Semiconducting Chalcogenide Glass IIProperties of Chalcogenide Glasses [1 ed.] 0127521887, 9780127521886, 9780080541051

Table of contents :
Content:
List of contributors
Page ix

Preface
Pages xi-xiii
V.S. Minaev

Chapter 1 Information capacity of condensed systems Original Research Article
Pages 1-14
M.D. Bal'makov

Chapter 2 Charge carrier transfer at high electric fields in noncrystalline semiconductors Original Research Article
Pages 15-55
A. Česnys, G. Juška, E. Montrimas

Chapter 3 The nature of the current instability in chalcogenide vitreous semiconductors Original Research Article
Pages 57-114
Andrey S. Glebov

Chapter 4 Optical and photoelectrical properties of chalcogenide glasses Original Research Article
Pages 115-200
A.M. Andriesh, M.S. Iovu, S.D. Shutov

Chapter 5 Optical spectra of arsenic chalcogenides in a wide energy range of fundamental absorption Original Research Article
Pages 201-228
V. Val. Sobolev, V.V. Sobolev

Chapter 6 Magnetic properties of chalcogenide glasses Original Research Article
Pages 229-275
Yu. S. Tver'yanovich

Index
Pages 277-283

Contents of volumes in this series
Pages 285-307

Citation preview

Semiconducting Chalcogenide Glass II Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses SEMICONDUCTORS AND SEMIMETALS Volume 79

Semiconductors and Semimetals A Treatise

Edited by R.K. Willardson CONSULTING PHYSICIST 12722 EAST 23RD AVENUE SPOKANE, WA 99216-0327

USA

Eicke R. Weber DEPARTMENT OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND MINERAL ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT BERKELEY BERKELEY, CA 94720

USA

Semiconducting Chalcogenide Glass II Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses SEMICONDUCTORS AND SEMIMETALS Volume 79 ROBERT FAIRMAN B e a v e r t o n , OR, U S A

BORIS USHKOV JSC E L M A Ltd Moscow, Russia

2004 0

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Contents LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS PREFACE

Chapter 1 Information Capacity of Condensed Systems M. D. Bal'makov 1.

EXACT COPY

2

2.

DESCRIPTION IN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE ADIABATIC APPROXIMATION

5

3.

ESTIMATIONOF THE NUMBER OF DIFFERENT QUASICLOSED ENSEMBLES

4.

DEFINITION OF A QUASICLOSED ENSEMBLE

10

5.

CONCLUSION

11

REFERENCES

13

Chapter 2

8

Charge Carrier Transfer at High Electric Fields in Noncrystalline Semiconductors

A. Cesnys, G. Ju~ka a n d E. M o n t r i m a s 1.

INTRODUCTION

15

2.

CHARGETRANSFER IN NONCRYSTALLINESELENIUM AND A s - S e SYSTEM THIN FILMS

17 17

2.1. Amorphous Selenium Electrical Conduction Dependence on Impurities 2.2. Temperature and Electric Field Dependencies of Charge Carrier Drift and Micromobility 2.3. Multiplication Effect in Amorphous Selenium 2.4. Influence of Chemical Composition on Charge Transfer in As-Se System Thin Films 2.5. Space Charge Formation and Distribution in As-Se System Thin Films

3.

ELECTRICALCHARGE TRANSPORT IN NONCRYSTALLINEGa(OR I n ) - T e SYSTEMS STRUCTURES

19 20 24 30

3.1. A Variety of Electrical Conductivity in Barrier-less Structures 3.2. Nonactivated Electrical Conduction State 3.3. Electrical Characteristics of Barrier Structures

39 39 46 50

REFERENCES

52

Contents

vi

Chapter 3

The Nature of the Current Instability in Chalcogenide Vitreous Semiconductors

57

Anclrey S. G l e b o v 1.

INTRODUCTION

57

2.

CURRENT CHANNELS IN CVS-BASED SWITCHES

58

2.1. Models of Generation of Current Channels at Presence of Drift Barriers in CVS 2.2. Dimensional Effects in CVS-based Switches

71

3.

THE KINETIC MODEL OF THE CURRENT INSTABILITY AT THE PRESENCE OF THE CURRENT CHANNEL

77

4.

EXPERIMENTALCONFIRMATION OF THE KINETIC MODEL OF THE SWITCHING EFFECT

85

4.1. Influence of CVS Composition on Functional Characteristics of Switches 4.2. Dependence of Electro-physical Parameters of Switches from Temperature and Pressure 4.3. Influence of Synthesis and Thermal Treatment Conditions on Physical-Chemical Properties of Glasses and Electrical Parameters of Mono-stable Switches

85 97 105

REFERENCES

109

Chapter 4

Optical and Photoelectrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

67

115

A. M. Andriesh, M. S. Iovu a n d S. D. S h u t o v 1.

OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF CHALCOGENIDE GLASSES

1.1. The Reflectivity Spectra of Chalcogenide Crystals and Glasses: Electron States

1.2. The Absorption Edge in Amorphous Chalcogenides 1.3. Photo-induced Absorption 2.

PHOTOELECTRICALPROPERTIES OF AMORPHOUS CHALCOGENIDES

2.1. Steady-state Photoconductivity 2.2. Transient Photoconductivity 3.

115 116 121 138 149 149 168

3.1. Chalcogenide Glasses for Integrated and Fiber Optics Application

179 179

REFERENCES

193

CHALCOGENIDE GLASSES IN PHOTOELECTRIC INFORMATION RECORDING SYSTEMS

Chapter 5

Optical Spectra of Arsenic Chalcogenides in a Wide Energy Range of Fundamental Absorption

201

V. Val. S o b o l e v a n d V. V. S o b o l e v 1.

INTRODUCTION

201

2.

THE GENERAL CONSIDERATION OF OPTICAL SPECTRA AND ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE THEORY

202

3.

MEASUREMENTTECHNIQUES AND DETERMINATION OF SPECTRA OF OPTICAL

FUNCTIONS AND DENSITY OF STATES DISTRIBUTIONN(E)

204

4.

OPTICAL SPECTRA OF oL-As2S3

205 205

4.1. Calculations of Sets of Optical Functions 4.2. Decomposition of Dielectric Function Spectra and Characteristic Electron Loss Spectra

into Elementary Components 5.

OPTICAL SPECTRA OF g-As2Se3 5.1. Calculations of Sets of Optical Functions 5.2. Decomposition of Dielectric Function Spectra and Characteristic Electron Loss Spectra

6.

OPTICAL SPECTRA OF g-AsxSe~-x (x = 0.5, 0.36) 6.1. Calculations of Sets of Optical Functions

into Elementary Components

208 212 212 217 219 219

Contents

vii

6.2. Decomposition of Dielectric Function Spectra and Characteristic Electron Loss Spectra

into Elementary Components 7.

OPTICALSPECTRA OF g-AszTe3

7.1. Calculations of Sets of Optical Functions 7.2. Decomposition of Dielectric Function Spectra and Characteristic Electron Loss Spectra into Elementary Components 8.

222 224 224 226

CONCLUSION

227

REFERENCES

227

Chapter 6 Magnetic Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

229

Yu. S. Tver'yanovich 1.

MAGNETISMOF CHALCOGENIDE GLASSES NOT CONTAINING TRANSITIONAL METALS 1.1. Problems of Physicochemical Analysis of Glassy Systems 1.2. Dorfman's Method

2.

MAGNETISMOF GLASS-FORMING MELTS

1.3. Application of Magneto-chemistry for PCA 2.1. Magnetism of Chalcogenide Glasses at Heating 2.2. Melts 2.3. Magnetism of Melts with Low Conductivity 2.4. Semiconductor-Metal Transition in Chalcogenide Melts 2.5. Metallized State 2.6. Dependencies of Magnetic Susceptibility of Chalcogenide Melts on Composition and Temperature 2.7. Semiconductor-Metal Transition and Glass-Forming Ability of Chalcogenide Melts 3.

CHALCOGENIDEGLASSES CONTAINING TRANSITIONAL METALS

3.1. The Degree of Oxidizing of Transitional Metals in Chalcogenide Glasses 3.2. The Model of Magnetism of Glasses Containing Transitional Metals 3.3. The Results of the Investigations of Magnetic Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses, Containing Transitional Metals 3.4. Using of the Result of Magneto-chemical Investigations at the Modeling of Electrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses, Doped with Transitional Metals 4.

MAGNETICPROPERTIES OF GLASS-FORMING CHALCOGENIDE ALLOYS AT MELTING

4.1. Equation Using Results of Magnetic Experience for the Calculation of Liquidus 4.2. System AseSe3-MnSe 4.3. Liquidus for Other Chalcogenide Systems Doped with Transitional Metals

229 229 230 231 232 232 235 235 238 243 244 247 248 249 249 257 265 266 266 269 270

REFERENCES

274

INDEX

277

CONTENTS OF VOLUMES IN THIS SERIES

285

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List of Contributors

A. M. ANDRIESH (115), Center of Optoelectronics of the Institute of Applied Physics,

Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Str. Academiei 1, MD-2028 Chisinau, Republic of Moldova M. D. BAL'MAKOV (1), Chemistry Department, St. Petersburg State University, Universitetskii pr. 26, 198904, St. Petersburg, Russia A. CESNYS (15), Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, LT-10223, Vilnius, Lithuania ANDREY S. GLEBOV (57), Riazan State Radiotechnology Academy (RSRTA)

Center of Optoelectronics of the Institute of Applied Physics, Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Str. Academiei 1, MD-2028 Chisinau, Republic of Moldova G. JUSKA (15), Vilnius University, LT-O1513 Vilnius, Lithuania

M. S. Iovu (115),

E. MONTRIMAS (15), Vilnius University, LT-O1513 Vilnius, Lithuania

Center of Optoelectronics of the Institute of Applied Physics, Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Str. Academiei 1, MD-2028 Chisinau, Republic of Moldova V. V. SOBOLEV (201), Udmurt State University, 426034 Izhevsk, Russia V. VAL. SOBOLEV (201), Udmurt State University, 426034 Izhevsk, Russia Yu. S. TVER'YANOVICH(229), Department of Chemistry, St. Petersburg State University, Petrodvorets, Universitetsky pr. 26, 198504 St. Petersburg, Russia S. D. SHUTOV (115),

ix

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Preface

Volume 79, "Semiconducting Chalcogenide Glass II" of the series Semiconductors and Semimetals, follows up on the topics raised in Volume 78, "Semiconducting Chalcogenide Glass I," including the problems of glass formation, chalcogenide vitreous semiconductor structures, as well as the structural impacts caused by external conditions. With the help of chalcogenide glasses, optical information recording, storage, and reproduction have found widespread use. Progress in this field has resulted from experimental studies and theoretical comprehension of microscopic mechanisms of information copying and recording. In Chapter I of this volume, the information capacity of condensed systems of semiconducting chalcogenide glasses is considered in non-equilibrium states, both in bulk or thin-film form, and as obtained by evaporation or chemical deposition methods. This chapter is a significant contribution to the theoretical research of informational aspects of non-crystalline substances' structures, including their relaxation in the processes of external impacts and in the storage and reproduction of information with the assistance of non-equilibrium systems, particularly in chalcogenide glass systems. The theory of disordered systems, to which glasses belong, remains uncompleted. Further progress in this field appears to be impossible without the use of radically new approaches such as information theory methods. Special attention is concentrated in glass physics on the glass transition process, which is a non-equilibrium process and is still incompletely studied; information plays an important role in physical non-equilibrium processes, and further attention would benefit our understanding. The data presented in this chapter illustrates the promise of further research of the informational aspect of the formation mechanism of nonequilibrium structures for the further development of vitreous matter physics, and condensed matter physics in general. One of the most important properties for semiconductor materials in general, and chalcogenide vitreous semiconductors in particular, is the characteristic of the charge carrier transfer in strong electric fields. The contributors of Chapter 2 have reviewed the theoretical and experimental data and they describe the results of experimental xi

xii

Preface

investigations and theoretical comprehension of vitreous selenium, materials of the A s - S e systems, and the significantly less-studied Ga-Te and In-Te systems. The materials' electrical properties are examined under the influence of chemical composition, degree of impurity, and electric field strength. The contributors' interpretations are provided with a particular focus on the multiplication effect, nonactivated conductivity, and space charge formation. The above problems are physically connected with the problem of the current instability in semiconducting chalcogenide glasses, which are described in Chapter 3. This problem is especially important due to the direct relationship between the creation of electrical switches and re-programmed memory devices based on semiconducting chalcogenide glasses. On the basis of the fundamental experimental investigations, the contributor criticizes the static approach that is typical for the thermal and electrothermal models of current instability. Proposed instead is a kinetic model, in which positive current feedback, which is required for the development of the current instability process, is created by two sources of increasing electrical conductivity: the thermal heating in the strong field and the formation of conducting areas in the semiconductor during the formation of quasi-molecular and quasi-atomic defects. The kinetic model of current instability connects threshold characteristics of semiconducting chalcogenide glasses with their electrical parameters, and provides for the role of thermal and field effects during switching. From a physical standpoint, there is no doubt that the most important and interesting properties of chalcogenide glasses are their optical and photoelectrical properties. Experimental investigations and theoretical comprehension of these properties have led to the use of chalcogenide glasses in such systems of the optical information registration as vidicon devices, electrophotography, photothermography, space-time light modulation, and liquid crystal systems, as well as optical fibers and thin-film waveguides. Investigations of optical properties near the absorption edge are of a special interest. The absorption edge is sensitive to the chemical composition and the material structure, as well as to external factors such as electric and magnetic fields, the thermal, optical, electronic and other radiations. Under the influence of these factors, optical parameters of semiconducting chalcogenide glasses get changed reversibly or irreversibly. All these issues are described in Chapter 4. Special attention is concentrated on problems of the steady state and transient photoconductivity, as well as on physical processes that take place in the photoelectric information recording systems that are based on chalcogenide glasses. Problems regarding the usage of the unique properties of chalcogenide glasses in integrated and fiber optics are also analyzed in this chapter. Addressed here are the properties of chalcogenide glasses to combine unique capabilities of the optical images' phase recording, including holograms, with a high-resolution capability to create strip waveguides based on thin-film waveguides, as well as grating structures and other functional elements of integrated optics. In Chapter 5, the optical spectra of arsenic chalcogenides, which are widely used in electronics, are reviewed in detail. The reflectivity and the optical spectra of glasses in a wide energy range are considered simultaneously with the electronic structures of semiconducting glasses, which are themselves one of the most fundamental problems of the non-crystalline state. The goal of this chapter is to review new information on

Preface

xiii

the complete set of the fundamental optical parameters of chalcogenide glasses in the range of the most intensive transitions, 0 - 3 5 eV. Chapter 6 reviews the magnetic properties of chalcogenide glasses and their melts, both with and without transitional metals. Several fundamental scientific problems which emerged during investigations of vitreous semiconductors are considered here. The significant contribution to solve these problems has been made by magneto-chemical methods of investigations, as proposed by N.S. Kurnakov. These methods are aimed to determine the relationship between physical-chemical properties of systems, in this case, the chalcogenide glass-forming systems, as well as the systems' chemical compositions and structures. These methods have been a significant contribution in the efforts to resolve the fundamental problems discussed above. V.S. Minaev Editor-compiler

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CHAPTER 1 INFORMATION CAPACITY OF C O N D E N S E D SYSTEMS M. D. B a l ' m a k o v CHEMISTY DEPARTMENT,ST. PETERSBURGSTATE UNIVERSITY,UNIVERSITETSKIIPR.26, 198904, ST. PETERSBURG, RUSSIA

Informational aspects of physical processes are now becoming a subject of basic research (Kadomtsev, 1994, 1995, 1997/1999; Kadomtsev and Kadomtsev, 1996). Many of these are based on ideal imaginary experiments with a single particle which may be a particle of an ideal gas, a Brownian particle, etc. Naturally, condensed systems are equally interesting. The practical side of this problem is associated with the urgent necessity to develop the scientific basis of nanotechnology (Yoffe, 1993; The 2nd International Conference on Chemistry of Highly Organized Substances and Scientific Principles of Nanotechnology, 1998), which would specifically make it possible to obtain functional elements of microelectronics of nanometer scale. In principle, investigation of the informational aspect of the formation mechanism of nonequilibrium structures is a logically unavoidable stage in the further development of condensed matter physics. The problem of copying acquires a special significance because of the necessity to prepare numerous identical nanostructures. Its essence consists in the development of processes capable of yielding systems that would be exact copies of the initial system (Bal' makov, 1996). The informational aspect of the copying problem is closely related to the task of determining the maximum large amount of information that could be recorded and preserved over a long time interval tma x in a system containing M atoms. One can easily become convinced that the copying is a specific case of information recording. It may be argued a priori that if M is finite the amount of recorded information, I is also finite. Furthermore, all other conditions being equal, the numerical value of I increases linearly with respect to M. The amount of information increases in an analogous manner as the number of printed characters in the text grows (Kadomtsev, 1994). Therefore, the value of I is enclosed in the interval 0 1) the function U~)(R) is set, in conformity with Eq. (3), in the multidimensional space. reading of information. It is this circumstance that determines the choice of the term quasiclosed. Measurement is performed in the course of information reading. It is known (Kadomtsev, 1994) that any measurement is an irreversible process fixing one of the possible states. The measurement process proper, which in principle permits an extremely small energy exchange between the system and the measuring instrument, exerts nonetheless a substantial effect on the dynamics of the quantum system. The initial state of the system 'is broken, i.e., it is transformed into something that cannot be regarded as a pure state or into another pure state which differs explicitly from the initial one' (Kadomtsev, 1994, p. 472). To preserve the information recorded previously, it is necessary that during the reading this 'something' does not go beyond the frames of the initial quasiclosed ensemble. This condition is met in many cases. Indeed, let us assume that the nuclear wave function x0(R, El) (Eq. (5)) describes the low-energy vibrational motion of atomic nuclei in the potential well R~ (see Fig. 2). Reading (measurement) is done by the collapse x0(R, El)---+ x0(R, E2). If the energy variation I E 1 - E21 is much smaller than the magnitudes of most potential barriers separating the R~ minimum from other minima of the potential U~)(R), there is overwhelming probability of localization of the wave x0(R, E2) of the final state in the initial potential well R~. This can be easily seen since in this case, when applying the theory of perturbations (Blokhintsev, 1961; Landau and Lifshitz, 1977), it is sufficient to take into consideration only the matrix elements (Xo(R, E1)I~v(r)Ixo(R, Es)) of the reading operator 3 ~/]/(r) for the wave functions x0(R, Es) localized in the same potential Rk well 4 Rk. 3 Strictly speaking, the reduction (collapse) is not described by the Schrrdinger equation (Kadomtsev and Kadomtsev, 1996). Nonetheless, approaches are known which allow a highly accurate interpretation of the measurement in terms of quantum-mechanical interaction of the system with an instrument (environment) (Mensky, 1998). This makes it possible to introduce the operator of interaction of the two subsystems ~]/(r) and then to use the Schrrdinger equation. 4 Since the wave functions localized in different potential wells virtually do not overlap, all other matrix elements may be neglected.

8

M.D. Bal'makov

Thus, in order to preserve a polyatomic system, an exact copy and also the recorded information, it is sufficient that all changes occurring in the system do not extend outside the limits of one and the same quasiclosed ensemble. It is this ensemble that characterizes the properties of the system displayed during informational interaction. In fact, the behavior of a quantum system can be interpreted in classical terms with an accuracy up to its belonging to a definite quasiclosed ensemble. It is for this reason that I (Eq. (1)) is regarded as macroinformation. The amount of information I (s) indicating that the state of the system belongs to a given quasiclosed ensemble is equal to i(s) _ In G In 2 '

(8)

where G is the number of quasiclosed ensembles. Naturally, the magnitude of G(tma• e, W, n, M) is a function of many arguments. Its explicit form is unknown and this impedes the direct application of Eq. (8) for calculating the numerical value of I (S). The magnitude of G(tmax, e, ~z, n,M) can be estimated proceeding from the number J(n, M) of different minima of the potential U(M~ This approach allows a relatively simple derivation of numerical estimates as the function J(n, M) depends on only two arguments and, in addition, its determination is actually based on Eq. (4) when j - 0. This unambiguous mathematical definition is useful not only for the problem of information copying and recording but also for considering a wide range of other issues (Bal' makov, 1996). 3.

Estimation of the N u m b e r of Different Quasiclosed Ensembles

For the number J(n,M) of different physically nonequivalent local minima of the adiabatic electron term rr(~ which corresponds to the ground electronic state of the vm electroneutral system consisting of M atoms, the following asymptotic formula (Bal'makov, 1996) is valid as M ~ oo 1 - - In J(n, M) --- an,

M

(9)

where a n is the positive parameter dependent solely on the chemical composition n (Eq. (1)). It follows from Eq. (9) that J(n, M) -- exp(anM + o(M)),

(10)

the function o(M) satisfying the condition limM-.oo o(M)/M = 0. In other words, the number J(n, M) of different physically nonequivalent minima of the U~)(R) potential exhibits a rapid exponential growth with the increasing number M of atoms forming the system with a fixed (n = const) chemical composition. This fact is not surprising because the magnitude J(n, M) (Eq. (10)) takes into account all potentially possible structural modifications Rk (Eq. (3)) of a polyatomic system. These are structures of liquid, glass, perfect crystal, crystals with different concentrations of particular defects, polycrystals, amorphous substances, amorphous and vitreous films, glass-ceramics and many others, including the structures of microheterogeneous materials storing the recorded information. The diversity of minima of the function U~ )(R) makes it possible to explain the possibility to vary properties of a material of the

Information Capacity of Condensed Systems

9

same chemical composition through preparation of its various modifications described by different quasiclosed ensembles. Thus, glass fits not one but many physically nonequivalent quasiclosed ensembles B1,B2,...Bi, .... (see Fig. 2). Therefore, the properties of glasses vary depending on the cooling rate of the glass-forming melt (Bal'makov, 1996). In practice, technical limitations allow, as a rule, the use of only some quasiclosed ensembles. For this reason, the amount of recorded information I (Eq. (1)) is usually smaller than the maximum possible i~s) value (Eq. (8)): I --< {ln G(tmax, ~, W, n , M ) } / l n 2.

(11)

The right side of inequality (11) is simple to estimate, if one takes into account only the quasiclosed ensembles which fit the ground state of the electron subsystem. Indeed, when there are G ~0~ of them the following relations are satisfied: lnG(~

e , W , n , M ) T1 (10), ~0 < T-2 (11), e -- 5 and 10, Tc - 1100 K and N ranging from 1018 to 1019 c m - 3 . Results of the calculation are presented in Figure 30. It was found that the given temperature dependences depend strongly on N. The temperature T1 of origination of the anomaly effect increases noticeably with increasing N. Computed curves ]31--f(T) as well as experimental ones, have a minimum with its broadening (with respect to temperature) and position also dependent on N. Their best fit is observed at N 1018cm -3 e - - 5 ( o r N - - 9 x 1 0 1 8 c m -3 -- 10). The qualitative agreement between experimental and calculation results is better in the considered case than in Kvaskov (1988). The results of this experiment are interpreted using the Gulyayev-Plesskii model (Gulyayev and Plesskii, 1976; Timashev, 1977)

46

A. Cesnys et al.

in the whole temperature range considered. (The low temperature part of the curve /31 = f ( T ) for chalcogenide glasses is interpreted in Kvaskov (1988) by hopping conductivity.) In higher fields (F = (3.2-7.8) • 105 V cm-1; T = 295 K), the conductivity of the films with x -- 0.8 (analogous to the case of GaTe3(I) films considered above) obeys the law I -~ exp CelF2 with the anomalous dependence a 1 = f(T). However, this dependence is linear in (a1772)1/3 a n d T -1 coordinates only at T --> 270 K, when ~: ~ 8.5 • 10 -6 K -2. The slope of this line is (8.6 + 0.5)x 10 -2 V -2/3 cm -2/3 K -1, which agrees satisfactorily with the theoretical value of 3.68 x 10 -2 V -2/3 cm -2/3 K -1 (if m - - m0) determined using the dependence (air/z) 1/3= (2k)-1(hZeZ/3m)1/3(A + I/T) (A is a parameter). The latter is valid for multi-phonon tunneling under conditions of inhomogeneous field distribution (Karpus and Perel, 1985; (~esnys et al., 1988). From the experiment it follows that A- 1 ~ 360 K. A typical dimension of electron drops inside fluctuation potential wells was estimated using the formula RT = ( e~ 1/2/ k) 1/3( h2 / em)2/3 (Gulyayev and Plesskii, 1976) and equals to 36.7-18.3 ,~ (e - 5-10, T - 300 K). This parameter is close to RT for GaTe3(I) films ((~esnys et al., 1988) and to mean dimensions (11 A) of inhomogeneities in these film as well estimated from electron diffraction (Tolutis et al., 1978). The trend towards the stronger field dependence of conductivity above the region of I--~ exp eelF2 in these films was observed only at T--< 270 K (contrary to the films considered in (~esnys et al. (1988)). Generalizing the above-mentioned investigation results, it is possible to conclude that in the field and temperature dependences of conductivity of noncrystalline films of G a - T e systems in high (pre-breakdown) fields, there appears the features of the Poole-Frenkel effect in the case of isolated and screened impurity centers, as well as the delocalization of shallow local states that are typical of structures based on chalcogenides glasses. There are also signs of multi-phonon tunneling under conditions of nonuniform field distribution.

3.2.

NONACTIVATED ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION STATE

Chalcogenide noncrystalline semiconductors in the low-resistance state (LRS) which appear due to the high-field electric instability (the monostable switching effect) possess conduction either slightly dependent on temperature or totally nonactivated (Vezzoli et al., 1975; Oginskas and (~esnys, 1984). Both these conduction types were first observed in chalcogenides glasses of complicated chemical composition, and they are associated with the monopolar injection effect and a Mott-type phase transition (Vezzoli, Doremus, Tirellis and Walsh, 1975; Vezzoli, 1980). However, such interpretation is in hard agreement with the results of Kolomietz, Lebedev and Cinman (197 lb) that point out to possible heating of charge carriers by the electric field in LRS of such a kind of semiconductors. Nonactivated conduction has also been found in noncrystalline G a - T e films ((~esnys and Oginskis, 1998). The distinguishing property of these films is a low level of microwave noise in their LRS which characterizes only heating efficiency of the region of higher density of electrical current (current filament). However, this type of electrical conduction of these films manifests itself only at the currents of low-resistance state ILRS

Charge Carrier Transfer at High Electric Fields in Noncrystalline Semiconductors

47

(a) 40

~

8967

30 10

< E 20

i

0 0

. _

1

2 u (v)

3

10

"-- - - r',,2 ~Q

0.5 U (V)

(b)

A

A

A

A

A

lO

200

100 ~

'-

m

"-

12

~

|

I

I

I

200

250

300

350

TO(K)

(c) 150

o

o

~

~,~,-

o

100

" a ,w

~

11

o

.

.

~ .

w

.

,qw

,w

m

A

-

-

15 -v

lq AL,~'

50

I 10-9

I 10-7

I

I 10-5

~d(s) FIG. 31. Measurement results of electric characteristics of the structures carbon glass-noncrystalline Gal-xTex film-carbon glass in the low-resistance state. (a) Transient (solid lines) and static (dash-dotted lines) I - V characteristics (x = 0.75; stationary LRS). ILRS in mA: 2.3 (curves 1, 6 and 7); 5.2 (2, 8 and 9); 12.9 (3); 20(4); 28,4 (5). To, in K: 293 ( 1 - 6 and 8); 205 (7 and 9). Curves 6 and 7 (8 and 9, respectively) were recorded at the same magnitude of ILRsULRs- (b,c) The dependence of the electric resistance determined from the slope of linear transient I - V characteristics upon the environment temperature (b) and switching delay time in LRS at To = 293 K (c). x is 0.6 (curves 10 and 11); 0.75 (12 and 13); 0.8 (14 and 15). The values of ILRS and distance between electrodes for different curves 10-15 do not coincide and are scattered within the range from 10 to 20 mA and from 0.65 to 1.0/xm, respectively.

48

A. Cesnys et al.

exceeding some critical value Ic (Fig. 31). Ic is close to the upper limit of currents at which the structure possesses negative differential resistance and, it is this current at which the current density saturation takes place in the filament ((~esnys, Oginskas, Ga~ka and Lisauskas, 1987; (~esnys and Oginskis, 1998). At ILRS < Ic, transient I - V characteristics which represent the conductivity of current filament are nonlinear, and the conductivity, though of a semiconductor type, depends upon temperature much more weakly than a similar dependence in the high-resistance state. The results on transient I - V characteristics nonlinearity are considered in Cesnys and Oginskis (1994). The straight linearity of transient I - V characteristics and nonactivated electric conduction of the structures on the base of Ga-Te films take place not only in the stationary LRS at ILRS > Ic, but also in the nonstationary LRS, including the mode of the so-called nanosecond monostable switching (nonstationary LRS means that during the action of the pulse applied a constant current across the structure has still not been achieved (Oginskas, Gagka, l~lesnys, 1986)). These phenomena were also observed in barrier-less crystalline structures of Ga2Te3 films. The latter fact demonstrates that the given type of conduction is not associated with the disorder of structure of the active layer. The resistance of the structures RLRS (transient I - V characteristics slope RLds = dlmp/dUmp where Umpand Imp are the voltage drop across the structure and the current in it during the action of the measuring pulse) in the case of stationary LRS at the same ILRS > Ic is independent of the switching pulse amplitude Us (Fig. 31c) (~'d --f(Us); ~'d varied from 2 - 5 ns to 6 - 2 0 ~s). Consequently, RLRS and simultaneously the state of the structures after switching are independent of the processes determining electric charge transport in pre-breakdown fields region ((~esnys et al., 1992) and is responsible for the initial stage of the electric instability development. The noise temperature (Tn) of the structures at ILRS is close, e.g., to the threshold (minimum) current of LRS maintenance and did not exceed 400 K, which is by one or two orders of magnitude below the high-frequency Tn in chalcogenides glass (Kolomietz et al., 1971b) and amorphous selenium (Prikhod'ko, (~esnys and Bareikis, 1981) films. Noise temperature at ILRS- const, is also independent of Us which points to the absence of hot charge carriers in LRS in all the monostable switching modes (Tn was measured at ~'d ranging from 10 ns to 50/xs (Cesnys and Oginskis, 1998)), and the microwave noise level (heating degree) increases only with increasing ILRS up to Ic. When electric current strength reaches the critical value of Ic its growth gradually retards and the dependence Tn--f(ILRs) afterwards tends to saturation at ILRS > Ic (Fig. 32). Such a behavior of Tn remains within the entire environment temperature range from 200 up to 350 K. Temperature in the center of the filament (Tz=0) , current density in filament (j0 and electroconductivity in the range of current filament (o-f) are proportional to the values of ATn, ATn/ULRS and ATn/U2Rs, respectively ((~esnys and Oginskis, 1998). (Here A T n - - T n - TO; TO is the ambient temperature.) One may deduce from the characteristics in Figure 32 that the filament parameters jr, o-f, and Tz=o in the nonactivated conduction state of the films (ILRs > Ic) are virtually constant and current filament radius varies linearly with i1/2 "LRS"Independence of ATn/UZRs on temperature (Fig. 32) is consistent with the suggestion of o-f independence on

Charge Carrier Transfer at High Electric Fields in Noncrystalline Semiconductors

4

~ff-"

ATn ' -

-

U

--

49

"6

,v

-

Ic was measured by microwave noise technique (Cesnys and Oginskis, 1998). In GaTe3 film, it was found to be equal to 720-730 K. However, such a heating does not explain the increase of the film conductivity up to 4.5-11.1 f~-~ cm-1; i.e., up to levels suitable for filament formation ((~esnys and Oginskis, 1998). Consequently, on the basis of the classical electrothermal model which explains the development onset of threshold electric instability (switching) in the Gal-xTex films ((~esnys et al., 1983a,b, 1992), it is worth to stress that this approach is insufficient to explain the formation of nonactivated conductance in their LRS. For this purpose one should assume additional influence of electronic processes for which insignificance of hot charge carrier effects is a principal feature. Among such processes involved in explaining the LRS formation in noncrystalline semiconductors, nonactivated conductance would be provided by a phenomenon such as electronic phase transition (Sandomirskii, Sukhanov and Zhdan, 1970; Sandomirskii and Sukhanov, 1976; Kostylev and Shkut, 1978). One of its modifications (Sandomirskii et al., 1970) interpreting the results in the nonlinear electric conductivity of the films of Gal-x-Tex and In~_xTex under study in LRS and the decay process of such a state was earlier successfully used (Oginskas and (~esnys, 1984; (~esnys, Oginskas, Ga~ka and Lisauskas, 1986; (~esnys and Oginskis, 1994). It is distinguished by the fact that by increasing the free charge carrier concentration, gradual 'metallization' of the current filamentation area takes place, which is caused by restructuring of the energy spectrum of levels in the mobility gap of the semiconductor. Any process increasing the free charge carrier concentration in the current filamentation area, including Joule heating, would stimulate this transition. It should be pointed out that with the exception of the above concentrational model, none of the familiar electronic LRS models (Sandomirskii and Sukhanov, 1976; Kostylev

50

A. Cesnys et al.

and Shkut, 1978) is able to explain the formation of near-contact areas with residual weakly expressed semiconductor conduction (t~esnys and Oginskis, 1994) and smooth demetallization at the current filament region during its decay in these films at ILRS < Ic ((~esnys et al., 1986). This is an additional, and at the same time decisive, argument for choosing the electronic phase transition of the above type of the chalcogenides to interpret the described investigation results. On the basis of the experimental findings given above and the results presented in (~esnys et al. (1983a,b, 1986, 1992) and (~esnys and Oginskis (1994), one may thus suppose that the nonactivated conduction state formation in the analyzed chalcogenide films is determined by both thermal and electronic (like electronic phase transition) processes. The former ones are responsible for the onset of this process, or for the classical electrothermal instability arising in the films. The latter ones play the basic role during LRS formation after reaching a seed concentration of charge carriers (Sandomirskii et al., 1970) in it mainly due to Joule heating of the current filamentation region.

3.3.

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BARRIER STRUCTURES

The field dependencies of carrier transport in noncrystalline semiconducting films can be essentially modified by usage of crystal-semiconductor as an electrode evaporated on the substrate. The key point of this idea is connected with the fact that the concentration of the main carriers in crystalline semiconductor is several orders of magnitude higher than the relevant value in noncrystalline one. Thus, the crystalline semiconductor can serve as a huge reservoir of free carriers which can be injected into noncrystalline material (Dunn and Mackenzie, 1976; Ciulianu, Andriesh and Kolomeiko, 1978). The case of current injection can be realized in materials with heterostructure barrier, for instance, in GaTe3 film evaporated on silicon substrate (t~esnys et al., 1984a,b). Two phenomena can be responsible for a situation that can occur in the GaTe3-Si heterostructures (HS): (1) a change from an exponential I - V curves of the GaTe3 layer, due to bulk effects, to a power-law relationship upon formation of a contact between it and nondegenerate Si (Fig. 33, curve 1) and (2) the presence of a quadratic segment that is similar to heterostructure chalcogenides glass/single crystal HS (Ciulianu et al., 1978) in the forward branches of the I - V curves. As we know, such a segment is one of the primary indicators of space-charge limitation of injection current (SCLC conditions). The strong temperature dependence of the current on these I - V curves can be accounted for by the appearance of a process of 'sticking' of injected carriers on discrete layers (Lampert and Mark, 1973; Ciulianu et al., 1978). In case of electron injection, the activation energy of this layer is 0.36 _+ 0.01 eV as determined from the abovementioned temperature dependence of conductivity. The superquadratic I - V characteristic segment that precedes the quadratic segment in chalcogenides glass/single crystal HS is usually accounted for in terms of the effect on SCLC of capture of the injected carriers by traps that are exponentially distributed in the mobility gap of the glass (Lampert and Mark, 1973; Dunn and Mackenzie, 1976; Ciulianu et al., 1978). In case of noncrystalline GaTe3-nSi HS, however, this

Charge Carrier Transfer at High Electric Fields in Noncrystalline Semiconductors

51

l0 ~ 103

10-2 1 102 < 10-4 101

10-6 10o 0.1

1.0

10

u (v) FIG. 33. Electrical characteristics of noncrystalline GaTe3-nSi barrier heterostructure in the conducting direction: 1, I - V characteristics; 2, the dependence of the ratio of barrier (Rb) and nonbarrier (r) region resistance upon voltage.

part of the characteristic could be interpreted in terms of redistribution of the voltage drop across the amorphous semiconductor and across the barrier region of the single crystal (Cesnys et al., 1984a,b; (~esnys and Urbelis, 2001). Two other facts also argue against the above interpretation based on the assumption regarding SCLC. First, the activation energy AEe of the conduction, as determined from the temperature dependence of the current at the point of transition to the quadratic segment of the I - V characteristic, is less than the value AEa obtained at voltages corresponding to this quadratic segment. (As we know (Ciulianu et al., 1978), AEe can be taken as the distance of the Fermi quasi-level from the edge of the corresponding energy band, when it corresponds to the end of the energy interval in the mobility gap with the above exponential trap distribution. According to the relative position of the quadratic and superquadratic portions of the segments, filling of these traps should occur earlier, and, therefore, the upper edge of this distribution should be at a greater distance from the edge of the band than the discrete level, i.e., we should have AEe > AEa, which is inconsistent with experiment.) Secondly, the characteristic parameter Tt of the presumed exponential distribution of the traps (Lampert and Mark, 1973), as determined from the slope of the I - V lines in l o g / - l o g U coordinates, is temperature-dependent in our case. It is worthwhile to note that in certain cases, the change of character of the field dependence of electrical conductivity cannot be observed. This situation was determined in the study of GazTe3 and SiTe3 ((~esnys et al., 1984a,b).

52

A. Cesnys et al.

References Adler, D., Fritzsche, M. and Ovshinsky, S.K. (Eds.) (1985) Physics of Disordered Materials, Plenum Press, New York. Anderson, P.W. (1975) Model for electronic structure of amorphous semiconductors, Phys. Rev. Lett., 34, 953. Archipov, V. and Kasap, S.J. (2000) Is there avalanche multiplication in amorphous semiconductors?, Non-Cryst. Solids, 266-269, 959. Balevi~ius, S., Cesnys, A., Oginskas, A., Pogkus, A. and Coagka,K. (1984). The negistor structure for formulators of subnanosecond electric voltage drops. In Ways of Enhancing the Stability and Reliability of Microelements and Microschemes. Abstracts of reports of All-Union Scientific Technical Seminar, Moscow, p. 150. Balevi~ius, S., Deksnys A., Dobrovolskis, Z., Krotkus, A., Lisauskas, V., Tolutis, V. and (~esnys A. Material for manufacturing of nanosecond electric pulse former, USSR Author's Certificate No. 736806, H01L (1978) 28/60. Borisova, Z.U. (1964) Influence of some elements on conductivity and micro-hardness of glassy AsSe, Izv. AN SSSR, 28(8), 1293 (in Russian). Borisova, Z.U. and Bobrov, A.I. (1962) Conductivity of system of glasses As-Se-Ga, Vestnik LGU, Ser. Phys. Chem., 22(4), 159 (in Russian). Cendin, K. (Ed.) (1996) Electronic Phenomena in Chalcogenide Glass Semiconductors, Nauka, St Peterburgh, (in Russian). (~esnys, A., Gagka, K., Oginskas, A. and Bal~iQnas, V. (1988) On signs of manifestation of multi-phonon ionization of local centers in non-crystalline GaTe3, Fiz. Tekh. Poluprovodn. [Soy. Phys.-Semicond.], 22(6), 1132 (in Russian). (~esnys, A. and Oginskis, A.K. (1994) Nonlinear electrical conductivity of chalcogenides negistor structures in the low-resistance state, Lithuan. Phys. J., 34(3), 237. (~esnys, A. and Oginskis, A.K. (1998) The state of nonactivated electric conduction of chalcogenide films from microwave noise investigation data, Lithuan. Phys. J., 38(4), 324. Cesnys, A., Oginskas, A., Butinavi~ifit6, E., Lisauskas, V. and Shiktorov, N. (1983) Breakdown in amorphous GaTe3 and InTe3 films in a pulsed electric field, Lietuvos Fizikos Rinkinys [Sov. Phys.-Collect.], 23(2), 46 (in Russian). (~esnys, A., Oginskas, A., Butinavi~iQte, E., Lisauskas, V. and Shiktorov, N. (1984a) Electrical transport and breakdown processes in amorphous GaTe3/monocrystalline Si heterostructures, Lietuvos Fizikos Rinkinys [Sov. Phys.-Collect.], 24(3), 83 (in Russian). (~esnys, A., Oginskas, A., Gagka, K. and Lisauskas, V. (1986) Peculiarities of the decay process of nonstationary low-resistance state in the switching structure based on GaTe3, Lietuvos Fizikos Rinkinys [Sov. Phys.Collect.], 26(5), 589 (in Russian). (~esnys, A., Oginskas, A., Gagka, K. and Lisauskas, V. (1987) Microwave noise and transient on-characteristics as an efficient source of information in investigating the on-state of the switching structures, J. Non-Cryst. Solids., 90, 609. (~esnys, A., Oginskas, A., Liberis, J. and Lisauskas, V. (1983) The role of Joule heating at monostable switching of amorphous GaTe3 and InTe3 films, Lietuvos Fizikos Rinkinys [Soy. Phys.-Collect.], 23(6), 75 (in Russian). (~esnys, A., Oginskas, A. and Lisauskas, V. (1992) Field dependence of electroconductivity and pulsed breakdown in noncrystalline films of Ga-Te system, Lithuan. Phys. J., 32(5), 345. Cesnys, A., Oginskas, A., Lisauskas, V., Shiktorov, N. and Butinavi~il]t6, E. (1984b) Two kinds of electric transfer in heterostructures of amorphous (GaTes, Ga2Te3 or SiTe3)-crystalline (Si) semiconductors, Proceedings of the International Conference on 'Amorphous Semiconductors-84' Coabrovo, Bulgaria, pp. 16-18 (in Russian). (~esnys, A. and Urbelis, A. (2001) On electrical conduction of crystalline-noncrystalline semiconductor barrier structures, Lithuan. Phys. J., 41(4-6), 283. Ciulianu, D.I., Andriesh, A.M. and Kolomeiko, E.M. (1978) Injection currents in vitreous chalcogenides semiconductors of the As2S3-Ge system, Vol. 1 Proceedings of the Conference on 'Amorphous Semiconductors-78', Pardubice, (in Russian). Danilov, A. and Muller, R.L. (1962) J. Non-Organ. Chem, 35(9), 2012 (in Russian). Dembovskii, S.A. (1964) Crystallization of glass system Se-As2Se3, J. Non-Organic Chem, 9(2), 389 (in Russian).

Charge Carrier Transfer at High Electric Fields in Noncrystalline Semiconductors

53

Dienys, R., Kalad6, J., Montrimas, E. and Pa~6ra, A. (1971) Investigation of effective lifetime of charge carriers in Se and As-Se amorphous layers, Sov. Phys.-Collect., 11(4), 666. Dunn, B. and Mackenzie, J.D. (1976) Transport properties of glass-silicon heterojunctions, J. Appl. Phys., 47(3), 1010. Eisenberg, A. and Tobolsky, A.J. (1960) Polym. Sci., 44, 19. Feltz, A. (1983) Amorphe und Glasartige Anorganische Festk6rper, Academie-Verlag, Berlin. Fritzshe, H. (1974) Electronic Properties of Amorphous Semiconductors, Plenum Press, London. Gaidelis, V., Markevifi, N. and Montrimas, E. (1968) Physical Processes in Electrophotographic Layers, Mintis, Vilnius, p. 92 (in Russian). Gaidelis, V., Montrimas, E., Pa~6ra, A. and Vi~6akas, J. (1972) Investigation of space charge formation and Its distribution in electrophotographic layers, Current Problems in Electrophotography, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, pp. 126-132. Glazov, V.M., Aivazov, A.A., Zelenov, A.V. and Vadov, G. (1976) Investigation of switching effect in liquid selenium, Fiz. Tekh. Poluprovodn. (Soy. Phys.-Semicond.), 10(4), 636 (in Russian). Goriunova, N.A. and Kolomietz, B.T. (1956) New glassy semiconductors, Izvestiya AN SSSR, Ser. Phys., 20(12), 1496. Gubanov, A.I. (1954) To the theory of the high field effect in Semiconductors, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 24(2), 308 (in Russian). Gubanov, A.I. (1963) Quantum-electron theory of amorphous semiconductors, Acad. Sci. USSR, MoscowLeningrad (in Russian). Gulyayev, J.V. and Plesskii, V.P. (1976) On electronic properties of non-degenerate highly doped compensated semiconductors, Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz., 71(4(10)), 1475 (in Russsian). Hartke, J.L. (1962) Drift mobilities of electrons and holes and space-charge-limited-currents in amorphous selenium films, Phys. Rev., 125(4), 1177. Johnsher, A.K. and Hill, R.M. (1978) Electrical conductivity of unordered nonmetallic films, In Physics of Thin Films, Vol. 8 Mir, Moscow, p. 180 (Russian translation). Ju~ka, G. (1991) Properties of free-carrier transport in a-Se and a-Si:H, J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 137-138, 401. Ju~ka, G. and Arlauskas, K. (1983) Features of hot carriers in amorphous selenium, Phys. Stat. Sol. (a), 77, 387. Ju~ka, G. and Arlauskas, K. (1995) Properties of hot carriers in a-Si:H in comparison to a-Se, Solid State Phenom., 44-46, 551. Ju~ka, G., Arlauskas, K. and Montrimas, E. (1987) Features of carriers at very high electric fields in a-Se and a-Si:H, J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 97-98, 559. Ju~ka, G. and Vengris, S. (1976) Hole photogeneration in amorphous selenium at low electric fields, Phys. Stat. Sol. (a), 35, 339. Kalade, J., Montrimas, E. and Jankauskas, V. (1991) Determination of the carrier drift mobility and lifetime in the semiconductive layers in electrographic regime: two trap model, Lithuan. Phys. J., 31(4), 207 (in Russian). Kalad6, J., Montrimas, E. and Jankauskas, V. (1994) Investigation of Charge Carrier Transfer in Electrophotographic Layers of Chalcogenide Glasses, Vol. 2 Proceedings of ICPS'94 Rochester, New York, pp. 747-752. Kalade, J., Montrimas, E. and Jankauskas, V. (1999) Investigation of charge carrier lifetime in high resistivity semiconductor layers by the method of small charge photocurrent, J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 243, 158-167. Kalad6, J., Montrimas, E. and Pa~6ra, A. (1972) Kinetics of drift current of small charge and determination of lifetime of charge carriers, Phys. Stat. Sol. (a), 13, 187. Karpus, V. and Perel, V.I. (1985) Thermal ionization of deep centers in semiconductors in electric field, Pis'ma V ZcETF, 42(10), 403 (in Russian). Kolomietz, B.T. (1963) Glassy Semiconductors, Nauka, Leningrad (in Russian). Kolomietz, B.T. and Pavlov, B.V. (1967) The change offorbidden energy gap in arsenicum chalcogenides in case of transition from glass to crystal, Fiz. Tekh. Poluprovodn. [Sov. Phys.-Semicond.], 1(3), 246 (in Russian). Kolomietz, B.T., Lebedev, E.A. and Cendin, K.D. (1971 a) The influence of currents limited by the space charge on the thermal breakdown, Fiz. Tekh. Poluprovodn. [Soy. Phys.-Semicond.], 5(8), 1568 (in Russian). Kolomietz, B.T., Lebedev, E.A. and Cinman, E.A. (1971b) Investigation of noises during switching in chalcogenides glasses, Fiz. Tekh. Poluprovodn. [Sov. Phys.-Semicond], 5(12), 2390 (in Russian). Kostylev, S.A. and Shkut, V.A. (1978) Electronic Switching in Amorphous Semiconductors, Naukova Dumka, Kiyev (in Russian).

