Secrets de l’histoire naturelle: Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Ms Fr. 22971: Transcription and translation

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SECRETS DE L’HISTOIRE NATURELLE PARIS, BIBLIOTHÈQUE NATIONALE DE FRANCE, MS FR. 22971

Transcription and translation

Figg and Friedman

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NOTE ON THIS TRANSCRIPTION

Note on this transcription: In general, this transcription presents the original text as it is, without any attempt to regularize spelling or modernize punctuation. Exceptions include the following: 1) the letters i/j and v/u, which are not differentiated in the manuscript, are clarified here according to their modern forms; 2) all proper nouns (names of people and places) are capitalized; 3) instances of erroneously duplicated words are emended silently; 4) in cases where the manuscript offers a word that is clearly in error, or in cases where the manuscript has a blank space, the correct word is presented in brackets, based on a reading from another manuscript or on the logic of the sentence; 5) quotation marks are placed around direct quotations (indicated in the original text by a punctus and capital letter); 6) commas have been added to mark off items in a list and to indicate the boundaries of clauses where a misreading is likely; 7) where a word begins at the bottom of one folio and continues on the next, a hyphen has been added to signal the division; 8) folio numbers, followed by a virgule, are inserted into the text to mark the beginning of each side of a page of text. In Chapter 70, «On Marvelous Buildings» a series of twelve items discussing herbs, apparently misplaced by the scribe, has been enclosed in curly brackets.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

[Since there is no index to the MS, spellings of place names in the Table of Contents are drawn from the first instance of the place name in the chapter.] 1) Affricque f. 1 2) Amazonnye f. 2 3) Angleterre f. 3 4) Arabie f. 6 5) Asia f. 7v 6) Bactria f. 8 7) Boccia f. 8v 8) Bahaigne f. 9 9) Bretaigne la Grant f. 9v 10) Champaigne f. 11 11) Cedar f. 13 12) Chypre f. 13v

13) Crete f. 14v 14) Egipte la Basse f. 15v 15) Egipte la Haulte f. 16v 16) Elespont f. 18v 17) Eolyes f. 19v 18) Ethioppie f. 20 19) Europpe f. 23v 20) Frise f. 24 21) Fortunes f. 24v 22) Gaule f. 25 23) Germanie f. 28 24) Espaigne f. 28v

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25) Ibernie f. 30 26) Inde f. 31 27) Isle f. 37 28) Irllande f. 37v 29) Italie f. 38 30) Judee f. 40 31) Libie f. 41 32) Sidonie f. 41v 33) Lytonie f. 42 34) Macedonie f. 42v 35) Melos f. 43 36) Medie f. 43v 37) Messie f. 44v 38) Neorgie f. 44v 39) Offir f. 45 40) Paradis Terrestre f. 46 41) Pigmee f. 47 42) Poictou f. 47v 43) Provence f. 49 44) Sabbe f. 52v 45) Saxone f. 53 46) Sardeigne f.53v 47) Scicie f. 54 48) Scocie f. 56v 49) Trapo f. 57 50) Sirie f. 57v 51) Seres f. 58 52) Tuscane f. 59 53) Tile f. 59v 54) Tracie f. 60 55) Traponee f. 60v 56) Ululande f. 61v 57) Wonders of the Human Body (Corps Humain) f. 62 58) Wonders of the Animal World (Bestes Muez) f. 67 59) Wonders of the Heavens (Celestes Impressions) f. 72v 60) Wonders of Fire (Feu et Choses Ardens) f. 75 61) Wonders of Birds (Oyseaulx) f. 76 62) Wonders of the Sea (Haulte Mer) f. 77

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63) Wonders of Fresh Waters (Eaux Doulces) f. 77v 64) Wonders of Fish (Poissons) f. 79v 65) Wonders of the Earth (Terre) f. 80v 66) Wonders of Trees (Arbres) f. 82v 67) Wonders of Herbs (Herbes) f. 84v 68) Wonders of Stones (Pierres) f. 85v 69) On Human Industry (Engin et Industrie de Cueur humain) f. 86 70) On Marvelous Buildings (Merveilleuses Edifficacions) f. 86v 71) On Poisons (Venin) f. 89v 72) On Monstrosity (Monstrueuses Choses) f. 91v 73) On Portents (Prodigieuses Nouvelletez) f. 93

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1) Africa Africa, as it is generally understood, is in the third part of the earth, and it is situated towards the South. In it are many great districts and large provinces like vast Libya, so renowned, Numidia, Mauritania, and the province of Penoyes, the place where the great city of Carthage was situated and built. And concerning this place our master Solinus says that after the noble city of Rome, Carthage was renowned as the flower, and the beauty, and the ornament of the entire world. In Africa there is a very high mountain range called Atlas, which extends from the area towards the South as far as the immense valleys of sand dunes, or Syrtes, where the sands are in continual movement, and as far as the burning islands. In some parts of this high mountain range are extensive woods and forests. The peak of these mountains was never reached by any man nor trodden upon except by the noble Perseus and the valiant Hercules. Solinus says that in the Atlas Mountains are two most worthy marvels. One wonder is that by day there is marvelous silence. For it is a place where men are not seen or known, but rather it is a secret and solitary place. And by night this place is brightly lit by fire and other marvelous resplendencies. There are heard sweet melodies and different voices and sounds of organs, of harps, and of all kinds of musical instruments. No one yet knows where this light comes from, nor what causes this melody. The other marvel is very notable, for in this place grow certain trees, similar to the cypress, which are covered in a kind of very fine and delicate moss, like cotton or silk. And from the «fleeces» of these trees are made soutanes and silk cloths. And this fact is witnessed by wise men, in agreement with Solinus. Solinus says that on this mountain grains grow of their own free will, without tilling or sowing. And here too are an abundance of elephants and all sorts of wild animals such as bears, lions, hyenas, wild asses, onagers, and serpents of many different kinds. In Africa are the Major and Minor Syrtes, and these dunes are like a kind of sea peril because of the moving sands that we call the sandy sea. And these moving sands are in the deserts of Africa near the sea. And because of the great winds from sea tempests and land storms, these sands are always flowing and in motion. And Solinus says that from the larger Syrtes to the smaller is a distance of two hundred miles. And one cannot go from one place to the other because of the dangers of these shifting sands,

1) [Affricque] 1/ Affricque generallement comprinse est en la tierce partie de la terre, et est situee vers la region de mydi. En la quelle sont moult de grans lees et larges provinces, comme la grant Labie, tant renommee, et Numidie, Mauratanie, et la province des Penoies, la ou est Cartaigne la grand situee et fondee. De la quelle dit nostre maistre Solin que ampres la noble cite de Romme, Cartaigne estoit renommee comme la fleur et beaulte et le parement de tout le monde. En Affricque a ung treshault mont nomme Athas, qui contient depuis la partie devers midi jusques aux valees areneuses ou les sablons sont en continuel mouvement et jusques aux ysles ardans. En aucunes contrees de celle montaigne sont grands bois et grands forestz. De ceste montaigne la haultesse ne fut oncques actainte de homme ne marchee sinon du noble Perceus et Hercules le vaillant. Solin recite que en ceste montaigne a deux merveilles moult dignes. Lune merveille est que de jour la est merveilleuse silence. Car homme ny est veu ne congneu, mes est lieu secret et solitaire. Et de nuyt le dict lieu est clerement illumine de feu et dautres merveilleuses resplandisseurs. La sont oyes toutes doulces melo- 1v/ dies et diverses voix et sonts dorgues, de harpes, et de toutes espesces dinstrumens de musicque. Ce nest pas encores venu a cognoissance de homme dont vient ceste lumiere ne qui est cause de ceste melodie. Lautre merveille est tresnotable, car en ce lieu la croissent certains arbres qui sont semblables a cypres qui sont vestuz dune maniere de mousse tres deliee et menue comme coton ou soye. Et des toizons de ces arbres on fait les futaines et les draps de soye. Et cecy de fait tesmoigne le sage en soy accordant a Solin.1 Item dit Solin que en celle montaigne croissent les bledz de leur bon gre sans arer ne semer.2 Item en ce lieu habondant elephans et toutes manieres de bestes sauvaiges, comme ours, lions, hyenes, asnes sauvaiges, onagres et serpens de moult diverses manieres. En Affricque sont les Sirtes maiours et minours, et sont sirtes unes manieres de perilz de mer qui viennent a cause des sablons mouvans que nous appellons la mer areneuse. Et sont es desers dAffricque pres de la mer. Et pour les grands vens tempestueux de la mer et de la terre iceulx sablons tousjours floctent et sesmeuvent. Et dit Solin que des grands Sirtez jusques aux petites a deux cens mille. Et ne peut on aller dung lieu en lautre pour les perilz des sablons mouvans si non par le conduit des estoilles du ciel. Car la ne peut on trouver chemin, ne centier,

C. Julius Solinus, whose Collectanea serves as one of the three main sources for SNH. T. Mommsen, ed., C. Julii Solini Collectanea Rerum Memorabilium (Berlin: Weidmann, 1958), 109. 2 Collectanea, 109. 1

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ne trace dome, pour ce que le vent assemble le sablon dung lieu en aultre. Et la ou au jourduy aura montaigne de sablon demain y aura vallee.3 Item dit Solin que le fons de la mer prochaine de cestes dictes terres areneuses rend grands et horribles bouillons sablonneux. Et pour ce ne soist ne appartient a aucun marinier de passer par la pour le tresgrant peril destre assable. Combien que jadis le tresnoble et puissant navire de Romme passa par ce lieu seurement et sans nul peril par la prudence et proesse du saige conseiller Sequeina comme dient les Ystoires. Neantmoins la chevallerie et le puissant ost que Perces, le roy de Perce, avoit envoye pour ravyr, enporter, et enlever les tresors et les despoilles du temple de Jupiter le riche, tout demeura et furent mors et perillez esdictes sirtes et perilz sabloneux.4 En Affricque comme dit Solin a une maniere de peuple nomme Sillus pour ce que jadis ainsi fut nomme ung roy de leur pays dont le sepulchre est encores monstre clerement entre les grands sirtes et les sirtes mineurs. Comme dit Plinien ou viieme livre, celuy peuple et leur generacion sont entre les serpens tres asseures, fermes, et constans, et aussi entre les bestes venimeuses, laquelle chose est contre nature humaine. Car vous savez que serpens et toutes bestes venineuses sont contraires et desplaisans a toute nature humaine. Et pour ce je dy que ce peuple cy est de nature serpentine et venineuse, car ilz ne peuent estre bleciez de morsure de serpent ne nul venin ne leur puit nuyre. Et dit Plinien que quant aucun homme du pays a ung enffent nouvellement ne et quil doubte ou ayt aucune suspection de la loiaute de la mere, pour approuver si lenffent est legitime ou non, il lexpose et mect devant les serpens, et si lenffent de la propriete et du sang perpetuel est engendre par celluy qui le livre aux serpens, les serpens ne luy font nul mal. Et si lenffent est engendre daultre pere et il soit mys devant les serpens tantost il est menge et devore hastivement. Icy dit nostre acteur Solin que [en]Affricques sont les basilicques qui de leur seul regard octient les creatures. Car de leur 2/ regard ilz empoisonnent lair. Et dit listoire une chose notable que en lieu ou est le basilicque soit vif ou mort ja ny ent[r]erra osel volant ne mouche. Et dit que les Pargameniens quant ilz ediffierent a leur dieu Appolin le tresgrant et noble temple, ilz vindrent en Affricque pour achapter

except by following the stars in the heavens. For one can find there neither road nor path nor human footprint because of the way the wind moves the sand from one place to another. And where today there is a mountain of sand, tomorrow there will be a valley. Solinus says that the bottom of the sea near these aforementioned sandy areas sends up great and horrible sandy bubbles. And because of this, it does not fall to any mariner to pass through there, by reason of the very great risk of being buried by the sands. Though long ago the very noble and powerful fleet of Rome passed by this place safely and without peril through the prudence and prowess of the wise counselor Seneca, as is told in the Histories. Nonetheless the horsemen and the powerful host that Perseus the king of Persia had sent to steal and carry off the treasure and spoils of the Temple of the rich Jupiter were all stopped there, killed and struck down by the aforesaid place and its sandy perils. There are in Africa as Solinus says a manner of people named Sillius because formerly there was a king of their country thus named, whose tomb is still easily to be found between the greater and the smaller Syrtes. As Pliny says in Book Seven of the Natural History, these people and their offspring live among serpents in a very confident, firm, and constant manner, and also among venomous beasts, which is contrary to human nature. For you know that serpents and all venomous beasts are contrary and displeasing to all human nature. And for this reason I say that these people are by nature serpentine and venomous, for they cannot be wounded by the bite of a serpent, nor can any venom trouble them. And Pliny says that when any man of this country has a newborn child and he doubts or has any suspicion regarding the mother’s fidelity, in order to determine if the child is legitimate or not, he exposes it and lays it before serpents, and if the child is truly by nature and blood the offspring of the man who delivers it to the serpents, the serpents will not harm it. But if the child was fathered by another and is put before the serpents, it is immediately eaten and devoured. Here our authority Solinus says that in Africa are basilisks that can kill creatures by a single glance. For with their look they poison the air. And the History says a remarkable thing about them, that in any place where a basilisk is found, either living or dead, no bird or fly will enter. And he

Collectanea, 124. The «Mer Areneuse» was a standard feature in travel narratives such as those of Mandeville and Johannes Witte de Hese. For the former, see Iain M. Higgins, ed. and tr., The Book of John Mandeville with Related Texts (Indianapolis, IN, and Cambridge: Hackett, 2011) Ch. 30, p. 162, and for the latter Scott Westrem, ed. and tr., Broader Horizons: A Study of Johannes Witte de Hese’s Itinerarius and Medieval Travel Narratives (Cambridge, MA: Medieval Academy, 2001), pp. 210-11, and p. 248. This account of the desert is one of the earliest in a vernacular. See Danielle Lecoq, «Place et fonction du désert dans la représentation du monde au Moyen Age,» Revue des sciences humaines 258 (2000): 15-112. 4 Collectanea, 124. 3

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trescherement les ossemens ou relicques du basilicque et les misdrent en leur temple comme notables joyaulx afin que la jamais nentrast oisel, corneille volant, ne coulon qui les temples ordoiassent de leurs fiens, ne mouches qui les charoignes suyvent des bestes mortes en leurs sacrifices, ne auxi araigne fillant jamais toille ny tissast. En Affricque a une province dicte Gramancie ou est une fontaine merveilleuse qui est de jour tresfroide comme glace et de nuyt treschaude et ardant comme eaue boullant.5 Item dit Solin que les bestes daumaille comme beufs et vaches sont peissens es pres la teste de coste ung oel vers la terre, et lautre vers le soleil. Pour ce ont la gueulle de travers; la cause si est car ilz ont les cornes recourbees et estandues vers la terre et ainsi les empeschent a pestre lerbe, la teste droit a la terre. Et leur fault la teste tourner et renverser pour pasturer ou aultrement elles ne pouroient manger, et conviendroit quelles mourussent de faim, et tout ainsi et semblablement il est des brebiz et moustons qui sont en celle contree.6

2) [Amazonnye] Amazonnye est une region dicte Femenie pour ce quil ny repayre que femmes. Et ny seuffrent point les hommes vivre ne habiter entre elles, si non en /2v certain temps en quel elles ont compaignye charnelle des hommes pour avoir lignee tant seulement et tous jours demeurent dames des hommes. Et quant ce vient au terme denffentement si elles ont enffent masle ilz loctient et le deboutent. Et si elles ont filles, elles les retiennent et nourrissent joyeusement. Les femmes de celle terre sont acoustumees de tousdre a leurs filles en leage de huit ans la mammelle dextre affin quelles ne soient empeschees a tirer de larc et auxi affin quelles soyent plus habilles a elles deffendre contre leurs ennemys. De leur gouvernement et police dit Solin que elles ont deux roynes ausquelles elles obeissent, dont lune est maistresse et chief de lost et du fait de la guerre en deffendant leurs pays envers toutes nacions et pour leurs assaulx et

says that the Pergamenes, when they built their very grand and noble temple for Apollo, traveled to Africa in order to buy at great expense the bones or remains of the basilisk and put them in their temple as respected jewels in order that there would never enter there any bird, flying crow, or dove that would dirty the temple with its droppings, nor any flies that lived on the carrion of the animals killed for their sacrifices, nor even any spinning spider weaving a web. In Africa is a province called Garamantie where there is a marvelous fountain that is by day as cold as ice and by night hot and scalding as boiling water. Solinus says that livestock there such as steers and cows graze in the field with the head turned to the side, one eye towards the ground and the other towards the sky. Thus they hold their throats sideways. The reason is that their horns are bent backwards and stretched out towards the earth and thus their horns prevent them from grazing on the grass with their heads right to the ground. And it is necessary for them to turn their heads to graze or else they could not eat and they would have to die of hunger; and it is exactly the same for the sheep and lambs that live in that country. 2) Amazonia Amazonia is a region called Feminie because only women dwell there. And they allow no men to dwell or live among them, save at a certain time when they have sexual relations with men in order to replenish their line, but they do only that, and otherwise the women always stay away from the men. And when it comes time for the delivery of the child, if they have a male child, they kill and dispose of him. And if they have female children, they keep them and nurture them joyfully. The women of this land have a custom of cutting off the right breasts of their daughters at the age of eight in order that they not be impeded from shooting the bow and also in order that they be more skillful at defending themselves against their enemies. Of their government and political practices, Solinus says that they have two queens they obey, of whom one is the mistress and leader

Actually, Collectanea, 128-31. Pliny the Elder’s Historia Naturalis is one of the three main sources for SNH. See H. Rackham, W. H. S. Jones and D. E. Eichholz, eds. and trans., Pliny—Natural History, (Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classical Library, 1938-1962) 10 volumes. The work was enormously popular in the Middle Ages as an authoritative treatment of science, botany, mining, and other subjects. Over two hundred medieval and Renaissance manuscripts of this work survive, some illustrated, though these were of Renaissance provenance. See H. N. Wethered, The Mind of the Ancient World: A Consideration of Pliny’s Natural History (London: Longmans Green, 1937); Roger French and Frank Greenaway, eds., Science in the Early Roman Empire: Pliny the Elder, His Sources and Influence (Totowa, NJ: Barnes and Noble, 1986); and John F. Healy, Pliny the Elder on Science and Technology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999). See more recently Hubert Zehnacker, ed. and tr., Histoire naturelle / Pline l’Ancien (Paris: Belles Lettres, 2004). See, on Pliny, Mary Beagon, «Situating Nature’s Wonders in Pliny’s Natural History,» in Ed Bispham and Greg Rowe, eds., Vita Vigilia Est: Essays in Honour of Barbara Levick (London: Institute of Classical Studies, 2007), pp. 19-40 and Mary Beagon, trans., The Elder Pliny on the Human Animal: Natural History: Book 7 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); and Aude Doody, Pliny’s Encyclopedia: The Reception of the Natural History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010). 6 This may be a garbling of the Bonnacon’s description in Collectanea, 168. 5

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batailles tant hors leur pays comme dedans soit pres, soit loing. Lautre royne demeure au reaume dame souveraine de la terre et juge et gouverneresse de la chose publicque. Ainsi le dit Ysodore ou livre de ses Ethimologies et que ceste region est situee en la province de la haulte Sitie.7 Item dit que ces femmes danciennete ont este et sont de si grant vaillance et noble proesse en fait darmes que par victorieusement batailler elles acquisdrent jadis les royaumes dorient et pasiblement les tindrent par lespace de cent ans. Item Orozes le docteur tresrenomme en parlant de ceste terre de femenie dit que jadis de la region de Sitie et de Amazonnye yssyrent deuz jeunes chevalliers preux et hardiz qui depuis furent roys et par leur vaillance conquirent les pays de Ponto et de Capadoce et la en ces deux reaumes ilz regneirent moult long temps et pasiblement. Mes long temps apres le peuple de ces pays qui estoit trop aize et impacient et avecques ce inobedient envers leur souverain seigneur firent grand sedicion et murmure ensemble et se prindrent a rebeller contre leurs souverains seigneurs et a layde de leurs adjoings et aliez des nacions voysines, leurs seigneurs souverains avec leur chevalerie faulscement tuerent et occirent. Ampres ceste piteuse et inhumainne destrousse ces nouvelles furent sceues et vindrent a cognoissance a ceulx de la terre de Amazonie comment leurs roys, leurs marys, et leurs hommes avoient este traytreusement occis. Adonc quant les dames et les autres femmes du pays virent quelles feurent vesves et sans seigneurs si commancerent a gemir et plourer moult doleureusement. Et pour venger la mort de leurs maryz dun commun acord et du grand couraige que lune donnoit a lautre, elles entreprindrent ensemble dung mesme couraige et dune mesme volunte de courir sus et faire guerre aux ennemys qui avoient occis leurs roys et leurs mariz. Et de fait se armerent chascune selon sa puissance de telles armes comme elles povoient finer. Et dirent que contre tout homme qui guerre leur feroit et vouldroit faire quelles guerreoirient et se deffendroient. Et ainsi ont touzjours regne celles femmes ensemble et encores regnent. Item dit Orozes en soy acordant a Solin que cestes femmes nont cure davoyr compaignye privee domme si non pour avoir et concepvoir lignee. Et quant elles en ont fait elles les deboutent et les chassent hors de leurs pais. Et quant elles concepvent enffens masles, elle les detruysent et les filles elles les nourrissent et gardent. Dicelle terre de feminie fut jadis une royne dame de

of the army and is responsible for making war in defense of their country against all nations and for assaults and battles both outside their land and within, whether they be near or far. The other queen dwells in the realm as sovereign lady of the land, serving both as judge and as the one responsible for governance of public affairs. Isidore says this in his book called Etymologiae, and he also says that this region is located in the province of upper Scythia. And he says that these women from ancient times have been and still are so valiant and of such noble prowess in deeds of arms that by victorious battles they long ago acquired control of the Eastern realms and ruled them peaceably for a period of one hundred years. Orosius the very renowned doctor, in speaking of this land of Feminie, says that formerly there were two young knights, bold and courageous, who were born in the region of Scythia and Amazonia and later were kings and, by their valor, conquered the countries of Pontus and Cappadocia; and there, in these two realms, they ruled for a very long time and peacefully. But a long time after, the people of these countries, who were too much at ease and impatient and, as a result, disobedient towards their sovereign lord, undertook a great mutiny and grumbling, and began to rebel against their sovereign lords, and with the aid of their companions and allies from neighboring nations, treacherously murdered and killed their rulers and all their chivalric retinues. After this piteous and inhuman act of annihilation, this news became known, and it came to the attention of those from the land of Amazonia how their kings, their husbands, and their men had been treacherously killed. And then, when the ladies and other women of the country saw that they were widows and without lords, they began to wail and weep in great sorrow. And to avenge the deaths of their husbands, in common accord and with great courage that spread amongst them, from one to another, they undertook together with a common spirit and a single will to invade and make war on the enemies who had killed their kings and their husbands. And to this purpose each armed herself with such arms as she could obtain. And they said that they would make war against all men who wished to make war on them and they would defend themselves. And thus have these women always reigned together and still reign. Orosius, in accord with Solinus, says that these women have no desire to have the carnal companionship of men except to replenish their line. And when they have accomplished this, they expel and exile them out of their country. And when they conceive male

Not in Collectanea; Wallace Martin Lindsay, ed., Isidori Hispalensis Episcopi Etymologiarvm sive Originvm Libri XX (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1957) IX. 2.64. See Leonid Chekin, Northern Eurasia in Medieval Cartography: Inventory, Texts, Translation, and Commentary (Turnout: Brepols, 2006). 7

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noble et grand renommee, nommee Penthesillee, qui apres son puissant et bel 3/ gouvernement, ampres plusieurs victoires par elle obtenues, et ampres quelle heut paix acquise et mise en son pais et en son reaume, elle alla avec tresgrand puissance de ses femmes et pucelles armees chascune de son arnoys et de grant force de trait en la bataille des Troiens encontre les Grecz. Et la moult victoireusement se combatit. Et par sa grand proesse le nom gaigna et le loz. Combien que en la bataille elle morut et demeura. Car elle ayma mieulx mourir honnorablement que vivre a honte ne que sen estre fuye.8

children, they destroy them, and the females they nourish and keep. Of this land of the Amazons there was formerly a queen, a woman of noble and great renown, named Pentheselia, who, after the establishment of her powerful and good government, after several victories she had won, and after she had brought and established peace in her land and realm, went into the battle of the Trojans against the Greeks, with a very great host of her women and maidens, each equipped with her armor and an abundance of arrows. And they fought there most victoriously. And through her great prowess, she made a name for herself and achieved great fame. However, in that battle she died and perished. For she preferred to die honorably rather than live in shame or run away.

3)[Angleterre]9 Angleterre est dicte la Grand-Bretaigne, en laquelle terre ont este jadiz et sont moult de merveilleuses choses et difficiles a croyre advenues. Dont dit notre acteur Gervaise en son livre de [Otiie Imparialibus] que en une ville nommee [Wernichin], en diocese de Vuigorne sont les puys salles dont leaue est cuyte et par longue decoccion leaue devient sel, mais si est grand merveille, car celle eaue nest sallee que la moytie de lannee, cest assavoir depuis la nativite nostre seigneur Jesucrist jusques a la sainct Jhan Baptiste. Et en lautre partie de lannee elle est tresdoulce.10 Item cest grand merveille car en temps que 3v/ ceste eaue est sallee, elle est tresbonne a fere sel et si sourt es puys si treshabundanment car qui nen puyse largement elle suronde et sen va pardessus si fort que les russeaux en courent parmy les champs. Et en temps quelle est doulce elle est si trespetite et si tresbasse que a peyne en peut on puiser. Item dit Gervaise que en Engleterre pres la grand cite de Londres a ung village nomme Aspere. Et la est une ysle ou croist bois de merveilleuse condicion. Car sil est couppe, sie, ou dolle

3) England England is called Great Britain, a land in which there have occurred in the past, and still are occurring, many things that are marvelous and difficult to believe. About this, our authority Gervaise says in his book Otia Imperialia that in a city called Wermouth in the diocese of Worcester are some foul wells where the water is heated and, by long boiling, the water turns into salt. But this is a great marvel, for this water is salty only half the year, that is to say, from the Nativity of Christ until the Feast of Saint John the Baptist [25 December to 24 June]. And the other part of the year the water is very sweet. This is a great marvel, for during the time when this water is salty, it is very good for making salt and also it comes forth very abundantly from the well for if enough of it is not drawn out, it overflows and comes out over the top with such force that it runs in streams through the fields. And in the time when it is sweet water, it is so scanty and so low that it can scarcely be drawn out. Gervaise says that in England near the great city of London is a village named Aspert. And there is an island on which grows a very marvelous type of wood. For if it is chopped down, sawn,

Roy J. Deferrari, ed. and tr., Paulus Orosius / The Seven Books of History against the Pagans (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1964) Book One, chs. 15-16, pp. 35-37. See also Andrew Fear, tr., Orosius Seven Books of History against the Pagans (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2010). For recent discussion of the Amazons, see Tobias Brandenberger, «El episodio amazónico del Libro de Alexandre. Fondo, fuentes, figuración,» Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie 110. 3-4 (1994): 432-66; Elizabeth Baynham, «Alexander and the Amazons,» The Classical Quarterly 51.1 (2001):115-26; Danièle James-Raoul, «Les Amazones au Moyen-Age» in Claude Thomasset and Danièle James-Raoul, eds., En quête d’ utopies (Paris: Presses de la Université ParisSorbonne, 2005) {Cultures et civilisations médiévales n. 29}, pp. 195-230. 9 Angleterre is distinguished here from «Bretaigne la Grant,» discussed below. 10 Sheila E. Banks and Jonathan W. Binns, eds. and trans., Gervase of Tilbury Otia Imperialia: Recreations for an Emperor (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), III. 3, p. 567, but called Worcester and Droitwich. We prefer here the more common spelling Gervaise. On Gervaise, besides Banks and Binns’ Introduction, see Lorraine Daston and Katharine Park, Wonders and the Order of Nature 1150-1750 (New York: Zone Books, 1998), p. 22, figure 11. They claim that Morgan 461 is «the French translation of Gervaise’s Otia imperialia» and seem to confuse the work with the Livre des merveilles du monde which is Paris, Bibliothèque nationale MS fr. 2810. They also repeat the long discredited ascription of Morgan M. 461 to Harent of Antioch. See, however, their useful discussion of Gervaise, pp. 21-25. See recently, Deirdre Jackson, Marvelous to Behold: Miracles in Medieval Manuscripts (London: The British Library, 2007). 8

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ou aucunement entame et mis au russel prochain qui environe celle ysle par lespace dung an ou que celluy bois ainsi sie et detranchie soit ensevely en la terre prochaine dicelluy russel, la quelle soit arrousee ou relante de lumeur dudict rivage, icelluy bois devient dur et pesant comme pierre et ne peut ardoir et nen peut on fere feu. Et toutesfoyz quant icelluy bois est ailleurs transporte et plante sans entamer, il est de la condicion et propriete de tous aultres boys.11 Item notre Gervaise dit que en Engleterre en diocese de [Linconien], ou lieu dit Rodest, il ya ung russeau pour aberver chevaulx. Et son y voit deux chevaulx dune vehue qui soient oudit russel et quilz aient sept ans ou plus, de quelque difference ou corporance quilz soient ou de grandeur ou de grosseur, et soit ores lun gras et lautre mesgre, toutesfoyz ilz te sembleront estre de pareille grosseur en facon, tant en corps, comme en teste, piez, et jambez. Item ou rivage dicelluy russel a ung sepulcre de pierre tout vny comme tout prest a recepvoir le corps dun homme mort, qui est de tielle propriete quil est abille a recepvoir tout homme mort, de quelque estat ou condicion quil soit, sans apparoir ne trop grand ne trop petit. Et si au jourduy tu y metz ung petit enfeent et demain ung geant, a chascune foyz tu trouveras le sepulcre de la juste longueur des corps que tu y mectras. Semblablement il est ou moustier de [Cligny],la est ung lieu ordonne pour laver les hommes mors ou moult grand merveille est clerement appercue. Car selon la quantite —cest assavoir grandeur ou petitesse— du mort, ledict sepulcre devient tout propre de la longeur ou de la largeur du corps mort.12 Item dit Gervaise que en Engleterre ou conte de Stanfort au pie de la montaigne de Maul a une tresgrand fosse comme ung lac dont leau est tresclere, la quelle est merveilleusement propice et habille en sa propriete. Car elle fait recouvrer a ceulx qui en boivent toutes forces et vigeurs tant aux hommes comme aux chevaulx et aultres bestes qui sont laz et travaillez. Car quant ilz ont beu de ceste eaue ilz puent seurement et de grand force laborer, ou courir, ou cheminer. Dont il advient souvent que quant aucuns chavaucheurs, chasseurs, ou veneurs sont laz et travaillez, et passent par ce pais, ilz boivent et font boyre a leurs chevaulx de ceste eaue par vertu de la quelle ilz sont revigorez et ranforcez. Item dit le saige que pour ung homme las faire ranfforcer moult luy vault user pain chault avecques une herbe nomme terfoil, car ainsi comme il dit la mustelle qui est petite beste ampres ce quelle 11 12

planed, or broken up in any way and put in the water of a nearby brook which surrounds this island for the space of a year, or if this wood that has thus been sawn or chopped is buried in the earth nearby this brook, and thus is moistened or made dank by the moisture from this riverbank, then this wood becomes as hard and heavy as stone and it cannot burn nor can one use it to make a fire. And always when this tree is transported and planted elsewhere without being cut, it has the same character and properties as all other woods. Our authority Gervaise says that in England in the diocese of Lincoln in a place called Rodest, there is a brook for watering horses. And if one sees two horses there at the same time drinking from the brook, and they are seven years of age or older, no matter what their difference in type or stature, either of height or girth, even if one is, at this time, fat and the other skinny, they will seem to be of the same size and type, as much in body as in head, feet, and legs. On the bank of this stream is a stone tomb, all assembled as if ready to receive the body of a dead person, which is of such quality that it is ready to accept any corpse whatsoever, of whatever estate or condition it may be, without appearing to be either too big or too small. And if today you were to put into it a small child and tomorrow a giant, each time you would find the tomb to be exactly the right size for the bodies you had placed there. Similarly at the monastery of Cligny, there is a place set aside to wash the bodies of the dead where a very great marvel is to be seen. For according to the size, that is to say the largeness or smallness, of the deceased, the said tomb becomes the correct size, both in length and in width, for the dead body. Gervaise says that in England in the county of Stanford at the foot of the mountain of Mahul is a very large pit similar to a lake whose water is very clear and which has marvelously propitious and useful properties. For it causes all who drink from it—as much for men as for horses and other beasts who are tired and worn out— to recover their vigor and strength. For when they have drunk of this water they can, steadily and with great strength, labor, or run, or travel. And thus it often comes about that when any horseback riders or huntsmen are fatigued and worn out, and they pass through this region, they drink and water their horses there, and by virtue of this water, they are reinvigorated and strengthened.

Banks and Binns, III.4, p. 569, called Aspley. Banks and Binns, III.37, p. 635, The Ford of Radstone.

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The wise man says that to make a fatigued man recover his forces, it is very useful to consume warm bread with an herb called chervil, for thus, as he explains, the weasel, which is a small animal, after it fights with the snake and is fatigued and worn out, takes and feeds on some of this herb by which it recovers its strength. And by this means the weasel resists the serpent. Our authority Gervaise reports and recounts a very great marvel, saying that in England there is a castle called Perchasiss, situated on a very high mountain. And on one side of this very high mountain is a great open hole, like the mouth of a cave, from whence issues a very high wind and from which comes a great marvel, as the sage says. For the lord of this castle was named Sir William Peveril, and he was rich and powerful. He provided for great flocks of animals large and small, including ewes, cows, sheep, sows, and pigs. And it happened that one day his swineherd forgot and lost in the fields a pregnant sow. The swineherd sought this sow everywhere but could not find her. And because he feared the anger of his lord, he dared not return to the castle without the animal. And it occurred to him to thrust himself into this great cavern in the rock, where no man had ever gone before. And the swineherd went so far into this rock through dark paths and unfamiliar subterranean roads, that he finally arrived in a beautiful and bright place. And then he walked and traveled until he found himself in an open field, broad and large, where he perceived men in shirtsleeves scything grain, at which sight the swineherd marveled greatly. For in the country from which he had just come it was winter and exceedingly cold. Yet in this land where he was it was very warm and it was harvest time. And in the same field in which they were scything the grain, he found his sow grazing; she had newly farrowed and had her little piglets following her. In any case, the swineherd made such entreaties to the lord of this place that he let him peacefully return with his sow and piglets from whence he came, and he entered this land and led his sow and her brood to his lord’s castle. Here the author marvels greatly that the swineherd came in a short time from the harvest season below the earth and the warm country to our climate, which was very cold and wintery. And the sage says that this was possible and that the cold of the country of England from which the herder had departed originated from, and was caused by, the absence and the distancing of the sun. And between the two different lands was the middle earth through which the herder had passed.

a bataille au serpent, quant elle est lasse et travaillee, elle se repaist de ladicte herbe et en use par quoy elle a tantost recouvre sa force. Et par ainsi resiste au serpent.13 Item nostre dit acteur Gervaise dit et raconte ung moult grand merveille et dit que en Angleterre a ung chastel nomme Pech, assis sur une haulte montaigne. Et en ung couste dicelle grand montaigne a ung grand pertuys 4/ ouvert comme la gueule dune cave, dont il yst ung tresgrand vent et la advint une grand merveille comme le sage dit. Car le seigneur de ce chastel avoit nom messire Guillaume Peverel et estoit trespuissant et riche. Et avoit moult grand nourriture de bestes grans et menuez, comme brebiz, vaches, moustons, truyez, et pourceaulx. Si advint ung jour que son porchier oublia et perdit aux champs une truye qui estoit prains. Le porchiez chercha celle truye partout et ne la peut trouver. Et pour ce quil doubtoit lire de son seigneur, il nousa retourner au chastel sans la beste. Si savisa de soy bouter en ce grand pertuys de celle roche ou oncques mes homme navoit entre. Et tant alla le porchier dedans celle roche par centes obscures et chemins estranges par dessoubz terre que finablement le porchier arriva en ung lieu bel et cler. Puis alla et chemina tant quil se trouva en une plaine champaigne grand lee et large ou il apparceut des gens en chemise qui segeoient les blez dont le porchier moult sesmerveilla. Car ou pais dont il venoit, il estoit temps dyver et fasoit grant froit. Et en ce pais la il fasoit grand chault et estoit temps de moissons. [En] ce mesme champ ou lon seoit les blez, il trouva sa truye paissant, qui nouvellement avoit cochonne et avoit les petis cochons qui la suyvoient. Toutesfoys le porchier fit tant au seigneur de celle terre que pasiblement il len laissa retourner avecques sa truye et les cochons par la ou il estoit venu et entre en ce pais et ramena la truye et sa nourriture au chastel de son seigneur. Icy sesmerveille fort lacteur de ce que le porchier revint des moissons de dessoubz terre et de chault pais en pou de temps a nostre air qui estoit tresfroit et en temps dyver tresfroit. Et dit le saige que cest chose faisable et que la froidure du pais dAngleterre dont le porchier estoit party venoit et estoit cause de labsence et esloignement du souleil. Et entre les deux pais differens estoit la terre moyenne par ou le porchier avoit passe.14 Item dit que ce merveilleux cas il avoit oy plusieurs foiz dire et raconter devant gens dignes de foy a ung religieulx de saincte renommee qui estoit natif de ce propre lieu.

Banks and Binns, III.38, p. 637. Banks and Binns, III. 45, p. 643; this story is discussed by R. A. Meunier, “Le Livre des Merveilles de Pierre Bersuire,” Annuaire de l'Université de Poitiers, 2d series, 3 (1951):1-8. 13

14

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Item dit lacteur que en Angleterre a ung estang qui a nom Ulfremen qui vault autant a dire comme la mere de Ulfre le roy, lequel estanc est habandonne a tous pescheurs generallement. Et est lestanc de telle condicion que tant plus y pescherez de poisson tant plus y en trouverez grand habondance. Et si le seigneur de cest estang avoit aucunement interdicte ou desfendu la pescherie au commun peuple et il ne voulsist que aucun y peschast fors que pour le seigneur sachez de vray que nul poisson ny fera veu ne trouve.15 Item en Angleterre pres la region dessusdict a ung estanc daultre condicion, car si aucun marinier ou nautonnier va nageant parmy leau de cest estanc, soit en une nef ou aultre vaisseau, et il die par maniere dinivre cest mot «averingemen,» lequel mot est langaige Anglois qui signifie villenye ou reproche, tantost incontinent il sourt et se lieve en celle eau une tempeste si grand et si horrible que le marinier et son navire sont en voye de perdicion.16 Item semblablement il est en Auvergne. Car en Auvergne a ung lac qui est de telle nature que si tu y gectes une pierre seulement tantost et soudainement tu orras tonnaires et horribles tempestes qui moult grand peur et espoventement te feront.17 Item ad ce propos vient ce que on a acoustume de dire et raconter par les sages anciens que pres 4v/ de Vienne en Daulphine a ung puys ou fut gecte le traistre Pilate qui Jesucrist condenna a mourir en la croys qui telles et semblables commocions fait quant leans sont pierres et aultres choses gectees. Item en Bretaigne Bretonnant a une fontaine de telle nature que quant vous en puiserez de leau par despit, mesprisance, ou injurieusement la gecterez sur pierres ou a terre, tantost et incontinant vous voyrez les nubez obscurez et troublees et horres le tonnairre et la tempeste.18 Item dit Gervaise que en Angleterre en diocese de Londres a ung chastel nomme Audra ouquel advint une foiz une merveilleuse hystoyre dune assemblee doyseaulx que on nomme signes. Si advint que aux fenestres de ce chastel estoient certains chevaliers et autres gens qui sesbastoient a regarder les fleurs des arbres et la verdure des prez. Si apparceurent une grande multitude de signes qui estoient en une troube ensemble, et virent et regarderent une des famelles qui se fit chaucher dung aultre signe que de son pareil masle ou mary. Si sasemblerent tantost tous les signes faisans ung merveilleux bruyt et grand noise en leur chant puis se tindrent grand piece tous

He says that he had heard this marvel recounted and described several times before men worthy of belief by a religious man of saintly renown who was born in this very place. The author says that in England there was a small pond named Ulfremen, that is to say «the mere of Ulfwer the king,» which was accessible to all fishermen generally. And this pool was of such a nature that the more one fished in it, the more abundantly one would find fish. And if the lord of this pool had in any manner forbidden or prohibited fishing in this pool to the common people and had not allowed anyone to fish here, save the lord himself, then you can be sure in truth no fish would be seen or found. In England, near the region mentioned above, there is a pool of another type where if any sailor or person traveling by boat seeks to navigate the water of this pool, whether it be in a boat or some other vessel, and he says, crudely or drunkenly this word «Averingemen»—a word that in the English language signifies villainy or reproach—suddenly there will well up and rise over this water a storm so great and so horrible that the mariner and his boat are very likely to be lost. There is something similar in the Auvergne. For in Auvergne there is a lake that is of such a nature that if you throw into it so much as a rock, suddenly and immediately you will hear thunder and horrible storms that will cause you very great fear and terror. And with respect to this phenomenon there is a story that one customarily hears reported by ancient sages, that near Vienne in Dauphiné is a well into which was thrown the traitor Pilate, who condemned Jesus Christ to die on the cross, in which lake similar perturbations of the water occur when stones and other things are thrown in there. And in Brittany [Bretonnant refers to those Bretons who speak the «barbarous» half-Welsh language (or stammerers)—so it may be the «Breton-speaking area» of Brittany] is a spring of such a nature that when you draw the water from it in scorn or neglect, or spitefully throw the water onto rocks or to the earth, immediately you will see dark and troubled clouds and hear thunder and high winds. Gervaise says that in England in the diocese of London is a castle named Audra where there once occurred a marvelous event involving an assembly of birds called swans. And it happened that certain knights and other people were standing at the windows of

Banks and Binns, III.87, p. 731. Banks and Binns, Haveringmere III.88, p. 733. 17 Banks and Binns, III.89, p. 733. 18 Similar to the magic spring in the Forêt de Brocéliande in Brittany, which if disturbed produces an armed rider; it is mentioned by Chrétien de Troyes. 15 16

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coiz ensemble comme par maniere de conseil. Adonc vint le signe masle devant les autres en soy complaignant de sa famelle. Lors furent deux aultres signes comme tesmoings davoir veu le fait. Ampres de ce conseil ou assemble, se departirent deux signes qui vindrent querir celle famelle qui sestoit forfaicte, et la menerent devers les autres. Lors tantost tous les signes de lassemblee luy coururent sus et la baptirent tant de leur bec et de leurs alles quilz la plumerent toute et la lesserent en la place comme morte. Semblablement est il par le saige comme il raconte de la propriete de la cygoigne que ampres ce quelle cest forffaicte a aultre en delaissant son pere sil advient quelle soit de son pere trouvee avant quelle se soyt baignee en leau et lavee, son pere tantost et la baptra et la plumera et puis ampres loccira.19 Une grand merveille advent en Angleterre, comme dit Gervaise. Car devant leglise dung villaige, ainsi comme le peuple yssoit du moustier qui venoit de ouyr la messe, apparceurent vers le ciel les nuez qui estoient noyres et obscures. Et ainsi comme ilz regardoient contre mont, apperceurent cheoir et descendre des nues une grand ancre dune nef qui pendoit a une longue corde qui estoit grosse et roide, laquelle ancre se arresta et se ficha en ung tombeau de pierre qui estoit en cymitiere pres de la dicte eglise. Et ainsi comme les gens regardoient et sesmerveillerent de veoir ceste chose, ilz vont appercevoir la corde de lancre mouvoir comme si a force on la tirast contremont. Et oyrent la voix de gens parler en lair qui fasoient moult grand cry et moult grand noise et sesforcerent de lancre tirer et arracher. Et maintenent ilz vont veoir descendre ung homme des nubes au long de la corde pour avoyr et delivrer lancre, lequel homme fut de celluy peuple prins pour luy enquerir et demander comment ne de quel lieu il estoit venu. Lequel homme, cuydant estre prins et devore en la mer des bestes ou poissons, et auxi pour la mutacion soudaine de lair marin a lair de la terre, sesbayt et sesvanouyt et mourut entre leurs mains, dont le patron de la nef et les autres mariniers qui estoient la hault moult sesmer- 5/ veillerent car ilz cuydoient que leur compaignon se fust noye au parfont de la mer. Et ampres lespace dune heure ilz coupperent la corde qui tenoit a lancre. Et quant ilz heurent bon vent ilz leverent la voille amont le mast et au congie de Dieu ilz sen allerent leur voye nagens par la mer. Et les parroissiens de celle eglise prindrent la dicte ancre de fer et dune partie dicelle firent faire et forger certaines choses neccessaires pour la reparacion

19 20

this castle amusing themselves by looking at the flowers, the trees, and the greenery of the meadows. And then they saw a great gathering of swans that were in a flock together, and they saw and watched one of the females who had copulated with a swan other than her own male or husband. Thus all the swans came together in one place, making a very great noise and racket with their song, and then all at once they became quiet at the same time, as if they were holding a council. Then came the male swan before the others complaining of his female. Then there came two other swans as witnesses to having seen the deed in question. After this council or assembly, two swans left to go in search of the offending female, and they led her back before the others. Then immediately all the swans of the assembly swarmed upon her and beat her with their beaks and their wings, such that she was completely defeathered, and they left her there for dead. A similar story is told by the sage about the properties of the stork, that after the female stork is guilty of being false to another in disobedience to her father, if it happens that she is found by her father before she bathes and washes herself in water, her father immediately both beats her and defeathers her and then afterwards kills her. A great marvel occurred in England, according to Gervaise. For before the parish church of a village, as the people were streaming out of the monastery after having heard mass, they saw in the heavens dark and thick clouds, and thus as they looked upward, there appeared to fall and descend from the clouds a great ship’s anchor which hung from a long rope that was thick and twisted; and this anchor stopped and attached itself to a stone tomb in the cemetery near the church. And thus as these people gazed and marveled at seeing this thing, they began to see the anchor rope move, as if by force someone was drawing it back up. And they heard the voices of people speaking in the air, who made a great hue and cry, and labored to draw up and pull away the anchor. And now they saw a man descending from the clouds along this rope, intent on freeing and pulling up the anchor, and these people at once seized this man in order to question him about how and from what place he had come. The man, however, believing himself to be taken and devoured in the sea by sea creatures or fish, and also overcome by the sudden change from marine air to the air of the earth, swooned and fainted and died in their hands, at which the ship’s captain and the other sailors still up above marveled greatly, for they believed their companion had been drowned in the depths of the sea. And after an

Somewhat like Banks and Binns, III.97, p. 751, and see Pliny, NH 10.31, 62, Banks and Binns, Swans’ court of justice, III.96, p. 749, Castle Ongar. Banks and Binns, I.13, p. 81.

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de leur eglise, pour avoir perpetuel memoyre de ceste merveilleuse adventure.20 Item recite Gervasius une semblable hystoyre qui advint pres de la au conte de Clausestre vers ung chastel nomme Bristolt21. Car il estoit ung marinier qui demouroit pres de ce chastel, lequel marinier monta sur mer, et quant il heut vague et nage sur la mer bien par lespace de troys moys ou plus, ainsi comme il estoit sur le bort de son vaissel son coustel quil tenoit en sa main luy cheut dedans la mer. Si cuyda pour certain avoir perdu son coustel mes il ne le perdit point, dont ce fut ugne moult grand merveille. Car son coustel qui luy estoit cheu en la mer cheut par la fenestre coullisse de la couverture de sa maison sur la table et se ficha tout droit devant la femme de ce marinier qui estoit assise a la table. Lors la femme et les servans de lostel cogneurent tantost bien que cestoit le coustel du marinier si ne sceurent que pencer fors tant seulement que le coustel estoit cheut par la fenestre coullisse de lostel. Si advint long temps apres que le marinier retourna en son hostel, lors sa femme et ses enffens luy compterent leure, le jour, et la maniere comment son cousteau estoit cheu parmy la fenestre coulisse de la meson sur la table. Si trouva que a celle heure son coustel luy cheu de sa main en la mer. Et ainsi aucunes gens vouldroient dire et pourroient conclure par les deux exemples devantdiz que la mer est aucunesfoiz transportee en lair vers les parties prochaines des rivages par la grand force des vens ou par aultres causes naturelles qui sont tresdifficilles a croire aux hommes qui sont de rude entendement comme moy. Car en verite sauve lonneur de ce hault docteur Gervaise ces deux merveilleux cas dessusdiz me semblent impossibles a croire selon nature. Car oncques Aristote en ces auctorites de pareil cas ne recita ne toucha, mais il peut bien estre a laventure que ceulx a qui ces merveilleux cas advindrent en furent deceuz par aucunes dyaboliques illusions ou aultrement. Item auxi ou peut bien dire et si est vray que Dieu noustre createur a qui la mer et les vens et toutes choses obeyssent. Et est tout puissant en ciel et en terre ne a nul homme nappartient de trop parler ne enquerir de ses secrez et de ses heuvres, car elles sont trop parfonde et trop merveilleuses. Entre lesquelles choses nous lisons ung exemple qui est en livre dExode ou quatorsesme chappitre comment Dieu advisa la persecucion et laffliction et la servitute du peuple dIsrahel qui estoit en Egipte soubz la tyrannie et seigneurie du roy Pharaon. Car par la main de son loyal serviteur Moyse il delivra icelluy peuple de la servitute et sujec- 5v/ tion 21

hour, they cut the cord that held the anchor, and when they had a good wind they hoisted sail on mast and with God’s leave they went on their way and continued on their sea voyage. And the parishioners of this church took the iron anchor and out of part of it they had made and forged certain things necessary for the repairs of their church in order to have perpetual memory of this marvelous event. Gervaise tells of a similar event that occurred near there in the county of Gloucestershire in the vicinity of a castle named Bristol. For there was a mariner who dwelt near this castle who took to the sea, and when he had sailed the seas for a good three months or more, as he was on board his boat, his knife, which he held in his hand, fell into the sea. Thus he believed he had lost his knife for certain, but he had not lost it at all, which was a great marvel. For the knife that had fallen from his hand into the sea fell through the sliding skylight window on the roof of his house onto the table and lodged there upright before this sailor’s wife who was seated at the table. Then the wife and the household servants knew very well that this was the mariner’s knife, but they didn’t know what to think except that the knife had somehow fallen through the skylight of the house. And it happened a long time afterwards that the mariner returned to his house and his wife and children told him the exact hour, day, and manner in which his knife had fallen through the skylight window onto the table. And also he found that was the same hour his knife fell from his hand into the sea. And thus some men would like to say, and could conclude from the two examples just given, that the sea is sometimes transported into the air towards neighboring parts of the seacoast by the great force of winds or by other natural causes which are very difficult to believe for men who have rude understandings, such as myself. For truly, saving the honor of this very learned doctor Gervaise, according to nature it is impossible to believe in these two marvelous occurrences mentioned above. For even Aristotle in his authoritative experience does not recite or touch upon similar cases, but it could well be that by chance those to whom these marvelous things happened were deceived by some diabolical illusions or something similar. And also one can certainly say and it is true that [it is ] God our creator whom the sea and the winds and all things obey. And he is all powerful in heaven and earth and it befits no man to seek out and inquire of His secrets and of His works, for they are too deep and marvelous. Among which things we read an example that is in the Book of Exodus, in the fourteenth [ninth] chapter, which tells how God attended to the persecution, affliction, and servitude of the

Banks and Binns, I.13, p. 83, called Gloucestre.

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de ce faulx roy Pharaon et le mist seurement hors dEgipte par ung merveilleux pas. Car il fandit la Mer Rouge et la divisa en deux parties et fit passer ce peuple parmy ce chemin qui estoit tout sec. Et a dextre et a senestre avoit les rivaiges de la Mer Rouge aussi haulx et aussi droiz comme murs faiz a plonc et a ligne et avoient devant eulx quant il estoit nuyt pour enluminer et clarte donner, une grand columpne flambant. Et de jour ilz avoient par derriere pour eulx deffendre contre les Egipaens une grand nube moult noyre et moult obscure. Et quant Pharaon le tirant sceut le partement du peuple dIsrahel, il alla apres luy et ses gens mes ilz furent touz enclouz et couvers de la Mer Rouge et le peuple passa seurement la mer a pie sec.22 Item recite ledit Gervaise que en Angleterre a une montaigne nommee le mont dAmbre, et dit que bien pres de la Merlin fit par ses enchentemens affin que on heust perpetuel memoire de luy et de ses euvres il fit une ronde et grand dance de geans de pierre en facon dymages qui sentretenient et tousjours tournoient par maniere de gens qui dancent. Et sont tous droiz en lair. Et sans ce que riens les soubstiegne ne par dessus ne par dessoubz. Et fit Merlin ceste chose en desprisement de ceulx qui dancent. Et aussi pour avoir perpetuelle admiracion aux simples gens. Car les dances sont de Dieu haiez et reprouvees pource que Dieu fut aux dances blaspheme et renye et toute mauvaise ydolatrie mise sus.23 Nous lisons que ou temps de Moyse que les enffans dIsrael ce prindrent a marmurer contre Dieu apres ce quilz heurent beu, et mangie plantureursement, et firent ung veel dor et dirent voycy noustre dieu et dancoyent autour de luy, mais la divine vengence de Dieu tantost les pugnist et moururent dempnablement. Item par le jeu de la dance perdit la vie sainct Jehan Baptiste a la requeste de la fille du roy Herodes quant elle demanda sa teste au roy Herode son pere. Item est chose moult a despriser que lesbatement des dances pour ce que cest la voye et le chemin denfer, la raison si est pource que son yva a main senestre.

Israelites in Egypt who were under the tyranny and lordship of king Pharaoh. For by the hand of His loyal servant Moses, he delivered this people from the servitude and subjection of this false king Pharaoh and got them safely out of Egypt by a marvelous means. For He split the Red Sea and divided it into two parts and had this people pass through on a road that was completely dry. And to its left and its right this pathway had banks of the Red Sea as high and as straight as are walls made with a plumb line, and they had before them at night, in order to illuminate their way and give them light, a great column of fire. And by day they had behind them, to defend them against the Egyptians, a very dark and thick black cloud. And when Pharaoh the tyrant learned of the departure of the Israelites, he and his men followed after them, but they were all trapped and covered by the Red Sea, and the Israelites passed through the sea safely with dry feet. Gervaise also tells how in England there is a mountain named Mont d’Ambre and he says that very nearby Merlin made through enchantment, in order that one would have perpetual memory of him and his works, a great round dance of giants in stone in the form of images which keep going of their own accord and are always turning like men who are dancing. And he made them all stand straight up in the air with nothing supporting them either above or below. And Merlin made this thing in scorn of those who dance, and also to have the perpetual admiration of simple men. For God hates and disapproves of dancing because in dances God was blasphemed and foresworn and had all manner of evil idolatry heaped upon Him. We read that in the time of Moses, the children of Israel began to murmur against God, after they had drunk and eaten abundantly; and they made a golden calf, and said «Here is our god!» and danced around it, but God’s divine vengeance quickly punished and crushed them damnably. By this game of dance Saint John the Baptist lost his life at the request of Herod’s daughter when she asked for his head from her father. The pleasure of dances is a thing much to be scorned for it is the way and the path to hell, the reason being that one goes there by the left hand.

4) [Arabie] 6/ Arabie est une moult grant region, laquelle est treschaude et moult habondant en espices chaudes, comme poyvre, gyngembre et autres

4) Arabia Arabia is a very large region that is very hot and abundant in pungent spices such as pepper, ginger and other spices, and thus is very rich

This passage and the three following, including the second part of the Merlin story, are not in Bersuire and must be the Translator’s moralizing additions. Banks and Binns, I.23, p.153, but much elaborated from another source. See Michael D. Reeve, ed., and Neil Wright, tr., Geoffrey of Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain (Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press, 2007), 132, and John J. O’Meara, tr., Gerald of Wales Topography of Ireland (London: Penguin, 1982), II. 18. On this author, see Robert Bartlett, Gerald of Wales (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982) and more recently Asa Simon Mittman, «The Other Close at Hand: Gerald of Wales and the Marvels of the West,» in Bettina Bildhauer and Robert Mills, eds., The Monstrous Middle Ages (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2003), pp. 97-112. 22

23

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espices, et si est tres odorant en herbes, en fleurs, et en arbres fruictz portans qui sont tressouefz flerans, comme mirre, cynamonie, et fleur de cannelle. Et si y croissent plusieurs autres medicinables choses qui sont tres neccessaires et profitables a corps humain. Item en Arabie sont trouvees a plus grant habondance plusieurs pierres precieuses que es autres regions. Item en Arabie sont plusieurs oyseaulx qui chantent melodieusement et haultement. Et par la grant doulceur de leur chant se resjouyssent et delictent moult les habitans de celle region. Item la est, et fait son habitacion, le tresnoble seul oisel que on nomme fenix, qui na point de per, ne en nulle autre region ne le trouveres fors en Arabie. Et est ce noble fenix le plus bel oysel de tous les autres oyseaulx, et qui est de plus longue vie et duree. Et si est moult merveilleuse la naissance et la fin de luy. Car il nest engendre ne conceu doyseau quelconques ne de chose qui ait vie sur terre, qui est une chose desnaturee et contre nature. Car apres ce que il a long 6v/ temps vescu et quil est temps quil doyve mourir et prandre fin, il fait son nic en ung treshault lieu, comme sur une haulte roche ou le souleil luist et raye fort, et sur celle roche il apporte en son bec dez petites branches des chaulx arbres ou croissent les chaudes espices et qui sont de chaude nature, et dicelles petites branches il fait son nic, et quant son nic est tout prest et tout fait, il attent que le souleil raye sur son nic et que il soit en la plus grant chaleur et vertu quil puisse estre en celluy jour. Lors ce noble fenix entre en son nic et euvre et estant ses alles et bavolle et esvente tant que par force de la chaleur du souleil et de la challeur des petites branches dont son nic en est fait. Et aussi de la challeur naturelle dont il est. Le feu se concroye en ce nic et se engendre, et pour la condicion du noble fenix. Et lors le fenix se mect et se couche dedans ce feu, et la est brule et ars et ramene en pouldre et en cendre. Et de la cendre qui yst de luy, par la condicion naturelle dont il est, se engendre et concroye au bout de troys jours ung autre fenix.24 Item en Arabie a moult grant quantite de bestes cruelles et estranges comme de serpens venimeuses et dragons. Si comme le tesmoigne et veriffie Ysodore en son livre des Ethimologies, ou il dit que icelles bestes venimeuses sont moult nuysent aux habitans de celle region et leur font moult de maulx. Et si dit que entre ces bestes

in the scents of plants and flowers and fruit-bearing trees which are very fragrant, such as myrrh, cinnamon, and cassia. And also a number of other medicinal things grow there that are very necessary and profitable for the human body. In Arabia a number of precious stones are found in greater abundance than in other regions. In Arabia are many birds that sing melodiously and loudly; and through the great sweetness of their song they bring much joy and delight to the inhabitants. There makes its home the unique and very noble bird that is called Phoenix, which has no equal, nor is it found anywhere else outside of Arabia. And this noble Phoenix is the most beautiful of all birds, and has the longest life. And also it has a very marvelous birth and death. For it is neither conceived by, nor engendered of, any other bird or any living thing, which is unnatural and against the order of nature. For after the Phoenix has lived for a long time and it is time for it to die and come to an end, it makes its nest in a very high spot, as on a high cliff where the sun shines and beams strongly, and to this rock it brings in its beak twigs from trees which grow hot spices and have a warm nature, and from these twigs it makes its nest, and when the nest is finished and completely ready it waits for the sun to shine on the nest with the greatest heat and power that there can be on that day. Then this noble Phoenix enters its nest, opening and extending its wings, and it flutters and flaps so much that by virtue of the sun’s warmth and the heat of the spice tree twigs of which the nest is built—as well as of the bird’s own natural heat—a fire springs forth in the nest, engendered by the condition of the noble Phoenix. And then the Phoenix enters and lies down in the flames and there is burned and consumed and reduced to dust and ashes. And from the ashes that have been produced, because of the bird’s natural condition, at the end of three days another Phoenix is bred and created. In Arabia there are a great many cruel and strange beasts, such as venomous serpents and dragons. This is attested to be so and verified by Isidore in his Etymologiae, where he says that these venomous beasts are most harmful to the region’s inhabitants, and cause them much hardship. And he says further that among these

See Roelof van den Broek, The Myth of the Phoenix According to Classical and Early Christian Traditions, I. Seger, trans. (Leiden: Brill, 1972); Cristoph Gerhardt, «Der Phoenix auf dem dürren Baum,» in Wolfgang Harms, et al., eds., Natura Loquax Naturkunde und allegorische Naturdeutung vom Mittelalter bis zur frühen Neuzeit (Frankfurt am Main, Bern: Lang, 1981), pp. 73-108; Jean Hubaux and Maxime Leroy, Le mythe du phénix dans les littératures grecque et latine (Liège: Faculté de Philosophie et Lettres, 1939); Guy Mermier, «The Phoenix: Its Nature and Its Place in the Tradition of the Physiologus» in Willene Clark and Meradith McMunn, eds., Beasts and Birds of the Middle Ages: The Bestiary and Its Legacy (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), pp. 69-87; and Jacqueline Leclercq-Marx, «Drôles d’oiseaux. Le caladre, le phénix, la sirène, le griffon et la serre dans le Physiologus, les Bestiaires et les encyclopédies du XIIIe siècle. Mise en perspective,» Senefiance 54 (2008):163-78. 24

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venimeuses, il en ya une maniere que on nomme aspis. Et combien quil soyent tres venimeulx, toutesfoys ilz ont dedans le corps certaines pierres qui sont tenues a moult precieuses et riches, et ont de coustume les gens de celle region de tuer et mectre a mort ses aspiz pour leur ouster du ventre ces riches pierres precieuses. Celle region est nommee Arabie selon le langaige du pais pour ce que cest une terre moult doulcement odorant et souef flerant comme encens. Car en celle region croyst le bon mastic et fin encens. Le peuple de Arabie ne habite que en pavillons et en tentes portatives qui sont faictes et tessuez de tel poil comme len fait les haires comme de crains de chevaulx et de chameaulx ou daultres bestes, et nont nulz autres draps ou pays.25 Item ilz nont nulles maisons ne nulles propres habitacions pource que ilz ne demeurent que troys ou quatre moys en une region. Et quant ilz ont laboure une saison en une contree, ilz sen vont et se transportant en une aultre contree. Et puis apres ilz retournent et viennent cuillir la revenue de leur labouraige. Item en Arabie na nulz pourceaulx ainsi comme le nous tesmoigne Solinus car en celle terre nul pourceau ne pourroit vivre pour la challeur et nature du pais. Et si par aucun cas daventure lon y maynne aucuns pourceaulx, il les convient tantoust tuer. Car depuis ce quilz seront en ce pais, jamais ne mengeront et mourront tantoust de maladie qui leur vient. Et pour ce les gens de celle region ne mengent nul temps de char de porc. Item recite Solinus que en Arabie repaire ung oysel nomme synamolgos, et 7/ ne se tient que en haultes montaignes et en haultes roches et en haulx arbres, esquelx arbres il fait voluntiers son nyc, et le fait des plus deliees et plus odorans branchetes et de la meilleur et plus fine canelle quil peut trouver. Et pour ce que les habitans du pais ne peuent advenir au nyc de cest oysel pour avoir la fine chanelle, pour la grant haulteur des arbres, ilz montent par force dengins sus iceulx arbres et a force de crocs et de perches abatent le nyc de cest oysel qui est fait de la plus fine fleur de canelle qui soit. Et lassemblent et cuillent et la vendent moult chierement aux marchans estrangiers comme pour la plus espiciale et la plus fine canelle qui puisse estre. Et ainsi le tesmoigne Plinius en son xe livre ou xxxe chappitre. Les gens de ceste region dArabie sont situez au regard du cours du souleil que quant ilz regardent ou ilz vont vers occident, ilz ont le souleil a main destre que nous avons par desa a main senestre. Et ainsi les umbres du souleil qui nous sont dextres leurs sont senestres. Et celles qui leurs sont dextres nous sont senestres comme Solinus le nous tesmoigne. Dont nous recite le 25

venomous beasts there is a species called the asp. And though they are extremely poisonous, yet they have within their bodies certain stones that are considered very precious and valuable, and the people of this region customarily kill or put to death these asps in order to remove from their bellies these rich precious stones. This land is called Arabia according to the language of the country because it is a land that is very sweet-smelling and has a delicate fragrance like incense. For in this region grow good mastic and fine incense. For shelter the people of Arabia use only movable tents and pavilions made and woven from the same sort of hair one uses to make sackcloth, such as hair from the manes of horses and camels or other beasts, and they have no other kind of fabric in this country. They have no houses or proper habitations because they remain only three or four months in one area. And when they have worked for a season in one region of the country, they leave it and go elsewhere. And then, afterwards, they return and come back to harvest the fruit of their labors. In Arabia there are no swine, as Solinus attests, for none would be able to live in this land because of the heat and the nature of the country. And if by some chance, any swine are brought there, they must be killed at once. For from the moment that they are in this country they will never eat, and they will die right away of the sickness that comes to them. And because of this the people of this region never eat pork. Solinus says that in Arabia is found a bird called Cinnamolgus, and it inhabits only the high mountains and high cliffs and high trees, in which trees it is fond of making its nest; and it makes this nest only from the most delicate and fragrant twigs and from the best and finest cinnamon that it can locate. And because the inhabitants of this country cannot reach the nest of this bird to obtain this fine cinnamon, owing to the great height of the trees, they climb up by means of ladders against the trees, and through the use of hooks and scaffolding and other devices, they attack the nests, which are made of the very finest cinnamon flower that exists. And they gather and harvest this cinnamon, and they sell it at very high prices to foreign merchants, as the rarest and most special that can be found. And this is attested to by Pliny in Book Ten of the Natural History, Chapter Thirty. The people in this part of Arabia are so situated with respect to the course of the sun, that when they look straight ahead towards the west, they have the sun at their right hand, just as we have it here at our left. And thus the sun’s shadows that are on the right for us are on the left for them. And those that are on the right for them are on

Etymologiae, XVII.7.1.

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saige poecte Lucan en parlant des faitz des Rommains que quant le roy des Arabies envoya sa chevalerie par devers lempereur de Romme pour le secourir contre ses ennemys, iceulx Arabes moult sesmerveilloient quant ilz veoient leur umbre a leure de nonne que le souleil luist fort du couste de devers la bize. Et quant ilz estoient en leur pais, leur umbre estoit au contraire.26 Item en Arabie sont certains dragons qui sont de la condicion et de la propriete des aspiz dont jay parle cy devant en ce present chappitre. Car iceulx serpens ont dedans le ventre aucunes pierres qui sont moult dignes et moult precieuses. Et quant les dragons sont mors et occis, les gens du pais les euvrent et leur querent dedans les entrailles de leurs ventres les dites pierres et les vendent moult cherement. Et en celle maniere est trouvee la margarite que nous appellons la riche perle. Car elle est trouvee dedans le ventre de loctie au rivaige de la mer. Et pour ce est Arabie nommee la nourriture des riches pierres comment il a este dit au commancement de ce chappitre. Dont recite ung docteur nomme Marbotus qui compousa le Lapidaire. Cest le livre des proprietes des pierres precieuses. Et dit au commencement de son livre que jadis regna en Arabie ung tressage roy qui estoit plain de tresgrant et parfonde science et avoit nom Evax. Et fut celluy qui premierement et tressongneusement enquist des vertuz et des condicions des pierres precieuses. Et apres ce que il heust tresdiligentement enquis de leurs vertuz et quil en heut clere cognoissance, il fut le premier qui mist en escript les noms des pierres precieuses, leurs condicions, leurs couleurs, leurs especes et manieres, et en quel pais elles croissent et quelles puissances et vertuz elles ont, et comme elles peuent nuyre ou aider. Et de ce en fit ung petit livre quil envoya comme pour ung noble present a Neron lempereur de Romme qui regna sur les Rommains le segond apres Cesar Auguste.27

the left for us, as Solinus tells us. With regard to this, the wise poet Lucan, in speaking of the deeds of the Romans, relates to us that when the king of Arabia sent his forces to save the Roman emperor from his enemies, these Arabs marveled greatly when they saw their shadow in the late afternoon, that the sun shone most strongly on the side towards the North. And when they were in their own land, their shadow was in the opposite direction. In Arabia are certain dragons who are of the same condition and properties as the asps of which I have previously spoken in this chapter. For these snakes have within their bellies certain stones that are most worthy and precious. And when the dragons are dead, the people here open them up and seek within their bellies these rich stones, and sell them at a very high price. And it is in this manner that the «marguerite,» which we call «the precious pearl,» is found. For it is found in the belly of the oyster on the seashore. And for this reason, Arabia is called the source of precious stones, as has been said at the beginning of this chapter. On the subject of these stones speaks the learned Marbode, who composed the lapidary. This is the book about the properties of precious stones. And he says at the beginning of his book that there formerly reigned in Arabia a very wise king by the name of Evax, who was full of extremely learned and profound knowledge. And it was he who first and most carefully inquired into the virtue and qualities of precious stones. And after he had most diligently studied their virtues and attained a clear knowledge of them, he was the first to put in writing the names of precious stones, their properties, their colors, their kinds and forms, in what countries they occur, what powers and virtues they have, and how they can be dangerous or helpful. And out of all this he made a small book that he sent as a noble present to Nero, the Roman emperor, who was the second after Caesar Augustus to reign over the Romans.

5) [Asia] 7v/ Asia est la tierce partie ou porcion de toute la terre, selon loppinion de ceulx qui dient que la terre est triple distincion et que elle est divisee en troys parties. Cest assavoir Asie, Affricque, et Europe. Et ainsi le tesmoignent Ysidore et Oroze. Mais selon loppinion daucuns docteurs, la terre est divisee en deux parties ou

5) Asia Asia is one third part or portion of the entire earth, according to the opinion of those who speak of a tripartite division of the earth— that is, Asia, Africa and Europe. And Isidore and Orosius adhere to this view. But the opinion of other learned persons is that the earth is divided into two parts or portions according to its size. And

Collectanea, 151; NH 10.50, p. 353; James D. Duff, ed. and tr., Lucan, The Civil Wars (Cambridge, MA and London: Loeb Classical Library, 1973) 9. 33-34, p. 545. 27 See for discussion James S. Romm, «Dragons and Gold at the Ends of the Earth: A Folktale Motif Developed by Herodotus,» Marvels & Tales 1.1 (1987): 45-54; Robert Halleux, «Damigéron, Evax et Marbode: l’héritage alexandrin dans les lapidaires médiévaux,» Studi medievali, 3rd series 15.1 (1974): 327-47; John M. Riddle, Marbode of Rennes’ De lapidibus considered as a medical treatise (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1977); and Maria Esthera Herrera, ed. and tr., Lapidario=Liber lapidum / Marbodo de Rennes (Paris: Belles Lettres, 2005). 26

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porcions selon sa quantite et grandeur. Et pour ce, Asie comprent la moytie de la terre et contient depuis Orient jusques au fleuve du grans Nille nomme le fleuve dEgypte. Et la termine quant a la partie de mydi. Mais quant est a la partie de Septentron, la terre dure jusques aux grans paluz de Meothides et se fine au grant fleuve de Thaney. En Asie a moult de tresgrans et merveilleuses regions et de moult puissans royaumes. Cest assavoir Inde la Maiour et Inde la Minour, qui est le royaume de Perse. Item la Haulte Citie et la Basse Citie. Et aussi moult plusieurs autres provinces sans nombre ou il y a moult de grans merveilles, dont cy ampres sera faicte mencion en leurs propres lieux.28

in this view, Asia comprises one half of the earth and includes the area from the extreme East as far as the great Nile, called the river of Egypt; and it ends there in the Southern part. But as for the part to the North, the earth extends as far as the great marshes of Meothides and finishes at the great river of Tanais. In Asia there are many great and marvelous regions and some very powerful realms, that is to say India the greater and India the less, which is the kingdom of Persia. There is the High City and the Low City. And also there are many other provinces without number, where there are many great marvels that will be mentioned in their proper place.

6) [Bactria] 8/ Bactria est une moult grant region en Asie. En celle terre croissent et habitent chameaulz qui ont moult les piez plus durs que nont les autres chameaulz qui sont daultre pays ou contree. Car la durte de leurs piedz surmonte la durte du fer. Car en nul temps pour quelconcquez labeur ou longtain voiage quilz facent, ilz ne sont affolez ne aggravez des piedz. Bactria est un region tresfertille et tresplantureuse en biens. Car en celle terre labouree, quant lon y semera ung grain de froment, il en apportera cent grains. Et ainsi la terre qui est labouree et semee en celle region fruictiffie a cent doubles. Et a ce propos nous lisons ou livre de Genese ou vingte et sizesme chappitre, comment Ysaac, filz de Abraham, sema son ble en la terre de Bactria. Mais en ce propre an quil y sema, il cuillit son ble et en trouva cent foys plus quil nen y avoyt seme. Et ainsi la terre de ceste region est moult plus fertille que ne sont les aultres terres.29

6) Bactria Bactria is a very great region in Asia. In this land grow and live camels that have feet that are much harder than those of camels in other countries. For the hardness of their feet exceeds the hardness of iron. For never, no matter what labor they perform or how far they travel, do they ever become lame or founder. Bactria is an extremely fertile region and very abundant in riches. For in the land that has been cultivated, when one plants a single seed one gets back a hundred at harvest time. And thus the land that is cultivated and seeded there increases a hundred fold. And with regards to this we read in Genesis Chapter 26 how Isaac the son of Abraham sowed his grain in the land of Bactria. But in the same year that he sowed, he reaped his corn and found one hundred times more than he had planted. And thus the soil of this region is much more fertile than that of other lands.

7) [Boccia]/[Boecia] 8v/ Boccia est une region ainsi nomme comme portant le nom de beuf. Et luy fut ce nom impose par le bon chevalier Cathmus, qui estoit filz de Agenores le roy de Thyre, pour sa tresgrant joye quil heut quant par le beuf il trouva sa seur quil avoit en tant de contrees et de pais si longuement quise et laquelle il avoit tant amee. Dont

7) Boeotia Boeotia is a region named for an ox. And it was given this name by the good knight Cadmus, the son of Agenor, king of Tyre, for the very great joy that he felt when, through the agency of an ox, he found his sister, whom he had sought for so long in so many countries and lands, and whom he loved so much. And thus we

Orosius, 1, ch. 2, pp. 7-8. See generally Scott D. Westrem, «Geography in Medieval Europe,» in John Block Friedman and Kristen Mossler Figg, eds., Trade, Travel, and Exploration in the Middle Ages: An Encyclopedia (New York: Garland Publishing, 2000), pp. 213-22; James S. Romm, The Edges of the Earth in Ancient Thought: Geography, Exploration, and Fiction (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992); Chet Van Duzer, «A Northern Refuge of the Monstrous Races: Asia on Waldseemüller’s 1516 Carta marina,» Imago Mundi 62.2 (2010): 221-31; Klaus Karttunen, «Expedition to the End of the World: An Ethnographic Topos in Herodotus,» Studia Orientalia 64 (1988): 177-81; the same author’s «Distant Lands in Classical Ethnography,» Grazer Beiträge 18 (1992): 195-204; Heinz-Günther Nesselrath, «Herodot und die Grenzen der Erde,» Museum Helveticum 52 (1995): 20-44; and Christiane Deluz, «Des lointains merveilleux (d’après quelques textes géographiques et récits de voyage du Moyen Âge),» in De l’étranger à l’étrange ou la conjointure de la merveille (en hommage à Marguerite Rossi et Paul Bancourt) (Aix-en-Provence: CUERMA, Université de Provence, 1988), pp. 157-69. Anne-Caroline Beaugendre, in Les Merveilles du Monde ou Les Secrets de l’Histoire naturelle (Paris: Anthèse, 1996), claims that Marbode is cited in the Translator’s Prologue, n. 11, p. 87, which is incorrect. 29 Bactria does not appear in Genesis. 28

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nous lisons comment Agenores, roy de Thyre, luy estant moult desole et courouce de la grant deshonneur de Europpe sa fille que Jupiter luy avoit faulcement et desloyaument ravye et enmenee, il commanda a son filz Cathmus, qui estoit frere de Europpe, quil ne cessast de aller et enchercher par toutes terres et regions jusques a tant quil eust trouvee sa seur Europpe ou autrement sil ne la trouvoit que jamais ne retournast vers luy. Lors ce bon chevalier Cathmus print congie du roy de Thyre son pere et sen partit et tresdiligenment quist sa seur par tous pays et par tous royaumes mes nullement il nen povoit savoir ne ouyr nouvelles. Et pour ce quil ne la povoit trouver, il se commenca a douloriser et a complaindre en disant que jamais ne retourneroit devers son pere et quil sen yroit demourer et user sa vie en exil. Si advint ainsi comme il chevauchoit par estranges pays quil arriva en 9/ la region de Boccie. Si va trouver a lentree du pais les pas et la trace dun beuf. Adonc Cathmus poursuyt ceste trace tant quil arriva au troppel des beufs dont ce beuf estoit parti, et la trouva sa seur Europpe, dont il fut moult joyeulx. Et pour ce, de la grant joye quil en eust, il myst nom a celle region Boccie, pour raison de ce que par le moyen de la trace dun beuf il trouva sa seur Europpe. En Boccie a ung lac moult merveilleux et est appelle le lac Furieux et Luxurieux. Car toute homme et toute femme auxi toust quil aura beu de leau de ce lac, il sera tellement esprins et esmeu a faire les euvres de luxure quil ne saura quil doyvra faire tant sera esprins de celle volunte et de celle challeur.30

read how Agenor, king of Tyre, being extremely saddened and angered by the great dishonor of Europa his daughter, whom Jupiter [in the shape of a white bull] falsely and disloyally ravished and led away, commanded his son Cadmus, Europa’s brother, that he should not cease to travel and search all lands and regions until he had found his sister or, if he did not find her, that he was never to return home again. Then this noble knight Cadmus took leave of his father, and went away, and very diligently searched for his sister throughout all countries and realms, but nowhere could he acquire or hear any news of her. And because he could not find her, he began to mourn and complain, saying that he could never return home to his father and that he must live and end his life in exile. And it happened that as he traveled in strange lands and countries, he arrived in Boeotia. And he found at the entrance to the land the tracks of an ox. Then Cadmus pursued these tracks so far that he came on a herd of oxen of which this ox was a part, and there he found his sister Europa, for which he was extremely glad. And because of this, and the great joy he had, he gave this region the name of Boeotia, because he found his sister Europa by following the trail of an ox. In Boeotia there is a most marvelous lake called Lake Furious and Lustful. For all men and all women, too, as soon as they have drunk of its waters, are so moved to perform lustful acts that they don’t know what they will do, so overcome are they by this desire and sensuous heat.

8) [Bahaigne] Bahaigne est une region qui est es parties des Basses Allemaignes, que nous appellons le royaume de Bahaigne. En celle contree a une beste sauvaige que on nomme selon le langaige du pais de par dela loz. Et est de telle condicion et nature quelle porte soubz la gorge une grant vecie comme ung sac. Et quant ceste beste est des veneurs et des chiens venee et chassee, elle sen court en une riviere ou en ung estanc et boit tant quelle emplist toute sa vecie deau, puis 9v/ elle eschauffe tant celle eau courant quelle est plus chaude que eau boullant. Lors celle beste se retourne tout court en courant contre les chiens et les veneurs, et de celle eau qui est si treschaude en la vecye, elle vomist et gecte par la gorge et par la gueulle sur tous les chiens et veneurs quelle rencontre en sa voye. Et le veneur ou le chien qui est actaint de celle eau qui ainsi est chaude si est chaste et mecshaingne sans nul remede. Et convient que lendroit ou celle eau chaude aura atouche que la pel et la char en cheie sans nul remede,

8) Bohemia Bohemia is a region that is part of lower Germany, which we call the kingdom of Bahaigne. In this region there is a savage beast that is named, according to the language of the place, the «loz.» And it is of such a condition and nature that it bears under the throat a great bladder like a sac. And when this beast is pursued and chased by hunters and dogs, it retreats into a river or a pond and drinks so much that it fills this sac completely with water, and then as it runs, it warms the water beyond boiling. Then this beast turns sharply to run directly towards the dogs and hunters, and it vomits and spews this very hot water in the sac from its throat and gullet onto the dogs and hunters that it finds in its way. And the dog and hunter who is struck by this water that is so hot is punished and harmed irremediably. And the result is that on the spot where this hot water has touched, the skin and the flesh will fall away permanently because it is so hot and poisonous. And by this means the wild beast

30

Ovid, Metamorphoses, Books II, 851-75; III, 1-25. See James Clark, et al., eds., Ovid in the Middle Ages (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011).

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tant est celle eau chaude et venimeuse. Et par ainsi celle beste sauvaige sen va la ou bon luy semble franche, quiete, et delivre de dangier et peril des chiens et des veneurs. Et par sa vertu, science, et condicion les en fait tous fuyr et vuyder de devant soy. Et pour ce il me semble que ceste beste sauvage a plus grant franchise et plus grant vertu pour la deffence de son corps que nont autres bestes sauvages.31

retreats into the woods to wherever he pleases, free, calm, and delivered from the danger and peril of dogs and hunters. And by his special ability, knowledge, and natural condition, he makes all flee and disappear before him. And because of this, it seems to me that this wild animal has greater freedom and greater ability for the defense of its body than has any other wild beast.

9) [Bretaigne la Grant] Bretaigne la Grant est nommee pour le temps present Angleterre. Et est une tresnoble ysle de grant renommee. Dont parle Solinus et dit que les rivaiges de la basse mer eussent mis affin et couvert la terre si ne fust la Grant Bretaigne qui resiste contre la mer. Item dit Solin que celle noble 10/ ysle a quatre vings mille pas de roue en sa longueur.32 Item dit quelle est environnee tout autour de ysles moult bien habitees et peuplees et qui sont moult fructueuses, lesquelles sont subjectes a celle noble ysle qui est la principalle seigneurie. Item dit Solin que pres de la Grant Bretaigne est une ysle appellee Silura en la quelle nabite nul serpent pour ce que la terre de celle ysle leur est contraire. Et en quelque part que ladicte terre soit portee et que on la mecte sur les serpens, ilz sont presentement mors. Et si aucun homme ou femme ou beste avoient serpent ou aucune beste venimeuse dedans le corps mais quil mengeast et usast une seule foiz de celle terre, tantost le serpent ou beste venimeuse luy mouront dedans le corps ou sauldroit dehors. Et ainsi celle terre vault autant et meulx contre venin que ne fait tiriacle.33 Item dit Solin que en ceste ysle souloit avoir ung peuple de merveilleuse condicion. Car ilz ne vouloient ne navoient cure que nulle pecune ne nulle monnoie eust cours en leur ysle, mes la reffusoient et deboutoient de tout leur povoir. Et si lun avoit du ble et lautre vin et lautre du lart et lautre du drap, ilz vivoient lun de lautre. Et sentrebailloient lun a lautre ble pour vin et vin pour lart et lart pour drap. Et ainsi de toutes autres choses quilz povoient finer et qui estoient propres pour leur usaige. Et aussi ilz labouroient et faisoient leur labour ensemble et lun pour lautre. Et quant ilz avoit aucun discort entreulx pour departir la revenue de leur labouraige, elle estoit departie egalement comme par justice par deux des plus anciens hommes et qui estoient tenuz les plus preudes hommes et saiges entreulx. Et oultre plus dit Solin dont cest grant

9) Great Britain Britain the Great is today called England. And it is a very noble island of great renown. Solinus speaks of it and says that the coastlines of shallow sea would have destroyed and covered the earth if it were not for Great Britain, which resists the sea. Solinus says that this noble island is eighty thousand steps from top to bottom. He says that it is surrounded by very fruitful and much populated islands that are subject to this noble isle, which is the seigneurial seat. Solinus says that near Great Britain is an island called Silura on which no serpents live because this island is contrary to serpents. And no matter where this said earth might be transported and placed on the serpents, they will quickly die. And if any man or woman or animal had a serpent or any poisonous creature in the body, and were to eat or use this soil just one time, immediately the serpent or venomous beast would either die inside the body or depart from it. And thus the soil of this place is as good or better against venom than any treacle. According to Solinus in Great Britain there used to dwell a people of remarkable character. For they did not wish, nor did they have any desire, that any coin or money be used anywhere on their island, but they refused it and cast it out with all their strength. And if one of them had some grain and the other had some wine and another some lard and another some cloth, they lived cooperatively. And they offered to each other the grain for the wine and the wine for the lard and the lard for the cloth. And they did likewise with all commodities that they acquired and that were fit for their use. Also they worked and performed their labor together, one helping the other. And when there was any discord among them about sharing the income from their labor, the revenue was split equally and justly by two of the eldest, who were considered the most revered and the wisest among them. And besides this,

Loz in Old Church Slavonic means leap or jump. We are grateful to Isolde Thyret for this information. The story of the Loz is adapted from that told by Gervaise of the hunting and resourcefulness of the onager in Poland, Banks and Binns, III.66, p. 685. 32 Collectanea, 100; O’Meara, tr., Gerald of Wales, Topography of Ireland, I. 21-22, p. 51. 33 Collectanea, 101; O’Meara, tr., Gerald of Wales, Topography of Ireland, I. 21-22, p. 51. 31

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merveille que les hommes et femmes de celle ysle avoient naturellement cognoissance des choses qui estoient a advenir et les prophetisoient. Et sur ce ilz se pourveoient et en advertissoient et advisoient leurs voisins.34 Item dit Solinus que pres de la Grant Bretaigne a cincq ysles appellees les ysles des Ebrides, dont le peuple de ces ysles fut de merveilleuse discipline et condicion. Car premierement, toutes choses leur estoient communes. Et leur roy navoit riens qui fust sien proper. Mais vivoit sur le commun et si ne povoit riens approprier ni appliquer a soy ne a son proufit. Et le fasoient ceste gens affin que leur roy ne feust en fait de justice deceu par avarice.35 Item leur roy ne povoit riens conquester, ne en terre ne en mer, ne en ce pais ne ailleurs. Item leur roy ne se povoit marier ne lignee avoir ne procreer, affin quil ne plust pas a son propre ne singulier proffit que il ne fist pour le bien publique et pour le bien commun. Et aussi affin que les enfans ne peussent alleguer ne demander aucun droit en royaume tant par droit de succession comme autrement. Et par ainsi le royaume demourroit tousjours en la seigneurie et ou gouvernement du commun people. Et povoient prandre et eslire a leur roy entre eulx tel homme comme il leur plaisoit. Item dit Solin que aussi comme leur roy vivoit et devoit vivre sur le commun luy et son estat, tout auxi povoit il prandre et avoir, pour une foiz pour faire son plaisir, chacune femme, fille, ou pucelle ou il prenoit plaisir.36 Item raconte Solinus que environ le Grant Bretaigne a plusieurs ysles, dont les aucunes sont appelles Archades et les autres les ysles Darchades. Et outre ces ysles Darchades environ six journees de mer oultre a une ysle moult merveilleuse qui est nommee Tisle en la quelle len ne peut estre que un jour et une nuyt; et le jour y dure par lespace de six moys et la nuyt autant pour ce que le souleil mect six 10v/ moys a courir par le sercle des odiace de orient en occident. Et la nuyt aussi dure six moys, pource quant le souleil est37 a revenir. Et de ceste ysle sera faicte mencion cy apres en son propre lieu au tiltre de T. Et aussi de Ibernie, qui est ysle voisine au tiltre de I.38 Item recite Solinus que en la Grant Bretagne souloit estre le temple dedie a la deesse de sapience nommee Minerve. Ou quel temple le feu tous jours ardoit, mais il ne gectoit point de flambe ne de

Solinus speaks of a great marvel in that the men and women of this island had a natural knowledge of events to come and prophesied about them. And they prepared themselves for these things, and then warned and counseled their neighbors about them. Solinus says that near Great Britain there are five islands, which are called the Hebrides, whose people had marvelous discipline and nature. For first off, all things were held in common. And their king had nothing of his own, but lived on the commonwealth and thus could appropriate nothing from it for himself or his own profit. And they did this in order that their king would not be influenced by greed in matters of justice. Their king could not conquer anything, neither on land nor on sea, in his country or in another. Their king could not marry or have descendants or procreate, in order that he not please his own family and act for their own profit rather than for the public good and the common weal. And also this was done in order that his children could not claim or demand any right over the realm, either by the law of succession or otherwise. And thus the royal power would remain always in the lordship and governance of the common people. And they could take and elect for their king any man from among themselves that they pleased. Solinus also says that as their king lived and must always live on what was available from the body politic, he could also take and have for his pleasure, one time only, any woman, girl, or maiden who pleased him. Solinus reports that around Great Britain are several islands, of which some are called Archades and others Darchades. And beyond these Darchades islands, about six days journey by sea, is a very marvelous island called Tisle where the year consists of only one day and one night. And the day there lasts for six months and the night the same, because the sun takes a period of six months to run through the circle of the zodiac from East to West. And the night also lasts six months because when the sun is [at its furthest point it takes six months] to return. And this island will be discussed later in its proper place under the letter T. And also Ibernia, which is a neighboring island, listed under the letter I. Solinus reports that in Great Britain there used to be a temple dedicated to Minerva the goddess of wisdom. And in this temple the votive fire always burned, but did not throw out flames or sparks,

Collectanea, 101. Collectanea, 23.107. 36 Collectanea, 23.107. 37 M: recomble, il mect six moys. 38 Collectanea, 23.108. Called Tule by Gervaise. The six-month cycle material is Banks and Binns, II.11, p. 327. 34 35

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flammesches comme fait autre feu. Et quant icelluy appetissoit et amandrissoit, il estoit trove couvert ou mue en facon de pierres dures comme chailloux, desqueulx chailloux estoit de rechief procree et engendre le feu nouvel par la collision ou hurtement de dur assier. Ad ce propos fait lystoire de la saincte escripture en segond livre des Machabees en premier chappitre ou il dit que Neemias le grant prebstre heut reediffie le temple de Salmon, il envoya les enffans des enffans aux anciens prebstres de la loy qui estoient loyaulx serviteurs de Dieu pour querir et rapporter le feu du temple que leurs peres anciens avoient jadis mucie en ung puis tresparfont qui estoit loing de toutes gens. Car Dieu avoit promis que le feu du temple tousjours dureroyt, mais pour le temps de la destruction de Jherusalem et de la [desolacion] faitte par Anthiocheus, ilz mucierent et cacherent le sainct feu. Si advint que moult long temps apres leurs successeurs quisdrent et cercherrent le feu que on dit puis descendirent et desvallerent. Et quant ilz furent desvalles jusques au fons du puys, si ne trouverent que eau grasse et troublee, de laquelle ilz apporterent a Neemias le grant prebstre de la loy de Dieu. Et par son congie et commandement ilz gecterent et espandirent de celle eau grasse sur leur sacrifice. Et lors par vertuz de celle eau se aluma ung grant feu qui oncques puis ne fut estainct. Et ainsi fut mue le feu en eau et de leau en feu.39 Item dit Solinus que en la Grant Bretaigne souloit avoir aucuns peuples que on nommoit barbares bestiaulx qui soubz umbre et couleur de penitence se contrefasoient en ensuivant les condicions et proprietes bestialles. Et se gouvernoient selon lestat et contenance des diverses bestes, et se fardoient la face et les mains et plusieurs parties de leurs corps de diverses couleurs pour mieulx ressembler facon de bestes. Et fasoient ceste chose en cuidant faire ung grant sacrifice a dieu. Et ce conferme et tesmoigne Plinien en son livre ou xxie chappitre ou il dit que en royaume de Dace et de Sarmate et de Arragon les dames sont coustumieres de user de certain just de herbe et dautres mistions pour leur face farder et oindre les ongles de leurs mains qui se coulourent de diverses couleurs lesquelles couleurs et fardeures moult leur plaisant et tousjours durant.40 Item dit Plinien que en la Grant Bretaigne les dames souloient user de certains juz derbes dont elles se oingnoient, et puis elles devenoient aussi noyres comme sont les Morez de Morienne et tout ainsi elles alloyent la ou elles vouloyent sans estre congneues.41

as do other fires. And when this fire had diminished or grown smaller, it was found to have been converted or changed into the form of stones as hard as flint, from which a fire was created anew by striking it on hard steel. Apropos to this is the story in Holy Scripture in the [second] chapter of the second book of Maccabees, where it is told that [when Nehemiah] the great priest had rebuilt the temple of Solomon, he sent the descendants of the old priests of the law, who were loyal servants of God, to seek out and bring back the temple fire that their forefathers had formerly hidden in a very deep well far away from all men. For God had promised that the temple fire would last forever, but during the time of the destruction of Jerusalem and the devastation caused by Antiochus, the priests had removed and hidden the sacred fire for safety. And thus it happened that a very long time afterwards their successors sought out the fire that was said to have been lowered down and hidden. And when they had descended to the bottom of the well, they found nothing but thick and troubled water, which they bore to Nehemiah the great priest of God’s law. And with his leave and by his command they threw this thick water on their sacrifice. And then by virtue of this water came a great fire that was never again extinguished. And thus was fire changed to water and water into fire. Solinus says that in Great Britain there used to be certain people that were called beastly barbarians, who under the shadow and color of penitence changed their appearance by adopting bestial manners and qualities. And they governed themselves according to the state and behaviors of certain animals, and they painted their faces and hands and various parts of their bodies with diverse colors in order better to resemble animals. And they did this believing that they made a great sacrifice to God. And this is confirmed and witnessed by Pliny in his Natural History in chapter XXI where he says that in the realms of Transylvania, Sarmantia, and Aragon, the women are in the custom of using certain herbal juices and other potions to make up their faces and to oil their fingernails, which are colored in various hues; and these cosmetics and colors please them greatly and endure a long time. Pliny says that in Great Britain the women customarily anointed themselves with certain herbal juices, and then they became as black as the Moors of Mauritania, and thus they could go wherever they wished without being recognized.

Collectanea, 23.108. Described in the early sixteenth century in Maciej z Miechowa, (1457-1523) Tractatus de duabus Sarmatiis: Opis Sarmacji azjatyckiej i europejskiej. Wstep, Henryk Barycz. Z jezyka lacinskiego przel. i komentarzem opatrzyl Tadeusz Bienkowski. Poslowie, Waldemar Voisé (Wroclaw: Zaklad Narodowy im. Ossolinskich, 1972); NH 22. 2, p. 295; Collectanea, 23.108. 41 NH 22. 2, p. 295. See Susan Stewart, Cosmetics & Perfumes in the Ancient World (Stroud: Tempus, 2007). We are most grateful to Molly A. Jones-Lewis for help with this and the preceding passage. 39 40

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10) [Champaigne] 11/ Champaigne est une noble province des Ytalies en la quelle est une cite de grant renommee et de grant anciennete Neaples. En laquelle cite pour certain a moult de tresmerveilleuses choses et auxi comme non creables pour leur singularite, dont les aucunes sont naturelles, les autres sont faicts par artifice, dont il en sont aucunes qui furent faictes par le saige philozophe Virgile par la science de mathematicque et par sa labourieuse diligence furent par luy faictes pourpensees et trouvees pour le bien publique. Et de ce parle noustre docteur Gervaise et dit que en la cite de Naples, ou temps deste, les mouches moult nuysoient et empeschoient aux gens, tant pour les fruitz qui y habondoyent comme pour plusieurs autres corrupcions. Et pource fit Virgile une mouche darain en certaine constellacion, et la situa et assist en certain lieu en la cite de Neaples. Et avoit celle mouche darain telle vertuz et propriete quelle en chassa et bouta hors de la cite toutes autres mouches. Et tant comme ladicte mouche darain fut en terre, elle regna tousjours en sa vertuz contre toutes les autres mouches, et regna en sa 11v/ vertuz bien par lespace de huyt cens ans. Et quant elle cheut en ruine et que son habitacion fut desmolie par force de viellese, elle perdit sa vertu et puissance. Et non pourtant encores la craignent les mouches.42 Item dit Gervaise que le saige Virgile fist en celle cite une autre grant merveille. Car pour les grans challeurs deste, il advenoit souvent que on vendoit es boucheries communes char toute eschauffee et courrumpue et de mauvaise odeur. Et pource veult Virgile contre ceste corrupcion remedier. Car il fist en la boucherie commune de Neaples encloure en ung fort mur une piece de char qui avoit telle puissance et telle vertuz que oncques puis en la dicte boucherie nulle char tant feust elle vielle tuee ne eschauffee ne fut reprinse ne desprisee de homme ne de femme, ne on ny trouvoit que redire, ains estoit bonne et fresche et delicieuse a menger.43 Item dit Gervase une autre grant merveille quil fist faire a une des portes de Naples. Car il fist faire deux grans ymaiges de pierre, dont lune fust mise au dextre couste de la porte. Et avoit nom Joyeuse et Belle. Et lautre ymaige fut mise au couste senestre et avoit nom Tristesse et Hydeuse. Et fist tant par son art de mathematicque avecques les influences des planetes que si aucun venist par cas daventure par icelle porte pour entrer en la cite, et il entrast par cas de fortune par le couste dextre de la porte ou estoit assise la belle ymaige, [c]elle ymaige avoit

10) Campania Campania is a noble province of Italy in which is a city of great antiquity and renown called Naples. And certainly, in this city occur many marvelous things, hardly believable for their singularity, of which some are natural and others are made by artifice; and of the latter, certain ones were created by the sage philosopher Virgil by the science of mathematics, and they were done through his industrious diligence, thoroughly thought out and invented for the public good. And the learned Gervaise speaks of these wonders, and says that in the city of Naples, in the summertime, the flies were extremely annoying and a great impediment to the people, as much because of the fruits that were so abundant there as because of the presence of many other rotting things. And to rectify this, during a certain heavenly constellation Virgil made a bronze fly and placed it in a certain spot in the city of Naples. And this bronze fly had such power and properties that it chased and kept out of the city all other flies. And so long as the said bronze fly was in place, it always retained its power against the flies and did so for eight hundred years. And when it fell into ruin and its habitation was demolished as a result of old age, it lost its virtue and power. Yet nonetheless flies still feared it. Gervaise says that the sage Virgil made another marvel in this city. For because of the great summer heat, it often happened that the public butcher shops sold meat that was warm, rotten, and bad smelling. And thus Virgil wished to remedy this rottenness. So in the Neapolitan butcher shop he had enclosed into a strong wall a piece of meat that had such power and such virtue that never again could there be any flesh in this shop, no matter how long ago it was slaughtered or how warm it had gotten, that would be rejected or disdained by man or woman, but rather it would be found flawless, always good and fresh and delicious to eat. Gervaise speaks of another great marvel that Virgil performed at the city gates. For he caused to be made two great stone statues, of which one was put on the right side of the gate. And it was called Joyful and Beautiful. And the other was put on the left side and had the name Sad and Hideous. And he arranged by his mathematical art and by the harnessing of planetary influence that if anyone came by chance through these gates to enter the city, and

Banks and Binns, III.10, p. 577. Banks and Binns, III.12, p. 579. See here Domenico Comparetti, Vergil in the Middle Ages, tr., E. Benecke (Rpt. Hamden, CT: Archon, 1966), p. 340, n.1; John W. Spargo, Virgil the Necromancer (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1934), and most recently, Christopher Baswell, Virgil in Medieval England: Figuring the Aeneid from the Twelfth Century to Chaucer (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995) and Jan Ziolkowski, et al., eds., The Virgilian Tradition: The First Fifteen Hundred Years (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008). 42 43

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telle vertu que toutes ses besoignes luy venoient a bon hait et a grant joye et leesse de cuer. Et sil entrast en la cite du couste de la partie senestre de la porte, limaige nommee Tristesse avoit telle vertu que toutes ses besoignes alloient malleureusement [et] sen chevissoit tresmeschantement tout a la tristesse et douleur de son cueur. Item dit Gervaise une autre grant merveille estre pres de Neaples, dedans le rivaige de la mer; il dit que la est une montaigne qui a son regart vers les terres labourables du pays. De laquelle montaigne vient et sourt ung tresgrant dommage sur les labouraiges qui sont pres dillec environ la saison deste. Car de celle montagne sault une ardent fumee qui est moult hydeuse et terrible et grans brandons de feu, et de flambe tresardans. Et advient aucunesfoys que quant le vent de la mer vente, il renverse et souffle ledit feu, fumee et flambe sur tous les biens qui sont entour, comme blez, vignez, et autres labouraiges, tellement que tout est brouy. Et en estoient tous les pauvres laboureurs de la entour tous destruz et desers. Si se advisa le saige Virgile, pour le prouffit commun, de y remedier. Car il y avoit une autre montaigne qui seoit a lopposite de celle montaigne, dont celle fumee et feu sailloit. Sur laquelle montaigne Virgile compousa et fist faire une ymage darain qui tenoit une trompille en sa bouche et se tournoit celluy ymaige a tous vens. Si fist tant Virgile par son art que quant le vent de Nothus ventoit, lors la trompille cornoit et sonnoit fort. Au son de la quelle, le vent de la mer qui venoit de la montaigne ardent estoit repulse et deboute par vertu de la science de mathesis. Et ainsi estoit ledit feu et ladicte fumee vers la mer degectee. Par quoy les terres et les vignes denviron apportoient tous leurs 12/ revenues par chescune annee seurement. Mais toutesfoiz il est advenu que de present ladicte ymaige ou artiffice est despiecee et desmolie, tant par anciennete et viellesse comme par fortune des grans guerres qui sont depuis advenues ou dit pays. Et pour ce encores par la montaigne ardant dessusdicte sont souvent les labouraiges du pays gastez et perduz. Item dit Gervaise une autre grant merveille dudit pays de Neaples. Car il dit que la croissent une maniere de feuves qui sont de la facon des autres. Mais moult ya grant differance a leur croissance. Car les cosses dicelles feves si croissent la teste de cosses pendant contre val vers la terre. Et vous savez que des autres feves la cousse si croist la teste contremont.44 Item dit Gervaise une chose moult merveilleuse de cestes feves. Car si celluy ou celle qui cuildra de ses feves se mect a genoulz,[e]t en les cuillant dit troys foiz la Paternostre avecques le Ave Maria,

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he chanced to enter on the right side of the gate where the beautiful statue was situated, this image had such power that all his future needs would be met immediately and he would have great joy and lightness of heart. And if he entered through the left side of the gate, the image called Sadness had such power that all his wants would be unsatisfied and things would turn out badly, all to the sadness and unhappiness of his heart. Gervaise speaks of another great wonder near Naples, at the sea shore; he says that there is a mountain overlooking the arable land of the country. And from this mountain comes great harm to the surrounding farmland in the summer season. For from this mountain leaps a fiery smoke that is extremely ugly and terrible, as well as flaming brands and great blazes of fire. And it sometimes happens that when the wind blows from the sea, it turns and fans the fire, smoke, and flame over all the riches of the surrounding area, such as the grain fields, vineyards, and pastureland, so that all is burnt and ruined. And as a result all the poor laborers of the surrounding lands were impoverished and the area deserted. Then the wise Virgil, for the common good, considered how to remedy this. For there was another mountain opposite this one that belched fire and smoke, on which Virgil caused to be erected a bronze figure which had a trumpet in its mouth, and this image always turned to face the prevailing winds. Through his art, Virgil managed to arrange that when the North wind blew, the trumpet blared and sounded strongly. At this sound, the sea or South wind, Notus, which came from the burning mountain, was repulsed and diverted by the power of mathematics. And thus the fire and smoke were diverted towards the sea. And, as a result, the vineyards and fields around the mountain reliably produced their full annual harvests. But it happens nevertheless that in the present day this statue has fallen down and been demolished, as much through old age as through the fortune of the great wars that have since swept the country. And consequently the farmlands of the countryside are again often rendered sterile and ruined by the burning mountain. Gervaise speaks of another wonder in the country of Naples when he notes that there grows there a kind of beans which are like other beans in all respects, save the great difference in their manner of growth. For the pods of these beans grow with the pod head hanging downward towards the ground, and you know that the pods of other beans grow with the pod heads upwards.

Banks and Binns, III.14, p. 585.

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[c]estes feves ont telle vertuz et telle propriete que si celluy qui les cuildra rit et maine grant joye en les cuillant, pareillement celluy qui les mangera demenera grant joye. Et tout ainsi est il de celluy qui sera en tristesse en les cuillant. Car pareillement celluy qui les mengera aura tristesse et courroux au cueur. En la grant Champaigne a une cite nommee Pantheolana en la quelle le saige philozophe Virgile a la consolacion et guerison de tous malades. Et pour remedier a leurs enfermetez et maladies il fist faire de moult merveilleux bains qui estoient chaulx tant par nature comme par art, dont lun baing guerissoit dune maladie et lautre baign dune autre. Si fist sur chascun baing mectre en escript en grosse lectre dor de quel vertuz et a quelle malladie chaschun baing povoit remedier. Lors quant cest noble artifice fut tout fait et acompli, [t]ous malades et paciens y venoyent et arivoient de tous les coustes du monde et se baignoient chaschun ou baign qui guerissoit de la malladie dont ilz estoient mallades. Et quant ilz estoient bien fort baignez et lavez en ces baigns, ilz sen retournoyent tous saincts, haictiez, et gueriz en leurs pays. Mais long temps apres, il fut ordonne a Salerne une estude et escolle de medicine. Si adviserent les maistres en medicine que bien pou ou neant leur valloit leur paraticque pource que chaschun sen alloyt baigner aux baings de Virgille et que leur science nestoit rien prisee. Si furent tous esmeuz de envie et sen allerent aux baings de Virgile et effacerent sur ung chaschun baing le tiltre et escripture qui y estoit. Et quant les mallades venoyent aux baings, ilz ne savoient point en quel baing il se devoyent baigner, ne laver. Car ilz ne congnoissoient point lun pour lautre par quoy moult de pouvres mallades en furent moult deceupz, dont cestoit moult grant pitie. Et ainsi tous yceulx baings cheurent et tumberent en ruine et devindrent a neant.45 Item dit Gervaise que ou pais de Neaples a une montaigne qui est merveilleusement pertuysee de lun bout jusques a lautre. Et sont faitz les pertuys de celle montaigne a la fasson de lantree dune cave. Et si ya fort grant distance et bien long chemin de lun pertuys jusques a lautre, car quant 12v/ ung homme est dans le myllieu de ce chemin, il ne peut point veoir de lun pertuys jusques a lautre tant y fait obscur et trouble. Et toutesfoys par la seurte de toutes manieres de gens passans par cest obscur chemin, Virgille fist tant par son art et par sa science de mathematicque que sy deux hommes ou plusieurs qui seriont ennemys morteulx lun de lautre, [e]t que les ungs entrassent par lun des pertuys [e]t les autres par lautre, [i]lz passeront bien seurement et sainnement par my ceste voye obscure et trouble sans se quilz ayent force ne puissance ne quilz se puyssent faire nul mal

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And Gervaise says an amazing thing about these beans. For if anyone who is gathering these beans kneels and, while picking, says the Paternoster and the Ave Maria three times, these beans have such virtues and qualities that if the picker laughs and has great joy from gathering them, likewise the person who eats them will experience great joy. And it will be the same for anyone picking them in sadness. For likewise, whoever eats them will have sadness and a heavy heart. In great Campania is a city named Pozzuoli in which the wise philosopher Virgil took on the consolation and cure of all the sick. And to remedy their infirmities and illnesses, he had made many marvelous baths, which were warmed as much by nature as by art, among which one bath cured one kind of sickness and the other cured another kind. And he commanded that each bath bear a rubric above it in large golden letters indicating its virtue and which illness the bath could cure. When this had been done, all the sick came there from every part of the world, all bathing in the bath that was intended to cure their particular maladies. And when they were well bathed and washed in these baths, they returned to their own countries, healthy, cheerful, and cured. But some long time later, a medical school was ordered to be built in Salerno. And the physicians there considered that their practice would be worth little or nothing because everyone went to bathe in Virgil’s baths and consequently held their learning in little esteem. Thus they were all motivated by envy, and they went to the baths and erased from each the rubric above it that told what it did. Then when the sick came to the baths, they did not know where they should bathe or wash. For they did not know one bath from another, and in this way many poor patients were disappointed, which was a great pity. And thus all these baths fell into ruin and disappeared. Gervaise says that there is a mountain in the country of Naples that is marvelously tunneled from one side to another. And the openings in this mountain are made like the mouth of a cave. And the road within goes such a great distance from one end of the tunnel to the other that when a man stands in the middle of this road, he cannot see at all from one end of the tunnel to the other because it is so dark and foggy. And yet, for the safety of all kinds of people passing through on this dark road, Virgil arranged by his art and the science of mathematics that if two men or several who were mortal foes were to enter, some by one end of the tunnel

Claus M. Kauffmann, The Baths of Pozzuoli: A Study of the Medieval Illuminations of Peter of Eboli’s Poem (Oxford: P. Cassirer, 1959).

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lun a lautre, ne en corps ne en biens. Et pose quilz sceussent bien les deux parties quilz se entrerencontreroient en ceste obscure voye.46 Item une autre grant merveille recite noustre docteur Gervaise. Et dit que environ la cite de Pentheleona a ung grant lac dont leau est moult layde et trouble, obscure et moult hydeuse a regarder. Mais quant lon y gecte de luylle, elle devient fort belle et clere. Et est ce lac nomme par les gens du celluy pays «Le Lac de J[e]han » pour ce quil fust jadiz ung moult sainct evesque en celle cite qui avoit nom Jehan, lequel homme de moult saincte vie. Si advint par ung jour que ce bon sainct homme falloit esbatre au long du rivaige de ce lac. Si commanca a ouyr et entendre plusieurs voix de gens qui crioyent, lamentoyent, et plouroyent dedans celluy lac. Et toutesfoys celluy preudomme ne les veoyt point. Adonc le preudomme qui estoit de ceste chose moult esbahy et esmerveille, si se commenca a mectre a genoulz en grans prierez et en oraisons en priant treshumblement et moult devotement a Dieu quil luy pleust de sa saincte grace et misericorde a luy reveler et demonstrer de celles voix qui ainsi piteusement crioyent en pleuroyent dedans ce lac, et quelle chose cestoit ne que ce povoyt estre. Lors il ouyt une voyz qui luy dist «prenez une caque duylle et le respandez dedans ce lac et tantoust vous voyres que cest.» Adonc le preude homme se fist amener une caque duylle et lespandit parmy le lac. Et tantoust leau de ce lac devint toute belle et clere. Lors le bon preudomme vit et apperceut dedans le font de ce lac deux merveilleuses et grandes portes de fer lesquelles estoient tant grandes et tant fortes et moult merveilleusement barrees et cramponnees de grans barreaux et crampons de fer grans et fors. Et fut revele au sainct preudomme que cestoyent les portes denfer la ou estoyent les ames dampnees qui ainsi crioyent et pleuroyent pour la grant rage et doulleur des tourmens que ilz sentoyent. Lesquelles portes noustre Seigneur sauveur et redempteur JesusCrist ouvrit et rompit apres sa benoiste passion et resurrection pour nous rachapter et delivrer des peines et des tourmens denfer.47

and the others by the other, they would pass each other safely and securely on this dark road without either being able to do the other harm, either of body or of material goods. And this was true even if the two parties knew perfectly well that they would encounter each other in this obscure passageway. Our doctor Gervaise tells of another great marvel, and says that in the environs of the same city there is a great lake whose water is very ugly, dark, roiled, and repulsive to look at. But when one throws oil into it, the water becomes beautiful and clear. And this lake is called by the people there the Lake of John because there was formerly a very holy bishop in this city named John, and he was a man of most saintly life. And it happened that one day this saintly man undertook to stretch his legs along the shores of the lake. And he began to hear many voices crying, lamenting and weeping within the lake. And yet all this time that good man saw no one. Greatly astonished and amazed by all this, the good man began to kneel in prayer, praying humbly and devoutly to God that it might please him in his holy grace and mercy to reveal and show to him these souls who piteously cried and wept within the lake and explain whatever this was or could be. Then he heard a voice saying to him, «Take a measure of oil and spread it on the lake and immediately you will see what this is.» And the good man called for oil and spread it on the waters. And suddenly the lake became beautiful and clear. Then the good man saw and perceived at the bottom of the lake two great and marvelous gates of iron, grand and strong and wonderfully barred and reinforced with great bars and clamps of iron. And it was revealed to this holy good man that these were the gates of Hell, where the damned souls were, who thus cried and wept in rage and sorrow over the torments that they felt. These were the gates that our Lord Jesus Christ opened and broke after his blessed passion and resurrection in order to ransom us and deliver us from the pains and torments of Hell.

11) [Cedar] 13/ Cedar est une region qui siet en Orient, laquelle est toute noyrcie et brulee pour la grant ardeur et chaleur du soleil qui y regne. En celle contree et region habita Ysmael, le filz de Abraham et de Agar sa chambariere et y usa sa vie, luy et toute sa lignee, lequel Ysmael mist nom a celle terre Cedar, pour ce que son premier filz heut nom

11) Kedar Kedar is a region lying to the East, which is all blackened and burned by the great heat of the sun that is so powerful there. In this country and region lived Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar, his handmaid, and there he passed his entire life, he and all his descendants. Ishmael named the land Kedar because his first-born

Banks and Binns, III.16, p. 587. This non-biblical legend of Christ’s descent to hell appears widely in medieval literature and art; it seems to derive from the first-century apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus. See, for example, Karl Tamburr, The Harrowing of Hell in Medieval England (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2007). Banks and Binns, III.19, p. 591. 46 47

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Cedar. Car selon ce que dit la Glose Ordinaire de la ville48 sur le xvi49 chappitre de Genesis, [c]estuy Cedar fut compare a lasne sauvage ou a lonagre pour la cause de la ferocite et estrange cruaulte. Item dit Ysidore que pour ce ceulx de ceste lignee habitent es tabernacles et non mye en maisons, et vivent comme gens sauvaiges et bestiaulx. Et sen vont vagant comme gens oysieulx qui ne savent riens fayre par my les desers, et sen fuient tant comme ilz peuent hors de la compaignye dautres gens. Car ilz sont si trescrueulx et si sauvaiges quil nest ours, leopar, ne lyon, ne loup, ne dragon qui soyt si cruel ne si mauvais et sans pitie comme ilz sont. Et comme dit Mothode, cestes maulvaises gens cy ystront et courront par la terre une foyz vers la fin de ce monde. Et delaisseront leurs propres habitacions et guerroyeront et fouleront par leur grant 13v/ puissance tout le demourant du monde, et destruiront et deserteront toutes les regions et contrees par ou ilz yront. Et si auront grand auctorite sur la terre par lespace de huit sepmaines. Et selon loppinion daucuns ce sont lvi ans. Et les aucuns dient aultrement, cestassavoir les ungs plus, les autres moins. Item dit Methode que le chemin que tiendront cestes gens sera appelle voye dangoisse et de misere, car ilz mectront tout a mort et a destruction, royaumes et citez de regnom. Et generallement les pays habitables. Item ilz desconfiront et destruiront les eglises et les sainctes places et les saincts sepulcres des glorieulx saincts, martirs, et confesseurs. Et violeront femmes et filles pucelles. Et feront plusieurs autres inhumanites qui seroient trop longues a raconter. Et tous ces maulx adviendront au peuple Chrestien pour leur mauvaise et deshordonnee vie, pour ce quilz auront delaisse et enffrainct la foy et les commandemens de Dieu. Et pour ce vouldra Dieu quilz soyent pugniz par gens vivans sanz loy.50

son was named Kedar. For according to what is said in the Glossa Ordinaria on the Bible, commenting on the sixteenth chapter of Genesis, this Kedar was compared to a wild ass or an onager by reason of his ferocity and outlandish cruelty. Isidore says that because of this, those of this lineage live in tents and not at all in houses, and they live like savages and beasts. And they go off wandering in the wilderness like lazy people who have no idea what to do in the deserts, and they flee the company of other people as often as they can. For they are so very cruel and wild that there is no bear, leopard, lion, wolf, or dragon that is as cruel and bad and pitiless as these people are. And as Methodius says, this horrible race will issue forth and overrun the earth once at the end of the world. And they will leave behind their own homes and will make war and crush by their great power all of the rest of the world, destroying and rendering uninhabitable all the regions and lands where they go. And thus they will have great command over the world for fifty-six days. And according to the opinion of some this will be fifty-six years. And still others say otherwise, that is to say, some more and some less. Methodius says that the road these people will travel will be called the Way of Anguish and Misery, for they will bring death and destruction everywhere, to both realms and cities of renown— and to the habitable regions universally. They will overthrow and destroy the churches and the holy places, the tombs of the glorious saints, martyrs, and confessors. And they will rape women and virgins. And they will do many other inhuman things that would take too long to recount. And all these evils will come to the Christian people because of their wicked and disorderly lives, because they have abandoned and violated the Faith and commandments of God. And for this reason God will wish for them to be punished by men living without law.

12) [Chypre] Chypre est une ysle qui fut jadiz habitee de gens de grand renommee. Et qui jadis firent tant par leur proesse et vaillance que

12) Cyprus Cyprus is an island once inhabited by men of great renown. And they accomplished so much in those days through their boldness and

Bible. 25.13 50 Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae IX.2.57. Lesley Smith, The Glossa Ordinaria: The Making of a Medieval Bible Commentary (Leiden: Brill, 2009). A widely available edition of Pseudo-Methodius’ Revelations is Ernst Sackur, ed., Sibyllinische Texte und Forschungen (rpt. Turin: Bottega d’Erasmo, 1963), pp. 1-96. See, for recent bibliography of manuscripts and editions of the Revelations, Michael W. Twomey, «The Revelations of Pseudo-Methodius and Scriptural Study at Salisbury in the Eleventh Century,» in Charles D. Wright, et al., eds., Source of Wisdom: Old and Early Medieval Latin Studies in Honour of Thomas D. Hill (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007), pp. 370-86. Helpful on the view of this most barbarous of peoples in SNH is Marianne O’Doherty, «‘They are like beasts, for they have no law’: Ethnography and Constructions of Human Difference in Late-Medieval Translations of Marco Polo’s Book,» in Jean-François Kosta-Théfaine, ed., Travels and Travelogues in the Middle Ages (New York: AMS Press, 2009), pp. 59-92. 48 49

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leurs seigneurs deservirent a porter couronne royalle. Et pour ceste cause est appellee ceste noble ysle 14/ royaume. De ceste ysle dit Gervaise que jadis nul mort ny povoit estre enterre, car la terre estoit de telle condicion que auxi tost comme le corps dun trespasse estoit mys dedans la fosse, y le falloit aller enterrer en aultre terre ou le gecter en la mer. Et fut la terre de Cypre de telle condicion et nature jusques a tant que la saincte royne Helene, qui fut fille du roy Golus de la Grant Bretaigne et mere de lempereur, y apporta la saincte et vraye croys de Nostre Seigneur JesuCrist, la terre de celle ysle perdit sa nature et condicion et y sont de present enteres tous corps de gens mors sans ce que la terre en face nul reffus.51 Item dit Gervais une aultre grand merveille, car il dit que quant la saincte royne Helene eut laisse la croys du bon larron en icelle ysle de Cypre, et quant elle sen partie et allee la croys du bon larron demoura en une eglise pendue en lair, et na soubstenance de nulle chose quelzconques, ne par dessus ne par dessoubz, et se tient toute droite en lair. Et si aucun pelerin ou autre personne veult baiser ceste croys par bonne devocion, elle se soufferra baiser de la bouche seullement, mais qui y vouldra a toucher des mains ou des autres membres que de la bouche, elle se recullera arriere et se eslevera et montera si hault en lair que vous ny autres ny toucheres de mains ne ne la baiserez. Item en celle ysle de Cypre a une autre grand merveille. Car il y croist ung arbre en forme dung pomier dont les pommes sont moult ameres. Mais elles ont une moult grand vertu et dignite, car quant elles sont detranchees et misez par cartiers, en chacun couste du quartier a en escript en bonne lettre lisible ce mot ycy «Jesus.» Et autant de parties comme vous feres de celle pomme, autant de foyz vous trouveres en escript dun coste et daultre ce saint nom Jesus. Et ad ce se accorde lexemple du sainct martir Felix, qui en sa passion, en tous les tourmens quil souffroit, a touz propos et a toutes responces avoit tousjours en sa bouche ce sainct nom Jesus. Et lors le tirant luy dist «Je te feray tayre et si te feray tant souffrir de mal que ta bouche cessera a parler de Jesus ton Dieu.» A donc le sainct homme luy respondit, «Si tu me ostes mon Jesus de la bouche, tu ne le me ousteras pas du cueur.» Car ampres la mort du sainct homme il fut trouve en escript tout autour de son cueur le sainct nom de Jesus.52 Item nous trouvons en escript comme ung devot pelerin sen alla par grand devocion oultre mer en Jerusalem, et visita tous les lieux

valor that their lords deserved to wear the royal crown. And hence this noble island is called a kingdom. In regard to this island, Gervaise says that in olden days no dead person could be buried there, for the soil was of such a nature that just as soon as the dead body was put in the grave, it had to be buried in another country or thrown into the sea. And the soil of Cyprus had this character and nature until the holy queen Helena, who was the daughter of king Coel of Great Britain and mother of the emperor Constantine, brought the holy and true cross of our lord Jesus Christ there, after which this island lost its unusual nature and condition; and now all the bodies of the dead can be buried there without the earth refusing them. And Gervaise speaks of another great marvel, for he says that when the holy queen Helena had left the Cross of the Good Thief on Cyprus, and when she had departed and gone away, the cross remained in a church suspended in the air straight up and down, unsupported either below or above. And if any pilgrim or other person wished to kiss it out of true devotion, it would permit itself to be touched only by the mouth. But if someone sought to touch this cross with the hands or any part of the body other than the mouth, then it would recoil and rise so high in the air that neither you nor anyone else could touch it or kiss it. On this island occurs another great marvel. For there grows there a tree in the form of an apple tree whose fruits are very bitter. But they have a very great virtue and dignity, for when they are sliced into quarters, on each side of each segment is found written in a very legible script this word «Jesus.» And as many times as you slice this apple, just as many times will you find the holy name of Jesus written on both one side and the other. And very like this marvel is the example of the holy martyr Felix, who, during his passion and all the torments he suffered, in all his remarks and responses had always in his mouth this holy name Jesus. And then the tyrant said to him, «I will make you be silent and will make you suffer so much pain that your mouth will cease to speak of Jesus your God.» To this the holy man replied, «Even if you remove my Jesus from my mouth, you will not be able to remove him from my heart.» For after the holy man’s death, they found written all around his heart the sacred name of Jesus. We find written the story of how a devout pilgrim, in his great devotion, crossed the sea to Jerusalem and visited all the places where Jesus had been in his lifetime. And he took pains to discover

According to popular belief in the Middle Ages, Helen, the mother of Emperor Constantine I, in 327 AD discovered the wood of the True Cross as well as Jesus’ tomb. Banks and Binns, III.47, p. 647, and in some detail, Vincent of Beauvais. See Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum Historiale (Douai: Baltazarius Belleri, 1624, rpt. Graz: Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt, 1965), Book 13, Ch. 94, p. 537. 52 Possibly Saint Felix of Nola or Saint Felix, bishop of Thibiuca is meant. 51

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et places ou JesusCrist en son vivant avoit este. Et myst peyne densuivre et aller par tous les lieux ou JesusCrist ala. Et en faisant ce voyage il sacoustuma tellement de dire ces troys motz «mon amour Jesus» que tousjours il avoit ces troyz motz dedans la bouche. Mais ce bon pelerin alla tant apres Jesus quil arriva au mont dOlivet, auquel mont Nostre Seigneur JesusCrist monta es cieulx. Si regarda ce bon pellerin en luy mesmes quil ne poroit aller ne monter es cieulx en corps ne en ame. Si requist a Nostre Seigneur quil luy pleust de sa saincte grace et misericorde quil trespassast presentement sur ce mont. Lors Nostre Seigneur ouyt sa requeste et volut quil alast apres luy. Et advint que tantost ce bon pelerin trespassa pour la grand amour quil avoit daller a Jesus, et rendit son ame et son esperit a Jesus. Et de la mort de ce bon pelerin fut faicte queremonie et question entre les saiges. Et fut dit par les medicins que cest homme estoit mort par amour. Et fut ouvert et fut trouve dedans «mon amour Jesus.»

and go to all the places where Jesus Christ had gone. And in making this voyage, he was so accustomed to say the words «my love Jesus,» that he always had them on his tongue. But this good pilgrim followed after Jesus so ardently that he came to the Mount of Olives, from which our lord ascended into heaven. Then this good pilgrim realized that he could not follow Jesus up to heaven either in body or in soul. So he asked our lord whether, through his holy grace and pity, he might be allowed to die immediately on this mount. Then our lord heard this request and came to the decision that the man might follow him. And it came to pass that this good pilgrim soon died because of his great desire to follow Jesus, and he rendered up his soul and spirit to Jesus. And after this good pilgrim’s death, an inquiry was held by wise men. And the doctors said that he had died for love. And his heart being opened, there was found written within the words «my love Jesus.»

