SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2021 Discover

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NEW MIGRAINE RESEARCH

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SCIENCE

THAT MATTERS

SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2021

MIND +BODY MYSTERIES

• /V^(NPUN(ɈLJ[Z7LYZVUHSP[` p.38 • )YLH[OPUN,_LYJPZLZMVY)VK`HUK)YHPU p.30 • >OH[:JPLUJL:H`Z(IV\[5LHY+LH[O,_WLYPLUJLZ p.50 • :VS]PUN7YVISLTZPU@V\Y:SLLW p.44

BONUS

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CONTENTS SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2021

VOL. 4

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COVER: ZFFOTO/SHUTTERSTOCK. THIS PAGE: FER GREGORY/SHUTTERSTOCK

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Know Your Breath For most of us, respiration is an automatic, subconscious function. But a new wave of breath research could change your mind — and your body.

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Not Set in Stone Scientists once thought that your personality doesn’t change much once you reach your 30s. But an influx of new research points to the various ways it can evolve over time. MARTA ZARASKA

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We can’t escape COVID-19, even in our sleep. Psychologist Deirdre Barrett is tracking our dreams about this new, everchanging reality.

An estimated 9 million people in the U.S. alone have had a transformative neardeath experience. Scientists are grappling with what’s happening inside their heads.

HOPE REESE

ALEX ORLANDO

Sweet (Pandemic) Dreams

Death Defying

TIMOTHY MEINCH SEP T EM BER/O C TO B ER 2 0 2 1 . D IS C OVER

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CONTENTS

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COLUMNS & DEPARTMENTS EDITOR’S NOTE

Some Introductions Editorial Director Steve George spotlights Discover’s two newest editors.

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This month, take a look at why we get migraines, the science of the Dark Ages, how NASA decides what astronauts should eat, clever crows, and more!

EMILIE LE BEAU LUCCHESI

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60

Heart Ache

Can Life Exist on a Rogue Planet?

VITAL SIGNS

HOT SCIENCE p. 9

untreated — and often denied altogether — driving many from the profession. Can we do better for today’s nurses?

After surgery for a faulty heart valve, this 16-year-old kept getting bacterial infections. But during her latest stint in the hospital, new and frightening symptoms started to emerge. JULIA MICHIE BRUCKNER

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HISTORY LESSONS

Frontline Fatigue Military nurses in WWII experienced PTSD that was left

OUT THERE

With the right conditions and a bit of luck, some of the most inhospitable worlds in the universe could still be habitable. KATIE MCCORMICK

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#SCIENCEIRL

A look at the bridge that many believed was a fake. MOLLY GLICK

CLOCKWISE FROM TOP RIGHT: NASA/JPL-CALTECH; KELLIE JAEGER/DISCOVER; SEB FALK

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EDITOR’S NOTE BY STEPHEN C. GEORGE ®

M AG A ZINE

STEPHEN C. GEORGE Editorial Director ELIZABETH M. WEBER Design Director

Some Introductions

EDITORIAL

Occasionally, I like to shine a light on the unsung heroes here at Discover who spend long hours with writers, researchers and their fellow editors to bring you relevant stories across a range of scientific endeavors. You may see their names in tiny type over in the masthead on the edge of this page, but that doesn’t convey very much about the talent, energy and passion that these people muster in service to Discover readers. When you write in to share your thoughts about our stories, these are the people who read every one of those letters, even the critical ones (in fact, especially the critical ones) and use your constructive thoughts and feedback to help inform future stories. So, this seemed as good a time as any to introduce you to two of the newest Discover team members. First, Assistant Editor Molly Glick joined us a few months ago, and has done work for Popular Science and Sierra. Thanks to the vagaries of publishing schedules, one of Molly’s first print stories appears only now in this issue (check out Hot Science, page 10). But you’ll see more of them in the future. Marisa Sloan, another new assistant editor, recently graduated from Northwestern University, and holds degrees in both chemistry and journalism. It might be a couple of issues before you see Marisa’s byline in these pages, but you can find plenty of her work over at DiscoverMagazine.com. Of course, the issue you hold in your hands is the result of a lot of hard work by many thoughtful and talented people like Molly and Marisa. Every one of them is just like you — passionate about science and understanding the universe around us. I hope you’ll enjoy getting to know all of them through their work in this and every issue of Discover.