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Kvaskov, V.B. (1988) Semiconducting Devices with Bipolar Conductivity, Energoatomizdat, Moscow (in Russian). Kvaskov, V.B., Parolj, N.V., Jofis, N.A. and Gorbachev, V.V. (1981). The Electrical Properties and Applications of Chalcogenide Semiconductor Glass. CNII 'Electronica', Moscow (in Russian). Lampert, M. and Mark, P. (1973) Injection Currents in Solids, Mir, Moscow (Russian translation). Lebedev, E.A. and Rogachev, A.N. (1981) Conductivity of chalcogenide glass-like semiconductors in high electric fields, Fiz. Tekhn. Poluprovodn. [Sov. Phys.-Semicond.], 15(8), 1511 (in Russian). Lisauskas, V., Tolutis, V. and Sheremet, G. (1986) The ordering of the Ga-Te system amorphous layered structure during annealing in vacuum, Lietuvos Fizikos Rinkinys [Sov. Phys.-Collect.], 26(6), 740 (in Russian). Maden, A. and Shaw, M.P. (1988) The Physics and Applications of Amorphous Semiconductors, Academic Press, New York. Montrimas, E. (1976) Investigation of Electric and Photoelectric Properties of Amorphous Semiconductors in Ionic Contact Regime, Amorphous Semiconductors'76 Publishing House of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, pp. 281-294. Montrimas, E., Bal~i0nas, J., Fung Cho and Do Van An (1985) The photodischarge mechanism for multicomponent electrophotographic chalcogenide films based in arsenic sesquiselenide, Sov. Phys.Collect., 25(2), 49. Montrimas, E. and Jankauskas, V. (1985) The charge transfer in the system of amorphous layers of seleniumphosphorus-tellurium, Sov. Phys.-Collect., 25(4), 30. Montrimas, E., Jankauskas, V. and Rink~nas, R. (1997) Influence of Te and P sublayers on properties of amorphous Se layers, Lithuan. Phys. J., 37(5), 352. Montrimas, E. and Pa~6ra, A. (1968) The space charge effects on the fast photoinduced discharge of selenium electrophotgraphic layers, Sov. Phys.-Collect., 8(5-6), 865. Montrimas, E., Pa~6ra, A., Tauraitien6, S. and Tauraitis, A. (1969a) Drift mobility of charge carriers in As-Se layers, Soy. Phys.-Collect., 9(5), 963. Montrimas, E., Pa~era, A., Tauraitien6, S. and Tauraitis, A. (1969b) On longitudinal photoconductivity kinetics of AszSe3 layers, Sov. Phys.-Collect., 9(2), 353. Montrimas, E., Pa~6ra, A. and Vi~6akas, J. (1976) The drift of charge carriers in As-Se layers, Phys. Stat. Sol. (a), 3, K199. Montrimas, E., Tauraitien6, S. and Tauraitis, A. (1972) Latent image formation mechanism in AszSe3 electrophotographic layers, Current Problems in Electrophotography, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, pp. 139-145. Montrimas, E. and Vi~akas, J. (1974) Charge carrier photogeneration and photodischarge in electrophotographic layers of disordered structures. In Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Electrophototgraphy, (Ed., Deane White), Columbia, USA, pp. 220-224. Mott, N.F. and Davis, E.A. (1979) Electron Processes in Non-crystalline Materials, Clarendon Press, Oxford. Muller, R.L., Mosli, E. and Borisova, Z.U. (1964) Influence of thermal treatment on conductivity and microhardness of glassy As-Se, Vestnik LGU, Ser. Phys. Chem., 22(4), 94 (in Russian). Oginskas, A. and (~esnys, A. (1984) Transient I - V characteristics of a switching structure based on amorphous GaTe3 in the initial stage of high-resistance state recovery, Fiz. Tekh. Poluprovodn. [Sov. Phys.-Semicond. ], 18(8), 1511 (in Russian). Oginskas, A., Ga~ka, K. and (~esnys, A. (1986) Electric resistance relaxation of a monostable switching structure in the low-resistance state, Fiz. Tekh. Poluprovodn. [Sov. Phys.-Semicond.], 20(4), 734 (in Russian). Owen, A.E. and Robertson, J.M. (1973) Electronic conduction and switching in chalcogenide glasses, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, ED-20(2), 105. Pai, D.M. and Enck, R.C. (1975) Onsager mechanism of photogeneration in amorphous selenium, Phys. Rev. B, 11, 5163. Prikhod'ko, A.V., (~esnys, A.A. and Bareikis, V.A. (1981) Investigation of microwave noise in amorphous selenium films in the monostable switching mode, Fiz. Tekh. Poluprovodn. [Sov. Phys.-Semicond.], 15(3), 536 (in Russian). Sandomirskii, V.B. and Sukhanov, A.A. (1976) Electric instability phenomena (switching) in glass-like semiconductors, Zarubezhn. Radioelektron., 9, 68-101 (in Russian). Sandomirskii, V.B., Sukhanov, A.A. and Zhdan, A.G. (1970) Phenomenological theory of concentrational instability in semiconductors, Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz., 58(5), 1683 (in Russian).

Charge Carrier Transfer at High Electric Fields in Noncrystalline Semiconductors

33

Tauraitien6, S., Tauraitis, A. and Montrimas, E. (1970) Electrographic Layers of As-Se. Non-silver and Unconventional Photographic Processes, Papers, Section E, Moscow, p. 244 (in Russian). Timashev, S.F. (1977) On temperature dependences of switching effect, Fiz. Tekh. Poluprovodn. [Sov. Phys.Semicond.], 11(7), 1437 (in Russian). Tolutis, V., Jasutis, V., Lisauskas, V., Pauk~t6, J. and David6nien6, D. (1978) Amorphous state of thin films of Ga-Te and In-Te systems, Lietuvos Fizikos Rinkinys [Lithuan. Phys.-Collect.], 18(1 ), 29 (in Russian). Tsuji, K., Takashi, Y., Hirai, T. and Taketoshi, K.J. (1989) Impact ionization process in amorphous selenium, Non-Cryst. Solids, 114, 94. Vezzoli, G.C. (1980) Interpretation of amorphous semiconductor threshold switching based on new decay-time data, Phys. Rev. B, 2(4), 2025. Vezzoli, G.C., Doremus, L.W., Tirellis, G.G. and Walsh, P.J. (1975) Amorphous semiconductor threshold onstate properties as functions of decay time, ambient temperature and polarity, Appl. Phys. Lett., 26(5), 234. Vi~fiakas, J., Gaidelis, V., Lazovskis, T., Montrimas, E. and Pa~6ra, A. (1969) Method of estimation of space charge in semiconductors, Sov. Phys.-Collect., 9(6), 1102. Vi~fiakas, J., Montrimas, E. and Pa~era, A. (1969) Fast photodischarge of selenium electrophotographic layers, Appl. Optics Suppl., 3, 79.

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CHAPTER

3

THE NATURE OF THE CURRENT INSTABILITY IN CHALCOGENIDE VITREOUS SEMICONDUCTORS Andrey S. Glebov RIAZAN STATE RADIOTECHNOLOGYACADEMY (RSRTA)

1. Introduction There are several reviews of experimental and theoretical works (Kostylev and Shkut, 1978; Maden and Sho, 1991) where recent achievements in the field of investigations and practical applications of the switching effect in vitreous materials have been described. It follows from the literature analysis that the switching effect in glassy films of chalcogenide alloys is studied sufficiently to start creation of active elements and devices on their bases but not enough to understand the switching nature (Kostylev and Shkut, 1978). The overwhelming majority of works connected with considerations of physical models of the current instability phenomena in chalcogenide vitreous semiconductors (CVS) is based on the 'threshold' approach where the jump transition from the high-resistance state to the low-resistance one at application of the electrical field is considered to be related either with reaching of the critical value of the electric field, and this mechanism is referred to as the electronic mechanism, or with reaching of the critical temperature (the thermal power), and this mechanism is referred to as the thermal mechanism. However, as experimental data were accumulated, it has been clarified that these 'threshold' parameters are unstable and their values depend on measurement conditions and the design of devices. Switching parameters measured in the wide range of electrical fields and temperatures values have indicated ambiguity of the critical (threshold) character of switching and, therefore, illegality of the static approach to the problem of the current instability in chalcogenide glasses. Existing theories of the current instability are based, as a rule, on models developed for solids irrespective of their structure, composition, energy spectrum features and capability of their transformation under the influence of external conditions, methods of the thin film preparation, material composition, the contact phenomena and other properties that make vitreous semiconductors different from crystalline ones. In these models a number of switching effect features have not found any explanation. In this chapter an attempt is made to propose the so-called 'kinetic' concept of the current instability development that is based on generalization of published experimental data and theories and proposed for the first time in works of 57

Copyright 9 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. ISBN 0-12-752188-7 ISSN 0080-8784

58

A. S. Glebov

Glebov (1987, 1988) as an analogy of the kinetic theory of destruction of solids under mechanical loading. At the approach to the problem of current instability from the point of view of the 'kinetic' model the jump transition of a vitreous material from the low-conductivity state to the high-conductivity state is considered as the process developing actually in time. At that, the main fundamental characteristics are not the electric field and temperature but the switching delay time, i.e., the time of the sample being in high-resistance state after a voltage pulse is applied till the moment of switching. It is clear that it is prematurely to consider the kinetic theory of the current instability in chalcogenide glass as completed. There are many unclear and disputable questions left which to the great extent determine ways of further development of the physics of glass and the kinetic concept of switching. However, as it is shown in this chapter, now the possibility has already appeared to formulate main concepts determining development of the kinetic theory of switching, to classify existing experimental data, the recent information on structure and the configuration of chalcogenide glass in the framework of the unified concept of switching indicating the role of both thermal and electronic processes in it. The most essential features of chalcogenide glass, in our opinion, lying in the base of the switching phenomena, are the existence of charged broken bonds in them which are able to transform from one type to another under external influence leading to appearance of new structural units, and therefore to transformation of the energy spectrum of charge carriers in glass.

2.

Current Channels in CVS-based Switches

In numerous experimental investigations (Kostylev and Shkut, 1978) it has been established that at development of the current instability in vitreous semiconductors the high-resistance region of the current-voltage diagram is determined by the current transfer through the whole area of the inter-electrode gap, and the low-resistance one is characterized by the current in a local area of the inter-electrode gap (the current filament). It is possible to understand the nature of the current filament (generation of current channels) at development of the S-type current instability in vitreous semiconductors taking into account structural features of real vitreous materials. We have proposed for the first time in Oreshkin, Glebov, Oreshkin, Beliaev and Mikhaylichenko (1969) to take into account the influence of material heterogeneities in vitreous semiconductors where the suggestion has been proposed that CVS can be considered as a complex structure containing several immiscible phases at which borders chains of micro-diodes of physical potential junctions like, for example, the Schottky diode, can originate. Reasoning from the statistically random distribution of such diodes in glass volume, it can be assumed that a way can be found between electrodes, which has the minimal number of barrier layers (a 'weak area'). This 'weak area' becomes a cause of the switching channel origination. Physical barriers in non-crystalline semiconductors can be of various natures. In particular, in complex structures, like selenium, inter-molecular barriers originate. Grain boundaries, dislocations are the cause of the potential barriers origination like Schottky diodes, homo- and hetero-junctions. Besides, non-electrical potential barriers can

The Nature of the Current Instability in Chalcogenide Vitreous Semiconductors

59

originate due to density fluctuations of material or the different saturation of chemical bonds. In Phillips (1979a,b; 1980) it has been shown that due to accumulation of the deformation energy the vitreous semiconductor should consist of clusters whose borders are layers of broken chemical bonds. While determining the role of barriers in processes of the charge carriers transition it is necessary to take into account effects related with the ratio of dimensions of heterogeneities and geometrical parameters of the sample (Kostylev and Shkut, 1978). The heterogeneity, like grains in the case whose size is less than the cross-section of the sample and completely blocked by the matrix of the basic material, would not necessary change the charge carriers transfer mechanism. Charge carriers can pass around the heterogeneity that just changes the geometrical distance between electrodes. These features can be specified more accurately by the percolation theory of heterogeneous medium (Shklovsky and Efros, 1975a). In the case dimensions of heterogeneities are comparable with the sample cross-section it is necessary to take into account their blocking influence on the process of the carriers transfer in investigated materials. At the present time a large number of experimental data is collected which confirm the presence of various heterogeneities and potential barriers in vitreous semiconductors. For example, in Goryanova, Ryvkin, Shpenikov, Tichina and Fedotov (1968) and Minaev, Aliev and Schelokov (1986) it has been shown that the vitreous state of AzB4CStype compounds, like CdGeP2, is characterized by the presence of local heterogeneities revealed by electron microscopy investigations. In Abalmazova, Demidov and Ivanov (1970) and Ivanov and Abalmazova (1971) local heterogeneities in amorphous film structures, vitreous materials included, have been investigated by the method of the electronic mirror. It has been shown by studying of compensation and photomechanical effects and from the dielectric dispersion data that there are local heterogeneities in CVS (Kasharin, 1972). In works of Philips (1983) the cluster structure in vitreous films of AszSe3 has been revealed. The size of clusters was 1000 .A. Investigating the process of the current filament formation in Ge~oSi~zAs3oTe4o-based and Ge~sTes~Asa-based glasses by the mirror microscopy method, it has been shown that electrical heterogeneities with large potential fluctuations are observed in the interelectrode space even before the external electric field is applied. When the electric field is applied, re-distribution of the surface potential occurs. This process is terminated by the transition of the structure from the high-resistance state to the low-resistance one (Oreshkin, Vikhrov, Glebov, Mal'chenko, Petrov, Andreev and Sazhin, 1974). Using high-speed filming, it has been shown that at stresses close to the threshold the local reconstruction takes place in the inter-electrode gap of planar elements of multicomponent CVS (Oreshkin et al., 1974). Dimensions of such local regions are 10 -5 cm that coincide with dimensions of Schottky barrier layers whose theoretically evaluated thickness is presented in Oreshkin, Petrov and Glebov (1972). Investigations of CVSs using the positron spectroscopy method based on the positron annihilation in CVS have been carried out under the direction of Kobrin, Kupriyanova, Minaev, Prokopiev and Shantarovich (1983) and Kobrin (1985) and have shown that the microstructure of Ge-Te, Si-Te, G e - S e and more complex glass systems presents either a glass-crystallite material with the 1015 cm -3 crystallite density or it consists of clusters of Phillips structural type with the characteristic cluster's size of 2000 A.

60

A. S. Glebov

Low values of mobility and the frequency dependence of conductivity in Mott (1969) can be explained by the presence of potential drift barriers. It is known (Stratton, 1973) that, depending on the hetero-junction width, the mechanisms of charge carriers transfer through reverse-biased Schottky-type barriers can be the thermo-electrical emission (TEE) through barriers (wide barriers, high temperatures), the thermal-stimulated cold emission (TSE) (intermediate thickness and temperature), the tunneling through barriers for thin barriers and low temperatures (CE). Possible mechanisms of the carriers transfer through potential barriers of the 'collector' junction are presented in Figure 1. In fact, in works under the direction of Dovgoshey, Savchenko, Zolotun, Baran, Firtsak, Chepur and Mitsa (1975) and Dovgosheyi, Savchenko, Zolotun, Nechiporenko, Firtsak and Luksha (1980) it is shown that in many vitreous semiconductors the current-voltage diagram is described by the j--exp(AV) expression that can evidence, in the authors' opinion, in favor of the barrier's mechanism of conductivity. It is indicated in Dovgoshey et al. (1975) that the barrier's mechanism of the carriers transfer is also confirmed by the conductivity temperature dependence in accordance with the/x --~ exp(Aq~/kT) law as well as by the conductivity activation energy dependence on the applied voltage V which is expressed by/lEo- = (7 + 2) x 10 -2 V. The presence of the polarization emf (Ryvkin, 1972) indicates, in authors' opinion, the presence of interface barriers. It is necessary to note, however, that current transfer mechanisms indicated are typical not for all structures but for bulk samples and thick film structures where effects of highvoltage fields are expressed weakly. In particular, in thin film vitreous semiconductor samples in the region of high-voltage fields the current-voltage dependence is described by the Frenkel-Pool's law of thermal-electronic ionization (Dovgoshey et al., 1975) where the theoretical current-voltage dependence looks like: (1)

j .-. exp(AV1/2).

In thin film samples the prevailing role in the current transfer mechanism is played by effects of high-voltage fields which can lead not only to the lowering of potential barriers

TEE TSE ECK

EFK

I eV

!I @ EFAM T

FIG. 1. The band diagram of the reverse-biased hetero-junction 'glass-crystal' and possible channels of carriers transfer through it.

The Nature of the Current Instability in Chalcogenide Vitreous Semiconductors

61

but to the participation in structural re-construction, in defect generation in particular. It should be in its turn followed by the appearance of new features of conductance of glass that are not laid in the frameworks of known mechanisms developed for crystalline semiconductors. As a matter of fact, the character of conductivity of CVS in strong electrical fields has a complex appearance. According to Marshall, Fisher and Owen (1973) and Kazakova, Lebedev and Rogachev (1975)), we have for chalcogenide glass: ~r--~ exp(E/Eo),

(2)

where Eo = A + BT, at T > 300 K; A and B are constants. In the authors' opinion (Kazakova et al., 1975), such character of electrical conductivity can be conditioned by the process of delocalization of levels in the bandgap at decreasing of their screen potential. The process of delocalization of energy levels at the presence of barriers can be readily presented as a process where under the electrical field effect the potential drift barriers for current carriers get lower and the carriers are converted from the state of low mobility to the state of high mobility. In other words, the transition of carriers through interface potential barriers can be considered as the effect of the disappearance of local levels at screening of free carriers. Let us now turn to another group of facts confirming the correctness of the model of the current channels presented as a chain of gate layers. We bring some considerations that come out from this model and can be verified experimentally. 1. The current-voltage diagram in the case of the tunnel mechanism of carrier transition through a barrier can be written as (Nadkarni, Sankavraman and Radhakshan, 1983): J - A e ~v,

(3)

where A is the equivalent to the initial value of the current flowing through structures" B-

m/Ad,

(4)

where m is the factor accounting for heterogeneity of the field and the nonequilibrium of the barrier; d, the film thickness; Ad = n, the number of gate layers and A is the proportionality coefficient. From expression (4) the B value must decrease when the film thickness increases. Besides, the B coefficient must increase with the temperature increase due to the parameter (m) increase, because the field inhomogeneity and the increase of the potential barriers height should be expected at the temperature increase. 2. The equivalent circuit of the M e - C V S - M e structure for low frequencies can be presented as shown in Figure 2. For such circuit (Nadkarni et al., 1983) the capacitance at low temperatures is equal to the geometrical capacitance and it decreases with the film thickness increase. The sample capacitance will increase with the temperature increase due to the resistance and the cluster's material capacitance decrease. 3. When the applied voltage increases, the structure's capacitance must decrease because reverse-biased gate layers get expanded under the influence of field.

62

A. S. Glebov Rb!

B

Rk

Ck

Ckl

Cbl

Rkl

Rb

C

Cb

Rb2

Cb2 Ckr

Ukr

Rkr

Cbr

FIG. 2. The equivalent circuit diagram of the Me/Glass/Me structure: A, the general circuit diagram; B, the reduced circuit diagram; Rb, Cb, the resistivity and the capacitance of the junction; Rk, Ck, the resistivity and capacitance of the cluster.

Besides, in the case of the 'short circuit' of barriers leading to the decrease of the number of RC circuits, the sample must show the inductive character. 4. According to the generalized barrier model of the non-homogenous semiconductor constructed on the base of the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2, the logarithm of the difference of resistivities of the sample at high and low frequencies must be a linear dependence of the reversed frequency 1/f (Oreshkin, 1977), i.e. lg(pl - p ) = B - ( ( 0 . 4 3 / 1 0 5 4 " r ) l O S / f ) ,

(5)

where B = d n o ~ o / 2 a e i ~ n l n ; ~o, the constant; no, the bulk concentration of carriers; n, the carrier concentration in the depleted layer; nl, the carrier concentration at low frequency;/z, the carrier mobility; T0, the relaxation time of gate layers. The above considerations following from the barrier model of the current channel have been confirmed experimentally. In Figure 3 the dependence of lg I as a function of the applied voltage iSoPresented for structures Me-GelsTeslSb2S2 film-Me. The film thickness is 2100 A (Nadkarni et al., 1983), C - V characteristic has been obtained at different environment temperatures. It can be seen that the slope of straight lines increases as temperature increases that evidences the B coefficient increase in expression (3) and agrees with predictions following from the proposed model of the current channel. Figure 4 shows similar dependencies for film-planar structures based on CVS of Ga12Si6.sGe6.sAs25Teso whose inter-electrode gaps are different. It can be seen that the slope of curves decreases when the inter-electrode gap increases. The change of the capacitance of film structures based on GelsTeslSb2S2 depending on temperature and the applied voltage has been investigated in Nadkarni et al. (1983). These dependencies are presented in Figures 5 and 6. As it can be seen from the figures, the experimental results confirm the theoretical conclusions based on the barrier model rather well. The presence of inductive properties, so-called 'negative' capacitance phenomena, has been investigated comprehensively in Gasanov, Deshevoyi and Petrovskiy (1971) and Shklovsky, Schur and Efros (1971). It has been shown that at

The Nature of the Current Instability in Chalcogenide Vitreous Semiconductors

63

lgI,A II

-2

P

4

9

D

3 -3

,J "

1

-4

-5

-6 3

6

U,

V

Fio. 3. The voltage-current characteristic of the Me/Ge~sTes~SbzSz/Me structure possessing the switching effect: 1-205 K; 2-220 K; 3-245 K; 4-282 K; 5-298 K.

lgI,A

r 1

I

-5 r"

x~

r"

x

c x

3

-6

-7 0

50

100

U, V

FIG. 4. The voltage-current characteristics of film-planar structures based on CVS of the Gal2Si6.sGe6.5 As25Teso composition with different inter-electrode gaps: 1-30 txm; 2 - 2 2 Ixm; 3-10 p~m.

64

A. S. Glebov

C, pF

80

40

180

260

340

T,K

FIG. 5. The temperature dependence of the low-frequency capacitance of the Me/GelsTe81Sb2S2/Me structure.

voltages close to threshold ones the reactive character of conductivity changes its impedance from capacitance to inductive. As for experimental verification of the dependence (5), it has also been made in the work of Kasharin (1972) for various compositions of chalcogenide semiconductors. One of typical dependencies obtained in our works for samples based on CVS of the GalzSi6.sGe6.sAszsTe5o composition is shown in Figure 7. Based on formula (5) and Figure 7, vitreous semiconductors can be considered as a composition of local barriers of Schottky type divided by homogenous material (bases) whose conductivity o - = l i p determines the Maxwell's relaxation time in the base zM -- eeop. At that, impurity energy levels determining conductivity are not completely exhausted (Oreshkin, 1977).

C, pF

/

,// 4

6

8

d-1, pm-1

FIG. 6. The dependence of the low-temperaturecapacitance vs. the glass oxide thickness.

The Nature of the Current Instability in Chalcogenide Vitreous Semiconductors

65

lg (rl-r), Ohm.cm

0

100

200

103/f, Hzu -1

FIG. 7. The dependence of lg(rl - r) vs. the reciprocal frequency for the Me/Ga12Si6.sGe6.sAs25Tes0/Me structure.

Therefore, experimental data indicate the presence of the drift barriers in vitreous materials. Drift potential barriers can be formed not only in technologically imperfect materials having large amount of non-homogeneities but also in materials with covalentcoordinated, polymer-crystallite or only in pure polymer structures, all bonds of which are saturated. In Shklovsky (1971) and Shklovsky et al. (1971) it has been shown that blocking barrier layers in disordered semiconductors may arise due to the random character of distribution of the carriers' potential energy leading to different values of the border energy of the continuous spectrum in various parts of the sample. Such drift barriers can be a cause of the leak channel appearance. At low temperatures electrons join in metal drops divided by wide potential barriers (Fig. 8). Conductivity in such system can be performed either by electron tunneling through the barrier or as a result of the electron bypass of the barriers whose potential energy is higher than the percolation energy. Presence of potential energy fluctuations can lead to appearance in vitreous semiconductors of regions with bipolar conductivity, such system can be considered as quasi-multi-layered structures of the dinistor type (Ryvkin, 1972) (Fig. 9). In Oreshkin, Glebov, Andreev, Vihrov, Glebov, Borschevsky, Minaev and Petrechenko (1977)

E_pe . . . . . . . . . . . . .

~

......

Ie

FIG. 8. The band diagram of the disordered semiconductor: ~p, the passage level for electrons; level for holes.

h Ep, the passage

66

A. S. Glebov

/

B

FIG. 9. The energy band diagram of the n - p - n - p structure: A, at equilibrium conditions; B, after the electrical field is applied.

it is indicated that the presence of structural units with different rupture energy of individual chemical bonds in semiconductor glass can complicate significantly the energy bands with ruptures and lead to noticeable blocking of carriers in locations where one structural unit borders another. In other words, along with smooth curvature of energy bands or large-scale fluctuations of potential energy in glass with strongly pronounced hetero-bonds there may arise chains of hetero-junctions without chemical bond ruptures. The qualitative energy diagram of disordered vitreous semiconductors consisting of two groups of structural units is shown in Figure 10. Conductivity of such structures cannot be described only by conductivity activation energy because relatively high conductivity of structural units with small ionization energy will be suppressed by the blocking network of structural units with higher ionization energy of chemical bonds

FIG. 10. The spatial structural network of glass: A, for two structural units; B, the qualitative energy diagram.

The Nature of the Current Instability in Chalcogenide Vitreous Semiconductors

67

(Muller, 1964). It is obvious that this condition will be satisfied under a certain ratio of concentrations of both structural units. Glass conductivity in this case will be determined by a small number of carriers which are able to pass from one electron drop to another by tunneling or by the Schottky-type over-barrier thermoelectronic emission as it is shown in Figure 10B. Similar hetero-junctions can also arise between structural fragments of vitreous semiconductors consisting of different number of atoms (Balmakov, 1985). In this case energy fluctuations may reach several electron volts that is determined not by chemical bonds ruptures and other radical changes of the structure but by small structural transformations realized by coordinated re-grouping of many atoms on distances less than inter-atomic ones. The possibility of appearance of a potential barrier between structural units as well as between hetero-bonds is confirmed by numerical calculations carried out by Gubanov (1984) for a simple model of polymeric semiconductor. It has been shown that for potential barriers of 1 eV height, 10 A width, the transmittance at the electrical field intensity of 10 - 4 Vcm -1 turns to be 2.1 • 10 -4. At such barrier transmittance the flow of electrons through it is very insignificant. The transmittance rises sharply with the electrical field and temperature increase. The list of works where presence of potential barriers in non-crystalline materials is stated can be continued but, obviously, the above mentioned has proved to be unbiased enough. Therefore, at considering the physical mechanism of current instability in vitreous semiconductors local inhomogeneities leading to the gate layers formation must be taken into account.

2.1.

MODELS OF GENERATION OF CURRENT CHANNELS AT PRESENCE OF DRIFT BARRIERS IN C V S

In Shklovsky et al. (1971) and Nadkarni et al. (1983) it has been shown that presence of drift barriers in non-crystalline materials can lead to formation of increased conductivity channels comparing with the integral conductivity of the sample. First of all, it is possible due to the sharp increase of current in strong fields when tunneling of carriers through the potential barrier takes place (Shklovsky et al., 1971) or as a result of Zener's transition 'band-band' at sharp curvature of energy bands of the reverse-biased gate layer in strong fields (Nadkarni et al., 1983). The authors (Oreshkin et al., 1969) have proposed the model of the current channel consisting of alternate layers of crystalline and glassy materials (Fig. 11) (Oreshkin, Glebov, Petrov and Beliavsky, 1974). Isotype hetero-junctions appear on boundaries of different phases. When the field is applied a part of junctions becomes reverse biased and they are 'collectors', the other part is direct biased and they are 'emitter' junctions. In certain electrical fields applied to the structure the band curvature in 'emitter' junctions decreases and becomes flat that corresponds to 'emitter' junction's short circuit. Because of that the main influence on current flow is exerted by reverse-biased 'collector' junctions. The mechanism of conductivity increase of the channel is Joule's heating by the current flow which has been created by carriers which come to the percolation level due to, for example, Schottky's over-barrier emission. Besides, temperature in the current

A. S. Glebov

68 EC 1

CS 1 CF

J

EC 2 AF

X

CF

The vacuum level Q

•"" t / eV ~ _/

CS 2

""~176176176176176 Qq?l~ EFA

~02

y Q ~176176 EFK """" /

g Fla. 11. The model of the current channel (A) and its band diagram for the case of j2 > Jl in the external electrical field.

channel may arise due to phonon's excitation as a result of electron transition from the percolation level to electron localized states in the amorphous phase (Fig. 11B). Calculations of temperature delivered by electrons passing from the Ec level of the free band of crystallite to the EL level of the localized state in the vitreous phase in accordance with formula (6) show that the temperature change near the 'collector junction' will be about 300 ~ AT = ((Ec - EL)I'r)/LCVI4 .-

.I'

.I"

.1 ~

~,

"

/

0.1

I"" J

i"

3

.

5

..,' .,#

~

.-'>.Ff 06

f" ~176

~

,,/

7

%8

-'" ,~

"-;%-/ 2.6

3.0

3.4

1000/T,Kq

FIG. 37. The temperature dependence of the threshold voltage for bulk diode structures based on CVC systems" 1- AlzoAs4oTe4o; 2- AlzoAs3oTe5o; 3- AlzoAszoTe6o; 4- AlloAS4oTeso; 5- Alz3Tev7" 6- A12oASloTe7o;7- AlloAs3oTe6o;8- AlloAS2oTe7o. inter-electrode gap and point electrodes, this regularity is clearly seen: the activation energy of switching cymbately changes with respect to the conductivity activation energy (Himenets, 1975) (Fig. 37 and Table X). In the presented example a slight dependence of the activation energy from the electric field intensity is observed because bulk samples with the large inter-electrode gap were investigated, so the linear character of the dependence Lg Uthr/T "" I / T does not change, and only the slope of the straight line changes. In the case of decreasing of the inter-electrode gap, the role of the electric field in decreasing of the activation energy of switching will increase that must decrease the activation energy of switching (Table X). It is confirmed by the results of the analysis made in the work of Shemetova (1983) and well illustrated by dependences of the threshold voltage on temperature for samples with different inter-electrode gaps (Fig. 38). With temperature increase, the share of the electric field in decreasing of the chemical bonds strength will be decreasing due to the electro-conductivity increase, and, consequently, the activation energy of switching will be increasing that is also observed in experiments (Shemetova, 1983). TABLE X ELECTROCONDUCTIVITY ACTIVATIONENERGY AND SWITCHINGACTIVATION ENERGY OF GLASSESOF A1-As-Te SYSTEM A1 (at. %) 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 23

As (at. %)

Te (at. %)

ER (eV)

E (eV)

20 30 40 10 20 30 40 0

70 60 50 70 60 50 40 77

0.43 0.44 0.45 0.46 0.42 0.48 0.52 0.46

0.30 0.37 0.42 0.44 0.38 0.44 0.48 0.39

The Nature of the Current Instability in Chalcogenide Vitreous Semiconductors

101

lg Uthr, ,,I"5

V 2

1

~'...~'.~%

1

lg Ucr, V 0

m

..,,,~1 u

m

100

200

/

Tcr

i

I T,~

FIG. 38. The temperature dependence of the threshold voltage of film-planar switches based on CVS of the Ga12Ge6.sSi25Teso system with different inter-electrode distances (1-10 Ixm, 2-17 txm, 3 - 2 2 I.m, 4 - 3 0 ~m, 5 - 4 0 ~m).

Thus, the activation energy of switching can be characterized, like the conductivity activation energy, by the strength of chemical bonds, and the mechanism of the current instability can be explained on the base of the model notions proposed by us. The temperature dependence of the threshold voltage, based on above considerations, can be probably written as gthr

-

-

gthrexp((AE~- A E F ) / 2 k T ) ,

(23)

where Uth r is determined by CVS properties; E~, the conductivity activation energy of CVS and AEF is the reduction of the chemical bonds energy caused by the electrical field effect. The mechanism of the reduction of the chemical bond strength is probably determined by the Pool-Frenkel effect according to which the ionization potential is reduced by the electric field as (Frenkel, 1938): U-

Uo - 2ex/(eF/eoo).

(24)

The assumptions are well confirmed by investigations of the temperature dependence of the delay time obtained at different values of the amplitude of the square pulse. Figures 39 and 40 show dependences of the delay time on temperature and the square pulse amplitude value for film-planar samples of the GalzGe6.sSi6.sAszsTeso glass composition. It can be seen that the delay time obeys the expression: z3 - % e x p ( W / k T ) ,

(25)

where W = W0 - / 3 x / F is the activation energy of switching; f, the electric field intensity and/3 is the coefficient dependent on the initial state of the CVS film. The expression (25) shows that dependences lg r = f ( I / T ) and lg r = f ( I / V ) must form fan-shaped families of straight lines intersecting in one point with the value of r = to, which is observed in the experiment (Figs. 39 and 40). The proportionality of r to the factor eW/~T determines the thermal nature of the switching process facilitated by the electric field. The experiment shows that parameters z0 and W0 are constant values for the given composition of CVS independent on the state of the structure. The value W0 coincides

A. S. Glebov

102

lg t d,

/

-6

1

-7 4

lg td0,

~.~.,,

S

-8 40

80

120

9/

Tkp

o

T, C

FIG. 39. The temperature dependence of the switch delay time at different amplitudes of the control pulse: 1 - 1 4 V ; 2 - 1 6 V; 3-18 V; 4 - 2 0 V.

with the conductivity activation energy value of CVS films and, accordingly, is proportional to the energy of the chemical bond rupture. The value r0 ~ 10 -8 s that coincides with the value of the Maxwell's relaxation time for the material of the filament area. Above that, the physical meaning of W0 and r0 parameters in expression (25) can be clarified taking into account the coincidence of characters of dependences shown in Figures 40 and 41 with characters of dependences describing the kinetics of the solid state destruction (Regel et al., 1972) under the mechanical load action where the time of destruction is described by the expression: (26)

r -- roe w / x r ,

where U~ = U0 - y~ is the activation energy of the process; U0, the initial activation energy of the destruction process, the energy required for the chemical bond rupture; y,

lgt d, s

2 -6

3 -----" ~

K

4 ------~

"%., -7

~

\

\ \

lg td0, S

-8 12

16

20

24

28 U, V

FIG. 40. The dependence of the switch delay time vs. the amplitude of the control pulse at different environmental temperature: 1-26 ~ 2 - 4 0 ~ 3-51 ~ 4-81 ~ 5-98 ~

The Nature of the Current Instability in Chalcogenide Vitreous Semiconductors

103

lgR 3

~,~o

-3 ~ o

2

4

OOoooo

6

P, GPa

FIG. 41. The dependence of the electrical resistance of the amorphous Ge2oTe8o sample on pressure.

the parameter characterizing the chemical bond tension and To = 10 -13 C is the average period of thermal vibrations of atoms in condensed matter (however, from the point of view of all said above, it can happen that here To is also the time of the process' s transfer). Based on the analogy of ~'3 and T0 dependences on temperature and tension (or voltage), it can be assumed that in both cases the rupture of chemical bonds occurs causing either the switching or the destruction of samples. In both cases it turns out to be energetically beneficial for the structure. Let us consider limits of the application of kinetic (or activation) notions to the switching process. The switching has the kinetic character when the final rupture of tense inter-atomic bonds occurs due to thermal fluctuations. At that, noticeable time is required for the bond rupture. It is related with the fact that the simultaneous action of both factors (the field and temperature) is required, and, consequently, the re-distribution of the electric field in the inter-electrode gap occurs during the time ~-. If the switching occurs due to the direct action of the electric field or another mechanism of the conductivity increase in conditions of the strong electric field, such switching can be called electronic or non-thermal one (because of its independence on temperature). Such switching is characterized by the absence of dependence of the delay time from voltage and temperature, and the delay time itself is of a small value. The typical demonstration of the kinetic character of switching is the case where the delay time is described by Eq. (18). The Boltzmann's character of the relation of ~'3 with F and T evidences that the determining factor responsible for the switching is thermal fluctuations of thermal energy resources of the body. The external field plays a role of the valve facilitating and directing the switching effect. In the case when the delay time is small and the dependence of the type (18) is not observed, it should be assumed that the switching takes place not according to the kinetic mechanism. Such a case can be observed at supplying the structure with large over-voltage. The main part of the destruction is carried out by the electric field and, if W0 =/3~/F, the complete transition to the electronic mechanism of switching occurs. At that, the re-distribution of the field in the inter-electrode gap is not required, and the delay time can be limited only by the time of thermal fluctuations which is equal to 10 -12 s. It should be noted that it is rather difficult to obtain

104

A. S. Glebov

the pure electronic mechanism of switching because there is a high probability that the bond will be ruptured at approaching of the barrier value W = W0 - / 3 ~ / F with the electrical field increase to the k T value under the action of a small thermal fluctuation without even reaching the limit tension state. Thus, in the range of not very low temperatures the switching is always thermoelectronic one even if the condition (18) is not met. In relation with this, the switching can be performed with short nanosecond pulses at large over-voltage that is observed in experiments (Prikhodko et al., 1979). At W0 >>/3~/F the thermal nature of switching is manifested to a greater extent because the main share of the work for the bond rupture falls on thermal energy. At increasing of/3~/F the switching acquires more of the electronic nature. The approximate condition of the transition from the thermal to the electronic mechanism can be taken as: W0 - / 3 ~ / F ~ (1-5)kT. At temperatures lower than Debye temperatures the switching can have the nonthermal mechanism. At that, quantum-mechanical effects can occur (for example, the tunnel effect) facilitating the switching process. Above that, we can observe a smooth transition of thermal effects into field effects in the process of the current instability development. Such transition has been experimentally confirmed by investigations of non-linearity parameters (Kalmykova, Smorgonskaya and Shpunt, 1986) as well as by the self-accelerating character of the switching process (Makhinya, 1980) because of the increasing share of the electric field in the process of re-construction and rupture of chemical bonds due to the reduction of the effective inter-electrode gap at the longitudinal expansion of ODS (Fig. 18). In Mathur and Arntz (1972), Zamechik, Barik and Shochova (1976), Weinstein, Zalln and Stade (1980), Kolobov, Lyubin and Taguyrdzhanov (1982), Parthasarathy, Rao, Asokan and Gopal (1984a), Parthasarathy, Rao and Gopal (1984b) and Bhatia, Parthasarathy and Gopal (1985) investigations of influence of hydrostatic pressure on electro-physical parameters of chalcogenide glasses and electrical parameters of switches on their basis have been carried out. It turned out that the pressure leads to a sharp change of the optical forbidden bandgap of CVS (Weinstein et al., 1980) and to the increase of the conductivity of vitreous semiconductors (Parthasarathy et al., 1984a,b; Bhatia et al., 1985) as well as to the reduction of the threshold voltage and the delay time of switching (Mathur and Arntz, 1972; Zamechik et al., 1976). The presented data allows to assume that the hydrostatic pressure leads to changing of the chemical bond strength causing the appearance of new localized states in the mobility slit whose nature is determined by the deformation of chemical bonds. At certain values of the applied pressure CVS can undergo the electro-conductivity transition (Parthasarathy et al., 1984a) (Fig. 41) which is indicated by the negative temperature resistance coefficient of CVS at certain values of the hydrostatic pressure (Fig. 42, Bhatia et al., 1985). Such phenomenon is similar to the transition of the current filament material to the metallic conductivity which is observed at the switching. In relation with this, it can be assumed that the pressure effect, like the field effect, influences not only on the chemical bonds strength, reducing its value, but leads to changing of the surplus deformation energy in CVS material. For example, from changing of the resistance value of CVS the conclusion has been made that its increase under the pressure action is connected with the reduction of the electron mobility due to the appearance of new localized states in the mobility slit, and its sharp reductionmwith the reduction of the forbidden gap and the appearance of defects leading to the structural

The Nature of the Current Instability in Chalcogenide Vitreous Semiconductors

105

lg R 12

f/ 5

5.0

7.0

9.0

1000/T, K-1

FIG. 42. The temperature dependencies of the amorphous GeAs3.5 resistance vs. the pressure.

reconstruction and ordering of CVS material. These phenomena depend on rigidity of the glass structural network (Parthasarathy et al., 1984b; Bhatia et al., 1985) that also confirms their deformation nature. Thus, the presented results evidence in favor of the proposed model of the current instability related with the ordering of the current filament material as a result of the defect formation facilitated by the electric field and pressure.

4.3.

INFLUENCE OF SYNTHESIS AND THERMAL TREATMENT CONDITIONS ON PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GLASSES AND ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS OF MONO-STABLE SWITCHES

In this section results of investigations concerning the influence of chalcogenide glass synthesis conditions and heat treatment on its physical-chemical properties and electrophysical parameters of devices based on it are discussed. Based on differential thermal analysis results, processes leading to the stabilization of material and causing higher reliability and stability of devices made of this material are explained (Glebov, Petrov, Baryshev and Oreshkin, 1972; Oreshkin, Minaev, Skachkov, Petrov and Glebov, 1973; Petrov, Zhivoderov, Glebov and Glebov, 1973). The corresponding ratio of starting materials has been taken for synthesis of chalcogenide glasses of the (Si, 12.64; Ge, 9.76; As, 29.94; Te, 47.7) atomic percent composition. Certified materials have been used (Temspecial purity with the impurity content less than 5 • 10 -5 wt%, Asmspecial purity, Ge~polycrystal of 5 0 f ~ c m resistivity, Si: B-doped, Sb-doped, P-doped). Starting materials in the corresponding ratio were loaded in quartz ampoules which were evacuated and sealed afterwards. The sealed ampoules were placed in the horizontal tube furnace, heated to 1100 ~ and exposed 30 h at this temperature with constant stirring of the melt. After the synthesis was finished the ampoules with the melt were quenched in regimes of the furnace self-cooling (about 3 ~ rain-l), in air and in liquid nitrogen. Annealing of the materials was carried out in vacuum at 240 ~ during 21 h.

106

A. S. Glebov

Switches made by fusion of wire electrodes in chalcogenide glass preforms in accordance with the usual bead technology (Milns) have been used for investigations. Investigations were performed by obtaining of dynamic current-voltage diagrams (CVD) at 400 Hz frequency (Glebov, Vikhrov, Petrov, Oreshkin and Litvak, 1975; Tatarinov, Petrov and Glebov, 1975). It turned out that the voltage of the first switching of devices after they are produced (Uthr) was higher than the subsequent operating switching voltage (Uthr). Uthr The transition from Uthr to Uthr was achieved by the conditioning during a certain time, e.g., 20 h. The value of the conditioning, i.e., the difference between Uthr and Uthr, and the conditioning rate depends on glass synthesis conditions, in particular on glass quenching method after synthesis and the value of the threshold voltage. The time dependence of Uthr is shown in Figure 43. It is seen in Figure 43 that the heat treatment leads to the sharp reduction of the conditioning value. The investigations have shown that the most stable characteristics are possessed by devices made of the glass cooled in the furnace. Figure 43 shows dependence curves of the operating switching voltage vs. the first switching voltage for devices made of glasses undergone different quenching methods. It turned out that devices of the composition cooled in nitrogen (curve 4) are conditioned significantly more intensive than that cooled in air (curve 3) and in the furnace (curve 2). At that, independent on the first switching voltage, practically all devices were conditioned to 70-90 V voltage during a short time (about 30 min). The most stable were devices made of the same composition with the inter-electrode distance not larger than 30 p~m. When inter-electrode distance is increased, the threshold voltage fluctuations are increased as well. So, the value of conditioning depends on the glass-cooling rate after synthesis. The glass cooling rate influences likely on the ordering degree of structural units that affects the time stability of device parameters. To check this assumption, the heat treatment of the glass has been carried out. The curve 1 (Fig. 44) shows the dependence Uth r VS. Uth r for the heattreated composition. The maximum value of the conditioning voltage in this case was not more than 10%. Devices with close and time-stable parameters can be produced from this composition in the case of the accurate fixation of the inter-electrode distance.

/

Uthr.op, V 3O0

,7

200

100

0

100

200

300

Uthrl,V

FIG. 43. The dependence of the operation voltage vs. the voltage of the first switching.

The Nature of the Current Instability in Chalcogenide Vitreous Semiconductors DT,

107

~ 1

~

~ 2 275

200

~

300

3

T, ~

FIG. 44. The DTA curves of glasses with various heat treatments: 1-cooled in liquid nitrogen; 2-cooled at the rate of 3 ~ 3-annealed at 240 ~ during 21 h.