13) [Crete] 14v/ Crete est ysle qui est de toutes la plus noble, et est situee entre Egipte et Grece. Et fut jadiz si peuplee de gens et si bien habitee quil y avoyt cent moult nobles citez, lesquelles estoyent moult bien peuplees et si estoient plaines de moult grandes richesses et si enbellissoient moult la mer et la terre. Les gens de celle contree furent moult subtilz et ingenieulx et plains de grand proesse et de grand entreprinse tant en acquisicion de science en proesse darmes comme en tout art et euvre mathematicque. En ceste region furent premierement trouveez et pourpenseez les lettres et maniere de faire escripture pour rediger et mectre en escript les choses passees et advenir pour en avoir perpetuel memoyre. En celle region furent trouvez et mises sus et avant loix et ordonnances pour la conservacion du pais et pour garder a chascun son droit, et furent leurs loix et ordonnances escriptes en tablectes qui furent assises et mises en lieu commun et publicque. La furent premierement trouves les sept ars. La fut trouve premierement la science de musicque dont Orpheus fut docteur, et tout ce fut apres le temps du deluge. Car 15/ il est escript ou quart chappitre de Genesis que Tuba filz de Lameth trouva et pourpensa seubtillement les accors de musicque au son des marteaulx de son frere Tubalcain lequel fut le premier feuvre qui fut ou monde. Et affin que sa science ne feust point mise en oubli par la demolicion des eaulx du Deluge il mys en escript encontre de la pierre qui estoit toute ainsi comme terre de quoy lon faict la tieuble. Et ainsi apres le Deluge ceulx de lisle de Crete trouverent sa science de musicque qui fut escript par Tuba et la mistrent avant.53

13) Crete Crete is, of all islands, the most noble, and it lies between Egypt and Greece. And it was once so populous and fully inhabited that it had one hundred great and noble cities, which were very full of people and also very full of great riches, and thus they were a source of beauty to both the land and sea. The people of this country were very subtle and ingenious, full of great valor and great enterprise, as much in acquisition of the science of warfare as in all sorts of art and mathematics. In this region were first invented and developed letters and a method of writing in order to record and set down in words events both past and future, so as to have them in perpetual memory. In this region were first promulgated and published laws and ordinances intended to conserve the peace and to protect individual rights, and their laws and ordinances were written on stone tablets which were erected and displayed in public places. And there were first discovered the seven arts. The first to be found was the art of music, of which Orpheus was the master, and all this was after the time of the Flood. For it is written in the fourth chapter of Genesis that Tubal, the son of Lamech, ingeniously found out the harmonies of music from the sounds of the differently weighted hammers of his brother Tubalcain, who was the world’s first blacksmith. And in order that this knowledge not be destroyed by the waters of the Flood, he wrote it down on a type of stone that was exactly like the clay from which tablets are made. And thus after the Flood, the Cretans rediscovered the knowledge of music that Tubal had written down and they passed it on for posterity.

53

Banks and Binns, I.20, p. 109.

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Item ceulx de Crete trouverent premierement la maniere daller par la mer et la maniere de faire navires, voilles, cordez, et avirons. Item ilz furent les premiers qui pour le temps de guerre se adviserent de faire armes comme heaulmes, bassinetz, cappelines, haches, lances, espees, dagues et cousteaulx, escuz, targe, dardes, arcs, fleiches, arbalestes, et trait et coctes de fer pour vestir. En Crete souloit avoir moult grand habundance de brebiz, moutons, chieuvres, boux, beufs, vaches, cerfs, et biches. En Crete ne repaire nulz loups, regnars, texons, louves, cerves, ne nulles aultres bestes sauvaiges ravyssans. Ne aussi ny repairent nulz serpens, dragons, aspicz, ne nullez autres bestes venineuses excepte de une maniere yraignes que Ysidore appelle [phalangium].54 Item en Crete na nul oysea[u] qui ait lait cry ne layde clameur, comme corbeaulx, cornilles, chauans, hibous, chavesches, ne duchieres. Et si le chauan estoyt apporte dautre pays, il y mourroit tantost, et ny pourroit vivre. Item en Crete a moult grand habondance darbres fruictz portans et derbes qui sont moult propres proufitables et medecinables pour corps humain, et de pierres precieuses qui ont grand puissance et vertu. Et brefment de tous biens et de toutes richesses y souloit avoir moult a grand habondance. Comme dit Plinien et Ysidore. Mais jadis les Gregoys desconfirent toute la terre. Solinus recite que en Crete croist une herbe qui est de moult bonne et merveilleuse vertu et propriete laquelle est nommee almios. Et est celle herbe de telle nature que si une personne qui aura faim et volunte de manger et il mangeusse une seule feuille de celle herbe, il sera saoul et replet et naura plus tallant de manger pour toute celle journee. Ad ce propos faict ce qui est escript ou xve chappitre de Exode ou il dit comment Dieu envoya au peuple dIsrael es desers la manne du ciel en facon de graines de coriendes pillees ou ilz trouvoyent toutes les saveurs de toutes les viandes quelconques dont ilz avoient souvenance et desir den manger. Et quant ilz avoyent mange de celle manne, ilz estoyent repeux et saoulz pour toute la journee. Plinius raconte en son livre ou xiiii chappitre que en Crete a une montaigne moult grande qui comprant bien entour lespace de neuf mille, et si est de telle vertu et propriete quil ny repaire nullez mouches point plus pres que de ix mille. Et qui plus est tout le miel qui croist dedens les ix mille na garde des mouches en quelconquez pais quil soit porte. Car ainsi toust comme elles le sentiront, elles senfuyront.55 Item en Crete est la perilleuse maison de Dedalus et le laborinthe dampnable dont cy apres sera parle ou chappitre des ediffices.

54 55

And the Cretans were the first to understand how to go to sea and how to build ships and make sails, ropes, and oars. And similarly they were the first who, for the purpose of warfare, came up with the idea of making armaments such as helms, basinets, and other head armor, battleaxes, lances, swords, daggers and knives, shields, bucklers, darts, bows and arrows, crossbows and bolts, and iron body armor. In Crete there used to be a great abundance of ewes, sheep, goats, oxen, beeves, cows, stags, and does. In Crete there are no wolves, foxes, badgers, she-wolves, hinds, lynxes, or any other wild and predatory beast. Nor do any snakes, dragons, asps, or other poisonous animals live there except for a kind of spider that Isidore called «spaleges.» And in Crete there are no birds that have ugly cries or shrieks, such as ravens, crows, tawny owls, great owls, short-tailed owls, and horned owls, and if the tawny owl were to be brought from another country into Crete, it would immediately die and could not survive there. In Crete fruit-bearing trees are abundant, as well as plants that are valuable and medicinal for human use, and precious stones that have great powers and virtues. And briefly, all goods and all riches were once abundant there, as Pliny and Isidore say. But long ago the Greeks brought all the land to ruin. Solinus says that on Crete grows a plant of remarkable and marvelous properties that is called allainos. And this herb is of such a nature that if a very hungry person who wished to dine were to eat only one leaf from this plant, he would be satisfied and full and would have no desire to eat for the rest of the day. And apropos to this is Exodus 15, which tells how God sent to the Israelites in the desert a manna from heaven made with a kind of crushed coriander seed, in which they found all the smells of all the foods that they remembered and desired to eat. And when they had eaten this manna, they were satisfied and full for the rest of the day. Pliny tells in the fourteenth chapter of his Natural History that in Crete is quite a large mountain about nine miles around, and it is of such properties that no flies will get closer to it than nine miles. And what is more remarkable is that all the honey that is made within this nine-mile radius will attract no flies, no matter what country it is carried to. For as soon as they smell it, they will fly away. In Crete is the dangerous house of Daedalus, and the damnable labyrinth, which will be discussed later in the chapter on buildings.

Etymologiae, XII. 2.4. This creature is more fully described in Collectanea, 73. Not in NH 4; Etymologiae, XIV. 6, 15-16; Collectanea, 73.

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14) [Egipte la Basse] 15v/ Egipte est une moult grand region et est situee devers le midi et est divisee en deux parties. Lune partie est Egipte, lautre partie est Egipte la Basse, et de ceste region cy vous veulx je parler. Egipte la Basse est ung pais moult plaisant et moult fertile, et ou il a grand habondance darbres portant fruict, de bonnes herbes, terres labouraiges, blez et aultres grains. Et si est moult bien garnie deaulx doulces, comme de fontaynes, rivieres, et autres ruisseaulx. En Egipte la Basse repairant et vivant deulx perilleux monstres. Et se tiennent volentiers sur les rivaiges de la mer, qui sont moult crains et doubtez des gens du pais, dont les ungs ont nom ypotharres et les autres ont nom cocodrilles. Mais en la Haulte, qui est devers Orient, repparrant moult de bestes sauvaiges et venimeuses, comme lions, liepars, parides, trigides et basilicques, dragons, serpens et aspics, qui sont plaines de tresperilleux et mortel venin. De la terre de Egipte raconte nostre maistre Solin et dit que selon les rivaiges du fleuve dit Tigris, aultrement appelle selon le dyt des aucuns le Nile, est souvent trouvee une merveilleuse beste qui est appellee selon le langaige du pais dEgipte cathoplebas. Et est de trespetite corpulance et moult 16/ foible en puissance de corps. Et a les membres trespetiz et freelles. Et en son alleure est pesante et paresceuse. Et si a la teste tresgrosse et trespesante quelle ne la peut en hault lever. Et dient les mastres que ceste beste surmonte toutes autres bestes en venin. Et que son regard occist plus tost qui la regarde que ne faict le regarde du basilicque. Car tout oeil qui la regarde est sans nul remede en peril de mort, et pour ce Dieu et nature y ont pourveu de remede. Car si ceste beste estoit legiere, fort, et habille, et quelle eust la teste levee, nulle creature devant elle ne demourroit vive. De ceste beste parle Plinius et dit quelle est souvent trouvee en la region de Hespios ou royaume de Ethioppie, et si dit quelle est ainsi venimeuse et perilleuse a regarder comme dessus est dit.56 Item en Egipte sont une maniere doyseaulx que on nomme ibites et sont semblables a cigoignez et ne vivent que des petiz serpens quilz mangent, mais cy atant nous en tairons et en parlerons cy apres ou chappitre des oyseaulx.57 Item semblablement sera parle cy apres des bestes merveilleuses et sauvaiges qui habitent selon les rivaiges de la mer comme cocodrilles et des ypothaures, qui sont moytie chevaulx et moytie poyssons. Et aussi sera parle de merveilleulx figuier dEgipte et de la noble palme que les pelerins apportent doultre mer.

56 57

14) Lower Egypt Egypt is a very large region and is situated towards the South, and it is divided into two parts. One part is Upper Egypt and the other is Lower Egypt, and it is the latter of which I wish to speak to you. Lower Egypt is a most pleasant and fertile country with an abundance of fruit-bearing trees, good plants, arable soil, wheat and other grains. And it is also well supplied with sources of fresh water, such as springs, rivers, and other brooks. In Lower Egypt live two terrible kinds of monsters. And these monsters like to stay on the seashores and are most dreaded and feared by the inhabitants of the country, the one kind having the name «hippopotamus» and the others having the name «crocodile.» But in the Upper part, which is toward the East, live many savage and poisonous beasts like lions, leopards, panthers, tigers and basilisks, dragons, snakes and asps, which are full of the most dangerous and deadly poison. In speaking of Egypt, our master Solinus says that on the banks of the river Tigris, also named by others the river Nile, is often found a marvelous beast called in the Egyptian language Cathoplebas. It is very small in girth and very weak in bodily strength. And its members are very small and delicate. And it gives the impression of being ponderous and lazy. And the head is so heavy and large that the animal can barely lift it up. And naturalists say that this animal surpasses all others in venom. And they say that looking upon it kills those who look even more surely than the sight of the basilisk. For any eye that looks upon it is in peril of death by a poison for which there is no antidote, and for this reason God and nature have provided a remedy. For, were this beast very light, strong, and nimble, when its head were lifted no creature could remain alive before it. Pliny speaks of this animal and says it is often found in the region of Hespios in the realm of Ethiopia, and he also says that it is just as poisonous and dangerous to look at as has been noted above. In Egypt is a kind of bird called an ibis, which is similar to a stork and lives only on the small snakes it eats, but we will stop now and speak of them later in the chapter on birds. Likewise, we will speak hereafter of the marvelous and wild animals that live along the shores, such as crocodiles and hippopotamuses, which are half horse and half fish. And also we will discuss the marvelous Egyptian fig tree and the noble palm, whose branches pilgrims bear from across the sea.

This distinction is made by Gervaise, Banks and Binns, II.4, p. 211; NH 8.77, p. 57. Banks and Binns, II.4, p. 215.

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Item Plinien et Solin disent de Egipte une moult grand merveille. Car ilz dient que les Egipciens anciennement devindrent ydolatres et adouroiant pour leur dieu ung beuf darain artificiel. Auquel ilz faisoient honneur et reverance comme doblacions et doffrandes dencens et aultres sacrifices et cuidoyent et croyent fermement quil ne feust point daultre dieu que ce beuf, mais il en estoyent deceuz. Car ce beuf par la decepcion ingenieuse du dyable que leans habitoit parloit a eulx. Et aux ungs estoit gracieulx et aux autres estoit hayneulx. Et quant les Egipciens vouloyent savoir le couraige de leur dieu, ilz luy offroinct du feyng ou de la veyne ou daultre fouraige. Et quant le beuf ouvroit la gueulle pour manger, cestoit signe quil estoit gracieulx. Et quant il ne ouvroit la gueulle pour prandre la viande, cestoit signe de indignacion et courroux. Ad ce propos il advint que lempereur Cesar le Germanique sen vint en Egipte pour faire une requeste au beuf darain. Si sen vint lempereur devant le beuf le adorer et sacriffier comme son dieu et lencencer, et si luy presenta du fain et de lavoyne. Et apres ce luy requist quil luy pleust a dire sil avoit victoyre contre ses ennemys et sil sen retourneroit seurement en son pays. Solin et Plinien tesmoignent que ce beuf ne fist ny ne monstra aucun signe de responce alempereur ainplus que sil fust mort et ne ouvryt point la bouche pour prandre le fain. Adonc ledit Cesar se partit pour sen retourner en son pays mais en peu de temps il fut rancontre et desconfit, luy et ses gens de ses ennemys.58 Item au propos de ce sacrifice nous lisons au quart chappitre de Genesis que quant Cayn et Abel qui estoient freres et pouvres enfans de Adam sacrifierent a Dieu nostre pere et createur en le recongnoissent a souverain seigneur, Abel offrit et sacriffia des plus grands de ses aigneaulx et des plus druz et des plus beaulx. Lors Dieu vers luy se retourna et son oblacion et offrande receut et eut pour agreable et le regarda doulcement. Mais Cayn offrit a Dieu a grand regret des bledz de sa terre et pour ce quil ne offrit pas de bon cueur ne en grand reverance, Dieu ne receut pas son sacrifice ne son offrande mais le debouta et le refusa, et en oultre de perpetuelle maudisson le maudist et le 16v/ condempna. Item Solin raconte une aultre grand merveille qui est en Egipte sur ung port de mer nomme le port dAlixandre, il dit que sur ce port est assise et ediffiee une tour qui est merveilleusement haulte, et est appellee la tour Lasarus, la quelle tour est de telle propriete que quelque part que le souleil soit elle ne faict umbre nul temps, mais luyt le souleil tout entour.59 58 59

Pliny and Solinus speak of an exceedingly great wonder in Lower Egypt. For they say that the Egyptians of the ancient past became idolators, and adored as their god an artificial ox of bronze. They honored and revered it with oblations and offerings of incense and other sacrifices, and they imagined and firmly believed that there was no other god than this ox, but they were deceived in this. For this ox spoke to them through the ingenious deception of the devil that lived inside it. And to some the ox god was gracious and to others hateful. And when the Egyptians wished to learn the intentions of their god, they offered it some hay or oats or other forage. And when the ox opened its mouth to eat, it was a sign that it was benevolent. And when it did not open its mouth to take the food, it was a sign of indignation and wrath. And with respect to this story, it happened that the emperor Germanicus Caesar came into Egypt to make a request of the bronze ox. And thus the emperor came before the figure to revere it, burn incense before it, and sacrifice to it as his god, and also to present it with hay and fodder. And afterward he asked the ox to please foretell if he would have victory over his enemies and if he would return safely to his country. Solinus and Pliny attest that this ox made no sign of response to the emperor, no more than if it were dead, and would not open its mouth to take the food. And then Caesar left to return to his country, but in a short time he encountered his enemies and was vanquished, along with all his forces. And with respect to this sacrifice, we read in Genesis chapter four that when Cain and Abel, who were brothers and the first children of Adam, sacrificed to God our father and creator, recognizing him as their sovereign lord, Abel offered for his sacrifice the fattest, sleekest, and most beautiful of his lambs. Then God turned towards him and received his oblation and sacrifice, deeming it agreeable and regarding it favorably. But Cain only grudgingly offered the grain of his fields, and because he did not make his offering with a good heart and great reverence, God did not accept his sacrifice or his offering, but, on the contrary, rejected it and refused it, and, beyond this, cursed him and condemned him in perpetuity. Solinus tells of another great marvel in Egypt at a sea port named Alexandria, saying that at this port was erected a marvelously high tower, called the tower of Saurus, and this tower is of such a nature that from whichever direction the sun is shining, the tower does not cast a shadow, but the sun always shines all around it.

Collectanea, 142; NH 8. 71, p. 129. Collectanea, 147.

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Item tout au plus hault de celle tour a une moult grand clarte de nuyt. Et y vient celle clarte toutes les nuys et donne grand clarte tout entour, mais on ne scet dont elle vient. Et voyt on celle clarte de moult loing tant en terre comme en mer. Et de nuyt advient souvent que par celle clarte les mariniers qui sont esgarez en la mer sadressent et arrivent a bon port. Ad ce propos faict ce qui escript ou livre dExode ou il dit que pour la consolation des Ebrieulx que Moyse conduysoit par la mer a pie sec quant Dieu les delivra de la servitute du roy Pharaon dEgipte que Dieu leur envoya contre obscurite de la nuyt une colompne de feu ardant qui clerement les conduysoyt.

And at the very top of the tower there is a very bright light at night. And this luminosity appears there every night and gives a great brightness to everything around it, but no one knows where it comes from. And this light can be seen from a long ways off both by land and by sea. And at night it often happens that, by this light, mariners lost at sea get their bearings and guide themselves safely to the port. And a similar thing is written in the book of Exodus where it is said that for the comfort of the Hebrews, whom Moses led through the sea with dry feet when God delivered them from the servitude of king Pharaoh of Egypt, God sent them a burning column of fire which illuminated their way through the darkness of night and guided them surely.

15) [Egipte la Haulte] Egipte la Haulte est une region qui est pou habitee de gens, pour la meschantete et pour la sterilite de la terre. Car la ne sont que desers qui durent plus de xxiiii journees, es quelz desers a moult de grans merveilles. Et comme 17/ dit Postumanus que en Egipte la Haulte et la region de Libie sont Grands Sirtes selon les rivaiges de la mer. Sirtes sont perilleulx lieux terrestres comme terres sablonneuses qui sont mouvans et floctans comme eau pour la commocion du vent muable. Et souvent il advient que plusieurs hommes sont plus toust et plus souvent perilz et mors et couvers de ces sablons mouvans quant ilz vont parmy les Sirtes que ilz ne sont pour aller par la mer. Et si aujourduy ya une vallee, demain a pou de vent y aura une montaigne. Ung pou par dela ces Syrtes est la terre plus ferme et ya de gens qui y habitent et qui y labourent, mais il ny peut croistre autre grain que orge, et nest lorge que xxx jours en terre depuis ce quelle est semee, quelle ne soyt preste et bonne a cuillir.60 Item dit Postumanus une autre merveille, car il dit que la est et croist une herbe qui est plus doulce que miel. Et resemble a une herbe que on appelle viandes.61 Item il dit que une foys il trouva pres des Sirtes perilleuses ung ancien homme qui estoit loge en petit tugurion qui par honneur luy donna et luy presenta de ladicte herbe pour prandre sa reffection.62 Item dit Gervasius quil fut jadis ung chevalier de Provence qui en desprisant la joye et prosperite mondaine sen alla par devocion comme ung hermite en pelerinaige par la terre et sen alla par my les haulx desers dEgipte. Et apres ce quil eut longuement erre et endure

15) Upper Egypt Upper Egypt is a region that has few inhabitants because of the hostility and sterility of the soil. For in this land are only deserts, which continue for twenty-four days of travel, and these deserts are the site of many great marvels. And as Postumanus said, in Upper Egypt and Libya are the Great Syrtes along the shores of the sea. Syrtes are dangerous places on land that are like sand banks which are moving and floating like water because of the action of the changeable winds. And often it happens that more men sooner and more often perish and die, having been covered by these moving sands when traveling among the Syrtes, than die when traveling by sea. And if today there is a valley, tomorrow with a little wind there will be a mountain. A little beyond these Syrtes, the land is firmer, and there are men who live and work there, but they cannot grow any other grain than barley, and the barley is in the earth no more than thirty days after it is sown before it is ready and good to reap. Postumanus speaks of another marvel, for he says that an herb grows there that is sweeter than honey. And it resembles an herb that people call mint. He says that once near this perilous Syrtes he came upon an old man who was living in a small hut, and to honor him, the man gave him this herb for his meal. Gervaise said that there was once a knight of Provence who, scorning the joy and prosperity of the world, went as an act of devotion like a hermit on a pilgrimage across the land and went to the high deserts of Egypt. And after he had wandered a long time and endured

Postumanus was the fellow monk and friend of Sulpicius Severus, who had written of his travels to Egypt and is mentioned in Severus’ First Dialogue and from whom Gervaise quotes several times by way of Severus. See Richard J. Goodrich, «Vir Maxime Catholicus: Sulpicius Severus’ Use and Abuse of Jerome in the Dialogi,» The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 58 (2007): 189-210. Banks and Binns, III.30, pp. 619-20. 61 Banks and Binns, III.30, p. 621, suggests the reading menthe. 62 Banks and Binns, III.30, p. 621. 60

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moult de pouverte et de pestillence, il vint et advolla a luy ung corbeau quil luy apporta en son bec une herbe avecques la racine que il avoit desterre et desracinee, et aux piez du chevalier la mist et la presenta. Ce noble chevalier moult savoureusement en mangea et la trouva moult doulce et savoureuse. Et pour la doulceur et bonte de ceste herbe, long temps en ses desers sa vie usa et continua.63 Item dit Postumanus que il vit es desers dEgipte ung sainct homme de Dieu qui aux pelerins Chrestiens qui sourvindrent la leur appareilla a souper sans feu. Et dit que en ses desers la est si chaude et si ardant la chaleur du souleil que les viandes se cuisent a la challeur du souleil selon lapetit de Francois et de ceulx doccident.64 Item dit Postumanus que il vit en ung des desers d’Egipte en ung monastere de religieulx hermitez, ung petit arbre qui estoit plante en cloistre, et luy dirent les religieux de leans que cest arbre estoit ainsi creu et venu dune branche que on avoit en celle place plantee. Et la maniere comment ce advint si est telle. Labbe de ceste abbaye, pour approuver la vertu dobedience, si commanda a ung jeune moyne novice que il plantast en cloistre de leur abbaye une branche seiche dont cest arbre est venu et que il arrousast et moulast tant celle branche seiche que par force de larouser elle devenist verte et que elle prinst racine en terre. Lors le novice religieux, qui navoit tant seulement que advis de faire et acomplir le commandement de son prelat, print celle branche de bois qui estoit tresseiche et retraicte et la planta en lieu ou labbe lut avoit commande. Et tous les jours il alloyt au fleuve de Nile, qui estoit a deux mille loing de labbaye, querir de leau sur ses espaules pour la branche seiche arouser. Et tous les jours par lespace de deux ans le fist continuellement, sans ce que pour eau quil apportast ne de quoy il arousast ladicte branche elle reverdist aucunement. Et non pourtant ce pouvre novice continua ceste chose et ce labour bien par lespace de troys ans, pour porter vraye obeissance a son 17v/ prelat. Et quant ce vint vers le prin temps, le jeune moyne saparceut que ceste branche commanca a bourjonner et quelle avoit prins racine en terre. Si advint tantost apres quelle florit et aporta son fruict et devint ung arbre. Ad ce propos de cest arbre secq qui ainsi reverdit faict mension la saincte escripture en livre des Nombres ou il dit [c]omment Dieu commenda a Moyse quil assemblast les xii lignees dIsrael et que le prince de chacune lignee luy apportast une verge seiche, et que Moyse les mist avecques la verge de Aaron qui estoit de la lignee de Levi ou tabernacle

63 64

much poverty and disease, there came and flew to him a crow, who brought him, in his beak, an herb with the root that he had torn from the earth and pulled up, and he placed and presented it at the feet of the knight. This noble knight ate it with great pleasure and found it very sweet and tasty. And because of the sweetness and goodness of this herb, he spent his life and continued for a long time in this desert. And Postumanus says that there lived in the deserts of Egypt a holy man of God who, for the Christian pilgrims who came by there unexpectedly, prepared a meal without use of fire. And he says that in those deserts there, the heat of the sun is so ardent and burning that meat cooks on its own to the point of being suitable to the tastes of the French and those of the West. Postumanus says that he saw in one of the deserts of Egypt, in a monastery of religious hermits, a small tree which had been planted in the cloister, and the religious people of that place told him that this tree had thus grown and developed from a branch that someone had planted in this place. And the manner how this came about is as follows. The abbot of this monastery, in order to test the virtue of obedience, commanded a young novice monk that he plant in the cloister of their abbey a dry branch, from which this tree came, and that he water and moisten this dry branch so much that as a result of the watering it would become green and take root in the earth. So this novice monk, who had no desire but to accomplish the commands of his abbot, took this wooden branch that was very dry and shrunken, and planted it in the place where the abbot had commanded him. And every day he went to the river Nile, which was two miles away from the abbey, to bring back water on his shoulders in order to water this branch. And every day for two years he did this continually, without either the water that he brought or his watering causing the branch to become green at all. And nonetheless this poor novice continued in this action and labor for three years time, in order to offer true obedience to his superior. And when springtime drew near, the young monk noticed that this branch began to bud and that it had taken root in the earth. And soon thereafter it happened that it flowered and brought forth fruit and became a tree. Apropos of this dry tree which eventually became green, the holy scripture in the Book of Numbers makes mention where it says how God commanded Moses that he assemble the twelve tribes of Israel and that the prince of each tribe bring him a dry branch, and that Moses put them with the rod of Aaron, which was of the tribe of Levi, before the tabernacle, the place where God spoke to him. And

Banks and Binns, III.31, pp. 621-23. Banks and Binns, III.32, p. 625.

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ou lieu davant ou Dieu parloyt a luy. Et que en chacune verge fust escript le nom de la lignee diceluy a qui elle estoyt. Et ainsi le fist Moyse. Et quant ce vint le landemain Moyse avecques luy tous les princes des xii lignees dIsrael sen vindrent au tabernacle ou Dieu avoit parle a Moyse. Et la fut trouvee la verge dAaron toute fleurie et playne de feuilles. Et y estoient ja fourmees les alemendes et toutes les autres verges des princes demourerent toutes seiches sans aucune mutacion ne apparence de verdure.65 Item dit Postumanus une aultre merveille et dit quant saint Anthoyne chemina et erra parmy les grans desers dEgipte en querant saint Pol qui fut le premier hermite pour le veoir et visiter comme Dieu par saincte revelacion luy avoit ordonne, il trouva en son chemin ung tresdoulx monstre ou beste sauvage et qui66 estoit de terrible facon et sembloit estre moytie homme et moytie cheval, homme devant et beste derriere. Et combien que saint Anthoyne nentendist point son langaige bestial. Toutesfoiz ce monstre le conduyt et le adressa a son droit chemin par signes et par contenances, dont il loua et remercia moult Dieu. Car ce monstre devant luy alloyt et a la main destre tousjours le chemin luy monstroit. Et quant il eut longuement este avecques luy, ce monstre le laissa et sen alla a son repaire on ne sceut ou.67 Item une aultre pareille adventure advint a sainct Anthoyne en ce mesme pays de desers dEgipte, assez tost apres celle premiere adventure il encontra ung petit homme sauvage tout velu et tout nu qui avoit le narilles pres que toutes renverseez, le front cornu et les piez comme une chievre, lequel fist a sainct Anthoyne moult grand reverance et luy donna par maniere donneur des dates que il portoit. Et lors sainct Anthoine le conjura ou nom de Dieu en luy commandant que il luy dist quil estoit et de quelle condicion. Adonc lomme sauvaige luy respondit: «Je suys homme mortel qui habite et demeure en desers, et suys ung doutrouppe des faunes et sartires et incubes que la gent payenne, qui est moult deceue et aveulglee par diverses erreurs, a acoustumer de adourer par ydolatre ancienne.» Item «Je suys cy envoye en enbassade par devers toy, comme especial et propre messagier de par la commune de ceulx de nostre estat et condicion, qui te requierent que tu veuilles prier pour nous le dieu qui est commun a tous, qui est dieu des dieux, du quel tu es loyal serviteur. Car nous avons certaine cognoissance que il est en ce monde venu pour le salut de tous les hommes, et en toutes

on each branch was to be written the name of the tribe to which it belonged. And Moses did exactly this. And when the next day came, Moses with all the princes of the twelve tribes of Israel came to the tabernacle where God had spoken to Moses. And there was found the rod of Aaron all flowering and filled out with leaves. And it brought forth almonds, and all the other branches of the princes remained completely dry without any change or appearance of greenness. Postumanus spoke of another marvel and said that when Saint Anthony traveled and wandered in the great deserts of Egypt seeking Saint Paul, who was the first hermit, to see and visit him as God by holy revelation had ordered him to do, he found along the way a very gentle monster or wild animal which had a frightening appearance and seemed to be half man and half horse, man in front and beast behind. And although Saint Anthony did not understand his bestial speech, nonetheless this monster conducted him and set him on the right path by signs and by facial expressions, for which he greatly praised and thanked God. For this monster went before him and always showed him the road with his right hand. And when he had been with him a long time, this monster left him and went away to his dwelling, no one knows where. Another similar adventure happened to Saint Anthony in this same region of the Egyptian deserts, for rather soon after this first adventure, he encountered a small wild man, all hairy and naked, who had nostrils almost completely turned inside out, a horned forehead, and feet like a goat. He bowed to Saint Anthony with great reverence, and, to honor him, gave him some dates that he was carrying. And then Saint Anthony conjured him in the name of God, commanding him to tell him who he was and of what estate. Then the wild man replied to him, «I am a mortal man and dwell in the desert, and I am a member of a herd of fauns and satyrs and incubi that pagan men, who are deceived and blinded by sundry errors, are in the custom of adoring because of their ancient practice of idolatry.» “I am sent here as an ambassador to you, as special and personal messenger from the people of our estate and condition, who request that you might pray for us to the God who is common to all, who is the god of gods, and of whom you are a loyal servant. For we know with certainty that he has come into this world for the salvation of all men and he has already achieved renown in every land, and the sound of his word has been heard everywhere.» And

Banks and Binns, III.35, p. 629. Banks and Binns, I.18, p. 98. 67 See Patricia Cox Miller, «Jerome’s Centaur: A Hyper-Icon of the Desert,» The Journal of Early Christian Studies 4.2 (Summer 1996): 209-33. 65 66

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terres en est ja la renommee, et en tous lieux a este ouy le son de sa parolle.» Et quant il eust tout ce dit tantost et isnelment, il se departit et sesloigna tellement que sainct Anthoine plus ne le vit.68 Item dit Gervaise que ung tel monstre fut apporte en Grece en la cite dAlixandre ou temps que regnoit Constantin lempereur dont le peuple sesmerveilla quant ilz virent 18/ humaine creature ainsi contrefaicte et desfiguree. Et finablement ce monstre cy finit par ire ou par desplaisance ou par faulte de nourriture telle comme il appartenoit a sa nature et a sa complection ou par la mutacion de lair. Si advint que lempereur nestoit pas ou pais et ne le peut veoir vif. Et pource il fut salle et envoye a lempereur qui estoit en Antioche.69 Et par ceste hystoire et aultres davant dictes appert clerement que les bestes sauvaiges ont heu congnoissance de la venue de JesusCrist quant il descendit en terre pour le monde sauver, que plusieurs faulx Chrestiens de present regnoient, maulgreoient, et despitent et font difficulte de le croire. Et me semble selon mon advis que les bestes mues en ont meilleur et plus vraye congnoissance de leur createur que nont tellez gent. Et tellez gens quant ce viendra a la fin de leurs jours et au jour de leur grant jugement ilz en seront moult reprins, redargnes, et pugniz du hault juge nostreseigneur JesusCrist. Dont nous avons ung exemple par lasne de Balaam comme il est escript en livre des Juges en la Bible en xv chappitre ou il dit comme lasne de Balaam vit plus cler lange qui empeschoit la voye que ne fist son maistre Balaam qui estoit prophete. Item dit sainct Augustin que les simples gens qui sont indoctes et ingnorans montent et lavisent plus toust aux cieulx que ne font les grans clers bien scavans et advient souvent quilz sont damnez ou puys denfer. De lerreur des Egipciens recite Pomponius et dit que par leur folle oultrecuidance ilz cuidoyent estre les premiers crees du monde et les plus anciens peuples. Et disoyent par leur folle oppinion que depuis que leur regne estoit commance, les estoilles du ciel avoyent quatre foiz mue et change et occident ou lieu dorient. Et si disoyent que par lespace de xiii mille ans leur royaume avoit precede tous aultres royaumes.70 Item dit Pomponius que en Egipte ya une contree ou ilz nenterrent point leurs amys quant ilz sont mors, ne ne les ardent, ny ne les gectent en la mer. Mais ilz les font moult richement confire en precieuses confiturez et les gardent comme riche tresor en bonnez

when he had said all this, immediately and quickly he departed and went off in such a way that Saint Anthony no longer saw him. Gervaise says that a similar monster was brought into Greece in the city of Alexandria at the time when the emperor Constantine reigned, about which the people marveled when they saw a human figure so deformed and disfigured. And finally this monster expired there out of anger or unhappiness, or from lack of food suitable to his nature and constitution, or from the change of air. And thus it happened that the emperor was not in the country and could not see him alive. And for this reason he was salted and sent to the emperor who was in Antioch. And from this story and the others offered before, it is clearly shown that savage beasts had knowledge of the coming of Jesus Christ when he descended to earth to save the world, something that a number of false Christians reigning in the present day scorn and despise, raising objections to such belief. And it seems to me, according to my opinion, that dumb animals have a better and truer knowledge of their creator than such men have. And men such as these, when they come to the end of their lives and the day of their final judgment, will be much rebuked, reproved, and punished for this by the high judge, our lord Jesus Christ. And we have an example of this in Balaam’s ass, as is written in the book of Judges in the Bible in the fifth chapter, where it says how the ass of Balaam saw the angel who was blocking his path more clearly than did his master Balaam, who was a prophet. St. Augustine says that simple men who are unlettered and ignorant are more likely to rise and bethink themselves of heaven than clerks who are learned, and it often happens that the latter are damned in the pit of hell. Pomponius tells of the error of the Egyptians and says that through foolish arrogance they imagined themselves to be the first people created in the world and the most ancient. And they said, according to their mad opinion, that since their reign began, the stars in the heavens had four times mutated and altered from West to East. And also they said that their realm had preceded all other realms by some 13,000 years. Pomponius says that in Egypt there is a country where they do not bury their loved ones when they are dead, nor burn them, nor throw them into the sea. But they have them most expensively steeped in precious preservatives, and keep and conserve them as a rich treasure in fine and sweet-smelling spices. And some sages say that from such a country comes this preserved material that is

Banks and Binns, I.18, p. 99. Banks and Binns, I.18, p. 101; Jerome, Vita S. Pauli primi eremitae, 7-8 PL 23.22-23. 70 Not Augustine. Pomponius Mela, Spanish-born Roman geographer and author of Chrorographia, the first world geographical work written in Latin, ca. 40 AD. See Frank Romer, ed. and tr., Pomponius Mela’s Description of the World (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1998), I.59, p. 51. 68 69

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finez espicez et bonnes odeurs. Et dient aucuns saiges que de telle contree vient celle confiture que on appelle momia, cest a dire char domme confite dont usent les medicins et les apoticayres.71 Item dit Pomponius que en la haulte Egipte a ung lac de merveilleuse profondeur et est appelle le lac de Themyus. Et en ce lac a une ysle floctant sur leau, en laquelle ysle a maisons, champs, terres labourables, bois, et forest. Et en celle ysle est le grand temple dAppolin que les payens appellent le dieu du souleil. Et contient ceste ysle ung grand pays de terre qui semble quelle soyt ferme et seure aux habitans. Et toutesfoiz elle est tousjours en continuel mouvement. Et sil vente fort le vent la faict aller de lieu en lieu comme une nef qui sen va selon le vent parmy la mer.72 Item dit Pomponius que les Egiptiens anciennement estoyent ydolatres et adoroyent ung beuf quant il estoit noir et tache daucunes diverses couleurs. Et quant il estoit en la langue ou en queue aucunement different des autres beufs ilz disoyent quil estoit ne et engendre en mere sans pere par divine puissance. Et ce beuf ycy pour leur dieu ilz retonoyent. Et des le jour de sa naissance devotement le adouroient et sollemnisoient. Ad ce propos fait listoire de la Bible ou xxx chappitre du livre dExode ou il dit comme les Ebreux murmurerent contre Moyse et demanderent Aaron ung nouveau dieu. Et lors il leur fist gecter leurs anneaulx 18v/ dor et autres joyaulx en une fornaise tout ardant dont il advint que de la fonteur de lor qui estoit dedans la fornaise, le dyable en fist et forma ung veau dor, lors dirent ceulx dIsrael en demenant grant joye «Voycy le dieu de enfans dIsrael lequel leur a tant de bien fait quilz les a mys hors et ostez de la servitute du roy Pharaon dEgipte. Et lors ledit veau devotement ilz adourerent, et comme faulx ydolatres pour leur dieu le retindrent et clamerent.73

called mummy—that is to say, preserved human flesh that is used by doctors and apothecaries. Pomponius says that in Upper Egypt is a lake of marvelous depth and it is called the lake of Themyus. And in this lake is an island floating on the water, on which there are houses, fields, arable lands, woods, and forests. And on this island is the great temple of Apollo, whom the pagans call the Sun God. And this island contains a large area of land that seems to be firm and secure to its inhabitants. But nevertheless it is always in constant motion. And if a strong wind comes, it blows the island from place to place, like a ship blown about in the sea at the mercy of the wind. Pomponius says that the Egyptians in ancient times were idolaters and adored an ox when it was black and spotted with many different colors. And when it was at all different in the tongue and tail from other oxen, they said it was born and engendered in the mother without a father by divine power. And they kept this particular beast for their god. And from the very day of his birth, they adored and celebrated him with devotion. And the Bible, in the thirtieth chapter of Exodus, speaks of this where it tells of how the Hebrews grumbled against Moses and asked Aaron for a new god. And then he made them throw their rings of gold and other jewelry into a flaming furnace where it happened that, from the melted gold that was in this furnace, the devil made and formed a golden calf. Then the Israelites, rejoicing, said, «Here is the god of the children of Israel, which has done such great things for them that it brought them out and removed them from the servitude of the Pharaoh of Egypt. And then they adored this golden calf with great devotion, and as false idol worshippers, they clung to it as their god and cried out to it.

16) [Elespont] Elespont est une province qui est situee en Grece en laquelle a moult de merveilleuses choses. Dont parle Crathes et dit que entre les autres merveilles qui sont en la province dElespont il ya une maniere de gens entre les autres qui par leur seul atouchement de la main guerissent de toutes poinctures et en tirant dehors le venim et lordure pourrie pour atoucher seulement de la main, soit poincture daspic, diraigne, despine, ou de saiecte.74

16) Hellespont Hellespont is a province situated in Greece in which there are many marvelous things. Crates speaks of these and says that, among other marvels that are in the province of Hellespont, there is a race of men among the others who, by the simple touch of their hand, cure all puncture wounds, drawing out the poison and rotten impurities, solely by the touch of the hand, whether the puncture be from asp, spider, thorn, or arrow.

Romer, ed. and tr., Mela, I.57, p. 51; see Michael Camille, «The Corpse in the Garden: Mumia in Medieval Herbal Illustrations,» Micrologus 7 (1999): 297-318. Romer, ed. and tr., Mela, I.55, p. 50, where it is the island of Chemmis. 73 Romer, ed. and tr., Mela, I.49, pp. 49-51. 74 Crates of Mallus, Hellenistic Stoic philosopher, grammarian, and geographer who was supposed to have constructed the first globe about 140 BC in Pergamus. 71

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Item recite Pomponius quil ya une contree en la region dElespont devers la partie dAsie ou jadis furent aucuns peuples qui estoient de merveilleuses condicions et de vie fort 19/ estrange. Car ilz mangeoient et beuvoyent en lieux publicques et communs. Et qui plus est ilz se congnoissient charnellement lung lautre publicquement et devant lung lautre et navoient point de honte de leur vil peiche neant plus que chiens ou asnes ou chevaulx. Et estoyent appellez ceste maniere de gens Momes.75 Item dit Solin que cest gent avoyent et elisoyent roy a leur agreable volunte, non pas roy succedant par lignee. Et si avoyent regard sur son gouvernement. Et quant leur roy fasoit aucune faulte feust en faict publicque ou personnel, ceulx la mesmes le corrigeoyent et le pugnissoyent scelon que le cas le requieroit a leur advis. Et si bon leur sembloyt du royaume le deboutoyent. Et en lieu de luy ung aultre roy constituoyent et mectoyent. Et ad ce propos faict ce qui est escript en la Bible ou vingt et sixesme chappitre du premier livre des Roys ou il dit que pour la deshobeissance que fist Saul contre le commandement de Samuel qui estoit prophete de Dieu quant il sacrifia de la proye quil avoit par victoire comquestee a la destrousse quil fist sur le roy Agag. Et sur le peuple de Amaleth il fist ce sacrifice contre le divin commandement de Dieu et usurpa et entreprist a faire loffice de prebstre, laquelle chouse ne luy appartenoit mye a faire. Et pource Samuel qui estoyt prophete de Dieu et sainct homme si luy dist, «Roy Saul, saiches de vray que tu as peiche davant Dieu et erre et faict contre la foy et contre sa deffence. Et veulx bien que tu saiches que mieulx vault obedience que sacrifice. Cest adire que mieulx te vaulsist avoir obay a Dieu que a sacrifice. Et pour pugnicion de ton peiche, Dieu te oustera le gouvernement de son peuple et le baillera a meilleur que toy et qui mieulx gardera ses commandemens.» Et quant Samuel luy heut tout ce dit, il se departit de luy et sen alla. Saul ala apres et si le poursceut et le tira par son mantel si rudemement que la piece lui en demoura dedans la main. Lors Samuel si luy dist, «Saul, Saul, tout ainsi comme tu as la piece de mon mantel desrompue tout ainsi es tu desjoinct et divise du royaume dIsrahel et plus ne regneras.» Et a tant se partit Samuel. Si ne demoura guere de temps apres que le jeune enfant David, qui estoit pastour des brebiz de Ysaye son pere apres la desconfiture quil obtint quant il mist a mort de sa fonde par le giect dune pierre Goliath, il fut divinement esleu, oingt, et sacre par le prophete de Dieu et constitue roy sur le peuple de Judee et sur tout le royaume dIsrahel.76 75 76

Pomponius tells that there is a country in the realm of Hellespont towards the Asian side where there used to be certain people who had amazing manners and a very strange way of life. For they ate and drank together in public places. And, what is more, they had carnal relations in public and in front of one another and had no shame about their vile sin, any more than dogs, or asses, or horses. And this race of people were called Moms. Solinus says that these people had and elected their king by common consent, not through hereditary lineage. And thus they kept watch over their government. And when their king had committed any fault, either public or personal, the people themselves corrected and punished him according to their opinion of what the case required. And if it seemed right to them, they expelled him from the kingdom. And in his place they created and installed another king. And the same thing is shown in what is written in the Bible, in the First Book of Kings, chapter 26, where it describes the result of Saul’s disobedience against the commandments of Samuel, who was the prophet of God, when Saul sacrificed the spoils that he had obtained in his victorious defeat of the king Agag. And out of the spoils that had come from the people of Amalek, he made a sacrifice against the divine commandment of God, and usurped and undertook to take on the office of the priesthood, which was by no means his to do. And for this reason Samuel, who was the prophet of God and a holy man, said to him, «King Saul, know truly that you have sinned before God and erred and acted against the faith and against his prohibition. And certainly you know that obedience is worth more than sacrifice—that is to say, that it is better to have obeyed God than the law of sacrifice. And for the punishment of your sin, God will take away from you the government of your people and bestow it on one who is better than you and who will better keep his commandments.» And when Samuel had told him all this he left him and went away. Saul followed after and pursued him and pulled him by his cloak so rudely that a piece of it came off in his hand. Then Samuel said to him «Saul, Saul, just as you have torn off a piece of my mantel, just so have you torn and divided the kingdom of Israel, and you will never reign again.» And with that Samuel left. And it was not much later that the young child David who was the shepherd of the sheep of Jesse his father, after the rout which occurred when he killed Goliath with his slingshot by the casting of a single stone, was divinely elected, anointed, and consecrated by the prophet of God and made king over the people of Judea and over all the realm of Israel.

Romer, ed. and tr., Mela, I.115, p. 67. Possibly a garbling of Collectanea, 67.

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17) [Eolyes] 19v/ Eolyes ce sont les neuf ysles qui sont en la mer moyenne. Cest assav[oir] la mer qui passe parmy le millieu de la terre depuis Affricque jusques en Grece, dont nous dit Ysidore que ces ysles sont appellees Eolyes pour ce que elles portant le nom de Eolus, qui fut roy des vens, comme dient les poethes. Car quant il veoyt les vappeurs et broulas eslevez en lair et en hault, il savoit bien par son advis de quel vent il devoit venter. Et par ainsi les anciens poethes le ordonnerent et establirent tous dung commun acort et consentement quil seroit roy des vens, laquelle royaulte il receupt bien aggreablement et en demoura saisi et possesseur jusques a la mort.77 Item dit Solin que aucuns appellant celles ysles Vulcaires, pour ce que en aucuns lieux dicelles ysles le feu et la flamble y est tous les jours continuellement ardant et flambant. Et tous les jours ardent et ardront. Pareillement comme le feu est en Cecille en la montaigne de Ethne qui tousjours art et flamboye, tant que on en voit de bien loing.78

17) Aeolians The Aeolians are nine islands that are in the Mediterranean—that is to say, the sea which passes through the middle of the earth from Africa to Greece, about which Isidore tells us that these islands are called Aeolian because they bear the name of Aeolus, who was king of the winds, as the poets say. For when he saw the vapors and fogs rise into the air on high, he knew exactly, through his judgment, what wind he ought to make blow. And thus the ancient poets ordained and established by common accord and agreement that he would be king of the winds, which royal title he accepted most agreeably, and he remained vested with it and possessor of it until his death. Solinus says that some call these islands the Vulcans because in certain places on these islands there are fires and flames every day, continuously, always burning and blazing. And every day they burn and will burn, like the fire in Sicily on Mount Etna that is always burning and blazing, such that it can be seen from very far away.

18) [ Ethioppie] 20/ Ethioppie est une region qui est situee vers la partie de mydy, ou il ya moult grant multitude de bestes venimeuses, comme serpens, basilicques, grans dragons et aspicz. Et si ya des licornes et de toutes autres bestes cruelles a si grant habondance quil semble que ce soyent fromis qui saillent dune fromiere, tant y en a. En Ethioppie sont gens qui sont noir et hideux et tres horribles a regarder, et la cause si est pour ce que le souleil si raie bien pres et est tousjours en leur region. Et est si tres [c]hault que a peu quil ne art et ambrase toute ladicte terre. Et pour ceste terrible et importunable challeur qui est en Ethioppie les habitans du pays ont de coustume de mausdire le souleil et qui si pres deux le mist. En celle chaude terre sont gens comme hommes et femmes qui sont de moult merveilleuse corpulance et estrange facon diverse condicion, dont les aucuns sont appelles Trogodites. Ceulx icy sont gens de si grant legierete et si tost allans et courans que il nest nulle beste allant par terre quilz ne passessent daller et de courir. Cestes gens nont nulles maisons edifiee, ains habitent es cavernes des bestes sauvaiges.79 Item ceste gent vivent 20v/ de chair crue et mengent les lizardes et autres menues serpens tous vifs. En Ethioppie sont et demourant autres manieres de peuples qui sont de merveilleuse propriete et

18) Ethiopia Ethiopia is a region that is situated towards the Southern parts, where there exist a great multitude of venomous beasts, such as serpents, basilisks, great dragons, and asps. And also there are unicorns and such a great abundance of all other cruel beasts that it seems as if they are ants that come swarming from an anthill, there are so many. In Ethiopia are men who are black and hideous and very horrible to look at, and the cause is that the sun shines so close and is always in their part of the world. And it is so very hot that it scarcely avoids setting the whole country on fire. And because of this terrible and insupportable heat that is in Ethiopia, the inhabitants of the country have a custom of cursing the sun and whoever put it so close to them. And in this hot land are people both male and female who are of the most marvelous size and of strange demeanor and condition, some of which are called Troglodytes. These are people of such great nimbleness and so fast in going and running that there is no beast on earth they cannot pass in their walking and running. These people have no constructed houses, but rather they live in the dens of savage beasts. These men live on raw flesh and eat lizards and other small snakes alive. And in Ethiopia live other kinds of people who are of a wonderful nature and condition, and they are called Gramantes

Etymologiae, XIV. 6.36-37. Banks and Binns, II.12, p. 343; Collectanea 54.9 gives them as seven; also Etymologiae, XIV.6.36-37, Valerie Flint, ed., Honorius Augustodunensis (Aldershot, Hants., Brookfield, VT: Variorum, 1995), De Imagine Mundi i.34, p. 65. 79 Banks and Binns, II.4, p. 215. 77 78

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condicion et sont appelles Gramentes, selon ce que dit Ysidoire ou chappitre de Ethioppie. Ceste gent cy nont cure de user de lestat et sacrement de mariaige. Car toutes les femmes de ceste contree sont communes a tous hommes sans aucun reffus ne sans nulle differance. Et comme bestes meuez et publicquement lun devant lautre. Et pour ce en celle terre nul enffant ne congnoist ny appelle ny nomme son pere pour ce quil ne scet quil est, mes il appelle bien sa mere pour ce quil congnoist bien laquelle est sa mere. En Ethioppie sont autres merveilleux peuples qui sont nommes Epassaphantes. Cestes gens sont tousjours tous nudz et nont point de coustume nul temps de eulx vestir, ne nont nulle honte de veoir les secres membres de nature les ungs des autres.80 Item ceste gent cy ne se occupent a nul labouraige faire ne ne font aucune euvre manuelle de leurs corps ne de leurs mains, mais sont oyseulx et vacabons et sen vont touz nudz par les desers comme bestes muez. Item en Ethioppie sont autres gens qui sont appellez Blemmis. Et sont de moult merveilleuse creacion et facon. Car ilz nont point de teste sur les espaules, et si ont les yeulx et la bouche en la poictrine,81 et tout le demeurant de leurs autres membres sont semblables a corps humain et sont plains de moult grant cruaulte. Toute ceste gent nont nul usaige de moyson, mais ont meurs et condicions bestielles et toutes estranges a corps humain.82 Item en Ethioppie sont autres gens qui sont nommes Sabarins, velluz et nont nulles oreilles. Et en celle contree toutes bestes mues y naissent sans oreilles. Et mesmement les oliphans qui naissent en celle contree sont aucuns peuples qui elisent a leur roy ung chien. Et selon ce que ledit chien se contient et se demaine, ilz advisent et determinent entre eulx ce quil est de faire ou de laisser.

according to what Isidore says in his chapter on Ethiopia. These people have no regard for practicing the estate and sacrament of marriage. For all the women of this country are held in common by all the men without any right of refusal and without any distinctions between them. And like animals they mate publicly in front of each other. And thus in this country no child knows his father, nor can any child call or name his father because he does not know who he is, but he will call for his mother because he knows perfectly well who his mother is. In Ethiopia are other marvelous peoples who are named Epaffaphantes. These men are always completely naked and never have any clothes with which to dress themselves, and they have no shame in seeing each other’s secret members unclothed. People of this race do not busy themselves with performing any labor, nor do they do any manual work with their bodies or hands, but are lazy and vagabond and go about completely naked in the desert like dumb beasts. In Ethiopia are men who are called Blemmyae. And they are wonderfully created and fashioned. For they have no head on their shoulders, and thus have eyes and a mouth on their chests, and all the rest of their body parts are similar to those of the human body, and they are of the greatest cruelty. All these men are without any use of agriculture, but have the morals and behavior of animals, completely alien to the human body. In Ethiopia are other men who are named Sabarines, hairy and without any ears. And in this country all dumb beasts are born without ears. And even the elephants that are born in this country. In this land are other people who elect a dog for their king. And according to how the said dog constrains himself or goes ahead, they consider and determine among themselves what is to do or leave alone.

Etymologiae, IX. 2.125, 14.5.9. Banks and Binns, III.76, p. 701. 82 These beings were a standard feature of medieval world maps. See for discussion Marina Münkler, «Experiencing Strangeness: Monstrous Peoples on the Edge of the Earth as Depicted on Medieval Mappae Mundi,» Medieval History Journal 5 (2002): 195-222; and the same author’s «Monstra und mappae mundi: die monströsen Völker des Erdrands auf mittelalterlichen Weltkarten,» in Jürg Glauser and Christian Kiening, eds., Text – Bild – Karte: Kartographien der Vormoderne (Freiburg: Rombach Verlag, 2007), pp. 149-73. On blemmyae specifically see Ivar Hallberg, L’Extrême Orient dans la littérature et la cartographie de l’Occident des XIIIe, XIVe, et XVe siècles; étude sur l’histoire de la géographie (Göteborg: W. Zachrissons boktryckeri a.-b., 1907), pp. 78-79; and Asa Mittman, Maps and Monsters in Medieval England (New York: Routledge, 2006), pp. 85-106 and passim. On sciapods see Claude Lecouteux, «Herzog Ernst, les monstres dits ‘sciapodes’ et le problème des sources,» Études Germaniques 34.1 (1979): 1-21; and more recently see Teresa Pàroli, «How Many are the Unipeds’ Feet?» in Wilhelm Heizmann, Heinrich Beck, Kurt Schier, eds., Analecta Septentrionalia: Beiträge zur nordgermanischen Kultur- und Literaturgeschichte (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2009), pp. 281-327. On these and other legendary peoples of Inner Africa, see E. Schweder, «Die Angaben über die Völker von Innerafrika bei Plinius und Mela,» Philologus 47 (1889): 636-43, who discusses Pliny’s and Pomponius Mela’s accounts. See recently Juan Casas Rigall, «Razas humanas portentosas en las partidas remotas del mundo (de Benjamín de Tudela a Cristóbal Colón),» in Rafael Beltrán Llavador, ed., Maravillas, peregrinaciones y utopías: literatura de viajes en el mundo románico (Valencia: Universidad de Valencia, 2002), pp. 253-90; Joan-Pau Rubiés, Voyages and Visions: Towards a Cultural History of Travel (London: Reaktion, 1999); Rubiés, ed., Medieval Ethnographies (Farnham, Surrey and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2009); and the same author’s The Emergence of a Naturalistic and Ethnographic Paradigm in Late Medieval Travel Writing (Farnham, Surrey and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2009). 80 81

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Item la sont autres gents qui sont nommes Agophages. Ceste gent se occupent de chasser et de vener continuellement par les desers aux lyons, aux liepars, et aux pantheres. Et quant ilz les povent prandre, ilz en mangent la char toute crue. Et en font auxi grant joye et grant feste comme nous faisons de venaison de cerf ou de senglier. Item en Ethioppie sont les gens sauvaiges qui ne vivent que de langoustes, de sautereaux, et de lizardes et les font saller et seicher a la fumee et au souleil. Item auxi en Ethioppie sont autres gens qui ne mangent que dragons et nont cure dautre viande. Et quant ilz les ont bien chassez et venez et ilz les peuent prandre, ilz en mengent de meilleur appetit. Et si y ont ung moult grant proffit. Car les dragons de par dela si ont dedans le cervel de la teste certainnes pierres precieuses. Cest assavoir le jacante, le crisoprasse, et le topaze lesquelles comme dit Ysidores et Solin que en celle contree ilz les vendent moult cherement.83 Item dit Solin et Ysodoires que en celle contree croist la fine canelle, et celle qui est plus medicinable.84 Item dit Ysidoire que en Ethioppie sont deux fontaines qui sont de merveilleuse propriete et condicion. Car leau dune est de telle condicion. Car quant aucune personne en aura beu il ne luy souviendra de chose quil ayt veue, sceue, ne faicte le temps passe. Et lautre fontaine est de condicion toute opposite 21/ et contraire. Car quant aucun homme en aura beu, il aura tresbonne souvenance des choses quil a veues, sceues, et ouy dire en temps passe, et luy en soviendra moult bien. Ad ce propos fait ce que dit le Maistre des Ystoyres le iie chappitre du livre dExode ou Josephus recite et dit que quant Moyse eut espousee la fille du roy dEthioppe lequel fut de celle tant chery et ame quelle ne le vouloit laisser retourner ne revenir en sa terre. Lors Moyse fit saigement et subtillement faire deuz anneaulx dor semblables lun a lautre, dont [lun] avoit la vertu de la fontaine doubliance. Et la vertu de la fontaine de souvenance estoit en lautre. Et quant Moyse sen volut partir, il donna et laissa a sa femme lannel doubliance et retint pour luy lannel de souvenance.85

There are other men who are named Agophages. The people of this race occupy themselves with hunting lions, leopards and panthers continually in the deserts. And when they can catch one, they eat the flesh completely raw. And they make of it as much joy and as great a celebration as we do for the hunting and capture of a stag or boar. In Ethiopia are savage people who live only on lobsters, grasshoppers, and lizards, and they salt them and dry them by smoking them or leaving them in the sun. Also in Ethiopia are other men who eat only dragons and care for no other food. And when they have pursued and hunted them successfully and have been able to take them, they eat them with the greatest appetite. And also they have great profit from them. For the dragons of that region have inside their heads certain precious stones—that is to say jacinth, chrysophrase, and topaz, which they sell at very high prices, as Isidore and Solinus report. Isidore and Solinus say that in this country grows fine cinnamon, of the kind that is most useful medicinally. Isidore says that in Ethiopia there are two springs that have marvelous properties and conditions. For the water in one is of such a nature that when any person will have drunk it, he will not remember things he had seen, known, or done in the past. And the other spring is of the opposite and contrary sort. For when any man will have drunk from it, he will have excellent memory and recall of the things he has seen, known, or heard said in times past, and will remember them very well. Apropos of this is what the Master of Histories said in commenting on the second chapter of the book of Exodus, where Josephus tells and says that when Moses had married the daughter of the king of Ethiopia, who so greatly loved and cherished him that she did not wish to let Moses leave and return to his land, then Moses very wisely and subtly had two gold rings made, very similar to each other, of which one had the power of the spring of forgetfulness and the other the power of the spring of remembrance. And when Moses wished to leave, he gave his wife the ring of forgetfulness and retained for himself the ring of remembrance.

Etymologiae, XIV.5.15; XVI.14.7; and Collectanea, 133. Intended here may be cinnamon confused with the word cannae in Etymologiae, XIV.5.16; XVII.8.10. See also Collectanea, 151-52. 85 Not Etymologiae. For the Master of Histories, see Peter Comestor’s Historia Scholastica, a type of commentary on Genesis and the books of the Old Testament, PL 198, 1053-1644. See Agneta Sylwan, ed., Petri Comestoris, Historia Scholastica. Liber Genesis (Corpus Christianorum [Continuatio Medievalis 191]. Turnhout: Brepols, 2005). Besides the account in Gervaise III.111, the story of Moses and the Ethiopian Tharbis is told in Josephus, Henry St. J. Thackeray, ed. and tr., Josephus Jewish Antiquities (Cambridge and London: Loeb Classical Library, 1967), II. 238-53, and also in Louis Ginzberg, The Legends of the Jews, Philadelphia, PA: Society for Jewish Research, 1947), V. 409-10. 83 84

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Solinus tells how in Ethiopia there are people named Nerbothes who are of such great height and girth that they are a full twelve feet tall. And our authority Gervaise says of these people that they are yellow in color and shine like fine gold. Gervaise says that there are other people who are called Actraces, who are so very large and strong that they have the custom of pursuing and hunting elephants, and they take them and eat them and live on them. Gervaise says that in Ethiopia is a type of people who are called Cinophages, and the king of this land has only one eye on his forehead. Solinus says that in Ethiopia are other people who have no tongue in the mouth at all. There are some people who have no regard for fire, but hate it and flee from it whenever they see it. Solinus says that in Ethiopia there is a mountain called Eduhe that burns and blazes at all times of the year, and yet, no matter what fire or flame may be there, the mountain neither wears away nor grows smaller. And there are four mountains on earth that are similar. The first is the mountain just mentioned. The second is the one that has already been spoken of in the chapter on upper Campania at the beginning of the characteristics of Naples. The third mountain is in Sicily. And it is named Etna, where there are always flames continuously. And the fourth is the Mountain of Chimera, which is in the province of Scythia. In Ethiopia is a manner of men who are named Macrobes. And according to what Solinus says they are most reasonable, wise, and prudent, greatly loving justice, truth, loyalty, and honor. And they act just as all other men who are of exemplary virtue and good morals. In this land is an island named Cliotrapetra where all goods abound, grow, and multiply because of the great fertility of the earth. Solinus says that this noble island grows bigger all the time and increases by divine virtue. Solinus says that the inhabitants of this land are naturally very long lived and do not die young except by violence. Solinus says that in Ethiopia are some dragons that have inside the brain in the head a most precious stone which is called draguncias, which is most valuable for several things. But the

Item recite Solin que en Ethioppie sont aucuns peuples qui sont nommes Nerbothes qui sont de si grant haulteur et corpulance que ilz ont bien douze piez de hault. Et de ceste gent dit nostre docteur Gervaise que ilz sont de jaune couleur et sont reluisans comme fin or.86 Item dit Gervaise que en Ethioppie sont autres gens nommes Atraces qui sont si grans et si fors que ilz ont de coustume de vener et chasser les elephans et les prenent et mengent et en vivent. Item dit Gervaise que en Ethioppie a une maniere de gens qui sont appelles Cinophages et le roy de celle terre na que ung oeil ou front.87 Item dit Solin que en Ethioppie sont autres gens qui nont point de langue en la bouche.88 Item aucuns peuples y sont qui nont cure de feu, mais le heent et sen fuient quant ilz en voyent. Item dit Solin que en Ethioppie a une montaigne appellee Eduhe qui en toutes saisons art et flamboye ne pour quelconque feu ne flambe qui y soit la montaigne ne descroist ne appetisse. Et sont quatre montaignes en la terre qui sont semblables. La premiere si est ceste montaigne dessusdicte. La seconde si est celle dont cy devant a este parle ou chappitre de la haulte Champaigne au commancement de la propriete de Neaples. La tierce si est en Cecille. Et est nommee Ethna ou la flambe est tousjours continuellement. Et la quarte est le mont de Chimere qui est en la province de Licie.89 Item en Ethioppie sont une maniere de gens que on nomme Macrobes. Et selon ce que dit Solin ilz sont moult raisonables, saiges, et prudens et ayment moult justice, verite, et loyaute et preudhonne. Et sont comme a toutes autres gens exemplaire de vertu et de toutes bonnes meurs. En celle terre a une ysle nommee Cliotrapetra ou tous biens habondent, croissent, et multiplient pour la grant felicite de la terre.90 Item dit Solin que ceste noble [ysle] croist tousjours et se agrandist par la vertu divine.91 Item dit Solin que les habitans de ceste terre sont naturellement de treslonguement vivre et ne meurent point ieunes si non par violance.92 Item dit Solin que en Ethioppie a aucuns dragons qui ont dedans le cervel de la teste une pierre moult precieuse qui est appellee Collectanea, 130. Banks and Binns, III.76, p. 701. Gervaise says they live in India, Banks and Binns, II.12, p. 325. 88 Collectanea, 132. 89 Collectanea, 132. 90 Collectanea, 131-32. 91 Collectanea, 132. 92 Collectanea, 131-32. 86 87

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draguncias qui est moult vallable a plusieurs choses. Mais les maistres dient que si la pierre nest si traicte du cervel de la teste du dragon luy estant en vie la pierre na nulle vertu. Car quant le dragon meurt aient la pierre ou cervel, ladicte pierre pert sa vertu et nen a nulle.93 Item dit Solin que es haulx chaulx desers brulles de Ethioppie habitent autres peuples qui sont moult merveilleux, et sont nommez Ethiophages, les queulx sen vont nouans et nageans par la mer comme balenes ou esturgons et autres grans poissons, et sen vont noant par la mer de lun rivaige a lautre, et de la mer dOrient 21v/ sen vont jusques en Occident et jusques aus ysles de Gorgades. Ad ce propos recite Gervaise en son livre Les Merveilles du Monde dung cas qui advint en Appuille. En celle contree nasquit ung homme qui fut appelle Nicholas Poisson, et fut de telle condicion que tousjours vouloit estre en la mer dont sa mere estoit moult doulante et couroucee et en blasmoit et reprenoit souvent son filz. Si advint une foiz que sa mere se courouca a luy, pour ce quil ne se vouloit abstiner daller en la mer et quil ne vouloit obair a elle. Et pource celle le conjura et maudist de grant cueur et de grant couroux en disant que son filz feust a tousjours mais en la mer et quil nen peust jamais revenir ne retourner. Lors il advint que par la terrible maudisson de la mere celluy enffant se despouilla tout nu et gecta sa robbe aux piez de sa mere et sen saillit tout nu en la grant mer de Cecille et sen alla nouant par la mer et vesquit et usa sa vie avecques les poissons en la mer. Et quant il veoit sur la mer aucuns vasseaulx, il venoit au patron du vessel et ce demonstroit a luy. Et luy disoit en suppliant que on luy donnast de luille pour sa bouche mouiller et ses yeulx pour mieulx adviser la parfondeur de la mer. Et disoit que ou fons de la mer il avoit veu grans arbres comme ormes et chesnes et plusieurs autres arbres portans glandes, pommes, et autres fruitz pareil comme autresfoiz il avoit veu sur terre.94 Item disoit apres que ou fons de la mer il avoit veu montaignes et vallees, fontaines et russeaulx deau doulce esquelles il avoit apperceu anguilles grandes et grosses excessivement et autres poissons vivans. Et tout ce il affermoit pour verite. Item cest homme si denuncoyt aux mariniers la mutacion du temps, la contrariete des vens, et la tempeste de la mer qui devoit prochenement advenir. Et disoit quil savoit cecy par les signes quil avoit veuz et cogneuz ou parfont de la grant mer.95

experts say that if this stone is not extracted from the head of a dragon that is still alive, the stone has no power. For when the dragon dies with the stone in its head, the aforesaid stone loses its power and has no value at all. Solinus says that in the high, hot, burned deserts of Ethiopia live other people who are exceedingly marvelous and they are named Etiphages. And they go swimming and floating in the sea like whales and sturgeons and other great fish, and they go about swimming in the sea from one shore to the other, and from the Eastern sea they go all the way to the West and to the isles of Gorgades. On this point Gervaise speaks in his book of marvels of the world of a case that occurred in Apulia. In this country was born a man named Nicholas Fish, and he was of such a condition that he was always wanting to be in the sea, for which reason his mother was most sorrowful and angry, and she admonished and chided her son often for this. And so it happened one day that his mother became angry at her son because he did not wish to abstain from going to the sea and he did not wish to obey her. And because of this, she cursed him and cast a spell upon him, in a most heartfelt way and with great anger, saying that her son must forever after remain in the sea and that he would never be able to come back or return. Then it happened that because of this terrible curse from his mother, this child stripped himself all bare and threw his garment at his mother’s feet and went and jumped naked into the great sea of Sicily, and then he went off swimming in the sea and passed and spent his life swimming with the fish in the ocean. And whenever he saw any boats on the sea, he went to the captain and showed himself to him. And he begged that he might be given oil to moisten his mouth and his eyes so that he might better be able to study the depths of the sea. And he said that at the bottom of the sea he had seen great trees like elms and chestnuts and several other trees bearing acorns, apples, and other fruits just as he used to see on land. He said afterwards that at the bottom of the sea he had seen mountains and valleys, springs, and rivulets of fresh water, in which he had seen eels that were large and excessively heavy, as well as other living fish. And all this he affirmed for truth. This man informed the sailors of changes in weather, unfavorable winds, and storms at sea that were soon to arrive. And he said that

Collectanea, 133. Collectanea, 202, but not in Ethiopia or possibly NH 6.34, p. 471. 95 Not Collectanea. Banks and Binns, II.12, pp. 333-35 where he is called Nicholas Pipe; Montague R. James, ed., Walter Map De Nugis curialium-Courtiers’ Trifles, rev. ed., Christopher N. L. Brooke and R. A. B. Mynors (Oxford: Clarendon and New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), iv.13; James Hinton, «Notes on Walter Map’s De Nugis Curialium,» Studies in Philology 20 (1923): 448-68; and Klaus J. Heinisch, Der Wassermensch: Entwicklungsgeschichte eines Sagenmotivs (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1981), pp. 34-36. 93 94

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Gorgodes sont ysles esquelles nulz mariniers ne arrivent pour ce quelles sont en treslongue mer et parfonde Athalantique. Cestes ysles sont habitees dune gent nommes Gorgones et sont bestes monstrueuses qui ont facon de corps humain et sont tous velluz et si vont si trestoust et si legierement quilz passeroient ung lieuvre, ung liepart, ou ung levrier.96 Item nest memoire domme que autre que Hemon, le roy de Penores, ait la este. Et quant il eut toutes les mers chevauchees, son navire se arresta la et trouva femmes qui estoient vellues par tout le corps lesquelles estoient tant legieres et habilles a tost courir et aller, quelles passoient toutes autres bestes sauvaiges en courant. Et ledit roy Hemon en soy esbatent et respousant luy et ses gens esdictes ysles il print deux dicelles femmes et les admena en la cite de Cartaige ou elles moururent, et les fist le roy escorcher et les peaux dicelles femmes il presenta au temple de Juno sa deesse ou quel temple ces deux peaux furent a la veuue de chascun pendues. Et y demourerent jusques au temps que Cartaige fut destruicte par les Romains ou temps de Scipion et de Hanibal son ennemy.97 Item dit Solinus que en Ethioppie a une ysle nommee Meroce en laquelle est une cite qui a nom Cyrene. Et est la cite ou Moyse encloit jadis les Ethioppes quant la royne de Ethioppie se donna a luy par nom de mariaige, dont les saiges et anciens philosophes firent faire a Moyse ung puiz pour en avoir perpetuelle memoire, lequel puiz avoit lx coudees de parfont et les autres dient lx mille, mais la condicion de ce puiz si est telle que a leure de midy le soleil y luist tout droit ou fons 22/ tellement quil nya point de umbre ne de coste ne dautre, mais luist tout droit au fons. LEvangille Sainct Jehan fait mention que ce puiz est pareil au puiz ou nostre Seigneur se repousa et se assist luy estant las et travaille pres la porte Samarie quant il dist a la femme Samaritainne toutes ces adventures. Et quans mariz elle avoit euz.98 Item dit Plenius en son second livre que en moult de pais est le cas pareil du souleil droictement passant sans umbre en ung pais et en ung autre pais opposite est trove semblable.99 Item Gervaise et Plinien dient ung grant merveille. Et dient que en Ethioppie a une province nommee Thezoma laquelle est si pres du soleil quelle est continuellement ardent en challeur sans auchune restringeracion nonne par feu ardent mais par la treschaude et intollerable proxymitte du souleil.100

he knew this by signs that he had seen and interpreted at the bottom of the sea. The Gorgades are islands that no sailor can access because they are in a very remote and deep part of the Atlantic Ocean. These islands are inhabited by a people named Gorgons who are monstrous beasts who have a sort of human body and are all hairy and go about so speedily and lightly that they would surpass a hare, a leopard, or a greyhound. No other man in memory save Hemon, the king of Penores, has been there. And when he had crossed all the seas, his ship stopped there, and he found women whose entire bodies were covered with hair, who were such agile and speedy runners that they surpassed all other beasts in their ability to run. And this king Hemon, enjoying himself and resting with his men in these islands, took two of these women and brought them to the city of Carthage where they died, and the king had them skinned and he presented their skins at the temple of Juno the goddess, in which temple the two skins were hung in public view. And they remained there until the time when Carthage was destroyed by the Romans in the days of Scipio and of Hannibal his enemy. Solinus says that in Ethiopia is an island named Meroe, in which is a city called Cyrene. And this is the city where Moses once enclosed the Ethiopians when the queen of Ethiopia gave herself to him in marriage, for which the sages and ancient philosophers made for Moses a well in order to have perpetual memory of this event. This well was 60 feet deep, and others said 60 thousand, but the nature of this well is such that at the hour of noon the sun shines into it directly to the bottom, in such a way that there is no shadow on one side or the other, but it shines straight to the bottom. The Gospel of St. John mentions that this well is similar to the well where our lord rested and sat, being tired and weary, near the gate of Samaria when he spoke to the Samaritan woman about all her experiences and how many husbands she had had. Pliny says in his second book that in many countries there is a similar case of the sun passing directly overhead without shadow in one country, and in another country the opposite is likewise found. Gervaise and Pliny speak of a great marvel. They say that in Ethiopia is a province named Thezoma that is so near the sun that it is continually burning in heat without any cooling, not because of any fire that is burning, but because of the very hot and intolerable proximity of the sun.

Banks and Binns, II.11, p. 325; III.81, 709, adapting the Letter of Alexander to Aristotle. See also Collectanea, 210-11. NH 5.1, pp. 223-225, Hanno confused with Hammon, a Carthaginian deity. 98 Collectanea, 130. Banks and Binns, II.4, p. 213. 99 NH 2.8, p. 201; NH 2.75, p. 317. 100 Possibly NH 5.8, p. 251. Banks and Binns, II.4, p. 215. 96 97

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Item pour mieulx aprouver ceste chose parle Plinien en la fin de son livre. Et dit que les rivaiges de la grant mer pour la tres desordonnee challeur et ardeur du souleil qui tousjours est en celle contree, ilz bouillent comme leau en la chaudiere sur le feu.101 Item dit Plinien que semblablement pour la grant challeur et ardeur qui est es rivaiges de la mer, qui est en la region des Cleopolis. Et en la province de Esperide ilz bouillent tousjours en tous temps comme dit est.102 Item il dit que pour la grant ardeur du soleil qui est en celle terre de Tezome non pas seullement homme ne femme ny peut durer, mais les bestes ne les oyseaulx ne la peuent voir ne regarder.103 Item dit Plinien que les terres qui sont prochaines de celle contree sont toutes arces et brullees et pareillement la grave et les sablons des rivaiges de la mer si en sont tous noirs comme charbon. Et pour ce en sont icelles contrees desertes et inhabitables. Combien que la repairent certaines bestes et serpens qui sont de chaude complexion et vivent en ardeur et en feu comme salmandres et autres bestes sauvaiges, qui ne peuent ailleurs vivre. Ains mourroient se elles estoient hors de challeur.104 Item dit Plinius que les noms des bestes et serpens qui la vivent nul de nous ne peut savoir pour ce que nous nen avons clere experience.105 Item dit Solin que oultre ceste chaude region souloit avoir une grant ysle laquelle selon loppinion du saige Platon estoit plus grande et plus longue et plus large et contenoit plus grant pais que toute la terre de Europpe et de Affricque qui sont les deux pars du monde habitable, laquelle ysle fut jadis fondue et convertie en mer. Et la ou lors estoit ferme terre maintenant est parfonde mer.106 Item dit Gervaise que en la haulte Ethioppe vers la Mer Rouge [est] un pais qui est habite de femmes qui sont dorrible contenance et despouventable facon. Car elles ont les barbes grans et descendans jusques aux mamelles. Et sont vestues de peaulx de bestes quelles devourent et mengent et ne vivent que de char crue.107 Item dit que ilz ne font autre chose que chasser et vener les tigrides et les liepars, et quant ilz les povent avoir jeunes et petiz, ilz les apprenent a vener et chasser toutes autres bestes comme nous duysons pardeca les chiens et les levriers a chasser aux lievres, aux cerfs, aux biches, et aux sangliers.108

In order to reinforce this claim, Pliny says at the end of his book that the waters on the shores of the Mediterranean, because of the excessive heat and burning of the sun that is always in this country, boil as if in a cauldron on a fire. Pliny says that a similar thing occurs because of the great heat and burning of the sun that is on the shores of the sea, which is in the region of Heliopolis. And in the province of Hesperides, the waters boil all the time in all seasons, as has just been told. He says that because of the great heat of the sun in this land of Tezoma, not only can men and women not endure it, but neither beasts nor birds can see or look at it. Pliny says that the lands that are adjacent to this country are all parched and burned up, and similarly the gravel and the sands of the seashore are all black like coal. And because of this these countries are deserted and uninhabitable. They are, however, the dwelling place of certain beasts and serpents that are of a warm humor and live in heat and fire, such as salamanders and other similar beasts, who can live nowhere else. Thus they would die if they were out of the heat. Pliny says that none of us can know the names of the beasts and snakes that live there because we have no clear experience of them. Solinus says that beyond this hot region there used to be a great island that, according to the opinion of the sage Plato, was greater and longer and larger and contained more area than all the lands of Europe and of Africa, which are two parts of the habitable world. This island was long ago sunken and converted into ocean. And there where there had been firm earth is now deep sea. Gervaise says that in Upper Ethiopia towards the Red Sea is a country that is inhabited by women who are of horrible countenance and frightful customs. For they have great beards which hang down to their breasts. And they are dressed in the skins of animals that they devour and eat, and they live only on raw flesh. He says that they do nothing else but pursue and hunt tigers and leopards, and when they are able to catch them young and small, they teach them to hunt and track all the other beasts as we train dogs and greyhounds here to hunt hares and stags and does and boars.

Generally NH 5.8, pp. 249-253. Generally NH 5.8, pp. 249-253. 103 Generally NH 5.8, pp. 249-253. 104 Generally NH 5.8, pp. 249-253. 105 Generally NH 5.8, pp. 249-253. 106 This is the continent Atlantis. NH 2.92, pp. 335-337; Timaeus 24-52; Critias 113, 116. See below Ch. 62, Wonders of the Earth. 107 Banks and Binns, II.4, p. 215; III.78, p. 703. 108 Banks and Binns, II.4, p. 215. 101 102

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Item dit Gervaise que en Ethioppe sont certaines montaignes voisines aux pais dessusdit, la ou sont femmes plus merveilleuses que ailleurs. Car elles ont les dens crochues yssans hors de la bouche comme sangliers, les cheveulx noirs et rudes comme crains de chevaulx et leurs pendent jusques aux talons. Et au bout de leschine ont longues queuz comme beufs 22v/ ou vaches; elles sont velluez comme chievres et chameaux. Et sont plus grandes et plus haultes que autres femmes. Car elles ont du moins vii piez de longe.109 Item recite Gervaise que selon les rivaiges du fleuve de Brisson lequel descend de Ethioppie en Egipte sont certaines bestes sauvaiges qui ont forme et semblance humaine, mais ilz ont les gembes de xii piez de longe et les autres membres a lequipolent. Et ont les braz et les espaules blans comme neige, la teste ronde et le nez grant et longe. Et dit que selon la commune renomee du peuple de par dela, cest gent cy sont muez et transformez en cigoignes. Et tous les ans vienennt es parties de par deca pour pondre et couver.110 Et ad ce propos est recitee lystoyre qui advint ou temps du bon Robert qui fut roy de Athaye quant le frere du duc de Bourgoigne par le moyen du mariaige qui fut entreulx devint heritier de la terre de Athaye. Lors ad ce prince fut presente ung prebstre qui estoit reveistu de plumes de cygoingne et de fait il resembloit estre tel lequel affermoit que par une femme sorciere et anchanteresse avoit este en dormant par ung laz de soye quelle avoit mis en son coul ainsi mue en cygoigne. Et aveques les autres cygoignes avoit volle jusques es parties de France. Et advint ung jour que les autres cygoignes se esmeurent ireusement contre luy et le baptirent, dont lune luy rompit son laz de son bec et luy donna si grant coup quelle luy tollit et ousta. Lors il delaissa a estre cygoigne et luy revint la face de homme. Et pour ce que trop soudainement advint le cas du laz de soye qui luy fut rompu ou coul et que le temps du sort et de lanchantement ne fut pas acomply ne venu pource luy demourerent sur son corps les plumes de cygoigne. Combien quil eust face et semblance de homme.111 Item dit Plinius que en Ethioppie a gens quil nomme Sircaz qui sont grans comme geans. Et sont plus de viii coudees de hault.112 Item dit que la est une cite de grant regnom ou il ya moult de merveilles qui est apellee Heliopolis. Cest adire la cite du soleil. De laquelle cite est faicte mencion en la Bible ou livre de Ysaie ou xxxe chapitre ou le prophete dit que le temps viendra que en Ethioppie

Gervaise says that in Ethiopia are certain mountains adjacent to the country just mentioned where there are women who are more marvelous than elsewhere. For they have tusks coming out of their mouths like boars, hair black and coarse as the manes of horses and hanging to their heels. And at the end of the spine they have long tails like oxen or cows; they are hairy like goats or camels. And they are larger and taller than other women, for they are at least seven feet tall. Gervaise tells that along the banks of the river Brixon that descends from Ethiopia into Egypt are certain savage beasts that have a human form and appearance, but they have legs twelve feet long and other members in proportion. And they have arms and shoulders white as snow, a round head and a large and long nose. And he says that according to the common opinion of people there, these people are changed and transformed into storks. And every year they come to certain parts of that place in order to lay eggs and brood them. And apropos of this, the story is told that happened in the time of the good Robert who was king of Athaye when the brother of the Duke of Burgundy, by means of the marriage between the two lands, became heir to the land of Athaye. Then to this prince was presented a priest who was dressed in stork feathers, and in fact he seemed actually to be one, having affirmed that he had been changed into a stork by a woman sorceress and enchantress by means of a lace of silk she had put around his neck while he was sleeping. And with the other storks he had flown into those parts of France. And it happened one day that the other storks rose up against him angrily and beat him, and one broke the silk lace with his beak and gave him such a great blow that it removed and carried away the lace altogether. Then he left off being a stork and regained his human face. And because the breaking of the lace of silk around his neck occurred too suddenly and the time of the spell and enchantment was not fully accomplished and completed, for this reason there remained on his body the feathers of a stork, even though he had the face and appearance of a man. Pliny says that in Ethiopia there are people he calls Sircaz who are as big as giants. And they are more than eight feet tall. He says that in that place there is a city of great renown where there are many marvels, which is called Heliopolis—that is to say, the city of the sun. This city is mentioned in the Bible in the book of Isaiah in Chapter 30 where the prophet says that the time will come when there will be five cities in Ethiopia speaking the language

Banks and Binns, II.4, p. 215; III.78, p. 703. Banks and Binns, III.73, p. 699. 111 See Banks and Binns, p. 680 note. 112 NH 7.2, p. 527. 109 110

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aura v citez usans de langaige de Canaan, dont la cite du souleil en sera une. En ceste cite sont deux grans palais plus richement ediffiez quon ne pouroit penser dor, dargent, et de pierres precieuses, dont lun est dit le palais du soleil et lautre le palais de la lune. Ou premier palais est le lit du soleil bien fait et richement dor fin, de or brise, et de tuilath et de yvoire.113 Item la est une vigne dont les branches sont de fin or et les grappes de perles. La est le fin balme. Ce palais est garde de [prestez] qui jour et nuyt servent et adourent pour leur dieu le soleil. Et de leans nul temps ne se partent.114 Item a nully ne donnant leans entree tant soit grant ou noble sil nest ne de ladicte cite. Mais a ceulx de la cite ilz ouvrent les portes du palaiz. Ad ce propos il est escript ou xliiii chappitre de Ezechiel a qui Dieu ordonna et dist ainsi, «Nul estrangier qui nest circunciz ou baptize ja nentrera en mon temple ne en mon saintuaire». Item dit Plinius que en Ethioppie sont aucuns hommes sauvaiges qui ont nom Gorgoires. Cestes gens sont cornuz comme beufs et ont les piez fenduz comme chievres, et les aucuns les appellant Ganlobes. Au propos des gens cornuz nous lisons ou livre dExode que quant Moyse descendit du Mont de Synay ou il avoit veu Dieu et parle a luy. 23/ Et quant il fut retourne, le peuple le regarda en la face qui merveilleusement resplandisoit, pour la clarte quil avoit, laquelle il avoit receue par la vertu divine. Lors le peuple si luy dist quil avoit le front et la face cornue.115 Item il dit que en Ethioppie, vers la cite de Eliopolees, sont hommes sauvaiges et merveilleux, et qui sont moult grans. Car ilz sont bien de vi piez de long et de vii piez de large par les espaules, et sont velluz. Et ont le poil auxi blanc comme coton. Et si ont la teste grande et grosse a desmesure. Et si ont les oreilles si grandes et si larges que elles resemblent mieulx esles a voller que oreilles a escouter. Et sont leurs oreilles de la facon dung van de quoy on vante le ble. Et quant cestes gens voyent autres gen de quoy ilz ont peur ou soyent aucunement espoventes, lors ilz dressent et estendent leurs oreilles qui sont si grans et si larges quil semble que ce soient aigles qui estendent leurs esles pour eulx en voller.116

of Canaan, of which the city of the sun will be one. In this city are two great palaces more richly constructed than one could imagine of gold, silver, and precious stones, of which one is called the palace of the sun and the other the palace of the moon. In the first palace the bed of the sun is well and richly made of pure gold, of perfectly refined gold, and of tile and of ivory. [obrize = gold perfectly fined or tried] There is a vine there whose branches are of fine gold and whose clusters are of pearls. There is found very fine balsam. This palace is guarded by priests who day and night serve and adore the sun as their god. And they never depart from that place. No one, no matter how great or noble, is given entrance into this place if he is not from the said city. But to those who are citizens of the city they open the palace gates. Much like this, it is written in chapter 44 of Ezekiel, to whom God commanded and said, «Let no uncircumcised or unbaptized stranger ever enter into my temple or my sanctuary.» Pliny says that in Ethiopia there are some savage men who are called Gorgoires. These men are horned like cows and have feet with cloven hoofs like goats, and some people call them Ganlobes. Apropos of horned men, we read in the book of Exodus of when Moses came down from Mount Sinai where he had seen and spoken with God. And when he had returned, the people looked him in the face and his face shown marvelously because of the light that was there, which he had received by divine power. Then the people said that he had a horned forehead and face. He says that in Ethiopia towards the city of Heliopolis are savage and marvelous men who are very large. For they are fully six feet tall and seven feet wide at the shoulders, and they are hairy. And they have fur as white as cotton. And also their heads are disproportionately large and broad. And also their ears are so big and wide that they more closely resemble wings to fly with than ears to hear with. And their ears look like a winnowing fan with which one winnows grain. And when these men see other men of whom they are afraid or are at all frightened, then they hold up and extend their ears, which are so great and so large that they seem to be eagles who extend their wings in order to take flight.

Banks and Binns, III.78, p. 705. Heliopolis is not mentioned in Isaiah 30. For discussion of this city see Westrem, ed. and tr., Broader Horizons, pp. 234-35. 114 Banks and Binns, III.78, p. 707. 115 Banks and Binns, III.115, p. 807; Ruth Mellinkoff, The Horned Moses in Medieval Art and Thought (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1970). 116 Banks and Binns, III.78, p. 705. 113

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Item en Ethioppie en la province prochaine dAffricque a moult de merveilles comme dit Solin en espicial en celle contree reppaire une beste appellee histrix qui a pou pres est pareille au porc espy, si non quelle est plus grande et plus forte. Et est tout le poil de dessus elle auxi agu et pointu comme fers de dardres ou de dondaines. Et quant elle est chasse et venee de chiens et de veneurs. Et quant les chiens et veneurs sapprochent delle, elle dresse sa hure et les crains qui sont ainsi aguz contre les chiens et veneurs et se esloigne et deffent contre eulx. Et quant elle actaint aucuns deulx de ses broches, il est affole. Et luy vauldroit mieulx estre picque dung vireton darbaleste.117 Item en Ethioppie reppaire ung oysel appelle pegasse. Cest adire cheval vollant. Et pour ce que cest oysel a la teste et les oreilles semblables a ung cheval, est il appelle cheval vollant. Autrement dit Plinius en son xxiie livre en viii chappitre. Car il dit que pegasses sont oyseaulx vollans qui sont cornuz comme cerfs. Et ont le corps fassonne comme ung cheval. Et pource il les appelle chevaulx vollans armes de cornes.118 Item dit que la reppaire ung autre oysel appelle tragoppa, qui est plus grant que nest un eigle, qui a cornes pareilles aux cornes dun mouton, dont il se deffend contre les autres oyseaulx.119 Item dit que en une contree de Ethioppie a aucunes gens appelles Athalantes, qui ont facon de corps humain et ont langaige et pollice de gouvernement entreulx, mais ilz sont comme gens bestiaulx et nont nulz propres noms qui soient differens lun de lautre, si non tous ung semblable nom, et sont noirs comme corbins, pour la grant ardeur et challeur du soleil qui continuellement regne sur eulx ilz despitent, maudissent, et conjurant le soleil, et celluy qui la mis la ou il est. Et tout ainsi comme nous despitons les dyables, ilz despitent Dieu de paradis et sa lumiere. Et cestes gens ne songent point en dormant.120 Item dit Plinius que en Ethioppie sont une maniere de peuples appelles Trogodites, desqueulx parle Solin et dit que ilz habitent en cavernes et maintenent vie religieuse et vertueusement se gouvernent et ayment pouvrete voluntaire. Et fuyent et deboutent toutes richesses du monde. Et nont nulle autre plaisance sur toutes richesses fors de aquerir une pierre precieuse quil[z] appellant en leur langaige Execontacon, et est une pierre de diverses couleurs.121

In Ethiopia, in the province next to Africa, there are many marvels, as Solinus says, and especially in this land lives a beast called hystrix that is nearly like a porcupine except that it is larger and stronger. And all its hairs on top are as sharp and pointed as darts or crossbow bolts. And when it is tracked and hunted by dogs and hunters, and when they get close to it, it erects its head and mane that are so sharp against the dogs and huntsmen, and it runs away and defends itself against them. And when anyone is pricked by its spines, he is sorely wounded. And he would be better off to be shot by the bolt [specifically a screw-shaped arrow] of a crossbow. In Ethiopia lives a bird called Pegasus—that is to say, flying horse. And it is because this bird has a head and ears similar to those of a horse that it is called flying horse. Nonetheless, Pliny in his twenty-second book in the eighth chapter says otherwise. For he says that pegasuses are flying birds horned like stags. And they have bodies like those of horses. And so he calls them flying horses armed with horns. He says that another bird lives there called tragoppa, which is bigger than an eagle and which has horns similar to those of a ram with which it defends itself against other birds. He says that in one region in Ethiopia there are some men called Athalantes who have a human-like body and have speech and policies of government among them, but they are beast-like people and have no proper names that are different from one another, but rather only one similar name, and they are black as crows; because of the great burning and heat of the sun which continually reigns over them, they scorn, curse, and beseech the sun and the one who put it where it is. And just as we despise devils, they despise the God of paradise and his light. And these people do not dream at all when they are sleeping. Pliny says that in Ethiopia are a manner of people called Troglodytes, of whom Solinus speaks and says that they live in caves, and they maintain a religious life and govern themselves virtuously and love voluntary poverty. And they avoid and reject all worldly riches. And they have no other pleasure out of all the riches of the world save to acquire one precious stone they call in their language «exacontacon,» and it is a stone of many colors.

Collectanea, hystrix, 135.7. Collectanea, 135.9-12; NH, 10.70, p. 379. See below Ch. 61, Wonders of Birds. 119 Collectanea, 135.10. See below, Ch. 61. 120 Collectanea, 136-37.15f. 121 Collectanea, 137.2-7. 117 118

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Item dit Solin que en Ethioppie habite une autre maniere de peuple nomme Aurigues qui anciennement souloient servir et adourer pour 23v/ leurs dieulx les habitacions denffer, et ont ceste coustume entreulx qui est la non pareille de toutes les autres. Car la premiere nuit quilz seront mariez, ilz ne coucheont point avecques leurs femmes, mais les habandonnent a tous autres hommes et contraignent leurs femmes ad ce faire. Et apres ce quelles ont estez deffleurees et congneues charnellement de plusieurs hommes, ilz les reprennent et les aiment mieulx et cherissent tres soingneusement les gardent en chastete.122 Item dit Solin que en Ethioppie reppaire autres gens nommez Compodes qui ont les cuisses et les jarrez ploians. Et pource ceste gent vont comme une anguille ou comme une couleuvre sur la terre. Car tous droiz ne pouroient ilz aller ne heulx tenir sur terre.123

Solinus says that in Ethiopia there live a race of people called Auriges who in ancient times were in the habit of serving and adoring as their gods the regions of hell, and they have this custom among them that is distinct from all others. For the first night that they are married, they do not sleep with their wives at all, but abandon them to all the other men and constrain the women to go along with this. And after they have been deflowered and known carnally by several men, they take them back and love them better for it and cherish and guard them carefully in chastity. Solinus says that in Ethiopia live other men named Compodes who have bendable thighs and buttocks. And because of this these people move like an eel or like a snake across the earth. For they cannot walk or stand upright on the ground.

19)[Europpe] Europpe est la tierce partie habitable et est situee par devers Septentrion, tout a lopposite de Affricque, qui est situee devers le midy. Et est subjecte a la miserable ardeur et challeur du souleil. Erodoctus dit que les hommes et femmes de la region de Europpe sont plus beaulx et plus fors et plus grans et plus hardiz quilz ne sont en chault pais dAffricque. Et la cause si est du souleil qui continuellement est sur les Africquans si leur seiche toutes les humeurs et vertuz du corps. Et pour ce ilz ne povent croistre ne manderer et sont petiz, maigres, et secs et noirs comme charbon, et ont les che24/ veux crespez. Et pour la continuelle challeur en quoy ilz sont, ilz ont les porez tousjours ouvers. Et ainsi se tinporent les esperilz naturelz et yssent hors de leurs corps. Et pour ce sont ilz failliz en couraige, paoureux, et sans hardiesse. Et autrement est des Europeens et Aquillonnaires qui sont loing du souleil. Car pour la froidure foraine ilz ont les porez reffrains audedans du corps, par quoy se engendrent humeurs bonnes et naturelles a humaine complexion. Et auxi sont les gens de celle region plus atremprez et moderez en leur fait. Et auxi sont a la foiz plus hardiz et courageulx. Car pour la [sconsion] de la bonne challeur et humeurs qui est dedans leurs esperilz, ilz sont plus fors et plus hardiz et ont plus grant courage.124

19) Europe Europe is the third part of the habitable world, and it is situated towards the North, exactly opposite to Africa, which is located towards the South. And it is subject to the miserable burning and heat of the sun. Herodotus says that the men and women of the region of Europe are handsomer, stronger, bigger, and bolder than those in the hot land of Africa. And the reason for this is the sun, which beats down continuously on the Africans, thus drying up all the humors and energy from their bodies. And for this reason they can neither grow nor improve, and so they are short, thin, dry, and black as coal, and they have kinky hair. And because of the continual heat in which they live, their pores are always open. And thus their vital spirits escape from their bodies. And for this reason they are lacking in courage, cowardly, and without boldness. And quite otherwise are the Europeans and the northerners who live far from the sun. For because of the outlandish cold in which they live, their pores remain closed, restraining their vital spirits, by which they engender virtuous humors, suitable to the human condition. And thus the Europeans are more temperate and moderate in their deeds. And at the same time bolder and more courageous. For through the retention of the good warmth and moisture that is in their spirits, they are stronger and bolder and have greater courage.

Collectanea, Augilae, 137.7-10. Banks and Binns, II.4, 215-17. 124 Herodotus, Histories; NH 2.80, pp. 321-323. See on the relation of climate and race Lloyd A. Thompson, Romans and Blacks (London and New York: Routledge; Norman, OK: Oklahoma University Press, 1989), pp. 100-04 and p. 208, note 59; Clarence J. Glacken, «Airs, Waters, and Places,» «Environmental Influences Within a Divinely Created World,» and «Environmental Theories of Early Modern Times,» in Traces on the Rhodian Shore: Nature and Culture in Western Thought from Ancient Times to the End of the Eighteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), pp. 80-115, 254-87, and 429-60; John Block Friedman, The Monstrous Races in Medieval Art and Thought (Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 2000), pp. 51-58; Ruth I. Meserve, «The Inhospitable Land of the Barbarians,» Journal of Asian History 16 (1982): 51-89; Jean Bergevin, Déterminisme et géographie: Hérodote, Strabon, Albert le Grand et Sebastian Münster (Sainte-Foy, Québec: Presses de l’Université Laval, 1992); Claude Lecouteux, Les monstres dans la pensée médiévale européenne: essai de présentation 122 123

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20) [Frise] Frise est une region qui est assise en la Basse Allemaigne, et est le peuple de celle contree de grant corpulance et de grant force. Ceste gent cy heont moult les luxurieulx. Et les ont moult en grant desplaisance. Et aiment moult chastete, virginite, et loyaulte de mariaige. En Frise les jeunes gens ne se marient tant quilz aient aage—cestassavoir, le filz xxx ans et les filles xxiiii, ou quel temps de jeunesse ilz vivent moult chastement. Et pource, quant ceste gent sentreprenent par mariaige, ilz engendrent enffens plus grans et plus parfaiz en naturelle condicion que ne font autre gent. Ceste gent 24v/ haient toute servitute comme ennemy de nature humaine qui fut premierement cree en estat de franchise. Et pour ce vivent ilz tous en leurs pais en pareil estat; nul deulx nest plus noble appelle de lautre. Item nullement ilz ne souffreroient que aucun dentreulx, tant fust il preux et vaillant, soit esleve en hault nom ou tiltre de noblesse ou de chevalerie affin que nul ne puisse usurper ou acquerir possession de seigneurie lun sur lautre. Et si dit Solin quilz aimeroient mieulx mourir que estre soubmis a service; ilz ont de coustume de eslire et ordonner tous les ans a certain jour, sans faillir, les juges ordinaires pour le gouvernement de la chose publicque et conservacion du pays. Et pour rendre et faire droit a ung chascun ce qui est sien, sans haine ou faveur ou courrupcion de pectune. Item dit Solin quilz sont tant hardiz et courageux en leur droit gardant quilz aimeroient mieulx a mourir que souffir quon leur fist honte ou dommaige aucunement.125

20) Frisia Frisia is a region that is located in lower Germany, and the people of this country are of great stoutness and strength. These people hate those who are lustful, and they find them extremely offensive. And they much admire chastity, virginity, and fidelity in marriage. In Frisia young people do not marry until they reach a certain age— that is to say, the men 30 years and the women 24, during which time of youth they live very chastely. And because of this, when these people enter into marriage they engender children who are larger and more perfect in their natural condition than do other people. This race hates all servitude as being an enemy of human nature, which was first created in a state of freedom. And thus they live in their country in a state of equality, and none of them is called nobler than another. They suffer none among them, however worthy and valiant he may be, to be elevated through a high name or title of nobility or chivalry, in order that none can usurp or acquire possession of lordship over another. And thus Solinus says that they would prefer to die rather than submit to servitude. They have the custom of electing and appointing every year on a certain day, without fail, civil judges to govern over public matters and defense of the country, and to render and perform justice for each regarding his own interests, without meanness or special favor or corruption through bribes. Solinus says they are so hardy and courageous in preserving their law that they would rather die than to suffer that anyone do them shame or harm of any kind.

21) [Fortunes] Fortunes. Ce sont ysles qui sont ainsi nommees pour ce quelles sont de tous biens garniez et dotes; la sont pommes, poyres, et tous autres fruitz a moult grant habondance. La sont tous oyseaulx melodieusement chantans. La est le miel a moult grant habondance pour la grant doulceur des fleurs, des arbres, et des 25/ herbes qui y sont.

21) Fortunate Isles The Fortunate Isles are islands so named because they are well supplied and endowed with goods of every kind. There are apples, pears, and all other fruits in very great abundance. There are birds of all sorts singing melodiously. There is very abundant honey because of the great sweetness of the flowers, trees, and herbs that are there.

(Paris: Presses de l’Université de Paris-Sorbonne, 1993), pp. 75-85; Irina Metzler, «Perceptions of Hot Climate in Medieval Cosmography and Travel Literature,» Reading Medieval Studies 23 (1997): 69-106, reprinted in Joan-Pau Rubiés, ed., Medieval Ethnographies: European Perceptions of the World Beyond (Farnham, Surrey, and Burlington, VT: Ashgate Variorum, 2009); Anthony Pagden, ed., Facing Each Other: The World’s Perception of Europe and Europe’s Perception of the World (Aldershot, UK, and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2000), vol. 2, pp. 367-94; Françoise Lecocq, «Europe ‘moralisée’: imitation et allégorisation,» in Rémy Poignault and Odile Wattel, eds., D’Europe à l’Europe, I: Le mythe d’Europe dans l’art et la culture de l’Antiquité au XVIIIe siècle. Actes du colloque tenu à l’ENS, Paris (24-26 avril 1997) (Tours: Centre de recherches André Piganiol, 1998), pp. 263-75; Danielle Lecoq, «Les marges de la terre habitée. Géographie et histoire naturelle des confines sur les mappemondes des XIIe et XIIIe siècles,» in L’Iconographie: Études sur les rapports entre textes et images dans l’Occident médiéval (Paris: Le Léopard d’Or, 2001), pp. 99-186; and Gay L. Byron, Symbolic Blackness and Ethnic Difference in Early Christian Literature (London and New York: Routledge, 2002). 125 Not Collectanea. See Lawrence A. Springer, «Rome’s Contact with the Frisians,» The Classical Journal 48.4 (January, 1953): 109-11.

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Item la a moult grant habondance de lait pour la grant multitude des bestes qui y sont et pour leurs bons pasturaiges quilz y treuvent. Item la sont a moult grant habondance beufs. vaches, brebiz, et chievres par grans tropeaulx. Item la a moult grant force de chiens. Et pour ce que cestes ysles sont si habondans et fertilles en biens, la gent paienne si conclurent et dirent comme tesmoignent les anciens poetes que cestoit paradis terrestre. Item dit Plinius que cestes ysles sont situees en la grant mer parfonde, ou a peyne nulle marinier nose aller. Les autres saiges dient quelles sont appellees les ysles Fortunes pour ce que a peyne en nul temps on ne les treuve ne on ny arrive si non par fortune et cas daventure. Et quant les mariniers cuidens aller ailleurs aucunesfoiz, ilz arrivent en icelles ysles. Et quant ilz y veulent aller ilz ny savent arriver, ne ilz ne les peuent trouver.126

There is a great abundance of milk because of the vast number of beasts that are there and because of the good pasturage they find. There is a most great abundance of cattle, cows, sheep, and goats in large herds. There are a plentiful number of dogs. And because the islands are so fertile and abundant in riches, the pagans concluded and said, as the ancient poets testify, that this was the terrestrial paradise. Pliny says that these isles are located in the great deep sea where scarcely any mariner dares go. Other sages say that they are called the Fortunate Isles because there is almost no time that anyone finds them or gets there except by fortune and chance. And sometimes when sailors think they are going somewhere else, they arrive on these islands. And when they want to go there, they do not know how to get there, nor are they able to find them.

22) [Gaule] Gaule est une grande et noble province situee es parties de Europpe et presque toute encloze. Car elle a par devers orient les montaignes clouans les Ytallies que nous disons Alpes. Et pardevers occidens la parfonde mer Bretaigne. Et par devers le midy sont les montaignes clouans les Espaignes que 25v/ nous appellons les Mons [Pirenees]. Et par devers la partie de acquillon dont vient le vent de bize est le fleuve du Riin qui divise Gaule des Allemaignes. La region de Gaulle nourrist naturellement gens courageulx, plains de cruaulte, et mal piteulx, et moult se aprocherient de bestialle ferocite pour le temps quilz estoient paiens, comme dient les acteurs qui des regions et de leurs condicions ont traicte et des proprietez des hommes et autres choses, si comme Ysidoire, Erodice, Solin, Tite, Gervaise et Plinien le tesmoignent. Et quant est de Solin, il recite en son livre listoire de la fondacion de Marseille, ou il nomme plainement la gent de Gaule par propriete et espicial nom, les appelle gens sans pitie, furieulx, et plains de cruaulte. Moult est a honnourer la vertu divine qui a seme en Gaule la saincte et vroye foy Catholicque, et par linspiracion du Sainct Esperilt et du saint cresme et baptesme. La ainsi de la cruaulte dont il estoit plain modere et adoulcie et oustee et estrangee de Gaule la ferocite et cruaulte. Car de puis quelle a eu et receu la saincte et doulce huille de Chrestienne creance, de tous autres peuples et nations ilz ont este et y sont les plus piteulx, plus familiers, plus cheritables et amoureux, plus cherement congnoissans les articles de nostre foy, plus eslevez en sens, et en prudence, et en discrecion, plus arrestez, fermez, et constans en toute bonne euvre

22) Gaul Gaul is a great and noble province situated in a part of Europe and nearly closed in on all sides. For it has towards the East the mountains adjoining Italy that we call the Alps. And towards the West it has the deep Breton sea. And towards the South are the mountains bordering Spain that we call the Pyrenees Mountains. And towards the Northern parts, from which comes the North Wind, is the Rhine river which divides Gaul from Germany. The region of Gaul naturally fosters courageous men, full of cruelty and devoid of pity, and they were of almost bestial ferocity in the days when they were pagans, as say all the authors who treated these regions and their conditions and the properties of men and other things, just as Isidore, Herodotus, Solinus, Titus [Livy], Gervaise, and Pliny bear witness to it. And as for Solinus, he recounts in his book the story of the founding of Marseille, where he specifically identifies the people of Gaul by their characteristics and their reputation, calling them men without pity, raging, and full of cruelty. Greatly to be honored is that divine virtue which spread into Gaul the holy and true Catholic faith, both through the inspiration of the holy spirit and through the holy chrism and sacrament of baptism. By this means was the cruelty that filled the land moderated and calmed, and ferocity and cruelty were removed and eliminated from Gaul. For since Gaul has had and received the holy and sweet oil of Christian belief, of all other people and nations they have been and are now the most merciful, friendly, charitable and loving, the most willing to become knowledgeable of the articles of our faith, the most elevated in sensibility and in prudence and in

NH 6.37, p. 489. There is considerable confusion about these islands, with some identifying them with the Canaries, others the Isle of the Blessed, and others the Fortunate Isles. We are grateful to Chet Van Duzer for help with this matter. 126

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et operacion. En Gaule a moult de provinces ou moult a de merveilles de notable recordacion, dont les aucunes sont naturelles, les autres sont par miracles, par les merites daucuns saincts qui sont en paradis, par lesquelz elles furent introduictes et mises sus et en effect. Desquelles merveilles entre les autres en recite cest noble et saige docteur Gervaise. Et dit que en Gaule a ung pais nommee Auvergne ou quel est situee une cite nommee Anice autrement Le Puy, la est une moult sollennelle eglise de Nostre Dame et en maison des chanoynes dicelle eglise a ung reffrectouer qui est dune merveilleuse grace, car nulle mouche ny entre. Et si de cas de adventure aucune mouche se boute dedans, elle est tantost contraincte de sen fuyr ou autrement la luy conviendroit mourir.127 Item es latrines dudit lieu nulle eau ny passe pour les laver et toutesfoiz il ny appert aucune ordure ou punaysie de corruption. Semblables cas il recite et dit que en la ville de Barjolis que en reffrectouer dicelle eglise des religieux il ny entre nulle mouche. Et si elle y entre il luy convient leans mourir, et si par force elle y est boutee si ny peut elle vivre.128 Pareille merveille il recite et dit que ou pais de Poictou en lAbbaye de Maillezay nulle mouche nentre ou reffectouer dicelle eglise ne ou cloistre ne ou dortouer ne ny peut demourer mouche, pusse, ne punaise. Combien que le lieu soit situe en place relente. Et dient les anciens que sainct Rigon qui fut jadis abbe de leans leur impetra vers Dieu ceste grace et ceste franchise.129 Item dit Gervaise que en la province de Nerbonne a ung chastel appelle le chastel de Remolins lequel est moult bien garny et ediffie de moult belles tours et fortes. Duquel chastel en lune dicelles tours il advient tous les ans une merveilleuse chose. Car tous les ans environ la feste sainct Jehan Baptiste il se assemble en lune dicelles tours une moult grant quantite et multitude des charbotz que nous appellons en ce pais icy cerfs vollans et ont grans cornes. Et la en celle tour ilz se combatent et sentretuent comme si cestoient gens darmes qui lieveroient batailles lung contre lautre, et dure bien la bataille de ces cerfs vollans par lespace de vii ou viii jours. Et sentrebattent et se tuent si tres appre- 26/ ment et si courageusement que en la place en demeure de mors si tresplaine et si trescouverte que a poine apres la desconfiture en peut on le lieu netoier.130 Item dit Gervaise que en la province de Nerbonne pres du chasteau de Montpellier et de Montferrant a une grant merveille.

discretion, the most fixed, firm, and constant in all good deeds and work. In Gaul there are many provinces with many marvels worthy of remembrance, of which some are natural and others are miraculous, resulting from the merits of saints who are in Paradise, by whom they were introduced and put into effect. About which marvels, among others, speaks the noble and learned doctor Gervaise. And he says that in Gaul is a country named Auvergne in which is situated a city named Anice, otherwise called Le Puy, where there is a most solemn church of Notre Dame, and in the house of the canons of this church is a refectory which is endowed with a marvelous grace, for no fly enters there. And if by chance a fly does force its way in, it is immediately compelled to flee or otherwise it must die there. In the privies of this place, no water passes through for cleansing them, and yet there never seems to be any filth or stink of putrefaction. He tells of similar cases and says that in the village of Barjolis, in the refectory of the monastery church, no fly enters. And if one does enter, it will die there, and if by force one is thrust in, likewise it cannot survive there. He tells of a similar marvel, saying that in the country of Poitou, in the Abbey of Maillezay, no fly enters the refectory of this church, nor can any fly, flea, or bedbug live in the cloister or the dormitory, however musty the location might be. And the ancients say that saint Rigon, who was formerly abbot of this place, obtained this grace and freedom for them by praying to God. Gervaise says that in the province of Narbonne is a castle called the castle of Remolins which is extremely well furnished and built with many lovely towers and fortifications. And in the said castle, in one of these towers, each year a marvelous thing happens. For every year around the feast of St. John Baptist there gather in one of these towers a great multitude of charbot beetles that we in this country call the «flying stag» [“great horned beetle”], and they have great horns. And there in this tower they fight and kill each other as if they were men-at-arms who were undertaking battles one against the other, and the battle of these great horned beetles lasts for seven or eight days. And they battle and kill each other so very fiercely and so courageously that the place remains so full and littered with the dead that after the final defeat one can scarcely cleanse the place of them. Gervaise says in the province of Narbonne near the castles of Montpellier and Montferrant there is a great marvel. For he says

Banks and Binns, III.10, p. 575. Banks and Binns, III.10, p. 575. 129 Bersuire at several points in SNH seems to recall the Benedictine house of Maillezais, mentioned later by Rabelais. 130 Banks and Binns, III.21, p. 593. 127 128

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Car il dit que la est ung champ plain de fougiere, de ronces despines, et de bruieres, mais que on y boute le feu pour ardre et bruller icelles espines et bruieres et que tantost apres ce champ soit laboure a la charrue diligenment, lannee prochaine ensuivant, il y viendra et croistra vigne portant raisins sans ce quil y ait aucun complant de vigne plantee ne labouree par personne du monde. Et en celle vigne y croist et est cuilly si tresbon vin que ou pais nen croist point de meilleur. Et porte celle terre par troys ans ensuyvans vigne portant raisins et vin sans estre labouree que la premiere annee. Et au bout en friche avant quon y puisse labourer.131 Ad ce propos est ung cas semblable et pareil ou pais dOrleans pres dung chastel nomme Sainct Symon en Beaulce. Et dit que la est ung champ qui tous les ans est laboure et charrue deux ou troys foyz tout auxi bien que son y vouloit semer bon froument ou quel champ viennent et croissent moult grant force de rosiers qui portant moult de belles roses vermeilles tresbon odorans et souef flerans. Et sont iceulx rosiers de telle nature que si aucune personne en plantoit en ung autre champ ou en ung vergier, ilz ny pourroient croistre ne augmenter, mais mourroient tous mors et ny sauriont proffiter. Et auxi les roses qui croissent en ces rosiers ne sont vallables a aucune paraticque pecunielle. Car lon nen peut faire eau qui riens vaille a nature humaine. Item dit Gervaise que en Auvergne a aucuns hommes qui sont de moult estrange condicion. Car en certaines saisons de lan ilz sont transformes et muez en facon de loups enragez et affamez. Et allegue Ysidore et dit ou livre des transformacions que il est possible que aucuns hommes aucunesfoiz par reale transformacion et non mye par fantastique fiction ou mellencolieuse ymaginacion delaissent humain estat et sont muez et changez en corpulance, facon, ou condicion de loup et beste ravissant, et perdant la noble condicion de doulce humaine creature. Dont Ysidore racompte ung cas qui advint en Auvergne ou diocese de Cleremont. Et dit que la fut ne et procree ung noble et preux chevalier appelle Rambault de Pulet, lequel fut destruit et desherite de sa terre tant par force de gens de fait comme par force de droit par ung autre chevalier qui estoit son ennemy, qui avoit nom Ponce de Capitol. Mais pour legrant courroux et desolation que ce noble chevalier print en luy pour ce quil se veoit ainsi banny et deboute hors de sa terre et de tout honneur, il se desespera et desconforta tellement quil sen fuyt toute nuyt par my les desers et buissons et par my les aultes montaignes et tant quil oublia destre homme raisonnable. Et fut transforme en ung loup ravissant et devorant et estrangloit 131

that there is a field full of bracken, briars, thorns, and heath, but when one sets fire to it to burn off these thorns and briars and immediately afterward this field is tilled diligently by the plow, the next year following there will appear and grow vines bearing grapes, without anyone in the world having planted a vineyard or tilled the soil. And in this vineyard grow and are harvested such fine wine grapes that none better grow anywhere in the country. And this earth for the following three years bears grapes and produces wine without being worked except for the first year. And then it must lie fallow before it can be tilled again. Apropos to this story, there was a similar case of the same sort in the country of Orléans near a castle called Saint Simon in Beauce. And he says that there is a field which every year is tilled and plowed two or three times, as thoroughly as if one intended to sow good wheat, to which field come and grow a very great quantity of rosebushes that bear a multitude of beautiful vermilion roses, fine smelling and flowering often. And these roses are so constituted that if anyone planted them in another field or in an orchard, they would not be able to grow or get bigger, but would die completely and would not thrive. And also the roses that grow on these rosebushes are not valuable for any money-making purpose. For rosewater that has any constitutional benefit for humans cannot be made from them. Gervaise says that in Auvergne are some men who are of very strange condition. For at certain times of the year they are transformed into enraged and hungry wolves. And Isidore alleges and claims in his book on transformations that it is possible that certain men by real transformation and not by fantastic fiction and melancholy imagination, sometimes lose their human estate and are mutated and changed into the size, manner, and condition of a wolf and ravenous beast, losing the noble condition of sweet human nature. Isidore [Gervaise] recounts just such a case that happened in the Auvergne in the Diocese of Clermont. And he says that in this country was conceived and born a most noble and worthy knight named Rambault de Pulet, who was ruined and disinherited from his lands as much by the power of men at arms as by force of law, through another knight who was his enemy, who was called Ponce de Capitol. But because of the great grief and desolation that this noble knight experienced when he saw himself thus banished and deprived of his lands and his honor, he felt such despair and such heaviness of heart that he fled in the dark of night through the wastelands and thickets and through the high mountains, to the point that he forgot that he was a rational human being. And he was transformed into a ravenous,

Banks and Binns, III.37, p. 635.

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les petis enfans et si fasoit il les grans hommes quant il en povoit estre maistre. Et pour la grant cruaulte de ce loup les bonnes gens du plat pais si delaisserent leurs habitacions et sen [allerent] avecques leurs enfans et tous leurs biens demourer en bonnes villes fermees. Si advint en ce temps que ce loup assaillit ung charpentier au bois. Et le charpentier se revenga tellement quil couppa a ce loup ung des piez. Lors quant ce loup vit son pie ainsi couppe et 26v/ la grant effusion de sang qui sailloit de son corps, en celle mesme heure il revint et transfigura en forme domme et en sa premiere nature et condicion, et fut homme comme devant et moult humblement il remercia le charpentier, en luy disant que par luy il estoit delivre de sa malleureuse nature de loup, et quil estoit venu a lestat de la noble propriete et condicion de nature humaine. Et dist ce chevalier au charpentier que a tous ceulx qui ainsi sont muez et transformer en forme de loup, «Cest leur soverain remide de souffrir aucune incision de lun de leurs membres et rendre grant effusion de sang et par ainsi ilz perdront la nature et figure de loup et reviendroit a leur propre nature humaine.» Item Gervaise nous recite ung autre exemple ad ce propos et dit quil advint pres dung chastel qui est nomme Calcebara qui est pres de Viviers que ung homme du pays qui avoit a coustume en certain temps de soy despouiller au pie de la montaigne et laisser la ses vestemens et puis se coucheoit tout nu au sablon et illec se voultroit et broilloit dedans ce sablon. Et en ce faisant il perdit forme domme et estoit transmue et forme en ung loup. Lors de la sen alloit la gueulle ouverte querant sa proye pour la devorer. Et disoit que pour ce vont les loups la gueule ouverte. Car quant ilz ont la gueule clouse, ilz ne la povent ouvrir sans grant difficulte et a la force de leurs piez.132 Item il dit quil advint en Auvergne a ung chevallier qui passoit par ung bois que il fut assailly dun vieulx loup et de deux jeunes louveaux. Si advint que en soy deffendant il tua le vieulx loup et passa oultre, et sen alla son chemin, et a lissue du bois il encontra une vieille femme qui portoit de la char crue et dautre vitaille en son giron. A laquelle femme ce chevalier dist et compta son adventure en bonne entencion, et a celle fin quelle gardast de la voye des deux louveaux. Lors la bonne femme commenca moult douloureusement a plourer. Et dist a ce chevalier que ce loup quil

greedy wolf, and he strangled small children, and he did the same to grown men when he could overcome them. And because of the great cruelty of this wolf, the good men of the lowlands left their dwellings and went away with their children and all their goods, to live in strong walled towns. And then it happened about this time that the wolf attacked a carpenter in the woods. And the carpenter fought back so fiercely that he cut off one of the wolf ’s feet. Then when this wolf saw his foot cut off in this way and the great quantity of blood which gushed from his body, at this very hour he regained his human form and his original nature and condition and was a man just as before, and most humbly he thanked the carpenter, telling him that by him he was delivered from his wretched wolf nature and that he had come back to the state of the noble disposition and condition of a human being. And this knight said to the carpenter that for all those who have been transformed into the form of a wolf, it is their sovereign remedy to suffer the cutting of one or another of their members and to render a great spilling of their blood, and by this they would lose the nature and form of a wolf and regain their proper human nature. Gervaise tells us of another example on this subject and says that near a castle called Calcebara, which is near Viviers, it happened that there was a man of the region who was accustomed at certain times to strip himself nude at the foot of a mountain and leave his clothing there, and then lie totally naked in the sand, and there he would turn and toast himself in this sand. And in doing this he lost his human form and was transmuted and transformed into a wolf. Then he went out with his mouth open seeking his prey in order to devour it. And it was said that for this reason wolves go about their mouths open, for when they have their mouths closed they can only open them with great difficulty and by using the strength of their paws. He says that it came about in Auvergne that a knight who was passing through a wood was attacked by an old wolf and two young cubs. It so happened that in defending himself, he killed the old wolf, and he continued onward and went on his way, and at the edge of the woods he met an old woman who was carrying some raw meat and other foods in her apron. The knight recounted his adventure to this woman with good will and with the intention that she should avoid the path of the two cubs. Then the good woman began to weep in great sorrow. And she said to the knight that this wolf he had killed

Not Isidore. The man is Pouget in Gervaise. There is no castle in Gervaise’s version, which concerns a man named in Latin Calcefaria. Banks and Binns, III.121, p. 815. Petronius tells of a man who removes his clothes and, leaving them in a pile, is turned into a werewolf (Satyricon, 62), but the closest medieval analogue is Marie de France’s lai «Bisclavret» where the knight is kept in his formerly occasional werewolf form when his wife steals the clothes he has hidden. When he gets the clothes back he recovers his human form. See Albert Ewert, ed., Marie de France, Lais (Oxford: Blackwell, 1960), ll. 89-96, p. 51, and John Block Friedman, «Werewolf Transformation in the Manuscript Era,» The Journal of the Early Book Society 17 (2014): 35-95. 132

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avoit occis estoit son mary et que les deux louveaux estoient ses deux enfans. Et que en certain temps ilz devenoient ainsi loups, aux quelz elle portoit a menger.133 Ad ce propos fait listoire qui est escripte ou livre de Daniel le prophete, ou il dit «Pour ce que Nabugodonosor qui est roy des Assiriens estoit trop ingrat et trop orgueilleux, il fut par la volunte de Dieu si abaisse et pugni, car il perdit sens et raison et devint ung beuf qui paissoit lerbe par les prez et aux champs. Et fut en ce point par lespace de sept ans». Et en la fin du temps quant il pleut a Dieu, il fut mue et change de forme de beuf en forme domme. Et Nabugodonosor mesmes le recongneut et remercia Dieu, en disant «Je congnoiz humblement mon peche devant Dieu le tout puissant, et pource il ma rendu ma forme et figure humaine, et si a voulu que mes gens me ayent recongneu et advoulx a seigneur.» Autrement en dit de ceste matiere de transformacion Plinius en son viiie livre de la Naturelle Histoyre du Monde et reprent, redargue, et deboute tout entierement loppinion de Gervaise, et dit que cest chose impossible a homme destre transmue domme en beste. Et moult sesmerveille des Gre-27/ geoys qui tant furent saiges et licteres comme ilz adjousterent aucune creance a telle erreur qui est ainsi reprouvee. Et si aucun allegue et dit que tel poete si renomme le tesmoingne, [i]l respond quil nest nulle mensonge tant soit evidant ou ne soit trouve faulx tesmoing. Item si ladite transformacion ne advient corporellement, elle advient a plusieurs mortellement qui deussent vivre raisonnablement comme hommes, qui vivent comme loups et comme chiens.134 Dont parle Tulles ou livre des Offices et demande quelle differance il ya entre les hommes qui sont muez en bestes et les hommes qui ont meurs et condicions bestielles. Et conclud et dit que les hommes qui ont figure humaine et qui oubliant raison et delaissent toute vertu de toutes bonnes meurs pour obayr a peche comme font gloutons, gormans qui ne vivent fors que pour leur ventre emplir. Et telz gens sont repputez pour loups et pour pourceaulx. Les orgueilleux deviennent lyons. Les rappineurs deviennent liepars. Les luxourieux sont marmouz.135

was her husband and that the two cubs were her two children. And she said that at certain times they became wolves, as he had seen, to whom she would bring some food to eat. On a similar subject to this is the story which is written in the book of Daniel the prophet, where it is said that because Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Assyrians, was too ungrateful and too proud, he was, by God’s will, abased and punished in this way, for he lost all sense and reason and became a cow who grazed on grass in the meadows and fields. And he remained in this state for some seven years. And at the end of that time, when God was satisfied, he was transformed and changed from the shape of a cow to the shape of a man. And Nebuchadnezzar himself was cognizant of this and thanked God saying, «I humbly acknowledge my sin before God the almighty, and for this reason he has given me back my human form and face, and thus has willed my followers to recognize me and take me for their lord.» Pliny has other things to say on this question of transformation in his eighth book of the Natural History of the World, and he rebukes, reprehends, and dismisses entirely the opinion of Gervaise, and says that it is impossible for a man to be changed from a man into an animal. And he is much amazed at the Greeks, who were otherwise so sage and learned, that they would give any credence to an error that is so thoroughly disproven. And if anyone would allege and say that this or that renowned poet witnessed it, he replies that there is no lie, no matter how obvious it may be, that does not find some false witnesses to support it. Thus the aforesaid transformation does not occur in a physical sense, but it occurs in a moral sense to many who ought to live reasonably as men but instead live like wolves or dogs. Cicero speaks of this in his book of Offices and asks what difference there is between men who are changed and transformed into beasts and men who have bestial morals and manners. And he concludes and says that the men who have human faces and forms, and who forget reason and abandon all the virtues of good morals in order to obey the dictates of sin, behave like gluttons and gourmands who live only to fill their bellies. And such men are regarded as wolves and pigs; the overproud become lions; the greedy become leopards; the lustful are monkeys.