Stephen C. George, Editorial Director

NEW MIGRAINE RESEARCH

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SCIENCE

THAT MATTERS

SCIENCE

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D IS C O V E R M A G A Z I N E .C O M

Contributing Editors BRIDGET ALEX, TIM FOLGER, JONATHON KEATS, LINDA MARSA, KENNETH MILLER, STEVE NADIS, JULIE REHMEYER, DARLENE CAVALIER (special projects)

MIND +BODY MYSTERIES

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HOT SCIENCE

TH E L AT E ST N E WS A N D NOT E S PLANT VACCINES • CLEVER CROWS • THE SCIENCE OF MIGRAINES WHAT’S FOR DINNER ... IN SPACE • THE STATE OF SCIENCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES

INVISIBLE INK

Can you spot the differences between these baby squids? Look closely: The ones with light pink eyes and fewer dark speckles (called chromatophores) got a makeover in July 2020 by scientists using the CRISPR-Cas9 geneediting tool. A team of researchers at the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, found a way to make Doryteuthis pealeii hatchlings more transparent by switching off the gene that controls eye and skin cell pigmentation while they’re still embryos. The feat is the first time researchers have knocked out a gene in cephalopods, a class of invertebrates that includes octopus, squid, cuttlefish and nautilus. With future applications in biomedicine, such as pain-management therapies, the potential to turn individual genes off (and on) may not only impact our boneless brethren, but humans, too. — LYDIA RIVERS; IMAGE BY KAREN CRAWFORD

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HOT SCIENCE

Popular foods like oranges and chocolate are being threatened by plant diseases.

RESEARCHERS ARE FORMULATING UNCONVENTIONAL SOLUTIONS FOR TREE DISEASES THAT IMPACT BELOVED FOODS LIKE ORANGES AND CHOCOLATE. THESE INCLUDE A POTENTIAL RNA THERAPY SIMILAR TO COVID-19 VACCINES. A future in which chocolate, wine and oranges are affordable only for the wealthy certainly feels dystopian. But this may very well become reality, as some of our favorite crops are now in danger of succumbing to plant diseases. To tackle the problem, Anne Elizabeth Simon, a virologist at the University of Maryland, is attempting to create what she calls a vaccine for perennial crops, which could help protect our food supply.

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Researchers have long dealt with pathogen spread among plants by quarantining infected flora to spare surrounding ones. And, depending on the type of disease, plants may also receive pesticides or antibiotic sprays. But to create more reliable protection, Simon is part of a team developing a vaccinelike solution as an efficient and relatively quickly deployable way to preempt, or possibly cure, plant diseases. This potential fix can’t come fast enough. Currently, the world grapples

with increasing perils to vital agricultural sectors. For example, cacao grown in West Africa, which provides about 70 percent of the world’s chocolate, faces the debilitating cacao swollen shoot disease (CSSD). Florida’s quickly spiraling

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Plant ‘Vaccines’ Could Save Us From a World Without Fruit

