2 , 375

1 9

1 66

2

1 , 700

1 9

1 82

1

7 2

1 9

1 96

1

2 25

9 7

9

T ab le B i ,c on t inued M EZ A rea ( s q . me tre s )

I D

#o fS i te si n MZ

1 9

2 14

3

9 , 200

1 9

2 19

1

4 50

1 9

2 26

4

3 1 ,100

2 0

5

1

u nknown

2 0

1 3

1 6

3 3 , 105

2 0

2 4

1

8 00

2 0

3 7

1

2 , 250

2 0

4 9

1

6 00

2 0

5 8

1

4 5

2 0

8 3

1

5 10

2 0

8 9

1

u nknown

2 0

1 00

1

1 62

2 0

1 07

1

3 , 125

2 0

1 24

1

2 0

1 38

1

2 0 ,756

2 0

1 45

1

2 , 375

2 0

1 58

1

3 , 600 '

2 0

1 66

2

1 , 700

2 0

1 82

1

7 2

2 0

1 96

1

2 25

2 0

2 14

3

9 , 200

2 0

2 19

1

4 50

2 0

2 26

4

3 1 ,100

2 1

5

1

u nknown'

2 1

1 3

1 6

3 , 105

2 1

1 9

2

1 , 120

2 1

2 4

1

8 00

2 1

3 7

1

2 , 256

2 1

4 9

1

6 00

2 1

5 8

1

4 5

2 1

8 3

1

5 10

2 1

8 9

1

u nknown

2 1

1 00

1

1 62

2 1

1 07

1

3 , 125

2 1

19

3

1 4 ,200

2 1

1 38

1

2 0 ,756

2 1

1 45

1

2 , 375

2 1

1 59

7

1 2 ,332

2 1

1 7 1

2

4 , 232

S o lu t ion S e t

'

9 8

9

T ab le B i , c on t inued S o lu t ion S e t 2 1

I D

#o fS i te si n MZ

MZ A rea ( s q . me tre s )

1 82

1

7 2

2 1

1 96

1

2 25

2 1

2 14

3

9 , 200

2 1

2 19

1

4 50

2 1

2 26

4

3 1 ,100

2 2

5

1

u nknown

2 2

1 3

1 6

3 ,105

2 2

1 9

2

1 , 120

2 2

2 4

1

8 00

2 2

3 7

1

2 , 250

2 2

4 9

1

6 00

2 2

6 2

1

2 , 250

2 2

7 8

1

6 , 300

2 2

8 5

2

2 , 985

2 2

8 9

1

u nknown

2 2

1 00

1

1 62

2 2

1 07

1

3 , 125

2 2

19

3

1 4 ,200

2 2

1 38

1

2 0 ,756

2 2

1 45

1

2 , 375

2 2

1 59

7

1 2 ,332

2 2

1 7 1

2

4 , 232

2 2

1 82

1

7 2

2 2

1 96

1

2 25

2 2

2 14

3

9 , 200

2 2

2 19

1

4 50

2 2

2 26

4

3 1 ,100

2 3

5

1

u nknown

2 3

1 3

1 6

3 3 , 105

2 3

1 9

2

1 , 120

2 3

2 4

1

8 00

2 3

3 7

1

2 , 250

2 3

4 9

1

6 00

2 3

6 2

1

2 , 250

2 3

7 8

1

6 , 300 '

2 3

8 5

2

2 , 985

2 3

8 9

1

u nknown

2 3

1 00

1

1 62

2 3

1 07

1

3 , 125

-

9 9

T ab le B i ,c on t inued S o lu t ion S e t 2 3

I D

#o fS i te si n MZ

19

3

1 4 ,200

2 3

1 34

1

1 5

2 3

1 45

1

2 , 375

2 3

1 49

1

6 2 ,900

2 3

1 59

7

1 2 ,332

2 3

1 7 1

2

4 , 232

2 3

1 82

1

7 2

2 3

1 96

1

2 25

2 3

2 14

3

9 , 200

2 3

2 19

1

4 50

2 3

2 26

4

3 1 , 100

2 4

5

1

u nknown

2 4

1 3

1 6

3 , 105

2 4

1 9

2

1 , 120

2 4

2 4

1

8 00

2 4

3 7

1

2 , 250

2 4

4 9

1

6 00

2 4

6 2

1

2 , 250

2 4

7 8

1

6 , 300

2 4

8 5

2

2 , 985

2 4

8 9

1

u nknown

2 4

1 00

1

1 62

2 4

1 07

1

3 , 125

2 4

19

3

1 4 ,200 '

2 4

1 34

1

1 5

2 4

1 45

1

2 , 375

2 4

1 49

1

6 2 ,900

2 4

1 58

1

3 , 600

2 4

1 69

1

2 3 ,500

2 4

1 82

1

7 2

2 4

1 96

1

2 25

2 4

2 14

3

9 , 200

2 4

2 19

1

4 50

2 4

2 26

4

3 1 , 100

2 4

2 35

1

5 , 175

2 5

5

1

u nknown

2 5

1 3

1 6

3 , 105

2 5

1 9

2

1 , 120

2 5

2 4

1

8 00

1 00

N IZ A rea ( s q . m e tre s )

T ab le B i ,c on t inued S o lu t ion S e t

I D

#o fS i te si n MZ

MZ A rea ( s q . me tre s )

2 5

3 7

1

2 , 250

2 5

4 9

1

6 00

2 5

6 2

1

2 , 250

2 5

7 8

1

6 , 300

2 5

8 5

2

2 , 985

2 5

8 9

1

u nknown

2 5

1 00

1

1 62

2 5

1 07

1

3 , 125

2 5

11

1

1 , 360

2 5

19

3

1 4 ,200

2 5

1 34

1

1 5

2 5

1 45

1

2 , 375

2 5

1 49

1

6 2 ,900

2 5

1 58

1

3 , 600

2 5

1 69

1

2 3 ,500

2 5

1 82

1

7 2

2 5

1 96

1

2 25

2 5

2 14

3

9 , 200

2 5

2 19

1

4 50

2 5

2 26

4

3 1 ,100

2 5

2 35

1

5 , 175

Unsere Partner sammeln Daten und verwenden Cookies zur Personalisierung und Messung von Anzeigen. Erfahren Sie, wie wir und unser Anzeigenpartner Google Daten sammeln und verwenden. Cookies zulassen