Not Gervaise, but attributed to an Auvergnat source: «ego audivi a quodam Arvernigena …» Banks and Binns, III.120, pp. 813-15; Charlotte F. Otten, A Lycanthropy Reader:Werewolves in Western Culture (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Claude Lecouteux, Fées, sorcières et loups-garous au moyen age (Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions, 2003); Vladimir Acosta, La humanidad prodigiosa: el imaginario antropológico medieval (Caracas: Monte Avila Editores Latinoamericana: Consejo de Desarrollo Científico y Humanístico, Universidad Central de Venezuela, 1996); Leslie Sconduto, Metamorphosis of the Werewolf: A Literary Study from Antiquity through the Renaissance (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2008); and Nicole Jacques-Lefèvre «Such an Impure, Cruel, and Savage Beast: Images of the Werewolf in Demonological Works,» in Kathryn Edwards, ed., Werewolves, Witches and Wandering Spirits: Traditional Belief and Folklore in Early Modern Europe (Kirkville, MO: Truman State University Press, 2002), pp. 181-98. 135 Roughly De officiis, Book I, Ch. xxx. Walter Miller, ed. and tr., Cicero, De Officiis (Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press, 1968), p. 106. On this type of explanation, see Laurence Harf-Lancner, «La Métamorphose illusoire: Des théories chrétiennes de la métamorphose aux images médiévales du loup garou,» Annales, Histoire, Science, Sociales 40.1 (1985): 208-26. 133 134

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Item dit Gervaise que en la province de Nerbonne pres de la cite de Utice a une vigne de moult merveilleuse condicion. Car ceste vigne est moult fertille et plantureuse en grappes et en resins qui fait moult bon vin. Et sont les grappes et resins de celle vigne de telle condicion que nulle beste comme chien, loup, pourceau ne tesson, ne quelconque oiseau, ne mengent ne nouserient menger des grappes de celle vigne.136 Item dit Gervaise un autre merveille, il dit que ou dit evesche de Verce en la province de Nerbonne a une fontaine moult clere et necte, et qui heist moult ordure. Et est de telle condicion que si aucune personne gecte ordure en ladicte fontaine pour leau troubler tantoust et incontinant ceste fontaine se tarist et se seiche en celle place et conduyt [en] autre lieu et source.137 Item dit Gervaise que en levesche de Lodeve en la province de Nerbonne a une autre merveilleuse fontaine, car elle sourt ou temps que lez prez ont besoing arouser contre lardeur des challeurs et seicheresses qui sont en este et les tient moites et les fait proffiter. Et tantost que les prez sont faulchez, elle se tarist et seiche.138 Item en Auvergne a ung chastel appelle Trest ou quel lieu advient tous les sabmediz de nuyt une moult grant merveille. Car quant les bouchiers qui demeurent en celle ville ont tue aucuns beufs, moutons, ou autres bestes pour la vie du peuple dicelle ville, ilz effondrent et vuydent toutes leurs bestes ou millieu dune certaine place qui est en icelle ville, et en celle place ilz laissant toutes broailles, sang, et tripailles dicelles bestes. Mais incontinant que les bouchiers en ont emportees leurs chars en leurs maisons, il vient de nuyt certains esperiz invisibles qui les dictes tripailles et ordures en emportent, mais on ne scet ou et rendent la place auxi necte et auxi seiche comme elle estoit par avant, dont les habitans du pais ont moult grant joye. Item dit Gervaise que en la province de Nerbonne en la ville de Albigan a deux merveilleuses fontaines dont leau dune ne veult nul temps bouillir pour quelconque grant feu que on y face, mais non pourtant la viande y cuyst bien. 27v/ Et leau de lautre fontaine combien quelle bouille au feu, jamais nulle viande ny peut cuyre.139 Item dit Gervaise que en Auvergne a une fontaine moult merveilleuse, car leau de celle fontaine moult sapproche de saveur de vin.140

Gervaise says that in the province of Narbonne near the city of Utice is a most marvelous vineyard. For this vineyard is most fertile and abundant in clusters of grapes and in grapes that make a very fine wine. And the fruits of these vines are of such a condition that no beast, such as a dog, wolf, pig, or badger, or any kind of bird, eats or would ever dare to eat from the fruits of this vineyard. Gervaise speaks of another marvel; he says that in the said diocese of Verce in the province of Narbonne is an extremely clear and clean spring, which abhors all impurities. And it is of such a condition that if anyone throws filth into this spring in order to muddy the waters, immediately and suddenly the spring stops flowing and dries up in this place and it changes to another course and a different location and source. Gervaise says that in the diocese of Lodève in the province of Narbonne there is another marvelous spring, for its nature is to flow in the season when the fields need to be irrigated, to ward off the burning of the heat and dryness of summer, and keep them moist and make them grow. And as soon as the fields are mowed down, the spring stops flowing and dries up. In Auvergne there is a castle called Trest where a great marvel occurs every Saturday night. For when the butchers who live in this city have killed any beef, sheep or other animals to feed the people of the town, they disembowel and clean out all the animals in the middle of a certain public area that is in the town, and in this place they leave all the entrails, blood, and offal of these beasts. But as soon as the butchers have carried off their meat to their shops, there come at night certain invisible spirits that carry off the aforementioned offal and filth, but no one knows where, and they render the place as clean and as dry as it was before, for which the inhabitants of this country have very great joy. Gervaise says that in the province of Narbonne in the town of Albigan are two marvelous springs, one of which has water that never boils, no matter how hot the fire one makes, but nonetheless meat cooks in it perfectly well. And the water of the other fountain, however much it boils on the fire, can never cook meat. Gervaise says that in Auvergne is a most marvelous spring, for the water in this spring comes very close to the taste of wine. In the Ile de France is a great and renowned city called Paris where there is a marvelous cemetery called the Cemetery of the Holy

Banks and Binns, III.125, p. 821. Banks and Binns, III.130, p. 825. 138 Banks and Binns, III.127, p. 821. 139 Banks and Binns, III.128, p. 823. 140 This passage seems to be a variant of Banks and Binns, III.125, p. 821. 136 137

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Item en la franche France a une cite de haulte et grant renommee nommee Paris, la ou est ung merveilleux cimetiere nomme le Cimetiere Saint Innocent qui est de telle condicion que tout corps domme mort qui est en ce cimitiere enterre est trouve tout pourry apres ix jours et ny trouve len seulement que les os. Et advient tous les jours que on en enterre en une fosse dix ou xv tous ensemble lun sur lautre. Et quant on y fouille au bout de ix jours, on ny trouve que les os tous secs sans aucune apparance de char. Et lors on y enterre des autres corps comme devant. De ceste merveille dient aucuns que cest par la vertu et puissance divine qui a pourveu a celle noble cite qui est si grant et si peuplee dun si merveilleux et virtueulx cimitiere. Car autrement ne eussent peu ne ne pourroient les corps des mors enterrer ne nul autre cimetiere qui soit en celle noble cite neust peu fornir a recepvoir si grant nombre de corps mors comme il ya en celle noble cite de Paris tous les jours si Dieu ny heust pourveu de sa divine grace. Autrement dient les naturiens que la terre ou pouldre qui est faicte de corps domme est plus corrosive que nulle autre chose. Et comme il soit ainsi que toute la terre dudit Cimitiere Saint Innocent soit de corps humains qui sont et ont este leans enterres depuis mil ans et plus il sensuyt doncques que les corps des mors qui sont illecques nouvellement enterres sont plus tost de ladicte terre pourriz et corrompuz et en terre convertiz.141 Item en ladicte cite de Paris a une autre noble condicion. Car la est la riche miniere de pierres tant durez comme cendres, qui sont moult propres pour ediffier. Et entre les autres la est trouvee la miniere dune pierre blanche et tendre qui est appellee plastre, de laquelle pierre quant elle [est] cuyte et baptue, elle est blanche comme farine. Et quant elle est destrempee, il convient quelle soit tantoust mise en euvre. Et quant elle est mise en euvre elle devient dure et ferme comme pierre. Et de celle matiere de plastre fait on les plus belles ediffices et plus plaisans qui puissent estre.142 Item en France, pres de Fougieres le Raoul, qui est pres des marches de Bretaigne, a une fontaine qui est faicte en facon dune grant fosse et est moult large et parfonde et plaine deau moult vive et sourdant, laquelle est de moult merveilleuse condicion, car si ung homme qui sera suspectionne daucun crime est admene a ladicte

Innocents, which is of such a nature that any human body that is buried in the cemetery is found to be completely rotten after nine days and only the bones remain. And it happens every day that ten or fifteen bodies are buried all together in a ditch one on top of another. And when they are dug up at the end of nine days, one finds there only dry bones with no evidence of flesh. And then other bodies are buried as before. Concerning this marvel, some say that it is the work of divine might and power that provided for this noble city, which is so great and populous, a cemetery of such marvelous and efficacious properties. For in no other way would the bodies of the dead have decomposed nor could they decompose, nor would any other cemetery that exists in this noble city be able to receive so many corpses as there are in this noble city of Paris every day, if God had not provided for them through his grace. The naturalists say otherwise, that the earth or powder which is made from human corpses is more corrosive than any other thing, and since all the soil of the Cemetery of the Holy Innocents is made of human bodies that have been buried there for a thousand years and longer, it follows thus that the bodies of the dead that are freshly buried there are all the more quickly rotted and converted into soil. In the same city of Paris is another noble thing. For there is to be found the rich quarry of diverse kinds of stones as hard as cinders, which are very suitable for building. And among the others is found the quarry of a soft white stone that is called plaster, which, when it has been heated and crushed, is white as flour, and when it is soaked in water, it must be put immediately to use. And when it is formed, it becomes hard and firm as stone. And of this material of plaster are made the most beautiful and most pleasing buildings that can be found. In France near Fougières le Raoul, which is near the marches of Brittany, is a fountain that is made in the form of a giant ditch and is very large and deep and full of very quickly running and bubbling water, which is of a most marvelous condition, for if a man who is suspected of any crime is led to the aforesaid fountain and he is thrown into the water all naked, if he is guilty of the crime of which he is accused, the water will recognize this and

This and the next (unattributed) passage seem to reflect Bersuire’s personal observation in the 1340s when he had moved to Paris from the papal court at Avignon. The descriptions stand with Jean de Jandun’s praise of Paris (1323) as some of the earliest accounts of the city. See Erik Inglis, «Gothic Architecture and a Scholastic: Jean de Jandun’s ‘Tractatus de laudibus Parisius’ (1323),» Gesta 42.1 (2003): 63-85, and John K. Hyde, «Medieval Description of Cities,» Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 48 (1966): 308-40. Guillebert de Mets gives a slightly later (1430) account of the place, which stood in the present day Halles district: «There is found a very large cemetery, enclosed with buildings called charnel houses, where the bones of the dead are piled up,» Robert W. Berger, ed. and tr., In Old Paris: An Anthology of Source Descriptions 1323-1790 (New York: Italica Press, 2002), XXIV, p. 30. See generally on Bersuire’s remarks here Émile Raunié, Épitaphier du vieux Paris. Recueil général des inscriptions funéraires des églises, couvents, collèges, hospices, cimetières et charniers depuis le Moyen Âge jusqu’à la fin du XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1890), p. 315, no. 462. 142 «Plaster of Paris» was just coming into vogue as an architectural material. The passage probably refers to the gypsum and limestone quarries at Montmartre and Bellville. 141

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fontaine et il soit dedans gecte tout nu, si il est couppable du cas dont il est accuse, tantost il le recognoistra, et le soubtiendra leau sans aller au fons, et le remectra tousjours au bort de la fontaine. Et si il est innocent du cas dont il est accuse et il soit tout nu en leau de ladicte fontaine qui ne le secourra, tantost il noyra et yra au font.143 Item dit Gervaise que ou pais de Bretaigne qui anciennnement estoit appelle Amorique en une cite appellee Lentigrier avoit une femme qui par lespace de vingt ans et plus vesquit saine et entiere de son corps sans user aucune viande corporelle, et sans boyre et sans menger. Excepte le precieux sainct sacrement de lautel ne autre chose en son corps nentra par le dit temps ne ne yssit, et disoit que manger luy estoit chose impossible.144 Item Vincent recite le cas pareil en son livre appelle le Myrouer Hystorial.145

will suspend him so that he never goes to the bottom and will always return him to the edge. And if he is innocent of the crime of which he is suspected and is naked in the water of this fountain, in such a way that it does not assist him, immediately he will drown and sink to the bottom. Gervaise says that in the country of Brittany, which formerly was called Armorica, in a city called Lentriquer, there lived a woman who for a period of twenty years and more remained healthy and strong of body without any sustenance, and without eating or drinking, except for the precious holy sacrament from the altar, and nothing else entered her body or came out of it during this time, and she said that eating was impossible for her. Vincent tells of a similar case in his book called the Mirror of History.

23) [Germanie] 28/ Germanie, autrement dicte Allemaigne, est une moult grant region qui est situee en Europpe. Et pour ce Allemaigne cest a dire grant elle. Car cest la grant elle de Europpe ne il nya point de si grant pais soubz Europpe comme est Allemaigne. Car elle contient moult de grandes provinces larges et lees. Solin raconte que la est ung pais appelle le Sault de lErmitaige, la ou sont oyseaulx merveilleusement nobles et beaulx dont les plumes sont cleres et luysans comme estoilles. Et par laudisseur des plumes de ces nobles oyseaulx sont les pelerins et autres gens qui passent par my ce pays conduytz, enluminez et adresses a leur chemin. Et oultre plus dit Solin que quant ce vient au de cours de la lune que la ou reppairent ces oyseaulx, on y voit plus cler quon ne feroit si la plaine lune luysoit.146 Item dit Solin que ou dit pays sont certaines bestes sauvaiges appellees nesontes, lesquelles on ne peut aprivoiser ne duyre, et sont de la facon et semblance de beufs ou vaches. Excepte quilz ont les cornes larges de dessus et les narines si treslongues et si grandes quil semble que ce soit une longue et large botte. Et pour ce quant elles sont es prez elles ne povent paistre de lerbe si non quant elles ont la teste bessee vers la terre il convient quelles recullent 28v/ ou autrement elles ne pourroient paistre lerbe ne trover.147

23) Germany Germany, otherwise known as Allemagne, is a very large region that is situated in Europe. And for this reason, it has the name «allemaigne,» that is to say, «the great wing.» For it is the great wing of Europe and there is certainly no other country at all in Europe that is as large as Allemaigne. For this country contains many provinces large and wide. Solinus says that there is a region there called Sault the Hermitage where there are marvelously noble and handsome birds whose feathers are bright and shining like stars. And by the radiance of these noble birds’ feathers, pilgrims and other men who pass through this country are guided, illuminated, and directed on their way. And, moreover, Solinus says that at the waning of the moon, wherever these birds gather, one sees more clearly than one would if the full moon were shining. Solinus says that in the said country are certain savage beasts called «nesontes» which cannot be domesticated or tamed, and they are in appearance like oxen or cattle. But they have large horns above and nostrils so very long and broad that they seem like a long and capacious boot. And for this reason, when they are in the field, they cannot graze on the grass unless, when they have their heads lowered to the ground, they walk backwards, or otherwise they can neither find their feed nor eat it.

The eleventh-century castle of Fougères was defended by Raoul II (1130-94). Not Gervaise but Bersuire’s story. Modern Tréguier, called in the Middle Ages Lentriguier. See Dominique Besançon, ed., Le Pays de Tréguier arrondissements de Tréguier et de Lannion (Rennes: Terre de Brume, 2009). 145 As Bersuire does not indicate which of Vincent’s works he means, the Translator may be loosely recalling a rather metaphorical passage comparing spiritual with physical nourishment from Hugh of St. Victor quoted in Speculum Historiale, Book 26, c. 97, p. 1088. 146 Collectanea, 96. 147 Collectanea, 96. 143 144

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Item dit Solin que en Affricque est une ysle ou sont semblables bestes et sont appellees alerdes. Et ont les genoulx si roides quelles ne les povent ploier, comme ont les elephans, et pour ce ne se peuent coucher. Car si elles estoient couchees a terre, elles ne se pourroient reliever. Et combien quelles aient les jambes roides, toutesfoiz elles courent et vont si tost que on ne les scet prandre ne aconsuyvre, si non par une maniere. Car quant elles se veullent repouser, elles sappuyent contre ung arbre. Et quant les gens du pais ont choisi et apperceu larbre ou elles ont acoustume de sappuyer, ilz viennent et sient cest arbre par le pie, tant quil ne tient comme point. Lors quant celle beste se cuyde appuyer contre arbre, la beste et larbre cheent tous ensemble a terre. Et ne se peut la beste relever. Adonc les veneurs et autres gens qui sont en au guet sur elle viennent toust et promptement la tuent et occient. Et par ceste maniere est ainsi ceste beste prise.148

Solinus says that in Africa there is an island where there are similar beasts, and they are called «alerdes.» And they have such stiff knees that they cannot bend them, like elephants, and for this reason they cannot lie down. For if they lay down on the ground, they would not be able to get back up. And even though they have such stiff legs, still they move and run so quickly that they can neither be caught nor overtaken, except in one way: for when they wish to rest, they lean against a tree. And when the men in that country have picked out and noted the tree they habitually lean against, they come and saw the tree at its base, to the point that it is no longer holding it upright at all. Then, when this animal supposes that it will lean against the tree, the beast and the tree fall together to the ground. And the animal cannot get back up. Then the hunters and other men who are lying in wait for the beast come quickly and promptly kill it. And in this fashion this animal is taken.

24) [Espaigne] Espaigne est une moult grant region qui contient plusieurs roiaumes. Et est situee es parties de Europpe et combien que la a moult de merveilles toutesfoiz Solin nous envoye aux sages acteurs de par dela. Et toutesfoiz Solin nous ra– 29/ conte daucunes merveilles dEspaigne et dit que vers la cite de Clispone les jumens, ou temps que court le doulx vent de Favon qui est audessoubz laire, combien quelles soient sans compagnie de leurs masles que nous appellons chevaulx, et quelles paissent lerbe des prez ou des montagnes seules, quant vient environ le moys de May, par linspiracion dudit vent, elles deviennnent prains sans estre saillies de leurs masles. Et quant elles portent leur terme, ilz ont auxi beaux poulains comme les autres.149 Item dit Gervaise que en Capadoce semblablement est il des jumens, car elles sont prains quant ledit vent de Favon vente et quant elles ont seulement volunte et desir davoir compagnie de leurs masles.150 Item Plinius tesmoigne ce que dit est en son viiie livre ou xliiie chappitre et il dit que les poulains qui sont ainsi procrees ne vivant point plus de troys ans en leur force et vertu et si ilz vivent plus ilz sont corrompuz et inutilles.151 Item dit Gervaise que Espaigne est une grant province situee es haultes parties de Europpe en laquelle a ung chastel nomme

24) Spain Spain is a very large region that contains several realms. And it is situated in a part of Europe, and although there are many marvels there, Solinus nevertheless directs us to the wise authors of that region. And yet Solinus himself tells us of some Spanish marvels and says that, in the area near the city of Clispone, the mares, during the season when the soft and gentle wind Favonius [Zephyrus] is blowing above them, even though they be without the company of their stallions that we call horses and are grazing on the grass of the fields or the mountains all alone, when the month of May comes, they become pregnant by breathing in this wind, without being covered by their stallions. And when they carry to term, these mares have foals just as fine as any others. Gervaise says that in Cappadocia a similar thing occurs with mares, for they become pregnant when the above-mentioned wind Favonius blows and when they have only the wish and desire to have the company of their mates. Pliny testifies as to what has been said in his eighth book, in the forty-third chapter, and he says that the foals that are procreated in this way do not maintain vigor and energy beyond three years, and if they live longer they are corrupted and useless.

Collectanea, 97. Collectanea,104. See Conway Zirkle, «Animals Impregnated by the Wind,» Isis, 25.1 (May, 1936): 95-130; and «The Jumar or Cross between the Horse and the Cow,» Isis, 33.4 (December, 1941): 486-506. 150 See Zirkle, «The Jumar,» above. 151 Actually chapter 67 of NH 8.67, p. 117. 148 149

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Cardonigne qui est situee a coste de Catheloigne ou royaume dArragon et dit que pres dicelluy chastel a une montaigne dont les rochiers et pierres sont vrays et parfait sel auxi bon ou meilleur comme celluy qui vient de la mer. Et si ya une autre merveille. Car quant on a prins dudit sel et fait une grant fosse en la roche a force de picz de fer, et quant on aura emporte le dit sel, tantost quil aura cheu une undee de pluye sur la montaigne, le pertuys que on aura fait en la roche sera par la pluye rampli raz de la terre et deviendra sel auxi bon et ferme comme devant, et ainsi ladicte montaigne demeure tousjours entiere comme devant et ne la peut on diminuer. Et combien que leau qui chet du ciel sur celle montaigne soit doulce, toutesfoiz pour la propriete de la saline de la montaigne, elle est convertie en sel.152 Item dit Gervase que en Cathelongne a ung treshault mont. Et au plus hault a ung lac si tresparfont que homme ny trouva oncques terre ferme, dont leau est noyre hydeuse et lapparence est a regarder tresepoventable. Et dient les habitans du pais que au fons de ce lac a ung palays qui est de moult merveilleuse facon et de tresmerveilleux edifice. Ou quel palays sont et habitent les dyables denfer. Et sil advient que aucun homme gecte une pierre en ce lac, lors les dyables se courroussent et pour venger leur injure esmeuvent grans noises comme fouldres, tonnaires, et tempestes.153 Item dit Gervaise que es vallees dicelle montaigne cort ung fleuve dont les sablons semblent estre or et argent. Et audessus sont les minieres dor et dargent.154 Item dit Gervaise que en la partie opposite de mydi la ou le souleil oncques ne raya est continuellement la noif, et en la riviere la glace qui oncques ne fondit ny ne fondra jusques a la fin du monde. Et pour icelle cause de perpetuelle froidure en cest endroit, la croist le cristal et la est lieu ou il est prins et trouve a moult grant habundance.155 Item la advint une autre merveille dun laboureur du pais qui estoit dune ville nommee Merchera, et avoit nom Pierre de la Table. Ce laboureur avoit une petite fille qui estoit nouvellement nee, laquelle crioit et faisoit si grant noise toute nuyt que il ne povoit dormir. Si advint une foiz que celle fille crioit moult fors sans cesser. Si en desplut tant a son pere que par la grant desplaisance de son cry il luy dist, «Si tu ne te taiz, je te donne et commans a tous les dyables.» Incontinant ces dyables, qui

Gervaise says that Spain is a great province situated in the mountainous part of Europe, in which there is a castle named Cardonigne that is located on the border of Catalonia in the realm of Aragon, and he says that near this castle is a mountain whose rocks and stones are true and perfect salt, as good or better than that which comes from the sea. And there is yet another marvel. For when one has taken some of this salt and made a great ditch in the rocks by means of an iron pickaxe and one has carried the salt away, as soon as there is a sudden downfall of rain on the mountain, the hole that has been made in the rock will be filled up by the water level with the earth, and it will become salt as good and firm as before. And thus the said mountain remains always whole as before, and it cannot be diminished. And no matter how sweet the water that falls from the heavens on this mountain, because of the saline properties of the mountain it will be converted into salt. Gervaise says in Catalonia there is a very high mountain. And at the very top is a lake so deep that no man has ever found the bottom, and its water is hideously black and very frightening to behold. And the inhabitants of the country say that at the bottom of this lake is a palace that is a very marvelous and remarkable edifice. And in this palace live devils from hell. And if it happens that any man throws a stone into this lake, then the devils are enraged and, to avenge their injury, they stir up great rumblings in the form of thunder, lightning, and storms. Gervaise says that through the valleys of this mountain flows a river whose sands seem to be gold or silver. And up above are mines of gold and silver. Gervaise says that in the part opposite the South, there where the sun never shines, there is always snow, and in the river there is ice that never melts and never will melt until the end of the world. And because of the perpetual cold of this region, crystal grows there, and this is the place where it is found and collected in greatest abundance. Another marvel occurred there regarding a laborer of the country from the city of Merchera whose name was Peter of the Table. This laborer had a little girl who was newly born, who cried and made such a great disturbance all night that he could not sleep. Thus it happened once that this child was crying very loudly without pause. And her father was so displeased by the crying that, because her crying was so unpleasant, he said to her, «If you don’t hush up, I

Banks and Binns, III.2, p. 565. Banks and Binns, III.66, p. 685. 154 Banks and Binns, III.66, p. 685. 155 Banks and Binns, III.66, p. 685. 152 153

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tousjours sont prestz a mal faire, invisiblement prindrent et ravirent ceste fille comme se fust ung esturbillon de vent lemporterent et par lespace de vii ans la garderent en ce lac. 29v/ Quant ce vint au bout de vii ans, il passa ung pelerin pres dudit mont ou estoit le lac, si vit ung homme qui sen alloit courant et plourant par celle montaigne, et qui fasoit de moult piteux regretz et disoit, «Helas, helas, pouvre meschant que je suis, que feray je ne de quelle heure fuz je ne, quant tant de peyne me fault endurer et si grant pestilance souffrir et porter.» Adonc le pelerin luy demanda quil estoit. Et lors cest homme luy respondit, «Je suis ung meschant maleureux qui ay este plus de vii ans en celle montaigne cavee en la subiection des dyables denfer. Auxquelz je fuz ja pieca donne et commande par mes parens, ne oncques puys je neuz ung seul jour de repoux.» Et avecques ce dist que la fille du dit Pierre de la Table, qui estoit de leage de vii ans, estoit avecques luy. Et si dist que si le pere de ladicte fille venoit en celle montaigne requerir aux dyables quilz luy rendissent sa fille, que ilz luy rendroient et restitueroient. Lors ce pelerin se hasta moult de aller reveller a Pierre de la Table les nouvelles que il avoit ouyes de [sa] fille. Et luy conseilla quil y alast au lieu dessusdit pour requerir aux dyables sa fille, et tout ainsi comme ledit pelerin luy dist Pierre de la Table le fist. Et sen vint en ladicte montaigne au lieu ou les ennemis estoient. Et la il conjura et convoca les dyables et leur commanda de par Dieu tout puissant quilz luy rendissent sa fille. Et tantost il se va esmouvoir ung grant esturbillon de vent et une grant tempeste, en la quelle luy fut soudainement sa fille presentee, qui estoit haulte et droicte selon leage de sept ans, et si estoit moult maigre, seiche, et alangoree. Et si avoit le regard moult effroye et la bouche vagabonde, horrible et espoventable, mais ung peu de temps apres elle se revint et recouvra sa beaulte, son maintien et honneste disposicion comme avoient les autres jeunes filles de son eage. Apres ceste merveilleuse delivrance de la fille Pierre de la Table, [il] advint que celluy pouvre meschant dont les dyables fasoient amere fut delivre des tormens des dyables, ses parens sen vindrent en la montaigne et firent si grans conjuracions et convocacions sur les dyables quilz leur rendirent leur parent lequel quant il fut delivre compta et declaira de mot a mot a ses parens. Et auxi on adjoustoit plus grant foy a sa parolle pour ce quil estoit de plus grant eage que la fille. Et leur dist comment les palais denfer et le demeure des dyables estoit au font du lac qui est au plus hault de la montaigne. Ou quel palais Lucifer tenoit souvant en sa grant mageste son jugement. Et la par les dyables tant de lun

will hand you over to the devils.» Immediately these devils, who are always ready to do evil, invisibly laid hold of this infant and carried her off as if she was transported in a gust of wind, and for seven years they kept her in this lake. When seven years had gone by, it happened that a pilgrim was passing by this aforesaid mountain where the lake was, and he saw a man who went running and weeping around this mountain, and who expressed many piteous regrets and said, «Alas, alas poor wretch that I am, what will I do and under what bad sign was I born that I must endure so much pain, and I must suffer and bear such great pestilence.» And then the pilgrim asked him who he was. And then this man replied: «I am a miserable wretch who has spent more than seven years on this hollow mountain in the grip of devils from hell. I was given over to their control long ago by my parents, and never since have I had a single day of rest.» And with this he said that the daughter of Peter of the Table, who was seven years old, was with him. And also he said that if the father of the said girl came to this mountain to implore the devils to return his daughter, they would give her back and restore her. Then this pilgrim hastened to go tell Peter of the Table the news that he had heard of his daughter. And he counseled him to go to the aforementioned place to implore the devils that they return his daughter; and just as the pilgrim told him, Peter of the Table did it. And he went to the said mountain to the place where the adversaries were. And he conjured and called together the devils and commanded them by God all powerful that they return his daughter to him. And immediately there came the stirring of a great whirlwind and a great storm, in which he was suddenly presented with his daughter who was the height and size of a sevenyear-old, and she was very thin, withered, and languorous. And also she looked frightened, squinting, vagabond, horrible and fearful, but a short time afterward she recovered and regained her beauty, her manner, and her gentle disposition, so that she was just like other girls her age. After this marvelous recovery of the daughter of Peter of the Table, it happened that this poor wretch whom the devils had filled with anguish was delivered from the torments of the devils: his parents came to the mountain and made such grand conjurations and convocations to the devils that they returned to them their kinsman, who, when he was delivered, recounted and declared his story word by word to his parents. And also one gave greater credence to his words because he was older than the girl. And he told them how the palaces of hell and the dwelling of the devils were at the bottom of the lake that is at the very top of the mountain. In this palace Lucifer often rendered judgment in his majesty. And in this place the devils, as many on one side as the

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coste comme dautre estoient discutees et propousees les grans diligences et labeurs des maulx et temptacions quilz avoient faiz par my le monde. Et la qui avoit plus fait de mal plus estoit des autres dyables honnoure et prise.156 Item dit Gervaise que es parties dEspaigne pres Arragon advient entre les hommes une merveilleuse persecucion. Car les mauvais esperiz de vii ans en sept ans font et esmeuvent une terrible guerre sur les hommes, et par grant cruaulte les batent et mutilent et navrent jusques a la mort, les ungs en veillant, les autres en dormant. et si se boutent dedans les corps de plusieurs hommes et deviennent demoniacles.157 Item recite Vincent en son livre du Mirouer Hystorial ou viie chappitre que quant Charlemaigne le grant conquist les Espaignes il destruist toutes les ydoles des payens et Sarrazins. Excepte une ydole qui estoit en la terre de Alandalus laquelle il ne peut oncques destruyre ne abbatre, ne nul empeschement il ne luy peut faire. Ceste ydole estoit darain laquelle estoit assise sur une grant coulompne de pierre et estoit moult hault eslevee pres du rivaige de la mer. Et avoit la face droicte du 30/ couste devers mydi et tenoit une clef en sa main dextre. De ceste merveilleuse ymage disent les anciens Sarrazins que Mahomnet la forgea et composa. Et dedans elle encloyst une legion de dyables qui montoient au nombre vi mille, vi .C. et lxvi. Et a son ydole donna si grant auctorite et puissance que nul Chrestien ne povoit delle aprocher quil ne feust toust et hastivement foulle et creve en terre ou pery en la mer. Et aux Sarrazins et payens donna pouvoir daller et venir tout entour pour ladourer. Et ce fist pourchassa et compousa le faulx Mahommet ennemy de tout Crestiente pour plus legierement encliner les hommes a despriser la foy Crestienne et a croyre et adourer son ydole. Et avec ce il donna puissance a son ydole que tousjours elle heust perpetuelle resistence et remembrance selon permission divine ou aumoins treslongue duree. Et que nul homme de cest eage durant ne la peust briser, casser, rompre, destruyre, ne demollir.158

other, discussed and proposed the many great undertakings of evil and temptation that they had performed in the world. And there the one who displayed the most evil was honored and esteemed by the other devils. Gervaise says that in parts of Spain near Aragon there occurs among men a marvelous persecution. For the bad spirits make a terrible war on men every seven years and with great cruelty beat and mutilate and wound them to point of death, some in waking and some in sleeping. And thus they force themselves into the bodies of many men and they become demonically possessed. In the seventh chapter of his Miroir Historial, Vincent says that when Charlemagne the great conquered Spain, he destroyed all the pagan and Muslim idols. The exception was one idol that was in the region of Andalus, which he could not destroy or knock down, or act against in any way. This idol was of bronze and seated on a great column of stone and was raised to a great height near the seashore. And it had the right side of its face towards the South and held a key in its right hand. And the ancient Muslims said of this marvelous idol that Mahomet forged and built it. And inside was enclosed a legion of devils which rose to the number of six thousand, six hundred and sixty-six devils. And he gave to this idol such great authority and power that no Christian could approach it without being quickly trampled and buried in the earth or drowned in the sea. And to the Saracens and pagans he gave the power to come and go around the idol and adore it. And the false Mohammed, enemy of all Christians, did, procured, and contrived this to more easily incline men to despise Christianity and to believe in and adore his idol. And with this he gave power to his idol that it would always have perpetual endurance and remembrance by divine permission or at least for a very long time. And no man in those days could break, damage, destroy, or demolish it.

25) [Ibernie] Ibernie est une ysle en la grant mer basse devers occident, constituee es fins de la Grant Bretaigne que nous disons Angleterre. De ceste ysle parle Ysidore en son xiiiie livre et dit que la sont de moult grans merveilles. Entre lesquelles il dit que la est ung lac qui est de moult merveilleuse condicion. 30v/ Car si aucun y fiche ou gecte une lance ou autre baston agu, la partie du fust qui est en terre fiche est

25) Ibernia Ibernia is an island in the great deep sea located towards the West, and positioned at the far borders of Great Britain that we call England. Isidore speaks of this island in his fourteenth book and says that there are many great marvels there. Among these, he says that there is a lake that is of a very marvelous nature. For if any one throws or thrusts a lance or other sharp shaft into it, the part that

The town is called La Junquera by Gervaise, Banks and Binns, III.66, pp. 687-89. Banks and Binns, III.83, 713. 158 Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum Historiale, Book 24, Ch. 7, p. 965. Banks and Binns, Appendix II.1, pp. 879-81. 156 157

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naturellement convertie et muee en fer. Et la partie qui est en leau est convertie en pierre. Et lautre partie qui demeure hors de leau demeure en sa nature de bois, comme il estoit quant il fut fiche. Ibernie est une region tresfertille et habundant en biens comme en fruiz, en grains, en cire ou miel, et en nourritures. Et quant au regard du souleil il est en air tresbien atrempe, la ne fait nulle foiz ne trop froit ne trop chault. Celle region est bien environnee et a ornee de fluves, rivieres, et ruisseaulx, et de moult belles fontaines deaux doulces. La sont bois, forestz, et gracieulx bocages, prez, jardins, et pasturaiges.159 Item la sont trouves les minieres de metaulx dor, dargent, de cuyvre, darain, destain, dassier, de fer, et de plomc. Item la a moult grant habondance de pierres precieuses et fines, comme une pierre precieuse apellee iris, laquelle quant elle est mise contre la clarte du souleil elle rend par sa resplandisseur contre les paraiz la forme, figure, et couleur de larc celestiel.160 Item la croist la riche pierre noire que lon appelle gest, de quoy len fait ces riches eschapes et pastenostres. Item la sont trouvees les plus blanches perles qui soient. Item la est une ysle moult merveilleuse dont les corps mors des habitans quant y sont enterres jamais ilz ny pourrissent et y demeurent tousjours tous entiers. Item dit Gervaise que la est une autre ysle en laquelle homme ne femme ne peut mourir. Et quant ilz sont bien affebliz ou par grant aage ou autrement quant ilz ont desir de mourir, ilz sont transportes ailleurs pour tost mourir. Item dit que la na beste, ne serpent, ne oyseau nuisant.161 Item il dit que la terre de ladicte ysle est naturellement contraire a tous venins. Et mesmement les laynes chanvres et lins qui ont creu en celle terre qui sont ailleurs transportez si vallant ung grant remide contre venins. De ceste ysle parle Ysidoire et dit que nul marinier ne peut a grant peine en ceste ysle arriver pour ce que la mer dont elle est environnee est tousjours grant et esmeue et plaine de grans tempestes et de grans undes qui sont moult perilleuses. Excepte en certain et trespetit de temps en lan du quel temps les mariniers ont bien congnoissance.162 Item dit Solin en son livre des Merveilles du Monde que les gens de Ibernie sont singuliers en habiz et de facon non pareille.163

is stuck in the earth is naturally converted and changed into iron. And the part that is in the water is changed into stone. And the other part that remains outside the water stays in its natural state of wood, as it was when it was thrown. Ibernia is a very fertile region and abundant in goods such as fruits, grains, wax or honey, and foods. And with respect to the sun, it has a very temperate air, never too cold or too hot. This region has beautiful surroundings and is ornamented with rivers, brooks, and streams and many beautiful springs of fresh water. There are woods, forests, and gracious groves, meadows, flower gardens, and pasture land. There are found mines for metals such as gold, silver, copper, brass, tin, steel, iron, and lead. There one finds a very great abundance of fine and precious stones, such as a stone called iris, which, when it is held up to sunlight, casts on the walls, by its radiance, the form, shape, and color of a rainbow. There grows the rich black stone called jet, from which are made expensive baldrics and rosaries. There are found the whitest pearls anywhere. There is a most marvelous island whose inhabitants’ dead bodies, when they are buried there, never rot and remain always whole. Gervaise says that there is another island there on which neither men nor women can die. And when they have become feeble, or because of old age or some other cause they wish to die, they go elsewhere in order to die soon. He says that on that island there are no harmful serpents, beasts, or birds. He says that the soil of the aforesaid island is naturally opposed to all poisons. And even the wools, hemps, and linens that have grown on this soil, when they are transported elsewhere, still serve as a powerful antidote to poisons. Isidore speaks of this island and says that no mariner can get to this island without great difficulty because the sea that surrounds it is always high and turbulent and full of huge storms and great waves which are exceedingly perilous. The exception is a certain very limited time of the year, with which sailors are quite familiar. Solinus says in his book of the Marvels of the World that the men of Ibernia are singular in habits and not like anyone else.

Etymologiae, XIV.6. 2-7. On the fascination with rainbows in the Middle Ages, see Alessia Bonadeo, Iride: un arco tra mito e natura (Grassina, Firenze: Le Monnier Università, 2004). 161 Banks and Binns, II.10, pp. 309- 11. 162 Etymologiae, XIV.6.6. The idea is more fully developed in O’Meara, tr., Gerald of Wales, Topography of Ireland, I.23, p. 51. 163 Collectanea, 100. 159

160

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Item ilz sont en leur maniere de vivre treseschars et tenans et petis despenseurs. Item ilz sont de treshault et grant couraige. Item ilz sont de trescruel regard et orgueilleux. Item ilz sont aigres et aspres en parolles et commun langaige contre estrangiers mais entreulx mesmes ilz sont tresdoulz, tresfamiliers, tres gracieulx, et trescheritables les ung aux autres. Et dit Solin que quant ceulx dIbernie ont obtenu aucune victoire sur leurs ennemis, ilz bovient le sang des mors et en lavent leurs visaiges et leurs mains.164 Item raconte Girad en son livre des Merveilles du Monde en parlant dIbernie et dit que pres de la fin de ceste ysle a une province appellee Monomie, la ou est ung grant pertuis comme la gueulle dung puys bien parfont. Et dit quil fut revele au Sainct Patrice evesque que la estoit lantree de Purgatoire. Et que tout homme qui leans entroit voluntairement et pacienment toutes 31/ adventures endureroit jamais autre purgatoire navroit. Et de ceste matiere est plusaplain traicte et parle en listoire du cimitiere Sainct Patrice.165 Item dit que en Ybernie a une ysle de telle condicion que seulement elle recoit et nourrist tous masles de toutes bestes, de tous oyseaulx, et de tous hommes et femmes et nullement ny seuffret nulles femelles, mais les deboute tant femmes et toutes bestes et oyseaulx femelles. Et quant les oyseaulx passans par devant ceste ysle, les masles se assient sur les branches des arbres et les femelles passent oultre ou autrement elles mourroient si elles y demouroient.166

They are extremely frugal and stingy and don’t like to spend money. They are men of excellent and lofty courage. They have a cruel and proud gaze. They are brusque and harsh in their utterances and conversations with strangers but among themselves they are very mild, familiar, gracious, and charitable, one to the other. And Solinus says that when the people of Ibernia have gained any victory over their enemies they drink the blood of the dead and wash their faces and their hands in it. Gerald in his book Marvels of the World says, in speaking of Ibernia, that near the far end of this island is a province called Monomie, where is to be found a very large opening like the mouth of a very deep well. And he says that it was revealed to the bishop Saint Patrick that this was the entrance to Purgatory and that all Christian men who would enter therein willingly and patiently endure all the dangers there would never have another purgatory. And this subject is more clearly treated and discussed in the history of the cemetery of Saint Patrick. He says that in Ibernia is an island of such condition that it receives and nourishes only the males of all animals, of all birds, and of all humans, and sustains no females at all, but it rejects all women and all female animals and birds. And when birds are passing over this island, the males perch on the branches of trees and the females continue beyond, for otherwise they would die if they stayed there.

26) [Inde] Inde est une grant, lee, et treslarge region. Et moult ya de ysles ou il ya moult grant habondance dor, dargent et de pierres precieuses. Et si est celle region moult bien arrousee de moult grans fleuves et rivieres. Item en celle region a moult grant habondance darbres qui sont tousjours vers en toutes saisons, qui parant et enbellissant moult grandement la terre de ce pais. Item en celle region sont trouves les plusfors et vertueux elephans 31v/ qui soient ou monde.

26) India India is a great, wide and very large region. And there are many islands where there is a very great abundance of gold, silver, and precious stones. And also this region is well provided with water from very great rivers and streams. In this region there is a great abundance of trees that are always green in every season, which adorn and embellish greatly the land of this country. In this region are found the strongest and most capable elephants in the world.

Collectanea, 100. O’Meara, tr., Gerald of Wales, The Topography of Ireland, II.38, p. 61, gives a much more rudimentary account than writers contemporary with the Translator. He does not mention «Monomie.» See «Saint Patrick’s Purgatory» in Friedman and Figg, eds., Trade, Travel, and Exploration, pp. 511-13, with a miniature of Saint Patrick’s Purgatory from the Charnacé manuscript of Secrets, and Grace Neville, «Le Faubourg du Purgatoire? St. Patrick’s Purgatory in French Traveller Accounts from the Early Modern Period Onward,» in Phyllis Gaffney and Jean-Michel Picard, eds., The Medieval Imagination: «Mirabile Dictu.» Essays in Honour of Yolande de Pontfarcy Sexton (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2012), pp. 193-206. The earliest narrative she mentions is 1440. See below, Chapter 65, «Wonders of the Earth,» for a fuller account. 166 In O’Meara, tr., Gerald of Wales, The Topography of Ireland, females avoid the the place, II.37, p. 60. 164 165

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Item en cclle region croist la bonne et fine canelle et le fin poyvre et le fin calame bien odorant. Item la est livoyre, le brerille, le crisopasse, les charboncle, le dyament, les marguerites, et fines perles. Item la sont les montaignes dor, ausquelles montaignes nul homme ne peut aller ne y parvenir pour la grant multitude des grans et horibles dragons qui devourant et estranglant tout homme qui y va. Item dit Solin que en Inde sont les plus puissans roys qui soyent regnans ne vivans sur terre, tant en richesse de joyaulx comme en puissance de gent.167 Item la sont villez et citez tres grandement renommeez et moult bien peuplees. Item dit Solin que en Inde sont en lannee deux yvers et deux estez. Et par ainsi ilz ont double cuellecte de biens deux foiz lan. Et font vendenges et moissons deux foiz lan. Et oultre plus dit Plinius que la region de Inde est de toutes les parties et regions du monde la plus grant, la plus puissant, et la plus riche, tant de puissance de peuple comme de richesses de joyaulx, de blez, de vins, et de tous autres delices du monde. Plinius dit que les habitans de la region de Inde sont de treshault et grant entendement et plains de moult grant prudence.168 Item Plinius dit que en Inde a une region ou le souleil na point dombre pour ce quilz sont tout droit soubz le souleil lequel passe tout de cheut sur leurs testes. Et en ceste region la les hommes y sont grans comme geans. Et sont de vi ou vii coudees de hault. Et ceste gent nul temps ilz ne sont malades ne mal dispousez, ne ne seuffrent nulle douleur en la teste ne es yeulx, ne en quelconque membre de leurs corps. Et combien que la challeur du souleil soit en celle region la a tout homme estrange, grevable, et nuysable. Toutesfoiz elle est aux gens du pais moult naturelle et nourrissant. Et tant plus y est la challeur du souleil grande et ardent de tant plus sont ilz fors et plus durs.169 Item la sont les bons philozophes et saiges et astronomiens qui sont des le souleil levant continuellement jusques au soir regardant les royes du souleil sans flechir ne bouger leul. Et sont continuellement residans et demourans es chaulx et ardans sablons sans ce que pour lardeur et challeur du souleil ilz soient aucunement malades ne mal dispousez. Item la sont arbres de si grant haulteur que nul archier ne pourroit traire par dessus.

In this region grows good, high-quality cinnamon, and fine pepper, and fine, fragrant calamus. There one finds ivory, beryl, chrysoprase, carbuncle, diamond, and fine pearls. There are mountains of gold that no man can go to or return from because of the great multitude of large and horrible dragons that devour and strangle every man who goes there. Solinus says that in India are the most powerful kings who reign and live anywhere on earth, as much in wealth from jewels as in authority over people. There are cities and towns of great fame and large population. Solinus says that in India there are two winters and two summers in each year. And because of this they have a double harvest twice a year. And they gather grapes and make wine twice a year. And what is more, Pliny says that the region of India is, of all the parts and regions of the world, the largest, the most powerful, and the richest, as much in the great number of people as in wealth from jewels, grain, wine, and all other worldly delights. Pliny says that the inhabitants of the region of India are of very high and great intelligence, and full of the greatest prudence. Pliny says that in India there is a region where the sun has no shadow because they are directly under the sun that passes directly over their heads. And in this region the men are as large as giants. And they are six or seven cubits [cubit = 1.5 feet] in height. And these men are never sick or ill disposed, nor do they suffer any pains in the head or eyes, nor in any other part of their body. And although the sun’s heat in this region is outlandish, annoying, and troublesome to all foreigners, yet it is to the men of the country most natural and nourishing. And the more intense and burning the heat of the sun becomes, the stronger and hardier are the people. In India, there are good philosophers and sages and astronomers who, from sunrise to evening, look at the rays of the sun without flinching or averting their eyes. And they continually live and remain in the hot and burning sands, without becoming at all sick or indisposed because of the burning and heat of the sun. There are trees of such great height that no archer could shoot over them.

Generally, Collectanea, 185. Not found in NH. Collectanea, 183. 169 NH 2.75, p. 317. 167 168

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Item dit Plinius que la sont les figuyers tant grans et tant larges que soubz les branches dung figuyez cent chevaliers se pourroient esbatre et armer.170 Item la croissent les grans bastons de cannes sur les rivaiges des paluz que nous appellons par deca arundes. Et la elles croissent si grandes et si fortes que une seulle canne souffist a faire une planche a passer les grans rivieres. Et ad ce propos fait pour adjouster soy ad ce qui est dit davant. Ce qui est escript en lespitre dAlixandre ou il dit que en Inde pres du fleuve Dodmain a si grans cannes que ce semble que ce soient grans pouldres et tresnes et que xxx hommes nen pourroient porter une. Au propos de ces beaulx et grans arbres il est escript ou xiiiie chappitre de Daniel que le roy des Assiriens avoit songe qu il veoit ung arbre si hault, si grant, et si large, et si plain de branches de feuilles et de fruitz, dont la haultesse toucheoit jusques au ciel. Soubz les branches de cest arbre et les feuilles de son fruit se tenoient et vivoient les bestes. Et dessoubz les branches se tenoient les oyseaulx dont la moralite et lexposicion de cest arbre est plusaplain contenue ou livre dessusdit.171 Item dient 32/ Solin, et Plinius et Ysidore que, combien que Inde soit une moult noble et grant region et qui est plaine de grans richesses. Toutesfoiz il y a moult de grans merveilles et de diverses choses et comme non creables a gens qui naurient autresfoiz veus et leus les hystoires. Premierement dit que en Inde sont licornes, elephans, et dragons en grand multitude. Et que aucunesfoiz on en voit en une tourpe que on ne les scet nombrer.172 Item la sont les arbres de plus grant haultesse et largeur quilz ne sont ailleurs.173 Item dit Solin que en Inde a aucunes montaignes dont les hommes qui habitent en icelles ont les testes et les visaiges semblables a testes et museaulx de chiens.174

Pliny says that there are fig trees there that are so tall and so broad that under the branches of a single one, a hundred knights could take arms and fight. There, on the shores of the marshes, grow the tall stalks of cane that we call up here «arundes.» And there they grow so tall and so strong that a single cane suffices to make a plank for crossing over great rivers. And with regard to this, there is cause to believe more fully in what was said before because of what was written in the Epistle of Alexander to Aristotle, where he says that in India near the river Dodmain are some reeds so large that they seem to be rafts [that is, great timbers and twisted mariners’ cables], and that thirty men would not be able to carry a single one. With regard to these large and beautiful trees, it is written in the fourteenth chapter of Daniel [Daniel 4:10-18] that the king of the Assyrians had dreamt that he saw a tree so high, so tall, so large, and so full of branches with leaves and fruits that its top reached all the way to heaven. Under the branches of this tree and the arbors of their fruit lived animals. And among the branches lived birds; the morality and explanation of this tree is most clearly presented in the book just mentioned. Solinus, Pliny, and Isidore say that, even though India is a most noble and great region full of great riches, yet there are many marvels and various things that seem unbelievable to men who have not previously seen and read the stories. First Solinus says that in India there are unicorns, elephants, and dragons in great numbers. And sometimes so many are seen in one herd that they cannot be counted. There are trees there of much greater height and diameter than are found elsewhere. Solinus says that in India there are some mountains whose inhabitants have heads and faces similar to the heads and muzzles of dogs. Pliny says that there are other men there who have the soles of the feet reversed—that is to say, what is on the top is instead on the bottom.

NH 7.2, p. 519. This description and the material from the Epistola which follows is largely drawn from Gervaise’s version of the Epistola Alexandri ad Aristotelem, ed., W. Walther Boer (Meisenheim am Glan: Hain, 1973); Banks and Binns, Appendix I.8-24, pp. 847-61, here 17, p. 849. See also George Cary, The Medieval Alexander, ed., D. J. A. Ross (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1956); Richard Stoneman, Alexander the Great: A Life in Legend (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), pp. 199-216; and Richard Stoneman, trans., The Greek Alexander Romance (New York: Penguin, 1991); for discussion of the monsters see the same author’s «Romantic Ethnography: Central Asia and India in the Alexander Romance,» Ancient World 25 (1994): 93-107. 172 NH 7.2, p. 519. 173 NH 7.2, p. 519. 174 Collectanea, 187. On cynocephali see Claude Lecouteux, «Les Cynocéphales: étude d’une tradition tératologique de l’antiquité au XIIe siècle,» Cahiers de civilisation médiévale 24.94 (1981): 117-29; David White, Myths of the Dog-Man (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Monique MundDopchie, «Autour des Sciapodes et des Cynocéphales: la périphérie dans l’antiquité,» in Mythe et Littérature: études réunies et présentées par Ernst Leonardy (Louvain-la-Neuve: Collège Erasme and Brussels: Editions Nauwelaerts, 1994), pp. 41-52; and more recently, E. Ann Matter, «The soul of the dog-man: Ratramnus of Corbie between theology and philosophy,» Rivista di storia della filosofia 61:1 (2006): 43–53, and Robert Bartlett, «Dogs and Dog Heads: The Inhabitants of the World» in his The Natural and the Supernatural in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 71-110. 170 171

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Item dit Plinius que la sont autres qui ont les plantes des piez renversees. Cestassavoir ce qui est dessus si est dessoubz.175 Item autres gens ya qui ont les piez au contraire de nous. Cestassavoir le tallon devers la facon et le bout du pie ou doit estre le tallon. Item dit Plinius que ceste gent ont viii doiz es piez et sont vestuz de peaux de bestes sauvaiges quilz prennent et dequoy ilz vivent et ne font autre labouraige.176 Item dit Plinius quilz nont autre maniere de parler nemais comme labbay dun chien.177 Item dit Plinius que ilz sont si grant nombre et si grant multitude de peuple en ceste contree que quant ilz veullent aller, chasser, et vener les bestes sauvaiges, pour avoir leur proie, ilz se treuvent bien ensemble cent mille et plus.178 Item dit Plinius que en Inde a une region de telle propriete que les femmes de celle region ne portent ne concoyvent ne nenfantent que une seule foys en leur vie. Et deviennent tantost chenulx et semblent estre vieulx. Plinius dit que en Inde a une autre region au contraire. Car les gens ne vieillissent point. Car aussi toust comme ilz sont creuz jusques en leage moyenne qui est de xxx ans, ilz se mourent.179 Item dit Plinius que en Inde sont autre gens qui ehn jeunesse et en vieillesse ilz ont les cheveulx noirs.180 Item dit Plinius que en une certaine province de Inde il ya certains hommes qui nont point de bouche ne ne boivent ne ne mangeant, mais vivent seulement de lodeur des arbres et des fleurs. Et comme bon odeur les nourrist, auxi mauvaise odeur les occist.181 Item dit Solin que en Inde oultre le pais de Palibocre a ung mont appelle le mont Maillart ou les umbres du souleil sont autrement que ailleurs. Car en la moytie de lannee de la partie de leste les umbres tendent devers le mydi. Et en lautre moitie de lan de la saison diver les umbres cheent devers la partie de septentrion ou devers la galerne.182 Item dit Plinius que les estoilles septentrionnelles que nous appellons Arturus Chariot du Ciel que nous voions touzjours au soir en toutes saisons. Et pardela ilz ne les voient que par lespace de xv jours tant seulement.183

There are other men who have feet opposite to ours—that is to say, they have their heel out of its usual alignment and the end of the foot where the heel ought to be. Pliny says that these people have eight toes on their feet and are dressed in the skins of wild beasts that they capture and on which they live, and they don’t do any other work. Pliny says that they have no other manner of speech except for something like the baying or barking of a dog. Pliny says that there are such great numbers and multitudes of people in this country that when they wish to pursue, hunt, or track wild animals in order to take their prey, they often assemble together a hundred thousand and more. Pliny says that in India there is a region of such nature that the women of this place conceive and bear children only once in their lifetime. And they immediately turn gray and seem to be old. Pliny says that in India there is another region that is exactly opposite. For the people there do not grow old at all. For as soon as they have reached middle age, which is 30 years old, they die. Pliny says that in India there are other people who in both youth and old age have black hair. Pliny says that in a certain province of India are certain men who have no mouth at all and neither eat nor drink, but live solely on the smells of trees and flowers. And just as good odors nourish them, a bad odor kills them. Solinus says that in India beyond the country of Palibocre is a mountain called Mount Maillart where the sun’s shadows are different than they are in other places. For in the middle of the year in the season of summer, the shadows fall towards the South. And in the other half of the year, in the season of winter, the shadows fall towards the North or towards the Northwest. Pliny says that the Northern stars that we call Arcturus or the Chariot of Heavens, which we always see at night in all seasons, are seen down there only for a period of fifteen days. Pliny says that in India there are some men who are so quick and so agile that when they jump from low to high it seems as if

NH 7.2, p. 521. NH 7.2, p. 521. 177 NH 7.2, p. 521. 178 NH 7.2, p. 521. 179 NH 7.2, p. 525. 180 NH 7.2, p. 521. 181 NH 7.2, p. 523. 182 Collectanea, 185. 183 This appears to be the Northern Pole Star. NH 6.26, p. 413. 175 176

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Item dit Plinius que en Inde a aucunes gens qui sont si vistes et si legiers que en saillent de bas en hault il semblent quilz vollent tant saillant legierement. Et ceste gent montent et saillant tout a ung sault sur les elephans.184 Item la sont autres hommes qui sont pres que sauvaiges et nont autre occupacion fors de chacier les elephans. Et quant ilz les ont prins, ilz les duisent et aprennent a labourer comme a traire au collier et a la charrete et a la charrue et a tous faiz porter et soustenir.185 Item dit Solin que en Inde a aucuns peuples qui jamais ne vouldroient manger de char, mais ont horreur et hydeur en eulx mesmes quant ilz voient occire ne tuer bestes et oyseaulx et auxi quant ilz voient sang espandu 32v/ par my la place. Et ne vivant ceste maniere de gent que de grains et de fruitz et de poissons de la mer.186 Item dit Plinius que en Inde sont aucuns peuples qui devourant et mangeant les corps de leurs parens et amis charnelz quant ilz sont mors. Et dient que cest mieulx fait a eulx et plus grant honneur de les mengier que de les laisser pourrir en terre.187 Item dit Solin que en Inde sont autres peuples, lesqueulx, quant ilz sont vieulx et quant ilz veullent mourir, ilz font alumer ung grant feu devant eulx. Et en la presence de tous leurs parens et amis, de leur bonne volunte, sans contraincte, ilz gectent et ardent dedans ce feu.188 Item dit Solin que en Inde sont aucuns philo[zo]phes qui continuellement se tiennent es sablons ardens toute jour et regardent la roe du souleil et contemplant le cercle du zodiaque et les estoilles et les secrez des corps celestiaulx. Et en ces ardens sablons sont des le matin jusques au soir estudiens pour les experiences des choses appercevoir. Et se tiennent sur ung pie seul treslonguement et puis apres sur lautre a la maniere des grues et cigoignes.189 Item dit que en Ynde a une contree ou la coustume est que ung seul homme peut avoir plusieurs femmes selon la faculte et puissance dont il est. Et si dix ou vingt en peut gouverner, il les aura. Et la est la maniere des ardre et bruler sans autre sepulture avoir. Et quant ung homme marie est mort et ars ou feu comme davant est dit, lune des femmes de cest homme [vient] devant tous ses amis en disant quelle a este la plus chaste et la plus vroie et qui mieulx amoit son mary si se gecte ou dit feu de sa bonne volunte apres son mary et meurt ainsi avecques luy en celle experance quelle doyve a touzjours mais vivre

they are flying, they leap so nimbly. And these men jump and mount elephants all in a single bound. There are other men there who are nearly savages and have no other occupation besides pursuing and hunting elephants. And when they have taken them, they tame them and teach them such labor as pulling in harness both the wagon and the plow, and carrying and bearing all sorts of things. Solinus says that in India there are some peoples who have no desire to eat flesh but experience great horror and dread when they see animals and birds killed, and also when they see blood splattered about in the market place. And this sort of people live only on grain, fruit, and fish from the sea. Pliny says that in India there are some people who devour and eat the bodies of their relatives and friends when they are dead. And they say that it is better, and a greater honor to them, to eat them than to leave them to rot in the ground. Solinus says that in India there are other people who, when they are old and wish to die, have a great fire lit before them. And in the presence of all their relatives and friends, of their own free will, under no compulsion, they throw themselves into the fire and burn. Pliny says that in India there are some philosophers who continually stand in burning sand all day and watch the wheel of the sun, and contemplate the circle of the zodiac and the stars and the secrets of the heavenly bodies. And in these burning sands they meditate from morning to night, in order to gain wisdom. And they stand on just one foot for a very long time, and then afterwards on the other in the manner of cranes and storks. Solinus says that in India there is a region where the custom is that one man can have several wives, in proportion to his power and ability. And if he can manage ten or twenty, he can have them. And there, it is the custom to burn the dead without having any other burial. And when a married man dies and is being burned in a fire, as said before, one of the man’s wives [comes] before all the relatives, saying that she has been the most chaste and the most faithful and that she loved her husband best; then she throws herself into the fire of her own free will after her husband, and thus dies with him in the hope that she might live forevermore after death

Possibly NH 7.2, p. 523, but see Collectanea, 187. Collectanea, 185. 186 Collectanea, 187. 187 Not found in NH. 188 Collectanea, 187. 189 Collectanea, 187. 184 185

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apres la mort avecques son mary ou pays de pardurable vie. Et les autres femmes qui ainsi ne font si ont grant reprouche et grant deshonneur. Et dit on quelles nont pas este vrayes et loyalles envers leur bon mary. Et sont de tous hommes blasmees et deboutees.190 Item dit Solin que quant le mary et la femme sont ars en ce feu que leurs proches parens et amis charneulz pour monstrer et declairer la grant amour et parfaicte affection quilz avoient a leur parent et amy qui est ars et mort, ilz se gectent dedans le feu et se ardent avecques leur parent et amy en disant que amour vaint et surmonte la mort. Dont raconte Plinius en son viiie livre de ung homme appelle Puellecassin qui tant amoit son patron et son maistre. Si advint quon le gecta en ung grant feu par condennacion mortelle. Celui Cassin, qui tant loyaument amoit son maistre non ayant regart a la douleur de la mort, tantoust et hastivement se gecta entre les flambes ardens du feu avecques son maistre.191 Item en Inde a une ysle qui est vers les desers de Carmanie. Et est appellee lIsle du Souleil. Ceste ysle est en toutes saisons ardent et luysant et rouge comme feu. En ceste isle ne habite homme ne femme ne beste ne oyseau. Et si par cas daventure homme, beste, ou oyseau y avoit, il luy conviendroit tantost et hastivement partir ou illec luy fauldroit briefment mourir.192 Item dit Solin que en Inde a aucuns peuples nommez Cenolophaiges et sont velluz par tout le corps comme chievres. Excepte la face quilz ont belle et pollie comme nous. Ceste gent vivent de limaz et est leur principal nourrissement et sont voistuz de peaulx de pois- 33/ sons.193 Item en Inde sont moult de merveilles comme recite Gervaise en lEspitre dAlizandre. Et dit que en Inde a certains lieux ou les gens sont immortelz quant au regart de la terre pource que en celle terre nulle gens ny peuent mourir mais quant les gens de celle terre sont bien vieulx et usez de viellesse, et quilz ont volunte de mourir, ilz se font transporter en autre terre par leurs amis et enffans, et ainsi ilz prennent fin.194 Item dit Solin que en celle contree les enffans quant ilz sont trop ennuyez de la grant viellesse et antiquite de leurs peres ou de leurs meres ou de leurs autres parens et amis, ilz les tuent et occient.195

with her husband in the land of eternal life. And the other wives who don’t do this suffer great reproach and great dishonor. And people say that they were not true and loyal towards their good husbands. And they are blamed and shunned by all men. Solinus says that when the husband and wife are burned in this fire, their closest kin and friends, in order to show and declare the great love and perfect affection they had for their relative or friend who is burning and dead, throw themselves into the fire and burn with the relative and friend, saying that love conquers and triumphs over death. Of this thing Pliny tells us in his eighth book concerning a man named Puelle Cassin who loved his master to this degree. So it happened that this master was thrown in a great fire as a deadly punishment. This Cassin who so loyally loved his master, having no concern for the pain of death, immediately and quickly threw himself onto the burning flames with his master. In India is an island that is towards the deserts of Carmania. And it is called the Isle of the Sun. This island is, in all seasons of the year, burning and shining and red like fire. On this island lives neither man nor woman nor beast nor bird. And if by chance a man or a beast or a bird should be there, he would have to leave immediately and in haste, or else he would very quickly perish. Solinus says that in India are some people named Cenolophages and they are hairy all over their bodies like goats, except their faces that are beautiful and smooth like ours. These people live on snails that are their principal nourishment and they dress in fish skins. In India are many marvels as Gervaise tells in the Epistle to Alexander. And he says that in India there are certain places where the men are immortal as regards the land because in this land no one can die, but when the people of this place are very old and worn out with age and they wish to die, they arrange to be transported to another place by their relatives and their children, and thus they end their lives. Solinus says that in this country the children, when they are too tired of the great age and antiquity of their fathers or their mothers or their other relatives and friends, they slay and murder them.

Collectanea, 188. Collectanea, 187; NH 7.36, p. 587, where he is Publius Catienus Philotimus. 192 Romer, ed. and tr., Mela, I.3.7 mentions some islands quae vocant Solis, «which they call [islands] of the sun,» in the East near the mouth of the Indus river. Pliny NH 6.24, p. 403, and NH 6.26, p. 413 mentions a single solar island in this same area, saying that it is red and known as the Couch of the Nymphs, though no creature survives on the island. 193 Collectanea, 188. 194 Banks and Binns, II.3, p. 187, but not in the Letter to Aristotle. See for example, Laurence Harf-Lancner, «From Alexander to Marco Polo: From Text to Image: The Marvels of India,» in Donald Maddox and Sarah Sturm Maddox, eds., The Medieval French Alexander (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2002), pp. 235-57, especially pp. 236-39, and in the same work Catherine Gaullier-Bourgassas, «Alexander and Aristotle in the French Alexander Romances,» pp. 57-73, especially pp. 60-61. 195 Collectanea, 187. 190 191

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Item dit Gervaise que en la province ou est larbre du souleil et de la lune que les peuples qui mengent des fruitz desdiz arbres vivent par la vertu et vigueur des pommes desdiz arbres v.c. ans ou plus. Et sont yceulx arbres du souleil et de la lune plus haulx et plus grans es desers de Inde oultre toute commune habitacion des hommes que nulz autres arbres. Et si dit Gervaise que larbre du soleil recoit sa vertu au matin a leure que le soleil lieve. Et quant il est enlumine et tout embrase de la clarte du soleil, lors larbre parle et respont a ceulx qui luy demandent aucune chose. Semblablement est il de larbre de la lune, quant ceste arbre recoit linfluence et la clarte de la lune, elle recoit sa grant vertu et puissance. Et par ainsi a celle heure cest arbre respond a tous ceulx qui aucune chose luy demandent. Et de ces deux arbres et de leur vertu nous recite Gervaise ung exemple et dit que le roy Alixandre le conquerant sen vint parler a les deux arbres et leur demanda de moult grant choses et besoignes touchant le gouvernement de son regne comme de lavenement de sa mort. Et sur chascun point ces deux arbres luy donnerent response. Et sceut le temps, le jour, et leure de sa mort, et le lieu ou il devoit mourir et de quelle mort. Et encores autres choses ces arbres luy revelerent que dedans lan il prandroit la cite de Babiloine par force et que en celle annee il seroit de ses plus proches parens et amis secrez enpoisonne et abreve dun tel brevage que apres ce quil en auroit beu, jamais il nauroit soif. Et ilz luy dirent vray. Car il fut [enpoisonne] par lun de ses plus secrez parens et amis en beuvant et cheut tout mort au lieu, jour, et heure que les deux arbres luy avoient dit, si ne sen garda pas bien dont il fist que fol.196 Item dit Solin que en Lespitre du roy Alizandre que en Ynde entre les grans merveilles a grans serpens et dragons dont les ungs ont trois testes et les autres quatre et sont plus gros que nest nul chesne ne nul orme et vont les testes levees et en chascune teste ont la langue fourchee en trois parties et ont les yeulx ardans et venimieulx et la laine puante, corrumpue, et venimeuse. Et ad ce propos est escript ou Livre des Bestes ou chappitre de angue serpent ou il dit quil fut ung serpent qui avoit nom ydra et avoit .v. testes, lequel serpent Hercules le bon chevalier combatit et le conquist et vigoureusement le mist a mort.197 Item il dit que Alizandre trouva en Inde de chauvez souriz grandes comme coulons et avoient les dens si tresagues quelles trespersoient les harnoiz et armeures de ses gens darmes et les grevoient moult.198

Gervaise says that in the province where the Tree of the Sun and the Moon is found, the people who eat the fruit of the said trees live by the virtue and strength of the apples of the said trees 500 years and more. And these Trees of the Sun and the Moon are higher and larger in the deserts of India beyond the common habitation of men than any other trees. And Gervaise says that the Tree of the Sun receives its strength in the morning in the hour when the sun rises. And when it is illuminated and all enflamed by the light of the sun, then the tree speaks and replies to those who ask it anything. The same thing is true of the Tree of the Moon: when this tree receives the influence and light of the moon, it receives its great power and strength. And because of this, at this hour this tree responds to all those who ask it anything. And of these two trees and their virtue, Gervaise recounts to us an example and says that King Alexander the Conqueror went to speak to the two trees and asked them many great things and matters concerning the governing of his realm, as well as the coming of his death. And on each point these two trees gave him a response. And he learned the time, the day, and the hour of his death, and the place where he would die and the manner of his death. And these trees revealed still other things to him: that within the year he would take the city of Babylon by force and that in this year he would be poisoned by his nearest relatives and confidants and would have drunk a beverage of a sort that, after he had drunk it, he would never be thirsty again. And they told him the truth. For he was poisoned by one of his closest relatives and friends by means of a drink and fell dead immediately at the place, day and hour that the two trees had told him; thus he did not watch out for himself, which was foolish. Solinus says that in the Letter of King Alexander, there are, among the great marvels in India, great serpents and dragons, of which some have three heads and others four, and they are bigger than any oak or elm and go about with their heads lifted, and on each head they have a forked tongue in three parts, and they have burning and venomous eyes, and a stinking, rotted, and venomous wool. And with regard to this, it is written in the Book of Beasts, in the chapter on the serpent, where it says that there was a [water] serpent that had the name hydra and it had five heads, which Hercules the good knight fought and conquered and vigorously put to death. He said that Alexander found in India bats as big as doves and they had teeth so extremely sharp that they could pierce through the harness and armor of his soldiers and caused them great injury.

Cairo is meant here. Banks and Binns, I.14, p. 85; Appendix I.16, p. 849. Actually, Banks and Binns, Appendix I.19, p. 853. Livre des Bestes is unidentified. 198 Banks and Binns, Appendix I.19, p. 853. 196

197

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There were found mice as big as foxes, whose bite was fatal when they bit all other four-legged beasts, but when they bit a man he recovered from it well. He says that towards the farthest part of India near a great river he saw men as naked and hairy as wild beasts that are always in this river and eat only raw fish. For they have no other food there, and they dive into the river just as coots and cormorants do in rivers here. He says that in India he found along the banks of the river Odinani huge women, all naked, who were in the river and had hair hanging down to the ground, and they fought exceedingly hard against men who happened on them. And when they captured a man and they took any pleasure in him, they carried him to an outof-the-way place among the hot reeds and rushes. And there they forced him to have carnal company with them. For they are so hot, disorderly, and abominable in vile lust that it is a wonder. And of this race of women Alexander took just two who were very beautiful and fair. And they seemed, according to the sayings of the poets, to be nymphs or fairies or goddesses, and the others were not taken because they dived into the water and did not show themselves again. It is said in the History of Alexander that in India towards the very farthest region in the East there is a woods that is extremely pleasant and delightful where there live maidens and young women who surpass all other women in beauty. And they never leave that place, and they live only on the smell of the flowers and fruits of the said place. And if by the chance any of these women removes herself just a small distance from the said woods and does not return there for half a day or more, she will quickly and immediately die unless she returns to the said woods and puts herself under the branches of the trees and near the flowers. He says that a marvelous sign came to Alexander when he left the country of India to come to Babylon, revealing that there was soon to come a great change in the lordship of King Alexander with respect to his person. And he said that when the King Alexander learned the news that the city of Babylon would give itself over to him and put itself entirely under his control, he forgot quickly and easily the prophecies of the two Trees [of the Sun and the Moon] that had warned of the hour of his death. Then it happened at his arrival, when the city of Babylon was rendered to him, that there

Item la trouverent souriz grandes comme regnars dont la morsure estoit mortelle quant elles mordoient toutes autres bestes a 33v/ quatre piez, mais quant elles mordoient ung homme il en guerissoit bien.199 Item il dit que vers la fin de Inde pres dune grant fleuve il vit hommez nuz et velluz comme bestes sauvaiges qui tousjours sont en ce fleuve et ne mangent que poissons tous cruz. Car ilz nont la autre viande et se plungent en ce fleuve comme font pardeca plungeons et cormarans es rivieres.200 Item il dit que en Inde il trouva selon les rivaiges du fleuve de Odinani grans femmes toutes nuez qui estoient dedans ce fleuve et avoient les cheveulx pendans jusques a la terre et moult guerroient les hommes qui survenoient sur ells. Et quant elles prenoient ung homme et elles prenoient en luy aucun plesir elles le portoient en ung destour entre les chaulx joncs et cannes. Et la elles le forcoient davoir sa compaignie charnelle. Car elles sont tant chaudes, desordonnees, et abhominables en ville luxure que cest merveilles.201 Et de ceste maniere de femmes Ali[x]andre en print deux tant seulement qui estoient moult belles et blanches. Et sembloit selon le dit des poetes que ce fussent ninphes ou fees ou deesses et les autres ne furent pas prinses pour ce quelles se plungerent en leau et ne ne se monstrerent plus.202 Item est dit en listoire dAlixandre que en Inde vers la finalle et derriere region devers orient a ung bois qui est moult plaisant et delictable ou habitent pucelles et jeunes femmes qui toutes autres femmes surmontent en beaute. Et en nul temps de la ne se despartent et vivent tant seulment de lodeur des fleurs et des fruitz dudit lieu. Et si par aucun cas daventure aucunes dicelles femmes sesloigne gueres loing dudit bois et quelle ny retourne de demy jour despace ou plus, elle mourra tantost et incontinant si elle ne retourne oudit bois et si elle ne se mect soubz les branches des arbres et pres de fleurs.203 Item il recite que ung merveilleux signe advint a Alixandre quant il se partit du pais de Inde pour venir en Babiloine en denoncent quil estoit a advenir bien brief grant mutacion en la seigneurie de Alixandre au regart de la personne du roy Alixandre. Et dit quant le roy Alixandre seut les nouvelles que la cite de Babiloine se rendoit a luy et se mettoit du tout a son obeisance, il oblia tantost et de legier les responses des deux arbres qui luy avoient leure de sa mort denoncee. Si advint que a son nouvel advenement quant la cite de Babilloine luy fut rendue quil nasquit en celle cite ung enffant dune

Banks and Binns, Appendix I.19, p. 853. Banks and Binns, Appendix I.21, p. 855. 201 Banks and Binns, Appendix I.24, p. 859. 202 Banks and Binns, Appendix I.24, p. 859. 203 This story does not seem to appear in either Gervaise or the Latin Epistola. 199 200

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femme qui fut de moult merveilleuse figure et corpullance. Car cest enffant estoit depuis les hanches jusques au chief bien forme a la facon dun home. Et depuis les hanches jusques aux piez, il estoit figure de la facon de moult diverses bestes, comme de lyons, hours, et de liepars et dautres merveilleuses bestes.204 Et pour ceste merveille furent assembles tous les saiges, astronomiens et philosophes pour dire et faire assavoir au peuple que signifioit la desfigurance de cest enffant. Lors tous les philozophes dirent tout plainement et haultement que cest enffant qui estoit ainsi ne et desfigure quant a la partie de dessoubz, cestassavoir depuis les hanches jusques au chief, signifioit que Alizandre devoit briefment mourir. Et quant a la partie de dessoubz, cestassavoir depuis les anches jusques aux piez ou il avoit la figure de moult diverses bestes, signifioit que apres la mort dAlizandre succederoient princes nouveaux plains de tirannie et de cruaulte qui guerroiront et persecuteront lun lautre. 34/ Et comme bestes cruelles et sauvaiges devoureront et destruiroint par grant inhumanite les habitans de la terre.205 Item ad ce propos Gervaise recite en son livre les merveilleux signes qui advindrent avant la mort de Charlemagne le grant et de Julles Cesar qui furent touz deux par leur temps empereurs de Rome. Et dit que certains signes precederent et advindrent avant la mort de Charlemaigne qui fut roy des Francois premierement a lesclipse du soleil et de la lune.206 Item par lespace de vii jours avant sa mort apparut ou soleil une noire tache. Item en celluy temps cheut le portal de son palais qui est a 207 Ais en Allemaigne et fondu et se desmoly jusques aux fondemens dont la destruction fut moult merveilleuse et soudaine et non une naturelle. Item en celluy temps le pont de sur la riviere du Rin soudainement fut ars. Item en celluy temps furent veuz de nuyt grans brandons de feu ardans vollans par my lair. Item en celluy temps ainsi comme le roy Charlemaigne chevauchoit par pais il cheut jus de son cheval a terre si rudement que son baston quil tenoit en sa main sesloigna de luy par lespace de xx toises de loing et plus dont chascun sesmerveilla moult. Item en celluy temps ung peu avant la mort dudit roy Charlemagne il vint et sesmeut ou ciel une grant tempeste et orage

was born of a woman in this city a child that was amazing in shape and size. For this child was, from the hips to the head, well formed in the manner of a man. And from the hips to the feet, he was made in the manner of many different animals, such as lions, bears, leopards, and other marvelous beasts. And because of this marvel there were assembled all the sages, astronomers, and philosophers to ascertain and explain to the people what the disfigurement of this infant signified. Then all the philosophers said quite plainly and emphatically that this child, who was born and disfigured in this way in the upper part, that is, from the haunches to the head, signified that Alexander would soon die. And as for the lower part, that is to say from the haunches to the feet, where he had the form of many diverse beasts, it signified that after the death of Alexander there would be a succession of new princes full of tyranny and cruelty who would make war on and persecute one another. And like cruel and savages beasts, they would devour and destroy, with great inhumanity, the inhabitants of the land. With regard to this Gervaise tells in his book the marvelous signs that preceded the death of Charlemagne the great and of Julius Caesar, who were both in their times the emperors of Rome. And he says that certain signs preceded and occurred before the death of Charlemagne who was king of the Franks, firstly an eclipse of the sun and of the moon. For seven days before his death, a black spot appeared on the sun. In this time the portal of his palace which is in Aachen in Germany fell and was consumed and was totally destroyed to its foundations, and this destruction was extremely marvelous and sudden and by no means natural. In this period the bridge that crossed the river Rhine was suddenly burned. In this time were seen by night great brands of fire flaming and flying through the air. In this time as the king Charlemagne was riding through the country, he fell from his horse to the earth so roughly that his scepter that he held in his hand fell away from him a distance of 20 fathoms [6 feet each] or more, at which everyone marveled. At this time, a little before the death of the aforesaid king Charlemagne, there occurred and moved through the heavens a great

Cairo is probably meant here. Banks and Binns, Appendix I.25, p. 861. Banks and Binns, Appendix I.25, pp. 861-63. 206 Banks and Binns, III.54, pp. 655-57. 207 Aix. 204

205

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de temps dont la fouldre cheut du ciel et abatit la grosse pomme dor et le nom de Charlemagne qui estoit escript en lettre dor sur le fest de la chapelle de nostre dame de Aes en Allemagne. Et tous les signes dessusdiz furent de monstrable signifiance de finale regne de Charlemaigne et de sa prochaine mort. Car il ne demoura gueres apres ladvenement des signes dessusdiz quil trepassa et mourut. Item il dit que en pareil cas advindrent de moult merveilleux signes avant la mort de Jullius Cesar. Car ung pou de temps avant sa mort les Rommains avoient fait faire ung ymaige de pierre en lonneur et remambrance de luy laquelle estoit affise et eslevee sur une haulte coulompne de pierre moult haultement et richement ediffiee pour avoir perpetuel memoire et example aux successeurs empereurs Rommains regneront apres luy de ses prouesses, viollances, et grans et noble victoires quil avoit obtenues contre leurs ennemys. Si advint que une grant tempeste et oraige de temps sesmeut ou ciel de laquelle cheut la fouldre qui abatit et raza la premiere lettre de Cesar qui estoit escript en lettre dor qui signiffioit grant demonstrance de la mort dudit Jullius Cesar. Item quant la fouldre et tempeste eut depeciee et rasee la premiere lettre capitalle de son nom, elle courut tellement par my son palais quelle le fit trembler merveilleusement. Et si rompit et ouvrit huys et fenestres et les fist trebuchier en bas dont plusieurs Rommains eurent moult grant merveille et grant effray en leur cueur.208 Ad ce propos dient ce qui est escript ou livre de Daniel ou .ve. chappitre ou il dit que le roy Balthasar qui fut roy des Assiriens ne volut onques recongnoistre Dieu a souverain seigneur mais le mescongneut et le desprisa et se repputa comme le plus grant et le plus souverain seigneur du monde. Et devint si tres orgueilleux et si oultre cuide envers Dieu et le monde que de fait il entreprint de faire le divin office des prebstres selon la loy ancienne. Et beut et mengea es vesseaux sacrez qui estoient ou temple de Dieu lesquelz estoient sacrez et dediez de Dieu. Et pour ce pechie et autres, Dieu le repprouva et se courroca a luy. Et pour le debouter et mectre hors du tout 34v/ de son hault estat royal et luy abregier sa vie, il luy envoya grans signes et merveilleuses demonstrances de sa mort. Si advint ung jour que Balthasar estoit en son grant pallais royal en la cite de Babilloine a tout moult grant compaignie de grans seigneurs et nobles chevaliers de sa court et autres estrangiers. Et la estoit assis en une haulte et grant magnificence et mageste royal. Et la en la presence de tous par la grace et volunte divine de Dieu, il sapparut une main qui mys en escript contre lapparoy ces trois motz ou semblables, «marie, thechel, phares.» Lors il fist venir et assembler 208

storm and tempest, out of which lightning fell from the sky and hit the large golden apple and the name of Charlemagne which was written in golden letters on the pinnacle of the Chapel of Our Lady of [Aix-la-Chapelle] in Germany. And all the aforementioned signs clearly signified the final reign of Charlemagne and his approaching death. For he hardly survived any longer at all after the appearance of the signs mentioned above when he departed and died. He says that in a similar case many marvelous signs appeared before the death of Julius Caesar. For, shortly before his death, the Romans had had made an image of stone in honor and remembrance of him, which was affixed and raised onto a high column of stone most elaborately and richly constructed to provide perpetual memory and example to the succeeding Roman emperors reigning after him of his acts of prowess, ferocity, and great and noble victories that he had achieved against their enemies. And then it happened that a great tempest and storm shook the heavens, from which fell lightning which struck and erased the first letter of the word Caesar which was written in golden letters, which demonstrated plainly and openly the death of the aforesaid Caesar. When the lightning and storm had torn apart and sheared off the first capital letter of his name, it then ran through his palace with such force that it caused marvelous tremors. And also it broke and opened doors and windows and made them tumble down, in response to which many Romans had great amazement and fear in their hearts. On a similar subject are those things that are written in the book of Daniel in the fifth chapter, where it says that the king Belshazzar, who was king of the Assyrians, never wished to recognize God as sovereign lord, but neglected him and made light of him and considered himself to be the greatest and most sovereign lord of the world. And he became so proud and so presumptuous towards God and the world that in fact he undertook to perform the divine office of priests according to the old law. And he drank and ate out of the sacred vessels that were in the temple of God, which were sacred and dedicated to God. And for this sin and others, God reproved him and grew angry with him. And in order to drive him out and remove him from his high royal estate and shorten his life, he sent him great signs and marvelous portents of his impending death. And so it happened one day that Belshazzar was in his great royal palace in the city of Babylon in an extremely large company of high lords and noble knights of his court and other foreign ones. And there he was seated in a high and great magnificence and royal majesty. And there, in the presence of all by the grace and divine will of God, appeared a hand that put into writing

Banks and Binns, Appendix I.26, pp. 861-63; William W. Heist, The Fifteen Signs before Doomsday (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 1952).

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devant luy tous les saiges philozophes que il peut trouver et finer. Et quant ilz furent tous venuz et assembles, il leur exposa et dist quilz luy deissent et feissent savoir que signifioient ces troys motz que celle main avoit escript ainsi contre la paroy de son pallais. Lors tous les philozophes respondirent et dirent quilz ne savoient que signifioient ces troys motz ne que cestoit a dire. Excepte Daniel le prophete qui estoit hardi et courageux en parolle lequel expousa devant le roy et devant tous que signiffioient ces troys motz. Et dist le premier mot de lescripture, cestassavoir marie, signiffie que les jours et le temps de ton regne est nombre et du tout acompli. Le segont mot, cestassavoir techel, signifie que tu es poyse et mis en la ballance et que la pesanteur de tes pechez et meffaiz en a emporte la legierete de tes biensfaiz. Et le tiers mot, cestassavoir phares, signiffie que tu est divise du regne et que le regne est divise de toy. Et que il test oste et tollu et que est baille aux estrangiers de Perse et de Mede. Si fut le roy Balthasar moult courrouce et esbahy et tant que par son courroux en la nuyt prochaine ensuyvant il trespassa et mourut. Et apres luy regna Darius en Babilloine, lequel estoit roy de Perse et de Mede qui par victorieusement conquester gaigna et acquist la couronne des Assiriens. Item dit Solin que en Inde a une region ou il habite des bestes a lainne dont les robez qui sont faictes des toysons de cestes bestes sont de telle propriete et nature que le feu ne les pourroit ardre ne bruler. Et quant les gecte en ung feu et on les retire dehors, les robes sont trouvees plus belles. plus saines, et plus entieres quelles nestoient par avant.209 Ad ce propos recite Odricorus210 en son livre que les enciens Indois tenoient et croioient par oppinion que la robe qui estoit faicte de la laine de la terre de Chanaam, qui fut la terre dAbraham, ne povoit par nul feu estre arse ne brulee. Et si dit encores plus se docteur que ceulx qui sont revestuz de cestes bestes ne peuent mourir par feu par la vertu de la layne dont sont faictes les robes.211 Item dit encores Odoricorus que en aucune partie de Inde ilz ne ensepuclissent point les mors, mais les mettent et portent en ung champ ou est la tresgrant ardeur et challeur du soleil et sont la de legiez corrumpuz et consummez et nont autres sepulture.212 Item il dit que en Inde en certaine region ilz adorent par detestable ydolatrie expecialement en la grant cite de Polunde ung

on the wall these three words or similar: Mene tekel u-pharsin. Then he had come and assemble before him all the sage philosophers that he could find and command. And when they were all present and assembled, he showed them and told them they should say and make known what these three words signified that this hand has thus written on the wall of his palace. Then all the philosophers replied and said that they did not know what these three words signified nor what they meant—except Daniel the prophet who was bold and courageous in speech, who explained before the king and before all the others what these three words signified. And he said, «The first word of the writing, that is to say mane, means that the days and the season of your reign are numbered and have come to an end. The second word, that is to say techel, signifies that you are weighed and placed on the scale and that the weight of your sins and misdeeds has outweighed your good deeds. And the third word, that is to say phares, signifies that you are divided from your reign and that your reign is divided from you. And it will be taken from you and carried away, and it will be yielded over to foreigners from Persia and Media.» Then the king Belshazzar was very angry and appalled, and so much so that in the following night he departed this life and died. And after him Darius reigned in Babylon, who was king of Persia and of Media and who by victorious conquest won and acquired the crown of the Assyrians. Solinus says that in India there is a region where there live woolbearing animals such that garments that are made of the fleeces of these animals are of such properties and nature that fire could not char or burn them. And when one throws them in a fire and then draws them out again, the robes are found to be more beautiful, more sound, and more whole than they were before. With regard to this, Odoricus mentions in his book that the Indians of old held the opinion and believed that the garment that was made of the wool of the land of Canaan, which was the land of Abraham, could not be singed or burned by any fire. And also this learned man says further that those who are dressed in the wool of these animals cannot die in a fire because of the power of the wool of which the robes are made. Odoricus says further that in certain parts of India they do not bury their dead at all, but rather they carry them and put them in a field where there is extremely great burning and heat

Not Collectanea. Odoricus. 211 Odoric of Pordenone, 1285-1331, is the latest writer mentioned by the Translator. See David A. Trotter, ed., Jean de Vignay, Les Merveilles de la Terre d’Outremer: Traduction du XIVe siècle du récit de voyage d’Odoric de Pordenone (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1990). In Chapter VIII, p.17, Odoricus offers an account of the Muslims’ attempted immolation of some of the friars. When one fails to burn, the imam claims that it is because he is wearing a garment of «la laine de la terre de Habine.» Some MSS of Odoricus make this «terre Abrahe.» 212 Trotter/Vignay, Ch. VIII, pp. 22-23. 209 210

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beuf comme pour leur dieu. Auquel ilz font grant honneur et reverance par grant devocion ilz se lavoient la face et les mains de lorine de ce beuf. Et leur semble que cest ung grant sacrifice.213 Item la ilz ont une ydolle qui est dautre facon qui est moitie homme et moitie beuf et est moult sub- 35/ tillement forgee et faicte dor et dargent laquelle parle bien souvant a ceulx qui ladorent et qui la servent. Et a de coustume ceste ydolle de demander a ceulx qui ladorant le sang de xl pucelles. Et tantost que ceste ydolle les a demande, ilz les luy admenent davant elle et les luy offrent et les font toutes xl mourir. Et du sang qui yst delles ilz font offrandes et sacrifices a leur ydolle pour cuyder sa grace et amour acquerir.214 Item il dit quil ya une autre ydolle de tresgrant representacion qui est toute faicte de fin or. A laquelle ydolle les Indois viennent de toutes parties par tres grant devocion bien de xl journees loing en pelerinaige pour ladicte ydolle adorer. En certains jours en lan ceste ydolle est portee hors du temple a grant procession et ainsi comme on portoit et charroioit ladicte ydolle tout autour du temple, lors les aucuns deux se coucheoient de leur bonne volunte par grant devocion tout au travers du chemin par ou les roes du chariot devoit passer. Et lors les roes et le chariot ou estoit chargee et mise leur ydolle passoient par dessus eulx qui les froissoit et escarboilloit touz. Et mouroient ainsi par grant devocion de mauvaise mort. Et cuidant acquerir lamour et la grace de leur ydolle.215 Adonc les parens et amys des mors prenoient les corps et les mettoient a la chaleur du souleil pour les seicher et corrumpre. Et quant ilz estoient remis et convertiz en pouldre et en cendre ilz en gardoient les ossemens comme grans et dignes reliques. Et disoient que leurs parens et amis estoient saincz avecques leur dieu quant pour lamour de luy ilz avoient de leur bonne volunte la mort soufferte et enduree.216 Item une autre merveilleuses coustume ilz ont en Inde de adourer et sacrifier a leur ydolle. Car ilz sont aucunes gens qui pour la grant amour et ardant devocion que ilz ont vers ilz appellant et assemblent tous leurs parens et amis charnelz et sen vont devant leur ydole ung cousteau bien tranchant pendu au coul chantant et dancent melodieusement jusques au temple. Lors celluy qui veult faire le

from the sun, and there they are easily decomposed and consumed, and they have no other tomb. He says that in a certain region of India, especially in the great city of Polunde, they worship, through detestable idolatry, an ox as their god. And to it they pay great honor and reverence and they wash their faces and hands with the urine of this ox. And it seems to them to be a great sacrifice. There they have an idol of another type that is half man and half ox and is most subtly forged and made of gold and silver, which often speaks to those who adore it and serve it. And this idol has the custom of asking those that worship it for the blood of forty virgins. And as soon as this idol has asked for them, they lead them before it and offer them to it, and they cause all forty to die. And from the blood that flows from them, they make offerings and sacrifices to their idol in the belief that they will gain its grace and love. He says that there is another idol of very dramatic appearance that is all made of fine gold. And the Indians come to this idol from every region, through very great devotion, on a pilgrimage of fully 40 days’ length in order to adore the aforesaid idol. In certain days of the year this idol was carried outside the temple in a great procession and as the idol was being carried and carted all around, some of them would lie down of their own free will, by great devotion, right across the road where the wheels of the cart must pass. And then the wheels and the chariot onto which their idol had been loaded and placed would pass over them, which would crush them and break them all into pieces. And thus they would die, because of their great devotion, a bad death. And they did this believing that they would thus acquire the love and the grace of their idol. Then the parents and the friends of the dead would take the bodies and put them in the heat of the sun to dry and decompose them. And when the bodies had been returned and converted into dust and cinders, they kept the bones as great and worthy relics. And they would say that their relatives or friends were in a state of holiness with their god when for love of him they had, of their own free will, suffered and endured death. They have another marvelous custom in India to adore and sacrifice to their idol. For there are certain men who, because of the great love and burning devotion that they have, call and assemble all their relatives and kinfolk and go before their idol with a very sharp knife hanging around the neck, singing and dancing melodiously until they get to

Trotter/Vignay, Ch. X, pp. 28-29 where the city is Polombe. Trotter/Vignay, Ch. X, pp. 28-29. 215 Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XI, pp. 30-31. 216 Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XI, pp. 32-33. 213 214

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sacrifice prent le coustel quil a pendu au col et se tranche ung lopin de char de son corps. Et quant il la tranche, il le gecte a la face de lidolle par maniere doffrande et de sacriffice. Et dit tout hault devant ses parens, «Voiez moy, mes amys, je voys mourir pour mon dieu.» Lors il se frappe de coustel par my le cueur. Et ainsi il se tue. Adonc quant les parens et amys voient quil est mort, ilz en prenent le corps et le portant a la challeur du soleil comme dit est dessus. Et quant il est tout seiche et ramene en pouldre et en cendre, ilz en prenent les ossemens et les gardent moult reveramment comme se fussent reliques. Et dient que leur amy est sainct davant leur dieu qui ainsi piteusement est pour leur dieu mort.217 Item dit Odoriocus que en Inde a aucunes provinces ou les gens mangent les ungs les autres. Et ont de coustume que si ilz prenent aucuns de leurs ennemys en fait de guerre et ilz ne se veullent mettre a haulte et grande ransson pour eulx rachapter, la droicte coustume si est que chascun maistre tue son prisonnier et le mengne et en prent sa reffection et nourriture.218 Item il dit quilz sont une maniere de paillars, de robeurs, et escumeurs de mer quil vaguent et qui sont tousjours en aguet sur les rivaiges de la mer lesquelx quant ilz voient leur avantaige, ilz descendent de leurs vesseaulx et amblent et ravissent a force et mettent en leurs vesseaulx tous les hommes quilz peuent trouver ne acabler. Et les mainent en Inde 35v/ et les vendent aux Indiens qui les achaptent auxi cherement comme nous achaptons pardeca les beufs et les moustons pour nostre vivre.219 Item dit Odoricus que en Inde sont aucuns peuples qui tousjours sont nudz. Et se mocquent de ceulx quilz voient qui sont vestuz et les repputant infames et qui sont dieu hayz. Et dient que dieu fit et crea homme premierement en lestat de innocence tout nu. Et quant homme pour son peche fut de dieu hay et repprouve et de paradis banny et boute hors, lors dieu fait a homme robe de pel de beste morte a sa confusion et honte.220 Item il dit que en Inde a une contree dont les habitans ont la teste et la face ressemblant a figure de chien et vont tous nudz excepte que ilz ont autant les hommes comme les femmes une petite touaillecte au dessoubz du nombril pour couvrir les secretz membres de nature.221 Item dit Odoricus que en Inde a certains arbres dont la liqueur est vray miel et bon a menger dont les habitans du pays usent et le cuillent esdiz arbres. Ad ce propos dit Plinius en son viie livre ou vie

the temple. Then the one who wishes to make the sacrifice takes the knife that he hung from his neck and slices a gobbet of flesh from his body. And when he has sliced it off, he throws it at the face of the idol in the manner of an offering and a sacrifice. And he cries out loudly before his relations, «See me, my friends, I am going to die for my god.» Then he strikes himself with the knife through the heart. And thus he kills himself. And then, when the relations and friends see that he is dead, they take away the body and carry it into the heat of the sun as has been said above. And when he is all dried out and reduced to dust and ashes, they take the bones and preserve them most reverently as if they were relics. And they say that their friend, who has thus died most piteously for his god, is a saint before their god. Odoricus says that in India there are some provinces where the people eat each other. And they have the custom that if they seize any of their enemies in an act of war and they do not wish to hold them for a high ransom to be bought back, the customary practice is that each master kills his prisoner and eats him and takes him for his sustenance and nourishment. He says there are some thieves, robbers, and pirates of the sea who sail and who are always lying in wait along the shores of the sea, and who, when they see their moment, disembark from their vessels and walk along slowly and seize by force and put in their vessels all the men they can find and overpower. And they take them to India and sell them to the Indians, who buy them as willingly as we here buy the cattle and sheep on which we live. Odoricus says that in India there are some people who are always naked. And they mock those they see who are dressed and consider them vile and hated by God. And they say that God made and created man first in a state of innocence entirely naked. And when man for his sins was scorned and reproved by God and banished from Paradise and forced outside, then God made man a garment of the skin of a dead animal to his confusion and shame. He says that in India there is a country where the inhabitants have heads and faces resembling those of a dog and go about naked except that both men and women have a little towel below the navel to cover the secret members of nature. Odoricus says that in India are certain trees whose sap is true honey and good to eat, which the inhabitants of the country use and gather from the said trees. With respect to this Pliny says in his seventh book

Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XI, pp. 32-33. Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XIII, pp. 34-35; Ch. XVI, p. 42. 219 Amplified from Odoricus’ account of commerce in human flesh, Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XII, pp. 34-35. 220 Much amplified from Odoricus’ account of nakedness in battle, Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XII, pp. 34-35. 221 Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XVI, p. 42. 217 218

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chappitre que en la vallee dArchanye sont arbres de telle nature comme dit est qui rendent liqueur de miel environ deux heures apres le point du jour dont les habitans du pais sont moult reconfortez et en vivent. Combien que autres docteurs dient autrement et [que] distillacion cheant des arbres nest autre chose ne mais la rousee du ciel qui en celle contre de sa propre nature est semblable a miel.222 Item dit Odoricus que la sont autres arbres merveilleux qui rendent liqueur que quant elle est endurcie et seichee et apres baptue et mollue, elle est tresprouffitable et bonne farine. Et en font les habitans du pays de tresbon pain de quoy ilz mengent et en vivent.223 Item la sont autres arbres dont la liqueur est tresvenimeuse et mortelle. Et si aucun homme ou femme en est empoizonne il luy convient tantost mourir que nul tiriacle ny pouroit demourer. Excepte quil fault boire de la fiente de homme qui soit destrempee deau clere et la boyre tantost et sans delay. Ce leur est ung souverain remede.224 Item dit Odoricus que en la haulte partie de Sitie qui est conjoincte a la basse partie de Inde en lempire du grant Caan qui est le plus puissaint prince et seigneur des Indiens et des Tartares lequel tient le lieu de sa royalle seigneurie en la cite de Cambelec. En celle terre la sont merveilleux arbres et qui sont de moult grant proffit et apport. Car ilz aportent continuellement toutes choses neccessaires pour la vie humaine de corps domme tant a boire comme a menger et comme a vestir et a chauffer dequoy les habitans du pais sont gouvernez et reppeuz sans labourer. Et dit que ou temps du regne du Pappe Jehan vindrent et arriverent devers luy en Avignon certains grans seigneurs et legaz et hommes de moult grant auctorite lesquelz furent envoyez par devers luy des parties de pardela par ceulx qui tenoient la foy Catholicque es parties de Inde et en la ville de Cambelec pour avoir ung arcevesque, et pour estre instruiz et introduitz en la foy Crestienne lesquelz legatz et seigneurs furent interrogez des condicions et natures des pays de pardela. Et disoient merveille de la noblesse des arbres dicelle terre. Et premierement ilz disoient que la sont arbres rendant lait comme lait de chievre. Et qui estoit moult bon et prouffitable a mangier. Et quant ou en vouloit avoir du lait il ne failloit que enciser ou coupper 36/ lescorce de larbre ou avoit du lait tant comme on en vouloit avoir.225

in the sixth chapter that in the Darcha Valley are trees like those just mentioned which render honey-like sap around two hours after daybreak, by which the inhabitants of the country are greatly comforted and on which they live. However other doctors say otherwise and claim that this distillation falling from the trees is nothing other than the dew from heaven that in this country is, of its own nature, similar to honey. Odoricus says that there are other marvelous trees which render sap which, when it is hardened and dried, and afterwards beaten and softened, becomes a very profitable and good flour. And from it the inhabitants of the country make very good bread that they eat and live on. There are some other trees there whose sap is very venomous and deadly. And if any man or woman is poisoned by it, it results in immediate death that no antidote [theriac] could delay. Except that it is necessary to drink human excrement which has been soaked in clear water, and drink it immediately and without delay. This is a sovereign remedy. Odoricus speaks of the upper part of Scythia that is joined to the lower part of India in the empire of the Great Khan, who is the most powerful prince and lord of the Indians and the Tartars; the Great Khan maintains the seat of royal power in the city of Cambelec. In that land are marvelous trees that are a source of great profit and revenue. For they continually provide all things necessary to human life for the human body, as much for drinking as for eating and wearing clothes and warming oneself, regarding which the inhabitants of the country are looked after and satisfied without having to labor. And he says that in the time of the reign of Pope John, certain great lords and legates and men of very great authority came to the Pope in Avignon, who were sent to him from faraway regions in order that those of the Catholic faith in various parts of India and in the town of Cambelec could have an archbishop and be instructed and introduced to the Christian faith; and the said legates and lords were questioned about the conditions and nature of the far-off countries. And they said wonderful things about the nobility of the trees of that land. And first they said that there are trees giving milk like that of a goat, and that it was very good and profitable to eat. And when one wished to have milk from it, it was necessary only to tap or cut the bark of the tree, where there was as much milk as one wished to have.

Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XIV, pp. 36-37. Not NH, but Diodorus Siculus, C. Bradford Welles, ed. and tr., Library of Histories (Cambridge, MA, and London: Loeb Classical Library, 1963), 17.75, p. 335, told of Hyrcania not India. 223 Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XIV, pp. 36-37. 224 Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XIV, pp. 34-35. 225 Though Bersuire used Odoricus, he seems to recall the envoys of Eastern Christians living in Beijing who came to Avignon in 1334 to ask Pope John XXII for an Archbishop. Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XXVI, p. 67. 222

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Item la sont autres arbres dont la liqueur est semblable a bon vin blanc, dont les habitans du pais boivent moult volontiers. Item la sont arbres dont la gome yest a tresgrant habondance, laquelle gosme ressemble estre suif de mouston bel et blanc et de ce font ilz chandelles et leur siert en toutes autres besoignes comme nous fait le suif de mouston de pardeca. Item la sont autres arbres qui portent ung fruit sembla[b]le a noix avellenes lesquelles noix sont plaines de blanche farine laquelle est moulte bonne et convenable a menger. Item autres arbres ya qui sont de la facon de grans noiers lesquelz portent fruit dont est fait breuvage tresnoble et riche comme on dit de pardeca garnache lesquel brevaige nest [que] pour les grans seigneurs de pardela. Et de lescorce de ces arbres est faicte fillace moult deliee comme se ce feust chanvre ou lin serencie. Et le fillent et en font de bonnes toilles et autres vestures qui est une chose moult propice et convenable pour lusaige des habitans du pais. Item dit Odoricus que la est une region en Inde appellee Panchan. Et es rivieres de la croissent grans cannes ou arondes comme ycy croyssent les joncs ou le glay. Et sont de merveilleuse propriete. Car au dedans desdictes cannes sont trouvees certaines pieres precieuses qui sont de si grant noblesse et vertu que celluy qui tielles pierres porte sur soy ne peut estre blecie ne navre de quelconque glaive ou baston ferre de fer, soit de trait ou despee, ou de dague, ou de lance, ou de hache, ou de quelconque ferrement que ce soit. Et pour ce les habitans du pais si ont de coustume de prandre les pierres dessusdictes et les portent sur eulx et si les font porter a leurs enffans affin que leurs ennemys ne leurs puissant mal faire. Et quant leurs enffans sont jeunes ilz leurs encisent la char. Et puis leur boutent et mectent ladicte pierre entre cuir et chair. Et puis tantost apres la playe se recloit et par ainsi la pierre est dedens leur char enclose. Et quant ces enffans sont grans ilz sont fors et hardiz en terre et en mer. Car ilz se confient en la vertu de leur pierre. Et advient souvent que ceste gent cy sont en terre de leurs ennemys les premiers et y font moult de maulx.226 Item ilz sont semblablement en la mer les plus fors et les plus hardiz escumeurs et guerroieurs en mer qui soient. Et advient souvent quilz sen retournent tous jours victorieus et garniz et plains de biens quilz ont conquis et gaignes sur plus grant nombre de gens quilz ne sont. Mais contre leur propriete ont contrepance de remede par humaine subtillite leurs ennemys pour obvier contre la vertu de leur pierre quilz portent sur eulx pource quilz ne les peuent vaincre par fer, ilz font grans bastons pointuz et grans paux 226

There are other trees there whose sap is similar to good white wine, which the inhabitants of the country most willingly drink. There are trees there that have a great abundance of gum, which resembles beautiful white suet from sheep, and from this gum they make candles, and it serves them for all their other needs just as the suet from mutton serves ours over here. There are other trees that bear a fruit similar to hazelnuts, which are full of white flour that is very good and suitable for eating. There are other trees there that are like great walnut trees, which bear fruit that is made into a very fine and noble drink that is like what we call «Grenache,» which drink is only for the great lords over there. And from the bark of these trees is made a very delicate tow, as if it were hemp or combed flax. And they spin it and make good cloth and other attire, which is a most propitious and convenient thing for the benefit of the inhabitants of the country. Odoricus says that there is a region in India called Panchan. And in its rivers grow great canes or fronds in the way that bulrushes and water iris grow here. And they have marvelous properties. For inside the aforesaid reeds are found certain precious stones which are of such great nobility and power that whoever carries such stones on his person cannot be wounded or harmed by any sword or weapon tipped with iron whatsoever, whether it be a crossbow bolt or rapier or dagger or lance or axe or any sort of iron instrument at all. And for this reason the inhabitants of the country have the custom of taking the aforesaid stones and wearing them on their persons, and they have their children wear them too in order that their enemies cannot do them harm. And when their children are young they incise the flesh. And then they force and situate the aforesaid stone between the skin and the flesh. And then, shortly afterwards, the wound closes, and thus the stone is enclosed in the flesh. And when these children are grown they are strong and bold on both land and sea. For they have confidence in the power of these stones. And it often happens that these people are first to arrive in the land of their enemies, and there they do them much harm. They are similarly in the sea the strongest and boldest pirates and sea warriors that exist anywhere. And it happens often that they return home, always victorious, and laden and supplied with goods they have conquered and won from men who outnumber them. But against their power, through human cunning, their enemies have thought up a contrary remedy to work against the virtue of their stone that they carry on their persons: because they cannot conquer them with iron weapons, they make great pointed clubs and massive

Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XIV, pp. 37-38.

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aguz et par force de trait de saiettes de fust sans fer bien aguises et pointuz. Souvent ceste gent la est affollee et vaincue. Et riens ne leur vault la vertu de la pierre precieuse quilz portent sur eulx en laquelle ilz se fient.227 Item dit Odoricus que en Inde a une province appellee Mathi ou les nobles hommes nourrissent et tiennent en leurs mains grans ongles. Et celluy qui les a plus grans si est reppute le plus noble. Et en ya la aucuns qui ont les ongles des posses si grans que ilz en peuent bien couvrir toute leur main.228 Item il dit que lon cognoist la les femmes qui sont les plus nobles. Cest quant elles ont le plus petit pie si sont repputees pour les plus no- 36v/ bles. Et pource les femmes de ceste contree si ont de coustume quant elles ont des filles, de leur lier les piez des leur enfance si estroictement quilz ne puissant guere croistre. Et pour ce quant elles ont les piez petis elles acquierent le nom de noblesse.229 Item dit Odoricus que en Inde a une ysle appellee Silain ou moult habitent de bestes sauvaiges qui sont de moult merveilleuse facon. Et si sont cruelles haynneuses et nuysans. Et sont de telle propriete et condition quelles font grant guerre aux habitans du pais et aux hommes estranges elles ne font mal ne desplaisir.230 Item il dit que en celle ysle dessusdicte sont oyseaulx qui sont formez a la maniere doyes et ont deux testes.231 Item il dit quil fut au temple de Inde ou il veit moult grant nombre de ydolles. Et veit que a leure de disner viandes furent apportees aux dictz ydolles et veit et ouyt les prebstres des ydolles qui disoyent que la fumee et lodeur des viandes estoit suffisant reffection aux ydolles. Et lors les prebstres mengeoient les viandes devant leurs ydolles moult joyeusement dont la fumee montoit et alloit contremont les faces des ydolles.232 Item dit Odoricus que en Inde environ la cite apellee Futho sont gelines moult merveilleuses. Car elles sont grandes comme les oyes de ce pays et ne sont pas vestues de plumes mais de layne comme brebiz.233 Item il dit que en Inde en la partie devers orient en une region appellee la terre Job il vit que les femmes estoient maistresses des hommes et quelles se repousoient et les hommes filloient et fasoient toutes euvres et besoignes apparten[ant] a femme. Et de tout en

sharpened stakes, and through the power of the shooting of crossbow bolts, without iron heads but well sharpened and pointed, often the former people are overcome and conquered. And the power of this precious stone that they bear on their person and in which they have so much confidence is worth nothing to them. Odoricus says that in India is a province called Mathi where the noble men grow and maintain long fingernails on their hands. And the one who has the longest nails is considered the most noble. And there are some there who have thumbnails so huge they can cover their entire hand. He says that there are women there who are recognized as being the most noble. It is when they have the smallest feet that they are thus reputed to be the most noble. And for this reason, the women of this country thus have the custom, when they have female children, to bind their feet from infancy so tightly that they can hardly grow. And therefore, when they have these small feet, they acquire the name of nobility. Odoricus says that in India is an island called Ceylon where there live many wild beasts who have a most marvelous behavior. And thus they are very cruel, hateful, and troublesome. And they are of such a property and condition that they launch great attacks on the inhabitants of the country and to strangers they do no harm or offense. He says that in this aforementioned island there are birds that are shaped like geese and have two heads. He says that he was in a temple in India where he saw a very large number of idols. And he saw that at the dinner hour foods were brought to the said idols, and he saw and heard the priests of the idols, who said that the vapors and smell of the meats were sufficient sustenance for the idols. And then the priests themselves ate the food in front of their idols most joyously, and the steam from the food rose and went upward into the faces of the idols. Odoricus says that in India around the city called Futho are hens that are most marvelous. For they are as big as the geese of this country and are not covered in feathers but in wool like sheep. He says that in India in the area towards the East, in a region called the land of Job, he saw that the women were the mistresses over the men and that they rested while the men spun and

Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XIV, p. 38. Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XXXIV, p. 79. 229 Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XXXIV, p. 79. See Folker Reichert, «Odorico da Pordenone and the European Perception of Chinese Beauty in the Middle Ages,» Journal of Medieval History 25.4 (Dec. 1999): 339-55. 230 Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XVII, p. 45. 231 Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XVII, p. 45. 232 Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XXI, p. 51. 233 Trotter/Vignay, Ch. XXII, p. 52. 227 228

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tout obeissoient au commandement des femmes et ne bevoient point de vin et les femmes en bovient.234 Item les hommes portoient les vesseaulx sur leurs testes comme font les femmes en ce pays pardeca. Item Odoricus dit quil a este en certaine contree de Inde qui est bien prochaine de Caldee ou il dit que les hommes sont tresbeaux et de belle facon corporelle. Et avec ce sont gaiz et joliz et tresrichement vestuz. Et si dit que tout au contraire il est des femmes. Car elles sont treslaides et treshideuses et tres deshonnestes et meschamment vestues. Et leurs cheveulx tout contreval le corps sans aucun atour, et nont point de chapperons. Et si ne sont nul temps chaussees comme sont les hommes.235 Item sont communement toutes nuez. Item quant elles sont mariees elles ont une touaille pardevant elles a la facon dun manteau. Cestes femmes si sont coustumieres de prier les hommes et vont apres eulx et les pourssuyvent aussi ardemment pour avoir leur compaignie comme nous prions de pardeca les femmes. Mais les hommes en font grant reffuz et nen tiennent conte et sont aux femmes auxi estranges comme sont de pardeca les pucelles aux hommes.236 Et ad ce propos nous lisons ung exemple en la Bible ou livre de Genesis ou trente et neufesme chappitre que la femme de Putifar pria Joseph que il voulsist coucher avecques elle. Mais le preudomme si len reffusa en disant que jamais il ne feroit ne ne vouldroit faire telle traison ne desloyaulte a son maistre qui en luy moult se fioit.237

performed all the work and chores that belong to women. And in everything they obeyed the commands of women, and they did not drink wine while the women did drink it. The men bore vessels on their heads as the women do in this country here. Odoricus says that he has been in a certain country of India that is very close to Chaldea where he says that the men are very handsome and of beautiful bodily appearance. And along with this, they are gay and jolly and very richly dressed. And he also says that the situation of the women is exactly opposite. For they are very ugly and hideous and dishonest and wretchedly dressed. And their hair is all down on the body without any decoration, and they have no hoods. And they never wear shoes as the men do. They are generally all naked. When these women are married, they have a little towel they wear on the front of their bodies like a cloak. These women are in the custom of begging for the attention of men and going after them and pursuing them to have their company as ardently as we pursue our women here. But the men make a great refusal and have no respect for them, and are as unapproachable to these women as the maidens here are to the men. And with regard to this we read an example in the Bible in the book of Genesis, in, the thirty-ninth chapter, that Potifar’s wife begged Joseph to agree to sleep with her. But that virtuous man refused her this, saying that he would never do, or wish to do, such a disloyal thing to the master who had such confidence in him.

27) [Isle] 37/ Isle cest une porcion de terre habitable, laquelle est toute environnee deaues. Dont parle Ysidoire et dit que combien que ceste region soit environnee deau de la mer et souvent est batue de tous coustes de grans vagues et grans tempestes de la mer, si nen est elle en riens appeticiee ne amendrie. Mais en est plus forte et plus ferme et plus endurcie. Et quant il advient par cas de fortune que ceste ysle est toute couverte de mer par le deluge et tempeste de mer ou autrement. Lors ceste ysle si se croist et multiplie en grandeur et en haulteur, pour le transport de la terre et des sablons et de la mer que les grans vagues de la mer y apportent et admainnent. Et par ainsi le limon de la terre de ceste ysle et les terres et sablons de

27) Isle Isle is a portion of the habitable world that is entirely surrounded by water. Isidore speaks of it and says that although this region is surrounded by the water of the sea and is beaten on all sides by great waves and great sea tempests, yet the land is in no way diminished or made smaller. Rather it is, because of this, all the stronger and firmer and harder. And when it happens that by chance this island is all covered by the sea, by flood and storm or otherwise, then this island grows and multiplies in size and in height, because of the movement of the earth and the sands of the sea that the great waves of the sea carry and deposit there. And by this means, the mud from the soil of this island and the soil and sands of the sea

Trotter/Vignay, Ch. VI, p. 29. Trotter/Vignay, Ch. VII, p. 9. 236 Trotter/Vignay, Ch. VII, p. 9. 237 For discussion of the different divisions of India, see Michael Harney, «The Geography of the Caballero Zifar,» La corónica 11.2 (1983): 208-19; and Philip Mayerson, «A Confusion of Indias: Asian India and African India in the Byzantine Sources,» Journal of the American Oriental Society 113.2 (1993): 169-74. See Lloyd L. Gunderson, Alexander’s Letter to Aristotle about India (Meisenheim am Glan: Hain, 1980), with an English translation of the Letter on 234 235

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la mer qui par fortune la mer y admaine se gluent et se meslent ensemble avecques leau, pour quoy tout demeure leans. Et est ainsi augmentee et parcreue lisle. Et si est la terre plus fertille et plus forte et plus ferme. Et si en croissent et reverdissent mieulx tous les arbres et autres bois estans en icelle ysle.238

that, by chance, the sea deposits there join and mix together with water, so that everything remains in that place. And in this way the island has increased and grown. And also the earth has become more fertile, more firm, and more stable. And so all the trees and other woody plants that are on this island grow and flourish better.

28) [Irllande] 37v/ Irllande est une tresfroide region. Car en une partie de celle terre sont les fleuves et les rivieres glacees, et yest et y sera la glace perpetuelle jusques a la fin du monde. Item la mer qui est prochainne de ceste contree si est toute glacee et gellee selon les rivaiges de la terre. Item en celle region la sont et reppairent bestes que on nomme hours qui sont moult horribles et crueulx. Car de la rage et cruaulte dont ilz sont plains, ilz rompent et despiecent les glaces selon les rivaiges de la mer a bonnes dens et a bons ongles. Et la ilz espient en regardent quant les poissons viennent a fleur de leau. Adonc ilz saillent a coup et les prennent avecques les pattes et avecques les dens et les mengent. Et si feriont ilz bien voluntiers les gens du pais silz les povoient prandre et tenir, mais ilz se gardent bien de eulx mectre en leur voye.239

28) Ireland [Iceland] [Iceland] is a very cold region. For on one part of this land the rivers and streams are frozen over, and there is now and will always be perpetual ice unto the end of the world. The sea that is close to this country is also all frozen and iced over along the shores of the land. In this region live and dwell beasts that are called bears, which are very horrible and cruel. For out of the rage and cruelty that fills them, they break and tear up the ice along the seashore with their strong teeth and nails. And there they spy and watch for when the fish rise in the water. Then they jump suddenly and take them with their paws and with their teeth and eat them. And they would willingly do this to the men of the country if they could take them and hold onto them, but these people are very careful to keep well out of their way.

pp. 140-56. For discussion of the monsters in the Letter see Alexander Cizek, «Ungeheuer und magische Lebewesen in der Epistola Alexandri ad magistratum suum Aristotelem de situ Indiae,» in Jan Goossens and Timothy Sodmann, eds., Third International Beast Epic, Fable and Fabliau Colloquium, Münster 1979: Proceedings (Cologne: Böhlau, 1981), pp. 78-94; and James S. Romm, «Alexander, Biologist: Oriental Monstrosities and the Epistola Alexandri ad Aristotelem,» in Scott Westrem, ed., Discovering New Worlds: Essays on Medieval Exploration and Imagination (New York: Garland, 1991), pp. 16-30, reprinted in Bill Readings and Bennet Schaber, eds., Postmodernism Across the Ages: Essays for a Postmodernity that Wasn’t Born Yesterday (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1993), pp. 31-46. For illustrations of Alexander’s Indian wonders, see David J. A. Ross, Illustrated Medieval Alexander-Books in Germany and the Netherlands: A Study in Comparative Iconography (Cambridge: Modern Humanities Research Association, 1971); and Krystyna Secomska, «The Miniature Cycle in the Sandomierz Pantheon and the Medieval Iconography of Alexander’s Indian Campaign,» Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 38 (1975): 53-71. See also Edgar C. Polomé, «The Vision of India in Medieval Encyclopedias,» in Ulrich Goebel and David Lee, eds., Interpreting Texts from the Middle Ages: The Ring of Words in Medieval Literature (Lewiston, NY: Mellen, 1994), pp. 257-80; Andrea Rossi-Reder, «Wonders of the Beast: India in Classical and Medieval Literature,» in Timothy S. Jones and David A. Sprunger, eds., Marvels, Monsters, and Miracles: Studies in the Medieval and Early Modern Imaginations (Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2002), pp. 53-66; Albrecht Dihle, «The Conception of India in Hellenistic and Roman Literature,» Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 10 (1964):15-23, conveniently updated in his Antike und Orient: gesammelte Aufsätze (Heidelberg: C. Winter Universitätsverlag, 1984), pp. 83-93; Klaus Karttunen, «The Country of Fabulous Beasts and Naked Philosophers: India in Classical and Medieval Literature,» Arctos 21 (1987): 43-52; Jacqueline Leclercq-Marx, «La Localisation des peuples monstrueux dans la tradition savante et chez les illitterati (VIIe-XIIIe siècles). Une approche spatiale de l’Autre,» Studium Medievale: Revista de Cultura visual-Cultura escrita 3 (2010): 43-61; and on one of the major sources for lore of India in the ancient world, James S. Romm, «Belief and Other Worlds: Ktesias and the Founding of the ‘Indian Wonders,’» in George E. Slusser and Eric S. Rabkin, eds., Mindscapes: The Geography of Imagined Worlds (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1989), pp. 121-35. 238 Etymologiae, XIV.6.1. See for comparison Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France MS fr. 22532, folio 210r, Bartholomaeus Anglicus, rubric: «le IIII xxIIe chapitre qu’est isle;» and Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France MS fr. Rothschild 3085, folio 64v, «islands of the great sea,» as well as Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France MS lat. 4915, folio 29r. See generally Francis Dubost, «Insularités imaginaires et récit médiéval: ‘l’insularisation,’» in Jean-Claude Marimoutou and Jean-Michel Racault, eds., L’insularité thématique et représentations: actes du colloque international de Saint-Denis de La Réunion, avril 1992 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1995), pp. 47-57 and Danielle Lecoq, «Les îles aux confins du monde,» in Daniel Reig, ed., Île des merveilles: mirage, miroir, mythe (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1997), pp. 13-32. 239 Bersuire gives «Islandia» in the Latin original, and Morgan M 461, folio 1, gives correctly «Izlande.»

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29) [Italie] 38/ Italie est une tresnoble et grant partie de Europpe. Et est une province de hault et grant renom, laquelle est moult bien garnie et aournee de moult grans et nobles citez qui sont moult bien peuplees et plaines de grans richesses. La terre de celle province est si fertille et plantureuse en grains, et en fruitz et en fleurs moult bien odorans. Et si est moult bien aournee et garnie de bois, de forest, de fontaines, de rivieres, de lacz et destangs, de prez, de vignes et de terres labourables. En ceste province sont advenues et adviennent de jour en jour moult de merveilleuses choses et adventures qui trop longues et impossibles seroient a raconter. Dont ce noble docteur Solin en recite aucunes et dit que en celle noble province de italie est ung champ qui est tout plain de pierres. Et est appelle champ perreux, du quel les aucuns saiges hommes du pais par commune renommee dient que Jupiter qui se disoit pere des dieux se combatit jadis en ce champ contre ung grant nombre de grans et terribles geans. Et pour plustost les desconfire et mectre a mort il fist par son art cheoir et pleuvoir du ciel si grant force de pierres sur eulx quilz furent tantost mors et descon38v/ fiz. Et les aucuns si en parlent autrement. Car ilz dient que ces pierres cheurent par la volunte de Dieu sur ces grans geans pour les mettre a mort. Et pour abatre leur orgueil et leur faulce incredulite dont ilz estoient plains. Dont il advint que le fol peuple payen qui regnoit pour lors si fut si aveugle et fut si plain derreur quilz creoient et adouroient Jupiter comme leur dieu. Et disoient quil fasoit pleuvoir pierres.240 Item dit Solin que en Ytalie furent jadis certains peuples nommez Hirpes et nestoient pas des plus nobles, lesqueulx avoient telle vertu en eulx quilz aloyent et povoient aller et venir parmy ung grant feu ardent sans sentir ne avoir aucune arseure ne aucun mal. Et ainsi ceste maniere de peuple avoit puissance et vertu de resister contre le feu, dont il advint jadis que quant les seigneurs Rommains vindrent au mont de Socrates ou estoit le grant temple dApollin pour sacrifier a leurs dieux, que quant les grans feuz feurent faiz pour faire leurs sacrifices, les Hirpes joyeusement passoient et reppassoient par le millieu des grans feuz sans sentir ne avoir aucun mal ne douleur. Et ce fasoient ilz pour avoir plus grant honneur pour laquelle chose le Senat, qui veoit ces choses, les anoblist et affranchist des servitudes quilz devoient aus Rommains. Ad ce propos il est escript ou livre de Daniel comme le roy Nabugodonosor condemna Daniel, Misael, et Abdenago qui estoient trois sainz et bons enffans [a] estre brulez et gectez 240

29) Italy Italy is a very noble and great part of Europe. And it is a province of high and great renown, which is very well furnished and ornamented with great and noble cities, which are very populous and full of great riches. The earth of this province is also fertile and provident in grain, in fruit, and in very sweet smelling flowers. And also it is very well adorned and provided with woods, forests, springs, rivers, lakes and ponds, meadows, vineyards, and arable lands. In this province have happened, and happen from day to day, many marvelous things and adventures, which would be too long and impossible to recount. In regard to this, this noble doctor Solinus tells some and says that in this noble province of Italy is a field that is completely full of stones. And it is called Stonyfield, and on this subject some wise men of the country, according to common report, say that Jupiter, who is called the father of the gods, once fought in this field against a great number of large and terrible giants. And in order to defeat them and put them to death more quickly, through his art he made such a great abundance of stones fall and rain down from heaven upon them that they were immediately dead and defeated. And others tell it differently. For they say that these stones fell by the will of God on these great giants to kill them. And also to strike down their pride and their false incredulity, of which they were full. And from this it came about that the foolish pagan people who held sway at that time were so blind and were so full of error that they believed in and adored Jupiter as their god. And they said that he made it rain stones. Solinus says that in Italy were once certain people named Hirpes, who were not among the most noble, who had such a power within themselves that they walked and could go and come through a great burning fire without feeling it or having any burns or discomfort at all. And thus this kind of people had the power and ability to resist fire, so it happened long ago that when the Roman lords came to the mountain of Socrates, where the great temple of Apollo was, in order to make a sacrifice to their gods, that when the great fires were lit for them to make their sacrifices, the Hirpes joyously passed back and forth right through the middle of the great fires without feeling or having any pain or discomfort. And they did this in order to attain greater honor, for which the Senate, which saw these things, ennobled them and freed them from the servitude they owed the Romans. In regard to this, it is written in the book of Daniel how King Nebuchadnezzar condemned Daniel [Shadrach], Meshach, and Abednego who were three holy and good youths, to be burned and thrown into a flaming furnace that had been heated for a period

Collectanea, 32.

