School Transformation and Social Change [1 ed.] 9783737014427, 9783847114420

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Jolanta Szempruch / Katarzyna Potyrała

School Transformation and Social Change

With 15 figures

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Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available online: https://dnb.de. Reviewer: Prof dr hab Mirosław J. Szyman´ski © 2022 by Brill | V&R unipress, Theaterstraße 13, 37073 Göttingen, Germany, an imprint of the Brill-Group (Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands; Brill USA Inc., Boston MA, USA; Brill Asia Pte Ltd, Singapore; Brill Deutschland GmbH, Paderborn, Germany; Brill Österreich GmbH, Vienna, Austria) Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Hotei, Brill Schöningh, Brill Fink, Brill mentis, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Böhlau and V&R unipress. Unless otherwise stated, this publication is licensed under the Creative Commons Licence Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives 4.0 licence (see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by-nc-nd/4.0/) and can be accessed under DOI 10.14220/9783737014427. Any use in cases other than those permitted by this license requires the prior written permission from the publisher. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Verlage | www.vandenhoeck-ruprecht-verlage.com ISBN 978-3-7370-1442-7

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Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7

1. Society and the individual in times of social change . . . . . . . . . . .

13

2. Social contexts of contemporary educational changes . . . . . . . . . .

37

3. The social functions of education and the school . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

4. The main challenges facing the contemporary school . . . . . . . . . .

89

5. Educational leadership in a changing school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

103

6. Development of the school towards a learning organization . . . . . .

115

7. A model of the transformation of the modern school . . . . . . . . . .

137

8. Competences of the future in the society of the 21st century . . . . . .

155

Final reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

175

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

179

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Introduction

The times in which we live are extremely difficult to describe with clarity due to the complicated social mechanisms and rules that allow us to predict actions, behaviors, processes, and directions of change. There are problems with grasping these directions, pointing to universal rules and mechanisms of social functioning. For this reason, researchers of social life find themselves in a difficult situation. The changeability and complexity of the contemporary world is the source of the difficulties for human adaptation, how humans understand the world, and how they act responsibly within it. The processes taking place in modern-day Europe that relate to the crystallization of national and state consciousness, as well as to the social and economic changes of the nineteenth century and the manifestations of liberalization in the field of education, have all laid the foundations for the contemporary understanding of educational identity and practice. In the early years of the 20th century, many countries developed different views and educational practices. The social changes that have taken place in recent decades, such as globalization, increased mobility, and increasing migration, have each become a source of growing interest in education, which is expected to play a key role in promoting peaceful coexistence and social cohesion, and provides a means of overcoming the weaknesses of earlier forms of education. One institution where the interactions between the present and the image of the future are particularly visible is the school – essentially focused on the anticipation of emerging civilization trends and new opportunities. The ontological location of the school in the structure of social existence shows that it is the main link in educational change that is adequate to meeting the challenges of the future. This primary statutory task of this educational institution does not encompass its various roles, since the school as an institution is also the place for the maturation of children and adolescents and a workplace for teachers and other employees of the school, as well as representing an educational and cultural environment for parents and the local community.

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Introduction

For centuries, the school has played an inspiring role in the life of societies. It fulfills many important functions within the community, be they caring, cultural, or environmental. It is also used to preserve and transfer scientific knowledge, and enables the development of various skills. It fosters the development of the personality of children, adolescents, and adults, offering up a world of ideas and values of importance in personal motivation. It introduces the younger generation to the extant forms of social life, suggests valuable models of life, and encourages both self-realization and self-education. These functions of the school are present in the mutual connections and dependencies that are reflected in the goals and tasks of education. Visions of the dominant functions of the school vary depending on the social, economic, and ideological conditions with which the pedagogical concepts are associated. Depending on social and educational doctrines as well as the assumptions and goals of education, the school often performs the following functions: compensation (by compensating for developmental deficiencies), the provision of egality (by reducing the differences in educational and life opportunities for people from different backgrounds), selection (through social stratification, and the different educational careers of people with different abilities), and advisory services. Modern schools are particularly expected to promote functions related to the preparation for active life, to be involved in creating the new world under changing conditions, and to carry out functions related to the universalization of life patterns all while maintaining the identity and subjectivity of groups and individuals. In order for the school to be able to meet the challenges of the present and the future, it should – like the entire education system – become the basic instrument for changing the thinking patterns and activities of the individual. The school as a place of daily contact, for participation in the social life of various groups, and for the interaction with cultural heritage, carries with it particular social importance. Currently, the school is faced with various challenges and needs imposed by society, different educational systems, and national groups. It is an element of the education system, which is in turn perceived as one of the elements within the wider social system. The structure of this system, defined by the values of society, influences through its different institutions the implementation of the principles of the system of shared values in everyday life. Educational institutions perform this function, as do political and economic systems (Meighan, 1993, p. 257). In the reality of dynamic social changes, the social role of school has been redefined. Its task has become to offer a reliable description of reality, explain it, create ideas and values of a universal dimension, carry out experimental and advisory activities, and initiate creative activities. Social life in all its dynamics

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Introduction

presents the school, especially the school principal and the teachers, with new challenges. In the context of social change, the school ceases to be an institution in which the schematic transfer of knowledge is carried out, but becomes instead a place in which the creative search and self-construction of that knowledge occurs, and represents the environment in which the social life of young people exists, running according to cultural patterns set by the school and external influences. Students come to school with patterns and standards of life, their own experiences and problems, which are a reflection of the changes taking place in the family and in social life. The ability to see and understand students’ problems and help in solving them significantly influences the effectiveness of the school’s work. Expectations in terms of the school as an organization and social microcosm concern its transformation into a school, which is also an autonomous entity capable of self-regulation in accordance with the assumptions of creative and humanistic education. As a place that creates the appropriate conditions in which students build (rebuild) their own subjectivity, it needs to be a source of positive, constructive experiences, especially in gaining a sense of agency, i. e. the belief that students can actively influence their own fate and reality. This means turning the school of the monologue and the domination of the teacher into a school of dialogue and partnership. It is a common belief that the school cannot keep up with the nature and pace of social, cultural, and economic change. It is not fully oriented towards the multilateral shaping of the human being; it is difficult to cope with the domination of the traditionally understood educational function over general development, educational, socialization, and orientation functions. It is not fully a learning organization, as it is unable to provide equal educational opportunities; it succumbs to the fashion of rankings and league tables, and poorly explains the reasons for its students’ successes and failures. The weak relationship between school education and social changes has led to a failure to keep up with the changes in the content, methods, and means of education, as well as in the forms of educational relationships. The result is the stimulation of changes through education and the search for solutions that better serve didactic and educational work. The contemporary school is not yet fully able to cope with the new challenges that have emerged to reflect changes in social relationships, the generation of information, and the axiological chaos in which generational conflicts have intensified. The school should be more closely related to the environment and seek to educate people in a spirit of openness, diversity, and constantly changing roles. The changes taking place in the school itself, in the internal conditions of its functioning as well as in the entire education system, should lead to the perception of the school as a place for the critical analysis of

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Introduction

reality, teaching life, alternative thinking, a critical distance from reality, and the specification of goals and plans for one’s own development. In this volume, the perspective of the humanistic orientation of education was adopted. In this perspective the categories of understanding the world and the other person, empathy as the ability to penetrate other people’s experiences (feeling in) as well as to experience together with others (feeling with) in stimulating the processes of self-development, the ability to solve increasingly difficult tasks, are of prime concern. The individual’s commitment to the future and to a world co-created by people is also emphasized. In addition to the principle of “being”, there is a humanistic approach to education that is “a matter of man in the world” (Wojnar, 2000), his dignity, and community solidarity. Expectations regarding the efficient functioning of a person in the conditions of change, together with the ability to deal with ambiguity and uncertainty, generate new challenges for education, the school, and teachers. These challenges were particularly noticeable during the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced all school entities to adopt a different model of relationships and actions. In the new conditions at school, the quality of leadership of the school head, who supports teachers in their creative behavior and their search for new educational solutions, became even more important than before the pandemic. The creative behavior of the teacher was a necessity in developing students’ competences, life skills, and their ability to cope with change, as well as helping them to learn new things and maintain their mental balance in novel situations (Harari, 2018). Therefore, the category of leadership has become an important subject of research within the everyday functioning of contemporary schools, especially in the aspect of inspiring the creative behavior of teachers, which is a condition for the improvement of the school’s effectiveness in educating and upbringing. The main goal of this monograph is to explore the complexity of the functioning of the school and to highlight the school’s social functions in the times of the dynamic transformation of the knowledge society, and to develop a model of the school as a learning organization, taking into account the changes to the management of modern schools. The analyses carried out are original because, as the literature review demonstrates, there are no current reports on the transformation of the school, e.g. during the emergency distance learning situation due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The outlined model of the school considers the need to change the leadership styles of the school head and the creative behavior of teachers. Previous analyses of the relationship between the leadership of the school head and the functioning of teachers have focused in particular on showing the influence of leadership style on innovations undertaken by teachers (Supriadi, 2020). However, innovation concerns the implementation of new ideas and the introduction of new solutions to practice in a specific environment, often in-

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Introduction

cidentally, while creative behaviors are more connected with a readiness to design open educational situations, and are treated as knowledge in the form of internal experience, determining the construction and creation of new configurations. It seems that this is an argument for the need to increase the current involvement in social reflection in this area, as it is one of crucial importance in the education system. The implementation of the above-mentioned goals enables a deeper recognition of the relationships researched between the transformation of the school and the leadership styles of the school head and teachers’ creative behavior. This would also contribute to filling the gap in the analyzed areas. The analyses conducted enrich the scientific theory on the subject of the transformation of the school and social change as well as the mutual determinants of the changes taking place. The analyses undertaken in the monograph consider the relationship of the social sciences with other sciences, progress within which has been noted in theoretical research and empirical research on the issues discussed. The considerations that we present here may be of use to all those who face the problems and challenges of the present and the future, especially teachers, pedagogical supervisors, educational politicians, parents, and other social groups, any of whom may be interested in the problems of the functioning of education and the school, and are desirous of improving the school’s relationship with the local community and wider society. The work also represents an incentive to discuss and take actions aimed at creating an optimal community of life, with further consideration given to development and education in the conditions of social changes. The authors hope that the reflections contained in this book will enliven the educational debate, and take the discussion of the role of the school in a changing society in the right direction.

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1.

Society and the individual in times of social change

Social change is most often understood as any significant change in social structures, norms, customs, social institutions, social roles, and values that define human actions, life plans, and worldviews. This is the difference between the state of the social system (group, organization, wider society) at a specific time, and the state of the same system at another time (Sztompka, 2005, p. 24; 2020, p. 360). Social change, interpreted both in the global and native context, indicates the process of isolating the specific conditions of human functioning, referred to as postmodernity, liquid modernity (Bauman, 1996), late modernity (Giddens, 2001), post-industrial society (Bell, 1999), risk society (Beck, 2002), post-capitalist society (Drucker, 1999), and network society (Castells, 2007). These conditions determine a number of novel challenges and tasks for the entities operating within their realities. The accumulation of changes in the multiplicity of individual decisions in the sphere of normative choices, declared ideological preferences, and the attitude to institutional regulations of social life, alter the status of man and the properties of his existence. Modernity has been interpreted differently over the centuries. The adaptative tendencies were contrasted with emancipatory activities related to the active transformation of the world in its economic, political, cultural, and social dimensions. The pursuit of a rational explanation of the world is intensifying; the democratization of education is taking place; the role of science and mass culture is increasing. Culture reveals itself both as the content and as an effect of education. It can be said that education is a vector of culture: it awakens a person’s need for knowledge and their sense of beauty, develops creative potential, sensitizes the person to values, and shapes critical thinking (Wojnar, Piejka, Samoraj, 2008, p. 130). In the emerging global culture, the identity of a person changes, because this culture is created from many existing folk and national identities (Melosik 2000, p. 19). According to Michael Fleischer (2002), culture is a socially grounded and conditioned, supra-individual object, and is perceived as a phenomenon coorganizing the social system. It is essential for education.

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Society and the individual in times of social change

Education culture and culture in education are the same concepts. Education is a product of culture, one of its states of aggregation. The cultural activity of students is a manifestation of their participation in the development process (Bobin´ski, 2019, p. 45).

Scientific culture plays a significant role in interpreting the changes taking place. This leads to questions about society and a focus that looks beyond the sphere of knowledge (Canguilhem, 1961). This includes both the knowledge and the skills of understanding and association that enable thinking and the effective functioning of the mind (Raichvarg & Jacques, 1991). Scientific culture takes a wide variety of forms. However, these forms possess a common denominator, which is a new attitude to scientific knowledge (Raichvarg, Potyrała, Di Scala-Fouchereau, 2015). This is a way of influencing the upbringing and training of individuals, groups, and environments through and for culture (in its broader sense). José Mariano Gago was a promoter and popularizer of science, the history of science, and education, and supported the dissemination of science and technology as the basis for civilization and social development; he believed that it was extremely important to look for tools with which to create a society based on scientific literacy and the implementation of innovation in everyday life. Unfortunately, both politicians and scientists often underestimate the importance of education and the public understanding of science in the development of a democratic society. The involvement of these two bodies in specific activities related to the implementation of initiatives and the transformation of the social understanding of science and education is a key issue in world politics (Potyrała, Czerwiec, Studnicki, 2020, p. 185). Modern society is characterized by the emergence of a new form of trust, one that is necessary for a sense of security and normal existence: the trust in depersonalized complexes of devices and organizational forms, such as communication and telecommunications systems, transnational corporations, financial markets, energy networks, armed forces, international organizations, and the mass media. We can also observe the emergence of new forms of risk, especially in the exchanges between civilization and the technical environment. The social sciences describe a crisis of social bonds and a crisis of trust. Another important social phenomenon is the emancipation of women, but despite the awareness of its social importance, even in the most progressive countries, this liberation has not yet found expression in the full exercise of rights, true freedom, and equality (Mayor, 2001, p. 129; Smyła, 2015, 2016). One of the main challenges of the 21st century is the ability of governments to manage risk governance in society responsibly. In a globalized world, such activities should occur on an international level, taking advantage of the best available sources of scientific knowledge. At all levels of management, examples of protective factors and risks to mental health are given relative to different

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Society and the individual in times of social change

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levels: individual, social interaction, social structure and resources, and cultural factors. At an individual level, protective factors include positive self-perception, social skills, coping skills, family bonding, and good physical health. At the level of social interactions, protective factors include positive attachment, family support, communication skills, and supporting social bonds; and at the level of social structure and resources, these protective factors include neighborhood safety, an affluent environment, economic security, employment, and positive school experiences. The protective factors at the cultural level are also specified, including the acceptance of cultural diversity, efforts to assimilate representatives of different cultures, and the tolerance of diversity. The activity of educational institutions should be based on social and public responsibility as well as offering a response to the actions of experienced authorities in the field of scientific communication processes. This correlates with the phenomenon of social trust in science. The contribution of science to social life is an important factor in shaping contemporary science and technology policy. Society itself should also seek to improve its ability to assess various types of situations, including risky situations due to their novel dimension and character common to the entire community. Here, science finds itself between social involvement in risk management and its role in the public perception of risky situations. It is a source of knowledge and the ability to share conclusions and doubts with the public, and the integrity of academics and the independence of academic institutions are increasingly valued in a democratic society (Gago, 2004). The changes taking place in contemporary society affect the way an individual functions. The condition of man and humanity in the 21st century is characterized by: – Difficulties in adapting to great social change and presenting open and critical-innovative attitudes; the feeling of abandonment; isolation both perceived and enacted; the threat of unemployment and penury or poverty, as well as deepening environmental diversity; – Widening of the scope of distrust and fear as a result of the different challenges and manifestations of life; change fatigue; political manifestos and attitudes that lack clarity; the absence of a macro and micro vision for the future; – The rapid infiltration of information and the formation of axiological chaos; the constant “movement of values” up and down; – Different views, approval of pluralism, freedom, subjectivity; but fear of new domains and monopolies; – Different understandings of the implementation of rights and obligations by people and communities; the apparent dedication to wise and lofty goals and the needs of the people, undermined by insensitivity towards the poor;

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– Widening of criticism and negation of various negative phenomena and processes, accompanied by the converse weakness in the promotion and affirmation of positive phenomena; – Little respect for the law on the part of citizens and the state; different understandings of the concept of democracy and its mechanisms and the consequences for people’s responsibility; – Openness and tolerance in a time simultaneously dominated by suspicion and a willingness to being indoctrinated and the subjugation of those who think and act differently; entitlement; ignorance of the basic rules of economic life; – A sense of threat to educational aspirations, life and professional plans, and the standard of living that the market economy was to bring; the self-governance of groups and environments; and the help of the West (see Banach, 2001, pp. 233–234; 2000, p. 9; Szempruch 2012). In the face of emerging crises, the intellectual, political, economic, and mental state of society requires wise and systematic social dialogue and the improvement of mutual social communication, as well as thoughtful and responsible activities within the modernization of the system of education, covering both traditional schooling and lifelong and parallel education. Social challenges and developmental dilemmas are qualitatively new and highly complex tasks. They require an in-depth and systematic understanding to be reached of the changing and complex social, natural, scientific, technical, and informational reality, as along with trends in their development in international contexts and within the communities in which we live. The COVID-19 pandemic has been a turning point in the functioning of entire societies. Such events as this are conducive to change, disrupting, inter alia, the sense of ontological security, generating fears and forcing adaptations to the organization of social relationships (Mamzer, 2020). At the global level, there is a risk of a form of social isolation for that part of society that is unable to communicate through media or is unable to critically assess the content carried by that media. This situation necessitates the need for constant media education in order to foster a critical attitude towards media messages and educating citizens to make their own judgments based on the available information. Taking into account the possible levels of functional illiteracy (e. g. the inability to understand the written texts encountered in everyday life), modern man more and more often shapes his views and beliefs on the basis of pictorial information and general opinions as well as slogans taken from the media. The mental processing of text is less rapid than that with an image, meaning that the information offered by a photo can be received faster and may be more expressive than a long newspaper article. The contemporary “image society” (“image culture”) often results from the rush in everyday life and the huge amount of information

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available to all. The occurrence of the phenomenon of functional illiteracy is largely the result of a lack of habits and skills and the need to independently acquire and use information. The contemporary world is characterized by the opacity, fluidity, and uncertainty of the social situations in which we participate. A disturbance in the sense of ontological security, leading to existential anxiety and behavioral disorganization, may ultimately result in the mental state of a depressed mood, and in the long run may lead to exogenously generated depression. These mechanisms are subject to individual modifications, but basically concern humans as a species in general (Mamzer, 2020). Living among a mass of people creates, among other things, a feeling that the possibility of potential action is somehow blocked or curtailed, while at the same time causing a paradoxical need to exist within that crowd and be “in the mass” without the unambiguous location of individuals in the social space. Belonging to newly created social groups strengthens the need to create one’s own new identity (Z˙eber-Dzikowska, Potyrała, 2018, p. 133). Progressing globalization plays a key role in the perception of the world. Perceived in various dimensions, today globalization is associated with numerous phenomena. It is expressed, inter alia, in: (1) joining the world within a network of communication and telecommunications connections, such as the Internet, the computer network, and television and radio technology; (2) connecting the world with an extensive network of political, economic, cultural, financial, and strategic dependencies; (3) the emergence of new forms of economic, cultural, and political organizations and supranational social movements; and (4) creating social categories whose life and work are detached from a specific place, e. g. diplomats, businessmen, managers, artists, and athletes who constantly move from place to place. As a result, we observe the homogenization of the world along with the homogenization of culture, causing the whole world to transform into a real “global village”. The processes of globalization have had a major impact on education. The role of education might be seen as being to prepare employees for the global labor market and to balance global capitalism. This requires a focus of education both on individual and team learning, and especially on the acquisition of collaborative skills (Beck, 2004). The process of globalization is accompanied by the process of localization: the rebirth and formation of islands of diversity and identity. The creation of contemporary identity is increasingly accomplished through visual (re)presentations of this identity in popular culture (Melosik, 1996). What educational strategies should be adopted in view of this state of affairs? The slogans proclaimed by producers and consumers and their textbook interpretation in the context of school and out-of-school problems demonstrate how the media market determines the health and life of an individual. The standardization of life both generates needs and means for their satisfaction, with a narrow special-

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ization developing that allows functioning within the greater system. This is reflected in the interests of students and in their tendencies to limit the number of meanings and their questioning approach. The primary language of the global village is the audiovisual language, which has subsequently created a new educational space. According to Kwiecin´ski, the mediatization of life and the fact that everything becomes an artifact demonstrate the necessity of shaping students’ attitudes and educating them to be capable of criticism, especially where there is frequent confrontation with alternative attitudes and values. This approach is difficult to realize, especially since the old division between sender (teacher) and recipient (student) of the message is no longer relevant (Kwiecin´ski, 2006). Another feature of the contemporary period is capitalist acceleration, which increases the production and consumption of almost unlimited profits, profits “above men” (Chomsky, 2000). The departure from controlled capitalism and the transition to its intensified, corporate version known as “turbo-capitalism” (Luttwak, 2000) is based on the mechanism of the modern corporation. In modern society, an important phenomenon influencing the quality of an individual’s functioning are the demographic changes taking place in the world. These changes are projected to reveal at least four trends in the future: 1. The share of the most economically developed countries today, especially of Europe, will decrease within the world population; 2. In many regions there will be a significant increase in the average age of the population and its share of the total population; 3. The share of the urban population will grow rapidly, beyond the roughly fifty percent that it current comprises of the world’s population; 4. In employment, the share of the service sector will increase compared to agriculture and industry (Kleer, 2011). These forecasts show that many countries will see a continuation of the current trend of the aging population, with a greater proportion of society surviving into old age. This phenomenon is becoming a subject of increasing interest and concern for international organizations, scientific communities, and public bodies in many countries, as the societies of the most developed countries in the world are subject to intensified aging processes. Another consequence of demographic change is the extension of life cycles. Youth now lasts much longer than before, and this has a significant impact on education, in particular lifelong learning. The imperative of considering oneself to be young regardless of metric age, along with the requirements of the knowledge-based economy, has increased the amount of free time available to people, and the ease of use of information technology and electronic equipment makes adults feel a strong requirement to learn in a formal and informal way.

