Seductive Journey: American Tourists in France from Jefferson to the Jazz Age 9780226473796

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HARVEY LEVENSTEIN HARVEY LEVEN STEIN

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.... AMERICAN AMERICAN TOURISTS T 0 URIST S IN IN FRANCE FROM FRANCE FROM JEFFERSON TO JEFFERS 0 N T 0 THE JAZZ AGE THE JAZZ AGE

THE UNIVERSITY UNIYERSITY OF THE OF CHICAGO CHIC AG O PRESS PRESS

CHICAGO & (5 CHICAGO f LONDON LONDON

H A R V E Y LEVENS LEVENS TEl HARVEY TEINN is professor emeritus of of history at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. He has written a number of of books on American history, including including two two on on the the social social history history of of American American food, food, history, Revolution Revolution at at the the Table Table(1988) (1988)and andParadox ParadoxofofPlenty Plenty(1993). (1993).

The University University of of Chicago Chicago Press, Press, Chicago Chicago 60637 60637 The The University University of of Chicago Chicago Press, Press, Ltd., Ltd., London London The 1998 by by The The University University of of Chicago Chicago © 1998 All rights rights reserved. reserved. Published Published 1998 1998 All Printed in in the the United States of of America America Printed United States 07 06 06 05 05 04 04 03 03 02 02 01 01 00 00 99 99 98 98 1122 33 44 55 07 ISBN: 0-226-47376-7 0-226-47376-7

Library of of Congress Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Cataloging-in-Publication Data Data Library Levenstein, Harvey A., 1938Seductive journey journey:: American tourists in France from Jefferson to to the the Jazz Jazz Age Age // Harvey Harvey Levenstein. Levenstein. Jefferson p. cm. cm. Includes bibliographical references and and index. index. Includes bibliographical references ISBN 0-226-47376-7 0-226-47376-7 1. Americans-France-Attitudes. Americans—France—Attitudes. 2. AmericansAmericans— Travel-France-History. Travel—France—History. 3. Tourist trade-Francetrade—France— History. 4. France-Social France—Social life and customs. 1. I. Tide. Title. DC34.5.A44L48 1998 97-49389 306'.0944-dc21 306'.0944—dc21 CIP CIP

This book book is is printed printed on on acid-free acid-free paper. paper. This

For For Larry Larry and and Mona Mona

Preface

IX ix

PART ONE P ART ON E

In Search of of Taste and Distinction, 1786-1848 1786-1848 One

Jefferson Jefferson versus Adams

3

Two

Getting There Was Not Half Half the Fun

Three Three

A Man's Man s World

Four

Eat, Drink, but Be Wary

Five

"The Athens of of Modern Europe"

25

Pleasures of of the Flesh

Six Six

13

37

53

67

PART TWO PART TWO

Paris and Tourism Transfonned, Transformed, 1848-1870 1848-1870 Seven

Paris Transformed Transformed

85

Eight Eight

Keeping Away from the Joneses

Nine Nine

The Feminization of of American Tourism

93 107

PART THREE PART T H R E E

of Leisure Tourism, 1870-1914 1870-1914 Class, Gender, and the Rise of Ten

a

"The Golden Age of of Travel" The Golden

125

Eleven Eleven

Prisoners of of Leisure: Upper-Class Tourism

Twelve

How "The Other Half" Toured

157

Thirteen

Class, Gender, and the Rise of of Antitourism

Fourteen Fourteen

Machismo, Morality, and Millionaires

Vll vii

139

197

177

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CONTENTS~ CONTENTS —

PART FOUR PART FOUR

The Invasion of of the Lower Orders, 1917-1930 Fifteen Fifteen

Doughboys and Dollars

Sixteen Sixteen

"How're "Howre You Gonna Keep 'Em Down on the Farm?"

Seventeen Seventeen

217

A Farewell to "Culture Vultures"

245

Eighteen Eighteen

Unhappy Hosts, Unwelcome Visitors

Nineteen Nineteen

Epilogue

277

Notes

285

Index

353

Photographs follow Photographs follow pages pages64 64and and224 224

viii

257

233

of the saddest pleasures in life. Crossing Traveling is one of unknown countries, hearing people speak a language you scarcely understand, and seeing human faces without any relation to your past or with your future, means solitude without repose and isolation without dignity. MADAME DE DE STAEL MADAME STAEL

Much of of my previous work, on the history of of food, was inspired by my Much of cooking and eating. The present project project owes much to my fondness fondness love of for foreign touring. Yet my interest in both subjects stems from more than just the pleasure I derive from them. It also originates in an interest in why other people enjoy enjoy or do not enjoy enjoy these things. Our Our attitudes towards food are shaped very much by our culture and its history. Similarly, our expectations and experiences as tourists depend very much on who we are from. and where we come from. It It may seem awkward that I use the word "touring" and "tourist" here; "traveling" and "traveler" would probably read better. I do so for two reasons: In the first place, tourism is the particular particular kind of of travel that interests me. It It is normally defined defined as travel for pleasure, or culture, or both. Yet, despite this rather benign definition, since the 1840s, when the term became current in England, travelers have cringed at being labeled what Henry Henry Adams called "the despised word tourist." And with good reason: it usually connotes those whose experience in new places is mediated, diomniscient luted, and impaired by such things as inflexible itineraries, omniscient relentlessly moving vehicles, and guide books, stentorian tour guides, re1endessly blurry camera viewfinders, not to mention the prejudices that cloud their Meaningful contact with the host culture and the chance oflearnof learnminds. Meaningful ing anything about it, let alone from it, is usually deemed impossible. The put-downs of of tourists have multiplied of of late. The sociologist The Dean McCannell McCannell sees tourism as analogous to theater, with tourists as Dean an audience content content with "inauthentic" experiences. The The social historian ix

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Daniel Boorstin thinks modern tourism embodies the tendency of of conimages—to sumer society to deal in safe, sanitized, and egregiously false images-to sell the masses "pseudo-events" rather than reality. People such as he and the literary historian Paul Fussell make an invidious distinction between these cosseted tourists and "travelers," who venture alone into new situations, hoping to find the unexpected. Unlike tourists, who are disgustingly confront new envipassive, the travelers are an admirable lot who actively confront ronments one-on-one and learn from the unplanned experiences that follow.! follow 1 different Anthropologists have turned their guns on tourists from a different inherent in what used to be angle. They condemn the cultural imperialism inherent Third World, and are horrified horrified by such called First World tourism to the Third things as luxury tours to New Guinea for tourists who want to videotape other.2 Economists, who used to be optimistic cannibals at war with each other.2 beneficial effects effects of of tourism to poor countries, now bemoan about the beneficial They charge that most tourists' impact on these countries' economies. They funds tourist spending ends up back in the rich countries, and that the funds of the masses, who have that stay enrich small ruling elites at the expense of tourism-induced price rises. 33 to cope with tourism-induced tourist/traveler dichotomy in the past as The critics tend to accept the tourist/traveler well as the present. Boorstin says travel began to decline and tourism to mid-nineteenth century, with the beginning of of mass transportransporrise in the mid-nineteenth of travel in the past is so idealized that he thinks it tation.44 Fussell's view of is impossible for anyone to really "travel" today, and has been since 1939.55 of However, I think that it is the dichotomy itself, with its idealized view of the old-time "traveler," that is the false image. Inevitably, the experience of foreign travel has always been filtered through the lenses of of our expectaof experiences—in short, our own culturetions, stereotypes, and past experiences-in boundedness. People in foreign places have always had to rely on various encounter—to "get away to crutches to manage the cultural distance they encounter-to unfamiliar [yet] make sure that it's its not too unfamiliar."6 unfamiliar."6 It something unfamiliar seems to me that to create a golden age in the past when none existed is indulge in a kind of of nostalgic fantasizing rivaling that of of some of of today's to indulge ultra-sanitized historical theme parks. 77 hokey, ultra-sanitized W h e n we travel to foreign places we usually expect our trips to bring When of pleasure, yet the very foreignness that we find find exciting-the exciting—the some sort of different ways people are language barriers, the new topography, and the different us)—inevitably constitutes a two-edged sword that can treated (especially us)-inevitably enjoyment of of the trip. Indeed, one often often wonders, as did slash away at the enjoyment X :Ie

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subject themselves Madame de Stael, quoted above, why tourists willingly subject discomforts and humiliation of of foreign travel. Powerful Powerful to the inevitable discomforts people, who command command immense respect at home, are herded from place to place like sheep and reduced to wimps by imperious guides and snarling of people throughout throughout the world pay for such waiters. Yet each year millions of self-abasement, willingly facing the difficulties difficulties invariably involved in being self-abasement, "temporary strangers" in foreign lands. 88 "temporary A raft raft of of statistics testify testify to a tremendous explosion of of tourism on a worldwide scale. Tourism now surpasses petroleum petroleum as the world's world s largest international industry, and the reason for this cannot just be that people just have always wanted to see what lies over the next hill-that hill—that they travel, as a nineteenth-century nineteenth-century definition definition of of tourism had it, "out of of curiosity"-and curiosity"—and that now millions of of them have the wherewithal to do SO. so.99 This begs the question of of what people expect to see on the other side of of the hill and what they do when get there. There are almost as many motives for traveling as there are people. However, as a historian, I tend to think think that one can explain the remarkable rise of of mass tourism by categorizing these motives and examining how they, and the people, changed over time. A distinction I find particularly useful useful is one often often made in today's tourist industries. It rests on the two main components of of the old definition definition of of tourism: travel for culture and for pleasure. "Cultural tourism" is visiting museums, scrutinizing cathedrals, studying pyramids, and making other such attempts at personal uplift lift through self-education. "Recreational "Recreational tourism," on the other hand, is aimed at pleasure. Nowadays, we think of of it as "sun, sea, and sand" tourism, skiing holidays, pleasure cruises, even sex-tourism. It It is almost certainly the dominant dominant form of of tourism today, at least in dollar terms. One of of the things this book examines is the interplay between these two, and how the basis was laid for the latter's rise. We shall also see that while cultural tourism persisted, it was often often as something quite different different from the immersion in high culture that was its original ideal. By examining Americans, we will be looking at people who were in the forefront forefront of of the rise of of mass tourism in the modern world. We shall see how, over the course of of their country's first 150 years, the trip to France something reserved primarily moved down the class ladder, changing from something for the upper class to an experience increasingly open to the middle class. We shall also see it crossing the gender line, until at one stage it becomes identified with women. Finally we shall see it cross the racial very much identified African Americans. These changes inevitably enmeshed divide to involve Mrican XI

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it in larger tensions in American society: the resistance of of established elites of the "New to newly rich parvenus, opposition by males to the emergence of Woman," and by whites to African African Americans' strivings for equal treatment. These conflicts were acted out among the tourists who flocked flocked to extraordinary France. They also contributed, in the mid-1920s, to an extraordinary of French hostility to American eruption of American tourists. Of course all of of this meant that there was never really such a thing as Of the "typical American tourist," yet by the 1920s observers were saying that brought forth just mass tourism had brought just such a thing. The stereotypes, said to be found wandering all over Europe, were white, middle-class businessmen and their wives from "Main Street, U.S.A." They were provincial of foreign lands and languages, marked by a surfeit surfeit of of people, ignorant of woefully ill-equipped ill-equipped to function function independently independently in a strange naivete, and woefully of the deenvironment. Like all stereotypes, this hardly applied to many of cade s tourists, but there was still enough truth in it that it stuck. This cade's after World War II and soon gained currency stereotype reemerged again after throughout the world, including among Americans themselves. By the end of of the century, travel agencies would be organizing tours that prom10 ised tourists that they would not be tourists. 10 often with a wink, "Why "Why France?" Well, the answer is I have been asked, often reflect not quite what the winkers imply (indeed, to the extent that they reflect of France as center of of "naughtiness," that is also the subject subject of of the old idea of of American mass this book). Originally, I wanted to examine the rise of tourism to Europe as a whole. However, since there was little tourism to Eastern Europe, it was quickly eliminated. Then, Germany and Austria disqualified because wars with them had naturally colored the attiwere disqualified of American tourists. Britain and Italy were popular tudes of popular destinations for difficult to distinguish the "pure" tourists from from American tourists, but it is difficult of British and Italian origin who went to visit family or the Americans of of travelers from all of of these see their ancestors' homeland. The millions of of countries who were immigrants going back and forth (about one third of before 1914, for example, the Italian immigrants who arrived in America before returned home) complicate matters further. France, with which there were no wars and from which there have been few immigrants, thus seemed to offer the best opportunity opportunity for studying the "pure" tourist experience. That That offer European destination for American tourists was it also became the favorite European an added bonus. W h y stop at 1930? Aside from sheer exhaustion, the answer lies in the Why xii Xll

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fact that Great Depression Depression provides provides aa natural historian fact that the the Great natural break break to to the the historian studying voluntary voluntary leisure leisure activities. activities. Traumatic Traumatic as as it it was was to to many who exstudying many who experienced it, it, the the economic economic cataclysm cataclysm provides place at which perienced provides aa welcome welcome place at which one can can pause, pause, look look back, back, and and examine examine the the long-term long-term forces forces that that it it tempotempoone rarily halted. In In this case, it it allows allows us look back on the effects of of the rise rarily halted. this case, us to to look back on the effects the rise of the the middle class as as the dominant force force in in American American culture. culture. It helps helps of middle class the dominant give us some perspective on the consumer culture culture which them, us some perspective on the consumer which rose rose with with them, give and seemed seemed to to reach reach its its peak in the the 1920s, 1920s, when when European European tourism tourism bebeand peak in came yet another consumer consumer item. item. In In due due course, course, the class ascent ascent the middle middle class came yet another would be resumed, resumed, providing providing aa fitting fitting focus focus for for the the book book taking story would be taking the the story from 1930 1930 to the present present that that II hope hope will follow follow this one. from to the this one. was funded funded by the Social Social Sciences Sciences and and Much of of the for this this book the research research for book was by the Much Humanities Research Research Council Council of of Canada. Canada. Aside Aside from from helping travel Humanities helping me me travel to libraries and and archives, archives, it it provided provided for for something something II have never to various various libraries have never had before, aa research assistant. Never government money money better spent was government better spent had before, research assistant. Never was than it was was on on Rocco Rocco Valeri, after graduating graduating with an Honours Honours B.A. B.A. than it Valeri, who, who, after with an at McMaster McMaster University, University, spent spent aa full full summer summer in in libraries libraries here and in in ToToat here and ronto tracking down down and and photocopying articles for for me. me. Indeed, Indeed, he ronto tracking photocopying articles he colcollected so so much much material material that that II decided decided that that writing writing up full-scale bibliogbiblioglected up aa full-scale raphy would McMasters Arts Arts raphy would be be ridiculous—I ridiculous-I would would never never finish. finish. McMaster's Research Board Board also also helped helped with with funding, funding, including including the cost of of reproducreproducResearch the cost ing the the book's and prints. prints. ing book's photos photos and My wife, Mona, acted acted as as both staunch supporter supporter and and constructive constructive My wife, Mona, both staunch critic. possible sources, critic. She She was was full full of of suggestions suggestions for for possible sources, helped helped with with some some of of the archival archival research, research, and and read read the the manuscript manuscript thoroughly, thoroughly, providing providing excellent advice. advice. My My daughter daughter Lisa Lisa also also read read part of the the manuscript and part of manuscript and excellent made some helpful helpful comments. comments. Claude Claude Fischler, Fischler, of of the the Centre Centre Nationale Nationale made some de Recherche Recherche Scientifique Scientifique in in Paris, Paris, spanned spanned the spectrum in in his reading de the spectrum his reading of the the manuscript, manuscript, catching catching everything everything from from errors errors in in the spelling of of of the spelling to (as (as aa French sociologist should) should) theoretical theoretical French and and English French English names names to French sociologist was an an enthusiastic enthusiastic fiizziness. James James Gilbert Gilbert of of the the University of Maryland Maryland was fuzziness. University of supporter from from the the outset, outset, and and he he made some very very useful suggestions when when supporter made some useful suggestions he read read it it for for the the publisher. publisher. Cynthia Cynthia Aron, of the the University University of of Virginia, Virginia, he Aron, of gave the the manuscript manuscript an an excellent excellent reading reading for for the the University of Chicago Chicago gave University of Press and and also also made made some some very valuable suggestions. suggestions. Doug Doug Mitchell Mitchell has has Press very valuable proven himself to fine editor editor and and aa fine fine fellow. fellow. proven himself to be be both both aa fine A glance glance through through the the notes notes will indicate indicate that that II am am indebted indebted to to many many librarians on on both both sides sides of of the the ocean, ocean, yet yet space space allows allows me me to to mention mention only only librarians xiii

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few. The The staff staff at at the the Massachusetts Massachusetts Historical Historical Society Society in in Boston, Boston, where where aa few. did much much of of my my archival archival work, work, were were particularly particularly helpful. helpful. Also, Also, this this was was II did the first time II had had done done much serious research research in France, and and my experimuch serious in France, myexperithe first time ence with with the the friendly, friendly, solicitous solicitous staff staff at at the the Bibliotheque Bibliotheque Nationale in Nationale in ence Paris single-handedly single-handedly shattered shattered all all of of my about the the perils perils my preconceptions preconceptions about Paris of dealing dealing with with French French civil civil servants. servants. At At the the other other end end of of the the spectrum spectrum in in of size, the the two two librarians librarians in in the the small small archive archive of of Thomas Thomas Cook Cook and and terms terms of of size, Co. in in London London were were aa joy joy to to deal deal with, with, helping helping to to make make my my short short trip trip there there Co. memorable one. one. Finally, Finally, II must must again again pay pay tribute tribute to to the the staff staff of of McMasMcMasaa memorable ter University's University's Library's Library's Inter-Library Inter-Library Lending Lending department, department, who who were were ter able to to lay lay their their hands hands on every single single item item II requested, no matmaton practically practically every requested, no able ter how how old old or or obscure. obscure. ter

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JEFFERSON JEFFERSON

VERSUS VERSUS

ADAMS ADAMS

Jefferson s mansion on the The letter could not have arrived at Thomas Jefferson's Champs-Elysees at a better time. It was June 1788. The two wealthy young Americans who sent it were in London, planning to set out on a of the Continent.11 They had been told, quite rightly, that Jefferson Jefferson tour of had useful useful advice for American travelers on the Continent. Since 1784, appointed the tall, thoughtful, thoughtful, forty-one-year-old forty-one-year-old widwhen Congress appointed ower as one of of the two American commissioners to the royal court of of of the plentiful plentiful amount of of free time on his France, he had taken advantage of hands to do some touring. In late February 1787, he had embarked on a of France and northern northern Italy. He H e had just very long trip to the south of just reLow Countries turned from eastern France, western Germany, and the Low when he sat down to reply to the young men. Jefferson's long response began conventionally enough, with a proJefferson's posed route through Germany, Italy, and France. He H e suggested some inns a most to stay in, mentioned one (run by u"a most unconscionable unconscionable rascal") to to avoid, of how enjoyable enjoyable it was and noted the finest wines in each area. He told of meander down the Languedoc Canal in the south of of France with one's to meander carriage on a canal boat, alternating walking on the tow path with sitting and reading in the carriage.22 But then the letter took on a more severe tone, Jefferson produced a list of of "Objects of of Attention for an American." The The as Jefferson European agriculture, mechanical arts, manufacmanufacyoung men should study European of the laboring classes. Gardens were worthy of of turing, and the condition of useful plants that might be imattention, not for their beauty, but for the useful ported to America. They They should take note of of the architecture, but but only America s expanding population because America's population would need more housing. PaintThey were, he ing and sculpture were "worth seeing, but not studying." They of wealth among us. It would be useless said, "too expensive for the state of therefore and preposterous for us to endeavor to make ourselves connoistherefore Jefferson recomseurs in those arts." As for the scenic countryside, when Jefferson 33