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dedans une ardant fornaise qui avoit este chauffee par lespace de vii jours. Et quant ilz furent leans gectez ilz alloient parmy le feu sans sentir aucune douleur ne mal aincois ilz chantoient et louoient Dieu moult joyeusement.241 Item dit Solin que en Ytalie a aucuns autres peuples qui sont nommez Marsius, lesquelles sont de tielle nature et propriete quilz ont grant vertu et puissance contre tous serpens et venins ne nullement ilz ne pourroient estre empoisones ne envenimes de morsure de serpent ne de quelconques autres poisons ou venims.242 Item en Ytalie a une moult noble maison dont les successeurs dicelle sont appelles Regius. Et es fosses qui sont autour dudit hostel sont les grenoilles ou renaittes lesquelles sont muctes en tous temps, car elles ne crient ne chantent point en nulles des saisons de lan ainsi comme elles font ailleurs en temps deste. Et dient les anciens du pais que jadis Hercules le fort chevalier si fut seigneur de ce lieu. Si advint ung jour quil dormoit en icelluy hostel et advint que pour la grant noise que les grenoilles fasoient es fosses qui sont environ loustel, et il sesveilla et ne se povoit rendormir. Lors il les conjura et commanda quelles se teussent a tousjours mais sans chanter ne crier en ces fosses. Adonc les grenoilles si [s]e cesserent de chanter ne oncques puys ne chanterent. Et icy dit Solin que ceste chose est possible et que Hercules fut tressaige astrologien et de mathematicque ou par science dyabolique il fit tant que ces grenoilles furent condamnees a faire perpetuelle silence a la consolacion des habitans dudit lieu.243 Item oudit lieu sont les sigalles muctes sans faire noise aucunement qui ailleurs font grant bruit et grant noise. 39/ Saiches que sigalles sont une maniere de grosses mouches a la facon des charboz qui font si grant bruit et si grant noise quant elles vollant environ le moys de May que elles crevent et meurent par force de crier.244 Item dit Solin que en la mer de Ytalie a une ysle appellee Scorcite, et la est trouvee une pierre de merveilleuse propriete que les habitans du pais appellent kathochicem. Et quant celle pierre est trouvee elle est envelloppee dune toyson gluant si fort que en tenant la pierre entre ses mains les deux mains de celluy qui la tient sentretiennent si tresfort que a grant poine les peut on sepparer et desassembler.245 Item dit Gervaise que le province de Ytalie est si grande et si lee que anciennement elle estoit appellee la Grande Grece. Et dit que en Ytalie ou diocese de Saurinenne a ung cimetiere pres dune abbaye

of seven days. And when they were thrown in, they walked about in the fire without feeling any pain or any harm, but rather they sang and praised God most joyously. [The passage inaccurately lists Daniel among the three rather than Shadrach.] Solinus says that in Italy there are some other people who are called Marsius, who are of such a nature and property that they have great strength and power against all snakes and venoms, and indeed they cannot at all be poisoned or envenomed from the bite of a snake or any other sort of poisons or venoms. In Italy there is a most noble house whose descendants are called Regius. And in the moats that are around this house are frogs or tree frogs which are mute at all times, for they do not cry or sing at all, in any season of the year, as they do elsewhere in summertime. And the elders of the country say that in olden days Hercules, the strong knight, was lord of this place. And so it happened one day that he was sleeping in this house and it happened that because of the great noise that the frogs made in the moat surrounding the house, he woke up and could not get back to sleep. Then he conjured and commanded that they be silent forevermore, without singing or crying out in these moats. Then the frogs ceased their singing and never again sang in that country. And here Solinus says that this thing is possible and that Hercules was a very wise astrologer and that by mathematics or through diabolical science he acted in such a way that the frogs were condemned to perpetual silence for the comfort of the inhabitants of the aforementioned place. In the same place the cicadas are mute, making no noise at all, unlike those elsewhere which make a great racket and noise. You understand that cicadas are a kind of large fly rather like beetles that make so great a noise when they are flying around the month of May that they burst and die from the violence of their efforts. Solinus says that in the sea of Italy there is an island called Scorcite and there is found a stone of a marvelous nature that the inhabitants of the country call Lachochecem. And when this stone is found, it is enveloped in a gluey fleece so strong that in holding the stone between his hands, the two hands of the one holding it are held together so strongly that only with great difficulty can they be separated and taken apart. Gervaise says that the province of Italy is so great and so wide that formerly it was called the great Greece. And he says that in Italy in the diocese of Saurinenne there is a cemetery near an abbey where only the monks and religious of the place are buried, and no

Collectanea, 38. It was not Daniel but Shadrach who was, with Meshach and Abednego, condemned to the furnace. Collectanea, 39. 243 Collectanea, 41. 244 Collectanea, 41. 245 Solinus speaks of two different kinds of stones and offers a different location in Collectanea, 42. 241 242

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others, which has a marvelous power and nature. For three days after one will have buried the body of any of the religious of this abbey, if anyone comes to dig or break up the earth in the grave where the body is buried, he will find there no evidence of a corpse, neither flesh nor bones. And one must say that the body has been completely consumed and reduced to nothing or that it has been invisibly transported elsewhere. Gervaise says that in Italy near the city of Nursia between the mountains there is a lake that was formerly dedicated and assigned to devils to make their dwelling there, which no man is so foolhardy as to approach except those who employ the art of magical and diabolical necromancy, who go and come there surely and boldly to speak to the devils, in order to have them consecrate their books. And if any other person were to go there, the devils would immediately and cruelly kill him. And in order to avoid these great perils, high and thick walls were constructed there long ago near this lake to ensure that no one would go in. And there are some men assigned to keep anyone from coming in. And also there is another marvelous and pitiful matter. For each year the city must, as a mark of tribute and servitude, put a living man over the walls and into the enclosure of this lake, handing him over to the devils who make their habitation there. Then, as soon as he is thrown inside, the devils immediately jump onto him and snatch him and tear him all into pieces and gobbets and put him immediately to death. Gervaise says that the people of this city thus have the custom that long before the time comes for them to pay their tribute to the devils of this lake, they choose and elect an evildoer who is condemned to death for his misdeeds, they keep him until the time that their tribute is due, and then they deliver him to the devils in the manner just described. And if they default in paying the tribute and this tax on the appointed date, the city and all the country around it would be most terribly tormented and persecuted. In Italy is a city called Laude that has the marvelous attribute that no man who is native to this city will ever be afflicted with the disease of leprosy. And if any leprous stranger comes into this city, either he will be immediately cured or he will die at once. Gervaise says that there is another city in Italy that is named Terdonne. And it is so named because formerly it obtained from God three gifts with which it is endowed. The first gift is such that at the

ou seulement sont enterres les moynes et religieux du lieu et non autres, lequel est dune vertu et condicion moult merveilleuse. Car apres troys jours entiers que on y aura enterre le corps de aucun des religieux dicelle abbaye, si aucun vient fouiller ou piocher en la fosse ou le corps aura este enterre, il ny trouvera nulle apparence du corps, ne char ne ossemens. Et fault dire que le corps est du tout consomme et aneanty ou quil est invisiblement ailleurs transporte.246 Item dit Gervaise que en Ytalie pres de la cite de Norcie247 entre les montaignes a ung lac qui fut jadis dedie et ordonne aux dyables pour y faire leur habitacion, duquel lac homme tant soit hardy napprouche excepte ceulx qui usent dart dingromance magique et dyabolique, lesquelz y vont et viennent seurement et hardiement pour parler aux dyables pour leur faire consacrer leurs livres. Et si autre personne y alloit tantost les dyables cruellement locciroient. Et pour eschiuer ces grans perilz furent ja piece a faiz haulx murs pres de ce lac affin que nul ny passe. Et sont la gens ordonnez pour la garde des passages. Et si est ung autre merveilleux et piteux cas. Car la cite doit chascun an par maniere de tribut et servitude rendre et mectre ung homme tout vif par dessus les murs audedans de la clousture de ce lac aux dyables qui font leans leur habitacion. Lors tantost quil est gecte leans les dyables saillent dessus et le happent et dessirent tout par pieces et loppins et le mectent tantost a mort.248 Item dit Gervaise que ceulx de celle cite si ont de coustume que long temps avant que leur terme approuche de paier leur truaige aux dyables de ce lac ilz choisissent et elisent ung malfaicteur qui est pour ses desmerites condemne a mort, [et] ilz le gardent jusques au jour de leur terme et puys le livrent aux dyables par la maniere que dessus est dit. Et si il[z] desfailloient de payer le truaige et celle rente au terme ordonne, la cite et tout le pais denviron seroit moult terriblement tormente et persecute.249 Item en Ytalie a une cite appellee Laude qui est de celle merveilleuse propriete que nul homme qui soit natif de celle cite jamais ne sera entaiche de la maladie de la leppre. Et si aucun mesel estrangier vienne en celle cite, il sera tantost guery ou il mourra tantost.250 Item dit Gervaise quil ya une autre cite en Ytalie qui est nommee Terdonne. 39v/ Et est ainsi nommee pource que jadis elle obtint de dieu trois dons dont elle est douee. Le premier don si est tiel que

Banks and Binns, II.8, p. 255; this story is told of the monastery of Fruttuaria in the diocese of Turin, Banks and Binns, III.8, p. 573. Nortie. 248 Banks and Binns, II.8, p. 259, for the region. 249 This story of tribute is similar to Banks and Binns, III.66, p. 685. 250 Elma Brenner, «Recent Perspectives on Leprosy in Medieval Western Europe,» History Compass 8.5 (2010): 388-406. 246 247

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la vigile de Passques et de Penthecoste a leure que on a acoustume de faire la beneisson et consecracion des fons pour baptiser les enfans, quant les fons sont ouvers on ny treuve point deau, mais quant on fait le service devant les fons ou y voit visiblement sourdre et naistre leau dedens qui est moult clere et nette et yst de la pierre des fons en maniere dune fontaine et de celle eau on baptise les enfans tout au long de lan sans y mettre autre eau. Le second don est que tous ceulx qui sont baptises es fons dune eglise nommee Sainct Quinte qui est en celle cite si vivent longuement aumoins ilz ne meurent point avant xl ans. Le tiers don est que si aucun laboureur, bourgeois, ou autre du pais doit mourir celle annee, quant il fait labourer sa terre, en la raye du garet apparra clerement grant effusion de sang, et signiffie ce sang la mort prouchaine du possesseur de leritaige ou ce signe est advenu. Et pource ont de coustume les seigneurs, bourgeois, ou autres laboureurs du pais de faire jurer a leurs varlez et laboureurs de leurs terres que quant ce signe leur apparra en labourant leurs terres quilz le viengnent dire et faire savoir a leur maistres.251 Item dit Gervase que en Italie a une cite nommee Viterbe en la quelle est ung puys moult parfont dont boist plus fort dedans quelle ne fait en une chaudiere sur le feu. De ce puys yst eau par conduitz qui est merveilleusement chaude. Et qui dedans ce puys gecteroit ung beuf ou ung cheval, par la grant challeur et ardeur de leau bouillant qui est en ce puys, la char en seroit tantost et incontinent si trescuite et si consommee quon ny trouveroit que les os tous secs. Et qui plus fort est qui ygecteroit ou avalleroit une chaingne de fer et que tantost apres on la retirast on trouveroit que de la grant ardeur et challeur de leau de ce puiz que la chaingne seroit toute rouge et bien diminuee. De ce puys vient et yst ung grant russel deau qui est de moult merveilleuse condicion. Car il convertist les rivaiges en maniere de pierre. Et si de nouvel on yfait ung conduyt par la terre labouree leau courant muera en pou de temps la terre en nature de pierre dure.252 Item ce puys la na point de fons ne oncques hommes ny peut trouver pie ny arrest. Item dit Gervaise que en Ytalie, en levesche de Turrinenn, en la descendue des montagnes dictes Alpes, est ung lac dont il yst une grant riviere courant, et selon les rivaiges dicelle riviere habite une beste appellee bever, qui est moytie beste et moytie poysson. Et pour ce, de la porcion bestialle de devant elle habite en terre selon les rivaiges de leau. Et de la porcion et nature de 251 252

vigils of Easter and of Pentecost, at the hour when it is customary to say the benediction and consecration of the font to baptize children, when the font is opened, no water is found inside, but when the service is performed before the font, one visibly sees water flow and appear inside, which is very clear and clean and issues from the stone of the font in the manner of a spring; and with this water the children are baptized all year long without any other water being put in. The second gift is that all those who are baptized at the font of the church named Saint Quint that is in this city live so long that at the least they never die before the age of forty. The third gift is that if any laborer, burgess or other person of the country is going to die in a particular year, when his soil is ploughed, in the furrow of the tilled land will clearly appear a great effusion of blood, and this blood signifies the coming death of the person who is the heir of the land where this sign occurred. And for this reason the lords, burgesses, and other farmers of the country customarily make their servants and the workers on their land swear that when this sign appears to them in working the fields, they will come to tell it and make it known to their masters. Gervaise says that in Italy is a city named Viturbo in which there is a very deep well whose water boils more vigorously within than it would in a cauldron on the fire. From this well issues, by way of pipes, water that is marvelously hot. And if anyone were to throw an ox or a horse into this well, because of the great heat and burning of the boiling water in this well, its flesh would immediately and right away be so well cooked and so consumed that one would find there only the bones, completely dry. And what is more, whoever would throw or cast an iron chain into this well and would immediately after pull it out, would find that from the great heat and warmth of the water of this well the chain will be all reddened and much diminished. From this well comes and issues a great stream of water which is of a most marvelous condition. For it changes the banks into a sort of stone, and if one makes a new channel there by excavating the soil, the running water will change the earth in short order into the form of hard stone. This well has no bottom, nor can any man find there a beginning or a stopping place. Gervaise says that in Italy, in the Bishopric of Turin, in the area descending from the mountains called Alps is a lake from which flows a very swiftly running river, and along the banks of the said river lives a beast called beaver, that is half animal and half fish. And, therefore, from the animal portion forward it lives on the earth along the banks of the water. And for the portion in the nature

Banks and Binns, III.7, pp. 571-73. Not found in Gervaise.

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poisson elle demeure nouant en leau. Et habite es cavernes prochainnes de leau.253 Item dit Gervaise que en Ytalie apres la mort de Julius Cesar apparurent troys soleilz luysans ou ciel tout en une heure par devers la partie dorient, et en pou de heure appres les troys soleilz furent conjoings en ung. Et disoient les anciens payens que ce signe demonstroit les troys seigneuries de Anthoine, de Lucius, et de Marques desquelz les troys regnes ne furent que ung ou temps que apres regna generalement le seul et trespuissant seigneur Auguste Cesar. Autrement exposent les Crestiens ladicte apparucion et dient que celluy signe si demonstroit ou vray souleil que tout enlumine troys personnes distinctes. Cest assavoir pere, filz, et sainct esperit en ung seul Dieu qui tout gouverne qui en pou de temps apres se apparut aux hommes visiblement par sa merveilleuse incarnacion.254

of a fish, it remains swimming in the water. And it lives in caverns near the water. Gervaise says that in Italy after the death of Julius Caesar there appeared in the heaven three suns shining in the eastern sky, all in one hour, and a short time afterwards the three suns were conjoined into one. And the ancient pagans said that this sign demonstrated the three lordships of Antony, Lucius, and Marcus, whose three reigns were only one in the time when, after them, the single and very powerful Augustus Caesar ruled over all. The Christians claimed a different significance for this apparition, saying that this single sun was all three persons of the trinity, namely the father, the son, and the Holy Spirit in a single God who governs all and a short time later appeared to mankind visibly by his marvelous incarnation.

30) [Judee] 40/ Judee est une province situee en Palestine dont parle Plinius. Et dit que en ceste province fut jadis situee la cite de Jerusalem qui souloit estre nommee la royne des cites et la plus noble qui fust es parties dorient et doccident, mais de present, pour ses desmerites elle a perdu sa beaulte, sa bonte, son loz, et son honneur. Judee est une belle et noble region et moult fertille et plantureuse en biens et ou il ya moult de merveilles. Premierement la est la fontaine de Calidonne.255 Item la est le merveilleux fleuve de Jourdain. Item la est le lac que lEvangille appelle la mer Tyberiade. Item la est le lac Alphati. Plinius et Solin dient des merveilles de Judee que en la fin de Judee vers occident en la terre de Hesedom habitent gens de tresgrant religion et de merveilleuse doctrine et sont moult estranges et loing de la compaignie et conversacion dautre gent. Et sont de aspre et de chestive vie. Car ilz heent or et argent monnoye et toute autre peccune et ament pouvrete, si vivent chastement. Et avecques eulx ne demeurent nulles femmes. Mais est leur terre moult peuplee de homes. Avecques eulx ne demeure nul homme sil nest renomme destre sobre en vie, et chaste, et piteulx, cheritable, loyal, saige, pacient, humble, et debonnaire, et plain dabstinence. Et si aucun deulx 40v/ estoit aucunement reprins daucun mal ou daucun vice illec il ne pourroit longuement

30) Judea Judea is a province situated in Palestine of which Pliny speaks. And he says that in this province was long ago situated the city of Jerusalem, which was at that time called the queen of cities and the most noble that existed in both the East and the West. But at the present moment, because of her defects, she has lost her beauty, her bounteousness, her reputation and her honor. Judea is a beautiful and noble region and very fertile and prolific in goods, and there are many marvels there. First, there is the spring of Calidonne. There is the marvelous river Jordan. There is the lake that the Gospel calls the Tyberiad Sea. There is Lake Alphati. Pliny and Solinus say about the marvels of Judea that at the far reaches of Judea towards the West in the land of Hesedon live extremely religious men who have a marvelous doctrine and who are most strange and remote from the company and intercourse of other people. And they lead a bitter and wretched life. For they hate gold and silver money and all other coinage and love poverty, and also they live chastely. And with them dwell no women. But their land is heavily populated with men. With them dwells no man if he is not reputed to be sober in his living, chaste, kind, charitable, loyal, wise, patient, humble, affable and entirely forbearing. And if any of them was in any way apprehended in any evil or any vice, he could not dwell in that place for long before he

Banks and Binns, III.44, p. 643. Banks and Binns, III.54, p. 657. The rulers named by Gervaise were (by error for M. Aemilius Lepidus) Lucius Antonius, Marcus Antonius, and Augustus. The three suns are also mentioned by Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum Historiale, Book 6, c. 41, p. 187. 255 NH 5.15, pp. 273-277. 253

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demourer quil ne feust par vengence divine tantost et honteusement pugny et mys a mort.256 Item dit Gervaise que en Judee a une fosse plain deau faicte a la facon dung petit vivier. Et est appelle Piscine Probaticque, dont parle la saincte Evangille. Et dit que a certaine heure lange descendoit du ciel pour leau de ceste fosse faire mouvoir. Et tantost que lange estoit descendu dedens, le premier malade de quelconque maladie que ce fust qui se povoit le jour laver dedens la fosse si estoit tout sain et guery de sa maladie. Et non pas les autres qui se lavoient apres luy. Sur ceste matiere alleguent et dient les docteurs plusieurs raisons, dont entre les autres ilz dient que cest la fosse ou jadis fut gectee la piece de bois de laquelle fut faicte la croys ou nostre seigneur Jesus Crist fut crucifie et mis a mort pour nous rachapter. Et que par la vertu et dignite de cest arbre leau qui estoit ou fosse guerissoit par grace divine ung malade par chacun jour qui le premier en leau de ceste fosse estoit lave. Et en oultre que les anciens dient que quant Salmon faisoit faire et ediffier le grant temple il yfut apporte et presente ung grant et bel arbre que les saiges et anciens geometriens luy esleverent et trouverent pour icelluy arbre est converti et employe en lediffice de son temple, lequel arbre des le commancement du monde avoit este plante et ordonne a planter et a croistre par lordonnance et commandement de Dieu, quant lange qui gardoit paradis terrestre bailla a Seyth les grains de la pomme avec une branche de larbre que Dieu deffendit a nostre premier pere Adam et auxi a Eve pour planter, desquelz grains et branche yssit et parcreut ce grant arbre lequel fut presente a Salmon comme devant est dit, mais pour ce quil plaisoit a Dieu que cest arbre fust employe et converti a plus grant ouvraige et ediffice plus profitable. Cestassavoir a la restauracion et repparacion de tout humain lignage et de tout le monde, et affin que homme et femme qui estoient damnez par larbre fussent sauvez par larbre. Et auxi que homme receust vie pardurable qui avoit este condemne a mort pour le fruit de larbre, Dieu ne volust pas que ce noble arbre fust employe a lediffice du temple Salmon pource quil vouloit en cest noble arbre crucifie et mis a mort. Car quant cest arbre fut presente a Salmon, il le fist descendre et mectre avecques les autres pieces de merrien devant ses ouvriers et charpentiers, lors quant les charpentiers apparceurent que cest arbre fut grant, gros, et long et droit ilz adviserent quil leur seroit moult bon et propice et de bonne longeur. Adonc ilz vont prandre leurs lignes et le mesurerent et le mercherent. Et puis apres le rongnerent si le trouverent trop 256

would immediately be shamefully punished and put to death by divine vengeance. Gervaise says that in Judea is a ditch full of water made in the fashion of a small fish pond. And it is called the Probatique Pool of which the holy Gospel speaks. And it says that at a certain hour an angel used to descend from heaven to make the water of this pool move. And as soon as the angel had descended into the water, the first sick person suffering from any sort of malady who could bathe in that pool would be healed and cured of his illness—but not the others who bathed there after him. On this matter doctors put forth and argue several causes, saying, among others things, that this ditch is the one into which long ago was thrown the wood of the true cross on which our Lord Jesus Christ was crucified and put to death for our ransom. And that by the virtue and dignity of this tree, the water which was in the pool cured by divine grace every day the one sick man who was first to be washed in it. And beyond this, the ancients say that when Solomon commanded the great temple to be built and constructed, there was borne and presented there a great and beautiful tree, and that the wise and ancient geometers planted it and found ways to use the tree in the building of the temple, which tree, since the beginning of the world had been planted and ordered to grow by God’s commandment and decree, when the angel that guarded the terrestrial paradise gave Seth the seeds of the apple, along with a branch of the tree that God forbade to our first father Adam and also to Eve, to plant. Out of these seeds and branch issued and grew this great tree, which was presented to Solomon as was said before, but because he pleased God, the tree was employed and converted into a greater work and a more useful building. That is to say, it was used in the restoration and repair of the human race and of the whole world, and in order that men and women damned by the tree could be saved by the tree. And also so that mankind, which had been condemned to death by the fruit of the tree, would receive everlasting life, God did not wish for this noble tree to be employed in the building of the temple of Solomon because he wished that on this noble tree Christ would be crucified and put to death. For when the tree was presented to Solomon, he had it sent down and placed with the other pieces of timber before the workers and the carpenters, and then when the carpenters saw that this tree was great, thick, and long and straight, they were of the opinion that it would be very good and suitable and of a good length. Then they go to take their lines and begin to measure and mark it. And then they cut it, and they found it too short. And then they sawed it backwards, but they found it too

The Essenes are treated in NH 5.15, p. 277.

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court. Si le sierent arriere, mais ilz le trouverent trop long. Et pource les charpentiers le prindrent et le gecterent hors de leur hastelier et de leur place comme une piece de nulle valleur et inutille et comme bois enchante. Lors Salmon long temps apres fist prandre ceste piece de bois comme bois inutile a ouvrer. Et le fist au long des murs du temple mectre. Et la se seoient les gens qui venoient au temple. Et quant la royne de Saba vint en Jerusalem ouir la sapience de Salomon, elle congneut et apparceut par la revelation du sainct esperit de quoy serviroit et a quoy seroit bonne ceste piece de bois seroit cau-41/ se et moyen de la reparacion du monde et que Jesu Crist le fils de Dieu y seroit crucifie et mis a mort par les Juyfs. Et que par ceste arbre ou par celluy qui pendre y devoit le peuple des Juifz prandroit fin et leur regne seroit subgect et du tout soubmis a lobeissance des estranges nacions. Lors Salomon, considerant et pensant aux merveilleuses parolles que la royne de Sabba luy dist, fist tantost prandre ceste piece de bois et la fist gecter en la parfonde abisme dont vient celle piscine, afin que jamais homme ne la veist. Mais quant nostre seigneur Jesu Crist sapproucha de la, le dit fust sen yssit hors des abismes de leau et flocqua au dessus de leau. Et pour ce dient les anciens docteurs que par la dignite et noble vertu de ce fust, par le moyen de lange qui esmouvoit leau, le premier malade qui se pouvoit laver tout nu en leau de la piscine estoit tout sain et guery de sa maladie.257 Item dit Gervaise que en Judee pres de Nazareth est monstre le lieu ou les Juifs voulurent faire saillir Jesu Crist de hault en bas. Dont parle Saint Luc en son Evangille ou iiiie chappitre et est appelle le sault Jesu Crist, la ou les Juifs le cuyderent persecuter et faire mourir. Et la est encore la roche faconnee en maniere dune petite prison en la quelle Jesu Crist se mussa pour fuir lire et la malle volunte des Juifs. Et la encores appert la forme de son corps et la figure de ses vestemens dedans la roche laquelle devint molle comme paste en obeissant a la volunte.258

long. And for this reason the carpenters took it and threw it out of their workshop and their quarters as a piece of no value and useless and as wood that was bewitched. Then Solomon, a long time later, had this piece of wood taken up as a piece of wood useless for working. And he had it placed along the length of the temple walls. And there the people who came to the temple sat down. And when the queen of Sheba came into Jerusalem to hear the wisdom of Solomon, she knew and perceived by the revelation of the Holy Spirit how this piece of wood would be used and what good it would do when it would be the cause and means of reparation of the world and that Jesus Christ the son of God would be crucified on it and put to death by the Jews. And that by this tree or by the one who must hang on it, the Jewish people would come to an end and their reign would be subjected and their obedience yielded to foreign nations. Then Solomon, considering and thinking upon the marvelous words that the Queen of Sheba said to him, immediately had this piece of wood taken up and thrown into the deep abyss from which this fish pool flows, in order than no man would ever see it. But when our lord Jesus Christ came near there, the said piece of wood came up out of the depths of the water and floated on the water’s surface. And for this reason the ancient doctors say that by the dignity and noble virtue of this deed, by the means of the angel who moved the water, the first sick man who could wash all naked in the water of the pool was made completely healthy and was cured of his illness. Gervaise says that in Judea near Nazareth can be seen the place where the Jews wished to make our Lord Jesus Christ jump from high to low. Of which Saint Luke speaks in his Gospel in the fourth chapter, and it is called the Leap of Jesus Christ, there where the Jews hoped to persecute him and cause him to die. And the rock is still there, made in the manner of a small prison in which Jesus Christ concealed himself to flee the anger and ill will of the Jews. And there also appears the form of his body and the imprint of his clothes in the rock that became soft as paste in obeying his will.

31) [Libie] Libie est une region situee en Affricque dont les parties de devers le mydi sont tres chaudes. Et par la grant ardeur et challeur intollerable qui est, celle partie la est deserte et inhabitable. Libie si est ung pais qui est tres petitement habite, tant pour lexcessive challeur qui y regne comme pour plusieurs bestes sauvaiges qui y

31) Libya Libya is a region situated in Africa of which the parts toward the South are very hot. And because of the great heat and intolerable warmth that is there, that part is deserted and uninhabitable. Libya thus is a country which is very little inhabited, as much for the excessive heat that rules there as for the numerous savage beasts

Saba, the Biblical Sheba. Banks and Binns, III.54, pp. 657-61 and III.105, p. 791, drawing on Peter Comestor’s Historia Scholastica. See Jeanne-Lucienne Herr, «La Reine de Saba et le bois de la croix,» Revue Archéologique 4th ser. 23 (1914):1-31. 258 Appendix II.2, p. 887. 257

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repairent, comme lyons, tigres, ours, et dragons et liepars, quil ny a point homme si hardy tant soit fort qui voise en celle region quil ne soit devore et estrangle des bestes sauvaiges.

that live there, such as lions, tigers, bears, and dragons and leopards, so that there is no man so bold and strong traveling in this region who would not be devoured and throttled by wild beasts.

32) [Sidonie] 41v/ Sidonie est une region situee en Europpe vers les fins des Allemaignes, ou les habitans du pais souloient avoir une merveilleuse coustume avant quilz fussent Chretiens. Et que ilz eussent congnoissance de la foy de Jesu Crist. Car ilz adorient les ydolles et les dyables denfer. Et quant lung deulx estoit mort, il nestoit point mis en terre. Mais estoit mis en ung grant feu et estoit ars et converti en cendre. Et avecques luy estoient ars et brules tous ses serviteurs et familiers et toutes ses bestes et generallement tous ses biens meubles, comme beufs, vaches, brebiz, moutons, pourceaulx, et chevaulx et tous ses biens en quelconque qualite ou espece quilz fussent. Et si il fust grant seigneur ou prince du pais, semblablement ainsi ilz le fasoient. Car ilz ardoient avecques leur prince tous ses chevaliers, conseilliers et officiers. Et creoient fermement que en tiel estat et a telle compaignie de gens et avecques luy telle garnison de biens comme on ardoit avecques luy que pareillement en tel estat et en telle richesse et puissance regnoit il en lautre monde. Item auxi ilz disoient que si le corps daucun estoit ars 42/ tout seul sans ardre avecques luy aucuns serviteurs ne aucunes biens que semblablement en lautre monde, il se trouvoit despourveu de biens et de serviteurs.

32) Lydonie Lydonie is a region situated in Europe towards the far reaches of Germany where the inhabitants of the country used to have a marvelous custom before they were Christianized and had knowledge of the faith of Jesus Christ. For they adored idols and the devils of hell. And when one of them died, he was not put into the earth at all. But rather he was put into a great fire and was burned up and turned into cinders. And with him were burned and consumed all his servants and domestics and all his animals and generally all his movable goods such as oxen, cows, ewes, sheep, pigs, and horses, and all his goods of whatever quality and kind they were. And if he was a great lord or prince of the country, likewise they did the same thing. For they burned with their prince all his knights, counselors and officers. And they believed firmly that in whatever estate and company of men, and with whatever supply of goods he was burned, then similarly in such an estate and in such richness and power he would reign in the other world. Also they said that if the body of any person was burned all alone without burning any of his servants and any of his goods, then similarly in the other world he would find himself deprived of goods and servants.

33) [Lytonie] Lytonie est une region situee en Siccie, en laquelle ou temps deste moult habondant de grans eaues de paluz et de grans boez, tellement que a grant peine peut on aller ou pais. Et pour ce Lythonie en este ne peut jamais estre prinse dennemys ne subjuguee. Car nul homme ny peut ariver en este a pie ferme, mais quant ce vient sur le temps diver, ilz sont en grant perilz destre greves de leurs ennemis, pour les boez et pour les ruisseaulx et pour les rivieres qui sont si tresfort gellees que toute personne y peut surement aller a pie sec et a pie ferme. Et pour ce, celle terre qui est moult grande et vague et mal peuplee est de legiere comquise et subjuguee par leurs ennemys ou temps dyver. Et pour ce sont les habitans du pais tousjours en aguet en la saison dyver sur les frontiers de leurs ennemys.

33) Lytonie Lytonie is a region situated in Scythia where in the summertime there abound great marshes and great mudflats, to such a degree that only with great difficulty can one get about in the country. And for this reason Lytonie can never be taken by an enemy or subjugated in the summer. For no man can manage to find firm ground in the summer, but when it comes to winter time, they are in very great danger of being overcome by their enemies, for the mud and the streams and the rivers there are so frozen then that anyone can get around very reliably with dry feet and a firm footing. And for this reason, this land, which is very large and empty and sparsely populated, is easily conquered and subjugated by its enemies in winter time. And for this reason the inhabitants are always on watch in the winter season on the frontiers of their enemies.

34) [Macedonie] 42v/ Macedonie est une province situee en Grece, la ou sont de moult haultes montaignes qui sont moult haultes, droictes et

34) Macedonia Macedonia is a province situated in Greece in the part where there are very high mountains which are quite tall, straight, and pointed,

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agues, dont parle Solin et dit que les geans firent et drecirent celles montaignes en esperance de cuyder monter jusques aux cieulx pour dieu guerroier et pour le cuyder bouter hors de paradis. Celles montaignes que les geans firent sont si treshaultes et si tresdroictes que leau du Deluge de Deucalion qui nayerent tout le monde ne les peurent oncques surmonter de haultesse. Et dit Solin que es cavernes et es pertuys qui sont es dictes montaignes on ya trouve des coquilles et croisilles de poissons de mer que la mer y apporta par le temps du Deluge et que la mer y laissa quant elle sen retourna. Et toutesfoys la province de Macedonie si est situee en plaine et ferme terre, et est tresloing de la mer, mais neantmoins il semble, pour lesdictes coquilles et crousilles marines qui sont environ icelles haultes montaignes, que ce soit ung rivaige de mer.259 Item la province de Macedonie a en especial une tresmerveilleuse et treshaulte montaigne qui est nomme Athos, dont 43/ Solin raconte une grant merveille et dit que dessus celle treshaulte montaigne en nul temps ne en nulle saison il ne ploit ne ne vente ne ne cheoit aucune rousee dessus. La cause si est: Car ceste montaigne si est plus haulte que les nues dont vient lumeur et la pluye sur terre.260 Item dit Solin que tout au plushault de celle montaigne a ung aultier ou anciennement les payens souloient alumer le feu dessus, et la faire leurs sacriffices a leurs ydolles. Et pource que en nul temps ne plouvoit, les cendres qui sont dessus lautel demeurent tousjours la, en leur vigueur et estat. Ad ce propos il est escript ou premier livre des Roys que quant David ouyt la nouvelle de la piteuse mort et desconfiture du roy Saul et de Jonathas qui furent desconfiz par les Philistins sur la montaigne de Gelie. Lors il dist ces parolles en plourant moult piteusement: «Haa, mons de Gelie, jamais ne puisses vous reverdir, jamais sur vous ne choye pluye ne rousee. Car sur vous ont este desconfiz les princes de Israel!»261 Item raconte Solin une aultre grant merveille de la grant montaigne de Athos et dit que lombre de ceste montaigne dure jusques a lisle de Lemprios ou il ya de distance et despace dix sept lieues.262 Item dit Solin que au plushault de celle montaingne souloyent habiter et demourer gens appelles Macrobbes, lesqueulz vivoient deux foys plus longuement que ne faisoient autres gens, mais de present il ny habite personne. Et est demouree ladicte montaigne inhabitable.263

of which Solinus speaks and says that giants erected and set up these mountains in hope of being able to climb to the heavens to war against God and to cast him out of paradise. These mountains that the giants made are so very high and so very steep that the water of the flood of Deucalion that drowned the world could never surmount their heights. And Solinus says that in the caverns and caves that are in the said mountains people have found the shells of sea fish that the sea bore there in the time of the Flood and that the sea left there when it returned. And yet the province of Macedonia is situated on solid and firm land and is very far from the sea, but nonetheless it seems, because of the aforementioned seashells that are in the area of these high mountains, that this was a seashore. The province of Macedonia has, in particular, a very marvelous and very high mountain which is named Athos, about which Solinus relates a great marvel and says that upon this very high mountain at no time and in no season does the rain fall or the wind blow, nor does any dew settle there. The cause is this: because this mountain is so much higher than the clouds from which come the moisture and rain upon the earth. Solinus says that at the very top of this mountain is an altar upon which, long ago, the pagans had the custom of lighting fires and making sacrifices to their idols. And because it never rained at any time, the ashes that are on the altar still remain, in their same force and condition. With regard to this it is written in the first book of Kings that when David heard the news of the piteous death and defeat of the king Saul and of Jonathan, who were routed by the Philistines on the mountain of Gelie, then he said these words in weeping most piteously: «Ha Mount Gelie, never will you be green again, never will the rain and dew fall upon you. For on you have been destroyed the princes of Israel.» Solinus recounts another great marvel concerning the great mountain of Athos and says that the shadow of this mountain extends to the island of Lemprios that is at a distance and space of seventeen leagues. Solinus says that at the very top of this mountain there used to live and dwell some people called Macrobes, who lived two times longer than do any other men, but at present no one lives there. And this said mountain has remained uninhabitable.

Collectanea, 64. Collectanea, 64. 261 Collectanea, 64. 262 Collectanea, 63. 263 Collectanea, 77. 259 260

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35) [Melos] Melos est une ysle qui est situee en la mer qui passe parmy le millieu de la terre, dont parle Ysidoires et dit que Melos est une ysle qui est de toutes les autres de la mer la plus ronde.264 Item dit Ysidores que ceste isle est moult fertille et plantureuse et habondant en tous biens qui sont neccessaires a corps domme. Et si est moult bien peuplee de gens.265

35) Melos Melos is an island that is located in the sea that passes through the middle of the earth, about which Isidore says that Melos is an island that is the roundest of all others in the sea. Isidore says that this island is most fertile and luxuriant, and it abounds in all goods that are necessary to the body of man. And thus it is heavily populated.

36) [Medie] 43v/ Medie est une region qui est situee vers orient, pres du royaulme de Perse, dont parle Solin et dit que la est est ung arbre qui est moult merveilleux. Et est tout couvert despines poinctues. Et si porte une pomme qui est meilleur et plus odorant que nulle autre pomme. Et a ceste pomme grant vertu contre venin. Ce noble arbre si est de tresmerveilleuse feconde et grant apport que en tous temps il est tousjours charge de pommes. Et quant on a ouste une pomme de dessus, tantost il en revient une autre.266 Item dit Solin que cest arbre en nulle terre ne peut profiter ne croistre fors es pais de Midie, et de Perse tant seulement.267 Item dit encores que souvent menger et user de la pomme qui croist en cest arbre que elle vault et proffite moult pour avoir bonne alayne.268 Item en Medie sont certainez grans cavernes dont lantree est faicte a la facon dune porte et sont appellees par les habitans du pais Cafrres. Ces Cafrres sont grans et longues allees et passaiges et chemins qui vont par dessoubz terre de pais en autre tout au travers de une grant montaigne nommee le mont de Thanaye, laquelle allee et chemin fut faicte par my la roche tout au sisel et au martel, et dure ceste allee par dessoubz terre bien par lespace et longeur de viiii 44/ lieuez. Et si na ceste allee de largeur que cincq piez ou environ. Item dit Solin que en yver on y passe bien et seurement, mais en este on ny ouze pas seurement passer pour la grant multitude de serpens et autres bestes venimeuses qui sont lyens qui guerroient et font grant desplesir aux passens ou temps deste plus que en yver.269 Item dit Solin que pres de Mede et de Perse a une province appelle Medie Silence en laquelle est une treshaulte montaigne

36) Media Media is a region that is situated towards the East, near the realm of Persia, of which Solinus speaks and says that there is a tree that is very marvelous. And it is all covered with sharp thorns. And also it bears an apple that is better and sweeter smelling than any other apple. And this apple has great power against all poisons. This noble tree is of such marvelous, productive, and great profit that in all seasons it is always laden with apples. And when one apple has been removed from it, immediately another apple appears in its place. Solinus says that this tree cannot grow or flourish in any other land than in the country of Media, and in Persia alone. He says also that if one often eats and consumes the apple that grows on this tree, it is very valuable and profitable for having good breath. In Media are certain great caverns whose entrances are made in the fashion of a door and are called by the inhabitants of the country «cafrres.» These cafrres are great and long walkways and passages and roads that go under the earth from one land to another, all the way through a great mountain called the Mount of Thanaye. These alleys and roads were built through the rock completely by hammer and chisel, and this underground passageway extends under the earth fully the extent and length of nine leagues. And yet this road has a width of only five feet or thereabouts. Solinus says that in winter people pass through there well and safely, but in summer one does not dare pass through without danger because of the great number of snakes and other poisonous beasts that are in that place, attacking and causing great grief to travelers in the summertime more than in the winter. Solinus says that near Media and Persia is a province called Media the Silent in which is a very high mountain named Cassius,

Etymologiae, XIV.6.28. Etymologiae, XIV.6.28. 266 Collectanea, 77. 267 Collectanea, 177-78. 268 Collectanea, 178. 269 Collectanea, 178. 264 265

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laquelle est nommee Cassius que est de la haultesse de laulte montaigne de Thanoye. Et dit que quant on est deux heures devant le jour tout au plus hault de celle montaigne combien qui soit nuyt on y apparcoit le jour qui est en autres contrees et regions. Et si ne dure en temps point plus longue que quatre heures la nuyt.270 Item dit Solin que en Medie et en Perse a moult grant habondance de pierres precieuses. Cest assavoir achates, pinches, solis gemen et moult dautres. Et toutesfoys dit Solin que en ceste terre a quatre manieres de pierres precieuses. Et ont nom cestes pierres precieuses. Cest assavoir sagada, elossopetra, calcofungus, sederites. Sagada est une pierre laquelle est tresjoyeusement verdoyant, laquelle pierre par sa naturelle propriete et vertu est eslevee du fons de la mer et si se joingt contre les planches des nefs qui vont nageans parmy la mer. Et si se atache si fort contre le bois desdictes nefs que on ne la peut point avoir sans enleuer et despiecer la piece du bois ou elle sest atachee.271 Item dit Solin que ceulx de Caldee tiennent et gardent ceste pierre moult cherement et richement. Et dit Solin que jamais nul homme ne la sauroit ou prandre ne trover si la ladicte pierre delle mesme ne se ficheoit encontre le boys desdictes nefs par la maniere que dit est dessus. Ellossopetra est une pierre laquelle est de la facon de langue dung homme laquelle a la fin du decours des lunes elle tumbe et cheit du ciel comme dit Solin. Et selon loppinion des magicians ceste pierre [est] moult dangereuse et perilleuse a porter a gens qui sont lunaticques. Car elle leur est esveille et esmeut leurs malladies et passions collicques. Calcofungus est une pierre laquelle est trouvee ou pais de Medie et de Perse, dont parle Solin. Et dit que quant celle pierre est heurtee ou touchee fort encontre fer ou assier elle retontist comme ung vaissel darain. Et si est de telle vertu et propriete que si ung homme la porte sur soy de sa jeunesse et quil vive chastement, il aura tousjours la voyx belle et clere et doulce et plaisant a ouyr comme voix denfant. Siderite est une pierre laquelle est du tout semblable a fer quant a la couleur mais nonmye quant a la pesanteur. Et dit Solin que ceste pierre a une vertu et propriete tresperilleuse et mauvaise. Car elle esmeut tousjours la personne qui la porte sur soy a discort et a division et a faire guerre.272

that is of the same height as the high mountain of Thanaye. And he says that when it is two hours before daybreak at the very top of this mountain, even though it is night, it is possible for one to see the daylight that is in other countries and regions. And thus the night does not endure there for any more than four hours. Solinus says that in Media and in Persia there is a most great abundance of precious stones. That is to say, agates, poinice, sunstones, and many others. But nevertheless Solinus says that in this land there are four kinds of precious stones. And these precious stones have names—that is to say sagada, elloseopetra, calcofungus, sederite. Sagada is a stone that is very cheerfully green that, by its natural property and virtue, rises up from the floor of the ocean and joins itself to the planks of ships that are sailing in the sea. And thus it attaches itself so strongly against the wood of the said ships that one cannot take possession of it without removing or displacing the piece of wood to which it is attached. Solinus says that the people of Chaldea keep and guard this stone very dearly and abundantly. And Solinus says that no man would ever know where to obtain or find this stone if it did not, on its own, attach itself to the wood of ships in the manner stated above. Elloseopetra is a stone that is in the shape of a man’s tongue, which, at the end of the transit of the moon, falls and tumbles down from the heavens, as Solinus says. And according to the opinion of magicians, this stone is very dangerous and perilous to carry for men who are lunatics. For it awakens and stirs their malady and choleric passions. Calcofungus is a stone which is found in the country of Media and Persia as Solinus says. And he says that when this stone is dashed or struck sharply against iron or steel it resonates like a bronze vessel. And it is of such a virtue and property that if a man bears it on his person in his youth and lives chastely, he will always have a voice that is clear and sweet and pleasant to hear, like the voice of a child. Siderite is a stone exactly like iron in color, but not at all alike as to its weight. And Solinus says that this stone has a very bad and dangerous virtue and property. For it always stirs up the person who carries it on his person to discord and division and the making of war.

37) [Messie] 44v/ Messie est une region situee en Europpe qui est bien pres de Pannonie et est moult fertille et habondant en biens terriens. Et tant que les pouetes anciens la nommerant le germe de Seres, Seres

37) Moesia Moesia is a region situated in Europe that is very near Pannonia and is very fertile and abundant in earthly goods. And it was so fertile that the ancient poets named it the sprout of Ceres, Ceres

Collectanea, 156. Collectanea, 160. 272 Collectanea, 168, 160. 270 271

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si fut la deesse des blez, de ceste terre de Messie dit Solin quil ya une contree ou croist une herbe qui est de telle vertu que si elle est mise en ung vaissel de huille et apres que de celle huille soit alume feu, jamais ne sera estaint, tant quil ait ars ce aquoy il sera esprins, ne pour eau, ne pour vin, ne pour vin aigre. Excepte par grant force de terre quil convient que len gecte dessus tant que feu et flamble soit tout couvert de terre, et par ceste maniere et non autre sera le feu estaint.273

being the goddess of grain. Of this land of Moesia Solinus says that there is a country where a certain herb grows that is of such a nature that if it is put in a vessel of oil and afterward this oil is lit with a flame, it will never be extinguished, so thoroughly has it set on fire that which it has inflamed, not for water, nor for wine, nor for vinegar—except by great force of earth, which must be thrown on it so that the fire and flame will be completely covered with dirt, and in this manner and no other will the fire be extinguished.

38) [Neorgie] Neorgie est une tresfroide region qui est situee vers la partie de Aquillon. Et pour la grant froideur qui tousjours est en celle terre, la ne croist ne ble ne vin ne orge ne huille. En celle terre habite de moult merveilleuses bestes sauvaiges et cruelles comme castores fibres et ours. Item la est ung lac qui est moult merveilleux. Car tout cuir qui est gecte et mis leans en leau est tantoust et legierement mue et change en nature de pierre dure.

38) Norway Norway is a very cold region that is situated towards the Northern parts. And because of the great cold that is always in this land, neither wheat, nor grapevines, nor barley, nor oil will grow there. In this land live many marvelous savage and cruel beasts, such as [Eurasian] beavers and bears. There is a lake that is very marvelous. For any leather that is thrown or put into its water is immediately and swiftly transformed and changed in nature to a hard stone.

39) [Offir] 45/ Offir est une region qui est situee es parties de Inde. Et dit Solin que en celle region les montaignes y sont [toutes dor]. Et si ya a moult grant habondance de pierres precieuses et de tous biens et de toutes autres richesses que homme pourroit souhaicter. Mais en celle region il nest nul homme tant soit il fort et puissant, soit Sarrazin ou Cristien, qui y ouze habiter ne demourer pour la grant multitude et terrible oppression des bestes sauvaiges qui sont cruelles et horribles et venimeuses, et qui en icelle riche et noble region habitant que tout homme quilz rencontrent devourant, transglotissant et mangeussent. Comme grans serpens et dragons vollans gectans feu et venim par la gueulle et par les narines, et lyons, lyepars, tigres et louves cerves. Mais toutesfoiz les marchans qui vont et viennent en leurs vaisseaulx par la mer se en hardissent aucunesfoiz en aucune saison de lan de aller vagant et nageant au long des rivaiges de la mer a lendroit de celles riches et nobles montaignes dor, qui sont en telle re- 45v/ gion. Et advinsent et regardent les fossectes et petiz partuis que les bestes sauvaiges y ont faictes en gratant avecques leurs ongles. Et quant ilz bien regarde et advise et quilz ny apparcoyvent ne ny voyent point de cestes mauvaises et cruelles bestes sauvaiges. Lors ilz descendent a coup hors de leurs vaisseaulx avecques picz, pioches, marteaulx et ciseaulx de fer et dacier et sen vont courant sur ces montaignes dor. Et tandis que les ungs font le guet pour peur des bestes sauvaiges, les

39) Offir [Ophir] Offir is a region that is situated in the Indian part of the world. And Solinus says that in this region the mountains are all [made of gold]. And also there are a multitude of precious stones and all kinds of wealth and other riches that a man could desire. But in this region there is no man strong enough or powerful enough, whether he be Saracen or Christian, who dares live and dwell there because of the great number and terrible oppression of savage beasts, which are cruel and horrible and poisonous, and which live in this rich and noble region and devour, swallow, and eat all men that they encounter. Among them are great serpents and flying dragons spewing fire and venom from their throats and from their nostrils, and lions, leopards, tigers, and she-lynxes. But nonetheless merchants who go and come in their vessels by the sea embolden themselves sometimes in some season of the year to go roaming and paddling along the coasts of the sea to the location of these rich and noble mountains of gold that are in this region. And they consider and look at the small ditches and holes that the savage beasts have made there, scratching with their nails. And when they have looked carefully and considered and do not perceive there any of these evil and cruel wild beasts, then they descend suddenly from their ships with picks and shovels, hammers and chisels of iron and steel and go running to these mountains of gold. And while some keep watch for fear of the savage beasts, the

273

Moesia in Collectanea, 99.

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autres foillent dedans la terre avecques bonnes pioches et picz de fer et dacier. Et les autres rompent, encisent, et despiecent avecques bons marteaulx et ciseaux dacier de grans pieces de celles montagnes dor. Et quant ilz voyant ces horribles bestes sauvaiges venir a eulx ilz sen retournoient tout a coup et a grant haste chascun a toute sa charge et se lancent dedans leurs vaisseaulx et se empaingnent et boutant a coup en la mer. Et par ceste maniere conquestent et acquerant les marchans lor et les [pierres] precieuses qui sont en la region de Offir dont plusieurs royaulmes sont serviz et honnourez et enrechiz. En la region de Offir ne peut nul marinier aller ne venir si non a tresgrant peyne et en tresgrant adventure et a tresgrant dangier. Car il fault que le marinier qui y veult aller passe tout au long de la Mer Rouge, et que il tourne et quil revire et quil environne plusieurs ysles et plusieurs terres et provinces ou il mect et employe longue espace de temps. La Bible si parle et fait grant mencion de la region de Offir ou tiers livre des Roys ou neufesme chappitre et ou segond livre de Paralipomenon. Et dit que Salomon qui fut jadis roy de Iherusalem envoyet aucunesfoyz ses mariniers et ses marchans par la mer en la region dOffir avec la grant navire du roy de Thyre. Et quant ilz sen retournoyent ilz apportoyent et admenoyent en leurs vaisseaulx or, argent, pierres precieuses a moult grant habondance. Et si apportoyent aucunesfois des paones, des [singes], des marmoctes, des grands dens divoyre. Et du noble fust de ebenius.274

others dig into the earth with good pick axes and picks of iron and steel. And others crush, cut into, and break apart with hammers and chisels of steel the great pieces of these mountains of gold. And when they see these horrible savage beasts come towards them, they return suddenly and in great haste, each with his load, to their vessels and throw themselves in and pull up anchor and thrust themselves off into the sea. And by this manner the merchants gain and acquire the gold and precious stones located in this region of Offir, by which several realms are served and honored and enriched. No sailor can go or come into the region of Offir without very great difficulty and many adventures and extreme danger. For it is necessary that any sailor who wishes to go there pass all along the Red Sea, and that he turn and reverse direction and go alongside many islands and lands and provinces where he spends and uses up long periods of time. The Bible also speaks and makes great mention of the region of Offir in the third book of Kings in the ninth chapter and in the second book of Paralipomenon [Chronicles]. And it says that Solomon, who was in olden days king of Jerusalem, sometimes sent his sailors and merchants by sea to the region of Offir with the great ship of the king of Tyre. And when they returned from there, they carried back and bore in their vessels gold, silver, precious stones in very great abundance. And sometimes they carried peacocks, monkeys, marmosets, and great ivory tusks, as well as noble logs of ebony.

40) [Paradis Terrestre] 46/ Paradis Terrestre est une moult noble, saincte, plantureuse, belle et eureuse region qui est situeee vers orient, laquelle est separee et divisee de nous et de nostre terre habitable tant par lordonnance de Dieu comme par la grant espace de mer et de plusieurs grandes et haultes montaignes. Et selon que dient les saincts docteurs et le Maistre des Histoires ou premier chappitre ou livre de Genesis, Paradis Terrestre si est plus hault lieu de ce monde. Et a bien pou quil natainct jusques au cercle de la lune tant est [hault].275 Item cest le plus cler lieu qui soit ou monde, car il ny peut monter ne advenir aucune tenebreuse vapeur ne obscurte. Item Paradis Terrestre est de tous lieux le plus plaisant et le plus bel, le plus cler, le plus delectable, car les arbres y sont tousjours tous vers et tousjours chargiez de toutes manieres de fruitz tant bons et bien odorans, que corps domme ne pourroit trouver ne penser meilleurs.

40) Terrestrial Paradise Terrestrial Paradise is a very noble holy, fertile, beautiful, and happy region, which is situated towards the East and which is separated and divided from us and our habitable earth as much by God’s ordinance as through a great expanse of sea and several great and high mountains. And according to what the learned doctors and the Master of Histories say in the first chapter of the book of Genesis, Terrestrial Paradise is the highest place in the world. And it is so high that it is just short of reaching the lunar sphere. It is the clearest place in the world, for no gloomy or obscure vapor can rise that high and get there. Terrestrial Paradise is of all places the most pleasant and the most beautiful, the brightest and the most delightful, for the trees there are always green and always heavy with all manner of fruits, so good and sweet smelling that the human body would not be able to find or imagine any better.

See 1 Kings 9:28, 10:11, and 22:48; and 2 Chronicles 8:18. A region of uncertain identity; it does not appear in Collectanea by that name. See Edward Lipinski, «Location of Ophir,» in his Itineraria Phoenicia (Leuven and Dudley, MA: Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies, 2004), pp. 191-202. 275 Peter Comestor, Historia Scholastica, see above. 274

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Item la sont toutes bonnes herbes et toutes fleurs florissans et santans merveilleusement bon en toutes saisons. Item Paradis Terrestre est le plus riche, le plus noble, et le plus 46v/ eureux, et le plus habondant en tous biens et tous grains et tous fruitz et en toutes richesses que cueur domme pourroit pancer ne dire, ne que lieu ne pais qui soit ou monde. Item Paradis Terrestre est le plus riche, le plus noble, et le plus eureux et en aer le plus atrampe contre froidures cuysans et contre chaulx ardans. Car en ce delectable lieu sont pour moyenner toutes choses belles et doulces fontaines et grans et beaulx fleuves qui joyeusement et doulcement arrousant la terre de ce lieu. Dont il est escript au livre de Genesis ou segond chappitre comment Dieu planta son paradis en terre. Et la il fist une moult belle et grant fontaine sourdant et bouillant qui arrouse la terre de ce lieu, de laquelle fontaine sont engendrees quatre grosses rivieres qui sont les principalles et chief de toutes les autres rivieres du monde. Dont la premiere riviere si est nomme Phison qui environne toute la terre de Enilath. Et la croist le meilleur et le plus fin or du monde. Et si y sont trouvees a plus grant habondance que ailleurs les deux riches pierres precieuses. Cest assavoir dellium et onix, que nous appellons par deca onichmus. La segonde riviere si a nom Gion, celle riviere environne toute la terre de Ethioppie. La tierce riviere a nom Tigris, ceste riviere passe et arrouse tout le pais Assiriens. La quarte riviere est appellee Euffrates de grant renommee.276 Item Paradis Terrestre est le lieu de toute la terre le plus ferme et le plus seur. Car les gens qui ysont et qui y habitant tousjours vivant et ne mourent point, comme il appert de Enoc et de Helie qui la sont et oncques ilz ne moururant. Item Paradis Terrestre, pour la seurete de ceulx qui y demourant et qui y habitant, si est encloz et ferme de haulx murs de feu ardans qui tout ce delectable lieu environnent, pour lesqueulx murs nul ny peut aller ne passer ne par force ne par engin. Item en Paradis Terrestre sont les anges cherubins qui ce delectable lieu gardent et deffendent diligenment contre tous les sourvenans qui en ce noble lieu veullent aller. Item Paradis Terrestre si est sur les regions et provinces du monde le plus vertueulx et le plus planteureux lieu tant en fecondite comme en nourriture. Car les grains et fruitz creuz en ce delectable lieu de leur vertueuse et naturelle condicion si eussent preserve et garde homme de mort si Dieu qui est noustre souverain juge ny heust mise loy au contraire pour la pugnicion du peche que commist nostre premier pere Adam. Car la est larbre de vie dont le fruitz

There are all good herbs and all flowers, blooming and smelling marvelously good in all seasons of the year. Terrestrial paradise is the richest, noblest, happiest, and most abundant in all goods and all grains and all fruits and all riches that the heart of man would be able to imagine or name, more than any country or place in the world. Terrestrial Paradise is the richest, noblest, happiest, and most temperate in air against stinging cold and burning heat. For in this delectable place are, to provide for all things, beautiful and sweet springs, and great and beautiful rivers that joyfully and sweetly moisten the earth of this region. Of which it is written in the book of Genesis, in the second chapter, that God established his paradise on earth. And there he made a most beautiful and great spring, leaping and bubbling, that moistens the land of this place, from which spring were engendered four great rivers that are the headwaters and source of all the rivers of the whole world. Of these, the first river is named Pishon, which surrounds all the land of Enilath [Havilah]. And there appears the best and finest gold in the world. And there also are found, in greater abundance than elsewhere, the two most valuable precious stones, that is to say delluni and onyx, which we here call onichinus. The second river has the name Gihon; this river surrounds all the land of Ethiopia. The third river has the name Tigris; this river passes through and waters all the land of the Assyrians. The fourth river is called Euphrates, of great renown. Terrestrial Paradise is the safest and most secure place of any on earth. For the people who reside there live forever and cannot die, as is clear from the stories of Enoch and Elijah who are there and will never die. Terrestrial Paradise, for the security of those who dwell there and inhabit the place, is enclosed and shut off by high walls of burning fire that surround all of this delightful place, and because of these walls, no one can go in or go out, neither by force nor by ingenuity. In Terrestrial Paradise are the angels called cherubim who diligently guard and defend this delectable place against all chance passersby who want to come into this noble place. Terrestrial Paradise is, of all the regions and provinces of the world, the most virtuous and the most abundant, as much in fertility as in nurture. For the grains and fruits grown in this delightful place by the power of their own virtue and natural condition would have preserved and kept man from death if God, who is our sovereign judge, had not decreed a law to the contrary as punishment for the sin that our first father Adam committed. For there is to be found the Tree of Life

See Paul-Albert Février, «Les quatre fleuves du Paradis,» Rivista di archeologia cristiana 32 (1956): 179-99. See Hallberg, L’Extrême Orient, p. 202, s.v. Evilach, and Samuel Krauss, «‘Euilat’ in the LXX,» The Jewish Quarterly Review 11.4 (July, 1899): 675-79. 276

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rendist vie perpetuelle de sa saincte vertu et propriete si la divine grace de Dieu le vousist [et] souffrist. Item la est larbre de science dont le fruit fait savoir a ceulx qui en usant et mal et bien, et si donne congnoissance de toutes choses.277

whose fruits would have given perpetual life through its holy virtue and nature, if the divine grace of God had wished and allowed it. There is the Tree of Knowledge whose fruit makes known both good and evil to those who consume it, and thus it confers knowledge of all things.

41) [Pigmee] 47/ Pigmee est une province situee en Judee la Grant, dont parle Plinius et dit que les populaire et habitans de celle province sont de trespetite estature et corpulance. Car ilz ne sont pas plus grans ni plus gros que petiz enffans de quatre ans et nont communement que pie et demy de hault. Et combien que ceste soient petiz, neantmoins ilz sont subtilz et de grant couraige. Et en lieu de chevaulx ou dasnes ilz se font porter a moutons, sur lesqueulx ilz montant comme sur chevaulx. Ceste gent cy engendrent au quart an et au viie an ilz enveillissent et sont chenuz.278 Item dit Plinius que entre ceste gent et les grues et les sigoignes a merveilleusement grant guerre. Et, de fait, quant ce vient sur le temps deste, ceste gent se assemblent ung grand nombre montez sur moustons et brebiz garniz et habilitez en certains engins et contre les grues et sigoignes fort guerroient. Et auxi font pareillement les grues contre eulx. Et quant ceste gent peuent trouver leurs nicz ilz rompent et despiecent leurs eufs ou tuent leurs cigoigneaulx affin quilz ne se accroissent ou multiplient ou quilz ne puissent venir a trop grant affort et puissance de courir ne voller sur eulx.279

41) Pygmy Pigmy is a province in greater Judea of which Pliny speaks and says that the population and inhabitants of this province are of very small height and size. For they are no taller or fatter than little children of four years of age, and they commonly are only one and a half feet tall. And even though they may be small, they are subtle and of great courage. And in place of horses or of asses they transport themselves on sheep, which they ride just as if they were horses. These people procreate at four years of age and by their seventh year they become old and grizzled. Pliny says that between this people and the cranes and storks there is a marvelously great war. And, in fact, when it gets to be summertime, these people assemble a great throng mounted on sheep and ewes furnished and strengthened with certain devices and make war against the cranes and storks. And similarly the cranes make war against them. And when these people can find their nests, they break and destroy their eggs and kill the young storks in order that they may not grow in number or multiply or that they may not be able to come with great force and power to run or fly against them.

42) [Poictou] 47v/ Poictou est une petite region situee en la grant province de Gaulle, en laquelle a moult de merveilles, dont Solin parle et dit que en la region de Poitou, sur le rivaige de la mer, se concreant et se engendrent certains oyseaulx que les habitans du pais appellent cravens, lesqueulx oyseaulx ne sont engendres ne ponz ne couvez ne de pere ne de mere, mais naissent et se concreant et engendrent en la corrupcion et pourriture du vieulz boys et merrain des vielles nefs, et vielz mastz et des vielz avirons qui se pourrissent sur le rivaige

42) Poitou Poitou is a small region situated in the great province of Gaul where many marvels occur, of which Solinus speaks and says that in the region of Poitou, on the seashore, are conceived and engendered certain birds that the inhabitants of the country call cravens, which birds are not propagated or laid or brooded by either father or mother, but are born and are conceived and engendered in the corruption and rot of old wood and timbers of old ships and old masts and old sails, which rot on the shore of the sea. And they are

The Phison is the Ganges or Indus. See generally Jean Delumeau and Matthew O’Connell, History of Paradise: The Garden of Eden in Myth and Tradition (New York: Continuum, 2000); and Ovidio Guaita, Terrestrial Paradise (New York: Random House, 1999). 278 NH 7.2, p. 523. 279 NH 7.2, p. 523. See Serge Bahuchet, «L’Invention des pygmées,» Cahiers d’études africaines 129.38.1 (1993): 153-81; Baudouin Van den Abeele, «Migrations médiévales de la grue,» Micrologus: Natura, scienze e società medievali. Nature, Sciences and Medieval Societies, 8.1 (2000): 65-78; Maurizio Harari, «A Short History of Pygmies in Greece and Italy,» in Kathryn Lomas, ed., Greek Identity in the Western Mediterranean: Papers in Honour of Brian Shefton (Boston, Leiden: Brill, 2004), pp.162-88; Alain Ballabriga, «Le Malheur des Nains: quelques aspects du combat des grues contre les Pygmées dans la littérature Grecque,» Revue des études anciennes 84 (1981): 57-74; Pietro Janni, Etnografia e mito: La Storia dei Pigmei (Rome: Edizioni del’Ateneo & Bizzarri, 1978); and Victor Bissengué, Contribution à l’histoire ancienne des Pygmées: l’exemple des Aka (Paris: Editions L’Harmattan, 2004). 277

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de la mer. Et sengendrent en ceste maniere. Quant ce vieulz mairrain des vaisseaulx qui est sur le port du rivaige de la mer est bien pourri et corrumpu de lumeur de la mer. Et de celle pourriture il sengendre en ce vieulz boys une maniere de limon qui est ainsi tenant et gluant comme glaise du quel limon se forme et engendre oyseaulx qui pendent par le bec contre le vieulx boys bien par lespace de deux moys et plus, et quant ce vient quilz sont tous couvers de leurs plumes et quilz sont grans et gros, lors ilz cheent en la mer. Et adonc Dieu, de sa grace, leur donne vie naturelle, et deviennent beaulx et plaisans oyseaulx, et ont la plume noyre. Et vollant par my la mer et par tout ilz veullent, comme font au- 48/ tres oyseaulx. Et si ont la char auxi blanche et auxi tendre et auxi savoureuse a menger comme la chair dune canne sauvaige. Et ad ce propos fait ce qui est escript ou premier livre de Genesis ou il dit que au iiii jour de la premiere creacion des choses du monde, Dieu crea les eaulx dessoubz le firmament. Et si crea les poissons et les oyseaulx par quoy il apert que les oyseaulx ont aucunement naturelle propriete et condition. Et avec cecy creacion du limon des eaux. Item Gervaise dit que en Angleterre ou couste de Cancie pres de labbaye de Fareyhan sur le rivaige de la mer sont certains petiz arbres formes a la facon de saules esqueulx quant ce vient sur le temps nouvel il se germe et se engendre sur les branches petiz boutons qui apres tant croissant quilz deviennent oyseaulx vollans. Et aucuns dient que les germes qui cheent de ses petiz arbres dedans la mer si deviennent poissons. Et auxi les germes qui cheent sur terre deviennent oyseaulx qui ressemblent a petites oyes et sont couvers de diverses plumes.280 Item dit Gervase une autre merveille des oyseaulx. Car il dit que tous les ans il vient environ le prin temps ou pais de Poictou certains oyseaulx qui ont les plumes noyres et le bec rouge et gresle, que les habitans du pays appellant colgallerans, mais on ne scet de quel pais ilz viennent. Et ne se logent en tout le pais de Poictou que en troys lieux. Cest assavoir es haultes tours de Maillesay, et de Coussoreau, et de Clerevalx. Et en ces troys lieux seullement ilz ponnent et couvent et nourrissent leurs petiz oyseaulx.281 Item dit Gervaise que ceste maniere doyseaulx sont de merveilleuse prudence et nature. Car avant que toute leur compaignie arrive en nul de ce[s] troys lieux, ilz envoyent troys ou quatre

engendered in this way. When this old nautical timber that is in the harbor of the seashore is quite rotten and corrupted by the sea’s moisture, and from this rot there develops in the wood a kind of sludge, which is sticky and gluey like slime, out of this sludge are formed and created birds which hang by their beaks against this old wood for a period of fully two months and more, and when it happens that they are all covered with their feathers and they are large and fat, then they fall into the sea. And thus God in his grace gives them natural life and they become beautiful and pleasing birds and they have black plumage. And they fly around over the sea and everywhere they wish, just as other birds do. And they have flesh just as white and as tender and just as tasty to eat as the flesh of a wild duck. And apropos to this subject is what is written in the first book of Genesis, where it says that on the fourth day of the first creation of things of the world, God created the waters under the heavens. And also he created the fish and the birds, by which it is clear the birds have in some manner a natural property and condition—and with this, creation from the slime of the waters. Gervaise says that in England in the county of Kent near the Abbey of Faversham on the shore of the sea are certain small trees formed in the manner of willows on which, when springtime comes, there geminate and engender on their branches small buds, which afterwards grow to the point where they become flying birds. And some say that the buds that fall from these small trees into the sea become fish. And also the buds that fall on land become birds that resemble small geese and are covered with feathers of many colors. Gervaise speaks of another marvel of birds. For he says that each year around springtime in the country of Poitou there arrive certain birds who have black feathers and slender red beaks, which the inhabitants of the country called colgallerans, but no one knows which country they come from. And in all the region of Poitou they lodge only in three places—that is to say, in the high towers of Maillezais, and of Coussoreau and of Clervaux. And in these three places only they lay and brood and raise their young. Gervaise says that this species of birds are of a marvelous prudence and nature. For before all their flock arrives in one of these three places, they send three or four of their number as scouts

Banks and Binns, III.123, pp. 819-21. This story of the Barnacle Geese at Faversham Abbey, Kent, is widely retold in the Middle Ages in many languages, for example in Mandeville’s Travels; it was confused with an actual bird, the black brant. See for example, Jacob Seide, «The Barnacle Goose Myth in the Hebrew Literature of the Middle Ages,» Centaurus 7.2 (December, 1960): 207-12. 281 Not found in Gervaise, but Bersuire is alluding to congalérans, birds nesting in the bell-towers of the important abbey of Maillezais, built in 1317 and with a fine library where Bersuire studied, of the now vanished thirteenth-century chateau of Coudray-Salbart, near Niort, and Clervaux or Vauclair (Saint-Maixent), a name for another chateau destroyed in the nineteenth century. 280

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dentreulx par maniere de coureurs ou messagiers qui viennent devant pour adviser le lieu et le pais. Et puis ilz sen retournent devers leur roy et compaignie pour leur dire et rapporter ce quilz ont fait et trouve. Lors tantost et pou de temps toute la grant compaignie de ces oyseaulx sen viennant ensemble et quant ilz sont ou pais ilz se logent es troys lieux dessusdits. Esqueulx lieux, ils ponnent comme dessus est dit. Et puis quant ce vient sur la saison diver, ilz sen retournent ou pais dont ilz sont venuz.282 Item dit Gervaise que ceste maniere doyseaulx mengent char et non autre chose comme ce a este aprouve, mais par faulte de chair ilz sont si saiges quilz se estudient a menger les vers de la terre. Et quant ilz ne [les] peuent avoir a leur aise, ilz batent des esles contre terre si tresfort que par force ilz font ysir les vers hors de terre et puis les mengent.283 Item pour vous monstrer et introduire de la science et subtillite de ceste maniere doyseaulx: Il fut jadis ung chevallier en Poictou qui pour induire et actraire ces oyseaulx en son chastel il fit mectre tout autour de la plus haulte tour de son chastel, au pres de la couverture, des cliez par maniere de chaffaulx, affin que lassus ilz peussent mieulx faire leurs niez. Si advint, par cas daventure, que lun de ceulx oyseaulx se print par le pie a la cloye et ne se povoit ravoir et le prindrent les gens et officiers du chevallier et puis apres le tuerent. Si penserent et adviserent ces oyseaulx que pareillement il les pourroit ainsi prandre et mourir comme lautre. Lors ilz se departirent et deslogerent tous ensemble hors des tours de ce chastel et sen allerent logier ailleurs 48v/ et oncques puis ny retournerent.284 Item en Poictou, sur le rivaige de la mer, pres labbaye du Mont Sainct Michel, environ ung desert, on voit souvent ung oysel que les gens du pais appellent pie en cuel, pour la cause quil na que ung pie qui [est] de la facon dung pie doye. Et est droictement soubz sa queue au pres du cul, lequel pie luy siert tant seullement pour le conduyre droit en nouent en la mer. Cest oysel ne va nul temps par terre, car il na que ung pie, mais il noue bien par la mer et volle bien par dessus terre.285 Item dit Gervaise que en Poictou a une riviere nommee Vienne sur la quelle quant il se vient sur le temps deste environ le soir on voit a moult grant habondance certaines mouchettes blanches que les pescheurs appellent manne, pour ce quelles choient en la mer et est tressavoureuse viande aux poissons. De ceste maniere de manne dit

or messengers who come in advance to look over the nesting place and the countryside. Then they return to their king and their companions to tell and report to them what they have done and found. Then soon and in short order all the great company of birds come along and when they are in the country they take up lodging in the three places spoken of above. And in these three places they lay their eggs, as was said before. And then when it comes to be the season of winter, they return to the country from which they came. Gervaise says that this species of bird eats flesh, and nothing else pleases them, but when meat is not available, they are so smart that they figure out how to eat worms of the earth. And when they cannot get them easily, they beat their wings against the earth so strongly that by force they make the worms come out of the earth, and then they eat them. In order to show you and introduce the wisdom and subtlety of this species of bird: There was once a knight in Poitou who, in order to induce and attract these birds to his castle, had constructed all around the castle’s highest tower, near the roof, a latticework laid out like scaffolding so that they could better make their nests upon it. Then it happened by chance that one of these birds caught his foot in the latticing and could not get it out, and the men and officers of the knight’s retinue captured him and afterward killed him. Thus these birds thought and considered that they, in a similar fashion, could be taken and put to death like their fellow. Then they all departed and moved away from the towers of the castle, went to live elsewhere, and never returned again. In Poitou on the shore of the sea near the Abbey of Mont St. Michel, in the vicinity of an uninhabited area, one often sees a bird that the people of the area call a «foot in butt,» because he has only one foot, which looks like the foot of a goose. And it is directly under his tail, in the area of the behind, and this foot serves him only as a rudder to keep him going straight when swimming in the sea. This bird never goes on land, for he has only one foot, but he swims well in the sea and flies well above the land. Gervaise says that in Poitou is a river named Vienne on which, when summer comes and nightfall approaches, one sees a very great abundance of certain white flies that fishermen called manna because they fall in the sea and are very tasty food for fish. Of this

Not Gervaise, but Bersuire’s recollection. Not found in Gervaise. 284 Not found in Gervaise. 285 The Benedictine Abbey of Saint-Michel-en l’Herm, in the Vendée, was not far from Bersuire’s apparent birthplace in Saint-Pierre-du-Chemin in the arrondissement of Fontenay-le-Comte. The abbey was near the sea and in fact was once on an island. The bird in question, «pidencul,» is a kind of grebe commonly found near the abbey. 282 283

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Solin merveilles car quant on en prent ung et on le dessire en plusieurs pieces et parties, autant de pieces comme on en fera, autant davant vous de celles mouchettes il sengenderra qui seront toutes vives et vollans. Combien quelles ne sont pas de si longue vie.286 Item dit Solin que pres Mirbeau a un petit village nomme Puycaille dont le droit seigneure naturel du lieu et toute sa lignee a par naturelle noblesse moult grant puissance et auctorite sur les serpens. Et est ceste chose approuvee car quant le seigneur vient en aucun lieu ou il ya aucuns serpens et que il die a haulte voix: «De par le seigneur de Puycaille sil ya cy nul serpent quil sen aille.» Lors vous verres tantost et incontinent devant [vos] yeulx que les serpens qui seront en ce lieu sen yront tantost et hastivement et ny en demourra neys ung.287 Item dit Solin en Poictou pres de Xanctonge sur le rivaige de la mer prochaine dilec sont aucunesfoiz trouvez des poissons moult estranges qui ont forme et figure de femme quant a la premiere partie de leurs corps. Et cecy tesmoigne mesme Plinius et dit que telle maniere de poissons ne peuent vivre hors de leau et sont appelles Nereides.288 Item dit Solin que vers Xaintonge pres de Soubize a ung merveilleux cimitiere, et dit que en quelconque lieu ou endroit que on yfoulle ou face len fosses pour enterrer aucun pelerin ou autre corps estrangier qui ne soit pas natif du pais, on y trouvera ung tresbeau serqueulx et tumbeau de pierre tout net et tout prest pour recevoir le corps dung mort estrangier, et quant on y fait une fosse pour y enterrer le corps dung homme du pais lon ny trouve ny tombeau ny autre chose fors seulement la fosse tout ainsi et ou point comme on laura faicte dont je me donne grant merveille. Et semble que en ce cimitiere aime mieulx a recevoir les corps de pellerins et autres personnes estranges que recevoir les corps des gens du pais. Et est appelle le cimitiere Sainct Aignen.289

type of manna Solinus tells marvels, for when a person takes one and cuts it into several pieces or parts, however many pieces one has, just as many will be engendered before one’s eyes, living and flying. However, they do not live long. Solinus says that near Mirabeau is a small village called Puycaille, of which the rightful lord and all his line have, by natural nobility, a most great power and authority over serpents. And the thing has been confirmed, for when the lord comes into any place where there are snakes and says in a loud voice, «By the command of the lord of Puycaille, if there are any snakes here, let them depart»— then you will see at once and immediately before your eyes that the serpents which are in this place will leave quickly and in haste, and not one will remain. Solinus says that in Poitou near Saintonge, on the seashore near there, are found sometimes very strange fish in the form and figure of a woman with respect to the upper part of the body. And even Pliny witnesses to this and says that such sorts of fish cannot live outside water and are called Nereides. Solinus says that towards Saintonge near Soubise there is a marvelous cemetery, and he says that in whatever place or location where one digs or makes a hole for the burial of any pilgrim or other stranger who is not native to the country, one will find there a very handsome sarcophagus and stone tomb, all polished and ready to receive the body of a dead stranger, and when one makes a grave there to bury the body of a man of the country, then one will find there neither a tomb nor any other thing, but just the grave, exactly and precisely as it was made, something that I consider a great marvel. And it seems that this cemetery prefers rather to receive the bodies of pilgrims and other foreign persons than to receive the bodies of the people of the country. And this cemetery is called Saint Aignen.

43) [Provence] 49/ Provence est une region que est situee en la haulte partie de Gaule devers orient. Et si bien prochaine de la province dYtalie qui anciennement estoit appelle Gaulle Nerbonneuse. Et de la partie doccident elle joingt a la province de Lyon sur Rosne. Et comme recite Plinius ou livre de lIistoyre du Monde, en Provence a moult

43) Provence. Provence is a region that is situated in the mountainous part of Gaul towards the East. And thus it is near the province of Italy, that formerly was called Gaule Narbonnaise. And on its Western side it is joined to the province of Lyon on the Rhone. And as Pliny says in his History of the World, in Provence there are many marvels, of which this noble

Not found in Gervaise. Bersuire speaks of the river Manne recalled from his youth. Not Collectanea. 288 Collectanea, 78; NH 36.4, p. 21, but only assocated with dolphins. There is in fact a fish called Nereides, and the Nerides were in mythology the fifty daughters of Nereus and Doris who often had the form of half woman and half fish and are so depicted on red figured vase painting from the fifth century BC. See Ovid, Metmorphoses II.6. 289 Not Collectanea. Bersuire recalls here the Cemetery of Saint-Amand near Soubise. 286 287

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doctor Gervaise speaks. And he says that in the city of Arles there was formerly, before the time of the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ, a custom both marvelous and very odious. For every year, on the first day of May, they bought three young children with the money of the commonwealth, whom they killed and whose bodies they sacrificed to their idols. And all the blood that had flowed from these three young children they scattered and threw on the heads of the people of the city. And they said that the innocent blood was cast on them for the salvation of the people. And they made this sacrifice long ago in a place called The Rock that is in a suburb of this city between two very high columns of stone. Gervaise says that in Provence near the city of Aix is a castle named Blandiz where there is a high rock similar to coral which is of such a nature that when one takes a stone from it and greases this stone with oil or other grease, it will burn as brightly as a torch made out of wax. And as long as there is any piece of this rock at all, it will always burn very bright. Gervase says that quite near this city there is found a kind of stone that the people call albeton, which is of such a nature that once it is set alight and flaming with fire, it will burn forever and render light and it will never be extinguished. Gervaise says that in this city there were formerly made the tapers or candles that the Blessed Virgin Mary offered in the temple on the day of Purification and which never grow smaller and always burn day and night. Gervaise says that the candle of Our Lady that is in the church dedicated to her in Arras in Picardie, which is a candle that always burns day and night, never diminishes but is always of the same original size. Gervaise says that there was formerly in the Temple of Venus, the goddess of love, a candle that by magic art gave out a continuous light that at no time was extinguished. He says in the Chronicles of the Deeds of the Romans that there was found the body of a giant named Pallas that was complete in the flesh and bones and was in no way abased. And thus for more than a thousand years this great giant had been buried there when he was, by command of the emperor, disinterred and, through the strength of men, raised and lifted against the walls of Rome, but his height surmounted the height of the walls of the city of Rome. The body of this giant had in

de merveilles, dont parle ce noble docteur Gervaise. Et dit que en la cite dArle il avoit jadiz, avant le temps de lincarnacion nostre seigneur Jesu Crist, une merveilleuse coustume et moult detestable. Car tous les ans, le premier jour du moys de May, ilz achetoient trois jeunes enfans de largent du commun, lesqueulz ilz tuoient et de leurs corps ilz sacrifioint a leurs ydolles. Et tout le sang qui estoit ysseu de ces troys enfans innocens ilz espandoient et gectoient sur les testes du peuple de celle cite. Et disoient que le sang innocent estoit espandu sur eulx pour le salut de tout le peuple. Et fasoient anciennement ce sacrifice en ung lieu appelle la Roque qui est es fausbours de celle cite, entre deux trehaultes coulompnes de pierre.290 Item dit Gervaise que en Provence, pres de la cite Aygues, a ung chastel nomme Blandiz ou est une haulte roche 49v/ semblable a coral qui est de telle nature que quant on en prent une pierre et que celle pierre soit engrecee duille ou dautre gresse, elle ardra auxi cler comme le flambeau dune torche de cire. Et tant comme il yaura point morceau de celle roche elle ardra tousjours bien cler.291 Item dit Gervaise que bien pres de celle cite il croist une maniere de pierre que les habitans du pais appellant albeton qui est de telle nature que depuis quelle sera alumee et enflambee de feu, tousjours elle ardra et rendra clarte et nul temps ne sestaint.292 Item dit Gervaise que en celle cite furent jadiz faitz les cierges ou chandelles que la benoiste Vierge Marie offrit au temple le jour de la purificacion lesqueulx nul temps ne appetissent et tousjours ardent jour et nuyt.293 Item dit Gervaise que la chandelle de Nostre Dame qui est en son eglise de Arras en Picquardie, laquelle art tousjours jour et nuyt, elle napetisse point mais est tousjours en sa premiere grandeur.294 Item dit Gervaise quil yavoit jadis ou temple de Venus la deesse damours ung chandelier qui par art magique rendoit lumiere continuelle qui par nul temps nestoit estaincte.295 Item il dit que es Croniques des Faitz des Rommains il fut trouve le corps dun geant nomme Pallas qui estoit tout entier en char et en os, et nestoit en riens aneanti. Et si avoit este plus de mille ans enterre le quel tirant fut par lordonnance de lempereur desterre et a force de gens drecie et leve contre les murs de Romme, mais sa grandeur surmontoit la haulteur des murs de la cite de Romme. Ce corps de geant avoit ou couste une plaie de quatre piez de long. NH 3.4, p. 27. Banks and Binns, II.10, p. 197. Banks and Binns, III.3, p. 567. The town, however, is called Beaudiment. 292 Banks and Binns, III.3, p. 567. 293 Banks and Binns, III.3, p. 569. 294 Banks and Binns, III.3, p. 569. 295 Banks and Binns, III.3, p. 567. 290 291

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Et sur son sepulcre estoit ce qui sensuit: «Cy gist Pallas filz de Tairne Evandre, qui fut ung [des] premiers fondateurs de Romme lequel fut frappe et mis a mort par ung chevallier dung seul coup de lance.» Et au chief de son sepulcre fut trouve un lampe plaine de feu clerement ardent et gectant lumiere inestinguible. Car par eau ne par vin ne par vin aigre ne par lait ne par vent ne par quelconque autre chose, [c]este lumiere et clarte ne peut oncques estre estaincte jusques ad ce que ung philozophe qui estoit moult saige y volut approuver sa science et son engin, lequel quant eut bien advise et experimente le cours des planettes et des estoilles qui sont ou ciel quant il vit quil fut temps et heure il fit ung pertuys en la lampe. Et auxi toust comme lair et le vent y entra le feu et la clarte fut toute estaincte.296 Item dit Gervaise que pres la cite de Celipoli le port de Sainct Michel de Corvise en la vallee dune treshaulte et droicte montaigne qui est expousee a tous vens, en laquelle montaigne a une moult noble abbaie et ou reffrectoner dicelle abbaye ou les religieux prenent leur reffection a unes tresgrandes fenestres qui donnant veue et clarte oudit reffectoner esquelles il fait en touz temps moult grant vent, mais pour quelconque grant vent qui y face en ce reffectoner, nulle chandelle ardente ny peut estre estaincte, mais tant plus fort y vente et plus cler ardent et luisant les chandelles qui y sont, mais si aucun prent une ou plusieurs dicelles [chandelles] ardens et les porte hors dudit reffectoner, celluy qui les porte ne les saura si bien garder ne cacher que le vent ne les estaingne.297

his side a wound four feet in length. And on his tomb was written the following: «Here lies Pallas, son of [Turnus] Evander, one of the first founders of Rome, who was struck and put to death by a knight with a single blow of a lance.» And at the head of his tomb was found a lamp filled with fire burning brightly and throwing an inextinguishable light. For neither by water nor by wine nor by vinegar nor by milk nor by wind nor by any other thing could this light and radiance ever be extinguished until a philosopher, who was very wise, wished to demonstrate his knowledge and ingenuity on this problem, and when he had thoroughly considered and assayed the course of the planets and the stars which are in the heavens, when he saw that it was the right time and hour, he made a well in the lamp. And as soon as the air and the wind entered the lamp, the light was extinguished. Gervaise says that near the city of Celipoli is the harbor of St. Michel de Corvise in the valley of a very high and tall mountain that is exposed to winds from all directions, and on this mountain is a most noble abbey, and in the dining hall of this abbey, where the monks take their meals, there are some very large windows which give a view and a source of light to the said dining hall, where there is in all seasons a very great wind, but no matter how great the wind which blows there in this dining hall, no burning candle can be extinguished there, but the more strongly the wind blows, the more brightly the candles that are there burn and glow; but if anyone takes one or several of these same burning candles and carries them out of the aforesaid dining hall, the one who carried them will not be able to protect them or hide them well enough to keep the wind from extinguishing them.

This seemingly circumstantial passage illustrates the Translator’s way of working from memory (and sometimes imagination), often amplifying or abbreviating his Latin original. The treatment here is very like that of the legend of Gerbert of Aurillac ascribed to «Pliny» in Chapter 70. Pallas, the companion of Aeneas fighting against the Rutelians, was not the son of Turnus but of Evander, a careless misreading of Bersuire. Not a giant, he was killed in battle by Turnus (Aeneid, Book IX, l. 485ff ). Bersuire says only «legi in cronicis» as the source of the legend. This was expanded by the Translator to Chroniques des faicts des Romains, more commonly known as Faits des Romans, a lengthy French prose compilation, ca.1213, about the life of Julius Caesar. See Louis-Fernand Flûtre and Kornelis Sneyders de Vogel, eds., Li Fet des Romains (Rpt. Geneva: Slatkine, 1977). Beaugendre, p. 84, wrongly suggests that this work is the Gesta Romanorum. This legend of Pallas does not appear there. Instead, the story offered is a composite of oral and written tradition. There are several figures named Pallas in mythology, some with ties to the originary legends of Rome. The Titan giant Pallas, here confused with the Virgilian warrior, was known to the Latin Middle Ages through the Three Vatican Mythographers. See Georgius H. Bode, ed., Scriptores Rerum Mythicarum Latini Tres Romae Nuper Reperti (Hildesheim: Olms, 1968), pp. 221-23. The idea of an ever-burning lamp at the tomb of a venerable figure from the pagan past was very popular in the Middle Ages. Such legends, for example, circulated about Camilla, Olybius, and Tullia, or Tulliola, daughter of Cicero. The supposed discovery of Pallas’ tomb in Rome in 1041 or 1054 by Emperor Henry III, though Bersuire says «Henrici secundi,» is the source of the reference to «lempereur.» The Translator also expands the story in Bersuire slightly with details about the lamp and its inextinguishable fire and adds to the epitaph the detail about a single blow of the lance. The most probable source for the Translator’s recollection of this story is the Roman d’Eneas. See Aimé Petit, ed., Le roman d’Eneas: édition critique d’après le manuscrit B.N. fr. 60 (Paris: Livre de Poche, 1997), ll. 6554-87, particularly 6580-81 for the lamp itself. Edmond Faral, Recherches sur les sources latines des contes et romans courtois au Moyen Age (Rpt. New York: AMS, 1976), p. 413, argues for a purely oral tradition behind this story. The story of the Emperor Henry’s finding of the body seems to have circulated early, as Heinrich van Veldeke’s (1150-ca.1184) Middle High German translation of the Roman d’Eneas mentions it (ll. 8350ff ), attributing the discovery to the Emperor Friedrich. See Gabriele Schieb and Theodor Frings, eds., Henric van Veldeken. Eneide (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1964-1970), 3 vols. On the Roman d’Eneas and similar treatments of Virgil and the Aeneid, see Ziolkowski, et al., eds., The Virgilian Tradition: The First Fifteen Hundred Years, passim. We are exceedingly grateful to Yolande Sexton and James Eason for their help with this passage. 297 Banks and Binns, III.9, 573-75. Gervaise speaks of the Priory of Saint-Michel-de-Connexe near Grenoble. 296

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Item dit Gervaise que en Provence, en la ville de Borjolis, a ung nougier qui en printemps ne reverdist ne ne monstre aucun signe de verdure, et semble quil soit tout 50/ sec et mort, la ou tous les autres nouyers et les autres arbres fruitz portans du pais sont tous vers et chargez de fleurs et de fruitz, mais ce nouyer si est de telle nature que droictement la vigille de Saint Jehan Baptiste il se reverdist. Et en pou de temps il est auxi vert et foueilleu, et les noiz y sont auxi tost bonnes et meures comme elles sont es autres noyers.298 Item dit Gervaise que en Provence pres dAvignon a une petite villete appellee Thorum ou est une place de terre qui est de moult merveilleuse condicion, car celle place de terre est si tresfort tenant et gluant, quil semble que ce soit gluz ou poiz fondue. Et si ung baston ou une corde estoit en celle terre fichee, james on ne pouroit avoir ne ouster. Et si aucune beste se boute dedans celle terre, jamais nen ystra et luy convient la mourir et demourer.299 Item dit Gervaise quil ya certains lieux vers Romme ou Jullius Cesar souloit adourer son dieu. Esquelz lieux toutes les choses qui estoient leans fichees ne povoient james estre rectraictes ne mises hors.300 Item a ung des bouz du pais de Provence ou diocese de Vallance ou chastel de levesque que de celle cite a une moult haulte tour qui est de moult merveilleuse condicion. Car dedans celle tour ne peut nulz homs demourer de nuyt, soit pour faire guet ou veiller ou y coucher. Car si aucun se fait mectre en celle tour pour coucher laens ou pour faire le guet, [t]antost] il sera et ne saura par qui invisiblement hors de celle tour transporte et sans sentir ne avoir aucun mal ne peril de son corps, et se trouvera droit au pie de la tour par de hors. Et si aucun si efforce il sera tantost et invisiblement transporte sur le bort et rivaige du prouchain fleuve dilec, et tout sans avoir ne sentir aucun mal.301 Item dit Gervaise que en la cite de Vienne a une tour que les dyables apporterent et que la toute entiere ilz la planterent. Et disant les saiges enciens du pais, que en celle tour fut jadis enclos prisonnier ung clerc qui estoit moult espert en la science magique, lequel ainsi comme il estoit enclos en celle tour, il convoqua et appella par son art et science les diables, ausquelz il se fit porter dedans celle tour en la ville de Vienne et encore est celle tour la.302

Gervaise says that in Provence in the town of Borjolis there is a nut tree which in springtime does not get green or show any sign of verdure, and it seems to be completely dry and dead, at just the time when all the other walnut trees and the other fruit-bearing trees of the country are all green and laden with flowers and fruits; but this particular walnut is of such a nature that straightaway on the holy day of St John the Baptist it turns green. And in a short time it is just as green and leafed out and the nuts are just as good and ripe as they are on the other walnut trees. Gervaise says that in Provence near Avignon there is a small village called Thorum where there is a field of a most marvelous condition, for this piece of land is so very exceedingly sticky and gluey that it seems to consist of bird lime or tar. And if a club or a stave of wood were to be stuck in this earth, it could never be pulled out. And if any beast mires itself in this earth, it will never get out and will die and remain there forever. Gervaise says that there are certain spots near Rome where Julius Caesar used to worship his god. And in these places all the things that were driven into the ground could never be pulled out or removed. There is one of the outer reaches of the country of Provence, in the diocese of Vallance at the bishop’s castle, which has a very high city tower of the most marvelous condition. For no man can ever remain in this tower at night, whether to keep watch, or to sleep, or to lie awake there. For if anyone puts himself inside to sleep or keep guard there, he will be immediately and invisibly transported out of the tower without knowing who did this or feeling any danger or peril to his body, and he will find himself right at the foot of the tower outside. And if anyone tries to force his way back, he will be immediately and invisibly transported to the shore and bank of the next closest river, and all without experiencing or feeling any harm. Gervaise says that in the city of Vienne there is a tower that the devils brought and put into place there all in one piece. And the ancient sages of the country say that in this tower was once formerly held prisoner a cleric who was expert in magic arts, who thus, as he was enclosed in this tower, convoked and called before him by his arts and knowledge the devils, by whom he had himself carried, within the tower, to the village of Vienne; and this tower is still there.

Banks and Binns, III.11, p. 577. Banks and Binns, III.19, p. 593. 300 Not found in Gervaise. 301 Banks and Binns, III.20, p. 593, called Livron in Gervaise. 302 The story seems to combine Gervaise—Banks and Binns, III.57, p. 665—where a portion of a castle chapel in the diocese of Valence, in Arles, carried off by devils is meant but no cleric-wizard is in the story, with a somewhat similar story occurring in the same region told in the Gesta Romanorum. See Charles Swan and Wynnard Hooper, tr. and rev., Gesta Romanorum, or, Entertaining Moral Stories (New York: Dover, 1959), Ch. 160. 298 299

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Item dit Gervaise que en Provence ou diocese dAigues a ung chastel appelle Noth ou est une grant roche, et si aucun la bouthe ou touche seullement du doy tantost elle commencera a sesmouvoir et a croller. Et si aucun sesforce de tout son povoir et de toute sa force de la bouter et de lesmouvoir ou quil y atache cent ou deux cens beufs pour la faire mouvoir, ilz ny feront riens du monde.303 Item recite Plinius le pareil cas et dit que en la region dAssie pres de la Harpie a une grant et horrible roche grant et droicte comme une haulte montaigne qui est de telle propriete que quant on ne la boute que du doy seullement elle se remue. Et quant on y employe la force de mille hommes et de mille beufs, ilz ny font riens amplus que sil ny avoit ame.304 Item recite Gervaise une moult grant merveille et dit que ou diocese de Nasyon a ung chastel situe en une grant vallee qui est environnee tout autour de moult grans et haultes montaignes, laquelle vallee de soy estoit et avoit este moult fertille et plantureuse en tous biens, mais par ung esnorme accident elle estoit devenue brehaigne, et inutille et infertille en tous biens. [L]a cause si estoit pource que en ceste vallee il ne ventoit aucunement. Et demoura la terre de ceste vallee ainsi brehaigne jusques au temps de roy Charlemaigne. 50v/ Si advint ou temps de roy Charlemaigne que ces nouvelles vindrent a la cognoissance de saint Cezarien qui pour lors estoit arcevesque de la cite dArle. Comment la noble terre de celle vallee estoit devenue brehaigne et inutille en labeur aux povres habitans du pais par deffault de ce quil ny ventoit nul vent. Lors ce sainct arcevesque, esmeu de pitie et de grant compassion, sen alla a la mer Pontique ou il vente moult fort et grant vent et tendit ung de ses gamps et lemplit tout plain de vent. Et laporta en ladicte vallee qui estoit ainsi brehaigne lors il deslia sont gant et lessa aller le vent contre un rochier ou il avoit une grant fante. Et conjura et commanda au vent de par toute la vertue divine et la puissance de Dieu omnipotent quil ventast et yssist de celle roche sur toutes les terres labourables qui estoient en celle vallee. Lors par son commandement et par la puissance divine il venta sans cesse. Parquoy la vallee devint fertille et habondant en tous biens a lonneur et proffit des habitans du pais. Et ne passe point le dit vent les fins et mettes de ladicte vallee.305 Item dit Gervaise que moult merveilleuse chose est de leaue de la mer. Car aucunesfoiz, elle est restraincte et endurcie par force de froideur et de gellee. Et aucunesfois elle est retraincte et endurcie par challeur et convertie en sel. La cause si est car de la partie de mydi pour les tresgrans challeurs qui sont sur les rivaiges de la mer, leau de la mer

Gervaise says that in Provence in the diocese of Aix is a castle called Noth where there is a great rock, and if anyone merely pushes or touches it with his finger, it will immediately begin to move and vibrate. And if anyone tries with all his power and force to push it or move it, or if he hooks up one or two hundred oxen to it in order to make it move, he will accomplish nothing at all. Pliny tells of a similar case and says that in the region of Assie near Harpie there is a great and terrifying rock, as large and steep as a high mountain, that is of such a property that if anyone touches it with only a finger it moves, and when one employs the force of a thousand men and a thousand oxen they accomplish nothing more than if they had wished to do nothing. Gervaise tells of a very great marvel and says that in the diocese of Nasyon there is a castle situated in a great valley which is completely surrounded by very high and great mountains, and this valley was and had been most fertile and abundant in all goods; but by an enormous accident it became barren and useless and infertile in goods. The cause was that no wind ever blew in this valley. And the land of this valley remained barren until the time of King Charlemagne. Thus it happened in the time of King Charlemagne that this news became known to Saint Cesarius, who was archbishop of the city of Arles at that time—how the noble land of this valley had become barren and useless to the plow for the poor inhabitants for lack of there being any wind that blew. Then this holy archbishop, moved by pity and great compassion, went to the Pontic sea, where strong and multitudinous winds blow, and he held out one of his gloves and filled it full of wind. And he carried it into the above-mentioned valley that was thus barren and he untied his glove and released the wind against a cliff where there was a great fissure. And he conjured and commanded the wind by all the divine virtue and power of God omnipotent that it blow and issue forth from this cliff onto all the arable lands that were in this valley. Then by his commandment and by divine power the wind blew without ceasing. And by this means the valley became fertile and abundant in all goods to the honor and profit of the inhabitants of the country. And the said wind never passes beyond the limits and confines of the said valley. Gervaise says that sea water is a very marvelous thing. For sometimes it is bound and hardened by force of cold and ice. And other times it is bound and hardened by force of heat and converted to salt. The reason for this is that in Southern parts, because of the very great heat that is found on the sea shore, the sea water is converted

Banks and Binns, III.22, p. 595. Not NH. 305 Banks and Binns, III.34, p. 627. 303 304

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est convertie et endurcie en maniere de sel. Et de la parti de septentrion pour les tresgrans froideurs qui y sont leau de la mer est tousjours gellee. Et pour ce dit Gervaise que cest chose impossible a tout homme denvironner la mer tout entour pour les causes cydessus divisees.306 Item dit Gervaise que en Provence vers ung chastel nomme le chastel de Pynolen a une moult clere et belle fontaine de leau de la quelle on peut faire cuyre toutes viandes, mais jamais on ne peut faire boullir leau de celle fontaine par force de feu ne quelconque autre challeur.307 Item recite Gervaise de la condicion et nature du ver dont vient et dont est fait le vermeillon et la vermeille coulleur dont sont faictes les riches tainctures en vermeil. Et dit que ou pais de Provence a lendroit de certains rivages qui sont sur la mer croissent certains petis arbres nommez selon le langaige de pardela qualz dont les escorces et fruitz et feuilles sont moult cherement vendues et moult richement achetez. Et sont ces arbres de la facon de houz et ont les fueilles poignans. Et environ la racine de ces arbres quant vient sur la saison du moys de May, il se concree et engendre petites bossetes qui sont moulles lesquelles sont toutes plaines dumeur auxi rouge comme sang, qui par vertu de la rousee du ciel ainsi croissent. Et quant il est temps de les cuillir, les gens du pais moult songneusement les cuillent et les gardent moult bien que lumeur rouge qui est dedens ne sespende, et les font seicher au souleil. Et semble quant ilz sont bien seiches que ce soient petiz lopins de cuir rouge. Et quant ce vient vers la fin de leste de ces lopins de cuir naissent et sengendrent petiz vers qui ont dedens leurs corps une humeur auxi rouge comme sang de la quelle est fait le vermeillon, et fort sapprouche de la couleur descarlate dont sont tains draps de soye et draps de laine seullement. Et non pas draps de toille de chanvre. Car celle couleur ne peut prandre si non sur choses qui soient venues et yssues des choses vives.308 Item dit Gervaise que en 51/ Provence a une fontaine qui est moult belle et moult clere, mais elle [est] de telle nature et condicion que si aucun gecte dedens pierre ou bois ou aultre chose, tantoust il saudra et ystra de celle fontaine une maniere de vapeur tenebreuse dont viendra et cherra astivement une pluye sur celluy qui aura fait injure et villennie en la fontaine tellement quil se trouvera tout moulle et trampe comme sil fust cheu dedans une riviere.309 Item dit Gervaise que en Provence pres des Aigues a ung chastel nomme Ponthenez ou souloit jadis avoir ung noyer le non pareil

and hardened into the form of sea salt. And in the Northern parts, because of the very great cold present there, the water is always frozen. And because of this, Gervaise says that it is an impossible thing for men to travel all the way around the sea, for the reasons just identified. Gervaise says that in Provence, near a castle named the castle of Pynolen, is a very clear and beautiful spring of water in which one can cook any kind of food, but one can never make the water from this spring boil by means of fire or any other kind of heat. Gervaise tells about the condition and nature of the worm from which comes and is made vermillion and the bright red color from which are made rich vermillion dyes. And he says that in the country of Provence nearby certain seacoasts grow certain little trees called «qualz,» according to the language down there, whose bark and fruit and leaves are most dearly bought and sold. And these trees are rather like holly and have pointy leaves. And around the roots of these trees, when it comes to the season of the month of May, are conceived and engendered small galls which are soft and all full of a liquid as red as blood, which grow there by the virtue of heavenly dew. And when it is time to collect them, the men of the country most carefully gather them up and handle them very carefully so that the red liquid that is inside does not spill out, and they put them out to dry in the sun. And when they are fully dry, they seem to be small morsels of red leather. And when it gets near the end of the summer, these little bits of red leather give birth to and engender small worms that have inside their bodies a liquid as red as blood, from which is made vermillion, and it comes very close to being the color of scarlet, which is used only to dye silk and woolen cloth. And never for cloths of linen or hemp. For this color will not take on anything except on things that have come or been derived from living things. Gervaise says that in Provence there is a spring that is very beautiful and very clear, but it is of such a nature and condition that if anyone throws into it a stone or piece of wood or any other thing, immediately there will come forth and issue from this spring a kind of gloomy vapor, from which there will suddenly come and fall a rain upon the one who would do injury or villainy to the spring, such that he will find himself completely drenched and soaked as if he had fallen into a river. Gervaise says that in Provence near Aix is a castle named Ponthenez where once long ago there was a nut tree unlike any other. For it bore nuts as large as big pineapples. And inside one

Banks and Binns, III.40, p. 639. Banks and Binns, III.48, p. 649. 308 Banks and Binns, III.55, p. 661. 309 Banks and Binns, III.89, p. 733. 306 307

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des autres. Car il portoit les noiz auxi grosses comme grosses pommes de pin. Et avoit dedans une noiz plusieurs noiaulx comme vi ou vii, ou x, ou xii noiaulx tous en ung tas.310 Item dit Gervaise que en Provence pres de Marsseille croissent certains arbres qui en lieu de fruitz portent une maniere de gosses ressemblens a gosses de feuves esquelles gosses on treuve certains grains dedens qui sont auxi durs comme pierres et ne vallent riens a menger tant sont durs. Excepte les gosses qui sont moult doulces et assez bonnes a menger.311 Item dit Gervaise que en Provence a aucuns oyseaulx qui ont aucune prochainete a raison et entendement, espiciallement le corbel, dont raconte Gervaise et dit quil fut jadis ung chevalier en Provence qui nourrist ung corbel en son chastel. Si advint que ce chevalier eut guerre contre ung autre chevalier du pais de Pymont, mais ce corbel de sa subtillite sen alloit bien souvent guecter, espier, et adviser en la forteresse et en la terre de lennemy de son maistre. Et quant on y faisoit nulle assemblee de gens darmes, [t]antost il venoit dire et rapporter a son seigneur qui tantost bien entendoit par son [cri] et par sa maniere que cestoit quil luy disoit. Item quant son seigneur jouoit aux dez, le corbel sen alloit vollant par les montaignes et apportoit a son seigneur grant finance a son bec comme or et argent quil avoit autresfoiz amble et cache. Item ce corbel aperceut la faulte et desloyaulte de la dame qui estoit femme de son seigneur, qui cestoit acoinctee dun sien serviteur. Et de faict le corbel en groussoit et caquetoit en son langaige a son seigneur et tant que le chevalier lentendit bien et sen advisa. Si sapperceut et la dame luy en fist perdre la vie. Mais quant ce vint que le povre loyal corbel deut prandre mort, il dist ces motz: «Je foiz a chascun assavoir que je meurs pour dire voir.»312 Item il fut ung autre oysel bien parlent qui dit a son maistre que sa femme mange languille dont la dame fut moult couroussee. Et pour soy venger de loysel elle luy pluma toute la teste. Si advint pou de temps apres que leans vint et arriva ung homme qui avoit la teste chauve et navoit nulz cheveux davant, mais quant loysel le vit il cuida que ce eust fait sa maistresse qui luy eust ainsi pelle la teste. Adonc loisel luy dist, «Aa maistre, vous avez parle de languille que ma dame a mangee».

nut there were several smaller nuts, six or seven or ten or twelve little nuts all in a heap. Gervaise says that in Provence near Marseille grow certain trees which, instead of fruit, bear a kind of pod like the pods of beans, in which pods are found certain seeds that are as hard as stones and are worthless to eat because they are so hard—except for the pods themselves, which are very soft and rather good to eat. Gervaise says that in Provence there are certain birds that nearly approach human reasoning and understanding, especially the crow, which Gervaise tells us about and says that there was once long ago a knight in Provence who brought up a crow in his castle. And so it happened that this knight made war against another knight from the country of Pymont, but this crow through his subtlety went away often to look around, spy, and gather information in the fortress and in the land of the enemy of his master. And whenever any gathering of warriors took place, he immediately went to tell and report back to his lord, who fully understood right away from his cry and his manner what the bird was saying to him. When his master played at dice, the crow went flying over the mountains and brought his lord large sums of money in his beak, such as gold and silver which he had previously hidden and concealed. This crow observed the sin and disloyalty of the lady who was the wife of his lord, who was sleeping with one of his retainers. And in fact the crow cawed and squawked in his language to his lord so much that the retainer understood it fully and took heed. Thus he was detected, and the lady caused him to be put to death for it. But when it came to the moment when the loyal crow had to die, he said these words: «I want everyone to know I die for speaking the truth.» There was another talking bird who told his master that his wife had eaten an eel, which made the woman very angry. And to avenge herself on the bird she plucked out all the feathers from its head. Thus it happened a little bit later that there came to and arrived at the castle a man who had a bald head and had no hair in the front, but when the bird saw him he believed that this had been done by his mistress, who had plucked his own head in this way. So then the bird said to him, «Oh, Master, you have spoken of the eel that my lady ate.»

Banks and Binns, III.91, p. 739. Banks and Binns, III.94, p. 747. 312 Banks and Binns, III.96, pp. 747-49. The Translator leaves out the important detail that the crow was shot with an arrow in revenge by the lady’s lover. On this and the next speaking bird story, see Jan M. Ziolkowski, Talking Animals. Medieval Latin Beast Poetry 750-1150 (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993). Stories of adultery impeded by speaking birds are common in medieval contes. In Thomas de Saluces's late fourteenth-century Le Conte des Trois Perroquets, three parrots watch a lady who meets her lover while her husband is absent. The next day she questions the birds. The first two questioned allude to the affair, so she plots to kill them, blaming the deaths on the cat. The third parrot, deciding on discretion, keeps silent and the husband returning learns nothing of the adultery. See Egidio Gorra, «La novella della dama e dei tre papagalli,» Romania 32 (1892): 71-78. For additional analogues, see Lauren W. Yoder, «The Late Medieval Tale: The Example of La Dame e les trois papagaulz,» The French Review 53.4 (1980): 543-49. 310 311

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Item dit Gervaise au propos de ceulx qui ont mal pour dire voir que jadiz il avoit ou temple une tresgrant finance mussie. Si advint que ung larron ceste finance et secretement len enporte, le seigneur a qui estoit ce tresor fut moult doulant et courrouce quant il sceut la nouvelle de sa perte, lors il requist et supplia moult devotement a lidolle qui estoit ou temple quelle luy voulsist dire et faire savoir qui estoit le larron qui son tresor luy avoit amble. Adonc lidolle luy dist, nomma, 51v/ et enseigna le larron qui dommaige avoit fait. Qant le larron sceut que lidolle lavoit encuse, lors il print ung marteau de fer et sen vint secretement au temple et cassa la teste a lidolle. Si advint ung pou apres que ung tel et semblable cas advint dune maison qui fut desrobee par larrons. Et sen alla le seigneur de celle maison au temple pour demander a une autre ydolle qui estoit le larron qui lavoit desrobe, mais lidolle pour sa premiere requeste ne luy fist nulle responce. Adonc, le seigneur de celle maison si requist et conjura ceste ydolle sur toute la vertu et puissance quelle povoit avoir quelle luy deist qui estoit le larron qui ansi lavoit desrobe. Adonc lidolle parla et dist que trop parler nuist. Et que pour dire verite lautre sa compaigne avoit eu la teste cassee.313 Item dit Gervaise que en Provence pres du chateau de Cercieules est ung lac qui est merveilleusement parfont. Sur lequel est une ysle de terre floctant par dessus leau. Et la fait on aller a force de cordes de quel couste quon veult. Et quant les habitans du lieu veullent aller faire pasturer leurs bestes en celle ysle, ilz font venir et aborder celle ysle jusques au bort du lac. Et puis ilz font entrer leurs bestes dedans pour pasturer. Et si aucun leans fait une fosse jusques a leau et mecte dedans ung fesseau de chanvre pour voir [c]ombien que lisle soit menee et transportee de lieu en autre, toutesfoiz les fesseaux de chanvre se tiendront et finablement seront tousjours trouves en la fosse ou len les aura mis sans quil en yait aucun perdu.314 Item dict Gervaise que en Provence pres de la ville dAigues a ung chastel dit le Pui Michael, pres du quel chastel est ung pre mouvant et tremblant tellement que au premier pas que on y fait quant on entre dedans toute la piece du pre tremble et se remue visiblement. Et ont de coustume les gens du pais en temps de guerre de retraire en ce pre tout leur bestial. Et quant gens darmes y cuident venir et entrer soit a pie ou a cheval pour prandre le bestial, quant ilz mectent le pie dedans ilz sentent la terre trembler, ilz sont si espouventes que ilz nousent plus aller avant. Et par ainsi le bestial demeure en seurte en ce pre aux habitans du pais denviron.315

Gervaise says, apropos of those who come to a bad end for telling the truth, that in the olden days there was a great treasure hidden in a temple. And it happened that a thief knew of this treasure and secretly carried it off, and the lord who owned the treasure was very sad and angry when he learned the news of his loss. Then he begged and implored most devoutly of the idol who was in the temple to tell him and make known to him the identity of the thief who had stolen his treasure from him. Then the idol told, named, and made known the thief who had done the evil deed. When the thief learned that the idol had betrayed him, then he took an iron hammer and went secretly to the temple and broke the idol’s head. Thus it happened that a little later there occurred a comparable and similar situation of a house that was robbed by thieves. And the lord went to the temple to ask another idol the identity of the thief who had robbed him, but the idol gave him no response on his first request. Then the lord of the house begged and conjured the idol by all the strength and power it had to reveal who the thief was who had robbed him. Then the idol spoke and said that too much speaking is dangerous. And for having told the truth, the other idol, this one’s companion, had its head broken. Gervaise says that in Provence near the castle of Cerciules is a lake that is marvelously deep. And upon it is an island of earth floating above the water. And one can, by means of ropes, make it go to whatever side one wishes. And when the inhabitants of the place wish to go pasture their animals on this island, they make the island come and draw it near to the edge of the lake. And then they make their stock go onto the island to feed. And if anyone on the island makes a ditch up to the water and puts into it a handful of hemp to see how the island is led and transported from one place to the other, the bundles of hemp will always stay where they are and finally they will always be found in the ditch where they were put, without any of them ever being lost. Gervaise says that in Provence near the village of Aix is a castle called Le Puy Michel, near which is a meadow that moves and trembles so much that at the first footstep one takes on entering into it, the whole parcel of land trembles and moves visibly. And the men of the country have the custom in time of war to collect all of their livestock into this meadow. And when the soldiers try to come there and enter either on foot or on horseback to take the livestock, when they put their feet in, they feel the ground tremble and they are so frightened that they dare not advance any farther. And thus the livestock remain securely in this field for the benefit of the inhabitants of the surrounding countryside.

Not found in Gervaise. Banks and Binns, III.39, p. 637. The detail of the bundles of hemp is not in Gervaise. 315 Banks and Binns, III.83, p. 713. 313 314

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Item dit Gervaise que pareillement il ya ung lieu qui ainsi est mouvant et tramblent es montaignes de Valentinois.316 Item Plinius recite en son segond livre quil ya pres de Romme auxi ung lieu qui est si tresmouvant et tramblent que du premier pas que on y fera, la terre si tramblera plus de trois traitz darc loing en tirant dedans.317 Item dit Plinius que en la province de Lidie a une isle mouvant et floctant sur leau. En la quelle pour le temps que le trespuissant roy Metridaches guerroya les habitans de celle region, plusieurs des habitans du pais avec tous leurs biens se sauverent en celle ysle, et y demourerent seurement sans avoir aucun dommaige durant la guerre.318 Item dit Gervaise quil ya ou pais de Provence a une vallee par laquelle on va dudit pais de Provence en Ytallie ou temps deste pour ce que cest le plus brief chemin, mais ceste vallee est perilleuse et de merveilleuse condicion et est nommee la Vallee de Lentille. Et est de celle condicion que 52/ tous ceulx qui y passent ne parlent point et quilz ne sonnent ung seul mot. Car sil advient que aucun passe par celle vallee qui face grant noise et quil parle trop hault. Tantoust la neige cherra des haulx rochiers qui sont a lendroit de ceste vallee. Et cherra a grans mousseaulx et ruisseaulx sur ceulx qui ainsi hault parleront, et se trouveront sans quilz sen donnent garde acoup couvers et noyes deaulx et de neiges et ravynes de ces grans rochiers qui sont a lendroit de ceste vallee.319 Item dit Gervaise que es montaignes de Lombardie lesquelles sont appellees les haultes Alpes. Et es montaignes de Gascoigne lesquelles sont appellees les Mons de Pirenes et a plusieurs vallees pres dicelles montaignes qui sont de la condicion dessus dicte.320 Item dit Gervais que en Provence a aucunes fontaines qui sont de moult merveilleuse propriete. Car quant ce vient sur le temps deste que toutes autres fontaines tarissent et seichent, adonc cestes fontaines sourdent et rendant eau moult bonne et clere a moult grant habondance. Et quant ce vient sur le temps dyver elles tarissent et deviennent toutes seiches.321 Item en Provence ou couste de Agues ou terratoire Argentin en ung villaige dit Des Champs a une merveilleuse fontaine laquelle sourt moult soubdainement en lieu non acoustume de voir fontaine et rend eau a moult grant habondance, laquelle est

Gervaise says that similarly there is a place that is moving and trembling in the same way in the mountains of Valentinois. Pliny tells in his second book that there is also a place near Rome that is so full of movement and trembling that from the first step one takes there, the earth will tremble in this way for a distance farther than if three shots of the bow were shot into it. Pliny says that in the province of Lydia is an island moving and floating on the water. And on this island, during the time when the very powerful king Metridaches made war on the inhabitants of this region, a number of the inhabitants of the country, with all their belongings, saved themselves on this island and remained there safely without injury during the war. Gervaise says that in the country of Provence is a valley through which one goes from the said country of Provence into Italy in the summer time because this is the shortest road; but this valley is dangerous and marvelous in its nature, and it is called the Valley of the Lentil. And it is of such condition that all those who pass through there do not speak or sound a single word. For if it happens that anyone passes through this valley who makes a great noise or speaks too loudly, immediately an avalanche of snow will fall from the high cliffs that are on the sides of this valley. And the snow will fall in great heaps and streams on those who speak loudly in this way, and if they are not careful, they will find themselves all at once covered and drowned in the waters and snows and ravines of these great rocky cliffs that are along the sides of this valley. Gervaise says that in the mountains of Lombardy, that are called the high Alps, and in the mountains of Gascony that are called the Pyrenees Mountains, there are several valleys near these mountains which are of the type just described. Gervaise says that in Provence there are some springs that have marvelous properties. For when it comes to the time in the summer when all other springs dry up and stop flowing, then these springs rise up and produce good and clear water in great abundance. And when winter comes, they dry up and stop flowing altogether. In Provence in the area near Aix in the Argentin region, in a village called The Fields, there is a marvelous spring that will spurt up suddenly in a place that is not the usual location of the true spring and produce a great abundance of water, and this water is

Banks and Binns, III.83, p. 713. NH 2.96, p. 339. 318 NH 2.96, p. 341. 319 Banks and Binns, III.122, p. 819. 320 Possibly Banks and Binns, II.10, p. 303. 321 Banks and Binns, III.124, p. 821. 316 317

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de telle condicion et propriete que si aucun homme arrive dessus celle fontaine et que il regarde et advise le conduyt de celle fontaine. Tantoust elle se tairra et si ny demourra aucun signe ne apparaissance deau. Et qui plus fort est que si aucun par maniere denseigne mect a lendroit du lieu dont ladicte fontaine venoit et sourdoit ung baston ou autre chose. Et quant il sen retournera par ce lieu ou estoit celle fontaine, mais quil ne quiere point le lieu et la place ou estoit ladicte fontaine et quil ny pense point aucunement, il trouvera les enseignes quil y aura mises. Mais sil se mect en sa diligence a son escient de trouver les enseignes james il ne les sauroit trouver. Et tout ainsi est il des Ysles Fortunees dont cy devant a este parle. Car quant on ne les quiert point on les treuve bien legierement.322 Item dit Gervaise que en Provence pres du chastel de Barlem a une bonne fontaine dont leau est moult medicinable et prouffitable a boire a ceulx qui ont les gorges enflees comme ont communement ceulx du pais de Pymont. Et aussi les habitans des vallees des mons de Pirenes en Gascongne, et plusieurs autres qui sont demourans es grans vallees qui sont soubz les haultes montaignes pour la tresgrant froideure des eaux dont ilz usent en leurs breuvages, et pour ceste cause ont ilz les gorges grosses et enfleez. Et pour estre gueriz de ceste maladie ilz viennent des pais dessusdictz boire de leau de ceste fontaine qui leur est ung tressouverain remede.323

of such a condition and nature that if anyone comes upon this spring and observes and studies the course of this spring, it will immediately stop and there will remain no sign or appearance of water. And what is even more remarkable is that if anyone erects a stick or other thing to serve as a sign near the place and location where the aforesaid spring comes forth and flows, when he returns to the place where this spring was, as long as he does not seek out the place and location where the fountain was and does not think about it at all, he will be able to find the signs he put there. But if he applies himself in diligence and strong intention to locate the signs, then he will never figure out how to find them. And it is just the same with the Fortunate Isles, which were spoken of above. For when one does not seek them, one finds them very easily. Gervaise says that in Provence near the castle of Barlem there is a fine spring whose water is extremely curative and beneficial to drink for those who have swelling in their throats, as people commonly have in the country of Pymont. And this applies also to the inhabitants of the valleys of the Pyrenees in Gascony and many others who dwell in the great valleys that are below high mountains, because of the great coldness of the water they use in their drinks. And it is for this reason that their throats are swollen and goiterous. And to be cured of this illness, they come from the lands just mentioned to drink the water in this spring, which is for them a superior remedy.

44) [Sabbe] 52v/ Sabbe est une region situee en la province de Arabie, en laquelle croist le fin ensens et mastic et le fin mirre et les meilleures et plus fines espices qui soient en pais du monde. Item en Sabbe est trouve et non ailleurs le noble et seul oysel nomme fenix. Item en Sabbe croist le fin or et le fin argent et les fynes pierres precieuses. Item de la region de Sabbe viennent et sont apportees les tres riches odeurs et fines espices souef, flerans, et odorans, dont sont servis et honnourez les roys et les princes du monde, comme il est escript en la Bible ou troisesme livre des Roys ou dixesme chappitre comment la royne de Sabbee dicte Sabba se partit de son pais et vint en Jherusalem voyr le roy Salomon pour ouyr et aprendre de sa sapience et por voir son noble estat. Et luy offrit or et argent et moult de diverses richesses et joiaulx moult bons et doulx odourans, dont la doulce flereur et odeur resaisissoit tout le pais du roy Salomon.

44) Saba Saba is a region situated in the country of Arabia, in which grows fine incense and mastic, and fine myrrh, and the best and finest spices that are to be found in any country of the world. In Saba, and nowhere else, one finds the noble and singular bird called phoenix. In Saba are sources of fine gold, silver, and precious stones. From the region of Saba originate and are exported very rich scents and fine sweet, aromatic, flowering spices, with which all the kings and princes of the world are served and honored, as it is written in the Bible in the third book of Kings in the tenth chapter, how the Queen of Sheba, called Saba, left her country and came to Jerusalem to see King Solomon in order to hear and learn from his wisdom and to see his noble estate. And she offered him gold and silver and many diverse riches and jewels of high quality and sweet fragrance, whose sweet flowering and odor laid hold of the entire land of King Solomon.

322 323

Banks and Binns, III.127, p. 613. Banks and Binns, III.125, p. 823.

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45) [Saxone] 53/ Saxone est une tres noble province situee entre les Allemaignes, laquelle est moult fertille et habondant en herbes, en fruitz, en grains, en arbres, en nourriturez de bestial grand [et] menu et comme aumaille et de bestes a layne. Item en celle noble province y sont fontaines, ruisseaulx, rivieres, lacz, palluz, et estangs plains de plusieurs manieres de poissons a moult grant habondance, dont les habitans du pais sont serviz et advitailles moult grandement. Item en Saxone sont trouvees les riches minieres de plusieurs metaulx. Comme dor, dargent, de cuyvre, destaing, darain, et plonc. Item en Saxone a de moult nobles citez, villes, chasteaulx qui sont moult riches et bien peupleez de gens. Item en Saxone sont certaines grans montaignes esquelles sont trovees les riches minieres dor et dargent et les fines pierres qui moult bien sont aymees, comme est le fin ambre et autres riches pierres. Item en certaines autres montaignes a moult grand habondance de bestes sauvaiges, comme cerfs, biches, sangliers, singes, et ours, que les gens du pais chacent et en vivent moult deliciusement.

45) Saxony Saxony is a very noble province situated in Germany, which is very fertile and abundant in grasses, in fruits, in grains, in trees, and in provender for animals both big and small, and such beasts as cattle and wool-bearing livestock. In this noble province are springs, brooks, rivers, lakes, marshes, and ponds full of numerous kinds of fish in very great abundance, by which the inhabitants of the country are served and supplied with food in a most grand way. In Saxony are found rich mines of many different metals, such as gold, silver, copper, tin, brass, and lead. In Saxony there are many noble cities, towns, and castles that are very rich and well populated. In Saxony are certain great mountains, in which are found rich mines of gold and silver and fine stones that are much loved, such as fine amber and other rich stones. In certain other mountains there is a very great abundance of wild animals, such as stags, does, boars, apes, and bears, which the people of the country hunt and live on deliciously.

46) [Sardeigne] 53v/ Sardeigne est une moult grant et noble ysle qui est situee en la grant mer ou millieu de la terre. Et figuree a facon de corps humain. Car elle est au premier bout estroicte, ou millieu large, et a lautre bout [estroicte] et longue. Et dure en sa longueur cent et xl mille. Et en sa largeur tant seullement xl mille. En ceste ysle nabite nul serpent ne beste venimeuse, ne loup ne bestes ravissans. Excepte que la croist une herbe venimeuse appellee raiz de mouche, pour ce que en riant elle occist. Car elle est moult belle et plaisant et doulce a menger. Et toutesfoiz elle est a plusieurs cause de mort. Item en Sardaigne a de moult merveilleuses fontaines qui guerissent ceulx qui sont malades des yeulx quant ilz en boivent de leau. Item si aucun larron est accuse de larroncin et quil soit admene a la fontaine et quil jure et face serment en boivant de leau de ladicte fontaine quil est innocent du cas, se il ment, il perdra la veue et sera aveugle. Et sil dit verite, il naura nul mal. De lisle de Sardaigne est faicte aucunement mencion en la Bible ou livre de Daniel, ou segond chappitre ou il dit quil vit en Sardaigne une statue ou ymaige figuree en facon de corps humain qui avoit le chief dor, en signiffiance et demonstrance de la grant richesse qui 54/ estoit en icelle isle. Et si avoit celle ymaige les espaules et les bras dargent en signifiance et demonstrance de la beaulte et clarte de la science et subtil engin des habitans du pais. Et si avoit celle ymaige le corps darain en signifiance et demonstrance de la grant

46) Sardinia Sardinia is a most great and noble island that is situated in the Mediterranean Sea in the middle of the earth. And it is shaped like a human body. For it is narrow at its first end, broad in the middle, and long and narrow at the other end. And it extends in its length 140 miles long and in its width only 40 miles. And on this island there live no venomous animals or serpents, nor any wolf or predatory beasts— except that there grows there a poisonous plant called laugh-of-the-fly, because it kills while one is laughing. For it is most pretty and pleasant and sweet to eat. And yet it is the cause of death for many people. In Sardinia are some marvelous springs that cure those who have maladies of the eyes when they drink the waters. If any thief is accused of theft and he is led to the spring and he swears and makes an oath while drinking the water of the said spring that he is innocent of the crime, if he lies he will lose his sight and will go blind. And if he speaks the truth, he will be unharmed. The Bible makes some mention of the island of Sardinia in the book of Daniel in the second chapter, where it says that there existed in Sardinia a statue in the form of a human body that had a head of gold in recognition and demonstration of the great riches that were on this island. And also this image had arms and shoulders of silver in recognition and demonstration of the beauty and clarity of the knowledge and subtle ingenuity of the inhabitants of the country. And also this image had a body of bronze in significance and

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prouesse et vaillance qui estoit en la gent du pais. Et si avoit les jambes et les piez de fer, en signifiance et demonstrance de la grant force, puissance, et resistence qui est ou peuple du pais. Et pour la grant richesse, prouesse, sapience, force, puissance, et resistence qui est en la gent qui habitent en celle ysle, ilz ont acquis lonneur entre les autres ysles qui sont en la mer davoir couronne dor et destre appelles royne.324

demonstration of the great prowess and valor of the people of that land. And it had legs and feet of iron that signified and demonstrated the great force, power and resistance of its people. And for the great wealth, prowess, wisdom, strength, power, and resistance that exists in the people who live on this island, they have acquired the honor, among all other islands in the sea, to have a gold crown and be called the queen.

47) [Scicie] Scicie est une tresgrant et trespuissant province, laquelle est situee partie en Asie et partie en Europpe. Car la Haulte Scicie si est situee en Asie. Et contient despuis orient jusques aux pallues de Meothides et jusques aux grans fleuves de Thanay. Et la Basse Scicie est situee en Europe et dure depuis le fleuve de Thanay jusques au royaulme de Dace. Et dit Solin que les Indois appellent ceulx de Scicie en la haulte partie dAquilon vers la ou le sou- 54v/ leil nous appert au matin environ le moys de Juing. Et joingt a la haulte Inde vers orient.325 Item en Scicie est la tresgrant et renommee cite de Cambeleth, en laquelle le Grand Kaam tint son siege imperial. Et est appelee celle cite en langage commun Chachay. En Scicie moult a destranges et de diverses nacions, dont le gouvernement et la police deulx est inhumaine et desnaturelle. Si comme le tesmoigne Saint Pol en son Espitre en escripvant a ceulx de Gye de Coloscence ou segond chappitre ou il dit que en lassemblee des Crestiens et en leur eglise doit avoir police et gouvernement de droicture plus que entre les barbares et ceulx de Scicie ou na aucune bonne coustume ne vraye unite. Item dit Solin que en Scicie, entre les autres nacions qui y sont, il ya une province dicte Neucrie, par my laquelle court le fleuve de Borriscenes, sur les rivaiges du quel fleuve habitent gent qui sont de telle nature que en certains jours ou temps deste, quant ilz passent par my ce fleuve, ilz se transfigurent et deviennent loups et ne vivent que de char crue. Et sont en cest estat ung espace de temps et puis quant leur terme est fine et acompli, ilz retournent et reprenent face et condicion humaine. Ceste gent cy adourent pour leur dieu lidole de Mars, le dieu de batailles. Et font offrandes et oblacions a leur dieu despeez, de cousteaux, et de lances. Et font le feu de leurs sacrifices des ossemens des gens mors.326

47) Scythia Scythia is a very great and powerful province that is partly in Asia and partly in Europe. For Upper Scythia is located in Asia, and it extends from the east to the marshes of Meothides and to the great river of Thanais [Don]. And Lower Scythia is situated in Europe and extends from the Thanais to the realm of Dacia [Transylvania]. And Solinus says that the Indians call people Scythians in the upper part of the North towards the area where the sun appears to us in the morning around the month of June. And it joins Upper India on the Eastern side. In Scythia is the very great and renowned city of Cambeleth where the Great Khan holds his imperial seat. And this city is called, in common language, Cathay. In Scythia there are many strange and diverse nations, the government and policy of which are inhumane and unnatural. And this is just as Saint Paul bears witness in his Epistle written to the Colossians in the second chapter, where he says that in the assembly of Christians and their church they ought to have policy and government based on righteousness, more than the barbarians and those of Scythia where they have no good customs or true unity. Solinus says that in Scythia, among the other nations of people in the region, there is a province called Neutria through which flows the river Borriscenes, and on the banks of this river live people who are of such nature that on certain days of the summertime, when they pass through the waters of this river, they are transfigured and become wolves and live only on raw flesh. And they remain in this state for a certain period of time and then, when their term is finished and completed, they return and regain their human face and condition. These men adore for their god the idol Mars, god of battles. And they make to him offerings and oblations of swords, knives, and spears. And they make the fire for their sacrifices from dead men’s bones.