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Another trend related to demographic changes is the wave of migration to highly developed countries. In many Western European countries, the children of immigrants constitute a significant percentage of students in school. As a result, teachers have to adapt to the needs of the new student body, which has changed significantly in recent years. In the globalizing world there are many threats to the functioning of the family and many new transformations. Threats to the family should be analyzed in the context of the negative effects of postmodernity, such as the relativism of moral norms, assessments, social systems, loss of authority, non-transparency, the fluidity of social situations, the variability and diversity of the phenomena of social situations, migration, immigration, alternative forms of marriage and family organization, the reduction in some aspects of care and educational functions within the family, the reduction of the child’s participation in family life, increased activity in non-family relationships and social systems, the incorrect or inappropriate conception of parental love, consumerism, family conflicts and crises, and divorces (Izdebska, 2007, p. 160). The differentiation of the demographic model of the family – its type, size, and structure – and of the sociological model of interpersonal relationships is increasing. There is a slow integration of non-traditional forms of married life into family and legal structures, aimed at reducing the lack of specificity in the mutual rights and obligations of those who make up these non-traditional families. The ongoing processes of change to the family lead to the reorganization of marriage and of the family relationship. A characteristic of the modern family is the democratization of family relationships, an increase in the social position of the wife and mother, and the limitation of the power of the husband and father. The phenomenon of Euro-orphanhood, which belongs to the sub-domain of social orphanhood, is also growing. This means parents who have moved abroad leaving their children in the original country under the care of other people. Children who have been deprived of constant contact with even one parent feel like orphans (Kozak, 2010). The separation that concerns one-parent families has many negative consequences. It causes a number of changes in the way social and family roles are performed and the nature of interpersonal relationships. Consequently, great flexibility is required from all family members along with the performance of new tasks by teachers. Though it is a commonplace to point out that teachers cannot replace parents, it is nonetheless true to suggest that they can help the student by showing an interest in their situation and demonstrating understanding. The task of the teacher incorporates strengthening their student’s self-esteem, showing support in various school and life situations, organizing psychological and pedagogical help, and working in cooperation with parents and guardians. One teacher in particular, the class or form teacher, has a special set of tasks, including, among others. learning about the personality of the

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students, their living conditions, their interests and abilities, and their health; in short, about the individual needs and educational and development opportunities of the student. The class teacher has a greater opportunity than the rest of the school staff to observe the behavior of the students in situations beyond those encountered in a regular lesson. This teacher should be among the first to notice disturbing signals that may indicate problems or unmet needs in the student (Z˙eber-Dzikowska, Potyrała, 2019). Consumption has become the goal of postmodern societies, keeping societies in constant motion, and creating a new lifestyle focused on constant buying and the creation of human desires (Bauman, 2005; Melosik, 1996, 2000; Melosik, Szkudlarek 1998). Thompson and Troester (2002) draw attention to the intracultural diversity of consumer values and the systems that result from the fragmentation of postmodern consumer culture into diverse consumer microcultures. Living in a mass of goods is described by many authors as a relatively new experience in the history of mankind. It is technological progress that is credited with eliminating scarcity and producing goods beyond the necessary level for the satisfaction of basic needs. There is more and more talk of a society of consumption, and even hyperconsumption, in which the problem of choice is the problem of the individual. Campbell (1987) considers insatiability and the constant pursuit of new products to be a specific feature of contemporary consumption (Z˙eber-Dzikowska, Potyrała, 2018, p. 133). Meanwhile, the Covid-19 pandemic has shown that we live in an extremely fragile reality. It is an era in which civilization has taken both technical achievements and the attitude of consumption to their apogee, but at the same time it has magnified the risks shaped by the deadly nature of the pandemic (Özkurt, 2020). Criticism of the new social order began in the 19th century and continues to this day. Contemporary man passes through dramatic experiences resulting from the accumulation of complex facts, interpretations, aspirations, pleasures, trials, and deliberations. The ties linking an individual with other people are fragmented and overburdened, and thus many pathological phenomena appear. The individual begins to experience difficulties in describing their life in an authentic and appropriate way (Table 1). Table 1. Structural components of the world of life Disruptions in the fields Cultural reproduction

Culture

Society

Individual

Losing meaning

Loss of legality

Crisis of orientation and education

Assessment measure Knowledge rationality

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Table 1 (Continued) Disruptions in the fields Social integration

Culture

Society

Individual

Assessment measure Anomie Isolation Solidarity of The weakening members of of the collective society identity Socialization Breaking with Loss of PsychoResponstradition motivation pathologies ibility Source: S. Kemmis, Teoria krytyczna i uczestnicza˛ce badania w działaniu, [w:] Badania w ˇ ervinkovά, B. D. Gołe˛bniak, działaniu. Pedagogika i antropologia zaangaz˙owane, red. H. C Wydawnictwo Naukowe Dolnos´la˛skiej Szkoły Wyz˙szej, Wrocław 2010, s. 67.

The fundamental characteristics of the consumer society and the different types of manipulation of society are presented, inter alia, by George Ritzer, Neil Postman, and Aldous Huxley (Ritzer, 1997; Postman, 2002, 2004; Huxley, 1932, Szempruch 2010, 2012). They demonstrate the process of macdonaldization related to the degradation of the humanistic dimensions of social life in its various spheres, e. g. in culture, education, health care, etc. (Ritzer), as well as the dangers of the collapse of culture and the cognitive abilities of people who prefer hedonistic lifestyle to the multifaceted potentialities of their own development (Postman) and the danger of functioning in a world promoting “ideal” workers, adapted to the minimum requirements of mechanical reproductive work (Huxley). The crisis of modernity also concerns the breakdown of the communities that glue traditional society together. There is a departure from the customs and sources of authority that are derived from traditional models. Man has become an individual, he is independent, but lonely in his choices. Hence, individualism is subject to dissonant assessments and analyses. Modern bureaucracy deprives society of its freedom and spontaneity. Traditional regulatory mechanisms in social groups are disappearing and being replaced by bureaucratic regulations. Social norms and values are subject to a lack of balance or to erosion, leading to normative chaos, i. e. anomie, moral relativism, and the blurring of the categories of good and bad. An important thread within the critical analyses carried out in relation to modern society is the phenomenon of dividing the world into areas of prosperity and poverty as a result of the uneven development that persists in the world. The difficult financial situation of families has direct and indirect educational effects, leading to the malnutrition of children, and the inability to educate via those forms that require payment. This adversely affects the well-being of parents and their attitudes and aspirations, and causes pessimism. The dangerous stratification of the world into wealth and poverty also leads to a division between successful people and the unsuccessful, a division that is supported by the tenets

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Society and the individual in times of social change

of meritocracy, while success seems to have no more than a material dimension. We observe the phenomenon of the deepening of and emergence of new types of social inequalities and new types of inequalities that create tensions and increase differences between developed and developing countries. These inequalities are exacerbated by the escalation of the COVID-19 crisis. The same world that is struggling with the pandemic is also struggling with the dramatic changes that have occurred in the personal, relational, social, professional, and educational aspects of our lives. COVID-19 has disproportionately affected the elderly, people with pre-existing conditions, people with fewer financial resources, and people from marginalized groups, thus highlighting the inequalities and disproportions rooted in 21st century societies (Mclaughlin, Scholar, & Teater, 2020). An important element of the panorama of the contemporary world is social exclusion. Fighting this is an important task of education, as education should contribute to social cohesion, consider the diversity of individuals, and at the same time ensure that it does not become a factor of exclusion itself. Most often, the phenomenon of exclusion is strongly associated with poverty, unemployment, disability, and social discrimination, which are a manifestation of interrelated phenomena (Kozak, 2008, p. 222). Some emphasize the changes taking place in the very nature of work, pointing out that it is dematerialized, organized around the manipulation of abstracts and ideas related to the transition to a knowledge-based economy (Marody, 2014). The instability of the labor market, mobility, and new employee competences increase the feeling of uncertainty as to the effects and usefulness of education (Z˙eber-Dzikowska, Potyrała, 2018, p. 133). An important context for the functioning of an individual in contemporary society is the growing cultural diversity of the world. Multiculturalism is a multifaceted social phenomenon. The moral canons assimilated by an individual result from the cultural norms adopted by a given community. These are generally marked by strength and durability. Individuals demonstrate their activity in a recognized and long-practiced manner. Representatives of a specific culture can state their cultural distinctness in contact with representatives of another culture. These are the circumstances that allow members of a culture to feel a difference compared to other cultures. If an individual finds himself in a community with a different culture, he faces many barriers that make it difficult for him to function. Multiculturalism refers to the natural state of society, which is essentially diverse: multi-ethnic, multi-denominational, multi-lingual, etc. These differences can be seen in the shared public space. The active dimension of diversity is interculturalism, which assumes interactions between individuals, social groups, and communities, the conduction of joint activities, the assumption of shared

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responsibility, and the construction of common dimensions of identity (Szempruch, Blachnik-Ge˛siarz, 2018, p. 78, Szempruch 2021a). Multiculturalism takes on a different scale of diversity. Cultural development should be expressed in a dialogue of cultures, which at the same time involves strengthening the identity and distinctiveness of individual cultures and developing mutually enriching processes of exchange between these cultures. It is possible to identify many trends affecting the individual in a changing society (Fig. 1). Economy The macroeconomic context Growth of the knowledge economy Interna!onaliza!on Income polariza!on Slowing growth rate Microeconomic context Market flexibility Changing corporate behaviours and organiza!onal forms

Society Decreasing the security of ci!zens Communica!on via the Internet and digital tools Extending the life cycle Mul!culturalism

Individual

Technology Development of wireless IT infrastructure Dispersion of new media Computeriza!on

Policy Reduc!on of social welfare Deregula!on Public-private partnership

Fig. 1. External trends of changes in the functioning of the individual.

In empirical research and theoretical reflection (Castells, 2009, RadziewiczWinnicki, 2014, Szyman´ski, 2014, etc.), attention is paid not only to the speed of changes in social life, but also to the lack of control over such changes and the attendant growth in anxiety, rather than to their political, economic, and demographic consequences. At the same time, successive achievements within science and technology, the process of departing from the formerly dominant postfigurative culture (Mead 2000), and the dissemination of mass culture were noted. The rapid acceleration in the pace of change in all areas of life and changes in social relationships intensified especially in the second half of the 20th century and continue to this day. Many publications focus on the development of modern means of communication, which have significantly increased the possibilities of communication, regardless of the social status and current place of residence of those involved in that communication (Sztompka 2012, Szempruch 2012, Szyman´ski 2013, p. 55). The communication processes of teachers and students are still a source of many questions and create difficulties in school practice. Com-

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munication can be understood as transmission (transfer of information), understanding, influencing, connecting, social interactions through symbols, exchange of meanings between people, a way of expressing group norms, exercising social control, assigning roles, and so forth. Communication behaviors are considered due to the openness of the intentions they express (directly – indirectly) and the means of expression used (verbal – non-verbal). The basic model of direct communication, most often used in school practice, originates with the sender (the creator of the message). It terminates with the recipient, who decodes the message and is influenced by its form and content. This is reduced to elementary phrases and elements in a process that is normally transactional and that is no longer a model of how communication works in the contemporary world. Media and hypermedia as means of communication facilitate a different process, in which the participants of the message encode and decode meanings and use the information content of the message, but at the same time are also responsible for its creation. Electronic communication, which has become an indispensable didactic tool today, cannot be ascribed to the role of the teaching method. The variety of information carriers affects the multitude of forms and meanings of messages, which serve both expression and pressure, and have played and continue to play a fundamental role in social life and culture (Potyrała, 2017). According to sociological theories, a strong influence on the interpretation of the content conveyed by the media is exerted by the family and peers, and in wider social systems by opinion leaders or opinion-forming circles, such as the Church. The existence of such reference groups may influence the modified influence of the media on group members. It is also believed that for many years and in this matter little has changed that the poor saturation of IT education with educational elements promotes the spread of social consent to the existence of various forms of violence, increased aggression, increased crime, pathology and frustration (Siemieniecki, 2003, p. 32). An effort has been proposed to create “info-ethics”, which could act as a guide for the inhabitants of the digital world (Wołkiewicz, 2013). The functions that are transferred to the user for implementation by hypermedia and the manner of their implementation cannot deprive him of behaviors that relate to the process of communicating with people or which lead to an imbalance in dealing with the surrounding reality. There is a need for a closer examination of the communicative position of participants in class interactions and for research into motivating students to process information efficiently through ICT tools. The cultural value of media messages is a moot point. There is agreement that they lead to the greater integration of society, but they can also deepen the state of passivity and promote a “substitute experience of reality” (Potyrała, 2017).

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The automation of different areas of life is progressing. The creation of virtual worlds and shared cyberspace and the sexualization of culture have social consequences connected to people’s behaviors related to their attitudes, values, and beliefs. These include various forms of violence (related, inter alia, to the sexual abuse of children and adolescents and the application of pressure on young women), which are a negative consequence of cyberculture (Tomczyk, Potyrała, 2020). Postulates relating to the support of young people in coping with the process of change have been formulated by Łukasz Tomczyk and Katarzyna Potyrała (2020): 1. As social norms related to gender, marriage, and relationships evolve, each generation of young people faces a different social context. Young people today face many of the same problems as the generations of their parents and grandparents: sexual health and pregnancy, consent, coercion and respect, and gender dynamics. But they also have to deal with the challenges of rapid technological change: digital threats, pornography, and undesirable exposure to various images and media. Relationship education in school should be about sex, reproduction, etc., but also about emotional abuse, physical abuse, and an understanding of healthy emotional relationships. These are important problems, the recognition of which requires the involvement of experts. 2. The consequences of imposing adult sexuality on children and adolescents should be subject to wider reflection and exploration by interdisciplinary research teams, who then must prepare preventive and educational programs. 3. Systematic studies of the impact of Internet use on teenagers’ lifestyles are necessary, and the diagnosis of optional strategies (adaptive and maladaptive) for young people to deal with personal problems and stress by staying constantly online is certainly called for. 4. The creation by young people of their own idealized images on social networking sites is a relatively new social phenomenon considered in context by sociologists, educators, and psychologists. Problems may take the form of digital aggression directed at oneself (“digital self-mutilation”), and the unobtainable – and likely manipulated – media ideal figure, along with other determinants, may be a factor in the occurrence of eating disorders, especially in young women. There were also concerns about the context in which young people grow up. The consequences of the process of intensifying social changes appear at the macro and micro levels. They are accompanied by various analyses of the consequences of these changes in the sphere of primary groups and individual biographies, which translate, for example, into shaping life strategies that are

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different to before. Social changes have also brought many unprecedented opportunities, such as a richer market for various goods, the ease of going abroad, and a wider educational offer. Otherwise favorable changes also lead to frustration and dissatisfaction among people who cannot cope with the new situation due to low efficiency, a low level of education, and the inadequacy of their qualifications in the new labor market. Further issues emerge when work must be sought abroad, or with the emergence of pathological phenomena, including crime, prostitution, and drug addiction. An analysis of the status of the individual and the basic properties of his social existence in the face of the changes taking place today should be undertaken – in line with Zbigniew Bokszan´ski’s proposal (2016, pp. 9–22) – from the point of view of three theoretical orientations regarding the issue of social change: the evolutionist model concerning the structural determinants of social change, the model of modern radicalization focusing on the mechanisms of change, and the model of sociological eschatology dealing with the results of social change. Each of these orientations makes it possible to see new elements of the processes of social change that would be otherwise missing from other points of view. It is worth looking for answers to the questions posed in turn on the basis of each of these different research perspectives. The evolutionist model refers to the classical theses formulated in evolution. It is focused on the analysis of the impact of economic development on the process of social change while maintaining thinking in terms of stages of development and outlining a development scheme that defines the degree and level of the advancement of the society studied and its corresponding institutions, ways of life, and values. The reasons for the success of evolutionist ideas can be found in the desire to lend purpose to the existence of society (Szczepan´ski, S´liz, 2014 (ed.), p. 59). The results of the research conducted within this model by the team led by Ronald Inglehart (the World Values Survey research program implemented since the 1980s) indicate that a stable and long-term development of civilization and increasing economic prosperity – regardless of political differences, historical and cultural – leads to the transformation of the values of individuals and societies in a largely predictable manner (Bokszan´ski, 2016, p. 12). The model of radicalization of modernity assumes that the framework of modernity is determined by a complex system of dynamic social, economic, and cultural relationships. On the one hand, modernity can be described by such properties as rationality, the growing importance of science and the development of technology, individualism, the complexity of social structures, secularization, the market economy and the free market, the decline of traditional authorities, and the development of bureaucratic systems (Sztompka, 2012, pp. 558–567). The direction of contemporaneous analyses, on the other hand, is determined by the thesis according to which the present era is one in which the features of mod-

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ernity are more sharpened and obligatory than ever before (Giddens, 2008, p. 2). Therefore, when studying contemporaneity, we should see in it a specific determinant of social change in the form of a tendency to radicalize and maximize the features of modernity that reaches deeply into people’s lives. It is clear that people are entering a new and unknown world, and this applies as much to education as it does to any other area of organized human activity. Dale and Robertson (2009, pp. 111–129) argue that, contrary to this approach, the constantly expanding, improving, and constantly progressing set of assumptions that characterized the historical relationship of education with the development of the modern state is coming to an end, mainly as a result of changes in the relationship between the historically intertwined but fundamentally different trajectories of capitalism and modernity. Separately and together, these two trajectories have been reshaped and re-articulated in a way that boils down to a fundamental discontinuity with the modern era, changing in turn the nature and role of education. According to Dale and Robertson (2009), what leads to the perceived disadvantages of modernity in education is the tendentious separation of the trajectories of capitalism and modernity. Essentially, this means that the institutions of modernity, including education, no longer provide the “best possible shell” of capitalism in its current phase. The third model of social change analysis, labelled by Bokszan´ski the model of sociological eschatology, implies the need to analyze phenomena in terms of the end of a certain era. At the center of this perspective is the thesis that Western societies have entered a period of violent transformations that will lead to “the end of the world as we know it.” The importance of this belief is emphasized by the titles of many works, e. g. The End of Man (Fukuyama, 2004), The End of Work (Rifkin, 2001), The End of the Millennium (Castells, 2009), and The End of the World As We Know It (Wallerstein, 2004). This model is dominated by the perspective of determining the effects of the progressive breakdown of the recently dominant principles of social order and institutional structures. The variety of factors leading to this breakdown changes the situation of the individual and the patterns of his relationship with the social world. Models of the analysis of social change indicate changes in the composition of the system and changes to its structure. Structural change inevitably involves modifying human interactions, personal and group interests, and recognized norms and ideas. The network of connections between these elements is also transformed. As a result, new interaction structures and new structures of interest arise. Normative structures are also in a state of flux (Szyman´ski 2021). Against the background of these models of the analysis of social change, it is worth seeking an answer to the question of what educational preparation a person needs for life in the 21st century.

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Individualisation in the context of axiological changes Conclusions from international research conducted under the supervision of Ronald Inglehart in the field of the evolutionary model suggest a change in the values of younger generations brought up in times of economic prosperity, compared to the values of their parents and grandparents brought up in times of economic uncertainty. Those material goods which ensured survival lost their importance due to the level of social welfare achieved on a mass scale. The values demonstrated among the younger generations relate to non-economic goals and preferences, such as freedom of expression, openness to new ideas, tolerance towards all minorities, gender equality, and a desire to have an influence over one’s fate. Post-materialist values, which are currently dominant, especially in young people, mean striving to maximize the sense of well-being through changes in lifestyles. From the perspective of the evolutionist model, the culture towards which societies that experience economic and civilization development for a long time are heading, is an increasingly individualistic culture. A person who is independent in existence and unrestricted in their life choices by social pressure, becomes more autonomous in their attitudes and values. The culture they create fosters individual independence, and they place individual freedom of choice over subordination to external group norms (Bokszan´ski, 2016, p. 15). We can also observe this state of affairs in contemporary Poland, for example, in the tensions surrounding the struggle of women for the right to abortion and the questioning of moral norms supported by religious authorities, with this tension visible in the life of individuals and communities, and in the institutional sphere, e. g. in legislation. In this present time of an avalanche of social changes, it is important to orient people in the world of changing values. The belief that all pedagogical activities should have an axiological dimension is more and more often expressed. Many different values are necessary for a person to develop. The student, in their relationship with the teacher and with their peer group, learns common values through experiencing their presence. These values also define the essence of education, constituting the foundation of identity in the face of changing social conditions and needs, and are a factor in harmonious, multilateral, and individual human development (Szempruch, 2001, 2013). Since the human psyche is full of antinomies, an important issue from the axiological perspective is the contradiction in the world of values. Man, experiencing the world, oscillates between different realities and dreams, ambitions and inclinations, etc. Contradiction is an inherent element of the world and a human feature. An individual may experience axiological relativism, according to which all values are variable or relative. Relativism is the opposite of ethical absolutism.

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Rationality, uncertainty, and risk in the biography of modern man

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Between absolutism and axiological relativism, moral hypochondria may appear, concerning a person affected by a sense of guilt, and on the opposite pole, blindness to values (Ostrowska, 2006, pp. 402–403). Hence, the subject of special attention in the upbringing process should be not so much the hierarchy of values as the way of understanding, interpreting, observing, and implementing values, and shaping the subjective competences of students in this area. In shaping the axiological competences of students, the teacher should consider several stages that make up the process carried out in hierarchically-related stages: discovering values, understanding values, recognizing values, realizing values, and finally, creating values. The journey through each of these levels is an arduous one, requiring planning and consistent effort. The ability to create values is the basis for a person’s acquisition of competences for a worthwhile life. In the 21st century, education towards values, showing the direction of resolving moral tensions and conflicts, clearly defining the basic values and the limit of concessions, may become the indicator that allows safe navigation through different ideas and world views, and that assists in making the right choices. Orientation in the world of values may turn out to be extremely useful in solving contemporary difficulties and social conflicts.

Rationality, uncertainty, and risk in the biography of modern man Taking the model of modern radicalization as the basis for the analysis of social change, attention should be paid to its basic features, which include rationality, uncertainty, and risk in human biography. Rationality is the basic principle of modernity. Sztompka distinguishes autotelic rationality, when an individual pursues a worthwhile goal, disregarding even the highest costs in accordance with the principle of “the end justifies the means”, and instrumental rationality, aiming (in the subjective understanding of the person acting) to obtain as much as possible at the lowest cost, in line with the principle of maximinu – maximizing benefits and minimizing expenditure (Sztompka 2020, p. 249). These tendencies to intensify and expand the scope of rationality as a factor in organizing human activities influences the situation of man in contemporary society. There are many examples of this. It is worth paying attention to the increasingly observed distance of man from local traditions and his subordination to the principles proclaimed by experts. The growing presence of expert systems leads to the weakening of a person’s ties with the local context and inclusion in a sphere of new dependencies, and to the growing sense of loss of competences in many decisions concerning, for example, raising children, eating habits, and professional strategies. An example of this is the growing need for a variety of advisors such as, mentors, coaches, and different counselors.

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In the context of these phenomena, the role of the social sciences is increasing, such as sociology, pedagogy, psychology. According to Giddens (2008, p. 26), these sciences implement not only the process of getting to know the social world, but also its co-creation. This co-creation takes place through the application of scientific discourse into the consciousness of people whose effects are the subject of study. Empirical data or a scientific theory can have a direct practical impact, because when made aware of it, the data and theories become the motivational basis for the actions of people. This is the “reflexivity” of the turning power of knowledge about society towards society itself (Sztompka, Bogunia-Borowska (ed.) 2008, pp. 16–18). Modern man has lost his sense of security. This loss is accompanied by uncertainty and the fear of an unstable reality in which it is difficult to refer to permanent principles. According to Giddens, this reveals a tendency to doubt, give up, withdraw, and leave things to run according to their own dynamics. The feeling of instability is intensified by a personal life filled with casual relationships (Giddens, 2010) and an uncertain situation in the labor market. The radicalization of modernity also leads to the elimination of cosmic regularities in the life of an individual (fate, destiny) at the expense of human entanglement in a whirlwind of events in which the laws of nature and people (opportunities, risks) play a role. The future is described in terms of opportunities and risks, and efforts are made to colonize that future. There are new types of social concerns, such as the chemical, nuclear, environmental, biological, and medical problems that Beck (2002) defines as a risk society. Compared to the past, these threats have a special impact, one that is globalized, complex in terms of causes, unpredictable, hidden, undetectable by the senses, and the result of human decisions. According to Beck (2002, p. 33), “In a risk society, gradually or abruptly – through a smog alert, an accident with a poisonous substance, etc. – a political potential for catastrophes arises (…). The risk society is a disaster society.” The catastrophic potential of the risk society elicits new lines of reflection, but despite the greater commitment to increasing control by science and the sense of responsibility resulting from reflective modernization, the side effects of using innovative technologies remain largely unpredictable and, despite being deemed impossible or unlikely, overlap (Ungar, 2008, p. 910). In the writings of Ulrich Beck, the view is propounded that the mass media play a key role in the processes of risk disclosure and social contestation, and are a source of scientific knowledge about threats as well as about social processes and challenges for the risk society. Beck’s views on the media are transparent; his thoughts often seem to play a metaphorical role. Nevertheless, at the heart of Beck’s social theory, a set of media-focused positions can be distinguished as fundamental to the processes of reflective modernity (Cottle, 1998).

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It is more and more difficult for a person to protect a certain lifestyle from an atmosphere of risk. The more important is the role of education and the teacher who, inspiring students to acquire knowledge, constructs with them a map that allows for a better orientation within this complicated world: where we come from, where we are, where we are going as individuals and social groups. Students learn to see the overall social context in which they live, their place in society and the relationship between their own destiny and that of society, i. e. between biography and history. They construct a precise language which provides the basis for thinking and talking about social and public matters, and one’s own place and role in the world. In this way, knowledge enters their life experience and social practice, and becomes self-knowledge, thereby changing society. This has great potential for reflection and moral inspiration within everyday social existence. Understanding the complexity of contemporary risk for individuals and social groups facilitates conscious and responsible functioning in our complicated social reality, and also translates into the views and ideas that come to be expressed.