The glass formation processes have been studied experimentally from temperature dependences of physical parameters which are determined by the glass structure. In our case this dependence has been studied with glasses undergone various heat treatment by comparing heating curves of DTA which characterize changes of the enthalpy (AH) or the thermal capacity of the system (AC). The essence of the glass formation process is that with the temperature decrease the structure of liquid undergoes changes caused by re-grouping of kinetic units leading to changing of the short-range order. These re-groupings are caused by the tendency of liquid to pass in the equilibrium state characterized by a certain structure for every certain temperature. In the theory of the structural glass formation the main factor is the rate of the re-grouping, i.e., relaxation processes determining the rate of the structural reconstruction in liquid. Structural units, like atoms, molecules and chains, can participate in the re-groupings. These re-groupings present the activation process. The activation energy of the re-grouping is conditioned by the presence of structural energy barriers dependent on temperature and pressure. It is necessary to note that in complex structures, beside the rupture of bonds between kinetic units, processes of the reversible and irreversible structuring and the inter-molecular interaction are possible leading to the strong temperature dependence of the activation energy and physical properties (Bartenev, 1966; Bal'makov, 1975; Kasatkin and Bal'makov, 1975). The relaxation regularities of any properties are similar because they are described by similar equations, so the application of the DTA method, allowing to analyze changes of the enthalpy (AH) or the thermal capacity of the system (AC), gives the possibility to observe changes of glass properties related with the regrouping of kinetic units. Figure 44 shows DTA heating curves of glasses undergone different heat treatment. The position of the endothermic effect maximum is taken as the glass formation temperature (T -- 275 ~ For the glass obtained by cooling in liquid nitrogen (Fig. 44, curve 1), the heat release is characteristic at reaching 240 ~ because, as a result of the relaxation process, the transition of kinetic units from the state with the internal energy E2 to the state with internal energy E1 (where E2 > EI) is observed. In this case the

108

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exothermic effect is observed on the DTA heating curve at 240 ~ and the thermal capacity of the system has the minimum value comparing with the equilibrium state. The relaxation process of the re-grouping of kinetic units which leads to the transition of the glass in more ordered equilibrium state conditions is exothermic effect. The endothermic effect at 275 ~ characterizes the thermal absorption by kinetic units and their transition in the state with the internal energy E 2. On the DTA heating curve of the glass obtained by cooling at the 3 ~ min-a rate (Fig. 44, curve 2) there are also two thermal effects. In this case the time lag of the structuring process from the temperature decrease process was significantly lesser and the larger part of the kinetic units had enough time to consume the E 2 energy and transmit from the state E2 in the equilibrium state EI. It is natural that significantly lesser exothermic effect is observed on the DTA heating curve. Subsequent deeper endothermic process characterizes the absorption of the heat required for the transition of the kinetic units from the E1 state to the E 2 state. For the glass that has undergone the heat treatment at 240 ~ during 21 h (Fig. 44, curve 3) the maximum heat absorption is characteristic, i.e., the maximum value of the thermal capacity. It is obvious that in this glass there are few kinetic units possessing the E 2 energy because at the annealing this energy was consumed for the re-grouping of kinetic units, for their ordering in accordance with their tendency to the equilibrium state. Thus, as a result of the heat treatment of the Si12.64Ge9.76As29.9Te47.7 glass, structural changes take place leading to the stabilization of its properties. In the course of the differential thermal analysis of glass the absence of any noticeable thermodynamic phase transition has been determined. All glass samples undergoing different heat treatment were amorphous which was controlled by the X-ray analysis. The data obtained allow to make the assumption that glasses of such composition are not crystallized and melt but just are softened by changing their viscosity. Conditions of glass quenching after synthesis exert great influence on its physicalchemical properties. The lesser the cooling rate of the ampoule with melt, the more ordered material structure is obtained. The degree of the material ordering can be increased by the additional heat treatment at the temperature corresponding to the transition of kinetic units from the state of higher internal energy E 2 in the equilibrium state of the minimum energy of the kinetic units El. The state of glass kinetic units (their energy) exerts great influence on electric parameters of glass-based devices. Thus, the glass quenching regimes, influencing the internal energy of kinetic units, create the different deformation degree of chemical bonds. In fast quenched glass such excessive deformation energy is likely very high. As the cooling rate decreases, their deformation energy value decreases as well, approaching to its minimum value. The presence of the excess deformation energy leads to the metastable state of glass. The transition to the equilibrium glass state with the minimum energy of kinetic units is possible at the formation of defects (single-coordinated), i.e., the rupture of chemical bonds leading to the ordering of a whole group of atoms (Vikhrov, 1985, 1987). In connection with this, the dependence of the conditioning value on glass quenching regimes can be explained by that in the current channel at the transition of the device from the OFF condition to the ON condition the structural reconstruction takes place leading to the reduction of the excess deformation energy. At that, the number of localized states in the mobility slit, which are traps for electrons, decreases that leads to increasing

The Nature o f the Current Instability in Chalcogenide Vitreous Semiconductors

109

of the current carrier mobility and, therefore, to the glass electro-conductivity increase. It, in its turn, is followed by the threshold voltage decrease because certain energy is required for switching and, consequently, lesser switching voltage at the increased value of the switching current is observed. Heat-treated glasses have higher initial switching voltages than that of quenched glasses because there are less numbers of strained deformed bonds that are ruptured and reconstructed in the first place. The results presented are also the evidence of the determining role of the chemical bond energy in the development of the current instability as well as parameters stability of glass-based devices. Thus, the presented kinetic model of the current instability explains published experimental results and allows to determine the role of both thermal and electronic processes in the framework of the unified conception of the switching.

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Conf. on Amorphous and Liquid Semiconductors, Leningrad, USSR, November 18-24, 1975, Nauka Publishing House, Leningrad, pp. 198-202. Dovgosheyi, N.I., Savchenko, I.D., Zolotun, N.Ya., Nechiporenko, A.V., Firtsak, Yu.Yu. and Luksha, O.V. (1980) Structural inhomogeneities and electronic processes in amorphous films of some complex chalcogenides. Structure, Physical-Chemical Properties and Application of Non-crystalline Semiconductors: Proc. of Conference Amorphous Semiconductors-80, Kishinev, October 1980, pp. 212-215. Elliott, S.R. and Davis, E.A. (1979) Defect states in group-Y amorphous semiconductors, J. Phys. C, 12(13), 2577-2587. Frenkel, Ya.I. (1938) On the theory of electrical breakdown in dielectrics and electronic semiconductors, JETP, 8(12), 1292-1301. Gasanov, L.S., Deshevoyi, A.S. and Petrovskiy, B.I. (1971) Investigations of voltage-current diagrams of glassy semiconductor-based amorphous structures, Electronnaya Technika Microelectronica, 1, 31-40. Glazov, V.M., Chizhevskaya, S.N. and Glagoleva, N.N. (1967) Liquid Semiconductors, Nauka Publishing House, Moscow, 244 pp. Glebov, A.S. (1988) The kinetic model of the current instability in CVS, Electronics Technique. Microelectronics, (1), 22-26. Glebov, A.S. (1980) Possibility of application of the percolation theory for explanation of the switching effect in CVS. Structure, Physical-Chemical Properties and Application of Non-crystalline Semiconductors: Proc. Conference on Amorphous Semiconductors--80, Kishinev, October 1980, pp. 258-258. Glebov, A.S. (1987) Current instability in chalcogenide glassy semiconductors. New Ideas in Physics of Glass: Proc. All-Union Seminar, Moscow, October 9-10, 1987. pp. 83-90. Glebov, A.S. (1988) Nature of current instability and charge relaxation in barrier layers. Doctor Dissertation: 01.04.10. Riazan, 497 pp. Glebov, A.S. (RSRTA, Riazan) (1995) Nature of current instability in chalcogenide semiconductor glasses. Proc. 100 years of Radio, Riazan, pp. 111 - 114. Glebov, A.S., Petrov, I.M., Baryshev, V.G. and Oreshkin, V.P. (1972) Some possibilities of parameter improvement of S-diodes based on chalcogenide glasses, Physical Phenomena in Gases and Solids-Riazan, 37, 155-160. Glebov, A.S., Petrov, I.M. and Sazhin, B.N. (1984a) On confirmation of the inhomogeneities model of the switching effect in chalcogenide glassy semiconductors, FTP, 18(1), 151-153. Glebov, A.S., Petrov, I.M. and Sazhin, B.N. (1984b) The effect of the "reverse" switching in chalcogenide glassy semiconductors, J. Exp. Theor. Phys., 54(2), 282-283. Glebov, A.S. and Rozhkova, G.V. (1987) Kinetic model for switching in chalcogenide glass semiconductors, J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 90(1-3), 597-600. Glebov, A.S. and Sazhin, B.N. (1983) The electro-thermal model of switching in the presence of current channels. Non-organic Glassy Materials and Films on their Base in Microelectronics: Proc. III All-Union Conf., Moscow, 1983, p. 115. Glebov, A.S., Vikhrov, S.P., Malchenko, S.I. and Petrov, I.M. (1975) Static current-voltage diagrams of monolithic and thin-film structures from glass of As4-Te81-Gel5 system, Semiconductor Physics and Microelectronics--Riazan, 1, 3-7. Glebov, A.S., Vikhrov, S.P., Petrov, I.M., Oreshkin, V.P. and Litvak, I.I. (1975) Features of CVS-based Sdiodes operation in dynamical mode, Physical-Technological Problems of Cybernetics: Proc. AS USR AS USR, Kiev, pp. 25-33. Goryanova, N.A., Ryvkin, S.M., Shpenikov, G.P., Tichina, I.I. and Fedotov, V.V. (1968) Investigation of some properties of vitreous and crystalline CdSeP2, Phys. Status Solidi, 28(2), 489-494. Gubanov, A.I. (1984) The simple model of polymer semiconductor, FTP, 18(5), 840-844. Himenets, V.V. (1975) Investigations of glass-formation and possibilities of practical application of chalcogenide glasses of quadruple systems M-AV-BVI-cvII.: Doctor's theses: 01.04.10. Uzhgorod, 136 pp. Ivanov, R.D. and Abalmazova, M.G. (1971) Investigations of electrical inhomogeneities of film dielectrics by the electronic mirror method, Radiotekhnika i Electronica, 16(2), 447-449. Kalmykova, N.P., Smorgonskaya, E.A. and Shpunt, V.H. (1982) Role of the dimensional effect in chalcogenide glassy semiconductors in strong electric fields, FTP, 19(9), 1648-1651. Kalmykova, N.P., Smorgonskaya, E.A. and Shpunt, V.H. (1986) Role of electronic processes in chalcogenide glassy semiconductors in strong electric fields, Lett. JETP, 12(6), 345-347.

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Marshall, J.M., Fisher, F.D. and Owen, A.E. (1974) Transport properties of vitreous chalcogenides. Proc. of the 5th Int. Conf. on Amorphous and Liquid semiconductors, Garmisch-Paternkirchen, FRG, 1973, London, pp. 1305-1310. Mathur, B.P. and Arntz, F.O. (1972) Strain sensitive properties of threshold switch devices, J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 8-10, 445-448. Milns, A. and Voight, D. (1975) Hetero-junctions and Metal-Semiconductor Junctions, Mir Publishing House, Moscow, 403 pp. Minaev, V.S. (1980) Peculiarities of glass-formation in AIII-BIV systems and their relations with equilibrium diagrams structure, Electron. Mater., 8, 29-38. Minaev, V.S. (1981) Glass-formation ability of group IV A chalcogens and its relation with equilibrium diagrams, Electron. Mater., 8(157), 45-51. Minaev, V.S. and Aliev, I.G. (1986) Glass-formation ability, covalent-ion coordination and melting entropy of chalcogenide alloys. Thermodynamics and Material Science and Technology of Semiconductors: Proc. III All-Union Conf., Moscow, 1986. Vol. 1, pp. 171 - 172. Minaev, V.S., Aliev, I.G. and Schelokov, A.N. (1986) Covalent-ion coordination and softening temperature in telluride glassy systems. Thermodynamics and Material Science and Technology of Semiconductors: The Third All-Union Conference, Theses of Reports, Moscow, 1986. Vol. 1, pp. 170-171. Minaev, V.S., Glebov, A.S., Rozhkova, G.V., Shrainer, Yu.A. and Paykin, L.G. (1987a) On some physicalchemical properties and covalent-ion coordination of glasses in triple telluride systems based on Ge and As. Collection of R&D abstracts, reviews, translations and deposited manuscripts. Series XII. No. 8. Minaev, V.S., Glebov, A.S., Rozhkova, G.V., Shrainer, Yu.A. and Raykin, L.G. (1987b) Covalent-ion coordination, some physical properties of semiconductor glasses in triple telluride systems and parameters of switching devices on their basis. Directions of Increasing of Stability and Reliability of Microelements and Microcircuits: Proc. IV All-Union Seminar, Riazan, June 16-18, 1987. Moscow, 1987, pp. 3-4. Mott, M. (1969) Electrons in Unordered Structures. Mir Publishing House, Moscow, 172 pp. in Solids (Eds., Burnshtein, E. and Owndkvlet, S.) Mir Publishing House, Moscow, 1973, pp. 106-125. Mott, N.F. (1974) Conduction in non-crystalline systems: VII Nonohmic behavior and switching, Philos. Mag., 24(190), 911-934. Mott, N. and Davis, E. (1982), Vol. 1, pp. 368. Electronic Processes in Non-crystalline Substances Mir Publishing House, Moscow. Muller, R.L. (1964) Bonding energy, ionization and electro-conductivity module of glassy semiconductor compounds of variable composition, Proc. Acad. Sci. USSR Phys., 28(8), 1979-1982. Nadkarni, G.S., Sankavraman, N. and Radhakshan, S. (1983) Switching and negative capacitance in AI-GelsTe81SbzSz-AI devices, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., 16, 897-908. Nakashima, K. and Kao, K.C. (1979) Conducting filaments and switching phenomena in chalcogenide semiconductors, J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 32(2), 189-204. Oreshkin, P.T. (1977) Physics of Semiconductors and Dielectrics, Visshaya Shkola Publishing House, Moscow, 448 pp. Oreshkin, P.T., Glebov, A.S., Andreev, V.P., Vihrov, S.P., Glebov, S.S., Borschevsky, A.S., Minaev, V.S. and Petrechenko, L.P. (1977) Physical-technological investigations of amorphous semiconductors and development of ROMs with electrical information rewriting on their basis. Physical and Technological Features of Semiconductor Memory Schemes: Collection of Scientific Reports on Microelectronics Problems, Moscow, 1977. Vol. 34, pp. 18-22. Oreshkin, P.T., Glebov, A.S., Oreshkin, V.P., Beliaev, V.A. and Mikhaylichenko, A.D. (1969) Features of currentvoltage diagrams of devices based on amorphous semiconductors, Proc. Higher Sch. Phys., 3(10), 136-139. Oreshkin, P.T., Glebov, A.S., Petrov, I.M. and Beliavsky, V.I. (1974) Investigations of properties and switching mechanism of diodes with negative resistance based on chalcogenide glasses. Computer-aided analysis and synthesis of high-speed equipment based on semiconductor devices with negative resistance (negatrons). Moscow, Part I, pp. 102-106. Oreshkin, P.T., Petrov, I.M. and Glebov, A.S. (1972) On mechanism of negative resistance in semiconductor glasses and application of elements on their basis. Instruments of gamma-spectroscopy, magnet technique and semiconductor elements. Riazan, Vol. 40, pp. 86-89. Oreshkin, P.T., Minaev, V.S., Skachkov, B.K., Petrov, I.M. and Glebov, A.S. (1973) Influence of synthesis and thermal treatment conditions on physical-chemical properties of chalcogenide glasses and electrical

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parameters of S-diodes based on CVS, Physical- Technological Problems of Cybernetics: Proc. AS USR AS USR, Kiev. Oreshkin, P.T., Vikhrov, S.P., Glebov, A.S., Mal'chenko, S.I., Petrov, I.M., Andreev, V.P. and Sazhin, B.N. (1976) Investigations of the filament formation process in semiconductor glass-based elements and development of the programmable ROM matrix, Structure and Properties of Non-crystalline Semiconductors: Proc. VI International Conf. on Amorphous and Liquid Semiconductors, Leningrad, USSR, November, 18-24, 1974 Nauka Publishing House, Leningrad, pp. 470-474. Ovshinsky, S.R. (1975) Amorphous materials as interactive systems. Electrical Phenomena in Non-crystalline Semiconductors: Proc. YI Int. Conf. on Amorphous and Liquid Semiconductors. 18-24 XI, 1975, Leningrad, pp. 426-435. Parthasarathy, G., Rao, K.J., Asokan, S. and Gopal, E.S.R. (1984a) Electrical transport and high pressure studies on bulk Ge2oTeso glass, Pramana, 23(1), 17- 29. Parthasarathy, G., Rao, K.J. and Gopal, E.S.R. (1984b) High pressure studies of Sel00-xTex glasses, Philos. Mag. B, 50(3), 335-346. Petersen, K.E. and Adler, D. (1975) Electronic nature of amorphous threshold switching, Appl. Phys. Lett., 27(11), 625-627. Petersen, K.E. and Adler, D. (1979) Model for the "on"--state of amorphous chalcogenide threshold switches, J. Appl. Phys., 50(2), 925-932. Petrov, I.M., Oreshkin, P.T., Glebov, A.S., Timofeev, V.N., Baryshev, V.G. and Semenov, V.A. (1971) Technology and electrical parameters of negative resistance devices based on chalcogenide glass, PhysicalTechnological Problems of Cybernetics: Proc. AS USSR AS USSR, Kiev, pp. 113-116. Petrov, I.M., Shrainer, Yu.A., Raykin, L.G., Glebov, A.S., Kozlov, V.M. and Rotsel, G.P. (1986) Dimensional effects in CVS-based switching elements. Glassy Semiconductors: Proc. All-Union Conf., Leningrad, October 2-4, 1985. Leningrad, 1986, pp. 52-53. Petrov, I.M., Zhivoderov, A.N., Glebov, A.S. and Glebov, S.S. (1973) Influence of technological factors on parameters of s-diodes based on CVS, Physical-Technical Problems of Cybernetics: Proc. AS USR AS USR, Kiev, pp. 41-48. Philips, J. (1983) Physics of glass, Foreign Physics: Collection of Scientific-Popular Papers Mir Publishing House, Moscow, pp. 154-179. Phillips, J.C. (1979a) Structure of amorphous (GeSi)l_•215 alloys, Phys. Rev. Lett., 42(7), 1151-1154. Phillips, J.C. (1979b) Topology of covalent non-crystalline solids: short-range order in chalcogenide alloys, J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 34, 153-181. Phillips, J.C. (1980) Structural principles of amorphous and glassy semiconductors, J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 35-36, 1157-1165. Poling, L. (1974) General Chemistry, Mir Publishing House, Moscow, 848 pp. Popov, N.A. (1980) New model of chalcogenide glassy semiconductors, Lett. JETP, 31(8), 437-440. Popov, N.A. (1981) Quasi-molecular defects in chalcogenide glassy semiconductors, FTP, 15(2), 369-374. Popov, A.I., Mikhalev, N.I. and Bekicheva, I.V. (1984) Property control of glassy arsenic triselenide by structural modification of material. Amorphous Semiconductors--84: Proc. Conf., Gabrovo, September 17-22, 1984. Vol. 1, pp. 171-173. Prihod'ko, A.V., Deksnis, A.G. and Chesnis, A.A. (1979) Nano-second switching in selenium, Phys. Semicond., 1, 193-195. Regel, V.R., Slutsker, A.I. and Tomashevsky, E.E. (1972) The kinetic nature of the solid state strength, Usp. Phys. Nauk, 106(2), 193-208. Regel, V.R., Slutsker, A.I. and Tomashevsky, E.E. (1974) Kinetic nature of solid state strength, Nauka Publishing House, Moscow, 560 pp. Ryvkin, S.M. (1972) On switching mechanism in amorphous semiconductors, Lett. JETP, 16(10), 632-635. Shemetova, V.K. (1983) Influence of technological factors and external effects on parameters of threshold switches based on chalcogenide glassy semiconductors: Doctor's theses, Moscow Energy Institute, Moscow, 256 pp. Shklovsky, B.I. (1971) Optical and electrical band-gaps of amorphous semiconductor, Lett. JTEP, 13(6), 397 -400. Shklovsky, B.I. and Efros, A.L. (1975a) Percolation theory and conductivity of heavily inhomogenous matter, Usp. Phys. Nauk, 117(3), 401-438.

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Shklovsky, B.I. and Efros, A.L. (1975b) The percolain theory and conductivity of heavily inhomogenous matter, Usp. Phys. Nauk, 117(3), 401-438. Shklovsky, B.I. and Efros, A.L. (1979) Electronic properties of doped semiconductors, Nauka Publishing House, Moscow, 416 pp. Shklovsky, B.I., Schur, M.S. and Efros, A.L. (1971) S-like current-voltage diagram in compensated semiconductor, FTP, 5(10), 1936-1942. Smorgonskaya, E.A. and Shpunt, V.H. (1982) The non-uniformity model of the switching effect in chalcogenide glassy semiconductors, Amorphous Semiconductors-82: Proc. Conf., Bucharest, 30 August-4 September, 1982 Central Physics Institute, Bucharest. Vol. 3P. pp. 25-30. Stratton, R. (1973) Tunneling in Schottky-Barrier rectifiers. In Tunneling Phenomena in Solids (Eds., Burnshtein, E. and Owndkvlet, S.) Mir Publishing House, Moscow, pp. 106-125. Subhani, K., Shur, M.S., Shaw, H.P. and Adler, D. (1977) The mechanism for switching in thin chalcogenidebased amorphous films, Amorphous and Liquid Semiconductors: Proc. 7th Int. Conf., Edinburgh, UK, 1977 CICL University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, pp. 712- 716. Sukhanov, A.A. (1978a) Properties of diodes with electro-thermal instability in the switching channel, Microelectronics, 7(5), 455-463. Sukhanov, A.A. (1978b) Electro-thermal instability in semiconductors with the switching channel, FTP, 12(12), 2338-2345. Tatarinov, V.G., Petrov, I.M. and Glebov, A.S. (1975) Dynamical memory in switches based on amorphous glasses and some problems of its applications, Optoelectronics and Spectroscopy--Ul'yanovsk, 1, 54-57. Tsendin, K.D. (Ed.) (1966) Electronic Phenomena in Chalcogenide Glassy Semiconductors, Nauka Publishing House, St. Petersburg, pp. 224-279. Tsendin, K.D. (1985) The qualitative microscopic electron-thermal model of the switching effect in chalcogenide glassy semiconductors. Glassy Semiconductors. Proc. All-Union Conf., Leningrad, October 2-4, 1985. Leningrad, 1985, pp. 64-65. Valeev, H.S. and Kvaskov, V.B. (1983) Non-linear metal-oxide semiconductors, Enrgoizdat Publishing House, Moscow, 159 pp. Vikhrov, S.P. (1977) The barrier model of switching phenomenon in glassy semiconductors, Physics of Semiconductors and Microelectronics--Riazan, 4, 11 - 15. Vikhrov, S.P. (1985) Role of deformation energy in generation of n- and p-type conductivity defects in CVS. Ways of Stability and Reliability Increase of Microelements and Microcircuits: Proc. III All-Union Science and Technology Seminar, Riazan, June 14-16, 1984. Riazan, 1985, pp. 139-142. Vikhrov, S.P. (1987) Unordered state and role of excess deformation energy in formation of high-energy defects. New Ideas in Glass Physics: Proc. All-Union Seminar, Moscow, October 9-10, 1987. Vol. 1, pp. 41-49. Vikhrov, S.P., Oreshkin, P.T., Ampilogov, V.N. and Glebov, A.S. (1982) Electro-physical properties of amorphous films of I n - G e - T e system, Amorphous Semiconductors-82: Proc. Conf., Bucharest, 30 August-4 September, Bucharest Central Physics Institute, Bucharest, Vol. 3P. pp. 74-76. Weinstein, B.A., Zalln, R. and Stade, H.L. (1980) The effects of pressure on optical properties of AszS3 glass, J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 35-36, 1235-1259. Zaliva, V.V., Kudrina, A.V., Minaev, V.S. and Nekrasov, D.N. (1980) On the problem of material selection for bi-stable switches using the phenomenon of the "glass-crystal" phase transition, Physical-Technological Problems of Cybernetics IC AS USSR, Kiev, pp. 10-25. Zamechik, J., Batik, J. and Shochova, E. (1976) Influence of the overall pressure on electrical conductivity of the amorphous semiconductors GelsTesISzAs2, Czech. J. Phys., 26(9), 1053-1058.

CHAPTER

4

OPTICAL AND PHOTOELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF CHALCOGENIDE GLASSES A. M. Andriesh, M. S. Iovu and S. D. Shutov CENTER OF OPTOELECTRONICS OF THE INSTITUTE OF APPLIED PHYSICS, ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF MOLDOVA, STR. ACADEMIEI 1, MD-2028 CHISINAU, REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA

1. Optical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses To understand the nature of electronic processes in non-crystalline semiconductors, it is necessary first of all to investigate their energy spectrum, the phenomena of charge carrier transfer, and the process of radiation interaction with such materials. The energy spectrum of electron states in the range hv > Eg can be studied from the reflectivity spectrum of light in the fundamental absorption band where hu is the energy of quantum and Eg the optical gap. Of special interest is the study of the optical features of noncrystalline semiconductors near the absorption edge. It is known that the absorption edge of non-crystalline materials is sensitive to the composition and the material structure as well as to external factors such as electric and magnetic fields, optical, heat, electronic and other radiations. Under the influence of these factors optical parameters of noncrystalline semiconductors suffer reversible and irreversible changes. The study of such phenomena not only clarifies the mechanisms of light absorption in the matter at significant disorder of its structure, but also suggests all possible practical applications, which are not always peculiar to crystalline semiconductors. However, to understand all these phenomena, it is necessary to know the position of electron states, the position and the nature of the absorption edge, near which the majority of photostimulated phenomena in non-crystalline vitreous semiconductors takes place. The study of optical properties of chalcogenide crystals and glasses is very important from the theoretical point of view because it allows the determination of the energetic appropriateness of the interaction of the optical radiation with ordered and disordered solid-state systems, and to clarify how much the disorder influences the peculiarities of energy spectrum and optical phenomena in the above-mentioned group of materials (Phillips, 1966; Collway, 1969; Tauc, 1972, 1974; Tauc, Abraham, Pajasova, Grigorovici and Vancu, 1974; Taylor, 1984; Popescu, Andriesh, Ciumash, Iovu, Tsiuleanu and Shutov, 1996). Short information concerning optical phenomena in the above-mentioned group of materials will be given in this chapter. The peculiarities of energetic spectrum will also be discussed. 115

Copyright 9 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. ISBN 0-12-752188-7 ISSN 0080-8784

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1.1. THE REFLECTIVITYSPECTRA OF CHALCOGENIDE CRYSTALS AND GLASSES: ELECTRON STATES The general method for the investigation of the energy spectrum of electron states in the range hv >> Eg is the study of the reflectivity spectrum of light in the absorption band, of photoemission and energetic losses of the electrons reflected by solids (Phillips, 1966; Collway, 1969; Tauc, 1972, 1974; Tauc et al., 1974; Taylor, 1984; Popescu et al., 1996). The reflectivity spectra of these materials were studied in the large energetic range (1.512.5 eV) that allowed investigating their electronic structure. Reflectivity measurements were performed at room temperature using the cleavage surface of AszS3 natural and artificially obtained single crystals as well as the surface of glasses (Fig. 1). The obtained reflectivity spectra have the following peculiarities: The reflectivity spectrum of AszS3 crystals contains a few maxima. The main maxima is placed at 4.0 eV and others appear in the range of 5-12.5 eV having a doublet form (Table I). The reflectivity spectra of AszSe3 single crystal contains some reflectivity maxima, whose positions are given in Table II. The reflectivity spectra of AszTe3 crystals contains peaks at 3.0, 6.5 and 8.7 eV. Upon the crystal-glass transition only the broadest maxima remain at 3.0 and 8.810.0eV (Belle, Kolomiets and Pavlov, 1968; Bishop and Shevchik, 1975; Sobolev, 1995). The peaks in the reflectivity spectra of glasses are very broad, but in main points the peculiarities of reflectivity spectra of single crystals are repeated; it is especially true for the range of high energies. So, for the 10-eV ranges the peaks of reflectivity are situated at the same energies. In the range of energies 5.5 < hu < 8 eV the reflectivity peaks of glasses are shifted to the longer wavelengths in comparison with reflectivity peaks of crystals, but they have the same shape. The above-mentioned peculiarities were confirmed by many authors. The magnitudes of energy for the peculiarities of optical transitions are given in Table I (Andriesh and Sobolev, 1965; Andriesh and Sobolev, 1966; Andriesh, Sobolev and Lerman, 1967; Belle et al., 1968; Andriesh, Sobolev, Popov and Lerman, 1969; Sobolev, Donetskich and Svorostenco, 1971; Zallen, Drews, Emerald and Siade, 1971a; Drews, Emerald, Siade and Zallen, 1972; Kolomiets, Mazets, Sarsembinov, Efendiev, Lusis and Langsdons, 1972c; Andriesh, Iovu, Tsiuleanu and Shutov, 1981) and they differ only a little although they were obtained by different authors who used, of course, different samples. It is worthy to note that the complexity of chalcogenide glasses band structure in the field of high energies (E >> Eg) was also confirmed by Bobonici, Dovgoshei, Migolinets

(a) 8

(b) 8

6 4

._.-

~

2

6

-'"3

)4

,

,

,

,

3

2 1

0 5 4 6 8 10 12 E, eV E, eV FIG. 1. The reflectivityspectrafor crystalline(1, 3) and vitreous (2, 4) As2S3(a) and As2Se3(b), respectively. '

'

TABLE I THEENERGY POSITIONS OF MAXIMA OF REFLECTIVITY AND PHOTOCONDUCTIVITY OF As2S3AND As2Se3COMPOUNDS AT 293 K REFLECTIVITY A N D PHOTOCONDUCTIVITY METHODS (IN

Composition

Structure

Light polarization

E

Crystal

Nonpolarized

2.5

El

E2

-

-

E3

E4

ev)

E5

E6

E7

E8

4.7

5.9

7.0

9.1

MEASURED B Y

References

0

2. a, a

R

As2S3

A~~S3

As2S3 As2S3 As2Se3 As2Se3 As~Sei As2Se3

-

4

Crystal

Nonpolarized

-

-

-

-

-

5.1

6.4

7.6

9.8

Crystal Crystal Crystal Crystal Crystal Crystal Glass

Nonpolarized Nonpolarized Nonpolarized Nonpolarized EIIa EIIc Nonpolarized

2.61 2.67 2.43 2.64

2.83 2.89

3.55

4.27

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

6.3

-

3.35

3.9 3.9

-

-

3.03 3.11 3.0 2.94

-

7.1

-

-

-

-

-

6.3

-

-

2.87

-

-

-

-

2.0

-

-

3.38 3.5

-

4.68 4.43 4.43 4.8

5.4

-

10.2 8.7 9.85 9.1 9.5

Glass

Nonpolarized

2.0

-

-

-

3.65

4.6

5.6

6.4

9.2

2.2 2.2 1.96 2.03

2.8 2.38

-

-

-

-

2.85

3.9

4.7

5.8 5.7

7.0

9.3 8.6

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

3.2

-

3.6

5.3

5.3

9.3

Glass Crystal Crystal Crystal Glass

Nonpolarized Nonpolarized EIIa Elk Nonpolarized

1.77 1.82 1.87 1.87 1.6

-

Andriesh and Sobolev (1965, 1966) and Andriesh et al. (1967, 1969, 1981) Andriesh and Sobolev (1965, 1966) and Andriesh et al. (1967, 1969, 1981)

2 % C

2

I?

-. cr

a, Belle et al. (1968) Sobolev et al. (1971) Zallen et al. (1971b) and Drews et al. (1972) Zallen et al. (1971b) and Drews et al. (1972) Andriesh and Sobolev (1965, 1966) and Andriesh et al. (1967, 1969, 1981) Andriesh and Sobolev (1965, 1966) and Andriesh et al. (1967, 1969, 1981) Belle et al. (1968) Sobolev et al. (1971) Kolomiets et al. (1972~) Kolomiets et al. (1972~) Andriesh and Sobolev (1965, 1966) and Andriesh et al. (1967, 1969, 1981)

b

B3s, 2

e? 9

g-

3

g

Q

$rp 0

118

A. M. Andriesh et al.

and Sarcani (1985) who studied the cathodoluminescence spectra of As2S3 films under the action of electron beam. Accordingly to these authors the cathodoluminescence spectra of AszS3 films contained maxima at 3.81,4.06, 4.28, 4.32, 4.56, 4.81, 5.32 and 5.56 eV. From the comparison of these data with the data indicated in Table I one can see a very good coincidence. This confirms that not only reflectivity spectra but also cathodoluminescence spectra obtained in the conditions of electron beam action can be used for the study of band structures of crystalline and vitreous semiconductors. As shown by Bishop and Shevchik (1975) from the photoemission spectra Nv(E) of these crystals have doublet bands in the range of 0 - 6 and 7 - 1 6 eV and are caused by two groups of occupied states. As far as AszTe3 crystals are concerned, no doublet is observed in the spectral range 7 - 1 6 eV. It is surprising that in the case of AszTe3 compound the crystal-glass transition has no significant effect on the character of photoemission spectra (Bishop and Shevchik, 1975). As indicated by Sobolev (1995), the changes in the short-range order of AszTe3 do not manifest themselves in the optical absorption and photoemission spectra. The reflectivity spectra obtained by Zallen and co-authors (Zallen, Slade and Ward, 1971b; Drews et al., 1972) were used by them for the calculation of e 2 constant in the whole spectral range studied using Kramers-Kronig relations. Having compared the reflectivity spectra with the respective e 2 spectra, the authors observed that the peculiarities of both the spectra were approximately at the same energies. Energy interval for the determination of e2 in the case of AszS3 was enlarged by Perrin, Cazarex and Soukiassien (1974) by measuring the energetic losses of electrons, which have a high maximum at 19.8-20 eV for all crystallographic directions and a maximum at 19.2 eV for AszSe3 glasses. These maxima are due to oscillation of free electron plasma. Less-pronounced maximum of electron energy losses is observed at 7 - 8 eV. In the range 3 - 1 2 eV the spectrum e 2 calculated from these data follows the spectral dependence obtained from the reflectivity spectra. At higher energies up to 35 eV the decrease of e 2 is observed for crystalline as well as for vitreous AszS3. The reflectivity spectrum of amorphous AszS3 films have also been investigated at room temperature in the vacuum ultra-violet light in the region between 35 and 55 eV. As shown by the authors a peak of reflectance was observed in the energy region around 44 eV. This peak in the opinion of Cardona and Lei (1978) corresponds to the 3d core levels of an As atom. As it follows from the theory (Phillips, 1966) in crystals, the positions of maxima of reflectivity and maxima of e 2 at energies E > Eg determine the value of the energies of direct band-band transitions in special points of Brullion zone. The theoretical analysis of the energy spectrum of the AszS3 crystal was made by Gubanov and Dunaevski (1974) using the method of pseudopotential. The analysis was made along the symmetry axis 2, A and along two directions perpendicular to each other in the plane perpendicular to axis A. If one considers the extrema nearest to the forbidden gap then one can observe that the maximum of the valence band in the point (0,0,0,2), which is placed in the symmetry plane, and minimum corresponds almost to the same energy. The difference between the minimum direct transitions and the minimum indirect transitions is less than 0.1 eV. This explains the small difference between the minimum direct and indirect transitions. One can also observe that accordingly with energy model calculated for AszSe3 the energy positions of reflectivity maxima can find correspondence with the values of electron energetic transitions.

Optical and Photoelectrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

119

From the band model calculated for As2Se3 by Gubanov and Dunaevski (1974) the energy distances at point F, between two valance bands and three conductivity bands, permit electron optical transitions at 3.25, 3.96, 4.98, 5.68, 6.96 and 8.68 eV. These data correspond, in many cases, with energy positions of the reflectivity maxima in the framework of fundamental band absorption of AszSe3 (see Table I). This proves the concordance of experimental data with the theoretical model. When reflectivity and e 2 spectra of AszS3 and As2Se3 are compared, it is necessary to take into account that the structure of these crystals has the same structure characterized by the term isomorphism. This can be seen in Figure 2 (Andriesh and Sobolev, 1965) which represents the dependence of energy positions of the reflectivity maxima of crystals As2S3 versus the energy positions of the same values in the crystals AszSe3. The experimental data show a straight line with steepness equal to unity. So, in order to obtain the parameters of AszS3 energetic band-model, it is enough to increase the corresponding parameters of AszSe3 band-model by the magnitude 0.7 eV. The optical transitions of electron in crystals occur under the conditions when the rule of quasi-pulse conservation acts. At the same time Tauc et al. (1974) suggested that at large energetic distances from the margin bands the density of states gc(E~) and gv(Ep) of crystals and of amorphous semiconductors of the same composition do not differ. Therefore e 2 can be determined from formula 1 ~hv-Eg

e2

--~

~

0

P(En, Ep)gc(En)gv(Ep)dEp

(1)

where En = h u - Eg - Ep is a factor of weight, which depends on En and Ep and it is not constant when energy is changed in the wide interval. If the optical properties of crystals are determined by the reduced function of state density in the case of amorphous semiconductors, these properties depend on combination of states density of both bonds taken separately. The integration 10 +

o


E

(25)

where E is the energy of the quasi-Fermi level determined as E -- kT(1 + y ) - ~ ln(RN2o-o Vo/ G) and y is the dispersion parameter, y = kT/Eo.

(26)

Optical and Photoelectrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

141

The solutions for photo-induced absorption time dependences after switching of the exciting light were presented in Andriesh et al. (1992c). The maximum on photo-induced absorption kinetics curves observed for small photon energy can be explained as a result of excess carrier redistribution on shallow states. At the first moment after switching on the illumination the main part of the excess carriers is trapped in the shallow states at the bottom of the conduction band. However, as time goes on because of the thermal release of the carriers and their multiple trapping, an increasing number of excess carriers are trapped on the deep states. The ratio of the number of excess carriers localized on shallow states to the number of excess carriers localized on deep states changes with time. This process leads to the appearance of a maximum on the PA time dependence curve. The intensity dependence on the photo-induced absorption coefficient, as follows from analytical solutions of (19)-(21), has a power-law character. The following causes the increase of the photo-induced absorption coefficient with decreasing temperature. When the temperature decreases the probability of thermal activation of the trapped carriers also decreases, leading to an increase in density of localized carriers and, respectively, to an increase in PA. The proposed model is in good correlation with experimental results (Pfister and Scher, 1978; Toth, 1979; Arkhipov and Rudenko, 1982; Arhipov et al., 1983; Andriesh, Culeac, Ponomari and Canciev, 1987; Andriesh et al., 1989a,b, 1992c; Yuska, 1991) although this component of photo-induced absorption is not too high because the concentration of localized states quasi-continuously distributed in the forbidden gap with small exceptions is less than 1018 cm -3. So the photo-induced absorption controlled by optical transitions from localized states to free bands will be 104 times less than the absorption due to the contribution of optical transitions between free bands. Usually the experiments for study of photo-induced absorption are undertaken on thin films. This means that the number of absorbed photons, which is proportional to the thickness of the sample, is very low, because the thickness of films is as a rule of the order of 0.5-10/zm. The measured optical signal of probe light can be increased if the thickness of the sample is increased. Experiments on fiber samples of chalcogenide glassy semiconductors give especially good results. Investigation of the interaction of light radiation with fiber samples of ChG leads to the possibility of studying many peculiarities of photo-induced absorption in ChG. Indeed, the use of optical fibers rather than thin films or bulk samples enabled us to better observe small changes in the optical absorption caused by lateral excitation by light from the region hv > Eg and even in the case of hu < Eg. This takes place because of longer optical path in the fibers. Besides, the use of fibers instead of bulk samples allows for a decrease in the thresholds of power needed for developing non-linear optical processes (Dianov, Momishev and Prohorov, 1988). As shown in our previous papers (Andriesh et al., 1989b, 1992c), when chalcogenide glass fibers are excited by the light with the energy of hv > Eg, their optical losses are increased. The latter is observed using the probing light with the energy hv < Eg. In this experiment the probing light with a photon energy hu < Eg was launched into the input face of the fiber. The intensity of the probing light, transmitted through the fiber, was measured at the output of the fiber. When illuminating the fiber lateral surface with a continuous band gap light, the intensity of the probing light at the output of the fiber

142

A. M. Andriesh et al.

decreased from its initial value (in the dark) because of the manifestation of the photoinduced absorption. A rather low intensity of the exciting light was employed in the experiments; therefore, no structural photo-induced changes occurred. The absence of the structural changes was confirmed by a complete restoration of the initial optical transmittance of the fibers after the cessation of the exciting light. The restoration rate depended on the illumination conditions and on the glass composition. The spectral distribution of the photo-induced absorption coefficient measured in the energy range of the probing light 0.6-1.6 eV is presented in Figure 11 for the A s - S - S e fibers. Similar dependencies were observed for A s - G e - S e fibers. We note the exponential character of the spectral dependence at Aa for a rather large energy range is in good agreement with the analytical solution given above. The illumination of the fiber at a lower temperature (77 K) leads to a significant increase of photo-induced absorption with respect to the room temperature illumination. The intensity dependence of the photo-induced absorption coefficient exhibits a powerlaw behavior, Aa --~ P", when the intensity of the exciting light (P is varied by about four orders of magnitude (Fig. 12a). The value of n changes with the probing light photon energy in the range 0.3-0.5. The photo-induced absorption kinetics measurements were carried out in a time interval of 10 -2-104 s after switching on the exciting light for the AszS3, A s - S - S e and A s - G e - S e fibers. The typical curves for A s - G e - S e fibers are shown in Figure 12b. The character of the photo-induced absorption kinetics depends on the illumination conditions, such as the temperature, the probing light photon energy and the power of the exciting light (Fig. 13). Experimental results confirm the model with carriers multiple trapping in localized states, distributed continuously in the gap (Andriesh, Culeac, Ewen and Owen, 2001). The qualitative analysis of experimental results in terms of the multiple trapping enables us to evaluate some parameters of localized states distribution and carriers transport. For example, the temperature dependence of the photo-induced absorption coefficient can be used to determine the characteristic energy of localized states distribution E0. Taking into account that in real conditions the dispersion parameter y < I, and the second term in the right side of Eq. (26) is less than the first one, we can

(a) 2 ~" ~i

1

(b) 4

4

~'." 2

3

5 o -2 5

6 "7 8 Ln (Pexc, a.u.)

9

-2

2

4

; Ln (Pexc, a.u.)

FIG. 12. The dependenceof Ac~steady-statevalueuponlight intensityfor As2S3(a) and As-Se-Ge (b) fibersat T = 300 K. The photonenergyof probinglight (eV): (1) 0.7; (2) 0.8; (3) 0.95; (4) 0.98; (5) 1.08; (6) 1.2; (7) 1.3.

Optical and Photoelectrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

143

4

-1 -2 -'-3

3

5-4 Eg photons leads to the appearance of hot electrons and holes. Their thermalization in the non-crystalline systems is accompanied by the generation of the non-equilibrium localized phonons (fractons) (Andriesh, Enaki, Cojocaru, Ostafeichuc, Cerbari and Chumash, 1988b; Andriesh, Bogdan, Enaki, Cojocaru and Chumash, 1992a; Chumash, Cojocaru, Fazio, Michelotti and Bertolotti, 1996; Popescu et al., 1996). The phonons with the wavelength of the order of the magnitude modulation length of the random potential in the ChG drastically change the form of the potential, which modulates the bottom of the conductive band and the top of the valence band of the ChG. In this way non-equilibrium localized phonons open a new channel of the interband light absorption. For this reason the absorption coefficient increases with the increasing light intensity and the phenomenon can be explained by means of photo-induced light absorption in ChG with the participation of the fractons (Andriesh et al., 1988b, 1992a; Chumash et al., 1996; Andriesh and Chumash, 1998; Andriesh, Enaki, Karoli, Culeac and Ciornea, 2000). In fact, the coefficient of the interband light absorption can be represented as ce sum of two parts (Andriesh et al., 2000): c e - ce0 + / 3 , n

(33)

where ce0 is the part of the absorption coefficient, which does not depend on the temperature and/3, is the part of the absorption coefficient, which depends on the mean number of the localized phonons n. Thus, in the process of the interband light absorption the transitions with the simultaneous participation of light quanta and localized phonons play an essential role. The second part of the absorption coefficient in Eq. (33) essentially changes in the process of relaxation of the excited electrons into the localized states

146

A. M. Andriesh et al.

in the optical gap of ChG. This relaxation is accompanied by the coherent generation of the non-equilibrium phonons An = n - no, where no is the mean number of the equilibrium localized phonons (Andriesh et al., 2000). Andriesh et al. (1992b, 2000, 1988b), Andriesh, Chumash, Cojocaru, Bertolotti, Fazio, Michelotti and Hulin (1992c), Chumash et al. (1996) and Andriesh and Chumash (1998) studied the non-linear absorption by laser pulses in thin film samples of chalcogenide glasses As-S, As-Se, Ge-Se, A s - S - G e and others (0.2-5.0/.~m thickness). It was shown that when the input light pulse (with hu >- Eg) intensity was relatively low, the transmission of thin ChG films did not manifest the non-linear effect. However, increasing the incident light intensity over some threshold values (I0) leads to a non-linear character of the light transmission by ChG films (Andriesh et al., 1992a, 1988b; Chumash et al., 1996; Popescu et al., 1996; Andriesh and Chumash, 1998). The characteristic value of the threshold light intensity depends on the ChG film composition, wavelength of excitation, temperature and the laser pulse duration (Fig. 16). As a result of the non-linear light absorption a change of time profile of the laser pulses is observed which leads to a hysteresis-like dependence of the output light intensity on the corresponding value of the input intensity (Fig. 17). Andriesh et al. (2000) have shown that a contribution to non-linear absorption in ChG can have cooperative phenomena in the process of the generation of coherent phonon pulses by hot electrons. Among randomly distributed quantum wells of quasi-electrons one can always pick out the quasi-equidistant subgroups of two-level states in such randomly distributed states. For example, if we consider a single localized electron with the transition energy h,o~ = E 2 c ~ - El~ one can always find the large number of other localized electrons with the same transition energy between the ground and excited states. Therefore, let us introduce the subgroup distribution function p~ of the electron states in the quantum wells with the same energy distance ho~. Every subgroup c~ of coupled electrons generates localized phonons with the proper frequency ho~,~. The certain quasi-equidistant subgroup can generate a coherent Dicke pulse of the non-equilibrium localized phonons. The localized phonons decay into the acoustic phonons. Anderson, Halperin, Varma, Baranovskii, Fuhs, Jansen and Oktii (1972) proposed the analogous

1.5 As2S 3 300K

1.0 .o

. I9 I I I I

e~r~

0.5

0.0

0

20

9

40

Io, ( kW/cm 2 )

FIG. 16. Intensitydependence of the light transmission of a-As2S3.