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mended mended specific views it was to direct attention to such crops as olives, figs, raisins, and capers, which might be introduced introduced into the American South. 33 Although Jefferson Jefferson was indeed a very practical man, he was also much Although more moved by artistic and scenic beauty than this letter lets on. In one letter to a friend friend he said, "Were I to tell you how much I enjoy enjoy [French] architecture, sculpture, painting, music, I should want words."4 words." 4 In another, of seeing a painting that transfixed transfixed him "like a statue," until he he told of "lost all ideas of of time, even the consciousness of of my existence."s existence."5 Jefferson send such a hard-nosed hard-nosed response to the two Why, then, did Jefferson O n the one hand, it reflects the eighteenth-century eighteenth-century young Americans? On American idea that travel should not be undertaken American undertaken merely for pleasure. of America's Americas first traveler's handbook, handbook, In 1757, Josiah Tucker, the author of of warned that those who traveled merely to alleviate boredom "are sure of Impertinent, returning Home as Wise as they went out, but but much more Impertinent, less Wealthy, and Less Innocent." Travel, he said, must "rub off off local Prejudices" and provide "an enlarged and impartial View of of Men Men and Things." 6 To a man of of the Enlightenment Jefferson, privileged Things."6 Enlightenment such as Jefferson, men such as he and the two young travelers could lead the virtuous life only through public service, and foreign travel must contribute to this. Jefferson's response: there was also the But there was much more to Jefferson's example of of what had happened happened to an earlier ideal for training the British American American elite, the fabled Grand Tour-the Tour—the veritable Mother Mother of of All Culoriginated in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth seventeenth tural Tourism. It had originated culmination of of a young English centuries as the culmination English aristocrat's education. It was to be a rigorously intellectual experience that would imbue the young milord with a mastery of of foreign languages, ancient texts, philosophy, and an appreciation for the fine arts. 77 Personal tutors, who were sometimes great intellects in their own right (the brilliant philosopher philosopher John Locke, Jefferson revered, had been one), were to give daily lessons and arwhom Jefferson major thinkers of of the day. Greece being in the range interviews with the major of the Turkish infidel, the Tour culminated culminated in Italy, among the remhands of of ancient Roman civilization and the heritage .of of the Renaissance nants of that had brought brought it back to light. Latin Latin texts in hand, the young men would traverse the scenes described by ancient writers such as Virgil and of art dealers and purchase reputed Horace.88 They would make the rounds of of the culture they had acquired. They would masterpieces as evidence of visit artists' studios and select pictures of of the sights they had seen as meof the trip and proof proof that they had been there. ''A "A man who has mentos of 4 4

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of his inferiority," said Dr. Johnson, not been in Italy is always conscious of "from "from his not having seen what is expected a man should see."9 see."9 mid-eighteenth century, however, the Grand Grand Tour was being By the mid-eighteenth transformed by a new breed of of spoiled, headstrong young men. They They transformed broke their tutors' flimsy shackles as soon as they reached the Continent Continent and turned the trip into an occasion for sowing wild oats in the debauched of Europe. The tutors, who were now often often almost as courts and capitals of ignorant as their charges, were derided as "bear-leaders."l0 The Italians "bear-leaders." 10 The "Golden Asses" rather than the "Golden Hordes." called the invaders the "Golden Smollett lamented that Britain seemed to send The English writer Tobias Smollett her callow youth abroad solely "on purpose to bring her national character 11 into disrepute." 11 Paris, which had been originally seen as mainly a way station to Italy, major destination. The The dissipated young Tourists flocked flocked now became a major to its brothels and gambling houses and made liaisons with its most notorious courtesans. By the time Jefferson Jefferson arrived there in 1784 their numbers had grown exponentially, and so had their reputation for boorishness, drunkenness, and profligacy.12 profligacy.12 Typically, the class-conscious English blamed offspring of of nouveaux-riches bankblamed the scandalous behavior on the offspring 13 merchants—young men with "short pedigrees and long purses. purses.""13 ers and merchants-young Jefferson thought youth itself itself was the problem: Few young men could reJefferson sist Paris's immoral temptations. "No American should come to Europe of age," he wrote a friend. A young man would end up under 30 years of "losing in his knowledge, in his morals, in his health, in his habits, and in his happiness."14 happiness." 14 The fleshpots fleshpots of of Paris were not all that concerned concerned Jefferson. The Jefferson. It was H e wrote also the example that French marriage set for young Americans. He friend Carlos Bellini, a teacher at William and Mary College, his friend Conjuga1love no existence Conjugal love having having no existence among among them, them, domestic domestic happiness, happiness, of of which which that that is is the the basis, basis, is is utterly utterly unknown. unknown .... . . . Much, Much, very very much much ininto the ferior ferior is is this this to the tranquil tranquil permanent permanent felicity felicity with which which domestic domestic 15 society in in America America blesses most of of its its inhabitants. inhabitants.15 society blesses most

Although number of Although he had genuine affection affection for a number of French women, he saw the difference difference between French and American women as that between "Amazons and Angels." The latter, of of course, were to be preferred, preferred, particularly when it came to how he wanted his two young daughters to growup.16 grow up. 16 5

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Jefferson was not much different different from Tobias Smollett, In this regard, Jefferson the English businessman-author businessman-author who in 1766 published published a popular book on his travels across France to Nice. Smollett wrote: If your family, the first return he If aa Frenchman Frenchman is is admitted admitted to to your family, the first return he makes makes she is is handsome; if for your your civilities civilities is is to make love love to to your wife, if if she for to make your wife, handsome; if not, to to your your sister, sister, or or daughters, daughters, or or niece. If he suffers suffers aa repulse repulse from from not, niece. Ifhe your wife, or attempts attempts in in vain debauch your sister, or or your your daughter, daughter, your wife, or vain to to debauch your sister, 17 or your niece, he . . make make his addresses to to your your grandmother. grandmother.17 will ... his addresses or your niece, he will.

However, Jefferson Jefferson did not agree with Smollett's view of of traveling in France. To Smollett, it meant enduring a Calvary of of bone-breaking bone-breaking coaches, cheating drivers, rapacious innkeepers ("You are served with the appearance of mortifying indifference, of the most mortifying indifference, at the very time they are laying plans to fleece you"), slovenly servants, and disgusting table 18 manners.18 manners. of the French as vain, immoral, conniving, disSmollett's portrayal of honest, and lazy fit in very well with the Francophobic stereotypes that unchallenged in England and America for centuhad reigned practically unchallenged ries. The English, it will be recalled, had been at war or near-war with of the time since the eleventh century. The spectre Francophones for much of of invasion by the fanatical French "Papists" in Canada, determined determined to of Queeradicate Protestantism, had haunted haunted its colonists in America until Qyeconquered in 1759. France's intervention intervention on the revolutionaries' revolutionaries , bec was conquered American Revolution had weakened weakened this Francophobia, Francophobia, side during the American of the French, particularly their moral character, still ran but suspicion of deep. John John Adams, who helped negotiate the French French alliance, noted that negotiator John Jay when Jay said, "they are not a he agreed with fellow negotiator . . . he doesn't like any Frenchman."19 Frenchman." 19 moral people ... Yet despite (or perhaps because of) their low opinion of of French morals, the British, and the Americans who followed, seemed to love visiting als, 2o They They may have chuckled with Smollett, but they were more inFrance.20 Sentimental Journey spired by Laurence Sterne, whose novel, A Sentimental Journey through France and and Italy Italy (1767), satirized Smollett's ethnocentric travel writing. In SMELFUNGUS" (originally it, Smollett is thinly disguised as "the learned SMELFUNGUS" "SMELDUNGUS"), the "Splenetic Traveler," to whom "SMELDUNGUS"), whom the narrator contrasted "Sentimental Traveler." himself, the sensitive "Sentimental Sterne's attitude toward France is exemplified exemplified by the book's famous famous first line about finding finding a comfortable comfortable inn in Calais after after the Channel cross66

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ing: "They "They order, said I, this matter better in France."21 France." 21 Sterne's hero appreciates the French capacity for enjoying enjoying life and pointedly pointedly ignores the standard sights. Instead he savors the unplanned and the unexpected: meandering through the picturesque countryside on foot or in comfortable, comfortable, enjoying chance encounters with interesting people, lumbering diligences; enjoying 22 His sensual tale pleasant country inns, and yes, some sexual titillation.22 of the individual traveler-open traveler—open helped create the kind of of romantic ideal of to new experiences, unencumbered unencumbered by luggage, itineraries, guides, guidebooks, or the need to see the standard standard tourist sights-that sights—that is still very much with us today. Jefferson, who almost certainly never read either Sterne or Smollett Smollett Jefferson, (he read only serious nonfiction), did not quite fall into either camp. As we have seen, he tended toward Smollett's view of of French marital arrangements. He H e also agreed with Smollett Smollett that touring involved tracking down the "lions," "lions/' or renowned sights of of a place (hence the verb "lionize.") Also, unlike Sterne's hero, he used guidebooks, tourist maps, and valets de place—local place-local guides. O n the other hand, like Sterne, Jefferson Jefferson was a true Francophile, who On thought of of France as his second homeland homeland (Sterne, at one stage, made it thought H e delighted in wandering the streets of of Paris and its environs his first.) He H e doted on French food food aimlessly, sight-seeing and people-watching. He 23 He had no use for the Bourbon amateur of of the wine. 23 and became a true amateur political system, which he thought was based on injustice injustice and profound profound inequality, but declared that he loved "the people' people" of of France, who were "polite, self-denying, feeling, hospitable," with all his heart, and thought thought they 24 deserved a better better system.24 Jefferson also prided himself Like Sterne's hero, Jefferson himself on traveling light, of all stations, and soaking up views seeking out encounters with people of 25 He of the picturesque countryside.25 H e also liked to travel alone, and thought of valet de place in each new town, rather than the more more that hiring a local valet accompanied a traveler everywhere, was a step in common courier, who accompanied 26 But the Virginian was also a cultivated man with a boundboundthis direction.26 Smollett (who was a mine of of misinformamisinformaless curiosity who, unlike either Smollett boned up on France's history tion) or Sterne's hero (who did not care), boned of French science and and geography and sought out the latest advances of technology. His admiration for French political and economic theorists H e was particularly impressed by their predated his arrival in France. He of cuttingachievements in the arts, lining up to see the latest exhibitions of 7

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edge painting and sculpture and going to plays, concerts, and the opera. He became enamored enamored with modern French architecture, and spent hours sitting on a parapet watching the construction of of the Hotel de Salm, a neoclassical mansion on the Left Left Bank of of the Seine with which he was "violently smitten."27 smitten." 27 In sum, he was the quintessential "good tourist," a paragon of of "cultural tourism" even before the word "tourist" had come into use. of this was exemplified exemplified on his 1787 trip through France. Although All of undertaken to bathe a broken wrist in the waters of of Aix-enostensibly undertaken major destination was really the Roman temple at Nimes, Provence, his major further to the south. (The vineyards of of Burgundy Burgundy and Bordeaux were also further important destinations for the budding oenophile, who ordered many important of their wines for his cellar.) Along the way he immersed himself himself in cases of sights, sounds, and information. "Architecture, painting, sculpture, antiqof the laboring poor fill all my mouities, agriculture, the conditions of 28 28 valet de place he hired hired ments," he wrote from Lyon. Although he liked the valet of the journey, he wrote to there so much that he kept him on for the rest of his friends as if if he were alone, extolling the advantages of of touristic sol29 itude. 29 Jefferson was horrified horrified by the deseLike the modern cultural tourist, Jefferson cration of of ancient sights, particularly since he was immersed immersed in the history 3o When W h e n he reached the of Rome, to which he often often turned for guidance.30 of Roman arena in Orange, he was shocked, he wrote, to discover "that in of Louis XVI, they are at this this 18th century, in France, under the reign of moment pulling down the circular wall of of this superb remains to pave a moment road."31 road." 31 A modern-sounding modern-sounding search for the sun may also have played a role Virginians decision to head south during the gloomy Paris winter. in the Virginian's of Aix-en-Provence Aix-en-Provence in mid-March mid-March set Arriving in the brilliant sunshine of of the Loire did him to wondering why "any free being" who lived north of of France.32 France. 32 not pull up stakes and move to the south of The climax of of Jefferson's Jefferson's trip, however, came further further south, in Nimes, where he was finally able to gaze upon its amazingly well-preserved well-preserved Roman temple, the Maison CaIT

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Twenty-six-year-old Sumner, the future antislavery American patriotism. Twenty-six-year-old professor at the outset Senator from Massachusetts, wrote a Harvard law professor of his three-month Ameriof three-month stay in Paris that he intended "to return an American.. ... . . . 1I shall return with an increased love for my country, and added can After his first month in Paris, he wrote a admiration for its institutions." Mter friend extolling its attractions, but added, "Although 1I have seen much to interest and instruct instruct me 1I have seen nothing which has weakened weakened my attraction to my country." Three months later, he wrote the professor, "I have never loved my country so ardendy ardently as since 1 I left left it." He H e contrasted Americas "universality "universality of of happiness, the absence of of beggary, reasonable America's of men," and "high moral tone" with France, "where wealth equality of flaunts side by the side of of the most squalid poverty, where your eyes are flaunts constantly annoyed by the most disgusting want and wretchedness, and constandy 89 inconceivable.""89 where American purity is inconceivable. Senator For Hammond, the young Southern slave-owner who, as Senator confront Sumner Sumner on the Senate floor floor from South Carolina, would later confront before Secession, returning to America after after fifteen fifteen in the final clashes before months in Europe brought brought a surprising surge of of American patriotism. As magnificent harbor he thought that, even after after his ship entered New York's magnificent Europe's marvels, "I had never seen anything so fine." Tears welled up in of the Stars and Stripes and, he wrote in his diary, "I his eyes at the sight of wondered that 1I had ever felt felt felt 1I never loved my country so much. I wondered of having at times hereotherwise and was conscience stricken for the sin of 90 affection for her. her.""90 tofore wavered in my affection of long-distance travel-homesickness travel—homesickness Admittedly, the twin scourges oflong-distance hemorrhoids—had limited Hammond's appreciation of of Europe. OthOthand hemorrhoids-had "refineers, like Sumner, had to struggle harder to benefit benefit from France's "refinewithout becoming ensnared in its decadent class system. In January January ments" without of how im1842, James Colles wrote his teenage son back in New New York of pressed he was to be presented at court to the King, whom he found a H e then hastened to add that "there is no country yet sympathetic person. He of in my opinion like our own dear native land. We have not as much of of everything everything that is good."91 good." 91 Mter After midcentury, as refinement, but more of unfashionable for Americans in France we shall see, it would become quite unfashionable to express opinions such as this.

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Central to the "refinement" "refinement" that Colles thought America lacked was what we now think of of as "high culture." There was no question that pre-1850 Paris offered offered tourists a cultural feast that was simply unavailable in the United States. 11 T h e French theater was regarded as the best in the world. 22 The Even those who could barely understand the language were delighted by of the ageless Mademoiselle Mars-the Mars—the favorite of of both the light touch of XVIII—performing Theatre Napoleon and King Louis XVIII -performing Moliere at the Theatre Fran9ais (later Comedie Frans;aise). Franfaise). Seeing her was "a treat I shall never Frans;ais "Her voice was like a forget," Charles Sumner wrote a friend in 1838. "Her 3 T h e tragic depths plumbed by her her successuccessilver fruit, her eye like a gem." silver fruit, her eye like a gem."3 The tragic depths plumbed by sor, Rachel, Rachel, in in Racine's Racine's plays plays made made her most acclaimed acclaimed dramatic dramatic acacsor, her the the most tress of of the the nineteenth nineteenth century. century. "She "She surpasses surpasses my my hopes," hopes," Margaret Margaret Fuller Fuller tress wrote aa friend friend in in 1848. 1848. "There "There is is nothing nothing like like her her voice; voice; she she speaks speaks the the wrote 4 language of of the the Gods."4 Gods." language The Opera de l'l'Academie Academie Royale continued to stage ponderous old The French five-act five-act operas that were famed for their spectacular spectacular scenery and, Topliff wrote his family in Boston in increasingly, their ballets. Samuel Topliff 1829 that the dancing was undoubtedly the finest in the world. "I have of two hundred in a ballet on the stage at one time," he seen upwards of simultaneously together together.... . . ,, anyone any one of of whom would be said, "moving simultaneously dancer."5 In considered in Boston a first rate dancer."5 In the 1830s, the famed ballerina major attraction. On O n his last evening in Taglioni turned turned the ballet ballet into its major Paris in 1836 1836 Philip Philip Hone Hone was by the the opera, opera, The Siege of of Corinth, Corinth, Paris in was bored bored by but was bowled over by her "genius" when she then danced Les Sylphides. but was bowled over by her "genius" when she then danced Les Sylphides. "The perfection perfection of of grace grace and and beauty," beauty," he he wrote wrote in in his his diary, diary, was was "some"some"The thing between between earth earth and and heaven."6 heaven!'6 The The next next year, year, George George Putnam Putnam wrote wrote of of thing her: "What a bound was that! Surely she is not of flesh and blood! Such her: "What a bound was that! Surely she is not of flesh and blood! Such airy lightness-such lightness—such exquisite exquisite grace-the grace—the very very 'poetry 'poetry of of motion.'" motion.'" 77 airy The T h e Opera des Italiens featured exciting newer works by composers 53

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such as as Rossini, Rossini, while while the the Opera-Comique Opera-Comique put put on on lighter lighter operettas. operettas.8 On On such the very light side, there were diversions such as the Cirque Olympique, the very light side, there were diversions such as the Cirque Olympique, Hippodrome, and and the the Vaudeville. Vaudeville. The The diaries diaries ofJohn ofJohn Gardner TheoHippodrome, Gardner and and Theodore Sedgwick, Sedgwick, Jr., Jr., both both rich rich young young men men from from Boston, Boston, bear bear witness witness to to their their dore attraction to Americans. In 1823, the nineteen-year-old Gardner went to attraction to Americans. In 1823, the nineteen-year-old Gardner went to the Theatre Theatre Frans:ais, Franfais, the the Opera Opera Royal, Royal, Theatre Theatre du du Cafe Cafe de de la la Paix, Paix, and and the 9 vaudeville-type shows almost every night of his first ten nights in Paris. vaudeville-type shows almost every night of his first ten nights in Paris. 9 "The evening evening need need never never hang hang heavy heavy on on the the stranger's stranger's hands," hands," Ralph Ralph "The Waldo Emerson Emerson wrote wrote in in his his journal journal ten ten years years later. later. "More "More than than twenty twenty Waldo theaters are are blazing blazing with with light light and and echoing echoing with with fine fine music music every every night, night, ... ... theaters 10 not to to mention mention concerts, concerts, gardens, gardens, and and shows shows innumerable."lO innumerable." not was, however, however, the the most most visible visible things-France's things—France's architecture architecture and and It was, urban amenities—that made the greatest impression on Americans. It is urban amenities-that made the greatest impression on Americans. It is difficult to to imagine imagine how how impoverished impoverished early-nineteenth-century early-nineteenth-century America America difficult was on on this this score. score. One One of of Jefferson's Jefferson's arguments arguments for for using using the the Maison Maison was Carree as the model for the Virginia state house was that there was hardly Carree as the model for the Virginia state house was that there was hardly public building building in in America America worth worth looking looking at. at. The The next next fifty fifty years years aa public brought little improvement on that score. The new state capitols were genbrought little improvement on that score. The new state capitols were generally unimpressive unimpressive structures structures in in one-horse one-horse towns. towns. There There were were some some beaubeauerally tiful churches, churches, but but by by European European standards standards they they were were rather rather modest modest efforts. efforts. tiful In 1828, 1828, after after his his first first European European tour, tour, James James Fenimore Fenimore Cooper Cooper wrote wrote his his In brother, brother, do not not know know of of aa single single edifice edifice in in the the Union Union that that can can be be considered considered II do more than than third third rate, rate, by by its its size size and and ornaments; ornaments; not not more more than than one one or or more two that ought to be ranked even so high. . . . There is no city in our retwo that ought to be ranked even so high.... There is no city in our republic that that does does not not decidedly decidedly have have the the air air and and habits habits of of aa provincial provincial public town.11 townY As for for streetscapes, streetscapes, the the art art critic critic Robert Robert Hughes Hughes has has observed observed that that the the As general aesthetic aesthetic atmosphere atmosphere of of the the early early republic republic was was aa lot lot like like "Dog"Doggeneral patch," the the mythical mythical hillbilly hillbilly shanty-town shanty-town in in the the comic comic strip strip "lJil "L'il Abner." Abner." patch," Average Americans Americans lived lived in in "makeshift "makeshift wooden wooden structures structures that that were were the the Average 12 ancestors of of today's today's trailer trailer home, home, only only far far worse worse built." built."12 ancestors Nor was was there there much much that that was was old old and and historic historic in in America. America. When When Nor Charles Sumner stepped off the boat in Le Havre, the first thing that Charles Sumner stepped off the boat in Le Havre, the first thing that struck him him was was that that "everything "everything was was old; old; and and yet yet to to me me everything everything was was struck new. Every Every building building II passed passed seemed seemed to to have have its its history." history." In In the the United United new. States, there there was was "none "none of of the the prestige prestige of of age age about about anything." anything." It It had had "no "no States, 13 history." Even Even the the graveyards graveyards in in America America did did not not seem seem very very old. old. Cooper Cooper history."13 54 54