Falling structures and human functioning Researchers involved in the analysis of social change in the context of the sociological perspective of eschatology express the conviction that nothing will ever be the same again, and that the most profound changes that will arrive in the next decades of the 21st century will fundamentally change today’s horizon of the imagination. Such a conviction is related to the consequences of the technological revolution and globalization as well as to the problems of contemporary capitalism and the significant reduction in the resources of cheap labor (WnukLipin´ski, 2003). In addition, the demand for greater state expenditure in the public sphere (education, health, etc.) with a simultaneous reduction in taxes translates into a crisis of state finances (Attali, 2010, Bokszan´ski, 2016, p. 18). In this perspective, new technologies have contributed to the progress of globalization, but at the same time, as globalization develops, locality has become less and less important. The influence of the nation state is marginalized, which results in fear for livelihoods, personal security, and the future. Man lives in a sense of a specific duality between what is real and local, and what is virtual, distant, and global. Moreover, new technologies and automation have disrupted the balance in the relationship between employers and employees. Changes in the forms of work and related structures can readily be observed, as well as in the related changes to lifestyle and standard of living (Smyła, 2015, 2016). Ties and norms are weakened, traditional family ties are disintegrating, existing hierarchies and authorities as well as the mechanisms that traditionally organized the

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life of societies have all collapsed. Distrust towards the institutions of public life is growing, and the intensity of social disorganization is increasing (Fukuyama, 2000). The present social reality does not match anything that was known before. Social life in the modern world is characterized by ambiguity, contradictions, and extremes, manifested in the form of many paradoxes (Szempruch 2012), such as: – the paradox of work – the nature of work forces idleness, more and more people are temporarily or permanently unemployed; – the productivity paradox – higher productivity caused by technological changes and the better preparation of employees for work results in a reduction in employment; – the paradox of organization – organization should be both local and global; employees should be individualists acting independently, but within a team; companies must achieve specific goals, but at the same time be flexible; those same companies operate in the mass market, but focus too on the care of the individual customer; production must be massive yet low-cost; – the paradox of time – in a busy schedule, a person has less and less time, and yet in the past he never had so much of it; – the paradox of intelligence – the ability to acquire knowledge and use it has become a new source of wealth; – the paradox of the rich – there is a significant gap between the richest and the poorest; in poor societies, changes are mainly driven by the growing demand among affluent people; – the paradox of the individual – we need others to be fully ourselves and to mark our own individuality; – the age paradox – each generation is different from the previous one and is aware of it, but makes choices and formulates plans as if its offspring were to live according to the present rules; – the paradox of justice – those who contribute more to social life in capitalism expect more from society (Handy, 1996); – the paradox of development – the possibility of development and the destruction of the potential for development in some areas of the world, which leads to environmental degradation and a reduction in the quality of life; – the paradox of knowledge – the development of scientific and technical knowledge and the reduction of the real level of the practical application of that knowledge in large areas of the world; – the quality of life paradox – the possibility of increasing the level and quality of life for the whole of humanity, and the reality of increasing poverty, disease, and other threats; – the paradox of culture – the threat of the cultural homogenization of the world in the conditions of the dialogue of cultures, strengthening of su-

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pranational institutions with great financial potential (Wojnar, Piejka, Samoraj, 2008, p. 137). Education, preparing students for life in the conditions of a changing civilization, should come to the aid of those plunging into more and more social disorder. Models of social life can and should define the ideologies of international cooperation, democratization, and integration. Whether this happens or not depends – so the authors believe – on the successful course and implementation of the idea of intercultural education, which is to contribute to shaping a multidimensional identity, harmoniously combining local, regional, national, European, and global dimensions (Lewowicki, 2008, p. 21–22), an intercultural identity, understood as “a symbolic universe of simultaneous and inseparable existence in many dimensions and on many levels” (Nikitorowicz, 2009, p. 392). The conclusion can be reached that human functioning is currently shaped by different trends and factors related to the processes of social change. Growing individualism is related to expansion in the free shaping of the way of life, values, and beliefs. Sustainable economic growth provides the basis for highlighting new values. There is a shift from the values of self-discipline, limiting hedonistic aspirations, and conformity to social norms, to the currently observed pluralism of normative orientations, attitudes of social permissiveness, and openness to new ideas. In the face of such phenomena, new areas of activity for schools, teachers, and educational institutions have emerged. The present day has intensified in people’s experience the phenomenon of the loss of significance of locality and the marginalization of local influences and authorities. Man has become entangled in the vast space of the network of connections; one’s email address does not locate one in the real world but is everywhere and nowhere simultaneously. Man has entered an unpredictable world of previously unknown dependencies, the consequence of which is mainly a sense of loss of competence and thinking in terms of opportunities and risks about his own biography and the future. The transformations of the world have led to the loss of human ontological security and the emergence of existential anxiety (Giddens, 2010; Beck 2004, 2012; Beck, Grande 2009; Gergen 2009; Castells 2009). The changeability and complexity of the present are the source of the difficulties of human adaptation. Conflicts between individuals and groups over the background of the challenges to identity break out and grow, and the difficulties of modern democracy in developing a network society are growing. The collapse of the old structures that formed the framework for human participation in social life, politics, and the economy, as well as the diversity, temporality, and transitory nature of cultural patterns, contribute to the weakening of control over an individual within an organization and community. In the past, the set of cultural standards was clear and internalized by man, they

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“existed in the individual”, while today it is left to man to choose the form of these different, inconsistent patterns and norms. Human choices are important. The ability to make these choices is shaped, inter alia, in the process of school education. Jacques Delors, the chair of a UNESCO report called Education: there is hidden treasure in it (1998), placed education in the highest rank, and his words have been echoed by many others; education is seen as a national and social priority. Mirosław J. Szyman´ski emphasizes the importance of education as a factor in shaping individuals and social groups, especially in terms of facilitating understanding between people, between different communities and entire nations (Szyman´ski 2014, p. 66). The analysis of social changes leads to the conclusion that certain patterns of life are becoming more popular, while others are being excluded and new forms of socialization for individual activities are emerging. The reality that surrounds us introduces a multitude of competing communities of meanings, individual life techniques, relationships with others, and images of the world. Within this type of communities, integrated in the course of social practices, reality is “formatted” into the area of meanings maintained and reproduced in the course of interactions by the individuals involved in them, according to Mirosława Marody (2015, p. 281). The search for a teacher’s place in a changing society is inseparably connected with preparing an individual to cope with change, learn new things, and maintain mental balance in unknown situations. In a society and a world where the only certainty is change itself (Harari 2018, pp. 335–337), there will be a need for readiness and the ability to re-create oneself and understand the world (Szempruch 2021). It is difficult for a person to find themself in the complicated times of late modernity, in which there is confusion and chaos as well as the deprivation of a rooting in the past, never intensified on such a scale before. He should be helped by lifelong education to strengthen the democratic public space. Necessary measures should be taken to strengthen the pillars of international democracy and to improve the social, ecological, cultural, and ethical functioning of man and the world on a global scale. In these contexts, new challenges and tasks emerge, as well as new opportunities for the school; but alongside these, there is also the emergence of new risks. The considerations presented herein on human functioning in times of social change are not an exhaustive look at the full spectrum of such changes, but indicate their main trends, which include: – fast pace, dynamics, and multidirectional changes covering almost all areas of social, political, economic, and cultural life; – ambiguity, non-transparency, chaos, fluidity in the social reality, the lack of certain criteria of evaluation, determining the progressive process of loss and loneliness of a person, adversely affecting the development of their identity

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– –

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with a significant scope of individual freedom and emphasis on individualism in every sphere of life; progress in the field of technology and communication, determining the avalanche increase in information and its ready access; globalization of the world of culture, politics, and economy, as well as capitalist acceleration and consumerism that determine lifestyles and creates the needs of individuals; new types of social inequality and differentiation; assigning a deeper meaning to global education, consisting in universal, holistic, multicultural, and empowering education.

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Social contexts of contemporary educational changes

Education, understood as the body of multidimensional activities and processes aimed at upbringing and educating people and social groups, depending on the theoretical premises and socio-political conditions, receives different treatments. It is understood as the process of permanent human learning; an instrument of political power; a legal and civic duty; the area of social self-regulation, a factor in the development of human capital; a type of symbolic violence that imposes the culture of the dominant group on representatives of other social groups; the “screen of culture” that explains the complexity of its domain of meanings and symbols; a factor in the shaping of human identity; and as an indispensable creative condition for the development of that identity (S´liwerski, 2003, pp. 905– 906). It is associated with social conditions and the challenges of the future. Nowadays, the concept of education extends in meaning beyond the area of traditional school learning. There are three types of scientific literature on the education process: 1. Protoeducation (first-cycle learning) – a process that can be planned, designed, controlled, and consolidated. 2. Deuteroeducation (second degree learning) – a hidden process, rarely aware of, rarely controlled by those participating in it, and loosely related to the topic of teaching. Understood as “learning to learn”, it is an essential component of protoeducation. 3. Third degree education – occurs when an individual acquires the ability to modify a set of alternatives to the possibilities that they have learned to predict and control in the deuteroeducation process. This level teaches the modern person how to free themself from habits in order to cope with the unpredictability of the world, acquire adaptive properties, what become an important element of the necessary life equipment (Bauman, 2007). Zygmunt Bauman concludes that the philosophy and theory of education are faced with the difficult task of formulating a more open formative process, one which is not governed by a pre-planned goal established at the very beginning. In

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practice, however, their specific manifestations must be consistent with the traditional pursuit of a pattern and structure. Prospects for the development of education in the context of social changes and the global problems of the future have been analyzed in a number of reports on education. These reports emphasize the role of the school as a center of education and indicate the need for changes in its functioning and the need to define its new functions and tasks. The priorities and problems of education have been considered in the following reports, as well as in many others: Learning to be (1982, UNESCO Report), Education: there is a treasure hidden in it (1998, UNESCO Report), Future of the world (2001, UNESCO Report), Learning – without borders (1982, Roman Club Report), Possible variants of European education in the future. Project I: preparing people for life in the 21st century (1972, Council of Europe), White Paper on Education and Improvement. On the road to a learning society (Biała Karta…1997, European Commission), and Education for Europe (1999, European Commission report). As early as at the end of the 20th century, these reports showed the need to improve the quality of all aspects of education and suggested ideas and directions for the kind of changes that would lead to this goal. In these reports, education is presented as an opportunity to be seized in humanity’s pursuit of the ideals of peace, freedom and social justice, and the eradication of poverty, exclusion, misunderstanding, oppression, and war, and as an important factor in the development of the individual and society. These demands are equally valid today. Education and improvement have become the basic carriers of identity and personal development as well as a means by which to equalize educational and life chances. Hence, the basic goals of education include: (1) encouraging the acquisition of new skills; (2) bringing schools and the business sector closer together; (3) combating the phenomenon of marginalization; (4) spreading fluency in three of the languages used in the European Community; (5) the equal treatment of material and educational investments (Biała Ksie˛ga 1997, pp. 55– 56). It is now essential to improve educational policy and direct that policy towards activities that contribute to the creation of true democracy, the sustainable development of humanity, and mutual understanding between nations. To this end, it is necessary to overcome tensions that, although not new, are at the center of the problems of the 21st century: – The tension between what is global and what is local; – The tension between what is universal and what is individual; – The tension between tradition and modernity; – The tension between long-term and immediate action; – The tension between indispensable competition and concern for equal opportunities;

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– The tension between the extraordinary development of knowledge and the human ability to assimilate that knowledge; – The tension between spirituality and materiality (Delors, 1998, pp. 12–14). During the International Education Conference in Geneva in 1996, the tasks faced by teachers on the threshold of the 21st century were determined. It was emphasized that education, under the influence of the processes of globalization, should play a special role in preventing the negative effects of globalization and strengthening those elements that lead to progress. Jacques Delors in the aforementioned Education report states that the development of education requires a sense of the utopian and the formulation of often unrealistic plans, as this sets a certain direction of development and allows for the implementation of what is real and possible. He lists the directions of the development of education: from the local community to the global society, from social ties to democratic participation, from economic growth to personality development. The paradox of the 21st century is the joining of two opposing forces – individualization, self-presentation and mass self-communication, and the media that an individualized person needs to communicate his identity. Education plays a central role in the development of individuals and societies; it represents the basis for the creation of conditions for the revelation of talents and creative possibilities, the ability to judge and act, and to manage one’s own fate in a globalized world. Many scientific studies emphasize the importance of the appropriate preparation of people to encounter and understand the world and themselves as well as to be responsible and to participate actively in the process of democratization of various spheres of life, to create a new social and economic order and to sensitize people to the values of culture (Banach, 2006, Denek, 2005). Education is also a factor in stimulating and developing individual and collective consciousness. Therefore, taking up current and future challenges requires setting new goals in education, enabling the individual to discover, stimulate, and strengthen the role of their creative potential. To this end, education should consider four aspects of education, each of which represents a pillar of knowledge for each individual: learn to know, i. e. to acquire a tool of understanding; learn to act, to be able to influence one’s environment; learn to live together, to participate and collaborate with others on all levels of human activity; and learn to be (Delors, 1998, pp. 85–95), i. e. an endeavor similar to the previous three, related to the ability to develop independent and critical thinking and to develop independence of judgment in order to be able to decide independently about the rightness of actions taken in various life circumstances. An important condition for the efficient functioning of education in the course of democratic changes is to anticipate social and economic changes as well as to effectively adapt to changes in the labor market. The dynamically changing

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world requires understanding, acceptance, and the introduction of necessary changes in the methods of operation, no less so in the teaching and research communities. The task of these communities is not only to transfer knowledge, but above all to shape the personality of learners through the use of innovative and anticipatory learning, and to prepare these learners for democracy, work, freedom and responsible implementation of the slogan of modern education, “to understand the world – to manage oneself”. This requires undertaking many activities in the field of improving education systems, both on a global and national scale, and ensuring appropriate economic and socio-political conditions for these changes. It is important to be aware of the number of contradictions that characterize the modern world, and which will affect its future development. These are: 1. Demographic changes, which are a challenge for the education system, but also for the economy, employment policy, nutrition, health care, and other aspects of social and family policy; 2. Income differentiation, which is now greater than ever in the past, is related to, inter alia, globalization and the domination of neo-liberal politics on a previously unknown scale, and may become the cause of social rebellion and the source of massively increasing social and political dysfunction and the lack of the full use of human resources; 3. Cultural differences, which often appear attractive and worth knowing, but can also be perceived as hostile, undermining the dominance of cultural systems born in Europe, especially in Western Europe; 4. The struggle for domination in the world, which is integrated into the mechanism of the market economy, social competition, and political rivalry; 5. The fight over limited raw materials; 6. Competition for knowledge, which is increasingly becoming a fundamental resource, and whose role will grow at an accelerated pace. In the face of the forecasted changes and the contradictions of the contemporary and future world, the relationship between the globalizing world and national states is becoming a problem of fundamental importance. The condition for survival and further development is no less than a guarantee of peace on a global scale. The transformation of education has also found its rightful place in the European development strategy to 2050, which takes as its main developmental priority the introduction to Europe of the highest stage of the development of the information civilization and its adaptation to the requirements of the new phase in the development of the market economy of the future by building a modern knowledge-based economy (Karpin´ski, 2007, pp. 37–54).

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The analysis of changes in our country, Poland, and on a global scale, and the role of education in these transformations, allows us to conclude that education represents a value that is expected to help people recreate and understand their past, shape key skills that allow them to understand the environment and efficiently adapt, with that environment, and help in transforming one’s current professional and social position in a conscious, responsible, and creative way. Education should prepare people to create the future in all its opaque conditions and help in the development of competences for reflection, including a critical reflection of the world, culture, and one’s own humanity and self-realization, as well as for continuous learning, effective communication, and cooperation with others in a multicultural world. An appropriately oriented education system is an essential condition for the social and economic development and the shaping of society. In the face of the constantly increasing and unpredictable changes of the modern world, an important task of modern education is to prepare the individual for life, which means shaping the ability to live in accordance with the feeling of uncertainty and ambivalence, with many points of view and the lack of infallible or trustworthy authorities. It also means deepening tolerance for difference, strengthening critical and self-critical skills, respecting the right to be different, and the courage to accept responsibility for one’s own choices and their consequences. This task also calls for the development of the ability to “change the framework of action”. Changes in the educational system require the transformation of the philosophy of reproductive education into creative education; therefore it becomes important to improve didactics, replace adaptive education with the doctrine of critical and creative education, stimulating innovation, creativity, and changes in the surrounding world. The effect of the work of the school should be to shape the skills and knowledge of students in a way that is appropriate to the needs of everyday life and the future. School’s basic function becomes: – teaching reflective, critical, and creative thinking skills, – teaching a specific habit of coping with various situations, – teaching how to use abstractions. According to Yuval Harari, the school should place greater emphasis on shaping universal life skills, because in the future of greatest importance will be the ability to cope with change, learn new things, and maintain mental balance in unknown situations. In order to keep up with the pace of changes, an individual will be forced not only to create new ideas and products, but also to re-create himself (Harari, 2018, p. 335). Jérémy Lamri (2018) speaks in a similar vein, stating that in the present world the most important competences of an individual, those that allow him to keep up with changes in a constantly evolving reality, are creativity, communication, critical thinking, and cooperation. While the professionals of

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the 20th century preferred the so-called routine competences, the last two decades have shown that the demand for interaction and analysis skills has increased. People who are able to learn and adapt to new roles in an organization, who are capable of initiative and are creative, are now valued most by employers. In the world of new technologies and the fast pace and variety of information, effective communication and teamwork have also gained in importance. Thus, education is today assigned functions not so much to adapt, but rather to be critical, creative, and humanistic. Its task is to prepare the individual to create a better reality and future, introduce changes, and prepare to use various sources of knowledge. Taking into account the complexity of these processes, when applying the doctrine of critical-creative education the following groups of goals and tasks of education can be distinguished: 1. Pedagogical – shaping the personality of participants in educational processes, acquiring knowledge and skills, and choosing values; 2. Social – shaping and controlling the educational and life fate of people; 3. Political – preparation for civic, social, and political activity and ensuring a valuable life in society; 4. Cultural – instilling the need to participate in culture and the skills to do so along with the ability to co-create that culture and shape its appropriate aspirations; 5. Economic – preparation for work and a professional life, shaping motivation and organizational skills and achieving high efficiency in action. Therefore, the main goal of teaching and upbringing should be to strive for harmonious and comprehensive human development in terms of mental, social and moral, physical and health-related, and aesthetic and general technical aspects. As a structure, the level and modernity of education are largely determined by the content of education, which should be determined by: – socio-economic and civilization changes, – changes in the ways people learn, – changes in the structure of professional qualifications and professional mobility, – development of information media, increasing the role of science and modern technology, etc. These serve to better generate self-confidence and encourage the best possible use of the mind and the knowledge of the participants of education and to be an instrument in shaping self-esteem and self-acceptance, constituting important motivating factors for the rationalization of work and professional development, and to promote the necessary skills to behave in competitive conditions.

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An important social context for the development of education is the rapid development of the information society, observed at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, in which information and communication technologies are becoming the basic element of development. The development and dissemination of these technologies is associated with changes in social communication, as well as lifestyle and organizational patterns. The development of technology is currently becoming one of the main drivers of transformation. This is defined as the information revolution, understood as the theoretical structure within which different trends in modern society, such as the information economy and the information society, can be conceptualized (Juszczyk, 2010, p. 203). The information society is a type of society that has developed in countries where the development of modern telecommunication technologies proceeded at a very fast pace. The basic condition for recognizing a society as an information society is the existence of an extensive, modern telecommunications network, open and accessible to all citizens, and extensive information resources likewise available to the public. Universal access to information is, in turn, a condition for the development and longevity of society. Before raw information can be considered as knowledge in the mind of the recipient of that information, it is subject to learning, adaptation, and restructuring. The recipient should be able to assess that information, underlining the importance of education in the direction of lifelong learning (Pachocin´ski 2003). Research on the transformation of an industrial society towards a knowledgebased society was initiated in 1959 by the American sociologist Daniel Bell, the creator of the term “post-industrial society”. The term “information society” was first used in an article on the information-processing society, but another Japanese scientist, the futurologist Keinichi Koyama, author of the 1968 dissertation Information Theory, contributed to its popularization and in Europe Simon Nora and Alain Minca, authors of the report on trends in the development of social systems published in 1978 (Nowina-Konopka 2006). Tadao Umesao’s theory and the reflections of those who followed him became the starting point for the development of further research on social changes, including the information economy (Castells 2007). The information society is reduced by some researchers to its technical aspects. Elsewhere, the most important features of the emerging model of society include permanent education, the new role of science, the application of knowledge in practice, and the increase in the importance of social capital, which is the basis for the development of intellectual capital. A new term has emerged, the knowledge society, alternatively referred to as knowledge-based society. This term refers to societies that can rely on the knowledge of their citizens for innovation and entrepreneurship. Such a society is ready to compete and succeed

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in the dynamically changing conditions of the contemporary economic and political world. The information society is a conventional name for the current social, cultural, and economic situation generated by various factors. At its foundation is the scientific and technical progress called the information revolution, which relates to the development of new media, and above all to a computer connected to the global Internet network and the Internet’s service capabilities and information content (databases and knowledge bases), the possibility of organizing videoconferences and electronic mail, as well as interactive television, interactive video, and stationary and mobile telephony. The development of the information society requires the synergistic action of technological, economic, and social factors. When analyzing these issues, it is impossible to ignore the problem of the process of education from the perspective of the conditions and needs created by the information society. This problem is expressed by the thought of Thomas S. Eliot: “Where is the knowledge lost amid information? Where is the wisdom lost in knowledge?” Information reaching people with various content and quality of messages is not yet knowledge, they can pave the way to it, create its framework, shape its basis and inspire the image. The enormity of the quantity of information that travels on networks and that can be explored on such networks is a prerequisite for knowledge and requires a new IT literacy for one to understand reality. This literacy is a privileged way of gaining autonomy, enabling an individual to act in society as an enlightened and free individual (Delors, p. 188). People differ in their access to data, their ability to transform it into information, and their ability to transform information into knowledge, and therefore an important task of education is to shape the competences around the critical selection of information and how it is processed into knowledge, bridging the gap between the amount of information available on the one hand, and how that information is understood and evaluated on the other. It should be borne in mind, however, that there are many kinds of knowledge. In the OECD report on Knowledge Management in the Learning Society (2000, pp. 13–14), knowledge is divided into four categories: (1) know-what – this relates to the knowledge of facts, and is synonymous with information; can be transmitted directly as raw data; (2) know-why – this refers to the knowledge of principles and laws in nature, and exists in the human mind and society; (3) know-how – this relates to skills, i. e. the ability to do something; it is relevant to the skills possessed by workers and to the higher level of management and knowledge creation by scientists;

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(4) know who – this refers to the holders of knowledge, and describes the knowledge they have; it also concerns social skills of cooperation and communication with external experts (Szempruch, 2008). The primary goal of knowledge is to allow effective operation in the world. Knowledge also creates an understanding of the world, and that is especially true of knowledge about technology, about global problems and the processes of globalization, and about the future. Today such knowledge has risen to become a central element within economic development and international cooperation, and its role alongside the learning processes in social and cultural life is increasing. Knowledge about the world increases human freedom, facilitates and rationalizes choices, makes man effective in the praxeological sense, and furthermore becomes a tool in the defense against stereotypes, mythologies, simplification, shallow understanding, substitutes for culture, and against manipulation (Zacher 2003, pp. 125–6). In the debate around knowledge, its personal character (resulting from its connection with biography), its social character (as knowledge is established during social negotiations and in the exchange of meanings and symbols), and its contextual character (as knowledge is dependent on time and place) are all more greatly emphasized. Hence, attention should be paid to the coexistence in the processes of teaching and learning; in addition to scientific, overt, and declarative knowledge, also common, implicit, subjective, and procedural knowledge. Communication and knowledge exchange are factors in personal development within new ways of social life, but are also a factor in social differentiation. The shaping of the information society is related to the emergence of new divisions and inequalities between different societies due to their different adaptations to new technologies and, above all, due to the ability among some to create information while others are limited to only being able to receive that information. Unlimited access to the virtual world may lead to a loss of the sense of reality and cause unfavorable changes in the processes of the socialization of children and adolescents. An important context in educational change is the way people engage with media. This engagement has changed significantly in recent years. Today, children and young people are not only consumers, but also active creators of media culture. The virtual world provides users with a forum in which to publicly express their opinions, and thus transform their self-expression into a form of social participation. As the virtual world is considered a public space, children’s viewpoints on participation and political discussion must be kept separate from that of adults. From the child’s point of view, the virtual world as a public space refers to its potential to be an arena for the presentation of the child’s opinions on their daily affairs (Tuukkanen, Wilska, Iqbal, & Kankaanranta, 2013).