No such reference to Sardinia occurs in Daniel 2 in the discussion of this dream. Very roughly Collectanea, 92. 326 Collectanea, 82. 324 325

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Item ilz offrent a leur dieu les hommes tous vifs et les mectent oudit feu et les ardent. Et cuidant faire a leur ydolle present et sacrifice qui luy soit aggreable. Item dit Solin quil est possible que ceulx de ceste region de barbarie aucunement estoyent de telle condicion et que maintenant ilz se sont corrigez et sont de meilleur condicion. Et si dit que moult de nacions ont este jadiz de moult estrange condicion qui de present sont de tresbonne police et honneste conversacion. Et mect exemple des Francoys qui jadiz furent plains de tres grant cruaulte. Et de present ilz sont plains damour, de honneur, et de courtoisie.327 Item Plinius dit en son viie livre que en Scicie, pres de Neictrie, a une province appellee Gelonne, autrement Antropophagos, dont les habitans sont de telle condicion que quant ilz ont leurs ennemys surmontes, prinz et vaincuz en bataille, ilz les escorchent tous vifs et de la peau deulx ilz se revestent et en font leur parement et couvertures a leurs chevaulx, pour donner exemple a leurs ennemys pour plus les espouventer. Ad ce propos recite le Maistre des Hystoyres ou livre de Daniel que Cambises le cruel roy des Assiriens fist escorcher tout vif ung sien prevost quil avoit trouve coulpable et en faulte au regard du gouvernement de la justice. Et quant il fut escorche il fit estendre la peau en la chaire du prevost le filz de celluy qui ainsi avoit este escorche. Et luy dist: «Souvieigne toy de la faulte de ton pere. Et faiz droit et equite, raison, justice a mon peuple des cas qui viendront a ta cognoissance. Et quant tu te assoiras en la cheire de ton office regarde bien la peau de ton pere.»328 Item dit Solin que en Scicie, despuis les paluz de Meothides jusques es parties des Allemaignes en descendent en occident a certains peuples Sarmathes et sont nommes les gens de la Basse Scicie, et ont merveilleuse police et gouvernement, car les hommes font et excercent tous les mestiers que les femmes ont acoustume de faire ailleurs, comme filler, piggnier laynne, fayre et laver la buee. Et les femmes font toutes les oeuvres 55/ appartenans aux hommes, comme marchander, aller a cheval, aller aux armes contre leurs ennemis pour la deffence de leur pais. Et ainsi en ceste contree la les femmes sont des hommes [darmes]. Car elles vont a cheval et sont armees et vont combatre contre leurs ennemys de leur pays. Et les hommes vont a pie et sans baston et sans aucun glaive par lordonnance des femmes. Et ont de coustume de tendre laz, fillez et cordaiges en certains destroitz entre les hayes et buissons. Et la aucunesfoiz ilz surprenent leurs ennemys et les mectent a mort.329

They offer living men to their god and put them in this fire and burn them up. And they believe they are making to their god a gift and sacrifice that is agreeable to him. Solinus says that it is possible that those of this barbaric region were like this to some degree in the past, and now they have improved themselves and are of a better condition. And thus he says that many nations were of a very strange condition in olden days that now engage in very effective civil policies and upright behavior. And he offers the example of the Franks, who formerly were full of great cruelty. And at present they are full of love, honor, and courtesy. Pliny says in his seventh book that in Scythia, near Neutria, there is a province called Gelonne, otherwise called Anthropophagos, where the inhabitants are of such a condition that when they have overcome their enemies and taken and vanquished them in battle, they skin them alive, and from their skins they make new clothing for themselves and they make caparisons and trappings for their horses, in order to give a particularly horrifying example to their other enemies and frighten them. And the Master of Histories speaks on this subject in the Book of Daniel, saying that Cambises, the cruel king of the Assyrians, ordered to be skinned alive one of his own provosts whom he had found guilty and at fault in regard to the administration of justice. And when the man had been skinned, he made the son of the man who had been thus skinned stretch the skin onto the provost’s throne. And he said to him: «Remember your father’s offense. And do right, with equity, fairness, and justice, to my people in all cases that come to your attention. And when you sit in your official chair, look carefully at your father’s skin.» Solinus says that in Scythia from the marshes of Meothides to the areas where the Germans live, descending into the West, there are certain Sarmathian people who are called the men of lower Scythia and have an amazing custom and way of living, for these men do and carry out all the tasks that women customarily perform elsewhere, such as spinning, combing wool, and making and washing with lye. And the women do all the things that customarily belong to men, such as buying and selling, riding on horseback, and taking arms against their enemies for the defense of their country. And thus in that country the women are men at arms. For they ride on horseback and are armed and go to fight against the enemies of their country. And the men travel on foot and without club or sword by commandment of the women. And they have the custom of stretching out snares, strings, and ropes in certain places among the hedges and the bushes. And there they sometimes take their enemies by surprise and put them to death.

Possibly a misrecollection of the encomium of France with a mention of human sacrifice at Collectanea, 99. NH 7.2, p. 513. Peter Comestor’s Historia Scholastica is the work referred to. 329 Not Collectanea, but most likely (cf. Pomponius in the next item) Romer, ed. and tr., Mela, 3.33, where their connection with the Amazons and the use by women of traditionally male pursuits are mentioned. Mela knew Herodotus (Histories, 4.21), who first spoke of the male-female role reversal of this people and tied them to the Amazons. 327 328

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Item en celle contree les femmes mainnent leurs filles en la guerre et les duysent et aprenent a porter les armes. Et sil advient que aucune pucelle occise ung homme en fait darmes, elle est ennoblie et est digne destre mariee, suppose quelle soit moindre deage. Et disent les femmes de celle contree que le fait darmes suplee a leage et luy donne le nom de vaillance. Ad ce propos fait histoyre de la noble Judich en la Bible, ou il dit que Judich estoit bonne, belle, vaillant, et plaine de grant prouesse et qui craignoit et servoit Dieu moult vaillamment et de bon cueur non obstant que delle fust trespetite renommee. Car quant Olophernes vint mectre le siege a toute sa puissance devant la cite de Bethulie devant laquelle estoit la noble Judich, la noble Judich sen partit de la cite tout droit a la tempte de son ennemy Olofernes et moyennant layde de Dieu elle luy couppa le chief tout jus et obtint victoire sur ces ennemys. Et pour ceste cause fut la noble Judich anoblie et acquist lox et pris de vailllance a tousjours mais.330 Item disent Plinius et Pomponius que en Scicie a une region dont les habitans sont appellez Agagures, et ont de coustume deulx farder et taindre de diverses couleurs visaiges et leurs mains et les cheveulx de leur chief. Et de tant comme aucun est de plus grant estat, soit de lignaige ou doffice ou de richesse, de tant luy convient il plus se farder et taindre son visaige, ses mains, et ses cheveulx, et celluy qui moins est farde est signe quil est homme de bas et petit estat. Ad ce propos il est escript en la Bible ou iiiie chappitre des Roys ou ixe chappitre que lorgueilleuse royne Jezabel se farda et oingnit ses yeulx et sa face de certaines couleurs et eaux artificielles pour apparoir estre plus belle a Jehu, mais quant Jehu la vit ainsi fardee il la desprisa moult et la maudist et la condamna a estre devoree et mengee des chiens. Et tout ainsi comme il ordonna delle il fut fait.331 Item dit Solin que en Scicie a aucuns peuples qui sont appellez Actropophagnes lesquelz sont de si cruelle et abhominable condicion que ilz estrenglant et mangeussent lung lautre. Et vivant de char humaine toute crue. Et boivent le sang humain lun de lautre. Et pource la terre de autour et denviron eulx, pour la grant freeur et peur destre devorez, est demouree toute en desert et inhabitable des hommes et des femmes par lespace de vi journees loing et plus.332 Item dient Solin et Plinius en leur viie livre que en Scicie a certains peuples qui nourissent une maniere de chiens estranges et merveilleux. Et qui sont plains de grant fureur et cruaulte. Et sont nez et engendrez de tigres et de chiennes et sont appellez Albans pource que quant 55v/ ilz naissent ilz ont le poil blanc et la prunelle

In this country the women train their daughters in warfare and teach and instruct them to bear arms. And if it happens that any girl kills a man in a military feat, she is ennobled and worthy to be married, assuming that she is of minimum age. And the women of this country say that a deed of arms compensates for youth and gives it the name of bravery. And on this same theme is told the story of Judith in the Bible, where it is said that Judith was good, beautiful, valiant, and full of great prowess, and she feared and served God most valiantly and willingly, notwithstanding that she had very little reputation. For when Holofernes came with all his forces to lay siege to the city of Bethulia, at the front of which was the noble Judith, she left her city straightaway to tempt this enemy Holofernes, and by means of the aid of God, she cut off his head, just like that, and gained victory over her enemies. And for this reason the gallant Judith was ennobled and acquired praise and honor for her valor forever after. Pliny and Pomponius say that in Scythia there is a region where the inhabitants are called Agagures, and they have the custom of painting and dying with various colors their faces and their hands and the hair on their heads. And the higher a person’s status, whether because of lineage, or public office, or wealth, the more fitting it is for him to paint and dye his face, his hands and his hair; and if a man is painted less, it is a sign that he is of low and small estate. And in regard to this, it is written in the Bible in the fourth book of Kings, in the ninth chapter, that the proud queen Jezebel painted and anointed her eyes and her face with certain colors and artful fluids in order to appear more beautiful to Jehu, but when Jehu saw her painted in this way, he despised her greatly and cursed her and condemned her to be devoured and eaten by dogs. And just as he commanded, so it was done. Solinus says that in Scythia are a people who are called Antropophages, who are of such a cruel and abominable condition that they strangle and eat each other. And they live on human flesh that is completely raw. And they drink one another’s human blood. And because of this, as a result of people’s great dread and fear of being devoured, the lands near and around them have remained a desert, uninhabitable by men and women for a distance of six days journey or more. Solinus and Plinius say in their seventh book that in Scythia there are certain people who raise a strange and marvelous kind of dogs, which are full of fury and cruelty. And they are born and engendered of tigers and female dogs, and they are called Albans

Romer, ed. and tr., Mela, 3.33, p. 110. Not NH. Romer, ed. and tr., Mela, 2.9, p. 71. 332 Collectanea, 82. 330 331

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et la paupiere des yeulx blanche. Et ont de nuyt tresclere veue. Et de jour ilz ne voient gueres clers. Et les duysent a chasser et vener. Et chassent mieulx de nuyt que de jour.333 Item dit Solin que en Scicie sont aucuns peuples appelles Essedonnes, lesquelz sont prochains en condicion es Antropophages. Car ilz vivent de char humaine et se mangent lun lautre.334 Item dit Solin que ceste gent si ont de coustume de mener grant joye devant le corps de leurs parens mors. Et chantent et dancent et boivent et mangent et demenent grant joye et grans esbatemens, mais autrement font des corps de leurs voysins, car ilz les detranchent par petis morceaulx et les meslent avecques char de beuf et de mouston et disent quilz font plus grant honneur a leurs voisins de manger la char de leurs corps que de la laisser pourrir en terre.335 Item ilz font du test de la teste de leurs amis mors ung vaisseau pour boyre et si le corps du mort estoyt riche ou de leur prochain lignaige, ilz feront du test de sa teste ung beau hanap pour boire et le feront couvrir et enchasser dor et dargent et de pierres precieuses moult richement et puis boivent dedens a moult grant reverence et dignite. Item dit Solin que en Scicie a une maniere de peuple appellez Sicothaures, qui sont de moult merveilleuse propriete, car ilz heent toutes gens estranges qui ne sont pas de leur contree. Et les tuent, et en font leur sacrifice a leur ydolle.336 Item dit Solin que ceste gent si aiment moult la guerre et heent paix et accord. Et quant ilz ont occiz aucun homme en guerre ilz en boivent le sang et le tirant a leur bouche et a leur alaynne par my les playes de lomme mort. Et puis font du test de sa teste ung hanap pour boyre.337 Item dit Solin quilz ont une merveilleuse ordannance entre eulx. Car celluy qui a plus tue de gens plus est prise et honnoure deulx. Et celluy qui moins en a tue en est moins prise. Et nest tenu que pour ung homme failly et couart.338 Item ceste gent si ont de coustume de boyre le sang lung de lautre en toutes alliances et en tous accords et promesses tout ainsi que nous baillons par deca la main lung a lautre en seigne de foy et de loyaulte et promesse, et jamais despuis quilz auront beu le sang lung de lautre ilz ne briseront ne ne despieceront leurs accords et promesses pour mourir. Ainsi le tesmoigne la saincte escripture disant que quant le roy de Medye qui avoit nom Cherlinchis saccorda et fist aliance de paix avecques Estrages le roy de Perse qui

[albino] because when they are born they have white skin and white pupils and eyelids. And at night they see very clearly. And by day, they don’t see well at all. And the people teach them to hunt and track. And they hunt better by night than by day. Solinus says that in Scythia are some people called Essedones who are similar to the Antropophages. For they live on human flesh and eat one another. Solinus says that these people have a custom of exhibiting great joy before the bodies of their dead parents. And they sing and dance and eat and show great joy and amusement. But they behave differently with the bodies of their neighbors, for they cut them up into little pieces and mix them with the flesh of cattle and sheep and say they do greater honor to their neighbors by eating their flesh than by leaving it to rot in the ground. They make from the skull of the heads of their dead friends a drinking vessel, and if the dead person was rich or close family, they will make of the skull a very fine goblet for drinking, and they will have it richly covered and chased in gold and silver and precious stones, and then they drink its contents with most great reverence and dignity. Solinus says that in Scythia is a kind of people called Sicothaurs who have a marvelous nature, for they hate all foreigners who are not from their country. And they kill them and sacrifice them to their idol. Solinus says that these people greatly love war and hate peace and concord. And when they have killed any man in war, they drink his blood, drawing it with their mouths and with their breath from the wounds of the dead man. And then they make of the skull a goblet for drinking. Solinus says that they have a marvelous way of doing things. For the one who has killed the most men is most respected and honored among them. And the one who has killed the least is less respected. And he is considered to be nothing but a failure and a coward. These people have the custom of drinking one another’s blood to seal all their alliances and all their treaties and promises just as we here reach out to each other our hands as a sign of faith and loyalty and promise, and never, after they have drunk each other’s blood, will they break or tear asunder their agreements and promises, even if they must die. Thus holy scripture testifies, saying that when the king of Media, who was named Cherlinchis, came to terms and

Collectanea, 83; NH 7.2, p. 513. Collectanea, 84. 335 Collectanea, 84. 336 Collectanea, 85. 337 Collectanea, 85. 338 Collectanea, 85. 333 334

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par avant estoit son ennemy mortel, il luy presenta son sang a boyre. Et ainsi ilz firent paix et accord ensemble, et pour avoir greigneur seurte dicelle paix ilz bevrant du sang, lung de lautre. Item dit Solin que in Scicie sont aucuns peuples nommez Essiacez qui nont cure ne soing davoir ne de posseder aucune chose temporelle ne davoir riens de lautruy. Et mesmement leurs propres choses ilz mectent en non challoir et se delictent en pouvrete.339 Item pres de ceste contree sont autres peuples appellees Sathorthes qui sont de pareille condition. Car sur toutes choses ilz deprisent possession et usaige dor et dargent. Et sur tous autres vices ilz heent le peche davarice.340 Item en Scicie par devers la partie de Europpe sont aucuns peuples qui sont selon loppinion daucuns docteurs en la fin des terres et que la fine le cours des estoilles. Et que la est lantree et le chemin par ou len monte ou ciel qui est pres dung lieu appelle Pro56/ epthoron. Les habitans de la terre de pardela sont gens tresheureulx et de saincte vie, laer du temps si leur est tousjours tel comme ilz desirent, ilz nont trop froit, ne trop chault, ne trop sec, ne trop moiste, le vent ne leur fait nulle forte rigeur. Et briefment ilz nont chose qui leur nuyse, ne nont nulles maisons ne habitacions fors lombre des boiz et des forestz, ne ilz ne vivent de viandes que des fruitz des arbres. Entre ces gent si a continuelle paix et amour, ne il nya point de discord. Car ce que lung veult lautre veult. Item ceste gens mainctenent et gardent tousjours lestat dignossance. Item ceste gent si ne sont nul temps malades, ne ne sentent aucune douleur ou enfermete. Et nont aucun peur de la mort, mais voluntairement se soubmetent a la fin de leur eage parvenir a la mort. Et ont sur le rivaige de la mer ung hault edifice sur lequel ilz montent. Et quant ilz sont saoulz et plains de viandes, ilz se laissent choir leur bon gre. Et repputent ceste maniere de mourir tresheure[u]se. Car ilz se laissent choir de hault en bas dedens la mer. Et ainsi ilz meurent de leur bon gre. Et blasment toute autre de sepulture maniere. Au propos de la condicion des gens de ceste terre dit la Bible ou livre de Genesis que au commancement du monde Dieu fist ung lieu moult delictable ou quel il mist Adam et Eve en lestat de innocence. Ou quel lieu ilz avoient lair tresatrempe sans santir ne froit ne chault, mais la ilz eussent este perpetuelz sans mourir silz neussent desobay au commandement de Dieu. Item ilz neussent santi nulle douleur ne maladie et neussent eu fain ne soif. Car ilz eussent mange du fruit de larbre de vie par la 339 340

made peace with Estrages the king of Persia, who had previously been his mortal enemy, he presented him his blood to drink. And thus they made peace and accord together, and in order to guarantee greater assurance of this peace, they drank one another’s blood. Solinus says that in Scythia are some people named Essiacez who have no concern or desire to possess any temporal goods or to have anything that belongs to someone else. And they consider even their own possessions unimportant, and they delight in poverty. Near this country are some people called Sathorthes who are of a similar condition. For above all things, they disdain possession and use of gold and silver. And above all other vices, they hate the sin of avarice. In Scythia, towards the European side, are some people who are, according to the opinion of certain doctors, at the ends of the earth, and the course of the stars ends there. And they believe that there is the entry and road by which one mounts to heaven, which is near a place called Proepthoron. The inhabitants of the land over there are very happy people and blessed in their life, for the weather there is always as they desire it: they are neither too cold nor too hot nor too dry nor too wet, and the wind does not impose on them any great severity. And briefly they have nothing that annoys them; nor do they have any houses or habitations save the shadows of the woods and the forests, nor do they live on any food but the fruits of the trees. Among these people there is continual peace and love, and they have no discord at all. For what one wishes, the other wishes. These people always keep and maintain a state of innocence. These people are never sick, nor do they feel any pain or infirmity. And they have no fear of death, but voluntarily submit themselves at the end of their lives to achieving their deaths. And they have on the ocean shore a high building they climb up. And when they are drunk and full of food, they let themselves fall of their own free will. And they consider this manner of dying a very happy one. For they let themselves fall from high to low, into the sea. And thus they die willingly. And they scorn all other manner of burial. In regard to the condition of the men of this land, the Bible says in the Book of Genesis that at the beginning of the world God made a most delightful place where he put Adam and Eve in a state of innocence. In this place they had a very temperate climate without feeling either cold or heat, but there they would have lived perpetually without dying if they had not disobeyed God’s commandment. They would have felt no pain or sickness and had no hunger or thirst. For they would have eaten of the Tree of Life, by the power of which they

Actually, people of Judea, Collectanea, 155. Collectanea, 85.

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force du quel ilz eussent vescu perpetuellement. Ceulx cy voluntairement se gecterent en la mer quant a leur escient ilz se soubzmidrent a la mort par le conseil du serpent denfer.341 Item en lautre parti de Scicie vers septentrion a une region moult merveilleuse. Car elle est toute environee de perpetuelles neiges qui nul temps ne fondent. Celle region si est la plus malleureuse porcion du monde. Et semble quelle soit haye et damnee de Dieu et de nature. Car la il est tousjours nuyt pour labscence du soleil. Et la sont tousjours tenebres sans lumiere. Et est la derniere partie de aquilon. Et entre toutes les regions de toute la terre. Ceste region si est toute seulle. Car on ne congnoist la le cours du temps, ne les saisons, ne on ne recoit nulle influance du ciel, ne on ny voyt souleil ne lune ne estoilles, ne en celle terre na distincion daucun temps pource que tousjours la est yver perpetuelle par excessive froideure. Item en Scicie a une region appellee Gesolithon en laquelle habitent certains peuples nommes Arismappes qui nont que ung oeil ou front. Et sont gens de merveilleuse force et grandeur, et gardent es haultes montaignes les riches pierres precieuses. Especialement les esmeraudes afin quelles ne soient prinses et emporteez.342 Item la sont les grans et horribles grifons qui guerroient tous ceulx qui la veullent aller pour les esmeraudes tollir et conquester. Et est la cause pour quoy les esmeraudes sont si cheres pour ce que on ny ose aller pour la doubte des grifons et des Arismappes.343 Item en Scicie a une ysle habitee de gens nommez Yspodes, desquelz parle Solin. Et dit que ceste gens ont la force et semblance domme et de femme selon la dispos[icion] de tous membres humains. Excepte les piez qui sont semblables a piez de chevaulx.344 Item dit Solin que en Scicie sont autres peuples appellez Anesyes, qui ont les oreilles grans a merveilles. Car il semble que ce soient esles doyseaulx et de ceste maniere de gens est parle plusaplain en plusieurs lieux, etc.345

would have lived forever. These two willingly threw themselves into the sea [so to speak] when, by their own consent, they gave themselves over to death by following the advice of the serpent of hell. In the other part of Scythia towards the North is a most marvelous region. For it is all surrounded by perpetual snow that never melts. This region is the most wretched part of the world. And it seems that it was hated and condemned by both nature and God. For there it is always night because of the absence of the sun. And in that place there is always darkness without light. And it is the furthest part of the North. And among all the regions of the whole earth this one is all alone. For there one does not know the course of time or the seasons, nor does anyone there receive any influence from the heavens nor does one see there the sun, the moon, or the stars, nor in this land is there any distinction in weather because there it is always perpetual winter because of the excessive cold. In Scythia is a region called Gesolithon in which live certain people named Arismappes who have only one eye on the forehead. And they are men of marvelous power and size, and in the high mountains they guard rich precious stones, especially emeralds, so that they will not be taken and carried away. In this place are to be found great and horrible griffons who war against all those who wish to go there to attain and carry off the emeralds. And this is the reason why emeralds are so expensive, because no one dares go there for fear of the griffons and the Arismappes. In Scythia there is an island of people named Yspodes, of whom Solinus speaks. And he says that these people have the features and appearance of men and women, according to the disposition of all the human members—except for their feet, which are like the feet of horses. Solinus says that in Scythia are other people called Anesyes who have amazingly big ears. For they look like the wings of birds, and this manner of people are discussed more fully in several places, etc.

48) [Scocie] 56v/ Scocie, autrement dicte Escoce, est ung royaulme de grant regnon, lequel est situe en petite porcion de terre vers les fins et mettes de la Grant Bretagne, autrement apellee Angleterre. Dont parle Gervaise et dit que en Escoce est ung grant estanc pres du

48) Scotland Scotia, otherwise called Scotland, is a realm of great renown that is situated on a small piece of land towards the ends and limits of Great Britain, otherwise called England. Gervaise speaks of it and says that in Scotland there is a great pool near the seashore into which the tide

Hyperboreans, Collectanea, 88-89. Collectanea, 89-90. 343 Collectanea, 89-90. 344 Collectanea, 93. 345 Called Phanesii in Collectanea, 93. 341 342

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rivage de la mer dedens lequel le flo de la mer entre tous les jours qui ramplist toutes vallees. Et reppoulce toutes rivieres, de quoy la advient une moult grant merveille. Car quant le flo de la mer sen reva, le dit estang boit et recoit toute leau de la mer qui est entree dedans, ne ja les chaucees ou rivaiges de lestanc nen moulleront, mais quant leau de la mer est restraicte et appeticee, lors leau dudit estanc merveilleusement croist et souffle et seslieve a la maniere de une aulte montaigne entre ses rivages, tellement que tout entour lestanc est tout couvert et plain deau, et la advient une grant merveille. Car si aucun la se arreste pour veoir lesperience de la chose. Et de sens rassis regarde et advise la croissance de leau, il sera en peril destre noye. Et se trovera environne deau et sera merveilleusement moullie de ceste eau. Et sil passe oultre sans se arrester et sans ledit estanc regarder, il pourra passer seurement sans avoir doubte daucun peril.346 Item dit Gervaise que en Escoce, ou temps du roy Arthus, il yavoit lx estangs dont chascun valloit 57/ ung lac pour labondance des eaux vives et des poissons qui yestoient. En Escoce avoit lx ysles habitables.347 Item la descendoient lx rivieres sur les quelles avoit lx haultes montaignes de roches. Et sur chascune avoit lx nicz daigles qui toutes et par chascune annee la ponnoient et couvoient. Et par leur cry ou chant par naturelle industrie ou auguracion anoncioient aux habitans de la terre dEscoce les adventures et fortunes qui leur estoient a advenir.348 Item dit Gervaise que en Escoce a .1. petit estanc qui est merveilleusement bon et fertille en nourriture de poissons, car aux quatre cornieres dudit estanc se nourrissent moult grant habondance de poissons en quatre manieres despeces, dont les ungs sont differens et ne ressemblent pas es autres. Et se tienent et nourrissent chascune maniere desdictz poissons a son coing et anglet, sans aller ne vaguer lung avec lautre.349 Item dit Gervaise que en Escoce les nobles gens anciennement souloient sur toutes autres nacions mieulx scavoir la nature et condicion de tous oyseaulx de praye et la maniere de les affaictier et reclamer, et dit quil fut .1. roy en Escoce qui avoit .1. faulconnier qui par sa seule parolle savoit prandre les oyseaulx comme perdriz, cannes, grues, herom. Et si il veist une nyee de perdriaulx voller par devant luy il les faisoit aller ou il vouloit. Et en prenoit desquelz quils vouloit quant ilz estoient descenduz a terre.350

enters every day, which fills all valleys. And it pushes back all rivers, of which comes a great marvel. For when the surge of the sea swells, the said pond drinks and receives all the water of the sea which has entered into it, nor do the sides or the banks of the pond even get wet from it, but when the sea water has pulled back and diminished, then the water of the said pond marvelously grows and puffs up and raises itself in the manner of a high mountain between its banks, to such an extent that everything around the pond is covered and full of water. And from this comes a great marvel. For if anyone stops there to see and experience the thing and, from a seated position, watches the rising of the water, he will be in peril of being drowned. And he will find himself surrounded by water and will be marvelously drenched by this water. And if he comes through without stopping and without looking at the pool, he will be able to pass safely without fear of any peril. Gervaise says that in Scotland in the time of King Arthur there were sixty pools, of which each was equivalent to a lake in its abundance of running water and the fish that were there. In Scotland there were sixty habitable islands. Sixty rivers flowed down there, over which were sixty high rocky mountains. And on each of them there were sixty nests for the eagles that every year lay and brooded eggs there. And by their cry or song, by means of natural aptitude or a sort of augury, they announced to the inhabitants of the land of Scotland the adventures and fortunes that were going to happen to them. Gervaise says that in Scotland there is one small pond that is marvelously good and fertile in food for fishes, for at the four corners of the said pond feed a very great abundance of fish in four different species, of which each kind is different and does not resemble the others. And every species of fish stays put and feeds itself in its own corner or niche without going out or swimming with each other. Gervaise says that in Scotland the noblemen in olden times used to be above all other nations in knowing the nature and condition of all birds of prey and the manner of taming and training them, and he says that there was one king in Scotland who had one falconer who just by the use of his voice knew how to take game birds such as partridges, ducks, cranes, and herons. And if he saw a covey of partridges fly before him, he made them go where he wished. And then he could take what he wished when they had descended to the earth.

Said of an area on the Welsh border near the Severn in Banks and Binns, II.17, p. 423. Roughly, Banks and Binns, II.17, p. 423. 348 Roughly, Banks and Binns, II.17, p. 423. 349 Roughly, Banks and Binns, II.17, p. 423. 350 This is a much more elaborate anecdote than the version in Banks and Binns, III.84, p. 717. 346 347

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49) [Trapo] Trapo est une ysle situee en Inde la Majour dont les arbres and les herbes sont tousjours vers et plains de fueilles, de fleurs, et de fruitz et en toutes saisons. La terre de lisle de Trapo si est habondant sur toutes autres terres en riches pierres precieuses comme perles et riches marguerites. En lisle de Trapo liver et leste sont deux foiz lan. Et pour ce yest la terre tresfertille et habondant en [biens]. Car elle porte et y rend son fruit deux foiz lan, qui est ung grant [bien] pour les habitans du pais.351

49) Trapo Trapo is an island situated in India the Great where the trees and plants are always green and full of leaves, flowers, and fruits, in all seasons. The land of the island of Trapo is also abundant above all other lands in rich precious stones such as valuable pearls. On the island of Trapo winter and summer occur twice a year. And because of this, the land is very fertile and abundant in goods. For it bears and renders its fruits twice a year, which is a great benefit for the inhabitants of the country.

50) [Sirie] 57v/ Sirie est une province situee vers orient, pres de Damas qui despuis a este ung royaume de grant regnom. En Sirie a une eglise fondee de Nostre Dame, appellee Nostre Dame de Sardanay. En laquelle est lymaige de la Vierge Marie. Et nul ne scet de quelle matiere est lymage faicte, ou si cest boys ou pierre, laquelle ymaige a une mamelle de chair vive ou semblable laquelle rend tousjours huille en lieu de lait. Ainsi comme Gervaise tesmoigne ainsi que jadis advint par divin miracle.352 Item dit Gervaise que en Sirie croist le basme qui est le plus precieulx ongnement qui soit et le plus riche et le plus prouffitable contre toutes blesseures. Et dist que quant le basme est bon, precieux, et fin quil poise a double plus que la germe de terebinche que nous appellons pardeca turbentine. Et quant il poise egallement ou moins, cest signe quil nest pas fin et quil est mistionne dautres mistions.353 Item dit Gervaise que en Sirie, pres de la cite de Esbroin, a ung champ du quel la terre est rouge, laquelle est bonne et doulce a menger. Et est souvent fossoyee et cavee et prinse et emportee par les 58/ marchans estranges tant dEgipte comme dailleurs qui la vendent bien et moult cherement entre les autres espices quilz portent parmy les autres pays qui sont environ. Et de ce dit Gervaise une moult grant et merveilleuse chose. Car quant on aura prins tout au long de lannee de celle terre. Et quant on y aura fait une grant fosse et parfonde. Quant ce viendra au bout de lan on trouvera ladicte fosse toute ramplie et comblee de telle et semblable terre comme celle la que lon y aura prins sans que lon sen apparcoyve en riens.354

50) Syria Syria is a province situated towards the East near Damascus, which since has been a realm of great renown. In Syria there is a church founded in honor of Our Lady, called Our Lady of Sardanay. In it is the image of the Virgin Mary. And no one knows out of what material the image was made, whether it is wood or stone, this image that has a breast of living flesh or something like it, which always gives forth oil in place of milk. Thus it is, as Gervaise testifies, just as it happened long ago by divine miracle. Gervaise says that in Syria grows balm that is the most precious ointment that exists and the most valuable and most efficacious against all wounds. And he says that when the balm is good and precious and fine, it weighs twice as much as the shoots of the terebinthe tree that we here call turpentine. And when it weighs the same or less, that is a sign that it is not fine and is adulterated with other compounds. Gervaise says that in Syria near the city of Esbron there is a field where the soil is red, which is good and pleasant to eat. And it is often dug and excavated and taken and carried off by foreign merchants, as often from Egypt as from other lands, who sell it easily and at a very high price along with the other spices they carry into the countries that are around there. And about this Gervaise says a great and marvelous thing. For when one has gathered this earth all year long and when one has made a great and deep ditch, when the end of the year comes, one will find the said ditch all full and overflowing with the same earth as that which was taken out, without anyone noticing how it happened at all.

Confused with Taprobane or Ceylon. See Banks and Binns, II.3, p. 185. Banks and Binns, III.46, p. 647. 353 Banks and Binns, III.51, p. 653; 78, p. 705. 354 Banks and Binns, III.117, p. 811. 351

352

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51) [Seres] Seres est une petite region situee vers les parties de orient qui est si tresloing de labitacion de gens dautre nacion ou condicion que nul homme ne peut que a grant poyne et a 58v/ grant adventure la aller ne arriver, pour plusieurs causes. Premierement, entre nous et eulx sont continuellement grans neiges et parfondes, par quoy non ne peut bonnement ne seurement en celle region passer ne aller. Item aussi la sont les desers si grans, et si terribles et si plains de bestes ravissans, sauvaiges, et venimeuses comme tigres, loups, serpens, et dragons, pourquoy bonnement nul ne pourroit aller sans perdre la vie. Item aussi la sont certaines gens lesqueulx sont nommez Antropophages, qui sont si tres hideulx, terribles, et si cruelz et sauvaiges quil nest nul si hardy, sil ne veult estre devoure deulx, qui les ose actendre ne regarder. Pour quoy on ne pourroit bonnement en celle region aller. Item qui veult aller en celle region, il fault passer par le promontoire de Cabin. Et parmy autres grans desers qui sont moult longs et moult larges et inhabitables. Oultre lesquelz desers est la region de Seres. La region de Seres est ainsi nommee pour ce que la croist la soye a moult grant habondance en certains arbres, et semble que ce soit mousse, la quelle les gens du pais cuillent et en font leurs draps et leurs vestemens pour leur usaige. De ceste region parle Solin et dit que le peuple qui y habite est doulz, de bonnaire, amoureux et paisible et fuyent la compaignie de tous autres estranges, ne ilz ne veullent aller ne converser, fors avecques les gens de leur nacion. Et quant les marchans dautres pais estranges viennent et arrivent a aucun port en la region de Seres pour avoir aucunes marchandises ou pais, ilz ne treuvent a qui parler ne a truchement ne a personne quelconcques. Mais quant ilz veullent avoir des denrees du pais, ilz descendent sur le rivage de la mer du ble, du vin, et autres marchandises quilz auront admenees. Et puis la se partiront et ny retourneront jusques au chief de troys [jours]. Pendent lequel temps ceulx du pais de Seres viennent adviser et regarder quelles denrees et combien les marchans estrangiers leur ont admenees et presentees. Et puis les despartent entre eulx et en baillent a ung chascun sa porcion et partie, et les emportent chascun en son habitacion. Et puis selon leur advis et conscience et le plus egallement quilz peuent, ilz apportent sur le propre lieu et rivaige de la mer autant ou plus de leurs denrees et marchandises. Et puys sen retournent en leurs habitacions. Lors apres les troys jours, les marchans estrangiers sen retournent de la ou ilz cestoient esloignez et allez, et revenent au dit port et rivaige de la mer, et chargent en leurs vaisseaulx les denrees et marchandises que ceulx de Seres leur ont sur le rivaige apportees. Et les enmenrent en leurs pais. Mais, soit prouffit ou

51) Seres (China) China is a small region situated towards the East which is so extremely far from the habitation of men of other nations or condition that no man can, except with great difficulty and great danger, go there or gain access to it, for several reasons. First, between us and them are continual great and deep snows, through which one cannot safely go or travel from this region. Also the deserts there are so great and so terrible and so full of ravenous, wild, venomous beasts like tigers, wolves, serpents, and dragons, that no one would be able to go there in a simple way without being killed. Also there are certain men who are called Anthropophages who are so hideous, terrible, cruel, and savage that there is no one so bold, if he does not wish to be eaten by them, who dares to look either for them or at them. And this is why no one can routinely go to this region. Whoever wishes to go to this region must pass by the promontory of Cabin. And among other great deserts which are most long and wide and uninhabitable. Beyond these deserts is the region of the Seres. The region of the Seres is thus named because that is where silk grows in most great abundance in certain trees, and it seems to be a kind of moss, which the men of the country collect and out of which they make cloth and garments for their use. Solinus speaks of this region and says that the people who live there are mild, courteous, loving, and peaceful, and they flee the company of all foreign strangers, nor do they wish to socialize or converse with anyone save the people of their nation. And when merchants from other foreign countries come and arrive at any port in the region of Seres in order to do some mercantile business in the country, they do not find anyone to speak with, neither an interpreter nor indeed anyone whatsoever. But when they wish to obtain any of the goods of the country, they deposit on the seashores some grain, some wine, and whatever other merchandise they have brought with them. And then they will leave and will not return there until three days have passed. During this time, the people of the country of Seres come to examine and look over what kind of goods and how many the foreign merchants have brought there and presented to them. And then they divide them among themselves and award each his portion and share, and each carries off his goods to his home. And then, according to their opinion and conscience, in the most equitable way they can, they carry to the same place and location on the seashore as much or more of their own goods and merchandise. And then they go back to their homes. Then, after the three days, the foreign merchants return from wherever they had gone off to in order to distance themselves, and return to the said port on the seashore and load their vessels with the goods and merchandise that the Seres have brought for them on the seashore. And they take them back to their country.

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dommaige, ilz ne prennent fors que les denrees quilz treuvent. Car ilz ne treuvent personne a qui parler.355

But, whether it be profit or loss, they take only the goods they find there. For they find no one with whom to speak.

52) [Tuscane] 59/ Tuscane est une province situee en Ytalie dont parle Ysidoires et dit que anciennement elle fut nommee Athure. Cest a dire ensens odorant, pour ce que anciennement, par la coustume du pais, quant les parens et amys charnelz des habitans estoient mors et sepueliz, ilz mectoient grant habondance densens dedans du feu entour le corps des mors. Et en ce point les veilloient et gardoient jusques ad ce quilz fussent sepultures en terre dont la coustume de ce faire est encores introducte par toutes saincte Chretiente. Item dit Gervaise que en Tuscane a de molt haultes montaignes qui environnent le pais parquoy les habitans de la terre sont plus seurement et se prenent a bien peu dachaison garder de leurs ennemys.356 Item dit Gervaise que celle terre est moult fertile en tous biens comme fruiz et grains.357 Item ceste terre quant au regard du ciel et de lair du temps, est moult bien moderee et attrempee. Et communement lair y est naturellement doulx, sain, et gracieux. Item la sont moult belles rivieres et fontaines qui sont naturellement chaudes et medicinables a ceulx qui se baignent dedans. Item la terre de celle province est naturellement chaude et y croissent certaines precieuses fleurs, herbes, et arbres aromatiques et moult bon flerans et adorans comme saffrain, graine pour taindre escarlate, et autres espices souef flerans.

52) Tuscany Tuscany is a province situated in Italy, of which Isidore speaks and says that in ancient times it was named Athure—that is to say, «fragrant incense,» for in ancient times, because of the custom of the country, when the parents and lovers of the inhabitants were dead and prepared for burial, they put a great abundance of incense in the fire around the bodies of the dead. And in this condition, they watched over and guarded them until they were buried in the earth, a custom that is still carried out by all holy Christians. Gervaise says that in Tuscany there are many high mountains that surround the country, because of which the inhabitants of the region live more securely and find very few occasions to guard against their enemies. Gervaise says that this land is very fertile in all goods, such as fruits and grains. This land, with respect to the sky and the weather, is very moderate and temperate. And commonly the air there is naturally mild, healthy, and pleasing. There are many beautiful rivers and springs that are naturally warm and curative to those who bathe in them. The earth of this region is naturally warm, and there grow there certain precious flowers, herbs, and trees that are aromatic, abundant in blossoms, and rich in scent, such as saffron, the seed for scarlet dye, and other sweet flowering spices.

53) [Tile] 59v/ Tile est une ysle situee oultre Angleterre, dont parle Solin et dit que en aucune partie dacquilon on veut le soleil continuellement par lespace de vi moys et puys apres le demy an auxi par le lespace de vi moys on ne voit point. Ainsi il me semble que Solin veult dire que en celle contree, il est tousjours nuyt par lespace de vi moys. Et vous scaves que lan ne dure que xii moys. Et que ung jour et une nuyt ne durent que de xxiv heures.

53) Thule Thule is an island situated beyond England, of which Solinus speaks and says that, in some part of the North, one sees the sun continually for a period of six months and then, after this half year, for a period of six months one does not see it. Thus it seems to me that Solinus wishes to say that in this country, it is always night for a period of six months. And you know that the year endures only twelve months. And that one day and one night endure only twenty-four hours.

Most of this account of China and the Chinese is drawn from Collectanea, 182-83 and Romer, ed. and tr., Mela, 3.59, p. 118. See also Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum Historiale, Book I, Ch. 87, p. 32. For early knowledge of the Chinese see Samuel Lieberman, «Who were Pliny’s Blue-Eyed Chinese?» Classical Philology 52 (1957): 174-77; Jean-Michel Poinsotte, «Les Romains et la Chine. Réalités et mythes,» Mélanges d’Archéologie et d’Histoire de l’École française de Rome 91 (1979): 431-79; Yves Janvier, «Rome et l’Orient lointain: le problème des Sères. Réexamen d’une question de géographie antique,» Ktèma 9 (1984): 261-303; and John Thorley, «The Silk Trade between China and the Roman Empire at the Height, circa A.D. 90-130,» Greece and Rome 18 (1971): 71-80. The story of the exchange of goods was reproduced in other manuscript miniatures such as that by the Master of Marguerite d’Orléans whose connection with SNH illustration is discussed in the Introduction. 356 Banks and Binns, II.8, p. 271. 357 Banks and Binns, II.8, p. 271. 355

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Item dit Solin que pereillement est il ainsi du souleil en la region de Noergie. Car ou temps deste environ la moytie du moys de Juing le soleil est tousjours luisant a toute heure. Et quant ce vient au temps dyver environ la moytie du moys de Decembre, il est tousjours nuyt et ne voit on point le souleil. Et convient que les habitans du pais facent leur labour et leurs besoignes a la lumiere du feu, comme a la chandelle, a la torche, ou autrement selon lusaige et coustume du pais. Item dit Solin que lisle de Tile est situee en la mer oultre Angleterre vi journees de mer, laquelle ysle est inhabitable. Et ny puet homme ne femme demourer ne habiter pour deux causes. La cause premiere si est. Car le souleil y luist tousjours par lespace de vi moys sans absconser qui est la si tresmerveilleusement chault et ardent que nulle personne ne pourroit endurer. Car il brule et art 60/ tout en ceste contree ou temps deste. La seconde cause si est, car ou temps diver il y est tousjours nuyt par lespace des autres vi moys. Et ny apparoist point le souleil. Et pour ceste cause il y fait si tresgrant froit et si tresgrant gellee que la homme [ne] pourroit vivre ne durer. Et pour ces deux causes est celle terre en desert et inhabitable. Autrement en [parle] Plinius et dit que lisle de Tile est habitee de gens. Et combien que le souleil y luyse par vi moys sans absconser. Et auxi quil y soit nuyt par lespace de vi moys sans ajourner, neantmoins lair du temps y est asses modere et atrempe et vivent les gens qui y habitent ases a leur aise. Item dit Plinius que les gens qui habitent en celle terre sont de honneste et bonne vie. Car ilz ayment paix, union, et acord, et haysent toute guerre et discord et sont de longue vie et ne sont nul temps malades. Et ce quant vient quilz sont sur leur aage et quilz sont bien vielz et anciens, ilz se gectent en la mer et se noient. Et dient quil nest nulle si belle ne si bonne maniere de mourir comme de soy noyer en la mer.358

Solinus says that the situation with the sun is the same in the region of Norway. For in the summertime, around the middle of the month of June, the sun is always shining at all hours. And when it comes to wintertime, around the middle of the month of December, it is always night and one does not see the sun at all. And, accordingly, the inhabitants take care of their labor and their needs by the light of a fire, such as by candle or torch or otherwise, according to the usage and custom of the country. Solinus says that the island of Thule is situated in the sea, six days journey by sea beyond England, and this island is uninhabitable. And no man or woman can dwell or remain there for two reasons. The first reason is this: that the sun shines there all day for a period of six months without setting, which means that it is so amazingly hot and burning that no person can endure it. For it burns and scorches everything in this land in the summertime. The second reason is this: that in wintertime it is always night for the duration of the other six months. And the sun does not appear at all. And for this reason, it is so extremely cold and icy there that no man could live there or endure it. And for these two reasons this land is deserted and uninhabitable. Pliny, however, says quite otherwise, claiming that the island is inhabited by men. And even though the sun shines there for six months without setting, and there is night there for six months of the year without a break, nonetheless the weather is rather moderate and temperate, and the people who live in this land do so quite comfortably. Pliny says that the people who live in this land lead an honorable and good life. For they love peace, unity, and accord, and they hate all war and discord, and they are long-lived and never ill. And when the time comes that they are aged and they are very old and decrepit, they throw themselves into the sea and drown. And they say that there is no manner of dying as beautiful and good as drowning oneself in the sea.

54) [Tracie] Tracie est une province situee vers les parties de Europpe, pres de la terre de Elespont, en laquelle est situee la cite de Constantinoble qui est tant renommee, laquelle cite anciennement estoit nommee Bisence. Solin dit que en la fin de ceste region souloit avoir peuples nommeez Barbares qui sont de moult estrange condicion et de merveilleuse maniere. 60v/ Car ilz se maintiennent comme bestes

54) Thrace Thrace is a province situated close to Europe near the land of Hellespont, in which is located the city of Constantinople, which is very famous and which was formerly called Byzantium. Solinus says that in the far reaches of this region there used to be people called Barbarians, who are of a very strange condition and a marvelous manner. For they live like dumb beasts, and they have

Actually, Collectanea, 102, 213; NH 2.15, p. 221 and NH 4.5, p. 129. See Roger T. Macfarlane, «Thule,» in Friedman and Figg, eds., Trade, Travel and Exploration, p. 602; Monique Mund-Dopchie, «L’ultima Thule dans l’imaginaire occidental: Les métamorphoses d’une île réelle en un pays fabuleux,» Cuadernos del CEMYR, Nº 3, 1995 [Ejemplar dedicado a: Los Universos insulares]: 119-38; and Vincent H. de P. Cassidy, «The Voyage of an Island,» Speculum 38 (1963): 595-602. 358

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mues et nont ne sens ne raison en eulx, et ne font comte de la mort et sentretuent de leur bonne volunte. Et croient par ferme oppinion que quant ilz sont mors que leurs ames sont plus eureuses apres la mort en lautre monde quelles ne sont en ce monde ycy. Item quant leurs enfans sont nouvellement nez de leurs meres, ilz font grant deul et demonstrent grant signe de courroux et de tristesse et disent que leurs enfans viennent en ce monde pour peine avoir et malle meschance. Item quant leurs parens et amys sont mors, ilz sen resjoissent et en font moult grant et excessive feste. Et dient que quant leurs amys meurent, que leurs ames entrent en la grant joye de lautre monde. Item dit Solin quilz ont une ordonnance entreulx que celluy qui plus aura eu de femmes sera le plus honnoure et prise.359 Item dit Solin que les femmes si marient de leur propre gre et volunte a leur plaisir sans le conseil and consentement de leurs parens et amys. Et quant elles sont belles, les mariz qui elles veulent avoir, les achetent moult cherement. Et se vendent elles mesmes au plus offrant, et quant elles sont laides et maladvenans, elles achetent leurs mariz, et par ainsi il appert que la bonte et honnestete des pucelles et des femmes de ceste terre est moins prisee et honnouree que nest leur beaulte et leur richesse.360

no sense or reason, and they take no heed of death and kill each other gladly. And they firmly believe that when they are dead their souls are happier after death in the other world than they are in this one. When their children are newly born of their mothers, they make great mourning and show great signs of unhappiness and anger, and they say that their children come into this world to have pain and misery. When their parents and friends are dead, they rejoice about it and make great feasting and celebration. And they say that when their friends die, their souls enter into the great joy of the other world. Solinus says that they have a rule among themselves that the one who has had the most wives will be most honored and prized. Solinus says that the women marry according to their own tastes and will without the counsel and consent of their families and friends. And when they are beautiful, the husbands who wish to have them pay most dearly for them. And they sell themselves to the ones offering the most. And when they are ugly and unattractive, they buy their husbands, and thus it appears that the good name and honesty of the maidens and the wives of this land is less valued and honored than their beauty and their wealth.

55) [Traponee] Traponee est une ysle qui est situee bien pres de Inde la Maior, devers la partie de mydy, de laquelle parle Solin et dit que avant que Alyxandre 61/ envoiast en celle ysle son navire et ses gens darmes et ambassadeurs, il estoit en telle erreur et oultrecuydance quil cuydoit estre seul dieu et le plus puissant roy du monde. Item dit Solin que en celle terre le souleil y lieve a dex[tre]. Et que la partie doccident y est a senestre. Et que les vii estoilles du Chariot du Ciel que nous appellons Septentrion nullement ne sont la veues ni apperceues, pour la lontaingne interposicion de la terre. Item dit Solin que la lune nest aucunesfoiz point veue luyre en celle terre si non quant elle est plaine. Et ne luyst que despuis viii heures de mynuit jusques ung peu apres mynuit. Item dit Solin que en lieu de la clarte de la lune ilz ont la lumiere et clarte dune tresbelle et clere estoille appellee Canopos, qui donne en celle contree, une tresgrant et reluisant lumiere et clarte de nuyt par terre et par mer. Mais elle ne donne pas si tres grant clarte comme fait la lune.

55) Traponee Traponee is an island which is situated very near India the Great, toward the Southern part, of which Solinus speaks and says that before Alexander sent his navy and his soldiers and ambassadors to this island, he was in such a state of error and foolish pride that he believed himself to be the only god and the most powerful king in the world. Solinus says that in this land the sun rises on the right. And that the Western part is on the left. And that the seven stars of the Chariot of Heaven that we call the Septentrion are never viewed or seen there because of the distant interposition of the earth. Solinus says that the moon is never seen to be shining in this land except when it is full. And it shines only from eight hours before midnight until a little after midnight. Solinus says that in place of the light of the moon, they have the light and radiance of a very beautiful and bright star called Canopos, which gives, in this country, a very great and shining light and radiance at night on land and on sea. But it does not give such very bright light as the moon does.

359 360

Collectanea, 67. This discussion is drawn from Collectanea, 67.

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Item dit Solin que pour ce que les mariniers, quant ilz sont en la mer qui est en celle contree ne peuent veoir ni choisir ou ciel lestoille qui les adresse que lon nomme le Polartique qui est fichee au millieu de la roe, par laquelle ilz sceuent congnoistre et choisir les contrees, les terres, et les bons pors et les regions, ilz se advisent dung remede bien subtil. Car ilz prenent et font prandre et mectre en une caige dedans leurs vaisseaux certains oyseaulx qui sont de telle condicion quilz ne desirent tousjours que destre sur terre et aller a la terre. Et sentent bien quant ilz sont en la mer et de quel couste est la terre plus prochaine deulx. Et pour ce quant les mariniers sont esgarez en la mer et quilz ont volunte daller et aborder a terre et a bon port, ilz prenent lung de leurs oyseaulx qui de sa naturelle condicion scet et congnoist bien ou est la plus prochaine terre. Adonc les mariniers len laissent aller et voller. Et de quelque couste que loyseau voyse les mariniers le suyvront et nageront apres. Et par le moyen de cest oysel ilz arriveront a port et a terre. Item dit Solin que le peuple de Traponee si a de coustume de faire et eslire a leur roy en commun tous dung acord ung homme qui sera de bonne renommee, preux, saige, loyal, et plain de bonnes meurs, et qui sera doulx et de bonnaire. Et comment quil soit de leage de lx ans et plus et quil nait nulz enffans. Item de quelque sagesse, proesse et honneur quil soit plain, ja du peuple il naura le gouvernement si non seullement son estat royal. Et sil advient que despuis quil est fait et constitue roy quil soit marie et que sa femme ait enfans masles. Tantost il sera despouse et destitue de son royaulme par le commun peuple. Car ilz ne veulent point avoir roys successeurs a leur royaulme par lignee et droit de succession. Mais les veulent avoir par commune election. Item dit Solin que en lissue de Trapponee croissent les plus grans limassons qui soient ou monde et vont si trestoust que cest merveilles, et les chassent et venent les gens du pays comme nous faisons de pardeca les bestes sauvaiges. Et vivent les gens du pais de leur char. Et se hebergent les hommes et femmes du pais dedans leurs coques, tant sont grandes, et nont nulles autre maisons ne habitacions.361

Solinus says that because sailors, when they are on the sea that is in this country, cannot see or pick out in the sky the star that guides them, which is called the Polartique and which is located in the middle of the wheel of the heavens, by which they knew how to recognize and choose the countries, the lands, and the good ports and regions, they gain information through a very subtle alternative means. For they trap and have taken and put into a cage on their boats certain birds that are of such a nature that they desire only to be on land and go towards the land. And they fully recognize when they are at sea and on which side they will find land closer to them. And for this reason when the sailors are lost at sea and they wish to travel to and arrive at land and a good port, they take out one of their birds that by its nature knows and is fully aware of where the nearest land is to be found. Then the mariners let it go and fly away. And whichever side the bird goes to, the sailors will follow it and sail after. And by this means they will arrive at the port and land. Solinus says that the people of Traponee have the custom of creating and electing as their king, in common and of one accord, a man who will be of good reputation, worthy, wise, loyal, and morally sound, and who will be mild and gentle. And he must have reached the age of 50 or more and have no children. No matter how filled he may be with wisdom, prowess, and honor, he will never have the government of the people except only through his royal estate. And if it comes about that after he has been made king he gets married and his wife has male children, he will immediately be deposed and his realm will be taken from him by the common people. For they do not wish to have kings who succeed to their realm by lineage and right of succession. But rather, they wish to have them by common election. Solinus says that among the progeny of Traponee grow the biggest snails that exist in the world, and they move so quickly that it is a marvel, and the men of the country hunt and chase them as we over here hunt wild animals. And the people of the region live on their flesh. And the shells are so big that the men and women of the country live inside them, and they have no other houses or habitations.

56) [Ululande] 61v/ Ululande est une region situee es haultes montaignes de Noergie dont les habitans sont gens barbares et plain de grant cruaulte. Car ceste maniere de gent si mettent toute leur estudie

56) Ululand Vinland is a region situated in the high mountains of Norway where the inhabitants are barbarous and full of great cruelty. For this manner of men put all their effort into learning and knowing diabolical

Canopus or the Southern Pole Star, Alpha Carinae. The account in Pliny, NH, 6.34, p. 407, is of giant turtle shells. See Banks and Binns, II.3, p. 185, and Collectanea, 195-97. These farmed snails seem to be a variant of the actual giant African snail, A. Fulica. See Germaine Aujac, «Taprobane,» in Friedman and Figg, eds., Trade, Travel and Exploration, pp. 992-93. 361

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a aprendre et savoir les invocacions dyaboliques selon lart et science magicque. Et quant les marchans mariniers viennent et arrivent en celle terre par fortune de vent. Et ne sen peuent partir par deffault de vent qui leur soit bon et propice pour faire leur voyage. Lors les magiciens de Ululande—cestassavoir ceulx qui savent user de lart et science magique—viennent par devers iceulx marchands et mariniers. Et leur offrent a vendre le vent. Cest adire quilz leur feront avoir bon vent pour parfaire leur voiage, mais quilz leur baillent une grant finance dor et dargent. Adonc les marchans et mariniers achetent le vent deulx une tresgrant finance pour eulx delivirer du peril ou ilz sont par quoy ilz sont pres que destruiz de leur chevance. Et lors quant ceulx de Lulande ont receu la finance des marchands, ilz font tant par leur science dyabolique et magique que les marchans et mariniers ont vent a leur plaisir et sen vont a leur voyage parquoy les mariniers en perdent aucunesfois corps et ame. Car quant ceulx de Lulande leur veullent faire avoir le vent, ilz prenent 62/ ung gros peloton de fil et le gectent dedans la mer ou pres ou loing selon ce quilz veulent avoir grant vent ou petit. Adonc ilz appellent les dyables lesquelz tantost viennent a eulx qui esmeuvent lair et lamer. Et font venter environ le navire des mariniers et marchans et semble esdits mariniers que ce soit le bon vent qui leur soit venu. Et quant lesdits marchans sont entres ung peu avant en la mer. Adonc les dyables si leur esmeuvent si grant tempeste et si grant torment quilz sont tous noyez et leurs vaisseaux tous rompuz, tormentez, effondrez et despeciez. Et ainsi les povres marchans [sont] perilz pour croyre en lart et science magique et dyabolique et en perdent corps et ame et leur chevance.362

incantations according to the art and science of magic. And when merchant sailors come and arrive in this land by the fortunes of the winds, and they cannot leave because of a lack of wind that would be good and propitious for them to make their voyage, then the Vinland magicians—that is to say, those who know how to use the art and science of magic— come out to meet these merchants and mariners. And they offer to sell them some wind. That is to say, that they will cause them to have good winds to complete their voyage, only if they give them a great payment of gold and silver. Then the merchants and sailors buy the wind from them at a very high price to save themselves from the great peril they are in, which is threatening to destroy their wealth. And then, when those of Vinland have received the merchants’ payment, they work to such purpose by their art and science of diabolical magic that the merchants and mariners have wind at their pleasure, and they go off on their voyage, as a consequence of which the sailors sometimes lose body and soul. For when the men of Vinland wish to make them have wind, they take a big pile of twine and throw it in the sea, either nearby or far away, according to whether they wish to have a big wind or a small one. Then they call the devils, who immediately come to the ones who move the air and the sea. And they make it blow around the ship of the mariners and merchants, and it seems to the said mariners that it is a good wind that has come to them. And when these merchants have gone a little ways into the ocean, then the devils put into motion so great a tempest and so great a raging sea that they are all drowned and their ships are riven, horribly tossed, sunken, and broken to pieces. And thus the poor merchants perish because they believed in the art and science of magic and devilry, and they lose their bodies and souls and all their chattels.

57) [Merveilles du corps humain]363 Moult a de merveilles en corps humain. Car comme dit Solin on se doit bien esmerveiller des merveilles du monde raconter. Car il ne sera ja trove homme qui ait vesqu longuement en ce monde qui nait plus eu et souffert daversite que de prosperitie. Dont nous avons ung example de Julius Cesar lequel comme dist Seneques fut tant heureux et de si grant joye et felicite. Car il fit tout ce quil

57) Wonders of the Human Body There are many marvels relating to the human body. For as Solinus says, one ought certainly to marvel to hear the wonders of the world recounted. For no one will ever find a man who lived long in this world who did not have and endure more adversity than prosperity. We have an example of this in Julius Caesar, who, as Seneca says, was so happy and so full of joy and felicity. For he did everything that he wanted to

This is Vinlandia, as in Bartholomaeus Anglicus, De Proprietatibus Rerum. See Michael C. Seymour, ed., On the Properties of Things (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975) Vol. II, Book XV, Ch. 171, pp. 822-23, from which Bersuire seems to have taken this story of the wind merchants, possibly Lapps or Finns, and devils. On the general knowledge of this region see Leonid S. Chekin, «Mappa Mundi and Scandinavia,» Scandinavian Studies 65 (1993): 487-520. For wind magic in various cultures, see Reinhold Stromberg, «The Aeolus Episode and Greek Wind Magic,» Acta Universitatis Gotoburgensis 56 (1950): 73-84. See most recently Stephen Mitchell, Witchcraft and Magic in the Nordic Middle Ages (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001), and Jacqueline Leclercq-Marx, «Vox Dei clamat in tempestate. À propos de l’iconographie des Vents et d’un groupe d’inscriptions campanaires (IXe-XIIIe siècles), Cahiers de civilisation médiévale 42.166 (1999): 179-87. We are grateful to Professor Chekin for help with this passage. 363 Chapter headings hereafter are supplied by the Editors. MS Morgan 461 divides this Chapter in two. 362

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voulut et vint tout au dessus de ses desires et ses souhaiz. Et si fut vittorien sur tous les ennemys et souverain empereur et seigneur de tout le monde. Mais par sa confession il dit quil eut plus de doleurs et destresses au cueur quil ny eut oncques de joye ne de liesses. Et dist que bien consideree sa vie et le long proces de affaires. Cest assavoir les honneurs et les proffiz et les doleurs et tristesses a peine povoit on jugier si sa joye passa sa tristesse.364 Item dict Seneque que femmes qui sont enceintes et grosses denffant sentent plus grant douleur en plaine lune que en autre temps et que moult leur nuyst la lune plaine. Item dit Seneque que femmes qui sont grosses ou enceintes denffant ne doyvent point mengier viandes sallees. Et si elles le acoustument et continuent de les mengier durant leur enceintement les enffants naistront sans avoir ongles es doiz. Et sils en ont ilz seront petis, meschans, et tendres. Item dit Solin que a femmes qui sont enceintes denfent moult leur nuyst davoir la passion du hoquet quant elles sont es angoisses davoir enfant et ya tresgrant peril. Et pour ce on leur doit conseiller a retenir leur alayne longuement pour elles garder du hocquet. Item dit Solin que quant ung enfant naist les piez devant. Cest signe de tout mal qui luy doit advenir. Car ceste maniere de naistre nest pas bonne ne naturelle. Mais est signiffiance et demonstrance quil ne vivra pas longuement. Et si il vit il naura ja bien ne chevance, mais sera subgect a toute malle adventure. Et si sera de tous maulvaiz le pire et fera moult de maulx. Et selon que dient Solin et Plinius telz enfans doyvent estre appellez aggrippes. Et de ce nous recite Plinius ung exemple en ung livre des merveilles du monde en parlant de Neron. Et dit que ses parens lappellerent Aggrippe. Car Neron conquist lempire de Romme malicieusement par tyrannye et par inhumaine cruaulte. Car il fut ennemy mortel et cruel de toute humaigne lignee, et en la fin il se tua soy mesmes.365 Item auxi le roy Herodes nasquit les piez devant. Et pour ce fut il appelle aggrippe. Car comme dit le texte de la Saincte Evangeli. Car quant le roy Herode eut obtenu son grant eur. Cest assavoir les grans honneurs royaulx 62v/ et les grans tresors et richesses innumerables. Mais il cheut en la fin de ses jours en grant misere et grant confusion et en grans povrete et famine, et fina miserablement ses dernieres jours. Car les vers luy sailloient du corps tous vifs. Et pour la puantise qui sailloit de son corps il

do and surpassed all his desires and wishes. And he was victorious over all his enemies and sovereign emperor and lord of the entire world. But, by his own admission, he said that he had had more sadness and distress in his heart than he had joys and pleasures. And [Seneca] says that, considering his life and the long process of his affairs—that is to say, the honors and profits and the sorrows and sadnesses—scarcely could one judge whether his joy had surpassed his sadness. Seneca says that women who are pregnant and great with child feel more pain in the full moon than at other times and that the full moon causes them great discomfort. Seneca says that women who are pregnant or great with child should not eat salty foods. And if they put themselves in the habit of eating them and continue to eat them during their pregnancy, their children will be born without fingernails on their fingers. And if they have them, they will be small, deformed, and delicate. Solinus says that for women who are with child, it is very harmful to have an attack of hiccups when they are experiencing the pains of childbirth, and there is very great danger in this. And because of this, they should be advised to hold their breath for a long time to guard against hiccups. Solinus says that when a child is born feet first, it is a sign of all the bad things that lie in his future. For this manner of birth is neither good nor natural. But rather it signifies and demonstrates that he will not live a long time. And if he lives, he will never have goods or wealth, but will be subject to all kinds of bad luck. And thus he will be the worst of all bad people, and he will do many evil things. And according to what Pliny and Solinus say, such children ought to be called «aggrippes.» And concerning this, Pliny gives us an example in his book of wonders where he speaks of Nero. And he says that Nero’s parents called him Aggrippe. For Nero conquered the Roman Empire maliciously, by means of tyranny and inhuman cruelty. And he was a mortal and cruel enemy of the entire human race, and in the end he killed himself. Also King Herod was born feet first. And therefore he was called Aggrippe. For as the text of the Holy Gospel says, King Herod had obtained his heart’s desire—that is to say, great royal honors and great treasures and innumerable riches. But he fell at the end of his days into great misery and great confusion, and into great poverty and starvation, and he ended his days miserably. For the worms ravaged his body while he was still alive. And

This and the following passages attributed to Seneca by Bersuire are not found in the Declamations, Suasoria, Moral Essays or Natural Questions. Significantly, Bersuire merely says «teste Seneca.» 365 Collectanea, I.17; NH 7.6, p. 535. 364

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neust amy qui de luy voulsist approucher et mourut ainsi sans avoir sepulture.366 Item dit Solin que si ung enfant novellement ne est veu rire devant xl jours, il dist que cest contre le cours de nature et contre la coustume des enfans naturelz. Combien que Zoroastes recite de Socrates le subtil philosophe et ingenieulx artien que a leure quil commenca a rire. Mais cestuy fut seul de ceste condicion.367 Item dit Solin que Crassus le grant pere de Socrates ne fut oncques veu rire ne jeune ne vieulx, et si fut moult mal fortune, car il perdist tout son bien et son eur es batailles de Perse. A ce propos dit le Maistre des Ystoires que aucuns hommes ont este de moult merveilleuses condicions et diverses. Car aucuns ne rirent onques comme Crassus dont nous avons premierement cy devant parle. Les autres ne routerent oncques de la gorge comme Pomponius, les autres oncques ne cracherent comme Anthonicus et Dursus, les autres furent que oncques neurent dens es machoueres separees. Mais les avoient entieres et tenens ensemble dessoubz et dessus comme ung seul os tout du long des machoueres comme Prusus le filz du roy de Bithune, les autres sont que onques neurent soif comme fut Ligdanius et Siracusanus. Les autres furent telz que quant ilz nasquirent ilz avoient toutes leurs dens auxi bien comme filz eussent en vii ans acompliz.368 Item en L’Istoire de la Terre Saincte est faicte comparaison des merveilles, et dit L’Istoire que jadiz nasquirent en France hommes qui avoient les cornes ou front. Item en Angleterre a certaines lignees qui avoient queues au bout du dos.369 Item dit Gervaise que en Ytalie ya aucunes lignees de gens dont les enffans quant ilz naissent du ventre de leurs meres ont tous ung crappault ou front. Et si autrement ilz naissoient sans avoir ledit crapault cest signiffiance que lenffant nest pas legitime ne de bon mariaige.370 Item dict Solin que en Bretaigne a une lignee qui ont le fondement blanc, et si la femme de ung de ceulx de la lignee a ung

because of the stink that came from his body, he had no friend who wished to come near, and thus he died without burial. Solinus says that if a newborn infant is seen to laugh before forty days, this is against the course of nature and against the custom of normal children. However, Zoroaster says of Socrates, the subtle philosopher and ingenious teacher of the arts, that he began to laugh at the very hour of his birth. But he was the only one of this condition. Solinus says that Crassus, the great [mentor to Cicero], was never seen to laugh, neither when young nor when old, and thus he had much bad fortune, for he lost all his goods and his happiness in battles with the Persians. With regard to this, the Master of Histories says that some men have been of marvelous and diverse conditions. For some never laughed, like Crassus, of whom we have just spoken here first. Others never belched from the throat, like Pomponius; and others never spat, like Anthonicus and Drusus; and others never allowed their teeth and jaws to separate. But rather, they had them solidly connected and held together above and below like a single bone, the entire length of their jaws, like Prusus the son of the king of Bithunia; there were others who were never thirsty, like Ligdanius and Ciracusanus. Others were such that when they were born, they had all their teeth, as many as a child of seven years old would have achieved. In The History of the Holy Land a comparison of marvels is made, and the History says that in olden days there were men born in France who had horns on their foreheads. In England there are certain races that had tails at the ends of their backs. Gervaise says that in Italy there are some races of men whose children, when they come from the mothers’ wombs, all have a toadstone on their foreheads. And if anyone is born without having this toadstone, it is a sign that the child is not legitimate or from a faithful marriage. Solinus says that in Brittany there is a race of people who have white buttocks, and if a wife of a man of this race has a child who

Josephus, St. J. Thackeray, ed. and tr., Jewish Antiquities, 17.6.5. Actually Solinus says that Zoroaster, not Socrates, was the only person to laugh immediately after birth. Collectanea, 1.72-74; NH 7.16, p. 553. 368 Collectanea, 18; NH 7.16, p. 551. For the Master of Histories, see Peter Comestor above. The opening of the passage seems to conflate Lucius Licinius Crassus, the orator who critiques Socrates in Cicero’s de Oratore, with Marcus Licinius Crassus, the wealthy politician who was killed by the Persians. It is the latter who was said never to have laughed. 369 See Jean Donnadieu, ed. and tr., Jacques de Vitry Historia Orientalis (Turnhout: Brepols, 2008) XCII, 411, 409, p. 408. Walter Bower’s Scotochronicon, 1440, retells this story giving as a cause the failure of the West Saxon audience to listen properly to the preaching of Saint Augustine. See generally Malcolm Jones, The Secret Middle Ages (Thrupp, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton, 2002), pp. 66-68. On Jacques de Vitry’s account of the East generally see Jessalynn Bird, «The Historia Orientalis of Jacques de Vitry: Visual and Written Commentaries as Evidence of a Text’s Audience, Reception, and Utilization,» Essays in Medieval Studies 20.1 (2004): 56-74. 370 Not found in Gervaise. 366 367

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enffant qui nait pas le fondament blanc croyez de vray que ycelluy homme reffusera lenffant et suspeccionnera sa femme de avoir commis et fait adulterre.371 Item en France outre Berri et Orleans ou pais de Sauloigne a une generacion de nobles gens dont tous les hommes qui sont de ceste lignee ont troys genitoires. Et quant il naist ung enffant masle en leur lignee si il na troys genitoires la mere demeure blasmee et deshonnouree. Item dit Solin que Dieu moult a aime nature humaine pour ce quil a fait toutes choses. Et pour ce Dieu demonstre la figure et semblance domme en moult de choses. Aucunesfoiz en estoilles, aucunesfoiz en pierres precieuses, aucunesfoiz en bestes vives, aucunesfoiz en poissons de mer, aucunesfoiz en racines de herbes et darbres comme plus a plain de ce sera faicte mention en listoire de ce livre. La premiere merveille de condicion humaine. Comme dit Plinius est la differance et dissimilitude des faces humaines. Et dit oultre que comme il soit ainsi que en chascun visaige domme ait x membres, il ne se peut faire 63/ quil ny ait aucune differance et dissimilitude de lung a lautre. Et la cause si est. Car limaginacion et la pencee de la mere quant elle recoit le germe en soy si y fait moult a la generacion. Et mect exemple quil fut une femme qui conceupt et enfanta ung enffant qui estoit tout noir comme ung More de Morienne et fut celle femme accusee davoir eu compaignie charnelle de ung Ethiopien. Combien que elle fust preudefemme. Mais despuis il fut trouve et veriffie que a leure que lenffant fut engendre elle pensoit a ung Ethiopien quelle avoit veu le jour devant pour ce que oncques mais de tel homme navoit veu.372 Item ung parel cas advint en la ville dAvignon de une femme qui demouroit devant une enseigne de la teste noire qui estoit en ung hostel de nouvel mise et pendue. Si advint que quant celle femme eut la compaignie de son mary elle pensoit a celle teste noire et a celle heure luy engendra son mary ung enfant qui estoit aussi noire et semblable a celle teste noire. Si advint que celle femme fut accusee par son mary davoir fait adultere. Mais elle se excusa et dist que quant son mary luy engendra son enfant quelle pansoit a la teste noire. Et fut regarde et advise

is not born with white buttocks, you can truly believe that this husband will refuse the child and suspect his wife of having committed adultery. In France beyond Berri and Orléans, in the country of Sauloigne, there is a race of noble people such that all the men of this line have three sets of genitals. And when a male infant of this line is born, if he does not have three genitals, the mother is blamed and dishonored. Solinus says that God has greatly loved human nature because he has made all things. And for this reason, God shows the shape and likeness of man in many things—sometimes in stars, sometimes in precious stones, sometimes in living creatures, sometimes in fish of the sea, sometimes in roots of plants and trees, as will be mentioned more fully in the contents of this book. The first marvel of the human condition, as Pliny says, is the difference and distinction between human faces. And he says, moreover, that because it is the case that in each human face there are ten features, it is not possible that there could be no difference and dissimilarity between one face and another. And this is the cause. For the imagination and thought of the mother, when she receives the seed, plays an important role in generation. And we can take the example of a woman who conceived and gave birth to a child who was all black like a Moor from the land of the Moors, and this woman was accused of having sexual relations with an Ethiopian—even though she was a worthy woman. But later it was found and verified that at the instant the child was conceived she thought of an Ethiopian that she had seen the previous day, because she had never seen such a man before. A similar case happened in the town of Avignon of a woman who stopped in front of a sign of a black head, newly placed and hung outside a lodging. And it came about that when this woman was in the company of her husband, she thought of this black head, and at this very moment, her husband engendered in her a child who was just as black as, and similar to, this black head. Thus it happened that this woman was accused by her husband of having committed adultery. But she excused herself, saying that when her husband engendered the infant in her, she was thinking of the black head. And it was

Solinus, Collectanea, 102-03 only speaks of scarring and coloring the body with pigments. Romer, ed. and tr., Mela, 3.51, p.116, speaks of bodies dyed blue. Roughly Collectanea 19-21, but closer is Pliny’s praise of man in NH 7.1, p. 507; NH 7.1, p. 511. This doctrine of «maternal impression» can be found in Pseudo-Albertus Magnus’ Secrets of Women, Helen Rodite Lemay, ed. and tr., Women’s Secrets (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1992), Ch. 6, p. 116. See for historical development Cristina Mazzoni, Pregnancy and Childbirth in Literature and Theory (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002) and Marie-Hélène Huet, Monstrous Imagination (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), pp. 16-24. 371

372

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quelle povoit bien dire vray et pour ce elle fut purgee et restituee a son honneur. Ad ce propos il est escript ou livre de Genesis au xxx chappitre que quant Jacob demanda a Balan373 pour avoir en mariaige Rachel sa fille, Jacob luy promist que si il la luy vouloit donner que il le serviroit vii ans avant quil lesposast et que durant les vii ans quil garderoit son bestial comme son pastour, parmy ce que Jacob auroit toutes les bestes qui seroient tachees de diverses couleurs. Et Balan auroit toutes les bestes qui seroient blanches et noires. Et furent tous .ii. dung acord. Adonc Jacob si advisa de grant subtilite. Car il mist certaines verges de boys pellees par aucuns lieux qui estoient blanches et noires en une fosse plaine deau en laquelle beuvoient les bestes ou temps deste que les masles estoient mis avecques les femmelles pour les saillir. Et puis quant les bestes alloient boire en celle fosse ilz regardoient ces verges qui estoient moistie blanches et noires. Et ainsi comme ilz les regardoient les masles sailloient les femelles. Et puis quant les femelles avoient porte leur terme elles avoient aigneaulx de diverses couleurs comme moitie blans, moitie roux, moitie gris, moitie noirs. Et quant ce vint a bout du terme de Jacob il eut plus de bestes tavellees et tachaees de diverses couleurs quil ny eut de blanches ne de noires. Si eust Jacob meilleure part des bestes que neust Balan son seigneur. Si appert clerement par ceste hystoire que limagination et fantasie des diverses choses veues est occasion de la qualite et espece de langendreure et porteure.374 Item dit Plinius que en Scicie il ya aucuns peuples qui sont appelles Sarmaches, lesquelz sont de si grant abstinence que ilz ne mangeussent que de troys jours en troys jours.375 Item dit Plinius quil ya en Affricque aucuns peuples qui ont les yeulx et les langues venimeuses. Et par leur regart ilz enpoisonnent les gens et par leurs langues en parlent ilz enveniment les gens tant les presens comme les absens. Et en especial quant ceste gens parlent de parolle de louange.376 Item dit Solin que en Scicie a aucunes femmes qui ont doubles prunelle es yeulx. Et ont le regard venimeulx. Car par leur seul regard ilz empoisonnent et octient ceulx 63v/ et celles quil[z] regardent.377

considered and counseled that she could well be telling the truth, and for this reason, she was exonerated of these charges and restored to her honorable state. With respect to this, it is written in the book of Genesis, in chapter 30, that when Jacob asked Laban to have Rachel, his daughter, in marriage, Jacob promised that if he would give her to him, he would serve seven years before he married her, and that during these seven years he would serve as shepherd and watch over his livestock, among which Jacob would have all the animals that were spotted with various colors. And Laban would have all the animals that would be black and white. And they were both in agreement. Then Jacob thought about this with great cunning. For he put certain rods of wood, which were peeled in certain places so as to appear black and white, into a ditch full of water where the beasts normally drank in summer time when the males were put with the females to breed. And then when the animals went to drink in this ditch, they looked at those sticks, which were half black and half white. And as they looked at them, the males mounted the females. And then when the females had carried to term, they had lambs of diverse colors, such as half white, half red, half grey, and half black. And when it came to the end of the term of Jacob’s service, there were more beasts that were speckled and spotted with various colors than there were white ones and black ones. Thus Jacob had a larger portion of the flock than did Laban his lord. By this story it is shown clearly that the mental image and recollection of various things that have been seen is the cause of the quality and species of what is engendered and born. Pliny says that in Scythia there are some people called Sarmathes who are so extremely abstinent that they eat only three times in three days. Pliny says that there are in Africa some people who have poisonous eyes and tongues. And with their glance they poison people, and with their tongues, in speaking, they poison people both present and absent. And this is especially true when they speak words of praise. Solinus says that in Scythia there are some women who have double pupils in the eyes. And they have a poisonous glance. For with only one look, they poison and kill the men and women they gaze at.

Laban. For these theories of maternal impression, see above. The idea that the sight of a black man can make a woman deliver a black child has survived in the popular Neapolitan song, «Tammuriata nera.» I am grateful to Dr. Cristina Mazzoni for calling this to my attention. The story of the woman and the Moorish head on the sign seems to reflect an actual story that Bersuire had heard in Avignon. 375 See above. 376 NH 7.2, p. 517. 377 Collectanea, 26, and more fully NH 7.2, p. 519. 373 374

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Item dit Solin que toute personne soit homme ou femme qui a la prunelle double es yeulx a le regard venimeulx et perilleux.378 Item dit Solin quilz sont aucunes gens qui en lung des yeulx ont la prunelle double. Et en lautre oeil ilz ont en la prunelle la figure dung cheval. Et dit Solin que telz gens ne pouroient noyer, pose quilz cheussent en une riviere tous chargez de robbez.379 Item dit Solin que en Ethioppie a ung lignee de gent dont la sueur quilz suent taint les choses ou elle atouche si tresfort que la tache nen pourra jamais estre effacee par quelque laveure que on y face.380 Item dit Solin aussi comme nature a mys en aucuns hommes en certains membres et partie de leurs corps venin tout ainsi et semblablement nature a mis en aucuns de leurs membres aucuns remedes de guerison contre aucunes maladies dont nous avons ung example du roy Pirus a qui le poulce du dextre pie guerissoit les lunaticques. Et quant le corps du roy Pirus fut ars le poulce de son dextre pie qui tant estoit medicinable ne peut oncques estre ars ne brulle mais demeura entre les cendres tout sain et entier, qui despuis fut porte ou temple honourablement et dignement garde.381 Item dit Veiro que la salive domme jeun vault moult contre morsure de serpent ou contre pointure ou arsure.382 Item dit383 que le roy de France qui est legitisivement et justement sacre par son seul atouchement de ses mains guerist ceulx qui sont malades des escrouelles en la gorge et ouste et actendrist les glandes du coul et guerist toute la maladie et douleur. Et pource est appellee ceste maladie le mal royal. Car seulement apres Dieu le roy de France en guerist.384 Item dit Solin que en Inde a aucuns peuples appellez Sorates qui ne mangent et ne vivent dautre viande que celle quilz prenent eulx mesmes en la mer lesquelz ilz dessirent a bons ongles en pieces et puis les font cuyre et roustir a la challeur du souleil, et puis ilz les mangent.385 Item dit Plinius en son viie livre ou ve chappitre une moult grant merveille. car il tesmoigne pour verite que aucunes femmes ont este muees en hommes comme fut Crassus Longis, qui au jour quil fut ne estoit fille. Et avoit nature de fille. Et ung pou de temps apres elle devint ung tresbeau filz masle. Et estoit bien garni de tous les

Solinus says that anyone, whether male or female, who has double pupils in the eyes has a poisonous and perilous gaze. Solinus says that there are some men who have in one of their eyes a double pupil. And in the other eye, they have a pupil in the shape of a horse. And Solinus says that such men cannot drown even if they fall into a river all weighted down with robes. Solinus says that in Ethiopia there is a race of men whose sweat stains the things it touches so deeply that the spot can never be removed by any amount of washing that one undertakes. Solinus says that just as nature has, in some men, put poison in certain members and parts of their bodies, so in a similar way nature has put in some parts of the body certain remedies or cures against certain maladies, of which we have an example in King Pyrrhus, whose big toe, on the right foot, cured lunatics. And when the body of King Pyrrhus was burned, the toe on his right foot that was so curative could never be burned or set on fire, but remained in the ashes all healthy and whole, and it was later honorably carried to the temple and guarded with dignity. Varro says that the saliva of a young man has great power against snake bite or against pricks and burns. Gervaise says that the king of France who is legitimately and justly consecrated heals, by a mere touch of his hands, those who are sick with scrofula of the throat, and discharges and softens the glands of the neck, and cures all the related discomfort and pain. And because of this, it is called the King’s sickness. For, aside from God, only the king of France can cure it. Solinus says that in India are some peoples called Sorates who neither eat nor live on any other food than that which they catch themselves in the sea; and they tear this food in pieces with their good nails, and then they cook and roast it in the heat of the sun, and then they eat it. Pliny describes, in his seventh book in the fifth chapter, a most great marvel, for he claims it to be true that some women have been changed into men as was Crassus Longis, who on the day he was born was a girl. And he had all the characteristics of a girl. And a little time after, she became a very handsome male child. And he was well furnished with all the secret members that belonged to a

Collectanea, 26, and more fully NH 7.2, p. 517; NH 7.2, p. 519 quoting Cicero. Actually NH 7.2, pp. 517-519. 380 Actually NH 7.2, p. 519, but the sweat is medicinal. 381 This story of King Pyrrhus seems actually to come from NH 7.2, p. 519. 382 Quoted from NH 7.2, p. 515. 383 Gervaise. 384 It is not clear in the MS if the Translator attributes this to Gervaise. For French kings who cured scrofula by their touch, see Marc Bloch, The Royal Touch, tr., J. E. Anderson (New York: Dorset Press, 1989). 385 Not Collectanea, but NH 7.2, p. 527. 378 379

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secrez membres qui appartenoient a homme. Et pour ce par lordonnance et commandement dun des senateurs de Romme il fut mue et transporte en une ysle deserte et inhabitable.386 Item dit Solin que ung appelle Aristote fut premierement femme et fut mariee a ung homme. Et depuis quelle fut mariee la barbe luy vint ou menton. Et si luy vindrent et apparurent les secretz membres masculins. Et puis apres il fut desmarie et remarie. Car il expousa et print femme a mariaige et luy engendra des enfans, car il se prouva et se monstra quil estoit homme masle.387 Item dit Solin quil vit en Affricque une femme qui fut mariee, elle fut muee et devint homme masle. Ad ce propos vient et fait a reciter la fable de Ysidis dont parle Ovide et dit que Ysidis estoit une fille pucelle qui estoit fille dung roy. Et le roy et ses gens cuidoient que ce fust ung filz. Et le roy la maria avecques la fille dung autre roy. Et quant ce vint au jour des noces388 que les gens et les parens dung couste et dautre se furent assemblez au temple de Venus, il advint que Ysidis qui estoit fille et que on cuidoit que ce fust ung filz fut par la puissance de la deesse Venus muee et transfiguree en ung beau filz masle.389 Item parle 64/ Ovide dung autre qui avoit nom Cizisia, lequel fut mue de homme en femme. Et au bout de vii ans il fut remue de femme en homme.390 Item dient Solin et Plinius que pareillement ainsi est des bestes qui de leur propre nature et condicion si muent et transfigurent de masle en femmelle, et de femelle en masle. Et meut lexemple dune beste dicte hyena qui de sa propre nature est une annee masle et lautre annee femmelle. Et ycy dit Solin quil se peut faire aucunement naturellment. Car il dit que quant aucuns enffans ainsi naissent que leurs membres masculins demeurent enclos entre deux peaulx et napperent pas si toust, mais quant ilz viennent en leage parfaicte nature surmonte son imperfection. Et nous en mect ycy ung exemple. Et dit quil vit une femme en Catheloigne qui sembloit estre une belle pucelle de leage de xviii ans laquelle estoit souvent seurprinse dune moult grant douleur a lendroit de parties secretes dembas, et y sentoit si grant douleur quil sembloit que ce fust une femme quil fust en mal denffant. Contre ceste douleur et maladie ne povoit estre trouve remede par nul medicin jusques ad ce quil vint devers celle femme

man. And because of this, by the ordinance and commandment of one of the senators of Rome, he was moved and transported onto a deserted and uninhabitable island. Solinus says that a certain person called Aristote was first a woman and was married to a man. And then after she was married, a beard sprouted on her chin. And in the same manner, there came and appeared on her the secret members of a man. And then afterwards, he was divorced and remarried. For he married and took a woman as his wife, and produced children with her, for he proved and showed himself to be a man of the masculine gender. Solinus says that he saw in Africa a woman who was married, who then was changed and became a man. And with regard to this comes to mind and is told the fable of Ysidis, of whom Ovid speaks and says that Ysidis was a maiden who was the daughter of a king. And the king and his men believed that she was a boy. And the king married her to the daughter of another king. And when it came to the wedding day, when the friends and family of each side were assembled in the temple of Venus, it happened that Ysidis, who was a girl and who was believed to be a boy, was by the power of Venus mutated and transformed into a handsome young man. Ovid speaks of another who had the name Cizisia, who was changed from a man into a woman. And at the end of seven years he was changed back from a woman into a man. Solinus and Pliny say that the same thing occurs with animals who, by their own nature and condition, mutate and transform from male into female and from female into male. And they offer the example of an animal called Hyena who of its own nature is one year male and another year female. And here Solinus says that this can happen quite naturally. For he says that when some infants are born in this way, their male members remain enclosed in two skins and do not appear right away, but when they come of age, nature overcomes its imperfection. And he offers us here an example. And he says that he saw a woman in Catalonia who seemed to be a beautiful maiden at the age of eighteen years, but who was often overcome by severe pain in the area of her private lower parts; and she felt there such great pain that it seemed that this was a woman who was in labor. No remedy could be found against this suffering by any doctor until there came to visit the patient a very ancient

NH, actually Cassius Longinus, 7.4, p. 531. Actually NH 7.4, p. 531. 388 The manuscript reads «nopces». 389 Actually NH 7.4, p. 531; a garbled account of the story of Iphis and Ianthe in Metamorphoses, IX, 665ff. 390 Drawn from the story of Tiresias, Metamorphoses III, 320-28. 386 387

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pour la visiter ung tresancien et saige medicin, lequel quant il volut atoucher de la main le lieu dont procedoit la douleur de la maladie, il apperceut tantost bien a la toucher que cestoit les secretz membres domme qui estoient entre deux cuirs lesquelz quant ilz estoient esmeuz de challeur pour ce quilz navoient pas yssue ne espace suffisant, ilz fasoient souffrir a la personne ainsi grant doleur et passion comme ilz sentoyt. Si fist ce noble medicin la pel fendre et enciser a lendroit du mal, lors yssirent tous les secretz membres de nature appartenans a homme avecques tout leurs appertenances. Et pour ce il fut approuve de fait estre vray homme non pas femme. Et apres fut marie et engendra de beaulx enffans parquoy il appert clerement par ceste ystoire que celle personne qui par avant sembloit estre femme par commune oppinion apparut estre vray homme masle non pas pour mutacion de sexe, mais par medicinable declerration.391 Item ad ce propos dient Orose et Sainct Augustin ou livre de la Cite de Dieu que ou temps passe a este prouve que aucunes femmes et aucunes gelines ont este mues en masles.392 Item dit Plinius en son viie livre ou viiie chappitre que la generacion humaine est moult incertaine, et en aucuns cas dont il nest ia besoing den riens declairer, elle est tres ville, et tres perilleuse, et incertainne. Car toutes autres bestes ont certain temps poecis et ordonne selon leur naturelle condicion a leur generacion. Excepte homme et femme qui en toutes saisons peuent entendre es euvres de generacion. Et pour ce les femmes meres sont incertaines de leurs portures tant de leure de lengendrement comme leure de lenfantement. Car aucuns enfans naissent a vii mois, les autres a viii mois, les autres a ix, les autres a x, les autres a xi.393 Item dit Plinius quil fut une femme qui porta son enffant en son ventre par lespace de xvi mois.394 Item la procreation humaine est appellee ville pource quelle est de ville matiere et abhominable. Et ou ventre de la mere lenffant est nourri de trop plus honteuse matiere quon ne sauroit dire. Item humaine creacion est foible quant a son commancement. Car comme dit Solin, lenffant qui est ou ventre [de] sa mere est si treslegierement et si tost mort et estainct dedans le ventre que la mere ne sen appercoit point. Et dit Solin que la fumee dune chandelle qui est estaincte pres 64v/ dune femme grosse souvent luy fait avorter et mourir son enffant en son ventre.395

and sage doctor, who, when he decided to touch with his hand the place from which proceeded the pain of the malady, perceived as soon as he touched her that it was the private parts of a man that were between two flaps of skin, which, when they were inflamed with heat because they had nowhere to go and had insufficient space, made the person likewise suffer the same great pain they felt. Thus this noble doctor had the skin cut and incised in the painful area, and all the secret members of nature belonging to a man came out, with all their appurtenances. And thus he was proven to be truly a man, not a woman. And later he was married and engendered beautiful children, from which it appears clearly from this story that this person, who formerly seemed to be a woman by common opinion, turned out to be a true man of the masculine gender, not by mutation of sex, but by medical demonstration. With respect to this, Orosius and St. Augustine in the book The City of God say that in times past it has been proven that some women and some hens have been changed into males. Pliny says in his seventh book in the eighth chapter that human reproduction is very uncertain, and in some cases, about which it is not necessary to say anything here, it is very vile, very dangerous, and very uncertain. For all other animals have a certain time ordained according to their natural condition for reproduction—except men and women, who in all seasons can engage in the works of generation. And because of this, women who become mothers are uncertain of the time of their pregnancy, as much so for the time of engendering as for the moment of their delivery. For some infants are born at seven months, others at eight months, others at nine, others at ten, and others at eleven. Pliny says that there was a woman who carried her child in the womb for a period of sixteen months. Human procreation is called vile because it comes from vile matter and is abominable. And in the belly of the mother the child is nourished with matter so shameful that one cannot even mention it. Human creation is weak at its beginning. For as Solinus says, the child in the belly of his mother is so easily and so quickly dead and brought to naught in the belly of the mother that the mother doesn’t notice it at all. And Solinus says that the smoke from a candle that is extinguished near a pregnant woman will often cause her to abort and kill the infant in her womb.

Collectanea, 27.119. Not Orosius. Saint Augustine, William M. Green, ed. and tr., Saint Augustine, The City of God Against the Pagans (Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press, 1963), Book 18, chapters 17 and 18, discusses transformations of men into birds or wolves but does not speak of chickens. 393 NH 7.5, p. 531. 394 Thirteen is the number given in NH 7.5, p. 533. 395 Actually NH 7.7, p. 535. 391

392

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Item quant la mere a le sanglot ou le hoquet ou temps quelle est a terme il advient souvent que par hocqueter elle octist son enfant en son ventre. Item dit Plinius en son livre au xii e chappitre que toutes bestes femelles depuis quelles ont en charge et quelles sont prains elles ne sapprochent plus de leurs masles, mais les fuient et delaissent a toutes fins. Et tout autrement et au contraire fait la femme. Car non obstant quelle soit grosse et ensaincte denfant elle oblie lonneur quelle doit a son fruitz et quiert et se met en la diligence de avoir la compaignie de son homme par quoy il advient souvent quelle en pert et occist son fruitz et sa porteure dont elle en pert en la fin lamour de son homme, et empres corps et ame.396 Item dit Plinius ou xiiie chappitre que aucuns hommes ont este le temps passe qui ressembloient lung a lautre quant a la plus grant partie du leurs corps, mais non pas du tout comme a este dit cy dessus au commancement de ce chappitre, mais tellement que on prenoit lung pour lautre. Et de ce nous met cy ung example de Anthiode le roy qui ressembloit moult de visaige et de corpulance a ung laboureur du pais nomme Anthenius. Si advint que ce roy alla oultre mer et fut tue et desconfit luy et sa gent en une bataille de ses ennemis. Lors quant la royne sceut la novelle de lamort de son mary qui estoit roy elle fist taire et dissimuler la mort du roy, et manda secretement Anthenius le laboureur et se maria a luy, et luy bailla le gouvenement du royaulme qui de tout ce ne savoit riens le peuple et ne sen apperceut point pource que le roy et Anthenius sentressembloient de face et de corpulance. Et de moult autres exemples en cas pareil parlent et recitent Plinius et Solin en leurs livres lesquels jay laisse pour cause de briesvete.397 Item dit Solin que aux petiz enffans naissent les dens au vii mois et au viie an elles les cheent et de rechief elles reviennent plus fortes que devant et plus dures. Et de fait elles ne peuent estre arses ne brullees ne pourries enterre comme sont les autres ossemens du corps.398 Item dit Solin que au temps passe les gens ont este plus grans et plus fors quilz ne sont de present. Car il dit en son viie livre quil fut trouve le corps dung homme mort qui estoit tout droit en terre dedans une montaigne si advint par cas de aventure que celle montaigne se fendit dont la moitie en cheut dune part, et lautre moitie demeura, en laquelle moitie qui demeura fut veu et apparceu

When the mother has breathing spasms or hiccups at the time when she is brought to term, it happens often that by the hiccupping she kills her child in her womb. Pliny says in his book in the twelfth chapter that all female beasts when they have been inseminated and when they are pregnant no longer approach males but flee from them and forsake them by any means possible. And women behave completely otherwise and to the contrary. For notwithstanding that she be large and pregnant with child, she forgets the honor she owes to her offspring and seeks out and works diligently to have the company of her man, on account of which it often happens that she loses and kills her child and her pregnancy, and thus in the end she loses the love of her man and, as a result, her body and soul. Pliny says in his thirteenth chapter that there have been some men in past times who resembled one another as to the greatest part of their bodies, but not entirely, as has been described above and at the beginning of this chapter, but to the degree that one would still be mistaken for another. And to illustrate this, we offer here the example of Anthiode the king who greatly resembled in his face and his build a laborer of the country named Anthenius. Then it happened that this king went overseas and was destroyed and killed, along with his men in a battle against his enemies. Then when the queen learned the news of the death of her husband who was the king, she arranged to hide and conceal the king’s death, and secretly commanded Anthenius the laborer to marry her, and she turned over to him the governing of the realm, whose people knew nothing of all of this and did not perceive it at all because the king and Athenius so resembled each other in face and body type. And Pliny and Solinus speak of and relate many other examples of similar cases in their books, which I have passed over because of the need for brevity. Solinus says that in infants teeth appear at seven months and at seven years they fall out and then they grow back stronger and harder than before. And in fact they cannot be burned or rotted in the earth as can the other bones of the body. Solinus says that in past times men were taller and larger than they are today. For he says in his seventh book that there was found the body of a dead man that was all upright in the earth in a mountain, and it happened by chance that this mountain split in half, and one half fell away and the other half remained, and in this remaining half was seen and discovered the body of a dead man

NH 7.11, pp. 537-539. NH 7.12, p. 541; Collectanea,19-21. 398 Collectanea 17, but more fully NH 7.16, p. 551. 396 397

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le corps dung homme mort qui avoit jadiz este enterre en celle montaigne tout droit lequel avoit xlvi coudees de long.399 Item recite Solin quil fut trouve le corps dung homme mort qui avoit jadis este enterre en une montaigne qui est situee en la province de Grece laquelle montaigne fut tellement rungee et minee par force de grans ravines deaux et de glaces quelle se fendit et sescartela et cheut du hault en bas. Et la fut veu et trouve le corps dung homme mort qui avoit xxx coudees de hault. Ad ce propos dit la Bible ou livre de Genesis ou vie chappitre que de la lignee de Cayn nasquirent les geans qui subjuguerent et occuperent la terre et le commun peuple lesquelz firent moult de maulx sur terre. Et pour les grans maulx et horribles pechez quilz fasoient en ce monde Dieu 65/ fist finer le monde par Deluge.400 Item il est escript ou premier livre de Roys ou xviie chappitre que ou temps que regnoit Saul qui fut le premier roy dIsrael il vit ung grant geant qui estoit de la partie des Philistins qui estoient adversaires du peuple de Dieu, lequel geant avoit xv coudees de hault. Et si estoit tant fort que x mille hommes ne lousoient actendre pour combatre. Et pource quil blasmoit et desprisoit le nom de Dieu et sa puissance, il fut despuis vaincu et desconfit par le noble juvencel David qui le tua dune pierre quil luy gecta par une fonde lequel David estoit arme de la grace et vertu divine. Item dit Gervaise que ou temps du roy Philippe le Bel qui fut jadis roy de France, une belle pucelle sendormit soubz lombre dung arbre soubz lequel arbre elle dormit treslonguement, mais quant sesveilla elle se trouva merveilleusement grande oultre mesure. Et advint que pour sa merveilleuse grandeur elle fut admenee par devers la royne de France qui de la voir et regarder fut moult esbaie. Et fina celle grant pucelle ses derniers jours en loustel et ou service de la royne.401 Item recite Plinius que ung noble poete nomme Homerus moult fort se complaint en son livre de ce que les hommes ne sont de present si grans et si fors comme ilz souloient estre passe.402 Item parle et recite Solin en son livre de ceaulx qui souloient estre ou temps passe ainsi fors comme fut Milun qui fut si grant et si fort que en courent par my les champs il levoit de terre a une main et lemportoit ou il vouloit. Et quant il frappoit ung beuf de son poing sur la teste il le tuoit tout mort.403

who had formerly been buried in this mountain completely upright, and he was 46 cubits tall. Solinus says that someone found the body of a dead man who had long ago been buried in a mountain situated in the province of Greece, and this mountain was so heavily eroded and undermined by the force of great torrents of water and ice that it split into quarters and fell down from its great height. And there was seen and found the body of a dead man who was 30 cubits tall. With regard to this, the Bible says in the Book of Genesis in the sixth chapter that from the line of Cain was born the race of giants who subjugated and occupied the earth and the common people, and they worked great evil upon the earth. And because of the great evils and horrible sins they carried out in this world, God made the world end through the Flood. It is written in the first Book of Kings in the seventeenth chapter that in the time of the reign of Saul, who was the first king of Israel, there lived a great giant who fought on the side of the Philistines, who were enemies of the people of God, and this giant was fifteen cubits tall. And he was so strong that ten thousand men dared not undertake to fight against him. And because he scorned and despised the name of God and his power, he was later vanquished and destroyed by the noble youth David, who killed him with a stone that he threw with a slingshot, and this David was armed with grace and divine virtue. Gervaise says that in the time of King Philip the Fair, who was formerly king of France, a beautiful maiden fell asleep under the shadow of a tree, and under this tree she slept a long time, but when she woke up, she found herself marvelously tall beyond measure. And it happened that because of her marvelous size she was led before the queen of France, who was most astonished to see her and look upon her. And this tall girl spent her last days in the palace and in the service of the queen. Pliny tells that a noble poet named Homer complained very strongly in his book that the men of the present day are not as large and strong as they used to be in the past. Solinus speaks and tells in his book of those who used to be, in the past, as strong as Milun, who was so great and so strong that when running in the open land, he lifted a field in one hand and carried it where he wished. And when he struck a cow on the head with his fist, he killed it dead.

Actually Collectanea, 9. 64. Actually NH 7.16, p. 553. 401 Bersuire does not give Gervaise as a source but merely says «audivi.» The Translator much expands the story from the Latin original. 402 NH 7.16, p. 555. 403 Collectanea, 19. 399 400

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Item il mengeoit bien en ung jour toute la char dung beuf.404 Item il recite aussi de Trictan le fort qui fut si fort quil avoit les nerfs du corps doubles et en emportoit son ennemy tout arme de toutes pieces voulsist ou non.405 Item auxi il parle de la legierete et ysueltz daucuns qui alloient et couroient et sailloient moult tout comme Philomite qui alla en deux jours de Athenes a Lacedemon ou il ya vii lieues despace et distance.406 Item il recite dung autre homme qui fut tant legier et toust allant que despuis leure de mydi jusques a leure de vespres il chemina lxxv lieues. Ad ce propos il est escript en la Bible ou second livre des Roys ou iie chappitre comment Jacob lepreux, qui fut connestable du roy David eut ung frere appelle Azaelle toust allant qui tant estoit legier et bien courant quil prenoit les cabris et autres bestes sauvaiges des forest en courant. Et passoit toutes autres bestes sauvaiges de bien aller et tost courir. Apres Solin parle de ceulx qui ont eu ou temps passe clere veue comme ung appelle Scrabon qui veoit si cler et si loing que du port dune Cataigne il veoit partir le navire et aller et arriver et partir du port du promotaire de Cecille et savoit bien nombrer le nombre de vaisseaulx et congnoistre quelz vesseaulx cestoient.407 Item parle Solin de ung homme nomme Calatraque qui fut si subtil ouvrier qui savoit faire et entailler en yvoire petiz fromiz et autres petites bestes venimeuses si tresbien et si menuement que oeil de nul autre ouvrier ne peust et ne sceust les menuz traiz de son ouvraige choisir ne apparcevoir.408 Item auxi raconte Solin de ceulx qui ont moult clerement oy et entendu ou temps passe comme furent ceulx de la cite de Olimpe qui oyrent et entendirent 65v/ bien le cry et la clameur de ceulx de la cite de Hybaris quant eulx et leur cite furent destruiz et desconfiz par leurs ennemis entre lesquelles deux citez il y avoit moult grant chemin et moult grant distance. Ainsi le tesmoigne Orosius en livre des batailles.409 Item auxi recite Solin de ceulx qui ont pacienment endure grans peines, grans gehainmes, et grans tormens. Et nous met ycy ung exemple quil fut jadis une femme amoureuse appellee Leena qui entre les horribles gehainmes et tormens que on luy fasoit souffrir

He ate in a single day the flesh of an entire cow. He also tells of Tritanus the strong, who was so powerful that he had twice the body strength of a normal man, and he carried off his enemy fully armed, whether he wished it or not. Also he speaks of the lightness and agility of some who walked and ran and jumped all the time, just like Philomite who traveled in two days from Athens to Lacedaemonia, which are seven leagues apart in space and distance. Also he tells of a man who was so light and quick-moving that from the hour of noon until the hour of vespers he traveled 75 leagues. With regard to this it is written in the Bible, in the second book of Kings in chapter 2, how Joab the renowned, who was the constable of King David, had a brother called Asahel the Swift of Foot, who was so speedy and fast-running that he caught goats and other wild beats of the forest by running. And he surpassed all other wild beasts in moving fast and running quickly. Afterwards Solinus speaks of those who had, in past times, clear vision, such as a man called Scrabon who saw so clearly and so far that from the port of Carthage he saw the ship go and travel and arrive and leave from the port of the promontory of Sicily, and he was able to count exactly the number of vessels and recognize which vessels they were. Solinus speaks of a man named Calicra who was such a subtle worker that he knew how to make and carve in ivory small ants and other little poisonous creatures so well and so minutely that the eye of no other workman could discern or perceive the minute lines of his work. Solinus also tells of those who heard and understood very clearly in past times, such as those of the city of Olympus who heard and understood the cry and clamor of the people of the city of Hybaris when they and their city were destroyed and brought down by their enemies, between which two cities there was a long road and a very great distance. Thus Orosius witnesses in his book of battles. Also Solinus tells of those who patiently endured great pains, great tortures, and great torments. And we offer here an example that there was once a woman who was in love named Leena who, in the midst of the horrible sufferings and torments that she was

Collectanea, 19. Actually Tritanus in NH 7.20, p. 559. 406 Actually NH 7.20, p. 561, of Phidippides. 407 NH 7.20, p. 561; Strabo in NH 7.21, p. 561; the harbor is that of Carthage. 408 Actually Callicrates in NH 7.21, p. 563. 409 Actually Sybaris in NH 7.22, p. 563. No such city by either name occurs in Orosius. 404 405

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oncques elle ne volut encuser ceulx qui larrons et meurtriers estoient pour ce que de tout en celle sestoient fiez.410 Item pareillement il recite dung nomme Anaxarde lequel si estoit accuse devant les juges davoir recele le conseil des traictres qui avoient traicte la mort du maulvais tirant le roy Grisogon lequel Anaxarde pour quelconque gehainnes ou torment quil souffrist on ne luy peut faire congnoistre la chose. Et pour peur quil recongneust le cas il se couppa tout jus la langue luy mesmes de ses dens affin quil ne peust parler pour ce que iceulx compaignons sestoient fiez en luy et avoient revele leur conseil.411 Item dit Solin que aucuns ont este ou temps passe qui ont eu grant memoire et souvenance, comme le roy Cyrus qui a tous les chevaliers et hommes darmes de son ost mist a chascun novel nom. Et a chascune foiz de tous leurs noms luy souvenoit et les savoit bien nommer tous chascun par son nom.412 Item il recite de Mutridate le roy qui avoit xxii provinces soubz sa seigneurie. Et en chascune province avoit divers langaiges que les gens dung pais nentendoient pas le langaige de lautre. Mais ce roy estoit plain de si grant entendement quil savoit parler le langaige de chascune province.413 Item Senecque recite [de] la grant memoyre et du grant entendement de ce roy Mitridate au commancement de son livre des Declimacions. Et dit quil fut de si grant et de si legier entendement quil retenoit en sa memoire deux cens vers en les oyant dire une foys. Et apres les recitoit tous par ordre sans faillir, et quil plus est il commencoit au dernier et les recitoit tous sequentement jusques au premier. Item quant il nommoit les noms de deux mille hommes il les savoit tous par ordre nommer et recenser chascun par son nom.414 Item dit Senecque que memoire est aucunesfoiz en homme affoeblie ou en partie perdue par ague et forte maladie, ou par aucun pesant coup souffrir ou par soubdaine peur. Et nous met cy ung exemple de ung juvencel qui fut diciple de Anazagoras qui fut frappe et blecie moult fort dune grosse pierre. Et quant il fut gueri il se

made to suffer, never wished to accuse those who were thieves and murderers because they had entrusted everything to her. Similarly he tells of one named Anaxarde who was accused before judges of having concealed the counsel of traitors who had planned together the death of the evil tyrant king Grisogon, but Anaxarde, no matter what kind of torture or torment he suffered, could not be made to admit the thing. And for fear that he would acknowledge the matter, he bit off his tongue himself with his teeth, in order that he could not speak, because those companions had confided in him and had revealed their secrets. Solinus says that some there have been in times past who have had great powers of memory and recollection, like the king Cyrus who gave to each of the knights and men-at-arms in his host a new name. And every time he remembered all their names and was able to call each one by his name. He tells of Mutridate the king who had twenty-two provinces under his rule. And in each province there were diverse languages so that the men of one country did not understand the language of the other. But this king was full of such great understanding that he knew how to speak the language of each province. Seneca tells of the great memory and intelligence of this king Mithradates at the beginning of his book of Declamations. And he says that he was of such great and quick intelligence that he held in his memory 200 verses after hearing them said one time. And afterward he recited them all in order without fail, and what’s more, he began at the end and recited all in reverse sequence up to the first. When he named the names of 2000 men, he was able to name them in order and call each by his name. Seneca says that memory is sometimes weakened in man or partially lost as a result of fever or serious illness, or by suffering a heavy blow or a sudden fright. And he offers us here an example of a youth who was the disciple of Anazagoras who was struck and wounded very badly with a large stone. And when he was cured he

Actually NH 7.23, p. 563. Anaxarchus in NH 7.23, p. 563, probably amplified from Diogenes Laertius for the story of the tyrant Nicocreon of Cyprus. See Robert D. Hicks, ed. and tr., Diogenes Laertius Lives of Eminent Phiolosophers (Cambridge, MA, and London: Loeb Classical Library, 1965) II, ix.58, p. 478. 412 Actually NH 7.24, p. 563. 413 Actually NH 7.24, p. 563-65. 414 In Controversiae Seneca speaks about his own memory and mentions that he used to be able to recite 2000 names from memory. The other examples here attributed to Declamationes are not from Seneca the Elder. Perhaps Bersuire was referring to Seneca the Younger, because in the Middle Ages, the distinction between the two Senecas was not always clear. See Michael Winterbottom, ed. and tr., Seneca the Elder, Declamations I. Controversiae, Books 1-6 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), 1, praef. 2-3. We are grateful to Professor Marc van der Poel for help with this problem. 410 411

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trouva ignorant et non savant auchune chose en la science que son maistre luy avoit par avant aprinse.415 Item il recite auxi ung autre example ad ce propos dung homme lequel par la grant douleur de son mal mescongneust son pere et sa mere et ses parens et nullement ne les congnoissoit.416 Item pareillement il recite dung homme appelle Conus qui fut si tresfort et si longuement malade que finablement il oublia son propre nom.417 Item dit Plinius en son viiie livre que les corps des gens mors poisont plus que les corps des vivans. Et auxi les corps de ceulx qui dorment poisent plus que les corps de ceulx qui veillent.418 Item dit Plinius en son viie livre que nature a mises et ordonnees certaines loix es maulx et es enfermetez corporelles comme il appert par la fievre qui a certaine heure vient et a certaine heure sen va.419 Item la fievre quarte nulle foiz ne advient a homme ne a 66/ femme en temps dyver et de froideure.420 Item dit Gervaise en son livre ou iiiie chappitre en parlent de moult diverses choses et en especial des diverses manieres de mort qui souvent advienent a homme et a femme. Car les aucuns meurent par feu, les autres par eau, les autres par glaives, les autres par venin, les autres par epidimie. Et en moult dautres manieres et entre les autres il nous recite ung exemple. Et dit quil fut ung homme appelle Ferecides lequel quant il voulut mourir il yssit de son corps une grant multitude de petiz serpens.421 Item aussi il recite dung des conseilliers de Romme appelle Aviola qui fut gecte tout mort en ung grant feu mais quant il fut au feu il resuscita de mort a vie. Mais pour ce quil ne fut pas tantost secouru et mis dehors du feu il mourut et fut ars.422 Item recite Listoire dung homme nomme Corfide qui fut porte tout mort a la fosse il se dreca tout vif contre celuy qui le vouloit enterrer. Et sen retourna tout vif a sa maison.423 Item aussi raconte listoyre de lenfant de Ephize qui las et travaille entra en une caverne pour soy reppouser et dormir. Et la il sendormit si fort quil y dormit par lespace de lvii ans sans soy resveiller. Si

found himself ignorant, not knowing anything of the science that his master had formerly taught him. He tells also of another example in this regard, of a young man who because of the great pain of sickness did not recognize his father or his mother or his relatives and did not know them at all. Similarly he tells the story of a man called Conus who was so seriously sick, for such a long time, that finally he forgot his own name. Pliny says in his eighth book that the bodies of dead men weigh more than the bodies of the living. And also the bodies of those who sleep weigh more than the bodies of those who are awake. Pliny says in his seventh book that nature has established and ordained certain laws for sicknesses and bodily infirmities, as is apparent in the fever that comes at a certain hour and at a certain hour goes away. Quartan fever never comes to a man or woman in winter time or in cold weather. Gervaise tells in his book in the fourth chapter in speaking of many diverse things and especially of the various manners of death that often come to men and women. For some die by fire, others by water, others by the sword, others by poison, others by sickness. And in many other manners and among the others he tells us an example. And he says that there was a man called Ferecides who, when he wished to die, a great number of little snakes came out of his body. He also told of one of the counselors of Rome called Aviola who was thrown, completely dead, into a great fire, but when he was in the fire he resuscitated from death into life. But because he was not immediately rescued and taken out of the fire, he died and was burned. The History tells of a man named Cerfide who was carried dead to the grave and rose up completely alive against the one who wished to bury him. And he returned alive to his house. Also the History tells of the child of Ephize who, tired and weary, entered into a cavern to rest and sleep. And there he slept so deeply that he slept for a period of fifty-seven years without awakening.

This is Anaxagoras, the Pre-Socratic philosopher, 500-430 BC, who did indeed speculate on the brain, memory, and injury. The young pupil may refer to Alcmaeon of Croton, another pre-Socratic philosopher. See James Longrigg, Greek Rational Medicine: Philosophy and Medicine from Alcmaeon to the Alexandrians (London: Routledge, 1993). 416 Not Seneca the Elder. 417 Not Seneca the Elder. 418 NH 7.17, p. 557. 419 NH 7.50, p. 618. 420 NH 7.50, p. 618. 421 Not Gervaise but NH 7.50, p. 618. 422 Not Gervaise but NH 7.50, p. 618. 423 NH 7.52, p. 625. 415

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advint que quant il sesveilla il se merveilla moult de la mutacion du monde et des choses, et du nouveau peuple, et du nouveau prince et de la monnoye qui couroit.424 Item ad ce propos siert listoyre des vii dormans qui giesent a Tours en lAbbaye de Marre Moustier.425 Item aussi il recite dune femme qui dormit vii jours qui estoit comme morte. A laquelle femme Heraclius rendit la vie en reveillant.426 Item auxi il recite de ung homme a qui Pompee fit coupper la teste en Cecille dont le corps fut tout au long de la journee geisant au chault et au souleil sur les sablons du rivaige de la mer. Mais quant ce vint au soir il resuscita et devint tout vif. Et rapporta des nouvelles denfer a Pompee. Et luy dist que les dieux infernaulx luy mandoyent salut. Cest assavoir les dyables. Et quant il eut dit son messaige il mourut tantost ne oncques puis ne resuscita de mort a vie. Au propos des merveilles resuscitacions il est escript en la Bible ou iiiie livre de Roys ou iiiie chappitre que une femme veusve enffanta ung enffant qui estoit mort. Lors quant elle apperceut que son enffant estoit mort elle sen vint vers Helye le prophete son enffant entre les bras ou mont de Carme ou il estoit. Et la en plourant moult piteusement luy requist la vie de son enffant. Adonc Helye commanda a ung sien disciple nomme Grezy quil allast ou nom de Dieu visiter lenffant. Lors Grezy sen vint vers lenffant et senclina sur luy bouche contre bouche, les yeulx contre les yeulx. Et par vii foiz luy suspira de son alaine en la bouche. Et lors tantost celluy enfant resuscita de mort a vie dont la mere eut grant joye.427 Item ou iiiie livre des Roys ou xiiie chappitre est recitee une moult grant merveille ou il dit que quant Heliseus le prophete fut mort il fut mis en ung sepulcre sur ung autre corps qui des moult long temps avoit este enterre en ce sepulcre, et seulement pour la touchement du corps de Helyseus le prophete il resuscita lautre corps de mort a vie. Item au Nouvel Testament est recite comment Notre Seigneur Jesu Crist merveilleusement resuscita troys personnes premierement le filz de la veusve que on portoit en terre. Item la pucelle ou la maison de son pere. Item le ladre qui avoit este par quatre jours mort lequel JesuCrist 66v/ ressuscita seullement par sa parolle a la requeste des deux seurs. Cest assavoir Marie Magdelene et Marie Marthe.

And it happened that when he awoke, he marveled greatly at the changes in the world and in things, and at the new people and the new prince and the money that was now circulating. With respect to this, the History tells of the seven sleepers who lie in Tours in the Abbey of Marre Moustier [Marmoutier]. He also tells of a woman who slept seven days as if she were dead. Heraclius gave this woman back her life in awakening her. He also tells of a man whose head Pompey had cut off in Sicily, and whose body was left lying for the length of an entire day in the heat of the sun on the sands of the seashore. But when it came nightfall, he resuscitated and came to life. And he reported some news from Hell to Pompey and told him that the infernal gods sent him their greetings—that is to say, the devils. And when he had given his message, he immediately died and could not be brought back to life. With respect to such marvelous resuscitations, it is written in the Bible in the fourth book of Kings in chapter four that a widow gave birth to a stillborn child. Then when she perceived that her child was dead, she went to Elisha the prophet, her child in her arms, to Mount Carmel where he was. And there, weeping most piteously, she begged for the life of her child. Then Elisha commanded one of his disciples, named Gehazi, to go in the name of God to visit the child. Then Gehazi went to the child and bent down mouth to mouth, eye to eye. And seven times he breathed his breath into the child’s mouth. And then, immediately, this child resuscitated from death to life and the mother had great joy. In the fourth book of Kings in the thirteenth chapter is told a very great marvel, where it says that when Elisha the prophet was dead, he was put in a tomb on top of another body that had been buried in the tomb for a long time, and by the mere touch of the body of Elisha the prophet, he resuscitated the other body from death to life. In the New Testament it is told how our Lord Jesus Christ marvelously brought three persons back to life–first the son of the widow, who was being carried to the grave. [Second] the maid in the house of her father. [Third] the leper who had been dead for four days, who Jesus Christ resuscitated by only a command, at the request of the two sisters—that is to say, Mary Magdalene and Mary Martha.

NH 7.52, p. 623. The person in question, Epimendides, seems to have become confused with the story, developed below, of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, as told by Jacob of Voragine, Teodor de Wyzewa, tr., La Légende Dorée (Paris: Perrin, 1935), 100, pp. 366-70. 425 The Grotto of the Seven Sleepers was a feature of the Benedictine Abbey of Marmoutier near Tours. 426 NH 7.52, p. 623. 427 NH 7.52, p. 625-27. 424

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Item dit Plinius quil advint souvent que gens meurent par excessive joie, les autres par grant tristesse, les autres par peur, les autres par trop grant amour, dont il nous recite ung exemple dung appelle Metallius qui tendroit et pourchassoit a estre ung des conseilliers de Romme par prieres, par grans dons, par promesses, par flacteries. Mais finablement il fut reffuse et en fut deboute dont il se courrouca et se forcena tellement en luy mesmes quil en mourut tout mort de courroux et de deul.428 Item auxi il recite de ceulx qui aucunesfois meurent pour avoir trop excessive joye. Et dit quil fut ung philozophe nomme Chilon lequel quant il oyt les joyeuses nouvelles que son filz cestoit victorieusement porte et combatu en la bataille de Olimpe lequel avoit obtenu victoire contre ses ennemis. Mais celluy en eut si grant joye quil en mourut tout mort. Item auxi il recite de Denis le Tirant et de Sophode lesquelz pareillement moururent pour avoir trop grant joye quant il[z] receurent les lettres des offices qui leurs furent commises a leur grant honneur. Car comme ilz oient leire les lettres de leurs offices et la grant auctorite et puissance quilz avoient, ilz en eurent tresparfaictement grant joye que soubdainement ilz en cheurent tous mors a terre.429 Item auxi il recite que la mere de Amienus apres ce que luy fut rapporte que son filz avoit este tue en bataille ainsi comme elle plouroit et fasoit ces douleurs et regretz et souspirz, son filz Amienus arriva soubdainement devers elle qui humblement la salua. Mais elle fut si soubdainement seurprinse de si grant joye quelle ne peut oncques a son filz parler mais mourut promptement et incontinent en la place.430 Item apres recite Solin de ceulx qui meurent de grant raige damour dont il est faicte mencion ou livre de Pirasme de Ovide et de Tisve.431 Item auxi il recite de la Chastellaine du Vergier et de son amy lesquelz moururent lung pour lautre.432 Item auxi fait mencion listoyre du bon chevalier pellerin qui tant ardamment amoit Jesus lequel moult devotement visita les lieux de la Terre Sainte et suyvit Jesu Crist par ses pas finablement il monta ou Mont de Olivet ou Jesu Crist monta es cieulx. Et pour ce que apres Jesu Christ il ne povoit bonnement monter

Pliny says that it often happens that men die from excessive joy, others from great sadness, others from fear, and others by excessive love. He gives us an example of this in one called Metallus, who labored and sought to buy his way into becoming a counselor of Rome by entreaties, by great gifts, by promises, and by flattery. But finally he was refused and was thrown out, and he became so angry and so frantic that he died dead of anger and mourning. He also tells of those who sometimes die from excessive joy. And he says that there was a philosopher named Chilon who heard the joyous news that his son had fought and comported himself victoriously in the battle of Olympus, where he had obtained victory over his enemies. But he had such great joy from this that he dropped dead of it. He also tells of Dionysius the tyrant and of Sophodes, who similarly died for having excessive joy when they received the letters of office which commissioned them to their great honor. For as they heard read aloud the letters of their offices and the great authority and power that they had, they reacted with such perfect great joy that suddenly they fell to earth stone dead. He also tells of the mother of Amienus after it was reported to her that her son had been killed in battle, and thus while she was weeping and crying out her sorrow and regrets and sighs, her son Amienus arrived suddenly before her and humbly greeted her. But she was so suddenly surprised by such great joy that she could not even speak to her son but died suddenly and immediately on the spot. Afterward Solinus tells of those who died from the great passion of their love, which is related in the story of Pyramus and Thisbe by Ovid. He also tells of the Châtelaine de Vergy and her friend, who died for each other. He also mentions the story of the good pilgrim knight who so ardently loved Jesus and devoutly visited the sacred places in the Holy Land and followed in the footsteps of Jesus Christ, finally climbing Mount Olivet, where Jesus rose to the heavens. And since he could not truly follow Jesus Christ in rising

A somewhat garbled recasting of NH 7.44, p. 601. NH 7.32, p. 585; 7.53, p. 627. 430 The son is not named in NH 7.53, p. 627. 431 Not in Solinus, who is not named by Bersuire; Ovid, Metamorphoses, IV.55-166. 432 The Châtelaine de Vergy (amplified by the Translator from the Latin «Castellana»), an anonymous thirteenth-century French «conte,» is one of the latest or most contemporary references used by Bersuire and the only vernacular literary work mentioned. See René Stuip, ed. and tr., La Châtelaine de Vergy (Paris: Union générale d’éditions, 1985), ll. 848-948, pp. 43-47. 428 429

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corpore-llement es cieulx moult amoureusement et moult longuement il se tint en la dicte montaigne en moult devocte oraison. Et la tant pria Jesu Crist quil luy rendit son ame. Et fut son corps ouvert par le conseil des medicins. Et fut trouve son cueur fendu dedans le corps de la grant ardeur dont il amoit Jesu Crist. Et en chascune partie de son cueur estoit escript en lettres dor «Jesus mon amour.» Item dit Plinius en son livre ou xe chappitre quil sont aucuns hommes qui ont le cueur vellu. Et nous mect cy ung exemple de Aristoman le hardi qui en la guerre qui fasoit contre les Lacedemonnes il octist et tua tout seul troys cens hommes. Et apres il fut prins par ses ennemis et mis en estroicte prison. Et depuis fut mis a mort et desmembre et fut trouve son cueur vellu en signe de grant force et de grant hardiesse et couraige.433 Item dict Plinius que deux enfans furent jadis nez en la terre Austreriche tous deux dune ventree lesquelz furent de merveilleuse force. Car lung avoit toute 67/ sa force du coste dextre. Et lautre lavoit du coste senestre. Et tellement estoient fors chascun de son couste que sans latouchement des mains mais seullement par latouchement du coste par ou estoit leur force, ilz ouvroient les huys et fenestres et rompoient les cloustures de boys et de fer, comme ferrures, gons, vertevelles, et verroulx.434 Item recite Plinius en son second livre une autre grant merveille de la propriete de homme. Et dit que depuis que une serpent aura blecie aucun ou mors, en signe de vengeance, la terre naturellement la persecute et luy reffuse son logiis et sa nourriture. Et ainsi il convient audict serpent mourir dedans iii jours.435

corporally to heaven, he stayed, with great love, for a long time on the said mountain in most devout prayer. And there he prayed so fervently to Jesus that he gave up his soul. And later his body was opened at the advice of doctors. And his heart was found to be split open in his body from the great love he had for Jesus. And on each part of the heart was written in gold letters «Jesus my love.» Pliny says in his book in the tenth chapter that there are certain men who have a hairy heart. And he gives us here the example of Aristoman the brave who, in the war that he made against the Lacedaemonians, killed, all by himself, some three hundred men. And afterwards he was taken by his enemies and put into a closely guarded prison. And then he was put to death and dismembered, and his heart was found to be covered with hair as a sign of his great strength and great boldness and courage. Pliny says that in olden days two infants were born in Austrian lands, both from one pregnancy, who were marvelously strong. For one of them had all his strength on the right side. And the other had it on the left side. And they were so strong, each on his own side, that without a touch of their hands, but only by the touch of the side where they had their strength, they opened doors and windows and broke down enclosures of wood and iron, such as iron works, door hinges, gate hinges, and bolts. Pliny tells in his second book of another great marvel of the properties of man. And he says that after a serpent has wounded or bitten someone, as a sign of vengeance the earth naturally persecutes it and refuses to give it its lodging and nourishment. And thus the said serpent must die inside of three days.