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remarked that the monuments to the dead in Rouen cathedral "possessed great interest to those who had never stood over a grave of of more than two centuries and rarely even over one of of half half that age."14 age."14 Nor could anything anything in America approach the great cathedral itself, which an awed George Sumner Sumner noted was "said to be the finest specimen of of Gothic architecture on the continent."15 continent." 15 Emma Emma Willard said, "I had heard of of fifty or a hundred years being spent in the erection of of a building and I had often often wondered how it could be; but when I saw the outside of of this majestic and venerable temple, the doubt ceased."16 architecture ceased."16 Not only was the soaring architecture astounding, but the skilled stonework was utterly new to Americans. In America, no building bore any stone carving at all; the only substantial 17 It carved stones Willard had seen back home were gravestones.17 It was only when Henry Henry Ward Beecher visited Europe in 1850 and saw real carved stone on buildings that he realized that all the building embellishments embellishments he had seen in America were made of of wood, carved and painted painted to look like stone. 18 IS In America, cities had swelled haphazardly, their shape governed by commercial considerations. The newer city streets tended to be laid out in straight lines, lined with commercial buildings pressing onto narrow, crowded sidewalks, with no space for trees such as those that graced Paris's boulevards. Parks and gardens for leisurely walking were few and far between. Until the 1850s, the only public place in New York City where one could stroll amidst some greenery was in the small park around the Battery, at the tip of of the island. The rest of of the city's waterfront, waterfront, like that of of 19 Mter the other major major ports, was for commerce, not strolling.19 After seeing EuEurope,]ames rope, James Fenimore Cooper condemned condemned "the miserable and minute subdivisions" of of American cities, where property developers had prevented 20 The the establishment establishment of of parks and gardens.20 T h e young Cincinnatian Cincinnatian Louis Cazenove, whose home town's riverfront riverfront was the usual jumble of of commercommercial establishments and shipping, wrote his mother how impressed he was that Rouen, also a river port, had "a beautiful beautiful avenue of of lofty lofty trees which runs along the river and serves for a delightful delightful promenade."21 promenade." 21 But it was Paris, which the Alabama plantation owner William Raser called "this Metropolis of of the World, this Wonder Wonder of of the Universe," that 22 22 harbored France's most impressive urban sights. This was often often not immediately apparent. Mter After all, Paris's beauty owes hardly anything to its site-a site—a turgid river meandering through some mudflats. Everything that makes it attractive is man-made, and until midcentury much of of the city was not particularly beguiling. Aside from some new streets constructed constructed 55

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under Napoleon, much of of Paris in 1830 did not look all that different different than 23 23 it did in 1682, when Louis XIV XIV decamped decamped to Versailles. Most Most of of its eight hundred five-story buildings hundred thousand inhabitants lived in old four- or five-story interior courtyards. The The homes of of the wealthy were crowded around dank interior concealed behind behind high walls and stables. Passers-by on the narrow streets, of which were only about fifteen to twenty feet wide, saw only large most of wonder travelers were often wooden doors and dirty stone walls. No wonder often disappointed Putnam wrote that "the narrow, pointed by their first impressions. George Putnam filthy streets, with gutters in the center, and without filthy without side-walks, and the of gay, elegant antique and irregular buildings, do not realize my notions of Paris."24 Paris." 24 As Emma Emma Willard Willard'ss diligence creaked past its northern northern gate, she "looked in vain in this quarter for the imposing objects I had fancied." The The "looked 25 streets "seemed anything but the elegant Paris of of my imagination."25 imagination." To . . . very far from elegant Caroline Cushing it seemed "dingy and somber ... eye."26 The primitive sewage system, which did not and pleasing to the eye."26 suffer major improvements until the 1830s, continued suffer major continued to cause disgusting problems, and the carriages would spray the sewage in the central gutters 27 onto pedestrians. 27 However, once they reached their hotels, the prospect would improve, for they were usually situated situated on the Right Bank, near the Palais-Royal, 28 There, in rue de Rivoli, the Tuileries gardens, and the famed famed boulevards.28 what one of of them called "the very Center Center of of Fashion," a new world of of 29 ultra-civilized living opened "The extent ultra-civilized opened up before before their provincial eyes. 29 magnificence of of the public public buildings, palaces, gardens, parks, bouleand magnificence vards, etc., are enough to atone for the dirty streets," said Putnam Putnam in his 1836 guidebook guidebook for Americans. "The general view of of the city is imposing in the extreme. The The luxurious and superb architecture ... . . . and the immense of the gardens and parks extent, as well as the great beauty and elegance, of 30 ... . . . must astonish even the most sanguine. sanguine.""30 The Palais-Royal was the usual starting point for seeing the city. Indeed, to its more hyperbolic enthusiasts, it was "the capital of of Paris," its 31 "heart, soul, and brain."31 brain." The king's kings brother, the Duke of of Orleans, had acquired the palace from the king in the eighteenth eighteenth century and turned the tract ofland of land behind behind it into a real estate development. A large rectangufour-story neoclassical buildings that overlar park was enclosed by fine four-story hung a walkway lined with colonnades.32 colonnades. 32 By 1789, five years after after its completion, it had become the center of of tourists' Paris. They They would stay in nearby hotels, lounge in its cafes, read the journals on its lawn, buy pres56

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ents in its luxurious little shops, dine in its restaurants and patronize its 33 By the 1820s these services had been so gambling houses and bordellos. 33 of its levels seemed to service a different different human human need. rearranged that each of floor was occupied by shops, cafes, and journal-vendors, the The ground floor fourth second floor by gambling houses and restaurants, and the third and fourth 34 As floors, originally originally planned planned as as high-class high-class apartments, apartments, lodged lodged bordellos. As floors, bordellos.34 visitors such such as as George George Putnam Putnam rarely rarely failed failed to to mention, mention, "a "a specimen specimen of of visitors 35 35 everything, good good and and bad" bad" was was on on offer. offer. Although Although the the complex complex went went into into everything, decline after after the the 1830s, 1830s, when when gambling gambling was was suppressed, suppressed, legalized legalized prostiprostiaa decline tution spread spread elsewhere, elsewhere, and and new new cafes cafes and and shops shops on on the the boulevards outtution boulevards outshone its its old old war-horses, war-horses, it it continued continued impressing impressing American American visitors visitors for for shone 36 many years years to to come. come. 36 many The boulevards had originated originated in the late seventeenth seventeenth century, when Louis XIV ordered a vast new wall built around the expanded perimeter of the city. The older inner fortifications fortifications were turned into wide avenues of of trees. In the later eighteenth century, Louis XVI lines with double rows of of Louis XIV's wall was ordered a new outer wall built, and large stretches of turned into boulevards. The older boulevards in the northern and western parts of the city were paved parts of paved in cobblestone and large mansions were constructed along along them, them, making making them them popular popular places places for for upper-class upper-class carriage carriage structed 37 In the rides.37 the early early nineteenth nineteenth century century they they were were embellished embellished with with wide wide rides. sidewalks and and gas gas lighting. lighting. Attractive Attractive shops, shops, cafes, cafes, restaurants, restaurants, and and other other sidewalks entertainments replaced replaced most most of of the the mansions, mansions, attracting attracting crowds crowds of of entertainments shoppers, vendors, jugglers, revelers, demimondaines, and prostitutes. The shoppers, vendors, jugglers, revelers, demimondaines, and prostitutes. The boulevard "is "is certainly certainly the the best best place place in in the the world world to to amuse amuse oneself oneself in," in," the the boulevard Reverend James James Clarke Clarke wrote wrote his his wife. wife. "You "You have have only only to to put on your your hat hat Reverend put on and walk walk into into the the street street to to find find entertainment."38 entertainment." 38 According According to to Putnam's Putnam's and rather pusillanimous pusillanimous guidebook guidebook for for Americans, Americans, the the boulevards, along with with rather boulevards, along the rue rue de de Rivoli Rivoli and and three three or or four four other other avenues, avenues, were were "the "the only only streets streets the which do do credit credit to to the the city."39 city."39 which Still, for promenading, the crown jewel of of post-Revolutionary post-Revolutionary Paris of gardens and parkland was the vast stretch of parkland that ran from the Tuileries palace up the Champs-Elysees toward the Bois de Boulogne, the wellof town. The Tuileries palace, which was detended woods on the edge of perpendicular to the Seine between stroyed in 1871, ran perpendicular between what are now of the Louvre. Tourists usually the two long east-west wings of usually began their promenades through through the the city city in in the the large, large, sculpture-filled sculpture-filled garden garden on on its its promenades western side, which had been a popular place for strolling even before the western side, which had been a popular place for strolling even before the 57

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40 "Here," Thomas Appleton wrote in his journal, "gold-fishes "gold-fishes Revolution.40 leap from their circular oceans to the sun; there Apollo strains the monster trees." 41 They They could then python. A hundred statues appear through the trees."41 embankment that Napoleon had constructed constructed along the walk to the stone embankment Seine and, as James Clarke did (and countless other still love to do), walk Left Bank of of the Seine. There, Clarke over the iron Pont des Arts to the Left of the wrote, "you loiter and look as much as you choose" among the stalls of bouquinistes, the second-hand second-hand booksellers, that still line the embankembankbouquinistes, ment.42 ment. 42 Most tourists, however, would walk westward from the gardens to the splendid place de la Revolution (or "place Louis XV" or "place de la Concorde"—the Concorde" -the name changed with the regime, but it was always fixed in tourists' minds as the place where the Revolutionary guillotine stood). They then headed up the wide Champs-Elysees, where elegant restaurants, dance halls, puppeteers, and other amusements were nestled in the half away. There There greenery, toward the Etoile, the grand plaza a mile and a half intermittently until it was finally completed completed in the Arc de Triomphe rose intermittently birds-eye view until the completion 1836, providing the standard tourist's bird's-eye of Gustave Eiffel's Eiffel's tower in 1889. Beyond the Etoile, the horses and carof of the tonier set prevailed on the roads that crisscrossed the Bois de riages of former royal hunting park. Boulogne, the former By the mid-1830s, few visiting Americans would have disputed the notation that young Francis Parkman made in his diary soon after after arriving in Paris. An uncle had just taken him to the Tuileries gardens, the PalaisRoyal, the Boulevard des Italiens, and the elegant place Vendome, where lovely, classical-style mansions were grouped around a towering column celebrating Napoleon's victories. "Let envious Englishmen Englishmen sneer as they will," he wrote, "this is the Athens of of Modern Modern Europe."43 Europe." 43 The artist H e contrasted the "very light appearance" of of Paris's Thomas Cole agreed. He buildings with the smoke-blackened smoke-blackened ones of of London, calling the Parisian "magnificent, and far superior in number and beauty than those of of ones "magnificent, London."44 Sanderson saw a much starker contrast. "The Frenchman Frenchman London." 44 John Sanderson of his garseeks his recreation in the dance, the theatre, in the pure air of dens," he wrote, "whilst the Englishman Englishman skulks into his gin-shop."45 gin-shop." 45 suffered some ups and The great complex at Versailles, meanwhile, suffered further than had Louis XVI, downs. The Revolution opened its gates even further beautiful public pleasure ground. In 1796, the turning its park into a beautiful of a American artists John Vanderlyn wrote his brother brother that the park was of "beauty and grandeur I cannot describe. The imagination cannot conceive

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anything so enchanting."46 enchanting." 46 However, Napoleon Napoleon shunned shunned Versailles in faThe park became of the palace at Fontainebleau, to the south of of Paris. The vor of overgrown, the statues crumbled, the fountains fell into disrepair, and the of treasures, decayed. The restored Bourbon, Louis buildings, emptied of XVIII, realizing that Versailles still symbolized symbolized the waste and remoteness contributed to his family's overthrow, installed from the people that had contributed his court in Paris, in the Tuileries palace. However, he decorated Versailles s buildings with some paintings and sculpture from the royal collecsailles's of the garden, and re-established re-established the expensive custom tion, restored parts of of pumping W h e n Lucey of pumping up the great old fountains for special occasions. When of the famed bird-illustrator, visited Versailles in Bakewell Audubon, wife of shortly after after the Bourbons were ousted, she found found the extent June 1831, shordy 47 and beauty of of the gardens "beyond conception."47 conception." Louis-Philippe Louis-Philippe contintransforming part of of the main building into a museum ued to improve it, transforming of French history. Paintings and sculptures from the royal collection were of supplemented by huge canvasses that were commissioned commissioned from the now supplemented of the nation. nation's top painters, depicting great moments in the history of W h e n Frazee saw it in 1844 he thought that it must be the largest single When thought 48 48 of paintings in the world. collection of Ultimately, though, the great post-Revolutionary post-Revolutionary artistic shrine was the museum in the Louvre, the old palace in the historic center of of Paris. Like other other princely collections, the original royal collection was meant to impress visitors with the owner's wealth and taste, so it had been moved from from there to Versailles with Louis XIV. XlV. In 1750, Louis XV was persuaded to make the collection accessible to amateurs and art students, who needed masterpieces to copy. He H e had one hundred and ten paintings shipped to the Luxembourg Palace, on Paris's Pariss Left Left Bank. Young King Louis XIII's XIIFs beautiful Renaissance-style palmother, Marie de Medicis, had built that beautiful twenty-four paintings of ace, and the bombastic series of of twenty-four of her life she com49 missioned from Peter Paul Rubens was already on public display there. 49 missioned The The addition of of the royal collection made the gallery a standard standard sight for foreign visitors.50 visitors.50 In 1779, however, the new king, Louis XVI, gave the Luxembourg Luxembourg Palace to his younger brother, and plans were made to refurbish refurbish the now51 The royal run-down back there. 51 run-down Louvre and move the royal collection back authorities were still dithering over the project project thirteen years later, when the Revolutionary government government appropriated appropriated the royal collection. It It rushed 59

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twofold aim: to preserve the colthe Louvre project project to completion, with a twofold of greatness of of the French nation and to provide a lection as an example of of the modern muvehicle for "public instruction." The two cornerstones of seum-conservation seum—conservation and education-were education—were thus laid, and the Louvre befollow. came the model for all public art museums to follow. sixteenth-century Grand Grand Gallery, which stretched for The immense sixteenth-century almost 450 yards (twice its present length) along the Seine, became the 52 In 1796, when John Vanderlyn first first museum's spectacular centerpiece.52 finest works from the ex-royal collection were already invisited it, the finest supplemented by masterpieces confiscated confiscated from the Church stalled there, supplemented brother that it was longer than the entire main and nobility. He wrote his brother of Kingston, New York. "One is in raptures," he street in their home town of of.... . . Titian, Rubens, Poussin, etc."53 etc." 53 wrote, "gazing upon the works of Napoleon took a particular characteristically Napoleon particular interest in the museum, characteristically changing its name to the Musee Napoleon and filling it with booty of the stripped from the places he conquered. In 1798, Vanderlyn wrote of of the first batch of of masterexcitement that accompanied the exhibition of pieces from Italy. "It is a superb collection," he wrote. "To acquire knowlof the arts, there is but one Paris."54 Paris." 54 Napoleon's subsequent subsequent victories edge of of additional Old Old over the Prussians and Hapsburgs provided hundreds of of the monasteries in French-controlled French-controlled Italy Masters. The suppression of infusion of of medieval works, which the Louvre's Louvre s director welprovided an infusion comed as "primitive" pictures to give it "that historical dimension which a of this have."55 The restored Bourbons returned some of true museum must have."55 loot to monarchs who had supported them, but made up for this by purchasing antiquities and encouraging their aristocratic supporters to donate art works to what was again the royal museum. By 1830, then, the Louvre undoubtedly contained the most impressive of great painting and sculpture in the Western world. The The assemblage of Grand Gallery alone, now lit by glass sky lights, housed over fourteen fourteen hunGrand dred paintings, with larger ones above and the smaller below. These were schools—French, German, Flemish and organized, pedagogically, into schools-French, Italian—with the works in each school arranged chronologically, so that Italian-with viewers could study their historical development.56 56 The The fabulous collection of antiquities was concentrated concentrated in vast galleries below the Grand Gallery. of Their high vaulted ceilings alone, adorned with new frescoes, took the Their breath away from Americans, who were unaccustomed unaccustomed to such lofty lofty ceil57 57 ings. Now, no trip to Paris was complete without a visit to the Louvre 60

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and no visit to the Louvre was complete without without remarking on the enorenormity of of the collection and the impossibility of of taking it all in. The Louvre was particularly impressive for Americans because, as the Philadelphian Philadelphian John Sanderson wrote from Paris in 1835, "in our country, we have nothing yet to show in the way of of great works of of art."58 art."58 Until the 1830s, practically the only older paintings Americans saw were the solemn 59 portraits that adorned seats of of government government and the homes of of the wealthy. 59 This kind of of portraiture was regarded as the least demanding form of of painting, hardly requiring the genius required by great history, religious or therefore had to rely landscape pictures. Americans studying great artists therefore on black-and-white black-and-white engravings. As for sculpture, there were some plaster casts of of ancient works, but these were no match for the originals carved in marble. "How "How unlike the plaster copies!" Thomas Appleton exclaimed in 6o Charles his diary after after seeing two familiar familiar sculptures in the Louvre. 60 Sumner Sumner wrote a friend friend after after visiting the Louvre, "You can imagine my feelings ... . . . when you think that Mr. Sears's house was my [idea] of of a Athenaeum Gallery, of of a collection of of paintings, and the plaster palace, the Athenaeum Athenaeum reading-room and Felton's study, of of a collection casts in the Athenaeum of of antiques."61 antiques." 61 Later in the century, as we shall see, the bored American husband being dragged through the Louvre by his culture-vulture wife became an object object of of derision. However, in the early years of of the century the old aristocratic notion persisted that an appreciation of of fine art was man's rightful rightful domain. Young upper-class men in the new republic were told that developing good taste would elevate them above the barbarism barbarism of of their materialistic society and enable them to lead their uncivilized countrymen countrymen out of of darkness. This meant mastering the canons of of Enlightenment Enlightenment "taste" in sculpture—that is, to prize works that displayed proportion, painting and sculpture-that 62 perspective, balance, and restraint. 62 Acquiring and displaying one's ones "taste" was therefore serious business. of Robert Johnson, one of of the last of of the classic Grand Grand The 1792 journal of Tourists, refers repeatedly to taste and proportion in art and architecture: affected by genius and taste assisted by Versailles "could only have been affected absolute power." Les Invalides, the military pensioners' home, "does honor of Lewis [sic] [sic] the the Fourteenth." Fourteenth." The The paintings paintings to the taste and humanity of galleries at the palace of Saint-Cloud are "admirably proportioned. Those of Saint-Cloud "admirably Those 63 Chantilly and Versailles [are] too long for the breadth," and so on. 63 at Chantilly 61

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W h e n Philip Hone retired from business in 1821 to devote himself himself to When breaching New York's highest social circles, he worked assiduously at cultiH e read up on it and traveled to Europe to expose vating his taste in art. He himself himself to it. Upon his return, he gained invitations to view private collecmajor art exhibition. He H e was soon detions and became a fixture at every major confident assessments of of how well various American painters had livering confident of art."64 art."64 On O n his second trip to Europe, in 1836, mastered "the principles of himself on "having more taste for pictures" than he had on his he prided himself 65 of his quest for status. 65 first trip, at the beginning of The The older upper class tended to collect Old Old Masters, while some of of supplemented these with the newer entrants into that class, notably Hone, supplemented works by American artists such as Thomas Cole. However, all the collec66 Since patriarchal marriage tors shared one characteristic: they were male. 66 laws mean that it was a rare woman who had much property at her sole disposal, this is not at all surprising. But there was more to it than that. Post-American Post-American Revolution education for women, where it existed, concentrated on preparing them for their future domestic responsibilities, parof the home. The The thought of of training women ticularly as moral guardians of of Europe in the rigorously intellectual manner preto appreciate the art of of the question. Although Although the first first scribed at the time was practically out of female academies (high schools) occasionally taught drawing and painting useful art, like embroidery.67 embroidery. 67 Thus few women with watercolors, it was as a useful appreciation. tourists could match upper-class males when it came to art appreciation. Agnes Mayo played a leading role in founding the first female academy in of her trip to France in 1829 with Virginia, yet the long journal journal she kept of of the academy, has virtually her two married daughters, both graduates of The only opinion she ventures is a second-hand second-hand nothing in it about art. The 68 one.68 Prudery also kept early-nineteenth-century early-nineteenth-century American American women from from appreciating much of of France's fine art. In America, women rarely saw nudity in art. On O n the rare occasions when plaster casts of of European nudes were exhibited in public, American moralists demanded that the galleries 69 It bar them or admit them only at special women-only women-only times. 69 It comes as no surprise, then, that although she loved the Tuileries gardens, Emma Emma Willard was shocked by the nude statues (mainly of of females) which adorned it. She wrote to the students back in her women's academy, If mother and father were If your your mother and father were here, here, II would would leave leave you you sitting sitting on on these these shaded benches and shaded benches and conduct conduct them them through through the the walks, walks, and and they they would would 62