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A frequently discussed issue is the change in the culture of participation and social participation, mostly based on the potential of new communication and information technologies (e.g. Stunz˙a, 2018). Henry Jenkins defines the culture of participation as being a culture in which fans and other consumers are invited to actively participate in the creation and redistribution of new content (Jenkins, 2007, p. 257). Social networking sites and the relationships built there among the participants of the “meeting” in the space of new media have gained in popularity. Krzysztof Stachura and Grzegorz Stunz˙a in the introduction to the publication “Culture anew. Research - trends - practice” write about individualism “built on their own reading paths during hyper-textual journeys through information lessons, which may be a threat to the development of culture in the spirit of wide access, participation and information exchange ”(2016, p. 8). The authors see this as an obstacle to social interactions and emphasize that real participation requires meeting many conditions (see Jenkins, Ito¯, Boyd, 2015), such as the ability to understand the social situation to engage constructively, and the ability to make contacts and deal with negative judgments online. Research conducted in 2004 showed that the use of the Internet may be positively correlated with the use of other forms of interpersonal communication. Taken together, the results showed that the Internet is integrated into social life, but face-to-face contact remains the dominant mode of interpersonal communication (Baym, Zhang, & Lin, 2004). In 2007 it was demonstrated that online anonymity can have both positive and negative effects (Christopherson, 2007), and that some online games affect positive social interactions because they require large numbers of players to collaborate and work in a team at the same time (Cole & Griffiths, 2007). Dominik Batorski and Krzysztof Olechnicki (2007), writing that online communication enables greater anonymity, appealed to Paweł Mazurek, who argued that online anonymity is bad and, although this sometimes leads to negative behaviors, it is nonetheless very often conducive to helping others (Mazurek, 2006). The media can play a very important role in the process of upbringing and socialization (Jenkins, Ito¯, Boyd, 2015), the more so because they serve entertainment and social contacts. For 86.4% of young people, access to movies and music is important, and 94% have profiles on social networking sites. Grzegorz Stunz˙a (2018) argues that digital technologies can foster relationships with peers and respond to the needs of young people in this area. Many people cannot understand that young people want to be in touch with each other constantly, and digital technologies allow this to happen. The phenomenon of fear of missing out, treated by some as a symptom of the disease, i.e. the fear of missing some important information, is quite common if we take into account the characteristics of adolescents and access to the technology of instantaneous contact. Justyna Jasiewicz and the team of authors concluded that “competent use of the

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media is the use that increases the quality of an individual’s life, taking into account, however, the ways of its functioning in various areas” (2015, pp. 5-6). One should also mention one of the slogans of Jacques Delors’ report, namely “learning to live together”, which emphasizes the need to prepare children for social life through the education system (Delors [ed.], 1998, p. 92–95). Contemporary media is both a creator and a product of contemporary culture. The following facts are significant: – The concepts of ‘culture’ and ‘civilization’ are sometimes treated together, for example, when describing global phenomena. The same has been said about the civilization of mass culture or the civilization of pop culture or the civilization of cyberculture. This is largely related to the phenomenon of participation in culture, i. e. the ability to use a code in reference to a material thing or a way of behaving. – Human behavior follows a specific pattern of culture. When talking about patterns we mean those norms that arise from value systems, and about exceeding established norms and contradicting recognized values. – Fashionable personal patterns are often the vehicle for new standards. Adopted norms and values affect a certain level of mass culture, but also of scientific and natural culture. – ‘Media civilization’ or ‘technical civilization’ can be understood as the entirety of the cultural, organizational, and technical achievements of man, but also as the basis for building a further, specific culture (media culture, technical culture). – Civilization is sometimes understood as virtual reality. The problem lies in the phenomenon of participation in “pseudoculture” and the appearance of participation. – The so-called fake culture in which social reality is mixed with media reality (this phenomenon is referred to as hyper-reality) without distance to the world of media that provide a constant stream of information – the fascination with the code of transmission becomes more important than the content conveyed (Potyrała, 2017). When analyzing the importance of information technology in contemporary society, it is worth emphasizing that it provides: 1. the driving force behind the process of globalization and lifelong learning in the conditions of the rapid increase in information and its ready availability, and the need to transform such information into knowledge; 2. a catalyst for economic development and democracy; 3. support for teaching and distance learning within formal, non-formal, and informal education;

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4. a medium for disseminating culture and cultural diversity as well as a tool enabling access to cultural goods; 5. a tool for communicating social and scientific problems, with particular emphasis on health and its protection as well as environmental protection (Potyrała, 2017). The development of information technology fosters communication on a global scale, but at the same time deepens the tendency of individuals to withdraw and isolate. The rising popularity of remote work disrupts the bonds of solidarity established in the workplace, and access to the virtual world often leads to a loss of the sense of reality (Delors, pp. 61–65). In the context of the phenomena analyzed, an important task of education is to prepare the individual for independent learning and lifelong learning. The vision of social development is presented by Józef Kozielecki (2004, pp. 244–246), who called the future society a transgressive society. In his opinion, it will likely be characterized by: 1. transgressive actions – creative, innovative, and expansive, which play a dominant role, crossing the limits of human achievements and creating new values, as well as allowing for social, cultural, and awareness changes, often leading to an increase in the welfare and well-being of society; 2. a high degree of potential subjectivity, i. e. the ability to self-transform, and through their cognitive, motivational, and interactive resources, causative entities will turn potential into reality: society not only changes, but develops; 3. the abandonment of teaching, memory, and verbal teaching in favor of productive learning, with the use of methods of solving convergent and divergent problems, innovative learning, strategy games, and original interpretations. In the current social reality, the opportunity to know oneself better is offered by openness and the possibility of experimenting and discovering one’s talents and preferences, with these often hidden in otherwise predictable situations, with even the possessor not realizing their existence. The diversification of offers also creates an opportunity to learn to make choices, to learn the ability to resolve conflicts, and to acquire flexibility in action, as well as the ability to satisfy one’s needs and meet the requirements of the environment in an ambiguous, unclear, and non-transparent context. One new feature of the present day is that adults frequently find themselves learning from young people to cope with the rapidly changing social environment. Some adults find it hard to come to terms with this reverse of the traditional relationship. This situation suggests that the field for such common contact and the exchange of resources must still be found.

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The most difficult and most important educational problems are related to human participation in what is being created and in what is yet to come, as well as in the visions of our civilization. There is a particularly sharp conflict between fidelity and creativity, between accepting what exists and the alternative to what may happen, between adaptation and innovation. Education understood in this way should not lead to the creation of new addictions, but should make a person capable of free choice and of shaping their own life path, one that is permeated with values. These considerations lead to reflection on the current and future changes that are and will appear in the process of education in times characterized by the random and unexpected blurring of boundaries and patterns, related, inter alia, to the COVID-19 pandemic. With the outbreak of the pandemic and the introduction of remote education, an intensive process of digitalisation and digitization of the educational process in schools of all grades was seen, from primary school to university. A great deal of work has also been undertaken in the field of “electronization” and the digitization of a large collection of textbooks and teaching materials, and the tools and functions of libraries are changing. Educational models are also changing. Schools are adapting their teaching tools and methods. The internet is used in the various phases of the learning process to improve distance learning techniques. The previous observations of teaching practice indicate that teachers to a large extent base their teaching concepts on their many years of professional practice, but also on their own educational experiences, gained when they were themselves students (Hargreaves, Fullan, 2020). The impact of the pandemic on both teachers and students has been significant in terms of teaching and learning. The pandemic created conditions that challenged traditional teaching strategies, the quality of the interaction between teachers and students, and collaboration between teachers and parents and the wider educational community (ibid.). During the COVID-19 pandemic, most governments around the world temporarily closed schools. This decision affected 1.4 billion students worldwide, all of whom were forced to quickly reconsider their own metacognitive strategies and develop their own style of working while learning remotely. Attention has been paid to the problems of students resulting from the prolonged state of physical isolation from their peers, teachers, extended family, and other real-world social networks (Zhang et al. 2020). Meanwhile, little is known about the long-term effects of isolation and enforced social rules, or about ICT-mediated learning and interaction on the mental health of children and adolescents. Educational changes around the world in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic have exposed problems with equal availability of technology (often referred to as the “digital divide”) around the world (UNESCO, 2020; Zhong, 2020). The

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transition to online educational courses, known as Emergency Remote Teaching, caused anxiety and worry for teachers who had little or no experience with online teaching methodologies and technology. Educational technology researchers emphasize that the main task of Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT) is not to recreate a robust educational ecosystem, but rather to provide temporary access to instruction and support in a quick and reliable manner (Hodges et al., 2020). The continuation of online education may result in a lack of participation in culture or the appearance of participation. This is an undeniable consequence of commercial and mass culture on the Internet, anonymity in a group, communities functioning as a spatially dispersed set of individuals, the confidentiality of online communication, and an unlimited audience taking virtual ‘actions’ consisting in clicking ‘Like’. Faked activity is a logical consequence of the previously born ‘instant’ culture - fast food, fast cars, fast sex (Melosik, 2004). Disturbances in the field of one’s own identity, the consolidation of egocentric attitudes, changes to language (impoverishment, technical slang), and the disturbance of interpersonal relations are just some of the consequences of the aforementioned social phenomena. There is also a danger of becoming addicted to the Internet. This was first mentioned in 1995 by the American psychiatrist Ivan Goldberg. Kimberly Young, a psychologist from the University of Pittsburgh, proposed in 1996 that Internet addiction should be treated as a disease. Tadeusz Pilch (2007) believes that the addiction of children and adolescents to the Internet has internal and external causes. The internal causes include problems with one’s own personality resulting from low self-esteem and not coping with stress, a lack of emotional maturity (dominance of negative emotions, inability to build social relationships), and negative self-image. The external causes include the influence of the family environment (a lack of emotional ties and parental control, poorly planned free time, bad educational atmosphere), the school environment (feeling of inferiority, inappropriate relationships with teachers and peers, lack of educational programs that consider the issues of addiction to the Internet and electronic violence) and peer relationships (insecurity about one’s own attractiveness, inability to communicate, difficulty in defining one’s place in the peer environment). Undoubtedly, strong-minded people are less likely to succumb to the destructive influence of media. The most susceptible are those who have problems with their own identity or who spend many hours at their computer because they feel a strong need to learn about the news presented on the Internet (Moczydłowska, 2000, p. 10). This group also includes young people who have a problem with their own personality and experience a sense of being lost. On the Internet, they look for the meaning of existence and values that might guide them, and they also consider the Internet as the easiest means of escaping their problems

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(Andrzejewska, 2009, p. 230). The motives for joining the virtual world and the frequency of visiting it also depend on the degree to which their needs and aspirations in the real world are satisfied. It is difficult to determine whether personal and school failures are one of the reasons for Internet addiction, or whether Internet addiction is the cause of personal and school failures (Suler, 2004). The advantages of new media seem to be outweighed by their disadvantages and the risks that emerge from them. Information overproduction, the collapse of school and teacher authority, the growth of complex networks of real and faked relationships, global computer-mediated communication, and the appearances of participation can all provide fertile ground for the negative phenomena known as electronic violence. Be aware that the trend towards the informal consumption, creation, communication, and sharing of knowledge via ICT will increase. However, this understanding is a prerequisite for communication and likewise for collaboration. In other words, collaboration requires the knowledge and communication of cognitive needs. The Internet and its related technologies have progressed significantly in the last twenty years: Web 1.0 as a cognitive network, Web 2.0 as a communication network, Web 3.0 as a collaborative network, and Web 4.0 as an integrative network – four generations of networks since the first appearance of the Internet. Cybercrime and the response to cyber threats are quickly becoming a global problem for governments, educational authorities, teachers, parents, and children. Despite significant resources for disseminating information on preventive strategies and the development of strategies to respond to acts of electronic violence, the rapid development of technology means that most proposed solutions turn out to be ineffective. Only education remains as the most important preventive factor. Tomczyk and Potyrała (2019) describe the concept of digital resilience, which is more and more often treated as a set of protective skills resulting from individual characteristics and environmental conditions. This construct serves to explain resilience to threats in the offline and online world. Digital resilience may be transformed in the course of educational interactions, as well as part of peer education or educational campaigns carried out in the course of non-formal and incidental education. It should be emphasized that effective personal development training and strengthening digital competences contribute to increasing the level of digital resilience. In the report “Beyond the Horizon. Education course. The future of the competency development system in Poland” (Cies´lik, 2020, p. 7), we read that “As a result of the development of information technologies, including artificial intelligence, there will be a radical increase in the automation (robotization) of processes in many industries, including business and consumer services. Within the sectors affected by the strongest technological changes, a severe shortage of

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creative staff will be felt, with an excess of employees who are able to perform routine activities well.” Therefore, the development of creativity becomes an essential condition for modern education and, at the same time, a condition for responsible use of media. In the context of the development of means of communication, which development intensified during the pandemic, changes to the means of establishing and maintaining relationships with others brought about by the development of new means of communication should be monitored closely. These developments carry the potential for an in-depth re-modeling of interpersonal relations (Marody 2015, p. 247; Castells 2007, 2009). New communication tools are used to reduce the deficit of recognition that is characteristic of postmodernity and transform it into a social space (Marody 2015, p. 247). The promotion of oneself on the Internet, which requires the ability to create an image, build a brand, and attract the attention of others, has gained in significance. On a social scale, these skills are relatively new. They are designed to attract the attention of others to the promoter on the web and create a “personalized community” in which there may also be mutual relationships established online. The relationship between schools and society is also changing, especially concerning the school’s main educational entities, i. e. teachers, students, and parents. Social relationships are all kinds of connections and dependencies between members of society (Sztompka 2020, p. 253). In education, they are the connections between participants of this process, treated as educational entities. At the root of human relationships is identification with others, which means recognizing one’s own belonging to a specific, collective category. This recognition provides the basis for subordinating one’s actions to the guidelines coming from the environment and obtaining a social identity, which Piotr Sztompka defines in terms of We in a subjective sense in relation to the members of the community, and They towards people from the outside (Sztompka 2020, p. 324). Thus, social identity is a special social relationship. The Italian sociologist Pierpaolo Donati treats social relationships as an invisible reality that is decisive for human life. He describes the social relationship as being between “persons, also when they are not aware of his presence or do not care for him” (Donati 2013, p. 9). The category of relationships is used to describe the processes of upbringing and socialization. Relationality requires the awareness of the other, who creates the need to “carry it” with oneself towards a better and more mature understanding of the social world. Its components are the forces of impressions, ideas, desires, sensations, and feelings (Prüfer 2020, p. 265). Relationships in the upbringing process have acquired a new meaning in relation to the distance learning situation caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite the many opportunities created by new communication tools, the en-

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forced social isolation has brought about many unfavorable consequences. After the closure of schools, kindergartens, and other units within the education system, and the subsequent introduction of distance learning, representatives of the scientific community proposed that first among their educational priorities, teachers should ensure they meet the psychological needs of their students (primarily related to important relationships), and that teaching and the implementation of the program should take second place (Pyz˙alski [ed.], 2020). The enforced social isolation in remote education has made this a difficult time for everyone, giving rise to a sense of social danger and many psychological problems. In addition, remote learning requires hardware and Internet infrastructure to be available to participants in the educational process at every level, from the teachers to their students and the students’ parents. The teachers also needed to have a high level of pedagogical competences, especially in terms of information and media (digital) competences, but also social, cooperative, pragmatic, creative-critical, interpretive, and communicative competences (Szempruch 2013, p. 104). In addition to the need to provide students with support in the cognitive, emotional, and communicative areas, it has been important to properly plan the didactic process, taking into account media-mediated methods of communication and the space of the teacher’s relationship with students and parents, and between the students themselves. The difficult but extremely important task of a teacher is to create or maintain a sense of community in the classroom. Hence, in the situation of the enforced social isolation, relational structures and the quality of mediated relations – with the help of communication tools – have become very important. Numerous studies confirm how important for a child’s development is the cooperation of parents with the school and teachers. A number of studies have drawn attention to the numerous benefits at different levels of education resulting from the active involvement of parents in school life. These benefits include reducing the scale of negative behavior of students, thanks to which the school becomes more friendly to the wider school community. These positive changes favor better communication between parents and children, which in turn improves the learning habits of students and, accordingly, improves their learning achievements (Steh, Kalin, 2011). Establishing cooperation between teachers and the parents of students was an important aspect of the work of the school during the COVID-19 pandemic (Wibowo, Mahmudi, Retnawati, 2021). It has undoubtedly been known for a long time that the role of the parent is a good counterbalance to the role of the school in explaining the failures and successes of children, as the global wave of educational policy in the world places parents and the school community in the mainstream of education (Corter, C., & Pelletier , J. 2005).

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Research by Suryaman et al. (2020) conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic showed that among parents there is still a lack of technological mastery, access to the Internet, and ability to help children to learn online. There are also visible deficiencies in communication and socialization between students, and between teachers and parents; and teachers’ working hours have become practically unlimited, because they are required to maintain communication with parents on an almost round-the-clock basis. Teachers need to find appropriate ways to promote learning at the subject and socio-emotional level. They need to be able to manage classes in normal, hybrid, and online modes, which is a big organizational challenge. However, observation of online classes shows that teachers are becoming more innovative in providing teaching materials and are increasingly creative in using learning methods to attract students and arouse their enthusiasm (Suryaman et al. 2020). The challenge remains to minimize the loss of communication and complex interpersonal relationships, which deepen the students’ sense of isolation and loneliness. Online security is also an important issue. Parents should be well equipped to guide their children’s online activities. It is important that parents show an interest in their children’s digital activities, communicate openly the potential risks and benefits of new media, and offer support in using these tools. Parents should rethink their own usage patterns and potential problematic aspects of their activities that may adversely affect the involvement of their own children in cyberspace. The results of research in the field of remote education were also analyzed in many Polish reports (Jaskulska, Jankowiak 2020, Pyz˙alski 2020, Buchner, Majchrzak, Wierzbicka, 2020, Ptaszek, Stunz˙a, Pyz˙alski, De˛bski, Bigaj 2020). The relationship between teachers and students are most often presented in such reports, with the relationship between teachers and society, and especially with parents, less frequently explored. The quality of these relationships is modified to a different extent by the digital competences of teachers and other participants, as well as by access to Internet infrastructure. They are also differentiated by the number of children participating in online learning in the family, the level of education and the school profile, as well as the family’s housing conditions (such as the number of rooms, which is an important consideration when more than one child is attending remote learning from home). Over time, both the quality of digital competences of the participants in the relationship and the skills and possibilities of using videoconferencing platforms such as MS Teams, Zoom, or Google Hangouts in teaching and in the school’s relationships with parents have improved. However, the remote education situation is still heavily criticized by those involved. The results of research involving 1,174 students and 1,080 parents, included in the report “Research on attitudes towards distance learning” (Grabowski 2021) prepared in January 2021 for the

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Ombudsman for Children, do not fill the reader with optimism. They show that the majority of respondents assess remote learning rather negatively. Positive opinions about remote learning are expressed mainly by good and very good students and their parents. The lowest scores were expressed towards the idea of the limited direct contact with peers (90% of parents and 83% of students) and the long time spent using electronic devices (92% of parents and 82% of students). The respondents also emphasize the negative consequences of distance learning for mental health (53% of parents and 50% of students) and physical health (54% of parents and 49% of students), as well as for the weakening of relationships between school peers (75% of parents and 70% of students) and the difficulties in building lasting friendships (62% of parents and 61% of students). The relationship of average and weak students with their parents also deteriorated. The vast majority of parents (89%) and students (72%) negatively evaluate limited direct contact with teachers, treating it as a disadvantage of remote learning. It is worth noting that the concern about the health of students is common and, according to some sociological studies, concerns up to 80% of the general population (Drozdowski et al., 2020). Students functioning in home and school environments not only experience such fears themselves, but are also exposed to expressions of strong emotions in adults. Furthermore, high school students (N = 1768) indicate more frequent negative emotions and psychosomatic problems in the pandemic than before (Długosz, 2020). Teachers play an important role in creating favorable conditions for the development of their students at school and establishing and maintaining appropriate relationships with the students and their parents (Szempruch 2013, Hausner 2020). They are responsible for imparting knowledge and shaping skills and attitudes, as well as for providing students with a safe and comfortable environment. When a child enters school, good relations and constant cooperation between teachers and parents protect children from school failures and motivate them to improve the process of education and support children. Therefore, it is important to coordinate the educational activities of teachers and parents as well as to develop the social trust that exists between them. The quality of the teacher-parent relationship during distance learning is in line with the educational challenges of the pandemic, and became more important than ever. Parental involvement in the child’s education process has become indispensable, especially in the case of younger children. Therefore, concern for appropriate communication between parents and teachers is justified. In distance learning, both strengths and weaknesses can be identified. The weaknesses most often include the deficiency in the educational and caring functions of the school, the widening of differences between students, and the

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teachers’ sense of insufficient support from the management. The strengths of remote education, on the other hand, are visible in the increasing range of competences of teachers, students, and parents, their willingness to use the acquired skills in the future, and the development of positive emotions in the relationship between teachers and students. In the research results and statements analyzed, attention is drawn to the confrontational attitude of parents and teachers. A lack of mutual understanding and disturbances in agreeing on the requirements for the child and on action strategies are a negative element in these disturbed relationships. The virtual school, understood as a place of subjectively acting individuals and a network of interactive connections and dependencies, does not present itself in a favorable light. It is subject to many disturbances. The relational reality desired individually and personally should be treated as a personal value that materializes through identification with the real subject of interaction (Prüfer 2020, p. 272). Classrooms and the teacher-student and student-teacher relationships are complex, multi-component social systems. The nature and quality of interaction between teachers and students is essential to understanding student involvement. Student relationships and interactions with teachers cause or inhibit developmental changes to the extent to which students engage, and this engagement is a significant pedagogical challenge (Pianta et al. 2012). In this sense, the relationship between teachers and students reflects the class’s ability to promote development, and it is in this way that relationships and interactions are key to understanding commitment (Ibid.). Pianta et al. (2012) listed four areas of importance from the point of view of building the teacher-student relationship: 1. teachers’ knowledge and skills related to their interactions with students, 2. availability of constant relational support for teachers themselves, 3. regular teacher training, displaying individualized feedback on real teacherstudent interactions; and 4. appropriately formulating the “goal” around which to concentrate efforts to change interactions. Feedback and commitment are key. The closure of schools and the introduction of distance learning have initiated changes in the culture of the school which, as a result of the use of digital tools, is becoming more and more part of network culture. Formal and informal educational practices are changing under the influence of digital media. Therefore, the maintenance and improvement of relationships manifested on the educational level has become a priority. The value of such relationships translates into the attitude towards matters and people, as well as the perception of the world. Among these relationships, the most important are teacher-student and teacherstudent’s family, as well as peer relationships between students within a class, and contact with other peers. These relationships are the basis for support in difficult

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situations. It is especially important to create conditions to ensure a sense of security and to eliminate problems experienced by students in such situations. The school is not only an institution that transfers knowledge, but is also an institution that builds relationships: between students, teachers and students, teachers and students’ parents, and so forth, through effective communication. Communicative competences are the basic element of teaching qualifications. They can be used by a teacher to maintain and sometimes even restore appropriate relationships in the process of education between “I” and “we”; through these relationships, the development of the student can be supported, teaching appropriate and accurate self-assessment and developing a sense of belonging to a group or local community. These competences are expressed in the ability to understand and define educational situations and the effectiveness of communicative behaviors, both verbal and non-verbal (Szempruch 2012). Communicative competences also include the ability to apply the principles of effective communication in a specific situation (Bien´kowski, 1999, p. 102). Communication creates specific social relationships and is an expression of the culture of a given organization (Ropski, 2009). Communication is the exchange of information, feelings, and meanings. Everything that makes sense in a complicated world and has a deeply human meaning depends on whether people are able to talk to each other, negotiate, and compromise (Ibid., p. 114). The teacher-student relationship remains beyond the substantive considerations of the content of education and the new structure of the system of education. This relationship is built on the authority of the teacher, confident in their knowledge and ability to transmit that knowledge. According to Lech Witkowski, “The mechanism of authority belongs to the category of such ontological fragility that it only carries intimate, very personal gestures that testify to the gift of the meeting. They are destroyed by waving banners of greatness and monumental tributes, and even more so by commanding recognition” (Witkowski, 2011, p. 45). The specificity of pedagogical authority is expressed precisely in its interpersonal character and increases when the relationship is positive. This relationship involves an exchange of influence in which each side – both the teacher and the student – gives and takes. The authority is determined by the teacher themself, who competently offers indications acceptable to the students with understanding and trust, as well as the students, acting as co-responsible persons who admire the teacher and consider the teacher’s behavior to be valuable and worth following. The interaction of the teacher and the student is based on positive feelings and reactions, i. e. mutual acceptance and a common search for dialogue, while respecting the expectations and identity of each party (Szempruch, 2013, p. 120). In modern times, the teacher is still recognized as one of the most important figures in the shaping of the personality of a young person (Schneider, 2009).