Optical and Photoelectrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

As2S 3

k

147

"*

A

Eo

4>

0

0

9

50

100

150

Io, ( kW/cm 2) FIG. 17. The dependence of the output light intensity of the corresponding value of the input intensity for a-As2S3.

two-level systems. Such two-level systems occur when certain numbers of excited atoms (or group of atoms) have two equilibrium positions. The mechanism of the excitation of the localized kinetics is given in Andriesh et al. (2000). Solving this equation in the stationary conditions the authors obtained for the nonlinear absorption coefficient a(Is) = dls(z)/l~ dz the following expression: c e - a 0 +/3n

(34)

n -- no + An

(35)

where coefficients/3 and a 0 do not depend on light intensity. It is clear that with increasing light intensity the absorption coefficient increases. As mentioned above such increase was experimentally observed. When the time duration of the excitation pulse is shorter than the decay times of the localized electrons, for the relaxation of the non-linear absorption coefficient after the passage of the short-pulse through the sample of ChG in the quasi-stationary case Andriesh et al. (2000) obtained the following expression:

where t '~ is the delay time of the subgroup ce. From this expression one can see that the relaxation depends on the cooperation law between the localized electrons. Every function sech 2 in the last equation has the maximum, when t - t0~. The sum on a takes into account all subgroups of the equidistant two-level states, which have different delay times. In this case relaxation law of the absorption coefficient can be more broadened than that in the case of single group of the equidistant two-level states. The broadening depends on the explicit form of the subgroup distribution function pa (Andriesh et al., 2000). As established by Andriesh et al. (1992a, 1988b), Fazio, Hulin, Chumash, Michelotti, Andriesh and Bertolotti (1993), Chumash et al. (1996) and Popescu et al. (1996) such delay of photo-induced absorption was observed experimentally.

A. M. Andriesh et al.

148

1.3.3.

Photo-induced Non-linear Absorption Due to Two-photon and Two-step Absorption

The first investigations of the non-linear absorption of nanosecond laser pulses with h ve < Eg in ChG were reported by Lisitsa, Nasyrov and Fekeshgazi (1977) and Nasyrov, Svechnikov and Fekeshgazi (1980). The dynamics of such induced absorption with subpicosecond and picosecond time resolution have been investigated by Fork, Shank, Migus, Bosh and Shah (1979) and Ackley, Tauc and Paul (1979). These authors showed that as a result of ChG strong excitation with huex < Eg, an additional induced absorption appears, which exhibits maximum amplitude during the excitation pulse and relaxes with several time constants. This kind of photo-induced absorption (when h Vex is far from the absorption edge Eg) appears only at strong laser excitation of ChG. The mechanisms of two-photon (or two-step) absorption and of the carrier localization and redistribution on states in the gap were proposed to explain the photo-induced absorption in ChG. For intraband excitation of AszS3 thin films (Eg = 2.4 eV) Lisitsa et al. (1977) and Nasyrov et al. (1980) utilized 100 fs laser pulses (pumping at 2.0 eV, and probing at 2.14 and 1.4 eV). The dynamics of the induced absorption relaxation is shown in Figure 18 (Fazio et al., 1993) which is composed of two parts: a first one, coherent, shaping as the crosscorrelation of the pump and probe pulses, followed by a second less intense and slower component. From the slower component fitting parameters, using the model of a nondegenerate two-photon absorption process, followed by a direct absorption of the probe pulse by carriers in localized states (two-step absorption), the measured depletion time (from 54 to 61 ps) depends on the pumping rate (from 1.5 to 0.75/zJ pumping, respectively) (Fazio et al., 1993). In such a way Fazio et al. (1993) observed a competition between two-photon and two-step absorption. It is for this reason that the pump pulse energy is lower than the gap. In this case the excitation

0.022 0.02 0.018

.~ 0 . 0 1 6 c

@

0.014

-~ o . 0 1 2 0

0. o

0.01

A

0.0O8

~" 0 0.006 e-

"-

.

.

, 5 ~ J ~

r,

0.004

0.002 o -0.002

~

.... i

i i

I

''

l

" .

.

.

.

delay time [ps]

FIG. 18. The photoinduced absorption relaxation in a-As2S3for 0.75 and 1.5/zJ pumping.

Optical and Photoelectrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

149

can excite carriers into localized states in the gap by one-photon processes or into delocalized states by two-photon transition. A probe pulse can be absorbed by twophoton transitions and by transition of carriers in localized states, which are directly pumped by one-photon processes. Besides that, there is a possibility of excitation of non-equilibrium carriers excited into extended states. So the theoretical and experimental researches of the photo-induced absorption phenomena provide the information concerning possible mechanisms of photo-induced absorption which include many models described above. The realization of one or another model depends on concrete experimental conditions: composition of glass, the wavelength and intensity of pump and probe light, temperature, etc.

2. Photoelectrical Properties of Amorphous Chalcogenides 2.1. 2.1.1.

STEADY-STATEPHOTOCONDUCTIVITY L u x - A m p e r e Characteristics

We call the lux-ampere characteristics the dependence of the photocurrent upon the excitation light intensity. The photoconductivity O'ph can be expressed by the product of photogenerated free carrier concentration p and their mobility ~0 O'ph = e l~oP = e lxo ~oG

(37)

where G is the generation rate and T0 = p / G is the free carrier lifetime. Instead of using /x0 and ~'0 the experimentally measured drift mobility of carriers/L/,d (measured from timeof-flight experiments, for example) and photoresponse time ~'d, the photoconductivity may be written as Orph ---

elJ,d'rdG

(38)

One can measure the photoresponse time from the initial decay of photoconductivity after switching off the exciting light: 1

d/ h

'i'd

--d~- It=0

Iph

(39)

Under the condition that the equilibrium between free and trapped charge carriers was established long before the onset of recombination, the photoresponse time represents the recombination lifetime ~'r of excess photogenerated carriers, both free (p) and trapped (Pt): 'rd ='rr = (P + P t ) / G . That condition should be verified in each special case (Adriaenssens, Baranovskii, Fuhs, Jansen and Oktii, 1995; Adriaenssens, 1996). The recombination lifetime 7r is the characteristic of the recombination process, which determines the photoconductivity in a given material at a certain temperature and generation rate of excess carriers. Some most common recombination mechanisms were analyzed by Zeldov, Viturro and Weiser. The general dependence of photoconductivity

150

A. M. Andriesh et al.

on light intensity is usually expressed as a power law O'ph =

A.G ~

(40)

where the power y lies between 0.5 and 1.0 and A the proportionality factor. The linear dependence of the photoconductivity on the generation rate corresponds to monomolecular recombination (MR) process at low light intensity, while at high intensities the square root dependence trph oc G ~ complies with the bimolecular recombination (BR) process. The intermediate values 0.5 -< 3' -< 1.0 indicate the case of trap-controlled recombination by localized states distributed in the gap in energy. We refer to the well-known result of Rose (1963) trph oc G 1/(l+a) for the important case when the quasi-Fermi level moves through the exponential section of localized states energy distribution g(E) = No e x p ( - E / k T * ) with the characteristic energy E0 = kT*, and a = k T / E o. At the early stage, the photoconductivity of amorphous AszS3 and AszSe3 was examined at exposure to continuous or pulsed light (Kolomiets and Lyubin, 1973; Hammam and Adriaenssens, 1983; Popescu et al., 1996). Usually the dependence of the photoconductivity upon the light intensity of the type (39) was observed with A constant weakly dependent on the temperature and the power y between 0.5 -< y-< 1.0. At the same time some deviations from the common behavior were reported with respect to the exponent y. In thin AszS3 films the value of 3/= 0.73 was obtained in the region of high light intensity (P6) while at low light intensity a superlinear dependence of the photoconductivity upon the light intensity with the power index y = 1.38 (Kolomiets, Lyubin, Mostovski and Fedorova, 1965) and 3/-- 1.7 (Kolomiets and Lyubin, 1973) was observed. For arsenic sulfide in the case of excitation with ruby laser pulses ( h u = 1.78 eV = 0.74 Eg), the dependence was linear in a wide range of light intensities. Even at the highest intensities, which caused the sample surface erosion, no tendency to saturation, or, conversely, any transit to superlinearity, was observed. This fact indicates the existence of high localized state density in the range of the laser photon energy, and on the other hand, the absence of two-photon excitation processes. In the later study of the photoconductivity of bulk arsenic sulphide samples performed at various temperatures under high-intensity pulsed excitation (No = 1014-3 x 1017 x cm -2 s -1) (Fig. 19) the lux-ampere characteristics were described by the expression (40) with the power index y, the value of which changed from 1.0 at room temperature to 0.7 for the temperature T = 440 K for all light intensities. It follows from Rose's definition of y = 1/(1 + a) = T*/(T + T*) that at increasing temperature T the power index y decreases in such a way that 1/ 3/oc T. From the linear dependence 1 / 3 / = 1 + T/T* the parameter of the density-of-states distribution T* may be determined (Fig. 19b). For amorphous AszS3, the parameter T ~ 600 K thus correspond to the value/3 = 1/kT* = 19.6 eV measured from the slope of the tail optical absorption. Although the qualitative behavior of the dependence of the photoconductivity upon the light intensity corresponds to Rose's definition, the quantitative values of the parameter 3' obtained experimentally are sometimes different from those calculated for T* = 600 K. The discrepancy may be removed if one takes into account that we actually do not measure the concentration of free carriers p but the value of the photoconductivity trph, which also includes the temperature dependence of drift mobility ~d (I7).

Optical and Photoelectrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses (a)

~"

4

(b)

| Temperature T, K: 1234-

3

151

,

293 343 398 440

|

,

e

~

~

1.2

1.1 9

2 1.0 1

|

-3

i

-2 -1 Log (F, a.u.)

|

i

0

0.9

.

. . . 350 400 Temperature, K

450

FIG. 19. The lux-ampere characteristics of photoconductivity for the vitreous As2S3 (a) and the power index y dependence vs. temperature T (b).

In order to extend the interval of light intensities, the lux-ampere characteristics of the vitreous alloys in the system ( A s z S 3 ) x : ( S b z S 3 ) l - x (0 > x - - 1.0) were investigated in two regimes: with the stationary excitation from an incandescent lamp (light intensity N o --1015-1017 cm -2 s -1) and with the pulsed excitation from a flash-lamp ( N o 1017-1019 cm -2 s -1) by illumination of the sample in the range of the spectral maximum of photoconductivity. For all bulk samples ( A s z S 3 ) x ( S b z S 3 ) l - x the lux-ampere characteristics could be described by Eq. (40), with different y values for 'high' and 'low' excitation levels. For the 'low' levels of excitation, the power index 3' of the stationary lux-ampere characteristics of the alloys was close to unity at room temperature, and with increase in temperature, it initially decreased to 0.7 and then increased again with a tendency to reach unity. For various glassy alloys this minimal value of the power index 3' occurred between 370 and 420 K. For 'high' levels of pulsed excitation the power index 3' monotonously decreased when the temperature increased with no minimum in the y(T) dependence. The specific feature of this type of excitation was superlinear lux-ampere characteristics with the power index y = 1.2-1.4, which was observed for the AszS3-rich compositions in the temperature range 300-350 K. For highest levels of excitation, especially at high temperatures for the ( A s z S 3 ) x ( S b z S 3 ) l - x alloys, a portion with the power index y = 0.5 was observed. A superlinear lux-ampere characteristic with the power index y = 1.0-1.4 was observed in the case of thin films of ( A s z S 3 ) x ( S b z S 3 ) l - x for 'low' levels of excitation (Andriesh et al., 1981) and for thin films AsS1.sGex (Andriesh, Iovu, Tsiuleanu and Shutov, 1975). For the majority of compositions of the system AsS1.sGex the power index 3' of the lux-ampere characteristic takes the values from 0.51 for AsS1.sGel.0 up to 0.74 for the composition AsS1.sGe0.73. The temperature dependence of the power index 3' for the AsS1.sGex alloys is strongly influenced by the composition and the deviation from the Rose theory becomes greater when germanium content increases. This fact indicates significant modification of the energy distribution of traps which appear as the result of Ge doping as it is clearly seen for the composition AsS1.sGeo.73 (Andriesh et al., 1975). The lux-ampere characteristics were also studied for A s - S e chalcogenide glasses (Kolomiets and Lyubin, 1973; Fuhs and Meyer, 1974; Hammam and Adriaenssens, 1983;

152

A. M. Andriesh et al.

Hammam, Adriaenssens and Grevendonk, 1985). For both bulk compositions and thin films, the dependence of the photoconductivity upon light intensity was described by the relationship (40). For the composition AsSe4, a non-monotonous dependence of the power index y with the temperature was observed. For the bulk AszSe3 at 'high' levels of excitation the maximal value of y - 0.36-0.40 was obtained for the positive polarity at the illuminated electrode. At the negative polarity on the illuminated electrode the luxampere characteristics showed a classical behavior. Low values of the exponentials of the lux-ampere characteristic y < 0.5 ( y - 0.35-0.40) with non-standard temperature dependence were also observed by Hammam and Adriaenssens (1983) in a-AszSe3 for excitation at wavelength 0.8/xm. Such type of behavior is associated with light absorption near the contact in the depletion layer. The fact that y < 0.5 means that illumination under these specific conditions creates an additional recombination channel. 2.1.2.

Temperature Dependence of Photoconductivity

With increasing temperature, the photoconductivity rises typically exponentially at low temperatures when O'ph > O'dark, then passes through a maximum when O'ph = O'dark and after that, decreases with O'ph < O'dark (Arnoldussen, Bube, Fagen and Holmberg, 1972; Simmons and Taylor, 1972a). The temperature of the maximum Tmax in the O'ph = f(103/T) dependence is determined by the expression: Tmax __

O'ph EF - Ev

Ordark

(41)

2k

When the light intensity is increased, the value of Tmax shifts to higher temperature. The appearance of the maximum in the temperature dependence of photoconductivity is explained by the transition from the high to low level of excitation, in correlation with the behavior of the lux-ampere characteristics (Arnoldussen et al., 1972). In the range of the temperatures T < Trnax(Crph > O'dark) the photocurrent is proportional to the square root of the light intensity ( y - - 0 . 5 ) for the high excitation level, and is proportional to light intensity (y = 1.0) for low levels of excitation. In the range of high temperatures T > Tmax(O'ph < O'dark), the photoconductivity is proportional to the light intensity ( y - - 1.0) and decreases when the temperature increases. In Figure 20 the temperature dependences of photoconductivity for some compositions of (As2S3)x: (Sb2g3)l-x glasses for both stationary (a,c) and for pulsed excitation (b,d) are shown. For comparison the dependence of dark conductivity O'dark versus temperature T is also shown. It is remarkable that in the case of intense pulsed excitation the temperature dependence of photoconductivity has higher values of photoconductivity in comparison to the dark conductivity (Oph >> O'dark), with the absence of a tendency to reach the maximum. In the Eq. (41) EF - Ev corresponds to the position of the equilibrium Fermi level, which may be evaluated as an activation energy of the temperature dependence of the dark conductivity. The values of Tmax calculated for various (As2S3)x:Sb2S3)I_ x glasses are situated around T ~ 400 K and correspond to the experimentally determined values (Tmax = 450 K for x = 0.75 and Tmax = 370 K for x = 0.25, respectively). When the light

Optical and Photoelectrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses '

I

'

i

'

(a)

i

'

i

x = 1.0

(c)

'

i

'

i

'

10_12

~

[*~'~--o

~

~=~

10-12 b

~I'\ . , ,"

\'.

~'=~ 10-14 ,

' 2.5

' 3:0 103]y,

'

10-1o

'

'

'

10-16 /

% ,

3

' 3.5

' 4.0

2.;

/'\\5 Sdark ON ' 2.'5 ' 3.; ' 3.; ' 4.0

K -1

'

103/T,

'

'

x=l.O

~.1-

10-12

'

(d)

-

2 4

~ 10-16

,--

'

O.35

X

,o,o I ' - ' \ k ' "

10_14

(b)

I

--

10-8

153

I

'

K -1 i

'

i ~-

' .

10-8

~

lO-1~

7 10-12

,x=

9

_

10-14 10-14 10-16

,

-

I

,

Sd

i

2.5

3.0 103/T,

3.5 K -1

4.0

2.0

2.5

3.0 103/T,

3.5

4.0

K -1

FIG. 20. The temperature dependence of the stationary (a, c) and pulsed (b, d) photoconductivity for As2S3 (a, b) and (AszS2)o.35:(SbzS3)o.65 (c, d). Light intensity F (%): (1) 100; (2) 10; (3) 1.0; (4) 0.1" (5) 0.01.

intensity increases, the position of the maximum is shifted to higher temperatures in agreement with the expectation. In the range of the intermediate temperatures the photoconductivity has a temperature-activated character with the activation energy about 0.3-0.4 eV (Hammam et al., 1985). Similar dependence was found for the (AszS3)x:Sb2S3)l_x thin films. If we suppose, following Simmons and Taylor (1972a), that two types of states are localized in the gap of an amorphous semiconductor, one donor-like set in the upper half and another acceptor-like set in the lower half of the gap, then, with account for conduction and valence bands, a basic four-level energy system is obtained. The Fermi-level is positioned between the two groups of states, or slightly nearer to the valence band to explain the p-type conduction (this condition is not really necessary).

154

A. M. Andriesh et al.

For this four-level system, it is supposed that the recombination of photoexcited excess charge carriers occurs between the carriers trapped in the localized states and those in the conductive bands. The analysis of this recombination model provides the temperature dependence of photocurrent with the maximum at Tmax, which corresponds to transition from MR at T < Tmax to BR at T > Tmax. The corresponding activation energies of the temperature dependence of photocurrent take the values: EMR = (ED -- Ev) - E o-

(42)

EBR = (EA -- Ev)/2

(43)

where EA and ED are the energies of the donor-like and acceptor-like states, respectively, Ev the energy of the valence band edge and E~ the activation energy of dark conductivity. With these relations one can evaluate the energies EA and ED from the temperature dependence of photocurrent. For a-AszSe3 these evaluations provide values of about 1.0 and 0.6 eV for ED and EA, respectively, measured from the valence band edge.

2.1.3.

Spectral Distribution o f Photoconductivity

The spectral distribution is an important characteristic of photoconductivity as it expresses the dependence of the basic processes of generation, transport and recombination of excess charge carriers (photocarriers) on the excitation photon energy. The photoconductivity spectra are sensitive to the composition and conditions of preparation of the initial material, to the temperature, the strength and polarity of the applied electric field; they are dependent on the electrode material, the intensity of excitation light or the additional bias illumination, etc. (Kolomiets and Lyubin, 1973; Hammam et al., 1985; Popescu et al., 1996). If we take into account that the generation rate G of photocarriers is proportional to the number of absorbed photons then the photoconductivity in Eq. (37) may be expressed as O'ph

-

-

-

(1/L)etzd'rd rlFo[1 - exp(-kL)]

(44)

Here F0 is the photon flux, L the sample thickness, and rt describes the generation efficiency. The exponential describes the light absorption in the sample as a function of the absorption coefficient k. The conductivity is supposed to be monopolar. The spectral interval of the photosensitivity therefore falls into the region of fundamental edge absorption of the photoconductor and the absorption coefficient varies in this region by 4 - 5 orders of magnitude. It is then convenient to distinguish the regions of strong and weak absorption. In the region of strong absorption exp(-kL) Eg (Fig. 25). With negative polarity applied to the illuminated electrode the photoconductivity sharply decreases in the energy range h~, > Eg. This behavior may be explained by the monopolarity of the conductivity of the amorphous binary chalcogenides. When a negative voltage is applied to the illuminated electrode the holes generated at the electrode do not penetrate in the bulk of the specimen and the photocurrent falls down due to polarization of the sample.

160

A. M. Andriesh et al.

10-8

10-9

< 10-10 tl.) 9 9 10-11

10-12

10-13 1.2

1.4

1.6 hv, eV

1.8

FIG. 25. The spectral distribution of photoconductivity of AsS1.5Geo.125 thin films for positive (1, 2) and negative (3, 4) polarity at the illuminated electrode. The applied voltage U (V): (1) 1.0; (2) 4.0.

For GeSe and GeTe amorphous thin films, when the applied field increases, the photoconductivity edge is shifted towards the longer wavelength and Stiles, Chang, Esaki and Tsu (1970) suggest that the effect is not caused by the phenomena at the metalsemiconductor interface but by the bulk phenomena. Another situation is found in the ( A s z S 3 ) x : ( S b z S 3 ) l - x system (Fig. 21), for which the type of structural units of arsenic sulfide and antimony sulfide is similar. The same photosensitivity is observed in the range hv > Eg, a maximum in the range of the absorption edge, which is very clear in the crystalline alloys (x --< 0.15), and the plateau in the energy range of 1.3 eV, after which a sharp drop of photoconductivity of about 10- 3 of magnitude at about 1.0 eV is observed. The existence of the shoulder in the photoconductivity spectra of the glasses which contain Sb2S3 is determined by new localized states which are introduced by Sb atoms in the AszS3 matrix. In the (AszS3)x:(Sb2S3)l-x amorphous thin films, when the content of Sb2S3 is increased, the maximum of photoconductivity also shifts to longer wavelengths from 2.5 eV for the AszS3 to 1.85 eV for the Sb2S3, respectively, in accordance with the widening of the optical band gap Eg (Andriesh et al., 1981). Contrary to the bulk glasses, the photoconductivity maximum in amorphous thin films is situated at higher energies (hv > Eg), which correspond to the highest values of the absorption coefficient. The photoconductivity beyond the fundamental absorption edge may be associated with foreign impurities even at very low concentrations. The impurity photoconductivity was studied in the case of amorphous Se doped by oxygen, and in the opposite case, doped both with the oxygen and compensating arsenic impurity (McMillan and Shutov, 1977). The experiment was carried out with Se of high purity (contamination

Optical and Photoelectrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

161

less than 10-4%), to which 0.025 wt.% of oxygen in the form of SeO2 or both oxygen and arsenic (0.025 wt.%) were introduced under pure nitrogen atmosphere. The photoconductivity spectra of these species are shown in Figure 26 along with the quantum efficiency distribution of a-Se. It is seen from the results that at addition of the impurity the main alterations of the spectra appear just at the long-wavelength side of the absorption edge. The spectrum takes the form of a peak at 1.55-1.60 eV, which grows with the oxygen content or rapidly decreases when the compensating arsenic impurity is added. It was found from the IR spectral analysis of the samples that the oxygen content decreased in succession from Se:O (curve 1) through 'pure' Se (curve 2) to Se:O:As (curve 3) indicating that the photoresponse peak at low energies may be associated with the centers introduced by the addition of oxygen. This type of behavior is typical for impurity photoconductivity in crystalline semiconductors. The photoconductivity spectra can provide additional information concerning the optical transitions involving gap states; as in the low-absorption region they are determined mainly by the absorption coefficient. In the case of thin films the measurements of photocurrent provide better sensitivity in the low-absorption region than optical transmission measurements. The photoconductivity spectra of AsSe:Sn films normalized per incident photon are presented in Figure 27. The gap width Eph(A1/2) determined from the photoconductivity spectra as the energy where the photocurrent falls down to half the maximum value (so called Moss criterion) is listed in Table I for various tin concentrations. Incorporation of tin is followed by the shift of the photoconductivity spectra to lower energy exceeding the decreasing optical gap (the shift of Egpt is about 0.18 eV (see Fig. 7), while the shift of the photoconductivity edge Eph is 0.3 eV for 10 at.% Sn. The spectra show nearly exponential dependence of the long-wavelength edge on the photon energy, which extends much deeper into the gap than it follows from ,

l

,

i

,

'

1

10-4 10_5

10-1

Z~ 10-6

10-2

"~ 10-7 10-3 10 -8

10 -4

10 -9 ,

1.2

I

1.6

,

I

i

I

2.0 2.4 hv, eV

,

I

2.8

FIG. 26. Photoconductivity spectra of doped Se samples Se:O (1), Se (2), Se:O:As (3). Dashed line: the spectrum of quantum efficiency of a-Se according to data [M5].

162

A. M. Andriesh et al. I

'

I

'

I

e.e ~ e

-3

0.0 4

o,o.O"~ 0.0"

-4

0000" o o

z

/

-5

O

~'-6 0.0 0

-7

JtYt

"

1 - AsSe 2 - A s S e + 2 . 0 at.% Sn 3 - A s S e + 3 . 0 at.% Sn _

-8

4 - A s S e + 5 . 0 at.% Sn 3

-9t,

5 - A s S e + 7 . 5 at.% Sn 6 - A s S e + 1 0 . 0 at.% Sn I

1.2

,

I

,

1.6

I

2.0

~

_

I

2.4

hv, e V FIG. 27.

The photoconductivity spectra for AsSe:Sn thin films.

the optical data (hu < 1.5 eV). The characteristic energy of the slopes is slightly greater than E00 and is weakly dependent on the tin content. An exception is the composition with the highest tin concentration of 10 at.% Sn. After addition of tin the photocurrent increases (more than 250 times for 10 at.% Sn). The above peculiarities indicate that the photoconductivity is determined not only by the band tail absorption but also by absorption at deep defect states in the weak absorption region.

2.1.4.

Photoresponse at the Amorphous Semiconductor-Metal Contact

At the metal-amorphous semiconductor contact surface, a contact barrier is formed. When illuminated, this barrier provides an injection photocurrent, if the photon energy is greater than the barrier height. Determination of the photoemission threshold provides the measurement of the barrier height, which is an important characteristic of the contact. The technique is based on measurement of the spectral characteristic of the emission photocurrent at photon energy less than the optical gap Eg. The spectral distribution of the injection current is described as a square dependence on the photon energy in the interval of few tenth of electron-volt over the injection barrier %. The experimental photocurrent spectrum presented in 11/2 "ph versus hv coordinates gives a straight line (Fowler's graph), whose intersection with the energy axis determines the barrier height. This technique has been frequently applied for numerous semiconductor materials. Sandwich-type chalcogenide glass thin-film samples (0.2-3.0/~m) deposited in vacuum onto conducting glass substrate were supplied with the upper electrode of the investigated metal. The metal-chalcogenide glass pairs are listed in Table III.

Optical and Photoelectrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

163

TABLE III ENERGY PARAMETERS OF METAL -- CHALCOGENIDE GLASSY SEMICONDUCTOR CONTACT

Semiconductor

Electrode

~v~ (eV)

q~ (eV)

Dv (eV)

q~sc(eV)

A1 Ni Sb Bi Au Cr Pt Te A1 Ni Bi Au A1 Sb

4.35 4.36 4.38 4.40 4.56 4.58 4.71 4.73 4.35 4.36 4.40 4.56 4.35 4.38

1.23 1.32 1.27 1.26 1.13 1.30 1.03 1.14 1.62 1.74 1.55 1.25 1.16 0.75

0.41 0.50 0.45 0.44 0.31 0.48 0.21 0.32 0.65 0.77 0.58 0.28 0.35 0.06

4.76 4.86 4.83 4.84 4.87 5.06 4.94 5.05 5.00 5.13 4.98 4.84 4.70 4.32

Sb2S 3

AszS 3

As2Se3

The samples were illuminated by m o n o c h r o m a t i c light from the transparent substrate side. The photoresponse was m e a s u r e d at r o o m temperature at a bias of both polarities or without applied voltage. As in the range hu < Eg, the excitation in the chalcogenide layer is uniform and the transparent electrode does not absorb, because the cause for the p h o t o r e s p o n s e at the absence of the external voltage is the contact field at the metal electrode. The photocurrent corresponds to the m o v e m e n t of holes from the electrode into the c h a l c o g e n i d e layer and is about 20 times greater than the current at the opposite polarity. S h o w n in Figure 28a are the e x p e r i m e n t a l F o w l e r ' s graphs of the photoresponse n o r m a l i z e d per incident photon for Sb2S3 samples with A1, Te, Au and Pt electrodes with

(a)

~,

~

(b)

5

/

3 d -~ 2

d

I'/)

3

r

//

./

9

2 1

0

1.0

I,/11, 1.2

hv, eV

1.4

0

1.2

1.4 hv, eV

FIG. 28. Spectral distribution of photocurrent for Sb2S3 film (a) with electrode of A1 (1), Te (2), Au (3) and Pt (4) without applied voltage and (b) with A1 electrode under voltage (V): (1) 0; (2) 2; (3) 4.

164

A. M. Andriesh et al.

and without bias voltage dragging injected holes from the illuminated electrode. Same graphs for AszS3 are shown in Figure 28b. It is seen that 11/2 -ph is proportional to the photon energy in rather wide energy interval. This fact allows to find the barrier height % (as shown by dashed lines) for various pairs of metal-chalcogenide semiconductors listed in Table III. The values of the metal work functions in Table III are given on the basis of the work by Geppert, Cowley and Doge (1966), where the data for thin metal films used as contacts to semiconductors have been analyzed. It is seen from Table III that the threshold energy values fall in the interval 1.0-1.7 eV varying with the electrode or semiconductor material. With increase in the work function of metal the barrier is getting lower, the highest barriers develop for A1, Cr and Ni, the lowest ones for Pt and Au. Assuming the simple energy scheme shown in the the insert of Figure 28b one can evaluate the band bending Dv at the contact using reduced thermal activation energy of conductivity as the Fermi energy: 0.97 eV for AszS3, 0.86 eV for Sb2S3, 0.81 eV for AszSe3 and 0.91 eV for AsSbS3. The barrier height weakly depends on the applied field slightly decreasing with the field growth. Estimation of the Schottky barrier lowering in the field E = 105 V cm -1, A% = (1/2)(eE/Treeo) = 0.05 eV is in the limits of experimental error (Iovu, Iovu and Shutov, 1978). 2.1.5.

Thermostimulated Photoconductivity

An effective method of localized states investigations is the study of thermostimulated depolarization (TSD) of samples pre-charged by field, which basically corresponds to the method of stimulated polarization currents (SPC) proposed by Simmons and Taylor (1972b,c). According to this method the population of the localized states by charged carriers under illumination by light of corresponding photon energy takes place at sufficiently low temperatures when the thermally induced escape transitions of the electrons from localized states to the conduction band is practically absent. Then the sample is heated in the presence or absence of an external electric field. As a result, the captured charge carriers are released step by step from the traps, and in the external electrical circuit the current i appears, which is changed with the temperature T and presents a curve i = f ( T ) with a maximum. The SPC method permits distinguishing single levels which are closely situated on the energy scale. For example, the experiments carried out on 8b283 crystals permitted to reveal three groups of localized levels situated at 0.19, 0.30, and 0.41 eV, respectively. By the TSD experiments in vitreous alloys based on arsenic sulfide (Andriesh, Shutov, Abashkin and Chernii, 1974b; Andriesh et al., 1974c) a rich structure in the localized spectra was discovered. Further, the experimental results obtained on amorphous AszS3 thin films will be discussed and interpreted in frame of the theory of charge relaxation in high-resistivity dielectrics and semiconductors. The temperature dependence of depolarization current (Fig. 29) for A1-AszS3-A1 thin film structures exhibits a structure containing five peaks positioned in different temperature range presented in Table IV. The peak E1 dominates in TSDC spectrum and was studied in more detail. When the charging temperature is raised from 300 to 390 K, the position of maximum E 1 is unchanged but its amplitude first abruptly increases and then saturates around T -- 365-390 K. The position of peak E1 is independent of the applied voltage (Figs. 30 and 31).

165

Optical and Photoelectrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

I,A 2 t I L I

/,

4.1(~12

',

/

'~

',

t

,

3.o-IO

i[

2.1(~12

I I.A

E2

/

E1

.lo-lO

/,-_._

-.,

-"

190 230 270

:

,

310

a

,

3,50

"

390 T,*K

FIG. 29. TSD curves in thin films of vitreous As2S 3" experiment (solid line) and calculation (dashed line).

The experimental results of TSDC measurements in amorphous semiconductors were interpreted on the basis of the theoretical model developed by Simmons and Taylor (1972b,c). The theory supposes the current flow through metal-dielectric-metal structure with blocking Shottky contacts for the case of compensated dielectric which contains deep localized traps. T A B L E IV EVALUATION OF THE PARAMETERS OF THE ENERGY LEVELS WHICH DETERMINE THE MAXIMUM OF THE T S D CURVES FOR THE AMORPHOUS As2S 3 No. 1

2

Parameter Temperature range of peak maximum (K) Energy depth (eV)

Method of determination

4

Trap density (cm-3)

E3

E4

360-390

275-285

245-260

205-230

Et = 25kTm

0.79 + 0.03

0.59 _+ 0.01

0.53 + 0.01

0.48 _+ 0.05

0.81

•

-

0.70

+ 0.1

-

E t --

Peak broadening (eV*) Cross-section (cm 2)

E2

TSDC curves

Et --

3

E1

In/31Tern2

kTml Tm~2 Tm--r*

~2T21

1.51kTmT* TIn-T*

TZm 1 lg--~- VS. Tm

0.77 + 0.08

-

Comparison of experimental and calculated TSDC-curves*

0.75

0.65-0.7

0.5-0.6

0.3-0.4

0.12-0.16

0.03

0.05

0.08

5 X 10 -19

10 --18

10 -18

10 -19

1016

1013_1014

1013_1014

1013

E = kTmln

NcSvkTm ~-

Magnitude of released charge

166

A. M. Andriesh et al.

(a)

I(A)

(c)

I

I(A)

I" fO -9

4 'i0-" 6.|0 -~o

2.~0m ~. ~0-10

3ZO (b)

I

~

I(A)

400 T(K)

l _

i

!

......

i,.

I

4~o

;370

~

|

T(K)

I

5.~0-11 2,5 "I0-~I

~I0

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

~0

~

400 T(K)

FIG. 30. TSDC curves of the maximum El at different conditions: (a) charging temperature T (K): (1) 387; (2) 367; (3) 347; (4) 331" (5) 310; (6) 298; (b) charging voltage U (V): (1) 200; (2) 100; (3) 50; (4) 25; (c) heating rate v (deg/s): (1) 0.98" (2) 0.85; (3) 0.61; (4) 0.49; (5) 0.35; (6) 0.21" (7) 0.13.

We obtained a family of TSDC curves which may be compared with the experimental curve. The values of the energy Et which have the best agreement between the theoretical and experimental curves and characterize the energy position and the depth of the localized states are presented in Table IV for A s z S 3 amorphous thin films. In Table IV

5•

-11

3X10 -11

1•

-11 1

2

i

200

240 T,K

280

320

FIG. 31. The DSTC curves in the range of the maximums E 2 - E5 obtained at the repetition of five cycles in the same conditions with the interval between cycles of 30 min.

Optical and Photoelectrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

167

along with the depth of localized levels, the estimations of other parameters as well as the trap cross-section, the trap density and the peak broadening are presented. From Table IV it follows that for vitreous AszS3 in the energy range 0.35-0.80 eV from the valence band edge there exist four groups of localized levels. The presence of some groups of localized levels in the energy range 0.3-0.7 eV was also noticed for other amorphous semiconductors (Averjanov, Kolomiets and Lyubin, 1970; Kolomiets, Lyubin, Shilo and Averjanov, 1972b). The most broadened level is E 1 of about ~E = 0.12-0.16 eV, the levels E3 and E4 are less broadened and the level E 2 should probably treated as discrete. The cross-section of the centers is relatively small. For E 1 levels it is of order 5 • 10 -19 cm 2, and for other centers it is somewhat greater, remaining significantly less than 10-15 cm 2. These cross-section values suggests that the centers under considerations are neutral atoms, in agreement with the known fact of low activity of impurities in glasses. The greatest concentration of order 1016 cm -3 was found for the level group El, while the other shallower levels (Ez-E4) have less density (1013-1014 cm-3). An analysis of the energy diagram of the forbidden gap of vitreous As2S3 shows that the obtained experimental results do not frame in a simple model with energy tails of the bands for amorphous semiconductors, but according to theoretical considerations of Bonch-Bruevich (1971), in non-crystalline semiconductors there is a possibility of existence of some discrete levels. These results show that the theory of the amorphous semiconductors has to take into account the superposition of the quasi-continuous distribution of traps of some groups of localized states and some of them may be discrete. The influence of composition and doping with germanium, iodine and copper up to 2 at.% on the TSDC curves of vitreous AszSe3 were studied by Kolomiets et al. (1972b). It is remarkable that for pure AszSe3 on the TSDC curves two groups of localized levels situated at 0.31 and 0.62 eV appeared. Doping with germanium practically did not change the energy position of the spectrum of traps with the exception that the effective center of shallow traps shifted from 0.31 to 0.34 eV. By doping with copper on the TSDC curves besides the maximum situated at T - 295 K which is characteristic for pure AszSe3 an additional high and wide maximum situated at T = 340 K appeared. Doping with iodine leads to the apparition of a narrow maximum of highest intensity at T - 325 K and diminishing maximum situated at T = 295 K. The appearance of new localized states with the effective center situated at 0.68-0.72 eV as a result of doping with iodine and copper may be caused by the formation of some additional polymeric links in vitreous AszSe3. The investigation of the influence of the excess and deficit of selenium in the stoichiometric composition of the glasses A s - S e show that the introduction of the excess selenium determines the appearance of an additional weak maximum at T = 320 K which corresponds to the energy of 0.68 eV and the deficit of selenium leads to the appearance of a maximum of high intensity at T = 330 K which corresponds to the trap energy of 0.7 eV. The low-temperature maximum situated in the temperature range T = 130-140 K is changed very weakly by doping of AszSe3 and with deviation from the stoichiometric composition. The TSDC method, one of the more effective methods for studying the spectrum of localized states was also applied for other vitreous chalcogenide semiconductors. For

168

A. M. Andriesh et al.

example, doping the glass Ge3S2 up to 1 at.% Te leads to increase of the conductivity and the maximum of the TSDC curve is slightly shifted to the lowest temperatures. The multiple trapping model was involved for interpretation of the TSDC spectrum (Benyuan, Zhengyi and B izhen, 1987). In this case in the calculation of the TSDC curves the thermal emission of the captured carriers from the localized states into the conduction band, as well as the trapping and recombination processes were taken into account. It was shown that the structure of TSDC curves exactly reflects the particularities of the spectrum of localized states. The calculation of the TSDC spectrum in frame of the multiple trapping model for oL-Si:H is in good agreement with the experimental results.

2.2.

TRANSIENTPHOTOCONDUCTIVITY

2.2.1. Experimental Evidence Transient photoconductivity in amorphous semiconductors has received much attention because of its specific behavior determined by the wide distribution of the time constants controlling the photocurrent transients. Multiple trapping of charge carriers by localized states, which are quasi-continuously distributed in the gap, leads to well-known prolonged non-stationary processes such as dispersive transport and photoinduced transient optical absorption. One may expect that a similar non-equilibrium relation between the fractions of filled and empty gap states governs the photoconductivity kinetics by affecting trap-controlled recombination rates. For the vitreous semiconductors with low conductivity (101~ 12-1 cm -1) the transient photoconductivity in the long-time domain is determined not only by the activity of deep levels of the semiconductor but also by the current relaxation processes. These latter processes depend on the particularities of the carriers distributed and accumulated in the volume and in the vicinity of the contacts and play an important role, especially at low levels of the non-equilibrium conductivity. For this reason the photoconductivity relaxation is usually determined not only by the factors typical for photoconductivity (photon energy, light intensity, temperature) but also by the nature of the contacts, the strength and direction of the external electric field, etc. (Andriesh et al., 1977). At the beginning of the study of transient photoconductivity usually pulse light excitation by pulse lasers and flash-lamps were used. As most of the researchers noted, the form of the photocurrent transients was non-exponential and consisted at least of fast (10-3-10 -4 s)and subsequent slower (1-100 s)components. The fraction of the slow components decreased with increasing light intensity and temperature (Kolomiets and Lyubin, 1973). These experimental data indicated the existence of a wide distribution of relaxation times caused by multiple trapping of extra carriers in widely distributed gap localized states. As a typical example of such kind of photocurrent transients in Figure 32 a fast photoresponse decay in a-As2S3 is shown for flash-lamp pulse excitation (pulse duration 5 • 10 -4 s). The decay curve is normalized to the initial maximal value of the photocurrent. The dashed line indicates the exponential version of the photocurrent decay. The photoconductivity decay curves are typical for glasses and have a fast

Optical and Photoelectrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses '

I

'

I

'

I

'

I

'

I

'

I

169

'

\ \

o

10-1

~0\

,.d

10-2

O 9 \ 9 0 O O 0 0 \0

I I

I3

10-3

I

I

10 -4

,

I

,

1

10-3

,

I

~

I

10-2

,

1

0 I

0

2

10-1

Time, s 0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

FIG. 32. Fast photoresponse decay in vitreous AszS3. F --- 1017 c m - 2 s - l ; A -- 0 . 4 2 - 0 . 5 5 / , m . T = 409 K (1) and T = 380 K (2). Dashed curve (3) indicates the exponential version of photocurrent decay.

component of 1 or 2 ms in duration followed by a much slower portion. The initial fast portion of the decay has nearly exponential form with a photoresponse time Zd, determined as a logarithmic derivative of the decay (see Eq. (39)). Under simple assumption that this parameter characterizes the photoresponse time delay due to trapping (Adriaenssens, 1996) the initial portion of the decay may be used for probing the density of states in the gap. Measuring the photoresponse time in As283 at various light intensities (5 • 1014-1017 cm -2 s -1) in the temperature interval from 289 to 448 K Andriesh, Shutov and Iovu (1972a) found that in the interval from 0.3 to 0.75 eV from the valence band top the localized states are distributed exponentially p t ( E ) - - P 0 x exp(-E/A), wherep0 = 3.4 x 1019 cm -3 eV -1 and A = 0.052 eV. For different samples the values of P0 and A lay between 8 x 10 is and 102~ cm -3 eV -1 and 0.052 and 0.047 eV, respectively. For the related materials, for example, non-crystalline AszSe3 a quasi-continuous distribution of localized states was found between 0.4 and 0.75 eV (Kolomiets, 1969). Later Monroe and Kastner (1986) found in amorphous AszSe3 a power law decay Iph(t) oc t -~ extending over nine decades of time at T - 259 K. This result leads to the existence of an exponential density-of-states distribution extending from 0.3 to 0 . 8 6 e V above the valence band mobility edge. The exponential 1 - a = 0.48

170

A. M. Andriesh et al.

corresponds to the characteristic energy of the exponential density of states equal to 49 meV. This value is in close accordance with the slope of Urbach edge in amorphous AszSe3, supporting the interpretation as the distribution of states of the valence band tail. The study of the decay of photoconductivity in vitreous arsenic sulfide in the case of excitation with the light pulse of the ruby laser (hv = 1.78 eV -- 0.74 Eg) showed that the recombination of non-equilibrium carriers in As2S3 is characterized by the times of order 1 0 - 6 - 1 0 -5 s, which correlates with the values of ~---~ (1-2) x 10 -5 s determined from the kinetics of the photoluminescence (Shutov and Iovu, 1975). Typical examples of photoconductivity relaxation curves are presented in Figures 33 and 34 for vitreous AszS3 and AsSe depending on excitation wavelength, light intensity and temperature. The rise and decay rates increase when the photon energy of excitation and/or the temperature is raised. The photoconductivity relaxation in the long-time domain was described in detail for AszS3 by Andriesh, Shutov and Iovu (1974d) and Andriesh et al. (1977), for AszSe3Ge by Tsiuleanu and Tridukh (1980) and for AszSe3 by Arnoldussen et al. (1972), Kolomiets and Lyubin (1973) and Fuhs and Meyer (1974). The dependence of long-time photoconductivity kinetics on excitation wavelength and temperature in vitreous AszS3 and AszSe3 may be interpreted in frame of the model with participation of thermo-optical transitions. It was clearly demonstrated with the example of photoelectrical characteristics of the A s - S e system. The conclusion concerning participation of thermo-optical transitions in photoelectrical phenomena was made on the basis of analyzing the experimental results of photoconductivity spectra at different ,

, 1.0 "

,,,/" . . . .

,

.

.

.

.

zl

_Z_S_:

; * "

---*--- - 4

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0

0

2

4

6

8 10 Time, s

12

14

(b10.81"0 r~.~-~-~-~-****-

16

i

1 341 3 04t 0.0 0

.,,

2

4

6

l! zzSzz ....... N2"--...,

8 l0 Time, s

12

14

16

FIG. 33. The relaxation curves of photoconductivity for As2S3: (a) wavelength h (~m): (1) 0.5" (2) 0.548; (3) 0.6; (4) 0.645" (5) 0.702; (b) temperature T (~ (1) 72; (2) 98" (3) 136; (4) 172.

171

Optical and Photoelectrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

..~

~0.5 do o.5

9

1

".

-,~

~

0.0 0

1'0

20

30

40

50

0

10

20

30

40

Time, s Time, s FIG. 34. Photoconductivityrelaxationin the As5oSe5ofilms at various intensities F (a) and temperatures T (b). Light is switchedon at t = 0 s and off at t = 26 s. (a)F (cm -2 s-l): (1)5.3 x 1011; (2)2.4 x 1012; (3) 1.5 x 1013; (4) 6.5 x 10 ~4. (b) T (K): (1) 289; (2) 341; (3) 393. frequencies by interrupting the incident light of excitation and also from the results of the kinetics of photoconductivity at different wavelength in the range 1.2-1.8 eV. The most peculiar feature of the photocurrent rise portion is the anomalous spike character of relaxation observed at certain conditions, when the steady state is reached after going over a maximum (Figs. 33 and 34). Time and again the overshot in the photoconductivity kinetics of chalcogenide glasses attracted attention of researchers and was observed in many materials (Kolomiets and Lyubin, 1973; Andriesh et al., 1977; Tsiuleanu and Tridukh, 1980; Andriesh, Arkhipov, Iovu, Rudenko and Shutov, 1983; Ganjoo and Shimakawa, 2001), AszS3 thin films (Andriesh et al., 1977; Andriesh, Arkhipov, Iovu, Rudenko and Shutov, 1983), AsSel.5Gex (Tsiuleanu and Tridukh, 1980), and AszSe3 (Andriesh et al., 1983). It was shown that the overshot amplitude increased relative to steady-state value as the excitation energy grew approaching the absorption edge and then reduced. In AszS3 the overshot appears when the excitation photon energy exceeds the optical gap. Sumrov (1978) used the spectral dependence of the overshot to determine the optical gap of the material (2.6 eV for AszS3 thin films). In most of the works the relation of the overshot with electrode effects was pointed out, i.e., the dependence of the behavior on the electrode material, on the value of the applied voltage and its polarity on the illuminated electrode, on the time storage of the sample in dark, etc. These observations indicate that some effects of charge accumulation and redistribution near the electrodes significantly affect the photoconductivity kinetics. The analysis of the overshot-type transient photoconductivity from this point of view is given in more detail in Kolomiets and Lyubin (1973), Andriesh et al. (1977, 1981) and Tsiuleanu and Tridukh (1980). Here we show that overshot behavior of the transient photoconductivity naturally follows from the trap-controlled recombination approach (Arkhipov, Popova and Rudenko, 1983) with no assumptions about existence of inhomogeneities in the bulk or at the contacts.