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return and bid you depart for our own America, where the eye of of modesty is not publicly affronted, affronted, and where virgin delicacy can walk abroad 70 without a blush. 70 AmerJames Fenimore Cooper, on the other hand, was disgusted to see an American man and two women pass one of of the nude statues "and their bursts of of laughter, running and hiding their faces, and loud giggling, left left no one in ignorance of bashfulness. Thousands of of the cause of of their extreme bashfiilness. of both beneath the same statue, without without a thought thought of of its nudity, sexes pass daily beneath and it is looked upon as a noble piece of of sculpture."71 sculpture." 71 Modern Modern French painting, which in the 1830s and 1840s was full of of curvaceous nude or semi-nude women reclining, gamboling, or dying flesh-exposing flesh-exposing deaths, also offended offended many American American women. They They would usually encounter encounter it in the gallery of of the Luxembourg Palace, which was by then devoted to the work of of living artists. It It "certainly affords affords ground for the popular idea that the nude nude is necessarily the indecent," wrote Mrs. Caroline Kirkland after after visiting there in 1848. "If "If all art were like modern French art, I should be willing to see it swept from the earth for ever."72 ever."72 French interior decoration provided no respite, for it too seemed to present naked bosoms, buttocks, thighs, and legs at every turn. When When Emma Emma Willard attended attended a big party in a rich businessman's new mansion on the place Vendome she noted that as one entered or left left "this elegant abode of of pleasure" one had to pass a statue of of a nude Venus crouching at the foot of of the splendid staircase. "But things of of this kind are so frequent frequent of M M.. Schickler's in France there is no avoiding them," she sighed. "One of Schicklers rooms is ornamented ornamented with a Venus, or some other naked beauty, painted in fresco, a thousand thousand times repeated, in various attitudes."73 attitudes." 73 Dead Dead painters, whose works could be hung in the Louvre, fared little better. Mter After all, the pictures of of French eighteenth-century eighteenth-century artists such as Fragonard, Watteau, and Bouchard Bouchard of of the semi-naked semi-naked Ancients or the high-born high-born frolicking frolicking in the fields were, in a sense, the soft-core soft-core porn of of the time. Emma Emma Willard would likely have agreed with the American American man who ascribed Paris's Parish high rate of of illegitimacy to the paintings in the 74 Many of Louvre.74 of them were "fit only for the abodes of of pollution," she wrote, and were "enough to demoralize a city." As for the sculpture galleries, she was not ashamed to admit she had not set foot in them, she said. "I should rather be ashamed to say that I had."75 had." 75 Male visitors were not immune to prudery, but but the importance that they placed in engaging the art on an aesthetic level helped overcome it.76 it.76 63

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Charles Sumner Sumner remarked in his diary that the paintings at the Luxembourg "seem to be of of an extremely sensuous character; the forms of of women careful tints invest them are displayed with great freedom, and the most careful with more than flesh-like flesh-like attractiveness" but he was "unwilling ... . . . to fall in with the current which sets itself itself against the present school."77 school." 77 The The young, recendy recently widowed ex-preacher ex-preacher Ralph Waldo Emerson Emerson was extremely prudish prudish with regard to sex, yet so keen was he to develop his aesthetic sense during his first trip to Europe in 1833 that there is no mention at all of journal entries about the art in Paris. Instead, there of nudity in his journal 78 of growing confidence confidence in his artistic judgment.78 is evidence of The young Boston patrician Thomas Appleton, who dabbled in oil painting himself, was even more self-confident. self-confident. He H e toured the Louvre alone, for hours on end, catalogue in hand, giving the works there "a cool and thorough examination." He H e wrote homages to the various geniuses in his diary-"O diary—"O Salvatore Rosa, thou king of of the terrible; O Rubens, emperor of of glowing flesh and vermeil lips; Rembrandt, sullen lord of of brown shades and lightening lights," and so on-concluding on—concluding with "when shall I repay you for all the high happiness of of this day?" He H e also arranged to see a private art collection in a villa near the outskirts of of town. When W h e n the owner showed up to discuss the paintings, it was Appleton who judged the collector's collectors knowledge rather than vice versa. "He proved himself himself a man of of taste by his comments on his own pictures," Appleton Appleton noted in his diary.79 ary.79 Oliver Wendell Holmes said he had no "taste" in art when he arrived after Appleton Appleton showed him around the Louvre, the in Paris. However, after enchanted enchanted Holmes emerged more confident, confident, proclaiming himself himself a partic80 ular devotee ofTitian. of Titian. 80 The two young men's experience at the Louvre was by no means unThe common. Young L. J. Frazee returned to the Louvre again and again during his Paris stay. "I know of of no place in the city I left left more reluctandy reluctantly 81 81 than this," he wrote his mother in Cincinnati. Mter After he first visited it in 1839, Amos A. Lawrence wrote in his diary that it "surpasses all my conceptions of of it." Going through it was "an excitement excitement which I have never known before before..... . . . I hope to be able to examine it a hundred hundred times 82 more and study it all thoroughly. Mter thoroughly.""82 After his first visit there, Charles SumSumcompensated for-seasickness, for—seasickness, ner wrote, "My voyage has already been compensated time, money, and all-many all—many times over."83 over."83

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What W h a t did these young men think examining this immense collection brought brought them? In a word, what Thomas Appleton Appleton was so confident confident he 64

Paris in 1778. The dark lines indicate the succession of walls dating back to the Middle Ages, showing how some of of them were turned into boulevards. The Seine is shown running through it, on either side of the lie Ile de la Cite, the historic heart of of the city. The area above the Seine on the map is the Right Bank; the part below the Seine is, of course, the Left of Left Bank. Photo: Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris.

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Top, Early-nineteenth-century Top, Early-nineteenth-century tourists tourists viewing viewing the the Maison Maison Carrie CarreeininNimes, Nimes, which Jefferson Jefferson used used as as aa model model for for the the State State House House in in Richmond, Richmond, Virginia. Virginia. which of the the major major objectives objectives of of his his trip trip South South in in 1787. 1787. Seeing it it was was one one of Seeing

Bottom, Bottom, Local Local people people on on stilts stilts in in the the Landes, Landes, where where John John Carter Carter Browns Brown's ship ship was was wrecked. wrecked. Although Although they they were were commonly commonly used used to to negotiate negotiate the the areas area's mud mud flats, flats, they they were were particularly particularly handy handy for for looting looting the the many many shipwrecks shipwrecks on on the the silted silted banks banks of of the the of many late-eighteenthGironde estuary, leading to Bordeaux, the terminus of and early-nineteenth-century early-nineteenth-century voyages voyages from from America. America. and

St. St. Quen, Ouen, one one of of two two huge Gothic Gothic churches in Rouen, Rouen, the first first major town many many Americans would encounter encounter after landing in France. France. The size, size, age, age, and stonework stonework of of these these churches churches was was astounding astounding for for people people who who had seen seen nothing like like this this in in their their native native land. land. Author's Authors collection. collection.

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A medium-sized diligence, A medium-sized diligence,ofofthe thekind kinddescribed describedbybyLaurence LaurenceSterne Sterneininhis his popular novel novel A A Sentimental Sentimental Journey. popular Journey.These These slow slowbut but comfortable comfortable coaches coacheswere were preferred over faster stage by many preferred over the the faster stage coaches coaches by many early-nineteenth-century early-nineteenth-century American travelers, travelers, especially those who had read the pleasures pleasures of American especially those who had read of of the of traveling traveling in them in Paris. in them in Sterne's Sterne's novel. novel. Photo: Photo: Bibliotheque Bibliotheque Nationale Nationale de de France, France, Paris.

A drawing of the foothills of the Alps, from the "Picturesque Guide to France," France," that typifies the kind of view sought by tourists in the Romantic era. An abandoned house lurks in the middle ground, between the untamed waterfall and the disheveled bridge. bridge.

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Opposite Oppositetop, top,The Thegarden gardenofofthe thePalais-Royal Palais-Royalininitsitsearly-nineteenth-century early-nineteenth-centuryheyday, heyday, looking north toward the palace itself itself. The gallery to the rear, cutting off off the palace grounds just past the fountain, was a favorite place for arranging sexual encounters. The buildings on the sides, and the one from which the drawing was made, housed fine shops on the bottom floors, restaurants and gambling houses on the upper ones, and bordellos on the top floors. Photo: Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris. Opposite Oppositebottom, bottom,The Theboulevards, boulevards,whose whoseceaseless ceaselessactivity activityenthralled enthralledAmerican Americanvisitors, visitors, around 1840. By then, the finest shops, restaurants, and prostitutes were deserting the Palais-Royal for them. Above, The The section section of of the the aptly aptly named named Grande Grande Galerie Galerie of of the the Louvre Louvre museum, museum, where where the paintings were arranged in historical "schools." The serious copyists serious copyists include aa woman, woman, lower right, something practically unheard of of in the United States before the 1850s.

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Top, Top,The The Luxembourg Luxembourg Palace Palace and and gardens, gardens,whose whose art art gallery gallery became became the the showplace showplace for for modern French artists in the nineteenth century. The gardens were famous as the haunts of of artists, students from the nearby Sorbonne, and their girlfriends, grisettes. girlfriends, often often called grisettes. Bottom, The Bal Mabille, the most famous of the open-air dance halls along the Bottom, Champs-Elysees, in 1846, with women for hire in the foreground. foreground. It became so famous as a place to meet part-time prostitutes, also called grisettes, grisettes, that thataaNew NewYork Yorknightspot nightspot whose dancers and waitresses doubled as prostitutes adopted its name. Photo: Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris.

Top,The The Cafe Cafe Procope, Procope, aarestaurant restaurant famed famed for for having having been been patronized patronized by by Voltaire Voltaire and and Top, the1830s, 1830s,when whenrestaurants restaurantswere werestill stillrare rareininAmerica. America.ItItwas was other philosophes other philosophes ininthe particular favorite favorite of of the the young young American American college college graduates graduates who who flocked flocked to to Paris. Paris. aa particular Photo: Bibliotheque Bibliotheque Nationale Nationale de de France, France, Paris. Photo: Paris. Bottom, Carrying Carrying out out Baron Baron Haussman's Haussmans plan plan for for slashing slashing new new boulevards-in boulevards—in this this case, case, Bottom, Paris. New New building building codes codes encouraged encouraged the avenue avenue de de l'Opera-through FOpera—through the the old old quarters quarters of of Paris. the the kind kind of of street street life life tourists tourists enjoyed enjoyed by by mandating mandating the the construction construction of of buildings buildings such such as as the those in in the the picture, picture, with with shops shops on on the the ground ground floor floor and and apartments apartments above. above. those

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The new reading reading room room of the Bibliotheque Bibliotheque Nationale Nationale was was squeezed The graceful graceful new of the squeezed in in among the library's older structures. Many Americans were impressed by how Louis-Napoleon fostered new construction for the arts and sciences whilst preserving and restoring France's historic heritage.

Top, The The central central hall hall of of the the ten iron-and-glass sheds sheds of of Les Les Halles, Halles, the wholesale food food Top, ten long long iron-and-glass the wholesale market, one of of the to Paris's Paris's infrastructure infrastructure carried carried out out under Louis-Napoleon. the improvements improvements to under Louis-Napoleon. market, one would later later be be fashionable fashionable for for tourists visit the and cafes cafes around around it in It would tourists to to visit the working-class working-class bars bars and it in the wee hours hours of of the the morning, after aa night night out out on on the town. the wee morning, after the town.

Bottom, The Universal Exposition of 1867, which helped solidify Paris's position as Europe's Bottom, top tourist destination. destination. Wags likened the its green green garden garden at at the center, top tourist Wags likened the main main building, building, with with its the center, to aa plate plate of of sausage sausage with with spinach spinach in in the The buildings, all temporary, on the the to the middle. middle. The buildings, all temporary, were were on Champs de de Mars, Mars, the parade ground ground on on the center of of Champs the old old parade the Left Left Bank Bank that that would would be be the the center most future future Expositions, Expositions, including including the the one one in in 1889 1889 that that left left the Eiffel Tower Tower there. most the Eiffel there. Photo: Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Photo: Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris. Paris.

Top, Top, An An 1867 1867 depiction depiction of of the the boulevard boulevard des des Capucines Capucines and and the the new new Hotel Hotel de de lala Paix, Paix, a favorite of wealthy American visitors to the Exposition. Its ground-floor Cafe de la Paix later became the crossroads of American tourism to France-a France—a place where, it was said, if if one sat long enough one was certain to meet friends from back home.

Bottom, On the right stands the world's first department store, the Grands Magasins Bottom, du Louvre, on the left, the Grand Hotel du Louvre. The picture exaggerates the length of of the store, but it was certainly large enough to impress many American visitors in the late 1860s, when it was drawn. Photo: Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris.

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had: visits to had: "taste." "taste." Mter After aa number number of of visits to the the Louvre Louvre with with Appleton, Appleton, Holmes recorded how how he he further buying engravings Holmes recorded further cultivated cultivated his his taste taste by by buying engravings from bouquinistesand andvisiting visitingother othergalleries. galleries."I"Iam amgrown grownpassionately passionately from the the bouquinistes fond he later home, "and to find paintings," he later wrote wrote home, "and am am astounded astounded to find how how fond of of paintings," 84 my taste taste has with regard James Colles, Colles, the the wealthy wealthy my has improved improved with regard to to them."84 them." James self-made businessman from New York York and and New New Orleans, tried to to make self-made businessman from New Orleans, tried make up for for his his educational educational deficiencies deficiencies by spending the the first year of of retirement retirement up by spending first year in boning up up on books, and in Europe, Europe, systematically systematically boning on antiques, antiques, books, and art. art. Upon Upon returning to he turned mansion into veritable monuYork, he turned his his new new mansion into aa veritable monureturning to New New York, ment his newly acquired taste. taste. He He furnished furnished it it with with antique antique furniture, furniture, ment to to his newly acquired rugs, and china china he he had had collected collected in in Paris, Paris, Amsterdam, Amsterdam, and and London London and and rugs, and hung with copies hung its its walls walls with copies of of Renaissance Renaissance masterpieces masterpieces he he had had commiscommis85 sioned in Italy. Italy.85 Since Since the the upper upper class class believed believed that that good good taste taste and and refinement refinement was was rereflected manners, some thought that flected in in good good manners, some even even thought that French French good good manners manners derived from from their their exposure exposure to to fine art. George George Putnam, Putnam, impressed impressed that that derived fine art. the people" strolled politely amidst the sculptures the "common "common people" strolled politely amidst the sculptures in in the the TuileTuileries expories gardens gardens without without mutilating mutilating or or defacing defacing them, them, thought thought that that this this exposure fine art sure to to fine art "creates "creates and and promotes promotes among among them them such such instinctive instinctive politepoliteness, well as ness, as as well as taste taste and and refinement."86 refinement."86 John John Sanderson Sanderson had had aa similar similar reaction reaction in in 1835. 1835. "There "There is is not not aa milliner milliner or or shop shop girl girl whose whose head head is is not not aa museum of pictures," he he wrote. wrote. "No "No one one can can walk walk into into these these galleries galleries on on museum of pictures," the not see the public public days days and and not see that that there there is is in in man man aa natural natural attraction attraction for for the the arts nature." He He ended arts which which exalt exalt and and refine refine his his nature." ended his his description description of of the the Louvre: 87 Louvre: "To "To seem seem to to know know something something about about paintings paintings is is so so genteel!" genteel!" 87 When young men such as this returned home, the refinement acquired on their their European European trip trip was was thought thought to to be written all all over over them. them. "They "They on be written enjoy aa reputation reputation for for being being 'very Very clever' clever' and and 'very Very talented talented young fellows/ enjoy young fellows,' 'smart chaps.' chaps/ etc.," etc.," George George Curtis Curtis wrote wrote of of this this group group of of young young New New York York 'smart socialites. "They are often often men of of a certain cultivation. They have travelled . .. . spending a year or two in Paris and a month or two in the rest of of Europe. Consequendy Consequently they they endure endure society society at at home home with with aa smile, smile, and and aa Europe. shrug, and a graceful superciliousness, which is rather engaging."88 engaging."88 Ironically, by by the 1830s, the kind of of Enlightenment Enlightenment taste taste these men these men Ironically, the 1830s, the kind cultivated was was going going out out of of fashion fashion in in Paris. Artists such such as as Delacroix Delacroix and and cultivated Paris. Artists Gericault, whose whose canvasses canvasses dripped dripped with emotion, were city Gericault, with emotion, were taking taking the the city by storm. Yet the genteel genteel early-nineteenth-century early-nineteenth-century American American tourists tourists by storm. Yet the who admired Poussin, Claude Lorrain, and the other seventeenthand eighteenth-century eighteenth-century French French painters had litde little use for "modern" "modern" and painters had use for 65

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nineteenth-century nineteenth-century French art. Even Thomas Cole, the thirty-year-old thirty-year-old originator of of the so-called Hudson River School of of landscape painting, found little of found of value in the modern art he encountered encountered when he visited France in 1831. He was "painfully "painfully disappointed," he wrote in his journal, to find the Old Old Masters in the Louvre were covered by an exhibition of of modern French painters (one of of the annual Salons.) "I had not expected to see so many vile productions with so few good ones-1 ones—I was disgusted.... gusted. . . . [T]he subjects which French artists seem to delight in are either Bloody or Voluptuous. Death, murder, battle—Venus, battle-Venus, Psyches-are Psyches—are often tawdry style ... . . . the whole artificial artificial portrayed in a cold, hard, and often and theatrical."89 theatrical." 89 Yet within a few years Cole himself himself was painting imagiUtopian scenes which were every bit as bombastic as much of of the nary utopian eighteenth-century norms French work he condemned. The rationalist eighteenth-century supplanted by the Romantic notion that art art should arouse the were being supplanted sentiments—that it should first speak to the emotions and only then, persentiments-that haps, to the mind.