EDGLORIS MARYS/SHUTTERSTOCK

damage to the plant. “This could be a vehicle, and not just for one type of tree, but for many,” Simon says. “It’s all In the first half of the because of this very unusual, never20th century, a disease before-seen property.” caused by fungus The iRNA sample was first discovered killed about 4 billion by University of California, Riverside, American chestnut researchers in the 1950s when it appeared in limequat trees. They found trees. that the iRNA can infect many citrus species with very mild to zero symptoms. Yet its disease-fighting capabilities were only recently discovered when Simon realized iRNA’s ability to co-opt citrus industry is threatened by the its host plant’s proteins to move from disease huanglongbing (HLB) — comcell to cell. monly called citrus greening — which Eager to get the ball rolling, has wreaked major havoc since 2005. Simon co-founded a company Of course, plant pandemics are no called Silvec Biologics in 2019, new challenge. In the first half of the and is working to develop 20th century, for instance, a disease a single-step preventative caused by fungus killed about 4 billion treatment that tricks trees American chestnut trees. But overall, into eradicating not only climate change, emerging pathogens viruses that cause disease, and human activity, such as ramped-up but also fungi and bacteria global travel, have combined to create a — somewhat similar to how perfect storm that endangers our food mRNA jabs force our immune supply. “The time has come to let people systems to cook up COVID-19 know that there are other pandemics antibodies. going on,” Simon says. “There’s multiple Because iRNA stays in trees pandemics happening with trees, and it’s for decades, Simon says the going to lead to a very different world.” vaccine could possibly offer lifetime protection against several pathogens TREE “VACCINES” when put into newly planted trees — Simon joined the fight against plant similar to giving children a standard set pathogens by chance: While studying of shots. What’s less clear, however, is plant RNA viruses in her lab, she whether highly degraded trees that have happened upon a surprising sample in been infected for several years can still a genetic sequence database that would benefit from the treatment. change the direction of her career. Simon hopes that the iRNA therapy It turned out to be a new type of can save infected trees that don’t yet viruslike RNA that she named show symptoms. It seems less iRNA. Simon was shocked likely for those with roots to see that while this iRNA disintegrated by disease, lacked the genes to code its like a growing number of own plant-generated moveFlorida’s citrus trees. Even if ment proteins, it was still able the vaccine did work in those to move between cells in a cases, she says, they would be plant’s veins — contradicting too weak to recover. CRISPR her 30 years of research. CROPS Scan this code AIDING AILING PLANTS Tweaking the iRNA to carry with your phone’s Simon’s team isn’t the tiny fragments of a virus can camera for more: Can Gene-Edited only one developing provoke plant enzymes to Produce Feed novel techniques to fight chop up the harmful virus into the World? devastating plant diseases. little pieces, without causing

Some researchers have, for example, adapted relatively new technologies to take on these threats. In recent years, scientists have proposed genomeediting techniques like CRISPR for this purpose. By manipulating specific portions of plant DNA, CRISPR could allow breeders and researchers to work more precisely when designing diseaseresistant varieties. Ultimately, it will likely take a combination of approaches to keep our food system resilient to current and emerging diseases — just as we have combined masking and social distancing, along with various

This orange comes from a tree infected with citrus greening disease.

treatments and vaccines, to work against COVID-19. But if scientists, governments and growers don’t combine forces quickly enough, it’s possible that certain food production costs will skyrocket and affect consumer prices. Florida’s per-box orange price, for example, rose by more than 90 percent between 2003 and 2018 when adjusted for inflation. That’s why Simon says plant epidemics require a Manhattan Project of sorts, where scientists can bring their minds together and offer their individual expertise. Georgios Vidalakis, a plant pathologist at the University of California, Riverside, and director of the Citrus Clonal Protection Program, agrees. “The clock is ticking and we won’t have decades to spend on this,” he says. “It has to happen soon.” — MOLLY GLICK

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HOT SCIENCE

Crows — They’re Just Like Us! LARGE BRAINS, LONG LIFE SPANS AND ELABORATE PROBLEM-SOLVING IN CROWS MAKES THEM SURPRISINGLY SIMILAR TO HUMANS.

We’ve long known that crows exhibit extraordinary intelligence. These birds — along with ravens, jays and others in the corvid family — have inspired myths and legends for centuries. But the more scientists unravel about their brain structure and behaviors, the more crows seem to resemble humans. Remarkable leaps in corvid research have captivated John Marzluff, ornithologist at the University of Washington, for decades. He’s explored the exceptional size and function of crow brains, their long life spans (likely up to 30 years) and communal lifestyle. “Big brain, long life and sociality, those are really linked features,” Marzluff says. “You put those together, and it should sound pretty familiar.”

