Security and Conflict Transformation: An Internal Business : An Internal Business [1 ed.] 9783954896844, 9783954891849

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Roberto Santamarta-Perez

Security and Conflict Transformation

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An Internal Business

Anchor Academic Publishing disseminate knowledge

Santamarta-Perez, Roberto. Security and Conflict Transformation: An Internal Business : An Internal Business, Diplomica Verlag, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Santamarta-Perez, Roberto: Security and Conflict Transformation: An Internal Business. Hamburg, Anchor Academic Publishing 2013 Buch-ISBN: 978-3-95489-184-9 PDF-eBook-ISBN: 978-3-95489-684-4 Druck/Herstellung: Anchor Academic Publishing, Hamburg, 2013 Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek: Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://dnb.d-nb.de abrufbar. Bibliographical Information of the German National Library: The German National Library lists this publication in the German National Bibliography. Detailed bibliographic data can be found at: http://dnb.d-nb.de

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Die Wiedergabe von Gebrauchsnamen, Handelsnamen, Warenbezeichnungen usw. in diesem Werk berechtigt auch ohne besondere Kennzeichnung nicht zu der Annahme, dass solche Namen im Sinne der Warenzeichen- und Markenschutz-Gesetzgebung als frei zu betrachten wären und daher von jedermann benutzt werden dürften. Die Informationen in diesem Werk wurden mit Sorgfalt erarbeitet. Dennoch können Fehler nicht vollständig ausgeschlossen werden und die Diplomica Verlag GmbH, die Autoren oder Übersetzer übernehmen keine juristische Verantwortung oder irgendeine Haftung für evtl. verbliebene fehlerhafte Angaben und deren Folgen. Alle Rechte vorbehalten © Anchor Academic Publishing, Imprint der Diplomica Verlag GmbH Hermannstal 119k, 22119 Hamburg http://www.diplomica-verlag.de, Hamburg 2013 Printed in Germany

Santamarta-Perez, Roberto. Security and Conflict Transformation: An Internal Business : An Internal Business, Diplomica Verlag, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,

To a tireless peacebuilder:

Copyright © 2014. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

my mother.

Santamarta-Perez, Roberto. Security and Conflict Transformation: An Internal Business : An Internal Business, Diplomica Verlag, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2014. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved. Santamarta-Perez, Roberto. Security and Conflict Transformation: An Internal Business : An Internal Business, Diplomica Verlag, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Table of Contents Preface...................................................................................................................... 9 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 10 Technical Security in Peace and Humanitarian Operations ................................... 14 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 14 2. History................................................................................................................ 14 3. From Baghdad to Algiers ................................................................................... 16 4. Present and Future.............................................................................................. 17 Conflict Avoidance Positive Methodologies ......................................................... 19 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 19 2. Qualitative Flexibility ........................................................................................ 20 3. Professional Experience and Positive Attitude .................................................. 20 4. Exposing the Negative to Reach the Positive .................................................... 21 5. Qualitative Combination .................................................................................... 21 6. Potential Challenges........................................................................................... 22 Operations' Practical Security Methodology ......................................................... 22 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 22 2. Enriching Security Departments ........................................................................ 24 2.1. Promoting Personnel Participation in Security ........................................... 24 2.2. Setting-up Interactive Training ................................................................... 27 2.3. Change of Security Image ........................................................................... 29

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2.4. Humour ....................................................................................................... 31 2.5. Approach and Outreach .............................................................................. 33 2.6. Applying Flexibility without Compromising Security ............................... 36 Towards Conflict-free Operation Environment ..................................................... 38 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 38 2. Better Internal Coordination .............................................................................. 38

Santamarta-Perez, Roberto. Security and Conflict Transformation: An Internal Business : An Internal Business, Diplomica Verlag, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,

3. Managerial-Political Support ............................................................................. 40 4. Everybody's Business ........................................................................................ 42 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 43 List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................. 48 Bibliography .......................................................................................................... 49

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Acknowledgements ................................................................................................ 52

Santamarta-Perez, Roberto. Security and Conflict Transformation: An Internal Business : An Internal Business, Diplomica Verlag, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Preface This book is the result of the author's experience and observation in peace, electoral, and humanitarian operations combined with the scholar apprenticeship undergone throughout the years in reputed institutions like the Centre for Peace and Reconciliation Studies at the Coventry University in the UK, the InterAmerican Defense College in the USA, and the Folke Bernadotte Academy in Sweden, as well as at the training department of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, both in its headquarters in Austria and the field operation in Kosovo. The author avoids explicitly to name people, agencies, or projects in this book for critic purposes, although credits institutions and individuals for effort and success in different peace and humanitarian operations. This is done to honour the privacy of sources, as their opinions represent widespread points of view and not of individualistic sentiment. Peacebuilding operations are organizational structures in emergency environments or post-conflict areas working to restore and maintain stable peace. The specificity of the geographical or political instability makes it necessary for these entities to count on with technical security departments in charge of guaranteeing the well-being of staff members and protecting programmes and assets. To effectively perform these tasks, operations' internal security departments produce a set of regulations comprised in three different operational blocks: security plans, security standard operation procedures and contingency plans, and risk and threat assessments. These norms are then communicated, trained on, and enforced to all mission staff members.

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Often staff members in peacebuilding operations disregard security regulations, either conscious or unconsciously, causing secondary negative effects on operations, perceptions, and relations, and slow down or even halt programmes. Often, as well, technical security departments employ a larger amount of time to enforce regulations than required due to lack of compliance with security policy. The aim of this book is to present a set of methodologies at the operational,

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perceptual, and relational level that implemented and coordinated by operations' technical security departments could positively support and enhance performance, not only in security and safety, but in operation's mandate objectives and ultimately in building stable peace. It is understood and explained that security regulations can affect operations, in the sense that it can slow down and restrict programmes, especially in high risk environments. Therefore, the focus of this book is placed in peacebuilding and humanitarian operations with a moderate risk level, defined in the United Nations language as Security Phases one and two.

Introduction Security is defined as “the state of being free from danger or threat.”1 Maslow refers to the human need for safety away from threat and danger, from the early stages of infant life (1943: 376), placing it on the second lowest level of his famous hierarchy of needs pyramid, 2 where security is considered only less prevalent than physiological needs like breathing, eating, drinking, or sleeping. Parallel to security, Oxford dictionary as well defines risk as “a situation involving exposure to danger,” and management is “the process of dealing with or controlling things or people.” Having defined separately these terms, organizational security and risk management refers to the institutional ability to control and alleviate the potential losses it will lay it selves open to while operating in hostile environments or simply suffering from unfavourable activities (MacAdams 2004)3. When these organizational structures are placed in peacebuilding contexts, the risk to different threats exposure increases and internal security departments become protagonists in ensuring safety for staff, assets, and programmes. Finally, peacebuilding organizational structures are Copyright © 2014. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

generally placed in post-conflict, natural disaster, or emergency relief required areas, and their commitment refers to preventing, resolving and transforming

1 Oxford dictionaries http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/security?q=security 2 See Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in Maslow, A.H. (1943) ‘A Theory of Human Motivation’. Psychological Review 50 (4), 370-396 3 MacAdams, A.C. (2004) ‘Security and Risk Management: a Fundamental Business Issue’. The Information Management Journal 38 (4), 36-44

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violent conflicts into stable peace (CPRS 2011) 4. As Keohane and Wallander discuss, a combination of the defined terms bring down to the actors of this book: peacebuilding organizational operations’ security management departments or institutions (2002: 89) and its regulations, and the staff, assets, and programmes affected by the actions and the regulations of the first actors5. There are a significant number of occasions when staff members deployed in peace and humanitarian operations omit security regulations, affecting their professional and, in cases, personal daily routines. The avoidance to follow rules is conscious in some cases and unconscious in other situations, but the final result affects the exposure to threats of staff members, operation's assets and programmes, separately or simultaneously, increasing its vulnerability to significant higher risk level and impact, should an incident happen (Young 2010: 47). The reasons for mission personnel to exclude security regulations can be as varied as the psyche of human beings. But for the purpose of this book and to limit its scope, I chose to disregard negative factors that would lead staff members to avoid following security regulations and focused on positive methodologies who would reinforce attitudes and channel staff members towards common objectives, while working on operational and personal security. As a nineteen years experienced practitioner in organizations like the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the European Union, the Spanish national public service, and diplomatic missions, I witnessed in considerable number of situations and locations recurring phrases like: “security [department] is too strict, and won’t let this mission work” or “security regulations are too tight, we can’t do our job.”6 These sentences are

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mainly thrown out in times of personnel discontent, either in field operations or headquarters and have double connotation when used: from one side they carry 4 Centre for Peace and Reconciliation Studies (2011) ‘Theory and Practice in Peacebuilding: Understanding Armed Conflict’ (2) 1, Coventry, Coventry University 5 Keohane, R.O. (2002) Power and Governance in a Partially Globalized World. London: Routledge 6 The author uses these sentences as a summary of sentences heard throughout his professional years as security manager in field operations in Kosovo, Georgia, and Mexico, where a considerable number of staff members in each mission have verbally expressed them, mainly in moments of professional dissatisfaction.