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If man has to amuse there is no place place like If aa man has aa mind mind to amuse himself himself there is no like it on on earth earth..... . . . But But if if you to make an absolute absolute beast beast it you want want to make an of yourself, without varnish or gilding, gilding, it it can can be done to to of yourself, without varnish or be done the perfection. the utmost utmost perfection. FRANCIS FRANCIS PARKMAN PARKMAN

No one thought thought that European European tourism should be all work and no play. of the republican Grand Grand Tourists admitted admitted that Even the most puritanical puritanical of the tour's seriousness of of purpose did not preclude some pleasure. "You are, I trust, about to enjoy much and to learn much in Europe," the Reverend Norton wrote the twenty-six-year-old Andrews Norton twenty-six-year-old Harvard Harvard law graduate of intellectual improvement improvement Charles Sumner, "to lay up for life a treasure of and agreeable recollections."1 recollections." 1 The pleasure, though, would supplement, supplement, never displace, the uplift. Peter Irving assured his brother-in-law: "I anticimprovement from this excursion and flatter flatter myboth pleasure and improvement ipate both self that the time it occupies will be usefully as well as agreeably emusefully self 2 h a t is striking is the extent to which the young tourists were ployed." What ployed."2 W of self-improvement self-improvement in the face of of abundant abundant able to live up to such vows of temptation. Even before before male tourists arrived, they had been primed by French Washington Irving, responding to his brothwomen's alluring reputation. Washington er s request that he report on this, confirmed confirmed that they were "admirably "admirably er's tail/" 3 They They were imcalculated to 'set fire to the head and set fire to the tail.'''3 mensely skilled in making themselves attractive, he thought. "If "If the ladies of France have not handsome faces given them by nature," he wrote anof art of of improving them vastly, and setting other brother, "they have the art 67

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nature at defiance. Besides, they never grow old; you stare perhaps, but I assure you it is a fact."4 fact."4 The T h e fact that Paris was abroad, and far away from the snooping of of hometown guardians of hometown of morality, made it all the more dangerous to morals. Mter After witnessing some of of the antics of of his young, fellow Harvard graduates in Paris in 1833, the ex-pastor Ralph Waldo Emerson, now a budding writer and philosopher, wrote in his journal: "Young men are very fond of of Paris partly, no doubt, because of of the perfect perfect freedom-freedom freedom—freedom from observation as well as interference-in interference—in which each one walks after after the sight of of his own eyes."5 eyes."5 "They say they come to Paris to see the world," of young American men, but "they come that said George William Curtis of the world (that is, their world at home) may not see them."6 them." 6 The puritanism of of the social circles from which these tourists came made them extremely reticent about their sexual feelings. Proper gentlemen would rarely allude to them in their private journals and never even hint at them in public. In the early 1830s, when a clever French woman woman chided James Fenimore Cooper Cooper that there could be no such thing as love in America because Americans "were without without strong feelings," he ascribed this impression to "the cold formal exterior which the puritans have entailed on so large a portion of of the republic."7 republic." 7 But this puritanism puritanism was more than just an exterior posture. The revealing costumes that shocked Abigail Adams at the opera continued to of visitors. William Lee returned from from embarrass succeeding generations of performance in Bordeaux one night in 1796 and wrote in his a theater performance flesh-colored silk costumes were "wrapped "wrapped so tight diary that the actresses' flesh-colored of their that you could discover every muscle," leaving their arms and one of left his wife and small child breasts bare. The lonely young man, who had left back in New York, added: "Such indecent representations can never lead the mind to virtue. All the exhibitions I have been at appeared to me to thoughts." 8 Washington Irving was be calculated only to inspire libidinous thoughts."s after landing fancied as quite a ladies' man in New New York, yet when, soon after in Bordeaux in 1804, he first saw the lightly clad women dance on the same stage, he reacted much the same as had Lee and Abigail Adams bemens shock did tend to fore him.99 Over the next thirty years, American men's give way to titillation, but some could still be upset. John Sanderson wrote of a New England professor of of professor who was "scandalized" by "the scantiness of of Taglioni, the ballet dancer. "I was born further further south," the wardrobe" ofTaglioni, Philadelphian added, "and could bear with it."lo it."10 the Philadelphian Americans were also taken aback by the amount of of flesh that fashionfashion68

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able French women's women's clothes clothes revealed. revealed. In 1796, John John Vanderlyn Vanderlyn wrote his able French In 1796, wrote his brother that the the fact fact that that the the dancers dancers at at the the Opera Opera danced danced "almost "almost naked naked brother that Samuel . . . is is not noticed here here for for the the dress dress here here is is very very licentious."ll licentious."11 Samuel ... not noticed were "revolt"revoltTopliff listed aa number number of of things things that that French French women women did did that that were Toplifflisted ing to to modesty modesty and and every every delicate delicate feeling feeling of of mind," mind," most most of of which ing which involved involved exposing their their bodies. On the the street, street, they they held held their their skirts skirts up up to to avoid avoid exposing bodies. On being splashed by the water water running running down down the the gutters, gutters, thereby exposing being splashed by the thereby exposing their calves. calves. A A woman nurse her her infant in public "as coolly coolly as their woman would would nurse infant in public "as as if if alone in in her her nursery." nursery." Women Women received received gendemen gentlemen in in the the mornings mornings while while alone circumstances'(pregnant) (pregnant)would wouldmake makenonoeffort efforttoto still in in bed. "A lady lady in in circumstances" still bed. "A conceal her her condition. condition. "Women "Women walking walking out out with with children children in in the the most most conceal frequent and and fashionable fashionable streets streets [would] [would] suffer suffer them them to to attend attend to to every every call call frequent Ladies in in crowded crowded of nature, nature, while while thousands thousands of of both of both sexes sexes are are passing passing by." by." Ladies coaches would would ask the gendemen gentlemen opposite opposite them them "to "to arrange arrange legs, legs, and and coaches ask the dovetail [alternate [alternate the the placement of their their legs] legs] and and this this too too without without dovetail placement of 12 blushing."12 blushing." Americans Americans remained remained just as as shocked shocked at at marital marital infidelity infidelity as as they they were were Washington Irving Irving was was when Jefferson so. Washington when Jefferson was was in in Paris, Paris, perhaps perhaps even even more more so. surprised by how accepted accepted adultery adultery was was among among Bordeaux's social elite elite in in Bordeaux's social surprised by how 13 Forty-two 1804. Fuller-a Transcen1804.13 Forty-two years later, later, the the feminist feminist Margaret Margaret Fuller—a Transcendentalist dentalist attracted attracted to to ideas ideas about about new new kinds kinds of of community-wrote community—wrote aa friend friend that that she she was was dismayed dismayed to to discover discover that, that, in in the the brilliant brilliant actress actress Rachel, Rachel, "the "the noblest noblest genius genius is is joined to to the the severest severest culture. culture. She She has has aa really really bad bad repureputation tation as as [a] [a] woman." woman." It was was said said that that her her private life life "has "has nothing in in common The next next year, year, her her fellow fellow common with the the apparition apparition of of the the artist."14 artist."14 The Transcendentalist Ralph Ralph Waldo Emerson Emerson bragged to the the British writers writers Thomas Thomas Carlyle Carlyle and and Charles Charles Dickens Dickens that that in in America America male male chastity chastity was was not aa thing thing of of the the past: past: "that, "that, for for the the most most part, part, young young men men of of good good standstandnot ing and and good good education education with with us go virgins virgins to to their their nuptial as truly truly as ing us go nuptial beds, beds, as as 15 their brides."15 To To Emerson, Emerson, the the French French attitude attitude toward toward sex, sex, "this "this supsuptheir brides." posed freedom," was "libertinism."16 "libertinism."16 Fashionable Fashionable French women's looks looks and and comportment comportment made made aa particuparticular of the sharp lar mark mark on on upper-class upper-class American American men men because of sharp contrast contrast with with the the ideal ideal American American women women of of their their own own class. class. In In the the 1820s 1820s and and 1830s 1830s the the American American woman woman strove strove for for an an ethereal ethereal look: look: slim, slim, pale, pale, and and otherotherworldly. They They slipped slipped about about silendy silently in in floor-length floor-length dresses dresses with with long long worldly. sleeves, tight tight bonnets covering their their knotted knotted hair, hair, with with eyes eyes demurely demurely sleeves, bonnets covering downcastY women, on on the the other other hand, hand, not only only had had few few comcomdowncast.17 French women, punctions immense amounts of their their skin, skin, they they covered it covered it punctions about about revealing revealing immense amounts of 69

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with make-up and fragrant fragrant powder, doused themselves with alluring perfume, and carried themselves in ways that gave every indication of of wanting wanting to partake fully in life's sensual pleasures. The Alabama planter William Raser particularly enjoyed enjoyed visiting the Louvre in 1817 because, he wrote in his journal, when one's eye tired oflooking of looking at the "splendid works of of art ... . . . he has a resource to those of of nature, which are here to viewed in their greater magnificence magnificence in the Females of of Paris Paris..... . . . In short, everything that could render a place enchanting and beautiful beautiful are here."18 here." 18 A major major topic of of upper-class American women's conversation was the "moral character" of of those around them. Their Their French counterparts counterparts Willard advised American women not let Emma Willard seemed immune to this. Emma their daughters travel to France, because "we never hear characters scanned in Paris, as with us, as to the moral tendency of of their actions." It It therefore "impossible for a young woman to form any kind of of judgewas therefore of those she may meet." She learned, for for ment as to the real character of of great personal elegance, whom I often often example, that "a single lady, of met, met,.... . . was the chere chereamie amie of of aa married married man." man." Another Another time, time, "in "in aa room room where a few were present, I saw, by a sudden turn, a lady of of whom I had of a gentleman, as he stooped never heard ill, touch her lips to the neck of for some object beside her." She also told of of the French lady "whose correctness I never heard impeached" who said she was "no friend friend of of marriage." "How absurd," the woman said to the shocked Willard, "to make one promise to love the same person forever! Why, it is impossible. Give of mutton all my days, and I should starve me nothing to eat but a leg of to death."19 death." 19 This kind of of naughty talk might well have piqued the interest of of upperupperclass American men, many of of whom were comfortable comfortable with a sexual double standard at home. However, women in France's France s social elite were generally not interested in them. Although Although some Americans ascribed their stand-offishness stand-offishness to the language problem, in fact there was little incentive for French society women, immersed in the intricate social intrigues of of 2o American men looking their class, to bother with transient Americans.20 for sexual encounters generally had to rely on those French women who did so for a price. common everywhere in Europe, and cerAlthough prostitution prostitution was common tainly not unknown unknown in America, Paris had developed a reputation as a of the higher-class versions of of this trade. Much of this was Much of thriving center of carryings-on of of the hyperactive Duke of of Orleans, a connected with the carryings-on 70 70

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man for whom the term libertine Before the libertine seems to have been invented. Before Revolution in which he was to perish, he sponsored enormous debauches employment to hunin his Palais-Royal residence, giving fairly regular employment dreds of of such women. The Palais-Royal and the streets around it were of the higher class, which became practically soon crowded with bordellos of 21 obligatory stops for visiting foreign men. 21 Meanwhile, a system evolved whereby prostitution, though illegal in tolercertain respects, was tolerated and eventually regulated in "maisons de tolerance."22 ance!'22 As it happened, the most popular hotels and pensions for American men visiting Paris were clustered on the very streets near the Palais23 Male homosexual of these places. 23 Royal that were home to a number of prostitution became more open as well, particularly during Napoleon's of high government government posts and rule, when homosexuals occupied a number of of young male prostitutes plied the boulevards and places of of groups of 24 amusement.24 officials began regularly checking the prostitutes in the In the 1820s, officials maisons for venereal diseases. They also attempted to limit soliciting to these places and the immediate areas around them. Samuel Topliff, alself-described man of of great modesty, thought this system much though a self-described of trying to suppress and punish the better than the futile American one of 25 25 trade. Some years later, in 1844, Augustus Gardner, a New Jerseyite studying medicine in Paris, wrote back to a Newark newspaper that this of venereal disease than in London, London, system had led to much lower rates of New prostitution was supposedly supposedly New York, and even in moral Boston, where prostitution 26 suppressed.26 The knowledge that the prostitutes there were closely supervised by After visiting there the authorities encouraged visits to the Palais-Royal. Mter nineteen-year-old John L. Gardner, obviously still unone night in 1823, nineteen-year-old influence of of some wine, scrawled in his diary: "Res de Chaussee der the influence floor]—shops. Premier—Cafes, [ground floorJ-shops. Premier-Cafes, Gambling Houses. Second and there— above filles. I believe no filles walk in Palais R who do not live there27 Police is the order of of the day."27 day." Paying a visit there was the last thing he and two other American friends did on two other nights during his week 28 in Paris, but he did not record what they did. 28 Mter After 1830, many thousands of of unemployed men and women poured into Paris from the provinces, while the bourgeoisie expanded in numbers and wealth. One result was a great upsurge in prostitution. Although Although the lowest-status prostitutes (down-and-out (down-and-out streetwalkers in working-class working-class areas) had little to do with tourists, those who filled the "bals," the dance 71

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halls that lined the Champs-Elysees proliferated in the outskirts of Champs-Elysees and proliferated of 29 29 town, kept a sharp eye out for free-spending free-spending foreigners. Women Women also circulated in gambling houses, on the boulevards, and in the new covered shopping arcades; some passed out business cards, while whispering allusions to their talents to foreigners. foreigners. It It was likely at one of of the latter places that Samuel Ward, twenty-yeartwenty-yearold son of of a wealthy New York City banker, who spent three months in Paris in 1834, encountered encountered the series of of women mentioned mentioned in his diary for August of of that year. He H e awoke late one morning, had a glass of of Madeira, lit up a cigar, and set off for one of off of the arcades. There he met "Florentine," a woman who had been his lover on a visit earlier that year, and went to her apartment. The The next morning, he withdrew three hundred francs from from the bank and returned to her place, where he found another one of of her Although he wrote in his diary that encountering lovers. Although encountering this man, as well as her continuing liaison with a third man, "will make no difference difference in my regard," there is no mention of of her for two weeks. Instead, the only entries are: "Lundi. Jeannette, petite brunette, frivole, artiste, small but beautiful beautiful externally. Mercredi. Ste Brigitte, Ste Ida, Beautiful Beautiful madonna face, presence beautiful, beautiful, chalereuse." The next entry in the diary, though, is in a feminine hand. It It reads: Florentinebien bienindulgente, indulgente,pardonnant pardonnant desfauts d'autres que lui Von lui Florentine lesles desfouts d'autres afin afin que l'on pardonne lessiens. siens.[Florentine, [Florentine,very very indulgent,pardoning pardoningothers' others' failings indulgent, failings pardonne les in order order that that they they might might pardon hers.] pardon hers.] in -Florentine, chez chez Samuel, —Florentine, Samuel,a a111/2 111/2 dudumatin, matinyIeledimanche, dimanche, 31 aoitt, 31 aout, 1834. 1834.3030

It It may well have been with a woman such as Florentine that Oliver Wendell Holmes lost his virginity, and perhaps Thomas Appleton Appleton too. Practically the first thing Appleton did upon arriving in Paris was to engage a valet Appleton who valet de place to show him the nightlife. It It was Appleton Holmes quoted, some years later, as having uttered the famous words, "Good "Good Americans, when they die, go to Paris."31 Paris." 31 Brothels welcoming the tourist trade also multiplied after after 1830. By 1839, when twenty-five-year-old twenty-five-year-old Amos Lawrence visited Paris, police controls had loosened considerably. At the Palais-Royal, a lamp vendor took him around the back and showed him "an entrance to the house filled 32 with public girls to be had for 5 fr; at the licensed houses they have 20 fro fr.""32 It It is likely that Lawrence patronized patronized one of of these kinds of of establishment, if if 72 72

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not in Paris, then at his next stop, Lyon. There the good Protestant Protestant wrote of going to a crowded Catholic church, kneeling, and praying. The entry of 33 continues: "Hope 1I have not taken the itch in this villainous town. Some town.""33 Aries, his fear of of disease seems to have days later, having reached sunny ArIes, H e records meeting a young French army officer officer and, after after dinsubsided. He ner: "I go with him and 2 more to the cafe. To another another house where they tolerance have music, punch, etc., etc." By then, it was legal for maisons de tolerance to have music, serve punch, and provide other entertainments, so it is not 34 unlikely that the "etc. etc." included sex. 34 encounter with one of of the highest level of of Lawrence also had an encounter proffered sexual favors for money, the so-called femmes gawomen who proffered femmes galantes, or courtesans (the most successful successful of of whom were called u"les les grandes horizontales.") horizontales") These independent independent entrepreneurs were usually more attractive and well-spoken than the women women who worked in the maisons or They would set themselves up in luxurious apartments apartments walked the streets. They Often claiming aristocratic linto which they would invite wealthy men. Often eage or royal connections, their remuneration remuneration would come in the form of of 35 Lawrence's "loans," stipends, cash, or giftS. gifts.35 Lawrence s diary for 18 December December 1839, has six lines that are carefully carefully obliterated obliterated with black ink. Then, "Pay a visit day s entry reads: to Mme. Morlay." The next day's Send in in to to Mad. Mad. Morlay. Morlay. She She shows shows me me letters letters of of introduction introduction to to Send Prince Esterhazy. Esterhazy. Letter Letter for for the the ministers, and some some with with the the king's kings Prince ministers, and seal on on them. They call call her her countess countess of of something. something. She She says says she she has has seal them. They lawyers. That That she she is is unexpectedly unexpectedly in in come to to Paris Paris for for business business with her lawyers. come with her want of of funds funds (1000 (1000 fr). fr). II offer offer her my purse, 30 or or 40 40 in in it, it, her my purse, which which has has 30 want which she she rejects and goes goes into into her her boudoir boudoir and and II retire. retire. She She calls calls me me to to which rejects and come back, but II pretend to be angry and and so so get get rid rid of of her. She is is very very pretend to be angry her. She come back, but 36 handsome.36 handsome.

Somewhere between Madame Morlay and the prostitutes whom whom Amos infected him were the women in the so-called "demiLawrence feared had infected longer-term liaimonde": well-dressed women who sought out profitable profitable longer-term well-off men in the cafes, theaters, parks, or (a favorite spot) the sons with well-off of the Opera. They They were particularly foyer of particularly partial to foreign tourists, 37 George whom they regarded as rich, prodigal, and naive or ignorant.37 William Curtis devoted a particularly nasty section of of an 1850 satirical William piece on American American nouveaux riches abroad to young men who came to meant to accomParis to "see the world." By "see the world," he said, they meant 73 73

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beautifully furnished furnished pany courtesans to the opera and "then to return to beautifully entertainment until early morning." apartments to sup and prolong the entertainment They "spend a good deal of of money for nothing," he wrote, and are "quiedy "quietly They women and their male friends, "who enjoy enjoy the benefit benefit laughed at" by the women 38 of of the lavish bounty of of our young Croesuses."38 Croesuses." famed grisettes of of the Left Left Bank. Most Most American Finally, there were the famed of their time on the Right Bank. They They visitors stayed and spent most of would visit the Left Left Bank Bank to see the Mint, the Jardin des Plantes, the Gobelins tapestry factory, and a few other sights, but gave the area around the Sorbonne, called the LHumanite 275 Henry B., 29, 34, 45, 77 Humphrey, Henry Hunt, Mrs. Charles, 152 Hunt, Richard Morris, 147-48,211-12 147-48, 211-12 lIe 110 lie de 1a la Cite, 87, 87,110 L11lustration (magazine), 262 Llllustration illustrations, function function of, 34-35 34-35 Conception (Murillo), (Murillo),164 164 Immaculate Conception immigrants: restrictions on, 235; symbol of, of, 212; traveling descendants of, 239 Imperator (ship), 126 Imperial School of of Design, 113 The Independent (periodical): on automobiles, 133-34; on Latin O1Iarter, Quarter, 206; on new American girl, 192 Ingres, Jean-August, 317n. 49 Inman Line, 94 The Innocents Abroad (Twain), 88, 88, 116, 178,183 178, 183 introductory letters, use of, 32 27y 67 Irving, Peter, 27, Irving, Washington: on adultery, 69; on culture, 44; health of, 25; on language, 38; on politics, 46-47; puritanism puritanism of, 68; on scenery, 42-43; solitary travels of, 27; on women, 67-68, 306n. 20 Italians: French compared to, 77; as gigolos, 250 Italy: accommodations in, 312n. 17; art from, 60, 165; language in, 296n. 5; 60,165; also See also tours of, 4-5, 45, 96, 144. See Rome James, Henry: on American culture, 163-64; on American tourists, 178-79, 183; on breakfasts, 326n. 178-79,183; 18; on couriers, 295n. 53; on expatriates, 322n. 18; on Howells, 208; on intellectual intellectual tourism, tourism, 166; 166; mascumascuon

linity of, 315n. 7; on women flirts, 191 James Monroe (ship), 15,21 15,21 Jardin des Plantes, 141 Jay, Cornelia, 29In. 291n. 45 Jay, John, 6, 291n. 45 Jay,JohnC.,Jr.,101,116 Jay, John C., Jr., 101, 116 jazz: attitudes toward, 260; in classical music, 247; introduction of, 236; popularity of, 243-44 Jefferson, 13-14 Jefferson, Polly, 13-14 Jefferson, Thomas: advice from, 3-4, 32; Jefferson, on French arts, 4, 7-8, 54, 282; on French dining, 40; on royal courts, 287n. 12; on scenery, 42-43; and transadantic crossing, 13-14, transatlantic 20-21; travel habits of, 7-9 7-9 jewelry, shopping for, 150-51, 190, 194 Jews: as bankers, 143-44; and gambling culture, 330n. 107; travel of, 144, See also 343n. 30. See alsoanti-Semitism anti-Semitism Are, 46,180,182 Joan of of Arc, 46,180, 182 John Minturn Minturn (ship), 15 John Munroe and Co. (bank), 105-6 105-6 Johnson, Robert, 22,61-62 22, 61-62 Johnson, Samuel (Dr.), 5 Johnston, John Taylor, 109, 109,110, 110, 117 Jones, Catherine: on cemetery, 110; on couriers, 34; on French food, 81, 109; and Paris fashion, 119; on social equality, 50; on women workers, 110-11 110-11 Jones, Florence, 243 186,189, Jones, Mary Cadawalder, 186, 189, 327n. 33 327n.33 diaries/journals journals. See See diaries/journals Joyce, James, 245, 246-47 Jubilee Singers, 229-30 Kemp, Dora, 249 Kirkland, Caroline M., 34, 37, 63, 111 Ku Klux Klan, 233-34, 266, 273 Laboulaye, Edouard de, 211 Ladies' HomeJournal Ladies'Home Journal (magazine): on students in Paris, 207; on travels travel's efef-