58) [Merveilles de bestes muez] En bestes muez a moult de proprietez. Dont parle Aristote ou livre des bestes, et entre les autres proprietez il recite de lescureul, et dit que lescureul est une trespetite et legiere bestelecte et si treslegiere quelle sault de branche en branche et de arbre en arbre. Et quant elle est prinse et mise en une petite caige tournant, elle sestudie a la faire tourner et y prent plaisir. Et dit Plinius que ceste beste est plaine de grant subtillite. Car quant veult passer la riviere pour ce quelle ne scet nouer, et aussi quelle craint a se moullier, elle prent une petite piece de boys bien legiere et la met sur leau par maniere de nef puis elle drece sa queue en hault par manere de voille. Et

Chapter 58 (Wonders of the Animal World) There are many characteristics in dumb beasts. Aristotle speaks of them in his Book of Beasts, and among other properties he tells of the squirrel and says that the squirrel is a very small and light little beast, so extremely light that it can jump from branch to branch and from tree to tree. And when one is taken and put in a small turning cage, it figures out how to make the wheel turn and takes pleasure from it. And Pliny says that this beast is full of great subtlety. For when it wishes to cross a river, because it does not know how to swim, and also fears drenching itself, it takes a small piece of very light wood and puts it on the water in the manner of a ship, and then it raises its tail high in

Aristomenes in NH 11.70, p. 549. Possibly an elaboration of NH 7.20, p. 559. 435 NH 2.63, p. 291. 433 434

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ainsi par le moyen du vent qui souffle la queue elle passe la riviere et arrive doulcement a terre.436 Item dit Gervaise quil est une appellee beste camise qui est pres que semblable a la facon dung daing. Et reppaire es rochiers des haultes montaignes. Et quant elle est seurprinse du veneur en lieu estroit, et que on la cuide avoir conquise, elle est plaine de si grant force et si grant legierete que si elle peut seullement appercevoir aucune clarte du jour entre le veneur et le rochier que quelque gre que le veneur en ait ne pour quelque empeschement que le veneur luy saiche faire, par la grant force et legierete qui est en elle, elle se passera par entre le veneur et le rochier, non obstant que la voie soit bien estroicte. Et dit Gervaise que cest la plus legiere de toutes autres bestes. Et quelle a le [cuir] plus dur et plus espes que nulle autre beste.437 Item dit Gervaise quil est une aultre beste nommee onagre que aucuns appellent asne sauvaige, desquelles bestes il en ya moult en grant habondance au royaulme de Polonie. Ceste beste endure moult paciemment la necessite de soif. Et est de telle propriete et condicion que quant elle oyt le cry des veneurs et le son des cors et labbay des chiens lors elle sen court droit a la fontaine ou a la riviere et boit de leau moult largement, tant pour sa soif estancher comme pour obvier la soif advenir affin que si elle est contraincte de sen fuir et courir quelle soit plus fresche et plus moiste et par neccessite elle ne soit en adventure destre prinse.438 Item ceste beste est plaine de celle subtillite et induicte a nature que quant les chiens ou les veneurs delle sapprouchent en courant, elle leur lance et gecte sur eulx leau qui est en sa gorge laquelle est si treschaude et boullant que despuis que ung chien en sera moille jamais il napprouchera pres de celle beste. Et par ceste subtillite elle se garentist ainsi des chiens et des veneurs.439 Item recite le Maistre des Ys- 67v/ toyres dung oysel appelle ostruce [et] de sa nature et propriete. Et dit que quant Salomon ediffia le Temple de Dieu il print le petit poussin de une ostruce et lencloit en une fiolle de voire. Et pource que la mere ne le povoit avoir, elle sen volla jusques es desers qui sont dela la mer. Et en rapporta ung ver et du sang dicelluy ver elle ongnit la

the manner of a sail. And thus by means of the wind which blows the tail, it crosses the river and comes to land easily on the other side. Gervaise says there is a beast called Chamois that is somewhat similar to a fallow deer. And it lives among the rocks of high mountains. And when it is overtaken by a hunter in a tight place, and one believes to have cornered it, it is full of such great force and such great lightness that if it can only see a little daylight between the hunter and the rocks, no matter how badly the hunter wants it, and no matter what impediment the hunter can create, because of its great force and lightness it will pass between the hunter and the rocks, notwithstanding that the passage may be extremely narrow. And Gervaise says this is the most light-footed of all animals. And its skin is tougher and thicker than the hide of any other animal. Gervaise says there is another wild animal called Onager that some call the wild ass, of which there are many in great abundance in the realm of Poland. This animal endures thirst very patiently. And it is of such property and condition that when it hears the call of the hunters and the sound of their horns and baying of their dogs, then it runs straight to a spring or to a river and drinks a great quantity of water, as much to quench its thirst as to forestall its thirst in the future, so that, in the event that it is forced to flee and run, it should be fresh and moist and not end up being captured out of the need to find water. This animal is full of such subtlety and so endowed by nature that when the dogs and hunters approach it while running, it sprays and squirts on them the water which is in its throat, which is so hot and boiling that once a dog is squirted with it, never again will it come near this animal. And by this stratagem, it protects itself from dogs and hunters. The Master of Histories tells of a bird called Ostrich and of its nature and properties. And he says that when Solomon built the Temple of God, he took the small chick of an ostrich and enclosed it in a glass vial. And because the mother could not get it back, she flew away into the deserts that are beyond the sea. And she brought back a worm, and with the blood of this worm

Not in Aristotle, this account of the squirrel, Chyrogrillus, crossing the river, is of unknown origin but occurs in bestiary and encyclopedia accounts of the animal. Besides Gervaise, Banks and Binns, III.65, p. 683, see Alexander Neckham, Thomas Wright, ed., De naturis rerum libro duo (Nendeln, Liechtenstein: Kraus, 1967), Book II, Ch. 124. See generally Ilya Dines, «The Textual and Pictorial Metamorphoses of the Animal called Chyrogrillus,» in Michèle Goyens, Pieter De Leemans, and An Smets, eds., Science Translated. Latin and Vernacular Translations of Scientific Treatises in Medieval Europe [Mediaevalia Louvaniensia, Series I, Studia XL] (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2008), pp. 73-89. We are grateful to Dr. Dines for help with this passage. 437 The chamois is treated in Banks and Binns III.65, p. 683. 438 Banks and Binns III.65, p. 685. 439 This story was told of the Loz of Bohemia in Chapter 8. 436

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she anointed the glass vial in which the little bird was enclosed. And as soon as the vial was covered with the blood of this worm, it broke and cracked. And thus the ostrich recovered her chick by the power of the worm’s blood. And this worm is called, in the speech of down there, «thaimir.» Then when Solomon had seen what had happened, he had these aforesaid worms brought to him and ordered them to be used to anoint the hard stones that could not be cut or incised for the construction of his temple. And by virtue of the blood of the worms named above, the stones that before had been very hard became soft and easy to work. Gervaise says that in his time was found in Rome in an ancient palace a vial filled with a liquid of water as white as milk, that was of such a nature that the workers and cutters of stone traced lines of this water onto strong, hard stones. And after they were moistened with this water, the workers found them to be soft and easy to cut. Gervaise tells of the property of the fox and says that it is full of such great cunning and malice that when it wishes to get rid of its fleas in summertime, it takes into its mouth a clump of moss or of wool. And then it soaks one member after another in the water— that is to say, the tail first. And then the fleas flee the water and climb up onto his body. And then little by little, very gently, he gets himself wet and plunges into the water up to his throat. And all the time, the fleas try to stay ahead of the water. And then he plunges in up to his eyes. And finally he moves in such a way that all the fleas enter into the moss. Then the fox submerges himself completely in the water and lets go from his mouth the moss, which is full of fleas, and he comes out of the water all clean and free of his fleas. Pliny tells in his eighth book in the seventeenth chapter the way in which the conditions and natures of dumb beasts were known. And he says that Alexander, at the request of Aristotle, sent throughout the earth a great multitude of wise men to inquire into the natures, conditions, and properties of dumb animals and birds and fish. And he had the authority and power to assemble hunters and to ask them about the conditions of animals. Likewise, he spoke and learned from fishermen the names and nature of fish. Similarly, he talked to and inquired of all the falconers and birders the names and nature of birds. And so laboriously and

fiolle de voerre en laquelle estoit enclous son petit oysel. Et aussi tost comme la fiolle fut oingte du sang de ce ver elle se rompit et cassa. Et ainsi lostruce recouvra son petit oysel par vertu du sang du ver. Et est appelle se ver ou langaige de pardela thaimir.440 Lors quant Salomon eut apperceu ceste experience il fit apporter des vers dessusditz et en fist oingdre les dures pierres que on ne povoit enciser ne entailler pour faire lediffice de son temple. Et par la vertu du sang des vers dessusditz les pierres qui par avant estoient tresdures devindrent tendrens et tresbonnes a entailler.441 Item recite Gervaise que en son temps il fut trouve a Romme en ung bel palais une fiolle plaine dune liqueur de eaue blanche comme lait qui est de telle nature que les ouvriers et tailleurs de pierre de taille trassoient les traiz de celle eau sur les pierres fortes et dures. Et apres ce quelles estoient moillees de celle eau ilz les trouvoient doulces et tendres a tailler.442 Item recite Gervaise de la propriete du regnart et dit quil est plain de si grant cautelle et malice que quant il se veult delivrer de ses pulces ou temps deste, il prent en sa gulle ung tas de mousse [ou] de layne. Et puis se moulle lung membre apres lautre dedans leau. Cestassavoir la queue la premiere. Et puis les pulces fuient leau et luy montent jusques au corps. Et puis petit a petit tout bellement il se moille et plunge en leau jusques a la gorge. Et tousjours les pulces fuient devant leau. Et puis il se plonge jusques es yeulx. Et finablement il fait tant que toutes les pulces entrent dedans la mousse. Lors le regnart se plungent tout en eau et laisse aller de sa gueulle la mousse qui est toute plaine de pulces, et sen revient hors de leau tout nectoie et delivre de ses pulces.443 Plinius recite en son viiie livre au xviie chappitre la maniere comment furent sceues les condicions et natures des bestes mues. Et dit que Alixandre a la requeste de Aristote envoiast par toutes terres grant multitude de gens clers pour enquerir les natures, condicions, et proprietez des bestes mues, et des oyseaulx, et des poissons. Et avoient auctorite et puissance de assembler les veneurs et denquerir deulx les condicions des bestes.444 Item pareillement de parler et savoir aux pescheurs les noms et la nature des poissons. Item semblablement de parler et savoir a tous faulconniers et oyselleurs les noms et la nature des oyseaulx. Et tant

tanir. Though ascribed to Peter Comestor, see above, the story of the ostrich comes from Gervaise, Banks and Binns, III.104, p. 791. 442 Banks and Binns, III.104, p. 791. 443 This story of the fox’s cunning is told in Banks and Binns, III. 68, p. 691. 444 NH 8.17, p. 35. 440 441

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labourieusement et diligemment y entendit quil en fit compiler L volumes. Et avec ce Plinius ya mis et adjouste le sien livre ou il met et rend la cause pourquoy en Ethioppie et en Inde a plus de merveilleuses bestes et de non pareille quil nya es autres regions. Et dit que ces deux regions se tiennent et habitent diverses manieres de bestes pour ce que quil ya plus de rivaiges et des ruisseaulx et de fontaines que en autre pais. Car quant ce vient sur le temps deste quil fait grant chault toutes manieres de bestes sauvaiges se retraient tous jours pres des fontaines et des rivieres pour boyre quant elles ont soif. Et pour elles se resfrescher se baignent aucunesfoiz dedans. Et la 68/ les masles qui sont dune nature et propriete se joingnent aucunesfoiz es femelles qui ne sont pas de leur nature et espece, qui est chose deshordonnee et contre le cours de nature. Et de celle desnaturee comoncion est souvent procree monstrueuse et terrible curieuse beste non pareille et qui oncques mais telle ne fut veue. Et pource dit le commun proverbe des poetes que «Affricque est la mere des nouvelletez.»445 Item dit Plinius que lolephant est de toutes autres bestes qui plus sapprouche et ressemble a homme quant au regart de lentendement et humain sentement. Et car lolephant a certaines vertuz voisines a raison. Car il a entendement, memoire, religion, justice, vergoigne, discipline, pitie, chastete, amour, et crainte. Premierement lolephant a entendement. Car il entend les parolles et le langaige du maistre qui le gouverne. Et raconte lIstoire que le roy Anthiocus avoit fait introduire deux elephans pour le porter et conduire seurement en ung chastel et bastille dedans les batailles quil avoit a gouverner. Et a chascun olephant avoit mis et ordonne certain nom. Et quant le roy les appelloit chascun par son nom ilz lentendoient moult bien. Et en especial sur tous autres au roy obeissoient. Et en grant crainte et recongoissance.446 Item recite Solin une autre grant merveille de lentendement des olephans. Et dit que sil advient que on le veille faire passer la mer ou autre grant riviere ja par force ilz nenterront en la nef jusques

diligently did he hear them that he had the information compiled in fifty volumes. And with this, Pliny put information in and added it to his own book, where he provides and renders the reason why in Ethiopia and in India there are more marvelous beasts and different ones than there are in other regions. And he says that these two regions contain and provide habitations for diverse manners of beasts because there are more rivers and brooks and springs than in any other country. For when the time comes in summer that it becomes very hot, all manner of wild beasts always retreat to a place near springs and rivers in order to drink when they are thirsty. And sometimes to refresh themselves they bathe in the waters. And there the males, which are of one nature and property, couple sometimes with the females who are not of their nature and species, which is a disorderly thing and against the course of nature. And from this unnatural copulation is often produced a monstrous and terrible curious beast, unlike any other and of a type never seen before. And because of this, the common proverb of the poets says that «Africa is the mother of novelty.» Pliny says that the elephant is, of all animals, the one that most closely approaches and resembles man with regard to understanding and human feeling. And this is because the elephant has certain powers very similar to reason. For he has understanding, memory, religion, justice, shame, discipline, pity, chastity, love and fear. First, the elephant has understanding. For he understands the words and the language of the master who governs him. And the History tells how the king Anthiocus had two elephants brought in to carry him and bear him safely to a castle and fortress in the midst of the battles that he had to command. And to each elephant he had given and ordained a certain name. And when the king called each of them by its name, they understood him perfectly well. And, in particular, they obeyed the king above all others. And they did so with great fear and sense of obligation. Solinus tells of another great marvel with regard to the understanding of elephants. And he says that if it happens that someone wishes to make them cross the sea or some great river,

This expression, quoting Aristotle, which quickly became proverbial, is from NH 8.17, p. 33. See on its history Albert V. Van Stekelenburg, «Ex Africa semper aliquid novi—A Proverb’s Pedigree,» Akroteriòn 33.4 (1988): 114-20; Italo Ronca, «Semper aliquid novi Africam adferre: Philological Afterthoughts on the Plinian Reception of a Pre-Aristotelian Saying,» Akroteriòn 37.3-4 (1992): 146-58; Harvey M. Feinberg and Joseph B. Solodow, «Out of Africa,» The Journal of African History 43:2 (2002): 255-61; and Rhiannon Evans, «Ethnography’s Freak Show: The Grotesques at the Edges of the Roman Earth,» Ramus 28.1 (1999): 54-73. 446 NH, 8.1, 5, pp. 3, 11. See George Claridge Druce, «The Elephant in Medieval Legend and Art,» Archaeological Journal 76 (1919): 1-73; Nona C. Flores, «The Mirror of Nature Distorted: The Medieval Artist’s Dilemma in Depicting Animals,» in Joyce E. Salisbury, ed., The Medieval World of Nature (New York: Routledge, 2011), pp. 3-45; Joan Barclay Lloyd, African Animals in Renaissance Art and Literature (Oxford: Clarendon, 1971); James S. Romm, «Aristotle’s Elephant and the Myth of Alexander’s Scientific Patronage,» American Journal of Philology 110 (1983): 566-75; and Frederick Cameron Sillar and Ruth M. Meyler, Elephants, Ancient and Modern (New York: Viking, 1968). 445

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ad ce que le du navire leur aura promis de leurs ramener en leur propre region.447 Item les olephans ont memoire. Et pour ce on leur apprent a faire honneur au principal prince ou seigneur de la terre. Et de fait quant ilz sont bien duitz ilz le recongnoissent moult bien.448 Item ilz savent presenter a leur seigneur couronnes et chappeaulx. Item ilz savent de leur nature le genoil flechir et ploier devant leur seigneur.449 Item ilz sceuent jouer a certains jeulx touchant le fait de la guerre laquelle chose ilz ne feroient pas si ilz navoient aucunes proprietez de memoire. Et dit Solin quil fut ung olephant qui estoit de plus rude capacite et de plus gros engin que nestoient les autres. Et pour ce il fut [batu] et corrige de bastons, lequel olephant en une nuyt se advisa et comprint et retint tout ce quon luy avoit par avant monstre et soubdainement il sceut tout ce quon vouloit quil sceust comme les autres.450 Item recite Solin quil fut ung olephant qui en son anciennete recongneut ung homme qui avoit este son maistre en jeunesse.451 Item les olephans ont aucune maniere ou espece de religion ou devote recongnoissance de leur dieu ou aumoins des choses haultismens et celestielles. Car toutesfoiz que la lune est nouvelle les olephans louent dieu en leur creacion et adourent la lune. Et scavent faire et duyre et aprendre les olephanteaux a ainsi faire.452 Item de leur industrie et science naturelle ilz scavent querir et trouver herbes medicinables contre leurs infirmetes corporelles. Mais devant quilz en usent ilz les lievent en hault aussi comme en les presentant a dieu et en requirant quelles leurs soient medicinables contre tous les maulx.453 Item les olephans ont justice car naturellement ilz se gardent de faire cruaulte, dont parle lIstoire et dit que le cruel roy Bothus fist prandre et lier grant compaignie dommes et pour les faire mourir plus inhumainement il fit esmouvoir et eschauffer xxx olephans et 68v/ laisser aller sur ceulx qui liez estoient. Mais oncques le roy Bothus et ses sergens ne peurent tant faire que les olephans daignassent aider a acomplir daultruy la cruaulte contre justice et equite.454

never except by force will they enter the ship until the [captain] of the ship has promised to bring them back to their own region. Elephants have memory. And for this reason they are taught to honor the chief prince or lord of the land. And, in fact, when they are well trained, they recognize him very well. They know how to present their lord with crowns and hats. They know naturally how to bend their knees and kneel before their lord. They know how to play certain games touching the deeds of war, a thing that they would not do if they had no faculty of memory. And Solinus says that there was an elephant who was of cruder capacity and coarser ingenuity than the others were. And for this reason he was beaten and corrected with clubs, and this elephant in one night considered this and understood and retained all that been shown to him before, and suddenly he knew everything that they wished him to know, like the others. Solinus tells how there was an elephant who in his old age recognized a man who had been his master in his youth. Elephants have some manner or kind of religion or devout recognition of their god, or at least of higher and celestial things. For every time there is a new moon, elephants praise god in their creation and adore the moon. And they know how to train and teach and make young elephants do this too. Through their industry and natural knowledge they know how to seek out and find medicinal herbs to combat their bodily infirmities. But before using them, they raise them up high as if presenting them to god and asking that they might be curative against all maladies. Elephants have justice, for they naturally keep themselves from doing cruel things, about which the History speaks and says that the cruel king Bothus commanded to be captured and bound a large company of men, and in order to put them to death most inhumanely, he had thirty elephants stirred up and chased, letting them run over the men who were bound. But the king Bothus and his sergeants could never make the elephants deign to help accomplish other people’s cruelty, against the principles of justice and fairness.

Collectanea, 25, 111. NH 8.5, p. 13. 449 NH 8.1, p. 5. 450 Actually, NH 8.3, p. 5. 451 Actually, NH 8.6, p. 13. 452 Elaborating on NH 8.1, p. 3. 453 This seems a misreading of NH 8.1, p. 5, where the elephants throw grass to the heavens. 454 NH 8.5, p. 13. 447 448

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Item quant les olephans treuvent en leur voie les brebiz ilz se gardent moult songneusement de les blecier ou nuyre en aucune maniere.455 Item les olephans ont vergoigne. Et dit Plinius que si aucun olephant est de ung autre olephant vaincu, le vaincu fuyt tousjours la voix et la presence du victorien et est tout honteulx de luy mesmes.456 Item dit Solin que quant la saison et le temps vient que les olephans et leur femelles sassemblent ensemble pour faire les oeuvres de generacion, ilz se mectent en lieux secretz et sont honteux naturellement de leur charnelle habitacion.457 Item les olephans de Affricque sont plus petiz en corpulance que ceulx de Inde. Et pour ce ilz sont tous honteux quant ilz se treuvent devant les olephans de Inde, et ne se monstrent point quilz puissent devant eulx, mais sen fuient et se absentent tant comme Ilz peuent.458 Item dit Solin quilz sont disciplinables et recoyvent doctrine et apprenent et sont duiz par force de batre et de correction.459 Item dit Solin que les olephans sont introduiz en Inde de aller a la charrue et de labourer les terres.460 Item dit Plinius que quant Pompee le Grant retourna victorien des batailles dAffricque il volut entrer en Romme en grant magnificence et fut monte en ung chariot que quatre elephans tiroient qui tous duyz ad ce faire estoient.461 Item les olephans ont pitie et compassion. Car ilz attendent et supportent lung lautre quant ilz sont las et travaillez. Et portent voluntiers la charge de ceulx qui sont las.462 Item les olephans adroissent a son chemin lomme fourvoye et esgare. Item les olephans deffendent lomme du peril des dragons et des serpens.463 Item les olephans ont aucune chastete et aucune honneste et continence, car jamais ung masle ne congnoistre charnellement la femelle de lautre.464

When elephants find lambs in their path, they keep themselves, very carefully, from wounding or hurting them in any way. Elephants have shame. And Pliny says that if any elephant is conquered by another elephant, the one who is vanquished always flees the sight and presence of the victor and is completely ashamed of himself. Solinus says that when the season and time come when the elephants and their females gather together to do the work of generation, they go to secret places and are naturally ashamed of their carnal cohabitation. The elephants of Africa are smaller in body size than those of India. And for this reason they are ashamed when they find themselves before the Indian elephants, and they do not show themselves in front of them if they can avoid it, but flee and absent themselves as much as they can. Solinus says that they can be disciplined and they receive doctrine and learn and are trained by force of beating and correction. Solinus says that elephants are instructed in India to pull the plow and to work the land. Pliny says that when Pompey the Great returned victorious from battles in Africa, he wished to enter Rome in great magnificence and was mounted on a chariot drawn by four elephants that were all trained to do this task. Elephants have pity and compassion. For they stay back and support one another when they are tired and weary. And they willingly bear the burden of those who are tired. Elephants set a man back on the right road when he is lost and has gone astray. Elephants defend men against the danger of dragons and serpents. Elephants have some chastity and integrity and continence, for never does a male carnally know the female of another.

NH 8.7, p. 19. A garbled version of NH 8.5, p. 11. 457 Actually, NH 8.5, p. 11. 458 NH 8.9, p. 23. 459 Actually, NH 8.8, p. 19. 460 Actually, NH 8.1, p. 5. 461 Actually, NH 8.2, p. 5. 462 NH 8.24, p. 19. 463 This and the passage above are variants of NH 8.5, p. 9. 464 NH 8.5, p. 11. 455 456

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Item despuis quilz sont assemblez et acompaignes ung paire ensemble ilz sentregardent foy et loyaulte et lung ne change poinct lautre.465 Item le masle ne congoist sa femelle que de x ans en x ans.466 Item entre eulx na aucune jeleusie ne les masles pour les femelles nont nullesfoiz dissencion ne discord.467 Item ilz aiment loyaulment ce quilz aiment dont parle Plinius. Et dit que en lost du roy Tolomee eut jadis ung olephant qui moult ardemment amoit ung jeune homme qui estoit en lost et le suyvoit et pour luy il fasoit plus que pour nul autre. Combien que ne feust pas son maistre.468 Item ilz ont crainte car naturellement lolephant doubte homme. Et dit Plinius que quant les olephans treuvent es desers ou es boys la trace de homme que la ilz se arrestent de peur et regardent entre eulx en soufflant et tremblant.469 Item pareillement ainsi fait le tigre qui est beste moult cruelle et sauvaige. Car suppose quil nait oncques veu homme neantmoins des aussi tost comme il sent la trace de homme, il sen fuyt tant comme il peut. Et sil a nulz petiz tigres il mue et change leur lieu et leur place. Plinius recite ung moult grant merveille en son viiie livre en son viiie chapite. Et dit que quant le roy Hanibal eut vain- 69/ cu les Romains et prins les aucuns prisonniers il contraignoit les prisonniers combatre les ungs contre les autres et a tuer lung lautre. Et tant se combatirent quil nen demeura que ung seul en vie. Lors Hanibal ordonna que celluy prisonnier qui estoit demoure tout seul se combatroit en ung champ de bataille contre ung olephant par telle condicion que sil vainquoit la beste il demourroit tout franc sans payer rancon. Et tout ainsi luy advint car il se combatit moult vilainnement contre lolephant et loccist par grant prouesse parquoy il fut delivre.470 Item dit Plinius que le lion est une beste de tresgrant abstinence. Et ne ame a user de nulle char grasse. Car il ne couvoitte point a estre gras. Et pour ce par certains jours il menge et aussi par certains jours il ne menge point. Et luy advient souvent que par trop manger il est malade.471 Item dit Plinius que combien que le lion soit beste trescruelle et orgueilleuse et forte, toutesfoiz il est souvent apprivoise et mis en subjection domme.472

After they are assembled and associated as a pair together, they keep faith and loyalty with each other, and they do not change partners. The male only knows the female every ten years. Among them they have no jealousy, nor do the males ever have any dissension or discord over the females. They love loyally those whom they love, a subject Pliny discusses. And Pliny says that in the host of the king Ptolemy there was, in the olden days, an elephant who most ardently loved a young man who was in the host, and he followed him and did more for him than he did for any other—even though he was not his actual master. They have fear, for the elephant naturally is distrustful of man. And Pliny says that when elephants discover the trail of a man in the desert or in a woods, they stop right there in fear and look at each other snorting and trembling. Similarly, the tiger, who is a most cruel and savage beast, does the same thing. For supposing that he has never seen a man, nonetheless, as soon as he smells the scent of man, he flees as fast as he can. And if it has any tiger cubs, it changes and moves their location and place. Pliny tells of a very great marvel in his eighth book in his eighth chapter. And he says that when the king Hannibal had conquered the Romans and taken prisoners, he forced the prisoners to fight against each other and kill one another. And they fought so long that there remained only one alive. Then Hannibal ordered this prisoner who was still alive to fight all alone on the battlefield against an elephant, on the condition that if he conquered the elephant, he would be set free without paying ransom. And it turned out in just that way, for he fought most villanously against the elephant and killed it through great prowess, for which he was set free. Pliny says that the lion is an animal of very great abstinence. And he does not like to eat fat meat. For he does not wish to be fat. And for this reason, on certain days he eats and on other days he does not eat. And it often happens to him that from eating too much, he is sick. Pliny says that even though the lion is a very cruel and proud and strong beast, yet he is often taken and subjected to man.

NH 8.5, p. 11. NH 8.5, p. 11. 467 NH 8.5, p. 11. 468 NH 8.5, p. 13. 469 NH 8.5, p. 9. 470 NH 8.5, p. 9; 8.6, p. 15. 471 A garbled version of NH 8.18, p. 37. 472 NH 8.1, p. 43. 465 466

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Item dit Plinius que la force du lion est souverainement es yeulx et pource quant on vieult prandre et mectre en subjection le lion on luy gecte ung drap devant les yeulx et la face. Et par ce il est legierement vaincu et prins. Et nous mect cy exemple dung pastour de Getulie qui fut assailli dung lion lequel en soy deffendent luy gecta ung sac devant la face et par le moyen du sac il le vainquit et le tua tout mort sur les sablons.473 Item aussi Plinius recite de Lismaco que le roy Alixandre abandonna au lyon lequel print sa propre robe et la gecta contre sa face parquoy il le vainquit comme plus aplain est recite en lIstoire du roy Alixandre.474 Item ad ce propos il est escript en la Bible ou livre des Juges au xiiiie chappitre que Sanson fortin rencontra ung lyon. Et contre luy gecta sa robe et le print par les deux joues et par les machoueres comme on prent ung cheval pour adviser son eage aux dens. Et puis Sanson luy fendit et divisa les machoueres en deux parties. Et par ce Sanson conquist et occist le lion. Item Plinius recite que le premier homme qui oncques entreprint a duyre et apprivoiser les lyons et que sen hardia a les traicter et approcher. Ce fut le roy de Penores appelle Hemon le tressaige qui pour ceste cause fut du peuple condemne pour ce que par sa sapience riens ne luy estoit inpossible et nulle force de lyon ne luy povoit resister. Et pour ce doubta son peuple quil leur fist perdre leur franchise et liberte par sa prudence et subtilite. Et pour ce le firent mourir.475 Item dit Plinius que de tant que le lyon a les crains et les poilz du corps plus crespes de tant est il plus couart et mains hardy et de failly couraige.476 Item dit Plinius en son vii livre ou viie chappitre que les lyons qui ont grans et long crains entour le coul sont sur tous autres hardis et courageux.477 Item il dit que combien que le lyon soit beste sauvaige et plainne de tresgrant crualte, toutesfoiz par industrie et science naturelle il est enclin a estre vers homme piteulx et de bonnaire. Et nous mect cy Plinius ung example. Et dit que ung chevalier Siracusin appelle Methor sen alloit une foiz en pelerinage oultre mer, si rancontra ou royaume de Sirie en sa voye ung lyon du quel il fut moult espouvente. Et pource a toutesfins il se eslongnoit de

Pliny says that the strength of the lion is chiefly in his eyes, and accordingly, when one wishes to take and put in subjection a lion, one throws a cloth over his eyes and face. And by this means, he is easily conquered and taken. And he offers here the example of a shepherd from Getulia who was attacked by a lion, and to defend himself he threw a sack over its face, and by means of the sack he conquered and killed him dead on the sands. Pliny also tells of Lysimachus, whom the king Alexander abandoned to the lion and who took his own robe and threw it against the lion’s face, by which act he conquered it, as is more fully recounted in the History of King Alexander. Apropos to this, it is written in the Bible in the book of Judges in the fourteenth chapter that the mighty Samson encountered a lion. And he threw his robe against him and took him by the two cheeks and by the jaws as one takes a horse to check his age by his teeth. And then Samson divided and split the jaws in two parts. And in this way Samson conquered and killed the lion. Pliny tells of the first man who ever undertook to tame and control lions and how he emboldened himself to deal with them and approach them. This was the king of Penores, called Hemon the very wise, who for this reason was condemned by his people, because with his wisdom nothing was impossible for him and no strength of a lion could resist him. And thus his people feared that he would cause them to lose their liberty and freedom, by his cunning and subtlety. And for this reason, they put him to death. Pliny says that the greater the amount of curly hair on a lion’s mane and body, to that same extent will he be more cowardly, less bold, and failing in courage. Pliny says in his seventh book in the seventh chapter that the lions that have great and long manes around the neck are bold and courageous above all others. He says that even though the lion is a savage beast and full of great cruelty, nevertheless by industry and natural wisdom it is inclined to have pity and good will towards men. And Pliny gives us an example here. And he says that a knight from Syracuse called Methor went out one time on pilgrimage beyond the sea, and thus encountered in his path, in the realm of Syria, a lion of which he felt most frightened. And because of this, he at once backed away

NH 8.21, p. 43. NH 8.21, p. 43. The story of how Alexander abandoned Lysimachus the Thessalian general and his eventual successor to a lion is told in greater detail by Plutarch, Bernadette Perrin, ed. and tr., Plutarch’s Lives (Cambridge, MA and London: Loeb Classical Library, 1968) IX, «Demetrius,» 27.3, p. 65. 475 The story of Hanno the Carthagenian lion tamer appears in NH 8.21, p. 43. 476 NH 8.17, p. 33. 477 NH 8.17, p. 33. 473 474

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from him as far as he could, but the lion presented himself to him with a humble demeanor, licking the tracks of the knight and kissing his footprints, and he lay down before the knight and showed him his foot which was wounded with a deep prick. And he had in his foot a large thorn that hurt him grievously. Then the aforesaid knight put his hand on the foot of the lion and removed the thorn that was causing him such pain, and he cleaned the dirt out of the wound and applied medicine and cured him to the best of his ability. Pliny says that the lion is able to recognize the good done to him and is not ungrateful. And with regard to this Pliny offers us an example and says that there was long ago a sailor who arrived at a port in Africa and got off his ship. And he went a little distance away on land, and there he encountered a lion. And out of his great fear of the lion, he immediately climbed a tree, and the lion was wounded in a way similar to the case described above and asked for aid and help from the man. And for this reason the lion crouched humbly under the tree, awaiting the man’s descent, crying and complaining most piteously. Then, when the sailor had taken in all this, he came down from the tree and helped the lion and looked him over and did the best he could for him and removed the thorn that he had in his paw and cleaned and tended the wound so well that the lion found himself cured a short time after. And because of this, the lion undertook to serve the man who had cured him, out of gratitude for the pleasure and the courtesy that the man had shown him. And, as a sort of reward, every day that the sailor was in the African port, the lion brought him a large portion of his prey. This is the place to tell a story that happened in the Holy Land. There was a good Christian knight who, in returning from battle, found a lion who was heavily weighted down and oppressed with a great serpent. And the serpent was so interlaced and had wound itself all around the body of the lion so strongly that the lion could not help or defend itself and the lion was dismayed and frightened and in great danger of being destroyed by the serpent, and he did not know how to find any sort of remedy for his situation. Also, the serpent was tired and weary and did not dare unwind itself from around the lion for fear that the lion would conquer and vanquish it. Then the knight pondered which one he should help. And he thought and considered that the serpent is a most horrible, bad, and poisonous beast, and that he is a true enemy of human kind. And for this reason he made up his mind that he would help the noble lion and make war on the poisonous serpent. And then

luy le plus loing quil povoit, mais le lyon a luy se presentoit en hum- 69v/ ble contenance en lechent la trace du chevalier et en baisent ses pas et devant le chevalier il se coucha et luy monstra son pie qui estoit blecie dune grosse pointure. Et avoit dedans son pie une grosse espine qui moult luy grevoit. Lors ledit chevalier mist la main sur le pie du lyon et luy ousta lespine qui tant luy nuysoit et luy expurgea lordeure de la ploye et le medicina et guerist a son povoir.478 Item dit Plinius que le lyon est assez recongnoissant le bien que on luy fait et nest point ingrat. Et ad ce propos nous mect cy ung exemple Plinius et dit quil fut jadis ung marinier qui arriva en ung port en Affricque lequel yssit hors de la nef. Et se esloingna ung peu en allent par la terre et rancontra ung lyon. Et pour la grant peur de luy il monta tantost sur ung arbre et le lyon estoit blecie en cas pareil comme dit est dessus, et demandoit laide et le secours de lomme. Et pource desoubz celuy arbre se coucha le lyon humblement attendant la venue de lomme en criant et en soy complaignant moult piteusement. Lors quant le mariner eut apparceu la chose il descendit de larbre et aida et visita le lyon et luy fist le mieulx quil peut et luy osta lespine quil avoit dedans le pie et luy expurgea et medicina sa playe tellement que le lyon se trouva gueri en pou de temps apres. Et pource le lyon sesforca de servir lomme qui lavoit gueri en recongnoissant le plesir et la courtoysie que lomme luy avoit fait. Et par maniere de guerdon et tretous les jours quil fut sur le port dAffricque le lyon luy apportoit de sa proye une moult grande porcion.479 Item cy appartient a reciter lystoire qui advint en la terre saincte, il fut ung bon chevalier Crestien qui en soy retournant de la bataille trouva ung lyon qui estoit moult fort affaili et foulle dung grant serpent. Et tellement que le serpent estoit lacie et a vironne tout autour du corps du lyon si tresfort que le lyon ne se povoit bonnement aider ne deffendre et estoit le lion tout esbay et espouvente et en tresgrant peril destre desconfit par le serpent et ne savoit trouver maniere de mectre remede en son fait. Item aussi le serpent estoit las et travaille et ne se ousoit deslacier dentour le lyon par doubte que le lyon le conquist et vanquist. Lors le chevalier pensa en luy mesmes auquel il aideroit. Et advisa et considera que le serpent est beste moult horrible, mauvaise, et venimeuse et quil est vray ennemy de nature humaine. Et pour ce il deslibera du tout en luy mesmes quil aideroit au noble lyon et feroit guerre au venimeulx serpent. Et lors le chevalier tira son espee 478 479

NH 8.19, p. 37. The story of Mentor of Syracuse occurs in NH 8.21, pp. 83-85. NH 8.21, p. 45. See Swan and Hooper, tr. and rev., Gesta Romanorum, 104.

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et en frappa de taille ung si grant coup sur le serpent quil le couppa tout oultre en deux pieces et en la fin le tua tout mort. Lors quant le noble lyon se vit delivre de la subjection du serpent il se humilia moult humblement et doulcement devant le chevalier comme pourroit faire ung levrier. Et par tout ou le chevalier alloit le lyon suyvoit. Et de sa proye tous les jours luy presentoit. Et quant le chevalier passa a la mer pour sen venir de pardeca en son pais le lyon passa la mer avecques luy et le suyvit jusques en son pais et en son hostel et y fina ses derniers jours.480 Item aussi il est recite ung moult grant merveille de la grant bonte et franche liberalite du noble lion. Nous lisons en la Vie Sainct Jerosme que ung lyon se presenta devant luy qui avoit grant mal en lung de ses piez, quant Sainct Jerosme vit et apperceut sa ma- 70/ ladie quil avoit ou pie il fist par sa bonne diligence que le lyon fut tout guery de son pie. Adonc le noble lyon pour la guerison de son pie, [e]t pour le grant plaisir et service que Sainct Jerosme luy avoit fait il se rendit comme son servant et suyvoit Sainct [Jerosme] par tout ou il alloit. Lors Sainct Jerosme commanda au lyon quil menast et ramenast lasne de labbaye au boys sauvement et seurement et aussi quil le gardast es prez et es pasturaiges. Si advint une foiz que le lyon fut negligent de garder lasne es pres et sendormit en ung buisson. Si advint a celle heur que par illec passerent certains marachans qui menoient des mulles et des chevaulx charges de marchandises qui virent et apparceurent cest asne qui estoit tout seul en my les prez sans garde et le menerent avec eulx. Et quant le lyon sesveilla il yssit hors du buysson et regarda es prez et ne veit point son asne, si fut moult doulant et esbay. Et sen revint a labbaye a Sainct Jerosme. Et la luy fut demande quil avoit fait de lasne. Et plus fort il luy fut dit et reproche quil lavoit mengie. Et que pour ce on ne luy delivreroit plus sa pitance en labbaye. Et la fut moult le pouvre lyon escrie et blasme, ledange [laidange] et huye davoir mangie lasne. Et luy fut enjoingt par Sainct Jerosme pource quil cuidoit quil eust mangie lasne quil feroit loffice de lane et quil serviroit labbaye de boys. Et que doresnavant il convenoit quil allast une foiz le jour au boys et quil en apportast une charge pour la cuysine de leans. Et tout ainsi comme Sainct Jerosme ordonna le pouvre lyon fist de bon cueur bien par lespace de troys moys et demy. Si advint que les marchans qui avoient lasne revindrent par le propre chemin et passaige par ou ilz estoient passez et en ramenoient lasne avec eulx. Et le povre lyon ainsi comme il alloit au bois les rancontra

the knight drew his sword and struck such a great blow on the serpent that he cut it entirely into two pieces and, in the end, killed it dead. Then when the noble lion saw itself saved from the subjection of the serpent, he lowered himself most humbly and gently before the knight, as a greyhound would do. And everywhere the knight went the lion followed. And he presented him with his prey every day. And when the knight crossed the sea to come back here to his own country, the lion crossed the sea with him and followed him to his country and to his dwelling and finished his last days there. Also is told a most great marvel of the great good will and gracious liberality of the noble lion. We read in the Life of Saint Jerome that a lion presented himself before the saint with a terrible pain in one of his feet, and when Saint Jerome saw and understood the malady that he had in his foot, he ensured with good diligence that the lion was completely cured in his foot. Then the noble lion, for the healing of his foot and for the great pleasure and service that Saint Jerome had rendered him, gave himself to Jerome as a servant and followed him everywhere he went. Then Jerome commanded the lion to lead and return the ass of the abbey to the woods safely and securely and also to guard it in the meadows and pastures. Then it happened one time that the lion was negligent in guarding the ass in the meadow and fell asleep under a bush. It so happened that at this moment there passed by certain merchants who led some mules and horses laden with goods who saw and perceived this ass who was all alone in the midst of the field without any guardian, and they took it and led it away with them. And when the lion awakened and came out of the bushes and looked over the field and did not see his ass, then he was very dismayed and appalled. And he went back to the abbey to Saint Jerome. And then he was asked what he had done with the ass. And what’s more, he was blamed and reproached for having eaten it. And because of this, no one would any longer bring food to him in the abbey. And the poor lion was shouted at and blamed, hooted at and defamed for having eaten the ass. And he was enjoined by Saint Jerome, because he believed that he had eaten the ass, to perform the duties of the ass and furnish the abbey with wood. And henceforward it was agreed that he must go once a day to the woods and bring back a load for the abbey kitchen. And just as Saint Jerome commanded, the poor lion did with good heart for a good three months and a half. And then it happened that the merchants who had the ass came back by way of that very same road and passage they had traveled before, and they brought the ass with them. And the poor lion, as he went to the woods, encountered

This lion and serpent story is a variant of Chrétien de Troyes’ Yvain, ou chevalier au lion (ca. 1176-1181), ll. 3341ff. in Chrétien de Troyes, Œuvres complètes, ed., Daniel Poirion (Paris: Gallimard, 1994), pp. 340-503. 480

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ou chemin et congnet tantost lasne de labbaye. Lors le lyon sesmeut de grant couraige et courut sus aux marchans et enmordit et blecia aucuns et les autres sen fuirent. Et le lyon admena devant luy son asne et toutes les mulles des marchans qui estoient chargiez de denreez. Et les admena joyeusement dedans le cloistre de labbaye. Et presenta lasne a Sainct Jerosme pour estre purge du blasme de quoy il avoit este accuse. Et les marchans poursuyrent de loing leurs bestes et sen vindrent devant Sainct Jersome et luy crierent mercy humblement quil eust pitie deulx et de leurs denreez et luy recongneurent le larrecin quilz avoient fait de lasne. Adonc Sainct Jerosme voyant la grant contriction et repentance des marchans, il leur pardonna le larecin et le pechie et leur restitua toutes leurs denreez et leurs bestes.481 Item autrement est declairee la gracieusete du lyon et de la lyonnesse ou livre du Dialogue Sainct Severin, ou il dit quil fut une lyonnesse qui avoit des petiz lyonneaulx qui estoient aveugles. Si les apporta au pie du sainct preudhomme hermite qui servoit Dieu en une forest. Si se apperceut bien le sainct homme par la contenance de la lyonnesse que elle luy requieroit quil voulsist prier Dieu quil voulsist rendre la vehue a les lyonneaulx. Lors ce sainct preudhomme par lintercession du Sainct Esperit mist sa main sur les yeulx des lyonneaulx. Lors incontinent ilz virent bien cler et furent enlumines. Quant la lyonnesse vit que ses lyonneaulx eurent recouvert la vehue par la priere du sainct preudhomme elle apporta au sainct homme la peau dune beste 70v/ morte et la luy presenta par maniere de sallaire en recompensant le plaisir, lonneur, et la courtoisie que le preudomme luy avoit fait.482 Plinius raconte en son viiie livre au xviiie chappitre que il fut ung dragon en la terre de Archadie que ung jeune filz appelle Dathon nourrit petit par grant plaisance et lamoit et gardoit comme pere son enfant. Le dragon fut tant nourri quil devint moult grand. Et tant que les parens dudit Dathon avoient moult grand horreur et hideur dudit serpent et moult en blasmerent leur filz et le contraignerent a loctire ou a le debouter et chasser de hors. Lenfant ne le voulut pas tuer mais tout secretement les mena es longtains desers et la le laissa. Si advint long temps apres que Dathon fut marchant. Et advint ung jour ainsi quil alloit en estrange contre en marchandise quil fut assailli de larrons et de meurtriers en ung boys et le vouloient tuer et octire pour avoir sa

them on the road and recognized immediately the ass belonging to the abbey. Then the lion was impelled by great courage and ran up to the merchants and bit and wounded some and the others fled. And the lion led before him his ass and all the mules of the merchants that were charged with goods. And he led them joyfully into the abbey cloister. And he presented the ass to Saint Jerome in order to be cleared of blame for the crime of which he had been accused. And the merchants followed their animals at a distance and came before Saint Jerome and humbly begged his mercy, that he should have pity on them and their goods, and they confessed to him the larceny they had committed in the matter of the ass. Then Saint Jerome, seeing the great contrition and repentance of the merchants, pardoned them for their larceny and their sin and restored to them their chattels and their animals. Elsewhere is shown the graciousness of the lion and the lioness in the book of the Dialogues of Saint Severus, where it says that there was a lioness who had some small cubs who were blind. So she bore them to the feet of a saintly hermit who served God in the forest. And he saw clearly by the face of the lioness that she wished him to pray to God that he might give back to the cubs their eyesight. Then this holy Goodman by intercession of the Holy Spirit put his hands on the eyes of the cubs. Then immediately they saw very clearly and were enlightened. When the lioness saw that her cubs had recovered their sight through the prayer of the saintly Goodman, she bore to the holy man the skin of a dead beast and presented it to him in the manner of a payment in recompense for the pleasure, the honor, and the courtesy that the Goodman had made her. Pliny tells in his eighth book in the eighteenth chapter that there was a dragon in the land of Arcadia whom a young man named Dathon nourished from infancy with great pleasure, and he loved it and kept it as a father would his infant. The dragon was so well nourished that he became very large—so much so that the parents of the said Dathon had great horror and dread of the said serpent and blamed their son greatly, requiring him to kill it or to throw it out and chase it away. The boy did not wish to kill it but secretly led it to a distant desert, and there he released it. Then it happened a long time afterward that Dathon was a merchant. And it happened one day that he went into a foreign land on business and, in a woods, was attacked by thieves and murderers who wished to kill and murder him for his goods. This merchant then

For this story from the life of St. Jerome, see Vita Divi Hieronymi (PL 22.209). A convenient English translation is that of Helen Waddell, Beasts and Saints (London: Barnes & Noble, 1960), pp. 30-38. 482 This story (with five cubs) appears in the Dialogues of Sulpicius Severus (ca. 404) PL 20.I, Ch.ix. For an English translation, see Bernard M. Peebles,‘Sulpicius Severus: Writings,’ in R. J. Deferrari, ed., The Fathers of the Church (New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc., 1949), pp. 79–140. See also Clare Stancliffe, St. Martin and his Hagiographer: History and Miracle in Sulpicius Severus (New York: Clarendon Press, 1983). 481

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cried out loudly for fear of death. At his cry the dragon he had nourished came immediately and quickly, having clearly recognized his former master and nurse through his cry and his voice, and he vigorously defended him from the hands of the thieves. And the dragon did this so well that his master passed and escaped safely without having any trouble and without losing any of his goods. Pliny says that among all the animals, the wolf has the weakest memory. And he says that it has such a short memory that in seeking and devouring its prey, even though it is very hungry, if it lifts its eyes to look elsewhere, it easily forgets its meal and leaves it to go elsewhere to seek a new quarry. Among the marvels of nature we ought to affirm that dumb beasts have, through knowledge and natural industry, a greater sense of knowing how to find remedies for their illnesses and protecting themselves against adversities than we have among men. And what’s more, many medicinal remedies that we use every day our ancestors learned and took from the behaviors of animals, and thus it is necessary to say that animals taught and educated men in the art and science of medicine. Job witnesses and testifies to this in his book in the thirty-fifth chapter, where he says that God taught people to govern themselves temporally in seeking their own laws and regulations by following the beasts of the earth. And he teaches them to flee all danger and to study the heavens from the birds flying in the air. And for this reason Pliny says in his twenty-seventh book in the third chapter that all animals know perfectly well what is good for them and stop themselves there, but man does the opposite. He says that all beasts teach us everyday something for our profit, and he offers here and tells us about an example of a beast called Hippothar, which is half horse and half bull. This animal was the first to teach us and show us bloodletting. For when it is too fat and too full of bad humours, it bleeds itself and lets out its blood. And it seeks out a bush where someone has just cut the thorns or some other pricking wood and lies down and rubs against some thorn point until it makes itself bleed from a vein. And thus it voids the bad blood to keep itself in better health. And when it knows that it has bled enough, it stops up the wound with mud. Pliny says the evacuation of the body was first known and put forward by a beast called clister. And also by certain Egyptian birds

chevance. Celuy marchant moult fort sescria pour la peur de la mort. A son cry vint tantost et hastivement le dragon quil avoit nourri qui entendit bien son maistre et son nourricier au cry et a la voys et le deffendit moult fort des mains aux larrons. Et tant fist le dragon que son maistre passa et eschappa seurement sans avoir nul mal et sans perdre rien du sien.483 Plinius dit que entre toutes bestes sauvaiges le loup a moins de souvenance. Et dit quil a si trespetite memoire que en mengeant et en devorant sa proye combien quil ait grant fain si il lieve les yeulx pour ailleurs regarder il oublie treslegierement sa viande et delaisse pour autre proye querir.484 Entre les merveilles de nature doit on alleguer que les bestes muez ont par science et industrie naturelle plus grant sentement de savoyr procurer les remedes contre leurs maladies et deulx garder de tout contraire que nous navons entre nous hommes. Et qui plus est, plusieurs remedes medicinables dont nous usons tous les jours nos predecesseurs ont aprins et retenu de la condicions des bestes, ainsi il fault dire que les bestes muez ont aprins et enseigne aux hommes lart et science de medicine. Ainsi le tesmoigne et verifie Job en son livre ou xxxve chappitre, ou il dit que Dieu enseigne les hommes a eulx gouverner temporellement en querant leur propre conversacion par les bestes de la terre. Et les aprent a fuir tout contraire et a bien adviser les cieulx par les oyseaulx vollant en laer. Et pource dit Plinius en son xxviie livre ou iiie chappitre que toutes bestes mues scevent bien que bon leur est et la se arrestent, mais lomme fait au contraire.485 Item il dit que toutes bestes nous apprenent tous les jours aucune chose pour nostre proffit et nous met et recite cy ung exemple de une beste appellee ypothaure qui est moitie cheval et moitie toreau. Ceste beste premierement nous enseigna et monsta le signe. Car quant elle est trop grasse et trop plaine de mauvaises humeurs elle se seigne soy mesmes et se vuyde de sang. Et advise ung buysson ou len a nouvellement couppe des espines ou autres boys poingnans et la se couche et frote contre aucune poincte despine tant quil se fait seigner daucune voyne. Et ainsi 71/ il se vuide de mauvais sang pour soy mieulx garder et conserver en sa sante. Et quant il scent quil est asses seigne il estouppe sa playe de boe.486 Item dit Plinius que levacuacion du corps fut premierement sceue et mise avant par une beste appellee clistere. Et par certains

NH 8.22, p. 47, where the boy is called Thoas and the dragon is a serpent. NH 8.24, p. 61. 485 The opening and the ending are from NH 27.1-2, especially p. 393. 486 This story of the hippopotamus comes from NH 8.40, pp. 69-71. 483 484

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oyseaulx appellez ybices qui sont en Egypte qui ressemblent a cigoignez. Car quant ilz se veullent vuyder et purger le corps ilz vont boire de leau de la mer qui les fait tantost vuyder les boyaulx.487 Item dit Plinius que les chiens nous aprenent a vuyder lestomac quant il est trop plain et trop empesche de viande de la digestion qui leur fait mal en lestomac.488 Item le cerf nous aprent a faire venir hors du corps les saiettes et fleiches et autre traict dont il est aucunesfoiz frappe et navre. Car quant il est navre de trait il prent une herbe appellee dicanne qui est de telle vertu que quant il en aura une foiz mangie et mis sur la playe la fleche et le fer sauldra dehors et sera tantost gueri.489 Item les arondelles nous ont aprins la noble vertu de lerbe appellee celidonne qui est tant proffitable a la vehue. Car quant les petiz arondeaulx sont aveuglez elle va tost querir de ceste herbe qui est plaine de si grant vertu que quant larondelle en a une foiz touche les yeulx de ses oyseaulx tantoust la veheue leur revient.490 Item aussi la petite mustelle nous aprint la propriete et vertu dune herbe nommee la ruche. Car quant elle est assaillie du serpent elle se arme et frocte tout le corps de ceste herbe. Lors tantost pource que le serpent ne peut endurer lodeur et la force de ceste herbe il sen fuyt et laisse la petite mustelle.491 Item aussi dit Plinius que le crappault et tous autres menuz serpens quant ilz ont la vehue troublee pour labitacion de la terre ilz recouvrent la veue par user du fenoil. Car le fenoil vault et proffite moult a la conservacion de la veue corporelle.492 Item le dragon est moult subgect par sa naturelle condicion a vomissement. Et pource il y obvie et treuve remede par user dune herbe appellee lectue des champs. Par quoy le serpent nous monstre et enseigne que la vertue de ceste herbe nous est moult profitable contre vomissement.493 Item quant la panthere qui est la plus belle de toutes les bestes est envenimee elle scet querir et choisir naturellement pour son souverain remede la fiente de homme et en user pour soy guerir.494

called ibis who look like storks. For when they wish to empty and purge the body, they go drink sea water, which makes them void their bowels. Pliny says that dogs teach us to empty the stomach when it is too full and too blocked with food in the digestive process, which gives them a stomach ache. The stag teaches us to remove from the body the arrows and darts and other bolts with which he is sometimes struck. For when he is hit by a bolt, he takes a herb called dittany which is of such virtue that when he has once eaten it and put it on the wound, the arrow and the head will jump from the wound and it will be immediately cured. The swallows teach us the noble virtue of a herb called Celidonne which is so valuable for eyesight. For when the small swallows are blinded, they immediately go to seek this plant that is so full of great virtue that when the swallow has once touched the eyes of her chicks with it, they immediately regain their sight. Also the small weasel teaches us the property and virtue of an herb named rue. For when she is attacked by a serpent, she arms and rubs her whole body with this herb. Then immediately, because the snake cannot stand the smell and power of the plant, it flees and leaves the small weasel alone. Also Pliny says that the toad and all other small serpents, when they have troubled vision because of living in the earth, they recover their sight by using fennel. For fennel is of great worth and profit for the conservation of the bodily sight. The dragon is, by its natural condition, greatly subject to vomiting. And for this reason, it avoids it and finds a remedy by using an herb called «lettuce of the fields» by which the serpent shows and teaches us that the power of this plant is very profitable against vomiting. When the panther, that is the most beautiful of all the beasts, is poisoned, it knows naturally to seek out and find for its most effective remedy the turds of man and to use them to cure itself.

NH 8.41, p. 71. Generally NH, 8.41, p. 71. See H. Peter Steeves, «Lost Dog, or, Levinas Faces the Animal,» in Mary Pollock and Catherine Rainwater, eds., Figuring Animals: Essays on Animal Images in Art, Literature, Philosophy, and Popular Culture (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), pp. 49-67. 489 NH 8.41, p. 71. 490 The belief that swallow chicks were blind was common and was attributed to Aristotle among other authorities. The plant is also called Swallow-wort. NH 8.41, p. 71. 491 Rue is an antidote for mouse not snake bite in NH 8.41, p. 71. 492 NH 8.41, p. 71. 493 NH 8.41, p. 71. 494 Said of the leopard in NH 8.41, p. 73. 487 488

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Item quant lolephant a mangie par cas daventure en pasturant le venimeulx limasson, il scet bien querir lolivier sauvaige et en user pour soy guerir.495 Item quant lours se scent empoisonne pour avoir mange la mandegore, il sen va toust et hastivement en une fromiere et en mangne les fromiz par quoy il se sent tout sain et guery.496 Item quant le corbeau a mengie le camelon qui moult est venimeulx, tantost va user de la graine du lorier par quoy il se sent tantost guery.497 Item par les exemples cy dessus recitez il appert clerement que veritable est la parolle de JesuCrist ou il dit en lEvangille ou chappitre xi de Sainct Mathieu que Dieu a cele et teu aux saiges et prudens hommes de cest monde certaines choses. Et les a revelleez et faiz savoir aux petiz et simples bestiaulx. Comme il appert de faict que JesuCrist revella les secretz de Paradis et le commancement 71v/ de nostre foy et de sa saincte Incarnacion, de sa Passion, de sa Resurrection comme des autres [articles] de la foy Chrestienne aux pastoureaulx qui estoient ignorans. Et leur fist reveler plus tost que es maistres de la loy. Item auxi il revela plus toust es simples pecheurs comme a Sainct Pierre, a Sainct Jehan, a Sainct Andre et es autres apoultres quil ne fist es grans clers et saiges philozophes et es roys et es princes de ce monde. Et pource il est dit par maniere de figure ou livre des Juges au ixe chappitre que quant Balaam fut monte sur son asnesse pour aller maldire le peuple de Dieu par les promesses de Balaath, lange de Dieu luy vint au devant pour lempescher du mal quil voulloit faire. Et tenoit lange en la voie qui estoit tresestroicte ung glaive moult tranchant, le quel glaive Balaam nullement ne veoit ne nappercevoit mes lasnesse bien le veoit qui moult grant peur en avoit. Et pour ce se arresta la beste et parla en soy complaignant de ce que son maistre la poignoit et la contraignoit a aller contre la volunte de Dieu. Ainsi il appert clerement que lasnesse qui estoit beste mue veoit plus cler en fait divin que ne faisoit son maistre qui estoit entre les hommes dicelui temps le plus grand et le plus hault donneur comme prophete de Dieu. Item dit Plinius en son livre ou xxxiie chappitre que entre les merveilles du monde on doit reputer que les trespetites bestes que ce soient ont aucunesfoiz destruictez et deserteez grands villes et grands citez. Dont Varron nous recite ung exemple et dit que en Espaigne y eut jadiz une bonne ville fondue et subvertie par grant

When the elephant has, while grazing, accidentally eaten a poisonous snail, it knows to seek the wild olive and use it to cure itself. When the bear feels himself poisoned from having eaten the mandrake, he goes quickly and hastily to an ant hill and eats the ants from it, as a result of which he feels all healthy and cured. When the crow has eaten the chameleon, which is very poisonous, immediately he goes and uses the laurel seed, by which he feels immediately cured. By the examples cited above, it clearly appears that the word of Jesus Christ is true where he says in the Gospel of Saint Matthew, in chapter 11, that God has hidden and remained silent about certain things to the sages and wise men of this world. And he has revealed them and made them known to the small and simple animals. For it appears, in fact, that Jesus Christ revealed the secrets of Paradise and the beginning of our faith and of his holy incarnation, his Passion, and his Resurrection, as well as other mysteries of the Christian faith, to shepherds who were ignorant. And he caused them to be revealed more quickly to them than is done for masters of the law. Also he revealed more to simple fishermen, such as Saint Peter, Saint James, Saint Andrew, and the other apostles, than he did to great clerks and sage philosophers and to kings and princes of this world. And accordingly, it is said in the manner of an object lesson in Judges in the ninth chapter that when Balaam was mounted on an ass in order to go deceive the people of God by the promises of Balaath, the angel of God came to him beforehand to prevent the evil he wished to do. And the angel blocked the path that was very narrow by holding a very sharp sword, which Balaam could not see, but the ass could see it perfectly well and had very great fear of it. And for this reason the beast stopped and spoke to himself, complaining that his master spurred him and forced him to go against the will of God. Thus it appears clearly that the ass who was a mute beast saw divinity more clearly than his master did, who was among the men of this age who were the greatest and the most honored as a prophet of God. Pliny says in his book in the thirty-second chapter that among the marvels of the world one must reckon that the very tiniest of beasts that exist have sometimes destroyed and turned great towns and cities into deserts. Varro tells us an example of this and says that in Spain, a good city was, in olden times, broken down and destroyed by a great

Said of a chameleon in NH 8.41, p. 73. NH 8.41, p. 73. 497 NH 8.41, pp. 73-75. 495 496

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multitude de connins qui la reperoient qui tant caverent soubz les fondemens que tout fondit et cheut a terre, parquoy la ville demeura toute deserte et inhabitable.498 Item Plinius dit que en Grece en la province de Thessallyo eut jadis une ville perdue et gastee par la grant habondance des taulpes qui y estoient qui tant y foillerent que la ville fondit en ung tas.499 Item aussi en Affricque eut jadis une ville qui fut desertee et demeura sans aucune habitacion pour la grant multitude des raynetes qui y habitoient.500 Item aussi il dit quil y eut ung village en Gaule qui fut desert par les langoustes et sautereaulx.501 Item aussi en Ytalie advint le cas pareil. Car il y eut jadis une bonne ville qui fut toute desertee et inhabitable et les gens qui y demeuroient tous sen allerent pour la grant habondance de serpens qui y repparoient et y estoient aussi durz comme fromis en un fromiere qui caverent tout la ville.502 Item dit Solin que ou royaume de Granecte en lisle de Celado eut jadis une ville dont tous les habitans furent chassez et contrains de fuyr pour la grand importunite des raz qui y habitoient. Ad ce propos des petites bestes nuysans a homme il est recite en la Bible ou livre dExode ou viie chappitre comment Dieu voulout batre et pugnir Pharaon le roy dEgipte pour la durte de son cueur, pour son orgueilleuse obstinacion humilier. Et entre les autres griesves pugnicions il luy envoya si grant multitude de ranectes en toutes eaulx, russeaulx, rivieres, et fontaines que elles y estoyent plus drues entre les gens es places publicques et privees que ne sont les fromiz es fromierez ou temps deste et tellement que les gens du pais ne povoient boire ne mangier que ilz ne les eussent a toutes heures entre les mains et aucunesfoiz sur le visaige et en la bouche et en 72/ leurs litz en lastre et es fours et entre leurs viandes et breuvaiges.503 Item apres Dieu luy envoya pour plus le molester certaines petites mouchetes moult asprement poignans desquelles on ne povoit garder. Et ont la clameur moult enoyeuse en vollant et moult empeschent homme ou femme a boyre, a menger, a dormir. Et generallement a toutes choses faire. Et pource que le roy Pharaon ne volut nullement Dieu recongnoistre il fut de rechief autrement pugni. Car Dieu luy envoya infinie multitude de mouches de moult

multitude of rabbits who lived there and who burrowed under the foundations to such a degree that everything crumbled away and fell to earth, for which reason the city remained deserted and uninhabitable. Pliny says that in Greece, in the province of Thessaly, there was formerly a city that was lost and ruined by the great abundance of moles that were there, who rooted around so much that the city split and fell into a pile. Also in Africa there was long ago a city that was deserted and remained without any population because of the great multitude of frogs that lived there. He said also that there was a village in France that was deserted because of the grasshoppers and locusts. Also in Italy a similar case occurred. For there was formerly a good city that was all deserted and uninhabitable, and the people who dwelt there all went away because of the great abundance of snakes who lived there and were as thick as ants in an ant hill that undermined the entire village. Solinus says that in the realm of Granette on the isle of Celado there was formerly a city where all the citizens were chased away and forced to flee by the great importunity of the rats who lived there. On the subject of these little animals that are so annoying to man, it is told in the Bible, in the book of Exodus in the seventh chapter, how God wished to beat and punish Pharoah the king of Egypt for the hardness of his heart, in order to humiliate his proud obstinacy. And among the other grievous punishments, he sent him such a great plague of frogs in all the waters, rivers, brooks, and springs that they might be found more numerous among men in public and private places than are the ants in an ant hill in summertime, so much so that the people there could not drink or eat without having them all over their hands, and sometimes on the face and in the mouth and in their beds and in their ovens and in their food and drink. After that, God sent, to bother [the Pharaoh] more, certain small flies, which were very sharply biting and which no one could guard against. And they have a loud most annoying clamor in flying and greatly prevent men and women from eating, drinking, and sleeping—and generally kept them from doing anything. And because Pharaoh did not wish to recognize God, he was punished again in another way. For God sent him an infinite multitude of

NH 8.43, p. 75. NH 8.43, p. 75. 500 NH 8.43, p.75. 501 NH 8.43, p.75. 502 NH 8.43, p.75-77. 503 Not Collectanea but Gyara and Cyclades in NH 8.43, p. 75. 498 499

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diverses manieres et especes qui moult durement mordoient comme chiens enraiges. Et estoient en si grant habondance entre luy et son peuple es champs, es villes, et propres maisons tant en dormant et en veillant comme en bevant et mengeant, ilz estoyent tellement tormentes et mors de ces mouches quilz ne savoient que faire ne que devenir. Comme plusaplain il est recite es plaies dEgipte ou livre dessus dit. Pliny recite en son viiie livre ou penultime chappitre que aucunes bestes sont qui vivent en ung pais et en une contree qui ne sauroient vivre en ung autre pais. Et nous met cy ung exemple de une ysle qui est situee en Ytalie appellee Messie en laquelle na aucunesfois este trouve rat, ne sourit, ne lair.504 Item il dit que en Scicie il na nullz doreades.505 Item en Elespont moult a de cerfs mais jamais ne passeront les termes de la terre de leur pais.506 Item au port de Selene nul temps ne sont trouvees les mustelles.507 Item en France ne sont trouves monstres ne nullez bestes desnaturees qui se treuvent legierement par toutes autres terres.508 Item dit Plinius que aucunes bestes sont qui vivent en ung lieu qui ailleurs nes sauroient vivre. Et si par force ailleurs transporteez estoient la leurs fauldroit mourir.509 Item dit Plinius que en Boecie na nulz loups combien que la entour moult en la. Et si en celle terre estoient portes tantost et hastivement hors de la terre et du pais sen fuyriont.510 Item en lisle de Isthacha na nulz lievres car ilz ny sauroyent vivre combien que les terres prochaines en sont toutes plaines de lievres et de connilz.511 Item en Olimpe en la montaigne de Macedon ne repaire nulz loups ne aussi en lisle de Crete ne en Angleterre.512 Item dit Plinius que toute Affricque est privee de loups, de sangliers, dours, de chievres sauvaiges, et de cerfs la ou nen treuve nulz combien que ce soit moult grant pays.513 Item dit Plinius que aucunes bestes sont par naturelle undustrie ou cautelle advisee la maniere delles secretement cacher et mussier

many kinds and species of flies that bit extremely hard, like mad dogs. And they were in such great abundance between him and his people, and in the fields, in the cities, and in private homes, as much in sleeping and waking as in drinking and eating, that they were so tormented and bitten by these flies that they did not know what to do or what would become of them. And all this is more fully told in the plagues of Egypt in the book mentioned above. Pliny tells us in his eighth book in the penultimate chapter that there are some beasts that live in one land and in one country and would not be able to live in another country. And he offers us here the example of an island situated in Italy called Messie, on which is never found any rat, or mouse, or dormouse [lerot]. He says that in Scythia there are no sea bream. In Hellespont there are many stags, but they never pass the limits of the land of their country. In the port of Selene are never found any weasels at any time. In France are found no monsters, nor any unnatural creatures, which are easily found in all other countries. Pliny says that there are certain beasts that live in one place that cannot live elsewhere. And if by force they were transported elsewhere, they would have to die there. Pliny says in that Boeotia there are no wolves, even though there are many in the surrounding area. And if any were to be carried into this land, immediately and speedily they would run away out of this land and country. On the island of Ithaca there are no hares, for they are not able to live there, even though the neighboring lands are completely full of hares and rabbits. In Olympia, on the mountain of Macedonia, there live no wolves, nor on the isle of Crete nor in England. Pliny says that all of Africa is without wolves, boars, bears, wild goats, and stags, there where none are found, even though it is a very large country. Pliny says that some animals are, by natural industry or guile, aware of how to hide secretly and conceal themselves when they

NH 8.83, p. 157. Not NH. 506 NH 8.83, p. 157. 507 Pordoselene in NH 8.83, p. 157. 508 The claim that France has no monsters was first made by Jerome, Contra Vigilantium, PL 171.1235, and restated by Guy de Bazoches, Wilhelm Wattenbach, ed., Die Apologie des Guido von Bazoches (Berlin: Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1893), p. 34. 509 NH 8.83, p. 157. 510 Actually said of moles in NH 8.83, p. 157. 511 Ithaca in NH 8.83, p. 159. 512 NH 8.83, p. 159. 513 NH 8.83, p. 159. 504 505

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quant elles veullent leur proye chasser et prandre. Dont Plinius nous recite une exemple. Et dit quil fut une beste appellee seles qui est coustumiere de soy mussier soubz lombre des fueilles des arbres pour prandre les oyseaulx qui la viennent.514 Item ceste beste scet la fiante mussier en terre affin que les oyseaulx ne lavisent, car ilz sen fuiroient hastivement.515 Item dit Plinius en son xi e livre que il nest oysel qui nait piez.516 Item il dit que tout oysel a les piez pers. Excepte celuy dont a este parle cy devant ou chappitre de Poictou lequel na que ung pied.517 Item Plinius dit que les serpens communement nont nulz piez. Et si aucuns ont piez ilz sentent aucunement le nom de beste comme dragons et autres serpens Indoys qui ont les piez sembla72v/ bles a piez doye ou de canne.518 Item Plinius dit que aucuns vermines sont qui ont .c. piez. Selon ce que dit Plinius en son xxve livre ou second chappitre ou royaume dEspaigne repairant certaines bestes appelleez caules qui sont quasi de la facon et figure de petiz dragons et ont diverses couleurs comme ont vyperes. Et combien que de apparence ilz soyent serpent, toutesfoiz ne sont ilz aucunement venimeulx mais sont contraires es serpens et a toute vermine venimeuse et contre toute perilleuse morsure ilz sont remediables. Et viennent ou temps que les serpens viennent. Et sen revont pareillement quant les serpens sen vont. Et sont souverainement contraires et ennemis des serpens. Et dit Plinius que ce sont petites bestes de deux piez de hault et repairent en terre comme font les serpens. Et tous jours poursuyvent les serpens pour les guerroyer. Ad ce propos de cestes manieres de bestes parle lIstoyre Scolasticque. Et dit ung philozophe nomme Ephiphanus que pour ce que la cite de Alixandre fut tant chargee et plaine de cocodrilles et de perilleux aspiz et autres serpens tresvenimeuses, le roy Alixandre le Grant fist apporter en sa cite des arguis pour les bestes venimeuses en chasser dehors et pour les guerroier et les appella arguis pour ce quil les fit venir de la terre de Arguis. Et oultre plus Alixandre fit transporter le corps de Jeremie le prophete en Alixandrie de Egipte et a sa priere les venimeuses bestes serpentines furent toutes deboutees and mises hors de la cite. Ad ce propos il est escript ou livre du Nombre ou xxiie chappitre que quant Dieu les pugnit par les serpens ardans que il leur envoya pour leur peche de murmure

wish to capture and take their prey. And Pliny gives an example of this. And he says that there was a beast called «seles» that is in the habit of hiding itself under the shadow of the leaves of trees in order to take the birds who come there. This animal knows to hide its scat in the earth so that the birds do not see it, for they would flee hastily. Pliny says in his eleventh book that there is no bird that does not have feet. He says that all birds have feet in pairs. Except the one that has just been spoken of above in the chapter on Poitou, who has only one foot. Pliny says that serpents commonly have no feet. And if any have feet, they are known by the name of another animal, like dragons and other Indian serpents who have feet similar to the feet of a goose or a duck. Pliny says that some vermin have one hundred feet. According to what Pliny says in his twenty-fifth book in the second chapter, in the realm of Spain live certain animals called «cauls» who have more or less the shape and body of small dragons and have diverse colors like vipers. And although in appearance they are serpents, yet they are not at all venomous but are adverse to serpents and to all poisonous vermin, and they are a good remedy against all perilous bites. And they come when serpents come. And they go back away just when the serpents go. And they are most supremely the contrary and enemy of serpents. And Pliny says that these are small animals of two feet in height, and they live in the earth as serpents do. And every day they pursue serpents to make war on them. The Historia Scholastica speaks on the subject of this kind of animal. And a philosopher named Epiphanus says that, because the city of Alexandria was so full of crocodiles and dangerous asps and other very venomous serpents, Alexander the Great commanded that «arguis» be brought to his city to chase out the venomous beasts and to war against them, and he called them «arguis» because he had them brought in from the land of Arguis. And, moreover, Alexander arranged to have the body of Jeremiah the prophet transported to Alexandria from Egypt, and at his request the venomous serpentine beasts were all ejected and put outside the city. And with regard to this, it is written in the book of Numbers in the twenty-second chapter that when God punished them with the burning serpents that he sent them for their sin of grumbling and incredulity, afterwards they humbled themselves and

Possibly NH 8.35, p. 63. A somewhat similar story is told of the lynx in NH 8.57, p. 99. 516 See NH 11.107, p. 595. He may also intend the supposedly footless bird of Paradise. See Thomas P. Harrison, «Bird of Paradise: Phoenix Redivivus,» Isis 51.2 (June, 1960): 173-80. 517 NH 11.107, p. 595. In Chapter 42, he mentions a kind of magpie. 518 Not NH. 514 515

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et de leur incredullite apres ilz se humilierent et recongneurent leurs faultes. Lors Dieu commanda a Moyse quil feist faire ung serpent darain et que il le fist eslever en hault sur ung pillier affin que tous ceulx qui seroient frappez mors et bleciez des serpens dessusdit fussent gueris et sainctz en regardent le serpent darain qui estoit sur le pillier. Et ainsi il fut fait. Et par la vertu diceluy serpent.519

recognized their faults. Then God commanded Moses that he should make a serpent of bronze and have it erected on high on a pillar in order that all who would be struck dead by the aforesaid serpents might be cured and made healthy by looking at the serpent of bronze that was on the pillar. And thus it was done—and by the power of this same serpent.

59) [Merveilles de celestes impressions] Celestes impressions sont aucunesfoiz moult merveilleuses se dit Plinius en son second livre en moult de formes et de diverses fassons. Car aucunesfoiz on voit comecte clere et blanche resplandissant comme argent bruny que a peine povoit on appercevoir les traiz de sa queue.520 Item aucunesfoiz il a la semblance et figure de homme.521 Item les autres sont en la forme dung cor.522 Item les autres ressemblant a ung cerf vollant.523 Item les autres ont la figure dung bouc velu et puant dont la queue est de la facon dune lance ferree.524 Item les autres ont couleur de sang. Et dit Plinius que nulle chose nest si espouventable a homme en ce monde comme est celle comecte.525 Item dit Plinius que telles cometes nul temps ne sont veues en occident, mais on les voit tousjours vers les parties de septentrion.526 Item dit Plinius que entour le souleil sont advenues moult de merveilles par naturelles impressions. Et dit que aucunesfoiz entour le souleil on a veu ung cercle rouge comme sang, aucunesfoiz ung dimy cercle a la facon dung arc.527 Item dit Plinius que les- 73/ clipse aucunesfoiz a este plus longue que nature na acoustume. Et mect exemple du temps de Julius Cesar et de sa mort. Car en celuy an le souleil fut par tout lan en continuelle palleur. Ad ce propos fait a reciter de lesclipse dont parle la Saincte Evangille au xxie chappitre des Evangilles Sainct Jehan ou temps que Jesus pendoit en larbre de la croix. Et a leure quil fut

Chapter 59 (Wonders of the Heavens) Celestial impressions are sometimes most marvelous, as Pliny says in his second book, in many forms and diverse fashions. For sometimes one sees a comet so bright and white, shining like burnished silver, that one can hardly see the lines of its tail. Sometimes it has the form and shape of a man. Others are in the shape of a heart. Others resemble a flying stag [great horned beetle]. Others have the shape of a hairy and stinking male goat, whose tail is shaped like an iron lance. Others are the color of blood. And Pliny says that nothing is more terrifying to a man in this world than this comet is. Pliny says that such comets are never seen in the West, but they are always seen in the North. Pliny says that many marvels occur around the sun by natural impressions. And he says that sometimes there has been seen around the sun a circle red like blood, sometimes a half circle like a bow. Pliny says that sometimes eclipses are longer than is customary in nature. And he gives the example of the time of Julius Caesar and his death. For in this year, the sun was continually pale for the whole year. With regard to this, the story can be told of the eclipse described in the Holy Gospel, in the twenty-first chapter of the Gospel of Saint John, at the time when Jesus hung on the tree of the cross. And at the hour when he was put to death, this eclipse

NH 11.107, p. 595; the mongoose, 8.78, p. 149. Book 25 is devoted to plant remedies. Epiphanius was believed to be the author of a Greek life of Jeremiah, and the legend of snakes and crocodiles appears in the Vitae prophetarum 2.6 (Recensio anonyma), ed., Theodor Schermann, possibly of Jewish authorship, which tells how Alexander translated the bones of Jeremiah to his newly founded city of Alexandria, placing them in an apotropaic circle. By this means asps and crocodiles were kept from the area and the argolas or snake fighters (apparently a species of snake), which he brought from Argos in the Peloponnesus, were introduced. See for the linguistic diversity of these apocryphal lives, Michael Knibb, «The Ethiopic Version of the Lives of the Prophets, II: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Elijah, Elisha, Nathan, Ahijah, and Joel,» Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 48.1 (1985): 16-41. 520 NH 2.22, p. 233; see recently Mark Williams, Fiery Shapes: Celestial Portents and Astrology in Ireland and Wales (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010). 521 NH 2.22, p. 233. 522 Roughly NH 2.22, p. 213. 523 Not in the list of shaped comets in NH 2.22. 524 NH 2.22, p. 233. 525 NH 2.26, p. 241. 526 Roughly NH 2.22, p. 235. 527 NH 2.16, p. 223. 519

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mis a mort fut faicte celle esclipse et plus longue ou souleil que nature ne vouloit. Car elle dura par lespace de troys heures.528 Item dit Plinius que autresfoiz ont este veuz et advises plusieurs souleiz luisans de nuyt tout en heure. Et dit que ou temps de Anthoine de Publie et Lucie qui estoyent consulz de Romme troys souleilz furent veuz luyre ensemble vers les parties doccident.529 Item Plinius dit que oncques ne veit luyre de souleil ne de lune plus de troys a la foyz.530 Item dit Gervaise que ou temps du pape Clemens quant furent veuz en la cite de Carpentras deux souleilz luysans vers occidant, dont aucuns astronomiens pronostiquerent le scisme et discort qui tantost apres sensuivit en leglise.531 Item dit Plinius que toutesfoiz quon apparcevoit plusieurs souleilz ou plusieurs lunez luysans ou ciel, james on ne les voyrra de la partie du souleil ou de la lune mais a lopposite.532 Item ce advient voluntiers au matin ou au soir quant le souleil lieve ou quant il chiet en occident et non pas a leure de mydy.533 Item Plinius raconte que ou temps passe est advenu a heure de nuyt soudainement apparoir telle clarte et lumiere comme de jour comme il advint ou temps que Papire et Cecilius estoyent consulz de Romme que une nuyt fut toute enluminee Romme et luysoit aussi cler comme sil eust este jour.534 Item Plinius dit que ou temps que estoyent a Romme consulz Varius et Marius il fut clerement advise ung escu en facon dung bouclier ou targe ardent et flambent courant par lair et montant des parties de occident en orient. Au propos des signes apparens au souleil il est dit en la Bible ou livre de Josue ou xe chappitre que quant Josue persecutoit les v roys Amoritains en la terre de Gabaon il commanda au souleil que en la vertue de Dieu il sarrestast ou ciel jusques ad ce quil eust eu victoire de ses ennemys. Lors le souleil saresta sans aller avant ne arriere, ne onques mais ne fut si grant jour ne si long comme fut celuy et le souleil obeyt a la voix dung homme et ainsi il eut vitoire.535

of the sun began and went on longer than nature intended. For it lasted for a period of three hours. Pliny says that sometimes there have been seen and noted several suns shining in the night all in one hour. And he says that in the time of Antony and Publius and Lucius, who were Consuls of Rome, three suns were seen shining in the Western part of the sky. Pliny says that never have suns or moons been seen shining more than three at a time. Gervaise says that in the time of Pope Clement, in the city of Carpentras, two suns were seen shining in the Western sky, from which some astronomers prognosticated the schism and discord which immediately afterwards followed in the church. Pliny says that whenever one sees several suns or several moons shining in the heavens, they are not seen near the sun or moon but always on the opposite side of the sky. This happens commonly in the morning or in the evening when the sun rises or when it sets in the West, and not at the hour of noon. Pliny recounts that in past ages it has happened that in the night hours there has suddenly appeared brightness and light like the light of day, as happened in the time when Papirius and Cecilius were consuls of Rome, when one night Rome was entirely lit up and shown as brightly as if it were day. Pliny says that in the time when Valerius and Marius were consuls in Rome there was clearly seen a shield in the shape of a buckler or target, burning and flaming, running through the air, and rising from the Western to the Eastern sky. With regard to signs appearing in the sun, it is said in the Bible, in the book of Joshua in the tenth chapter, that when Joshua persecuted the five Amorite kings in the land of Gibeon, he commanded the sun that, by the power of God, it stand still in the heavens until he had victory over his enemies. Then the sun stopped without going forward or backward, and never again was there such great light for so long as this, and the sun obeyed the voice of a man and thus he had victory.

Roughly NH, 2.28, p. 241. The Gospel of John does not mention an eclipse; the story appears, however, in the Acts of Pilate or Gospel of Nicodemus 11, in Montague R. James, ed. and tr., The Apocryphal New Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press,1955), XI, p. 104. 529 NH 2.98, p. 241. 530 NH 2.99, p. 243. 531 Not Gervaise. As Clement V was elected pope in 1309 and Gervaise probably died in about 1225, he could not have known of the Avignon Papacy or this portent. 532 NH 2.31, p. 243. 533 NH 2.31, p. 243. 534 NH 2.33, p. 243. 535 NH 2.34, pp. 243-45. 528

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It is written in the fourth book of Kings in chapter twenty that Isaiah the Prophet said to Hezekiah, the king of Israel, that he asked God for a sign of his cure, either that the sun would advance itself ten steps further or fall back ten steps [on the stairway of Ahaz]. Then Hezekiah said that it was more difficult for the sun to go back ten steps than to advance. And for this reason, he chose and asked that the sun return ten steps back and so it was. For this day lasted ten degrees longer by turning back, and ten degrees longer in its correct natural course than other days. Pliny says in his second book in the thirty-fifth chapter that at the time when Etonius was consul in Rome it happened once that a very bright and shining spark was seen to fall from a star almost near to the earth. And afterwards it rose up continuously as it became larger. And the higher it went, the larger it became. And it seemed to some that it was as big as the moon. And for a short period of time, this night was illuminated and bright as day. And shortly after, it appeared in the sky among the other stars as bright and shining as a burning lamp. Pliny says that at sea are sometimes seen most marvelous stars shining in the night, seeming to fall down from heaven, making a great tumult and a loud noise like the sound of a great flock of birds in flight, and these stars by their influence make ships move from one place to another. And such stars have great signification. For when they come alone, it is a bad omen and a sign that the ship will perish or be sunk or taken by enemies or burned or consumed by fire in an act of warfare. And when they come several at a time, it is a good sign, that the ships will have wealth and prosperity and that they will have a desirable wind or that they will have victory or that they will arrive very quickly at a good port. Pliny says that some signs appear at night in the sky as stars resembling the head of a man. And they signify, by natural foretelling, some fortune that must soon befall. On the subject of marvelous stars, it is written in the Gospels of the master Saint Matthew in the second chapter that at the hour when Jesus Christ son of God was born of the Virgin Mary there appeared a star in the East larger and brighter than the others and different in its course. For it went straight ahead like a wandering pilgrim, not at all by circular movement, and stopped at the place where the child was born. And when the three kings of Cologne, who were wise astrologers, had fully considered this star, they concluded that the star signified the birth of the king of kings who was God and mortal man. For this reason they came

Item il escript ou quart livre des Roys ou xxe chappitre que Ysaye le prophete dist a Ezechie le roy dIsrael quil demandast a Dieu signe de sa guerison ou que le soleil se avansast x poincts plus tost ou dix poincts plus tart en recullant. Lors Ezechie dist que plus forte chose estoit au souleil de retourner x poincts arriere que de soy avancer. Et pource il choisit et demanda que le souleil retournast x degrez arriere et ainsi il fut. Car celuy jour dura x degrez en retournant et x degrez en son droit cours naturel plus les autres jours. Item Plinius recite en son second livre ou xxxve chappitre que ou temps [que] Ettonius estoit consul a Romme advint une foiz que une flammesche moult clere et luisant fut veue choir de une estoille jusques pres de terre. Et depuis monta continuellement en croiscent. Et tant plus moult hault tant plus croiscoit. Et sembloit a plusieurs que elle estoit grande comme la lune. Et 73v/ par ung peu despace de temps celle nuyt fut enluminee et clere comme le jour. Et peu apres elle apparut ou ciel entre les autres estoilles cler et luysant comme une lampe ardent.536 Item dit Plinius que en la mer sont aucunesfoiz apperceuz estoilles moult merveilleuses luysans de nuyt semblant cheoir du ciel en bas faisant grant tumulte et grant noise comme font grant multitude doyseaulx vollans, lesquelles estoilles par leurs influence font les navires muer de lieu en autre. Et telles estoilles ont grant significacion. Car quant elles viennent seulles cest mauvaise signifiance et demonstrance le navire devoir perir ou estre noye ou prins des ennemys ou ars ou brulle en fait de bataille. Et quant elles viennent plusieurs cest bon signe et que les nefs auront aucun bien et prosperite et quelles auront vent a souhait ou quelles auront victoire ou quelles arriveront bien brief a bon port.537 Item dit Plinus que aucuns signes apparent de nuyt ou ciel comme aucunes estoilles ressemblans a la teste domme. Et signifient par naturel presaige aucune fortune qui doit brief advenir. Au propos des estoilles merveilleuses il est escript es Evangilles de Monsieur Sainct Mathieu ou iie chappitre que a leure que JesuCrist filz de Dieu fut ne de la Vierge Marie il apparut une estoille en orient plus grande et plus clere que les autres et different en cours. Car elle alloit droit en avant comme pellerin errant non mye par mouvement circulaire et se arresta sur le lieu ou estoit lenfant ne. Et quant les troys roys de Coulongne qui estoient saiges astrologiens eurent bien advise ceste estoille ilz conclurent que lestoille signiffioit la naissance du roy des roys qui estoit dieu et homme mortel. Pour ce vindrent 536 537

The Consuls are Gnaeus Octavius and Gaius Scribonius, NH 2.35, p. 245. NH 2.37, p. 245.

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hastivement en Bethleem pour le adorer et luy offrirent encens comme a dieu or comme a roy, mirre comme a celui qui mort seroit oingt de mirre et preserve de corrupcion.538 Item dit Plinius que aucunesfoiz est advenu ou temps passe que du ciel est cheu par manere de pluye autre matiere que eau comme pierres, comme dit est cy devant ou chappitre dYtalie dont aucunes sont non naturelles mais par vengence divine, aucunesfoiz elles sont causees naturellement ou quant aucunes choses sont prinses et eslevees par impetuosite et du fort vent il fault que lesdictes choses cheent de rechief a terre. Ad ce propos il est escript en la Bible ou livre de Genesis au xixe chappitre que quant Dieu vousist pugnir ceulx de Sodomme et de Gomorre de leur vilz et abhominables pechez il envoya deux anges dire a Loth son amy que il yssist tost et hastivement hors de la cite et quil prinst sa femme et ses deux filles et quilz montassent a la montaigne de Segor et que pour quelque chose quilz ouyssent ilz ne regardassent aucunement derriere eulx maiz sen allassent tout droit. Et quant ilz furent hors de la cite il advint une merveilleuse tempeste et horrible tonnairre et apres en lieu de pluye il cheut du ciel ung grant feu ardent de souffre puant et furent v citez arces et fondues en abisme et tout le pais avecques les habitans qui y demouroient. Et la est de present la Mer Morte en laquelle nulle chose ny peut vivre.539 Item dit Plinius que toutes choses terrestres sont subgectes es influences du ciel tant des planetes comme des estoilles. Et met exemple de plusieurs choses comme de lair qui dort le temps dyver qui se reveille quant lestoille qui a nom Canucula premierement se lien et commance a regner.540 Item dit Plinius que le 74/ chien plus legierement devient enraige en ce temps la que en autre temps.541 Item il mect cy lexemple de lorctie qui en la plaine lune est plus plaine que en autre temps.542 Item il dit que le fromiz est oysel sans riens faire quant il nest point de lune qui en autre temps est tressoigneulx de faire sa garnison.543 Item dit Plinus des vers qui font la soye que ilz se gouvernent selon le cours de la lune tant en leur maniere de vivre que en leur euvre.544

quickly to Bethlehem to adore him and offer him incense as to a god or a king, [and] myrrh as to one who, being dead, would be anointed with myrrh and preserved from corruption. Pliny says that sometimes it has happened in past ages that substances other than water have fallen in the manner of rain—such as stones, as was said earlier in the chapter on Italy—of which some are not natural but result from divine vengeance, [while] sometimes they have natural causes or, when things are picked up and carried off by impetuosity and very strong wind, it is necessary that the said things fall back down again to earth. With regard to this, it is written in the Bible in the Book of Genesis in the nineteenth chapter that when God decided to punish the people of Sodom and of Gomorrah for their vile and abominable sins, he sent two angels to tell Lot, his friend, that he should leave quickly and hastily from the city and he should take his wife and his two daughters and they should climb the mountain of Segor, and no matter what they heard, they should not look behind them at all, but keep going straight ahead. And when they were out of the city, there came a marvelous storm and horrible thunder, and afterwards, instead of rain, there fell from the sky a great burning fire of stinking sulfur, and five cities were burned and sunken into the abyss, and the whole country with the inhabitants who lived there. And in that place is, at present, the Dead Sea, in which nothing can live. Pliny says that all terrestrial things are subject to the influences of the heavens, as much by the planets as by the stars. And he gives an example of several things, such as the wind that rests in the wintertime, then reawakens when the star called Canicula first rises and begins to reign. Pliny says that dogs succumb to rabies more easily in this season rather than at other times. He gives the example here of the bunting, which, in the full moon, is more evident than at other times. He says that the ant is lazy and does nothing when there is no moon but in other times is very diligent in collecting his provisions. Pliny says of silk worms that they govern themselves according to the course of the moon, as much in their manner of living as in their work.

The stars shine around the heads of men in NH 2.37, p. 245. The story of Lot and his daughters is also a standard feature of travel narratives, as for example Higgins, ed., Mandeville’s Travels, Ch. 12, p. 62. Roughly NH 2.57, 59, pp. 285-287. 540 NH 2.61, p. 289. 541 NH 2.40, p. 251. 542 The bunting, ortelan, does not appear in NH 2.41, p. 253. 543 The ortelan in the previous paragraph gave the Translator the idea of a bird. The moon-struck ant appears in NH 2.41, p. 253. 544 The silk worm is discussed in NH 11.25-26, pp. 477-479, but not in Book 2 with respect to the moon’s influence. 538 539

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Item parle Plinius de lerbe appellee cicoree et dit quelle [s]uit le souleil et vers luy sencline.545 Item il dit que toute herbe et tout arbre se gouverne selon le cours du souleil. Et quant le souleil monte ou prin temps toutes choses se resjouysent et prenent nouvelles robes de herbes et feuilles. Et quant le souleil descend et se absente toutes choses terresstres perdent leur beaulte et delaissent leur verdure. Ainsi est il de plusieurs maladies corporelles qui selon la mutacion des corps celestielz se changent et se gouvernent.546 Item dit Plinius que le vent desoubz laire nul temps ne vente en Egipte ne le vent devers midy que nous appellons Autan.547 Item dit Plinius que toute beste naturellement mengeue mieulx et plus quant le vent de galerne ou de bize vente que quant les vents chaulx ventent.548 Item dit Plinius que en Affricque les vents ont contraires qualitez que ilz ont pardeca. Car les vens Aquilonaires qui nous sont froiz et puriffient lair la ilz esmeuvent les pluyes et vens. Et les chaulx vens devers le souleil nous troublent lair. En Affricque il esclersissent et puriffient et deboutent toutes vapeurs.549 Item dit Plinius que ou temps de excessive challeur et de excessif froit la fouldre ne cheit point. Et pour celle raison la fouldre ne choit point en Egipte ne en Scicie pour la cause devant dicte.550 Item dit Plinius que la fouldre aucunesfoiz choit du ciel qui est causee par linfluence des estoilles et aucunesfoiz elle est causee plus bas en lair moyen et dit que quant elle est causee des haultes estoilles, elle ne descend pas tout droit a plain, mais elle descend environnent. Et la cause est pour ce quelle est de nature de feu qui est legier et ne la souffre choir pas legierement, mais quant la fouldre est engendree en lair plus bas elle descend trop plus impetueusement tout droit et aplom pour la grieste et pesanteur de la grosse matiere terrestre eslevee par la force des vens et vapeur.551 Item dit Plinius ou son second livre que les fouldres qui cheent a la main senestre portent signiffiances de bonne fortune. Et celle qui cheent a la main dextre signiffient aucune malle fortune.552 Item dit Plinius que la fouldre nul temps ne choit plus bas ne plus avant en terre que .v. piez.553

Pliny speaks of the herb called licorice and says that it follows the sun and inclines itself towards it. He says that all plants and all trees govern themselves according to the course of the sun. And when the sun rises in the spring, everything rejoices and newly clothes itself in grasses and leaves. And when the sun goes down and absents itself, all earthly things lose their beauty and lose their greenness. And the same thing happens with several bodily illnesses that change and govern themselves according to the mutation of celestial bodies. Pliny says that contrary winds never blow in Egypt nor does the wind from the South that we call Autan. Pliny says that all animals naturally eat better and in larger amounts when the wind blows from the Northwest or the Northeast than when the hot winds blow. Pliny says that in Africa the winds have qualities contrary to those that they have up here. For the Northern Aquilonian winds, which for us are cold and purify the air, there bring rain and winds. And the warm winds towards the sun, which trouble the air where we are, in Africa clear and purify the air and expel all vapors. Pliny says that in times of excessive warmth and excessive cold, thunderbolts do not strike. And because of this, lightning does not strike in Egypt or in Scythia, for the reason just given. Pliny says that lightning sometimes falls from the sky that is caused by the influence of the stars and sometimes it is caused lower down in the middle air, and he says that when it is caused by the high stars, it does not descend straightaway to the plain but descends from all sides. And the reason is that it has the nature of fire, which is light and does not endure falling easily, but when the lightning is engendered in the air lower down, it descends much more violently straight down because of the weight of the heavy celestial matter raised by the force of the winds and vapors. Pliny says in his second book that the lightning that falls on the left hand side has significations of good fortune. And that which falls on the right hand signifies bad fortune. Pliny says that lightning never strikes lower or deeper into the earth than five feet.

This is heliotrope in NH 2.41, p. 251. NH 2.4, pp. 177-178. 547 Auster. NH 2.47, p. 263. 548 NH 2.48, p. 267. 549 NH 2.48, p. 267. 550 NH 2.51, p. 273. 551 NH 2.53, p. 277. 552 NH 2.55, p. 279. 553 NH 2.56, p. 283. 545 546

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He says that in stormy weather it is safer to stay in caverns or caves rather than to take to high ground. Pliny says that when lightning strikes a man and kills him, if the man is not sleeping, the lightning closes his eyes. And if he is sleeping, it opens them. Pliny says in his fifty-sixth chapter that three things are safe from lightning, such that it will never strike them nor harm them in any way—that is to say, the laurel among trees, the eagle among the birds, and the sea cow among the animals and fishes. For the first, the Histories say that Julius Caesar, in times of storm, took shelter under a laurel. For the second, the poets say that the eagle is never struck by lightning, for when Jupiter, god of the heavens, wished to punish anyone by lightning, he sent it by means of the eagle. For the third, he says that those who, in stormy weather, are fearful, scared, and in dread of lightning should assume the habit of dressing in the hide of the sea cow, and thus they would be safe, for the lightning would not strike them. According to the words of Pliny in his fifty-eighth chapter, sometimes a rain has come down in the middle air that is most marvelous and composed of diverse substances, and these have been prodigies and omens of marvels in the past or yet to come, some of which have been natural, others supernatural and demonstrating divine vengeance, as has been said above of the rain of fire and sulfur that destroyed the land of the people of Sodom. For this reason, Pliny says that in past times, in various seasons, it has rained milk from heaven—and sometimes blood, sometimes raw flesh, sometimes wool, sometimes iron, sometimes tiles or hard stones as has been said earlier in the chapter on Italy. Pliny says that in the time that Marcus and Octillius were consuls in Rome, as is found in ancient histories of the Romans, milk fell from the sky in the manner of rain, and then afterwards blood. In the time that Porcius and Servius were consuls at Rome, it rained raw and edible flesh. And it was said this flesh was kept for a long time without rot or corruption. Pliny says that in the time that Marcus Crassus went to the battle of Persia, where he was killed, a little time before his death it rained iron. And the knights of Lucca, when they saw such an ominous rain of iron, prophesied that the stones of iron that fell from heaven

Item il dit que en temps tempestueulx plus seure chose est soy tenir en cavernes ou caves dessoubz terre que es haultes places.554 Item Plinius dit que quant la fouldre choit sur ung homme et loccist, si lomme ne dort elle luy cloit les yeulx. Et sil dort elle les luy ouvre.555 Item Plinius dit en son lvie livre que troys choses sont asseurees de la fouldre quelle ne cherra point dessus ne aucunement ne nuyra. Cest assavoir le lorier entre les arbres, laigle entre les oyseaulx, le veau de mer entre les bestes et poissons. Pour le premier dient les Hystoires que Julius Cesar ou temps de tempeste se logeoit soubz le lorier. Pour le second laigle nest point de fouldre frappee ce dient les poetes car quant Jupiter dieu des cieulx vouloit aucun pugnir par fouldre, il lenvoit par laigle. Pour le tiers dit que ceulx qui en temps tempestueulx sont craignans paou- 74v/ reulx et doubtens la fouldre se souloient vestir de peaulx de veau marin, ainsi ilz estoient asseures car la fouldre point ne cheoit sur eulx.556 Par les dits de Plinius ou lviii chappitre aucunesfoiz est advenu en lair moyen pluye moult merveilleuse et de diverses matieres, et ont este prodigieuses choses et signifficatives de merveilles advenues et advenir, les unes ont este naturelles, les autres surnaturelles et demonstratives de la vengence divine comme dessus a este dit de la pluye de feu de souffre lequel destruisit la region de ceulx de Sodome, pour ce raconte Plinius que ou temps passe en divers temps il a pleu du ciel lait. Aucunesfoiz sang, aucunesfois char crue, aucunesfois laine, aucunesfois fer, aucunesfois tuilles ou pierres dures comme a este dit dessus ou chapitre des Ytalles.557 Item dit Plinius que ou temps que estoient consulz a Romme Marc et Octille comme il est trouve es ancienes ystoires des Romains il cheut du ciel lait en maniere de pluye et puis apres sang.558 Item ou temps que estoient consulz a Rome Porcio et Servio, il plut char crue et comestible. Et dit que celle char fut longuement gardee sans pourriture et corrupcion.559 Item dit Plinius que ou temps que Marchus Crassus alla en la bataille de Perse la ou il fut occis, et peu de temps avant sa mort il plut fer. Et les chevaliers de Lucques quant ilz virent la pluye de fer ainsi prodigieuse ilz prophetizerent que les pierres de fer qui du ciel

NH 2.56, p. 283. NH 2.56, p. 283. 556 Actually NH 2.56, p. 283. 557 NH 2.57, p. 283. 558 NH 2.57, p. 283. 559 NH 2.57, p. 283. 554 555

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cheoient en pluye en maniere desponges signiffioient lissue de la bataille a leur confusion et honteuse persecucion.560 Item au temps qui estoient consulz a Romme Paulus et Marcelinus il cheut du ciel pluye de laine pres du chastel de Causano pres du quel en celui au fut occis le chevalier Milo. Et lors cheut du ciel la pluye de bricques.561 Item dit Plinius que communement advient que avecques la pluye qui cheoit de ciel cheent petis crapaulx et rannettes et autres vermines qui sont engendrees en lair lassus par temps tempestueulx ou ilz ont este eslevez en lassus par les vens avecques les vappeurs terrestres.562 Item ou temps de la mort du Pape Jehan XXII de ce nom advint en Auvergne en une ville dicte Longiac que par une grant tempeste si fort gresla que cestoit grant merveille. Et entre les grosses pierres de gresle en fut trove une qui estoit plus grande et plus grosse que les autres en laquelle estoit la forme et figure du crucifilz qui fut veu de plusieurs gens et long temps apres fut gardee la dicte pierre de gresle resolue et fondue en eau. Et les autres pierres de gresle estoient en facon de [faiselles] en quoy on fait les fromaiges. Item dit Plinius en son livre ou lxe chappitre que Anaxagoras le saige philozophe dist a ses disciples le jour et leure que du ciel cherroit ung gros rochier et tout ainsi advint que ladicte grosse pierre comme une grosse roche cheut pres du fleuve de Egeas, laquelle pierre est toute brulee et arsie dung couste et nonmie de lautre. Au propos de merveilleuse pluye il est escript en la Bible ou livre dExode ou xvie chappitre que le peuple dIsrael murmura contre Dieu et contre Moyse es desers et desiroient a retourner en Egipte. Lors, pour les appaiser, a la priere de Moyse Dieu leur envoya la manne du ciel qui plut sur eulx moult habondamment en maniere de grains blans comme coriandre. Et en 75/ laquelle manie ilz trouvoient telle saveur et goust de viande comme ilz vouloient. Et quant ilz furent ennuyez de ceste viande de rechief ilz murmurerent contre Dieu et contre Moyse disant que la manne leur estoit contre cueur et desiroient les chars dEgipte. Lors a la priere de Moyse Dieu fit venter le vent austrail devers le mydy qui a eulx estoit le vent de la mer. Adonc il cheut sur eulx comme pluye moult grant habondance de cailles vollans en si grant multitude comme fait la pluye quant elle cheoit du ciel. Si eurent viandes de char moult largement et mangerent tant que encore estoit en la bouche la viande quant lire de Dieu cheut sur eulx par vengence et moururent sur

in rain in the manner of sponges signified an outcome to the battle that would lead to their confusion and shameful persecution. In the time when Paulus and Marcelinus were consuls, there fell from the sky a rain of wool near the castle of Causano, near the one where the knight Milo was killed. And then there fell from heaven a rain of bricks. Pliny says that commonly it happens that with the rain that falls from the sky fall small toads and frogs and other vermin which are engendered in the air on high by stormy weather where they have been carried off on high by the winds with earthly vapors. In the time of the death of Pope John, twenty-second of this name, it happened in Auvergne in a city called Longiac that during a great storm it hailed so hard that it was a great marvel. And among the great hail stones was found one that was much greater and heavier than the others, in which was the form and figure of a crucifix that was seen by many men, and the said hailstone was kept for a long time after, dissolved and melted into water. And other hailstones were in the shape of the perforated cheese forms in which one makes cheeses. Pliny says in his book in the sixtieth chapter that Anaxagoras the wise philosopher told his disciples the day and the hour when a great rock would drop from the heavens, and it happened exactly that way, that the said great stone, big as a boulder fell near the river of Egeas, and this stone was all burned and scorched on one side and not at all on the other. And with respect to marvelous rain, it is written in the Bible in the book of Exodus in the sixteenth chapter that the people of Israel complained against God and against Moses in the desert and desired to return to Egypt. Then to calm them at the request of Moses God sent them manna from heaven, which rained down on them most abundantly in the manner of white seeds like coriander. And in this manna they found whatever flavor and taste of food they wished. And when they were bored with this food, they again rebelled against God and against Moses saying that the manna was loathsome to them and they wanted the meat of Egypt. Then at Moses’ request, God caused the Austral wind to blow from the South, which, for them, was the wind from the sea. Then there fell upon them like rain a great abundance of quail flying in a multitude as great as the raindrops when they fall from the sky. Thus they had meat to eat in great quantity, and they ate so much that the meat still was in their mouths when God’s anger fell on them in vengeance, and in moments more than one hundred sixty

NH 2.57, p. 285. NH 2.57, p. 285. 562 These portentous events do not occur in NH 2. 560 561

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heure plus de .clx. mille hommes en la place ou ilz pecherent. Entre les merveilles des impressions celestielles nest pas a delaisser celle que Plinius recite en parlent du mont de Ydee qui est assis pres de Troye la grant ou Paris fut jugie anciennement du discord des troys deesses, Juno, Pallas, Minerve, sur le fait de la pomme dor. Et dit que autrement voit on le souleil lever la quil ne lieve ailleurs. Car despuis leure de mynuit on voit vers orient certains lieux en lair ardans comme feu flambeant expandus en plusieurs lieux et en aprouchent le jour ilz se assemblent tous en ung monceau en similitude dung grant feu tout rond qui despuis sen va appetissant. Et de tant comme il sappetisse plus il seslargist. Et en fuiant la nuyt apparoist le jour par la presence du souleil qui de tant comme il approche de tant il donne plus grant clarte et lumiere.563

thousand men died in the place where they had sinned. Among the marvels of celestial impressions, we must not leave out the one that Pliny cites in speaking of Mount Ida which is located very near Troy the Great where Paris was the judge long ago of the discord among the three goddesses, Juno, Pallas, and Minerva, on the matter of the golden apple. And he says that one sees the sun rise there in a manner different from how it rises elsewhere. For after the hour of midnight one sees towards the East certain places in the air burning like flaming fires expanding in several places, and as day draws near, they assemble themselves all into a single mass in the form of a great ball of fire, that then moves away, getting smaller. And the smaller it becomes, the [brighter] it gets. And in fleeing the night, the day appears through the presence of the sun, which, the more it approaches, the more it gives clarity and light.

60) [Merveilles du feu] En nature a moult de merveilles au regard du feu et des choses ardens, dont parle Plinius en son livre au xxe chappitre. Et dit que aucunes humeurs terrestres sont en especes de colles ou deau glueuse et celle eau est cousine au feu. Et est de telle nature car de quelque part que le feu sen approuche elle le tire a soy et art et gecte merveilleuse flambe. De celle nature est une vaine de terre qui est situee bien pres de Babilonne et est appellee napta.564 Item es parties de Perse la petite autrement appellee Manschateurs ya pareillement de telles vaines de terre. Et comme dient les anciens poetes de telle matiere de terre usa Medee contre sa hayneuse nommee Pellice, quant icelle dame vint pour adorer les dieux et portoit par maniere de grant honneur sur son chief une moult riche couronne dor. Et fist tant Medee quelle mist en la couronne de Pelice de celle matiere ardent. Si advint que quant la noble Pellice eut mis sur son chief la riche couronne dor. Et quelle sapproucha de lautel des ydolles ou il avoit du feu dessus, qui se print tantost a la couronne. Et apres au chief de la noble Pellice. Et ardit icelle Pellice sans nul remede. Le grant A[l]bert si dist que anciennement les gens estoient deceupz par lapparence des faulx miracles du feu ardent qui estoit cause et engendre par les causes dessusdictes, dont aucuns oingnoient les maisons avecques autres choses combustilles en approuchent secretement le feu qui la se prenoit et ardoit tout. Et on cuydoit que ce feust par miracle et par vengence divine.565

Chapter 60 (Wonders of Fire) In nature are many marvels in regard to fire and burning things, which Pliny discusses in his book in the twentieth chapter. And he says some terrestrial humors are in the form of glue or gluey water, and that this water is a cousin of fire. And this is its nature, for whenever fire gets near it, it draws the fire towards itself and burns and throws out a marvelous flame. There is a vein of earth of this nature that is situated very near Babylon, and it is called naphtha. In parts of Lesser Persia, otherwise called Manschateurs, there are likewise such veins of earth. And as the ancient poets say, Medea used this kind of material from the earth against her hated rival named [Creusa] when this lady came to adore the gods and wore on her head, as a sign of great honor, a rich crown of gold. And Medea worked in such a way that she put some of this burning naphtha in Creusa’s golden crown. And thus it happened that when the noble Creusa had put on her head the rich crown of gold, and when she approached the altar of the idols which had a fire up above, the fire immediately jumped to her crown and then to the head of the noble Creusa and burned her without remedy. Also, the great Albert said that formerly men were deceived by the appearance of false miracles of burning fire that was caused and engendered by the causes given above, when some anointed houses with other combustible things, secretly approaching with fire, which ignited it and burned everything. And people believed that this was caused miraculously and by divine vengeance.

This late version of the Judgment probably comes from Ovid, Heroides 15 and 16. See Margaret J. Ehrhart, The Judgment of The Trojan Prince Paris in Medieval Literature (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987). NH 2.10-12, pp. 177-79, 2.150, p. 287. 564 NH 2.107, p. 361. 565 NH 2.109, p. 361. Pellice is a mistranslation of Bersuire’s «pellex» meaning a married woman’s rival. Bersuire is actually talking of how Medea murdered Jason’s new wife Creusa by means of a dress that would burst into flame. Either Pliny’s «corona» or the wreath may have supplied the Translator the crown. See 563

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Item dit Plinius que de celle matiere qui est ainsi combustible et de nature de souffre fut jadis tout ars et desert le royaume de Perse.566 Item dit Plinius que sur 75v/ le rivaige de la mer pres de Baruth a une petit montaigne dont vient et descend ladicte matiere de napa. Et est appellee luille de Baruth. Et en la vallee ou celle matiere descend est continuellement feu ardent qui nul temps nest estaint. Et celle matiere est de telle nature quelle perce tout vaisseau ou elle [est] mise, sil nest de voire, ou de cocourde, ou de corne.567 Item en quelque vaisseau que on la mette sil nest couvert elle ystra tantost dehors et sera perdue. Et sil est decouvert et quil soit delivre des troys choses qui sont dictes et exceptees elle se tient paisiblement ou dit vaissel sans bougier et diminuer.568 Item quelque lieu quelle soit elle tire a soy le feu qui est pres delle et se enflambe.569 Item dit Plinius quil est une autre espece de colle ardent appelle malta et souloit jadis estre trouvee a Romme, et estoit de telle nature que tant plus estoit jointe et collee a dure et forte chose, tant plus fort elle ardoit et en ardent rendoit tresdoulce odeur et tresgrant clarte et resembloit le limon de la terre.570 Item elle se lie si fort a la chose quelle a atouchee quelle suyt cellui qui la a touchee. Et recite Plinius que quant Luculle assaillit les murs de Romme, ceulx de la dedans gectoient le limon de malta contre la chevallerie de Luculle qui donnoit moult assault a la cite de Rome. Mais quant le lymon de malta se fichoit et atachoit contre leurs armeures tantost le feu de ce lymon nomme malta les ardoit, et par ainsi les Romains se deffendirent de Luculle et de sa chevalrie.571 Item dit Plinius que tel feu nest au[cune]ment estaint par eau, mais est estaint par force de terre et de sablon et non autrement.572 Item dit Plinius quilz sont plusieurs lieux ou le feu est continuellement ardent et flambeant. Et nous met cy example du

Pliny says that by means of this substance, which is combustible and of the nature of sulfur, the realm of Persia was in olden days completely burned and made uninhabitable. Pliny says that on the seashore near Beirut is a small mountain, down which comes and flows the said matter of naphtha. And it is called Oil of Beirut. And in the valley into which this matter descends is a fire burning continuously which is never extinguished. And this material is of such a nature that it burns through all vessels into which it is put if they are not made of glass, of a gourd [coucourde], or of horn. In whatever vessel one puts it, if it is not covered, it will leak out immediately and will be lost. And if it is [covered], provided it has been [placed into one of] the three types of containers mentioned and excepted above, it will rest peacefully in the said vessel without budging or diminishing. In any place that it is stored, it will attract to itself any fire that is near it and will catch on fire. Pliny says there is another kind of burning «glue» called «malta» and it used to be found, long ago, in Rome. And it was of such a nature that the more it was joined and stuck to a hard and strong thing, the more strongly it burned, and in burning it gave off a very sweet odor and very bright light. And it resembled the slimy mud of the earth. It joins itself so strongly to the thing it has touched that it follows whoever has touched it. And Pliny says that when Lucullus attacked the walls of Rome, those inside threw the mud of malta onto the army of Lucullus, which was laying siege to the city of Rome. But when the mud of malta stuck and attached itself on their armor, the fire of this mud immediately burned them, and by this means the Romans defended themselves against Lucullus and his knights. Pliny says that such fire is not extinguished by water but is extinguished by the power of earth and sand, and no other way.

Ruth Morse, The Medieval Medea (Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell and Brewer, 1996) and more recently Heike Bartel and Anne Simon, eds., Unbinding Medea: Interdisciplinary Approaches to a Classical Myth from Antiquity to the 21st Century (London: Legenda, 2010). We are grateful to Dr. Morse and to M. Yves Peyré for help with this passage. This is the first direct reference to Albertus Magnus in SNH, the Translator augmenting Pliny; the passage alluded to occurs in a collection of recipes, either by Albertus or drawn from Marcus Graecus’ Liber Ignium using flammable substances, including gunpowder, for white magic. The remark in question applies the laws of modern scientific causality to debunk miracles. See Michael R. Best and Frank H. Brightman, eds., The Book of Secrets of Albertus Magnus (Oxford: Clarendon, 1973), pp.110-111; Bert S. Hall rev. James R. Partington, A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); and Clifford J. Rogers, et al., eds., The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010). 566 Parthia in NH 2.109, p. 361. 567 NH 2.110, p. 361, though no oil of Beirut or military use is mentioned. 568 The three flame- and solvent-resistant materials just named. 569 NH 2.235, p. 361. 570 This discussion of pitch is elaborated from NH 2.235, p. 361. 571 NH 2.235, p. 361. 572 NH 2.235, p. 361.

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mont de Eth[n]e qui est en Cecille qui tousjours art et du mont de Ephesti qui est en Lichie ou est le cas pareil. Et du mont de Chimere en Phazelite, et du mont de Cophaney en Bactrie. Et du mont de Ethorsti en Medie. Et du mont de Theozena qui est en Ethiopie qui tousjours ardent nuyt et jour.573 Item dit Plinius une autre merveille et dit quil est ung champ en la province de Septablitanores ou quel est le feu continuellement ardent en la vallee et toutesfoiz environ et audessus sont les arbres verdoians et florissans sans estre du feu en riens greves ne brulez. Et au plus pres est la fontaine tant froide que les ruisseaulx en sont gelez et plains de glace. Ad ce propos de tel feu qui ne brule point les arbres verdoyans il est escript ou livre de dExode ou iiie chappitre que quant Moyse par le commandement de Dieu monta en la montaigne de Synay il advisa ung buisson vert et fleuri et dedans et a lenviron estoit le feu ardent. Et neantmoins le buisson nen fut en riens ars ne brule ne nen perdit oncques sa fleur ne sa verdeur.574 Item dit Plinius que ou mont de Niphes le feu yst dune grant roche moult haultement flambeant dont la flambe est nourrie de pluye. Et tant plus fort y pleut et plus fort art. Et aussi au fait contraire tant plus y fait sec et chault temps et moins art. Et quant il advient que la pluye y cheit moult asprement lors le feu sesprent de moult grant force. Et gecte plus grant flambe. Ad ce propos il est escript en la Bible ou livre des Juges ou vie chappitre que quant Gedeon sacriffia a Dieu il mist sur une grand et haulte pierre les pains et les chars quil vouloit sacriffier. Et de la froide pierre yssit ung grant feu ardent qui le sacriffice de Gedeon 76/ parfist et chars et pains tout ardit.575 Item dit Plinius que ou champ Sabin a une moult grosse et merveilleuse pierre laquelle quant elle est oingte elle rend tresgrant clarte de feu et de flambe et a tresbonne odeur.576 Item dit Plinius que ou mont de Saltutin a une moult grosse roche qui est de telle nature que quant on met dessus aucune chose combustible tantost le feu se prent et gecte moult grant flambe.577 Item Plinius dit entre autres merveilles de feu que en miroes qui sont creux quant ilz sont mis contre les rays du souleil le feu si engendre bien naturellement.578

Pliny says that there are several places where fire burns and flames continuously. And he cites here the example of Mount Etna in Sicily, which always burns, and Mount Ephestis in Lichie, where there is a similar case. And of Mount de Chimere in Phazelite and the Mount of Cophaney in Bactria. And Mount Ethorsti in Media. And the Mount of Theozena in Ethiopia, which always burns both day and night. Pliny speaks of another marvel and says that there is a field in the province of Septablitanores in which there is a fire burning continuously in the valley, and yet around and above it are trees turning green and flowering without being in any way scorched or burned by the fire. And very near is a spring so cold that the brooks that flow from it are frozen and full of ice. With regard to such fire that does not burn green trees, it is written in the book of Exodus in the third chapter that when Moses, by God’s commandment, went up on Mount Sinai, he saw a green and flowering bush, and within and around it was burning fire. And nonetheless the bush was not in any way burned or scorched, nor did it ever lose any of its flowers or greenery. Pliny says that on Mount Nymphes the fire comes flaming high out of a great cliff, whose flame is nourished by rain. And the harder it rains the more strongly the flame burns. And also, on the contrary, the dryer and hotter the weather, the less it burns. And when it happens that the rain falls there most bitterly, then the fire rises up with much greater force, and throws off greater flames. With regard to this, it is written in the Bible in the book of Judges in the sixth chapter that when Gideon sacrificed to God, he put the bread and flesh that he wished to sacrifice on a large and high stone. And from the cold stone sprang a great burning fire that consumed Gideon’s sacrifice and completely burned up the bread and flesh. Pliny says that in the field of Sabin there is a most great and large and marvelous stone that, when it is rubbed with oil, gives forth an extreme brightness of fire and of flame and a very good odor. Pliny says that on the Mount of Sallentine there is a very large rock that is of such a nature that when one puts anything combustible on it, immediately the thing catches fire and throws out a great flame. Pliny says, among other marvels of fire, that for mirrors that are concave, when they are put in the rays of the sun, a fire will start naturally, all of its own accord.

NH 2.236, p. 363. A conflation of NH 2.236, p. 363, and 2.237, p. 365. 575 The river Nymphaeus in NH 2.239, p. 365. 576 NH 2.241, p. 367. 577 The Sallentine town of Egnatia in NH 2.241, p. 367. 578 NH 2.239, p. 365. 573 574

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61) [Merveilles doyseaulx] Selon ce que dit Plinius en son xe livre au xxv chappitre moult a de merveilles ou fait doyseaulx. Premierement aucuns oyseaulx sont qui converssent avecques les gens en toutes saisons comme coulons, les paons, les cocs, les gelines, les oyes, les cannes, et plusieurs autres oyseaulx.579 Item les aucuns y sont sont seullement vi moys en este comme les arondelles, les cigoignes, et les cailles. Item les aucuns y sont par lespace de troys moys comme les tourterelles. Item les autres ny sont sont seulement fors par le temps de procreacion et nourriture de leurs petiz oyselez comme la huppe. Item dit Plinius que aucuns oyseaulx sont en certains lieux et pais repairant en certaines saisons de lan de quoy on ne pourroit trouver ne finer en autre pais. Et de ce nous met Plinius un exemple en son livre ou xxixe chappitre. Et dit que en lisle de Rodes nest point veue ne trouvee laigle ne en Ytalie nest point trove larus.580 Item ou lac de Ytalie pres des montaignes de Alpes ne habitent nulles cygoignes.581 Item pres de la cite de Rome en la terre de Sidenac aussi ne reppairant point les cygoignes pour y pondre ne pour y couver.582 Item dit Plinius qu[e] en lisle de Pontho nul oysel ny repaire ne ny volle.583 Item a Rome au temple de Hercules nul chien ny entre, ne nul oysel, ne mouche ny volle.584 Item en lisle de Crethe ne habite nul oysel vollant de nuyt comme le chauain et la chauve souriz. Item dit Plinius que aucuns oyseaulx sont qui chascun an muent la couleur de leurs plumes comme le merle qui est noir et despuis environ le coul devient rouge.585 Item dit Plinius que la grue mue la couleur de sa plume par chascun an.586 Item dit Plinius que en moult de diverses manieres font les oyseaulx leurs niz, les ungs les font en terre, les aucuns es fosses, les autres es haies et buissons, les autres sur les pignons des haultes eglises et autre haulx edifices, les autres es mares et es rivieres. Et entre maniere dautres oyseaulx

Chapter 61 (Wonders of Birds) According to what Pliny says in his tenth book in the twenty-fifth chapter, there are many marvels in the behavior of birds. First, there are some birds that associate with humans at all times of the year like pigeons, peacocks, roosters, hens, geese, ducks, and several other birds. There are some who are around humans only six months in summer, such as swallows, storks, and quail. There are some who are there for a period of three months, such as turtledoves. There are some who are there only for the breeding period and nourishment of their chicks like the hoopoe [crested pigeon]. Pliny says that some birds go to certain places and countries at certain times of the year that one would never be able to find or locate in another country. And Pliny offers an example in his book in the twenty-ninth chapter. And he says that the eagle is never found on the isle of Rhodes, nor is the arus ever found in Italy. No storks live in the lake of Italy near the Alps. Storks also do not dwell near the city of Rome in the land of Sidenac either to roost or to brood. Pliny says that on the Island of Pontho no bird lives nor flies there. In Rome at the temple of Hercules no dog can enter, nor any bird, nor can any fly take flight. On the Island of Crete live no night-flying birds such as the owl or the bat. Pliny says there are some birds that change the color of their feathers each year, such as the blackbird, which is black and later becomes red around the neck. Pliny says that the crane changes the color of its plumage each year. Pliny says that birds build their nests in many diverse manners: some make them in the ground, others in ditches, others in hedges or bushes, others on the spires of tall churches and other high buildings, others in marshes and along rivers. And among all the other birds Pliny says that a bird lives in Scythia that every year

NH 10.117-21, pp. 367-73. NH 10.77, p. 341. 581 NH 10.77, p. 341. 582 NH 10.78, p. 343. 583 NH 10.78, p. 343. 584 See NH 10.79, p. 343, and Solinus, Collectanea, 4. 585 NH 10.80, p. 343. 586 NH 10.80, p. 343. 579 580

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Plinius dit quil repaire ung oysel en Scitie qui tous les ans fait son nic en la peau dung lievre sur les plus haultes branches de larbre du cedre.587 Item dit Plinius que les oyseaulx ont moult de diverses manieres de chanter, les aucuns ont la voix triste et doulante comme le coulon et la turterelle, les autres ont voix menassant comme laigle, les autres ont voix joyeuse comme le roussignol, les autres en lieu de chant vilent comme loysel appelle thaureau qui repaire ou pais d’Arle, les aucuns hanyssent comme chevaulx comme fait loysel appelle anchus.588 Item dit Plinius que aucuns oyseaulx sont duiz et apprins a parler humain langaige comme pie, le papeguay, et le jay.589 Item Plinius dit en son livre ou xlve chappitre que en la terre, en la mer, en lair a bestes et oyseaulx sans nombre que on peut bien duyre et apprivoiser comme les olephans 76v/ qui obeyssent et font ce quon leur commande.590 Item les lions sont duiz et apprins a soubstenir et porter le collier et a tirer a la charrue. Item des veaulx marins que on aprent a obeir aux hommes et deviennent privez, mais cest grant merveille que larondelle entre les oyseaulx ne la souriz entre les bestes ne peuent estre duiz ne apprivoisiez.591 Item Plinius recite et parle en son livre ou xlixe chappitre de certains oyseaulx monstreux dont les fables poeticques font mencion et dit que logopus est ung oysel qui a les piez pareilz es piez dung lievre et le corps comme ung coulon.592 Item Plinius dit que le pagace est ung oysel qui a le chief dung cheval et le corps dung corbel.593 Item dit Plinius que le griffon a la forme et figure dune aigle par devant. Cest assavoir de teste, des esles et des piez. Et quant est a la partie darriere il a le corps et les piez dung lyon. Et ainsi il est moitie aigle et moitie lyon.594 Item dit Plinius quil est ung oysel cornu comme ung mouston appelle tragorpa, dont il a este cy dessus parle plus aplain ou chappitre dEgipte.595 Item parle Plinius dung oysel appelle seraino qui a la face dune pucelle et le corps doysel. Et tesmoigne ung moult saige, noble, et

makes its nest in the skin of a hare in the highest branches of a cedar tree. Pliny says that birds have many different ways of singing: some have a sad and mournful voice like the dove and the pigeon; others have a threatening voice like the eagle; others have a joyful voice like the nightingale; others, instead of a song, make unpleasant sounds like the bull bird [bulbul?] that lives in the country of Arles; others whinny like horses, as does a bird called anchus. Pliny says that there are some birds that are trained and learn to speak human language, such as the magpie, the parrot, and the jay. Pliny says in his book in chapter forty-five that on the earth, on the sea, and in the air there are innumerable beasts and birds that can be well trained and made tractable, like elephants, which obey and do what is commanded them. Lions are trained and learn to submit and wear a collar and pull a cart. There are sea cows that are taught to obey men and they become tame, but it is a great marvel that neither the swallow among the birds nor the mouse among the animals can be taught or tamed. Pliny speaks and tells in his book in the forty-ninth chapter of certain monstrous birds that the poetic fables mention, and he says that the logopus is a bird that has feet similar to those of a hare and a body like a dove. Pliny says that the Pegasus is a bird that has the head of a horse and the body of a crow. Pliny says that the griffon has the form and shape of an eagle in the front—that is to say, the head, the wings, and the feet. And as for the rear, it has the body and feet of a lion. And thus it is half eagle and half lion. Pliny says that there is a bird with horns like a sheep called «tragorpa,» which is discussed more fully above, in the chapter on Egypt. Pliny speaks of a bird called Siren that has the face of a girl and the body of a bird. And this is attested to by the very wise, noble

NH 10.97, p. 353. NH 10.81-84, p. 345; NH 10.117, p. 367. 589 NH 10.117-20, pp. 367-71. 590 NH 10.128, p. 375. 591 NH 10.128, p. 375. 592 NH 10.136, p. 379. 593 NH 10.136, p. 379. 594 NH 10.136-38, pp. 379-81. 595 NH 10.136-38, pp. 379-81. 587 588

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autenticque docteur nomme Domosiarchus. Et dit que telz oyselz qui sont ainsi monstrueux et destranges figures sont et repairent voluntiers es parties de Inde la grant.596 Item Plinius dit que ung saige docteur appelle Democritus ablegue que aucuns oyseaulx sont en orient qui sont de telle nature et propriete que qui prendroit du sang deulx et le garderoit il deviendroit ung ver lequel qui le laisseroit vivre il deviendroit serpent lequel ung sable. Et cellui ou celle qui de celuy ver mangeroit il sauroit bien entendre la voix et le chant des oyseaulx.597 Item dit Plinius que SolinsStrabo fut le premier homme qui tollut es oyseaulx la franchise et liberte que Dieu et nature leur donna quant tout lair du ciel leur habandonna. Car premierement il sesforca a les mettre en caige et enprisonner pour les duyre a chanter ou pour les engressier. Et puis apres les autres hommes lont ensuyt a ce faire.598 Item recite Plinius en son xe livre que ung nomme Ezophus eut ung filz nomme Elodius qui fut tant friant que pour mengier et savoir quel goust et quelle saveur avoient fines perles et fines marguerites il vendit toute la sucession quil avoit eue de son pere en meubles et heritages pour achapter precieuses margarites pour les mengier et bruvier a ung disner. Et quant il les eut achatees il les fist tramper en fort vin aigre et tantost elles furent fondues et remises. Et puis apres il les huma et devora. Et pource en fist Plinius ung proverbe et dist «Ezophus le friant qui tant chier achata loysel bien parlant pour le menger et savourer et transglotir a son soupper qui pour esbat mieulx valoit a ouyr parler que langue domme fut digne davoir ung filz plus friant qui vendit tout son vaillant pour fines perles transglotir.» Et puis Plinius fait question aux saiges lequel des deux est le plus friant, le pere ou le filz, ausquelz il se actend du tout den discuter599 Item recite Plinius de la friandise de la royne appellee Cleoppatra qui fut femme de lempereur Anthoine 77/ laquelle fut tant friande quelle mengea ung morsel qui valloit bien cent sextiers de froment. Car elle print une perle qui a son oreille pendoit qui estoit laplus riche, laplus belle, et laplus grosse quon sceust au monde, et qui estoit ung singulier tresor de nature. Elle la mist tremper en fort vin aigre pour la fondre. Et puis la huma a ung seul goust. Au propos

and authoritative doctor named Domosiarchus. And he says that such birds, which are monstrous and have strange forms in this way, choose to live in the regions of Greater India. Pliny says that a very wise doctor named Democritus alleges that there are some birds in the East that are of such a nature and property that whoever would take blood from them and keep it would find that it becomes a worm, which, if allowed to live, would become a serpent that is black in color. And any man or woman who eats this worm will be able to understand the voice and the song of birds. Pliny says that Solin Strabo was the first man to take away from birds the freedom and liberty that God and nature gave them when he made the open air of heaven no longer permissible to them. For first he strove to confine them in cages and imprison them in order to tame them to sing or to fatten them up. And then, afterwards, other men followed him in doing this. Pliny tells in his tenth book that a man named Aesopus had a son named Clodius who was so fond of delicacies that in order to eat and know the taste and savor of fine pearls, he sold everything he had inherited from his father in the form of buildings and chattels in order to buy precious pearls, to eat and drink them at a dinner. And when he had bought them, he caused them to be soaked in strong vinegar, and immediately they were melted and dissolved. And then afterward he sipped them and devoured them. And because of this, Pliny makes a proverb of it and says, «Aesopus the lover of fine delicacies, who so dearly bought a fine talking bird, which, to hear speak, was worth more in pleasure than the tongue of a man, only to eat it and savor it and gobble it up for his supper, deserved to have an even more epicurean son who sold everything he owned in order to swallow fine pearls.» And then Pliny poses the question to the sages—which of the two is more of an epicure, the father or the son— and he expects them all to join in the discussion. Pliny tells of the epicurism of the queen called Cleopatra who was the wife of the emperor Antony, who was such a lover of delicacies that she took one bite that was well worth one hundred 220-pound containers of wheat. For she took a pearl that hung in her ear, which was the richest, the most beautiful, and the largest known in the world and which was a singular treasure of nature. She set it soaking in strong vinegar to melt it. And then she drank it down in a single

This authority’s name seems to mix Dinon and Clitarchus in NH 10.136, p. 381. The picture given is closer to Gervaise, Banks and Binns III.65, pp. 681-83. 597 NH 10.137, p. 381. 598 Marcus Laenius Strabo in NH 10.141, p. 383. 599 Clodius, the son of the tragic actor Aesopus, wasted his father’s fortune in serving dissolved pearls to his dinner guests. See NH 9.122, p. 247. 596

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de friandise il est escript ou livre de Genesis au xxve chappitre que Esau qui estoit filz aisne de Ysaac quant il fut retourne de la chace treslas, affamme et travaille il vendit et transporta son [assene]600 et tout le droit quil y avoit a son frere Jacob pour une seule escuelle plaine de lentilles.601 Item Plinius recite en son livre ou liie chappitre que les oyseaulx ont diverses et merveilleuses manieres et condicions en leurs generacions et dit que les oyseaulx qui sont fors et courageux et de forte complexion fructiffient moins en generacion que les autres oyseaulx. Car les autres qui sont peureulx et couars et qui sont de folle complexion habondent plus en eufs et en petits oyseaulx que ne font les grans et fors oyseaulx. Car nature supplie en eulx en une maniere de ce quil desfault en lautre. Et de fait il nous monstre et baille exemple du petit roussignol qui tant est gay et gentil. Et aussi le petit roytelet lequel a plus doyseaulx que na laigle ne lescoer.602 Item dit Plinius que ceulx qui engendrent moins doyseaulx petiz plus longuement vivent et sont plus vigoureux en nature ne vient souffrir beste ne oysel estre nourri dautre que de ses pere et mere, comme nous verrons du paon, de loye, et de la canne. Car quant leurs premiers eufs sont couvez dune geline ilz nen sont pas contens mais ponnent de rechief et couvent. Au propos de ce que toute beste et tout oysel et mesmement tout homme et femme desire estre nourry da sa proper mere et nature. Nous lisons en la Bible ou livre dExode ou second chappitre que Pharaon qui fut roy dEgipte pour empescher la generacion et multiplicacion des Hebreulx il ordonna que tous les filz masles nouveaulx nez fussent octis et mis a mort par les femmes ventrieres qui les receuroient. Si advint que ou temps de ceste horrible ordonnance Moyse nasquit. Et quant il fut ne, il sembla moult bel et gracieulx es femmes ventrieres qui le receurent. Si eurent moult grant pitie de luy et ne endurerent a le tuer comme elles fasoient les autres. Et pource que nourrir ne lousoient elles mirent cest enffant en une petite nassete de jonc et le laisserent aller a laventure au long de la riviere, mais Dieu le garda de peril et le conduist sain et sault au long de la riviere. Et en passent par devant le palais du roy Pharaon la fille du roy advisa cest enfant en la nassaite de jonc et dist que cestoit le filz dune Ebree. Et pour ce que lenffant luy sembla moult bel et plaisant, tantost et hastivement elle le fist traire et mectre hors de la riviere, mais cest enfant reffusa toutes

gulp. With regards to such love of food, it is written in the book of Genesis in the twenty-fifth chapter that Esau, who was the elder son of Isaac, when he returned from the hunt very tired, hungry, and worn out, sold and transferred his inheritance and all the rights he had in it to his brother Jacob for a single dish full of lentils. Pliny says in his book in the fifty-second chapter that birds have diverse and marvelous manners and conditions in their generation, and he says that the birds that are bold and courageous and of strong constitution are less fertile in generation than the other birds. For the others which are more fearful and cowardly and which are of foolish constitution are more abundant in eggs and in chicks than are the larger and more forceful birds. For nature provides for them in one manner what they lack in the other. And in fact we are shown and offered an example in the small nightingale which is so gay and gentle. And also the small wren, which has more offspring than does the eagle or the «escoer.» Pliny says that those birds which engender fewer young live longer and are more vigorous in nature, nor does it happen that beast or bird tolerates being nourished by any other than its father and mother, as we see in the peacock, the goose, and the duck. For when their first eggs are hatched by a hen, they are not content, but lay again and brood. By the same token, all beasts and birds and even every man and woman desires to be nourished by its own mother and its own kind. We read in the Bible in the book of Exodus in the second chapter that Pharaoh, who was king of Egypt, in order to prevent the generation and multiplication of the Hebrews, ordered that all the newborn male children be killed and put to death by the wet nurses who received them. And so it happened that in the time of this horrible ordinance Moses was born. And when he was born, he seemed most beautiful and gracious to the wet nurses who received him. So they took great pity on him and could not stand to kill him as they had the others. And because they dared not nurse him, they put this baby in a little bassinet of reeds and let him to go down the river in whatever way chance would have it, but God kept him from peril and guided him safe and sound down the length of the river. And as he floated by the palace of Pharaoh, the king’s daughter saw this child in his reed bassinet and said that it was the child of a Hebrew. And because the infant seemed very handsome and pleasing to her, immediately and hastily she had him pulled out and removed from the river, but

The text mistakenly reads «asnesse,» which, as in the story of Balaam, refers to a female ass. NH 9.119-21, pp. 243-47. 602 Generally NH 10.143, p. 385. 600 601

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nourrices de quelque condicion quelles fussent. Excepte sa propre mere qui finablement luy fut admenee, et delle il fut nourry moult joyeusement.603

this child refused all wet nurses of whatever sort they were. Except his own mother, who finally was led to him, and by her he was fed most joyously.