2.2.2. Theoretical Background Photoelectrical phenomena in chalcogenide glasses are traditionally considered in terms of charged-defect model (Mott et al., 1975), in which recombination is described as a tunneling process between metastable defect states.

172

A. M. Andriesh et al.

The kinetics of photocarrier generation and trap-controlled recombination is described by the following equation (Arkhipov et al., 1983; Arkhipov, Iovu, Rudenko and Shutov, 1985):

dp(t) pe(t) - G(t) - RPe(t)p(t ) dt ~1~

(47)

where t is the time, p the total carrier density, Pe the density of carriers in extended states, G(t) the generation rate, ~'R the lifetime of carriers in extended states before monomolecular recombination (MR), and R the constant of BR. Eq. (1) should be supplemented with the relation between the total charge carrier density and the density of carriers in extended states. Under the non-equilibrium (dispersive) transport conditions this relation takes the form (Arkhipov and Rudenko, 1982): d Pe(t) -- -~ ['r(t)p(t)]

(48)

where -r(t) is the lifetime of carriers in extended states before capture into the fraction of currently deep gap states located below the demarcation energy Ed(t):

= YONtLdEa(t) dE g(E)

r(t)

]1

(49)

where To is the free-carrier lifetime before capture by gap states, Nt the total density of localized states, and g(E) the density-of-states (DOS) energy distribution. The demarcation energy is defined as the energy of a localized state for which the carrier release time, (1/vo)exp(Ed/kT), is equal to the current time t, with v0 being the attemptto-escape frequency, T the temperature, and k the Boltzmann constant. This leads to the following expression for Ed(t): Ed(t) = kT ln(t0t )

(50)

Eqs. (48) and (49) combination kinetics is essentially controlled by the density-of-states distribution. It is generally believed that the energy distribution of shallow band-tail states in amorphous semiconductors features an exponential density-of-states function as,

Nt exp(- E

g (E ) - ~

(51)

-E-~o)

Solving Eqs. (47)-(50) with the density-of-states function given by Eq. (51) for a rectangular photoexcitation pulse of the duration To,

G(t) = 0,

-c~ < t < 0,

t > Tph,

G(t) = Go,

0 < t < Tph

(52)

yields formulae for rising, quasi-steady-state, and decreasing regimes of the free carrier density which are summarized in Table V where c~ = kT/Eo is the dispersion parameter. The transition from the recombination-free to MR-controlled photocurrent occurs at the time t = t R determined as, tR

=

1

- -

v0

- -

~'0

(53)

173

Optical and Photoelectrical Properties o f Chalcogenide Glasses

TABLE V EXPRESSIONS FOR THE DENSITY OF DELOCALIZEDCARRIERSpc(t) Trapping

MR regime

BR regime

Rise Steady-state

G0r0(v0t)~ -

G0ZR

( voroGo /R) l /2 ( pot) -(l-a)~2 N t ru, 9 ~a/(l+a)rG /RN2) 1/(1+~) ~. 0 0 ) I, 0 / t

Decay

poa(VoZo)~(t/Zo)-(1-~)

poa(VOrO)~(ZR/zo)Z(t/Zo)-(l+~)

a/Rt

-

Since the photocurrent is proportional to the free carrier density, iph "~ p c ( t ) , every equation listed in Table V corresponds to a specific time domain revealed in transient photocurrent curves.

2.2.3.

Comparison

to the E x p e r i m e n t

Photoconductivity kinetics was studied in AsSe, As2Se3 and As2Se3:Sn films deposited onto glass substrates by thermal flash-evaporation. The photocurrent was generated in a step-function mode by H e - N e laser light and was registered by an oscilloscope and a chart-recorder. A typical picture of the photocurrent transients is shown in Figure 34 for various intensities (a) and temperatures (b). In Figure 35 the rise and decay curves of Figure 34a are replotted in double-logarithmic scale to visualize the power-law portions of the transients discussed below. The characteristic time dependencies listed in Table V are seen in the growth and decay kinetics of the photocurrent transients shown in Figure 35a,b. P h o t o c u r r e n t rise (Fig. 35a). At short times, t < tR, the photocurrent rise is fully controlled by carrier trapping while recombination that is so far not significant yields iph-~ Go t~. At longer times, the rise depends on the excitation intensity. At low intensities, MR always predominates over B R such that the photocurrent monotonously increases and saturates on a steady-state level. At higher light intensities, a quasistationary portion of the photocurrent is observed after saturation followed by a 9 . (71/2t-(1-a)/2 decreasing portion of the transient, tph "-'0 , within which the BR mechanism (a) -8 < ~-9

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,

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i

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,

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FIG. 35. Double-logarithmicplot of photocurrent rise (a) and decay (b) in the AssoSeso film at various light intensities F (cm -2 s-l): (1) 5.3 X 1011; (2) 2.4 x 1012; (3) 6.6 x 1012; (4) 1.5 x 1013; (5) 6.5 x 10 TM. Straight line portions are calculated with a - 0.67 (see text for details).

174

A. M. Andriesh et al.

is dominant. At even higher excitation levels the rise is entirely controlled by BR and the quasi-stationary portion of photocurrent is missing. At such levels of excitation, the photocurrent exhibits an overshoot (Figs. 33 and 34). A remarkable feature of the observed photocurrent transients is the overshoot, which, in terms of the multiple-trapping model, is due to non-equilibrium BR recombination whose intensity increases with the total carrier density. If this recombination mode is dominant the rate of recombination eventually gets high enough and, together with carrier trapping by states below the demarcation level, provides conditions for decreasing density of free carriers. Photocurrent decay (Fig. 35b). The decay kinetics depends on the density of photogenerated carriers at the end of the photogeneration pulse. If the total filling of gap states below the demarcation energy is not achieved, an initial portion of the decay will 9 -(1-~ where iph0 is the still be controlled by trapping. Within this portion, / p9h " ~ tph0t photocurrent at t = ~'ph.If the BR regime was not established during the generation pulse, i.e., at low excitation intensities, the starting portion turns into final decay along which iph "~ iph0t-(l+~). If the generation rate provided an intermediate for the BR regime, /ph" " ~ tph0t" - 1 , portion of the relaxation curve exists. The above-described kinetics is in good agreement with the experimental photocurrent transients shown in Figure 35a,b. Fitting these data yields the dispersion parameter ce = 0.67 for AsSe that leads to the characteristic energy of the density-of-states distribution E0 of 0.037 eV (Arkhipov et al., 1985). For As2Se3 and As2Se3:Sn the values of ce are 0.54 and 0.70, respectively (Arkhipov et al., 1983). The power-law photocurrent asymptotes calculated with ce = 0.67 are plotted in Figure 35a,b. The fact that the complex picture of the photocurrent kinetics can be described by a single parameter supports the model of trap-controlled recombination. The temperature dependence of the photocurrent kinetics also obeys the model predictions. Enhanced carrier trapping in amorphous semiconductors delays the onset of recombination and increases the time tR. Since the carrier release time exponentially decreases with temperature, the transition time tR exponentially shifts to shorter times. The smallest value of t R = 10 -2 S was observed in the stoichiometry composition As2Se3. This time is about 3.3 s in AsSe films containing excess As atoms and becomes even longer (up to 10-15 s) in As2Se3:1 at.% Sn films. In contrast to the prominent insensitivity of glassy semiconductors to doping, tin impurity strongly affects the dispersive transient photoconductivity due to the enhancement of carrier trapping by deep localized states. 2.2.4.

Effect of Impurity and Composition

It is known that impurities weakly affect electrical characteristics of chalcogenide glassy semiconductors (GCS) if they are introduced in the course of thermal synthesis. However, 'cold' modification of CGS by some impurities in the absence of thermal equilibrium creates electrically active centers (Kolomiets and Averjanov, 1985). Tin impurity, introduced into GCS during thermal synthesis, was found to have strong effect on the transient photoconductivity characteristics of thermally deposited a-AszS% and a-AsSe films although the equilibrium photoconductivity remained almost unchanged. This effect is caused by enhanced carrier trapping by relatively deep-localized states that

Optical and Photoelectrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

175

are apparently created in GCS upon tin doping. Enhanced trapping leads to slower photocurrent rise, delays the onset of recombination in doped samples, and increases the lifetime of the photoexcited state after the inducing light is switched off. Tin was introduced in an amount (x) of 0.1-3.5 at.% into AszSe3 and of 1-10 at.% into AsSe during standard thermal synthesis of the materials prior to sputtering. Thin film (1.0-10.0/xm) samples of sandwich configuration were obtained by flash evaporation in vacuum on glass substrates held at 100 ~ Photocurrent excited by a H e - N e laser was recorded with a time constant not exceeding 0.3 s. The light intensity, typically of F0 = 1015 cm -2 s-l~ could be decreased with calibrated filters. A remarkable feature of the photocurrent transients, the overshoot, is absent in the increasing section of Sn-doped CGS, which, in terms of the multiple-trapping model, indicates that the trapping and MR are strongly enhanced, and solely those processes balance carrier generation. Tin doping also slows the photocurrent decay after switching off the inducing illumination as shown in Figure 36. While the decay pattern in undoped materials strongly depends upon the photogeneration intensity, this dependence is weak in tin-doped samples (curves 1-3). A faster relaxation of charge carrier density in an undoped sample in the interval 1-10 s can again be explained by more efficient MR, at low-excitation intensities, or B R, at higher intensities. This is also in agreement with photocurrent rise kinetics with the current overshoot disappearing at lower photogeneration intensities. The curves plotted in Figure 37 reveal an opposite effect of changing temperature on the photocurrent decay kinetics. Increasing temperature gives rise to a substantial increase of the decay rate in the tin-containing films (curves 1- 3) while the temperature effect on the decay in undoped samples is comparatively weak (curve 4-6). Increasing temperature eliminates the effect of tin impurity. Constant bias illumination, acting even after the main excitation is removed, has a similar effect. Prolonged hyperbolic photocurrent decay as well as a weak light-intensity and quite strong temperature dependencies indicate that trapping by deep states dominates tindoped samples. Since enhanced trapping suppresses recombination, the time domain of

.

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.

.

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,

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i

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li

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FIG. 36. Photocurrent decay in As2Se3:1 at.% Sn (1-3) and As2Se3 (4-6) samples after photoexcitation with different inducing light intensities F, cm -2 s-l: 1,4-1015; 2,5-1014; 3,6-1013. T = 290 K.

176

A. M. Andriesh et al.

0.1 9

i9:i'

0.01

\

I

1

|

|

50

5

Log (t, s) FIG. 37. Photocurrent decay in As2Se3:l at.% Sn (1-3) and As2Se3 (4-6) samples at different temperatures T, K: 1-290; 2-313; 3-345; 4-288" 5-304; 6-341. The excitation intensity F = 1015 cm -2 s -1.

relaxation is extended in tin-doped films. From the kink on curves 1-3 (Fig. 36) one can estimate the demarcation energy at the time tR and the total density of trapping states in doped materials. For ~'0 = 10-12 s and v0 = 1012 s -1 Eq. (50) yields the demarcation energy Ed ~ 0.85 eV and a very high density of localized states Nt ~ 10-2Nc, where Nc is the density of extended states. The effect of constant bias illumination also supports the concept of delayed recombination in AszSe3:Sn samples as additional illumination facilitates the decay by accelerating photoionization and recombination of localized carriers. The increase of the lifetime of non-equilibrium holes for AszSe3 samples with small additions of tin also follows from transient photocurrent measurements in the 'time-of-flight' configuration. Some useful information about possible nature of localized states created in AszSe3 upon tin doping can be obtained by the M6ssbauer spectroscopy (Seregin and Nistiriuc, 1991). Embedded in the AszSe3 glass matrix tin is tetravalent, Sn 4+. All four valence electrons of tin participate in chemical bonds with the matrix atoms and do not affect electrical properties. However, in unannealed films some tin atoms are present in the form of divalent tin, S n 2+ and only 5p electrons participate in the formation of chemical bonds while 5s electrons can play the role of deep donors. Another possibility is photo-induced charge exchange in tin impurities Sn 4+ ~ Sn 2+ with electron trapping by tin-induced centers. Since tin doping suppresses carrier recombination over several seconds or even several tens of seconds, the doping can be an effective tool for increasing the photoconductivity of GCS-based electrographic devices for recording optical information. Differences concerning the form of the decay curves of photoconductivity were also observed for the (AszS3)x-(SbzS3)l_x system, which are significantly different from those for As2S3. In general, on the decay curves of alloys a specific slower hyperbolic portion appeared, which has strong dependence upon the light intensity and temperature and is absent in AszS3. This peculiarity is attributed to the group of localized centers of high density caused by introducing Sb2S3. This group of localized states is revealed in the form of a shoulder around 1.3 eV in the spectra of photoconductivity and in the decay curves of photoconductivity of the vitreous alloys. In the chalcogenide alloy system

Optical and Photoelectrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

177

As2S3:Ge the photoconductivity decay rate was found dependent on the composition as well, this time determined by the variation structure ordering due to the change of structural units. The effect of retarding decay rate was observed as a result of ~/ irradiation of AszS3 (Andriesh et al., 1981). 2.2.5.

Negative Transient Photocurrents in Amorphous Semiconductors

As the charge transport in amorphous materials is controlled by traps, at any moment a significant fraction of the carriers is trapped. The dipole moments of the filled traps may be considerably different from those of empty traps. As a result, the dielectric permittivity of the material becomes dependent on the density of trapped carriers. In a time-of-flight experiment, during the packet movement, the trapped-carrier density is changed, and as a result, the dependence of the dielectric permittivity on time and coordinate appears. The transient dielectric constant causes an additional displacement current, which may be negative relative to the electric field direction (Arkhipov and Rudenko, 1978). In a certain time interval, this additional current can dominate, and as a result, the total current in the sample becomes negative. Note that the polarization current may be due both to traps distributed in the volume and to surface traps. The results of negative current observation in time-of flight experiments on amorphous 0.55AszS3:0.45SbzS3 is presented. The experiments are carried out under the conditions of the dispersive transport regime (see Arkhipov, Iovu, Rudenko and Shutov, 1979). It is shown that the polarization of volume traps alone is unable to describe the observed values and the behavior of the negative transient current. This fact shows the significant role of surface traps in the mechanism of negative current generation. Consider a sample of thickness L, sandwiched between two electrodes, which build up an electric field F in the bulk of it. At a moment t -- 0 near the anode (x -- 0) a sheet of holes is injected by light with the surface density tr. Owing to the electric field the carriers drift to the cathode at x -- L. During the drift, the carriers take part in trapping processes and change the dipole moments of the traps. This leads to the time-dependent local variation of the dielectric constant of the material e(x, t) -- eo + 4~rKo

o

O(x, t, E)dE

(54)

where x is the coordinate, t the time, E the trap energy, e0 the equilibrium dielectric constant, p dE is the density of carriers trapped in the traps within the energy interval from E to E + dE, and K0 is the coefficient characterizing the change of the dipole moment of the traps due to capture of carriers in them. The detailed theoretical description of the effect of the polarization effect on the transient current is given in Arkhipov, Iovu, Iovu, Rudenko and Shutov (1981). The experimental dependence j versus t is presented in Figure 38. As it can be seen from the figure, the negative current portion occurs at t >> tT, where tT is the transit time. In this time domain the distribution of carriers in the sample is nearly uniform (Arkhipov et al., 1979), and in this case the transient current, with account of the polarization effect, takes the form: j(t) = [(eLl2) - KoF][-dp(0 , t)/dt]

(55)

178

A. M. A n d r i e s h et al.

104! 102

100 ",-~

100

102

10-3

10-2

10-1

10~

Time, s FIG. 38. Transient negative photocurrents for Al-(As2S3)o.55-(SbzS3)o.45-A1, E -- 4.55 x 105 V/cm. Temperature, K: 1-293, 2-328, 3-343, 4-373, 5-403.

where p(x, t) is the total density of carriers in localized and extended states. It is seen from Arkhipov et al. (1985) that the appearance of the negative current in a sample should require the existence of the dipole moments •0 F of the length comparable to L. The observation of negative current may be due to the polarization of the surface traps, located near the rear contact x - L. The negative transient currents have been obtained in amorphous films 0 . 5 5 A s 2 8 3 : 0.45Sb2S3 in time-of-flight experimental arrangement. Thin-film samples (L-- 3.3/~m) obtained by vacuum deposition and supplied with aluminum contacts were used. The transient current was excited by a short (1.5 ~s) pulse of strongly absorbed light. The measurements were made in the temperature interval from 20 to 130 ~ with electric fields from 9 x 106 to 6 x 107 V m-1. A typical experimental time dependencies of the transit currents are shown in Figure 38. Over the interval t 8 eV. In Strujkin (1989) the R(E) and ez(E ) spectra of AszS3 were calculated in the range 1 - 1 4 eV using the quantum defect method. By fitting the adjustable parameters the author managed to obtain both of the transition bands in good agreement with the experimental results. This method is used for the calculation of photoionization crosssections of impurities. It has not become clear, whether it is valid for the calculations of electronic structure in a wide energy range. In Schunin and Schwarz (1989) the dependence of the band-gap energy Eg on the arrangement of clusters in AsxSe~-x (x = 0-0.75, Eg = 1.15-1.70 eV) was determined. The calculations were performed on the basis of the cluster model in the coherent potential approximation. With the increase in the parameter x, the energy Eg decreases almost monotonously with a wide maximum Eg -- 1.45 eV at x = 0.50. Thus, the theoretical calculations of the N(E) of the occupied states of molecules As4X4 (XmS, Se) are in good agreement with the experimental results of photoemission. However, the theoretical optical spectra show only one of the two known experimental bands. This is, likely, due to strong imperfections of the calculational methods used for unoccupied states. The problem remains to what extent the model of molecular levels of As4X4 reflects the main features of AszX3 glasses.

204

V. Val. Sobolev and V.V. Sobolev

3. Measurement Techniques and Determination of Spectra of Optical Functions and Density of States Distribution N(E) Processes of interaction between the light and the matter are very complicated. They manifest themselves through a large set of optical functions, connected with each other by the integral and relatively simple relations. In order to obtain the most complete information on these processes and the electronic structure of a material, it is necessary to analyze all or most of the functions in a wide energy range of fundamental absorption. This set includes the reflectivity (R) and the absorption (~) coefficients; the refraction (n) and the absorption (k) indices; the imaginary (/32) and real (/31) parts of the dielectric function/3; the characteristic bulk (-Im/3-1) and surface (-Im(1 +/3)-1) electron loss functions; the effective number nef(E) of the valence electrons, participating in the transitions up to the given energy E; the effective dielectric function/3ef; the integral function of density of states (I) multiplied by transition probability, and the optical conductivity (o-), which are equal to /32E2 and /32E, respectively, except for constant factors; the phase 0 of the reflected light; and well-known differential optical functions ce and/3, which are widely used in the analysis of modulation spectra and connected by the analytic formulae with/31 and/32, or n and k (Sobolev and Nemoshkalenko, 1988). In experiment in a wide energy range only the R(E) spectrum at normal incidence of light is measured directly. The characteristic losses of high-energy electrons are studied much rarely. After performing a thorough analysis of these losses and using several normalization and approximation methods, one obtains the loss function -Im/3-1. Sometimes, /32(E) and /31(E) are determined by ellipsometric methods, but only in a relatively narrow energy interval 1-5 eV. It is common to calculate a complete set of optical functions on the basis of the available R(E) or -Im/3-1 spectra in a wide energy range, and/32(E) and/31(E)--in the narrow range 1-5 eV by means of special programs involving the integral KramersKronig relations and the analytic formulae between the functions. In the general case, which occurs in glasses, transition bands are strongly overlapped resulting in the extreme case in complete disappearance of some of the features in the total spectral curve of an optical function. The fundamental problem of determination of the three main transition parameters (the total number N of the most intensive transitions, the transition energies Ei and the intensities, or the oscillator strengths f (the band areas Si), as well as the band HWHMs Hi and the peak heights Ii) is usually solved with one of the two following methods: (1) the method of reproduction of the integral R(E) or/32(E) curve with a set of N Lorentz oscillators with a large amount (3N) of adjustment parameters (up to 30, when N - 10) and (2) the method of combined Argand diagrams within the same Lorentz oscillator model, but without adjustment parameters, which consists in simultaneous analysis of the/32 and/31 spectra. Any optical transition can have two components: the transverse and the longitudinal. The transverse component manifests itself in ordinary optical spectra, while the longitudinal onemonly in the characteristic loss spectrum (Pines, 1966). The complete sets of optical functions of arsenic chalcogenides were calculated by us on the basis of the known experimental R(E) (or -Im/3-1) spectra with the help of the integral Kramers-Kronig relations. The decomposition of the/32 and -Im/3-1 spectra

Optical Spectra of Arsenic Chalcogenides

205

into the elementary transverse and longitudinal components was made on the basis of combined Argand diagrams. This method has been described in detail in Sobolev and Nemoshkalenko (1988) and Sobolev (1996) and applied to many crystals (Sobolev et al., 1976; Lazarev et al., 1978, 1983; Sobolev, 1978-1984, 1986, 1987, 1999; Sobolev and Nemoshkalenko, 1988, 1989, 1992; Sobolev and Shirokov, 1988). The crystal lattice of A s z X 3 compounds has a very complex layered and chained structure. Its unit cell contains a large number of valence electrons (20 atoms, which give 112 valence electrons) (Hullinger, 1976). The calculations of its complex band structure are therefore rather difficult. The shift from a crystal to a glass even more complicates the problem of determining the structure of energy levels and optical spectra of g-AszX3 in a wide energy range of intrinsic absorption. For g-AszX3 the experimental reflectivity spectra in the range 1-12 eV and characteristic electron loss spectra in the range 1-35 eV are known. From these one can directly obtain only very scarce information on the electronic structure of the material. It is no mere chance that the majority of monographs and reviews ignores this problem, particularly in the case of g-AszX3.

4. Optical Spectra of o~-As2S3 4.1.

CALCULATIONS OF SETS OF OPTICAL FUNCTIONS

For g-As2S3, the reflectivity spectra of polished bulk samples in the ranges 112.5 eV (Andriesh and Sobolev, 1965, 1966; Andriesh, Sobolev and Popov, 1967; Sobolev, 1967; Belle, Kolomietsh and Pavlov, 1968) and 2 - 1 4 eV (Zallen, Drews, Emerald and Slade, 1971) are known. The results of Andriesh and Sobolev (1965, 1966), Andriesh et al. (1967), Sobolev (1967) and Belle et al. (1968) are in good agreement with each other. In Zallen et al. (1971), the structures of the R(E) spectrum are seen less clear than in Andriesh and Sobolev (1965, 1966), Andriesh et al. (1967), Sobolev (1967) and Belle et al. (1968), and the values of R(E) in the energy range E > 6 eV seem to be overestimated. Therefore, we used the R(E) spectrum from Sobolev (1967) in the calculations. On the basis of this spectrum, a complete set of the fundamental optical functions of g-AszS3 was calculated in the range 0-12.5 eV (Fig. 1). In Table I (Column 1) the maxima energies values of the resultant optical functions are given. The experimental reflectivity spectrum R(E) consists of a very broad and intensive band in the range 2 - 5 eV with a maximum at 3.6 eV and weak side maxima at 2.9 and 4.5 eV. Besides this band, the broad bands are seen in the ranges 5 - 8 and 8 - 1 2 eV with the maxima at - 6.0 and 10.4 eV. The long-wavelength maximum of the calculated spectra almost coincides in energy with the maximum No. 1 of R(E) for el (el "~" 9) and n (n --~ 3), and maximum No. 2 of R(E) for e 2 (e 2 -~ 5.8), or is shifted into the higher energy range by --~0.4-0.6 eV for k, ~, n, and E2e2 (k = 0 . 9 , / z = 2.4 • 105 cm-1). The maximum of the electron loss -Im e-1 is shifted by 1.3 eV. The energy values of the shifts of the analogs of two other reflectivity bands in the spectra of the optical functions are approximately the same.

V. Val. Sobolev and V.V. Sobolev

206 ,,

(a)

0.3

,-

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-. "i 20

25

E, eV Fro. 1. Experimental spectrum of R and the calculated spectra of n, /31 (a), k, /x, 82, E2/32 (b), - I m / 3 - 1 - I m ( 1 +/3)-1, nef,/3ef (c) for g-AszS3 in the energy range 0 - 2 2 eV.

ENERGIES (ev) O F T H E MAXIMA A N D SHOULDERS FOR R

No.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

1

2

2.9 3.6 4.5

3.1 4.1 4.4 5.3 6.3 9.4 11.0

-

6.0 -

10.4 -

-

n

EI

-

12.5

1

2

2.9

2.7 3.9

-

-

6.0

-

-

-

10.0 -

-

-

-

-

14.5 -

-

10.4 11.7

2

3.1

2.9 3.9

1

3.1 4.0 -

-

-

-

-

-

-

5.8 -

10.6

5.8 -

10.6

5.2 6.1 8.5 10.4

1 -

4.0 -

-

6.0 -

10.8

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

14.0 -

-

5.7 8.0 10.4 11.7

2

3.6

-

-

14.0 -

-

TABLE I VARIANTS (1

13.0 -

-

AND

2) IN THE SPECTRA OF OPTICAL

F-

k

82

1

-

TWO

2 3.1 4.1 4.6 5.3 6.5 7.8 9.2 10.7 12.4 13.0 13.7 14.6 16.5

1 -

4.1 -

6.1 -

11.2 -

-

-

E

2 3.1 4.1 4.6 5.2 6.2 7.9 9.4 10.7 12.4 13.0 13.7 14.6 16.5

~

E

~

-1m

FUNCTIONS OF

Im(1

E-'

2

1

-

-

-

-

-

4.2

4.9

-

4.8

-

4.2 4.4

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

6.9

-

6.6

-

7.8 9.9

-

11.2

-

-

6.2 -

11.3

-

9.0 10.5

12.0

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

13.2 13.8 14.6 16.6

-

-

2

1

1

12.0 -

14.0 15.0 16.4

-

-

g-As2S3

+ E)-'

-

7.6 10.0 -

2. B

f?.

-

-

3.0 5.8

4.2

?I?

2 3.1 4.2 4.8 5.5

0

En

A

-

6.3 6.9; 7.5 11.5

-

-

6.4

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

14.6 -

16.0

B b

3

3.

12.0

-

12.7

3

15.0

9

5

3

3. f$

208

V. Val. Sobolev and V.V. Sobolev

The two weak reflectivity bands in the range E > 5 eV manifest themselves as very intensive in the absorption (/x(E)) and the joint density of states (EZez(E)) spectra. A remarkable feature of the ez(E) spectrum of many materials, including g-AszS3 is the presence of only one very intensive maximum, the rest of the maxima being usually very weak. Unlike the e 2 spectrum, in the spectra of R, k,/x, and E 2e 2 one can see many maxima of comparable intensity. For A 4 (Sobolev, 1978), A3B 5 (Sobolev, 1979), and AZB 6 (Sobolev, 1980) crystals, good agreement between the theory and the experiment is found only for ez(E), while for other optical functions, there are significant contradictions between them (Sobolev, 1999). An agreement between the theory and the experiment only for the ez(E) spectrum, which is commonly considered, does not affirm the validity of theory. Consequently, research data from the spectra of other optical functions are of increased importance. The experimental electron loss spectrum - I m e-1 of g-AszS3, given in Perrin, Cazaux and Soukiassian (1974) is interesting mostly because of its large measured energy region (0-35 eV). On this basis, we also calculated a complete set of fundamental optical functions (Fig. 2). In Table I (Column 2) the energies of maxima of some optical functions are given. The spectra of the second group of calculations contain a much larger number of weak maxima. Unfortunately, a half of them exceed the calculation error. To determine the fine structure of the optical with greater certainty, much more precise measurements of the characteristic loss spectrum in intensity and spectral resolution are necessary. It follows from the photoemission spectra (XPS) of Bishop and Shevchik (1975) that the occupied states of oL-AszS3 consist of two very broad doublet bands in the ranges 0-7.5 and 7.5-17 eV with the maxima at --~2.2, 4.4, 10.0, and 13.2 eV. According to the results of Salaneck and Zallen (1976), they have more complex structure of seven maxima at --~ 1.0, 3.8, 4.3, 4.9, 5.5, 9.5, and 14.0 eV. The differences in the locations of maxima in the XPS spectra of these papers are due to the differences in the preparation technologies of the two samples, the peculiarities of the applied XPS measurement techniques, and the errors in their normalization to the maximum height of the occupied states. It is interesting to note that the XPS spectra of crystals and glasses in both papers differ very little. Theoretically, the maxima of optical transitions in glasses are mostly determined by the relative energy locations of the maxima of density of the occupied and the unoccupied states. Therefore, with the value Eg--~ 2.0 eV and the XPS photoemission results for g-AszS3 from Bishop and Shevchik (1975) and Salaneck and Zallen (1976), four or seven optical bands can be expected; their energy values are given in Columns B and A of Table I. They are due to the transitions from the maxima of the occupied states to the lowest unoccupied states. These bands are possible due to the transitions to higher unoccupied states. This extremely simplified model can give only the qualitative evaluation of the energy values of the expected maxima of optical spectra. Nevertheless, it is in good agreement with our calculated spectra.

4.2.

DECOMPOSITION OF DIELECTRIC FUNCTION SPECTRA AND CHARACTERISTIC ELECTRON LOSS SPECTRA INTO ELEMENTARY COMPONENTS

The experimental reflectivity spectrum, as well as other functions calculated from it, collects all the individual transitions from occupied to unoccupied states. For glassy

209

Optical Spectra of Arsenic Chalcogenides

J

10

8-

4

0.4--

i i

g-As2S 3 i.

6

.

0.3

3

0.2

2

0.1

1

R

". 4

,

2

. ..--~---

i;

0 Ix -

.......

I

10

I

30

20

40

E, eV

~, ' , :"

(b) 12

I

]

.'* ,'-:'\ ;- , , , x

/"

.

.

1.8

"

r 3 1.5J

"

x

.

'~

,', ,

/q

,

.

g - A s2 S 3

J

"*

0 J!"/

"~6

'

"''"

',

132 E 2

." . . . . . . . . . . .

d~

', ",k ", E2

(c)

ll0

25 -

- I m (1WE)-1

,.~

".g

3

0

"'""'"

" 1

0.6 " ' .........

0.3

--

1 ~ .

" -- ..

20 E, eV

30

40

30~

,,/"",

.

" -Imc-Z

0.6

!

;i

20 -

"~.i

i 15

_

"

:

g - A s 2 S~

7

~

0.4

1.0

,

-7

.

I

10

.'

"

,

.

9

,

.~ . . . . . . . .

5

'''"

,Y

Eef

\"

0.2

0.5

9

-\-

"~

I

I

I

10

20

30

t

40

E, eV FIG. 2. Calculated spectra of R, n, el (a), k,/x, 82, E2E:2 (b), - I m e -1 , - I m ( 1 + e) -], nef, 8ef (C) for g-As2S3 in the energy range 0 - 4 0 eV.

210

V. Val. Sobolev and V.V. Sobolev

compounds, it is important to solve the inverse problem" having an integral curve, one has to restore the contributions of elementary transitions and determine the parameters of each (the maximum energy Ei, its half-width Hi and height Ii and the area Si of the transition bands, and oscillator strength). It is possible by the method of joined (combined) Argand diagrams ez(E ) - f l (el (E)). On the basis of the obtained ez(E) and el (E) spectra, a joined (combined) associated Argand diagram is plotted. Then, starting with the most intensive maximum of ez(E), the individual bands are successively extracted, with subsequent optimization of the decomposition. In electron loss spectra, the analogs of e 2 and el functions are - I m e-1 and - R e e-1 functions. Therefore, the calculation of a spectrum of elementary longitudinal components and the determination of their parameters are performed similarly to those of transverse components, using the method of joined (combined) Argand diagrams for - I m e -1 - f z ( - R e e - 1 ) . Theoretically, the energy of the longitudinal component is always somewhat larger than the energy of its transverse analog. Quantitative evaluations of this shift AE are known only for free excitons (Sobolev and Nemoshkalenko, 1992). The electron loss function depends on el and 82: - I m e -1 - 8 2 ( 8 2 + e2) -1 . From the analysis of this formula and the loss spectra of some studied materials (Pines, 1966), it follows that the intensity of the long-wavelength part in a loss spectrum is always much lower (compared to the short-wavelength one) than in a e 2 spectrum. The main calculation parameters of the transverse (1) and longitudinal (2) components are given in Table II. Nine transverse (Nos. 1-9) and eight longitudinal (Nos. 3 - 9 and 6~) components were found in the transitions of g-AszS3. The small values of the loss functions in the range E < 4 eV made it impossible to extract weak bands Nos. 1 and 2. The integral curves of the optical spectra contain only three maxima (ez,R) with the weak triplet fine structure of the most long-wavelength reflectivity maximum. The half-widths H i of the majority of the spectra decomposition components are in the interval 1-2 eV. This makes it considerably more difficult to extract weak longwavelength bands of the loss spectrum and to determine the energy values of the shifts AE between both transition components. The long-wavelength components (Nos. 1-3) are mostly 1.5-2 times narrower than the other ones. The band areas Si (and the transition probabilities) of the transverse components are larger than the Si values of the longitudinal ones 10-20 times (Nos. 3 - 5 and 8) and 3 - 5 times (Nos. 6 and 7). This does not only confirm the theoretical qualitative evaluations on larger intensity of the transverse components (Pines, 1966; Sobolev and Nemoshkalenko, 1988), but it also quantitatively establishes that the transverse components are very much larger in intensity than the longitudinal ones for the majority of the transition bands. In the above discussion of the interpretation of maxima of the integral spectra of the g-AszS3 optical functions, the energy values En of possible transitions were evaluated (Table I) on the basis of XPS data on the density of occupied states (Bishop and Shevchik, 1975; Salaneck and Zallen, 1976) and the value of Eg. According to these evaluations, the most intensive components extracted by us can be due to the transitions to lower unoccupied states from the maxima of bands of occupied states (values En in Table II). The rest components are due to the transitions from the maxima of the XPS spectra to

Optical Spectra of Arsenic Chalcogenides TABLE

211

II

ENERGIES ( e V ) E i OF THE MAXIMA, H A L F - W I D T H H i , AND AREAS S i OF THE BAND COMPONENTS FOR TWO VARIANTS (1 AND 2) OF THE DECOMPOSITION OF THE SPECTRA 8 2 AND - I m 8 -~ AND POSSIBLE ENERGIES E. OF OPTICAL TRANSITIONS (VARIANTS A AND B) OF g - A s 2 S 3 No.

Ei

Hi

e2

-

1

2

-

Im e- 1

1

Si

82

2

82

1

2

En

-- I m e - 1

1

2

1

82

2

A

1

1

3.2

3.2

-

-

0.4

0.9

-

-

0.8

6.4

-

2

3.7

3.6

-

-

0.7

1.0

-

-

2.3

2.5

.

B

2

-

3.0

.

.

-

.

3

4.2

4.1

4.2

-

1.2

0.9

4.2

-

3.8

6.8

0.1

-

-

4.2

3/

-

4.6

4.9

-

-

1.0

1.0

-

-

3.3

0.2

-

-

-

4

5.2

5.2

4.9

-

2.0

1.1

1.0

-

1.8

5.6

0.2

-

5.8

-

5

6.0

-

5.9

-

2.0

-

1.2

-

2.4

-

0.2

-

6.3

6.4

5/

-

6.4

-

-

-

1.3

-

-

-

6.2

.

6/

7.2

-

7.1

6.7

2.1

-

1.6

3.0

1.8

-

0.4

6.9

-

6

-

7.8

-

-

-

1.6

-

-

-

7.0

.

7/

9.0

-

8.3

-

1.6

-

1.2

-

0.4

-

0.2

-

-

-

7

-

9.4

9.4

9.7

-

1.6

1.0

1.6

-

5.9

0.1

0.2

7.5

-

-

3.0

1.3

1.1

-

4.4

3.3

0.2

-

1.0

1.4

1.4

2.3

0.7

2.2

0.4

0.5

8

10.7

10.8

10.5

9

12.0

12.3

11.8

11.9

10

-

13.8

-

13.7

-

11 /

-

-

-

15.9

-

11

-

16.8

-

-

-

12

-

19.2

-

18.9

13

-

-

-

21.8

14

-

-

-

32.2

15

-

-

-

38.0

higher

unoccupied

states,

bands

of the

spectra

XPS

agreement

between

the results

of decomposition

Salaneck

and

valence

band

Zallen

dielectric into

function

have

been

the model

-

0.8

-

1.8

-

-

-

-

1.9

-

7.0

-

-

-

6.3

-

-

-

-

-

-

from

on

states

obtained and

and

of transitions

states.

These

results

substantially

and

electronic

structure

They

in

absorption. electronic

structure

lay,

bulk

0.2

-

-

2.0

-

-

16.0

-

15.2

12.9

-

-

-

5.5

-

-

6.1

-

-

-

1.6

-

-

2.3

-

-

-

0.9

-

-

of the

very

wide

A

good

transitions

and

structure and

Zallen

(1976).

of possible

complex

confirms

the results

structure

The

new

0-35

the in

eV,

loss function main

of

a wide

foundation

of

the

of

higher

of

spectra

of

been

decomposed components

proposed

states

information range

theoretical

functions

of the

has been

energy for

integral

have

of occupied

amount

optical

their

parameters

interpretation

of densities

g-AszS3

materials.

of the fundamental

electron

enlarge of

principle,

of glassy

-

-

and

of their

the maxima

spectra

12.0

1.4

more

0-12

components.

the scheme

from

11.5

-

into components

sets of spectra

characteristic

and

.

-

the spectrum

or

.

of g-AszS3.

in the range

longitudinal

determined,

quintet

0.5 .

-

in Salaneck

concerning

.

-

of the finer

obtained

the

2.2 -

.

1.6

the maxima

was

of the e 2 spectrum

the complete

been

transverse

1.2

-

than

(1976)

of occupied

have

-

our evaluations

For the first time, g-AszS3

and

1.6 -

.

within

to unoccupied on of

the

optical

fundamental

calculations

of

212

V. Val. Sobolev and V.V. Sobolev

5. Optical Spectra of g-As2Ses 5.1.

CALCULATIONS OF SETS OF OPTICAL FUNCTIONS

For g-As2Se3, the reflectivity spectra of polished bulk samples have been obtained in the ranges 1-12.5 eV (Andriesh and Sobolev, 1965, 1966; Andriesh et al., 1967; Sobolev, 1967; Belle et al., 1968) and 2 - 1 4 eV (Zallen et al., 1971). The results of Andriesh and Sobolev (1965, 1966), Andriesh et al. (1967), Sobolev (1967) and Belle et al. (1968) are in good agreement with each other. In Zallen et al. (1971), the structures of the R(E) spectrum are seen less clear than in Andriesh and Sobolev (1965, 1966), Andriesh et al. (1967), Sobolev (1967) and Belle et al. (1968), and the values of R(E) in the energy range E > 8 eV seem to be overestimated. Thus, we used the R(E) spectrum from Sobolev (1967) in the calculations. On the basis of this spectrum, a complete set of the fundamental optical functions of g-AszSe3 was calculated in the range 0-12.5 eV (Fig. 3). In Table III (Column 1) the maxima energies of the obtained optical functions are presented. The experimental reflectivity spectrum R(E) consists of a very broad and intensive band in the range 2 - 5 eV with a maximum at 2.9 eV and weak side maxima at 2.4 and 4.1 eV. Besides, the broad bands can be seen in the ranges 5-7.5 and 7.5-12 eV with the maxima at --~5.7 and 9.6 eV. The long-wavelength maximum No. 1 of the calculated spectra is shifted relative to the maximum of R(E) to the lower energy range by --~0.6 (el), 0.4 eV (n), or to the higher energy range by --~0.4 eV (e2). In the spectra of other functions it is relatively weak. The analog of short-wavelength maximum No. 2 of the first reflectivity band is seen to be shifted slightly to the higher energy range for k and/x, while the shift to the higher energy range for EZe2, - I m e -1, and - I m ( 1 + e) -1 is quite noticeable (up to ---0.4 eV). The analogs of two other maxima (Nos. 3 and 5) are shifted to the lower (el, n, e2) or higher (e2, k,/x, E2~:2, - I m e - 1 , - I m ( 1 + e) -1) energy ranges by --~0.3-0.5 eV. Besides the reflectivity spectrum, the characteristic bulk electron loss spectra - Im -1 are also known, which have been measured on thin films of g-AszSe3 in the ranges 0 - 4 0 eV (Perrin, 1973) and 0 - 1 0 0 eV (Rechtin and Averbach, 1974). On the basis of these spectra, we also calculated the set of optical functions (Figs. 4 and 5). In Table III (Columns 2 and 3) the energy values of some of their maxima are shown. The spectra of optical functions, calculated on the basis of the - I m e-1 spectrum from Perrin (1973) (Column 2 in Table III), contain the largest number of maxima. In the reflectivity spectrum R(E) one can see, besides the experimentally known maxima (Nos. 1, 2, and 5), also the maxima No. 4/, 5 ~, 6 ~, 6, 7, and 8. Bands No. 3 and 4 manifested themselves more clearly in the k(E), tx(E), and EZez(E) spectra. The calculated reflectivity spectrum of the third group contains the maxima No. 1, 2, 3~, 4, and 6 (Column 3 in Table III). Their analogs exist in the spectra of other optical functions with a shift up to 0.5 eV. In a reflectivity spectrum of any material, the long-wavelength bands are usually the most intensive in the range E < 6 eV, while for E > 6 eV the values of R(E) are strongly decreased. On the contrary, in electron loss spectra the most intensive are the short-wavelength bands, while the long-wavelength parts of these spectra are very

Optical Spectra o f Arsenic Chalcogenides

213

(a)

-

3.5

-

3.0

-

2.5

100.3

-

g - A S2 Se 3

8 -

0.26

-

'fn

4 -

R

2.0 0.1

-

1.5

2 I

ll5

lo

5

20

25

E, eV

(b)

15

8 ..,.~. . . . . ~.,,,.\

g -A

f ""E2E 2 l

f

Se 2

S2

\

f

tI

x. N 9

\

,

,, 1.0

7

"~v(. "

r tt~

~ , i ,

4 \

=:1.

.t/" "

/'\

~

~

"

"

"

" ,

k

I f"

9

\ ~

7z

\

.

& ~9

"

I

I

I

5

10

15

~D

0.5

I

25

20

E, eV

(c)

,,

_

! i

15

Eef

_.' .i

3

~ " ~

, - .......

"''"

-Imc-1

" ,"~ .''.. / 12 ; r ..,. //. , \./ ',,/ i ! .~ .,," /x. i'. ~/ / ". 9 ~;,'. " / ".,

~!,.

/

~'"

/

;/

,,r ~

0

i/

-Im (l+r

0.2

"" g-As2Se3

.

.

,

9

9

9

\.

~ef

6;.."

-

/

/ !

2

~

...........

"

~ '~

0.2-

~

I

7 + 0.1 " I

\'".,,. " . .O.1-

-.,:

I

I

I

I

5

10

15

20

, 25

E, eV FIG. 3. Experimental spectrum of R and the calculated spectra of n, el (a), k, /.t, /32, E2e2 (b), - I m e -1 - I m ( 1 + e) -1 t / e f ~ 8 e l (c) for g-As2Se3 in the energy range 0 - 2 2 eV.

ENERGIES (eV) R

No.

1

2

2 . 4 1 2.9 2 4.1 3 ' 3 5.7 41 4 -

5,

OF THE

-

2.8 3.9

TABLE I11 MAXIMA AND SHOULDERS FOR THREE VARIANTS (1,2 A N D 3) IN THE SPECTRA OF OPTICAL FUNCTIONS A N D POSSIBLE ENERGIES E, OF OPTICAL TRANSITIONS (VARIANTSA A N D B ) OF g-As2Se3 n

EI

1

2

1

2

-

-

-

-

-

2.9 2.3 3.5 4.6-

-

-

5.2

4.7

6.7

-

-

-

-

8.0-

8.8

-

-

2.7 4.5

1

2

-

-

-

2.7 3.9

2.9 3.3 2.7 3.4 3.8 4.35.4-

-

2.9 2.5 3.4 4.2-

-

-

5.2 6.6-

-

7.8-

-

-

1

5.8 6.9-

-

7.8-

2 -

-

-

1 -

CL

k

"2

2

1

2

-

-

-

-

3.2

-

-

3.9 4.5

4.0 4 . 6 -

-

5.7

-

-

-

8.2

8.0

-

-

4.4

1

-

-

-

4.0 -

-

6.0

5.7

-

6.0

-

-

-

-

-

8.5

-

-

8.2 -

2

-

-

-

4.4 -

5.8 -

8.5 -

E

1 -

2 -

3.2 3.9 4.2 4 . 6 -

8.0 -

6.0 -

~

1 -

4.4 -

5.8 -

E

I m E-'

~

2 -

1

-

3.2 4.0 4.5 4 . 6 5.6 -

8.8

8.5

-

-

6.2

-

+

-Im(l 2

1

2

-

-

-

-

-

-

4.6

-

4.3

2.8 4.6

-

-

-

-

s

En

8)-'

2

1

-

1

-

-

-

2.9

2.8 4.3 5.0

-

6.0

6.0

6.0

6.0

5.7

5.7

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

8.5

-

-

-

-

-

6.4

-

3 0-

3 e

5

5

s

3 J-

Optical Spectra of Arsenic Chalcogenides

215

(a)

0.4

4

0.3

3

i

i,

12-

g - A s2Se 3 9

=

','.

~o 6

R

3

.........

'

ii:

0.2

2

Q.L

1

........ 20

10

30

40

E, eV

(b)

15

i'-; . i t~

, ,

,_,

"

'

i.

"

1.8-

, "

,-~l o

~~ 9

-3

\

i.

' ,

12

. \

i.

-x.

t,l ""-

..

g - A s 2Se.3

",-

-2% r

,, "~

"x . , .

. ...

6

E2 E 2 "" . . . . . .

s

",,

tl}!~ k "

3

o0

".