364 364

IN D E X— «— INDEX

fects, 255-56; on women tourists, 185-86 Lafayette, Marquis de, 47-48, 211, 300n.82 300n. 82 Lafayette Escadrille, volunteers in, 218 Lamartine, Alphonse de, 102 landscapes, ideal of, 42-44. See See also also gardens Langdon, Joseph, 29 Langtry, Lily, 154 Languedoc Canal, 3 Lanvin (designer), 237 Laperouse (restaurant), 153 La Rochelle, 15 "Last Supper" (Leonardo da Vinci), 35 Latin Qyarter: Quarter: drinking in, 241; 241; sexuality in, 199-201,206; 199-201, 206; students in, 206-8 Laughlin, Clara, 227-28, 246-47, 254-55 Laurent (restaurant), 153 Lawrence, Amos Adams: on cigar smuggling, 296n. 16; on food and din41, 79; in Italy, 305n. 82; on ing, 41,79; Louvre, 64; on Morgue, 315n. 16; and Paris fashion, 119; and prostitution, 72-73; on scenery, 45; socializing by, by, 101; 101; on stagecoach travel, travel, on stagecoach ing 41; on transatlantic crossing, 1718,21 18,21 Lawrence, Katherine, 43, 110, 115 Lawrence, Mary, 127, 151-52, 174-75, 127,151-52,174-75, 193 Lederer, William, 346n. 1 Lee, William, 14,38,48,68 14, 38, 48, 68 Left Left Bank: accommodations on, 205; artists and writers on, 238-41, 264; buildings on, 8; fiction about, 234; location of, 288n. 27; and Paris transformation, 92, 310n. 6; prostitransformation, 74-75, 239, 242; sexualtution on, 74-75,239,242; ity on, 199-201; shops on, 173, 245, 251; strolling along, 58; tour245,251; See also also ists attacked attacked on, on, 269. 269. See ists Champs-de-Mars; Luxembourg Luxembourg Champs-de-Mars; palace; names names ofspecijic ofspecificplaces places palace;

Le Havre: language at, 39; port arrivals at, 29-30, 94; and transportation, 131 26-27 \ goals of, of, leisure: expansion of, 26-27; 241; and morality, 30, 97; and ship accommodations, 126-27; shopping as, 247-48; and social status, 93, 255. See See also alsoconsumer consumerculture; culture; 93,255. recreational tourism; tourism; shopping; shopping; recreational tourism; vacations vacations tourism; leisure class: conspicuous consumption consumption by, 139, 152, 155, 213; financial financial limitations on, 151-52; tourist cir144-46 cuit for, 144-46 Le Notre, Andre, 9 Leonardo da Vinci, 35,164, 35, 164, 305n. 78 lesbianism, 136, 204, 245 Les Hailes Halles (food market), 203, 248-50 Levine, Lawrence, 30In. 301n. 1 Lewis, Sinclair, 240, 259 Libbey, Laura, 157-58, 175, 186, 326n. 157-58,175, 11 Lind, Jenny, 209 Lindbergh, Charles, 272 Lions Club, tours for, 254 Lippincott, Sara, 88-89, 109 Liszt, Franz, 301-2n. 8 Digest, 241-42, 246 Literary Digest, France(guidebook), (guidebook), Journey to France A Little LittleJourney 173 Locke, John, 4 London: dining in, 154; Great Exhibition in, 96; Paris compared to, 58, 80; season in, 145 Longacre, Andrew, 87 Longchamps, races at, 145 Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 115, 318n.51 318n. 51 Loomis, Charles B., 180-82 180-82 lorettes, 74, 76, 201 Lorrain, Claude, 42, 65-66 of Art, Los Angeles County Museum of 327n.43 327n. 43 Louis XIII, 59 Louis XIV, 57, 59, 141, 310n. 15 59,141, Louis XV, 59

365

D E X— —I N INDEX

Louis XVI, 8, 57, 59 Louis XVIII, 59 Louis-Napoleon. See See Napoleon Napoleon III III Louis-Philippe, 47-48, 59, 300n. 82, 305n. 85 305n.85 Lourdes, visits to, 179,254 179, 254 Louvre: comic strip on, 200; expansion of, 86, 88-89, 114; guidebooks on, 246, 252, 252, 295n. 45; intellectual approach to, 167-69; male interest in, in, proach to, 167-69; male interest 115, 116; 116; origins origins of, 59-60; paintpaint115, of, 59-60; ings in, in, 63-64, 63-64, 113-14; 113-14; public acings public access to, 304n. 54, 317n. 45; 45; reputareputacess to, 304n. 54, 317n. 60-61, 164-65, 164-65, 304n. 304n. tion of, 9, 9, 60-61, tion of, 68; visits visits to, to, 162, 162,173,178,180, 68; 173, 178, 180, 209-10, 283, 327n. 34 209-10,283,327n.34 Lowell, Francis, III, 101, 106, 119 Lowell, John, 37, Lowell,John, 37, 81 Lusitania (ship), 126 Lusitania Luxembourg Palace: gardens of, 74, 116; guidebooks on, 246; modern art at, 165-66; new new galleries for, 114; nudes 63; paintings 60, 64, 64, nudes in, in, 63; paintings in, in, 60, 112-13, 304n. 68,305n. 68, 305n. 89;reputa89; reputa112-13,304n. tion of, 99 tion of, Lyman, Theodore, 29 lynchings, French press on, 230 73; surroundings Lyon: prostitution prostitution in, 73; 45, 89 of, 45,89 Madeleine (church), 9 Maison Carree (Roman temple), 8-9, 8-9, 54,297n.33 54, 297n. 33 Mallarme, Prosper, 44 Manet, Edouard, 202 Marie Antoinette, 148 Marie de Medicis, 59 Marie de Medicis Medicis (Rubens), 114 114 Marie Marlborough, Duke of, 193 marriage (French): with Americans, 143, 192-93; customs of, 10,69, 10, 69,143, 199; Jefferson Jefferson on, 5, 10-11; rejection of, 70; with soldiers, 219-20 marriage (U.S.): and art collection, attitudesstowar toward, 248, 261; d,248,261; 116-17; attitude and tourism, 107-8 107-8

Mars, Mademoiselle, 53, 209 Marseille: food and accommodations at, 40; galleries in, 115; travel to and from, 45, 45, 297n. 32 Marsh, Dorothy, 253 Mary Mary (ship), 14 definition of, 163-64; and masculinity: definition manifestation foreign travel, 30-35; manifestation of, 204-5; and "New Woman," 188; reassertion of, 183-84; redefinition of, 197-98 of, 197-98 definition 17-18 Mason, Rev. Charles, 17-18 Mason, George, 100 Masons, tour for, 159 Matisse, Henri, 149 Matthews, Grace, 151, 153 Matthews family, 133 Mauritania Mauritania (ship), 126 Maximilian (emperor), 211 Maxim's Maxims (restaurant): equality at, 154; 192, 220-21, sexuality at, 180, 192,220-21, 242, 248 242,248 Mayflower 21 Mayflower (ship), 21 Mayo, Abigail De Hart, 15, 80,210 80, 210 Mayo, Agnes, 62 Mayo, Angela, 77 Mayo, Mary, 173, 184 McCannell, Dean, ix McDonald McDonald (doctor), 187 McGraw, Jennie, 151, 184 McKay, Claude, 263 McLellan, Henry, 77, 299n. 68 men: and art appreciation, 115-16, 16366, 169; and automobiles, 134-37; 66,169; characteristics of, 27-30, 107-8, 183-84, 198; as collectors, 62, 64, 116-17, 146-49; and couriers, 34; 116-17,146-49; emotions of, 112-13; expectations 30-35,183; for behavior of, 30-35, 183; occupations post-WWI expatritions of, 197; as post-WWI ates, 238-39; 238-39; roles of, 107-8; 107-8; shopshopates, roles of, ping by, 117-18; 117-18; sights sights for for only, only, ping by, alsomasculinity; masculinity;prostituprostitu110. See See also tion; sexuality; soldiers soldiers (U.S.) (U.S.) tion; sexuality; Menton, tourists in, 144, 146, 162, 187 Mercer (woman traveler), 321n. 50

366 366

IN D E X— —INDEX

Methodists, tours for, 254 Metropolitan of Art (New Metropolitan Museum Museum of 149,304n.59 '(ork), York), 117, 117,149, 304n. 59 Metz, accommodations at, 45-46 Meyer (shopping assistant), 150-51 150-51 Michelin tire company, 224 middle class: and antitourism, 179-83; attitudes toward, 162-63, 175, 178-83; and cultural tourism, 15863, 246; education of, 252-53; and French cuisine, 159, 169-73,275; 169-73, 275; and gambling, 174-75; itineraries of, 158-59; 158-59; motives of, 209-10, 209-10, of, motives of, 245-46, 255-56, 279-81; postW W I I tourism of, 278-80; and sexsexWWII tourism of, 278-80; and 204-5, 208-9, 208-9, uality, uality, 200-201, 200-201, 204-5, 235; shopping by, by, 173-74, 173-74,189-90, 189-90, 235; shopping 247-48; and and tourism tourism market, market, 9999247-48; 100,104-6,160, 237-42, 278-79; 100,104-6,160,237-42,278-79; 158-61; and and travel travel costs, tours for, for, 158-61; tours costs, 129-30, 132, 132, 235-36; 235-36; as as war war volunvolun129-30, teers, 220-21 teers, 220-21 Middle East, as destination, 29 milliners, shops of, 150 Mills, C. Wright, 343n. 24 Mimi (Miirger), Mimi (Murger), 201 Mistinguette, 243 Modigliani, Amedeo, 238 Moliere, 53 Mona Lisa (Leonardo da Vinci), 164Mona 65, 246 65,246 monarchy, absolute vs. constitutional, 288n. 24 288n.24 monasteries, 44,169,179 44, 169, 179 Le Monde (newspaper), 153 166,240 Monet, Claude, 149, 149,166, 240 Monte Carlo (Monaco): gambling in, 146-47,174,193,249; 146-47,174,193, 249; suicides in, 174 of pleasure, Montmartre: as center of 242-43; clubs in, 241-42, 248-49; jazz in, 243-44; prostitution in, 201-3, 234; segregation in, 264-65; 201-3,234; tourists attacked in, 269, 272-73; also tours of, 242; wartime, 221. 221. See See also Moulin Rouge Moulin Rouge

Montparnasse: bars and cafes in, 23940, 264; drinking in, 241-42; expa40,264; prostitution in, triates in, 238, 278; prostitution 240; tours of, of, 242 242 240; tours Montrachet wine, 9 Montrachetwine,9 Mont-Saint-Michel, monastery at, 179 morality: and age,S; age, 5; and American students, 206-8; guidance in, 204-5; and leisure, 30, 97; and muscular Christianity, 164; vs. temptations, 67-68; and women's roles, 107. See also puritanism also puritanism Morand, Paul, 261, 262 148,209,217-18 Morgan, J. P., 129, 129,148, 209, 217-18 Morgan,]. Morgue, visits to, 110 Morris, Gouverneur, 10-11 10-11 See buses buses motor coaches. See motorcycles, accidents with, 136 Moulin Rouge: attack on, 272-73; costume ball at, 200; and post-WWI post-WWI lifestyles, 243; racial incidents in, 192, 202, 264; sexuality at, 180, 192,202, 205 205 Mount Mount Auburn cemetery (Boston), 110 See film movies. See Munn, John: and Paris fashion, 120; and transformation, 87, 88; on rail Paris transformation, travel, 132-33; on restaurants, 91-92; socializing by, 105-6 105-6 Munroe, John, 105-6 Miirger, Murger, Henri, 74,201,238-39 74, 201, 238-39 Murillo, Bartolome Esteban, 115, 164, 305n. 78 Murphy, Gerald, 250 Murphy, Sara, 250 Murray, John, III, 33, 115 Musee du Jeu de Paume, 283 museums: guidebooks on, 179; model of, for, 60; patrons of, 111; tours of, 162, 283. See See also alsonames namesoJspecijic ofspecific 162,283. museums music: African African American, 229-30, 236, 243-44; courses on, 253; French vs. American, 209; guidebooks on, 301~2n. 8. 202; instrumental, 90, 3Ot-2n. See alsojazz; jazz;theater theater See also

367

D E X— —I N INDEX

"My Impressions of of France and the Army" (pamphlet), 223-24 NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Advancement of Colored People), 263 Nantes port, 15 Napoleon Bonaparte, 22, 46-47, 58-60 58-60 Napoleonic Wars, tourism inhibited by, 22 Napoleon III: defeat defeat of, 140-41; opposition to, 211; 211; and Paris transformatransformation, 86-90, 114; regime of, 48, 85-86,142; 85-86, 142; and working-class tourists, 96 ists,96 National Association for the Advancement of of Colored People (NAACP), 263 The Nation Nation (magazine), 172, 178-79 178-79 Native Americans, sympathy for, 211, 300n. 82 300n.82 "new American girl," 191-92 191-92 New England Conservatory of of Music and Normal School, tour for, 159 New Orleans (La.), French ties of, of, 294n.29 294n. 29 Newport (R.I.): houses in, 148, 153; resorts in, 93, 145 "New Woman," 187-89 187-89 New York and Havre Line, 94, 236 New York City: Bal Mabille in, 308n. 7951; parks in, 55; restaurants in, 7980, 152-53; 1830 revolution cele27, brated in, 47; social class in, 27, of Liberty, 212; 28-29; and Statue of stores in, in, 190 190 stores New York Herald Herald (newspaper), (newspaper), 135, 135, 142, 142, New York 191 New York York Illustrated Illustrated News, News, 97-98 97-98 New New York Public Library, 75 New York New York Times (newspaper): on art collection, 148; on French food, 172; 201; on students in on grisettes, 201; Paris, 207-8; on Trilby craze, 200; on women's eating, 154 154 on women's eating, New York York Tribune Tribune (newspaper), 177-78 177-78 New

Nice: economy of, 132; gambling in, 147, 174, 275; soldiers in, 223; and 147,174,275; suicides, 330n. 103; tourists attacked in, 273; tourists in, 131-32, 144, 146, 185,251,275; 185, 251, 275; travel to, 45, 94; veterans' demonstrations in, 45,94; 267-68 See cafes; cafes; clubs clubs nightclubs. nightclubs. See Nimes, Roman temple at, 8-9,54, 8-9, 54, 297n.33 297n. 33 Normandie Normandie (ship), 278 North North American American Review Review (periodical), 143 North Star (ship), 97 North Star Norton, Rev. Andrews, 67 183-84 Norton, Charles Eliot, 164-65, 183-84 Notre Dame Dame (cathedral), (cathedral), 87, 87, 162 162 Notre Notre-Dame-de-Lorette (church), (church), 74 74 Notre-Dame-de-Lorette nouveaux attitudes toward, 177nouveaux riches: riches: attitudes toward, 17778; status status of, of, 178-79; 178-79; and and women women 78; flirts, 191-92. 191-92. See See also alsoleisure leisureclass; class; flirts, upper-middle class class upper-middle

O'Brien, Howard, 220-21 220-21 Oceanic (ship), Oceanic (ship),125, 125,127 127 Olympics (1924),267 (1924), 267 Olympic Olympic (ship), 126 Opera: building for, 86, 247; prostitution at, 73-74, 78-79; visits to, See also 210, 251. 251. See alsoplace placede del'Opera l'Opera Opera-Comique, 54 Opera de l'Academie l'Academie Royale, 53 Opera des Italiens, 53-54 53-54 Opera Lyrique, 251 Opera Royale, 54 Orange, Roman arena at, 8 Osage Indians, sympathy for, 300n. 82 The The Outlook Outlook (magazine), 181 L'(Euvre (newspaper), 274 UCEuvre Pacific(ship), (ship),94 94 Pacific Paganini, Niccolo, 301-2n. 8 Paine, Mrs. Mrs. Charles Hamilton, 149 149 Paine, Charles Hamilton, paintings: changing subjects subjects in, in, 65-66, 65-66, paintings: changing 141; European European vs. vs. American, American, 61; 61; 141; fake 148-49, 165, Old Masters, Masters, 148-49, 165, fake Old 178; hanging hanging of, of, 304n. 304n. 56; 56; historihistori178;

368 es

— INDEX

—

~INDEX~

cal schools of, 165, 168; nudes in, 62-64; portraits, 61, 61, 324n. 53. See See also art art appreciation appreciation also Palace of of the Legion of of Honor, 288n. 27 Palace of of the Popes (Avignon), 45 Palais-Royal: description of, 56-57, 77; gambling in, 76; gardens of, 9; plans for, for, 212; 212; prostitution in, 71, plans prostitution in, 71, 72-73, 78; restaurants in, 79, 81; 72-73,78; shops in, in, 118, 118, 190 190 shops Palestine. See See Holy Holy Land Land Palmer, Mrs. Potter, 149 Pan-Mrican Pan-African Congress, 265 Pantheon, 162 Paquin (couturier), 150, 152 Parc Pare Monceau, 86 Paris: boulevards in, 57-58, 86; changing attitudes in, 65-66; characteristics of, 9-10, 55-57; gambling in, 76; layout of, 55; medical studies in, 28, 293n. 17; as model, 86-87; political upheaval upheaval in, in, 140-44; 140-44; prosprospolitical titution in, in, 71-76; 71-76; sewers sewers of, of, 109; 109; titution social season season in, in, 236; 236; tourist circuit social tourist circuit in, 144-45,240,242,257,269, 144-45, 240, 242, 257, 269, in, 277; 1850s 1850s transformation of, 8686277; transformation of, 92, 114, 310n. 310n. 6; 6; wartime blackouts 92,114, wartime blackouts See also alsonames namesoJspecijic ofspecificsecsecin, 220. 220. See in, tions, sites, andstreets streets tions, sites, and Paris after Dark Dark (Wideawake, pseud.), 75 Night (guidebook), 201 201 Paris at Night "Paris by Night" tours, 242, 257, 269, 277 Paris Exposition (1867). See See expositions; expositions; Universal Exposition (1867) Paris Herald Herald (newspaper), (newspaper), 135, 135, 142, 142, 324n.53 324n. 53 Paris Is Is aa Womans Woman sTown Town (guidebook), (guidebook), 247,249-50 247, 249-50 Paris-Midi (newspaper), 262-63 Paris-Midi Paris-Promeneur, Paris-Touriste Paris-Promeneur, Paris-Touriste(publica(publication), 91, 91, 95, 131 Paris Tribune (newspaper), 245 Parkman, Rev. Francis: on department store, 318n. 65; on fashion, 318n.