62) [Merveilles de la mer] Jadis advint comme dit Plinius en son second livre que en la haulte mer de Tusque sourdit du profont de la mer ardent. Et apparoissoit au dessus des eaux toute embrasee de feu et environ ladicte ysle estoient 77v/ les poyssons flocans dont les ungs estoient mors et les autres estoient moult foibles. Et tous ceulx qui de ces poissons mengerent moururent.604 Item dit Plinius que la mer naturellement ne floe que deux foiz en xxiiii heures. Toutesfoiz en aucuns lieux il advient autrement dont cest grant merveille. Car en lisle de Meriboine la mer troys foys le moys y floe sept foys le jour. Cest assavoir, le viie, le viiie, et le ixe jour.605 Item dit Plinius que aucuns puiz et ruisseaulx sont qui ensuivent la condicion de la mer quant ad ce. Car quant la mer croist ilz croissent et descroissent quant la mer sen va. Combien quilz soient loing de la mer. Et nous met exemple dung puyz qui est selon les degrez du temple de Hercules qui floe et refloe comme la mer. Car quant la mer croist il gecte grans ruisseaulx. Et quant elle appetisse pareillement il appetice.606 Item dit Plinius que en la mer de Tirace a une petite ysle ou il a moult grant habondance de fontaines doulces et chaudes qui semblablement croissent et descroissent comme fait la mer.607 Item dit Plinius en son livre au ce chappitre que aucunes eaux sont de contraire condicion lung a lautre. Car selon le rivaige de la mer de Baccotis a ung chastel dont les puyz de leans sont de telle propriete que quant la mer croist leau des puyz appetisse. Et quant la mer se retrait leau revient es puyz.608 Item dit Plinius que en la ville de Hispolis a plusiurs puyz dont il en a ung entre les autres qui est [de telle] condicion dessusdicte.609 Item dit Plinius que en la mer du meillieu de la terre a une partie dicelle mer qui est appellee Pontho. Et est ceste mer tres estroicte et petite. Neantmoins elle recoit toutes les eaux de la grant mer et les boit. Et si nen croist en nulle maniere dont cest moult grant merveille.610

Chapter 62 (Wonders of the Sea) In olden days it happened, as Pliny says in his second book, that in the high sea of Tusque [an island] arose burning from the depths of the sea. And it appeared above the surface of the water all surrounded with fire, and around the said island were floating fish, of which some were dead and others were extremely weak. And all those who ate of these fish died. Pliny says that the tidal sea naturally flows only twice in twenty-four hours. Yet in some places it happens otherwise, which is a great marvel. For on the Island of Meriboine, three times a month the tide flows seven times a day—that is to say, on the seventh, the eighth, and the ninth day. Pliny says that there are some springs and streams that follow the condition of the sea with respect to this. For when the sea rises they rise, and they wane when the sea wanes, no matter how far these bodies of water may be from the sea. And he offers us here the example of a well that is by the steps of the temple of Hercules, which flows back and forth like the sea. For when the tide rises, it throws out great streams of water. And when it wanes, similarly they subside. Pliny says that in the sea of Tirace there is a small island where there is a very great abundance of warm fresh-water springs which wax and wane in the same way as the sea. Pliny says in his book in the hundredth chapter that some waters are of opposite condition to each other. For along the shore of the sea of Baetis is a castle whose wells, inside the walls, are of such a nature that when the sea rises, the water of the wells diminishes. And when the sea retreats, the water comes back to the wells. Pliny says that in the city of Hispolis there are several wells, one of which, among the others, is of the nature just described above. Pliny says that in the Mediterranean Sea there is a part of the sea which is called Pontho. And this sea is very narrow and small. Nonetheless, it receives all the waters of the great sea and drinks them. And yet it does not grow from it in any way, which is a great marvel.

Generally NH 10.155, p. 393. NH 2.203, p. 335. 605 NH 2.212, p. 343. 606 NH 2.100, p. 347. 607 The river Timavus in NH 2.106, p. 357. 608 NH 2.100, p. 349. 609 NH 2.100, p. 349. 610 NH 2.100, p. 349. 603 604

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Item dit Plinius que nulle beste ne meurt de mort naturelle si non a leure que le floz de la mer sen retourne. Au propos de la mer il est escript en la Bible au livre de Exode ou xiiie chappitre que pour lissue des enffans dIsrael la Mer Rouge se ouvrit et se departit dung couste et daultre quil sembloit que ce fussent deux murs. Et lors les Ebreux passerent au travers de la mer a pie sec. Et yssirent hors du royaume dEgipte. Et apres eulx se reclouist la mer tantost. Et les Egipciens qui poursuivoient les Hebreux furent tous noiez.611 Item il est escript au livre de Josue ou second et tiers chappitre que Josue condusit les Hebreux jusques en la terre de promission. Et quant ilz vindrent au fleuve de Jordain les eaux du fleuve se arresterent et coururent contre mont et les eaux qui estoient ou fons coulerent aval. Et ainsi leur fut la voye ouverte et passerent le fleuve Jordain a pie sec. Et quant ilz furent tous passes les eaux du fleuve du Jourdain coururent aval comme devant. Les proprietes et natures des eaux doulces sont moult merveilleuses et diverses comme dit a este dessus. Dont parle Plinius en son livre au xvie chappitre. Et dit que en la terre de Sallentine a ung chastel appelle le chastel Adrian, pres du quel chastel a ung lac qui est de telle condicion quil est tousjours plain deau jusques au derrain rivaige et en nul temps leau ny croist ne ny appetice ne en yver ne en este.612 Item dit Plinius en son second livre quil sont deux rivieres qui sont moult contraires de condicions, dont lune est nommee le fleuve de Coctue. Et lautre riviere est nommee le lac de Pise. Car si dedans ce lac de Pise est gecte 78/ bois et quil y soit longuement lescorce diceluy bois deviendra dure comme pierre. Et de condicion pierreuse. Et en lautre fleuve si dedans est gecte bois il deviendra dur comme pierre dedans mais lescorce non.613 Item il est escript en la Bible au livre dExode ou xviie chappitre que quant les Hebreux alloient parmy les desers les eaux du fleuve de Marath leurs furent [tant] ameres quilz nen povoient boire lors Moyse gecta dedans ce fleuve du boys par la vertu du quel les eaux de ce fleuve devindrent tres doulces. Et en beurent les gens et les bestes moult savoreusement. Item recite Plinius en son second livre ou vie chappitre que en la maison de Jupiter a une moult merveilleuse fontaine. Car elle appetice de jour et croist de nuyt. Car despuis le point du jour

Pliny says no animal dies a natural death except at the hour when the tide comes in. With regard to the sea, it is written in the Bible in the book of Exodus in the thirteenth chapter that the Red Sea opened up for the escape of the children of Israel and parted to one side and the other so that it seemed as if there were two walls. And then the Hebrews went across the sea with dry feet. And they went forth out of the realm of Egypt. And after they passed, the sea immediately closed up again. And the Egyptians who pursued the Hebrews were all drowned. It is written in the book of Joshua in the second and third chapters that Joshua led the Hebrews into the Promised Land. And when they came to the river Jordan, the waters of the river stopped and flowed upstream, and the waters that remained on the bottom flowed downstream. And thus the way was opened to them and they crossed the river Jordan with dry feet. And when they had all gone across, the waters flowed forward again as before. The properties and natures of fresh waters are most marvelous and diverse, as has been said above. And Pliny speaks of this in his book in the sixteenth chapter. And he says that in the land of Sallentine there is a castle called the castle Adrian, near which is a lake of such a condition that it is always full of water up to the top of the bank, and at no time does the water rise or diminish, either in winter or in summer. Pliny says in his second book that there are two rivers that are of contrary character, one of which is called the river of Coctue. And the other river is called the lake of Pisa. For if wood is thrown into this lake of Pisa and the bark has been there for a long time, the bark of this wood will become hard as stone. And it will have the characteristics of stone. And in the other river, if any wood is thrown into it, it will become as hard as stone on the inside but not in the bark. It is written in the Bible in the book of Exodus in the seventeenth chapter that when the Hebrews wandered in the desert, the waters of the river of Maranth were so bitter to them that they could not drink; then Moses threw into the river some wood, by virtue of which the waters of the river became very sweet. And the people and the animals drank with great relish. Pliny tells in his second book in the sixth chapter that in the house of Jupiter there is a most marvelous spring. For it diminishes by day and increases by night. For from daybreak until the hour

NH 2.100, p. 349. NH 2.106, p. 355, but there is no structure there. 613 NH 2.106, p. 355. 611 612

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jusques a leure de midy elle va en appeticent tant quelle est pres que toute seiche. Et despuis le soir jusques au point du jour elle ne fine de croistre.614 Item dit si en celle fontaine on mect une torche ardant pour estaindre en tirant la torche hors de leau elle se ralumera comme devant.615 Item dit Plinius que en plusieurs lieux sourdent fontaines deaux qui sont chauldes et boullans et nonmye seulement es montaignes ou vallees mais en la mer et es rivieres doulces. Et nous met cy ung exemple et dit que en la mer de Ytalie sourt une fontaine deau chaude.616 Item dit Plinius que souvent en la haulte mer tout ainsi est il es ysles de Celidonne et en la mer de Arabie et au port marin de Gadicano. Car en yceulx lieux est leau doulce entre les eaux sallees.617 Item dit Plinius que es parties de Ylirice a une fontaine tresfroide qui est de telle nature que si on estend aucuns draps ou vestemens dessus icelle fontaine tantost le feu si prandra et ardront les draps ou vestemens par la merveilleuse propriete de la froide fontaine.618 Item dit Plinius que la fontaine dont vient le fleuve de Pade est de telle propriete que ung jour elle rend eau qui court a moult grant habondance. Et lautre jour elle est toute seiche sans eau.619 Item dit Plinius que en lisle de Dedon a une fontaine qui croist en moult grant habondance deau quant le fleuve de ville croist. Et quant iceluy fleuve de ville appetice icelle fontaine seiche et tarist.620 Item recite Plinius une autre grant merveille. Et dit que en la terre de Falis que toutes les eaux qui sont en celle region sont de telle nature quelles font devenir tous blans les beufs et vaches qui de celle eau boivent.621 Item dit Plinius que en Boecie a ung grant lac dont procedant deux grans rivieres qui sont de merveilleuse condicion, car la condicion de lune riviere est contraire a lautre, lune riviere a nom Melas et est de telle condicion que les brebiz et moustons qui environ celle riviere sont nourris et qui boivent de leau de celle riviere deviennent tous noirs. Lautre riviere est appellee Cephireus qui est de telle condicion que tous les moutons et brebiz qui sont

of noon, it keeps diminishing to the point that it is nearly completely dry. And from evening until daybreak, it does not stop increasing. He also says that if one throws a burning torch into this spring to extinguish it, upon pulling the torch out of the water, it will relight as before. Pliny says that in many places springs of water appear that are hot and boiling, and these occur not only in mountains or valleys, but also in the sea and in fresh-water rivers. And he gives us an example here and says that a fountain of hot water gushes forth into the sea of Italy. And Pliny says that often in the high sea it is the same as it is on the Islands of Celidonia and in the Arabian Sea and in the seaport of Gadicano. For in these places, there are areas of fresh water between areas of salt water. Pliny says that in the region of Ilirica there is a very cold fountain that is of such a nature that if one extends any cloth or clothing above this spring, immediately fire will spring out and the sheets or clothes will burn by the marvelous property of the cold spring. Pliny says that the spring that is the source of the river of Pade is of such property that one day it gives water that flows in great abundance. And the next day it is all dry without water. Pliny says that on the island of Delos there is a spring that grows to have a very great abundance of water when the river in the city rises. And when this river in the city diminishes, the spring dries up and ceases. Pliny tells of another great marvel. And he says that in the land of Falis, all the waters that are in this region are of such a nature that they make the oxen and cows that drink this water turn completely white. Pliny says that in Boeotia there is a great lake from which proceed two great rivers that are of a marvelous condition, for the condition of one river is contrary to that of the other. The one river is called Melas and it is of such a condition that the sheep and lambs that graze around this river and drink its water become all black. The other river is called Cephisus, and it is of

NH 2.106, p. 357. Confused with the spring above. NH 2.106, p. 355. 616 NH 2.106, p. 355. 617 The Red Sea. NH 2.106, p. 355. 618 NH 2.106, pp. 355-57. 619 NH 2.106-107, p. 357. 620 The islands of Tenedos and Delos in NH 2.106, p. 357, are confused here. 621 NH 2.106, p. 357. 614 615

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nourris environ celle riviere et qui en boivent de leau deviennent tous blans.622 Item dit Plinius que pres de la a ung autre fleuve appelle Saniche, qui fait devenir les brebiz et moutons qui sont nourriz environ noires ou rousses ou grivolles. Ad ce propos il est escript en la Bible ou livre de Genesis ou xxixe chappitre que Jacob le saige patriarche avoit marchande a son oncle Laban qui pour le servir vii ans il auroit sa fille a femme avecques toutes les bestes qui seroient toutes blanches ou toutes noires. Et pour ce que Dieu ama Jacob les aigneaulx qui tous les naissoient estoit 78v/ ou tous blans ou tous noirs. Et eut Jacob tantost grant tropeau de bestes, lors Laban se reputa estre deceu de son marche. Et fit ung autre marche aveques Jacob. Cest assavoir que Jacob auroit doresnavant pour sa part toutes les bestes qui seroient ne toutes blanches ne toutes noires et qui seroient grivolles comme dessus a este dit.623 Item dit Solin que selon le rivaige de la mer de Pontho a ung fleuve qui arrouse la prayrie ou sont nourris beufs et vaches et autre bestail qui sont de merveilleuse condicion. Car les bestes dilec ont le lait noir comme ancre. Et en usent la les gens pour nourriture.624 Item dit Plinius en son second livre que au port de Branduse a une fontaine qui est la meilleur qui soit en tout le monde. Car leau qui est prinse en celle fontaine soit portee par terre ou par mer jamais ne sera puante ne corrumpne. Et communement les mariniers qui sen vont par la mer garnissent voluntiers leurs vaisseaulx de leau de celle noble fontaine.625 Item dit Plinius que en la terre de Reatine a une fontaine muable qui change son lieu de sa source lannee que les biens faillent a venir sur terre. Et pource scevent et congnoissent les habitans du pais lanee que les biens doyvent faillir. Car quant ilz voyent la mutacion de la fontaine ilz se garnissent et pourvoient et vont achetter es estranges contrees des grains, des vins, et des autres biens qui leurs sont propres et neccesseres pour leur user.626 Item dit Plinius que en lisle de Mendre devant le temple de Bachus autrement appelle le dieu des vins a une fontaine de telle condicion que le ve jour du moys de Janvier elle a saveur et goust de vin bon. Et luy dure celle saveur seulement le jour quant leau est transportee hors de la fontaine ou hors du temple pour porter loing dilec leau pert sa saveur de vin et navoit le goust deau commune.627

such a condition that all the sheep and lambs that graze by it and who drink its waters become all white. Pliny says that near there is another river called Xanthus which makes the sheep and lambs who graze there become black or red or speckled. With respect to this, it is written in the Bible in the book of Genesis in the twenty-ninth chapter that Jacob the wise patriarch had made a mercantile agreement with his uncle Laban that for serving him for seven years he would receive his daughter as his wife, along with all the animals that were completely white or completely black. And because God loved Jacob, the lambs that were born there were either all white or all black. And since Jacob soon had a great flock of animals, Laban considered himself to have been cheated in his bargain. And he made another bargain with Jacob—that is to say, that Jacob would have in the future for his share all the beasts who were neither all white nor all black but were of spotted color, as has been said above. Solinus says that along the shore of the sea of Pontho is a river that waters the prairie where oxen and cows and other animals graze, and they are of a marvelous condition. For the animals that feed there have milk as black as ink. And people use it for food. Pliny says in his second book that in the port of Branduse is a spring that is the best in all the world. For water that is drawn from this spring and taken over land or sea will never stink or spoil. And commonly sailors who travel by sea choose to furnish their ships with the water of this noble spring. Pliny says that in the land of Reatine is a variable spring that changes its course in years when crops fail to come up. And because of this, the inhabitants of the country know and recognize the year when the crops will fail. For when they see the change of the spring’s course, they prepare and plan ahead and go into foreign lands to acquire grain, wine, and other goods that are proper and necessary for their use. Pliny says that on the island of Mendre before the temple of Bacchus, otherwise called the god of wines, is a spring of such a condition that on the fifth day of the month of January, it has the taste and flavor of good wine. And this flavor endures only on the day that water is transported away from the spring or the temple, for when it is carried far from there, the water loses the flavor of wine and tastes like ordinary water.

NH 2.106, p. 357. The river Xanthus in NH 2.106, p. 357; NH 31.9, p. 387. 624 Not Collectanea but NH 2.106-107, p. 357. 625 NH 2.106, p. 357. 626 NH 2.106, p. 357. 627 Andros in NH 2.106, pp. 357-359. 622 623

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Item dit Plinius que en Espaigne en la terre de Carinem a deux fontaines qui sont de moult merveilleuse condicion dont lune recoit tout ce que len peut leans gecter et mectre et riens ne reffuse et devoure et boit tout. Et lautre est de condicion contraire. Car elle reffuse et deboute hors tout ce que on gecte dedans.628 Item dit Plinius que en la terre de Comesi pres du lac de Lare a une fontaine qui par certaines heures rend grant eau et gecte grans ruisseaulx. Et a certaines autres heures elle ne rend nulle eau ne russel.629 Item dit Plinius en son livre ou xxxie chappitre que en icelle terre de Comesi a troys autres fontaines bien pres lune de lautre qui sont dune condicion. Car vii foiz le jour elles sont tresplaines deau. Et la viie foiz le jour elle sont seiches sans eau dont cest grant merveille. Car elles sont trespres dune grant et grosse fontaine qui habondamment rend grant eau et grans ruisseaulx dont icelles trois fontaines sont abervees.630 Item dit Plinus que ou mont de Colophon est la fosse de Apolin ou a une fontaine qui est de telle condicion que ceulx qui en boivent deviennent prophetes. Et scevent parler des choses advenir espicialement ilz scevent juger de la mort des gens qui briefvement doyvent mourir plus certainement que de ceaulx qui ont a vivre longue.

Pliny says that in Spain, in the region of Carrina, there are two springs that are of a most marvelous condition, of which one accepts everything that can be thrown or put in, and refuses nothing, and devours and drinks it all up. And the other is of the opposite character. For it refuses and throws out everything that is thrown into it. Pliny says that in the land of Comesy near the lake of Lare is a spring that at certain hours produces a great deal of water and throws out great streams. And at certain other hours, it produces neither water nor streams. Pliny says in his book in the thirty-first chapter that in this region of Comesy are three other springs very near one another, which are all of one character. For seven times a day they are very full of water. And seven times a day they are dry and without water, which is a great marvel. For they are very near a large and substantial spring that abundantly produces a large quantity of water and great streams, from which these three springs are provided with their moisture. Pliny says that on the Mount of Colophon is the ditch of Apollo where there is a spring that is of such a condition that those who drink of it become prophets. And they know how to speak of things that are to come, and they know especially how to discern the death of men who are soon to die more certainly than of those who will live a long time.

63) [Merveilles deau doulce] Oultre plus dit Plinius moult de merveilles des condicions et proprietes des eaux et en espicial il dit que si plom et arain degal poiz fondu ensemble a une masse estoit mis en eau il yra tout droit a fons 79/ et si il est applati et eslargy par force de batre et de forger il floctera sur leau.631 Item dit Plinius quil est une pierre moult grant et poisant appellee tirchus. Et dit mais que ceste pierre soit mise toute entiere et sans fraction sur leau elle floctera dessus. Et si elle est mise et rompue par pieces et puis gectee en leau elle yra au fons.632 Item dit Plinius que les pluyes faittes venans deaux sallees sont plus doulces que celles qui viennent deau doulce.633 Item dit Plinius que le sel marin nulle fors nest faict sans saveur de rousee ou deau doulce.634

Chapter 63 (Wonders of Fresh Waters) Beyond this, Pliny tells of many marvels concerning the conditions and properties of waters, and in particular he says that if lead and bronze of equal weight melted together into a mass were put in water, it would sink right to the bottom, and if the mass is flattened and enlarged by beating and forging, it will float on the water. Pliny says there is a very great and heavy stone called circhus. And he says that on the condition that this stone be put all whole and without breaking in the water, it will float on top. And if it is taken and broken into pieces and then thrown in the water, it will go to the bottom. Pliny says that the rains made from salt water are sweeter than those that come from fresh water. Pliny says that sea salt is never made without the flavor of dew or fresh water.

Carrina in NH 2.106, p. 359. NH 2.106, p. 359. 630 NH 2.106, p. 359. 631 NH 2.106, p. 359-361. 632 NH 2.106, p. 359. 633 NH 2.106, p. 361. 634 NH 2.106, p. 361. 628 629

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Item dit Plinius en son xxxie livre ou second chappitre que dieu a donne es eaux moult grans et merveilleuses vertuz remediables a moult de griesves maladies dont Plinius nous recite et dit quil ya pres de Athenes certaines fontaines chauldes qui moult sont profitables a la maladie des yeulx. Et en guerisent tous ceulx qui de celle eau se lavent.635 Item en lisle de Errarie a aucunes fontaines dont leau est tressouverain remede pour guerir de la maladie de gravelle et de pierre.636 Item pres de Romme a aucunes fontaines qui sont froides dont est tresmedicinable a chauldes maladies et a plaies chauldes et ardans et sont moult vallables par deffault deaux artifficielles de moraille, de plantain, ou de joubarbe.637 Item dit Plinius que les eaux dentre Neaples et Puthlanie sont moult medicinables es yeulx et es toutes chauldes maladies.638 Item dit Plinius que en la terre de Zezice a une fontaine qui est de telle condicion que si homme ou femme est surprins de deshordonnee et ardant amour du peche de luxure tantost que la personne aura beu de leau de celle fontaine elle luy fera oublier et mettre a non challoir son desir.639 Item dit Plinius que en Ethioppie a une fontaine qui est de telle condicion que quant leau est mise dedans les lampes en lieu duille elle art et fait clere lumiere. Et ainsi fait colle appellee napa de laquelle on use ou royaume de Perse pour avoir lumiere de nuyt et la elle vault autant comme gresse.640 Item dit Plinius que en Allemaigne oultre le Rin a une moult chaulde fontaine. Et quelque personne ou beste ou oysel qui de celle eau boit elle luy boult ou ventre trois jours apres. Et pres de la a une autre fontaine muable laquelle quant elle est au jour duy en ung lieu elle sera demain en ung autre. Et quelque part quelle voise elle maine avecques soy des poyssons a moult grant habondance. Et souloient la venir les anciens voir les poissons et pour savoir des choses adevenir ilz gectoient en la fontaines pain et autre chose. Et quant les poissons mengeoient cestoit signe de bonne responce a leur demandes. Et quant les poissons deboutoient la pasture de leurs queues cestoit signe de hayne et de mal advenir. Semblable ystoyre recite Plinius en son livre ou xxxiie chappitre de la fontaine de Appolin qui est en Licie.641

Pliny says in his thirty-first book in the second chapter that God gave waters many great and marvelous curative powers for many grievous maladies, about which Pliny recites and tells us that there are near Athens certain warm springs that are extremely useful for maladies of the eyes. And all those who wash their eyes in this water are cured. On the isle of Aenaria there is a certain spring whose water is a singular remedy for curing the malady of kidney stones. Near Rome are some springs which are cold that are very curative for hot illnesses and hot and burning wounds, and they are extremely valuable in the absence of the medicinal waters of barnacles, plantain, and rhubarb. Pliny says that the waters between Naples and Pulano are very medicinal for the eyes and for all hot illnesses. Pliny says that in the region of Cyzicus is a spring that is of such a condition that if man or woman is overcome by disordered and burning love of a sinfully lustful kind, as soon as the person has drunk the water of this spring, the water will make the person forget and cool the person’s desire. Pliny says that in Ethiopia there is a spring of such condition that when its water is put into lamps in place of oil, it burns and makes bright light. And the same thing occurs with a pitch called naphtha, that is used in the realm of Persia to have light at night and it is as good as grease. Pliny says that in Germany beyond the Rhine there is a very warm spring. And whatever person or bird or beast drinks this water will feel a boiling sensation in the belly three days afterward. And near there is another moveable spring that will be in one place today and in a different place tomorrow. And no matter what direction it goes, it takes with it fish in great abundance. And the ancients used to come there to see the fish, and in order to learn about the future, they threw bread or other things into the spring. And when the fish ate, it was a sign of a positive response to their questions. And when the fish ejected the food with their tails, it was a sign of hatred and bad future events. Pliny tells a similar story about the spring of Apollo in Lycia in his book in the thirtysecond chapter.

Cicero’s estate, imitating Athens, was called Academia. After his death hot springs beneficial to the eyes were found there. NH 31.3, p. 383. Aenaria in NH 31.6, p. 385. 637 NH 31.8, p. 387, but these herbal waters are not mentioned. 638 NH 31.13, p. 389. 639 Cyzicus in NH 31.16, p. 389. 640 NH 31.14, p. 389. 641 NH 31.17, p. 391; NH 31.18, p. 391. 635 636

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Item le cas pareille est aussi recite du beuf nomme Appy qui estoit le dieu dEgipte. Car quant il mengeoit le feyn que on luy offroit cestoit signe de benivolence et damour quil avoit a ceulx que le servoient. Et quant il reffusoit viande cestoit signe de indignacion. Et dit Plinius que Cesar le Germanique luy offrit de sa main pasture et la reffusa et tantost apres ledict empereur fut octis.642 Item dit Plinius une autre grant merveille ou xxxie livre ou second chappitre. Et dit quil sont aucunes eaux que quant les goutes en sont distillees 79v/ elles endurcissent comme pierres et deviennent en nature de pierre. Et dit veritablement que les goutes qui descendent dicelles eaux sont convertis en pierres. Et pource le font ilz de telles facons de pierres comme ilz veullent.643 Item en lisle de Rodes en certaines eaux bien parfondes a de telles goutes deaux que quant elle est distillee elle est tantost muee et convertie en pierre. Et pour ce ilz ont les belles et grans coulompnes qui sont de molt diverses couleurs et de telle facon comme veullent. Car leau qui choit petit a petit sendurcist et prent telle forme et figure comme on veult.644 Item Plinius dit que leau est ung element qui a aucun povoir et auctorite sur les autres elementz. Car leau devoure la terre, leau estainct le feu, leau monte ou ciel et occuppe lair. Et entre les pais et regions discordans leau se mect entre deux. Et envoie fleuves et rivieres moyennes.645 Item les nubes ravissent les eaux et les poissons et aucunesfoiz les pierres et les sablons. Item dit Plinius que en Ytalie ou champ Fabian a une eau dont les champs et labouraiges sont arrouses. Mais ceste eau est de telle nature que elle tue et mortiffie toutes mauvaises herbes et nourrist et fait croistre et profiter toutes les bonnes herbes.646 Item dit Plinius que es Espaignes environ la cite de Tollecte a aucunes fontaines qui ensuyvent la condicion de la lune quant a sa lumiere et a croissance. Car quant la lune croist en clarte et en grandeur lesdictes fontaines croissent en grant habondance deau. Et quant la lune appetisse pareillement lesdictes fontaines appetissent.647

A similar case is also told of an ox named Appy who was the god of Egypt. For when he ate the hay that was offered to him, it was a sign of the benevolence and love he had for those who served him. And when he refused the food, it was a sign of indignation. And Pliny says that Germanicus Caesar offered him food from his own hand and he refused it, and shortly afterwards that emperor was killed. Pliny tells of another great marvel in his thirty-first book in the second chapter. And he says that there are some waters that, when the drops are distilled, they harden like stones and become stony in nature. And he says truly that the drops that come from these waters are converted into stones. And therefore they make them into whatever kind of stones they wish. On the island of Rhodes in certain very deep waters there are drops of water of a sort that when one of them is distilled it is immediately changed and converted into stone. And so they have beautiful and grand columns [stalactites] that are of many different colors and formed in whatever fashion they wish. For the water that falls little by little hardens and takes whatever form and shape is desired. Pliny says that water is an element that has a certain power and authority over the other elements. For water eats earth, water extinguishes fire, water rises into the heavens and occupies the air. And when countries and regions are in discord, water puts itself between the two. And it sends mediating rivers and streams. Clouds carry off water and fish and sometimes stones and sands. Pliny says that in Italy in the Fabian field there is a body of water that is used to irrigate the fields and farm lands. But this water is of such a nature that it deadens and kills all bad plants, and nourishes and causes all kinds of beneficial plants to grow and flourish. Pliny says that in Spain around the city of Toledo are some springs which follow the phases of the moon as to its light and waxing and waning. For when the moon increases in brightness and size, these springs grow in their great abundance of water. And when the moon wanes, similarly these springs diminish.

Collectanea, 142; NH 8.71, p. 129. Actually NH 31.20, p. 395. 644 Actually NH 31.20, p. 395. 645 NH 2.38, p. 247. 646 Not NH. 647 Roughly NH 2.102, p. 349. See generally Rhiannon Evans, «The Cruel Sea?: Ocean as Boundary Marker and Transgressor in Pliny’s Roman Geography,» Antichthon 39 (2005):105-18. 642 643

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64) [Merveilles des poissons] Entre les especes des poissons a moult de merveilles comme dit Plinius en son viiie livre ou lviiie chappitre et dit comme il soit ainsi que les raynettes et grenoilles soient naturellement enoyseuses pour leur ennoyeuse clameur. Toutesfois vers la ville de Cyrene elles sont muectes et point ne font de noise.648 Item en la province de Rane la cite de Banesta qui est de present ung pouvre seul chastel estoit levesque Saint Godeffroy qui moult estoit empesche en sa devocion pour la grant noise et clameur des rainettes, il pria Dieu quelles se teussent. Lors elles firent silence et onques puys la ne crierent combien que moult y en ait pres du chastel.649 Item dit Plinius que en lisle de Seriphe moult a de renectes, mais celles qui sont nees ou pais sont naturellement muectes. Excepte une qui chante toute seule et les autres se taisent. Et dient les anciens que pour ce que Sainct Fleurent evesque estoit souvent empesche a leure de contemplacion pour la grant noise et clameur des renettes il leur manda par son clerc quelles se teussent. Lors elles obeirent et firent silence. Le sainct homme fut piteux. Et pour cause de leur obeissance il leur remanda quelles chantassent. Adonc le clerc messagier vint a riviere et dist comme sil parlast a une seule renette, «chante» et ne dist pas «chantez.» Et pour ce il nen chante que une. Et quant elle est morte une autre luy succede en son lieu qui toute seule chante et les autres sont muectes.650 Item dit Plinius quil est ung poisson appelle orbis et est sans escailles et est tout rond et na que teste. Et est de tous les poissons le plus dur.651 Item dit Plinus que en la grant Champaigne pres de la pierre de Hercules les poissons du rivaige de la mer prenent le pain quon leur gecte et le mangent, mais cest grant merveille que nulle autre viande ne prenent, car nul poisson nest prins a la messon pource que ilz ny veulent manger autre viande que pain. En la mer 80/ a moult de merveilleux poyssons et monstreulx quon na pas acoustume a veoir. Et semble que loppinion du peuple soyt vraye qui dit que sur terre na beste, vermine, ne oysel que en la mer nait le semblable.652

Chapter 64 (Wonders Relating to Fish) Among the species of fish are many marvels, as Pliny says in his eighth book in the fifty-eighth chapter, and he says how it is true that toads and frogs are naturally irritating for their annoying clamor. Yet near the city of Cyrene they are mute and make no noise at all. In the province of Rane in the city of Banesta, which is at the present time a poor single castle, was bishop Saint Godefroy, who was deeply disturbed in his devotions by the great noise and clamor of frogs, [so] he prayed to God that they would be quiet. Then they were silent and never again did they make their noise there, even though there were many of them near the castle. Pliny says that on the island of Seriphe there are many frogs, but those that are born in that country are naturally mute—except for one who sings all alone, and the others remain silent. And the ancients say that because the bishop Saint Fleurent was often disturbed in his hour of contemplation by the great noise and clamor of the frogs, he commanded them, through his clerk, that they be quiet. And then they obeyed and fell silent. The holy man was merciful. And because of their obedience, he sent the message back to them that they could sing. Then the clerk who was his messenger came to the river and said, as if he were speaking to a single frog, that it should sing («chante»), not that they should sing («chantez»). And for this reason, only one of them sings. And when that one dies, another succeeds in its place, that sings all alone while the others are mute. Pliny says that there is a fish called «orbis» and it has no scales and is all round and has only a head. And of all fish, it is the fiercest. Pliny says that in greater Campania near the stone of Hercules the fish along the sea shore take the bread that is thrown to them and eat it, but it is a great marvel that they will take no other food, because no fish can be taken on a fishhook [“hameçon”] because they don’t wish to eat anything but bread. In the sea are many marvelous and monstrous fish that people are not accustomed to seeing. And it seems that the opinion of the people is correct which says that there is no animal, vermin, or bird on the earth that does not have its counterpart in the sea.

NH 10.42, p. 343, and NH 8.83, p. 159. The city is Cyrene in Pliny. The Translator seems to have taken the Latin ranae or frogs for the name of a place. Saint Godefroy is Saint Godefroy of Amiens,1066-1115, who was consecrated by the Archbishop of Reims. This story is more usually told of the anchorite Saint Ulphia of Amiens, who, her sleep being troubled by frogs, ordered them to be silent and so they remained to the present. Possibly the two saints were conflated here. 650 NH 8.73, p. 159. Saint Florent, Bishop of Nebbio, who gave his name to the Cathedral in Corsica. Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum Historiale, Book 10, c. 32, p. 380, tells a similar story of Saint Regulus. 651 Bersuire gives «orchis» but neither fish is found in NH. Possibly Pliny’s orca or killer whale, NH 9.5, pp. 171-173, is meant. 652 This idea from NH 9.1, p. 165, is also found in Etymologiae, XII.6.4-5 and developed in detail in Gervaise, Banks and Binns, III.63, pp. 678-79. Particularly useful here is Jacqueline Leclercq-Marx, «L’idée d’un monde marin parallèle du monde terrestre: émergence et développements,» in Chantal Connochie648 649

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Item dit Plinius que en la haulte mer de Inde vers la partie dorient sont les poissons qui ont .c. piez de long. Et les grans balenes qui sont de la longeur de trois traiz darc.653 Item dit Plinius que en la Mer Rouge oultre lisle de Cadare par xii journees de navire a une haulte mer qui est appellee Paisible pource que nul vent la ne vente ne il nya nulles tempestes. Et pour ce la sont les tresgrans et inestimables poissons. Et de contree viennent les grans coustes et les grans ossemens de xl coudees de long que les marchans qui vont par les rivieres dArabie et de la mer apportent de quoy ilz font les ediffices et les maisons en lieu de bois dont ilz nont point.654 Item dit Plinius que du parfont de celle grant mer yssent souvant grans monstres en facon de grans beufs inestimablement grans. Et vont par la terre des rivaiges pasturer et paistre les herbes et arbres. Et les mengent tous jusques a la racine et apres se gectent en la mer dont les aucuns ont testes de chevaulx, les autres ont la figure dasnes, les autres de toreaulx.655 Item dit Plinius que en la mer de Gadicano a poissons de la facon de roes de charrettes dont les yeulx ressemblent estre les moyeulx des roes.656 Item dit Plinius que en celle mer sont poissons qui ont forme et figure domme et de femme.657 Item dit Plinius que les sollemnez legalz et messagiers de Tibere lempereur [quil] avoit envoie de pardela rapporterent quilz avoient veu en une fosse en la mer une oestre chantant.658 Item ilz avoient veu une nereyde qui est ung poisson figure en forme humaine qui estoit vellu comme ung cinge.659 Item ilz dirent quilz avoient veu en la mer de Gadicano ung homme marin qui de nuyt yssoit hors de la mer et sefforcoit dassaillir les nefs et de grever les mariniers. Et quant il estoit regecte et deboute par force par les mariniers il se gectoit et plongeoit dedans la mer.660

Pliny says that in the high seas of India towards the eastern parts are some fish that are one hundred feet long. And there are some great whales that are the length of three arrow shots of a bow. Pliny says that in the Red Sea, twelve days by ship beyond the island of Cadare, there is an area in the open sea called Peaceful because no wind blows there, nor are there any tempests. And for this reason, there are great fish there, inestimable as to size. And from this land come the huge ribs and the great bones forty cubits long that the merchants who travel the rivers and seacoasts of Arabia carry off to make their buildings and their houses in place of wood, of which they have none. Pliny says that from the depths of this great sea often come forth great monsters in the form of huge cattle, inestimably large. And they go along the shores to feed and graze on plants and trees. And they eat them all down to the root and afterwards they throw themselves into the sea, and some of them have the heads of horses, others the heads of asses, and others of bulls. Pliny says that in the Gulf of Gadicano are fish in the shape of wagon wheels whose eyes resemble the hubs of the wheels. Pliny says that in this sea there are fish that have the form and shape of men and women. Pliny says that the solemn legates and messengers of the emperor Tiberius, whom he had sent from over there, reported that they had seen, in a ditch in the sea, a singing oyster. They had seen a Nereid, which is a fish appearing in human form that was covered with hair like an ape. They said that they had seen in the sea of Gadicano a sea man who at night came out of the sea and endeavored to attack ships and do harm to the sailors. And when he was flung back and thrust out by force by the sailors, he threw himself overboard and plunged back into the sea.

Bourgne, ed., Mondes marins du Moyen Âge: Actes du 30e colloque du CUERMA, 3, 4 et 5 mars 2005 (Aix-en-Provence: Université de Provence, 2006), pp. 259-71. The scribe’s spelling of «la messon» probably resulted from a misunderstanding of what would be the modern word «l’hameçon,» perhaps suggesting that the text was being dictated. 653 NH 9.2, p. 167. 654 NH 9.2, p. 167. On whale bone and its fascination, see Vicki Ellen Szabo, Monstrous Fishes and the Mead-Dark Sea: Whaling in the Medieval North Atlantic (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2008). 655 NH 9.2, p. 167. See Paulo Lopes, O medo do mar nos descobrimentos: representações do fantástico e dos medos marinhos no final da Idade Média (Lisbon: Tribuna de Historia, 2009). 656 NH 9.3, p. 169. 657 NH 9.4, p. 169. 658 NH 9.4, p. 169. 659 NH 9.4, pp. 169-171. 660 NH 9.4, pp. 169-171.

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Item dit Plinius que en celle mer a grans poissons qui ressemblant grans elephans. Et les autres ressemblent moutons et toreaulx et plusieurs autres bestes, et tesmoigne Plinius quil nest beste sur terre quil ny ait poisson a sa ressemblance en la mer.661 Item dit Plinius en son ixe livre au xie chappitre que les poissons sont revestuz en diverses manieres de robes, les aucuns sont couvers de cuyr velu comme sont les veaulx marins et ypotaires. Les autres sont couvers de cuyr seulement sans estre velu comme sont les daulphins. Les autres sont couvers descorce dure comme sont les limaz de mer. Les autres ont la pel dure comme pierre, comme les oestres et les conches, les autres ont la pel comme une dure crouste comme les langoustes et escreveisses. Les autres sont vestuz de crouste espineuse comme sont les mechins qui se joingnent es vaisseaulx de mer et les arrestant aucunesfoiz par force dont cest grant merveille.662 Les autres sont escaillez comme carpes, les autres ont la pel dure et aspre comme ont les rayes et chiens de mer. Les autres ont le cuir mollet comme lamproyes et muraines. Les autres nont point de cuir comme sont les polipes.663 Item dit Plinius en son xxve livre ou viiie chappitre quil est une espece derbe nommee astrologie autrement dicte polizirion qui apporte petites pommetes vers a la facon de figues menues. Et les pescheurs lapellent le venin de la terre et des champs. Ilz seivent icelle her- 80v/ be confite avecques chaulx ardant, puys la gettent en leau, lors les poissons viennent de toutes pars par grant hastivete de mengier et tantost ilz meurent et floctant sur leau tous mors par la vertu de ladicte herbe qui est ainsi confite comme dit est.664 Item dit Plinius en son xe livre au xve chappitre que aucuns poissons ont eu aucunesfois aucune industrie de annuncier les choses advenir par aucunes contenances. Et recite Plinius que ou temps de la bataille de Cecille lempereur Augustus alloit par le riviaige de la mer. Et lors ung grant poisson saillit hors de la mer et se presenta devant les piez de lempereur, lors les saiges furent tous assembles

Pliny says that in this sea are large fish that resemble great elephants. And others resemble sheep and bulls and many other beasts, and Pliny attests that there is no terrestrial animal that does not have its counterpart in the sea. Pliny says in his ninth book in the eleventh chapter that fish are dressed in diverse manner of garments, some being covered with hairy leather as are sea cows and hippopotami. Others are covered only with leather, without any hair, as are the dolphins. Others are covered with a sort of hard bark, as are the snails of the sea. Others have skin hard as stone, such as oysters and conches, others have skin like a hard crust, such as lobsters and crayfish. Others are dressed in a spiny crust like the urchins that adhere to ships and stop them sometimes by force, which is a great marvel. Others are scaled like carp, others have a hard and rough skin, like rays and dog-fish. Others have soft skin like lampreys and eels [muraena]. And others have no skin at all, like polyps. Pliny says in his twenty-fifth book in the eighth chapter that there is a kind of herb called «astrologie» otherwise called «polizirion» which bears small green apples that are like miniature figs. And fishermen call it the poison of the earth and the fields. They know how to prepare this herb with burning lime and then throw it into the water, and then the fish come from all around with great haste to eat it, and immediately they die and float on the water all dead, by virtue of the said herb that is thus prepared as was just described. Pliny says in his tenth book in the fifteenth chapter that some fish have, in times past, had some ability to portend things to come by certain behaviors. And Pliny tells that in the time of the battle of Sicily, the emperor Augustus was walking along the seashore. And then a great fish leapt out of the sea and presented himself at the feet of the emperor, so the sages were all assembled to explicate the

NH 9.4, p. 171. Besides the Siren, twelve of these sea monsters, such as sea stag, sea elephant, sea goat and the like, are represented on the ceiling of the twelfth-century Church of St. Martin at Zillis, Switzerland. See Diether Rudloff, Kosmische Bildwelt der Romanik: die Kirchendecke von Zillis (Stuttgart: Urachhaus Johannes M. Mayer, 1989), pp. 40-52. See on the subject of this ceiling Wolfgang Kemp, «Medieval Pictorial Systems,» in Brendan Cassidy, ed., Iconography at the Crossroads: Papers from the Colloquium Sponsored by the Index of Christian Art, Princeton University, 23-24 March 1990 (Princeton, NJ: Index of Christian Art, Dept. of Art and Archaeology, Princeton University, 1993), pp. 121-37, reprinted in Sylvie Deswarte-Rosa, ed., A travers l’image: Lecture iconographique et sens de l’oeuvre. Actes du Séminaire CNRS (G.D.R. 712) (Paris, 1991) (Paris: Klincksieck, 1994), pp. 283-307. 662 NH 9.15, p. 191. On «mechins,» which Pliny calls nischio or remora, see Albert C. L. Günther, «On the History of Echineis,» Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Series 3, 5 (1860): 386-402; Eugene W. Gudger, «The Myth of the Ship-holder: Studies in Echeneis or Remora,» Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Series 9, 2 (1918): 271-307; and Eugene W. Gudger, «Some Old Time Figures of the Shipholder, Echeneis or Remora, Holding the Ship,» Isis 13.2 (1930): 340-52. On this passage the translator may have had help from William of Auvergne, De universo 2.1, c. 32, «the sucking fish...clings on the outside to the hull of a ship and no matter how big the ship is and how agitated by the blast and impulse of the winds, it forces it to remain stationary.» Roland J. Teske, tr., William of Auvergne, The Universe of Creatures (Milwaukee WI: Marquette University Press, 1998), p. 199. 663 NH 9.41, p. 215. 664 NH 25.54, p. 209. 661

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pour expouser de ce fait la signifiance. Et fut dit a lempereur par les philozophes que le poisson faisoit reverance a son seigneur souverain. Et demonstroit que le dieu que ilz appelloient Neptune avoient acuilli en grant amour et en grant grace lempereur Augustus vouloit que il regnast et que il deboutast Sexte Pompee de toute seigneurie.665 Item recite Odoricus en son livre et dit quil a este es haultes parties de Inde la maiour et habite selon les rivaiges des mers de pardela, et a veu en certains lieux les poissons yssir hors des rivaiges et prandre terre seiche par lespace de vii jours. Et puis sen retournoient en la mer. Et disoient les ydolatres du pais que les poissons ont este maniere de faire pour ieulx presenter et faire honneur et reverance es roys et es seigneurs du pais en leur paiant le treu de subjection.

significance of this event. And it was said to the emperor by the philosophers that the fish was showing reverence to his sovereign lord. And it demonstrated that the god they called Neptune had welcomed the emperor Augustus with great love and great grace and wished him to reign and to depose Sextus Pompeius from all lordship. Odoricus declares in his book and says that he has been to the high parts of India the great and lived along the shores of the seas over there, and he saw in certain places fish coming away from the shore and taking to dry land for a period of seven days. And then they returned to the sea. And the idol-worshipers in that country said that the fish had adopted this custom in order to present themselves and do honor and reverence to kings and lords of the country in paying them the toll of obedience.

65) [Merveilles de la terre] En la terre a moult de merveilles comme dit Plinius en son second livre. Entre autres choses il recite que en la terre Dalmacie a une fosse terrestre appellee Seneta qui a la gueulle ou entree bien estroitte comme si ce fust lentree dung petit puiz estroit et parfont. Et la dedans est grant merveille. Car si leans on lesse cheoir auchune chose pose quelle soit legiere et non obstant que le temps soit cler et lair serain, incontinent quon aura gecte la chose dedans la gueulle de la fosse, lair du temps se changera et se troublera et sesmouvera horrible vent et grant tempeste tant que en grant peril sera cellui que aura gecte dedans la fosse la chose.666 Item dit Plinius que en la province de Serene a une haulte roche oultre les sablons qui jadis fut sacree au vent austral. Cest a dire de devers le mydi laquelle roche est de moult merveilleuse propriete. Car elle ne vieult estre atouchee de mains de homme. Et si aucun se jugere ou entremet de atoucher icelle roche de la main, tantost et hastivement le vent dessusdit sesmouvra tresimpetueusement et eslievera les sablons desquelz se trouvera couvert celuy qui ainsi aura atouche icelle roche, et sera en grant peril destre ensepulture dedans les sablons.667 Item Plinius dit que la terre est entre les elemens la plus doulce et debonnaire et sans rigeur. Car le feu brule, art, et eschauffe desordonneement, lair nous envoye les vens et les tempestes. Leau nous moille et trempe gresvement. Et quant la mer et les rivieres se enflent par grans flocz et excessives cretines la terre en est per-illeusement couverte et noyee. Et la terre est benigne et amoureuse liberalement

Chapter 65 (Wonders Relating to the Earth) In the earth are many marvels, as Pliny says in his second book. Among other things, he declares that in the land of Dalmatia is a pit in the earth called Seneta that has a very narrow mouth or entryway as if it were the opening to a small, narrow, deep well. And inside of it is a great marvel. For if anyone lets something drop in there, even if it be light and notwithstanding that the weather be clear and the air calm, as soon as the person has thrown the thing into the mouth of the pit, the prevailing winds will change and become disturbed, and horrible gusts and a great storm will stir themselves up, such that the one who has dropped the thing inside the ditch will be in great peril. Pliny says that in the province of Sirene is a high cliff beyond the sands that formerly was consecrated to the austral wind—that is to say, the wind from the South—and that cliff has a marvelous property. For it does not wish to be touched by the hand of man. And if anyone determines and undertakes to touch this cliff with his hand, immediately and rapidly the wind just mentioned will rise up very impetuously and raise the sands, with which the one who had dared touch this cliff will find himself covered, and he will be in great danger of being buried in the sands. Pliny says that the earth is the mildest and gentlest of the elements, and it is without rigor. For fire burns, scorches, and warms inordinately, and air sends us winds and storms. Water soaks and drenches us grievously. And when the sea and the rivers rise by great floods and excessive waves, the earth is perilously covered and drowned by them. And the earth is benign and loving, liberally

NH 9.22, p. 199-201. NH 2.44, p. 257. 667 NH 2.44, p. 257. 665 666

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donnant nourrissement a toute creature en admi-nistrant vie et pasture a lusaige de toutes choses mortelles: fruiz, grains, saveurs, odeurs, couleurs. Et loyalment rendant ce que on luy baille agar- 81/ der elle nous donne les herbes et autres choses medicinables a notre utilite et profit. Et apres la mort affin que les bestes et oyseaulx ne devourant les corps humains, elle les recoit et herberge en finable sepulture.668 Item apres Plinius nous monstre que la terre habitable est trespetite et estroicte au regard du residu et pour plusieurs raisons. Premierement pour la grant froideure et glace qui a les deux derrenieres parties de la terre gelees.669 Item pour lardant challeur intollerable qui brule les parties de la terre et infinies couvre et noye. Item pour les fleuves, rivieres, lacz, et ruisseaulx qui moult occupent de terres et rongent de jour en jour. Item pour les serpens qui estoient grans et horribles et en infinie multitude qui moult grant pais habitent et empeschent les hommes et leur tollent les possessions des terres. Item pour la violance des mouvmens de la terre qui plusieurs villes, pais, et montaignes, vallees ont fondues en abisme et rendues inhabitables. Ffinablement ledit Plinius redargue lavaricieuse vanite des mondains, et dit que le desir de terre acquerir est la matiere de la vaine gloyre du monde et pour la grant couvoitise de acquerir grans richesses se font les grans pilleries et tirannies qui se font au jour duy sur le pouvre peuple. Et les batailles et les meurtres et les traisons secretes et publicques. Et ne advisent pas que en la fin de leurs jours que tant ont amee par adventure leur reffusera sepulture. Et si elle les recoit ilz nen auront au fort que six piez de long. Item dit Plinius que les terres areneuses en pais de sablons nont pas si souvent mouvement de terre comme ont les autres regions. Et pource dit Plinius que la terre de Gaule et la terre dEgipte sont terres fermes qui sont situees en plain pais et sont asseurees de tiel tramblement, en quoy sont en subjection les pais de montaignes et des rivaiges marins. Et pour ceste cause la region de Asie tramble

giving nourishment to all creatures by meting out life and sustenance for the use of all mortal things–fruits, grains, flavors, odors, colors. And loyally returning what one yields over to its keeping, it gives us plants and other curative things for our use and profit. And after death, so that beasts and birds will not devour human bodies, she receives and shelters them in their final tomb. Afterward Pliny shows us that the habitable earth is very small and narrow in comparison to the remainder for several reasons. The first is because of the great cold and ice which has frozen the two furthermost parts of the earth. [Also] because of the blazing, intolerable heat that burns parts of the earth and covers and overwhelms endless numbers of them. [Also] because of the rivers, streams, lakes, and brooks which take up much of the earth and erode away the soil from day to day. [Also] because of the serpents which were great and horrible and of infinite multitude, which inhabit much of the landmass and hinder men and take the ownership of their lands away from them. [Also] because of the violence of earthquakes, which have knocked down and rendered many cities, countries, mountains, and valleys uninhabitable. Finally the said Pliny blames the avaricious vanity of worldly men and says that the desire to acquire land is the cause of the vainglory of the world, and because of the great longing to acquire massive riches, the great plunderings and tyrannies that are perpetrated on poor people continue today—and battles and murders and treasons both private and public. And it does not occur to men that at the end of their lives the earth they loved so much will perhaps refuse them a resting place. And if the earth does receive them, they will have at most only a space six feet long. Pliny says that gravelly lands in sandy regions have earthquakes less often than other regions. And thus Pliny says that the land of Gaul and the land of Egypt are solid lands that are situated on flat ground and are safe from such earthquakes of the kind that mountainous countries and sea shores are subject to. And for this reason the region of Asia quakes much more often and more

This encomium of the earth is drawn from NH 2.63, pp. 289-295. In NH 2.68, pp. 305-307, and in NH 6.39, pp. 495-503 of the Natural History, Pliny outlines what would become the zone or climate theory in which the earth is divided into five bands or zones, sometimes called climates, some of which are habitable and most uninhabitable owing to great heat or cold. The idea is developed at greater length by Macrobius in his Commentary on the Dream of Scipio, II.5. See Bruce Eastwood, «Climate,» in Friedman and Figg, eds., Trade, Travel, and Exploration, pp. 113-15. See D. R. Dicks, «The Klimata in Greek Geography,» Classical Quarterly 49 (1955): 248-55; Karlhans Abel, s.v. «Zone» in A. Pauly and G. Wissowa, eds., Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, Supplementband 14 (1974), cols. 989-1188; Marian J. Tooley, «Bodin and the Mediaeval Theory of Climate,» Speculum 28.1 (1953): 64-83; Stefan Schröder, «Die Klimazonenkarte des Petrus Alfonsi. Rezeption und Transformation islamisch-arabischen Wissens im mittelalterlichen Europa,» in Ingrid Baumgärtner, Paul-Gerhard Klumbies, and Franziska Sick, eds., Raumkonzepte: Disziplinäre Zugänge unter Mitarbeit von Mareike Kohls (Göttingen: V&R Unipress, 2009), pp. 257-77; Angelo Cattaneo, «Réflexion sur les climats et les zones face à l’expansion des XVe et XVIe siècles,» Bulletin du Comité Français de Cartographie 199 (2009): 7-21; and Craig Martin, «Experience of the New World and Aristotelian Revisions of the Earth’s Climates during the Renaissance,» History of Meteorology 3 (2006): 1-15. 668

669

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moult souvant et perilleusement, et par tiel mouvement de terre sont souvant perdues et peries plusieurs villes, terres, et montaignes. Et tesmoigne Plinius du regne de lempereur Cesar quil advint en Asie ung tel seul et soudain mouvement, par quoy douze citez furent destruictes et fondues en abisme et tout le pays denviron.670 Item dit Plinius en second livre que le mouvement de la terre est cause de la croissement de la terre en aucuns lieux et diminucion en aucuns autres lieux. Et pour tiel mouvement de terre les nouvelles isles souvent se font la ou elles navoient jamais este. Et nous met exemple de la terre de Nealone et de lisle Serasie et de plusieurs autres.671 Item dit Plinius quil est advenu aucunesfoiz que certaines isles et mesmement terres fermes ont este noyees et peries en la mer par le tremblement et mouvement de la terre. Et nous met exemple de la grant isle renommee apellee Europpe la grant qui est situee pres de Affricque, dont parle le saige Platon. Et dit quelle fut toute noyee et perie par le tremblement et mouvement de la terre. Et tout peuple et les villes, cites et chasteaulx qui estoient en icelle ysle perirent et furent fonduez en la mer.672 Item Plinius dit que par tel mouvement aucunesfoiz les ysles de mer et de rivieres doulces deviennent terres fermes. Et nous met exemple de deux haultes montaignes dont lune a nom Pheogio et est situee en Ethiopie et lautre a 81v/ nom Simpholon. Laquelle est situee en la terre de Magnosie.673 Item dit Plinius que aucunesfoiz les terres fermes sont divisees par le tramblement de la terre, parquoy sont faictes et procrees aucunes ysles. Et nous baille exemple de lisle de Portique, laquelle fut faicte de montaignes abessans par le tramblement de la terre qui cheurent et se derrompirent tant quelles devindrent une porcion de terre plaine et unye. Et tout ainsi advint il de la grant montaigne de Poponto qui jadiz estoit situee en la fin de la grant Champaigne, car le feu de la sailloit hors qui la mist et convertit toute en cendre et advint a lequalite de la plaine terre voisine. Et de ce recorde Plinius moult de merveilles estre advenues de villes et de citez, de vallees et de montaignes qui estoient situees en la mer, en ysles, et en autres terres lesquelles ont este subverties et aneanties par le mouvement de la terre. Dont les aucunes ont este fondues par le mouvement naturel de la terre. Les autres ont este fondues par divin jugement de Dieu pour pugnir les

dangerously, and by such movement of the earth many cities, lands, and mountains have often been lost and destroyed. And Pliny attests that in the reign of the emperor Caesar there came to Asia one such single and sudden earthquake, by which twelve cities were destroyed and cast into the abyss, and all the countryside surrounding them. Pliny says in his second book that quaking of the earth is the cause of the earth growing larger in some places and becoming smaller in other places. And as a result of such quaking of the earth, new islands often are created where they had never been before. And he gives us as examples the land of Nealone and the island of Seracie and several others. Pliny says that it has happened sometimes that certain islands and even mainland areas have been inundated and have perished in the sea because of the quaking and movement of the earth. And he offers us as an example the great and renowned island called Europe the Great, which is situated near Africa, and of which the sage Plato speaks. And he says that this was all drowned and destroyed by quaking and movement of the earth. And all the people, and all the cities, towns, and castles that were on this island perished and were sunken into the sea. Pliny says that by means of such earthquakes sometimes the islands in the sea and in fresh water rivers become solid land. And he gives us as an example two high mountains, of which one has the name Pheogio and is situated in Ethiopia and the other has the name Simpholon. And that one is situated in the land of Magnesia. Pliny says that sometimes areas of solid earth are divided by earthquakes, by which means are made and created certain islands. And he offers the example of the island of Portique, which was made from mountains collapsing during an earthquake, which fell and broke themselves apart to such a degree that they became a flat and unified piece of land. And the same thing happened with the great mountain of Proponto, which formerly was situated in the far reaches of the great Campania, for the fire from the mountain erupted out, which made and converted it all into cinders and resulted in the flattening of the neighboring plain. And Pliny records many marvels of this kind having happened to towns and cities, valleys and mountains, that were situated in the sea, on islands, and in other lands that were subverted and annihilated by earthquakes. Some of these were knocked down by the natural movement of the earth.

NH 2.82, p. 327. NH 2.87, pp. 331-333. 672 Attributed to Solinus in Chapter 19, Ethiopia. This is the continent of Atlantis. NH 2.92, pp. 335-337; Timaeus 24-52; Critias 113, 116. 673 NH 2.92, p. 337. 670 671

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Others were destroyed by the divine judgment of God to punish evil sinners. With regard to this, it is written in the book of Numbers in chapter sixteen regarding some of the Hebrews—that is to say Kohath, Dathan, and Abiram and several others who rebelled against Aaron the great priest of God and ambitiously coveted and desired to have the honor and office of priest, more for the purpose of dominating over the populace than serving it, more for their personal gain than for the common good. And thus they arrogantly usurped the right to cense, for which God refused their sacrifice. And God punished them so severely that the earth opened up and swallowed them and ate them alive, and they damnably fell all living into the pit of hell. Pliny says that under the earth are certain wells, ditches, and caverns that are without water and whose air at the entryways is so dangerous that, by merely breathing it in, those who look inside die immediately. For from those places issue vapors and subtle and invisible spirits that suddenly kill men and animals. Pliny says that near Sorace is just such a cavern and it is perilous in this way only to birds and not at all to other things, but when birds go flying over, they all fall dead. Pliny says that in the land of Essave Putolano are some wells of this kind that are perilous to all animals and birds—except to men and women, who can look in safely and without peril. Pliny says that on the islands of Hiranes there is a place of that kind that is extremely ghastly and perilous to all things. And in particular if a man or a woman enters there, never will he or she escape the place but will remain there and die. In Asia in the city of Jeropolin is a place of this kind that is perilous to all those who enter inside. For whoever enters inside, he will surely die there—except the priest of the mother of Mars, the god of battles, who can go inside securely without danger. Pliny says that on Mount Delphos, in the temple of Apollo, is a deep and marvelous cavern where the air that comes out of the entrance is half dry and half dank. And he says that those who formerly stayed there a long time in honor of Apollo acquired the spirit of prophecy and foretold things to come. Pliny says that in seas and in lakes and in rivers in several and diverse parts of the world are certain islands floating and moving on

mauvais pecheurs. Ad ce propos il est escript ou livre du Nombre ou xvie chappitre que aucuns des Hebreulx—cestassavoir Core, Datan, et Abiron et plusieurs autres qui murmurerent contre Aaron le grant prebstre de Dieu et ambicieusement couvoitoient et desiroient a avoir lonneur et loffice de prebstrise, pour plus dominer sur le peuple que pour le server, plus pour leur singuliere plaisance que pour le bien commun. Et ainsi ilz usurperent arrogamment a ensencer, par quoy Dieu reffusa leur sacrifice. Et Dieu les pugnit tellement que la terre ouvrit et les transglotit et devora tous vifz et damnablement cheurent tous vifs ou puyz denfer.674 Item dit Plinius que soubz la terre a certains pertuys, fosses, et cavernes qui sont sans eau dont lair des entrees est tant perilleux que seulement en le respirant ceulx qui leans regardent meurent hastivement. Car de la yssent vappeurs et subtilz et invisibles esperiz qui soudainement octient les hommes et les bestes.675 Item dit Plinius que pres de Sorace a une tielle caverne et auxi perilleuse tant seulement es oyseaulx et non mie es autres choses, mais quant les oyseaulx vont vollant par dessus ilz cheent tous mors.676 Item dit Plinius que ou pais de Essave Puthlaine sont aucuns tielz pertuys qui sont perilleux a toutes bestes et oyseaulx. Excepte a homme et a femme qui seurement et sans peril y peuent regarder.677 Item dit Plinius que es ysles Hiranes a ung tiel lieu qui est moult hideux et perilleux a toutes choses. Et en especial si homme ou femme y entre, jamais nen eschappera que leans ne demeure tout mort.678 Item en Asie en la cite de Jheropolin a ung tiel lieu qui est perilleux a tous ceulx qui leans entrent. Car quiconcques entre dedens, il y meurt tout mort. Excepte le prebstre de la mere de Mars le dieu des batailles qui leans sans peril peut entrer seurement.679 Item dit Plinius que ou mont de Delphos ou temple de Appolin a une profonde et merveilleuse caverne dont lair qui en yst de lentree est moitie sec et moitie relent. Et dit que jadiz ceulx qui la se tenoient longuement en lonneur de Appolin ilz concepvoient lesperit de prophecie et devinoient les choses advenir.680 Item dit Plinius que en mers et en lacz et en rivieres en plusieurs et diverses parties du monde a certaines ysles floccans et muables NH 2.89, p. 335. NH 2.95, p. 339. 676 NH 2.95, p. 339. 677 A misreading of NH 2.95, p. 339. 678 NH 2.95, p. 339. 679 NH 2.95, p. 339. 680 NH 2.95, p. 339. 674 675

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sur leau et nouans comme font les vesseaulx comme dit a este dessus et fait mencion ou grant 82/ lac de Ytalie a deux ysles floccans obeissans es vens qui les demaine et fait aller ou le vent les conduit par son impetuosite. Et sur ce dit Plinius une grant merveille et dit que en ces ysles qui sont ainsi floccans et du vent demenees souvent changer forme. Aucunesfoiz ils ont figure humaine qui est longue et estroicte. Aucunesfoiz ils ont forme ronde. Aucunesfoiz ilz sont en triangle et nullesfoiz ils sont quarrees.681 Item dit Plinius que Pomponius recite en la descripcion de Asie la basse en la terre de Cancos quil avoit veu une montaigne merveilleuse qui est persee des le plus hault jusques au plus bas. Et tousjours en descendent on trovoit plus large voye et plus clere et plus joieuse. Et la dedans on veoit les arbres verdoyans et fleuriz pendans les branches sur la voye. Et la dedans sont les russeaulx des cleres fontaines sourdans qui plaisanment descedent a val. Et dure ce plaisant chemin environ mil et vc pas qui vallent bien une bonne lieue et grant. Et en allant par chemin on est tousjours delictablement couvert et umbraie des arbres fructueulx. Puis on [oit] le doulx son de musique plus melodieulx que des instrumens de orgues et de herpe. Et ne scet on dont ce vient. Et tout au bas et fons dudit lieu on appercoit ung chevalier arme qui tient ung glaive en son poing en maniere dung homme qui menace les gens qui soudainnement se monstre et plus soudainement se despart et se musse. Et oultre ledit lieu nul homme tant soit hardi ne se adventure daller. Car chascun se trouve si espouvente que le plus hardy de aller avant est la le plus peureux. Et combien que soubz celle terre la ait moult grant et belle habitacion, toutesfoiz pour la cause dessusdicte le lieu nous est mescongneu. Car onques homme nen revint dont disoient aucuns ydolatres que ce lieu la est seulement reserve es dieux immortelz et est a eulx sacre et dedie. Et pour ce il nappartient point a homme mortel de marchier ou visiter ledit lieu.682 Item asses pres de la a ung autre lieu qui est moult merveilleux. Car cest ung pertuys qui est moult lait et obscur, et est appelle la fosse Thiphone. Et selon loppinion du peuple qui habite ou pais en ce lieu la fut sepulture Thiphon le grant geant. Ce lieu est a tous hommes tres epouventable et hideulx, dont lentree est petite, et estroitte, et tenebreuse. Et ny est veue aucune lumiere. Et pour ce nul homme ne pourroit juger de la qualite de ce lieu, car on ny voit

the water and passing through the water as vessels do, as has been said above, and he makes mention of the great lake of Italy where there are two floating islands obeying the winds, which steer them and make them go where the wind leads them by its impetuosity. And on this subject Pliny relates a great marvel and says that these islands, that are thus floating and directed by the wind, often change form. Sometimes they have a human figure that is long and narrow. Other times they have a round form. Sometimes they are triangular, but never square. Pliny says that Pomponius tells in his description of lower Asia in the land of Corycos how he had seen a marvelous mountain that is pierced from the very top to the very bottom. And in descending one finds that the pathway grows ever wider and brighter and more cheerful. And inside this mountain one sees trees leafing out and flowering, with the branches overhanging the pathway. And inside are brooks bubbling out from clear springs, which pleasantly descend to the valley. And this pleasant road lasts about 1500 steps, which amounts to a good and great distance. And in walking along the road, one is always delightfully sheltered and shaded by fruitful trees. Then one hears the sweet sound of music, more melodious than instruments like the organ or the harp. And one does not know where it comes from. And all the way at the bottom of the place, one sees an armed knight who holds a sword in his fist in the manner of a man who threatens other men, and he shows himself suddenly and then more suddenly departs and hides himself. And beyond this spot, no man, no matter how bold, dares to go. For every man finds himself so terrified that the one who is usually the boldest to lead the way is in that place the most frightened. And although there is, under this land, a most great and beautiful dwelling place, yet, for the reason given above, the place is little known to us. For no man ever comes back from it, concerning which some idol worshippers used to say that that place is reserved only for the immortal gods and is sacred and dedicated to them. And thus it is not fitting at all for a mortal man to walk into or visit this place. Very near there is another place which is most marvelous. For it is a cavern in the ground that is ugly and dark and is called the Pit of Typhon. And according to the opinion of people who live in that country, this is the burial place of Typhon the great giant. This place, which has a small, narrow and gloomy entry, is very frightening and hideous to all men. And no light is seen there. And thus no man could judge the nature of this place, for no one sees anything at all. Furthermore, the place is

681 NH 2.96, p. 339. See Chet Van Duzer, Floating Islands: A Global Bibliography (Los Altos Hills, CA: Cantor Press, 2004), and the same author’s Addenda to Floating Islands: A Global Bibliography (Los Altos Hills, CA: Cantor Press, 2006). 682 This seems to be the story of Corycos, a fabulous mountain cave in Cilicia, Romer, ed. and tr., Mela 1.72, p. 55. It does not have an armed guardian but has ever more frightening depths.

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goute. Oultre plus le lieu est perilleux et tempesteulx et mortel. Car quelconque chose qui leans entre vive jamais ne sen reviendra. Ad ce propos fait reciter la commune ystoyre du cimitiere Sainct Patrice dont lentree est es parties de Ibernie dont la Legende Doree fait mencion ou chappitre de Sainct Patrice, de laquelle je me tais pour abregier ma matiere.683 Item dit Plinius ou chappitre dessusdit que en la cite de Pompaly est veu publicquement le sepulcre de Araty le poete qui moult est parfont. Et la est une chose merveilleuse. Car toutes les choses et les pierres qui estoient leans gectees hastivement remontoient et revenoient contre ceulx qui les avoient gectees. Et ne fut onques sceu qui se faisoit ne par quelle maniere.684 Item dit Plinius que en la vallee de Custuno le faing qui la croist est moult perilleux et nuysant a menger es bestes du pais. Et si il est ailleurs transporte il est tresbon et proffitable. Et dit oultre que ce foing est tressavoureulx et proffitable a mengier es bestes estranges qui ne sont pas na- 82v/ tives de celuy pais.685 Item en la fin du second livre met Plinius la distincion de la mer. Cest assavoir la longueur et largeur et la maniere de lart et science du gouvernement des mariniers. Et comment ilz sceuent aller et venir par la mer. Et puys apres monstre la grant diligence des saiges philozophes qui senploirent songneusement a ce savoir et declairer.686 Item apres il monstre la mesure de la terre tant par la science de geometrie et par la commune et naturelle experience de toutes terres, regions, et provinces. Et de chascune porcion de terre particulierement. Et pour ce que cest chose impossible de savoir la circuite de toute la terre. Pour ce que la plusgrant partie du monde est toute couverte deaux. Nous met et baille Plinius ung exemple qui est moult merveilleux a demonstrer comment lespesseur de la terre jusques au centre qui est le droit meillieu de la profundite de toute la terre fut premierement sceue. Et dit Plinius que quant ce noble geometrien qui avoit nom Telios fut mort et ensepulture pou de temps apres ses parens et prochains visiterent son sepulcre et le ouvrirent et dedans trouverent une espitre qui estoit escripte ou nom et de par excellent geometrien Denis Dory qui estoit precesseur de Thelius, laquelle luy avoit este envoyee des basses marches et parties. Esquelles lectres estoit

perilous and stormy and mortal. For whatever thing enters alive never will come out again. And with respect to this is also told the popular story of the cemetery of Saint Patrick, whose entry is in the region of Ireland, and which the Golden Legend mentions in the chapter on Saint Patrick, about which I will be quiet so as to shorten my matter. Pliny says in the chapter mentioned above that in the city of Pompaly is publicly on view the tomb of Aratus the poet, which is very deep. And there is a marvelous thing. For all the objects and the stones that were thrown in there quickly rose back up and came back out against those who had thrown them in. And it was never known who caused this to happen or in what manner. Pliny says that in the valley Custuno the hay that grows is most perilous and harmful for the animals of the region to eat. And if it is taken somewhere else, it is very good and nourishing. And he says moreover that this hay is very tasty and nourishing to eat for animals that are not born in this country. At the end of the second book Pliny discusses the character of the sea—that is to say, its length and breadth, and the ways of the art and science of the craft of sailors. And how they learned to go and come on the sea. And then afterward he shows the great diligence of wise philosophers who applied themselves carefully to understanding and explaining this lore. After this, he shows the measure of the earth both by the science of geometry and by the common and natural experience of all lands, regions and provinces. And he tells particularly of each portion of the earth. And for this reason it is impossible to know the circumference of the whole earth: because the greater part of the world is all covered with water. Pliny offers and gives us a most marvelous example to demonstrate how the thickness of the earth down to its center, which is the true middle of the depth of the whole earth, was first known. And Pliny says that when this noble geometer named Thales was dead and buried, a short time afterwards, his parents and friends visited his tomb and opened it, and inside they found a letter that had been written in the name of and by the most noble geometer Dionysius Dory, who was the predecessor of Thales, which had been sent to him from the lower frontiers and regions. And in this writing was contained the

683 This is the deadly Cave of Typhon the giant, also in Cilicia, Romer, ed. and tr., Mela I.76, p. 56. See de Wyzewa, ed., La Légende dorée, Golden Legend XLVII, pp. 181-84. The cave of St. Patrick, located on Station Island in Lough Derg, Ireland, was depicted and discussed at greater length earlier in chapter 25 on Hibernia, which is why the Translator says he will be silent at this point. The spot was an important pilgrimage site and the subject of several literary accounts including one by Marie de France. See Robert Easting, ed., Saint Patrick’s Purgatory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991). 684 Pompeiopolis or Soloe is in NH, but the actual story of the tomb comes from Romer, ed. and tr., Mela 1.71, p. 55. 685 Crustuminium, a district in NH 2.97, p. 343. 686 NH 2.112, pp. 367-373.

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contenu que ledit Thelius estoit venu et descendu despuis le lieu de son sepulcre jusques au plus bas de la terre par lespace de xlii mille lieues. Et sur ce furent assembles les geometriens. Et apres plusieurs oppinions ilz conclurent et delibererent que ladicte lectre avoit este envoyee du meillieu de la terre, et tant compterent et assommerent par leurs ingenieuses interpretacions que le circuit de la rondeur de la terre dure cc lv m lieues selon la naturelle armonique raison qui apprent des choses la clere experience.687

information that the said Thales had come and descended from the place of his burial as far as the lowest point of the earth, over a distance of forty-two thousand leagues. And the geometers were assembled to consider this. And after several opinions were expressed, they deliberated and concluded that the aforesaid letter had been sent from the middle of the earth, and they figured and reckoned through their ingenious interpretations that the circumference around the earth was 255,000 leagues, according to the natural harmonic reason that teaches clear knowledge of things.

66) [Merveilles des arbres] Des arbres merveilleuses sont les condicions comme dit Plinius en son xiie livre ou viie chappitre. Et espicialement en Inde la maiour ainsi comme les Macedonois qui furent avecques Alixandre le grant roy en ces parties de par dela ilz rapporterent en leurs livres auctenticquement ilz escriprent. Et dit Plinius que entre les autres arbres il en y a ung qui a nom pale et en haulteur a troys coudees et deux coudees de largeeur dont les fueilles ressemblent estre esles doyseaulx dont le fruict est gros qui a telle escorce comme une escaille de noix verte, dont le just est de moult merveilleuse doulceur et de savoureuse refection, et en rend tresgrant habondance. Et tant que quatre hommes sont suffisanment repeuz du just dune pomme sans autre viande.688 Item dit Plinius que la est ung autre arbre qui est pres semblable a celuy dont jay cy dessus parle qui porte pommes tresdoulces, mes elles sont tresperilleuses a mengier. Car elles pourrissent le faie et corrumpent les entrailles. Et a brief parler elles sont mortelles. Et pour ce deffendit Alixandre a toute sa gent quilz ne mengeassent point dicelles pommes. Et plus fort il leur desfendit quilz naprochassent point de ces arbres qui estoient ainsi perilleux sur poine de grant pugnicion.689 Item dit Plinius que en Inde a certains arbres dont les Indois ont acoustume de faire des draps pour 83/ eulx vestir. Et comme dit a este cy devant ou chappitre de Bactrie en celle region pareillement sont aucuns arbres semblables es turbetins dont les pommes ressemblent a almendes, et sont de merveilleuse doulceur et gracieuse saveur dont les Indois sceuent bien prandre les fueilles et breier et appareiller moult diligemment. Et puis en font de fines toilles dont ilz usent en lieu de chanvre et de lin.690

Chapter 66 (Wonders Relating to Trees) The properties of trees are marvelous, as Pliny says in his twelfth book in the seventh chapter. And this is especially so in India the Great, as the Macedonians who were with Alexander, the great king, in those regions over there reported in their books, which they wrote on good authority. And Pliny says that among the other trees, there is one that is called «pale,» three cubits in height and two cubits in diameter, whose leaves resemble the wings of birds, whose fruit is large, which has a bark like the shell of a green nut, and whose juice is of the most marvelous sweetness and delicious to eat; and the fruit renders a very great abundance of nourishment. So much so that four men are sufficiently satisfied from the juice of just one of its apples, without any other food. Pliny says that there is another tree there, very similar to the one of which I have just spoken, which bears very sweet apples, but they are very dangerous to eat. For they rot the liver and corrupt the entrails. And to speak briefly, they are mortal. And for this reason Alexander forbade that any of his men should eat these apples at all. And, beyond that, Alexander even forbade his men from approaching the trees, which were so dangerous, on pain of great punishment. Pliny says that in India are certain trees from which the Indians customarily make cloth in order to dress themselves. And as has been said here before, in the chapter on Bactria, in this region likewise are some trees similar to turpentine-producing pines, whose fruits resemble almonds, and they are of a marvelous sweetness and gentle taste; and the Indians know well how to pick the leaves and pound them and work them most diligently. And then they make fine fabrics from them, which they use in place of linen and flax.

Dionysodorus in NH 2.112, p. 373. Thales of Miletus, often described as a «father» of geometry. NH 12.12, pp. 17-19. 689 NH 12.12, p. 19. 690 NH 12.13, p. 19. 687 688

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Item dit Plinius en son livre ou xiie chappitre que en Inde pres de lisle de Hylos a une espece darbres nomme gossipinus, qui est vestu dune maniere de coton ou de mousse dont les Indois font les tresriches et fines toilles ne on nen pourroit point trouver ou pais de meilleures ne plus fines que celles qui sont faictes de ce coton.691 Item dit Plinius que en Arabie a ung arbre cynas qui a les fueilles et branches a la palme desquelles les habitans de pardela font les draps.692 Item dit Plinius que en lisle de Hylos sont arbres qui portent layne de quoy on fait les draps de quoy les gens du pais sont revestuz. Et portent iceulx arbres gros fruiz a la semblance de concordes. Et quant ce vient en la saison que tous fruiz sont meurs, on fait cheoir le fruit diceulx arbres. Lors on treuve au dedans une maniere de layne ou de poil qui est presque semblable a layne de brebiz, de quoy on fait la drapperie du pais, laquelle est tresbonne et profitable pour lusaige des gens du pais, des autres on fait toilles qui sont moult riches et fines.693 Item dit Plinius que en la terre Cristienne en aucuns lieux a certains arbres dont les fueilles sont velues alenvers de quoy il ce fait une espece de coton combien que il soit inutile. Et dit semblablement que es parties dorient les arbres portent celle matiere de cotton en plus grant habondance que ailleurs et semble que ce soit une maniere de layne.694 Item dit Plinius que de lescorce des grosses noix de Inde appres ce quelles sont bien batues et abillees on en fait les grosses toilles dont on en fait les sacs et les robes des gens du pais qui sont de bas estat.695 Item dit Plinius que pres de la est la region de Arriere ou quel pais croist ung petit arbre brossomieulx et poignant dont les fueilles ressemblent a fueilles de rays et a odeur de lorier. Lesquelles fueilles sont es chevaulx mortelle viande. Et dit Plinius que quant le roy Alixandre premierement alla en Inde il perdit la plusgrant partie de ses chevaulx de son ost, pour ce quon leur fist menger des fueilles diceulx arbres.696 Item dit Plinius que en la terre de Harifolio croist une espece despine de telle propriete qui est de si mauvaise et venimeuse nature que si on prent du just des feuilles dicelle espine et on en mecte en leuil soit de homme ou de femme ou de quelque beste que ce soit tantost il perdra leuil et jamais nen voyrra rien.697

Pliny said in his book in the twelfth chapter that in India near the island of Tyros is a species of tree named «gossipinus» which is clothed in a sort of cotton or moss, from which the Indians make some very fine and rich fabrics, nor can any better or finer fabrics be found in the country than those that are made of this cotton. Pliny says that in Arabia is a tree «cynas» that has palm-like leaves and branches, from which the inhabitants over there make fabrics. Pliny says that on the Island of Tyros are trees that bear a wool from which are made the fabrics that the people of the country dress themselves in. And these trees bear great fruits that resemble cucumbers. And when the season comes for all the fruits to be ripe, the workers cause the fruits to fall from the trees. Then they find inside one kind of wool or hair which is very similar to sheep’s wool, and from this is made the fabric that is characteristic of the country, which is very good and profitable for the use of the people of the country, while from other kinds of wool fabrics are made that are extremely rich and fine. Pliny said that in Christian lands in some places there are certain trees whose leaves are hairy on the underside, out of which is made a kind of cotton although it is unserviceable. And he says similarly that in eastern parts trees bear this kind of cotton in greater abundance than elsewhere, and it seems that it is a kind of wool. Pliny says that from the bark of the great nut trees of India, after they have been well beaten and prepared, are made the rude fabrics from which are made sacks and clothes for the people of the country who are of low estate. Pliny says that near there is the region of Arriere in which country grows a small bushy and thorny tree whose leaves resemble leaves of rays and have the smell of laurel. And these leaves are fatal when used to feed horses. And Pliny says that when King Alexander first went to India, he lost the greatest part of his army’s horses because people had them eat the leaves of these trees. Pliny says that in the land of Harifolio [Gedrosia] grows a kind of thorn of such power, and of such a bad and venomous nature, that if one takes the juice of the leaves of this thorn and puts some of it into the eye of either a man or a woman or any beast whatsoever, he will presently lose the eye and will never be able to see from it again.

Tyros in NH 12.21, p. 27. NH 12.22, p. 29. 693 Tyros in NH 12.21, p. 27. 694 NH 6.20, p. 379. 695 NH 12.13, p. 19. 696 NH 12.18, p. 25. 697 Gedrosia in NH 12.18, p. 25. 691 692

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Item au dessoubz de celle espine croist une maniere de petite herbe de tresdoulce odeur mais nulle foiz elle nest sans menuz serpens dont le venin et la morseure est mortelle et incurable sans nul remede.698 Item dit Plinius en son livre ou ve chappitre que selon les rivaiges de la mer de Perse a grans arbres sur les sablons dont les racines sont descouvertes et nuez au pardehors. Et ne sont pas enracinees avant la terre. Et si est moult grant la merveille. Car quant les grans flocz de la mer viennent et courent les 83v/ sablons emplissent les rivaiges et les arbres demeurent tousjours tous droiz et estables les racines esparees dung couste et dautre sans estre enterre enracinees.699 Item dit Plinius que en la terre de Thillis a ung arbre qui est semblable a la blanche espine que nous appelons cy aubespine, et porte une fleur pareille a rose de jour se ouvre et espanuist a la clarte du souleil et au soir se recloust jusques au jour. Et dient les habitans du pais que ceste fleur dort de nuyt pour ce quelle est clouse.700 Item dit Plinius que en Egipte a une herbe appellee lothon qui est en la saison deste faulchee et seichee. Et dicelle herbe on fait pain et viande qui est tres nourrissant et proffitable es hommes laboureurs du pais, dont les fleurs de celle herbe sont de la condicion de la rose dessusdicte. Car quant ce vient au souleil levant les fleurs se ouvrent et espanuissent. Et quant vient au soleil couchant elles se recloent et de leur fueilles elles se recouvrent.701 Item dit Plinius quilz sont aucuns arbres qui ne peuent augmenter ne profiter ou lieu ou est leur premiere generacion. Car quant ilz sont desterres dung lieu et plantes en ung autre ilz y fructissient. Ad ce propos il est escript en la Bible comment Dieu veult que tout homme sache et entende que nul ne se doit approprier pais ne ville en ce monde mais doit acquerir la propre possession de paradis. Et pour ce Dieu dist a Abraham comme il est escript en la Bible ou livre de Genesis ou xiie chappitre, «Va hors de la terre ou tu fuz ne et point la ne demeure. Car en estrange terre je te feray grant et ta lignee croistra et sera multipliee comme la gravelle de la mer qui est innumerable.» Et tout ainsi comme Dieu luy dist il luy advint. Item Jesus dist en lEvvangille que nul nest renomme prophete en son pais. Et met exemple de Naamen le mesel qui estoit prince de Sirie qui vint a Helisee le prophete de Israel pour estre guery. Et combien que en Israel y eust moult de meseaulx nul du pais

Under this thorn tree grows a kind of small plant with a very sweet smell, but it is never without small snakes whose venom and bite is fatal and incurable, with no possible remedy. Pliny says in his book in the fifth chapter that along the shores of the sea of Persia are great trees on the sands whose roots are uncovered and naked to the outside. And they are not rooted deeply into the earth. And thus the marvel is very great. For when great surges come and flow from the sea, the sand fills the shore and the trees remain always upright and stable, the roots spread out from one side to the other without being rooted in the earth. Pliny says that in the land Thillis is a tree that is similar to the white thorn that we call here the hawthorn, and it bears a flower similar to the rose [that] by day opens and blooms in the light of the sun and by the evening closes until the next day. And the inhabitants of the country say that this flower sleeps by night because it is closed. Pliny says that in Egypt is an herb called «lothon» that in the summer time is withered and dry. And from this plant are made bread and food which is very nourishing and profitable to the men working the country’s fields, and the flowers of this plant are of the condition of the rose just described above. For when the sun rises, the flowers open and bloom. And when the sun sets, they close up and cover themselves with their leaves. Pliny says that there are some trees that cannot grow or flourish in the place where they were propagated. For when they are uprooted from one place and planted in another, they bear fruit. And with regard to this, it is written in the Bible how God wishes all men to know and understand that no one must acquire countries or cities for his own use in this world but rather one must acquire the proper possession of Paradise. And for this God said to Abraham how it is written in the Bible in the book of Genesis in the twelfth chapter, «Go away from the land where you were born and do not dwell there. For in a strange land I will make you great and your line will grow and multiply like the sands of the sea, which are innumerable.» And just as God told him, it all came to pass. Jesus says in the Gospel that no one is renowned as a prophet in his own country. And he offers the example of Naaman the leper who was prince of Syria, who came to Elisha the prophet of Israel in order to be cured. And although there were many lepers in Israel,

NH 12.18, p. 25. NH 12.20, p. 27. 700 NH 12.23, p. 29. 701 NH 13.32, pp. 163-165. 698 699

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ne fut guery par le prophete Helisee fors Naamen qui estoit estrangier.702 Item dit Plinius ou xliiiie chappitre que aucuns arbres sont qui ne veulent croistre en terre ne estre plantez ne semez, mais veulent prandre racine et nourriture en autres arbres comme le guys et plusieurs qui sont de telle condicion. Le guy est une espece de petit arbre qui se concree en autres arbres dont le meilleur et le plus vertueulx est celuy qui croist en chesne. Et ya deux merveilleuses differances. La premiere si est quant le guy qui croist en arbre qui pert les fueilles en yver et se despouille aussi fait le guy. Et quant il croist en arbre qui tous jours est en la verdeur et qui a les fueilles vertes pareillement tout aussi est le guy qui croist dessus tous jours vert. Lautre merveille si est car la semence ou graine du guy qui cheent entre les branches es fendasses de larbre ou croist le guy. Ja icelle graine ny croistra ne ny proffitera jusques ad ce quelle yait premierement mengee et digeree par le coulon, ramier, ou par le cocu, lequelle lesmeutist sur larbre. Et ainsi elle proffite et croist. Et combien que les anciens par oppinion supercieuse eussent le guy en grant honneur ilz disoient que es bestes femelles donne generacion et es oyseaulx donne sterilite.703 Item ilz [dient] que moult vault estre contre venin.704 Item dit Plinius que les anciens avoient une merveilleuse observance. Car quant ilz vouloient sacrifier a leurs dieux ilz prenoient deux chevreaulx blans et puys apres ilz cuillent du guy et le mettoient en ung drap blanc et le cuilloient les prebstres des ydolles a 84/ ung coustel dore. Et estoient tous revestuz de blanc. Et disoient que ceulx qui avoient en leurs heritaiges du guy estoient et devoient tous jours estre eureulx. Toutesfoiz selon la saine doctrine de la saincte eglise et de la foy Catholicque tielle foy et tielle creance est moult disraisonnable et ne le doit croire nul bon Crestien.705 Item dit Plinius ou xiiie livre que en Egipte pres de la cite de Meraphin a une espece despine dont les fueilles par legier atouchement cheet a terre, mais de ce est grant merveille. Car incontinant ells reviennent et croissent de nouvel laquelle chose ne advient pas a autre arbre.706 Item Plinus dit en son livre ou xviiie chappitre que en Affricque pres des grans Cirtes est ung grant arbre appelle le chon, cest adire oubliance. Car par sa fertilite il fait oublier a ceulx qui le regardent et le voient leur

none was cured by the prophet Elisha except Naaman, who was a foreigner. Pliny says in his forty-fourth chapter that there are some trees that do not wish to grow in the earth or be planted or sown, but wish to take root and nourishment in other trees, as is the case with mistletoe and several other plants of a like character. Mistletoe is a species of small tree that grows parasitically on other trees, of which the best and most worthy is the one that grows on the oak. And there are two marvelous ways in which it is distinct. The first is that when the mistletoe grows on a tree and the tree loses its leaves in winter and becomes bare, so does the mistletoe. And when it grows on a tree that is always green and has green leaves, the mistletoe is exactly the same, always growing on it with green leaves as well. The other marvel has to do with the seeds of the mistletoe, which fall between the branches into the clefts of the tree where the mistletoe grows. There this seed will neither grow nor thrive until it has first been eaten and digested by the dove, wood-pigeon, or cuckoo, which deposits the seed in its droppings onto the tree. And then it profits and grows. And although the ancients, in their superstition, held the mistletoe in great honor, they said that it gives fertility to female animals and sterility to birds. They say that it is of great value against poison. Pliny says that the ancients had a marvelous practice. For when they wished to sacrifice to their gods, they took two young white goats and then they gathered mistletoe and put it in a white cloth, and the priests of the idols harvested it with a golden knife. And they were all dressed in white. And they said that those who had some mistletoe on their inherited lands were, and always would be, happy. Yet according to the sound doctrine of the Holy Church and of the Catholic faith, such faith and credence is highly unreasonable and no good Christian ought to believe in it. Pliny says in his thirteenth book that in Egypt near the city of Memphis is a kind of thorn tree whose leaves, at the lightest touch, fall to earth, but this is a very great marvel. For suddenly they come back again and grow anew, a thing that does not happen with any other tree. Pliny says in his book in the eighteenth chapter that in Africa near the Great Syrtes is a great tree called the «chon,» which is to say, forgetfulness. For by its fertility it makes those who gaze on it and see it

This is the story of Elisha. NH 16.93, pp. 547-549. 704 NH 16.93, pp. 547-549. 705 NH 16.95, pp. 549-551. 706 Memphis in NH 13.19, p. 139. 702 703

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propre pais. Et est forment semblable a celuy arbre de Ytalie nomme celcun. De cest arbre le fruit est doulx plus que nul autre dArabie.707 Item il apporte tant despine et en si grant habondance que il souffist pour ung pais repaistre.708 Item de ce fruit vient une maniere de vin doulx qui ressemble a moust. Et nest nul plus precieulx brevaige ou pais, mes il ne dure que x jours en nature despuis quil est pressure.709 Item du bois dudit arbre on fait les instrumens de musique, et est le bois noir ainsi est cest arbre a brevaige, viande, et melodie. Et a toute personne qui soubz lombre de cest arbre se repose il luy fait son pais oublier.710 Item dit Plinius en son livre ou xxiiie chappitre quil est ung arbre semblable au laurier quant es fueilles appelle euomymes qui porte certaines gosses ou il ya dedans grains quarres qui sont tresvenimeulx et mortelz a menger es bestes.711 Item Plinius allegue que Alixandre Cornille dit ou livre dessusdit que il est ung arbre appelle lyon, et de cest arbre fut jadiz faicte Argon, la nef Jauson. Et est le boys dicelluy arbre de tielle propriete et vertu que il ne peut estre pery ne corrumpu par feu ne par eau.712 Item dit Plinius en son livre ou xxve chappitre que il est ung petit arbre appelle ethisus qui croist sur les espines aussi comme croist le guy. Et de ce est grant merveille. Car le propre jour quil est ente il croist et proffite tant que legierement il croist et occupe toute lespine.713 Item dit Plinius que cest arbre moult vault a donner saveur es vins.714 Item dit Plinius que moult darbres croissent et fructiffient en la mer comme font les autres en terre.715 Item il dit que la Mer Rouge est tres plaine darbres en aucune contree.716 Item dit Plinius que en la haulte mer de Inde moult a de grans forestz, et que les Indois nont autre bois que celuy qui est prins en lamer. Et la il parle de plusieurs arbres dont les ungs sont petiz et menuz. Et les autres grans et branchuz. Lesquelz sont selon les rivaiges de la mer au parfont de leau. Et comme plusieurs foiz a este

forget their own country. And it is extremely similar to the Italian tree named «celcun.» The fruit of this tree is sweeter than any other in Arabia. It bears so many thistles and in such great abundance that it is sufficient to feed a whole country. From this fruit comes a kind of mild wine that is similar to must. And there is no more precious drink in the country, but it keeps naturally for only ten days after being pressed. From the wood of this said tree, musical instruments are made, and it is a black wood; thus this tree provides food, drink, and music. And the tree will cause all those who rest under its shade to forget their country. Pliny says in his book in the twenty-third chapter that there is a tree, with leaves similar to those of the laurel, called a euonymus, which bears certain pods with square seeds inside that are very poisonous and fatal for animals to eat. Pliny claims that Alexander Cornelius says in the book mentioned above that there is a tree called «lyon,» and from this tree, in olden days, was made the Argo, Jason’s ship. And the wood of this tree is of such quality and virtue that it cannot be destroyed or spoiled by fire or by water. Pliny says in his book in the twenty-fifth chapter that there is a small tree called «ethisus» that grows on thorn trees in just the same way as mistletoe grows. And this is a great marvel. For on the same day that it attaches itself, it grows and thrives so much that little by little it grows and occupies the entire tree. Pliny says that this tree is very valuable for giving flavor to wine. Pliny says that many trees grow and bear fruit in the sea just as others do on earth. He says that the Red Sea is very full of trees in some parts. Pliny says that in the high seas of India there are many great forests, and the Indians have no other wood than what they harvest in the sea. And he speaks of several trees, of which some are small and tiny. And others are great and branched. And these are along the shores of the sea at the bottom of the water. And this has many times been proven by those who, when swimming, have come

NH 13.32, p. 161. NH 13.32, p. 161. 709 NH 13.32, p. 161. 710 NH 13.32, p. 163. 711 NH 13.38, p. 169. 712 NH 13.40, p. 169. 713 NH 13.46, p. 175. The tree which follows in NH is cytisus which may have given rise to ethisus. 714 NH 13.46, p. 175. 715 NH 13.48, p. 179. 716 NH 13.48, p. 179. 707 708

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experimente par ceulx qui en nouant sont revenuz de la parfonde mer et la croissent fruitz, pommetes, et glandes.717 Item dit Plinius que oultre les coulompnes de Hercules est trouve ung petit arbre semblable a palme dont le fruit ressemble a porreaulx.718 Item dit Plinius que en la mer sont les forestz et les bois semblables a laurier et a lolme, et aussi tost quilz sont mis au souleil ilz deviennent terre rouge.719 Item dit Plinius que les chevaliers du roy Alixandre tirerent du parfont de la mer ung petit arbre et tantost quil fut sec il fut mue en sel.720 Item 84v/ dit Plinius que es parties de Inde ne croist arbre que lespine qui croist es sablons selon les rivaiges de la mer. Et briesvement conclud Plinius que ou parfont de la mer croissent petis arbres et joncs qui dedans la mer retiennent leur verdure mais dehors la mer ilz sont muez en sel ou en pierre ou en terre.721 Item dit Plinius que aucunesfoiz les avirons se sont arrestez entre les mains des mariniers par les branches des arbres qui sont dedans la mer par quoy les vesseaulx sont aucunesfoiz en grans perilz.722 Item Plinius dit que en aucune partie de la Mer Rouge croissent dedans les rivaiges treshaulx arbres qui ont fueilles de laurier et fleurs de violetes et le fruit tiel comme les oliviers dont la verdure nul temps ne cheoit. Et advient souvent que les undes de la mer couvrent la haultesse des arbres tellement que la sont souvent les navires ataches a cordes non obstant quilz soient couvers de la mer le plus du temps. Toutesfoiz si se nourrissent ilz la et fructiffient comme font les arbres en terre seche.723

back from the bottom of the sea; and fruits, small apples, and nuts grow there. Pliny says that beyond the Pillars of Hercules is found a small tree similar to a palm whose fruit resembles a leek. Pliny says that in the sea are some forests, and woods similar to laurel and to elm, and as soon as they are put in the sun, they turn to red soil. Pliny says that the knights of Alexander pulled a small tree from the bottom of the sea and as soon as it was dry, it changed into salt. Pliny says that in parts of India the only trees that grow are thorn trees, which flourish in the sands along the seashore. And Pliny concludes briefly that in the depths of the sea grow small trees and rushes that retain their greenness in the sea, but outside the sea they are changed into salt or stone or earth. Pliny says that sometimes the oars of sailors are stopped dead in their hands by branches of trees that are in the sea, because of which ships are sometimes in great peril. Pliny says that in a certain part of the Red Sea, along the shore, grow very high trees that have leaves like laurel and flowers like violets and fruit like olives, and their greenery never falls. And it often happens that the waves of the sea cover the trees all the way to the top, such that there are often ships attached there by ropes, even though these trees are covered by the sea the majority of the time. Yet they subsist there under these conditions and flourish as do the trees on dry land.

67) [Merveilles des herbes] Les herbes ont moult de merveilleuses proprietes comme dit Solin en son livre ou xixe chappitre. Et dit que en Egipte croist une herbe qui porte une fleur appellee scapulissus qui est de moult merveilleuse condicion et croist en eau. Car quant ce vient au matin elle se ressourt et eslieve hors de leau tant comme le souleil monte elle sespanuist et eslargist de plus en plus jusques a midy. Et apres midy elle se reclost et abaisse de plus en plus jusques au minuyt.724

Chapter 67 (Wonders Relating to Plants) Plants have many marvelous properties, as Solinus says in his book in the nineteenth chapter. And he says that in Egypt grows a flowerbearing plant called Scapulissus which is of most marvelous condition and grows in water. For when morning comes, it springs up and rises out of the water just as the sun rises in the heavens, and it blossoms out and gets bigger and bigger until noon. And after noon it closes back up and sinks deeper and deeper until midnight.

NH 13.50-51, p. 181. The Straits of Gibraltar. Roughly NH 13.49, p. 181. 719 Roughly NH 13.51, p. 181. 720 NH 13.51, p. 181. 721 NH 13.51, p. 183. 722 NH 13.50, p. 181. 723 NH 13.51, p. 181. 724 The Translator means Pliny, not Solinus. This chapter is closely related to the early herbal, where Dioscorides is an authority on «cold» and «hot» maladies. See Jerry Stannard, «Medieval Herbals and their Development,» Clio Medica 9.1 (1974): 23-33. See generally on Pliny’s botanical lore Maria Cristina Martini, Piante medicamentose e rituali magico-religiosi in Plinio (Roma: Bulzoni, 1977). 717 718

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Item dit Plinius que es desers ardans de Inde ou est continuelle challeur et ou nul temps ne pleut ne ne rousee, la ou sont les serpens vivans entre les flambes et feus ardans, la croist une herbe semblable a lin qui est de merveilleuse nature. De ce lin est faicte tresfine toille qui est pour lusaige des grans seigneurs du pais, et quant celle toille est sallee on la met en ung grant feu. Et quant elle ya este certain temps, elle est retraitte et mise hors du feu sans aucune arseure. Mais est aussi blanche et aussi necte comme fine toille de lin des parties de pardeca qui seroit mise en bonne buee. Et ne peut icelle toille estre blanchie par eau ne par buee si non par feu qui les taches dicelle toille puriffie et blanchist. Et est la semence de ceste herbe precieusement et richement gardee par les habitans du pais. Item dit Plinius que en celle contree de Inde les gens du pais ardent les corps des gens mors. Mais avant quilz les ardent quant ilz sont gens destat ilz ensepuelissent les corps de leurs amis en la toille qui est faicte de celle noble herbe. Et puis gectent les corps en ung grant feu bien ardant qui ramenera en cendre et en pouldre les corps dedans la toille sans ce que la toille en soit aucunement dommaigee ne brulee par feu. Item dit Plinius en son xxiiii e livre que les philozophes magiciens, cest assavoir Pittagoras et Democritus lesquelz ont divise et expouse en leurs livres les vertuz de plusieurs herbes. Dont parle Pittagoras et dit quil est une herbe appellee miniada autrement corissidia qui a souverainement moult grant vertu contre venin soit morseure de serpent ou brevaige venimeulx. Et combien que ceste herbe soit matiere de guerison contre tout venin, si est elle de soy mortellement venimeuse a celuy qui cautelleusement la vieult cuillir.725 Item dit Plinius que Pittagoras recite que il est une herbe nommee aproxim, dont la racine est de moult merveilleuse vertu. Car elle 85/ actrait le feu a soy de loing. Et quant on laprouche du feu en la monstrant tantost le feu si prent.726 Item Pictagoras dit que les chauldes maladies qui adviennent a homme durant le temps que celle herbe est en fleur pose que lomme soit guery et il sapproche de ladicte herbe la maladie se renouvellera incontinant.727

Pliny says that in the burning deserts of India where there is continual heat and there is never any rain or dew, where snakes live among burning flames and fire, there grows a plant similar to flax that is of a marvelous nature. From this flax is made a very fine fabric which is only for the use of great lords of the country, and when this fabric is soiled, they put it in a great fire. And when it has been there a certain length of time, it is withdrawn and taken out of the fire without any scorching. But it is as white and as clean as fine linen fabric from the parts around here that would be put in a good solution of lye. And this fabric cannot be whitened either by water or by soaking in lye, but only by fire that purifies and whitens the spots on the fabric. And the seeds of this plant are kept and protected as if they are a precious treasure by the inhabitants of this country. Pliny says that in this land of India the people of the country burn the bodies of the dead. But before they burn them, if they are men of importance, they shroud the bodies of their friends in the fabric made from this noble plant. And then they throw the bodies into a great fire that is burning fiercely, which reduces the bodies in the shroud to cinders and powdery ashes without the shroud itself being in any way damaged or burnt by the fire. Pliny says in his twenty-fourth book that the philosopher magicians, that is to say Pythagoras and Democritus, analyzed and expounded in their books the virtues of many plants. And Pythagoras speaks of this and says there is a plant called Miniada, otherwise known as Corrisidias, which has supremely great virtues against poison, whether it be from snake bite or from a poisonous drink. And although this plant is curative against all poisons, yet it is in itself mortally poisonous to any person who wishes to gather it in a sly or deceitful way. Pliny says that Pythagoras tells of a plant named Aproxim whose root has a most marvelous power. For it attracts fire to itself from far away. And when one approaches it with fire, as soon as the root comes into sight, it immediately catches fire. Pythagoras says that, with regard to «hot» illnesses that come to a man during the season when this plant is in flower, assuming that the man has recovered and he gets near the plant, his sickness will recur immediately.

NH 24.100, p. 111. The works of the pre-Socratic philosopher Democritus of Abdera exist only in fragments cited by other authors. The botanical lore attributed to him is actually that of Dioscorides. See John M. Riddle, Dioscorides on Pharmacy and Medicine (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1985) and more recently, John Scarborough, Pharmacy and Drug Lore in Antiquity (Farnham, Surrey and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2009). The unfamiliar Greek names of the plants in this chapter will pose problems for the Translator and for the scribe. 726 NH 24.101, p. 111. 727 NH 24.102, pp. 111-113. 725

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Item dit Plinius que le cas semblable advient de la fleur du froment et de vigne et de la viollete. Car elles sont de celle condicion.728 Item dit Democritus ou dit livre que entre les marbres de Armenie devers la partie de Perse croist une herbe de tresexcelente beaulte et couleur, appellee marmorite de laquelle usent les magiciens en leurs enchantemens et invocacions dyaboliques.729 Item dit Democritus quil est une herbe appelle achemendon qui est de couleur de cuivre et naist et croist sans fueilles laquelle est moult de merveilleuse condicion. Car si elle est braiee et baillee a boire avec vin a aucun mal facteur suspecionne daucun crime, il se trouvera si tormente et par diverses fantasies et ymaginacions espouvente que il sera contrainct de dire verite et de confesser son fait.730 Item dit Democrithus que il est une autre herbe appellee thebrochion dont les fueilles ressemblent en partie es esles dung paon laquelle est de tresnoble et bonne odeur dont les roys de Perse usent en leur vin et en leurs autres bervaiges. Cuidans par la bonne odeur de ceste herbe acquirir vertu et prudence, justice, et constance.731 Item dit Plinius en son xxiiiie livre quil est une herbe qui croist es parties dArmenie et de Capadoce appellee adamentide qui tant est vertueuse et forte. Car elle afoiblist la force des lyons et les rand couars et espouventez et honteux.732 Item dit Plinius que Democrithus recite en son livre quil est une herbe appellee arrinida qui croist en la partie dAffricque prochaine de Inde la maiour dont la couleur est semblable a couleur de fer. Et est de celle condicion que quant le souleil est ou signe du lyon, et si une piece de bois [est] oingnte et frottee dicelle herbe avec huille tantost et incontinant le feu se prandra au boys et ardra de luy mesmes tout ce que sera entour luy.733 Item dit Plinius que en ce pais mesmes a une beste sauvaige appellee lyenc laquelle apres quelle a fait son orine il ycroist en la place une herbe appellee serocarna et communement elle croist en Capadoce, laquelle herbe est de telle condicion car elle toutes bestes quelles soient la mangeussent devenir foibles et comme toutes espouentees et vaincues.734

Pliny says that the same result occurs from the flowers of wheat and of the grape and of the violet. For they are all of this same nature. Democritus says in his book that in the area of the marble quarries of Armenia, in the part near Persia, grows a plant of very excellent beauty and color called Marmorite, which magicians use in their enchantments and diabolical invocations of spirits. Democritus says that there is a plant called Achemendon, which is the color of copper and comes up and grows without leaves, and it is of a most marvelous condition. For if it is pounded and given to be drunk with wine to any malefactor suspected of a crime, he will find he is so tormented and so frightened by various fantasies and imaginings that he will be constrained to speak the truth and confess his deed. Democritus says there is another plant called Thebrochion that has leaves partially resembling the wings of a peacock, which has a very noble and sweet smell and which the kings of Persia use in their wine and their other beverages—believing that from the good smell of this plant they will acquire virtue and prudence, justice and constancy. Pliny says in his twenty-fourth book that there is a plant that grows in parts of Armenia and Cappadocia called Adamentide that is very powerful and strong. For it weakens the strength of lions and renders them cowardly and frightened and full of shame. Pliny says that Democritus tells in his book that there is a plant called Arrinida that grows in the part of Africa near India the Great whose color is similar to the color of iron. And it is of such a nature that if the sun is in the sign of Leo, and if a piece of wood is rubbed and anointed with the oil of this plant, immediately and suddenly the wood will take fire and will burn all that is around it. Pliny says that in this same country there is a wild beast called Lynx that, after it has urinated, there grows on the spot a plant called Serocarna that commonly grows in Cappadocia. This plant is of such a nature [that it causes] all beasts that eat it to become weak and act as if they are frightened and defeated.

Not identified in NH. NH 24.102, p. 113. 730 NH 24.102, pp. 113-115. 731 Theombrotion in NH 24.102, p. 115. 732 NH 24.102, p. 115. 733 Arianida in NH 24.102, p. 115. 734 Therionarca in NH 24.102, p. 115. 728 729

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Item dit Plinius que en Ethioppie a une herbe appellee ophnusa qui pour sa petitesse est forte acongnoistre et sans difficulte ne la peut on choisir ne cuillir. Et est de telle vertu et condicion quelle rend celluy qui la porte si effraiment espouente de la peur des serpens que il luy semble tant comme il a lerbe sur luy que grant multitude de serpens le assaillent e le mordent. Et qui plus est il desira sa mort. Et advient souventesfoiz que il procure et pourchasse sa mort. Et dit Plinius quilz sont aucuns seigneurs qui jadis de celle herbe faisoient boire a larrons, et a meurtriers, et a sacrilieges, et a gens qui ont mort desservie affin quilz se advertent a eulx mesmes leur mort ou affin quilz naient point de regret a mourir.735 Item dit Plinius que le souverain remede pour oster et tollir lymaginacion et fantasie que fait avoir le just de ceste herbe si est de boire du just des pommes de parme car il fait avoir a la personne 85v/ qui est ainsi frenaticque sens, entendement, et raison.736 Item dit Democritus quil est une herbe appellee thelaseglen qui croist selon le fleuve de Inde et aucuns lappellent potamicide, laquelle est de telle nature et condicion que si elle est braiee et destrempee en bervaige et que on en face boire, soit homme ou femme, celluy ou celle qui en aura beu perdra sens, memoire, et raison et deviendra lunaticque.737 Item dit Democritus que es montaignes de Babilonne, en Crete, en Libane, et ou pais de Cusis croist une herbe appellee theangelida qui est de telle vertu que ceulx qui de celle herbe boivent et usent ilz peuent savoir du conjure des mauvais esperilz et scevent deviner et prophetizer les choses advenir.738 Item dit Democritus quil est une autre herbe appellee onothoride qui est de telle vertu que quant elle est destrempee en vin et puis gectee et espandue sur les bestes sauvaiges, elles deviendront tantost privees et debonnaires combien que par avant elles fussent trescruelles.739 Item il dit quil est une autre herbe qui est de telle vertu entre ceulx qui ont ame par amour, laquelle est appellee anacamipseroten que si entre aucuns amans leur amour est reffroidie et oubliee, et ilz atouchent une foiz seulment icelle herbe leurs amours seront renouvellees.740

Pliny says that in Ethiopia there is a plant called Oyhinsa that, because of its small size, is hard to recognize, and one cannot distinguish it or gather it without difficulty. And it is of such power and condition that it renders the one who carries it so horribly appalled by fear of serpents that it seems to him, as long as he has the plant on him, that a great multitude of serpents are attacking and biting him. And what’s more, he will wish for his own death. And it often happens that he procures and achieves his death. And Pliny says there are some lords who formerly made this herb into a drink that was given to thieves and murderers and sacrilegious men, and to men who deserved to die, in order that they might be prepared for their deaths or in order that they might have no regrets about dying. Pliny says that the most effective remedy to remove and cancel out the hallucination and fantasy created by the juice of this plant is to drink the juice of apples from Parma, for it makes the person who is frenetic more full of sense, understanding, and reason. Democritus says that there is a plant called Thelaseglen that grows along the river of India and some called it Potamicide. And it is of such nature and condition that if it is macerated and soaked into a beverage, and one makes someone drink it, either a man or a woman, whoever has drunk it will lose sense, memory, and reason and become a lunatic. Democritus says that in the mountains of Babylon, in Crete, in Libya, and in the country of Cusis grows an herb called Theangelida, that is of such virtue that those who drink and use this herb will know how to conjure up evil spirits and will know how to divine and prophesy things to come. Democritus says that there is another herb called Onothoride that is of such virtue that when it is dissolved in wine and then thrown and scattered on wild beasts, they will immediately become gentle and mild, no matter how very cruel they were before. He says that there is another herb that has power for those who have been in love, which is called Anacampseros, such that if there be, among lovers, some whose love has cooled or been forgotten and they touch this plant only one time, their love will be renewed.

Ophiusa in NH 24.102, p. 117. NH 24.102, p. 117. 737 Thalassaegle in NH 24.102, p. 117. 738 Theangelis in NH 24.102, p. 117. 739 Onothuris in NH 24.102, p. 119. 740 Anacampseros in NH 24.102, p. 119. 735 736

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Item dit Democritus que il est une herbe apellee athiopida qui tant est chaude et ardant que elle seiche les estangs, les ruisseaulx, et les fontaines.741 Item il dit quil est une herbe appellee lactencen que les roys de Perse aiment et tiennent chiere et ne la donnent fors a leurs messagiers sollennielz et a leurs legalz par tresgrant dignite excellente. Et dient quelle a telle vertu et propriete quelle perchasse habondance de tous biens et procure toute bonne fortune a tout homme qui la porte.742 Item dit Plinius en son xxv e livre que si ung homme qui chemine par chemin porte sur soy troys herbes, cestassavoir ladave, hermoie, et helispace qui soient liees ensemble, il ne sera point las de cheminer, mais sera tousjours fort et legier. Semblablement dit il des nerfs des cuisses des grues lesquels preservent et gardent les cheminieur destre las.743

Democritus says that there is a plant called Athiopida that is so hot and burning that it dries up ponds, brooks, and fountains. He says that there is an herb called Lactencen that Persian kings love and hold dear, and they give it only to their official messengers and their legates as an act of very great and excellent dignity. And he says that it has such power and nature as to provide an abundance of all earthly goods and to procure good fortune for every man who bears it. Pliny says in his twenty-fifth book that if a man who is traveling on a road carries on his person three herbs—that is to say, ladave, hermoie and heliospace—that are tied together, he will not grow tired of walking, but will always be strong and fleet of foot. Similarly, he says that the nerves in the thighs of cranes preserve and keep travelers from becoming tired.

68) [Merveilles de pierres] Pierres ont en la qualite de leur condicion naturelle de moult merveilleuses proprietez. Dont parle Plinius en son second livre. Et dit que en certains lieux les pierres ont merveilleuses proprietez naturelles desquelles nul homme ne scet les causes. Et entre autres choses il dit que en lisle de Pathos est le temple de Venus. Et dit que pres de la a une pierre qui est eslevee en hault comme ung autel et sur laquelle pierre onques ne pleut ne pluye ne cheut dessus.744 Item dit Plinius une autre merveille qui est en la cite de Trocide la ou est le temple de Minerve dont la pierre de lautel qui est en iceluy temple est de semblable condicion. Car les chars des bestes mortes qui sont dessus sacriffiees point ne pourissent ne ne sont corrumpues et ne deviennent point puantes comme ilz sont ailleurs.745 Item dit Plinius que pres de Azon a une espece de pierre moult grant nommee sarcoffagus pour ce quelle est faicte en facon dung serqueulx. Et est de telle condicion que les corps des gens mors qui sont mis leans tantost pourissent chars et os apres xl jours on ny treuve que les dens du corps seulement. Et cecy confirme Vincent en son livre du Mirouer Historial.746 Item dit Plinius que en Inde la Grant a deux montaignes pres du fleuve dInde et sont contraires en condicion. Car lune attrait le fer et le retient, lautre hait le fer et 86/ le reffuse. Car si aucun va

Chapter 68 (Wonders of Stones) Stones in their natural state have many marvelous properties. Pliny speaks of these in his second book. And he says that in certain places stones have marvelous properties whose causes are unknown to any man. And among other things, he says that on the isle of Python is the Temple of Venus. And he says that near there is a stone which is raised high like an altar, and on this stone nothing rains or showers or falls from above. Pliny speaks of another miracle that is in the city of Trocide, site of the temple of Minerva, where the stone of the altar is of a similar sort. For the flesh of dead beasts that are sacrificed on it does not rot, nor does it spoil, nor does it stink, as happens in other places. Pliny says that near Azona there is a kind of very great stone named Sarcophagus because it is made in the manner of a coffin. And its nature is such that the bodies of dead men that are put into it immediately rot, flesh and bones, and after forty days one finds only the teeth remaining. And Vincent, in his Mirror of History, attests to this. Pliny says that in India the Great there are two mountains near the Indus River, and they are opposite in nature. For the one attracts iron and holds it, and the other detests iron and pushes it away. For if anyone

NH 26.9, p. 279. NH 26.9, p. 279. 743 Not identified in NH. 744 NH 2.97, p. 341. 745 NH 2.97, p. 341. 746 NH 36.27, p. 105; not Speculum Historiale but Speculum Naturale, Book 7, Ch. 4, p. 495. 741 742

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en la premiere montaigne et il a les souliers ferrez, au premier pas quil fera, son pie sera si joinct et fiche en terre que il ne le pourra avoir ne retraire si non a moult grant poine. Et sil va en lautre montaigne a tout souliers ferrez la ny pourra marchier ne asseoir le pie a ferme mes la terre luy fera reffus de le recevoir.747 Item dit Plinius que au port de Azicon a une grant pierre appellee Argonoma et communement estoit nommee la pierre fugitive pource que elle se remuoit souvent de lieu en autre. Et auxi pour ce que les mariniers aucunesfoiz se treuvoient deceuz davoir lie leurs vesseaulx et navirez a ladicte pierre laquelle de lieu en autre se transportoit souvent, mais ilz la firent arrester a force de plombz fichez en terre pour estre immobille.748 Item dit Plinius quil ya une pierre appellee cermites qui est de telle propriete que si on en fait serqueux pour corps de gens mors quant les corps seront dedans mis ja ny pourriront ne ne seront corrumpuz, mes y seront et demourront tous entiers en char et en os. Et pour ce Darius qui fut roy de Perse fist jadis faire de celle pierre son sepulcre pour cuider son corps preserver de corrupcion.749 Item dit Plinius que en Arabie en Capadoce a certaines pierres qui moult sont cleres et reluisans. Et de telles pierres fit Neron faire le temple de Fortune qui tant estoit reluisant et cler quil sembloit que ce fust cristal.750 Item dit Plinius que en une montaigne dorient a certaines pierres naturellement figurees en forme humaine, lune portant figure domme et lautre de femme. Et tant comme le masle est loing de la femelle en ladicte montaigne il a bonne paiz et prosperite. Mais quant il advient que ilz sapprochent lung de lautre lors il sourt une merveilleuse tempeste et est alume ung grant feu dont la montaigne et le pais denviron est ambrase et ars.751

goes to the first mountain and is wearing hobnailed shoes, at the first step he takes, his foot will be so attached and stuck to the earth that he will be able to withdraw it only with very great difficulty. And if he goes to the other mountain all shod with iron, there he will be unable to walk or plant a steady foot, but the earth will refuse to receive it. Pliny says that in the port of Azicon there is a great stone called Argonoma, and it was commonly called the Fugitive Stone because it moved often from place to place. And also because sailors sometimes found themselves misled from having tied their vessels and ships to the said stone, which moved from one place to another often, but they made it stop by means of lead staked into the earth to be immobile. Pliny says that there is a stone called Cermites whose nature is such that if one makes a coffin from it for the body of a dead man, when bodies are placed inside it, they will not rot nor will they become corrupted, but they will stay there and remain completely whole in flesh and in bones. And for this reason, Darius who was the king of Persia in olden days had his tomb made of this stone, out of the belief that it would keep his body from rotting. Pliny says that in Arabia and in Cappadocia are certain stones that are very bright and shining. And out of such stones Nero had built the temple of Fortune, that was so shiny and bright that it seemed to be crystal. Pliny says that on a mountain in the East are certain stones that are naturally shaped in a human form, one bearing the shape of a man and the other of a woman. And as long as the male is far away from the female on the said mountain, there is good peace and prosperity. But when it happens that they get close to each other, then a marvelous storm arises and a great fire is lit, by which the mountain and the surrounding country is burned and destroyed.