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complaints towards the strictness of regulations and its enforcement; on the other side bear a subtle message of criticism towards the department in charge of producing and enforcing them. The result of this criticism is likely to bring forth a professional confrontation, if not an interdepartmental one. This publication aims at effectively propose methodologies for security departments to apply in their activities in peace and humanitarian operation personnel through different levels: operational, perceptual, and relational. At the operational level, the book will develop into training and personnel participation techniques; at the perceptual level, it will focus on change of image and inclusion of humour into daily activities; at the relational level, it will concentrate on approachability through outreach techniques. Although there might be a general perception and, perhaps, misconception in the peacebuilding arena that security regulations become barriers for operational aspects in peace and humanitarian operations, this book does not aim to contradict this statement, but to provide a forum for positive and interactive methodologies ground that would conceptualize contending elements towards unified operations, perceptions, and relations in peace and humanitarian professionals. However, I do acknowledge that high risk field operations like Afghanistan, Iraq, or Sudan’s security regulations (in part or totally) do affect the pace of programmes’ implementation, and cause disruption to operations (UN 2012)7. Therefore, the aim targets those operations where risk and threat levels range from level one (precautionary) to level two (restricted movement) 8 , as these levels permit to develop higher sustainability in peace or humanitarian mission activities (WFP 2002: 307). A focus on high risk operations would be ineffective for the purpose of this study.

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The final aim of this book is to combine the previously described methodologies and set up a common ground between security departments'

7 See the United Nations (2012) ‘The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security’. General Assembly Security Council, pp. 3-4 [online] available from 8 See United Nations World Food Programme Emergency Field Operations Pocketbook (13) 307 [online] available from http://www.unicef.org/emerg/files/WFP_manual.pdf

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Santamarta-Perez, Roberto. Security and Conflict Transformation: An Internal Business : An Internal Business, Diplomica Verlag, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,

personnel and the rest of peace or humanitarian operation's personnel, where the objective is to respect mandates in safe working environments, and provide ideas for establishing domains where staff members can develop their professional and personal tasks with the safety required. The implementation of the methodology in an interactive manner would be responsibility of security departments with the acquiescence and voluntary participation of all parties involved. In fact, it is not an aim of this book to prove wrong the before mentioned accusations against security departments of “not letting them perform effectively due to high security regulations.” The study, particularly at the analytical level will be supported by the professional experience throughout my career with the United Nations Interim Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Mission in Kosovo (OMIK), the European Union Election Observation Mission in Mexico (EU-EOM), and the European Union Monitoring Mission in Georgia (EUMM). I considered this topic relevant to the overall topic of peacebuilding, being security a key element involved in the elaboration of policies, deployment of peace and humanitarian missions to post-conflict areas, and the constant concern for states and institutions involved in stabilization and normalization processes. On the more technical term of security and risk management, it is the technical department in charge of dealing with internal security policies, risk and threat assessments, security plans, the enforcement of all, and in summary, the care and precaution for the well being of staff members, assets, and programmes. It is a combination of all these aspects that made the subject of this study of ample importance for me, as it constitutes part of my professional experience and scholar interest. Since I joined the UNMIK in the Civilian Police component in August 1999, I held diverse positions in different post-conflict and non-post-

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conflict areas as security manager and law enforcement liaison officer, shaping my career and developing understanding for staff members integration into the role of security in peace and humanitarian operations. I found that participation is crucial for the success of security departments, as it engages all staff members in tasks and routines that are specifically developed for their own well being. But as well, it is of enormous benefit for the peacebuilding process as it provides higher efficiency to all departments and offices if security regulations are properly

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followed. It professionalises mission personnel as security is a daily subject that concerns to all staff members and not only security professionals. Moreover, security could be the common link to bring together mission members from different departments, who otherwise may not communicate, through trainings, rehearsals, common security projects like warden structures, and drills. The application of all these methodologies and techniques in an interactive and coordinated manner would only benefit peace and humanitarian missions, their operations, their staff security and, in principle, their self knowledge and internal communications and relations. Finally, a correct implementation of the suggestions provided in this book, would hopefully lead to peace and humanitarian operations internal conflict-free environments and enhanced peacebuilding effectiveness, which would permit deeper focus on mission mandates and overall objectives.

Technical Security in Peace and Humanitarian Operations 1. Introduction The United Nations Department of Safety and Security (UNDSS) is the main example of a technical security institution in the peace and humanitarian arena, defining its mandate as the “responsible for providing leadership, operational support and oversight of the security management system to enable the safest and most efficient conduct of the programmes and activities of the United Nations System.”9 (UNDSS 2012).

2. History

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The United Nations participate actively since its creation in 1945 in peace and humanitarian operations. The first major peacekeeping operation was sent to Egypt in 1956. But it is the end of the Cold War era what triggered a succession of peacebuilding missions sent to different areas of the world to stop civil

9 See United Nations Department of Safety and Security Mission Mandate [online] available from https://dss.un.org/dssweb/Home.aspx

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Santamarta-Perez, Roberto. Security and Conflict Transformation: An Internal Business : An Internal Business, Diplomica Verlag, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,

conflicts, establish solid peace, and prevent return of further violence (Paris 2004: 38). These missions grew in number and size after the first post Cold War era, with its first mission to Namibia in 1989, becoming more professional and experienced. As missions grew, so did the attacks against UN personnel and assets, making it necessary to establish technical security departments that would deal with threat response and, gradually, with risk prevention. UN had then a security management system supervised by the United Nations Security Coordinator

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(UNSECOORD), whose office was responsible for the

management of the security in the field. Parallel to the Office of UNSECOORD, the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) had established its own security management team in the field, alongside to the civilians who performed their duties in hazardous areas. As well, each of the UN headquarters throughout the world had independent security teams, as well as the International Tribunals established in The Hague and Arusha.11 On 19 August 2003 a truck loaded with explosives was driven into the compound of the Canal Hotel in Baghdad, where the UN had its Mission in Iraq headquarters. The explosion killed twenty two people, among them the Special Representative of the Secretary General Sergio Vieira de Mello, and injured more than one hundred and fifty. A few days later, a subsequent explosion at the same facilities killed another two people and injured nineteen. These events were the alarm to start seriously realizing that the UN was at risk and that further attacks would take place regardless of the geographical location (UN 2003)12. Following the bombings the UN integrated in a period over one year the different security departments throughout the world, except those belonging to

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the International Tribunals13 which are currently semi-independent although with

10 UN created a full time Security Coordinator in 2001 at the rank of Assistant Secretary-General. 11 The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia was set up in The Hague, Netherlands on 1993. The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda was set up in Arusha, Tanzania on 1994. 12 United Nations (2003) Report of the Independent Panel on the Safety and Security of UN Personnel in Iraq. [online] available from 13 Namely the International Criminal Court based in The Hague, Netherlands, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia based in The Hague, Netherlands, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda based in Arusha, Tanzania, and the Special Tribunal for Lebanon double based in Leidschendam, Netherlands and Beirut, Lebanon.

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specific agreements related to functional dependency.

The UN General

Assembly Resolution A/RES/59/276, XI, 7 from 23 December 2004 created the UNDSS, which started operating on 1 January 200514. However, the risks for the UN did not evaporate with the integration of the different security departments into one. On 11 December 2007 a bomb exploded at the UN offices in Algiers, Algeria, killing a total of thirty one people and injuring one hundred and seventy seven. These two attacks were the major terrorist events targeting the UN since its conception, although a third incident provoked as many UN victims as the previous: the earthquake that struck Haiti on 12 January 2010. For the purpose of this study only the two attacks are being taken for further analysis.

3. From Baghdad to Algiers The attacks to the UN in Baghdad and Algiers not only caused victims and raised alarms inside the organization, they triggered investigations on the incidents and management structures, and produced reports setting accountability and giving recommendations for avoiding and preventing potential similar incidents. These reports are cornerstones for the present study. The Report of the Independent Panel on the Safety and Security of UN Personnel in Iraq was presented on 20 October 2003 to the UN SecretaryGeneral Kofi A. Annan. The panel was led by the Finnish ex President Martti Ahtisaari, and therefore the report was known as the Ahtisaari Report. 15 It contained assessments to the existing security systems in Iraq and exposed a set of findings and provided recommendations. The main findings were: the failure of the UN security department to provide satisfactory safety and security to UN

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personnel in Iraq; the existing UN security management system was incapable to provide assurance to UN personnel in missions of high risk like Iraq; there was absence of accountability for the managers' decisions regarding personnel

14 [online] available from pp.8-14 15 Martti Ahtisaari led three more reports known as well as the Ahtisaari report: Final Comprehensive proposal for a Kosovo Status Settlement in 15 March 2007 known as well as the Six Point Agreement by the UN Office of the Special Envoy for Kosovo, and the reports Turkey in Europe: More than a Promise? from 6 September 2004 and Turkey in Europe: Breaking the Vicious Cycle, from 7 September 2009, both by the Independent Commission on Turkey.