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There are rules which the teacher should follow in their work and which should be applied practically during their teaching studies. These are the principle of truth, the principle of the child’s welfare, the principle of example, the principle of pedagogical projection (the ability to look at the pupil through the pupil’s eyes), the principle of the emotional bond with the pupil, the rule of respect for the pupil’s personality, and the principle of professionalism in upbringing, care, and teaching (Schneider, 2009). Despite the changing political and social conditions, these principles must not lose their relevance. The changing world is therefore a challenge for teachers, for whom the most important values should be the student’s well-being, responsibility for their development, and preparation for making decisions and finding meaning in life. The changing conditions of the teachers’ functioning now require new teacher traits, which should include a sense of professional identity, courage related to the pursuit and implementation of changes in the school, the ability to set goals and create the conditions for their implementation, retrospectivity regarding familiarity with tradition, pedagogical creativity, and readiness for autonomy. In the implementation of new activities and changing expectations directed at the school and the teacher, the teacher cannot lack persistence, patience, awareness of themself and their system of values, the ability to experience and show feelings, interest in people and social matters, clear ethical principles, and a sense of responsibility. In educational relationships, empathy, warmth, openness, a positive attitude, and respect for the student are of great importance. These features not only define the teacher’s professionalism, but also determine their personal maturity, which means the full complement of possibilities and a permanent readiness to take on new challenges. In the opinion of teachers, the school should present different approaches to reality and ways of interpreting that reality, and teach critical thinking, not just thinking according to patterns. Only a well-prepared teaching staff is able to cope with these tasks and be able to make responsible decisions in the field of teaching. It is worth realizing the complexity, multidimensionality and multi-level nature of the daily work of the teacher as defined by American researchers with the help of the professional knowledge landscape metaphor (Clandinin, 1995, pp. 4– 5) in order to capture the expansive nature of the professional space of teachers. Researchers distinguish two separate but interconnected spaces in which teachers move on a daily basis: the in-classroom and out-of-classroom. The inclassroom space is characterized by a safe sense of freedom, is taken out of external control, and is filled with numerous interactions with students. Its opposite is the space outside the classroom, filled with educational concepts, forecasts, programs, plans, teaching strategies submitted for implementation, and the conclusions reached by research. It is a space full of tensions, dominated by expectations towards teachers from the administration, authorities, politi-

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cians, parents, researchers, and public opinion. Preparing teachers to function in these complicated spaces of the school requires a high level of development as early as during their studies, where their professional competences, in which interpretation and communication, critical and creative, cooperation, IT and media, and pragmatic competences play an important role. These competences should be developed in the course of performing professional tasks. It is especially important to develop the creative behaviors of teachers as these behaviors are necessary if the teachers are to function in conditions of permanent change. Teacher education standards carry certain obligations for the teacher, including substantive preparation for teaching the first subject, psychological and pedagogical preparation for teaching at a given educational stage, and preparation in the field of didactics (teaching methodology) of a specific subject (type of classes) at a given educational stage. There is also a need to urgently incorporate new didactic content and practices into the study program, and to cooperate with the external environment. Thus, we see a multitude of issues that should be of interest to teachers. Will there be enough time and enthusiasm to shape in our students, among whom there will be the teachers of tomorrow, an attitude of responsibility for their own and others’ development, knowledge about the psychological foundations of learning and teaching, and the often difficult relationship between teachers and students? Will teachers have enough motivation, commitment, and strength to develop their own professionalism? Eric Hoyle’s concept of professionalism (Hoyle & John, 1995) delineates a set of universal features of contemporary professional practice and provides a framework that includes three elements: 1. being an expert in the social division of labor and / or having specialist knowledge; 2. responsibility towards clients – the individual, and the wider circle of society interested in the reception of a given practice; a broad consensus as to what values underlie a given practice goes well beyond the “normal” employment relationship; 3. constant exercise in the autonomy of thinking and the independence of the judgments made. A more detailed set of attributes of professional teaching was proposed by Snoek (2009). He distinguished the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that can be considered elements of professional competences. I. KNOWLEDGE – broad subject knowledge, – extensive knowledge of teaching and learning processes considering the latest results of research conducted in these areas,

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– broad knowledge of society, – knowledge about the policy and organization of education. II. SKILLS – the ability to communicate and discuss educational issues “in” and “in front of” a wider audience, – the ability to demonstrate the quality of educational work to external entities, – the ability to conduct research related to school practice, – the ability to contribute to collaborative learning in professional communities, – the ability to translate the results of educational research into innovation undertaken in the school / classroom. III. ATTITUDES – dedication to student learning, – obligations towards the profession and the collective group of professionals, – the will to contribute to the collective knowledge of the profession, – commitment to a professional code of ethics and integrity in one’s own practice, – focus on continuous professional development, – focus on improvement and innovation in teaching (Gołe˛bniak, Zamorska, p. 43). The main criteria of professionalism in relation to the forms of professional activity indicated by David Carr (1999) also leave room for further conceptualization: 1. the importance of the profession in the social and public sphere; 2. high competence of a professional in both a theoretical and practical regard; 3. entering into a specific type of ethical dimension regulating practice within the profession; 4. the existence of organizational forms and regulations necessary for the selection or recruitment and disciplining of persons practicing this profession; 5. a high degree of autonomy and independence in judgments provided to professionals in order to be highly effective (Carr, 1999). The specificity of a teacher’s professionalism is related to their working conditions and multiple situations. Along with social changes and changing expectations towards the school and the teacher, the structure of the school system itself is also changing. The reform which took place in Poland from September 1, 1999, led after three years to the transformation of the two-tier school system in force since 1968 into a three-tier structure. Lower secondary schools were established on September 1, 1999, and

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upper secondary schools on September 1, 2002. From the 2017/2018 school year, the three-cycle structure was replaced by a two-cycle structure. The liquidation of lower secondary schools based on the opinion that they did not meet the expectations of equal educational opportunities for young people, was further justified by the results of the PISA research showing the correlation between the social status of parents and the achievements of students and their choice of further educational path. In the rush to revert to a two-tier system, the work was forgotten of many years of efforts by educators, educator-researchers, and practitioners that had led to beneficial changes at the lower secondary level, both in terms of reducing the diversity of students’ results and the impact of differences in social status on the choice of upper secondary school. Relationship building at the level of the student – teacher of a lower secondary school was the subject of numerous studies and investigations aimed at diagnosing the needs of students, the reasons for their school failures, motivation to learn, and determining the effectiveness of various strategies and methods of teaching and learning. The research results allowed for further planning in how to increase the effectiveness of education in terms of the knowledge and attitudes of students, and often led to optimistic conclusions about the educational activity of students and their attitudes towards various scientific and social problems. Similarly, the results of the research showed that the relationship between students and teachers can be improved through the proper selection of messages and a gradual increase in the communicative competences of the dialogue participants, as well as their conscious performance of conversational roles (e. g. speakers, audiencelisteners). For instance, these relationships were significantly improved if the speaker was understandable, open to the views of others, and truthful, and the listener showed patience, understanding, and attention focused on the problems communicated by the sender. This is emphasized by psychologists who perceive communication as a relationship indicator that people are constantly changing under the influence of communication, with communication defined here as contact taking place when each of the people involved speaks and listens in a way that maximizes the personal (Ropski, 2009, p. 115). Ultimately, on the basis of the research conducted, it can be concluded that the opinion on lower secondary education was not as clearly negative as was most often reported in some parts of the media, and increasing the communicative competences of teachers (during didactic workshops) and students (during lessons focusing on dialogue and discussion) brought positive effects in increasing the quality of education. However, it should be remembered, in the context of organizational and program changes, that the process of education defends itself against any uniformization and at the moment when we try to impose our own feelings, thoughts, and intentions on someone that they do not feel for themselves, we mystify its processes (S´liwerski, 2004, p. 25).

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The priority is always to adequately prepare teachers for the new challenges present in the reform of the system of education. These challenges include the completely new structure of students’ knowledge both at a given stage of education and as part of education treated as a whole, or, for example, building a new type of relationship between younger students (grades 1–6) and older (grades 7– 8), as well as new educational tasks in the primary school, which will include students who previously studied in the high junior school. In any discussion of the relationship between teachers and students it is important to consider how the discussion of authority – in terms of who holds the keys to knowledge in the classroom – has itself shifted in recent years, especially in the modern age when everything can be ‘googled.’ In 2019, lower secondary and primary schools were completed in 3 years (2003, 2004, 2005), with significant changes taking place in the core curriculum for general education, regarding: – teaching content written in the language of effects (the core curriculum is a reference point for the preparation of external exams), – learning objectives and the resulting knowledge, skills, and attitudes that should be developed in students at each stage of education, – horizontal and vertical correlation: the teacher must become acquainted not only with the core curriculum for a given stage of education, within that teacher’s subject, but also with what is specified for the preceding and subsequent stages of education in a given subject and other areas that should be correlated, – recommended procedures for achieving educational goals (indications regarding strategies, methods and forms of work, time management, space at school, and proposed teaching aids). Among the details proposed in connection with the reform of the system of education, it is also worth mentioning some school subjects being planned in a different way than before. Technical classes in primary school should provide the basis for an informed choice of future profession, especially in the field of professional education. Therefore, it is necessary to prepare the didactic basis of schools for this type of class and educate teachers in its appropriate application. This example also demonstrates the possibilities of building relationships between teachers and students during classes based on safe, practical action, communication, and shared learning, in which the teacher plays the role of the leader of a group of students, planning and constructing everyday objects. Not all school subjects provide such direct opportunities. The problem remains that current teacher education is massive and often random, requiring no positive selection for teaching specialties (“anyone can become a teacher”), no standards of predisposition to the profession, and no

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selection during implementation of the teaching specialty (exams can be passed without the candidate possessing the competences they require to work as a teacher). Any work done on developing the “soft” competences is purely theoretical: we know that they are important, but cooperation, communication, the ability to build relationships, group work and group management, leadership competences, and emotional competences are practically absent in teacher education. Other neglected areas include psychological and pedagogical practices and teaching practices, resulting in a lack of time and space for reflective practice. For years, attention has been paid to the weakness of traditional teacher education models. In previous decades, teachers were expected to prepare small numbers of students for ambitious intellectual work, while now they are expected to prepare virtually all students for higher-order thinking and performance (Darling-Hammond, 2006). Of note is the emergence of a new type of candidate for studies, including the teaching specialty: the graduate of a (new) high school, technical secondary school or a two-stage industrial school, a graduate of an 8-grade primary school and a lower secondary school (different age groups in one year of study), whose subject knowledge and the structure of that knowledge remain unknown to the authors of subject syllabuses in the fields of study. Perhaps there will be students, future teachers, for whom it will be necessary to organize a separate educational path or remedial classes in relations and empathy. From the method of recruitment and selection into the teaching profession, i. e. admitting candidates with predispositions to this profession, much will depend on the quality and effectiveness of the relationships that are built and the culture of the learning organization that the modern school should become. Digital technologies have changed the relationship between students and teachers, students and parents, and parents and teachers. The methods of communication on the teacher-student line must follow the development of new communication channels in an atmosphere of trust and openness to change. However, James Ford (2017) writes that teachers do not respect relationship building as an important part of their practice. Yet it is known that, for example, feedback is essential for the development of students’ learning. However, teachers have problems with formulating meaningful information for the student, and students are also rarely trained or supported in the use of feedback (Carless, 2011, Yao et al. 2020). Online learning places great emphasis on collaboration in the learning process. The popularization of Web 2.0 practices and technologies has revived educational terms relating to online relationships, knowledge sharing, and communication. It has long been emphasized that online learning should take place through social engineering educational infrastructures, in accordance with pedagogical principles and organizational culture (Hodgson, 2012).

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The traditional school, which today follows the achievement of educational results, became lost in a maze of competence tests, popularity rankings, and external evaluation. There was no place in the labyrinth for building relationships, empathy, and a culture of participation. There is often talk of a modern school and a traditional school, recalling the model of the Prussian school. This bi-polar approach shows us that the school is often treated in terms of extremes. In this case, both extremes have more opponents than supporters, and it seems that the “modern” school, associated with new media, has the greater number of the former. This is largely because tools have been assigned the rank of strategies and methods, forgetting that tools (such as educational media) are a means of implementing strategies and methods, not the goal of education. In this context, an interesting approach based on the theory of online learning as online participation was proposed by Stefan Hrastinski of Uppsala University. He considers the key challenge for e-learning is to encourage participation in learning. He analyzed the concepts and research approaches that underpin the research on internet participation in e-learning settings. He found that research is dominated by low-level concepts of online participation that rely on frequencies as a measure of participation. However, some researchers seek to explore more complex dimensions of participation, such as whether participants feel they are participating and engaging in dialogue, as reflected in a combination of perceived and actual measures of participation. In conclusion, a definition of participation in online learning is proposed, recognizing its more complex dimensions such as doing, communicating, thinking, feeling, and belonging. Hrastinski suggested a preliminary theory of online learning as participation on the Internet. He argues that participation in online learning is a complex process of participating, and maintaining relationships with others. The ramifications of this theory are simple: if we want to improve online learning, we need to increase student participation in the network. On the basis of earlier reflections, he went further and started training tutors for online participation. Teachers play a key role in e-learning and need to possess the appropriate set of skills in addition to subject-specific skills. In Hrastinski’s research, the challenge for teachers was to balance private activities and reflect on tutoring skills, social activity, and communication with learners. Analyses indicate that students who perceive their activity as being more suited to building collaborative knowledge were more likely to use a deep learning approach. The relationship between students’ views on cooperation and their effective participation on the Internet has also been presented. Slater, Sadagic, and Usoh (2000) describe an experiment comparing the behavior of students in small groups when they perform a task in a virtual environment and then continue the same task in a similar real-world environment. The aim of the experiment was not to test the performance of the task, but to compare different

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aspects of social relationships between group members in the two environments. Among other things, the study showed a positive relationship between being present in a given place and the feeling of being with other people in a virtual environment. Cheng and Chau (2016) examined the relationship between student learning styles and their online participation in a hybrid course, and the relationship between student participation in such a course and their academic achievement. All of the participants were required to participate in four different types of online activity: information access, interactive learning, network learning, and material development. The results indicate that students’ learning styles were largely related to participating in the Web and that participation in Web Learning and material development was largely related to their learning achievement and course satisfaction. This study highlights not only the key role of learning styles in online participation, but also the importance of a personalized approach and social interaction for successful online learning. These results have been confirmed during studies conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic (Yao, 2020, Buchholz et al., 2020). It should be emphasized that in the last 20 years the social participation of young people has gained in importance. This is reflected in the scientific literature as well as in the statements of decision-makers. The active participation of young people in their social and civic behavior is implicitly recognized as an indicator of positive development and well-being of young people, and the youth activity’s promotion has become the main goal of youth policy in various countries (Cicognani et al. 2008). Cicognani et al. (2008) conducted research on the relationship between social participation and the sense of community among young adults, and the influence of both variables on social well-being. Participation has been found to increase the feeling of community (cf. Hughey et al., 1999). Social participation offers young people the opportunity to cultivate social ties with non-family members and peers from different backgrounds, and this helps them gain a sense of belonging and strengthen their social identity and identification processes (Cotterell 1996). Distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic has shown that a long-term strategy is needed to improve interactive activities and practices in online social learning (Dinh, Nguyen, 2020). Social interaction matters a lot to people. As personality traits are strongly correlated with students’ achievement in online courses and online activities, the individual cognitive and social needs and preferences of students cannot be ignored. Based on the analyses carried out, the general conclusion can be drawn that students perceive the presence of other people (friends and colleagues as well as teachers) in their educational experience as an essential part of the experience, and they perceive the virtual environment as a natural space for collective prosocial activities. The school should therefore use those students’ skills that are

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considered essential in the knowledge society and not ignore the students’ needs in terms of learning and relationship building. The trends in the work of the school work are presented in Figure 2.

A new competency model. Increased importance of social skills

The variety and quality of learning

Institu!onal learning context

School Deployment of resources

Availability of learning

Free market

Fig. 2. Trends in the work of the school.

The trends shown in the figure concern the various social and internal aspects of changes in the functioning of the school. In terms of learning, it is worth paying attention to the observed improvement in the quality of learning and the variety of new learning materials, as well as the multiplication of opportunities and learning spaces. Access to education and training has also improved though this has been disrupted by the pandemic. Lifelong learning has become more popular, with the risk of a lack of certain competences. Information technology learning resources have increased, and the integration of formal and informal learning has increased. As a result of progressing social changes, the processes of education, training, and improvement have been integrated into the learning system, and the importance of educational networks has increased. This is related to the increased diversity of learning materials and the multiplication of opportunities and spaces for learning. The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the issue of new technological solutions that can be used in the field of education. It has also placed all of its participants in a new, difficult, and surprising situation. However, in the hope of improving the situation, care should be taken to create conditions for teachers to learn, initiate, implement, and consolidate beneficial changes in

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the school, and to leave them a lot of freedom so that they can look for solutions to emerging problems and challenges. The current actions taken in the pandemic state and that are justified by the need to protect both health and life, according to Yuval Harari (2020), will not be completely withdrawn. Their consequences will be permanent and practically irreversible. Harari believes that it is imperative to reconcile both health and the protection of human privacy with the protection of the rights and freedoms that constitute empowerment. This, in turn, is a prerequisite for social communication, the level of trust, and collective activity. These values are also important in the context of social relations within the school, as well as between the school, the family, and wider society. In the new educational conditions, a new model of the relationship between the educational entities of the school is necessary, one in which the principals, perceived as educational leaders, will occupy an important place. Appropriate relationships at school translate positively into the efficiency of other participants in the life of the school, especially the students’ teachers and their parents. It is an urgent matter, because the school and the teacher are expected to reliably describe reality, explain it, indicate the directions of changes, and create universal ideas and values. It is also important to develop the identity of students, their individual awareness, their awareness of continuity, and the ability to remain true to themselves in the changing conditions of life. All of this is necessary to shape the skills involved in the responsible participation in social groups and the realization of the self-concept. Education should illuminate the three basic dimensions of life: the past, present, and future. History helps shape a sense of identity, but also development, evolution, modernization, and change. The present is about understanding what is around us and understanding ourselves. The dimension of the future helps a person to prepare for functioning in the emerging new civilization, in the information-based society based on knowledge (Szempruch 2006, pp. 94–95). Contemporary schools educate for the future, so special emphasis should be placed on the ability of individuals and groups to function in conditions of change, to deal with that change, and to transform the world, creating the conditions for a happy life and harmonious development. The intensive cultural change that we experience is associated with a change in the perception of the practice of the functioning of the school, as well as the fulfillment of its numerous functions and tasks.

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The social functions of education and the school

The immersion of an individual in a time standing between the trappings of the past and the uncertainties of the future creates a difficult situation for the school and the teacher. The essence of this situation is the experience of a permanent conflict related to the choice of “key issues”, the organization of work, and the fulfilment of social functions. The features of the present times that have been analyzed in the previous chapters, create a richness and diversity of offers, physical and social mobility of ever larger groups of people, and their greater accessibility to the farthest corners of the world and their different cultures and lifestyles. These possibilities are the result of the rapid development of IT tools and the spread of the Internet. They also mean the emergence of new phenomena such as multi-culturalism and unpredictability, but also potentially greater conflict and the multi-faceted importance of the world that surrounds us, both in its physical manifestation and online in the virtual world. We cannot control the impact of these phenomena on the process of institutionalized education, as well as in education taking place in the family, in peer groups, and in the local environment. There are new fields of exploration, numerous opportunities for acquiring new knowledge, modifying existing skills and mastering new ones to reposition oneself in the changing labor market, and a multitude of other activities that offer the possibility of further development. When analyzing the functions of education and the school from a holistic and systemic perspective, attention should be paid to the impact of education on the social system and its connection with other elements of the social structure, i. e. political, economic, and cultural systems. The actions of individuals are the result of the impact of social structures that form these entities or create conditions for their operation (Mikiewicz, 2016, pp. 82–83). This way of thinking about the relationship between education and society is illustrated in Fig. 3. Considerations of the functions of education and the school can be reduced to an analysis of these functions in the perspective of basic theoretical concepts and research orientations: structural functionalism, conflict orientation, interpretative orientation, and the environmental approach. Piotr Mikiewicz (2016,

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Political system

Economic system

Educational system

Cultural system

Fig. 3. Relationship of the education system with other social systems. Source: Own elaboration based on Niezgoda. 2011. How to look at educational change in Poland, in: Social effects of educational change in Poland, ed. M. Niezgoda, Kraków: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytet Jagiellon´skiego, pp. 19–38.

pp. 312–314) proposes an analysis of the social functions of education and the school in three dimensions: socialization – treating education as a tool for shaping attitudes and values; allocating – perceiving education as a tool for introducing individuals to social positions; and institutional – recognizing education and schools as bureaucratic social institutions that create a social order. Following this line of thinking leads to the observation that structural-functional analyses reveal the school to be a tool of socialization and allocation, and that social inequalities in education are perceived as the result of inequality of characteristics in the social structure (e. g. in attitudes towards education, the level of intelligence, etc.) (Szempruch, 2021a, pp. 57–58). From the socialization perspective, the school is treated as an element of a modern social system that prepares individuals to assume a social position in adulthood, perform professional roles and live in a complex state-national community, as well as feel a bond with this community and act as citizens. The school is seen here as a tool for educating citizens, members of the community, and employees, and also shapes the moral community that co–creates the nation. The effect of socialization and education are shared ways of viewing reality – social representations (Durkheim, 1956, p. 51). They are supra-local and abstract in nature. They stimulate the behavior of individuals and maintain social order based on increasingly mediated relationships. From this perspective, at school, children compete to acquire the broadest possible skills and knowledge necessary to occupy a specific status in society. The school is a link between the private sphere of the family and wider public life, and within the agenda of society, it is a tool for purposefully shaping future citizens (Mikiewicz 2015, p. 90). Of both importance and significance for today’s school and our way of thinking about education, the allocation current stands, exposing the importance of the school to the way in which individuals are allocated their place in the social

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structure. In this approach, the choice of school and what that means for the individual’s educational and professional trajectory is prioritized over the content delivered in the school itself (Labaree, 2012). The allocative function of the school is related to the process of social mobility, understood as the movement of individuals and groups within social structures, and a change in social position (status) (Sztompka 2020, p. 264; Sorokin, 2009). The school is one of the most important and common channels of social mobility alongside government groups, political organizations and parties, the army, the church, and professional organizations. The basic functions of education determined on the basis of the structural and functional trend were indicated by Earl Hopper (1974). He included: (1) training of skills and competences necessary to function in society, (2) selection, (3) recruitment and allocation, and (4) regulation of aspirations. The first of these functions is identified with the educational and socialization aspects of education. The latter emphasizes the primacy of the social environment in the preparation of the individual (Szyman´ski, 2013; Znaniecki, 2001), and the school as a tool for purposefully shaping the attitudes and values of an individual for the sake of social balance. Selection is the process of differentiating students’ learning paths on the basis of their achievements. As a result of selection at individual educational thresholds, the school career translates into separate professional and social positions – the allocative function of education. During education, life expectations related to the future professional and social position are stimulated. The regulation of aspirations related to this stimulation takes place in the first phase during learning in specific educational paths and at the moment of entering the labor market, during which the opportunities offered by the attained level of education are finally verified. The school thus becomes the foundational institution in modern societies (Hurn, 1978, pp. 30–31). Three core values are recognized as the basis for the organization and functioning of education systems in these societies: meritocracy, democracy, and human capital. Knowledge and skills are an offer of the school that can be used by everyone, and the individual is responsible for their use. Functionalists believe that educational changes, including school changes and social changes, are driving the progressive pursuit of technical development and social integration (Feinberg, Soltis, 2000, p. 44). The functions of education indicated are generally held in common across modern societies (Gmerek 2011; Potulicka, Rutkowiak, 2010), the differences concerning only the different structures and moments of selection. The conflict paradigm remains in opposition to the structural-functional model. Through the prism of the conflict orientation, the school is seen as a tool for maintaining the social domination of specific social groups, as an institution subordinated to the needs of the labor market, in which social inequalities are

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determined by socialization mechanisms outside the school and the cultural and social resources of families (students from social elites are favored). The driving force for progress is the struggle between different groups for power and a position in which the school is strongly committed. This approach shows similar functions of education as in the structural and functional approach. The key functions are the socialization of individuals and their allocation within the social structure. In this orientation, phenomena are interpreted differently than in the others. The discriminatory and oppressive nature of educational institutions is emphasized, the socialization function emphasizes symbolic violence and cultural arbitrariness. The social relationships prevailing in the school reflect the relationships in the world of work, as well as shape the aspirations, selfawareness, and class identification of individuals in accordance with the needs of the social division of labor, and consolidate the ratified consciousness (Bowles, Gintis, 2002, p. 129). Changes in the nature of work result in a change to relationships in the classroom, evolving from formalized relationships towards more personal relationships in contemporary schools. Social structures are to be blamed for inequality or school failure by conditioning primary socialization. Students as subjects of education are perceived at school in the context of their functioning in the family and local communities (Bourdieu, Passeron, 2011; Bernstein, 1990), and their stories are described in specific structural conditions. Understanding the effects of the work of the school requires looking at the family and communities in which the children are raised before they enter school. Along with the oppressive nature of the school and the imposition of certain symbols, this institution is also shown as a place of tension, interpretation, and negotiation. The key problem is the mechanism of social reproduction taking place in the school. From the perspective of the interpretative orientation, education is a meeting place for individuals who determine the meanings of the reality of the school in the process of interaction, and schools are social worlds in which ritualized school meanings and cultures are created. In this approach, each school is treated as a unique system of social relationships built on the basis of the knowledge, values, attitudes, and beliefs of the people who meet there. The driving force behind the actions of individuals are the processes of subjectively constructed meanings. No two schools are the same and each should be analyzed separately. Analyses and descriptions of the school of an ethnographic nature concern its everyday life, and the interactions and events that take place within the school. The school is treated as a reference group, a place for acquiring social roles and identities, and for defining the world. Within the interpretative approach, theories of a more detailed nature can be distinguished: (1) symbolic interactionism, focusing on interaction patterns and their influence on the production of meanings; (2) phenomenology, which focuses on the symbolic reality produced

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by interaction; and (3) ethnomethodology, exposing the processes maintaining the belief that knowledge about society is shared by everyone. Individuals meeting in schools constantly negotiate and construct meanings, and their school life is presented through the metaphor of a theater as an arena for role-playing. The school is analyzed from the perspective of several planes, which Peter Woods (1983) lists: contexts, perspectives, cultures, strategies, negotiations, and careers. The situational contexts that are contained in the school determine the interpretations made by individuals, while perspectives provide the framework for individuals to create meanings in the world. Perspectives refer to a set of ideas and actions that are used to solve problematic situations. These perspectives (or frames) give meaning, and condition the vision and definition of specific situations. Perspectives emerge from the cultures that arise when people gather in groups. The participation of an individual in this culture is usually unconscious and treated as a natural part of life. One such set of individuals gathered in a group is the school class, which becomes the carrier of a specific culture. According to Woods, entering culture means “learning the network of connections, tricks, ways of dealing with specific situations, discovering others and what they do, recognizing hierarchies and rules” (Woods, 1983, p. 8). Based on cultures, perspectives are formed that connect to actions through strategies that denote means of achieving goals. Thus, the school is naturally a place of negotiation, the clash of world views, and the subjective resources of knowledge of all participants in its life. The culture within a school ranges between two poles, the healthy and the toxic (Table 2). Table 2. Healthy and toxic school cultures Healthy features of school culture – Employees have a common goal and are committed to helping students. – Employees feel judged by the principal, students and parents, and the school administration. – The basic standards are: collegiality, collaboration, continuous learning, openness to new ideas, problem solving, improvement, and hard work. – Everyone feels responsible for leading each student to achieve a high level of knowledge and skills. – Sharing practice so that everyone can develop and improve their professional skills.