69) [Lengin et lindustrie de cuer humain] En engin et industrie de cuer humain a moult de grans merveilles. Car Plinius dit que ceulx qui vont devers orient ont moins de jours et moins de lumiere du souleil que ceulx qui vont devers occident. Car les premiers delaissent derriere eulx le souleil et pource plus longuement ilz sont du souleil enluminez. Et nous met exemple de Philomide le hastif coureur du roy Alixandre qui ce avoit

Chapter 69 (Wonders of Human Industry) In the ingenuity and industry of the human heart there are many great marvels. For Pliny says that those who go towards the East have less time and less sun light that those who go towards the West. For the [latter] leave the sun behind them and, accordingly, are lit by the sun for a longer period of time. And he gives us the example of Philomide, the speedy runner of King Alexander, who had experimented with this

NH 36.27, p. 105. Said of the Argonauts’ anchor stone which they left in Cyzicus in NH 36.23, p. 79. 749 NH 36.27, p. 105. 750 NH 36.46, p. 131. 751 Not identified in NH. 747 748

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experimente et assie. Car en allant vers occident il alloit entre deux souleilz. Cest assavoir entre le souleil levant et le souleil couchant dix mille pas plus que en allant vers orient. Et cest la raison pour quoy lesclipse du souleil est veu en divers lieux et a diverses heures. Comme a Rodes sera veu a prime et a Paris a tierce.752 Item aussi du feu quon souloit veoir sur les pors de mer. Car qui de la partie doccident regardoient ilz congnoissoient le feu a troys heures de nuyt. Et de la partie dorient ils la percevoient jusques a leure de minuyt. Item recite Plinius de lengin et subtillite de Moyses dont parle Josephus et dit que quant le roy Pharaon envoya Moyses avec grant compaignie de gens darmes en Ethiopie pour mettre les Ethiopiens en sa subgection, Moyse laissa le grant chemin commun et print la voye des desers qui estoit plaine de serpens qui estoit la plus briesve voye de laquelle jamais les Ethiopiens ne se doubtassent, mes moult subtillement Moyse se advisa de obvier a lencontre des serpens, ilz fit assembler tresgrant nombre de sigoi- 86v/ gnes et de ibices qui sont oyseaulx qui moult fort guerroient les serpens. Et les fist porter et mener devant son ost par les chemins par ou il devoit passer, lesquelez oyseaulx mengeoient et chasseoient les serpens, et ainsi Moise et son ost passa seurement par my les desers et arriva soudainement en Etioppie et vanquit et descomfit tous les Ethiopiens, pour ce quil les trouva en desarroy. Ad ce propos de lengin de Moyse Josephus raconte que quant Moyse fut en Ethioppie et il eust assiege la cite de Meroe la fille du roy de celle cite regarda Moyse, qui estoit bel et blanc. Si luy fut moult agreable et fut soudainement touchee et esprinse de son amour. Et traicta et fit tant avecques Moyse que elle luy liveroit la cite par tel convenant quil la prandroit a femme espouse. Et ainsi fut comme tesmoigne lescripture ou livre du Nombre ou xiie chappitre ou quel est faicte mencion que Moyse eut grant altercacion contre Aaron et Marie sa seur pour ce quil soustenoit et excusoit sa femme qui estoit fille du roy de Ethiopie. Et de ce recite Josephus une moult grant merveille de Moyse. Et si dit que quant Moyse sen voulut retourner de Ethiopie en Egipte pour ce que sa femme moult ardamment lamoit et le detenoit et nullement ne le vouloit laisser venir en Egipte, il fist faire deux anneaulx dor tous semblables ainsi quil a este dit devant et y fist mettre deux pierres dont lune avoit la vertu de memoire et lautre doubliance.753

and assayed it. For in going toward the West he went, between the two suns—that is to say, between the rising sun and the setting sun—ten thousand steps more than in going towards the East. And this is the reason that the eclipse of the sun is seen at different hours in different places—as on Rhodes one will see it at prime and in Paris at tierce. The same thing holds true of fire that commonly has been seen from different seaports. For whoever saw it from the West would perceive fire at three o’clock at night. And from the East, he would perceive it until the hour of midnight. Pliny tells of the ingenuity and subtlety of Moses, of which Josephus speaks and says that when the king Pharaoh sent Moses with a great company of soldiers into Ethiopia in order to bring the Ethiopians under his power, Moses left the highway and took the desert route that was full of serpents, which was the most direct way, but which the Ethiopians never expected. But very subtly Moses took steps to avoid encountering the serpents by causing to be assembled a very large number of storks and ibises, which are birds that constantly war against serpents. And he had them carried and led before his host along the road they needed to take, and these birds ate and chased away the serpents, and thus Moses and his host passed safely through the desert and arrived unexpectedly in Ethiopia and vanquished and overcame all the Ethiopians because he found them in disarray. With regard to this ingenuity of Moses, Josephus recounts that when Moses was in Ethiopia and he had besieged the city of Meroe, the daughter of the king of this city saw Moses, who was white and handsome. Thus he was most agreeable to her, and she was suddenly touched and overcome by love. And she negotiated and arranged with Moses that she would deliver the city to him in exchange for a covenant by which he would take her as his wedded wife. And thus it occurred as witnessed by the writer of the book of Numbers in the twelfth chapter, where it is mentioned that Moses had a great altercation with Aaron and his sister Miriam because he supported and sustained his wife who was the daughter of the king of Ethiopia. And regarding this, Josephus tells a most great marvel of Moses. And he says that when Moses wished to return from Ethiopia to Egypt, because his wife ardently loved him and detained him and did not wish to let him come into Egypt, he had two identical rings made, as has been said before, and had them set with two stones, one with the power of memory and the other with the power of forgetfulness.

NH 2.73, p. 315. The Translator actually gets this account from Gervaise, Banks and Binns III.111, p. 801. See St. J. Thackeray, ed. and tr., Josephus Jewish Antiquities, IX, Book II, 252-53, p. 275. 752 753

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Item dit Plinius que telle vertu de memoire et doubliance ont deux fontaines qui sont en Boecie comme dit Ysidores.754 Item recite Crosius755 de la cautelle et de lengin de Henibal et dit que quant il fut vaincu et quil perdit sa seigneurie et que Cartaige fut destruicte et que il fut vagabond en exil, lors il se joignit avecques le roy de Bithimie et avec lui fut alliene lequel alloit combatre ses ennemys sur lamer qui pres de luy estoient en trespuissant navire. Hanibal ordonna certaines bouteilles de terre a estre emplies de serpens et que en bataillant et en cheant les bouteilles de terre se casseroient et les serpens yroient par les vesseaulx entre les gens en tresgrant habondance et les espouventeroient. Et tout ainsi comme Hanibal lordonna ilz le firent. Et quant ilz virent en leurs nefs tant de serpens ilz furent grandement effraiz et espouentiz quilz yssyrent hors de leurs navires tous esbahiz et couardiz par les serpens plus que par lassault des ennemis. Et quant ilz furent tous hors des vesseaulx Hanibal les vint gaignier par force darmes. Et par ainsi eut victoire.756

Pliny says that the same powers of memory and forgetfulness are present in two springs that are in Boeotia, as Isidore says. Orosius tells of the guile and ingenuity of Hannibal and says that when he was conquered and lost his lordship and Carthage was destroyed and he was a vagabond in exile, then he joined with the king of Bithynia and made an alliance with him, at a time when he was going to fight his enemies on the seas who were near him in a very powerful fleet of ships. Hannibal ordered certain crocks of earthenware to be filled with serpents so that, in waging battle and launching them at the enemy, the crocks would break and the serpents would come out onto the ships among the sailors in very great abundance and would fill them with horror. And just as Hannibal ordered so they did it. And when they saw so many serpents on their ships, they were so greatly frightened and terrified that they left their ships, more cowed and abashed by the serpents than by the attack of their enemies. And when they were all out of their ships, Hannibal overcame them by force of arms. And in this way he obtained victory.

70) [Merveilleuses edifficacions] Merveilleuses edifficacions on este faittes ou temps passe. Dont parle Solin et dit que a Romme souloit avoir ung temple appelle sacraire de Hercules, ou quel temple ne povoit entrer mouche, ne chien, ne oysel. Car quant Hercules sceut par la revelation du Craniene le grant prebstre quil estoit nombre et mis ou nombre des dieux immortelz. Lors il dedia son temple en son nom et sacriffia beufs et thoreaulx. Et affin que mouches, ne chiens, ne oyseaulx ny fissent aucun annuy ou empeschement en son temple il pria le grant dieu que jamais en son temple nentrassent. Et ainsi comme il re87/ quist il fut fait.757 Item dit Solin que Hercules laissa alentree de son temple son baston. Et dit que de lodeur diceluy baston les chiens sont tous espouentes. Et nousent leans entrer.758 Item dit Plinius en son xxxvie livre que en la cite de Cizito avoit une tour qui estoit de telle propriete et ressouvenance759 que quant ung homme parloit en celle tour il sembloit que ce fussent vii

Chapter 70 (Wonders of Marvelous Buildings) Marvelous buildings were constructed in times past. Solinus speaks of them and says that in Rome they used to have a temple called the Oratory of Hercules, into which no fly, nor dog, nor bird could enter. For when Hercules found out by the revelation of Craniene, the great priest, that he was numbered and placed among the ranks of the immortal gods, then he dedicated his temple in his own name and sacrificed cows and bulls. And in order that flies, dogs, and birds might not make any trouble or disturbance in his temple, he prayed to the great god that they should never enter his temple. And just as he requested, it was done. Solinus says that Hercules left his staff in the entrance to his temple. And he says that dogs all find the smell of this staff frightening. And they do not dare enter there. Pliny says in his thirty-sixth book that in the city of Cizito there was a tower that was of such a quality and resonance that when one man spoke in this tower it seemed as if he were seven

NH 31.11, p. 387; Etymologiae, XIV.4.11. Orosius. 756 This story of how Hannibal used catapults to throw clay pots of serpents against the forces of Eumenes II at Pergamon in 190 BC does not occur in Orosius but rather in Cornelius Nepos’ «Life of Hannibal». John C. Rolfe, ed. and tr., Cornelius Nepos (Cambridge, MA and London: Loeb Classical Library, 1966) XXIII.10-12, pp. 641-45. See Philip A. G. Sabin, et al., The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). 757 Collectanea, 4. 758 Collectanea, 4. 759 Probably a scribal error for «resonnance». 754 755

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hommes qui parlassent et pareillement estoit du son de .1. instrument.760 {Item761 il dit quil est une herbe appellee lattore qui est moult plaine de lait. Ceste herbe est de telle condicion que quant homme ou femme en boit ou en mengeue elle le fait vomir et vuyder hastivement par la bouche.762 Item dit Plinius quil est une autre herbe appellee militharis qui moult est bonne et proffitable a guerir plaies, faictes de glaive, de dague, ou despee. Et dit que quant on en met par v jours sur la plaie quelle yfait plus que ny feroit autre herbe en ung moys.763 Item dit Plinius que en Egipte croist une herbe selon le rivaige de la mer du fleuve qui est en Egipte appelle Nyle. Et especialement quant il desrive par grans cretines laquelle herbe est appellee stociocris qui sur toutes autres herbes est profitable a guerir plaies vielles et anciennes comme mal de jambes entamees et chauldes, plaies ardens comme noli me tangere, loups, charbons, chancres, et fistulles. Et merveilleusement restraint le fluz du sang a tout personnes et en toutes manieres.764 Item dit Plinius en son xxve livre les noms des nobles saiges philozophes qui premierement des nobles et merveilleuses vertuz des herbes qui moult en diviserent et en escriprent en plusieurs de leurs livres en nous monstrant et enseignent les merveilleuses vertuz dicelles comme fut subtil Sipheus, et Hezyodas, et le facond Omerus,et le saige Pitagoras, et Macer lingenieulx.765 Item dit Democrithus quil en fist ung beau livre lequel il envoya a ceulx de Perse, et de Arabie, et de Ethioppie, et de Egipte.766 Item dit Plinius que ung docteur appelle Paniche le grant hystorien allegue et dit que les anciens et loppinion des philozphes les predecesseurs fut aveugle qui disoient quil nestoit chose possible ou faisible sur terre qui par force derbes ne se puent faire et acomplir qui auroit la congnoissance des herbes ad ce propres et convenables. Et quant a moy il me semble que ceste oppinion pas nest creable,

men who spoke, and likewise if it were with the sound of one instrument. He says that there is an herb called Lattore which is quite full of milk. This herb is of such a nature that when a man or a woman drinks or eats it, it will cause the person to vomit it up quickly through the mouth. Pliny says that there is another herb called Militaries that is very good and useful for curing wounds made by a sword, a dagger, or a rapier. And he says that when it is put in the wound for five days, it will do more good than any other herb left on for a month. Pliny says that in Egypt there is a plant that grows along the river that the Egyptians call the Nile. And especially when it grows over large stony ridges, this herb is called Stociocris, that is useful above all other herbs for healing old wounds of long duration, such as maladies of legs with hot wounds, burning sores such as noli me tangere, malignant ulcers, carbuncles, cankers, and fistulas. And it marvelously restrains the flow of blood in all persons and in all ways. Pliny tells in his twenty-fifth book the names of the noble wise philosophers who first wrote of the noble and marvelous virtues of plants, who analyzed and wrote a great deal about them in many of their books, showing us and teaching us their marvelous properties. Among these were the subtle Sipheus, Hesiod, the very productive Homer, and the wise Pythagoras and the ingenious Macer. Democritus said that he [Macer?] made a fine book on this subject that he sent to the people of Persia and Arabia and Ethiopia and Egypt. Pliny says that the learned man called Paniche the Great Historian alleges and says that the ancients and the opinion of the philosophers who preceded him were blind when they said that there was nothing possible or feasible on earth that could not be done or accomplished by the power of herbs, by one who would have the applicable and appropriate knowledge of herbs. And as for me, it seems to me that

Generally NH 36.23, p. 79. Through scribal error the material indicated here in curly brackets, appearing on folio 87, discusses plants, not buildings. 762 NH 24.104, p. 121. 763 NH 24.104, p. 121. 764 Statiotes in NH 24.105, p. 121. «Noli me tangere,» once a term for various skin ulcers but now meaning lupus exedens, an ulcerative malady of the nose, obviously related to the «loups charbons» mentioned in the series of diseases. See Louise Bishop, « The Disease called ‘Touch Me Not’,» in Word, Stones and Herbs: The Healing Word in Medieval and Early Modern England (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2007), pp. 153-88. 765 The roll call of botanical authorities is NH 25.105, p. 121. Of these antique authorities, only Macer was connected with botany. Macer Floridus or Aemilius Macer, d. 16 BC, was thought the author of De virtutibus herbarum, a poem cataloguing seventy-seven plants. Extremely popular, it was most probably compiled by the eleventh-century French physician Odo of Meung who worked from a tenth-century German version. See Minta Collins, Medieval Herbals, The Illustrative Tradition (London and Toronto: The British Library and University of Toronto Press, 2000), p. 284, n. 9, and John M. Riddle, «Medieval Medical Botany,» Journal of the History of Biology 14.1 (1981): 43-81. 766 Statiotes in NH 25.5, p. 145. 760 761

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mais est tres prejudiciable a la verite de nostre seigneur, foy, et creance. Toutesfoiz ledit Paniche le Grant nous met avant aucuns cas qui advindrent selon celle folle oppinion par la vertu et force de certaines herbes. Et dist quil est une herbe appellee baalan pour la vertu de laquelle herbe ung petit dragon qui estoit octis et mort seulement par la touchment dicelle herbe fut ressuscite et revint de mort a vie.767 Item il recite ung autre exemple dung homme nomme Thisbon qui ung dragon avoit octis qui par la force et vertu de ceste herbe fut pareillement ressuscite.768 Item il recite ung autre exemple de Medee qui avoit octis le pere de Jason. Et apres lavoit fait cuire. Et despuis quil fut cuit par force et vertu dicelle herbe il ressuscita de mort a vie. Item dit Plinius que la propriete de certaines herbes a este sceu par la revelacion celestielle. Et nous met exemple contre morsure de chien enraige le remede, lequel homme ne femme ne povoit trouver ne 87v/ scavoir ne considerer jusques au temps de la mere dung juvencel appelle Palazin qui avoit este mors dung chien enraigie. Et ny povoit trouver nul remede de guerison pour lors. Et disoient les anciens philozophes que pour lors regnoient que tel mal estoit incurable. Si advint une nuyt ainsi que la pouvre mere dudit juvencel estoit en ses regrets et lamentacions du courrouz de son enfant, elle sendormit et luy vint en advision et luy fut annuncie quelle print la racine dung rosier sauvaige appelle chimerodon et quelle feust bien broyee et destrempee avec du lait et quelle en donnast a boire a son filz et il seroit tantost guery. Et tout ainsi comme il luy fut revele et annunce elle fist. Et donna a boire du brevaige fait de celle racine a son filz lequel quant il en eut beu fut tantost guery.769 Item ce conferme Plinius et dit que luy estant en Espaigne en lost des Romains ung chevalier fut mors dung chien enraige, lequel chevalier fut tout sain et guery par semblable remede.770 Item Plinius dit que en Allemaigne oultre le Riin ou lieu ou Judas Cesar lempereur fichea ses pavillons est une fontaine doulce et belle. Mais en ung cas elle est mauvaise et perilleuse. Car tous ceulx qui en boivent perdent les dens au bout dung an ou de deux, mais il ya ung remede au contraire. Car en ce lieu la croist une herbe

this opinion is not credible, but is very prejudicial to the truth of our Lord, faith, and belief. Nevertheless, the said Paniche the Great puts before us some cases that occurred, according to this foolish opinion, by virtue and force of certain herbs. And he says that there is an herb called Balaan by whose power a small dragon, which had been killed and had died, was resuscitated and came back to life from death, by means of only a touch of this herb. He tells of another example, of a man named Thisbon who had killed a dragon that was, by power and virtue of this herb, similarly resuscitated. He gives the example of Medea, who had killed Jason’s father. And afterward she arranged for him to be cooked. And after he was cooked, by the power and virtue of this herb, he was brought back from death to life. Pliny says that the property of certain herbs became known by heavenly revelation. And he gives us as an example the remedy against the bite of rabid dogs, that no man or woman could find or know or think of until the time of the mother of a young man called Palazin, who had been bitten by a mad dog. And there could not be found any remedy or cure at that time. And the ancient philosophers who held sway at the time considered such a sickness incurable. And so it happened one night that the poor mother of the young man was bewailing and lamenting her son’s misery, and she fell asleep and it came to her in a dream and was announced to her that she should take the root of a wild rose called Chimerodon and that it should be pounded and dissolved with milk, and she should give it to her son to drink, and he would immediately be cured. And exactly as it had been revealed and announced, she did it all. And she gave the drink made from the root to her son, who, when he had drunk it, was immediately cured. Pliny confirms this and says when the Roman army was in Spain, a knight was bitten by a mad dog, and he was cured and restored to full health by a similar remedy. Pliny says that in Germany beyond the Rhine, in the place where the emperor Julius Caesar pitched his tents, there is a sweet and beautiful fountain. But in one way it is bad and dangerous. For all those who drink from it lose their teeth after a year or two, but there is an antidote. For in that place, there grows a herb called

NH 25.5, p. 145. There is no such botanist in Pliny. Paniche seems to be a constructed authority, probably from Asclepius’ daughter Panacia, and relating to the idea of panacea or all-healing. The story of Paniche is entirely the creation of the Translator, though the account of the absolute power of herbs does appear in Bersuire. 768 Tylo in NH 25.5, p. 145. 769 NH 25.6, p. 149. 770 NH 25.6, p. 149. 767

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appellee brutququa qui est moult proffitable a user contre la mauvaistie de leau de ladicte fontaine}.771 Item Plinius nous recite et raconte des merveilleux ediffices qui sont en plusieurs lieux en diverses parties du monde. Comme des obelistes, des priamides, et des laberinthes, et des merveilleux ediffices de Romme. Comme du Circotheatre et de lEmphiteatre, et de plusieurs ediffices. Les obelistes sont columpnes de marbre et dautres pierres qui sont tres longues et entieres, et sont toutes dune piece et en hault drecies. Et se est en grant difficulte elles furent encisees et taillees en la pierriere ou miniere. Encores en plusgrant poine et plus merveilleusement furent elles apportees a Romme ainsi entieres par la mer et en vesseaulx de merveilleuse facon. Plinius nous recite la maniere comment icelles colompnes furent eslevees et de la pierriere apportees a Romme et en autres lieux. Et dit que les montaignes ou pierrieres ou cestes horribles et grans colompnes furent faittes et entaillees furent premierement fouyes et cavees en bas jusques a la mer et jusques au Nile ou jusques au Tibre tant que leau avoit cours et suffisante parfondeur lors les ouvriers mirent deux longs vaisseaulx joings ensemble en ladicte fosse jusques au dessoubz celles grans obelistes et colompnes. Et puis par subtil artiffice furent descendues par combas et saigement posees et mises es dits vesseaulx. Et puis furent admenees et conduites par la mer jusques a Romme et en autre lieux ou ilz sont.772 Item dit Plinius que a Thebes fut veu une obeliste que avoit vi xx et un piez de long.773 Item il dit que en ung autre lieu en Egipte en fut veu jadis deux qui avoient xlviii coudees de long.774 Item dit que en Alixandrie en avoit une qui avoit xxx coudees de long.775 Item il dit que a Romme en a une ou cirte776 que le puissant empereur Auguste fist faire et en son nom constituer qui avoit vi xx et xv piez de long. Ces merveilleux pilliers et colompnes firent faire les anciens empereurs et roys et autres princes pour avoir ou temps advenir perpetuelle memoire de leurs noms et de leurs sens, et 88/ prudence, et puissance.777

Brutququa, which is very beneficial in countering the bad effects of the water of the said fountain. Pliny reports and tells us about marvelous buildings that are in many places in various parts of the world—such as obelisks, pyramids, and labyrinths and marvelous structures in Rome, such as the Circotheatre and the Amphitheatre and several other buildings. The obelisks are columns of marble and other stones that are very long and solid, and they are all of one piece and raised high. And it is with great difficulty that they were cut out and shaped in the quarries or mines. And with even more labor and difficulty, and most marvelously, they were thus transported to Rome all in one piece, by sea and in ships in a marvelous fashion. Pliny tells us the manner in which these columns were raised and transported from the quarries to Rome and to other places. And he says that the mountains or quarries where these imposing and great columns were made and cut were first excavated and hollowed out at the base as far as the sea and up to the Nile or the Tiber, to the point that the water had sufficient swiftness and depth, and then the workers put two long boats joined together into the said canal just beneath these great obelisks and columns. And then, by subtle artifice, they were lowered by a device and skillfully settled and placed onto the said boats. And they were then conveyed and conducted by sea to Rome and to other places where they are now. Pliny says that at Thebes was seen an obelisk which was 621 feet long. He says that in another place in Egypt two were formerly seen that were 48 feet long. He says that in Alexandria there was one that was thirty cubits long. He says that in Rome there was one at the circus amphitheatre, that the powerful emperor Augustus had built and named after him, that was 135 feet in length. The ancient emperors and kings and other princes had these marvelous pillars and columns made in order to assure, in times to come, perpetual memory of their names and of their judgment and prudence and power.

NH 31.17, p. 389; NH 31.18, p. 391. Proper order of the manuscript resumes here. NH, 36.13-14, pp. 51-57. See Master Gregorius on the marvels of Rome in Francis Morgan Nicholas, ed. and tr., The Marvels of Rome (Binghamton, NY: Italica, 1986). See also Montague R. James, «Magister Gregorius de Mirabilibus Urbis Romae,» English Historical Review 32 (1917): 531-54. 773 Generally NH 36.13-14, pp. 51-57. 774 Generally NH 36.13-14, pp. 51-57. 775 NH 36.14, p. 53; the dimension is 80 cubits. 776 Probably scribal error for «cirque». 777 NH 36.14, pp. 55, 57. 771 772

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Item recite Plinius des paramides. Et dit que paramides sont ediffices qui sont faiz en facon de haultes tours qui sont treslees et larges assises en plusieurs lieux en Egipte dont les aucunes sont de pierres ediffices par mains de marceurs, les autres sont naturellement faictes dune pierre ou roche entiere en maniere dung hault rochier depuis le fondement jusques au plus hault. Et par dehors sont pollies et songneusement entaillees a lousenges de fueilles, darbres, et dymaiges de roys et de princes a la croissement de leur magnificence dont les aucunes avoient ccc piez de hault. Les anciens disoient quilz les fasoient faire affin que leur monnoye et chevance quilz despendoient et empleoient ad ce faire ne advenist ad leurs successeurs et heritiers ne aussi a leurs ennemys. Lautre cause si est pour quoy iceulx roys despendoient leurs finances en telles ediffices. Cestoit affin que le peuple manouvrier de leurs pais ne fussent pas oyseux ancois les fasoient labourer et eulx emploier a faire iceaulx ediffices.778 Item laberintes estoient maisons faictz soubz terre ou moult avoit de diverses chambrectes, et mensions, et allees, et entrees qui estoient si tressubtillement faictes que quiconques une foiz leans entroit jamais nen retournoit comme dit Pomponius du laberinthe dEgipte qui est clos dung tresfort mur et perpetuel, dont lentree est clere et aisee et en plaine rue. Et leans a mille maisons et xii palais royaulx.779 Item dit Plinius que a Romme avoit ung merveilleux hediffice plus grant que nul autre qui estoit fait de main domme qui estoit partie de voerre et partie de pierre qui estoit si grant et si spacieulx quil povoit bien dedans iiii xx mil hommes.780 Item dit Plinius que en Ytalie en avoit ung tiel comme en laberinthes. Et en Crete en avoit ung autre tel.781 Item dit Plinius que amphiteatre estoit ung ediffice de bois que fist faire pour sa vaine gloire monstrer lorgueilleux Stavius et estoit ung ediffice mobile tournant et pendant en lair. Et fut fait pour seoir le senat et le peuple de Romme pour mieulx veoir les esbatemens des jeunes gens et les joustes et tournoymens et autres jeux.782 Item parle Plinius des autres ediffices merveilleux comme des montaignes percees. Et des eaux et rivieres venans de loing et passans parmy lesdictes montaignes.783

Pliny tells of the pyramids. And he says that the pyramids are buildings made in the fashion of high towers which are very wide and large, situated in several places in Egypt, of which some are built from stone by the hands of masons, and others are naturally made of one solid stone or rock in the manner of a high crag from the foundation all the way to the top. And on the outside they are polished and carefully cut into lozenges decorated with leaves, trees, and images of kings and princes at the height of their power, and some were 300 feet high. The ancients said that they had them made in order that the money and chattels they spent and employed to build them would not go to their heirs and successors, or to their enemies. The other reason that these kings spent their finances on such buildings was so that the manual workers in the country would not be lazy, but in this way they made them work and used them to build these structures. Labyrinths were dwellings built below ground, where there were many diverse chambers and houses and walkways and entries that were so very subtly made that whoever once entered into them could never get out again, as Pomponius said of the labyrinth of Egypt, which is closed within a very strong and permanent wall, whose entrance is well-lit and pleasant and in an open street. And inside are a thousand houses and twelve royal palaces. Pliny says that in Rome there was a marvelous building larger than any other made by the hand of man that was partly of glass and partly of stone, and it was so great and spacious that 80,000 men could easily fit inside. Pliny says that in Italy there was one place like those in the labyrinths. And in Crete was another such. Pliny says that the amphitheatre was a building of wood that the proud Stavius had built to show his vainglory, and it was a movable building turning and hanging in the air. And it was made to seat the Senate and the people of Rome so they could better see the combats of young men and the jousts and tournaments and other games. Pliny speaks of other marvelous buildings such as pierced mountains. And [he tells] of waters and rivers coming from afar and passing through the said mountains.

NH 36.14, pp. 59-61. NH 36.19, pp. 67-69; Romer, ed. and tr., Mela, I.56. 780 NH 36.24, p. 89. 781 NH 36.19, pp. 67, 73. 782 NH 36.24, pp. 91-93. 783 NH 36.24, p. 95. 778 779

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Item parle des temples et des paloys de Romme qui estoient merveilleusement ediffiez et faiz.784 Item du jardrin pendant et du merveilleux temple de Dyane.785 Item il est fait mencion du peuple786 de paix qui fut ou temps du paisible empereur Octovien Auguste lequel temple du tout cheut et fondit quant la Vierge Marie enffenta nostre Seigneur JesuCrist. Entre les merveilles diceluy temple est faicte mencion que oudit temple estoit lymaige de lempereur. Et les ymaiges de tous les roys suggetz a lempire de Romme. Et avoient iceulx ymaiges les faces droit vers la face de limaige de lempereur de Romme. Et aucun roy avoit entencion et volunte de guerroyer les Romains ou de soy rebeller contre eulx tantost limaige diceluy roy tournoit le doz a limage de lempereur Romain. Et ainsi les Romains savoient incontinent les nouvelles de leurs hayneulx et ennemys. Et tantost et hastivement y pourveoyent et vers leurs ennemys gens darmes enveoient pour les reduyre et mettre a obeissance et sugection. Ce noble temple de paix fut jadis des Romains nomme temple de paix pardurable 88v/ pour ce quilz demenderent a leur dieu Appolin combien il dureroit. Et il respondit quil dureroit jusques au temps que Vierge enfanteroit. Et ainsi les Rommains conclurent que jamais ce ne adviendroit et par consequent leur temple tousjours dureroit. Mais ilz en furent deceuz quant la Vierge enfanta Jesus.787 Item dit Plinius que anciennement fut faicte a Romme une estatue ou figure dung homme de cuyvre qui tenoit ung rollet ou avoit escript ung tel dit: «Le premier jour de Mars a leure de souleil levant, jay la teste dor.» Si eut plusieurs saiges Romains qui leurent par plusieurs foiz la lettre que tenoit iceluy ymaige, mais ilz ne savoient trouver ne concevoir nul entendement au vray pource que en la teste dicelle ymaige navoit or ne argent. Si advint que ung plus saige et plus subtil philozophe que les autres advisa ou estoit lombre de ladicte teste a leure du souleil levant le premier jour de Mars. Et en ce lieu propre ou il avoit advisee lombre de la teste il foilla la teste profondement. Et en la fosse treuva ung grant tresor qui moult long temps avoit. Et navoit point este treuve par lignorance de ceulx qui la lettre ne savoient entendre. Ad ce propos dit Josephus que Salomon le roy de Jherusalem mussa moult de tresors en son temps moult subtillement en son temple desquels

He speaks of the temples and palaces of Rome, which were marvelously built and made. [He speaks] of the hanging garden and of the marvelous temple of Diana. He mentions the [temple] of Peace from the time of the peaceful emperor Octavian Augustus, which fell and crumbled completely away when the Virgin Mary gave birth to our Lord Jesus Christ. Among the marvels of this temple, it is mentioned that in the said temple was the image of the emperor—and the images of all the kings subject to the Roman Empire. And these images had their faces turned directly toward the face of the image of the Roman emperor. And if any king had the intention and will to make war with the Romans or to rebel against them, immediately the image of this king turned his back to the image of the Roman emperor. And thus the Romans found out right away the news of their enemies and those hostile to them. And immediately and quickly they gathered the necessary provisions and sent soldiers against their enemies to conquer them and bring them back into subjection and obedience. This noble temple of peace was formerly named by the Romans the Temple of Eternal Peace because they asked their god Apollo how long it would endure. And he replied that it would endure until the time that a Virgin gave birth. And thus the Romans concluded that this would never happen and, accordingly, their temple would endure forever. But they were disappointed when the Virgin bore Jesus. Pliny says that in Rome, long ago, was made a copper statue or figure of a man holding a scroll on which was written a saying to this effect: «The first day of March, at the hour of sunrise, I have a head of gold.» Then there were a number of wise Romans who read the inscription this image was holding many times, but they could not find or conceive any intelligible meaning because in the head of this image there was neither gold nor silver. Then it happened that a philosopher much wiser and subtler than the others noticed where the shadow of the head was at the hour of sunrise on the first day of March. And in the very spot where he had seen the shadow of the head, he dug to the depth of the head. And in the hole he found a great treasure that had been there a long time. And it had not been found because of the ignorance of those who did not know how to interpret the inscription. With regard to this, Josephus says that, in his time, Solomon the king of Jerusalem hid many treasures most subtly in his temple, of which treasures Jean son of

NH 36.24, p. 81. NH 36.20, 21, p. 75. 786 Scribal error for «temple». 787 Attributed to Vespasian in NH 36.4, p. 21, and NH 36.11, p. 45. See Jacob Isager, Pliny on Art and Society, tr., Henrik Rosenmeier (London and New York: Routledge, 1991), and Sorcha Carey, Pliny’s Catalogue of Culture: Art and Empire in the Natural History (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2006). 784 785

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tressors Jehan filz de Hircane treuva trois mille bezans de fin or et les ravit et emporta comme il est escript ou livre des Macabees.788 Item pour ce que Herodes cuida ainsi faire et cuida les tresors du temple cautelleusement embler et enlever, mais la divine vengence de Dieu fist yssir de terre ung grant feu flambeant et ardent, qui le plus des gens ardit et brula. Item dit Plinius que ou temps du pape Gobert qui estoit tres expert en la science de mathematique advint que ou Champ de Mars pres de Romme avoit une statue que estoit partie de fer et lautre darain. Et avoit le doy tendu et demonstroit en disant ung dit qui estoit par lettre ainsi escripte: «Frape cy ceste statue.» Et fut ceste lettre leue et advisee de plusieurs qui moult se pencerent et songerent que ce povoit ester. Cuydans environ icelle statue treuver aucunes tresors, mais riens ny treuverent. Et ledit pape Gobert moult bien advisa la place ou lombre du doy estoit le souleil luysant a leure de midy. Et il vint avecques son chambrier a leure de minuyt atout une lanterne. Et selon la science de mathematicque en ce dit lieu il foilla tant quil treuva ung palais de fin or dont les parroiz estoient dor et le roy et la royne dor. Et toutes les autres ymaiges dor. Au dedans de loustel avoit ung precieulx escarboncle moult cler reluisant qui tout le paloys enluminoit. Et alopposite dicelui escarboncle avoit ung archier qui tenoit ung arc tendu et la fleiche entezee et dreciee contre lescarboncle. Et sil yeust eu aucun qui se voulsist efforcier de tollir ou prandre aucune chose du tresor dudit lieu. Tantost tous les ymaiges dor qui estoient leans sesmouvoient a faire merveilleuse guerre contre ceulx qui aucune chose en vouloient porter, pour laquelle chose moult fut espouente ledit pape et fut contraint de sen partir de leans tout esbay. Lors 89/ le chambrier du pape advisa ung moult bel riche precieulx coustel quil print. Adonc tous les ymaiges dor qui leans estoient sesmeurent moult ireusement. Et larchier qui larc tenoit tousjours tendu tira la fleche droit a lescarboncle et le frapa tant quil estaingnyt. Et lors plus ny eut leans clarte ne lumiere. Adonc ledit chambrier qui estoit ainsi fort espouente sen revint hastivement atoute sa lanterne quil avoit portee pour esclairer a son maistre ne oncques puis la dedans ne retournerent.789

Hircanus found three thousand besants of fine gold, and he took them and carried them away, as is written in the book of Maccabees. For this reason Herod thought he could do the same thing and believed he could guilefully carry off the treasures of the temple and take them away, but the divine vengeance of God made a great flaming and burning fire come out of the earth, which burned and consumed most of the men. Pliny said that in the time of Pope Gerbert, who was very expert in the science of mathematics, it happened that in the Champ de Mars [Campus Martius] near Rome was a statue that was one part iron and the other part bronze. And it had its finger held up and was pointing while pronouncing a saying that was written out in these words: «Strike here on this statue.» And this inscription was read and considered by many who wondered and imagined what this could mean, believing they might find some treasure around this statue, but they found nothing there. And the said Pope Gerbert considered very carefully the place where the shadow of the finger fell when the sun was shining at the hour of noon. And he came with his chamberlain at the hour of midnight armed with a lantern. And according to the science of mathematics he dug in this very place until he found a palace of fine gold where the walls were of gold and the queen and king were of gold. And all the other images were of gold. Inside the edifice was a precious carbuncle shining most brightly, which illuminated the entire palace. And across from this carbuncle was an archer who held a drawn bow, with the arrow nocked and aimed at the carbuncle. And if anyone came who wished by force to carry off and remove any part of the treasure of this place, immediately all the statues of gold which were there would start to move to make a marvelous war against those who wished to bear away anything, because of which this pope was very frightened and felt constrained to leave the place all abashed. Then the chamberlain of the Pope noticed a very rich precious knife, which he took. Then at once all the images of gold that were inside roused themselves in great anger. And the archer who held his bow always drawn fired his arrow straight at the carbuncle and struck it such that its light went out. And then there was no more shining or light inside. Then the chamberlain, who was very frightened, came back hastily with the lantern that he had brought to light the way for his master, and he never returned there again.

This story Bersuire either got from Petrarch or gave to him. See Giuseppe Billanovich, ed., Rerum memorabilium (Florence: Sansoni, 1943) I.III, 29, pp. 122-23. NH 36.4, p. 21; Henry St. John Thackeray, ed. and tr., Josephus, Jewish Antiquities IX.31, p. 87. 789 The subject of this lengthy anecdote, Gerbert of Aurillac (946-1003), corrupted here to Gobert, mathematician-author of treatises on geometry and astronomy, and later Pope Sylvester II, was, of course, unknown to Pliny, but see NH 36.15, p. 57. On Gerbert and the story of Octavian’s treasure, see Elly R. Truitt, Medieval Robots. Mechanism, Magic, Nature, and Art (Philadelphia PA, University of Pennsylvania Press 2015), pp. 79-80, pl. 14. The story of the underground palace, which vanishes at a touch, the archer, and the carbuncle first appears in William of Malmesbury’s chronicle, Robert A.B. Mynors, ed. and tr., 788

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Item dit Plinius que aucunes statues ont este faictes de choses meeusibles, mortes, et elementaires qui sembloient es hommes estre vives et mouvans et avoir sencive congnoissance, comme il appert es [orloges] qui sont mouvans et tournans par mesure et noctens les heures du jour et de la nuyt et de moult autres euvres mathematiques lesquelles sont causees de juste pois proportionellement balence ou de vent artificiellement leans souffle ou dautres mistions de vif argent en autre chose, par vertu desquelles choses les ymaiges sesmeuvent combien quelles soient de matiere terrestre sans vie vegetative ou sensible. Comme il nous baille exemple de celui qui avoit mis son tresor alentree dung petit porche soubz le pavement qui estoit darain par dessoubz et estoit concave et le ramplit tout de vif argent. Et leans avoit ymaiges de serpens et de grans villains qui tenoient en leurs poings gros bastons et grosses massues. Et si yavoit des archiers tenans arcs tenduz et fleiches encochiees. Et si aucun leans entroit au premier pas quil faisoit leans tout le pois du vif argent se enclinoit la pour la pesanteur. Et ainsi esmouvoit tous lesdits ymaiges selon icelles diverses proporcions. Et sembloit que les serpens qui avoient la gueulle ouverte deussent devourer tous ceulx qui leans entroient ou vouloient entrer. Et aussi les archiers tiroient leurs fleiches contre ceulx qui leans vouloient entrer. Et les villains de leurs gros bastons sesforsoient de fort ferir. Et ainsi les larrons qui les tresors de leans vouloient ravir et embler sen retournoient et fuyoient tous esbaiz et espouentez de la faierie et des enchantemens dessusdits sans les tresors de leans emporter. Ad ce propos nous recite Vincent ung exemple dung moyne qui estoit natif de Barchinonne qui chevauchea tout le pays des Ytalies lequel congneut bien que les tresors de Octovien estoient oultre une montaigne pertuisee. Lors print xii compaignons enclins et prest de faire sa volunte. Et avecques ce print ung gros peloton de fil et entra en ces secretz lieux et obscurs et a chascun aioglet fichoit ung pal et puis treuva a dextre une voye qui estoit moult haulte et a senestre avoit une tres horrible et grant vallee dont la descendue estoit moult perilleuse sans remede. Et dessoubz au plus bas avoit ung fleuve deau profonde moult

Pliny says that some statues have been made of movable, dead, or elemental materials which seemed to men to be living and stirring and to have sensory understanding as it appears in clocks that are moving and turning by measure and marking the hours of day and night and of many other mathematical measurements, that function by exact weights proportionally balanced or by wind artificially blown into them or by other mixtures of quick silver into something else, by virtue of which the images move even though they are made of earthly matter, without vegetable or sensate life. In this regard he offers the example of the one who had put his treasure in a passageway of a small porch under the pavement which was made of bronze underneath and was concave, and he filled it all with mercury. And inside were images of snakes and of great villains who held in their fists large clubs and great staves. And also there were archers holding drawn bows and arrows all nocked. And if anyone entered, at the first step he took inside, all the weight of the mercury went in that direction because of the heaviness of the step. And thus all the images moved according to their various proportions. And it seemed as if the snakes that had open mouths would devour all those who entered or wished to enter. And also the archers shot their arrows at those who would go in. And the villains with their great clubs prepared themselves to strike powerfully. And thus the thieves who would carry off the treasure from within turned around and fled, all frightened and abashed by the charms and enchantments just mentioned, without being able to carry off the treasure inside. With respect to this, Vincent gives us an example of a monk who was born in Barcelona who rode over all the regions of Italy and who was fully aware that the treasures of Octavian were beyond a cavernous mountain. Then he gathered twelve companions disposed and ready to do his will. And with him he took a great ball of string and entered into these secret, dark places, and at each aglet he drove in a stake, and then he found on the right a way that was exceedingly high, and to the left was an exceedingly terrifying and great valley, the descent to which was most perilous without remedy. And below, at the very bottom, was a river of deep water with an extremely fast current. And a little further on, they found a pond full of water, over which was

completed by R. M. Thomson and M. Winterbottom, Gesta regum Anglorum/The History of the English Kings (Oxford and New York: Clarendon Press, 1998). The story with the same details is also given in Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum Historiale, Book 24, c. 99, pp. 997-98. See generally David Rollo, Glamorous Sorcery: Magic and Literacy in the High Middle Ages (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), pp. 3-20. Gerbert was also believed to have made a brass head, which could give yes or no answers to questions. This legend occurs in Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum Historiale, Book 24, Ch. 100, p. 998. Such heads were also associated with Robert Grosseteste, Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, and other medieval scientists; one gives Brasenose College, Oxford, its name. See Kevin LaGrandeur, «The Talking Brass Head as a Symbol of Dangerous Knowledge in Friar Bacon and in Alphonsus, King of Aragon,» English Studies 80 (1999): 408-22, and Sarah Lynn Higley, «The Legend of the Learned Man’s Android,» in Thomas Hahn and Alan Lupack, eds., Retelling Tales: Essays in Honor of Russell Peck (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 1997), pp. 127-60. Automata were also a feature of travel writing, as for example in Johannes Witte de Hese’s Itinerarius, ed. Westrem; see pp. 218 and 257 for an example of an automaton guard in the land of Prester John and for discussion.

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roidement courant. Et en allant plus avant trouverent ung estang plain deau sur lequel avoit ung pont darain. Et oultre ilz trouverent chevaulx dor. Et ceulx qui dessus estoient estoient de fin or massis. Et plusieurs autres tresors infiniz la trouverent, mais ung petit pont darain leur failloit passer avant que cestes richesses peussent avoir ne acquirir. Si advint que lung deulx se advenca pour 89v/ cuyder passer ledit pont et en mettant le pie dessus la premiere rive dudit pont. Tantost il saillit ung grant villain de cuivre qui tenoit ung grant mail de fer dequoy il batoit leau et fist telle commocion et tempeste que leau fut toute trouble. Et fut la clere beaulte du jour muee en obscurte hideuse. Tantost celuy compaignon pour la grant peur quil eut retira son pie hors de lentree du pont. Et tantost la peureuse tenebrosite fut enluminee. Et apparut ou ciel toute doulce sirenite acoustumee. Ainsi se departirent iceulx compaignons tous descouragiez, et de tous iceulx grans tresors riens ne emporterent.790 Item dit Plinius que moult diceulx tresors sont mucis sur les montaignes qui la sont reservez jusques au temps de lAntecrist. Et nous met exemple de celuy a qui le diable dist «Quant tu telz tresors treuves, tu ne les puis avoir ne possider car amy Antecrist qui brief viendra qui a ces bons amys lors les departira.»791 Item dit Plinius que en Appule pres de Napples comme dit la commune et anciene oppinion audessoubz les montaignes sont grans et nobles palays ou moult a de grans tresors qui la sont par enchantement cachiez et muciez par science dyabolique, lesquelz sont es hommes impossibles a treuver. Cest aussidit que le dyable souvent fait aucuns signes que en aucuns lieux semblent estre tresors muciez pour les hommes simples decevoir. Et pour leur faire perdre leur temps les occuper inutillement. Et pour leur donner poyne et soulcy. Especialement a ceulx quil voit estre oyseulx et de vain couraige et avaricieulx.792 Item dit Plinius que Virgille anciennement fist ung feu qui estoit tousjours durable et ne povoit on treuver homme qui le peust estaindre. Auquel feu qui estoit commun chacun se povoit chauffer sans reffus. Et a lopposite du feu avoit ung archier qui tenoit ung

a bronze bridge. And beyond that, they found golden horses. And those that were above were of fine solid gold. And they found many other infinite treasures there, but they needed to cross a small bronze bridge before they could have or acquire these riches. Then it happened that one of them came forward presuming to cross the bridge and put his foot on the first plank of the bridge. Immediately a burly rustic of copper leapt out, holding a great hammer of iron with which he beat the water and made such a great commotion and storm that the water became all muddied and turbulent. And the clear beauty of the day was changed into hideous darkness. Right away, because of the great fear he had, this member of the party withdrew his foot from the entrance of the bridge. And just as quickly, the fearful darkness was illuminated. And there appeared in the sky the sweet serenity that was customary. And thus the band of companions departed all discouraged, and they did not carry off any of all these great treasures. Pliny says that many of these treasures are hidden in the mountains that are reserved there until the time of the Antichrist. And he gives us the example of the man to whom the devil said, «When you find such treasures, you cannot have or possess them, for Friend Antichrist will come soon, who will distribute them to his good friends at that time.» Pliny says that in Apulia near Naples, as the common and ancient opinion says, there are great and noble palaces under the mountains, where there are many great treasures that are hidden there by enchantment and concealed by diabolical science, and they are impossible for men to find. It is also said that the devils often make signs that there seem to be treasures hidden in some places, simply to deceive simple men—and in order to make them waste their time and occupy themselves futilely. And to give them pain and cares, especially those that he sees to be lazy and weak in courage and avaricious. Pliny says that Virgil long ago made a fire that lasted forever, and no one could find a man who could extinguish it. And at this fire, that was common to all, every person could warm himself without being turned away. And opposite the fire was an archer who held a drawn bow and an arrow nocked to the string. And it

Not in NH. Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum Historiale, Book 24, Ch. 100, p. 998. The story of the «Treasure of Octavian» was widespread. It appears, for example, in William of Malmesbury. See generally, Robert Brentano, Rome Before Avignon: A Social History of Thirteenth-Century Rome (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991), pp. 74-75; Arturo Graf, Roma nella memoria e nelle immaginazioni del medio evo, I (Turin: Loescher, 1882), «I tesori di Roma,» 152-181; and Charles Till Davis, Dante and the Idea of Rome (Oxford: Clarendon, 1957), particularly 1-22, 33-34. Most recently on this story, as well as the earlier one about Pope Gerbert, see Elly R. Truitt, «Fictions of Life and Death: Tomb automata in medieval romance,» Postmedieval: A Journal of Medieval Cultural Studies 1 (Spring/Summer 2010): 194-98, and the same author’s «‘Trei poete, sages dotors, qui mout sorent di nigromance’: Knowledge and Automata in Twelfth-Century French Literature,» Configurations 12.2 (2004): 167-93, and generally Silvio A. Bedini, «The Role of Automata in the History of Technology,» Technology and Culture 4 (1964): 24-42. 791 Not NH. 792 Not NH. 790

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arc tendu et la fleiche mise en la corde. Et portoit une telle escripture ou il yavoit ainsi escript: «Quiconques me fierra je trairay ma fleiche.» Si advint long temps apres que ung fol frappa ledit archier. Lors larchier laissa larc descendre et envoya la fleiche droit au feu. Et quant larc fut descendu le feu qui par avant naturellement ne povoit estre estaint. Et tellement que oncques puis ny fut veu ne trouve feu ardant.793

bore an inscription where it was written as follows: «Whoever strikes me, I will fire my arrow.» And so it happened a long time later that a fool struck the said archer. Then the archer lowered the bow and sent the arrow straight into the fire. And when the bow was lowered, [it struck] the fire that before could not naturally be extinguished. And it struck in such a way that there was never again seen there any trace or evidence of a burning fire.

71) [Merveilles de venin] Venin est en diverses choses merveilleusement treuve comme dit Plinius en son second livre ou xvie chappitre. Et dit quil est ung lieu qui est appelle la vallee des Chorcans ou sont troys fontaines dont leau est moult perilleuse a boire et est mortelle sans aucun remede. Et toutesfoiz combien que leau soit doulce et plaisante a boire, neantmoins elle octist ceulx qui en boivent [irremediablement].794 Item dit Plinius que en Ethiopie en la montaigne de Athon les habitans du pais ne vivent et ne mengent autre viande que serpens et vipperes. Et pource nulle autre beste venimeuse ne leur peut nuyre ne deulx approucher a leurs robes ou aucunement autres choses toucher. Ainsi conclut Plinius que ceulx qui sont nourriz de venin sont de tout venin asseurez.795 Item dit Plinius que moult ya de fontaines venimeuses qui sont a boire moult perilleuses et mortelles dont les poissons ne sont pas mauvais ne venimeulx. Excepte le torrant de stige qui est en la terre dArchadie qui est seul en ceste condicion. Car leau en est mortelle a ceulx qui la boivent. Et les poissons sont 90/ perilleusement mortelz a mengier. Et recite Plinius que en Armenie a une fontaine dont les poissons sont noirs et mauvais et mortelz a ceulx qui en mengent.796 Item dit Plinius que le grant fleuve appelle Dan a son commancement est de telle condicion que les poissons en sont perilleux a mengier. Jusques a une fontaine qui vient de lopposite qui cheut dedans. Et audessoubz les poissons sont proffitables et sains a mengier.797 Item dit Plinus que le cas pareil est en Lidie en lestang de Romphare dont les poissons venimeulx sont a mengier.798

Chapter 71 (Marvels of Poison) Poisons are found in diverse things in marvelous ways, as Pliny says in his second book in the sixteenth chapter. And he says there is a place called the valley of the Chorcans where there are three springs whose water is exceedingly dangerous to drink and is mortal without any remedy. And even though the water may be sweet and pleasing to drink, nonetheless it kills those who drink of it, irremediably. Pliny says that in Ethiopia, on the mountain of Athon, the inhabitants of the country do not live on or eat any other food than serpents and vipers. And because of this, no other poisonous animal can harm them or get near their clothing or touch any other thing of theirs. Thus, Pliny concludes that those who have been nourished on poison are safe from all poisons. Pliny says that there are many venomous springs from which it is most perilous and fatal to drink, yet the fish that come from them are not bad or poisonous. The exception is the torrent of Stige, which is in the land of Arcadia and is the only one of this type. For its water is fatal to those who drink it. And the fish are marvelously fatal to eat. And Pliny reports that in Armenia there is a spring where the fish are black and bad and mortal to those who eat them. Pliny says that in the great river called Dan, its headwaters are of such a condition that the fish there are perilous to eat, as far down as a spring that comes from the opposite side and falls into the river. And below that area, the fish are healthy and nourishing to eat. Pliny says that the same thing is true in Lydia in the pool of Romphare, where the fish are poisonous to eat.

On these legends of Virgil see Spargo, Virgil the Necromancer. This is a garbled account of NH 2.106, p. 359. 795 NH 7.2, p. 525. 796 NH 31.19, p. 393. 797 NH 31.19, p. 393. 798 Stagno Nympharum in NH 31.19, p. 393. 793 794

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Item dit Plinius que en ce mesme pais de Lidie est une fontaine qui sourt et yst de la mer appellee Lychos. Et combien quelle soit doulce si homme en boit troys foyz il mourra tantost.799 Item dit Plinius que pres de la est une fontaine sourdant entre les undes de la mer dont leau est doulce a boire es hommes et es femmes mes es oyseaulx elle est mortelle a boire.800 Item il dit quil est une fontaine ou pays de Thessalie qui est moult espouentable et terrible a tous ceulx qui la regardent dont est si tresvenimeuse et corosive quelle runge et use le fer et larain qui est leans gecte.801 Item dit Plinus que en Macedonne pres du sepulcre de Empedis a deux fontaines qui sont de contraires condicions. Car lune est tresbonne et profitable a boire. Et lautre est tresperilleuse et mortelle.802 Item dit Plinius en son livre ou liiiie chappitre que aucunes bestes sont dont leur alayne et aspiracion et aussi leur atouchement est naturellement perilleux et mortel venin es hommes. Et nous met exemple du lyon qui tant a mauvaise alayne envenimee. Car elle empoisonne ceulx qui la sentent et griesvement leur nuist.803 Item pareillement est il de lours qui souvent est cause de la mort a ceulx qui de son alayne sont frappez comme silz estoient expedimiez. Et pource dit Plinius despuis que le lyon aura alayne aucune chose jamais autre beste ny touchera ne nen mengera.804 Item Plinius dit que toute chose soit char ou autre viande qui sera alaynee du lyon tantost sera corrumpue et puante.805 Item dit Plinius que aucunes bestes sont de leur propre nature et condicion bonnes, saines, et sans venin, qui aucunesfoiz par aucun accident deviennent venineuses. Et nous met exemple des mouches qui sont venimeuses quant elles ont mengie venin. Et dit aussi que quant les guespes ont mengie des serpens mors elles sont mortellement venimeuses.806 Item dit Plinius que les sangliers qui sont es royaumes de Pamphile et de Cecille lesquelz sont es montaignes ne sont nourriz ne ne mengent que serpens et salamendres et nen sentent aucun mal. Mes tous ceulx qui de la char diceulx sangliers mengent se treuvent empoisonnez et en peril de mort.807

Pliny says that in the same country of Lydia is a fountain that rises and issues from the sea called Lychos. And even though it seems to be sweet water, if a man drinks it three times he will die very soon. Pliny said that near there is a spring arising among the waves of the sea, whose water is fresh to drink for men and women but for birds it is mortal to drink. He says that there is a fountain in the country of Thessaly that is extremely frightful and terrible to all those who look at it, and it is so poisonous and corrosive that it eats away at and consumes any iron and bronze thrown into it. Pliny says that in Macedonia near the tomb of Empedis are two springs that are of contrary conditions. For one is very good and healthful to drink and the other is very perilous and mortal. Pliny says in his book in the fifty-fourth chapter that there are some animals whose breath and aspiration and even their touch is naturally perilous and mortal venom for men. And he offers us the example of the lion, which has such bad poisoned breath. For it poisons those who smell it and grievously injures them. A similar case is that of the bear, which often is a cause of death to those struck by its breath as if they were being dispatched. And accordingly Pliny says that after a lion has breathed on anything, no other animal will ever touch it or eat it. Pliny says that everything, whether flesh or other food, that the lion breathes on will immediately be corrupted and stinking. Pliny says that some animals of their own nature and condition are good, healthy, and without poison, but sometimes by some accident they become poisonous. And he gives us the example of flies, which are poisonous when they have eaten poison. And he says also that when wasps have eaten dead snakes they are mortally poisonous. Pliny says that the boars that are in the realms of Pamphylia and Sicily, which live in the mountains, nourish themselves and eat only serpents and salamanders and do not feel any the worse for it. But all those that eat the flesh of these boars find themselves poisoned and in danger of death.

NH 31.19, p. 393. Generally NH 31.19, p. 393. 801 NH 31.19, pp. 393-395. 802 The Tomb of Euripides in NH 31.19, p. 395. 803 NH 11.115, p. 607. 804 NH 11.115, p. 607. 805 NH 11.115, p. 607. 806 NH 11.116, p. 609. 807 NH 11.116, p. 609. 799 800

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Item dit Plinius que ceulx de Scicie sont coustumiers quant ilz vont a lassault dune cite ou en guerre de tremper les fers de leurs traitz et fleiches en sang domme avec sang de vipere. Et au premier coup sont occis ceulx qui de leur traict sont feruz sans nul remede.808 Item dit Plinius que aucunes bestes sont qui mengent venin et point ne leur nuyst ne aussi a ceulx qui de cestes bestes mengent comme il appert du cerf qui naturellement pour soy guerir transglotist les serpens.809 Item aussi le chappon combien quil mengeue et devore les petiz crappaulx ja pource il nen vault pis en riens ne nuyst a ceulx qui le chappon mengeussent.810 Item pareillement le olephant actrat de son alayne le serpent et point ne luy nuyst, car nature est en 90v/ celles bestes si forte et de si grant effect en vertu et en digestion quilz convertissent en leur nourrissement toutes manieres de viandes.811 Item aussi les bestes venineuses ont aucunesfoiz aucuns remedes en eulx naturelz. Comme appert du crappault qui porte la vertueuse pierre nommee crappaudine qui tant vault contre les venins.812 Item dit Plinius que les serpens naturellement ont tel entendement que il[s] entendent la voiz des gens dessoubz diz et les craignent et doubtent quilz soient par eulx prins et enchantez. Et quant ilz les oyent parler ou chanter, lors hastivement ilz sen fuient et se mettent en leurs retraiz.813 Item dit Plinius quil est aucunes generacions dommes et de lignees qui naturellement resistent contre les venins et esque[ul]x nul venin ne peut nuyre. Comme sont les Marsius en Ytalie, les Parsilles en Affricque, les Oblegenes en lisle de Chippre. Comme a este dit et recite dessus par avant en leurs lieux.814 Item dit Plinius en son xxviiie que la generacion ou lignee des Oblegenes de Chippre est asseuree entre les serpens. Et ne leur ousent les serpens mal faire aucunement. Ainsi est la salive et sueur des gens dessus nommez naturellement contraire es serpens dessusdits. Et dit Plinius que jadiz les Cippriens envoirent par devers les Rommains certains embassadeurs et messagiers qui estoient de

Pliny says that the people of Scythia have a custom that when they go to besiege a city or go into a war, they dip the iron of their arrows and bolts in the blood of a man along with blood of a viper. And at the first shot, those who are struck by these projectiles are killed without remedy. Pliny says that there are some animals that eat poison and are not bothered by it, and also those who eat these animals, as appears in the case of the stag, who naturally cures itself of illness by swallowing serpents. Also the capon, although he eats and devours small toads, is never the worse for it, and those who eat the capon are not bothered. Similarly the elephant attracts with his breath the serpent and is not injured by it, for nature is so strong in these beasts and has such great effect on their powers and their digestion that they convert into nourishment all manner of foods. Also poisonous animals sometimes have natural remedies within themselves. This is apparent in the case of the toad, that bears the powerful stone called «toadstone» which is so useful against poisons. Pliny say that the snakes have such natural intelligence that they hear the voice of men from below and fear them and dread that they will be taken by them and enchanted. And when they hear them speak or sing, they hastily flee and take to their hiding places. Pliny says that there are some generations and tribes of men who have a natural resistance against poisons and no venom can hurt them. Among these are the Marsius in Italy, the Parsiles in Africa, and the Obligens on the isle of Cyprus. As has previously been said and reported above with respect to these places. Pliny says in his twenty-eighth book that the generations or tribes of the Obligens of Cyprus are safe among serpents. And serpents do not dare harm them at all. The saliva and sweat of the men named above is, as it were, naturally contrary to these serpents. And Pliny says that long ago the Cyprians sent to the Romans certain ambassadors and messengers who were of the race mentioned

NH 11.115, p. 609. The stag is here conflated with a race of men who suck poison. NH 11.115, p. 609. 810 NH 11.116, p. 609. 811 NH 11.115, p. 609. 812 This story was later elaborated from a brief reference to «batrachitas» in NH 11.55, p. 285, but see Thomas R. Forbes, «Lapis Bufonis: The Growth and Decline of a Medical Superstition,» Yale Journal for Biology and Medicine 45 (1972):139-49. 813 NH 11.35, p. 63. 814 NH 28.6, p. 23. 808 809

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la lignee dessusdicte. Et pour ce que la volunte et curosite des Rommains moult desiroit experimenter sil estoit vray que celle lignee dessusdicte feust ainsi privilegiee par le droit de nature que serpens ne autres bestes venineuses navoient point de puissance sur eulx de leur mal faire, ilz furent mis tous nudz en caves plaines de serpens qui oncques ne leur firent et navoit puissance de leur faire aucun mal, aincois leur lecheoient les piez en signe de reverance et leur fasoient tel honneur comme leur industrie le leur apprenoit.815 Item dit Plinius que en lisle du fleuve dEgipte appelle le Nile a une lignee dicte les Cuitines dont ceulx qui sont nez en ladicte ysle qui sont de Cuitines sont asseures entre les cocodrilles. Et qui plus est ilz sont es cocodrilles plus espouentables que nest fouldre ou tempeste. Et seulement la presence des Cuitins ne leur est pas du tout espouentable, mais encore si de loing ung cocodrille oit la voix de ung Cuitin tantost il sen fuira tant comme il pourra aller loing comme pour soy evader hors de la voye de son ennemy mortel de laquelle chose il seroit tout au fait contraire contre tous autres hommes furieusement orgueilleux mortels et venimieulx ennemy adversaire.816 Item dit Plinius que les gens des lignees dessusdictes comme des Marcius et Parsilles et Oblogenes et Cuitins sont contre tous venins contraires. Et aufait contraire sont remede souverain contre tous venins seulement par leur atouchement. Et qui plus est dont cest grant merveille. Tous ceulx qui sont mors et bleciez par serpens quant ceulx des lignees dessusdictes seurviennent sur eulx seulement par la vertu de leur regart ou presence ilz sont tous recomfortez et leur adoulcissent et amendrissent tous leurs maulx et douleurs.817 Item dit Plinius que ceulx qui ont este autresfoiz mors et bleciez des escorpions et depuis apres gueriz ont naturellement plus grant vertu que autres gens de resister contre venin et ne sont pas legierement de celles bestes mors ne bleciez. Et pour ce dit Plinius que venin est souvent contraire a venin. Et nous met 91/ exemple de ceulx qui sont mors descorpions qui sont asseurez que jamais ne seront mors des escharbos, ne de guespes, ne de mouches a miel, ne dautres mouches, ne de menues bestes venimeuses. Et qui plus est dit Plinius que la laveure des mains de ceulx qui autresfoiz ont este mors de bestes venimeuses et apres gueriz moult vault a ceulx qui de nouvel sont de celles bestes mors et bleciez. Et moult grandement leur alliege et adoulcist leurs maulx celle eau quant elle est sur eulx gectee.818

above. And because the will and curiosity of the Romans gave them a great desire to experiment to see if it was true that this tribe was so privileged by the laws of nature that neither serpents nor other poisonous animals had any power over them to do them harm, these messengers were put completely naked into caves full of serpents who never did nor ever had power to do them any harm, but, rather, licked their feet as signs of reverence and paid them such honor as their diligence taught them to do. Pliny says that on the island of the river in Egypt called the Nile is a tribe called the Cuitines, and those who were born on the island from this line of Cuitines are safe among crocodiles. And, moreover, they are more frightening to the crocodiles than storms and tempests. And the mere presence of a Cuitine is not at all frightening to them, but still, if a crocodile hears the voice of a Cuitine from afar, immediately he flees as far as he can go, in order to get out of the range of the voice of his mortal enemy—a thing that he would be completely contrary to doing against all other men, ragingly proud mortals and poisonous enemy adversary. Pliny says that the people of the tribes just mentioned above, like the Marcius and Parsiles and Obligens and Cuitins, are all adverse to all poisons. And, on the contrary, they are a powerful remedy against all poisons solely by means of their touch—and even beyond this, there is a very great marvel. All those who are bitten and wounded by snakes, when members of those tribes just mentioned happen upon them, only by virtue of their glance or presence [the wounded] are comforted, and all their pains and illnesses are relieved and made better. Pliny says that those who have previously been bitten or wounded by scorpions and then afterwards cured naturally have a greater power than other men to resist venom and are not easily bitten or wounded by these creatures. And for this reason, Pliny says venom is often contrary to venom. And he gives us the example of those who are bitten by scorpions who are made safe against ever being bitten by beetles or wasps or honey flies or other flies or small venomous animals. And what’s more, Pliny says that the hand-washing water used by those who have previously been bitten by poisonous animals and afterwards cured has great value for those who have just been bitten or wounded by these beasts. And this water will vastly relieve and lessen their pain when it is thrown on them.

NH 28.6, pp. 23-25. NH 8.37, pp. 67-69. 817 NH 28.6, pp. 23-27. 818 NH 11.115-116, p. 609. 815 816

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Item dit Plinius que tout au fait contraire est il de ceulx qui oncques ne furent des serpens ne dautres bestes venimeuses mors ne bleciez. Car a leur entree ou venue sur ceulx qui sont mors ou bleciez de serpens ilz aggravent leurs douleurs et leurs plaies et leur renouvellent et acroissent leurs angoisses.819 Item dit Plinius que robe qui aura touche a la charoigne du serpent mort, jamais ne sera endomagee ne rungiee de taignes.820 Item dit Plinius que si aucun meurt dune maladie appellee cordiata et est la maladie telle que le cuer tramble tousjours ou ventre jamais tel cuer ne peut estre ars en feu ainsi meure incremable.821 Item dit Plinius que generalement est il de ceulx qui meurent de venin car leur cuer ne sera jamais ars pose quil feust tousjours en feu ardant. Et nous mect exemple Plinius de Auguste le Germanique dont le corps fut tout ars excepte le cuer. Et quant Vitellius son serviteur fut accuse quil avoit son maistre empoisonne, puisque le cuer de luy ne povoit ardre, il se sauva en alleguant la passion cordique dont il avoit en la douleur de la mort. Et par ainsi il fut absolz de la suspection dont il estoit accuse.822 Item dit Plinius que maistre Rasis allegue en son livre de medicine que cuer humain qui est mis a mort par venin ne peut ardre en feu. Et dit que si tel cuer est tenu par lespace de vii ans en ung grant feu ou fournaise ardant continuellement iceluy cuer sera converti en une pierre laquelle merveilleusement vault contre tout venin, contre fouldre et tempeste et tonnaires. Et rend celuy ou celle qui la porte tout asseure en telz perilz. Et si donne a homme qui la porte sur soy victoire contre son adversaire.823 Item dit Plinius que Alixandre le Grant tousjours portoit sur soy une telle pierre dont il estoit moult hardy et asseure en tous lieux ou il alloit. Si advint ung jour que Alixandre se despoilla de tous ses vestemens pour soy baigner tout nu ou fleuve de lEufrathes. Si saillit pres de la ung serpent qui la robe de Alixandre emporta en laquelle estoit ladicte pierre. Et de celle perte fut moult doulant le roy Alixandre. Et dit maistre Pasis que cestoit maistre Grimoart le Cornu que estoit moult courroucie et envieulx de ce que homme avoit et portoit sur luy si riche et si puissant tresor contre tous perilz.

Pliny says that the complete opposite occurs with those who were never bitten or wounded by serpents or other venomous animals. For at their entry or arrival among those who have been bitten or wounded by snakes, they aggravate their pain and their wounds and renew and increase their anguish. Pliny says that a garment that has touched the carcass of a dead serpent will never be damaged or ruined by moths. Pliny says that if anyone dies of a malady called Cordiata and the malady is such that the heart always trembles in the belly, never can such a heart be burned in a fire, and thus, upon death, the person cannot be cremated. Pliny says that this is generally the case with those who die of poison, for their hearts can never be burned even if placed in a burning fire forever. And Pliny gives us the example of Augustus Germanicus, whose body was all burnt except the heart. And when Vitellius his servant was accused of having poisoned his master, since his heart could not be burned, he saved himself by alleging that his master had had a heart attack in the agony of death. And by this means, he was absolved of the suspicion of which he had been accused. Pliny says that Master Rasis claims in his book of medicine that the human heart of a person who has been put to death by poison cannot be burned in a fire. And he says that if such a heart is held for a period of seven years in a great fire or furnace, burning continually, this heart will be converted into a stone that is marvelously valuable against all poison, and against thunder and lightning and storms. And it renders the man or woman who carries it completely safe against such perils. And it also gives the man who bears it on his person victory over his adversary. Pliny says that Alexander the Great always bore such a stone on his person, because of which he was most bold and assured in all the places he went. And so it happened one day that Alexander removed all his clothes in order to bathe naked in the Euphrates River. And then, nearby, out came a serpent, who carried off Alexander’s gown, in which was the above-mentioned stone. And King Alexander was very sorrowful about the loss of his stone. And Master Pasis says this was Master Grimouart the Horned, who was most angry and envious that a man had and bore on his person so

NH 11.115-116, p. 609. Generally NH 29.21-22, p. 229. 821 NH 11.71, p. 549. 822 NH 11.71, p. 549. 823 The Persian physician, philosopher, and alchemist Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi, called Rhazes or Rasis (864-930 AD), could not have been known to Pliny. He did write a treatise on diseases of the heart, Dar Hey’ateh Ghalb. See Sarah Stroumsa, Freethinkers of Medieval Islam (Boston, MA, and Leiden: Brill, 1999). 819 820

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Et pour ce il se transfigura en ung serpent et luy embla et tollut icelle riche pierre et pour le courrouz dicelle pierre le roy Alixandre perdit la moitie de son couraige et de sa riant fortune. Car pou de temps apres il fut empoisonne et mis a mort sans nul remede trouver.824 Item dit Plinius que en aucunes parties du monde sont les mouches qui font le miel venimeuses. Et aussi le miel qui vient delles est tres venimeulx. Et la cause si est pour ce que les fleurs de herbes du pais sont venimeuses.825 Item dit Plinius que aussi en lisle de Ponton le miel est tresperilleux par raison 91v/ dune herbe qui est venimeuse dont il ya moult grant habondance en icelle isle. Et est appellee icelle herbe «Ecollofron» autrement «la mort es chevaulx.» Et dit Plinius que especiallement quant le printemps est moite lors les mouches sont venimeuses et le miel perilleux.826 Item dit Plinius quil est une herbe qui est tres venimeuse appellee par plusieurs noms. Cest assavoir «aconichon,» «commaron,» «scorpion,» «theolophonon,» et «dachilen.» Ceste herbe croist en la terre de Heraclee. Et si na que quatre fueilles qui sont semblables de facon et de grandeur a fueilles de cucumeres. Le venin de ceste herbe est si fort et si mauvais que si on gecte de celle herbe sur les parties secretes de quelque beste femelles que ce soit tantost et hastivement elle mourra cellui jour sans nul remede.827 Item lodeur et le flereur dicelle herbe seulement fait mourrir les raz et souriz.828 Item ceste herbe merveilleusement vault contre morsure descorpion. Et Plinius dit que quant tu seras mors descorpion, broye tantost et destrempe dicelle herbe et boy du jus et tantost tu seras preserve et guery du peril de mort. Car la naturelle propriete de celle herbe si est de mortellement envenimer homme qui la mengeue ou boit si elle treuve en lomme aucun venin contre lequel elle se prent et le guerroie en delivrant et guerissant lomme qui est envenime.829

rich and so powerful a treasure against all perils. And so he changed himself into a serpent and stole and carried off from him this rich stone, and because of his rage over this stone, Alexander lost half his courage and his smiling good fortune. For shortly afterwards, he was poisoned and put to death without finding any remedy. Pliny says that in certain parts of the world there are honeyproducing flies that are poisonous. And also the honey that come from them is very toxic. And the explanation is that the flowers on the plants of the country are toxic. Pliny says that also on the island of Ponton the honey is very dangerous because of a plant that is poisonous, of which there is a great abundance on this island. And this plant is called Ecollofron, otherwise known as Death to Horses. And Pliny says that especially when the spring time is moist, then the flies are poisonous and the honey dangerous. Pliny said that there is a plant that is very poisonous that is called by several names. That is to say, Aconichon, Commaron, Scorpion, Theolophonon, and Dachilen. This plant grows in the land of Heraclea. And it has only four leaves, which are similar in size and shape to those of the cucumber. The poison of this plant is so strong and so bad that if one throws some of this plant on the genitalia of any sort of female animal, immediately and quickly she will die that very day with no possible remedy. The odor and scent alone of this plant kills rats and mice. This plant is marvelously valuable against scorpion bite. And Pliny says that when you are bitten by a scorpion, quickly pound and soak this plant and drink the resulting juice and immediately you will be saved and cured from the peril of death. For the natural property of this plant is such that, for a mortally poisoned man who eats or drinks it, if it finds in the man any poison, it reacts against it and cures him, delivering and curing the man who is poisoned.

Mormorion, a dark Indian stone, is associated with Alexander in NH 37.63, p. 305, but no such story is offered. Another possibility is the story of Alexander’s demand for tribute from a mysterious Asian city. He is presented with a stone in the form of a human eye, a stone which teaches him his own mortality. See David J. A. Ross, Studies in the Alexander Romance (London: Pindar, 1985), pp. 264-65. Grimouart was an evil son of Pepin in the Charlemagne cycle; it is hard to see how or why he could be connected with Alexander the Great here unless he is mentioned simply by metonymy for Satan, the «horned one.» Pasis is most probably Rasis; see Item above. 825 NH 21.45, p. 217. 826 NH 21.45, p. 217. The toxic effects of Pontic azalea in honey have been much studied. See James A. Kelhoffer, «John the Baptist’s ‘Wild Honey’ and ‘Honey’ in Antiquity,» Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 45 (2005): 59-73. We are most grateful to Molly A. Jones-Lewis for access to her unpublished article «Poison: Nature’s Argument for the Roman Empire in Pliny’s Naturalis Historia.» The article contains very convenient tables of the various poisons mentioned by Pliny and often cited by the Translator. 827 Aconite in NH 27.2, p. 391. 828 NH 27.2, p. 395. 829 NH 27.2, pp. 391-395. 824

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72) [Merveilles de choses monstrueuses] Monstrueuses choses en nature sont a merveiller. Car comme parle et recite Plinius. Et dit quil sont aucune espece de gens nommes Cyclopes qui jadiz habiterent en Cecille et navoient que ung oeil ou milieu du front. Et aucuns les appelloient Arismapes, desquelz a este parle cy dessus ou chappitre de Ytalie. Et de celle espece de gens parle Gervasius. Et dit que les anciens poetes escrivrent en leurs livres par maniere de fiction que pour ce quilz estoient es montaignes ardans de Cecille ou le feu est ardent continuellement, ilz disoient quilz estoient les feuvres et mareschaulx de Jupiter qui forgeoient les fouldres et tempestes quilz envoient sur terre quant il vouloit par conseil des autres dieux. Sagictaire est ung monstre moult merveilleux et est une beste composee moitie de homme et moitee cheval. La premiere porcion de devant est homme et la derniere est cheval du quel la face est moult terrible et espouventable a regarder. Et de sa nature il est treshabile et coustumier a tirer de larc. Et se scet de soy mesmes bien emploier a tirer de larc.830 Et de tel monstre fait mencion Histoire de Troie le Grant, ou il dit que ung Sagictaire fut admene en bataille contre les Gregeois es quelz il fist moult grant peur et moult grant dommaige. Mais finablement Achiles le preux et vaillant chevalier obtint contre luy victoire et le occist.831 Antropofagues sont hommes sauvaiges qui vivent de char humaine et se mengent lung lautre. Et combien que en plusieurs regions et diverses parties du monde soient veuz telz monstrez en diverses qualitez. Especialement il est une vallee tresgrande et spacieuse en la grant region de Scitie pres de la montaigne de Abarrimorn en laquelle habitent telz gens sauvaiges que devourant et mengent lung lautre et boivent pour leur bervaige le sang des corps humains et ont les piez renversez par derriere. Et vont et courent plus tost que ne pourroit faire ung cerf ne ung dain et vivent bestiellement et conversent familierement avecques les bestes sauvaiges. Car en autre air ne en autre pais ne en autre region ilz ne pourroient vivre si non en ladicte vallee. Comme il a plusieurs foiz este experimente de au- 92/ cuns hommes sauvaiges dicelle contree qui ont estez presentez es roys et es princes de regions, lesquelz nont peu estre portez tous

Chapter 72 (On Monstrosity) Monstrous things in nature are to be marveled at. For as Pliny says and tells, there is a race of men called Cyclopes who formerly lived in Sicily and had only one eye in the middle of the forehead. And others called them Arismapes, about which something has been said above in the chapter on Italy. And Gervaise speaks about this race of people. And he says that the ancient poets wrote in their books, in a fictional mode, that because they were in the burning mountains of Sicily, where the fire is continually burning, they said they were the blacksmiths and marshals of Jupiter who forged the lightening and the storms he sent to earth when he desired the counsel of the other gods. Sagittarius is a most marvelous monster and is a beast composed half of man and half of horse. The front portion is man and the back is horse, and the face is most terrible and frightening to look at. And by his nature, he is very skillful with, and accustomed to the practice of using, a bow and arrow. And he knows, without any training, how to draw the bow effectively. And The History of Troy the Great makes mention of such a monster where it says that a Sagittarius was led into battle against the Greeks, to whom he brought great fear and great damage. But finally Achilles, the proud valiant knight, won victory over him and killed him. Anthropophagi are savage men who live on human flesh and eat one another. And although such monsters might be seen in many regions and diverse parts of the world, there is, in particular, one very large and wide valley in the great region of Scythia, near the mountain of Abarrimorn, in which there live such savage people who eat and devour one another and drink, as their beverage, the blood from human bodies and have feet that are turned backwards. And they walk and run more quickly than a stag or a doe, and they live like beasts and converse in a friendly way with wild animals. And indeed they would be unable to live in any other atmosphere or other country or other region, if not in this valley, as has been shown experimentally several times with some wild men of this country who have been presented to kings and princes from other regions and who have not been able to be carried alive outside

830 Banks and Binns, II.3, p. 187. See on medieval Euhemerism, the view that the pagan deities were actually unusual men deified by their fellows for some outstanding invention or contribution such as skill in archery as here, John Daniel Cooke, «Euhemerism: A Mediaeval Interpretation of Classical Paganism,» Speculum 2 (1927): 396-410; and Paul Alphandery, «L’Euhemerisme et les débuts de l’histoire des religions au Moyen Age,» Revue de l’histoire des religions 119 ( 1934): 5-27; Jean Seznec, The Survival of the Pagan Gods, trans., B. F. Sessions (New York: Bollingen, 1953), pp. 11-26, and more recently Marek Winiarczyk, Euhemeros von Messene. Leben, Werk und Nachwirkung (Munich and Leipzig: K. G. Saur, 2002). 831 Sagittarius from antiquity is associated with the benevolent centaur Chiron who was not the enemy of Achilles but his tutor. It is possible that an earlier version of the Troy story as told by Raoul Le Fevre in 1464, where the centaur is a Trojan ally, frightening the Greeks and killing many with his bow and arrow, may lie behind this incident. See Page duBois, Centaurs and Amazons (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1982); John B. Vickery, «The Centaur Myth, History and Narrative,» Modern Fiction Studies 20 (1974): 29-43; and Elizabeth Atwood Lawrence, «The Centaur: Its History and Meaning in Human Culture,» Journal of Popular Culture 27 (1994): 57-68.

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vifs hors de leurs pais. Comme tesmoigne Bethon le messagier de Alixandre qui estoit compaignon de faire tous ses voyaiges comme dit Plinius en son viie livre ou iiie chappitre.832 Item dit Plinius en le mesme livre dessus dit que ung docteur appelle Collifane allegue et dit quilz sont aucuns peuples appelles Androgines qui sont bien prochains de la terre dAffricque lesquelz sont de moult merveilleuse condicion quant a leur sexe et engendrement. Car ilz sont partie masles et partie femelles. Et ont les hanches et les cuisses entrelaciees et si joinctes que deux corps, domme et de femme, ne sont que une [beste] figuree allant et venant. Desquelz parle Aristote le saige et dit que ceste gent ont telle commiscion que la mamelle destre est a lomme et la mamelle senestre est a la femme. Ad ce propos saccorde la fiction de la fable de Ovide ou il dit que une personne fut ensemble masle et femelle qui estoit appelle Hermofrodite. Et fut suppose que ung juvencel et une juvencelle se baignerent ensemble ou lac de Salmate. Et pour la grant amour de ung chascun deulx dont ilz aimoient lung lautre, car ilz sentraimoient autant lung lautre ou plus que chascun faisoit soy mesmes tant estoient leurs cueurs joings ensemble sans jamais desjoindre. Et que les deux corps ne fussent que une personne aians les membrez secretz de masle et de femelle.833 Item dit Plinius en son viie livre que en Inde sont les Coromandres qui sont hommes sauvaiges et ont les corps veluz comme ours, les yeulx grans comme yeulx de beuf, les dens grans et agues comme dents de chien, et la parolle horrible et espouentable.834 Item dit Plinius es son viiie livre que ung docteur appelle Odoze allegue et dit que en la partie devers midy en Inde la maiour sont aucuns hommes appellez Scrutophodes qui ont les plantes des piez grandes et larges bien de deux coudees de long et les femmes les ont trespetites.835 Item dit Plinius que en Etioppie a aucune maniere de gens appellez Mesmymoris qui vivent de lait dautres gens sauvaiges et monstrueulx appelles Cenophales. Ceste gent cy ont le corps tout semblable a corps humain fors que ilz ont teste et facon de chien. Et nourrissent les Cenophales a grans troppeaux comme on fait pardeca les brebiz pour en avoir le lait pour leur vivre. Et tuent les masles excepte aucuns pour faire generacion. Et gardent les femelles pour en avoir le lait comme dit est.836

their native lands. And this is affirmed by Bethon the messenger of Alexander the Great, who was his companion on all his voyages as Pliny said in his seventh book and third chapter. Pliny says in the same book mentioned above that a doctor called Collifane claims and reports that some people called Androgines, who are very near the land of Africa, are of a very marvelous condition as to their sex and generation. For they are part male and part female. And they have their haunches and thighs interlaced and so joined that two bodies, of one man and one woman, are only one creature, configured to be going and coming. Aristotle the wise speaks of them and says that such people are mixed in such a way that the right breast is male and the left breast is female. The story from Ovid’s fables is in agreement on this point where he says that a person was both male and female at the same time and was called Hermaphrodites. And it was supposed that a young man and a young woman bathed together in the lake of Salmate. And because of the great love that each one of them had for the other, because each one loved the other as much or more than they loved themselves, their hearts were so joined together as to never be unjoined. And thus the two bodies made one person having the genitalia of male and female. Pliny says in his seventh book that in India there are Coromanders, who are savage men with bodies as hairy as bears, eyes as large as the eyes of cows, teeth as large and sharp as the teeth of dogs, and speech that is horrible and frightening. Pliny says in his eighth book that a doctor called Odoze alleges and claims that in the parts towards the south of Greater India are some men called Scrutophodes whose feet have great, large soles that are as much as two cubits long, and the women’s are very small. Pliny says that in Ethiopia there is a kind of people called Mesmymoris that live on the milk of other wild and monstrous men called Cenophales. These people have bodies identical to the human body except they have the head and behavior of a dog. And the Cenophales raise sheep in great herds as we do over here, in order to have milk to live on. And they kill the males, except some for purposes of generation. And they keep the females in order to have milk, as has been said.

The Translator conflates Scythian cannibals with the Arismaspi (above), who are not cannibals, and yet another race in the Abarimon, who are backward footed and unable to breathe in any climate but their own. NH 7.2, pp. 513-515. 833 NH 16.76, p. 517. The story of the nymph Salmacis —confused here with the pool— and Hermaphroditus occurs in Metamorphoses, Book IV, ll. 330-72. 834 NH 7.2, p. 523. 835 NH 7.2, p. 523. Not Orosius; possibly Odoricus is meant. 836 NH 7.2, p. 527. 832

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Item dit Plinius que moult advient de merveilles au regard de la porture de femme comme avoir enfans dessemblables et monstrueulx au regart de lordre de nature humaine. Et qui ont aucunesfoiz semblance de beste mue ou qui ont double sexe comme dit a este cy dessus ou qui sont doubles depuis lambouril jusques en amont. Et nous met exemple dune pucelle qui fut nee en Acquitaine et des deux enffans qui furent nez en Normandie qui estoient doubles despuis le bout du dos jusques au hault. Et ainsi estoient deux personnes sur deux jambes seulement dont lung parloit a lautre et estoient de contraires voluntez. Et lung si mourut avant lautre. Et convint neccessairement que la personne vive portast lautre jusques a la mort. Ainsi le tesmoigne Vincent en son Mirouer.837 Item dit Plinius que en Ytalie en fut veu ung qui estoit de contraire qualite et facon. Car il estoit double despuis le nombril jusques en aval. Car il avoit au couste ung corps 92v/ forme dont les piez estoient trespetiz et amenuisez et inutilles.838 Item dit Plinius quil fut une femme en son temps qui enffenta dung serpent. Et fut messagiere par tel monstreueux enffantement et annunceresse de la guerre et division de Marcise.839 Item dit quil fut une autre femme qui enffanta ung ypothaure qui estoit moitie homme et moitie cheval qui mourut le propre jour quil fut ne ainsi comme le raconte Claudius Cesar en ces Actes.840 Item dit Plinius quil fut une dame de Marceille en Provence qui enffenta une langouste de mer. Et mourut entre ses douleurs de son enffantement. Et par ce fut signiffiee la desolacion de la terre de Provence.841 Item dit Plinius que ung docteur appelle Orozes allegue et dit que en Perse ou temps que regnoit Perses lOrgueilleux fut ne et conceu ung regnart dune jument ou millieu de son ost et de ses batailles lequel roy estoit si puissant par terre et par mer quil avoit mille milliers de hommes armez sur terre et quatre mille vesseaulx sur la mer armez de gens darmes et de vivres et dautres gens si grant force et si grant multitude que chascun devant lui se taisoit et se mettoit en sa subgection et luy faisoit humble obeissance et reverence. Et neantmoins par la naissance monstrueuse du regnart qui fut ne de la jument luy fut dit et demonstre que cestoit signifiance de la destruction de Perses. Et que luy et toute sa puissance seroient vaincuz, desconfiz, et destruiz et mis en fuicte. Et tout ainsi comme il luy fut dit il luy advint. Car tantost apres ne demeura gueres que

Pliny says that marvels often occur with regard to the childbirth of women, such as having infants who are dissimilar and monstrous with respect to the order of human nature. And these infants sometimes look like a dumb beast, or have a double sex as has been said above, or are doubled [as conjoined twins] from the navel to the upper parts. And he gives us the examples of a girl who was born in Aquitaine and the two infants who were born in Normandy who were doubled from the bottom of the back to their upper parts. And thus they were two persons on only two legs, where one spoke to the other and they had contrary wills. And one died before the other. And it was necessary for the one who was alive to bear the other until death, as Vincent attests in his Mirror. Pliny says that in Italy one was seen who was of an opposite quality and fashion. For he was doubled from the navel down, and there had formed on his side a body with feet that were very small and tiny and useless. Pliny says that in his time there was a woman who gave birth to a snake. And by such a monstrous birth she carried the message and omen of the war and division of Marcise. He says that there was another woman who gave birth to a hippotaur, which was half man and half horse, who died the very day it was born, as recounts Claudius Caesar in his Acts. Pliny says that there was a woman of Marseille in Provence who gave birth to a sea lobster. And she died in the throes of childbirth. And this signified the ruin of the land of Provence. Pliny says that a doctor named Orosius alleges and recounts that in Persia, during the reign of Perses the Proud, a fox was born and conceived from a mare in the middle of his army and his battles, and this king was so powerful on earth and by sea that he had a million armed men on land and four thousand vessels on the sea supplied with men at arms and sustenance, and such a great force and great multitude of other men that people everywhere grew silent before him and submitted to him and offered their humble obedience and reverence to him. And nonetheless, because of this monstrous birth of the fox that was born of a mare, it was said and declared to him that this was a sign of the destruction of Perses. And he and all his power would be vanquished, ruined, destroyed and put to flight. And just as it was predicted to him, so it happened. For it was hardly any time afterwards

NH 7.3, p. 529; Speculum Historiale, Book 25, Ch. 38, p. 1015. Generally NH 7.3, p. 529. 839 NH 7.3, p. 529. 840 NH 7.3, p. 529. 841 Not NH. 837 838

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par prouesse et aussi la vaillance des Gregeois qui contre le roy Perces vindrent en bien petit nombre luy et sa grant multitude de puissance furent tous desconfiz, vaincuz, et mis en fuit.842 Item dit Plinius quil vit en son temps ou chastel de Lyon sur le Rosne en la terre de Gaulle fut ne et conceu dune vache ung enfant qui estoit semblable et pareil a tous autres petiz enffans.843 Item dit Plinius quil advint en la terre de Savoye qui est prochaine a la terre de Ythalie que une moult noble dame avoit nourry ung ours moult familierement et tant que elle fut de lours charnellement cogneue et engroissee. Et ne demeura gueres apres que elle fut mariee a ung chevalier du pays. Si advint tantost apres son mariaige que elle enffanta ung enfant moult terrible et monstrueulx et plain doultrageuse cruaulte et de sauvaige condicion non pareille au regart des autres. Si advint que ceste dame fut conseillee par son confesseur de bouter hors cest ours et de le faire occire tant pour cest horrible pechie desnaturel et qui tant est crimineulx. Et pour la loyaulte de son mariage garder comme pour son honneur et bonne renommee conserver affin quelle ne fust de ce pechie surprinse ne disfamee. Et ainsi le fist comme son confesseur luy avoit ordonne, dont icelle dame fut moult doulante et courrouciee davoir ainsi fait tuer lours qui tant elle avoit ame. Si luy demanda son filz qui ja estoit assez grant quelle cause elle avoit de plourer et de faire tel deul et telle tristesse. Adonc la dame qui ne sceut taire ne celler son peche dist a son filz que son confesseur luy avoit conseille de faire tuer et occire son pere. Et luy dist la dame que cestoit lours que son confesseur luy avoit fait occire. Adonc lenffant dist a sa dame de mere quelle ne sen courous- 93/ sast plus et quelle en seroit bien brief vengee. Et advint assez tost apres que ledit filz occist inhumainement ledit confesseur.844 Item dit Plinius en son livre viiie que es parties de Inde la Grant aucuns hommes sont coustumiers deulx joindre charnellement avecques aucunes bestes sauvaiges. Et par telle commistions adviennent souvent generacions monstrueuses et desnaturelles qui ont aucune similitude au masle ou a la femelle. Et ainsi le fruit qui est de telle mauldite et abhominable generacion est monstrueulx

that, through the prowess and the valiance of the Greeks who came in quite a small number against the king Perses, he and his great and powerful multitude were all destroyed, vanquished, and put to flight. Pliny says that he saw in his day at the castle of Lyon on the Rhone in the land of Gaul that a child was conceived and born of a cow who was similar and like all other tiny infants. Pliny says that it happened in the land of Savoy, which is near the land of Italy, that a most noble lady had brought up a bear on very intimate terms, so much so that she was carnally known and impregnated by the bear. And not long afterwards she was married to a knight of the land. And so it happened soon after her marriage that she gave birth to an infant who was most terrible and monstrous and full of outrageous cruelty and of a savage nature that seemed unparalleled in the view of others. And it happened that this lady was counseled by her confessor to throw this bear out and to have it killed, because this was such a horrible unnatural sin and it was so criminal. And also to protect the faithfulness of her marriage as well as to keep her honor and her good name, in order that she might not be taken in this sin and defamed. And, accordingly, she did as her confessor directed her, about which this lady was most mournful and angry, to have thus commanded the death of the bear she had so loved. Then her son, who was now rather big, asked her what cause she had to cry and to make such mourning and exhibit such visible unhappiness. Then the woman, who did not know how to keep quiet and conceal her sin, told her son that her confessor had counseled her to have his father killed and put to death. And the lady told him that it was the bear that the confessor had made her kill. Then the child said to his mother that she should not be angry anymore and that she would soon be avenged. And it happened rather shortly afterwards that the said son barbarously killed the said confessor. Pliny says that in the regions of Greater India, some men are in the habit of joining carnally with wild beasts. And from such admixtures often come monstrous and unnatural issue who have no similarity to a man or a woman. And thus the fruit that comes from such cursed and abominable breeding is monstrous and against the intention of nature. And it resembles neither the father

Not NH. The large forces of the Persians under Darius were vanquished by the Athenians on the plains of Marathon. Orosius, Book II, Ch. 8, p. 56, but there is no fox portent. 843 Not NH. See generally Dudley Wilson, Sight and Portents: Monstrous Births from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment (London: Routledge, 1993). 844 Not NH but Antoninus Liberalis. The story of sexual union between a woman and a bear was a popular folk motif from antiquity onward, as is clear from the Translator’s attempts to contemporize the story with the «confessor» giving the woman counsel. The original of the story seems to be that of Polyphonte of Thrake, who, angering Aphrodite, was made to fall in love with a bear and gave birth to two ursine giants. See Francis Celoria, tr., The Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis: A Translation with Commentary (New York: Routledge, 1992), Ch. 21, and Laura Cherubini, «The Virgin, the Bear and the Upside-Down Strix: An Interpretation of Antoninus Liberalis 21,» Arethusa 42.1 (2009): 77-97. 842

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et contre lentencion de nature. Et ne ressemble a pere ne a mere. Et de fait pour ce que droit de nature le haist et persecute comme cellui qui est hors de ses mettes james telle beste ne proffitera en generacion naturelle. Car le masle ne engendrera ne la femelle ne portera. Comme on voit de la mulle et du mullet qui sont procreez et engendrez de cheval et de asnesse ou dasne et de jument lesquelz nulz temps ne engendrent ne ne portent.845 Item ainsi est il du liepart qui est engendre et yssu du lyon et du part. Et en semblables cas et plusieurs peut estre veriffie.846 Item dit Plinius que Oroze le docteur allegue et dit quil fut jadis ung monstre appelle Minothaure qui estoit moitie homme et moitie beste sauvaige. Et estoit moult cruel et ne vivoit que de char humaine toute crue. Et tous les jours devouroit et mengeoit deux ou troys hommes et en beuvoit le sang.847 Item dit Plinus que ou temps de la guerre qui fut entre les Atheniens et ceulx de Crete qui tant dure et cruelle fut, les Atheniens furent honteusement vaincuz par ceulx de Crete. Et apres la desconfiture et terrible occision furent les dAthens retenuz prisonniers. Et par chascun nombre estoient chascun jour baillez et livrez au Minothaure pour estre devourez et mengiez. Car la cruaulte des Cretoys nourrissoit ceste beste cruelle de la proye des nobles prisonniers de Athenes. Et comme dit Ovide entre les autres prisoniers fut prins le noble chevalier Theseus. Et fut son jour ordonne pour estre donne au Minothaure a mengier. Lors Theseus soy voyant estre en tel peril respira son alaine par grant couraige, lequel en son temps fut tant preux et vaillant chevalier. Et contre la hideuse beste sesforca de toute sa puissance et devant tous moult victorieusement le conquist et finablement loccist. Et ainsi par sa noble prouesse et chevalerie. Et par son hardy et virtueulx couraige il eschappa du peril de lamort humaine et toute franchise et liberte gueigna et fut de tous poins mis au delivre par les Cretois sans paier rancon et sans avoir nul mal.848

nor mother. And in fact, because the law of nature hates it and persecutes it as something that is outside its bounds, never will such a beast succeed in natural breeding. And thus the male will not engender offspring nor will the female. And this is just as one sees in the case of the hinny and the mule, which are engendered from a male horse and a female ass or from a male ass and a mare, neither of which ever sire or bear offspring. It is the same case for the leopard that is engendered and born from the lion and the pard. And in many similar examples, this can be verified. Pliny says that Orosius the doctor alleges and says that formerly there was a monster called Minotaur that was half man and half savage beast. And it was most cruel and lived only on raw human flesh. And every day it devoured and ate two or three men and drank their blood. Pliny says that in the time of the war between the people of Athens and Crete, that was so hard and cruel, the Athenians were shamefully conquered by the men of Crete. And after the defeat and terrible slaughter, the Athenians were held prisoner. And each day a certain number were delivered and given to the Minotaur to be devoured and eaten. For the cruelty of the Cretans nourished this cruel beast on the prey of noble prisoners from Athens. And as Ovid says, among the other prisoners was taken the noble knight Theseus. And it was his ordained day to be given to the Minotaur to eat. Then Theseus, seeing himself to be in great peril, took a breath of great courage, being one who in his time was a proud and valiant knight. And with all his power he confronted this hideous beast, and before all he overcame and finally killed him in great victory. And thus by his noble prowess and chivalry—and by his bold and virtuous courage—he escaped the peril of human death and gained total freedom and liberty, and was freely released by the Cretans without paying ransom and without suffering any harm at all.

73) [Merveilles de prodigieuses nouvelletez] Prodigieuses nouvelletez sont advenues ou temps passe en moult de lieux. Comme dit Plinius en son lxxviiie livre. Et raconte comment pres de la cite de Mutuense ou temps que Julius Sextus estoit consul a Romme advint ung merveilleux signe et moult prodigieulx. Car deux grans montaignes de leurs propres lieux et sieges se remuerent

Chapter 73 (Wonders of Portents) Portentous novelties have occurred in the past in many places, as Pliny says in his seventy-eighth book. And he tells how, near the city of Modena in the time when Sextus Julius was a consul at Rome, a marvelous and most portentous sign appeared. For two great mountains removed themselves from their own places and seats

Generally, NH 7.2, p. 527. NH 8.17, p. 33. 847 Orosius, Book I. Ch. 13, p. 34. Not NH 7, as Pliny could not, of course, have known Orosius. 848 Not NH 7 but Metamorphoses VIII, 174ff. See Friedman, The Monstrous Races, and Asa Simon Mittman and Peter J. Dendle, eds., The Ashgate Research Companion to Monsters and the Monstrous (Farnham, Surrey and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2011). 845 846

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et impetueusement sesmeurent a venir lune contre lautre par maniere de hayneuse hostilite et bataille. Et par tel merveilleux assault que feu ardant horriblement flambeant saillit en laire dont la pouldre et la fumee avec le hault cry et espouventable tonnaire en volla jusques au ciel. Et les bestes et les oyseaulx et les gens qui habitoient pres et environ icelle montaigne furent tous perilz sans nul remede. Et toutes les villes, chasteaux, 93v/ et habitacions du pais furent toutes couvertes, frondoiees, et acraventees dicelles montaignes. Et tout veist la plus grant noblesse de lost de Romains et plusieurs autres gens de diverses generacions tant a pie comme a cheval qui pres de la estoient virent ceste grant merveille.849 Item dit Plinius en son livre que ou temps que regnoit a Romme lempereur Neron le presidant de Romme dit Mauricius et Marcellinus lescuier de Neron avoient certaines terres prochaines lune de lautre entre lesquelles avoit de distance que la voye commune entre deux. Et a la dextre part du chemin estoient oliviers appartenans a lung. Et a la senestre bien pres estoient aussi oliviers appertenans a lautre. En ce temps advint a Romme si grant mouvement de terre que les deux heritages dessusdits changerent leur situacion et leurs propres lieux sans avoir ou chemin moyen aucun signe de mutacion. Et les oliviers qui estoient a la main dextre furent trouvez a la main senestre. Et les prez furent muez a la main dextre. Et de fait sont recites ces deux ystoires plus aplain en Listoire des Romains. Ad ce propos a recite histoire de Jacob qui est escripte en la Bible ou xlix chappitre du livre de Genesis ou il dit que Joseph presenta les deux enffans. Cest assavoir Manasses et Benjamin a son pere Jacob et luy requist quil leur donast sa beneisson et les establit et assist tellement devant Jacob que il mist a la dextre son filz aisne et lautre a la senestre. Mais Jacob transporta les mains et mist sa main dextre sur luy qui estoit a senestre. Et la main senestre sur celui qui estoit a la main dextre. Et ce fist par inspiracion du Sainct Esperit en demonstrant que la joyeuse fortune qui est a la dextre du monde en la fin des jours sera muee en la partie senestre de rigoureuse adversite. Et la penal tristesse qui est a la senestre sera convertie a la dextre de riant prosperite. Ainsi le conclud sainct Mathieu en son Evangille ou il dit que au finable jour du jugement Dieu mettra a sa dextre les brebiz et a la senestre les chevreaulx et leur dira «departes vous dicy hastivement, vous qui estes mauldiz de Dieu mon pere et allez en enfer avecques les dyables.»850

and impetuously came to rest one against the other as if in hateful hostility and battle. And it was done by such an amazing assault that burning fire, horribly flaming, jumped into the air, and its dust and fumes, with loud clamor and frightful thunder, flew right up to the heavens. And the animals, birds, and people who lived near and around this mountain all perished, with no chance of escape. And all the cities, castles, and habitations of the country were all covered, crushed, and broken apart by these mountains. And the greatest nobility among the host of the Romans saw all this, and many other people from various places, both on foot and on horse, who were nearby saw this great marvel. Pliny says in his book that at the time when the emperor Nero ruled Rome, the president of Rome, called Mauricius, and Marcellus, Nero’s squire, had certain lands near to each other, separated in distance only by the common road that ran between them. And on the right side of the road were olive trees belonging to one of them, and on the left side of the road, very nearby, were also olive trees belonging to the other. At this time, there occurred in Rome such a great earthquake that the two properties just described changed their site and proper location without there being any sign of change on the road between them. And the olive trees that were on the right hand were found on the left hand. And those nearby were changed to the right hand. And in fact these two stories are told more fully in the History of the Romans. With regard to this should be mentioned the story of Jacob that is written in the Bible in the forty-ninth chapter of the book of Genesis, where it says that Joseph presented his two children—that is to say, Manasseh and [Ephraim]—to his father Jacob and asked him to give them his blessing, and he placed them and arranged them before Jacob such that he put his older son on his father’s right and the other on his left. But Jacob crossed his hands and put his right hand on the one who was on the left. And [he put] his left hand on the one who was on the right. And this was done by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit to show that at the end of time the joyous fortune that is on the right side of the world will be exchanged for the left side of stern adversity. And the punitive sadness that is on the left will be translated to the right of laughing prosperity. Thus concludes St. Matthew in his Gospel where he says that on the final day of Judgment, God will put the sheep on his right hand and the goats on his left, and He will say to them, «Depart from here hastily, you who are cursed of God my Father, and go into hell with the devils.»

NH 2.85, p. 329. The city is Modena, the consuls were Lucius Marcius and Sextus Julius. NH 2.85, p. 331. Marcellinus was Vettus Marcellus, Nero’s estate manager. The story from Genesis is actually chapter 48, and the children are Manasseh and Ephraim, not Benjamin. The passage in Matthew is found in Chapter 25:31-46. 849 850

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Item dit Plinius que ou temps que regnoit lempereur Neron aucuns fleuves se arresterent sans courir en aval. Et despuis allerent contremont vers les fontaines dont ilz procedoient. Et pou de temps apres il reprindrent leur naturel cours. Ad ce propos dit David ou Psaultier que le fleuve de Jordain ainsi se arresta sans courir en aval et les eaux remonterent contremont quant Josue convoya les enfans dIsrael en la terre de promission. Et ainsi ilz passerent le fleuve a pie sec. Comme autresfoiz ilz avoient passe la mer par le conduit de Moyse qui dEgipte les admena et es seres seurement les logea.851 Item dit Plinius que en Archadie avoit ung estang. Et quant aucuns hommes estoient menez oultre ledit estang et ilz se voulstroient par cas daventure es sablons il estoient muez et transfigurez en figures de loups. Et si par lespace de ix ans ilz se tenoient de mengier char domme apres les ix ans ilz revenoient a leurs propres natures humaine et condicion. Ad ce propos parle Sainct Augustin ou xviie livre de la Cite de Dieu ou xviiie chappitre. Et dit que les Archadians tenoient par folle oppinion que les hommes qui passoient oultre le lac dessusdit estoient muez et convertiz en loups.852 Et que les compaignons du 94/ noble chevalier Ulixes furent muez en porcs les autres en oyseaulx par vertu de renommee desse appellee Circes. Et de loustellerie qui en donnant a ses ostes du fromaige a mengier elle les muoit en chevaulx et jumens et les faisoit labourer et grans fessaulx et pesans faiz porter et chargier. Et quant sa besoigne estoient faicte elle les remettoy en leur premier et propre humain estat. Mais Sainct Augustin par long proces monstre cestes oppinions estre euvre dyabolicque et contre toute raison sans y trouver nulle apparance de verite.853 Mais est plaine de fantastiques illusions damnables comme a este dit et recite cy dessus ou chappitre de Gaule. Ad ce propos fait a reciter listoire qui est escripte en la vie Sainct Hylarion ou il dit quil fut ung pere qui admena sa fille par devers ce sainct homme et luy dist «Sire voiez ma fille qui est devenue jument par force denchantement de mes ennemys. Si vous prie de votre grace quil vous plaise de prier Dieu pour elle que elle soit remise a son premier humain estat.» Car le pere et la mere et tous les amis de la fille cuidoient quelle fust devenue jument. Lors le sainct homme leur dist «Je ne voiz point cy de jument. Mais je voy une belle pucelle.» Et le pere et tous les autres disoient quilz ne veoient point la pucelle mes veoient une jument. Car le dyable les avoit ainsi les yeulx

Pliny says that in the time when the emperor Nero reigned, certain rivers stopped themselves from running downstream. And afterwards they went in the opposite direction, towards the springs from which they had originated. And a little time later, they took their natural course. With respect to this, David says in his Psalms that the river Jordan stopped itself in this way, without flowing downstream, and the waters came back in the opposite direction when Joshua sent the children of Israel into the Promised Land. And thus they crossed the river with dry feet—as at another time they had crossed the sea under the guidance of Moses, who led them out of Egypt and kept them safe in the desert. Pliny says that in Arcadia there was a pool. And when some men were led beyond this pool and were, by chance, lying about and wallowing in the sands, they were changed and transfigured into the shape of wolves. And if for a period of nine years they refrained from eating human flesh, after the ninth year they reverted to their own human nature and condition. With regard to this, Saint Augustine speaks in his seventeenth book of The City of God in the eighteenth chapter. And he says that the Arcadians foolishly believed that men who went beyond the lake mentioned above were changed and converted into wolves. And that the companions of the noble knight Ulysses were changed and converted into pigs, and the others into birds, by power of the renowned goddess named Circe. And [they believed in] the Inn, that, by giving its guests some cheese to eat, changed them into horses and mares and made them work, and carry and load great and heavy burdens. And when the work was done, it changed them back into their original and proper human state. But St. Augustine, through a long argument, shows these opinions to be the work of the devil and contrary to all reason, without finding there any appearance of truth. But it is all full of fantastic and damnable illusion, as has been said and told above in the chapter on Gaul. On this subject, a story is told that is written in the life of Saint Hilary, where he says there was a father who led his daughter to this holy man and said to him, «Sire, see my daughter who has become a mare by my enemies’ power of enchantment. Thus I beg you of your grace that it might please you to pray to God for her, that she might be returned to her original human condition.» For the father and mother and all the girl’s companions believed she had become a mare. Then the saint said to them, «I do not see a mare here, but I see a beautiful girl.» And the father and all the others said that they did not see a young girl but saw a mare. For

NH 2.85, p. 331. NH 8.34, pp. 59-61, mixing two different stories of werewolves. 853 NH 8.34, pp. 59-61. Green, ed. and tr., Saint Augustine, City of God, Book 18, Ch. 17, quoting Varro mentions the Arcadians turned into wolves through swimming in this lake. 851 852

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enchantez par fortilleuse faierie. Adonc le sainct homme pria Dieu que il leur voulsist les yeulx de clere foy et pur entendement enlumiere. Et tantost ilz virent moult cler et congneurrent bien leur fille qui estoit en son droit estat de femme et non pas de jument.854 Ad ce propos fait a reciter listoire de Daniel qui parle de la cruaulte de Abugodonosor qui fut mue en figure de beuf. Et fut par lespace de vii ans beuf et ne mengeoit et ne bruoit que de lerbe des pres. Et apres Dieu le remist en son premier estat humain. Et luy rendit et restitua son sens, sa figure et sa beaulte humaine. Et lors il se humilia devant Dieu et recongnoissoit son ingratitude et sa follie. Et depuis regna moult puissamment. Item dit Plinius que aucunesfoiz a este treuve beste qui navoit point de cueur ou ventre dont parle Tulles. Et dit que quant Cesar premierement se assist en chaire dor et quil ordonna a sacriffier a Jupiter les prebstres de la loy treuverent que les bestes quilz avoient sacriffiees navoient point de cueur. Et la fut faicte la question entre les philozophes comment il se povoit faire.855 Item dit Plinius que Gayus Mayus fut par son ennemy hayneulx empoisonne et mis a mort. Et puis fut ouvert et fut treuve si desfaut dedans le corps que il navoit point de cueur. Mais ceste raison ne se peut bonnement soustenir naturellement. Car le cueur est le commencement et le siege de la vie de la toute creature mortelle. Et quant est es responces des ystoires dessudictes la principalle responce qui y escheit et qui appartient si est ceste cy. Car le dyable leur empeschoit la veue et les decepvoit affin que ilz ne veissent cler pour les faire choir en diverses erreurs.856 Item dit Plinius que aucunesfoiz ont este treuves bestes qui avoient double cueur ou ventre. Et si dit que en Paphagonie les perdriz ont double cueur ou ventre.857 Item dit Plinius que en aucuns lieux sont aucunes bestes ou pais de Boecie qui nont point de fiel.858 Item il dit que en ce mesme [pais] les reneittes que on appelle la rubbettes ont double gesier.859 Item dit Plinius en son xie livre que le jour que le roy Pirrus mourut il advint que en sacriffient a ces dieux les testes qui avoient este tranchees et decollees des bestes du sacriffice se redroicirent

the devil had enchanted their eyes in this way by a strong dose of faerie. Then the holy man prayed God that he would illuminate their eyes with clear faith and pure understanding. And immediately they saw quite clearly and recognized their daughter, who was in her proper state of womanhood and not a mare. With regard to this, he tells the story of Daniel, which speaks of the cruelty of Nebuchadnezzar who was changed into the form of a cow. And he was, for a period of seven years, a cow, and he ate and consumed nothing but the grasses of the fields. And afterwards God returned him to his human state. And God returned and restored his human sense, form, and beauty. And then he humbled himself before God and recognized his ingratitude and his folly. And from then on, he ruled most powerfully. Pliny says that sometimes a beast has been found without any heart or entrails, of which Cicero speaks. And he says that when Caesar first sat in the golden chair and commanded a sacrifice to Jupiter, the priests of the law found that the beasts they had sacrificed had no hearts. And then the question of how this could be so was put before the philosophers. Pliny says that Gaius Marus was poisoned and put to death by his spiteful enemy. And then he was opened up and there was found to be a defect in his body, that he had no heart. But this account cannot successfully be sustained in nature. For the heart is the beginning and the seat of life of the entire mortal creature. And as to the responses that could be offered regarding the stories just given, the chief response that comes to mind and pertains is this one: that the devil obscured their vision and deceived them in order that they not see clearly, to make them fall into diverse errors. Pliny says that sometimes people have found animals that had two hearts in a single breast. And he says that in Paphagonie the partridges have double hearts. Pliny says that in some locations there are some beasts in the country of Boeotia that have no gall. He says that in the same country the tree frogs that they call Roubbettes have double gizzards. Pliny says in his eleventh book that on the day that King Pyrrhus died, it happened that in sacrificing to the gods, the heads that had been cut off and decapitated from the sacrificial animals set

Saint Hilary of Poitiers, whose vita was written by Venantius Fortunatus, PL 88. The story may be the Translator’s variant of one told in the life of the fifth-century Saint Macarius of Alexandria, where a man, wishing to seduce a married woman, had a magician seem to change her into a mare. See Vita abbatis Macarii Aegyptii, PL 73, 1110ff., and Robert T. Meyer, tr., Palladius, The Lausiac History (Westminster, MD: Newman Press, 1965), Ch. 18. 855 NH 11.71, p. 549. 856 This story is told of the liver and Gaius Marius, NH 11.73, p. 551. 857 NH 11.70, p. 547. 858 NH 11.74, p. 553. 859 NH 11.77, p. 557. 854

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toutes droittes 94v/ et lescheoient leur propre sang qui estoit yssu et espandu de leurs corps par la terre. Et par icelluy signe fut signiffie et revele au roy Pirrus que il devoit prochainement mourir.860 Item dit Plinius en son livre ou xxxie chapitre que aucunesfoiz sont advenuz prodigieux signes en arbres. Et dit entre autres choses que ou temps des batailles de Cimbriques cheut de luy mesmes sans aucune violance qui y peust estre apperceue ne causee. Et furent cassees et rompues toutes les branches denhault. Et pou de temps apres il se redroica et releva de luy mesmes et se reverdist et fleurist. En iceluy signe congneurent les chevaliers Rommains que fortune leur commancoit a rire qui par avant leur avoit este adverse. Et quilz esperoient quilz aurioient victoire contre la chevalerie dAffricque. Semblable cas est recite en lIstoire de la Terre Saincte ou il dit que en la region de Phellipie il fut veu ung grant saule sur le rivaige du fleuve Jordain qui ainsi cheut sans aucune violance. Et puis apres se redressa et se reverdit.861 Item dit Plinius que moult de mutacions sont advenues en arbres. Et dit quil advint que ung olivier fut mue en ung cerisier. Et que ung figuier fut mue en vigne.862 Item dit Plinius que vigne blanche qui porta raisins noirs. Et vigne noir qui porta raisins blans.863 Item il est advenu que les grenadiers ont porte pommetes non mie es branches comme ilz ont de coustume mes les ont portees a la tige et au pie de larbre.864 Item ou temps du regne de Neron lempereur advint que ung figuier fut mue en ung lorier.865 Item en ladvenement du roy Perces en la cite de Laodicie ung arbre appelle plat[ane] fut mue en ung lorier.866 Item ung docteur Romain appelle Cepidus afferme et dit que jadis aucuns abres ont parle. Et a brief parler telz signes de abres prenosticquent et signiffient aucunesfoiz bien. Et aucunesfoiz mal, prosperite, adversite, joie, tristesse, proffit, et dommaige. Ad ce propos fait a raconter la narracion qui est escripte ou livre des Juges en la Bible ou ixe chappitre ou il dit comment le peuple des Ebreux vouloit eslire Abimelec a leur prince qui estoit le pire

themselves upright again and licked up their own blood, which had flowed and spread out from their bodies onto the ground. And by this sign it was revealed to King Pyrrhus that he was soon to die. Pliny says in his book in his thirty-first chapter that sometimes prodigious signs have appeared in trees. And he says, among other things, that in the time of the battle of Cimbric, [a tree] fell of its own accord, without any violence that could be perceived or caused there. And all the upper branches were broken and cracked. And a short time later, it raised itself and stood back up all on its own and grew green again and flowered. And from this sign the knights of Rome knew that fortune was now smiling on them, which before had been against them. And they hoped they would have victory against the knights of Africa. A similar case is recounted in the History of the Holy Land where it is said that in the region of Philippi there was seen a great willow on the banks of the river Jordan that fell in this way, without any violence. And then afterwards it righted itself and became green again. Pliny says many mutations have occurred among trees. And he says that it happened that an olive tree was changed into a cherry, and that a fig was changed into a grapevine. Pliny speaks of a white grape vine that bore red grapes—and a red grape vine that bore white grapes. It has happened that pomegranate trees have borne little fruits not on the branches as they customarily do, but have borne them on the stalk or at the base of the tree. In the time of the reign of Nero the emperor, it happened that a fig tree was changed into a laurel. At the arrival of the king Perses into the city of Laodicea, a tree called platane [plane tree] was changed into a laurel. A Roman doctor called Epidius affirms and says that in olden days some trees spoke. And to speak briefly, such signs of trees sometimes prognosticate and signify good fortune. And sometimes [they signify] mischief, prosperity, adversity, joy, sadness, profit, and loss. With respect to this, we can recount the story that is told and written in the book of Judges in the Bible in the ninth chapter, where it says how the Hebrew people wished to elect as their prince

NH 11.78, p. 557. NH 2.58, p. 285. The passage does not seem to be in Jacques de Vitry’s Historia Orientalis, which, from the earlier reference to the horned and tailed people of France and England, is clearly what is intended by this title, but Betheny on the Jordan, a very ancient pilgrimage site, was also known as Saphsaphas or Place of Willows, since they seem to have grown profusely by the river in that area. 862 NH 17.38, pp. 167-169. 863 NH 17.38, pp. 167-169. 864 NH 17.38, p. 167. 865 NH 17.38, p. 169. 866 Xerxes in NH 17.38, p. 169. 860 861

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des mauvais qui avoit octis et tue lxx des ses freres et ne laissa que Jonathan qui estoit le plus jeune lequel dist et proposa une telle parabolle. Les arbres de la forest se assemblerent a eslire ung roy et quil ne povoit delaisser la gresse dont Dieu est servi et de quoy les hommes sont nourriz et quil ne vouloit point entreprandre de avoir le gouvernement dautruy. De rechief ilz eslirent le figuier lequel respondit quil ne vouldroit point delaisser sa doulceur pour soy soubmettre a la tresamere poine dautruy gouverner. Apres ilz eslirent la vigne et luy dirent que elle fust chief de leur regne. Et elle respondit que elle ne povoit delaisser la joye de son fruit qui resjouist et nourrist les dieux et les hommes. Et que elle ne se vouloit point empescher davoir le gouvernement des autres. Car trop ya grant soing et moult douloureux soucy. Et finablement ilz eslirent pour leur roy le grezolier poingnant qui toust et voluntiers si accorda. Et dist, «Puis que sur les abres me constuez, ordonnez, et establissez roy, je ordonne que de moy saille feu ardent qui arde et bru- 95/ le tous les grands abres et les haulx cedres des forest et que tous autres abres viengnent a rep[o]s soubz lombre de moy.»867 Item dit Plinius qui signes merveilleux sont advenuz en blez. Car lannee que Publius et Cornelius estoient consulz de Romme advint que Hanibal fut vaincu par la proesse des Romains ou quel temps les fromens crurent et proffiterent tant habondamment que les arbres en estoient chargiez. Et fut signe evident que les Romains obtendroient victoire contre Hanibal.868 Item dit Plinius que en iceluy temps des batailles que les Romains appellent les batailles Cinbriques furent ouyz divers sons de trompilles sounans en lair. Et avec ce furent ouyz clameur et noyses comme de gens darmes allans et venans en lair qui batailloient les ungs contre les autres sans estre veuz ne apperceuz aucunement dont fait mencion Sainct Augustin ou livre de la Cite de Dieu.869 Ad ce propos fait a reciter listoire qui est escripte en la Bible au commancement du second livre des Machabees ou il fait mencion du secours que Dieu donna au people des Juifs dont Judas Machabeus estoit chief quant Dieu batailloit pour eulx contre la puissance innumerable des roys dAntioche, dEgipte, et de Perce. Item Orosius recite ung tres merveilleux signe qui advint lan ccc.iiii.xx depuis la fondacion de la cite de Romme. Et dit quil

Abimelech, who was the worst of the bad who had killed and murdered seventy of his brothers and left only Jonathan who was the youngest, and who said and proposed the following parable. The forest trees assembled to elect a ruler and [the olive tree said] that he could not quit making the oil which God used and by which men are nourished, and he did not at all wish to undertake governing over others. Trying again, they elected the fig, who replied that he did not wish to abandon his sweetness in order to submit himself to the very bitter pain of governing another. After that, they elected the vine and told her she was now head of their realm. And she responded that she could not leave the pleasure of her fruit, which pleases and nourishes both gods and men. And she did not wish to burden herself with the government of others, for there is too much great care involved and too much heaviness of thought. And finally they elected as their king the thorn tree, who completely and willingly accepted. And he said, «Since you constitute, ordain, and establish me king over the trees, I ordain that a blazing fire will come from me that chars and burns all the great trees and the high cedars of the forest, and that all other trees must come to rest under my shadow.» Pliny says that marvelous signs have appeared in grain. For in the year that Publius and Cornelius were consuls of Rome, it happened that Hannibal was conquered by the prowess of the Romans, at which time the wheat grew and increased so abundantly that the trees were laden with it. And it was a clear sign that the Romans would obtain victory over Hannibal. Pliny says that in the time of battles that the Romans called the Battles of Cimbric were heard diverse notes of trumpets sounding in the air. And with this were heard clamor and noises like men at arms going and coming in the air, who were fighting against one another without being seen or perceived at all, which Saint Augustine mentions in the book of The City of God. With respect to this can be told a story that is written in the Bible at the beginning of the second book of Maccabees where mention is made of the help that God gave to the Jewish people, of whom Judas Maccabeus was chief, when God battled for them against the innumerable forces of the kings of Antioch, Egypt, and Persia. Orosius tells of a very marvelous sign that came in the year 380 after the founding of the city of Rome. And he says that there came

Cepidus presumably from C. Epidius in NH 17.38, p. 169. There appears to be a line misssing in the story of trees, where the first tree should be identified as an olive tree. 868 NH 18.46, p. 295. 869 NH 2.58, p. 285. This is the battle of the Romans and the Cimbri known as the Battle of Cimbric, BC 112-101. The Battle of Cimbric is not mentioned in the City of God. The story is told by Orosius, Book 5, Ch. 24, p. 226. 867

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advint a Romme une horrible pestillance et mortalite que la toutes gens mouroient de diverses maladies soudainement. Cest assavoir hommes et femmes, vieulx et jeunes, petiz et grands. Et dura ceste terrible pestillance bien par lespace de deux ans. Ou quel temps il mourut du peuple de Romme a nombre innumerable. Si furent les Rommains advertiz sur ceste grant desolacion de requerir leurs dieux et de piteusement demander aucun remede contre icelle terrible mortalite. Et ainsi le firent et sacriffierent a leur ydolles et a leur dieux. Lors advint a Romme ung tel signe que ou millieu de la cite de Romme se ouvrit la terre et y apparut une si grant et si horrible et si parfonde fosse que ce sembloit estre la gueulle et lentree denfer. Et respondirent les dieux es Rommains que ladicte fosse et abisme demandoit ung homme vif pour estre leans gecte, mis, et envoye es habitans infernaulx denfer. Et en oultre disoient iceulx dieux que par les esperilz870 infernaulx avoit este devore et fait mourir tant de peuple et que silz ne devouroient des hommes vifs autrement point ne cesseroit la pestilance. Lors les Rommains furent de ce tous esbahaiz. Et adviserent et demanderent entreulx qui seroit celuy qui seroit en celle fosse et habisme gecte et livre. Apres le reffus de plusieurs dentreulx se advenca et presenta ad ce ung fol hardy appelle Marchus Curtius pour acquerir nom de perpetuelle vaillance et davoir laboure jusques a la mort pour le bien publique de la cite de Romme. Adonc il se arma moult richement et monta sur ung courcier. Et dist que pour fayre cesser celle terrible et soudaine mortalite il sen alloit de sa bonne volunte sans aucune contraincte gecter tout ainsi monte et arme comme il estoit, dedans icelle grant fosse et parfonde abisme. Et lors il frappa son courcier des esperons et se gecta dedans icelle habisme infernal tout vif. Et la il fut avecques les dyables ensepue- 95v/ ly perpetuellement du quel Marchus parle Sainct Augustin ou livre de la Cite de Dieu ou xviiie livre ou xliiie chappitre. De laquelle habisme nous vueille garder le Pere, et le Filz, et le Sainct Esperit. Ainsi comme disoit David ou Psaultier: «A porta inferi. Erue domine animas nostras.» Amen.871

to Rome a horrible pestilence and plague such that all the people suddenly died of various maladies—that is to say, men and women, old and young, small and large. And this terrible pestilence endured a full two years. During this time an innumerable number of Romans died. Then the Romans were advised during this great desolation to beseech their gods and to piteously demand of them some remedy against this terrible mortality. And so they did this, and made sacrifices to their idols and gods. Then one such sign came to Rome—that in the middle of the city of Rome the earth opened up and there appeared such a great and wide and deep ditch that it seemed to be the mouth and entrance to hell. And the gods responded to the Romans that the said ditch and abyss required a living man to be thrown inside, delivered and sent to the infernal inhabitants of hell. And beyond that, these gods said that these many people had been devoured and made to die by these infernal spirits, and if they did not devour some living men, the pestilence would never stop. Then the Romans were all appalled by this. And they debated and discussed among themselves who would be delivered to this great and deep abyss and thrown in. After the refusal of several among them, a foolhardy young man called Marcus Curtius advanced and presented himself for this task in order to acquire a name of perpetual valor and to have endeavored [to go] as far as death itself for the public good of the City of Rome. Then he armed himself most richly and mounted a courser. And he said that in order to make this terrible and sudden plague cease, he would go of his own free will, without any constraint, to throw himself, all mounted and armed as he was, into this great ditch and profound abyss. And then he struck his courser with his spurs and threw himself alive into the hellish abyss. And then he was entombed perpetually with the devils, and St. Augustine speaks of this in his City of God in the eighteenth book in the forty-third chapter. From which abyss may God the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit keep us. And thus, as the prophet David says in the Psalter, «Lift up our souls from the gates of hell, oh Lord.» Amen.

esperitz. Orosius, Book 4, Ch. 5, pp. 128-29. Orosius speaks generally of a plague which occured in 481 AD and of how the Romans consulted the Sibylline books, but does not mention Marcus Curtius; some of the story is drawn from Saint Augustine, Green, ed. and tr., The City of God, Book 5, Ch. 18, pp. 22932, but Augustine draws on Livy VII, 6, which is most probably Bersuire’s source. With a change from the singular «animam meam» to the plural, the Translator’s benediction is from the antiphon for laudes in the Office of the Dead. 870 871

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