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security. The main recommendations were: reform the UN security management system; set up accountability chain for security and safety decisions and positions; set up a new approach in the UN regarding security in high risk missions (UN 2003). The Report of the Security in Iraq Accountability Panel (SIAP) was presented on 3 March 2004 to the UN Secretary-General Kofi A. Annan. The report was a mere investigative exercise that pointed out responsibilities and failures by specific UN officials, focusing on the following areas: security department chain of command failures and accountability; the UN decision to return to Baghdad on 28 April 2003; admonitory signs of a possible attack to the UN in Iraq; UN headquarters physical security; issues regarding security clearances and personnel lists (UN 2004: 2). The Report of the Independent Panel on Safety and Security of UN Personnel and Premises Worldwide with the title Towards a Culture of Security and Accountability was presented on 9 June 2008 to the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. The panel was led by the Algerian ex Foreign Affairs Minister Lakhdar Brahimi, and therefore the report was known as the Brahimi Report.16 It responded to the attack to the UN offices in Algiers on 11 December 2007, and although it explicitly stated that it was not an exercise of individual accountability, but a “look at strategic issues” and an “identification of fundamental lessons” (UN 2008: 3). This was the first time that the UN looked at the technical security as a whole, interdependent from other UN departments and offices, and as well, realizing that security should be embedded into the UN core operations by creating a “culture of security,”17 as emphasized in the report's title.

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4. Present and Future Technical security in peacebuilding missions evolved since the last Brahimi report. Partly because of the recommendations presented and the doctrine of “security culture,” but as well due to different global and constantly changing

16 Lakhdar Brahimi led one more report known as well as the Brahimi report: Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations on 21 August 2000. 17 The Report of the Independent Panel on Safety and Security of UN Personnel and Premises Worldwide with the title Towards a Culture of Security and Accountability, 29 June 2008

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conditions affecting not only the security community but any other professional field. The future will be challenging, as operational trends and methodologies change at an every time faster rate. Therefore, ability to adapt will be crucial for institutions but as well individuals working in different organizations. Economy is a parallel factor that can support fast changes or, in the opposite, slow down and eventually paralyse operations if funding is not enough. The literature I used as supportive material is related to the proposed methodological levels' recommendations. As Hyman and Mason describe in Managing Employee Involvement and Participation, I applied some specific ideas at the operational level to promote personnel participation in security and as well in the preparation of staff training (1995: vii). On the perceptual level, security has had a rigid image by staff members in peace and humanitarian operations, mainly contributed by the military and police background of the majority of its members and the inequality of gender balance, being female personnel widely outnumbered by male security staff. As well, the rigidity in security structures reflect on the lack of humour associated to security tasks and procedures perceived by the rest of the staff members. To support the perceptual level, I studied

Sorensen's Humour as Nonviolent Resistant to

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Oppression (2006) study . Regarding the relational level of proposed methodologies, I analyzed Hagelin and Skons paper The Military Sector in a Changing Context (2003), relating challenges in outreach and approachability between the studied individuals and the paper's protagonists19.

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Finally, as a proposed methodology that falls outside of the three levels above mentioned, I considered the application of flexibility without compromising security standards. The support literature I studied from Wilthagen et al. Towards 'Flexicurity'? Balancing Flexibility and Security in EU

18 Sorensen, M.J. (2006) Humour as Nonviolent Resistant to Oppression. Coventry: Coventry University 19 Hagelin, B. and Skons, E. (2003) The Military Sector in a Changing Context. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 281-300

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Member States, points towards a number of ideas utilized to present flexibility in security environments 20 , although without punctually disorienting labour and security terminology. The literature presented in this section is the foundation of the supporting texts from which ideas have been researched together with two more important books that are cited in numerous occasions: the first one is Paris's At War's End: Building Peace After Civil Conflict, which is a constant reference to peacebuilding missions, mainly field operations, and a personal inspiration for me; the second one is Galtung and Jacobsen's Searching for Peace: the Road to Transcend, which I used as a global study in conflict resolution and a specific aid in its sub-section “Beyond Security: New Approaches, New Perspectives, New Actors”, written in conjunction with Kai Frithjof Brand-Jacobsen and Carl G. Jacobsen (Galtung and Jacobsen 2000: 268). But the mentioned literature is not the only exclusively reviewed and referenced. Further texts have been read and some of them exercised. Those utilized for purposes of acquiring direct knowledge or cited in this book are duly referenced in the bibliography and cited throughout the text. All of them have helped to give the final configuration to this publication and have shaped my intellectual progress in the field of academic peacebuilding.

Conflict Avoidance Positive Methodologies 1. Introduction The theoretical research methodology applied to this study is qualitative. The topic of enhancing peacebuilding effectiveness by internal conflict avoidance in peace and humanitarian operations linked to technical security departments is Copyright © 2014. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

perceived as “conflict prevention and transformation inside peacebuilding” organizations. This is a topic that could fall into several different fields of study such as sociology, conflictology, psychology, philosophy, or even business organization and administration. However, peacebuilding as an educational Art is

20 Wilthagen, T., Tros, F.H., and Lieshout, van, H. (2003) 'Towards 'Flexicurity'? Balancing Flexibility and Security in EU Member States' Social Science Research Network [online] available from

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comprised of the above mentioned sciences and arts, and take ideas from all of them in order to be applied in post-conflict areas. Peace and humanitarian operations are not excluded from internal and external conflict, and a slow or lack of response to unwanted events can eventually hamper the flow or continuity of the peace or humanitarian operation and fail in the objective of promoting sustainable peace in post-conflict areas.

2. Qualitative Flexibility The qualitative method utilized is providing subjectivity and, perhaps, flexibility, which is in theory contrary to quantitative methods (Grahame 1999: 4). But as flexibility is a key element in peacebuilding and an educational Art instead of a Science, so is “problem solving,” as well crucial to peacebuilding techniques and philosophy. This mere association of elements is, in itself, part of the qualitative methodology and intends to be developed in future pages.

3. Professional Experience and Positive Attitude My personal and professional experience is a decisive element regarding information and data sources, which have conferred me with multifaceted and diverse view of organizations. During ma professional experience several challenges raised regarding organizational internal conflicts from which different outcomes and lessons could be learnt. All of them have in one way or another contributed to the methodology chosen for this study. In addition to qualitative methodology, the study focuses on positive methods, which I view as necessary in conflict resolution. From the very beginning of a group establishment in a peacebuilding mission, a realistic

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approach to conflict should be considered. That would mean that every member of the mission must be aware that internal conflict may arise in any particular moment, but should stay positive and aim for a solution, which will in turn benefit the mission in different ways: improved skills in problem solving, broader experience in conflict resolution, reassurance of mission members abilities to cope with difficult situations, and capability to move on after critical events. 20

Santamarta-Perez, Roberto. Security and Conflict Transformation: An Internal Business : An Internal Business, Diplomica Verlag, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,

4. Exposing the Negative to Reach the Positive During the first phase of this book, I presented negative aspects of internal conflicts in peace and humanitarian operations. They refer to conflict of interests between technical security regulations and the affected personnel by the rules, who at some point disregard them, either voluntary or involuntarily, emphasizing the conflict with widely heard sentences like “security [department] is too strict, and won’t let this mission work” or “security regulations are too tight, we can’t do our job.” Although this might contradict the above positive methodology explanation, it was specifically included in order to specify human attitudes that are common and widespread in peacebuilding environments. These statements do not always respond to negative attitudes by peace and humanitarian workers, but certainly to frustrations, most of the times temporary and scaled. By exposing them during the first stage, I intend to bring them up to reader's attention and later on during this study counteract its negative impact with positive proposed methodologies and techniques to avoid internal conflict.

5. Qualitative Combination The method selected would bear upon the operational, perceptual, and relational sides of the mission environment, but as well, would emphasize the need of flexibility, as referred during the qualitative methodology exposition, following a set of recommendations to put in place these techniques that would positively work on the resolution and avoidance of internal conflicts: • On the operational side: promote staff participation in security tasks

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and arrange interactive training for all staff members, including those in security departments. • On the perceptual side: work on a security department change of image, as there is a perception of rigidity, and include humour in most of the security related tasks, trainings, and relations (to a reasonable level and in normal circumstances).