57; on language, 296n. 2; on Paris, 58,67; 58, 67; on restaurants, 80; on scenery, 43; on transatlantic transadantic crossing, 20, 21, 21, 290n. 290n. 17 17 20, Parkman, Mary Eliot, 103, 141, 317n. 49 parks: constructed in Paris, 86; Sunday See also alsogardens gardens in, 9. See patriotism, heightened by foreign travel, 50-51 Patton, Florence, 226 144-46 Pau, on tourist circuit, 144-46 Peabody, Harold, 181 Peabody, Mary, 157-58, 181 The Pension Pension Beauregard Beauregard(James), (James),164 164 pensions: as accommodations, 184,205; 184, 205; dining at, 189; popularity of, 185. See alsoaccommodations accommodations See also Pere Lachaise cemetery: Communards Communards killed in, 140; visits to, 109-10 109-10 Perroquet, shows at, 242 Pershing, Gen. John, 219, 230-31 230-31 Petit Palais, construction construction of, 92 Phelps, Sheffield, Sheffield, 133-34 Philadelphia Academy of of Fine Arts, 27 photographs, function function of, 34-35 34-35 Picasso, Pablo, 149, 238, 247, 250 Pickford, Mary, 237 picturesque, definition definition of, 42-43 pilgrimages: to battlefields, 225-29, 273; convention as, 271-74; definition definition 225 ; of of mothers and widows, of, 225; 277 277 place de la Revolution, 58 place de I'Odeon, l'Odeon, 240 place de I'Opera, l'Opera, 91, 91, 221, 221, 242, 244, 247. See See also alsoOpera Opera place Pigalle, 242-43 place Vendome, 58, 63, 151, 247 Plantas Gazetteerfor France France(guidebook), (guidebook), 295n. 45 295n.45 Plantas New New Picture Picture oj ofParis (guidebook), 295n. 45 Plaza Athenee (hotel), 153 Plymouth Rock (ship), 18-19 Poincare, Raymond, 265-66

369 369

— INDEX

—

~INDEX-

politics (French): and American business, 212-13; and American Legion convention, 273-74; and American racism, 265-66; American reactions to, 46-50, 85; and arts support, 88-89; and attitudes toward America, America, 211-12; 211-12; and and postposttoward 267-71; 1870s 1870s upupW W I economy, economy, 267-71; WWI heaval in, in, 140-44; 140-44; system system of, of, 7; 7; and and heaval 22-23, 140-44, tourism industry, industry, 22-23,140-44, tourism 278 278 politics (U.S.): crises in, 85-86; French attitudestoward,211-12;and attitudes toward, 211-12; and French food, 80-81 80-81 Pont des Arts, 58 Pope, Alexander, 297-98n. 34 Porter, Cole, 250 ports of of entry: customs at, 39; language at, 38-41; overland travel from, from, 41-42,44-46; 41-42, 44-46; prostitution in, 219; See also alsonames namesof of routines at, 39-41. See specificports ports specific The Potiphar Papers Papers (Curtis), (Curtis), 85, 85, 178 178 Pound, Ezra, 197 Poussin, Nicolas, 42, 65-66 Au Printemps (department (department store), 247 Prohibition (U.S.), 239, 241-42, 25960. See See also alsoalcohol alcohol prostitution: avoided in written accounts, 77-79; emphasis on, 198203; in fiction and film, 200-201, 240-41; French vs. American, 259; guidebooks on, 75-76, 201, 201, 203; 203; inin71-72, 224, 242; locacrease in, 71-72,224,242; 72-75, 78-79,202, 78-79, 202, 57y 72-75, tions for, 57, 205, 234, 239, 242; male male homosexhomosex205,234,239,242; ual, 203; 203; observation observation of, of, 201-5, 201-5, ual, 242-43; and and oral oral sex, sex, 307n. 307n. 34; 34; 242-43; 70-71; and and Paris's reputation reputation for, for, 70-71; Paris's post-WWI lifestyles, lifestyles, 239, 239, 242; 242; regregpost-WWI ulation of, of, 71,219,220; 71, 219, 220; and and solsolulation diers, 218-20, 218-20, 223, 223, 231; 231; and and warwardiers, 220-21; women women time volunteers, volunteers, 220-21; time See also alsogambling gambling in, 71-76, 71-76, 78. 78. See in, Protestants: and gambling, 174-75; goals of, 209; guidance for, 204-5;

of Are, Arc, 46; and leisure, and Joan of 30; on materialism, 190; reform reform efforts of, 113; status of, 142, 144; efforts and women's roles, 107 Prussia, war with, 140-44 140-44 Puccini, Giacomo, 74 puritanism: rejection of, 238; tradition of, 235, 256, 282; vs. sexuality, 686870, 75,114 70,75,114 Putnam, George: on art, 65; on diligences, 297n. 29; guidebooks by, 33, 48, 50, 57; on Paris, 56-57; on scenery, 43, 45; sexuality avoided by, 77; on on shopping, shopping, 118 118 by, Putnam's (magazine), 95,100,178 95, 100,178 Py, Pierre, 281

race: and foreign travel, xi-xii, 262-66; French attitudes toward, 49-50, 230-32, 279; and World War I, See also alsoAfrica; Africa;Mrican African 229-32. See Americans; racism; French West Indies Indies Rachel (actress), 53, 69, 99,209, 315n. 12 53,69,99,209,315n. Racine, Jean, 53 racism: and Americanization, 263-66; France as refuge from, 231-32, 263-66, 279; and World War I soldiers, 229-32 Radical party, 142 radio program, for women tourists, 246, 247 railways: and American Legion convention, 274-75; 274-75; construction of, of, of, 94-95; egalitarian nature of, 132-33; emergence of, 41-42; fares on, 132, 158; improvements in, 130-32; limitations of, 134; seating in, 132-33, 132-33, 158; 158; segregation segregation on, on, in, 264, 277; speed of, 95-96; stations 264,277; for, 92; 92; timetables timetables for, for, 159, 159, 167; 167; for, wars impact impact on, on, 217, 217, 225; 225; women women war's tourists on, on, 184-85 184-85 tourists Raser, William, 30-31, 55, 70, 79 Rat Mort Mort (cafe), 202, 248 Ravel, Maurice, 247

370

EX—I N D INDEX—=

ReadingJourney through France A Reading Journey through France (guide(guidebook), 168-69, 173 The Real Latin Quarter (Smith), Real Latin (Smith), 200200201, 206 201,206 recreational tourism: components of, xi, 239-41,274-75; 239-41, 274-75; emergence emergence of, of, shift toward, toward, 209-10, 235, 250-51; shift 209-10,235,250-51; 175, 254-56 175,254-56 Red Red Cross, Cross, 220, 220, 257 257 Red Star Star Line, Line, 130, 130, 319n. 319n. 19 19 Red Reed, Fanny, Fanny, 143 143 Reed, Reichards ofFrance Reichard's Itinerary of France and Belgium (guidebook), (guidebook), 295n. 295n. 45 45 Reid Hall (student residence), 206 Reims: cathedral at, 166,226,227,340166, 226, 227, 34041n. 41n. 46; 46; post-WWI post-WWI tours tours of, of, 226, 226, 227-28 227-28 also religion, African African American, American, 230. 230. See also religion, Catholic Catholic Church; Church; churches; churches; ProtesProtestants tants Rembrandt Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn, 64, 148 resorts resorts (French): (French): and and automobiles, automobiles, 133-37; 133-37; gambling gambling in, in, 146-47; 146-47; and and social status, 93; 93; on tourist circuit, 145-46; 133, 145-46; upper upper class class at, at, 133, 236-37; vs. spas, 131 131 236-37; vs. spas, resorts resorts (U.S.), (U.S.), anti-Semitism anti-Semitism at, at, 144 144 restaurants: restaurants: African African American American patronage patronage of, 264; American food served by, 91-92,171; 91-92, 171; brasseries brasseries as, as, 171-72; 171-72; changing techniques techniques in, in, 152; 152; dedechanging cline 81; French French vs. vs. American, American, cline of, of, 81; 259; origins origins of, of, 79; 79; prices prices at, at, 172, 172, 259; 329n. 74; 74; and and social social class, class, 153-54, 153-54, 329n. 170-73; women's women's patronage patronage of, of, 170-73; 154-55,189, 249, 250. See also 154-55,189,249,250.Seeabo French cuisine cuisine French Restoration, Restoration, tourism tourism during, during, 292n. 292n. 60 60 Revolution (1789): (1789): beginning beginning of, of, 303n. 303n. Revolution 33; betrayal betrayal of, of, 90; 90; and and Louvre, Louvre, 33; 59-60; and and restaurants' restaurants' origins, origins, 79; 79; 59-60; significance of, of, 311n. 31 In. 24; 24; tourism tourism significance inhibited by, 22 inhibited by, 22 Revolution (1830): American enthusiasm asm for, for, 47-49; 47-49; tourism tourism inhibited inhibited by, 23 by,23

Revolution Revolution (1848), (1848), American American reaction reaction to, 48 48 to, Rheinlander, Leonard Leonard "Kip," "Kip," 237 237 Rheinlander, Rhone Rhone River River Valley, Valley, 45 45 Richmond (Va.), capitol building in, 8,54 8,54 Riesman, Riesman, David, David, 143 143 Right Right Bank, Bank, accommodations accommodations on, on, 56,74 56, 74 Riviera (Cote (Cote d'Azur): gambling in, in, Riviera d'Azur): gambling 146-47; 146-47; as as health health resort, resort, 146; 146; hohomosexuals in, in, 244; 244; O!Ieen Queen Victoria Victoria mosexuals at, 146; 146; soldiers soldiers in, in, 223; 223; sunbathing sunbathing at, in, 250-51, 281, 323n. 41, 340n. in,250-51,281,323n.41,34On. 31; tourists tourists attacked attacked in, in, 273; 273; tourtour31; ists in, in, 131-32, 131-32,133,146,184,187; 133, 146, 184, 187; ists writers in, in, 240 240 writers Robeson, Robeson, Paul, Paul, 263 263 Le Rocher de Cancale (restaurant), 81 81 Roe, Alfred, Alfred, 130, 170, 325n.3 325n. 3 Rogers, Will, 234, 261, 261, 270-71 270-71 romance: sea, 18-19; 18-19; romance: and and film, 261; 261; of of sea, on transadantic transatlantic crossing, crossing, 158; 158; and and on women women tourists, tourists, 191-94 191-94 Rome: art Jefferson's art training in, 114; Jefferson's interest interest in, in, 88 Roosevelt, Franklin D., Roosevelt, Franklin D., 90 90 Roosevelt, Roosevelt, Sara Sara Delano, Delano, 90 90 Roosevelt, Theodore, 188, 197,204, Roosevelt, Theodore, 188,197, 204, 212 Rosa, Rosa, Salvatore, Salvatore, 64 64 Rosenthal, Rosenthal, Amy, Amy, 128 128 Rosenthal, Virginia, Virginia, 330n. 107 Rosenthal, 330n. 107 Rossini, Gioacchino Antonio, 54 Rotary Rotary Club, Club, tours tours for, for, 254 254 Rotch, Emily, Emily, 165 165 Rotch, Rothschild family, 143-44, 153 143-44,153 La Rotonde (cafe), 239-40 Rotundo, Rotundo, Anthony, Anthony, 337n. 337n. 58 58 Rouen: cathedral and monuments in, 55; 46; visitors visitors in, in, 210 210 popularity of, popularity of, 46; Royal Royal Academy Academy of of Painting Painting and and SculpSculpture, 304n. 304n. 51 51 ture, Rubens, Peter Paul, 59, 64,114,116 64,114, 116 rue rue de de la la Paix, Paix, shops shops on, on, 150, 150, 151,237, 151, 237, 247 247 rue rue de de Rivoli: Rivoli: hotels hotels on, on, 91; 91; prostitution prostitution

371

=—

INDEX—=

~INDEX~

of, on, 242; shops on, 92, 118; size of, 57 rue Richelieu: gambling on, 76; prostitution on, 307n. 23 rue Vivienne, prostitution prostitution on, 307n. 23 See also also ruins and antiquities, 42-44. See museums Ruskin,John, 163-64 Ruskin, John, 163-64 Ruskin Club (U.S.), 327n. 43 Russell, Lillian, 325n. 79 Russians, as gigolos, 250 Rutledge, John, John, Jr., Jr., 286n. 286n. 11 Rudedge,

Sacco, Nicola, 272 Saint Cecilia (saint's day), 313n. 36 Saint-Cloud Saint-Cloud (palace), 61 61 Sainte-Genevieve (church), 9. See See also also Pantheon Saint-Eustache Saint-Eustache (church), 313n. 36 Saint-Nazaire: blacks beaten in, 232; monuments in, 228; prostitution in, 219; soldiers in, 223 Saint-Ouen Saint-Ouen (church), 46 Saint-Sulpice (church), 9 Salons, status of, 165-66 165-66 See soldiers soldiers (U.S.) (U.S.) Sammies. See Sanderson, John: on food and accommoLeft Bank students, dations, 39; on Left 61, 65; on nudes, 74; on Louvre, 61, 305n. 76; on Paris, 58; on women, 68 68 Saratoga (N.Y.), spas at, 93, 144, 145 Sargent, Aimee Rotch, 141 Evening Post (magazine), 248 Saturday Evening 13,19, Saunders, Robert, 13, 19, 20 Savage, Augusta, 264 scenery: attitudes toward, 42-44; dismissal of, 44-46 Scenes Scenesde delalavie viefuture future (Duhamel), (Duhamel),259 259 SchifF, Jacob, 148 Schiff, Schoonmaker, Frank, guidebook by, 251, 256 251,256 Schroeder, Henrietta, 186-87 186-87 Scopes trial, 260 Scribner's Scribners (magazine), 204 sculpture: appreciation of, 65, 114; Euro65,114;

pean vs. American, 61; 61; nudes in, 62-63,164-65, 208 62-63,164-65,208 See also alsoresorts resorts sea, romance of, 18-19. See (French); resorts (U.S.); ships; transatlantic crossing transadantic Seagle, Mrs. Oscar, 207-8 benefit of, 16; on Channel seasickness: benefit ferries, 39; death from, 290n. 17; suffering from, 16-19, 128 suffering Seaver, Henry, 130, 172 Sedgwick, Theodore, Jr., 54 Sedgwick, Theodore, III, 49 271 Seeger, Alan, 218, 271 segregation, in tourist activities, 264-65, 277, 315n. 6 277,315n.6 Seligman, Edward, 144 Franceand and A Sentimental SentimentalJourney through France Italy (Sterne), 6-7 Italy 6-7 separate spheres, effects effects of, 107-8, 111, 118 Serriers, description of, 45 servants, of of tourists, 106, 119, 127 service a service a la la Russe Russe (food (food serving), serving), 152 152 Sevres porcelain factory, 111 sexuality: and automobiles, 134-35; avoided in written accounts, 77-79; code word for, 208-9, 235, 280; differing attitudes toward, 9-10, differing 62-63, 208-9; emphasis on, 19762-63,208-9; 203, 235; exploration exploration of, of, 204-5; 204-5; 203,235; food as as form form for, for, 79-81, 79-81,154-55; food 154-55; Freudianism on, on, 239; 239; and and middle middle Freudianism class, 20G-201, 200-201, 204-5, 204-5, 208-9, 208-9, 235; class, 235; soldiers, 218-20, 218-20, 223, 223, 229, 229, of soldiers, of 231-32; vs. American American puritanism, puritanism, 231-32; vs. 68-70, 75,114; and women's women's behavbehav68-70,75, 114; and See also alsohomosexuality; homosexuality; ior, 191-95. 191-95. See ior, marriage (French); (French); marriage marriage (U.S.); (U.S.); marriage prostitution prostitution Shakespeare and Co. (bookstore), 245 Shaw, Francis, 205 Shaw, Isabel, 145, 192-93 145,192-93 Mrs. J., 191 Sherwood, Mrs.J., Shippen, Thomas Lee, 286n. 1 African Americans, 348n. 39; ships: for Mrican booking passage on, 15; competi-

372

EX—I N D INDEX^=

tion among, 129-30; fares on, 93, 104,129-30, 94, 104, 129-30, 157; first-class on, 125-29, 236; gender segregation 125-29,236; on, 315n. 6; government requirements for, 104; improvements in, 17-18, 21, 94,104,125-26; luxury 17-18,21,94,104,125-26;luxury on, 94, 278-79; one-class one-class type type on, 94, 97, 97, 278-79; of, 236; 236; passenger lists on, on, 126-27; 126-27; of, passenger lists passenger-only, 126; private, private, 9696passenger-only, 126; 98, 127-28; second-class second-class on, on, 12812898,127-28; 30,157-58; on, 129; 129; 30, 157-58; shuffleboard shuffleboard on, sinking of, of, 14-16,94; 14-16, 94; sounds sounds of, of, sinking 16; steerage steerage (third-class) on, 130, 130, 16; (third-class) on, 235-36, 241; thieves thieves aboard, aboard, 128, 128, 235-36,241; alsotransatlantic transatlantic 319n. 19. 19. See See also 319n. crossing crossing 151; and antishopping: and age, 151; Americanism, 268-69; centrality of, 120, 173-74; for fashion, 11921,149-52,190-91; guidebooks 21,149-52,190-91;guidebooks 173-74, 249; for jewelry, on, 173-74,249; jewelry, 15051, 190, 194; as as leisure leisure activity, activity, 51,190,194; of trips, 150-51; 247-48; length of and middle middle class, class, 173-74, 173-74,189-90, and 189-90, 247-48; for for paintings, 147-49; varivari247-48; paintings, 147-49; ety in, in, 117-19; 117-19; vs. vs. socializing, socializing, 147; 147; ety 189-91. See and women women tourists, tourists, 189-91. See and also bookshops; bookshops; department department stores stores also Siege of of Corinth Corinth (opera), (opera), 53 53 The Siege silk workers, conditions for, 89 Sketches ofParis Paris(Sanderson), (Sanderson),74 74 Sketches of 251 Slaughter, Gertrude, 251 slavery: abolition of, 49; American opposition over, 50-51; French opposition to, 211, 211, 229; vs. European labor conditions, 28, 89, 110-11 110-11 battlefield tour, Smith, Frank: on battlefield Quarter, 200226-27; on Latin O1tarter, 201, 206; on wartime Paris, 220-21 220-21 201,206; Smollett, Tobias, 5-7, 42 social class: and accommodations, 96, 99-101, 159; and anti-Semitism, anti-Semitism, 99-101,159; 153-54, 177-78; and expanded 153-54,177-78; tourism, 279-82; in fiction, 85; and foreign travel, xi-xii, 93-98, 235-37; and Grand Tour, 5, 11; 11;

and legitimization legitimization of of travel, 26-27; and leisure, 93, 255; and prostitution, 73; and restaurants, 153-54, 170-73; and shopping, 117-18; and transatlantic crossing, 19, 48-50, 144, 126-27; vs. equality, 48-50,144, 153-54,230-32, 263-66, 279; vs. 153-54,230-32,263-66,279;vs. See also alsoleisure leisure money, 313n. 27. 27. See money, 313n. class; middle class; class; middle class; upper upper class; class; upper-middle class; working class upper-middle class; working class socialism, 48, 89 Socialists, and American Legion convention, 274 tion,274 Soissons, tours of, 226, 228 African Americans as, soldiers (U.S.): Mrican 229-32,263; 229-32, 263; arrival of, 218; crimifiction nal activities of, 221-22; in fiction post-WWI and film, 234-35; post-WWI French relations relations with, with, 221-24, recommended enter233-34, 257; recommended tainments for, 223; 223; repatriated repatriated to to tainments for, States, 223-24; 223-24; sexuality sexuality of, of, 218218States, 20, 223, 229, 231-32 20,223,229,231-32 Solomon, Hannah, 251, 344n. 55 Sorbonne: Bohemian area around, 74; race of of students at, 49-50; tourist courses at, 252; women students at, 206 206 You'reGoing GoingtotoParis? Paris?(Laughlin), (Laughlin),254 254 So Youre So Spa (Belgium), 145 Spain, royal court in, 287n. 12 Spanish-American War, French opposiSpanish-American tion to, 338n. 71 spas: benefits of, 131; rail access to, 130; tourists at, 144-46, 184 Springfield Republican (newspaper), 208 Stael, Anne Louise Germaine (Madame) de, xi, ix, 48 discomfort of, 41 stagecoaches, discomfort Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 38 Starke, Mariana, 32 Stars and and Stripes Stripes (periodical), (periodical), 220 220 Stars of Liberty, 211-12, 260 Statue of Stearns, Harold, 240 Stein, Gertrude, 149,204,245 149, 204, 245 Stein, Leo, 149