Toxic features of school culture – Employees lack a sense of common purpose; norms strengthen the inertia of the school. Employees want to do their job and get out. – Staff feel badly treated. There is no mutual respect in relationships. – Administration and teachers are reluctant to change. Collaboration is discouraged. Interpersonal relationships are oriented towards conflict. – Staff blame students for lack of progress and poor achievement. – Professional development is seen as a waste of time by staff. – The directors make their own decisions.

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(Fortsetzung) Healthy features of school culture Toxic features of school culture – Working with data to solve problems – Employees feel exhausted, frustrated, and make decisions. The management unproductive and unhappy, and do not shares responsibility with teachers, sturely on help from colleagues, who are sometimes hostile. dents, and parents. – Employees are motivated and support – Emerging achievements go unnoticed, as do individual and group innovations. each other. – Rituals and traditions celebrate student – No school traditions or heroes to provide an example, purpose, or value to the achievement, teacher innovation, and parental involvement. school. – The school develops an informal social network of heroes and important people who support the school and nurture traditions. Source: I. Nowosad, Kultura szkoły w rozwoju szkoły, Wydawnictwo Impuls, Kraków 2019, s. 261.

Improving the performance of schools may mean needing to change factors at the micro level, i. e. the school as an organizational unit or a change in the school culture (Hansen, 2001, Davies, Coates, 2005). A long tradition of educational research points to school culture as a key variable in understanding changes to and improvements in the work of the institution. Shaping culture takes place in a continuous cycle of critical reflection on the arrangements, activities undertaken, and the improvement of existing solutions. Creating a school culture is not easy; nor is shaping a strong school culture – it requires the involvement of the entire community. The school principal has the greatest influence on what is happening in the culture of the school (Bush, 2007, p. 391, Steyn, 2008, p. 889). In educational situations, the influence of a given pattern of culture over time has a lasting effect on the personality of those individuals touched by that culture. Therefore, if a steering culture is observed in school, consisting in the use of external control and steering information as mechanisms for managing the cognitive activity of the student and the activity of the teacher, then a dependent personality is formed, with a clear tendency to avoid responsibility. On the other hand, the culture of offering, based on selfcontrol and independent decision-making as regulators of human activity, favors the identification of the learning community of the school with the action taken and gives rise to responsibility for its effect, and shapes the properties of the individual (Szempruch, 2000). In this case, inspiring development is combined with the search for knowledge and knowledge creation, limiting the attitude of an alternative to dialogue and respecting individuality. The environmental (ecological) approach assumes that the functioning of schools is conditioned by the factors of the social environment, perceived as a

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hierarchical arrangement of local and increasingly broader structural and cultural conditions – from the culture of the family to the culture of the wider society. Environmental factors are related to the attitudes and values of students, the staff, the capacities of institutions, and the mechanisms of social capital in families and the local community. The environmental approach focuses on the activities of schools in specific environments and emphasizes the importance of local contexts of their functioning (Znaniecki, 2001; Turner, 2005). All factors influencing the functioning of the school and the use of its educational effects by students and their families are considered. This trend may combine functional, conflict, and interpretative threads (Kwiecin´ski, 1972, p. 62). Two processes are exposed – on the one hand, socialization in the conditions of the educational environment (family, neighborhood, peer group) determines the student’s functioning at school, and on the other hand, the educational impact of the school on the living environment of individuals becomes visible. Clearly, environmental conditions are visible in the concepts of social capital, in which the influence of the environment is reduced to the characteristics of relationships in the local community. These theoretical approaches emphasize the important role of the school in society. The school not only depends on the social environment, but also contributes to and influences that environment. Therefore, it performs structurecreating functions in individual environments. Changes in local environmental contexts produce different effects in the form of socio-cultural processes (WnukLipin´ski, Ziółkowski, ed., 2001). The analysis of individual theoretical orientations shows various aspects of the functioning of education and the school and their social context, and also defines the mechanisms of stimulating individuals through the education system in the context of specific social conditions. It can also be used to characterize the functioning of the school in a multicultural society. The theoretical concepts that have been used to show the functions of education and the school in society have illuminated the mechanisms of the educational impact on the individual and the local environment. These may constitute grounds for building more precise models of education in culturally diverse environments. Structural functionalism, arising from the assumption that the basis of social life is social solidarity, and the subject of this social life is the system, shows education to be a system regulating the socialization and allocation of individuals in the social structure. Functionalists believe that social and educational changes are driven by a progressive desire for social development and social inclusion. However, the expansion of education has not provided a chance to open the channels of social mobility, and the ideologies of human rights, racial, and ethnic minorities raise awareness of social inequalities and the progressive opposition to such education. In turn, for the conflict theory, the

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driving force is the struggle between different groups for power and position. The school plays an important role in this struggle, as it remains at the service of the dominant class and enables social reproduction, creating an appearance of objectivity, equal opportunities, and neutrality (Feinberg, Soltis, 2000, p. 44). Interpretative theories perceive the school as a community of people who interact subjectively and interpret their reality together. Thus, the school appears to be a social organization that creates certain conditions for defining the world and for making decisions. On the other hand, paying attention to the broad context of the conditioning of people’s actions is a feature of environmental theories that emphasize the need to understand the local community. This understanding provides the basis for a broader understanding of how global society functions. As a primary educational institution, the school is subject to increasingly complex functions and tasks. It attracts students from families operating in different cultures, with different experiences compared to the neighborhood and peer groups. The school confronts the effects of its education with the experiences of students outside the school. At the same time, the effects of school education are transmitted to the environment and thus shape the culture of this environment (Kowalski 1986, Domalewski 2006, Gmerek 2011). The school undertakes socialization and educational activities, and is also a place that shapes the biography and allocation of individuals. Theoretical orientations concerning the functions of education and the school in the social structure have been adopted as the theoretical framework for the analysis of the concept of school functioning (Fig. 4). At the lowest level, i. e. in the social world of the school, in the direct school relationships of the teacher with students, the principal, and other teachers, and in the students’ relationships with each other, these are the personal resources of the participants of the relationship (the intrapersonal plane), that is, everything that everyone knows about relationships and the social resources. They can refer to these resources when seeking advice or help. In the case of the principal and the teacher, on the one hand, there are their individual resources, and on the other, their professional resources, i. e. professional competences. In the case of the students, their personal resources are knowledge and skills as well as all of their experiences gained in very different social situations throughout childhood and adolescence, i. e. until contact with the school. The first group of social resources that affect an individual before school is the family. The school is based on the effects of primary socialization and the cultural core of students shaped in the family and local community. Another circle of social resources is the local environment closest to the teacher and student – friends, acquaintances, and neighbors. The better the teacher and students use their personal and social resources shaped in the local environment, the more effective their exchange in the educational process and

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School Culture of the family environment Culture of the local environment Culture of the regional environment Na!on and human culture

Fig. 4. The concept of the school in society.

the better the learning outcomes. The nearest environment plays basic socialization and educational roles, is a source of identity, connects with culture, and provides orientation in the world of ideas. At this level, the teacher acts as an organizer of the social learning environment, influencing the local community. The roles that the teacher plays in this community and the tasks they undertake become important. At the level of the institution, offers and services are exchanged, and at the level of the teachers-students-local community relationship, the didactic and educational offer is enriched. Regional identity is based in the local environment of the school and the family, and in the geographical and socio-cultural space (Szczepan´ski, 1984, p. 8). Regional education is a means of learning about oneself and one’s culture, noticing differences, and searching for ways of communicating and cooperating with others (Nikitorowicz, 2009, p. 219). The society and the school are immersed in the media reality, in which the role of the school and the teacher is reduced both to informing about the possibilities of individual media and their offer, as well as ensuring the safety of people they teach and shaping the skills around the responsible use of the media. Changes to the learning processes have been caused by social isolation related to the COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic. Providing access to computers in schools and households and creating a universal possibility of using the Internet has become

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the basic conditions for education, and for teachers working remotely. The computer and the Internet are interactive learning tools that can be used in the school, the family, and the local community, as well as in the global social space. However, opinions are appearing more and more often that by stimulating specific emotions, these tools influence the nervous system, the way of thinking and reacting, and the work of the brain (Szyman´ski 2013, p. 135). Individual communities are themselves complex and multi-dimensional, and are conditioned by wider social systems (Szempruch 2021a). The quality of the socio-cultural environment in which the school operates (the environmental model) is an important socialization element for students and affects their way of functioning in the social world, including at school. This socialization, which is the mechanism of mastering the cultural and technical competences necessary for efficient communication with the people who make up a given community, is also a process of building students’ knowledge, modeling their subjective perception of the world and acting in this world. It also provides a foundation for interpretation, motivation to act, and legitimation (Berger, Luckmann, 2010). The humanistic approach to culture includes the idea and principle of mutual recognition and tolerance, the paradigm of peaceful coexistence of people differing from each other in terms of history and culture, having their own separate identity and vision for its creation (cf. Nikitorowicz 2009). The culture of the local community and the broader culture of social norms and political institutions play an important role in either supporting or undermining the work done by the school and the family. The ability to think properly about a wide range of cultures, groups, and countries – taking into account both the requirements of the global economy and the history of intergroup and international relationships – is essential in enabling individuals and societies to responsibly solve the problems we face today as inhabitants of a connected world. The school as a social institution is changing along with the rest of society, cocreating a space for building a sense of community. In general, cultural and economic changes precede changes in school, which follow with a certain delay, mutually conditioning each other. Social change poses new requirements regarding the scope of students’ knowledge, type of skills, preparation for social life and work, and relationships with other people. In a changing society, the school is becoming an increasingly important place of social contacts of students (and their parents), and of acquiring and shaping attitudes, as well as a place of searching, selecting, constructing, and systematizing knowledge. Its advisory, environmental, and culture-forming functions are important. Members of social groups functioning in the local environment live in different worlds determined by the patterns of socially constructed knowledge, worlds of meaning, and the importance of matters that influence the behavior of an individual (Manterys, 1997, pp. 138–146). Meeting at school, members of social groups jointly de-

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termine the meanings of the school reality, also by using the resources of their own culture (interpretative approach). By promoting valuable models of life that allow for the preservation of the identity and subjectivity of individuals and groups, the school generates internal (intra-system) changes and reacts to transformations in various areas of post-school life (Lewowicki, 2007, pp. 137– 138). By providing students with a diversified identification offer, the school encourages them to revitalize their strength. By transmitting permanent values of national and human culture, the school shapes universal moral principles and the system of values. A school that strengthens its relationships with the social environment should take care to create an environment in which there will be effective communication, reaching agreements and entering into dialogue with others, based on the principles of mutual respect. However, the modern school does not live up to social expectations. By emphasizing the inculcation of specific principles, rules, and methods of action, the school does not sufficiently care for the atmosphere and proper interpersonal contacts. The school also cannot cope with the manifestations of aggression and violence as well as excessive competition (Szyman´ski 2021). These phenomena are worrying because the social environment of the school, with all its richness as well as its issues, affects all of the educational entities of the school. The activity of the school and the teacher has didactic, educational, and social effects. It leaves a mark on the values, beliefs, and behaviors of other participants of the school community and the local community. In turn, the local community influences the processes taking place at school and shows the areas of potential activity of the school and the teacher as an organizer of the learning environment and the different potential sources of resources from which the school and its students can draw and use. Henry Giroux suggests that “the functioning or influence of school (schooling) is absolutely a central public service in the life of the nation. The functioning of the school brings with it opportunities and social opportunities to engage and educate the nation and its future generations to fight for democracy. After all, democracy is not something given. Democracy is simply not inherited. You have to be able to fight for demo-production at any time” (Giroux, Witkowski, 2010, p. 74). These considerations are related to the concept of the social role of the teacher. The dominant view today is that the social role of the teacher is interpreted as a link between personality, culture, and social structure, i. e. those social domains that interest sociologists, educators, psychologists, cultural anthropologists, and ethnologists. Positive sociology concerning the functional and structural approach links the concept of social role with social structure and function (proponents including Emile Durkheim, Ralf Dahrendorf, Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton). The role in this approach is “objectivized nor-

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mative system, assigned to specific social positions (statuses). The role of the individual is determined by society and it includes the requirements and expectations of society” (Kawka, 1998, pp. 12–13). Thus, the social world is structured in the form of systems of positions and accompanying bundles of expectations, within which individuals, characterized by their selves and different skills, play a role. Social roles are treated somewhat differently by “interpretative” sociology, which assumes that a role is a property, a feature of the acting subject. Its representatives, including Herbert Blumer and Erving Goffman, emphasize that the social role is created as a result of interactions and the process of communication between individuals and does not constitute a permanent set of behaviors, but is dependent on the course and participants of an interaction (Kawka, 1998, p. 19). The analysis of both positions leads to the conclusion that in the functional and structural paradigm, society is relatively constant and external to the individual, while in the interpretative paradigm, the social world is changeable and processual, and the social order is negotiated by its participants, thus taking on the features of uncertainty and instability, because the intentional actions of individuals decide on the maintenance of or change to the order. The link between the different roles played by a person in social life is provided by the professional role. This is also the case with the teacher’s professional role, understood as “a system of norms and patterns of socially fixed behavior, i. e. those that are assigned to the teacher by the group members in general, and assimilated by the candidate for a teacher in the process of socialization through participation in social life and planned behavior” (Kowalski, 1986, pp. 288–289). This role is performed in a specific institutional framework and includes formal and legal requirements which are expressed through legislative acts, and informal requirements created by the partners to the teacher’s role, such as society, the local environment, school pedagogical supervision, their own and other teams of teachers, parents, and students. At the end of the 20th century, due to the ongoing social changes and the changing functions and tasks of education in their context, the vision of the professional role of the teacher changed significantly (cf. Rubacha, 2000). The new categories in the description of the role of the teacher definite it as a guide, translator, researcher, reflective practitioner, emancipated teacher, transformative intellectual, and post-positivist practitioner, among others. The role of the guide assumes that the teacher is the subject of educational change and can lead other people to build wisdom, understand the world, and be responsible for their own development. As part of the guide’s tasks, the teacher guides and acquaints their charges with new areas of knowledge, along with agreeing with those charges the direction to be followed. This assumption can

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also be implemented as part of the role of the translator in a complex, multiple, and multi-discursive culture, who explains the sources, meaning, and potential consequences of the phenomena that occur, and explains to others the various possibilities of choice appearing on the individual, unique path of development of the subjective identity and the authorized person. (Kwiecin´ski, 2000, pp. 272– 278). Therefore, what is needed is a wise, critical, sensitive, and competent teacher who does not reduce subjectivity, but shapes a new type of leadership through intensive communication and the coordination of educational processes, and who is also a competent intercultural translator. The description of the role of the researcher is connected with the assumption that educational research conducted by the teacher should be an integral part of the teacher’s work. Acting as a researcher, the teacher participates in action research that is future-oriented, collaborative, implies system development, generates a theory grounded in action, and is situational (Susman & Evered, 2010, pp. 99–100). Another way of understanding the role of the teacher is as a reflective practitioner who builds their competences on the basis of their own practical experience. This role of the teacher is related to the term “reflective practice” introduced by Donald Schön to denote the concept of learning in action, consisting mainly in the analysis and evaluation of one’s own conduct (Schön, 1983). Teacher reflection is a type of thinking that accompanies action, leading to the transformation of elements of the action or of the entire task. The reflective practitioner creates his own workshop by critically analyzing his own “why knowledge,” guaranteeing the ability to reflect on and interpret the educational situation. This type of reflection allows for professional responsibility to be met, and for an understanding of the relationship between the goals and practice of teaching and education policy (Day, 2004, p. 55). Emphasizing the subjective activity of the teacher means that the rights and opportunities to participate in collective life are the result of the reflective activity of the teacher and the student, oriented towards conscious adaptation or change. The role of the emancipated teacher is related to the understanding of the student’s subjectivity and is characteristic of emancipatory pedagogy. It is assumed that it requires re-spect for the principle of subjectivity of pedagogical interaction. Emancipation is the conscious rejection of stereotypes and myths, overcoming obstacles caused by human activity and the forces of nature. An integral aspect of emancipation through educational projects can be seen in the theories of teacher professionalism. Becoming a critical teacher is a function of personal experience, a subjective system of values and relationships with people who inspire taking up challenges, rejecting oppression, and entering new spaces of freedom. This process takes place in specific schools in practical activities.

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The transformative intellectual Giroux (1998) can be placed within emancipatory rationality, which can be treated as a specific development of the concept of the reflective practitioner, characterized in Polish pedeutological discourse in relation to the idea of Habermas’ emancipatory rationality. Giroux believes that in a democracy, the school should be actively involved in building a better society. This requires a change in the teacher’s model towards openness to the cultural needs of the environment, showing willingness along with the appropriate discourse skills, such as being able to defend their own arguments. Such a teacher should be an advocate of progress and democracy and be involved in the process of democratic transformation, be able to read social phenomena, and act according to the needs. They should also combine their work with public activity so that for students they are an example of a public intellectual involved in the affairs of the world, taking seriously its most important problems. According to Giroux, the school should be an institution of the local community and should consider the social needs of all people (Giroux, 1988). This concept is the opposite of activities consisting in the administrative reduction of the role of the teacher to the achievement of goals and the implementation of tasks set by school authorities. These social roles of the modern teacher are associated with the need to transform the school and the departure from the transmissive model of education that currently dominates, in favor of an activating model, emphasizing the subjectivity of the participants of the educational process in which knowledge is co-created. In the changing school, educational activities should consist of helping to search for and discover passions and talents, as well as what is important and good – which is an individual and social value. The common task of the school, family, and local community is supporting learners in identifying talents and passions, removing barriers, and creating conditions for their development, as well as shaping the attitude of responsibility for their own development, which in turn affects overall willingness and lifelong learning. The cooperation of the school with the local community in these processes is necessary and beneficial for those residents who create the social surroundings of the school and for the school itself. Shaping the culture of the student’s activity at school, allowing for the possibility of differences in views and attitudes, preferring discussions, openness to experience and their way of thinking about the world and of representing the world, becomes important in the face of the avalanche of changes currently taking place. Teachers are of great importance in this shaping, which is clearly indicated in the characteristics of the changing professional roles. Teachers are expected to carry out experimental and advisory tasks and initiate creative activities that transform the living environment. It is important to involve teachers in social life, as well as to take up challenges related to stimulating students’

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competences to creatively and reflectively participate in changes, to teach them to act reflectively, to make wise choices, and to consciously and responsibly construct their own identity and biography. The school as a place of social life and shaping its rules in accordance with accepted cultural patterns is an important social institution. Students experience the school as a system in which many actors are involved and through which educational processes can be realized. The mechanism of exchange and mutual transfer of certain content is at work here, and interactivity is the reality of everyday education and socialization (cf. Prüfer, 2020, p. 266). In the school environment, one can speak of a purely functional educational and social reality, which can also be analyzed through the prism of the logic of competitiveness and rivalry, and as an interactive network and a place of subjectively acting individuals. The phenomena occurring in society are concentrated here as if through a lens. Therefore, it is important that teachers react creatively to the social changes taking place and to make the school space an appropriate environment for the social life of young people, following the cultural patterns set by the school and external influences. A school functioning as a place of the critical analysis of reality, teaching life, alternative thinking, critical distance to reality, and defining goals and plans for school own development, will prepare students better for social activity, understanding the world, and managing themselves in a changing world, than a school insensitive to the changes taking place without, in society. The ability to perceive and understand students’ problems, and to help solve them, greatly influences the effectiveness of the work of the teacher. The teacher should now – in accordance with the recommendation of Yuval Harari and Jéréma Lamri – focus on teaching universal life skills, the “four Cs” – critical thinking, communication, cooperation, and creativity (Harari 2018, p. 335, Lamri, 2018). These skills are essential for a person to cope with change. In a changing society, the new quality of the teacher’s functions and tasks should be interpreted on several levels: 1. the sociological – related to the preparation of individuals for responsible and creative life in a changing society and coping with change; 2. the pedagogical – related to the teacher-student relationship and the teachinglearning process; 3. the psychological – related to the teacher’s attitude towards themself and developing competences, the priority of which is the category of change, meaning openness to subjectivity, creative development of the student, and innovation. The theoretical concepts that show the functions of education and school in society have illuminated the mechanisms of the impact of education on the individual and the local environment. These concepts can be the foundations

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for the construction of more precise models of education in a changing society. Structural functionalism, arising from the assumption that the basis of social life is social solidarity, and the subject of this life is the system, shows education to be a system regulating the socialization and allocation of individuals in the social structure. Functionalists believe that social and educational changes are driven by the progressive pursuit of social development and social inclusion. However, the expansion of education has not yet offered a chance to open the channels of social mobility, and the ideologies of human rights, racial, and ethnic minorities raise awareness of social inequalities and increase opposition to such education. In turn, according to conflict theory, the driving force is the struggle between different groups for power and position. The school plays an important role in this struggle, as it remains at the service of the dominant class and enables social reproduction, creating the appearance of objectivity, equal opportunities, and neutrality (Feinberg, Soltis, 2000, p. 44). Interpretative theories perceive the school as a community of people who interact subjectively and interpret their reality together. Thus, the school appears as a social organization that creates certain conditions for defining the world and making decisions. Consideration of the broad context of the conditioning of people’s actions is a feature of environmental theories that emphasize the need to understand the local community. This understanding is the basis of a broader understanding of how global society functions. The sociological theories of social capital, especially those proposed by the American researchers James Coleman and Robert Putnam, provide an important interpretative base for the processes taking place in local communities and for understanding the functioning of education in the local environment. Coleman defines social capital as “the set of resources contained in family relationships and in the organization of the local community and useful for the cognitive or social development of a child or young person. These resources vary from person to person and can be an important advantage for children and young people in developing their human capital” (Coleman, 1990, p. 300). Coleman exposes the entanglement of the individual in the network of relations: “Social capital is contained in the structure of relations between individuals and among individuals. It is not contained either in individuals or in the physical instruments of production” (Ibid., P. 302). According to him, social capital is composed of obligations and expectations, access to information, effective norms and sanctions, the exercise of control over the activities of another individual, and grassroots social organizations. It is a feature of the structure in which the units operate. The concept of social capital was developed by Putnam through an analysis of the social conditions of the functioning of institutions. He noticed that with an increase in the involvement of individuals in the public sphere and the growth of

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grassroots organizations and transversal contacts in the community, the effectiveness of social control over the operation of institutions increases. He listed the elements of social capital as social networks, norms of reciprocity, and trust. Capital understood in this way makes it easier to solve collective problems, reduces the costs of social activities, creates a sense of a community of fate in people’s consciousness, and through networked connections social capital itself is constituted, people obtain the necessary information and improve their quality of life, avoiding loneliness. The model of the functioning of social capital is presented in Table 3. Table 3. Relationships of the dimensions of social capital at the levels of the organization of social structures Levels Micro – family

Functions of social capital building intragroup bonds

Components of social capital nets parents, household members

building relafriends tionships with other groups of friends linking with linking with items items with a dif- with a different status ferent status linking with power holders Meso – local community

Macro – society

norms love, care

sanctions rejection, feelings

reciprocity

shame and reputation

generosity

generosity disgrace or formal sanctions

community

exclusion

understanding for people outside the group

conflict

building intragroup bonds building relationships with other groups

neighborhood or workplace customs connection between communities

linking with items of different status building intragroup ties

links between groups of different status

mutual respect

support, strengthening

nation or race

patriotism and trust

distinction and law

building relationships with other groups linking with items with different status

trade networks, etc.

international agreements

diplomacy, war, etc.