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• On the relational side: work on approachability techniques and outreach, providing security departments with an image of transparency and away from secrecy. As a final step, I will combine the exposed methodologies with the events experienced by providing examples of situations that were decisive to produce effects, either positive or negative. In the case of positive effects, those will be put-upon as cases to use or further develop into achieving a positive conflict-free working environment in peace and humanitarian operations. On the opposite, when the effects produced were negative, they will be used as lessons learned and examples to avoid, study, or simply raise awareness before conflict grows. The combination of qualitative and positive methodologies aim at, not only rendering a useful set of recommendations to achieve the goals of this study, but to make it more graspable to non scholars in the peacebuilding arena.

6. Potential Challenges Specific consideration will be given to properly balance my views and opinions in terms of neutrality, both as a participant in peacebuilding operations and actor in the security field. The results of the previous exercise will be analysed separately and in conjunction, and combined to produce a comprehensive approach that would lead to a set of recommendations. It is intended to employ qualitative research method. Although I am aware that a number of geographical and time constraints could affect the intended research, and if faced, will be documented and duly explained during the study data analysis and discussion parts.

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Operations' Practical Security Methodology 1. Introduction Peace and humanitarian operations' technical security departments are embedded into mission organizational structures. For the purpose of this study, organizational charts are basically divided into programmatic and technical sections. Programmatic sections are those dealing with tasks related to the 22

Santamarta-Perez, Roberto. Security and Conflict Transformation: An Internal Business : An Internal Business, Diplomica Verlag, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,

missions' political function and they work primarily on mission's mandate objectives. Technical sections are those dealing with tasks supporting the mission's core mandate through parallel activities inherent to the functional organization of any enterprise, such as administration, logistics, transport, security, etc. Technical sections perform additional tasks not directly related to the mission's mandate but necessary to for its execution. Security departments play a technical role in peace and humanitarian operations, but its importance may affect substantially the work flow of programmatic sections. One of the main tasks for security departments in mission environments is to set risk and threat levels. With this purpose, the UN created a standardized chart of UN Security levels21 (UN 2002: 307), applicable to staff members of all UN agencies and several International organizations 22 . The security level is associated to a set of rules to follow by staff members, which mean that the higher the level, the stricter the security regulations, hindering normal duty and non-duty activities. The security level is set by senior mission officials with the technical advice of security personnel. The advice given to senior officials is based on standard security and risk assessments executed but as well on intelligence. In a number of occasions, intelligence has proved to be unreliable, but as a non scientific source, it is dependable on varied factors and on uncountable circumstances, either direct to the mission security or indirect to the regional and even global theatre23. In spite of being set by a senior official non-security staff members, the perceived responsibility for the security regulations falls under security technical departments, which are then directly blamed by non-security staff members of slowing down operations, if not blocking them. These statements, if persistent, tend to create negativity among

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mission personnel and security departments, but as well among mission

21 UN Security level: level 1: Precautionary; level 2: Restricted Movement; level 3: Relocation; level 4: Emergency programmes only/programme suspension; level 5: Evacuation. 22 The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe uses the UN Security levels while the European Union uses the same security levels with slightly different names. 23 An example of global threats are the attack perpetrated against the US Consulate in Bengazi, Libya. Reportedly, the perceived reason for the attack was the anti-Muslim http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JsIqjg3VkrE&bpctr=1350918317 video, which triggered a response in most of the International organizations with US citizen staff members based in Muslim creed countries. Therefore, a response of tighten security measures was placed to prevent possible attacks, not only to US citizens but to the organization as a Western perceived symbol.

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personnel exclusively. Perceptions play an important role in mission environments and if not considered and counteracted, can obstruct the normal operational flow and fire further distress.

2. Enriching Security Departments This sub-section starts with the term “enriching”, defined by Oxford dictionary as “to improve the quality of something, often by adding attributes to it”. In order to enrich security departments in peace and humanitarian operations, I will develop a series of proposals that applied in working environments would intend to benefit directly security departments and, indirectly, the programmatic sections and the remaining technical sections in missions. Therefore, contribute to create a positive working atmosphere that would promote cooperation and understanding and strengthen the idea proposed in the third section of “conflict prevention and transformation inside peacebuilding” organizations. The proposals are classified into three different working levels, excluding one that is independent from the mentioned classification but intends to be interdependent in its practical application. The three working levels are operational, perceptual, and relational, and the proposals for each level and the independent are as follows: the operational working level is composed by promoting personnel participation in security tasks and policy development and setting up interactive trainings; the perceptual is composed by changing security image, focusing on rigidity perception and introducing humour to the working environment; the relational is composed by working on approachability techniques and outreach, providing security departments with an image of

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transparency and away from secrecy; and finally the independent level is composed by applying flexibility without compromising security.

2.1. Promoting Personnel Participation in Security Personnel participation promotion refers to the process and actions that permit affected staff members to have a voice, be part of decision making processes, and take activeness inside their working environment (UNESCO 2009: 2). Promoting 24

Santamarta-Perez, Roberto. Security and Conflict Transformation: An Internal Business : An Internal Business, Diplomica Verlag, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,

personnel participation in security refers to the non-security personnel working in peacebuilding missions, regardless of being programmatic or technical personnel24. The participation proposed would be in different areas of security management, to a previously agreed level and areas, but mainly focusing on security tasks and internal security policy development. The involvement of non-security related staff members in security tasks and internal security policy development guarantees broader participation from technically inexperienced individuals and groups working in the same organization. These staff members form a relevant part of the mission that might not have ever participated in such tasks but that certainly have been affected by them. Regrouping all staff and promoting participation in collective ways of manifestation will profit the outcome and benefit the longer term mission stability, and likely, contribute to internal conflict avoidance. The staff participation is a way of promoting security awareness, and as Spurling states in his article, “security awareness promotion as part of the overall organization, its culture, philosophy and vision (1995: 20). Promoting security staff participation in security related tasks contains active involvement in group exercises like fire drills, evacuation rehearsals (Bird et al. 2009: 260), table top exercises with internal and external security actors, or security projects' implementation. Examples of the above mentioned tasks' participation are: first one is fire drills participation, which relates to setting up floor groups with specific tasks like warning peers, checking for windows and doors, counting staff members abandoning the floor, and receiving floor members at the safe designated area. The aim of this participation is not only to acquire a better response during emergencies but to develop inter-departmental team-work and promote goal achievement (Gwinnett County, 2012)25; second is Copyright © 2014. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

evacuation rehearsal participation, which as Bird exposes in his study, the first and one of the main reasons for joining the exercise by the affected community is because “it is part of my duties as an Icelandic citizen” (2009: 260), and although

24 As per the division exposed on sub-section 1 of this work. See page 27 25 Gwinnett County, (2012) 'Fire Safety Education' Community Education. Lawrenceville, GA [online] available from

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this is a geographically concentrated opinion, the philosophy behind shows a high sense of inter-societal forethought, which conveyed to peace and humanitarian operations would benefit internal dynamics; the third is table top exercise participation with internal and external security actors, which is the facilitated analysis of a crisis situation in an environment free of tension (FEMA: 2012) 26 , and I personally experienced during my duty as OMIK Regional Security Officer in the year 2007 and 2008 in Peje/Pec27 region, Kosovo, where OSCE Regional Centre staff members were invited to participate in table top exercises taken place at the multinational military task-force regional headquarters with significant positive results, not only in security related technical aptitude but in team building between its own regional organization members and the members of the military element (Burk 2002: 7); the last is security projects' implementation participation, which is the engagement of nonsecurity sections in the executions of technical and operational works that minimize risk for the mission, allowing staff members to acquire a minimum level of expertise in security technical and operational matters from a hands-on perspective and familiarizing themselves with the security philosophy. This would have a double benefit in the sense that non-security staff members would have a voice during the implementation process, which would permit them to diligently object to processes, propose alternatives, and help re-design solutions, while the other benefit would be the partial integration into mission security procedures and understanding of the risk and threat methodologies (Takizawa 2007: 4)28. Promoting participation of non-security personnel in security policy development is the engagement into line argumentation at the initial stage of rules' creation. Therefore, non-security personnel will cooperate in different

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levels of the above such as defining the risk or threat, gathering information about it, discuss and debate, help drafting parts of the policy, make a first reading, revise, make a second reading, adopt the policy, oversee its implementation and

26 Federal Emergency Management Agency (2012) 'The Table Top Exercise'. Emergency Management Institute. [online] available from

27 Peje is the city name in Albanian language an 28 Presentation on 31 October 2007 given by UNHCR Representative in Japan, Saburo Takizawa.