.,,..,.

""'"'"'"'"

r

" . .}.t ",k

~o

"~ 0.6-

'''.

2o

j.~)

........

~o

40

E, eV

(c)

30

.

-Im ( l +eO-1 i" ",

25

2. -- 0.8

"'" "

"

i ~ ' . i ~ ;/):

20

9

oa ~15

"

//

\

~ 1.5--0.6

".

g-As2Se 3

" "" -Ime-11

:

_- '.

-? ~r

~o

"

+

~1.0

0.4 ,~ !

I I"

10

i"

_ 0

,

[

~

/';7." ." " , ~

" "

9

10

~.

~

\.

~176

0.2

\

,

,. ".

20

-,..

,

,

,

. . . .

"---,_'_21_:_i_'_ 30

40

E, eV Fro. 4. Calculated spectra of R, n, el (a),k,/.t, 82, E 28 2 ( b ) , - I m 8-1 , - I m ( 1 + 8 ) - 1,nef, eef (c) for g-As2Se3 in the energy range 0 - 4 0 eV.

216

V. Val. Sobolev and V. V. Sobolev (a) 12

It

0"414 g - A $40 Se60

9

6

3

_'_'_' .....

0.3

3

0.2

2

0".1_.-L1

0 110

RI0

30

40

E, eV

(b)

/~.

-3

~

12 6 IA Ill

'i- ',',

t

i I~ "

~ "\

]i l , "i"

.

12-

"

, ,,.,, ..

g- A $40 Sea0

9

4 ]: \ ~ x I' \l .

',

\

i

0.8-

""--.... E2 E 2

~

"

"'..

,,

3

IJ

-,

j

0 Calculated spectra of

.. -,-..

/

FIG. 5.

x.

,

-----A-

04

,., ~

~

",-

,'

9._.

10

20 30 40 E, eV R, n, el (a), k,/x,/32, E2e2 (b) for g-As4oSe6o in the energy

range

0-40 eV.

weak and measured with large errors. This can explain the differences in the locations of the maxima, obtained by us after the calculations of three sets of optical functions on the basis of the experimental R(E) and - I m e - 1 spectra. Disagreement in the results of the two calculations from loss spectra of Perrin (1973) and Rechtin and Averbach (1974) seems to be mostly due to the differences in the preparation modes of g-AszS3 samples and in the measurement techniques of loss spectra used in both papers. In Table III, only those of the maxima of the three calculated sets of optical functions are given. The experimental - I m e -1 spectra of Perrin (1973) and Rechtin and Averbach (1974) are interesting mostly because of their large measured energy regions ( 0 - 4 0 eV (Perrin, 1973), 0 - 1 0 0 eV (Rechtin and Averbach, 1974)). This made it possible to substantially broaden the energy interval of the calculated optical functions. To determine the complex fine structure of the optical spectra with certitude, it is necessary to perform considerably

Optical Spectra of Arsenic Chalcogenides

217

more accurate measurements of the characteristic loss spectra in intensity and spectral resolution. It follows from the photoemission spectra of Bishop and Shevchik (1975) that the occupied states of AszSe3 consist of two very broad doublet bands in the ranges 0 - 7 and 7 - 1 7 eV, below the top of the occupied states, with the maxima at --~ 1.5, 4.3, 10.5, and 13.3 eV. The differences between the XPS spectra of the crystalline and those of glass samples are quite insignificant. In Hayashi, Sato and Taniguchi (1999), densities of occupied states in the range 0 - 1 3 eV and densities of unoccupied states in the range 0 - 1 0 eV were studied. The following maxima were found: three maxima of densities of occupied states at --~ 1.4, 2.9, and 4.9 eV, and two maxima of densities of unoccupied states at --~3.6 and 8.0 eV. According to the general theory of the optical properties of glasses, the maxima of the optical transitions in glasses are mostly determined by their relative positions in the energy scale of densities of occupied and unoccupied states. Therefore, taking into account the value Eg ~ 1.4 eV and the positions of the maxima of densities of states for g-AszSe3, one can expect four (Bishop and Shevchik, 1975) and eight (Hayashi et al., 1999) maxima of transition bands (the data in Columns B and A in Table III). They are due to transitions from the maxima of densities of occupied states into the lowest and higher maxima of densities of free states. This rather simplified model can give only the evaluations of the energy values of the expected maxima of the optical spectra of g-AszSe3. Nevertheless, it is in good agreement with our calculated spectra.

5.2.

DECOMPOSITION OF DIELECTRIC FUNCTION SPECTRA AND CHARACTERISTIC ELECTRON LOSS SPECTRA INTO ELEMENTARY COMPONENTS

For g-As2Se3, three sets of fundamental optical functions were calculated on the basis of the experimental R(E) spectra (Sobolev, 1967--No. 3) and characteristic bulk electron loss - I m - 1 spectra (Perrin, 1973mNo. 1; Rechtin and Averbach, 1974mNo. 2). As in the case of g-AszS3, the dielectric function spectra and electron loss spectra of these three sets were decomposed into elementary components, and their main parameters (Ei, Hi, Si, f~, li) were determined. Three of the obtained parameters (Ei, Hi, and Si) of decomposition of the functions of the three sets are given in Table IV. On the whole, 11 (No. 3), 7 (No. 2), and 8 (No. 1) transverse components and 7 longitudinal ones were found. The largest numbers of the transverse components were found from the ez(E ) spectrum, calculated on the basis of R(E). The longitudinal components in the energy range E > 14 eV were determined only from the experimental loss spectra. These and other characteristic features of the components of the spectrum curves' decomposition are connected with the properties of processes of optical and electronic excitation of transitions. The most intensive bands are located in the long-wavelength (shortwavelength) part of the e 2 ( - I m e -1) spectrum. Moreover, when moving from the bands maxima to the higher (lower) energy range, the values of e 2 ( - I m e -1) are not merely decreasing, but drop sharply to very small values, which are recorded with relatively large errors. Hence, the transverse components are determined most reliably in the energy range E < 12 eV, while the longitudinal o n e s ~ i n the energy range E > 12 eV. Characteristic bulk loss spectra are affected by the samples preparation

TABLE IV ENERGIES (eV) EiOF THE MAXIMA, HALF-WIDTH Hi, A N D AREASSi OF THE BANDCOMPONENTS FOR THREE VARIANTS ( 1 , 2 A N D 3) OF THE DECOMPOSITION OF THE SPECTRA E2 AND -1m E - ' AND POSSIBLE ENERGIES En OF OPTICAL TRANSITIONS (VARIANTS A AND B) OF g-As2Ses NO.

Ei

-1m

&2

1

2

3

1

2

-1m

&I

E-'

3

1

2

3

En

Si

Hi

1

2

-Im

&2

&-'

3

1

2

3

1

B

E-'

2

3

A

Optical Spectra of Arsenic Chalcogenides

219

technology and the methods of obtaining the - I m e-1 function from the experimentally measured electron loss curves (Pines, 1966). These features of e 2 and - I m e -1 can explain certain differences in the values of the components' parameters in the three calculations (Nos. 1- 3). In the above consideration of the integral spectra of the optical spectra of gAszSe3, a simplified model of their interpretation was proposed, based on the experimental spectra of distribution of densities of occupied and unoccupied states (two right columns A and B in Table III). This model can also be applied to the components of decomposition of the e 2 and - I m e -1 spectra (two right columns A and B in Table IV). Thus, the complete sets of spectra of the fundamental optical functions of g-AszSe3 have been obtained for the first time in the range 0 - 1 2 and 0 - 3 5 eV, their integral spectra of dielectric function and characteristic bulk electron loss function have been decomposed into transverse and longitudinal components, the main parameters of the components have been determined, the scheme of their interpretation has been proposed within the model of transitions from the maxima of densities of occupied states to free states. These results substantially enlarge the amount of information on the optical spectra and electronic structure of g-AszSe3 in a wide energy range of fundamental absorption. They create a conceptually new foundation for theoretical calculations of electronic structure of vitreous arsenic chalcogenides.

6. Optical Spectra of g-AsxSel-x (x = 0.5, 0.36) 6.1.

CALCULATIONS OF SETS OF OPTICAL FUNCTIONS

The glasses of A s - S e system can have continuous composition. They were modeled theoretically in Schunin and Schwarz (1989) with clusters AsxSel-x of various compositions. The value of Eg of many of them lies in the small energy interval 1.4-1.6 eV. In Rechtin and Averbach (1974), the loss spectra - I m - 1 of two phases of such system ( x - 0.50 and 0.36) in the range 3 - 1 0 0 eV are given. On the basis of these spectra, we calculated the sets of optical functions (Figs. 6 and 7). The experimental - I m e -1 spectrum of thin layers of AssoSeso contains intensive maxima No. 1, 3, 5, and 8 (Table V). The most intensive and broad maximum No. 8 is due to bulk ( - I m e - 1 , E p v - 18.8 eV) and surface ( - I m ( 1 + e) -1, E p s - 14.6 eV) plasmons. The value of parameter p - Epv/Eps- 1.3 is close to the theoretical one (p - 1.4) (Pines, 1966) for free electrons. In the calculated spectra of many functions, maxima No. 3, 5, 6, and 9 can be seen. Other maxima manifest themselves with various intensities, reflecting the character of their dependencies on energy. Usually, as is the case with AssoSeso, the most long-wavelength maximum can be seen more clearly in the R, n, and /31 spectra, while in the 82, k,/z, and E 282 spectra, one sees more clearly the next one or two maxima. The experimental - Im e -1 spectrum of As36Se64 films contains maxima No. 3 - 5 , 7, and 9 (Table VI). The most intensive and broad of them--maximum No. 7--is due to

V.

220

Val.

Sobolev

and

Sobolev

V.V.

(a) o

7 ,.I

|~ t'

,I

6--

.iI i't

0.2 g-As5o Seso 2

!

J

4

, ,

.

". ... 9 9

~

R ~ R

0.1 1

2 9

l I

,

~

~

o

,

'

,

.

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

0

(b)

- 5

12-

9

/~ I~

i 20

I

\**

rio

4 ~

~

~

' \" ,.

g-As5~176

.

',\'\

" ~

".

0.8." /

"\'.

~

9\ :

E2 E 2

'~.

~

0

2 o

%

..." ,"

..,......""

~ ............

,.~

09

"

k " ,~ ,,

o1 .," 9

eq

/

~ 2

40

.

,,x

"~6

30

"~r

.

~,.

Ii 7 /

i r,

1.2-

,.,,, ~.

I/I,~\~"'"Il i "

3

i 10

I

I

10

20

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

0.4.

I

E, eV

30

40

FIG. 6. Calculated spectra of R, n,/31 (a), k,/x,/32, E2e2 (b) for g-AssoSeso in the energy range 0-40 eV.

bulk (Epv -- 19.0 eV) and surface (gps -- 11.3 eV) plasmons. Parameter p - Epv/Eps -1.7 noticeably exceeds the theoretical value for free electrons. In the calculated spectra of many optical functions, maxima No. 4 - 6 can be seen. In the case of As36Se64, the most intensive maxima are No. 3 (R, n, el) or No. 4 (e2, k,/~, E 2e2). All the maxima of the set functions' spectra, except for maxima No. 8 (AssoSeso) and No. 7 (As36Se64), are due to transitions from occupied states into free ones. In Hayashi et al. (1999), it is found from the photoemission spectra that the maxima N ( E ) of free states of many phases of g - A s - S e system are at energy values 4.0 and

Optical Spectra of Arsenic Chalcogenides

221 0.4 m 4

(a)

I I

9-

~, i"

g-As36 8e64 0.3 m 3

.I

6

tl

0.2 m 2

3

,......

,'

.....

.

-,-

...........

0 10

(b)

20

30

E, eV

40

. I ~" ,'iL!

" -

~'i!.

9

s

"

9

-

I

g-As36 Se64

. / 1.6-

"~

~

,\ "'\ ~ \'xe2E2

"

,,idI . .

2

9

\x

I I

3

/ /

~ ri i! i Ii I ~ 1 ' t'l t/

~z~ 6

./ 9

-

~'/-'!I..

2.0"~ ~ *

"

\

\x\

~

/"

0.8-

'-"

"

t"q

eq

./

"" ""

.

1.2-

9/

.

1

, . . 0.4-

E2 ~ "/

0

.

~

I

I

10

20

I

E, eV

30

40

FIG. 7. Calculated spectra of R, n, el (a), k,/z, e2, E2e2 (b) for g-As36Se64 in the energy range 0 - 4 0 eV.

9.0 eV, above the top of occupied states, while the maxima N(E) of their occupied states are below their top by 1.3, 2.8, 5.0, and 10.0 eV. On the basis of the results for N(E) from Hayashi et al. (1999), we evaluated the energy values En of the maxima of possible transitions of both phases g-AsxSey (right columns of Tables V and VI). These evaluations are mostly in good agreement with the energy values of the maxima of many optical f u n c t i o n s (/32,/.s k).

V. Val. Sobolev and V.V. Sobolev

222

TABLE V ENERGIES (eV) OF THE MAXIMA AND SHOULDERS IN THE SPECTRA OF OPTICAL FUNCTIONS AND POSSIBLE ENERGIES E n OF OPTICAL TRANSITIONS (VARIANTS A AND B) OF g-AssoSeso No.

R . 2.7 3.7 . 9.2 12.3 . . 27.0 .

1 2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

6.2.

/31

n

132

. 3.0 . . 7.5 11.0 . . . . . .

. 3.0 -

. . 4.0

7.8 11.0 . . 30.0 .

8.8 12.8

.

/x

k .

. .

.

3.8 5.5 9.3 12.8

.

.

. 3.6 5.6 9.3 12.8 18.0

. . -

E2/32

. 3.6 5.6 9.3 12.8 18.0

. 27.0 32.0

. .

. .

- h n / 3 -1

-Im(1 +/3) -1

2.1 . 3.5 10.0 18.8

2.1

. .

3.5 10.0 14.6 . .

En -

2.7 4.2 5.3 10.3 11.4 19.0 -

. .

DECOMPOSITION OF DIELECTRIC FUNCTION SPECTRA AND CHARACTERISTIC ELECTRON LOSS SPECTRA INTO ELEMENTARY COMPONENTS

T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l loss s p e c t r a - I m e - 1 o f g - A s s o S e s o a n d g-As36Se64 f i l m s a n d t h e spectra, calculated from them, were decomposed

82

into elementary components. The most

intensive transverse and longitudinal components of the transitions and their parameters were determined. In Tables VII and VIII, numbering

of the components

is g i v e n o n

the a s s u m p t i o n of the s a m e nature o f the s a m e n u m b e r c o m p o n e n t s of both phases, their d i f f e r e n c e s in e n e r g y c o n s t i t u t i n g o n l y a s m a l l p a r t o f t h e i r h a l f - w i d t h s . C o m p o n e n t s N o . 1, 4 ( A s s o S e s o ) a n d N o . 7, 10, 11 (As36Se64) w e r e n o t d e t e c t e d , p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e o f t h e i r small intensity. After d e c o m p o s i t i o n of the - I m e -1 spectra into c o m p o n e n t s , i m p r o v e d values of bulk plasmon

energy were obtained: Epv-

18.7 e V ( A s s o S e s o ) a n d 18.6 e V

(As36Se64). T h e s e v a l u e s a r e s m a l l e r t h a n Epv o f A s z S e 3 ( T a b l e I V ) o n l y b y 0.7 e V . Our evaluations of energy values of the maxima

of the bands of possible transitions

b e t w e e n t h e m a x i m a o f d e n s i t i e s o f s t a t e s f r o m H a y a s h i et al. ( 1 9 9 9 ) o f b o t h g - A s x S e l - x

T A B L E VI ENERGIES (eV) OF THE MAXIMA AND SHOULDERS IN THE SPECTRA OF OPTICAL FUNCTIONS AND POSSIBLE ENERGIES En OF OPTICAL TRANSITIONS (VARIANTS A AND B) OF g-As36Se64 No. 1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

R . . 3.7 5.5 8.2 9.9 . 19.0 28.5

el

n

. .

. . 3.7 7.2 -

.

k

. .

. .

. .

.

. 5.3 8.1 . . .

3.7 5.1 7.2 . 20.0

. 20.0 .

/32

.

.

/x . . .

. 5.7 8.4 10.5 .

E2/32

- I m e -1

. . 5.7 8.4 10.6

5.5 8.2 11.0

. . .

. .

.

.

4.5 6.8 9.5 19.0 . 29.5

-Im(1 +/3) -1 1.4 2.4 4.5 6.8 9.5 11.3 29.5

En

2.7 4.4 5.3 7.0 10.3 19.0 -

223

Optical Spectra of Arsenic Chalcogenides TABLE ENERGIES FOR TWO

( e V ) Ei O F T H E M A X I M A , VARIANTS

Hi,

AND AREAS

(1 A N D 2 ) O F T H E D E C O M P O S I T I O N

POSSIBLE No.

VII

HALF-WIDTH

ENERGIES

E n OF OPTICAL TRANSITIONS

Ei 82

S i OF THE BAND

OF THE SPECTRA

-

Im e- 1

Si

82

-

-

Im e- 1

-1

AND

OF g-As5oS%0

Hi

-

COMPONENTS

e 2 AND --Ime

132

En

-

Im e- 1

-

2

3.5

-

1

-

2

-

2.7

3

4.3

-

1.9

-

8.6

-

4.2

5

5.9

6.7

2.2

3.5

7.0

0.4

5.3

6

7.5

6.7

1.7

3.5

2.5

0.4

-

7

8.8

-

2.3

-

6.8

-

8

9.8

-

2.5

-

2.9

-

10.3

9

10.9

-

2.3

-

4.7

-

11.4

10

13.3

14.8

2.3

8.0

3.1

2.0

-

11

15.9

14.8

2.9

8.0

3.3

2.0

-

18.7

-

8.1

-

21

2.3

5.5

12 13

20.9

-

11.5 1.4

-

3.1

19

14

-

25.9

-

3.9

-

1.8

-

15

-

31.5

-

5.3

-

1.5

-

16

-

38.0

-

3.0

-

2.4

-

phases are in good agreement with the energy values of many decomposition components of the e 2 spectra (energy values En in the right columns of Tables VII and VIII). The obtained results prove the strong similarity between the structures of the optical functions' spectra and the electronic structure of the three g-AsxSel-x phases (x - 0.40,

0.50, 0.36). TABLE

VIII

(eV) E i OF THE MAXIMA, HALF-WIDTHS Hi, AND AREAS S i OF THE BAND COMPONENTS F O R T W O V A R I A N T S (1 AND 2 ) O F T H E D E C O M P O S I T I O N OF THE SPECTRA e 2 AND --Im e -1 AND

ENERGIES

POSSIBLE No.

ENERGIES

En O F O P T I C A L T R A N S I T I O N S

No. e2

OF g-As36Se64

Ei - Im e- 1

/32

Hi

-

-

Im e- 1

82

En

-

-

Im e- 1

1

2.2

-

1.4

-

2.5

-

2

3.6

-

1.6

-

5.4

-

2.7

3

4.5

-

1.5

-

6.0

-

4.4

4

5.4

-

1.5

-

10.8

-

5.3

5

6.0

-

1.4

-

4.7

-

-

6/

6.6

7.1

1.5

2.0

0.3

7.0

6

8.2

-

1.3

-

3.7

-

7.0

8

10.3

-

1.7

-

2.8

-

10.3

9

11.5

1.1

5.0

12

-

13 15

11.1

1.0

1.7

2.7

3.4

-

7.3

-

18.6

-

2.6

-

-

20.3

-

77.0

-

5.7

-

29.0

-

8.6

-

0.9

19.0 -

224

V. Val. Sobolev and V.V. Sobolev

7. Optical Spectra of g-As2Te3 7.1.

CALCULATIONS OF SETS OF OPTICAL FUNCTIONS

For g-As2Te3, the reflectivity spectra of p o l i s h e d bulk sampl es in the ranges 0 . 5 - 2 5 eV (Andriesh and Sobolev, 1965, 1966; A n d r i e s h et al., 1967; Sobolev, 1967; B e l l e et al., 1968) and 0 . 5 - 1 4 eV (Velicky, Z a v e t o v a and Pajasova, 1975) are k n o w n . T h e results of these papers are in g o o d a g r e e m e n t with each other. Thus, we used the

(a) 4 - -0.4

15 ifg-As 2 Te 3 12

.

~

I

3 -0.3

9 2 -0.2

6

,:-,

..

.

3 ,

_

-0.1

i

~ E 1 ~

0

||

,

,

o

|

,

,

o

|

,

~

I

10

5

E, eV

I

I

15

20

25

(b)

2

i ., . i "~" "

d"

I

I

~

~

,c--6

/

"

~

4~ ::t.

1 2

I

0

5

10

E, eV

15

20

25

FIG. 8. Experimental spectrum of R and the calculated spectra of n, el (a), k, tx, e2, EZe2 (b), - I m e -l, -Im(1 + e) -I , nef , eef (C) for g-As2Te3 in the energy range 0-25 eV.

Optical Spectra of Arsenic Chalcogenides

225

(c) o

0.5

*

20

0.4 I oD -t-

15 ~D

0.3 f

10

x I'~.x_im(l+~)_s t" /

.........

" " ._

":' ="~...- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I / !

" " " " "' .' - "." -. ' . . . .

# jlnef ##?f/ 9

I

0.2

I

I

"-........

--

0.1

I

FI6. 8 (continued)

R(E) spectrum from Sobolev (1967) in the calculations. On the basis of this spectrum, a complete set of the fundamental optical functions of g-AszTe3 was calculated in the range 0 - 2 5 eV (Fig. 8). The experimental reflectivity spectrum R(E) contains a very intensive and asymmetric broad band in the range 0 - 5 eV with the main maximum at ---2.0 eV and very weak side maxima at --- 1.3 and 3.2 eV. It is strongly overlapped with a band in the range 5-7.5 eV with the maximum at ---6.3 eV. The main band of R(E) in the calculated spectra of other optical functions is transformed into narrow (el, n, e2) o r broad (k,/~, EZe2) maxima at --- 1.14 (el), 1.20 (n), 1.97 ( e 2 ) , 2.63 (k), 3 . 3 5 (EZe2), and 4.0 (/.~). The analog of the second band of R(E) is shifted into the lower energy range by ---0.3 eV (e 1, n, e2), stays where it is (k), or is shifted into the higher energy range by --~0.5 eV (~, E 2e2). The values of g-AszTe3 optical functions at the long-wavelength maximum come very quickly to very large values: ---18 (el), 4.25 (n), 13.5 ( e 2 ) , and 1.4 • 107 cm-1 (1~). The characteristic bulk electron loss spectrum contains the main doublet band with maxima at ---7.9 and 9.5 eV and a maximum at ~-5.3 eV. Their analogs in the surface loss spectrum are shifted into the lower energy range to locations ~--5.1, 7.1, and 8.7 eV. From the photoemission spectra (XPS) of Bishop and Shevchik (1975), it was found that the distribution of density of occupied states N(E) in g-AszTe3 consists of two bands in the ranges 0 - 7 and 7 - 1 5 eV. The first band has doublet structure with the maxima at 1.6 and 4.5 eV. The maximum of the second band is very broad and lies in the interval 9.8-12.3 eV. For g-AszTe3, Eg is equal to ---0.8 eV (Mott and Davis, 1979; Tsendin, 1996). On the basis of these results, one can evaluate the energy values of possible transitions from occupied states to the lowest free states. One can also expect bands in the range 0.8-7.8 eV with the maxima at --~2.4 and 5.3 eV and a very broad band in the range 10.6-13.1 eV. These bands will be strongly overlapped with the bands of transitions from occupied states to higher free states.

226

V. Val. Sobolev and V.V. Sobolev

7.2.

D E C O M P O S I T I O N OF D I E L E C T R I C F U N C T I O N S P E C T R A A N D C H A R A C T E R I S T I C E L E C T R O N LOSS S P E C T R A I N T O E L E M E N T A R Y C O M P O N E N T S

The

dielectric

AszTe3 and

were

longitudinal

Altogether, intensive

16

spectra

components

and very broad

and

characteristic

into elementary

transverse

bulk plasmons. bound

function

decomposed

and

and

24

their

parameters

longitudinal

longitudinal

The rest components

bulk

components.

electron

The

most

were

spectra

determined

components

components

loss

intensive

were

of g-

transverse (Table

IX).

The

most

found.

N o . 131 a n d 1 4 1 / a r e a p p a r e n t l y

are connected

with the electronic

due to

transitions

from

states to free levels.

According longitudinal

to

the

transitions

general

transition

theory

are larger than the energy

(Pines, values

1966),

the

energy

of their transverse

values

of

analogs

by

TABLE IX ENERGIES ( e V ) E i OF THE MAXIMA, HALF-WIDTHS Hi, AND AREAS Si, AND AMPLITUDES I i OF THE BAND COMPONENTS OF THE DECOMPOSITION THE SPECTRA •2 AND - - I m e -1 AND POSSIBLE ENERGIES En OF OPTICAL TRANSITIONS (VARIANTS A AND B) OF g - A s 2 Z e 3 No.

Ei /32

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 /

-

Hi -

Im e - 1

/32

1.22 1.46 1.66 1.98 2.32 2.68 3.06 3.50 3.96 4.4 -

1.58 1.84 2.38 2.90 3.32 3.84 4.08 4.56 4.94

11

5.5

5.24

1.0

1 l/

_

5.66

-

12

6.3

6.46

1.7

12 /

-

6.96

13

7.2

13 /

-

14 14 / 14"

15 151 15" 16 16 / 16"

-

Im e - ~

-

-

Im e - 1 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.12 0.01 0.09 0.02

1.0

0.73

0.8

-

1.7

-

0.46

7.26

0.7

7.9

-

8.7

8.6

-

12.7 -

/32

-

En -

Im e - 1

2.00 4.30 3.20 8.20 2.40 6.75 1.30 3.74 0.53 2.00 -

0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.07 0.02

2.4 2.4 2.4 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3

0.25

0.50

0.17

5.3

0.08

-

0.06

5.3

3.87

0.42

1.57

0.17

-

0.02

-

0.03

10.6-13.1

0.6

0.50

0.04

0.47

0.05

10.6-13.1

2.1

-

0.92

-

0.30

10.6-13.1

2.5

1.2

3.24

0.05

0.90

0.03

10.6-13.1

9.0

-

1.5

-

0.19

-

0.09

10.6-13.1

9.9

-

2.5

-

0.88

-

0.24

10.6-13.1

11.7

1.9 -

1.7 1.5

1.30 -

0.24 0.36

0.46 -

0.10 0.16

10.6-13.1 10.6-13.1

12.2

-

0.40

-

0.02

-

0.04

10.6-13.1

12.6 13.0

2.50 -

0.8 0.49

2.70 -

0.11 0.04

0.73 -

0.09 0.05

10.6-13.1 10.6-13.1

13.9

-

2.2

-

0.95

-

0.29

10.6-13.1

10.7

0.65 1.1 0.30 1.3 -

0.25 0.35 0.8 0.54 0.6 1.4 0.42 0.8 0.6

/32

li

1.20 2.49 1.87 8.13 1.63 9.50 1.25 5.90 0.24 3.74 -

10.6 -

0.43 0.40 0.40 0.70 0.46 1.0

-

Si

5.3

Optical Spectra of Arsenic Chalcogenides

227

0.1-0.2 eV (Nos. 4, 11, 14, 16). This difference constitutes only a small part of their halfwidths Hi, and is within the accuracy of decomposition. In the spectrum of transverse components, one can distinguish three groups of most intensive bands: Nos. 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 and Nos. 14, 15, 16. They can be due to transitions En from the three bands of N(E) occupied states to the lowest free states (the rightmost column in Table IX). For g-As2S3 and g-AszSe3, considerably more complex structures of N(E) occupied states are known (Bishop and Shevchik, 1975; Salaneck and Zallen, 1976; Hayashi et al., 1999), as well as a complex structure of N(E) free states of the phases of g-As-Se system (Hayashi et al., 1999). Improvement of the XPS registration technique will undoubtedly allow observing more complex N(E) structures in g-AszTe3 and explain in more detail the nature of the determined transition components of g-AszTe3 in a wide energy range.

8.

Conclusion

Complete sets of the spectra of the fundamental optical functions of three glassy arsenic chalcogenides As2S3, AszSe3, AszTe3, and two phases of AsxSel-x system (x -- 0.50, 0.36) in a wide energy range of intrinsic absorption have been obtained for the first time. In another first, their integral dielectric function and characteristic bulk loss spectra have been decomposed into the elementary transverse and longitudinal components. The main parameters of components have been determined, including the transitions energies and probabilities. The schemes of interpretation of the components have been proposed in the model of transitions occurring from the maximum densities of the occupied states to the unoccupied states. The obtained results substantially enlarge the amount of information about the optical spectra and electronic structure of AszX3 glasses in a wide energy range of fundamental absorption. In addition, they lay a new principal foundation for the consideration of g-AszX3 properties, and provide a basis for future theoretical calculations of their electronic structure and optical spectra.

References Andriesh, A.M. and Sobolev, V.V. (1965) Thesises of of 3rd Conference "Chemical Bond in Semiconductors", CSU BSSR, Minsk, p. 48. Andriesh, A.M. and Sobolev, V.V. (1966) Chemical Bond in Semiconductors (Proceedings of the 3rd Conference "Chemical Bond in Semiconductors"), Science and Technics, Minsk, 212 pp. Andriesh, A.M., Sobolev, V.V. and Popov, Yu.V. (1967) Thesises of 4th International Conference "Glassy Semiconducting Chalcogenides", Nauka, Leningrad, p. 5. Babic, D. and Rabii, S. (1988) Phys. Rev. B, 38, 10490. Babic, D., Rabii, S. and Bernholc, J. (1988) Phys. Rev. B, 39, 10831. Belle, M.L., Kolomietsh, B.T. and Pavlov, B.V. (1968) Phys. Tech. Semicond., 2, 1448. Bishop, S.G. and Shevchik, N.J. (1975) Phys. Rev. B, 12, 1567. Gubanov, A.I. (1963) Quantum Electronic Theory of the Glass Semiconductors, AN USSR, Moscow, 250 pp. (in Russian). Hayashi, J., Sato, H. and Taniguchi, M. (1999) J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom., 101-103, 681. Hullinger, F. (1976) Structural Chemistry of Laser-Type Phases, D. Reidel, Dordrecht. Ioffe, A.F. and Regel, A.R. (1959) Prog. Semicond., 4, 238.

228

V. Val. Sobolev and V.V. Sobolev

Lazarev, V.B., Shevchenko, V.Yu., Grinberg, Yu.Ch. and Sobolev, V.V. (1978) Semiconductors ofA2B 5 Group, Nauka, Moscow, 256 pp. (in Russian). Lazarev, V.B., Sobolev, V.V. and Shaplygin, I.S. (1983) Chemical and Physical Properties of the Simple Metal Oxides, Nauka, Moscow, 239 pp. (in Russian). Mott, N.F. and Davis, E.A. (1979) Electron Processes in Non-crystalline Materials, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 656 pp. Perrin, J. (1973) These: Contribution a l'etude des Transitions Interbandes et des Plasmons de Trisulfure d'arsenic, Universite de Reims, Reims, 82 pp.. Perrin, J., Cazaux, J. and Soukiassian, P. (1974) Phys. Stat. Sol. (b), 62, 343. Pines, D. (1966) Elementary Excitations in Solids, W.A. Benjamin, New York, 305 pp.. Rechtin, M.D. and Averbach, B.L. (1974) Phys. Rev. B, 9, 3464. Salaneck, W.R., Liang, K.S., Paton, A. and Lipari, N.O. (1975) Phys. Rev. B, 12, 725. Salaneck, W.R. and Zallen, R. (1976) Solid State Commun., 20, 793. Schunin, Yu.N. and Schwarz, K.K. (1989) Phys. Tech. Semicond., 23, 1049. Sobolev, V.V. (1967) Thesis of Dissertation "Spectroscopy of the Solid State Energy Bands and Excitons", Institute of Appl. Phys. of AN MSSR, Kishinev, 564 pp.. Sobolev, V.V. (1978) The Energy Bands ofA 4 Group, Shtiinza, Kishinev, 207 pp. (in Russian). Sobolev, V.V. (1979) The Optical Fundamental Spectra ofA3B 5 Compounds, Shtiinza, Kishinev, 287 pp. (in Russian). Sobolev, V.V. (1980) Bands and Excitons ofA2B 6 Compounds, Shtiinza, Kishinev, 255 pp. (in Russian). Sobolev, V.V. (1981) The Energy Bands of A4B 6 Compounds, Shtiinza, Kishinev, 284 pp. (in Russian). Sobolev, V.V. (1982) Bands and Excitons of Ga, In and Tl Chalcogenides, Shtiinza, Kishinev, 272 pp. (in Russian). Sobolev, V.V. (1983) The Energy Structure of the Low Energy-Bands Semiconductors, Shtiinza, Kishinev, 287 pp. (in Russian). Sobolev, V.V. (1984) Excitons and Bands of the A1B 7 Compounds, Shtiinza, Kishinev, 302 pp. (in Russian). Sobolev, V.V. (1986) Bands and Excitons of Cryocrystals, Shtiinza, Kishinev, 206 pp. (in Russian). Sobolev, V.V. (1987) Bands and Excitons of the Metal Chalcogenides, Shtiinza, Kishinev, 284 pp. (in Russian). Sobolev, V.V. (1995) Fiz. Khim. Stekla, 21, 3. Sobolev, V.V. (1996) J. Appl. Spectrosc., 63, 143. Sobolev, V.V. (1999) J. Appl. Spectrosc., 66, 299. Sobolev, V.V., Alekseeva, S.A. and Donetskich, V.I. (1976) The Calculations of the Semiconductor Optical Functions by Kramers-Kronig Correlation, Shtiinza, Kishinev, 123 pp. (in Russian). Sobolev, V.V. and Nemoshkalenko, V.V. (1988) Electronic Structure of Semiconductors, Naukova Dumka, Kiev, 423 pp. (in Russian). Sobolev, V.V. and Nemoshkalenko, V.V. (1989) The Band Structure of Rare Metal Dichalcogenides, Naukova Dumka, Kiev, 296 pp. (in Russian). Sobolev, V.V. and Nemoshkalenko, V.V. (1992) Solid State Electronic Structure (Introduction to the Theory), Naukova Dumka, Kiev, 566 pp. (in Russian). Sobolev, V.V. and Shirokov, A.M. (1988) Electronic Structure of Chalcogens (S, Se, Te), Nauka, Moscow, 224 pp. (in Russian). Strujkin, V.V. (1989) Solid State Phys., 31, 261. Tsendin, K.D. (Ed.) (1996) Electron Processes in Chalcogenide Glassy Semiconductors, Nauka, SanctPeterburgh, 486 pp. (in Russian). Velicky, B., Zavetova, M. and Pajasova, L. (1975) Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Amorphous and Liquid Semiconductors, Nauka, Leningrad, p. 273. Zallen, R., Drews, R.E., Emerald, R.L. and Slade, M.L. (1971) Phys. Rev. Lett., 26, 1564.

CHAPTER

6

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF CHALCOGENIDE GLASSES Yu. S. Tver'yanovich DEPARTMENTOF CHEMISTRY,ST. PETERSBURGSTATEUNIVERSITY,PETRODVORETS,UNIVERSITETSKYPR. 26, 198504 ST. PETERSBURG,RUSSIA

1. Magnetism of Chalcogenide Glasses Not Containing Transitional Metals There is a continuous network built into the glass that has geometrical order irregular in comparison with that of the crystal. It is impossible to account for this network without taking into account various crystalline defects and the discontinuity of chemical bonds involved. The latter should have the uncompensated magnetic moment. Therefore, it was necessary to expect the existence of the Curie paramagnetism for glassy semiconductors. However, the careful measurements of the magnetic susceptibility (X) of glassy semiconductors (which do not contain any impurities) at low temperatures, as well as the investigations of ESR, showed that the concentration of paramagnetic centers in these materials is below that was expected in some orders. The detection of this inconsistency gave a strong impulse to the development of the theory of the structure of glassy semiconductors and has reduced to origin of the series of models for the structure of chalcogenide glasses, based on Anderson's idea about the energy preferability of the existence of the charged breakaways of bonds in comparison to the neutral ones (Anderson, 1975; Mott, Davis and Street, 1975; Kastner, Adler and Fritzsche, 1976).

1.1.

PROBLEMS

OF PHYSICOCHEMICAL

ANALYSIS OF GLASSY SYSTEMS

One of the major directions of the investigations of chalcogenide glasses is the study of their chemical structure. The research in this field may be carried out using the magnetochemical method within the framework of the physicochemical analysis (PCA). The following definition of the PCA was denoted by N.S. Kurnakov: 'The physicochemical analysis is aimed at detecting the correlation between composition x and properties e of the equilibrium systems, and its outcome is the pictorial build-up of the diagram composition-property.' He also noted that the PCA methods can be applied to the equilibrium systems only: 'The common principle of the physicochemical analysis is the quantitative study of the properties of equilibrium systems consisting of two or more 229

Copyright 9 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. ISBN 0-12-752188-7 ISSN 0080-8784

Yu. S. Tver' yanovich

230

components, depending on their composition.' However, the glassy state is not in thermodynamical equilibrium. The analysis of this problem was carried out by Gutenev (Tver'yanovich and Gutenev, 1997). As a result, the following requirements of applicability of original principles of PCA for the glassy systems were formulated: 1. The system A - B belongs to the class of the chemically rational ones, i.e., only one chemical transmutation or series of sequential transmutations may take place in it. 2. All the glasses of the system are obtained by cooling of melts reduced to the state of the chemical equilibrium, at the same cooling rate. 3. Tg for the system is constant. If Tg depends on composition and varies in gap Tg +_ 0.1Tg, the enthalpy of the reaction nA + mB ,--, A n B m should be outside of the interval - 4 R T g - 1, eU

(45)

3 After some modification this model can be used for description of conductivity of a glass containing amorphous clusters of structural units with transitional metal atoms.

Yu. S. Tver'yanovich

266

where Ark is the concentration of free carriers in microcrystal, r is its radii, e is its dielectric constant and U is the contact potential difference. Assuming that U ~ 0.5 eV, e -~ 10, r ~ 10- 8 m and Ark ~ 102~c m - 3, we conclude that this inequality is true. Therefore, we can use the following equation for the calculation of radii of space charge around microcrystal:

3eU ) R - r 1 + 4 ~reNc '

(46)

where Nc is the concentration of charge states in glass. The volume fraction of the regions of space charge in glass, at such conditions, is larger in 1.5 orders than the volume fraction of microcrystals. Therefore, the addition into the glass composition less than 1 at.% of transitional metal is enough for the formation of the infinite cluster of a space charge. The distortion of zone structure of the semiconductor happens, as is known, in the field of a space charge. It reduces (the Fermi level is located in the middle of the energy gap for chalcogenide glasses) in magnification of conductance and diminution of its activation energy. Thus, a microcrystal is 'a collective impurity', injecting the carriers in a matrix of a glass. The size of space charge will be shortened as a result of the increasing concentration of free carrier at increasing temperature. As temperature reaches the critical value, the infinite cluster of space charge will disappear and the transposition of a charge will happen again through the matrix of a glass with undisturbed zonal structure. So, the fracture of the dependence In tr (1 IT), which is typical for an 'impurity conductivity' of semiconductors, will form. The model of 'pseudo-impurity conductivity' also predicts the effect of sharp increase of dielectric constant at origin in volume of a glass of microcrystals of composition of transitional metal. This effect was experimentally observed in Tver'yanovich, Gutenev and Borisova (1987) and Gutenev, Tver'yanovich, Krasil'nikova and Kochemirovski (1989). The equations, circumscribing this effect, are explained in Gutenev et al. (1989) and Tver'yanovich and Gutenev (1997).

4. Magnetic Properties of Glass-forming Chalcogenide Alloys at Melting 4.1.

EQUATION USING RESULTS OF MAGNETIC EXPERIENCE FOR THE CALCULATION OF LIQUIDUS

The majority of the phase diagrams of quasi-binary systems consists of one or several eutectic diagrams. Therefore we shall consider the eutectic diagram derived by diamagnetic compound A and paramagnetic compound B. We shall make the same assumptions, as at the deduction of the Eq. (23). These assumptions are simultaneously applied to both solid and melted phases. X is the paramagnetic contribution to the magnetic susceptibility of an alloy, reduced to 1 tool of transitional metal. ~ is Weiss constant for a single-phase melt with composition AaBb (~ - b0pl). For alloys placed between A and eutectic composition at temperatures lower than the eutectic temperature, and for all other alloys as well, the dependence X-1 (T) should coincide with the similar dependence for compound B in the solid state, as the alloys have microheterogeneous structure. At the eutectic temperature the component B fully

Magnetic Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

267

FIG. 26. Generalized aspect of dependencies of paramagnetic susceptibility per mole of transitional metal on temperature for alloys A - B with different relation between A and B content (see the text): (1) for component B in crystalline state; (2) for melt with eutectic composition; (3) for atoms of transitional metal not connected by exchange interaction.

passes in the fluid phase. As a result of B's dissolution into some part of component A (which also passes partially into the fluid phase) the absolute value of the Weiss constant falls sharply. This effect is amplified by the transformation from crystalline structure to liquid. The further magnification of temperature up to the temperature of liquidus leads to magnification of the fraction of the component A in a melt, i.e., to dilution of the solution B in A. Therefore, further lowering of the absolute value of the Weiss constant occurs (Fig. 26, curve a). Immediately after exceeding of the eutectic temperature the magnitude of X is identical for all compositions, placed between a eutectic alloy and a compound A. The smooth varying of a Weiss constant (in a melt state) is absent for eutectic compositions, as all substances pass at once into melt state (curve b). For compositions placed between the eutectic and the component B at the eutectic temperature, only a part of the component B transforms in a melt. Therefore the jump of Weiss constant, at the eutectic temperature, is rather small. The magnitude of this jump depends on the content of components A and B, as it is determined by the part of component B that is transformed in a melt at this temperature. With a further rise of temperature, the part of B (which has remained in the solid state) gradually transforms to a melt up to the liquidus temperature. This process is accompanied by step-by-step decreases in the module of Weiss constant (curve c), as in the melt the component B is mixed with the component A. If the eutectic composition coincides with the diamagnetic component A (degenerated eutectic), then B does not change its state at the eutectic temperature. Therefore, the jump of the magnetic susceptibility and Weiss constant at the eutectic temperature is absent (curve d in Fig. 26). Let us consider an alloy placed between the eutectic alloy and the component A, for which the molecular fraction of the component B is equal to b, and the molecular fraction of the component A is equal to a (a + b - - 1). Let us vary the temperature

Yu. S. Tver'yanovich

268

from the eutectic temperature up to liquidus temperature. The concentration position of liquidus at some temperature T differs from the concentration position of the investigated alloy on the value ce. Then, using the relation (23), we can write for the magnetic susceptibility: X-

C T-

0

-

C T-

0 p l ( b + o/)

(47)

or

b + ce(T) -

O(T)

(48)

0pl

Thus it is possible to find the line of liquidus in the interval of compositions between the eutectic composition and the alloy AaBb from the dependence of the magnetic susceptibility of the mentioned alloy on temperature. In the case of the melting of eutectic composition, for which the molecular fractions of components are equal to a0 and b0 correspondingly, the jump of Weiss constant is equal to (49)

A0 = 0 p h - 0plb 0

This relation gives us a means to calculate the eutectic composition. It is possible to describe the composition of an alloy, located between the eutectic composition and the component B, at some temperature T situated between the solidus and the liquidus, as [(1 - c)(Bb_~A 1-b+/3)lliq

-Jr-[cB]so I

(50)

where c is the mole part of alloy in crystal state and /3 the difference between concentration position of liquidus at temperature T and concentration position of investigated alloy. Moreover

(1-c)(b-~)+c=b

or ( 1 - c ) ( 1 - b + / 3 ) = ( 1 - b )

(51)

from which we obtain c = / 3 / ( 1 - b +/3) = fl/(a + fl)

(52)

The magnetic susceptibility divided on Curie constant is equal to X

c

( b - / 3 ) ( 1 - c) -

b i t - 0pl(b-/3)]

c +

b ( r - 0ph)

(53)

On the other hand x / C = (T - 0) -1 . Then using Eq. (53) and defining (b - / 3 ) as x, we finally obtain

x 2 O p l [ ( T - O) - b ( T -

0ph)] nt- x [ b O ( T -

0ph ) -- 0 p h ( T - 0) -- bOpl(Oph -- 0)1

+ bT(Oph - 0) = 0 So, from Eq. (54) we can find the dependence x(T), which is liquidus.

(54)

Magnetic Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses 4.2.

269

SYSTEMAs2Se3-MnSe

The shape of dependencies of paramagnetic input in magnetic susceptibility of alloys AszSe3-MnSe per mole of Mn (Fig. 27) corresponds to the case of degenerated eutectic (Fig. 26). The dependence of Weiss constant for melts on its composition is linear (Fig. 28) (6/(b)). So, the liquation region is absent. The extrapolation of this dependence up to MnS (b -- 1) gives 0pl ~ - 350 K. The intervals of the liquidus line, calculated with the help of the Eq. (54) from the dependencies of the magnetic susceptibility on temperature for alloys with various chemical compositions, satisfactorily coincide with each other. The resulting liquidus is depicted in Figure 28. It can be seen that the phase diagram of the system is characterized by degenerated eutectic near AszSe3 with an extremely fast uprise of temperature of liquidus with a small addition of MnSe. Thus, in a melt containing only 0.2 at.% Mn (1 mol% of MnSe) at cooling, the crystalline phase of MnSe is formed almost 300 K above the melting point of AszSe3. Such a melt is insufficiently viscous for passage into the glassy state. This also explains the sharp decrease of the glass-forming ability of AszSe3, even with the addition of an inappreciable amount of manganese. It is clear that DTA would not provide an explanation for the interval of the diagrams placed so carefully close to AszSe3. Furthermore, as opposed to DTA, the discussed method allows us to

o 1

.•370 -! 3s0

~

.2

0 0 : ~

-~ 330 37~

./ ,.r

_~~

~.~

x=50,0 j

-~350

~,e~"n~"

o""

./~

./

~

330

q

-I 350

/'/

330 .

.

.

x=40,O /

.

.