The UN etc.

human rights, etc.

international law

Own study based on: P. Mikiewicz, Socjologia edukacji. Teorie, koncepcje, poje˛cia, PWN, Warszawa 2016, s. 289–290.

An individualistic understanding of social capital is presented by Pierre Bourdieu, who claims that social (sometimes community) capital creates a set of

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sources that an individual can use, a set of useful social contacts and acquaintances from which an individual or group creates a constant network of institutionalized relationships. Relationships are created between the groups and individuals that build the social networks created by these groups and individuals. The social capital that an individual has at their disposal depends, according to Bourdieu, on the size of the network of which the individual is a part and on the amount of capital that the people connected with this network have (Bourdieu 1986, pp. 241–258). In the Report on Intellectual Capital in Poland (2008), social capital is presented as an element of intellectual capital alongside human, structural, and relational capital. Cultural capital is closely related to social capital because it shapes individual social groups. Bourdieu (1986) views cultural capital as a form of predisposition acquired by individuals or groups in their quest to achieve social status. He distinguishes three forms of cultural capital: 1. embodied – a set of skills acquired by an individual under the influence of the family environment, requiring an investment of time and a willingness to learn; 2. objectified – cultural goods (pictures, books, dictionaries, tools) that can bring economic or symbolic value to the owner; 3. institutionalized – institutional recognition (academic titles or certificates confirming professional qualifications). Dissatisfaction with the effects of mass education has been growing gradually since the 1970 s – both in Poland and in the world. The school is unable to work out effective solutions to its own transformation. In the analyses of the school’s functions in terms of preparing students for life in a changing society, as well as educating towards social and cultural capital, it is worth considering the proposals presented by Bogdan Suchodolski (2003, pp. 30–36), which concern the reconciliation of two educational orientations: “instrumental education”, preparing for a profession, career or certain social roles, and “disinterested education”, based not on the concept of having, but on the concept of existence and on belief about the individual value of the experiences that make up human life. Attempts to reconcile these two concepts require the resolution of the basic antinomies between the society that exists and that which is being created, between the real conditions and the emerging visions of the future, between what we are here and now and what we become under the influence of challenges and the expansion of new creative forces and aspirations. The most difficult and most important educational problems are related to human participation in what is being created and in what is yet to come, as well as in the visions of our civilization. There is a particularly sharp conflict between fidelity and creativity, between accepting what exists and what might happen, between adaptation and

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innovation. Education understood in this way should not create new addictions but should make a person capable of free choice and of shaping his own life path, one permeated with values. Many challenges stand in front of education, and the solutions will be difficult and opaque since each issue can be perceived from a variety of different, perhaps contradictory, perspectives. Education, in implementing the principles of democracy, should present a multitude of educational and social practices that consider expectations, needs, and aspirations, along with the right to maintain one’s own culture, as well as creating the principles of coexistence and co-responsibility for the space of social life. If the school is to prepare its charges for a successful life in the conditions of the present and the future, then it should be ready to carry out these tasks and obtain the necessary support (Lewowicki, 2021, p. 23). The social environment should also be prepared for taking action in this area. An important research task is therefore to describe the social processes taking place at school, as well as the social conditions in which the school operates in relation to the effects of its work. The continuous diagnosis of the nature of the relationship between the school and the social environment, reacting to it and taking specific, constructive educational solutions offers the hope that the school will meet the expectations of responsible influence on changes in various areas of human life. There is also hope that the school will develop the competences of communication, co-perception, creativity, and critical thinking, each of which is necessary for a person to understand and navigate the world. Therefore, it seems that in the light of the requirements of the changing world, the time has come to organize and implement school education consistently in line with the latest scientific knowledge about society (sociology) and education (pedagogy and psychology). When considering and implementing the social functions of the school, it is worth distinguishing the world of opportunities, intentions, hopes, and declared wills from the real, concrete world.

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The main challenges facing the contemporary school

The school, occupying a dominant position among educational institutions, is often the object of criticism. Its poor efficiency and the need to rebuild it as a system linked to other areas of life have been recognized and highlighted in many Polish educational reports around the end of the previous century (Report on the state of education …, 1973, Szczepan´ski, 1973, Education as a national priority …, 1989; Education in hazardous conditions, 1990, Szczepan´ski, 1989 and others). Many attempts were made in the years following these reports to improve the situation and adapt the school to the needs of the democratic and knowledgebased society then under construction. There were visions of a progressive, new upbringing, essentialist, constantly improved, alternative, integrated school (Kupisiewicz, 2006), as well as its other models, e. g. therapeutic, reflective, emancipatory (Gołe˛bniak 2003, pp. 115–117). None of these proposals have yet led to the creation of a school that would meet the social needs and expectations of learners. The shortcomings of the school have been and are the subject of many social debates and discussions between educational and scientific communities (Szempruch 2012, Cies´lik et al., 2020). The current criticism of the school concerns the organization and course of the didactic and educational process, cooperation and communication with parents and the wider environment (e. g. local government institutions, parallel education, and social welfare), and disorders in the basic relationships in educational entities and thus school life. The school is accused of mismatching education to the needs of the changing world and the labor market, a paucity of innovation it seeks to undertake, and a lack of change in didactics towards the didactics of thinking and creativity, among other things. This chapter seeks to highlight some of the challenges and problems facing the contemporary school and which indicate the need for its transformation. The basis for distinguishing these challenges is the expectations of the knowledge society, whose main distinguishing features are development and education. First, the challenges currently facing the school were considered, including its hidden curriculum, dealing with educational inequalities, and the dilemmas related to teachers’

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competences. The poor mental condition of young people, the social deficit of education, and ineffective school management were also taken into account. What happens at school is related to the implementation of the curriculum and the functioning of the hidden curriculum. The hidden program is defined variously. The concept of the “hidden curriculum” became popular at the turn of the 1960s and 1970s as an element of the wider public and scientific debate about the need to change the approach to the education and organization of educational systems (Cies´lik et al. 2020, p. 31). Ronald Meighan (1993, p. 71) defines a hidden curriculum as anything that is learned while studying at school alongside the official curriculum. This concept shows the relationship between phenomena and events that are often not recognized. A program is anything that results in learning. Hiddenness, in turn, indicates motives that can range from deliberate manipulation, through unconsciousness or persistence, to unintended effects (Szempruch 2013, pp. 139–140). Hanna Rylke and Graz˙yna Klimowicz (1992, p. 34) perceive the hidden program as representing the true, often unconscious feelings and attitudes of teachers, which exist independently of conscious and accepted views, beliefs, and plans of action. The concept is usually identified with what is unclear, what the school cares about, and what happens within the school, regardless of what has been recorded in official documents. Philip Jackson (1968) defined an implicit curriculum for a hidden pattern of socialization that prepares students to function in the existing workplace and in other socio-political spheres. Giroux and Penna (1979) argue that this pattern has largely been ignored by curriculum developers. By ignoring the values of social learning, developers did not have a fundamental impact on school curricula. To promote a more complete understanding of the dynamics of classroom life and its relationship with wider society, Giroux and Penna (1979) identified the social processes in the school and the classroom that give specific meaning to the term implicit curriculum. They argue that a new set of processes will have to replace existing ones if the goals of social education are to be achieved. Hidden expectations, skill sets, knowledge, and social processes can help or hinder learners’ achievement and attitude systems. The implicit curriculum refers to the unspoken or hidden values, behaviors, procedures, and norms that exist in the learning environment. As such expectations are not clearly defined, the implicit curriculum is the vague promotion and enforcement of certain patterns of behavior and social beliefs during learning (Miller and Seller, 1990). The school space is one of the elements of this program. The most common perception of the school is one with an asymmetrical division of space and equipment, a factory-like classroom layout with the school principal as the “production manager” and teachers as the “foremen” responsible for overseeing the “production process” (Cies´lik et al. 2020, p. 31). An important and valid question is: “Should schools educate young people to fit the present or does the

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school have a revolutionary mission to develop young people who will strive for a better future for society?” (Giroux and Penna, 1979, p. 27). Jerald (2006) noted that when teachers are aware of the importance and impact of hidden curricula, they will discuss their personal attitudes with students in the classroom. Moreover, teachers may use the hidden curriculum to promote their own teaching style in the form of a learning strategy or method that promotes an appropriate approach, such as for example collaborative learning. In this understanding, the implicit curriculum can create a place in school for social change (Alsubaie, 2015). According to Andrzej Janowski (2004, p. 118), the hidden program often leads to the development of passive, out-of-control individuals, ready to justify the rationality of their own helplessness. This is a consequence of the hidden program being used to enforce activities solely as the result of decisions taken by superiors, the constant modification of one’s own behavior to evaluate other people (especially superiors), an inability to properly plan time, and a lack of cognitive curiosity. Therefore, the hidden school program should be analyzed and factors minimizing its negative impact on the functioning of people involved in the life of the school should be taken into account. One such factor may be the so-called charismatic leader kind of teacher. Such a teacher can capture the hearts and minds of students without applying the treatments, strategies, and techniques associated with the hidden curriculum of the school. A significant challenge for the school is the growing phenomenon of educational inequalities. Combatting this problem is undertaken from various scientific and methodological positions: sociological, legal, psychological, political. And, finally, pedagogical. When talking about equality in education, researchers emphasize equal start, equality of access, equality of conditions, and equality of effects. Mirosław Szyman´ski (1996, p.24) writes: “The processes of differentiation of school paths and educational opportunities for children and young people are now called school selection. Generally speaking, in scientific works it is considered from two points of view. Those authors who are interested in the process of school selection due to its background and social effects lean towards sociological analyses. On the other hand, if the caring and educational aspect related to the recognition of the child’s internal abilities and directing him to the right path of education in the school system is taken into account, we are dealing with a psychological and pedagogical approach”. The concept of educational inequalities is also present in the political discourse, especially since 1989. The concept is a permanent element of the political programs of various parties, and all reforms, especially in education, are undertaken specifically in the name of equalizing educational opportunities. Cies´lik et al. (2020, p. 36) refer to the analyses presented by Roman Dolata and Ewelina Jarnutowska (2014), which confirm that the school does not fulfill its function in

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terms of equalizing opportunities – the distance between people coming from families of different status maintains different levels of school education. This problem will not be solved by targeted interventions. The key is to recognize the mechanisms that generate this phenomenon, which must be sought not only at school, but also in the school’s surroundings. Excessive individualization, weakening social ties, and focusing on narrowly understood educational success will undoubtedly hinder the implementation of activities aimed at equalizing opportunities through education. In 2010, Henryk Doman´ski concluded that the increase in the level of education in Poland weakens the influence of social origin on the selection barriers in the transition to secondary and higher schools – the “old” dimensions of inequality are therefore replaced with “new” ones. The issue of digital exclusion, referred to by some as digital inequalities, is a relatively new area of interest for researchers in connection with social inequalities. The concept of sustainable development in its essence refers to the maintenance of a balance between all possible aspects of life in order to correct further evolution. According to Tomczyk (2019), in the present era of ubiquitous computerization, it is worth considering the current state of the human-computer science-natural-social environment relationship with its anticipation of the near and distant future. Educational inequalities have deepened with the COVID-19 pandemic and the relocation of the school to a home-based remote education space. The quality of the implementation of remote learning is associated with the diversity of conditions for such learning and work, and thus with social inequalities, the role and consequences of which for learning and development of an individual (including society) are significant. António Guterres, UN secretary general, emphasizes in his public statements that in many countries it has not been possible to reach a high number of vulnerable students, i.e. the disabled, immigrants, or those from very poor households. Thus, such students were excluded from the teacherstudent relationship or from peer relationships based on the school environment. However, remote students more widely experienced a significant modification in their important social relationships. Building relationships and communicating in various educational environments is a big challenge for the school in the context of opportunities and threats as well as equal opportunities. A radical change in what is happening around the school and in the school itself necessitates a new look at the meaning of the teacher’s work and competences. Views on the role of the teacher are currently undergoing a rapid evolution. According to some assessments, modern teachers meet the definitional categories that allow them to be classified as knowledge workers. Such a definition was created in 2007: knowledge workers represent a high level of specialist knowledge, education or experience, and the most important goals of

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their work include the creation, dissemination or practical use of knowledge. Teachers – knowledge workers are employees of the school – the knowledge management organization. In this context, thinking about teaching competences is subject to evolution, and these are considered by Kwas´nica in the area of practical, moral, and technical knowledge. It constitutes three groups of competences: the practical and moral (e. g. communication), and the technical (e. g. methodical). In turn, Ne˛cki (2000) writes that a communicatively competent teacher is a person who is aware of the complexity of the social situation, who skillfully adjusts the type of communication acts to the type of relationship, interpersonal situation, emotional mood, physical environment, motivation, school subculture, and the personality of the interlocutor. The instrumental aspect of the concept of “competence” is derived from the Latin word competentia, from the verb competere meaning “to agree”, “to be able to”, “to compete” (Kopalin´ski, 2000, p. 269). The essential meaning of the word relates to the intrinsic potential of the subject determining its ability to take action or occupy a specific position. Competence in this sense determines the subjective ability to adapt to the conditions of the social environment. It is considered a result of learning, which results in the ability to perform specific areas of tasks (Okon´, 1998, pp. 174–175, Szempruch, 2013, p. 101). These views indicate the complex and multifaceted competences of teachers. Teachers are expected to develop a scientific culture that leads to questions about society and that focuses not only on the realm of knowledge (Canguilhem 1961). This culture includes both knowledge and the skills of understanding and association that enable the mind to think and function effectively (Raichvarg, Jacques 1991). Scientific culture is, above all, a certain state of mind, a way of posing questions to the world, thinking, seeing, and analyzing (Giordan, Pellaud 2009). The teacher’s activity and the development of their competences, both during vocational preparation and during work in the changing school, should be guided by the assumption that all education cannot exist without deep reflection, which lies at the source of knowledge, its role in society, and without a critical vision of the limitations of this knowledge and its actual status in society (Di Scala-Fouchereau 2012). Thus, the teacher is expected to have a high scientific culture and at the same time educate others into that scientific culture. This education means more than the transfer of specific pieces of information. The teacher should also be a social animator in the field of scientific culture combining the popularization of knowledge with deepening one’s own knowledge about the local community and the local environment in the context of educational needs. This is related to the search for ways of sharing knowledge and building an educational relationship in the environment. Therefore, the teacher should know and use the methods of teaching in the perspective of social dia-

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logue with science and popularization of knowledge. The essence of its operation in this meaning is that members of local communities, through active participation in public life, cause the quality of life in a given environment to increase, along with the level of efficiency in solving regional problems and implementing development goals of relevance to local communities, where the society does not participate in local activities. Animation is also an area of practice which consists in supporting and helping groups operating in the local community and helping to create new initiatives that will initiate activity in the life of the local community. The model of modern teaching – learning and the teaching methods used by teachers include the reconstruction and redefinition of knowledge and ideas about the world and enabling recipients – be they students or members of the local community – to ask questions and seek answers to those questions. For the research to reach its audience and be assimilated, it is necessary to adopt an attractive, interesting form – the presentation of the research must arouse curiosity, motivate the recipient to devote time and attention to becoming familiar with the content of the information provided; hence the further development and interest of teachers in strategies, methods, and techniques of education and increasingly effective educational media. Knowledge on this subject should be transferred at different levels of education and in relation to different educational environments. The importance of the role of the teacher and their activity in the students’ active acquisition of various skills justifies the position of many researchers interested in shaping students’ attitudes of active learning. Kubli (1979) follows Piaget: the teacher must be as active as the student. The results of most of the studies conducted thus far have shown that, despite the problems involved with the computerized learning environment, this level of activity is possible. New media do not limit the role of the teacher; on the contrary – but it requires a lot of commitment on the teacher’s part. This commitment should consider the fact that the teacher should inspire their students, arouse their enthusiasm, and create conditions in which the students will want to learn (Robinson 2015: 140). This has been particularly evident in distance learning in the COVID-19 pandemic. It also enlivened the discussion on the level of information, media, science, and health literacy of both teachers and students. Information literacy, underpinning the functioning of the global knowledgebased society, should be fully integrated into all forms of teaching and learning at all levels of education. In the case of science, this covers scientific literacy, and in natural science that knowledge of health literacy. All these levels are also considered when talking about the sustainable development of an individual, local communities, and socio-economic and natural global systems (Potyrała, 2017). Media literacy is perceived as an important area of competences related to critical

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thinking and the promotion of a democratic society capable of the critical consumption of media information and self-expression through the production of media messages (Arroio 2015). The teacher is expected to have a high level of competences that condition their ability to deal with the challenges of the present and the future and the ability to develop these competences in learners. Information competences include the ability to process information and use it in a critical manner, distinguishing between real and virtual elements in connection recognition. Developing these competences is also fostered by participation in communities and networks for social, cultural, and professional purposes. These competences are wrongly identified exclusively with IT competences. Among social and civic competences there are competences related to personal and social well-being. These cover awareness of how to ensure the optimal level of physical and mental health, understood as the resource of a given person and their family and their immediate social environment, and the knowledge of how an appropriate approach can contribute to this. Scientific competence refers to the ability and willingness to use existing knowledge and methodology to explain the natural world, to formulate questions, and draw evidence-based conclusions. Scientific literacy covers the main principles of nature, basic scientific concepts, methods, and an understanding of how science and technology affect the natural world. As a part of the information competences, online functional literacy competences are described increasingly often in conjunction with scientific competences (on-line functional literacy) (Dolenc et al. 2015). Teacher competences are developed at the level of professional education and then developed during the teacher’s professional career. The key questions are posed by Zbigniew Kwiecin´ski (2000, p. 291): 1) What do teachers need to know and what skills do they need? 2) What is the purpose of their education? 3) Is teaching a profession (due to the nature of preparation, admission criteria, nature of work, duties considered constitutive by the representatives of this activity)? 4) Is there provision for the necessary conditions for the development of teaching skills? And 5) How do you know that a beginning teacher is prepared for the profession? Answers to these questions would constitute the core of key teaching competences and, at the same time, mark a new approach to teacher formation (Potyrała, 2017, Szempruch, 2013). It is necessary to undertake research on teachers’ self-creation competences in various situational contexts and on changes in teachers’ behavior due to new educational conditions. Contemporary educational psychology prioritizes metacognition. Research should also focus on the role of metaphysics in the professional work of teachers. One of the most important messages of cognitive science, that the way of thinking determines the way of acting, should be supported by more extensive research and then assimilated in the theory and

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practice of teacher education. In those places where new technologies meet the delicate and sensitive social tissue, different answers to the question can be considered: Is a good teacher more an engineer or an artist? It is certain that the teacher is increasingly often confronted with situations that cannot be foreseen or planned (Potyrała, 2017, p. 34, Szempruch 2000, 2012, 2017). Greater demands are placed on the teacher of the 21st century. Such requirements should also be imposed on those involved in teacher education and development or employed in university teacher training departments. Academic courses in the field of general, pre-school, early school, and teaching didactics should be conducted by people with scientific achievements and practical experience in the field of teaching, as well as outstanding teachers, practitioners with scientific achievements that prove the depth of their knowledge and their thirst for continuous improvement. Teacher education and professional development should be linked to nonformal education and to diverse learning environments, chosen by the teachers individually and in a reality augmented by students. The diverse learning environments enrich their educational experiences and broaden their cognitive and metacognitive perspective. The school lost control of this issue some time ago. Teachers declare a desire for an innovative approach to the didactic process. They present their didactic achievements at workshops and methodological conferences, using various indicators, such as educational added value or the results of external exams. There is often the impression that the “iMinds” are trained to achieve performance as measured by tests. Doubts are often raised by the socalled innovations of a different nature, tested on students with greater or lesser frequency. The standard should be cooperation between the school and the university and cooperation between teachers and educators conducting research on didactic and educational grounds. As we know, this is now exposed in educating teachers, but the practical dimension of this cooperation differs from expectations. A thorough knowledge of the learning and teaching mechanisms will allow the development of effective methods and strategies that will contribute to the achievement of a high level of action and will provide opportunities to overcome the basic constraints that govern this cooperation. There is a constant need for mutual support and agreed courses of action. A characteristic feature of combining the requirements of the economy, the needs of the state, and the expectations of learners is the duality of the goals of education goals and the balance between individual development and socioeconomic development (Kwiatkowski 2002). For this purpose, the need to change teaching methods has been emphasized for many years in the direction of activating cognitive exploration and self-learning as well as the individualization of education. In cognitive learning education, the teacher should fulfill the different

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roles described in chapter 3 of this paper, including the role of mediator and intermediary in helping students choose appropriate learning strategies. In teaching, the teacher should use pedagogical skills related to showing students the role of information in building knowledge, and teaching them to select information wisely when it comes from disparate sources. When writing about the new learning culture, when emphasis is placed on the social use of the potential of the network to enable the cooperation of individuals and to foster their activity in the information processing process, the important but changing role of the teacher is emphasized (Morbitzer 2013). Robert Kwas´nica (2015, pp. 26–27) writes that at least 3 roles appear necessary: 1) the tutor teacher (at the same time an animator of humanizing activity), 2) the teacher coordinating and conducting basic classes in the thematic block, and 3) the teacher supporting the individual development of the student. In this context, there are also three types of non-specific teacher tasks, distinguished by Anna Brzezin´ska (2008): (1) the organization of the physical learning environment, (2) the organization of the social learning environment, and (3) the modeling of students’ attitudes to learning. Brzezin´ska also emphasizes that both students and teachers can acquire new competences and modify existing ones through their own research, exploration, and experimentation, by obtaining ready-made knowledge directly from other people or indirectly from books, magazines, or the Internet, and through reflection. Numerous researchers report that the COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound effect on the population with a number of health and mental health implications. Gómez-Salgado et al. (2020) estimate from research that 38.2% of Europeans suffer from mental disorders. Data from studies conducted now and during previous epidemics show that quarantine as a protective measure has had a psychological effect on the population. Quarantine has been associated with the presence of depression, anxiety, stress, post-traumatic stress, anger, and mental distress. By observing the realities of the times of the pandemic, it is possible to identify many aspects of everyday life that require special analysis in the context of health. These are issues related to changes in behavior around personal hygiene, diet, physical activity, healthy sleep, social distance, and coping with stress (Wyz˙ga, 2020). Students, parents, and teachers say their current mental and physical condition is worse than before the pandemic. There are clearly signs of overwork, information overload, computer aversion, and irritability among students, parents, and teachers due to the constant use of information and communication technologies. These are the most common symptoms of digital fatigue. Almost one-third of the students participating in the study often or constantly felt sad (28.9%), lonely (27.4%), and depressed (28.4%) (Wyz˙ga, 2020). This situation requires teachers to use their professional competences for a specific activity. Wyz˙ga (2020) formulates these competences as follows:

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1. Using praxeological competences, accurately diagnose the needs of a given environment, effectively plan, organize activities, and assess the effects of the educational process in relation to the health of the students; 2. Based on substantive competences, implement health education through a professional and task-oriented approach to the value of human health; 3. Based on educational competences, help students and members of the school community to cope with health crises, creating patterns of behavior and an atmosphere of openness to the needs of others; 4. Use social and communication competences in health education classes, pay special attention to empathy and the growing need for contact with others; 5. Efficiently use modern sources of information and undertake a discussion on the negative consequences of the abuse of new technologies. Recently, we have also observed a social deficit in education. This consists of the renunciation of education from the task of deliberately building and strengthening social bonds, pro-social attitudes, and experiences that give a sense of agency in cooperation. Social deficit refers to the fact that social relationships and ties are not consciously built to achieve specific learning outcomes. The authors of the report “Beyond the horizon. Education course: the future of the development of the competency system in Poland,” say that one of the most eloquent manifestations of the social deficit in educating the younger generation is the difficulty in introducing teamwork into the broad practice of education, and the weakness at all levels of education is insufficiently effective work on shaping attitudes, which are a key component of competences (Cies´lik et al. 2020). The situation related to the closure of schools during the pandemic deepened the sense of social deficit within the school. Although much earlier, since the 1970s, cognitive and psychological perspectives dominated the pedagogical framework and models of designing teaching environments and learning with the use of technology, more recently, the social perspectives of learning gained new recognition as a viable and even desirable framework for research and practice related to teaching and learning, especially in network-based learning environments. An analysis was made of the various possibilities from a social learning perspective and how they could be used in the design and implementation of online learning. However, a bigger step needs to be taken towards the implementation of appropriate practices geared towards relationships and cooperation in the school environment. These should be preceded by examining the individual needs of students, especially in the field of social learning in various educational environments (both virtual and real), identifying strategies for promoting social interactions, and developing effective principles for designing a relationship and cooperation-oriented didactic process.