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possible revisions or modifications (Office of the Auditor General 2003: 13-15)29. The levels of participation in the different stages would depend on issues like urgency, level of risk, imminence of threats, and non-security personnel level of preparedness or expertise. It is important to find adequate levels matching the combined participation of technical and non-technical personnel, as it would influence the expected outcome of the overall study intention. Therefore, a balanced approach should be implemented at any time of joint security and nonsecurity personnel activities.

2.2. Setting-up Interactive Training Interactive training is an activity directing to proficient behaviour to one of the parties by involvement in a two-way communication and rehearsal exercise. The United

Nations

Environment

Programme

(UNEP),

in

its

Integrated

Environmental Assessment Training Manual, states that “interactive training is based on the main principles of the theory of adult learning and helps get the participants involved and make the educational process more active”30 (UNEP 2008: 8). Security interactive training in peace and humanitarian operations is the education of all personnel in safety related activities by setting-up two-way communication exercises. The two-way refers to a mutual and reciprocal active communication between the trainer and the trainee. Studies have shown that trainees keep in their memory substantially more information when rehearsed than when simply heard or seen. As cited in the UNEP manual, when an adult receives information during a training that is heard, only twenty per cent remains in the memory, when the same information is seen, up to forty per cent of it remain, while when the information is heard, seen, and done, up to an eighty per Copyright © 2014. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

cent stays effectively in the intellect (2008: 2).

29 Farag, M. (2003) 'A Guide to Policy Development'. Office of the Auditor General. Manitoba: Office of the Auditor General [online] available from 30 Published in collaboration with the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) from Canada.

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While working as Security Expert in EU-EOM Mexico 31 , I had the opportunity to put into practice the above mentioned theory training a group of eighty Long Term Observers (LTOs) in security reporting techniques. The exercise was named Warden Structure reporting procedure, and lasted for approximately one hour. The training started with a presentation slide introducing the theory and continued with a slide containing the LTO teams deployed in the field, grouped in pairs. The slide groupings' design was pyramidal, having one Senior Warden at the top of it, followed down in cascade by six Wardens, who subsequently were followed down by approximately five members per Warden. The rationale explained to the LTOs was that every one of those five members would have to contact their Warden at a certain time of the day to report about the team whereabouts with a given time margin, not to conflict with one of the other four team members of the same Warden. Afterwards, all six Wardens would contact the Senior Warden with the same purpose, considering an additional time margin with the other five Wardens, again not to conflict in time. While the theory explanation with a presentation slide took me approximately thirty minutes, the interactive exercise took only twenty minutes. The exercise consisted on practising the Warden Structure reporting exercise, as it would happen in reality, but with an added value of naming the actual practitioners, and constantly asking to name their peers, to whom they were going to report. One of the exceptions to a real scenario was that the communication took place over a microphone instead of a cellular phone, which allowed all the LTOs to physically see and recognize each other by name and face. This peculiarity played a triple role: in first instance it allowed a practical exercise with interaction by the trainees, consisting of hearing the theory and

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their peers rehearsal, seeing the presentation scheme of the Warden Structure and the faces of their peers reporting during the exercise, and doing the rehearsal proposed; second instance was to alleviate the ambient and heavy mood during the initial stage of the EU-EOM in Mexico and the security briefing component

31 The European Union Elections Observation Mission in Mexico took place between the 2 June 2006 and the 15 September 2006, composed by a team of nine Election Experts and eighty Long Term Observers, all led by the European Member of Parliament Jose Ignacio Salafranca SanchezNeyra.

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specifically, setting-up a certain level of relaxation that translates into better working performance; final instance was to create a level of confidence between EU-EOM Senior Management32, present during the security briefing, and myself, and as well between the LTOs and myself. Setting-up interactive security training helped me to educate non-security related personnel in technical aspects needed for the smooth ongoing of an election observation task, but moreover, made possible a better and faster knowledge and acquaintance of a diverse and multinational group of people that potentially contributed to an effective integration by strengthening the mission while allowing to focus on the programmatic tasks without neglecting security precautions.

2.3. Change of Security Image Technical security in peacebuilding missions' image is the visual representation of departments and its members who deal and manage the resources to create safe and secure environments for all personnel working in those areas. The perception of security personnel in the eyes of non-security personnel is considered as biased in this study for the following reasons: lack of mission security background of security personnel, media highlighted incidents where technical security personnel were implicated (Isenberg 2009: ix), and lack of inter-departmental information and education received by security personnel in mission areas. The lack of mission technical security background that most of security personnel have when joining International organizations in the field is a handicap that technical security departments try to counteract with specific trainings

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focusing on mission security and risk management techniques. The majority of security personnel hired by missions come from the military or police professional fields. These backgrounds can be related to mission security management, but not necessarily related in its functions. Certainly, inside military and police institutions there are departments or units dealing with

32 Chief Election Observer: Member of EU Parliament, Jose Ignacio Salafranca Sanchez-Neyra; Deputy Chief Election Observer, Tony Reis.

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security management, perhaps as perimeter facilities' physical security or peacekeeping missions' experienced members, but certainly not in the overall complexity of a mission technical security department. A mere approximation from military or police duties to security and risk management in a peace or humanitarian operation environment is not enough and certainly lack expertise to develop efficiently as security officers, affecting negatively the department’s image. Media articles produced negative influence on security departments in peacebuilding missions involuntarily. Isenberg dedicates his book to analyse the impact of security contractors or mercenaries 33 , establishing comparison to regular armies, theoretically in charge to provide security in peacekeeping areas (2009: 5). Private companies like Blackwater, Halliburton, or DynCorp managed, and are currently managing, directly and indirectly security departments in peacebuilding missions, contributing positively to safe environments and wellbeing of aid workers. However, all of these companies have gone through episodes of wrongdoing and misbehaviour with a substantial negative image gained after series of articles in International media. The effect of these articles have not solely affected the mentioned companies but by extension all security departments working in conflict or post-conflict zones. The lack of inter-departmental information and education received by security personnel in mission areas contribute to a disengagement from core mission activities. When mission security personnel join security departments, receive specific technical trainings and general information regarding other departments' functions in the area of responsibility, but remain at a far distance from the mission mandate activities, concentrating in own technical tasks. This attitude reflects over the security department's image by having a thorough Copyright © 2014. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

knowledge on security related issues but appearing unenlightened in the lead of coordinated activities, making the overall departmental skills inflexible, with a slow response to constant changing working environments, and a limited ability to resilience.

33 “The point about mercenaries is that you employ them when your army is inadequate to the job assigned.” Yale professor David Bromwich.

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To counteract the three factors exposed that contribute to a negative image of security departments in peace and humanitarian operations, a coordinated approach is recommended, which will be at a later stage brought up in the discussion section of this book. Nevertheless, the coordinated combination of the following three elements into security departments would support in establishing a more effective image in peace and humanitarian operations: education and formation of security personnel from early professional careers, with a wide range of educational backgrounds, but with minimum standards set to an equivalent to three-year university or technical school degree; inclusion of outreach and public relations personnel inside security departments;

mandatory educational continuity

programmes for security personnel were not only technical education would be provided but mission specific programmatic areas would be covered. These three elements should inter-relate at selection process, training, and public relations, converging into one unit that would coordinate in an efficient manner the outcome through perception analysis, and feedback to the different units for possible strategic changes, if needed. The three-way process would be more concise by simplifying its management process, although this should be flexible enough to adjust to the needs and respond to potential events that would affect circumstantially the image of technical security departments.

2.4. Humour The introduction of humour in peace and humanitarian operations' technical security departments is considered in this study as a proposition in the perceptual working level. As defined by Oxford Dictionary, humour is “the quality of being

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amusing or comic”34. Inserting humour in security departments refers to healthy and positive modalities of humour, away from any form of ridicule, although with acceptable levels of irony and sarcasm, likely to lead to witty situations instead of malicious parody. The use of humour is proposed in this study for security departments' internal management and for operations with intra-