.or

/

j.---

50 33"

.-

o.4 t

"~/

~

//-

x=15,0/"

/0-/:(~P. ~~''8~

/-/

--I310 ~

~~~N

X=5'~"~"r

-I

/ _.~"/ --I350 ~:o--~i~,~..,,.~./ ~ 330

x=30,O ~

,.,g

/

/

,o-"

/

~=0

j/

.,6 ~

-13oo

~280 4 -t 260

x=2,5 ,

I

800

,

I

1000

I

T,K

I

1200

i

I

,,,

1400

F~G. 27. Dependencies of paramagnetic susceptibility per tool of Mn on temperature for alloys AseSe3-MnSe. The numbers mark the content of MnSe (tool%): (1) measurements were carded out at cooling; (2) measurements were carried out at hitting.

Yu. S. Tver'yanovich

270

0

0.5 |

Mn Se, mol.% 1.0 1.5 .

,

2.0 .

~Q

,ooo/. ~ N

-

,200 + 100 0 As 2 Se 3 10

20

30 Mn Se, mol.%

40

FIG. 28. Liquidus for the system As2Se3-MnSe, constructed using magnetic measurements (1) and dependence of average Weiss constant of melt on concentration (2).

construct a liquidus in some concentration interval, using the results of the investigation of an alloy of single composition only.

4.3.

LIQUIDUS FOR OTHER CHALCOGENIDE SYSTEMS DOPED WITH TRANSITIONAL METALS

Let us consider two other magneto-chemical experiments. The first confirms that the sharp rise of the liquidus temperature is a reason of propagation of crystallizing ability of alloys; the second confirms that the temperature of the yield of dependence X-I(T) in a hightemperature linear range really corresponds to the transfer through the liquidus temperature. In Figure 29 the dependencies of the paramagnetic susceptibility of alloys AszSe3 and 0.7AszSe3.0.3CuzSe, containing an identical amount of manganese (2 at.%), on temperature are given. From the figure it is visible that the introduction of CuzSe in AszSe3 results in a drop of the liquidus temperature (the maximal temperature of existence of crystalline phase of compound of manganese). Due to these outcomes it becomes clear why in glassy As2Se3 no more than --~ 0.05 at.% of manganese can be entered, and the glass of composition 0.7AszSe3.0.3CuzSe can contain up to --~ 1 at.% of Mn (see previous section). The second experiment is the following: the evacuated thin-walled quartz ampoule containing an alloy 0.7AszSe3.0.3CuzSe with 2 at.% of Mn (total load is about 0.1 g)

Magnetic Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

271

T, K 600 a

i

800 i

1000 i

i

I0

7"

f

~0~00

v

~o

o/o

I

7;0 8;0 9;0 l;oo T,K FIG. 29. Dependencies of paramagnetic susceptibility on temperature for alloys As2Se3 (1) and 0.7As2Se3. 0.3CuzSe (2), contained of 2 at.% of Mn, and dependence of magnetic susceptibility (at room temperature) of alloy 0.7AszSe3.0.3CuzSe with 2 at.% Mn on temperature of melt from which the sharp quenching was began (3). Arrows mark the liquid temperature for AszSe3 and 0.7AszSe3.0.3CuzSe without Mn.

was hung in the vertical furnace which was closed from above, but did not have a bottom. At first, the furnace temperature is raised higher than liquidus, then lowered to the temperature of the experiment, at which the sample is allowed to stand for some minutes. Then the sample is dropped in a glass with a cooling fluid placed under the furnace. The magnetic susceptibility of the sample is then measured, and the experiment is repeated at other temperatures. The outcome of one trial is submitted in Figure 29 (curve 3). The sign of the indirect exchange interaction is negative. Therefore the magnification of the magnetic susceptibility corresponds to the more homogeneous distribution of manganese on the volume of the sample. From the comparison of curves 2 and 3, it is visible that the maximal degree of homogeneity of glass is achieved at quenching from the temperature of completion of the transformation to a homogeneous melt (temperature of liquidus). The microcrystals of the compound of transitional metal already exist at quenching from lower temperatures. At quenching from higher temperatures the heat content of the sample is incremented, so the effectiveness of quenching decreases. The sharp rise of the liquidus temperature at the introduction of chalcogenide compounds of transitional metals in glassy chalcogenide alloys is a common phenomenon. The outcomes of magneto-chemical experiences with a lot of chalcogenide glass-forming systems doped with chalcogenide of iron, cobalt, manganese demonstrate this. A similar pattern is observed for the system AszTe3-MnTe (Figs. 30 and 31). The latter example differs from the previous trials. At the deduction of Eq. (54), the invariance of the mechanism of the exchange interaction at transformation from the solid state to liquid was supposed. This supposition was omitted in the case of cobalt alloys for reasons that were analysed in the previous section. The dependencies of their magnetic susceptibility on temperature differ cardinally from the dependencies of the magnetic susceptibility on temperature for alloys AszSe3-MnSe. The dependencies of the magnetic

272

Yu. S. Tver'yanovich

500

10 20

~300,..~

I

100

I

I

I

600

I

800

I

I

1000

T, K FIG. 30. Dependencies of reciprocal value of paramagnetic susceptibility per mole of Mn on temperature for As2Te3-MnTe alloys. The numbers correspond to MnTe content (mol%).

susceptibility on temperature for alloys As2Te3-MnTe appear at first view to have no essential differences (see Fig. 30). But the magnetic moment of atoms of manganese for liquid alloys of this system, unlike solid state, does not correspond to the oxidation state + 2 (5.92 mB), and it varies in limits 4.0-4.7 mB. The Weiss constant changes the sign from negative to positive on transformation of the substance from solid to the melt state. The Weiss constant of the substance in melt state is not a linear function of the concentration of transitional metal compound, as Eq. 5 of Chapter 4 predicts (Fig. 31). The reason for these essential modifications is that in AszTe3, unlike AszSe3, the degenerate electronic gas already exists at the melting point

900

a

30

/I

9

0

700-It

40 . . . . . mol.%

10

20 MnTe,

mol.%

Fro. 31. (a) Different lines of liquidus (for system As2Te3-MnTe), constructed from datum of magnetic susceptibility measurements of alloys with different MnTe content (it was marked by numbers corresponded to tool% of MnTe). Two bold points are the result of DTA. (b) Dependence of average Weiss constant of melts on composition (system AszTe3-MnTe).

Magnetic Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

273

(see above). Therefore the atoms of manganese realize the exchange interaction not through the localized electrons of anions, but through the degenerate electronic gas. The substances with such type of the exchange interaction are well known, e.g., the so-called Gaisler alloys in which the magnetic moments of manganese atoms vary in limits 3.964.4 roB. The magnitude and even the sign of Weiss constant at the exchange interaction through mobile electrons are non-monotone functions of the concentration of manganese and of mobile electrons. The approximate equations for magneto-chemical method of build-up of liquidus line can be offered and in the case of modification of the exchange interaction mechanism at melting [4]. The established fact of sharp increases of liquidus at the introduction of transitional metal in the composition of glass alloy allows testing of the statement made earlier. The semiconductor-metal transition restricts the expansion of the field of glassformation on the concentration of components and on structural temperature. As a result of the introduction of a small amount of transitional metal in the composition of a glassforming alloy, the temperature of a liquidus increases so considerably that it was higher than a semiconductor-metal transition temperature. Under these conditions, production of homogeneous glass from such alloy by the usual methods of quenching of a melt becomes impossible. For the system M n - G e - T e (in the neighbourhood of a binary eutectic GelsTeg2), the liquidus was constructed using the dependencies of magnetic susceptibility on temperature and the fast quenching method (similar to the curves given in Fig. 29). Having compared liquidus with the dependence of the temperature of semiconductor-metal transition on concentration (see Fig. 13), it is possible to come to the conclusion that they are intersected at the concentration of manganese of about 0.50.9 at.%. The samples with composition Ge~sTes2, containing 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 at.% of manganese, were obtained in the condition of sharp quenching. The dependence of Weiss constant of obtained alloys testifies that the boundary of glass-forming range is very close to 0.7 at.% of Mn (Fig. 32). It is shown that crystallization of glassy semiconductors at the introduction of transitional metals in their composition is stimulated by a sharp rise of the liquidus temperature. The existence of degenerate eutectics coinciding with a sharp increase of liquidus temperature is peculiar for systems with positive enthalpy of component mixture. To derive glasses with a supplemented content of transitional metals, it is necessary to find systems with negative enthalpy of mixture of glass-forming

400

of ~ o

I 200

. _ . o , - - - ? ~ ,~ 0

!

0,4 0,8 Mn, at.%

FIG. 32. Dependence of average Weiss constant of alloys Gel8Te82-Mn on Mn content.

274

Yu. S. Tver'yanovich

chalcogenides with chalcogenides of transitional metals. The limit of the diminution of mixing enthalpy is the formation of intermediate multicomponent compound. Indeed, in the already mentioned system MnS-GazS3-GeS2, the triple compounds MnzGeS4, MnGazS4 and MnzGazS5 exist, and as a result, glasses containing up to 30 mol% of MnS can be obtained.

References Anderson, P.W. (1975) Model for the electronic structure of amorphous semiconductors, Phys. Rev. Lett., 34(15), 953-955. Aver'yanov, V.L. and Cendin, K.D. (1985) Doped Glassy and Amorphous Semiconductors, Preprint N928 Physical-Technical Institute, Leningrad, 24 pp. Babicyna, A.A., Emel'yanova, T.A. and Kudryashova, T.I. (1980) J. Non-Org. Chem. (Russian), 25(4), 1084-1087. Bal'makov, M.D. and Stepanov, S.A. (1976) Phys. Chem. Glasses (Russian), 2(3), 238-241. Bal'makov, M.D., Tver'yanovich, Yu.S. and Tver'yanovich, A.S. (1994) Glass Phys. Chem. (Russian), 20, 381. Belyakova, N.V., Borisova, Z.U., Bychkov, E.A., Zhilinskaya, E.A. and Tver'yanovich, Yu.S. (1985) Phys. Chem. Glasses (Russian), 11(5), 573-577. Briegleb, G. (1929) Diedynamischen-Allotropen Zustande des Selens, Phys. Chem. A, 144(5-6), 321-358. Cabane, B. and Friedel, J. (1971) J. de Physique, 32, 73. Chepeleva, I.V. and Tver'yanovich, Yu.S. (1987) Phys. Chem. Glasses (Russian), 13(5), 747-751. Chistov, S.F., Chernov, A.P. and Dembovskiy, S.A. (1968) Non-Org. Mater. (Russian), 4(12), 2085-2088. Cohen, M.H. and Jortner, J. (1978) Electronic structure and transport in liquid Te, Phys. Rev. B, 13(13), 5255-5260. Dorfman, Ya.G. (1961) Diamagnetism and Chemical Bond, State Publisher for Physical-Mathematical Literature, Moscow, 232 pp. (in Russian). Fischer, M. and Guntherodt H.-T. (1977) Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Amorphous and Liquid Semiconductors, Edinburg, pp. 859-864. Gardner, T.A. and Cutler, M. (1977) Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Amorphous and Liquid Semiconductors, Edinburg, pp. 838-842. Gubanov, A.I. (1963) Quantum-Electronic Theory of Amorphous Semiconductors, Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, 250 pp. (in Russian). Gutenev, M.S., Tver'yanovich, Yu.S., Krasil'nikova, A.P. and Kochemirovski, V.A. (1989) Phys. Chem. Glasses (Russian), 15(1), 84-90. Kastner, M., Adler, D. and Fritzsche, H. (1976) Valence--alternation model for localized gap states in lone pair semiconductors, Phys. Rev. Lett., 37, 1504-1507. Kojima, D.Y. and Isihara, A. (1979) Density dependence of the magnetic susceptibilities of metals, Phys. Rev. B, 20(2), 489-500. Kudoyarova, V.H., Nasredinov, F.S. and Seregin, P.P. (1982) Phys. Chem. Glasses (Russian), 8(3), 350-352. Mendelson, L.B., Beggs, F. and Mann, J.B. (1970) Hartree-Fock diamagnetic susceptibilities, Phys. Rev. A, 2(4), 1130-1134. Misawa, M. and Suzuki, K. (1978) Ring-chain transition in liquid selenium by a disordered chain model, J. Phys. Soc. Jpn, 44(5), 1612-1618. Mott, N.F. (1978) Phil. Mag. B, 37, 377. Mott, N.F., Davis, E.A. and Street, R.A. (1975) States in the gap and recombination in amorphous semiconductors, Phil. Mag., 32(5), 961-996. Poltavcev, Yu.G. (1984) Structure of Semiconductor Melts, Metallurgy, Moscow, 176 pp. (in Russian). Popova, T.K., Tver'yanovich, Yu.S. and Borisova, Z.U. (1984) Phys. Chem. Glasses (Russian), 10(3), 374-377. Rau, H. (1974) Vapour composition and critical constants of selenium, J. Chem. Thermodyn., 6(6), 525-535. Shkol'nokov, E.V., D'yachenko, Yu.I. and Shkol'nikova, A.M. (1995) J. Appl. Chem. (Russian), 68(9), 1437 - 1444.

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Shmuratov, E.A., Andreev, A.A., Prohorenko, V.Ya., Sokolovskiy, B.I., Bal'makov, M.D. (1977) Solid State Phys. (Russian), 19(13), 927-928. Tsuchiya, Y. (1993) J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 156-158, 704. Tver'yanovich, Yu.S. and Borisova, Z.U. (1979) Non-Org. Mater. (Russian), 15(12), 2117- 2121. Tver'yanovich, Yu.S. and Borisova, Z.U. (1987) J. Non-Cryst. Solids V, 90(1-3), 405-412. Tver'yanovich, Yu.S., Borisova, Z.U. and Funtikov, V.A. (1986) Non-Org. Mater. (Russian), 22(9), 1546-1551. Tver'yanovich, Yu.S. and Gutenev, M.S. (1997) Magneto-chemistry of Glassy Semiconductors, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, 149 pp. (in Russian). Tver'yanovich, Yu.S., Gutenev, M.S. and Borisova, Z.U. (1987) Non-Org. Mater. (Russian), 23(10), 1749-1750. Tver'yanovich, A.S. and Kasatkina, E.B. (1992) Glass Phys. Chem. (Russian), 18, 86. Tver'yanovich, Yu.S. and Murin, I.V. (1999) J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 256&257, 100-104. Tver'yanovich, Yu.S. and Ugolkov, V.L. (2002) Smeared first-order phase transition in melts. In New Kinds of Phase Transitions: Transformations in Disordered Substances (Ed., Brazhkin, V.V.) Kluwer Academic Publishers, Printed in the Netherlands, pp. 209-222. Tver'yanovich, Yu.S., Vilminot, S., Degtyaryev, S.V. and Derory, A. (2000) J. Solid State Chem., 152, 388-391. Yarmak, E.V., Tver'yanovich, Yu.S. and Gitsovich, V.N. (1990) Phys. Chem. Glasses (Russian), 16(6), 884-888.

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Index noncrystalline semiconductors 15- 39 optical spectra 212- 23 reflectivity spectra 116- 21 solid-state image devices 183-5 space charge 30-9 steady-state photo-conductivity 157-9 thin films 17-39 transient photo-conductivity 169-77 arsenic sulfide absorption edge 121 - 38 germanium alloys 129-31, 159-60 magnetism 235-8 optical spectra 205-11 photo-conductivity 150-3, 155-62, 168-9 reflectivity spectra 116-18 selenium fibers 142 solid-state image devices 183-5 thermostimulated photo-conductivity 167 thin-film waveguides 179-80 arsenic tellurium magnetic susceptibility 232-4, 241,271-2 manganese tellurium alloys 271-2 optical spectra 224-7 reflectivity spectra 116 atomic configurations 4-10 attenuators 182-3

absorption coefficient 122-3, 129, 134, 140-1,145-8 edge 121-38 energy range 201 - 27 photo-induced 138-49 threshold 134- 5 acousto-optical modulation 180-1 activation energy A1-As-Te systems 100 amorphous selenium 19-20, 23 barrier-less structures 40-1 current instability 82 photo-conductivity 152-4 adiabatic approximation 5 - 8 aluminum alloys 96-7, 100, 244, 246 amorphous arsenic selenide 169-77 amorphous arsenic sulfide 168-9, 205-11 amorphous selenium 15-39 amorphous semiconductor-metal contacts 162-4 antimony doping influences 127 antimony sulfide 155-6, 158, 160, 163-4 arsenic chalcogenide optical spectra 201-27 arsenic selenide absorption edge 121-38 charge carrier density 15- 39 charge carrier transfer 17- 39 chemical composition 24- 30 copper selenium alloys 270-1 energy spectra 117- 21 magnetic properties 269-71 manganese selenium alloys 269-71

band diagrams 65-9, 203 band-to-band ionization 18 barriers barrier-less structures 39-46 CVS-based switches 59-60, 65, 67-71 277

278 electrical characteristics 50-1 photoresponse 162-4 bimolecular regime 150, 172-3 binary Si-Te systems 69-71 binary stoichiometric glasses 128-32 bombardment-induced changes 133 bond lengths 131-2 bond rigidity 264 bulk charge films 32-5 calotte of liquidation 255-6 capacitance 62-5 carriers s e e charge... cation magnetic susceptibility 253-4 chain decay processes 236-7 chalcogenide systems absorption energy range 201 - 27 charge carrier transport 15- 51 current instability 57-109 magnetic properties 229-74 optical properties 115-49 optical spectra 201-27 photo-electrical properties 149-79 photoelectric information recording systems 179-92 vitreous semiconductors (CVS) 57-109 charge carriers arsenic selenide thin films 17- 39 chemical composition selenide 24-30 CVS-based switches 60-7 drift 19- 20 effective mass 244 excess 139, 154-62 heating 18 multiple trapping 138-45, 168 optical properties 115 paramagnetic susceptibility 235 photo-conductivity 154-62, 168 photo-induced absorption 138-45 thin film arsenic selenide 17- 39 transfer 15-51, 60-7, 115, 138-45 charge-defect model 171 - 3 chemical analysis 105-9, 229-32, 248, 260, 265 - 6 chemical bonds 79-80, 89-97, 100-1,235 chemical composition influence 24-30 chromium doping 261-2 cobalt doping 260-1 coherent generation 138, 148-9 combination kinetics 172- 3

Index

composition dependence magnetic susceptibility 244-8 photo-conductivity 159, 174-7 switch functional characteristics 85-97 compressibility 240-1 concentration dependency 263-4 condensed matter systems 1-13 conditioning values 106 conducting channel formation 78-84 conductivity activation energy 82 barrier-less structures 39-46 electrical 16-18, 39-50, 60-7 magnetism 235-8 magneto-chemical investigations 265-6 s e e a l s o photo... contact potentials 265 cooperation model 138, 148-9 coordination numbers 131,240 copper doping influence 124, 167, 260-2 copying, information capacity 1-4 covalence-ion binding 86-7, 93-7 Curie paramagnetism 229, 233 current channels 58-77 current density 40-1 current injection 50 current instability 57-109 kinetic concept 57-8, 77-109 switching effect 85-109 current-voltage (I-V) characteristics barrier-less structures 39-40, 43 current instability 80-1 CVS-based switches 60-3, 72-3, 75 nonactivated electrical conduction 48 CVS s e e chalcogenide vitreous semiconductors dark conductivity 152 decomposition 208-11, 217-19, 222- 3, 226-7 defect formation process 78-84 degenerated electron gas 239, 243-4 delay time 82, 101 - 2 density of states spectra 203-5 destruction process 102-4 diamagnetic susceptibility 230-1,235 dielectric constants 177 dielectric function spectra 208-11,217-19, 222- 3, 226- 7 diffraction efficiency 188- 91

279

Index

dimensional effects 71-7 displacement sensors 181 - 2 doping influences absorption edge 123-30, 132 magnetic susceptibility 258-66 photo-conductivity 160-2, 167, 173, 175-6 Dorfman's method 230-1 drift barriers 65, 67-71 drift mobility 18-20, 23, 25-8, 144-5 DTA curves 107-8, 269-70 effective mass 244 effective quantum yield films 34-6 electric field dependence 19-22, 39-46, 50 electrical characteristics 15-39, 5 0 - 1 , 1 0 5 - 9 electrical conductivity 16-18, 39-50, 60-7 electrical property modeling 265-6 electro-optical modulation 180-1 electro-physical properties 91, 93-4, 97-105 electrode widths 73-5 electron states 116-21 electronic structure theory 202-3 electrons drift mobility 25-8 loss spectra 208-12, 217 - 19, 222- 3, 225-7 magnetic susceptibility 239 photo-induced absorption 138-9, 145-6 energy dissipation distances 21-3 energy distances 21 - 3, 119 energy levels 65-9, 203 energy spectra arsenic selenide 117-21,212-17, 219-22 arsenic sulfides 205-11 arsenic tellurium 224-7 optical properties 115 enthalpy 236 entropy 236 equilibrium holes 18, 21 - 3, 176 equivalent circuits 61-2 ESR signals 17-18, 229-32 eutectic diagrams 266-8 exact copies 2 - 4 excess charge carriers 139, 154-62 excess energy relaxation 77, 80-1 exchange interaction 248-50, 252-5 excitons 133 exponential dependence 40, 132-8

Fermi levels 152-4 fiber optics 141-2, 179-92 field effect magnitudes 159-60 fluctuation nature 252 forbidden gap widths 131-2 free carriers 244 Frenkel-Pool 60 fundamental absorption energy range 201-27 gallium sulfide 257-8 gallium tellurium charge carrier transfer 15-17, 39-51 germanium systems 91, 93-4 magnetic susceptibility 244, 246 gap state optical transitions 161 - 2 germanium doping influence 124-5, 129-30, 167 selenium systems 231-3, 257-8 sulfur systems 231 - 3 tellurium systems 87, 89-92 glass formation 107-8, 232-48, 266-74 forming alloys at melting 266-74 forming melts 232-48 physical-chemical properties 105-9 prehistory 136-8 quenching 108- 9 transition energy 131 transition temperatures 94-7, 131 grating filters 180-1 half-widths 210-11 heat capacity 240 heating effects 232-48 heterogeneities 59 high electric field charge carrier transfer 15-51 high-resolution solid-state image devices 183-5 holes 21-4, 26-9, 144-6 holography 179, 185- 91 hot electrons 145-6 hot holes 21-4, 145-6 hydrostatic pressure 104-5 hyperbolic photocurrent decay 175-6 I - V s e e current-voltage impurity effects 17-18, 160-1, 174-7

280 indirect exchange interaction 248-50, 252-5 indium tellurium charge carrier transfer 15-17, 39-51 germanium systems 87, 89-92, 94-7 magnetic susceptibility 244, 246 information technology 1- 13, 179- 92 inhomogeneous switching model 72-5 integrated devices 179-92 Intensity dependence 141 inter-atomic bond rupturing 77-83 inter-band absorption 134, 145 interacting pairs with variable valence (IPVV) 79 intermediate compound formation 255-6 intermolecular interaction 120-1 iodine doping influence 167 ions 121,243-4 IPVV s e e interacting pairs with variable valence joint density of states spectra 203 jump transitions 58 kinetics current instability 57-8, 77-109 photo-induced absorption 141, 143 switching effect 85-109 transient photo-conductivity 172-4 Langeven's diamagnetic susceptibility 23O- 1,235 lanthanide doping 124 laser pulses 146 lattices 132, 135-6, 205 lifetimes 6, 29 limited currents 43 liquidus calculations 266-74 localized states 138-45, 168 long-wave fluctuations 135 longitudinal optical transitions 204-5 low conductivity melts 235-8 low-resistance states (LRS) 46-50 lux-ampere characteristics 149-52 macroinformations 6 magnetism 229-74 alloys at melting 266-74 glasses 232-48, 252-74

Index

ions 243-4 low conductivity melts 235-8 magnetic susceptibility 229-48, 252-66, 268-74 melts 232-48 metallized states 243-4 non transitional metals 229-32 transitional metals 248-66 magneto-chemico method 248, 260, 265-6 manganese 128, 258-62, 273 melting magnetic properties, glass-forming alloys 266-74 melts, magnetic susceptibility 232-48 memory elements 85 metal doping influences 123- 7 metal-As(S,Se3):Sn- SiO2- Si structures 183-5 metal-chalcogenide glass pairs 162-4 metal-CVS-metal structures 61-2, 68-9 metallized states, magnetism 243-4 microcrystal sizes 262-5 microdeformations 187-8 micromobility 19- 23 microregion of co-operative structural transformations (RCST) 241 - 3 microwave noise 46-9 mobile electrons 239 monomolecular recombination (MR) 172-3 monostable switches 105-9 M6ssbauer spectra 125 MR s e e monomolecular recombination multicomponent alloys 128-32 multifunctional optical integrated devices 179-92 multiphonon ionization 42-3 multiple trapped carriers 138-45, 168 multiplication effect 20-4 Neel phase transitions 249 negative bulk charge formation 32-5 negative capacitance 62, 64-5 negative transient photocurrents 177-9 noise temperatures 48-9 non-activated electrical conduction states 46-50 non-crystalline semiconductors 15- 51, 132-8 non-equilibrium carriers 138- 9 non-equilibrium phonons 138, 145-8

281

Index

non-linear absorption 138 non-linear photo-induced absorption 138, 145-8 non-transitional metals 229- 32 non-uniform microregion of co-operative structural transformations 241-2 number of coordination 131,240 ODC regions 70, 72-4, 76-7, 81 optical absorption 120 optical anisotropy 179-80 optical fibers 141 - 2 optical integrated devices 179-92 optical losses 181 optical properties 115-49 optical spectra amorphous arsenic sulfide 205-11 arsenic chalcogenides 201 - 27 arsenic tellurium 224-7 arsenic-selenides 212- 23 optical transitions 161 - 2 overshoot 175 oxidizing degree 249 oxygen doping influences 132, 160-1 pairs with variable valence (PVV) 79 paramagnetism 230-1,235,269-70 PCA s e e physicochemical analysis peak energy 159 phase recording 179 phase transition smearing 241-3 phosphorus 29- 30, 231 photo-carrier generation 172 photo-conductivity arsenic selenide 116-18 arsenic sulfide 116-18 doping influences 160-2, 167, 173, 175-6 selenium 15 photo-current dependence 149, 173-6 photo-electric information recording systems 179-92 photo-electrical properties 149-79 steady-state photo-conductivity 149-68 transient photo-conductivity 168-79 photo-generation films 34-7 photo-induced absorption 138-49 photo-optical modulation 180-1 photo-response 162-4

photo-thermoplastic systems 191 - 2 photon energy 129-30, 135, 154-62 physicochemical analysis (PCA) 105-9, 229-32 planar waveguides 179 polarity 159-60 polarization 164-8, 231 - 3 Poole-Frenkel emission 40-1 potential barriers 65, 67-71 potential dark decay 30-2, 37 potential energy 65-7 power index 136-8, 150-1 power laws 144, 150-1, 174 pressure 97-105, 240 pseudo-impurity conductivity 266 PVV s e e pairs with variable valence quantum efficiency 20-1 quantum energy 134 quantum mechanics 4 quantum states 4, 6-7 quantum yield 34-6 quasi-closed ensembles 4-13 quasi-equidistant subgroups 146-7 quasi-molecular defects 80-1 quasi-static current-voltage characteristics 72-3 quenching 17-18, 108-9 radiation interaction 115 rare earth ions 121 RCST s e e microregion of co-operative structural transformations reading 7 recorded information 9-10 recording media 185- 7 reflectivity spectra 116-21,203-8, 212-22, 224-7 refractive index anisotropy 179-80 registration media 185- 91 relaxation 77, 80-1,170-1 resistance 94-5 reverse switching 75-6 reverse-current heterojunctions 60 reversible phenomena 138-49 rupturing 77, 79-84, 102-3 SCD s e e small-charge drift Schottky's over-barrier emission 67

282 SCLC s e e space charge limited currents selenium magnetism 235-8 tellurium alloys 244-5 s e e a l s o arsenic... semiconductor-metal transitions (SMT) 238-43, 247-8 sensibility 188- 9 SFS s e e superfine structure sign inversion, current instability 84 silicon lead systems 91, 93 oxides 183-5 solid-state image devices 183-5 tellurium systems 69-71, 91, 93 silver 123-4, 244, 246 small-charge drift (SCD) current 25-7 smearing 241 - 3 SMT s e e semiconductor-metal transitions softening temperature 94-7, 234 space charge 30-9, 43 space charge limited currents (SCLC) 43 spectra distribution 154-62 state coefficients 140 state density 135-6 stationary state coefficient 140 steady-state photo-conductivity 149-68 stimulated polarization currents 164-8 strained chemical bonds 79-80 structure absorption edge 136-8 doping influences 123-8 magneto-chemical investigations 266 units 160 sulfur s e e arsenic sulfide superfine structure (SFS) 258-60 switches current channels 58-77 CVS-based 65, 67-71 electro-physical parameters 97-105 switching activation energy 98-101 channel diameter 71-2 effect 69-71, 85-109 functional characteristics 85-97 resistance 99, 102- 3 time 82 voltages 94-5, 106 synthesis influence 105-9

Index

tail widths 126, 133, 136-7 TEE s e e thermo-electrical emission tellurium absorption edge 127-8, 130 charge transfer 29-30 current instability 87, 89-92 magnetic susceptibility 232-4, 244-8 s e e a l s o arsenic... temperature dependence absorption edge 129-30, 133-4, 136-8 barrier-less structures 41-2 charge carrier drift 19- 20 CVS-based switches 62-5, 68, 74-5 drift mobility films 27-9 equilibrium holes 21 - 3 magnetic susceptibility 232-48, 252-5 photo-conductivity 150-4, 170-1, 175-6 photo-induced absorption 141-4 switch electro-physical parameters 97-105 thermo-electromotive force films 85-8 T F W s e e thin-film waveguides thallium doping 124 thermal activation 40-1, 139 thermal fluctuations 82-3 thermal stimulated cold emission (TSE) 60 thermal treatments 105-9, 133-4 thermo-electrical emission (TEE) 60 thermo-electromotive force films 85-8 thermo-plastic systems 191 - 2 thermo-stimulated crystallization 260 thermo-stimulated depolarization (TSD) 164-8 thermo-stimulated photo-conductivity 164-8 thickness effects 20-1 thin film arsenic selenide 17-39, 157-9 thin-film waveguides (TFW) 179-81 threshold currents 74-5, 98-9 threshold energy 164 threshold voltage 98-9 time delay 188, 190-1 time dependence 37-8, 141, 178-9 tin doping influences absorption edge 124-7 solid-state image devices 183-5 steady-state photo-conductivity 161-2 transient photo-conductivity 173, 175-6 transformation validity 9-10 transient photo-conductivity 168-79 transitional metals, magnetism 248-66

283

Index

transport charge carriers 15- 51 properties 92- 3 transverse optical transitions 204-5 trapping factor 23-4 TSD s e e thermo-stimulated depolarization TSE s e e thermal stimulated cold emission tunneling 70-1, 1 7 1 - 3 two-photon model 138, 148-9 two-step absorption 138, 148-9 uniform microregion of co-operative structural transformations 242- 3 Urbach edges 126, 132-4 Urbach rule 132, 135 valence alternation pairs (VAP) 17-18 validity of transformations 9 - l 0 van-Vleck paramagnetic susceptibility 230-1,235

VAP s e e valence alternation pairs vapor, magnetism 237-8 variable fiber optic attenuators 182-3 variable valence 79 viscosity 241 vitreous chalcogenide semiconductors 57-109 vitreous sulfide 121-8 voltage pulse polarity 190 wave functions 5, 7 waveguides 179-81 wavelength dependence 170-1 weight factors 253-4 Weiss constant 250-2, 256-9, 261-2, 267-8, 272-4 wide-gap chalcogenides 191 - 2 xerography 191 - 2

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Contents of Volumes in This Series

Volume 1

Physics o f l l l - V Compounds

C. Hilsum, Some Key Features of III-V Compounds F. Bassani, Methods of Band Calculations Applicable to III-V Compounds E. O. Kane, The k-p Method V. L. Bonch-Bruevich, Effect of Heavy Doping on the Semiconductor Band Structure

D. Long, Energy Band Structures of Mixed Crystals of III-V Compounds L. M. Roth and P. N. Argyres, Magnetic Quantum Effects S. M. Puri and T. H. Geballe, Thermomagnetic Effects in the Quantum Region W. M. Becket, Band Characteristics near Principal Minima from Magnetoresistance E. H. Putley, Freeze-Out Effects, Hot Electron Effects, and Submillimeter Photoconductivity in InSb H. Weiss, Magnetoresistance B. Ancker-Johnson, Plasma in Semiconductors and Semimetals

Volume 2

Physics o f l l l - V Compounds

M. G. Holland, Thermal Conductivity S. I. Novkova, Thermal Expansion U. Piesbergen, Heat Capacity and Debye Temperatures G. Giesecke, Lattice Constants J. R. Drabble, Elastic Properties A. U. Mac Rae and G. W. Gobeli, Low Energy Electron Diffraction Studies R. Lee Mieher, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance B. Goldstein, Electron Paramagnetic Resonance T. S. Moss, Photoconduction in III-V Compounds E. Antoncik and J. Tauc, Quantum Efficiency of the Internal Photoelectric Effect in InSb G. W. Gobeli and L G. Allen, Photoelectric Threshold and Work Function P. S. Pershan, Nonlinear Optics in III-V Compounds

285

286

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

M. Gershenzon, Radiative Recombination in the III-V Compounds F. Stern, Stimulated Emission in Semiconductors

Optical Properties o f l l l - V Compounds

Volume 3 M. Hass, Lattice Reflection

W. G. Spitzer, Multiphonon Lattice Absorption D. L. Stierwalt and R. F. Potter, Emittance Studies H. R. Philipp and H. Ehrenveich, Ultraviolet Optical Properties M. Cardona, Optical Absorption Above the Fundamental Edge E. J. Johnson, Absorption Near the Fundamental Edge J. O. Dimmock, Introduction to the Theory of Exciton States in Semiconductors B. Lax and J. G. Mavroides, Interband Magnetooptical Effects H. Y. Fan, Effects of Free Carries on Optical Properties E. D. Palik and G. B. Wright, Free-Carrier Magnetooptical Effects R. H. Bube, Photoelectronic Analysis B. O. Seraphin and H. E. Benett, Optical Constants

Volume 4

Physics of III-V Compounds

N. A. Goryunova, A. S. Borchevskii and D. N. Tretiakov, Hardness N. N. Sirota, Heats of Formation and Temperatures and Heats of Fusion of Compounds of AIIIBv D. L. Kendall, Diffusion A. G. Chynoweth, Charge Multiplication Phenomena R. W. Keyes, The Effects of Hydrostatic Pressure on the Properties of III-V Semiconductors L. W. Aukerman, Radiation Effects N. A. Goryunova, F. P. Kesamanly, and D. N. Nasledov, Phenomena in Solid Solutions R. T. Bate, Electrical Properties of Nonuniform Crystals

Volume 5

Infrared Detectors

H. Levinstein, Characterization of Infrared Detectors P. W. Kruse, Indium Antimonide Photoconductive and Photoelectromagnetic Detectors M. B. Prince, Narrowband Self-Filtering Detectors I. Melngalis and T. C. Harman, Single-Crystal Lead-Tin Chalcogenides D. Long and J. L. Schmidt, Mercury-Cadmium Telluride and Closely Related Alloys E. H. Putley, The Pyroelectric Detector N. B. Stevens, Radiation Thermopiles R. J. Keyes and T. M. Quist, Low Level Coherent and Incoherent Detection in the Infrared M. C. Teich, Coherent Detection in the Infrared F. R. Arams, E. W. Sard, B. J. Peyton and F. P. Pace, Infrared Heterodyne Detection with Gigahertz

IF Response H. S. Sommers, Jr., Macrowave-Based Photoconductive Detector R. Sehr and R. Zuleeg, Imaging and Display

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

Injection Phenomena

Volume 6

M. A. Lampert and R. B. Schilling, Current Injection in Solids: The Regional Approximation Method R. Williams, Injection by Internal Photoemission A. M. Barnett, Current Filament Formation R. Baron and J. W. Mayer, Double Injection in Semiconductors W. Ruppel, The Photoconductor-Metal Contact

Volume 7

Application and Devices

Part A J. A. Copeland and S. Knight, Applications Utilizing Bulk Negative Resistance F. A. Padovani, The Voltage-Current Characteristics of Metal-Semiconductor Contacts P. L. Hower, W. W. Hooper, B. R. Cairns, R. D. Fairman, and D. A. Tremere, The GaAs

Field-Effect Transistor M. H. White, MOS Transistors G. R. Antell, Gallium Arsenide Transistors T. L. Tansley, Heterojunction Properties

Part

B

T. Misawa, IMPATT Diodes H. C. Okean, Tunnel Diodes R. B. Campbell and Hung-Chi Chang, Silicon Junction Carbide Devices R. E. Enstrom, H. Kressel, and L. Krassner, High-Temperature Power Rectifiers of GaAsl-x Px

Volume 8

Transport and Optical Phenomena

R. J. Stirn, Band Structure and Galvanomagnetic Effects in III-V Compounds with Indirect Band Gaps R. W. Ure, Jr., Thermoelectric Effects in III-V Compounds H. Piller, Faraday Rotation H. Barry Bebb and E. W. Williams, Photoluminescence I: Theory E. W. Williams and H. Barry Bebb, Photoluminescence II: Gallium Arsenide

Volume

9

Modulation Techniques

B. O. Seraphin, Electroreflectance R. L. Aggarwal, Modulated Interband Magnetooptics D. F. Blossey and Paul Handler, Electroabsorption B. Batz, Thermal and Wavelength Modulation Spectroscopy I. Balslev, Piezooptical Effects D. E. Aspnes and N. Bottka, Electric-Field Effects on the Dielectric Function of Semiconductors

and Insulators

287

288

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

Volume

10

Transport Phenomena

R. L. Rhode, Low-Field Electron Transport J. D. Wiley, Mobility of Holes in III-V Compounds C. M. Wolfe and G. E. Stillman, Apparent Mobility Enhancement in Inhomogeneous Crystals R. L. Petersen, The Magnetophonon Effect

Volume

11

Solar Cells

H. J. Hovel, Introduction; Carrier Collection, Spectral Response, and Photocurrent; Solar Cell Electrical

Characteristics; Efficiency; Thickness; Other Solar Cell Devices; Radiation Effects; Temperature and Intensity; Solar Cell Technology

Volume 12

Infrared Detectors (II)

w. L. Eiseman, J. D. Merriam, and 17. F. Potter, Operational Characteristics of Infrared Photodetectors P. R. Bratt, Impurity Germanium and Silicon Infrared Detectors E. H. Putley, InSb Submillimeter Photoconductive Detectors G. E. Stillman, C. M. Wolfe, and J. 0. Dimmock, Far-Infrared Photoconductivity in High Purity GaAs G. E. Stillman and C. M. Wolfe, Avalanche Photodiodes P. L. Richards, The Josephson Junction as a Detector of Microwave and Far-Infrared Radiation E. H. Putley, The Pyroelectric Detector - An Update

Volume

13

Cadmium Telluride

K. Zanio, Materials Preparations; Physics; Defects; Applications

Volume

14

Lasers, Junctions, Transport

N. Holonyak, Jr., and M. H. Lee, Photopumped III-V Semiconductor Lasers H. Kressel and J. K. Butler, Heterojunction Laser Diodes A. Van der Ziel, Space-Charge-Limited Solid-State Diodes P. J. Price, Monte Carlo Calculation of Electron Transport in Solids

Volume

15

Contacts, Junctions, Emitters

B. L. Sharma, Ohmic Contacts to III-V Compounds Semiconductors A. Nussbaum, The Theory of Semiconducting Junctions J. S. Escher, NEA Semiconductor Photoemitters

V o l u m e 16

Defects, (HgCd)Se, (HgCd)Te

H. Kressel, The Effect of Crystal Defects on Optoelectronic Devices C. R. Whitsett, J. G. Broerman, and C. J. Summers, Crystal Growth and Properties of Hgl-x Cdx Se Alloys

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

289

M. H. Weiler, Magnetooptical Properties of Hgl-x Cdx Te Alloys P. W. Kruse and J. G. Ready, Nonlinear Optical Effects in Hgl-x Cdx Te

Volume 17

CW Processing of Silicon and Other Semiconductors

J. F. Gibbons, Beam Processing of Silicon A. Lietoila, R. B. Gold, J. F. Gibbons, and L. A. Christel, Temperature Distributions and Solid Phase Reaction

Rates Produced by Scanning CW Beams A. Leitoila and J. F. Gibbons, Applications of CW Beam Processing to Ion Implanted Crystalline Silicon N. M. Johnson, Electronic Defects in CW Transient Thermal Processed Silicon K. F. Lee, T. J. Stultz, and J.F. Gibbons, Beam Recrystallized Polycrystalline Silicon: Properties, Applications,

and Techniques T. Shibata, A. Wakita, T. W. Sigmon and J. F. Gibbons, Metal-Silicon Reactions and Silicide Y. I. Nissim and J. F. Gibbons, CW Beam Processing of Gallium Arsenide

Volume 18

Mercury Cadmium Telluride

P. W. Kruse, The Emergence of (Hgl-x Cdx)Te as a Modern Infrared Sensitive Material 14. E. Hirsch, S. C. Liang, and A. G. White, Preparation of High-Purity Cadmium, Mercury, and Tellurium W. F. H. Micklethwaite, The Crystal Growth of Cadmium Mercury Telluride P. E. Petersen, Auger Recombination in Mercury Cadmium Telluride R. M. Broudy and V. J. Mazurczyck, (HgCd)Te Photoconductive Detectors M. B. Reine, A. If. Soad, and T. J. Tredwell, Photovoltaic Infrared Detectors M. A. Kinch, Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor Infrared Detectors

Volume 19

Deep Levels, GaAs, Alloys, Photochemistry

G. F. Neumark and K. Kosai, Deep Levels in Wide Band-Gap III-V Semiconductors D. C. Look, The Electrical and Photoelectronic Properties of Semi-Insulating GaAs R. F. Brebrick, Ching-Hua Su, and Pok-Kai Liao, Associated Solution Model for Ga-In-Sb and Hg-Cd-Te Y. Ya. Gurevich and Y. V. Pleskon, Photoelectrochemistry of Semiconductors

Volume 20

Semi-Insulating GaAs

R. N. Thomas, H. M. Hobgood, G. W. Eldridge, D. L. Barrett, T. T. Braggins, L. B. Ta, and S. K. Wang,

High-Purity LEC Growth and Direct Implantation of GaAs for Monolithic Microwave Circuits C. A. Stolte, Ion Implantation and Materials for GaAs Integrated Circuits C. (7,. Kirkpatrick, R. T. Chen, D. E. Holmes, P. M. Asbeck, K. R. Elliott, R. D. Fairman, and J. R. Oliver~ I~EC GaAs for Integrated Circuit Applications J. S. Blakemore and S. Rahimi, Models for Mid-Gap Centers in Gallium Arsenide

Volume 21 Part A J. I. Pankove, Introduction

Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon

290

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

M. Hirose, Glow Discharge; Chemical Vapor Deposition Y. Uchida, di Glow Discharge T. D. Moustakas, Sputtering I. Yamada, Ionized-Cluster Beam Deposition B. A. Scott, Homogeneous Chemical Vapor Deposition F. J. Kampas, Chemical Reactions in Plasma Deposition P. A. Longeway, Plasma Kinetics H. A. Weakliem, Diagnostics of Silane Glow Discharges Using Probes and Mass Spectroscopy L. Gluttman, Relation between the Atomic and the Electronic Structures A. Chenevas-Paule, Experiment Determination of Structure S. Minomura, Pressure Effects on the Local Atomic Structure D. Adler, Defects and Density of Localized States

Part B J. i. Pankove, Introduction G. D. Cody, The Optical Absorption Edge of a-Si: H N. M. Amer and W. B. Jackson, Optical Properties of Defect States in a-Si: H P. J. Zanzucchi, The Vibrational Spectra of a-Si: H F. Hamakawa, Electroreflectance and Electroabsorption J. S. Lannin, Raman Scattering of Amorphous Si, Ge, and Their Alloys R. A. Street, Luminescence in a-Si: H R. S. Crandall, Photoconductivity J. Tauc, Time-Resolved Spectroscopy of Electronic Relaxation Processes P. E. Vanier, IR-Induced Quenching and Enhancement of Photoconductivity and Photoluminescence H. Schade, Irradiation-Induced Metastable Effects L. Ley, Photoelectron Emission Studies

Part C J. I. Pankove, Introduction J. D. Cohen, Density of States from Junction Measurements in Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon P. C. Taylor, Magnetic Resonance Measurements in a-Si: H K. Morigaki, Optically Detected Magnetic Resonance J. Dresner, Carrier Mobility in a-Si: H T. Tiedje, Information About Band-Tail States from Time-of-Flight Experiments A. R. Moore, Diffusion Length in Undoped a-S: H W. Beyer and J. Overhof, Doping Effects in a-Si: H H. Fritzche, Electronic Properties of Surfaces in a-Si: H C. R. Wronski, The Staebler-Wronski Effect R. J. Nemanich, Schottky Barriers on a-Si: H B. Abeles and T. Tiedje, Amorphous Semiconductor Superlattices

Part D J. i. Pankove, Introduction D. E. Carlson, Solar Cells

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

291

G. A. Swartz, Closed-Form Solution of I - V Characteristic for a s-Si: H Solar Cells I. Shimizu, Electrophotography S. Ishioka, Image Pickup Tubes P. G. Lecomber and W. E. Spear, The Development of the a-Si: H Field-Effect Transistor and its Possible