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To top that off, just last fall other researchers determined that crows seem to exhibit a level of consciousness demonstrated only in humans and very few of our mammal relatives, such as primates. This work, along with many recent neurological studies, is redefining bird brains as we have known them. The breakthrough study published in Science revealed that crows show signs of perceptual consciousness and an ability to draw on subjective experiences from the past in order to solve a task. This means the birds keep new information, or memories, in the front of their brains for extended periods, and use it in reasoning and navigating new situations they encounter. The discovery piggybacks on new knowledge about the

forebrain in crows, which has proven to be exceptionally large — another trait they share with humans. One region, known as the nidopallium caudolaterale, or NCL, seems to function much like the prefrontal cortex in humans. For people and crows alike, the forebrain deals with higher cognitive tasks, including rational decision-making, problem-solving and executive function. Taken together, these findings help explain the dynamic problem-solving

and tool use in crows that humans have observed for years. The New Caledonian crow, for example, has recently gained popularity for not only tool use, but its ability to manufacture compound tools out of various materials. These innovative birds have been known to make probes, hooks and sharp spears that they use to skewer insects in hard-to-reach places. They also strip down palm fronds so that the main stem forms a J-shape that can grab food. In research labs, they’ve successfully bent wire to snatch baskets with food inside. “They understand the concept of hooking and pulling and spearing and what tools are needed to do that,” Marzluff says. These reasoning skills appear to be significantly more advanced than more crude tool use — such as using rocks to break open shells and other food — that researchers have observed in some other animals. “There are incidental uses of tools,” he adds. “It’s not quite the same as having to take a different material and make it into something. Rocks, however, are good for pounding always.” — TIMOTHY MEINCH

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HOT SCIENCE

THE SCIENCE OF MIGRAINES WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT THE LATEST RESEARCH ON THE CAUSES AND TREATMENTS FOR MIGRAINE HEADACHES. If you asked your doctor about migraine headaches just a few decades ago, you may have been underwhelmed with the treatment options. But within the past 20 years or so, a lot has come to light about what causes migraines and how to help people with them. It’s about time: Migraines have (supposedly) been around since at least the time of ancient Egypt. Migraines are estimated to affect 1 billion people worldwide. And they’re not just extra-painful headaches, but rather a whole batch of

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disabling symptoms that come in waves. The most well-known include nausea and sensitivity to light and sound. A single migraine attack can last multiple days. Migraines are, in part, genetic. They’re three times more common in women than in men, and you’re much more likely to have migraines if a parent does, too. Scientists used to think that the actual pain of migraines was from the

dilation of blood vessels. More recently, though, they’ve learned that it’s more than that: The pain comes from neuroinflammation of structures in the brain that sense pain. Since multiple brain regions and multiple neurotransmitters are involved, that’s why there’s such a wide variety of symptoms that come with it. Different migraine sufferers can experience a different batch of symptoms,

and the attacks can even be different within a single person. Still, there are patterns. “It’s often aggravated by routine activities, like climbing up stairs,” says Dawn Buse, a clinical professor of neurology at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York City. “You wouldn’t want to do aerobics while you’re having a migraine.” Many people need to avoid light, sound, or even strong odors to stay comfortable during an attack. But migraine treatments have come a long way in recent decades. The most basic treatments for migraines are called acute medications; these are often over-the-counter medications that people take when a migraine attack starts. There’s also a suite of preventive strategies available, from lifestyle modifications to pharmaceuticals and even external neural stimulators — handheld machines that zap various nerves. “It’s really exciting that we have options to offer people and we can tell people confidently, ‘We can help you,’ ” says Buse. “‘We can help you return to and regain the life that you would like to be living.’” — ANNA FUNK

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Migraines are estimated to affect 1 billion people worldwide.

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