34 http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/humour

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organizational departments, as a double mode to encourage critical reflection about how security departments are and how they should be, and produce a liberating function (Cameron 1993: 14), away from rigid and strict perceptions coming mainly from non-security departments. As Sorensen explains, humour can serve in a very positive way to security departments by motioning new members towards their activities, drawing attention, and challenging apathy regarding security policy (2006: 2). As well, throughout his study, the reader can perceive three functions regarding the theory of humour as non-violent resistant,35 “facilitate outreach and mobilisation, facilitate a culture of resistance, and turning oppression upside down” (Sorensen 2006: 2). From the mentioned three functions, to “facilitate outreach and mobilisation” is extrapolated to the use of humour in this study, as it translates into a practical window where nonsecurity departments can have a positive peek into security departments, supporting further potential approaches. During my career as security manager, I did apply humour in different situations, in a moderated manner and with sensitive approach, respecting diversity, culture, and ethnicity. A positive example of humour use in a peacebuilding mission occurred during the years 2006 to 2009 in Kosovo. While working as Regional Security Officer for OMIK, being in charge to conduct periodic evacuation exercises. An evacuation exercise constitutes a rehearsal of a real case scenario, where a crisis or emergency obliges the International organization to close down and its members to flee the crisis area towards a safe haven. For this purpose, I prepared a joint exercise between OMIK staff members in Peje/Pec region and the military multinational task-force (KFOR)36. After concluding the exercise planning process, an invitation was extended to all OMIK staff members in the region to participate, to which a great number Copyright © 2014. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

of invitees reacted reluctantly. The reasons for the non-willingness to participate in the exercise were: lack of motivation due to an extended period of incident35 Majken Jul Sørensen submitted the dissertation Humour as Nonviolent Resistance to Oppresion in September 2006 in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Peace and Reconciliation Studies. 36 KFOR stands for Kosovo Force, and it is the military multinational force sent by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) “to lead a peace support operation in Kosovo since June 1999 in support of wider international efforts to build peace and stability in the area” [online] available from

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free atmosphere in the region which contributed to spread a false sense of security; unfamiliarity of OMIK staff members with military in general and KFOR in particular, contributing to an image of rigidity and, in a way, concern towards an armed organization; OMIK staff members alleged burdened working schedule. To counteract the reasons to avoid evacuation exercise participation, I took the liberty to invite non-uniformed and unarmed KFOR members to a regular OMIK morning briefing, where all participants had to introduce themselves on the basis of telling a personal experience that would relate themselves to some unique personality trait. The unavoidable condition to this morning exercise was that the experience had to contain humour. The morning briefing concluded with further knowledge of all the participants among themselves, but as well with a new born curiosity from OMIK staff members towards KFOR members and an incipient interest to follow up on personal and professional matters related to the life of multinational soldiers in Peje/Pec region. The humour in this case served to achieve a technical security task and concluded setting-up a solid base to develop relationships among different field professionals that continued not only in the specific field of security but in human rights and democratization tasks in the region.

2.5. Approach and Outreach This subdivision's title is contained in the relational working level proposals suggested to enrich security departments, and although it is combined by the two elements approach and outreach, it is interlinked in the conception as approach refers to the effort security departments should take towards non-security related

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departments in the operational form of outreach but, as well, in a more humanistic manner, understanding by humanistic a concerned way with interest and well-being of humans 37 . Therefore, security personnel should work on approachability techniques by forthcoming themselves to non-security personnel. One of the techniques to be used is outreach, defined by Smith in the

37 Oxford dictionaries [online] available from

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international security policy process context and applicable to the peace and humanitarian environment, being essential nowadays as a direct means for information and education (2001: 46). The outreach techniques used to approach non-security personnel examples belong to two different of my professional experience periods, and were operationally implemented to different extents. The first example was an activity directly targeting non-security personnel, named carpool promotion. It took place throughout the year 2007 and 2008, when I worked as Regional Security Officer at the OMIK in Peje/Pec. It consisted in offering non-security personnel transport to the office premises from different locations in town. The regional security department had two official vehicles which were used exclusively for security related purposes. In order to fulfil this operational requirement, two security staff members used the vehicles on daily basis to drive from their homes to the office and back home, as they would be on stand-by purposes after regular office working hours and respond to potential emergencies. This meant that a regular movement to and from the office was taking place on a daily basis, and the vehicle was under-occupied for the regular office trips. By offering a conditional and coordinated daily trip to eight non-security personnel, the security department not only started to provide a free service to non-security personnel, but as well initiated a daily personal communication that approached security to non-security personnel and vice versa. The impact of this activity was positive in the short term as a new support was being provided, and as well in the long term as relationships developed positively by interacting during commutes, but as well during the movement coordination process.

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The second example is an activity using electronic media techniques, which was planned and rehearsed but not implemented due to lack of operational confidence by senior management. This reason make me avoid further details about location and timings of the event. However, the proposal was to use a popular Internet social network site by registering as the mission security department, although by using an internally identifiable nickname. A relative large amount of mission personnel would identify the new social network 34

Santamarta-Perez, Roberto. Security and Conflict Transformation: An Internal Business : An Internal Business, Diplomica Verlag, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,

member with the security department and would request a link, and the security department itself would target the rest of the mission members active on the social network. The social network membership was free and the members had to .

fill profile information that would contain voluntary basis personal details, and from that moment, freewill information would be posted to a panel accessible by all members in the same network. The proposed information to be placed in the panel was related to: local traffic regulations and short term traffic events like street cuts, road construction, traffic accidents, and traffic jams, that could in any way affect staff members during their duty and off-duty movements; special local days, that could affect in terms of security to the normal movement of staff members; weather conditions, that would bear upon living conditions, traffic, and movement of staff members; safety recommendations related to general prevention of local criminality, seasonal sickness, and poisonous animals in the area. In addition to the mentioned information, that would be regularly updated, the free panel would contain electronic links to the region and city maps, a calendar, and travel sites operating from the region's airport. All the information would be constantly monitored by the security department without interference with the official mission website and with free postings monitored before allowing any members to express their opinions, in case those opinions contain malicious information or damaging statements. Unfortunately, this proposed outreach activity was not approved by senior management, but mainly because lack of knowledge at the time of the proposal about the power of social networks and distrust towards unknown media. With these two outreach techniques, in addition to composing combined efforts towards approachability, there is a subliminal intention of

providing

security departments with an image of transparency and away from secrecy, and

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counteract the remains in the conscious negative thinking of a large number of mission personnel.

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2.6. Applying Flexibility without Compromising Security Flexibility and security are two terms that might sound contradictory if studied as “conventional conception of security.” In this way, Brand-Jacobsen38 states that security has “proved inadequate to address the diverse range of challenges faced by the world community” and suggests that new approaches, perspectives, and actors should be considered in the world order (Galtung and Jacobsen 2000: 268276). Flexibility in this study refers to the managerial strategic aptitude to accommodate to evolving professional circumstances without a significant interruption in daily operations (Trigeorgis 1987: 14). Regardless of the type of approaches and perspectives, and the origin of the actors proposed by Brand-Jacobsen, a common characteristic should be part of all of them: flexibility. The positive combination of security and flexibility in a peace or humanitarian operration could be explained by synthesising the two concepts and merging them into one constructive broader idea, named flexible security 39 . Brand-Jacobsen explains how authoritarian regimes misuse security by making everything related to it look like it merits extraordinary attention and special measures, which only a few “experts” can manage. The same authoritarians often take decisions based on “alleged” security policy that exasperate other regimes and states, bringing them to conflict and in occasions to war. The decisions taken are far from popular approval, “empowering elites and dis-empowering ample populations.” Often when one country arms itself, the neighbour country may feel insecure, even though this armament may not be related to the neighbour country, but it triggers a perceived threat and results in the need to rearm, as well

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(Galtung and Jacobsen 2000: 271). In peace and humanitarian operations' contexts this translates to the perception of non-security personnel towards the implementation of security

38 Kai Frithjof Brand-Jacobsen, with Carl G. Jacobsen are the authors of Beyond Security: New Approaches, New Perspectives, New Actors, which is the 4.2 Chapter of Searching for Peace: the Road to Transcend, by Johan Galtung and Carl G. Jacobsen. 39 Flexible security should not be confused with flexicurity, which is a new approach to regulation of employment and labour markets.

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regulations. Often, the “non-experts” have the impression that security departments and regulations are used by those who are in the position to “know” (Galtung and Jacobsen 2000: 271) to implement certain rules that constrict beyond security departments and at the same time dis-empower the majority of the mission staff. Flexible security applied to managerial areas in peace and humanitarian security departments present two key areas: adaptability and fast responsiveness. Adaptability is the skill to fit to changing circumstances, which includes adapting to external and internal mission factors. Among the internal mission factors are the needs of non-security personnel in the context of their working environments. Fast responsiveness is the skill to readily react to propositions, requests, or efforts, and it applies as well to external and internal mission petitions and activities. A flexible security department would contain a combination of adaptability and fast responsiveness focused on non-security mission personnel, but without disregarding external mission actors. The flexibility should be applied on regular basis with all-mission staff and regulations. The possible ways to do it is by reviewing decisions on individual basis, trying to accommodate without compromising personal safety, or by not over applying standards, and if applied, frequently reviewed and updated. As well promoting participation of nonsecurity personnel in security decision making processes, which will contribute to adaptability and fast responsiveness when new endeavours arrive from nonsecurity operational areas that require a security response. In exchange for flexible security technique, security departments would gain a broad range of positive elements that would help avoid internal conflict,

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provide a modern management image, and gain support that will be used in turn when potential difficult situations may arise.