Applications D. G. Ast, a-Si:H FET-Addressed LCD Panel S. Kaneko, Solid-State Image Sensor M. Matsumura, Charge-Coupled Devices M. A. Bosch, Optical Recording A. D'Amico and G. Fortunato, Ambient Sensors H. Kulkimoto, Amorphous Light-Emitting Devices R. J. Phelan, Jr., Fast Decorators and Modulators J. I. Pankove, Hybrid Structures P. G. LeComber, A. E. Owen, W. E. Spear, J. Hajto, and W. K. Choi, Electronic Switching in Amorphous

Silicon Junction Devices

Volume 22

Lightwave Communications Technology

Part A K. Nakajima, The Liquid-Phase Epitaxial Growth of InGaAsP W. T. Tsang, Molecular Beam Epitaxy for III-V Compound Semiconductors G. B. Stringfellow, Organometallic Vapor-Phase Epitaxial Growth of III-V Semiconductors G. Beuchet, Halide and Chloride Transport Vapor-Phase Deposition of InGaAsP and GaAs M. Razeghi, Low-Pressure, Metallo-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition of GaxInl-xAsP~-y Alloys P. M. Petroff, Defects in III-V Compound Semiconductors

Part B J. P. van der Ziel, Mode Locking of Semiconductor Lasers K. Y. Lau and A. Yariv, High-Frequency Current Modulation of Semiconductor Injection Lasers C. H. Henry, Special Properties of Semi Conductor Lasers Y. Suematsu, K. Kishino, S. Arai, and F. Koyama, Dynamic Single-Mode Semiconductor Lasers with a

Distributed Reflector W. T. Tsang, The Cleaved-Coupled-Cavity (C 3) Laser

Part C R. J. Nelson and N. K. Dutta, Review of InGaAsP InP Laser Structures and Comparison of

Their Performance N. Chinone and M. Nakamura, Mode-Stabilized Semiconductor Lasers for 0.7-0.8- and 1.1-1.6-~m Regions Y. Horikoshi, Semiconductor Lasers with Wavelengths Exceeding 2 ~m B. A. Dean and M. Dixon, The Functional Reliability of Semiconductor Lasers as Optical Transmitters R. H. Saul, T. P. Lee, and C. A. Burus, Light-Emitting Device Design C. L. Zipfel, Light-Emitting Diode-Reliability T. P. Lee and T. Li, LED-Based Multimode Lightwave Systems K. Ogawa, Semiconductor Noise-Mode Partition Noise

292

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

Part D F. Capasso, The Physics of Avalanche Photodiodes T. P. Pearsall and M. A. Pollack, Compound Semiconductor Photodiodes T. Kaneda, Silicon and Germanium Avalanche Photodiodes S. R. Forrest, Sensitivity of Avalanche Photodetector Receivers for High-Bit-Rate Long-Wavelength

Optical Communication Systems J. C. Campbell, Phototransistors for Lightwave Communications

Part E s. Wang, Principles and Characteristics of Integrable Active and Passive Optical Devices S. Margalit and A. Yariv, Integrated Electronic and Photonic Devices T. Mukai, E Yamamoto, and T. Kimura, Optical Amplification by Semiconductor Lasers

Volume 23

Pulsed Laser Processing of Semiconductors

R. F. Wood, C W. White and R. T. Young, Laser Processing of Semiconductors: An Overview C. W. White, Segregation, Solute Trapping and Supersaturated Alloys G. E. Jellison, Jr., Optical and Electrical Properties of Pulsed Laser-Annealed Silicon R. F. Wood and G. E. Jellison, Jr., Melting Model of Pulsed Laser Processing R. F. Wood and F. W. Young, Jr., Nonequilibrium Solidification Following Pulsed Laser Melting D. H. Lowndes and G. E. Jell&on, Jr., Time-Resolved Measurement During Pulsed Laser Irradiation of Silicon D. M. Zebner, Surface Studies of Pulsed Laser Irradiated Semiconductors D. H. Lowndes, Pulsed Beam Processing of Gallium Arsenide R. B. James, Pulsed CO2 Laser Annealing of Semiconductors R. T. Young and R. F. Wood, Applications of Pulsed Laser Processing

Volume 24

Applications of Multiquantum Wells, Selective Doping, and Superlattices

c. Weisbuch, Fundamental Properties of III-V Semiconductor Two-Dimensional Quantized Structures: The

Basis for Optical and Electronic Device Applications H. Morkof and H. Unlu, Factors Affecting the Performance of (A1,Ga)As/GaAs and (A1,Ga)As/InGaAs

Modulation-Doped Field-Effect Transistors: Microwave and Digital Applications N. T. Linh, Two-Dimensional Electron Gas FETs: Microwave Applications M. Abe et al., Ultra-High-Speed HEMT Integrated Circuits D. S. Chemla, D. A. B. Miller and P. W. Smith, Nonlinear Optical Properties of Multiple Quantum Well

Structures for Optical Signal Processing F. Capasso, Graded-Gap and Superlattice Devices by Band-Gap Engineering W. T. Tsang, Quantum Confinement Heterostructure Semiconductor Lasers G. C. Osbourn et al., Principles and Applications of Semiconductor Strained-Layer Superlattices

Volume 25

Diluted Magnetic Semiconductors

w. Giriat and J. K. Furdyna, Crystal Structure, Composition, and Materials Preparation of Diluted Magnetic

Semiconductors W. M. Becker, Band Structure and Optical Properties of Wide-Gap A~ixMnxBiv Alloys at Zero Magnetic Field

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

293

S. Oseroff and P. H. Keesom, Magnetic Properties: Macroscopic Studies T. Giebultowicz and T. M. Holden, Neutron Scattering Studies of the Magnetic Structure and Dynamics of

Diluted Magnetic Semiconductors J. Kossut, Band Structure and Quantum Transport Phenomena in Narrow-Gap Diluted Magnetic

Semiconductors C. Riquaux, Magnetooptical Properties of Large-Gap Diluted Magnetic Semiconductors J. A. Gaj, Magnetooptical Properties of Large-Gap Diluted Magnetic Semiconductors J. Mycielski, Shallow Acceptors in Diluted Magnetic Semiconductors: Splitting, Boil-off, Giant Negative

Magnetoresistance A. K. Ramadas and R. Rodriquez, Raman Scattering in Diluted Magnetic Semiconductors P. A. Wolff, Theory of Bound Magnetic Polarons in Semimagnetic Semiconductors

V o l u m e 26

Compound Semiconductors and Semiconductor Properties of Superionic Materials

III-V

z. Yuanxi, III-V Compounds H. V. Winston, A. T. Hunter, H. Kimura, and R. E. Lee, InAs-Alloyed GaAs Substrates for Direct Implantation P. K. Bhattacharya and S. Dhar, Deep Levels in III-V Compound Semiconductors Grown by MBE F. Ya. Gurevich and A. K. Ivanov-Shits, Semiconductor Properties of Supersonic Materials

V o l u m e 27

High Conducting Quasi-One-Dimensional Organic Crystals

E. M. Conwell, Introduction to Highly Conducting Quasi-One-Dimensional Organic Crystals I. A. Howard, A Reference Guide to the Conducting Quasi-One-Dimensional Organic Molecular Crystals J. P. Pouquet, Structural Instabilities E. M. Conwell, Transport Properties C. S. Jacobsen, Optical Properties J. C. Scott, Magnetic Properties L. Zuppiroli, Irradiation Effects: Perfect Crystals and Real Crystals

V o l u m e 28

Measurement

of

High-Speed Signals in Solid State Devices

J. Frey and D. Ioannou, Materials and Devices for High-Speed and Optoelectronic Applications H. Schumacher and E. Strid, Electronic Wafer Probing Techniques D. H. Auston, Picosecond Photoconductivity: High-Speed Measurements of Devices and Materials J. A. Valdmanis, Electro-Optic Measurement Techniques for Picosecond Materials, Devices and Integrated

Circuits J. M. Wiesenfeld and R. K. Jain, Direct Optical Probing of Integrated Circuits and High-Speed Devices G. Plows, Electron-Beam Probing A. M. Weiner and R. B. Marcus, Photoemissive Probing

V o l u m e 29

Very High Speed Integrated Circuits: Gallium Arsenide LSI

M. Kuzuhara and T. Nazaki, Active Layer Formation by Ion Implantation H. Hasimoto, Focused Ion Beam Implantation Technology T. Nozaki and A. Higashisaka, Device Fabrication Process Technology

294

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

M. Ino and T. Takada, GaAs LSI Circuit Design M. Hirayama, M. Ohmori, and K. Yamasaki, GaAs LSI Fabrication and Performance

Volume 30

Very High Speed Integrated Circuits: Heterostructure

H. Watanabe, T. Mizutani, and A. Usui, Fundamentals of Epitaxial Growth and Atomic Layer Epitaxy S. Hiyamizu, Characteristics of Two-Dimensional Electron Gas in III-V Compound Heterostructures Grown by

MBE T. Nakanisi, Metalorganic Vapor Phase Epitaxy for High-Quality Active Layers T. Nimura, High Electron Mobility Transistor and LSI Applications T. Sugeta and T. Ishibashi, Hetero-Bipolar Transistor and LSI Application H. Matsuedo, T. Tanaka, and M. Nakamura, Optoelectronic Integrated Circuits

Volume 31

Indium Phosphide: Crystal Growth and Characterization

J. P. Farges, Growth of Discoloration-Free InP M. J. McCollum and G. E. Stillman, High Purity InP Grown by Hydride Vapor Phase Epitaxy I. Inada and T. Fukuda, Direct Synthesis and Growth of Indium Phosphide by the Liquid Phosphorous

Encapsulated Czochralski Method O. Oda, K. Katagiri, K. Shinohara, S. Katsura, Y. Takahashi, K. Kainosho, K. Kohiro, and R. Hirano, InP

Crystal Growth, Substrate Preparation and Evaluation K. Tada, M. Tatsumi, M. Morioka, T. Araki, and T. Kawase, InP Substrates: Production and Quality Control M. Razeghi, LP-MOCVD Growth, Characterization, and Application of InP Material T. A. Kennedy and P. J. Lin-Chung, Stoichiometric Defects in InP

Volume 32

Strained-Layer Superlattices: Physics

T. P. Pearsall, Strained-Layer Superlattices F. H. Pollack, Effects of Homogeneous Strain on the Electronic and Vibrational Levels in Semiconductors J. Y. Marzin, J. M. Ger~rd, P. Voisin, and J. A. Bruin, Optical Studies of Strained III-V Heterolayers R. People and S. A. Jackson, Structurally Induced States from Strain and Confinement M. Jaros, Microscopic Phenomena in Ordered Superlattices

Volume 33

Strained-Layer Superlattices: Material Science and Technology

R. Hull and J. C. Bean, Principles and Concepts of Strained-Layer Epitaxy W. J. Shaft, P. J. Tasker, M. C. Foisy, and L. F. Eastman, Device Applications of Strained-Layer Epitaxy S. T. Picraux, B. L. Doyle, and J. Y. Tsao, Structure and Characterization of Strained-Layer Superlattices E. Kasper and F. Schaffer, Group IV Compounds D. L. Martin, Molecular Beam Epitaxy of IV-VI Compounds Heterojunction R. L. Gunshot, L. A. Kolodziejski, A. V. Nurmikko, and N. Otsuka, Molecular Beam Epitaxy of I-VI

Semiconductor Microstructures

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

Volume 34

295

Hydrogen in Semiconductors

J. I. Pankove and N. M. Johnson, Introduction to Hydrogen in Semiconductors C. H. Seager, Hydrogenation Methods J. I. Pankove, Hydrogenation of Defects in Crystalline Silicon J. W. Corbett, P. Deilk, U. V. Desnica, and S. J. Pearton, Hydrogen Passivation of Damage Centers in

Semiconductors S. J. Pearton, Neutralization of Deep Levels in Silicon J. I. Pankove, Neutralization of Shallow Acceptors in Silicon N. M. Johnson, Neutralization of Donor Dopants and Formation of Hydrogen-Induced Defects in n-Type Silicon M. Stavola and S. J. Pearton, Vibrational Spectroscopy of Hydrogen-Related Defects in Silicon A. D. Marwick, Hydrogen in Semiconductors: Ion Beam Techniques C. Herring and N. M. Johnson, Hydrogen Migration and Solubility in Silicon E. E. Haller, Hydrogen-Related Phenomena in Crystalline Germanium J. Kakalios, Hydrogen Diffusion in Amorphous Silicon J. Chevalier, B. Clerjaud, and B. Pajot, Neutralization of Defects and Dopants in III-V Semiconductors G. G. DeLeo and W. B. Fowler, Computational Studies of Hydrogen-Containing Complexes in Semiconductors R. F. Kiefl and T. L. Estle, Muonium in Semiconductors C. G. Van de Walle, Theory of Isolated Interstitial Hydrogen and Muonium in Crystalline Semiconductors

V o l u m e 35

Nanostructured Systems

M. Reed, Introduction H. van Houten, C. W. J. Beenakker, and B. J. Wees, Quantum Point Contacts G. Timp, When Does a Wire Become an Electron Waveguide? M. Bitttiker, The Quantum Hall Effects in Open Conductors W. Hansen, J. P. Kotthaus, and U. Merkt, Electrons in Laterally Periodic Nanostructures

V o l u m e 36

The Spectroscopy of Semiconductors

D. Heiman, Spectroscopy of Semiconductors at Low Temperatures and High Magnetic Fields A. V. Nurmikko, Transient Spectroscopy by Ultrashort Laser Pulse Techniques A. K. Ramdas and S. Rodriguez, Piezospectroscopy of Semiconductors 0. J. Glembocki and B. V. Shanabrook, Photorefiectance Spectroscopy of Microstructures D. G. Seiler, C. L. Littler, and M. H. Wiler, One- and Two-Photon Magneto-Optical Spectroscopy of InSb and

Hgl-xCdxTe

V o l u m e 37

The Mechanical Properties of Semiconductors

A.-B. Chen, A. Sher, and W. T. Yost, Elastic Constants and Related Properties of Semiconductor Compounds and

Their Alloys D. R. Clarke, Fracture of Silicon and Other Semiconductors H. Siethoff, The Plasticity of Elemental and Compound Semiconductors S. Guruswamy, K. T. Faber, and J. P. Hirth, Mechanical Behavior of Compound Semiconductors S. Mahajan, Deformation Behavior of Compound Semiconductors J. P. Hirth, Injection of Dislocations into Strained Multilayer Structures

296

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

D. Kendall, C. B. Fleddermann, and K. J. Malloy, Critical Technologies for the Micromatching of Silicon I. Matsuba and K. Mokuya, Processing and Semiconductor Thermoelastic Behavior

Volume 38

Imperfections in III/V Materials

U. Scherz and M. Scheffier, Density-Functional Theory of sp-Bonded Defects in III/V Semiconductors M. Kaminska and E. R. Weber, El2 Defect in GaAs D. C. Look, Defects Relevant for Compensation in Semi-Insulating GaAs R. C. Newman, Local Vibrational Mode Spectroscopy of Defects in III/V Compounds A. M. Hennel, Transition Metals in III/V Compounds K. J. Malloy and K. Khachaturyan, DX and Related Defects in Semiconductors V. Swaminathan and A. S. Jordan, Dislocations in III/V Compounds K. W. Nauka, Deep Level Defects in the Epitaxial III/V Materials

Volume 39

Minority Carriers in III-V Semiconductors: Physics and Applications

N. K. Dutta, Radiative Transition in GaAs and Other III-V Compounds R. K. Ahrenkiel, Minority-Carrier Lifetime in III-V Semiconductors T. Furuta, High Field Minority Electron Transport in p-GaAs M. S. Lundstrom, Minority-Carrier Transport in III-V Semiconductors R. A. Abram, Effects of Heavy Doping and High Excitation on the Band Structure of GaAs D. Yevick and W. Bardyszewski, An Introduction to Non-Equilibrium Many-Body Analyses of Optical Processes

in III-V Semiconductors

Volume 40

Epitaxial Microstructures

E. F. Schubert, Delta-Doping of Semiconductors: Electronic, Optical and Structural Properties of Materials and

Devices A. Gossard, M. Sundaram, and P. Hopkins, Wide Graded Potential Wells P. Petroff, Direct Growth of Nanometer-Size Quantum Wire Superlattices E. Kapon, Lateral Patterning of Quantum Well Heterostructures by Growth of Nonplanar Substrates H. Temkin, D. Gershoni, and M. Panish, Optical Properties of Gal-x InxAs/InP Quantum Wells

Volume

41

High Speed Heterostructure Devices

F. Capasso, F. Beltram, S. Sen, A. Pahlevi, and A. Y. Cho, Quantum Electron Devices: Physics

and Applications P. Solomon, D. J. Frank, S. L. Wright and F. Canora, GaAs-Gate Semiconductor-Insulator- Semiconductor FET M. H. Hashemi and U. K. Mishra, Unipolar InP-Based Transistors R. Kiehl, Complementary Heterostructure FET Integrated Circuits T. lshibashi, GaAs-Based and InP-Based Heterostructure Bipolar-Transistors H. C. Liu and T. C. L. G. Sollner, High-Frequency-Tunneling Devices H. Ohnishi, T. More, M. Takatsu, K. Imamura, and N. Yokoyama, Resonant-Tunneling Hot-Electron Transistors

and Circuits

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

V o l u m e 42

Oxygen in Silicon

F. Shimura, Introduction to Oxygen in Silicon W. Lin, The Incorporation of Oxygen into Silicon Crystals T. J. Schaffner and D. K. Schroder, Characterization Techniques for Oxygen in Silicon W. M. Bullis, Oxygen Concentration Measurement S. M. Hu, Intrinsic Point Defects in Silicon B. Pajot, Some Atomic Configuration of Oxygen J. Michel and L. C. Kimerling, Electrical Properties of Oxygen in Silicon R. C. Newman and R. Jones, Diffusion of Oxygen in Silicon T. Y. Tan and W. J. Taylor, Mechanisms of Oxygen Precipitation: Some Quantitative Aspects M. Schrems, Simulation of Oxygen Precipitation K. Simino and L Yonenaga, Oxygen Effect on Mechanical Properties W. Bergholz, Grown-in and Process-Induced Effects F. Shimura, Intrinsic/Internal Gettering H. Tsuya, Oxygen Effect on Electronic Device Performance

Volume 43

Semiconductors for Room Temperature Nuclear Detector Applications

R. B. James and T. E. Schlesinger, Introduction and Overview L. S. Darken and C E. Cox, High-Purity Germanium Detectors A. Burger, D. Nason, L. Van den Berg, and M. Schieber, Growth of Mercuric Iodide X. J. Bao, T. E. Schlesinger, and R. B. James, Electrical Properties of Mercuric Iodide X. J. Bao, R. B. James, and T. E. Schlesinger, Optical Properties of Red Mercuric Iodide M. Hage-Ali and P. Siffert, Growth Methods of CdTe Nuclear Detector Materials M. Hage-Ali and P. Siffert, Characterization of CdTe Nuclear Detector Materials M. Hage-Ali and P. Siffert, CdTe Nuclear Detectors and Applications R. B. James, T. E. Schlesinger, J. Lund, and M. Schieber, Cdl-x Znx Te Spectrometers for Gamma

and X-Ray Applications D. S. McGregor, J. E. Kammeraad, Gallium Arsenide Radiation Detectors and Spectrometers J. C. Lund, F. Olschner, and A. Burger, Lead Iodide M. R. Squillante and K. S. Shah, Other Materials: Status and Prospects V. M. Gerrish, Characterization and Quantification of Detector Performance J. S. Iwanczyk and B. E. Patt, Electronics for X-ray and Gamma Ray Spectrometers M. Schieber, R. B. James and T. E. Schlesinger, Summary and Remaining Issues for Room Temperature

Radiation Spectrometers

Volume 44

II-IV Blue/Green Light Emitters: Device Physics and Epitaxial Growth

J. Han and R. L. Gunshor, MBE Growth and Electrical Properties of Wide Bandgap ZnSe-based II-VI

Semiconductors S. Fujita and S. Fujita, Growth and Characterization of ZnSe-based II-VI Semiconductors by MOVPE E. Ho and L. A. Kolodziejski, Gaseous Source UHV Epitaxy Technologies for Wide Bandgap II-VI

Semiconductors

297

298

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

C. G. Van de Walle, Doping of Wide-Band-Gap II-VI Compounds - Theory R. Cingolani, Optical Properties of Excitons in ZnSe-Based Quantum Well Heterostructures A. Ishibashi and A. V. Nurmikko, II-VI Diode Lasers: A Current View of Device Performance and Issues S. Guha and J. Petruzello, Defects and Degradation in Wide-Gap II-VI-based Structure and Light Emitting

Devices

V o l u m e 45

Effect of Disorder and Defects in Ion-Implanted Semiconductors: Electrical and Physiochemical Characterization

H. Ryssel, Ion Implantation into Semiconductors: Historical Perspectives You-Nian Wang and Teng-Cai Ma, Electronic Stopping Power for Energetic Ions in Solids S. T. Nakagawa, Solid Effect on the Electronic Stopping of Crystalline Target and Application to Range

Estimation G. Miller, S. Kalbitzer, and G. N. Greaves, Ion Beams in Amorphous Semiconductor Research J. Boussey-Said, Sheet and Spreading Resistance Analysis of Ion Implanted and Annealed Semiconductors M. L. Polignano and G. Queirolo, Studies of the Stripping Hall Effect in Ion-Implanted Silicon J. Stoemenos, Transmission Electron Microscopy Analyses R. Nipoti and M. Servidori, Rutherford Backscattering Studies of Ion Implanted Semiconductors P. Zaumseil, X-ray Diffraction Techniques

V o l u m e 46

Effect of Disorder and Defects in Ion-Implanted Semiconductors: Optical and Photothermal Characterization

M. Fried, T. Lohner, and J. Gyulai, Ellipsometric Analysis A. Seas and C. Christofides, Transmission and Reflection Spectroscopy on Ion Implanted Semiconductors A. Othonos and C. Christofides, Photoluminescence and Raman Scattering of Ion Implanted Semiconductors.

Influence of Annealing C. Christofides, Photomodulated Thermoreflectance Investigation of Implanted Wafers. Annealing Kinetics

of Defects U. Zammit, Photothermal Deflection Spectroscopy Characterization of Ion-Implanted and Annealed Silicon

Films A. Mandelis, A. Budiman, and M. Vargas, Photothermal Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy of Impurities

and Defects in Semiconductors R. Kalish and S. Charbonneau, Ion Implantation into Quantum-Well Structures A. M. Myasnikov and N. N. Gerasimenko, Ion Implantation and Thermal Annealing of III-V Compound

Semiconducting Systems: Some Problems of III-V Narrow Gap Semiconductors

Volume 47

Uncooled Infrared Imaging Arrays and Systems

R. G. Buser and M. P. Tompsett, Historical Overview P. W. Kruse, Principles of Uncooled Infrared Focal Plane Arrays R. A. Wood, Monolithic Silicon Microbolometer Arrays C. M. Hanson, Hybrid Pyroelectric-Ferroelectric Bolometer Arrays D. L. Polla and J. R. Choi, Monolithic Pyroelectric Bolometer Arrays

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

299

N. Teranishi, Thermoelectric Uncooled Infrared Focal Plane Arrays M. F. Tompsett, Pyroelectric Vidicon T. W. Kenny, Tunneling Infrared Sensors J. R. Vig, R. L. Filler, and Y. Kim, Application of Quartz Microresonators to Uncooled Infrared Imaging Arrays P. W. Kruse, Application of Uncooled Monolithic Thermoelectric Linear Arrays to Imaging Radiometers

Volume 48

High Brightness Light Emitting Diodes

G. B. Stringfellow, Materials Issues in High-Brightness Light-Emitting Diodes M.G. Craford, Overview of Device Issues in High-Brightness Light-Emitting Diodes F. M. Steranka, A1GaAs Red Light Emitting Diodes C. H. Chert, S. A. Stockman, M. J. Peanasky, and C. P. Kuo, OMVPE Growth of A1GaInP for High Efficiency

Visible Light-Emitting Diodes F. A. Kish and R. M. Fletcher, A1GaInP Light-Emitting Diodes M. W. Hodapp, Applications for High Brightness Light-Emitting Diodes I. Akasaki and H. Amano, Organometallic Vapor Epitaxy of GaN for High Brightness Blue Light Emitting

Diodes S. Nakamura, Group III-V Nitride Based Ultraviolet-Blue-Green-Yellow Light-Emitting Diodes and Laser

Diodes

V o l u m e 49

Light Emission in Silicon: from Physics to Devices

D. J. Lockwood, Light Emission in Silicon G. Abstreiter, Band Gaps and Light Emission in Si/SiGe Atomic Layer Structures T. G. Brown and D. G. Hall, Radiative Isoelectronic Impurities in Silicon and Silicon-Germanium Alloys

and Superlattices J. Michel, L. V. C. Assali, M. T. Morse, and L. C. Kimerling, Erbium in Silicon Y. Kanemitsu, Silicon and Germanium Nanoparticles P. M. Fauchet, Porous Silicon: Photoluminescence and Electroluminescent Devices C. Delerue, G. Allan, and M. Lannoo, Theory of Radiative and Nonradiative Processes in Silicon

Nanocrystallites L. Brus, Silicon Polymers and Nanocrystals

V o l u m e 50

Gallium Nitride (GaN)

J. I. Pankove and T. D. Moustakas, Introduction S. P. DenBaars and S. Keller, Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD) of Group III Nitrides W. A. Bryden and T. J. Kistenmacher, Growth of Group III-A Nitrides by Reactive Sputtering N. Newman, Thermochemistry of III-N Semiconductors S. J. Pearton and R. J. Shul, Etching of III Nitrides S. M. Bedair, Indium-based Nitride Compounds A. Trampert, O. Brandt, and K. H. Ploog, Crystal Structure of Group III Nitrides H. Morkog, F. Hamdani, and A. Salvador, Electronic and Optical Properties of III-V Nitride based Quantum

Wells and Superlattices K. Doverspike and J. I. Pankove, Doping in the III-Nitrides T. Suski and P. Perlin, High Pressure Studies of Defects and Impurities in Gallium Nitride

300

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

B. Monemar, Optical Properties of GaN W. R. L. Lambrecht, Band Structure of the Group III Nitrides N. E. Christensen and P. Perlin, Phonons and Phase Transitions in GaN S. Nakamura, Applications of LEDs and LDs L Akasaki and H. Amano, Lasers J. A. Cooper, Jr., Nonvolatile Random Access Memories in Wide Bandgap Semiconductors

Identification of Defects in Semiconductors

Volume 51A

G. D. Watkins, EPR and ENDOR Studies of Defects in Semiconductors J.-M. Spaeth, Magneto-Optical and Electrical Detection of Paramagnetic Resonance in Semiconductors T. A. Kennedy and E. R. Glaser, Magnetic Resonance of Epitaxial Layers Detected by Photoluminescence K. H. Chow, B. Hitti, and R. F. Kiefl, IxSR on Muonium in Semiconductors and Its Relation to Hydrogen K. Saarinen, P. Hautojiirvi, and C. Corbel, Positron Annihilation Spectroscopy of Defects in Semiconductors R. Jones and P. R. Briddon, The Ab Initio Cluster Method and the Dynamics of Defects in Semiconductors

Identification Defects in Semiconductors

Volume 51B

G. Davies, Optical Measurements of Point Defects P. M. Mooney, Defect Identification Using Capacitance Spectroscopy M. Stavola, Vibrational Spectroscopy of Light Element Impurities in Semiconductors P. Schwander, W. D. Rau, C. Kisielowski, M. Gribelyuk, and A. Ourmazd, Defect Processes in Semiconductors

Studied at the Atomic Level by Transmission Electron Microscopy N. D. Jager and E. R. Weber, Scanning Tunneling Microscopy of Defects in Semiconductors

Volume 52

SiC Materials and Devices

K. Jiirrendahl and R. F. Davis, Materials Properties and Characterization of SiC V. A. Dmitiriev and M. G. Spencer, SiC Fabrication Technology: Growth and Doping V. Saxena and A. J. Steckl, Building Blocks for SiC Devices: Ohmic Contacts, Schottky Contacts, and p-n Junctions M. S. Shur, SiC Transistors C. D. Brandt, R. C. Clarke, R. R. Siergiej, J. B. Casady, A. W. Morse, S. Sriram, and A. K. Agarwal, SiC for

Applications in High-Power Electronics R. J. Trew, SiC Microwave Devices J. Edmond, H. Kong, G. Negley, M. Leonard, K. Doverspike, W. Weeks, A. Suvorov, D. Waltz, and C. Carter, Jr.,

SiC-Based UV Photodiodes and Light-Emitting Diodes H. Morko9, Beyond Silicon Carbide! III-V Nitride-Based Heterostructures and Devices

V o l u m e 53 Cumulative Subjects and Author Index Including T a b l e s of Contents for Volumes 1 - 5 0

V o l u m e 54

High Pressure in Semiconductor Physics I

w. Paul, High Pressure in Semiconductor Physics: A Historical Overview N. E. Christensen, Electronic Structure Calculations for Semiconductors Under Pressure

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

301

R. J. Neimes and M. L McMahon, Structural Transitions in the Group IV, III-V and II-VI Semiconductors

Under Pressure A. R. Goni and K. Syassen, Optical Properties of Semiconductors Under Pressure P. Trautman, M. Baj, and J. M. Baranowski, Hydrostatic Pressure and Uniaxial Stress in Investigations of the

EL2 Defect in GaAs M. Li and P. Y. Yu, High-Pressure Study of DX Centers Using Capacitance Techniques T. Suski, Spatial Correlations of Impurity Charges in Doped Semiconductors N. Kuroda, Pressure Effects on the Electronic Properties of Diluted Magnetic Semiconductors

V o l u m e 55

High Pressure in Semiconductor Physics I I

D. K. Maude and J. C. Portal, Parallel Transport in Low-Dimensional Semiconductor Structures P. C. Klipstein, Tunneling Under Pressure: High-Pressure Studies of Vertical Transport in Semiconductor

Heterostructures E. Anastassakis and M. Cardona, Phonons, Strains, and Pressure in Semiconductors F. H. Pollak, Effects of External Uniaxial Stress on the Optical Properties of Semiconductors and

Semiconductor Microstructures A. R. Adams, M. Silver, and J. Allam, Semiconductor Optoelectronic Devices S. Porowski and L Grzegory, The Application of High Nitrogen Pressure in the Physics and Technology of

III-N Compounds M. Yousuf, Diamond Anvil Cells in High Pressure Studies of Semiconductors

Volume 56

Germanium Silicon: Physics and Materials

J. c. Bean, Growth Techniques and Procedures D. E. Savage, F. Liu, V. Zielasek, and M. G. Lagally, Fundamental Crystal Growth Mechanisms R. Hull, Misfit Strain Accommodation in SiGe Heterostructures M. J. Shaw and M. Jaros, Fundamental Physics of Strained Layer GeSi: Quo Vadis? F. Cerdeira, Optical Properties S. A. Ringel and P. N. Grillot, Electronic Properties and Deep Levels in Germanium-Silicon J. C. Campbell, Optoelectronics in Silicon and Germanium Silicon K. Eberl, K. Brunner, and O. G. Schmidt, Sil-yCy and Sil-x-yGe2Cy Alloy Layers

Volume

57

Gallium Nitride (GaN) I I

R. J. Molnar, Hydride Vapor Phase Epitaxial Growth of III-V Nitrides T. D. Moustakas, Growth of III-V Nitrides by Molecular Beam Epitaxy Z. Liliental-Weber, Defects in Bulk GaN and Homoepitaxial Layers C. G. Van de Walle and N. M. Johnson, Hydrogen in III-V Nitrides W. G6tz and N. M. Johnson, Characterization of Dopants and Deep Level Defects in Gallium Nitride B. Gil, Stress Effects on Optical Properties C. Kisielowski, Strain in GaN Thin Films and Heterostructures J. A. Miragliotta and D. K. Wickenden, Nonlinear Optical Properties of Gallium Nitride B. K. Meyer, Magnetic Resonance Investigations on Group III-Nitrides M. S. Shur and M. Asif Khan, GaN and AIGaN Ultraviolet Detectors C. H. Qiu, J. I. Pankove and C. Rossington, I I - V Nitride-Based X-ray Detectors

302

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

V o l u m e 58

Nonlinear Optics in Semiconductors I

A. Kost, Resonant Optical Nonlinearities in Semiconductors E. Garmire, Optical Nonlinearities in Semiconductors Enhanced by Carrier Transport D. S. Chemla, Ultrafast Transient Nonlinear Optical Processes in Semiconductors M. Sheik-Bahae and E. W. Van Stryland, Optical Nonlinearities in the Transparency Region of Bulk

Semiconductors J. E. Millerd, M. Ziari, and A. Partovi, Photorefractivity in Semiconductors

V o l u m e 59

Nonlinear Optics in Semiconductors II

J. B. Khurgin, Second Order Nonlinearities and Optical Rectification K. L. Hall, E. R. Thoen, and E. P. Ippen, Nonlinearities in Active Media E. Hanamura, Optical Responses of Quantum Wires/Dots and Microcavities U. Keller, Semiconductor Nonlinearities for Solid-State Laser Modelocking and Q-Switching A. Miller, Transient Grating Studies of Carrier Diffusion and Mobility in Semiconductors

Volume 60

Self-Assembled InGaAs/GaAs Quantum Dots

Mitsuru Sugawara, Theoretical Bases of the Optical Properties of Semiconductor Quantum Nano-Structures Yoshiaki Nakata, Yoshihiro Sugiyama, and Mitsuru Sugawara, Molecular Beam Epitaxial Growth of

Self-Assembled InAs/GaAs Quantum Dots Kohki Mukai, Mitsuru Sugawara, Mitsuru Egawa, and Nobuyuki Ohtsuka, Metalorganic Vapor Phase Epitaxial

Growth of Self-Assembled InGaAs/GaAs Quantum Dots Emitting at 1.3 ~m Kohki Mukai and Mitsuru Sugawara, Optical Characterization of Quantum Dots Kohki Mukai and Mitsuru Sugawara, The Photon Bottleneck Effect in Quantum Dots Hajime Shoji, Self-Assembled Quantum Dot Lasers Hiroshi Ishikawa, Applications of Quantum Dot to Optical Devices Mitsuru Sugawara, Kohki Mukai, Hiroshi Ishikawa, Koji Otsubo, and Yoshiaki Nakata, The Latest News

V o l u m e 61

Hydrogen in Semiconductors II

Norbert H. Nickel, Introduction to Hydrogen in Semiconductors II Noble M. Johnson and Chris G. Van de Walle, Isolated Monatomic Hydrogen in Silicon Yurij V. Gorelkinskii, Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Studies of Hydrogen and Hydrogen-Related Defects in

Crystalline Silicon Norbert 14. Nickel, Hydrogen in Polycrystalline Silicon Wolfhard Beyer, Hydrogen Phenomena in Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon Chris G. Van de Walle, Hydrogen Interactions with Polycrystalline and Amorphous Silicon-Theory Karen M. McManus Rutledge, Hydrogen in Polycrystalline CVD Diamond Roger L. Lichti, Dynamics of Muonium Diffusion, Site Changes and Charge-State Transitions Matthew D. McCluskey and Eugene E. Haller, Hydrogen in III-V and II-VI Semiconductors S. J. Pearton and J. W. Lee, The Properties of Hydrogen in GaN and Related Alloys J6rg Neugebauer and Chris G. Van de Walle, Theory of Hydrogen in GaN

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

Volume 62

303

Intersubband Transitions in Quantum Wells: Physics and Device Applications I

Manfred Helm, The Basic Physics of Intersubband Transitions Jerome Faist, Carlo Sirtori, Federico Capasso, Loren N. Pfeiffer, Ken W. West, Deborah L. Sivco, and Alfred Y. Cho, Quantum Interference Effects in Intersubband Transitions H. C. Liu, Quantum Well Infrared Photodetector Physics and Novel Devices S. D. Gunapala and S. V. Bandara, Quantum Well Infrared Photodetector (QWIP) Focal Plane Arrays

Volume 63

Chemical Mechanical Polishing in Si Processing

Frank B. Kaufman, Introduction Thomas Bibby and Karey Holland, Equipment John P. Bare, Facilitization Duane S. Boning and Okumu Ouma, Modeling and Simulation Shin Hwa Li, Bruce Tredinnick, and Mel Hoffman, Consumables I: Slurry Lee M. Cook, CMP Consumables II: Pad Franfois Tardif Post-CMP Clean Shin Hwa Li, Tara Chhatpar, and Frederic Robert, CMP Metrology Shin Hwa Li, Visun Bucha, and Kyle Wooldridge, Applications and CMP-Related Process Problems

Volume 64

Electroluminescence I

M. G. Craford, S. A. Stockman, M. J. Peansky, and F. A. Kish, Visible Light-Emitting Diodes H. Chui, N. F. Gardner, P. N. Grillot, J. W. Huang, M. R. Krames, and S. A. Maranowski, High-Efficiency

AIGaInP Light-Emitting Diodes R. S. Kern, W. Gbtz, C. H. Chen, H. Liu, R. M. Fletcher, and C. P. Kuo, High-Brightness Nitride-Based

Visible-Light-Emitting Diodes Yoshiharu Sato, Organic LED System Considerations V. Bulovi~, P. E. Burrows, and S. R. Forrest, Molecular Organic Light-Emitting Devices

Volume 65

Electroluminescence II

V. Bulovi~ and S. R. Forrest, Polymeric and Molecular Organic Light Emitting Devices: A Comparison Regina Mueller-Mach and Gerd O. Mueller, Thin Film Electroluminescence Markku Leskel~, Wei-Min Li, and Mikko Ritala, Materials in Thin Film Electroluminescent Devices Kristiaan Neyts, Microcavities for Electroluminescent Devices

Volume 66

Intersubband Transitions in Quantum Wells: Physics and Device Applications II

Jerome Faist, Federico Capasso, Carlo Sirtori, Deborah L. Sivco, and Alfred Y. Cho, Quantum Cascade Lasers Federico Capasso, Carlo Sirtori, D. L. Sivco, and A. Y. Cho, Nonlinear Optics in Coupled-Quantum- Well

Quasi-Molecules Karl Unterrainer, Photon-Assisted Tunneling in Semiconductor Quantum Structures P. Haring Bolivar, T. Dekorsy, and H. Kurz, Optically Excited Bloch Oscillations-Fundamentals and

Application Perspectives

304

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

Volume 67

Ultrafast Physical Processes in Semiconductors

Alfred Leitenstorfer and Alfred Laubereau, Ultrafast Electron-Phonon Interactions in Semiconductors:

Quantum Kinetic Memory Effects Christoph Lienau and Thomas Elsaesser, Spatially and Temporally Resolved Near-Field Scanning Optical

Microscopy Studies of Semiconductor Quantum Wires K. T. Tsen, Ultrafast Dynamics in Wide Bandgap Wurtzite GaN J. Paul Callan, Albert M.-T. Kim, Christopher A. D. Roeser, and Eriz Mazur, Ultrafast Dynamics and Phase

Changes in Highly Excited GaAs Hartmut Haug, Quantum Kinetics for Femtosecond Spectroscopy in Semiconductors T. Meier and S. W. Koch, Coulomb Correlation Signatures in the Excitonic Optical Nonlinearities of

Semiconductors Roland E. Allen, Traian Dumitricd, and Ben Torralva, Electronic and Structural Response of Materials to Fast,

Intense Laser Pulses E. Gornik and R. Kersting, Coherent THz Emission in Semiconductors

Volume 68

Isotope Effects in Solid State Physics

Vladimir G. Plekhanov, Elastic Properties; Thermal Properties; Vibrational Properties; Raman Spectra of

Isotopically Mixed Crystals; Excitons in LiH Crystals; Exciton-Phonon Interaction; Isotopic Effect in the Emission Spectrum of Polaritons; Isotopic Disordering of Crystal Lattices; Future Developments and Applications; Conclusions

V o l u m e 69

Recent Trends in Thermoelectric Materials Research I

H. Julian Goldsmid, Introduction Terry M. Tritt and Valerie M. Browning, Overview of Measurement and Characterization Techniques for

Thermoelectric Materials Mercouri G. Kanatzidis, The Role of Solid-State Chemistry in the Discovery of New Thermoelectric Materials B. Lenoir, H. Scherrer, and T. Caillat, An Overview of Recent Developments for BiSb Alloys Citrad Uher, Skutterudities: Prospective Novel Thermoelectrics George S. Nolas, Glen A. Slack, and Sandra B. Schujman, Semiconductor Clathrates: A Phonon Glass Electron

Crystal Material with Potential for Thermoelectric Applications

Volume 70

Recent Trends in Thermoelectric Materials Research II

Brian C. Sales, David G. Mandrus, and Bryan C. Chakoumakos, Use of Atomic Displacement Parameters in

Thermoelectric Materials Research S. Joseph Pooh, Electronic and Thermoelectric Properties of Half-Heusler Alloys Terry M. Tritt, A. L. Pope, and J. W. Kolis, Overview of the Thermoelectric Properties of Quasicrystalline

Materials and Their Potential for Thermoelectric Applications Alexander C. Ehrlich and Stuart A. Wolf, Military Applications of Enhanced Thermoelectrics David J. Singh, Theoretical and Computational Approaches for Identifying and Optimizing Novel

Thermoelectric Materials Terry M. Tritt and R. T. Littleton, IV, Thermoelectric Properties of the Transition Metal Pentatellurides:

Potential Low-Temperature Thermoelectric Materials

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

305

Franz Freibert, Timothy W. Darling, Albert Miglori, and Stuart A. Trugman, Thermomagnetic Effects and

Measurements M. Bartkowiak and G. D. Mahan, Heat and Electricity Transport Through Interfaces

V o l u m e 71

Recent Trends in Thermoelectric Materials Research I I I

M. S. Dresselhaus, Y.-M. Lin, T. Koga, S. B. Cronin, O. Rabin, M. R. Black, and G. Dresselhaus, Quantum Wells

and Quantum Wires for Potential Thermoelectric Applications D. A. Broido and T. L. Reinecke, Thermoelectric Transport in Quantum Well and Quantum

Wire Superlattices G. D. Mahan, Thermionic Refrigeration Rama Venkatasubramanian, Phonon Blocking Electron Transmitting Superlattice Structures as Advanced Thin

Film Thermoelectric Materials G. Chen, Phonon Transport in Low-Dimensional Structures

V o l u m e 72

Silicon Epitaxy

s. Acerboni, ST Microelectronics, CFM-AGI Department, Agrate Brianza, Italy V.-M. Airaksinen, Okmetic Oyj R&D Department, Vantaa, Finland G. Beretta, ST Microelectronics, DSG Epitaxy Catania Department, Catania, Italy C. Cavallotti, Dipartimento di Chimica Fisica Applicata, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy D. Crippa, MEMC Electronic Materials, Epitaxial and CVD Department, Operations Technology Division,

Novara, Italy D. Dutartre, ST Microelectronics, Central R&D, Crolles, France Srikanth Kommu, MEMC Electronic Materials inc., EPI Technology Group, St. Peters, Missouri M. Masi, Dipartimento di Chimica Fisica Applicata, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy D. J. Meyer, ASM Epitaxy, Phoenix, Arizona J. Murota, Research Institute of Electrical Communication, Laboratory for Electronic Intelligent Systems,

Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan V. Pozzetti, LPE Epitaxial Technologies, Bollate, Italy A. M. Rinaldi, MEMC Electronic Materials, Epitaxial and CVD Department, Operations Technology Division,

Novara, Italy Y. Shiraki, Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology (RCAST), University of Tokyo, Tokyo,

Japan

V o l u m e 73

Processing and Properties of Compound Semiconductors

s. J. Pearton, Introduction Eric Donkor, Gallium Arsenide Heterostructures Annamraju Kasi Viswanath, Growth and Optical Properties of GaN D. Y. C. Lie and K. L. Wang, SiGe/Si Processing S. Kim and M. Razeghi, Advances in Quantum Dot Structures Walter P. Gomes, Wet Etching of III-V Semiconductors

306

Contents o f Volumes in This Series

Volume 74

Silicon-Germanium Strained Layers and Heterostructures

s. c. Jain and M. Willander, Introduction; Strain, Stability, Reliability and Growth; Mechanism of Strain Relaxation; Strain, Growth, and TED in SiGeC Layers; Bandstructure and Related Properties; Heterostructure Bipolar Transistors; FETs and Other Devices

Volume 75

Laser Crystallization of Silicon

Norbert H. Nickel, Introduction to Laser Crystallization of Silicon Costas P. Grigoropoulos, Seung-Jae Moon and Ming-Hong Lee, Heat Transfer and Phase Transformations in Laser Melting and Recrystallization of Amorphous Thin Si Films Robert Cer@ and Petr P?ikryl, Modeling Laser-Induced Phase-Change Processes: Theory and Computation Paulo V. Santos, Laser Interference Crystallization of Amorphous Films Philipp Lengsfeld and Norbert H. Nickel, Structural and Electronic Properties of Laser-Crystallized Poly-Si

Thin-Film Diamond I

V o l u m e 76

x. Jiang, Textured and Heteroepitaxial CVD Diamond Films Eberhard Blank, Structural Imperfections in CVD Diamond Films R. Kalish, Doping Diamond by Ion-Implantation A. Deneuville, Boron Doping of Diamond Films from the Gas Phase S. Koizumi, n-Type Diamond Growth C. E. Nebel, Transport and Defect Properties of Intrinsic and Boron-Doped Diamond Milo~ Neslddek, Ken Haenen and Milan Van~ek, Optical Properties of CVD Diamond RolfSauer, Luminescence from Optical Defects and Impurities in CVD Diamond

V o l u m e 77

Thin-Film Diamond I I

Jacques Chevallier, Hydrogen Diffusion and Acceptor Passivation in Diamond Ji~rgen Ristein, Structural and Electronic Properties of Diamond Surfaces John C. Angus, Yuri II. Pleskov and Sally C. Eaton, Electrochemistry of Diamond Greg M. Swain, Electroanalytical Applications of Diamond Electrodes Werner Haenni, Philippe Rychen, Matthyas Fryda and Christos Comninellis, Industrial Applications of Diamond Electrodes Philippe Bergonzo and Richard B Jaclonan, Diamond-Based Radiation and Photon Detectors Hiroshi Kawarada, Diamond Field Effect Transistors Using H-Terminated Surfaces Shinichi Shikata and Hideaki Nakahata, Diamond Surface Acoustic Wave Device

V o l u m e 78

Semiconducting Chalcogenide Glass I

K S. Minaev and S. P. Timoshenkov, Glass-Formation in Chalcogenide Systems and Periodic System A. Popov, Atomic Structure and Structural Modification of Glass V. A. Funtikov, Eutectoidal Concept of Glass Structure and Its Application in Chalcogenide Semiconductor Glasses V. S. Minaev, Concept of Polymeric Polymorphous-Crystalloid Structure of Glass and Chalcogenide Systems: Structure and Relaxation of Liquid and Glass

307

Contents o f Volumes in This Series Mihai Popescu, Photo-Induced Transformations in Glass Oleg I. Shpotyuk, Radiation-Induced Effects in Chalcogenide Vitreous Semiconductors

Volume

79

Semiconducting Chalcogenide Glass

II

M. D. Bal'makov, Information Capacity of Condensed Systems A. Cesnys, G. Ju~ka and E. Montrimas, Charge Carrier Transfer at High Electric Fields in Noncrystalline

Semiconductors Andrey S. Glebov, The Nature of the Current Instability in Chalcogenide Vitreous Semiconductors A. M. Andriesh, M. S. Iovu and S. D. Shutov, Optical and Photoelectrical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses V. Val. Sobolev and V. V. Sobolev, Optical Spectra of Arsenic Chalcogenides in a Wide Energy Range of

Fundamental Absorption Yu. S. Tver'yanovich, Magnetic Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses

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