373

~INDEX— INDEX^=

Sterne, Laurence, 6-7, 39, 41, 41, 42, 104 Stern family, 144 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 320n. 23 147,190 Stewart, A. T., 147, 190 Stourhead, garden at, 297-98n. 34 Stowe, Calvin, 114 Stowe, Harriet Harriet Beecher: Beecher: on on aristocrats, aristocrats, Stowe, 85, 178, 330n. 5; on art, 113-14, 85,178, 282; criticism criticism of, of, 163; 163; on on LouisLouis282; Napoleon, 114; 114; marriage of, 114; 114; Napoleon, marriage of, writing by, by, 112, 112, 229, 229, 299n. 299n. 58 58 writing Straus, Isidore, 319n. 13 Strauss, Johann, 90 Stravinsky, Igor, Igor, 247 247 Stravinsky, Street, Julian, 153-55, 201, 201, 203 students: accommodations for, 74, 206-8; art art training for, 114, 114, 115, 206-8; training for, 115, 166, 205-6, 253; race of, 49-50; and transatlantic crossing, 253; and transatlantic crossing, 253; women as, 205-8, 336n. 52 Students Union, 206 Sturgis, Russell, Russell, 32 32 Sturgis, sublime, definition definition of, 43 subway system, 92 Sumner, Charles: Charles: on on alcohol, alcohol, 297n. 297n. 22; 22; Sumner, on architecture, 54-55; on cemetery, 110; 110; expectations expectations of, of, 67; 67; tery, French treatment treatment of, of, 211; 211; and and gamgamFrench bling, 76; language language learned learned by, by, 37; bling, 76; 37; on Louvre, Louvre, 61, 61, 64; 64; on on paintings, paintings, on 64; patriotism 49-50; 64; patriotism of, of, 51; 51; on on race, race, 49-50; on scenery, scenery, 46; 46; on on theater, theater, 53 53 on Sumner, George, 99 The Sun Also Rises (Hemingway), 240 sunbathing, on Riviera, 250-51, 281, 41, 340n. 31 323n. 41, Sunny ofForeign Sunny Memories of Foreign Lands Lands (Stowe),113-14 (Stowe), 113-14 Susman, Warren, 235, 343n. 26, 343n. 31 235,343n. 26,343n. Swanson, Gloria, 237 Switzerland, guided tours of, 96 (opera), 53 53 Les Sylphides Sylphides (opera), Taglioni, Marie, Marie, 53, 53, 68 68 Taglioni, Talleyrand-Perigord, Charles Maurice de, 11

Tarbell, John John E, E, 185 185 Tarbell, Tardieu, Andre, 194-95 194-95 Tarkington, Booth, 134, 177, 182, 183, 188 Taylor, Bayard, 99 Taylor, Frederick Winslow, 152,258-59 152, 258-59 technology: impact impact of, of, 279; 279; and and patriopatriotechnology: tism, 98; in in Universal Universal Exposition, Exposition, tism, 98; 90 90 television, impact of, of, 279 279 television, impact Telling, Elizabeth, Elizabeth, 158, 158,165,172 Telling, 165, 172 Le Temps (newspaper), (newspaper), 213, 213, 265 265 Le Temps Tender Is Is the the Night Night (Fitzgerald), (Fitzgerald), 250 250 Tender Thacher, Rev. Rev. Samuel Samuel C., C , 26 26 Thacher, theater: in, 212, 212, theater: American American figures figures in, 257-58; costume costume in, in, 68-69; 68-69; on on 257-58; French-American relations, relations, French-American 257-58; and middle-class tourists, 257-58; and middle-class tourists, 251-52; and prostitution, 73-74, 251-52; and prostitution, 73-74, 78, 204; 204; reputation of, 53-54. 53-54. See 78, reputation of, See also dance; dance; French French language; language; music; music; also Opera Opera l'Odeon, 251, 251, 257 257 Theatre de de l'Odeon, Theatre Theatre du du Cafe Cafe de de la la Paix, Paix, 54 54 Theatre Theatre Fran~ais Francais (later (later ComedieComedieTheatre Fran~aise), 53-54, 251 Francaise), 251 They Had Had to See See Paris Paris (Croy), (Croy), 234-35 234-35 Paris (film), (film), 234-35, 234-35, Had to See They Had See Paris 261 261 See Cook, Cook and Son. See Thomas Cook Thomas 369th Regiment band, 344n. 54 VassarGirls GirlsAbroad Abroad(Champney), Three Vassar Three (Champney), 186, 191 186,191 Through Europe on on Two Dollars Dollars a Day Day (Schoonmaker), 251, 256 Ticknor, Charles, 48 Ticknor, Charles, 48 Tilton, Theodore, Theodore, 316n. 316n. 29 29 Tilton, 16, 126, 126, 319n. 319n. 13 13 Titanic (ship), (ship), 16, Titian, 64 64 Titian, Tocqueville, Alexis de, 98, 299n. 72 Toklas, Alice Alice B., B., 245 245 Toklas, Topliff, Samuel: Samuel: on on ballet, 53; on on food food Topliff, ballet, 53; and dining, dining, 40, 40, 79-80; 79-80; on on French French and people, 49; on on prostitution, 71; raraprostitution, 71; people, 49; tionale for travel, 30; on on scenery, scenery, tionale for travel, 30;

374 374

~INDEX~ — IN

45-46; on travel acquaintances, 32; on women, 69 Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de, 203 d'Argent (restaurant), 155 Tour d'Argent Tour du Monde (magazine), 34-35 See couriers; couriers; guidebooks; guidebooks; tour guides. guides. See tour place guides; valets de place Touring Club de France, 224 tourism: associated with shopping, 117-21; definition definition of, ix-xi; feminifeminization of, 107-21, 177-78; "golden 22-23,125-37, 278-79; age" of, 22-23,125-37,278-79; 93,160,198, motives for, 25-26, 93, 160, 198, 159-62,167,182; of, 159-62, 167, 182; 209-10; pace pace of, post-WWI post-WWI changes in, 278. See See also Americanization; Americanization; antitourism; antitourism; also cultural tourism; tourism; foreign foreign travel; travel; recreccultural reational tourism; tourism tourism industry; industry; reational tourism; tourists; travelers travelers tourists; tourism industry: industry: diversification diversification in, in, tourism 279-80; and economy, 22-23, 278; expansion of, xi, 129-30; importance of, 277-78; and politics, 2222140-44, 278; travel agents' role 23, 140-44,278; in, 160, 246, 253; and women women tourists, 184-85; 184-85; and and World ists, World War War I, See also alsobattlefield battlefield 217-18, 224-25. See tours; Cook, Thomas; guidebooks; tours; Cook, Thomas; guidebooks; guides; pilgrimages; pilgrimages; tourists tourists guides; 269-71, tourists: attacks on, on, 257, 257, 269-71, tourists: attacks 272-73; characteristics of, xi-xii, 23, 27-30, 93,103-6,108-9, 23,27-30,93,103-6,108-9, 177-78; circuit for, 144-46; critiof, cism of, 177-84; expectations of, 30-35, 67-70, 258-59; pets of, of, 30-35,67-70,258-59; 127; put-downs of, ix-x; socializing group, by, 254; solitary solitary vs. by, 98-103, 98-103, 254; vs. group, 27-28, 31-32; and war's outbreak, 27-28,31-32; alsoaccommodations; accommodations; 217-20. See 217-20. See also men; transadantic transatlantic crossing; crossing; traveltravelmen; ers; women women ers; The Tourist's Tourists Pocket Journal (book), (book), 294n. 294n. The Pocket Journal 34,295n.45 34, 295n. 45 Tozier, Josephine, 326n. 10 Trafton, Adele, 315n. 6 Trafton, A Tramp Abroad Abroad (Twain), (Twain), 170

transatlantic crossing: accessibility of, of, transadantic 96-98; in Civil War, 94; clothing on, 325-26n. 4; danger of, 14-16; departure rituals of, 128, 157-58, 241, 248; golden age for, 125; 125; 241,248; guidebooks on, on, 125, 125, 128; 128; for for health health guidebooks reasons, 25-26, 93; romance romance possireasons, 25-26,93; bilities on, 158; 158; seasickness seasickness on, on, bilities on, 16-19; and and social social class, class, 19, 19, 126-27; 126-27; 16-19; tedium of, of, 19-20; 19-20; timing and duraduratiming and tedium tion of, of, 13-16, 13-16, 125-26; 125-26; treatment treatment tion of passengers during, 20-22; 20-22; and and of passengers during, also World War War I, I, 217, 217, 225. 225. See See also World ports of of entry; entry; ships ships ports transportation: improvements in, 93-96; of entry, 41-42, 44-46; from ports of post-WWI changes in, 235-37, post-WWI 281. See alsoairplanes; airplanes;automobiles; automobiles; 281. See also buses; railways; ships transvestites, 244 See also also 31. See travelers, definition definition of, x, 7, 31. men; tourists; women travel writing: ethnocentric, 5-6; feminifeminifiction, zation of, 109, 316n. 25; in fiction, 6-7; function function of, 33-35; sexuality avoided in, 77-79; by women, 109, See also alsodiaries/journals; diaries/journals; 293n. 24. See guidebooks Treaty of of Versailles, 266 Trilby (du Maurier), 199-200,206 199-200, 206 Les Trois Trois Freres Freres(restaurant), (restaurant),99 99 Trotsky, Leon, 240 Trouville, Baron de, 193 Trouville, resort in, 131, 145 Tucker, Josiah, 4 190-91 Tufts, Mrs. Warren, 190-91 Tuileries Palace: art art auctioned from, from, 305n. 85; destruction of, 140-41; gardens at, 57-58; Louis XVIII's use of,.9 use of, 59; reputation of, 9 Twain, Mark (pseud.): on American tourists, 178, 183; on Cook's service, 159; on drinking establishments, 92; on food, 170; guide hired by, 95-96; on Leonardo da Vinci's "Last Supper," Supper," 35; 35; on on Vinci's "Last

375 375

-INDEX~ =— INDEX —

Twain, Mark (cant.) Mark (cont.) Louis-Napoleon, 88; on Louvre, 116; masculinity of, 315n. 7; on sexuality, 199; on on travel travel possibilities, possibilities, uality, 199; 104 Twisleton, Ellen, 108 Tyler, Gertrude, 315n. 6, 317n. 36 Ugly American phenomenon, 257 Ulysses Ulysses(Joyce), (Joyce),246-47 246-47 Uncle Tom's TomsCabin Cabin (Stowe), (Stowe), 112,211, 112, 211, Uncle 229, 299n. 58 229,299n.58 Under the Tricolor Tricolor(Hooper), (Hooper), 191 191 Union Club (New York), 80 United States: economy of, 22-23; fascination with royalty, 85-86; fashions fashions available in, 343n. 20; foreign business of, 212-13, 258-59, 261-63; 79-81; French French relarelaFrench food in, in, 79-81; French food tions French travelers travelers in, in, tions with, with, 257; 257; French 229-30, 259; music culture in, 209; 229-30,259; music culture in, 209; paintings in, 61; 61; racial racial discriminadiscriminapaintings in, tion in, in, 230-32; scenery of, of, 43-44; 43-44; tion 230-32; scenery social class class in, in, 99-100; 99-100; stereotypes stereotypes social held in, 6; 6; transportation revolution held in, transportation revolution in, 93; urban in, 55; 55; values values in, 93; urban growth growth in, alsoAmeriAmeriin, 233-35, 238. See in, 233-35, 238. See also cans; culture culture (U.S.); (U.S.); puritanism; puritanism; solsolcans; diers (U.S.); (U.S.); tourists tourists diers U.S. Army. See See soldiers soldiers (U.S.) (U.S.) U.S. Navy, in Villefranche, 244 of, Universal Exposition (1867): goals of, 89-90,104; 89-90, 104; success of, 92; tour guides for, 96; visitors to, 90 271 Untermeyer, Samuel, 268-69, 271 upper class: accommodations for, 9999101; antitourism of, 177-83; attitudes toward, 162-63,167, 170, tudes toward, 162-63, 167, 170, 172, 237; and automobiles, 133-37; 172,237; changes in, in, 111, 111, 139,236; 139, 236; cultural cultural changes claims of, of, 26-27, 26-27, 280; 280; and and cultural cultural claims tourism, 139, 139, 155; 155; as as expatriates, expatriates, tourism, 139-42; and and French French food, food, 80-81; 80-81; 139-42; mansions for, 147; 147; marriages of, mansions for, marriages of, 107-8; news news coverage coverage of, of, 237; 237; rere107-8;

of, vived tourism for, 278; salons of, 100; servants servants accompanying, accompanying, 106, 106, 100; 119, 127; shopping by, 147-49; socializing by, by, 98-103, 98-103, 105-6; 105-6; as as war war cializing alsoaristocaristocvolunteers, 220-21. See See also racy; leisure leisure class class racy; upper-middle class: and and art art appreciation, appreciation, upper-middle class: 163-66; culture culture as as weapon weapon for, for, 163-66; 162-63; fictional fictional account account of, of, 166166162-63; 68; and and gambling, gambling, 175; 175; intellectual intellectual 68; tourism of, of, 166-69; 166-69; itineraries itineraries tourism of, 158-59; 158-59; shopping shopping by, 189-90; of, by, 189-90; socializing by, by, 158; 158; tours for, socializing tours for, 161-62 161-62

vacations: arranged tours as, 159-60; eroticization of, 127 Valence, description of, 45 Valentino, Rudolph, 250 Valery, Paul, 251 place: hiring hiring of, of, 34; 34;Jefferson Jefferson on, on, valets de place: 'Valets 7, 8; and prostitution, 72; for quick tours, 95; and shopping, 173 Van Buren, Martin, 80 Van Cise, Edwin, 110, 140-41, 170 Vanderbilt, Consuela, 193, 237 Vanderbilt, Cornelius: on on foreign foreign travel, travel, Vanderbilt, Cornelius: 256; oceangoing yacht and travel of, 96-98, 127; socializing by, 98 Vanderbilt, Cornelius, Jr.: chef chef of, 153 Vanderbilt, William K., 135, 147-48, 150 Vanderlyn, 58-60, 69 69 Vanderlyn, John, John, 58-60, 272 Vanzetti, Bartolomeo, 272 Variety (magazine), (magazine), 234-35 234-35 Variety Varuna (yacht), (yacht), 127-28 127-28 Varuna Vaudeville, 54 54 Vaudeville, Veblen, Thorstein, 139, 155,255 155, 255 Vefour Vefour (restaurant), 153 venereal disease, and soldiers, 219 Venusde deMilo Milo(sculpture), (sculpture),114, 114,164-65, 164-65, venus 200,246 200, 246 Verdun, battlefield battlefield tours of, 226, 227-28 Verne, Jules, 212, 314n. 50 Vernet, Horace, 114

376 376

EX—I N DINDEX^

Versailles: accommodations at, 101; changing fortunes of, 58-59; implications of, 48; paintings at, 59-60, 140-41; 113; prisoners at (1871), 140-41; 61 reputation of, 9, 61 Very (restaurant), 81 Vichy: access to, 130, 136-37; resort at, 145 Victoria (queen of of England), 146, 154 Victoria Victoria (ship), (ship), 159 159 La Vie de de Boheme Boheme (Miirger), (Murger), 74,238-39 74, 238-39 La Vie La Vie La Vie de de Boheme Boheme(Puccini), (Puccini), 74 74 Vienna Bakery (restaurant), 90 Villefranche-sur-mer: Villefranche-sur-mer: homosexuals in, 251 244; tourists in, 251 Vimy Ridge, battlefield battlefield tours of, 34041n. 46 41n.46 Vincent (Lord), 81 Viollet Le Due, Eugene Emmanuele, 44 Virgil, influence influence by, 42 visual images, function function of, 34-35 Voisin (restaurant), 152, 153, 328n. 74 Vrooman, Carl, 164 naesland Waesland(ship), (ship), 130 130 Wales, Prince of, 147, 154 Wanamakers (Philadelphia store), 173 Ward, Samuel, 72, 301-2n. 8 Warm Springs, (Ga.), spas at, 93 War of of 1812, 22, 25, 47 Washington, George, 47, 268 Waters, Amy, 150-51 150-51 Watteau, Antoine, 63 Weed, Thurlow, 80-81 Wescott, Glenway, 239, 244 West, Rebecca, 251 134,137, 148,179, Wharton, Edith, 134, 137, 148, 179, 347n. 19 Whisder,James Whistler, James McNeill, 199,201,208 199, 201, 208 White, Andrew, 50, 115-16, 198 White, Caroline: and art appreciation, 165; on food, 170, 172; on gambling, 175; and Paris fashion, 119; on priests, 332-33n. 58; travel by, 162

White, Francis (Frank), 105, 162, 170, 172 White, Walter, 264 White Lyres (group), 344n. 54 White Star Line, 125, 320n. 32, 320n. 34 Wi/d Oats Oats (Witmer), (Witmer), 74 Wild Willard, Emma: on architecture, 55; on French dining, 40; health of, 26; on 62-63,114; nudes, 62-63, 114; on Paris, 56; patriotism of, 50; on women women and morality, 70 rality,70 William Brown (ship), 16 16 William Brown (ship), Williams, William William Carlos, Carlos, 275 275 Williams, Wilson, Woodrow, Woodrow, 219, 219, 266 266 Wilson, wine: attitudes toward, toward, 259-60, 259-60, 329n. 329n. wine: attitudes 70; French French use use of, of, 40; 40; Jefferson's Jefferson's inin70; terest in, in, 3, 3, 8-9; 8-9; vineyards, 8, 94, 94, terest vineyards, 8, 289n. 34; 34; for for women tourists, 250 250 289n. women tourists, Winged Victory Victory (sculpture), (sculpture), 164-65, 164-65, 246 246 Winged Witmer, Theodore, Theodore, 74, 74, 316n. 316n. 30 30 Witmer, Wollstonecraft, Mary, Mary, 294n. 294n. 34 34 Wollstonecraft, 62-63, women: and and art art appreciation, appreciation, 62-63, women: 111-17, 163, 168; art art purchased purchased by, 111-17,163,168; by, 111, 116-17, 149; and and couriers, couriers, 34; 34; 111,116-17,149; crimes against, against, 249; 249; criticism criticism of, of, crimes 175, 187-91; cultural cultural interests interests of, of, 175,187-91; 114-17, 183-89, 252-54; educa114-17,183-89,252-54;education of, of, 107, 107,114,115,187, 205-6; tion 114, 115, 187,205-6; equality for, for, 261; 261; expectations expectations for, for, equality 134-35; freedom freedom of, of, 249-50; 249-50; 134-35; French vs. vs. American, American, 5-6,194-95; 5-6, 194-95; French groups of, 185; guidebooks for, groups of, 185; guidebooks for, 184-86,189, 246-47, 249-50, 254; 184-86,189,246-47,249-50,254; married, 107-9; number of, 29, 29, married, 107-9; number of, 108-9,183-85, 245, 250; post108-9,183-85,245,250;postW W I activities activities of, of, 245-56, 245-56, 277; 277; WWI reputation of, 67-70; at restaurants, reputation of, 67-70; at restaurants, 154-55,189, 249, 250; roles roles of, of, 154-55, 189,249,250; 29-30, 69-70, 111, 154,163; segre29-30,69-70, 111,154,163;segregation of, of, 277, 277, 315n. 315n. 6; 6; southern southern gation vs. northern northern (U.S.), (U.S.), 119; 119; stereostereovs. types of, of, 188, 188,191-95; as students, students, types 191-95; as 205-8, 336n. 336n. 52; 52; tours tours arranged arranged 205-8, for, 252-55; 252-55; travel travel agents agents for, for, 246; 246; for,

377

=— INDEX

—

~INDEX~

women (cont.) (cont.) as workers, 74, 79-80,110-11, 79-80, 110-11, See also alsolesbianism; lesbianism;prostiprosti308n. 39. See tution; shopping workers: and American business methods, 258-59; conditions for, 28, 89, 110-11. See also alsowomen, women,asasworkers workers 11 0-11. See working class: and Paris transformation, transformation, 86,88-89; 86, 88-89; prostitutes from, 74-75; as soldiers, 218-20; tourism expanded to, 96, 99-100, 235-37. See alsoworkers workers also World War I: Americans involved in, 218-21; films on, 261; 261; French debt after, 266-71; monuments to, 228-29; outbreak of, 217-20; propaganda in, 218; treaty to end, 266; 71veterans of, 226-27, 267-68, 227175. See See also alsobattlefield battlefield tours; tours;solsoldiers (U.S.)

World War II, tourism after, 278-80 Worth, Gaston, 149-50 149-50 writers, as expatriates, 238-42. See See also also names of of artists' and writers' colony; names specific specificwriters writers Yale College, 37, 47 Ybarra, T. R., 275 "Yellow Kid" (comic strip), 200 YMCA YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association), 223-24 223-24 Young, Col. Charles, 347-48n. 36 Young Americans Abroad (Hale and Abroad(Hale and Hale), 166-69, 173 Young Men's Christian Association {YMCA),223-24 (YMCA), 223-24 Young Women's Christian Association, British-American, 206 Zola, Emile, 173, 198 173,198

378 378