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Towards Conflict-free Operation Environment 1. Introduction The professional environs of peace and humanitarian operations are situated in emergency areas, which signifies an intrinsic risk to its personnel and assets. The Brahimi report 40 acknowledges that risk is an unavoidable part of the UN personnel (2008: 9). In addition to the expected threats in mission areas, emergency workers face the added risks of higher conflict working environments than those in risk-free areas, as the inherent risks produce higher stress, frustrations, and anxiety which in turn affect missions' internal operations. The discussion part of this work aims to combine the techniques proposed in Operation's Practical Security Methodology41 and apply them in a positive and coordinated mode, implement them from the organization's top-down with the support of senior mission members and guaranteed by political assistance, and elaborate a collaborative constant exercise where all personnel in peace and humanitarian operations would systematically engage. The aim of this section is to provide useful ideas that could be applied in peace and humanitarian operations and help its staff members to effectively work towards a conflict-free peacebuilding mission environment.

2. Better Internal Coordination A better internal coordination in peace and humanitarian operations is the capability of its managers to handle different elements, not only related to its specific functions but to peacebuilding in general. Security managers in

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peacebuilding missions additionally have an extra effort to comply with their specific and general obligations but as well to focus in the implementation and coordination of the proposed practical methodologies.

As Paris explains, “turf

40 The Report of the Independent Panel on Safety and Security of UN Personnel and Premises Worldwide with the title Towards a Culture of Security and Accountability was presented on 9 June 2008 to the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. The panel was led by the Algerian ex Foreign Affairs Minister Lakhdar Brahimi. 41 pp. 27-46

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battles among peacebuilding agencies are common,” as it is among departments inside peacebuilding missions, “working at cross-purposes in vital policy areas” (2004: 228) and as well in operational ones. This happens mainly due to selfish interests and lack of proper coordination, which could be resolved by identifying a sole responsible official for the mission, who would direct it without interference from external organizational double-headed departments. An example could be the case when an International Organization appoints a Head of Mission (HoM), although certain departments inside the mission are managed by central departments in external headquarters and not directly by the HoM. The example is United Nations Department of Security and Safety department headquarters is in New York and the mission security unit that reports and receives instructions from both, the HoM and UNDSS. Therefore, a clarification on chain of command would be beneficial for an ease of internal operational coordination. The peacebuilding mission's security departments' management should be capable of handling specific technical tasks and general peacebuilding matters, but as well implement and coordinate proposed security methodologies to enhance collaboration and support to and from other mission departments. Therefore, particular plans on how to promote non-security personnel participation in security could generate interactive trainings, like fire drills or warden structure exercises where the trained personnel would participate in a game-like manner, converting regularly perceived arid exercises into amusing projects. This coordinated example, taken to a professional and recreational level would counteract past image of rigidity in security departments, changing nonsecurity personnel perceptions and working towards a change of image. If the coordinated efforts include humour in right doses, like presentations of

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stakeholders or mission members outside of their normal context with a touch of humane wit, the negativity levels would further decrease and efforts to work on relation level techniques, like outreach, would find a fertile ground to achieve better results. By using a coordinated approach in operational level proposed techniques, security managers would only ease the efforts of perceptual and relational levels' techniques. However, the independent proposal of applying flexibility without

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compromising security is designed to be taken into consideration and assessment at any given time, regardless of combining techniques or developing methodologies independently. Flexibility is implicit in any field of work, and the key for a better collaboration and easier means to achieve goals.

3. Managerial-Political Support In addition to launching the implementation of methodologies and coordinate them positively in order to create conflict-free environment “inside the peacebuilding,” there should be a clear support from senior management, at the operational and political level, as well as financial support. Paris criticizes the International community’s lack of financial and political will to solve the crisis in Afghanistan at early stages trying to reconstruct it “on the cheap” (2004: 232). Equal to this example are the “half-hearted” and rushed intentions that were incorrectly utilized in post-conflict situation countries (Paris 2004: 233), as peace and humanitarian environments demand sincere responses and uninterrupted approaches to internal conflict prevention, not interest driven quick solutions. Political support for security departments is a condition that should in first instance emanate from HoMs, creating a “culture of security and accountability” (Brahimi Report 2008: 60-64)42: 237. Key recommendation on creating a43 organizational culture of security: the United Nations should develop the means to provide all staff and associated personnel with all relevant information regarding possible deployment, including risks, mitigating measures, and entitlements, enabling them to make informed decisions on accepting assignment to a specific duty station.

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Without neglecting the responsibilities that should lie on political figures and senior management: 249. Key recommendations on the strengthening accountability

42 Lakhdar Brahimi: Report of the Independent Panel on Safety and Security of UN Personnel and Premises Worldwide with the title Towards a Culture of Security and Accountability. 43 The grammatical mistake a organization, instead of “an organization” is copied from the original document, as presented and published.

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within the Organization: (ii) Executive managers should ensure that the Framework for Accountability is widely distributed throughout their respective Organizations. Furthermore, they should see to it that the Framework is operationalized within each organization by identifying internal lines of responsibility and accountability for security and safety. As a necessary corollary, all actors must be given the necessary training, tools, and resources to fulfill44 their responsibilities for security. When political figures and senior managers understand and believe in the importance of security as a tool to provide well-being, not only to the peace process and the victims of conflicts in which peacebuilding actors are engaged, but as well to peacebuilders, as they become part of the peace process and can better develop their assigned duties efficiently when saved from exposure to high risks, stress, and frustrations. Political and senior management have to assign adequate financial means to support security departments in their efforts to build conflict-free peace and humanitarian operations environments. The Brahimi Report is clear in its recommendation for “no programme without security”, proposing to merge budgets into one, with not only the United Nations as unique funder but as well member states. This model could be implemented for the proposed methodology as an integral part of the security budget, with flexible budget increase or decrease depending on regular audits. The audit exercises would be agreed by internal mission departments and conducted by external independent experts with the sole intention to strengthen mission internal capacity to work unified

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and conflict-free. The budget could be only used for the purpose of the implementation of proposed methodologies, for which regular evaluation procedures would be established for results assessment.

44 Fulfill is the United States of America English term for “fulfil”.

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4. Everybody's Business This sub-section suggests and discusses the elaboration of a collaborative constant exercise where all personnel in peace and humanitarian operations would systematically engage, from the beginning and until the very end of their tour of duties or assignments, by participating actively and leaving a legacy in form of log-book or recordings to their successors. Brand-Jacobsen

and

Jacobsen

emphasize

that

conflict

and

its

transformation should not be neglected, and that all parties belonging to the society should be involved in its positive transformation, including those who do not want to participate simply for a reason or because of lack of motivation (Galtung and Jacobsen 2000: 253). Likewise, peacebuilding missions, for the reasons widely discussed in previous sections, are not conflict-free zones, and the prevention of internal resistances and transformation of conflict have to be dealt on a multi-layered level, from the “grass-roots up,”45 and with inclusion of all parties. As well, Brand-Jacobsen and Jacobsen argue that failing to engage a large number of people affected by the conflict in its prevention, resolution, or transformation creates “conflict illiteracy” which in turn boosts “war culture driven” societies (Galtung and Jacobsen 2000: 253). The effect on the failure of engaging mission personnel into internal resistances prevention creates the same effect, resulting in having an inexperienced work force, vulnerable to unfavourable situations and weak to extrapolate resolution skills from a low level to a more global picture, which could be the missions' mandate in the assigned geographical area. The UN experienced the result of this inexperience effect in 1993, at the establishment of UNOSOM II46 in Somalia, where the start of the Copyright © 2014. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

mission resulted in unwanted delays (Bentley and Oakley 1995: 1). If peace or humanitarian operations engage all of its personnel in

45 Kai Frithjof Brand-Jacobsen, with Carl G. Jacobsen are the authors of Beyond Security: New Approaches, New Perspectives, New Actors, which is the 4.2 Chapter of Searching for Peace: the Road to Transcend, by Johan Galtung and Carl G. Jacobsen. 46 UNOSOM II: Somalia. From March 1993 to March 1995. Mandate: establish a secured environment for humanitarian help through dis-armament and reconciliation, and for restoring peace, stability, law and order.

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comprehensive conflict prevention, resolution, and transformation methodologies with the purpose of educating them, there will be a higher likelihood that missions will not only not fail delivering immediate peace skills but as well avoid laying the basis for the eruption of potential new conflicts. Brand-Jacobsen and Jacobsen pass on this clear message in the context of greater conflicts (Galtung and Jacobsen 2000: 254), but it is transmutable to smaller scale mission environments, where effects of conflicts are more prone to affect the progress of objectives and its achievement. Therefore, security should become everybody's business in peace and humanitarian operations, as the participation of all levels of personnel and departments would reinforce own personal safety and as well avoid falling into conflict by learning about it, through security implemented methodologies.

Conclusion I would like to conclude this study with a compendium of contents and recommendations inspired in its original conception by two scholar definitions: positive peace and peacebuilding. ...positive peace which is the integration of human society. (Galtung 1964: 2)47. and Peacebuilding is action undertaken at the end of a civil conflict to consolidate peace and prevent a recurrence of fighting. A peacebuilding mission involves the deployment of military and civilian personnel from several international agencies, with a mandate to conduct peacebuilding

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in a country that is just emerging from a civil war. (Paris 2004: 38) I have applied these two definitions and its authors' works to shape the ideas exposed in this book and to configure a basis where the following structure on

47 Johan Galtung defined positive peace in the Journal of Peace Research on March 1964, on page 2, as the integration of human society. But it is not until 1969, as well in the Journal of Peace Research, on page 171, when he includes in the definition the absence of structural violence.

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peace and humanitarian opersations' security departments could be used as internal conflict prevention and transformation mechanisms to achieve conflictfree mission environments. To attain partial objectives, I proposed a multi-layered methodology composed of operational, perceptional, representational, and one additional independent levels of work, which implemented inside peace and humanitarian operations by technical security departments could support to avoid internal negative conflict, but not absence of it if conflict is regarded as something positive, from which staff members can extract constructive lessons. Therefore, the methodologies proposed at the operational level are promoting personnel participation in security tasks and policy development and setting up interactive trainings. The result of implementing these techniques to non-security personnel is acquiring familiarity in security related tasks, from a double side: technical expertise and acquaintance with security personnel. To prove this I used a positive example of interactive training coordinated during an Election Observation Mission in Mexico in the year 2006. At the perceptual level, the methodologies proposed are changing security image, focusing on rigidity perception and introducing humour to the working environment. The result of implementing techniques focused on these two topics are: acquisition of a positive image for technical security departments, breaking away from widely seen stereotypes fuelled by negative incidents, like misbehaviour of private security contractors in Iraq or historical background of security departments belonging to rigid and hermetic security military authoritarian regimes and structures; motioning non-security personnel towards security activities, drawing attention, and challenging apathy regarding security

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policy. To usefully explain the benefits of using humour inside security departments I mentioned a practical example taken place in Kosovo, between OSCE civilian workers and KFOR military personnel, exchanging perceived roles in a humoristic manner. The relational level proposed methodology is working on approachability techniques and outreach, intending to provide security departments with renewed transparency image, away from secrecy. The result of applying these 44

Santamarta-Perez, Roberto. Security and Conflict Transformation: An Internal Business : An Internal Business, Diplomica Verlag, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,

interlinked techniques is to expose positively security departments to nonsecurity personnel by showing practical resourcefulness and putting it at their disposition, either by supporting directly or displaying available capabilities. I used two examples, one of them positively implemented in Kosovo by security personnel offering carpooling services, and the second example regarding social networking use as security support tool being obstructed at the implementation phase. Finally, the independent methodology proposed is applying flexibility without compromising security. The result of applying this technique at all moments by security departments is to avoid internal conflict, provide a modern management image, and gain support. The concept of flexible security is introduced, which is a combination of adaptability and fast responsiveness focused to non-security mission personnel, their needs and requests. Achieving a positive outcome in the implementation of this three-levelled techniques would effectively contribute to the enrichment of peace and humanitarian opersations' technical security departments, and by proximity and relationship the rest of the departments. To continue achieving objectives, I discussed practical implementation methods to the proposed methodologies aiming to combine the techniques previously summarized and coordinate them positively. Its implementation should occupy all staff members in peace or humanitarian operations from the top-down, with special significance to senior mission members and responsible political figures. Their duty is to engage every staff member in a structured and collaborative systematic exercise, coordinated by mission technical security departments. The final objective is to set up effective grounds and work

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collectively towards conflict-free peacebuilding mission environments. The discussion contained three strategic methods that pre-assessed, applied, audited, and updated during the implementation cycle would coordinate and support the three-level methodology proposed previously. The three strategic methods are: achieve better internal coordination, obtain political-managerial support, and convert the efforts in everybody's business.

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To reach a better internal coordination,

peace and humanitarian

operations should appoint technical security departments in charge of the proposed techniques' implementation, through their security managers.

By

effectively coordinating the implementation of operational methods proposed, managers would only ease the efforts of perceptual and relational levels techniques' implementation. Applying flexibility without compromising security, however, should be exercised at all moments and by all mission members, as well as flexibility. Obtaining

political-managerial

support

and

financial

assistance,

emphasizes the importance of involving senior members and politicians in the endeavour, as their institutional authority is widespread and compelling. At the same time, funds required to implement effectively methodologies need to be oriented from higher instances to the responsible implementing partner, which requires a solid political-managerial support. Finally, to assess the validity and proper functioning of the methodological implementation, regular audits are proposed. To convert security departments' methodology implementation efforts in everybody's business would help preventing conflicts, as failing to engage a large number of people affected by conflicts in its prevention, resolution, or transformation would create “conflict illiteracy” (Galtung and Jacobsen 2000: 253) and inexperienced problem solving personnel. I presented a combination of the three-levelled proposed techniques and the independent one, applied gradually and interlinked in peace and humanitarian operations by security departments and discussed its implementation from a strategical point of view by applying the need for internal coordination, political-

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managerial support, and making the integral process everybody's business, with the final aim to steer operations “towards a culture of security and accountability”48 (Brahimi Report 2008: 1) and “avoid internal conflicts.” Technical security in peace and humanitarian operations have been

48 Taken from the Report of the Independent Panel on Safety and Security of UN Personnel and Premises Worldwide's title Towards a Culture of Security and Accountability, 9 June 2008

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Santamarta-Perez, Roberto. Security and Conflict Transformation: An Internal Business : An Internal Business, Diplomica Verlag, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,

regarded as a support element directly providing services but distant from the core mandate and programmatic objectives. In this book, I tried to expose a set of methodological suggestions and analysed strategies for its implementation, offering them to policy makers in the peacebuilding sphere with the aim of supporting processes by engaging all personnel, from the grass-roots to senior managers and decision-makers. I only foresee advantages for operations embracing security and accountability cultures, and stress the need for general and individual flexibility and as well from security departments and its members. Security should not be a hermetic issue in the hands of a few, but a common goal under the responsibility of every individual mission professional. In ma opinion, this is an important objective that would facilitate working “towards more

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effective peacebuilding”49 (Paris 2004: 179).

49 Roland Paris used the title Toward More Effective Peacebuilding: Institutionalization Before Liberalization in his 2004 book At War's End: Building Peace After Civil Conflict. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 179

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47

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List of Abbreviations CPRS -

Centre for Peace and Reconciliation Studies

DPKO -

Department of Peacekeeping Operations

EU -

European Union

EU-EOM -

European Union Election Observation Mission

FEMA -

Federal Emergency Management Agency

HoM -

Head of Mission

KFOR -

Kosovo Force

LTOs -

Long Term Observers

NATO -

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

OMiK -

OSCE Mission in Kosovo

OSCE -

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

SIAP -

Security in Iraq Accountability Panel

UN -

United Nations

UNDSS -

United Nations Department of Safety and Security

UNEP -

United Nations Environment Programme

UNMIK -

United Nations Mission Interim in Kosovo

UNOSOM II-

United Nations Operation in Somalia II

UNSECOORD -

United Nations Security Coordinator

WFP -

World Food Programme

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Santamarta-Perez, Roberto. Security and Conflict Transformation: An Internal Business : An Internal Business, Diplomica Verlag, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Grahame, Peter R. (1999) 'Doing Qualitative Research: Three Problematics'. The Discourse of Sociological Practice: (2) 1 Gwinnett County, (2012) 'Fire Safety Education' Community Education. Lawrenceville, GA [online] available from

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Acknowledgements This book would not have been possible without the effort of a myriad of people and institutions. Among them I would like to express my gratitude to Professors Alp Özerdem and Alan Hunter, for their scholar kindness. Also to Dr. Sung Yong Lee for leading me towards the light at the end of the tunnel from early stages and providing constant support at different levels. Thanks to Fellow Researcher Chas Morrison for taking the time to help me put in place the initial bits and bobs collected along my research. All of them from the Centre for Peace and Reconciliation Studies at the Coventry University in the United Kingdrom. I would like to thank the Imperial War Museums, especially the London and North museums, because their permanent exhibitions Crimes Against Humanity and Al-Mutanabbi Street: a Reaction, as their contribution to clarify perspectives and shape opinions was of great value for this book. As well to Coiste political tours, as their perspective assisted developing my critical thinking. My gratitude goes towards Kristiina Juutinen, outstanding journalist and better editor, and finally to Kerri Farsnworth and Rebecca Cosgrave for

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providing valuable information for this book.

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