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During the COVID-19 pandemic, distance learning solutions such as virtual classrooms and computer-assisted learning were introduced to maintain the link between schools and learners, but the overall implications of learning exclusively in a virtual environment are poorly understood. In the case of the distance strategy, a one-way model is widely practiced, focused on the one-way transmission of knowledge, treating the student as a recipient of the information provided by the teacher. Solutions to this problem are being sought. Many interactive learning platforms are emerging, offering learners different levels of learning activity, based on technology systems built to support learning from a set of theories that view knowledge as social and collectively created through interaction. For at least twenty years, a model of learning with a double loop of positive feedback has been described – the computer-assisted collaborative learning model (CSCL). This model is worth reconsidering in order to move away from the dominant one-way learning model. The characteristics of this model together with the description of other models of teaching and remote learning are presented in Table 4. Table. 4. Selected models of teaching and remote learning (own elaboration) Model of remote teaching and learning One-way model (one-way transmission of knowledge)

Characteristic – a widely practiced model in the form of a distance strategy consisting of conducting lessons using various means of one-way communication

Mobile learning model

– one of the most important application criteria is to have a mobile device with Internet access and the ability to take photos – an application that works in conjunction with a website, often as a collection of online courses for comprehensive learning in a wide variety of fields Learning model with a double loop – the scaffold for learning is collaboration (positive feedback loop model) through IT tools CBCL – computer supported collab- – own organization and optimization of learnorative learning model ing – dialogue and information loops as a way to reconstruct knowledge – learning as a complex feedback system – the relationship between teaching and learning is seen as a dynamic process of knowledge exchange and relationship building – feedback allows the identification of the student’s own learning strategies – The online environment is intended to help students achieve their learning goals

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The reasons to expect positive benefits from collaborative learning using new media, compared to traditional teaching, are more practical than theoretical. Current computer tools enable learners to learn interactively and can provide technical support that supports their thinking skills at a higher level. Low-level task performance software can be designed to provide students with the information they need to make higher-order decisions and engage in collaborative learning not only in a virtual environment, but also in a traditional environment. It should be emphasized that information technology tools cannot completely replace cooperative learning and natural social relationships. Learning to collaborate and networking also applies to teachers. It seems, however, that thinking about the nature and specificity of this type of learning has been lost. Ewa Filipiak (2019) analyzes the specificity of the collective learning process and presents the basic theories constituting the interpretative and paradigmatic framework of learning: the cultural and historical theory of Vygotski, the socio-cultural theory of Bruner, the expansive learning theory of Engeström, Jack Mezirow’s transformational learning, and Wenger’s theory of situational learning. The author draws attention to the apparent actions of the created networks. However, it should be borne in mind that the existence of the conditions of an environment conducive to social participation in scientific culture requires the efficient management of social change. Individuals in networks of new social meanings are forced to constantly negotiate their identity, and the multiplicity of network actors must imply changes in thinking about the relations of institutions with event participants, between different institutions and between the participants themselves in various spaces, both virtual and physical (Potyrała, 2017). Management is also a challenge for today’s school. The organizations of the future are seen as networks of professionals that serve to educate people as well as learn to organizations what knowledge and how to collect and distribute it. In 2010, organizations seen from this perspective were to be filled with teachers and students who alternately play the role of the student or teacher (Czarnecki, 2010, p. 96). In this context, the perception of managers of modern organizations is also changing. First, the manager in every organizational form is not a position but a role (available to all team members equally), more of a consultant and manager than an authoritarian (Bennis et al., 2008). Unfortunately, in the last ten years, little has changed in the approach to changing schools into a learning organization, and there is still a justified suspicion that the contemporary school shapes and strengthens stereotypes in organizational management (Czarnecki, 2010, p. 96). Those who, at the level of local communities control educational institutions, participate in their management and influence the educational process, are still not at the center of the processes of socialization. The image of the school that emerged from the research con-

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ducted by Kamila Hernik (2018) is that of an institution whose school employees, parents, representatives of local governments, and school partners were afraid of a greater level of socialization, which results in part from the fact that their members (mainly parents) do not know what the possible forms of their involvement are. A lot of people indicated the lack of competence, first of all, of people from outside the school, including parents, to join the management of the institution. The respondents do not seem to notice the gradual change in the processes of education in schools, as a result of which schools and teachers cease to function as a knowledge transmission system (Hernik, 2018, p. 21). It has long been held that the goals of an organization cannot be achieved without the ongoing commitment of its members. The entire process of change must be preceded by a diagnosis of the needs, motivations, and values related to the work of an individual in the organization, which in itself is an extremely difficult task, because apart from the behavioral conditions resulting from the individual specificity of each person, there are also other factors related to organizational environment to be considered (Szafran, 2014). Changes in school management in the face of revolutionary social changes are related primarily to the change in thinking about the role of the educational leader and their social sharing of the decision-making that affects the practices, policies, and directions of the organization. The knowledge that enables employees to understand complex transformational situations and can contribute to the effectiveness of the organization also presents a challenge. Undoubtedly, the knowledge and managerial experience of the school head ensures the coherence of the strategic activities of the institution and effective cooperation with the economic environment; however, transformative leadership assumes, in a sense, the decentralization of power and the existence of, for example, teams that may consist of administrators, teachers, parents, community members, and sometimes students. Changing the way people think about the school as a learning organization must lead to a change in thinking and implementing all of the management tasks in the school (Fig. 5). The role of school management cannot be limited to thinking only about costs, the quality of educational processes, the compliance of activities with legal provisions, or the efficiency of the activities implemented (Hernik, 2018). Without diminishing the importance of these tasks, school management should face the new challenges related to the search for sources of innovation and creativity.

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Common defini!on of the vision and goals of the school as a result of cooperation with the teaching staff and the social environment

Organiza!on of work and task division / nego!a!on

Coordina!on of ac!vi!es for the processes of team learning and crea!vity

Social learning and support for talent development of all members of the school community

Processing informa!on into knowledge

Provision of resources necessary for ac!vity

Developing rela!onships conducive to learning and collabora!on

Coopera!on with stakeholders in order to develop op!mal ac!on strategies

Fig. 5. Implementation of management tasks in the school as a learning organization.

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Educational leadership in a changing school

Stogdill (1974) notes that leadership is both a process and a property. Such an understanding of leadership, on the one hand, focuses on expressing a vision, influencing the achievement of results by others, encouraging cooperation, and pointing to good practices, while on the other hand, it focuses on the professional and personal qualities of those who are perceived as affecting others, that is, leaders. However, in the past, researchers have studied individual elements of leadership with little or no knowledge of where their findings fit into the larger picture of social contexts. As Avery (2009) highlights, leadership “remains elusive and enigmatic, despite years of efforts to develop an intellectually emotionally satisfactory interpretation of leadership.” Differences in understanding and defining this term concern fundamental issues, because they result from different ways of thinking about the essence and tasks of leadership, as well as from the different scientific orientations of researchers. Leadership includes communication (verbal and non-verbal) in which there is coaching, motivating, inspiring, directing, and supporting and advising others. School leadership is the subject of intensified research because of its importance in school development. Researchers of this issue in education have demonstrated the decisive influence of leadership on the effectiveness of the work of the school (Hallinger, Heck, 1999, Boonla, Treputtharat, 2014, Wiyono, 2018). This is an important variable that can contribute to inhibiting or encouraging change in the school, thereby making that change lead to development or stagnation. An indispensable component of leadership is the leadership style. Style here encompasses the general methods of exercising power in a given organization, including exerting influence, making decisions, exercising control over subordinates, evaluating subordinates, communicating with staff, and giving orders. It is essential in inspiring the activity of teachers. Karwowski and Beghetto (2019) suggest that the transformation of creative potential into creative behavior results from a decision dictated by creative awareness and the perceived value of creativity.

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Based on an analysis of the literature on the subject and the results of previous research, an attempt was made to develop a model of the school as a creative learning organization, taking into account the new quality of relations between all actors of change in the school. The argument is based on four theoretical models: the motivational model (Conger and Kanungo, 1988), the model of the school as a learning organization (Potyrała, 2008, Szempruch 2012), the model of creative behavior (Woodman & Schoenfeldt, 1990, Woodman 1993), and the model of educational leadership (Bass & Bass, 2009; Avery, 2009). The approach to leadership over the years was also analyzed, from the theory of characteristics, through the behavioral approach, interactive, and situational theories, to the currently dominant theories of transformational and transactional leadership (Armstrong, 2005, Avery, 2009, Griffin, 2013). The focus was especially on transformational leadership, as this category is fundamental to the emerging model of school transformation. Transformative individuals seek opportunities to act to change the world on some level - in their own way, to make the world a better place; whereas transactional ability is an exchange-based talent - a person identified as gifted with leadership expects something in return for his talents (Sternberg, 2020, Supriadi et al. 2020). As a result, leaders with transactional and transformational abilities have different incentive systems. The characteristics of the leader in the transformational style of leadership were considered to be more significant in the concept of the created school model. According to Sternberg (2021), the aptitude for transformation focuses on positive and significant change, in line with the ACCEL model (active and engaged citizenship and ethical leadership), proposed as a way to make education at all levels more responsive to the needs of the world. The links between the main theoretical areas of importance from the point of view of the model under consideration are shown in Figure 6. The preservation of teachers’ creativity is influenced by various factors, such as organizational creativity and the leadership style of school principals. It was assumed that creativity as a form of creative behavior is interpersonally motivated and is explained by the processes taking place between people through interactions and the mutual influencing of behavior. The idea of creativity is the basis of organizational creativity (Woodman, Sawyer, & Griffin, 1993). However, other complex factors within the creativity of teachers have also been taken into account (Rerke et al., 2020). Organizations, like their communities, are experiencing the COVID-19 crisis. News and social media show how some leaders have failed to protect some organizations and jobs (Dirani, et al. 2020). At the same time, during the pandemic, many teachers introduced didactic innovations (Supriadi, et al. 2020). Research conducted in 2020 shows that the leadership style of heads of school has a positive and significant impact on teachers’ ability to innovate (Supriadi et al.

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Leadership style

Organiza!onal crea!vity

Mo!va!on

Crea!vity of teachers

Own Potential and behavior

Fig. 6. Factors influencing the creativity of teachers.

2020). Before the pandemic, teachers avoided creative ideas in the teaching process rather than looking for them, as has been emphasized in previous studies that were related to the creative behavior of teachers and the development of a leadership style that supports the teacher in their creative activities no matter the circumstances. The effective organization of teaching and learning would make them each more resistant to crises (Starbuck, 2017). In its pedagogical aspect, educational leadership is concerned with the processes of teaching and learning. Its specific goals depend on the context in which the learning takes place, but individual learning remains the primary goal. When talking about educational leadership, it should be remembered that education is a process by which a community of learners is born, thanks to the involvement of the mind, emotions, previous experiences, and sensitivity to the conditions of action and to others, with simultaneous reference to the values accepted by a given community. The pedagogical and educational success of the school depends on the efficiency of the leadership of the head of the school. The educational leadership of the head of the school requires the improvement of competences in this area (Fig. 7). The categories of leadership can be viewed as trait, skill, social relationship, and social process. In the research undertaken, it was assumed to be crucial that leadership is a social process that involves the influence of one person on another or on groups and leads to the achievement of mutually agreed goals (Northouse, 2009, p. 12). It means an orderly sequence of changes, consecutive over time, and consisting in expressing a vision, building a strategy, influencing the achievement of results by others, encouraging cooperation in a team and setting an example, stimulating action, and motivating. While analyzing the directions of research into leadership styles, many classifications were found, but for the

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dialog, cooperation sensitivity to context

appreciating diversity

BBasic competencess of educational leader learning and self development

reflectivity, focusing on values supporting others in their development

Fig. 7. Basic competences of the educational leader.

purposes of the research, the author’s own classification of leadership styles was created (Table 5), guided by the suggestions of various authors (Quin et al., 2020, Goleman, 2017). Table 5. Styles of leadership (author’s own elaboration) Leadership style Goal-Oriented GO People Well-beingOriented PWO CooperationOriented CO

Characteristics goal setting achieving the set goals with the active support of teachers effective communication employee improvement taking care of the well-being of school employees effective communication conflict management taking care of the efficient work environment group decision making cooperating with all actors of the school community, where group members make most of the decisions jointly and are equally responsible – team building – effective communication

– – – – – – – – – –

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Table 5 (Continued) Leadership style Characteristics Procedure-Oriented – excessive enforcement of formal procedures and control of PO subordinate personnel – information management – dealing with information overload – negotiating contracts and obligations Freedom-Oriented – leaving employees almost complete freedom in choosing FO professional goals and how they achieve them – avoiding employee assessments – passivity – accepting change Idea-Oriented – creating ideas IO – effective communication – project management – formulating and communicating visions Directive-Oriented DO

– orientation towards directives – managing the activities of the organization based mainly on coercion and the clearly defined division of tasks for members of the organization – the expectation of subordination of employees – failure to provide criteria for employee evaluation

The potential of educational leadership, unlike leadership in its traditionally understood manner, differs in that it is not related to the charisma of individuals or their authority, but to the organization’s ability (often designed by smaller teams) to increase the participation of its members in decision-making and learning. Thus, through leadership, a learning community is formed (Senge, 2002). Educational leadership brings employees to realize that they have potential and can be successful through learning or teaching. School principals, as leaders, prepare the school to deal with difficult situations, to face current and future challenges. The teacher’s creative behavior is most often analyzed in two spheres: the cognitive and the characterological. The cognitive sphere is determined by intellectual predispositions, and is associated with high sensitivity and perceptiveness. The characterological sphere is created by a set of characterological features which ensure the active realization of the teacher’s potential cognitive abilities. Creative behaviors in the characterological sphere constitute cognitive predispositions that correspond to the personality traits defined as a “nonconformist attitude”. In contrast, “imitative behavior” is defined by dependence, weakness, submission, stiffness, subordination, inhibition, defensiveness, low resistance, and irresponsibility. The set of these features is characterized as “conformist behavior”.

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The leadership framework and competency model are described and examined in terms of their importance to the functioning of principals, teachers, and other environmental / regional leaders (e.g. Schein, 1985; L.M. Spencer, S.M. Spencer, 1993). An example is the KIPP Leadership competency model, based on both experience and research (Knechtel et al., 2015). This model was built in part on the practical experiences of leaders with high scores at all rating levels in both discussions and focus groups. These focus groups validated the model, in part by providing examples of specific key behaviors. The research focused on organization, business, and education and indicated which competences and behaviors are most related to effective leadership, management, and student achievement. These studies helped to prioritize competences and organize key behaviors (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8. KIPP competency model. Source: Knechtel et al., 2015 Source: https://www.kipp.org /wpcontent/uploads/2016/11/KIPP_Leadership_Competency_Model.pdf.

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Contemporary education reform emphasizes the link between leadership and improving the quality of education. International research has consistently reinforced the importance of leadership in delivering and sustaining educational improvement (eg, Hopkins, 2001). It is clear that effective leaders have indirect but powerful effects on school efficiency and student achievement (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2000). Many researchers believe that the impact of leadership on school effectiveness and school improvement is significant. Harris (2004) raises the issue of distributed leadership, which is currently in vogue. Increasingly often in the last few years it has been used in the discourse on school leadership, and now this concept also receives empirical support. Distributed leadership focuses on engaging expert knowledge wherever it exists in the organization, rather than seeking it merely in terms of a formal position or role. Unlike traditional approaches to leadership based on individual governing hierarchical systems and structures, distributed leadership is a feature of collective leadership, where teachers develop their knowledge by working together (Harris, 2004). The diffuse view of leadership, some have suggested, offers a framework for studying leadership practice, including “any person at the entry level acting as a leader in one way or another” (Goleman, 2002, p. 14). This does not mean that ultimately there is no single individual responsible for the organisation’s performance, or that formal management roles have become redundant, but rather that the work of those in official leadership positions is primarily about managing individual elements of the organization in a collaborative effort to be productive. In short, the distribution of leadership equals the maximization of human capacity in an organization, and the distributed perspective focuses on how leadership is distributed among formal and informal leaders. Thus, distributed leadership greatly extends the scope of leadership based on a high level of “teacher engagement” and covers a wide range of “expertise, skills, and input” (Harris & Lambert, 2003, p. 16). The engagement of multiple people in leadership activities stands at the core of distributed action leadership. Researchers argue that leadership is increasingly a driver of change and quality improvement in schools, but methodological limitations have resulted in limited empirical testing of the model. Heck and Halinger (2010, p. 228) developed four assumptions that frame their approach to researching how a leader can contribute to the improvement of school quality: – First, they believe that the practice of leadership requires developing a shared vision of change, and then enabling people to work together to achieve that vision. – Second, school leadership appears to be distributed among different people with different roles, so measurement of that leadership should not be limited to the activities of the principal.

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– Third, leadership should support effective teaching and learning, and build capacity for professional learning and change. – Fourth, leadership that enhances the school’s ability to improve teachers’ instructional skills will positively impact student performance. The next conceptual categories constituting the theoretical basis of the discussed considerations are the creative behavior of teachers. These are closely related to the concept of creativity in education, which have been analyzed by the likes of Runco (2008), Shaheen (2010), Lytton (2012), and Rerke et al. (2020). Runco (2008) seeks to define creativity in literal terms, as thinking or problem solving that involves creating new meanings, and assumes that virtually every person has a mind capable of making their own interpretations. Shaheen (2010) assumes that the educational process must first of all focus on new thinking and creativity for education to have a real impact on society. Lytton (2012) discusses the creative process and nature of different types of creativity. These authors, however, focus more on the creativity of students than teachers. Recent research by Rerke et al. (2020) determined that teachers’ willingness to innovate in their professional activities and the level of their creativity depend on motivation for success, value orientation, and the willingness to take reasonable risks. They also highlighted the internal and external problems teachers face in applying innovation to their work. These external factors include problems of a material and technical nature as well as problems caused by the specificity of pedagogical activity. The internal factors include problems with preparing for creative teaching and a lack of theoretical and practical readiness to innovate. In 1999, research in the field of educational leadership had only just begun to identify certain patterns of effectiveness (Hallinger & Heck, 1999). It was agreed that culture and social conditions shape the institutional context and influence the definition of dominant orientations regarding values and norms of behavior, which in turn influence leadership styles as well as the nature of interactions in the school and its community. Moreover, they impact the specific upbringing by emphasizing the goals that prevail within the cultural education system. In the situation of significant social change in the 2020s, it is important to identify the strengths of leaders in practice and develop other areas that can improve this practice (Gurr, 2020). Some researchers focus on critically assessing the role of school leaders’ leadership in providing flexible and contextually appropriate education during the pandemic. They suggest that heads of school are able to respond most effectively to community needs, and that their professional knowledge and experience should, in the present situation, carry greater weight in the wider education policy (Marshall, Roache, & Moody-Marshall, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic affected educational researchers as school closures interrupted ongoing educational research, with researchers subsequently fo-

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cusing on immediate and future actions they might take to support educational institutions during the pandemic (DeMatthews, 2020). The pandemic caused a sudden shift in teaching, sparking an avalanche of questions about how to make knowledge available to students and the limits of teachers’ creativity. Meanwhile, innovative potential has been recognized as one of the key tools that can contribute to increasing school efficiency, and creativity is seen as an important element in high-quality education (Klaeijsen, Vermeulen, Martens 2017). Teachers’ sense of self-efficacy can influence their creativity in behavioral aspects, as teachers need to take the initiative and have an internal position of control to teach more creatively against a backdrop of system-wide constraints (Cayirdag, 2017). According to a hypothesis put forward by Cayirdag (2017), teachers’ self-efficacy is conducive to their creative behavior, which was confirmed through the demonstration of a positive relationship between the leadership style of school principals (PWO, GO, CO) and teachers’ creative behavior. This was significant in the cognitive and characterological sphere, mainly in the field of non-conformist behavior. However, in practice, the creativity of teachers is under pressure of educational conditions in a given place and time (such as the curriculum, external exams, and during the pandemic the additional demand of transferring education to cyberspace), and supporting creativity may be perceived as a paradox or a luxury (Cayirdag, 2017). The research carried out during the COVID-19 pandemic has shown that in their activities, principals often (more often than before the pandemic) try to obtain the acceptance of the teaching staff through consultation with the staff on matters of importance for the school, which has a positive effect on teachers’ creativity. This style of leadership (democratic style, CO) has in the past had numerous disadvantages attributed to it, and has had little impact on the organizational climate (Goleman, 2017). As Goleman (2017, p. 5) writes, “climate” is not an amorphous term, but refers to the factors that affect the work environment of an organization: the degree to which employees feel free; the possibility of introducing innovations free of bureaucracy; responsibility towards the organization; the level of funds that are available; feedback on the results and relevance of the awards; and clarity about the mission and values of the organization and common goals. All leadership styles have a measurable impact on every aspect of the school climate as a learning organization. Creativity is influenced both by the individual characteristics of school leaders and the creative support environment they foster through their leadership styles. Research by Chang, Chuang, and Bennington (2011) has focused on the relationship between creative teaching and innovative personality traits, school leaders’ behavior, and teachers’ intrinsic motivation. The purpose of this research was to understand the relationship between teachers’ creative behavior and innovation-friendly elements of the organizational climate in schools. The

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spectrum of possible interpretations of the determinants of teachers’ creative behavior was expanded to include their relationship with the leadership style of the head of the school. The results of the research broaden the knowledge about the relationships between the styles of educational leadership of heads of school and the creative behavior of teachers operating in a situation of permanent change. Like other authors conducting research during the social change caused by the pandemic (including Giovannella, Marcello, Donatella, 2020), we see that these reflections may be the first step towards a collective reflection on the possible paths for the development of our educational system. Through the analyses of the theoretical and empirical material, the educational leadership of the head of the school can be seen to have different effects on teachers, depending on the style of leadership adopted. The leadership styles that determine the creative behavior of teachers to the greatest extent were distinguished. The more often school principals apply a democratic management style, share power, create an organizational culture in which new ideas can develop, and inspire employees to be independent and participate in school management, the more often teachers display creative behavior. The leadership style of the head of the school significantly influences the creative behavior of teachers. The more participatory and employee-oriented this style is, the more creative the teachers are. On the other hand, the more often the management style deviates towards directive-oriented and bureaucratic procedure-oriented, the less the teachers are creative and willing to work and develop. The results of the studies analyzed shows that the directors representing the CO / IO and CO / GO leadership styles have the most beneficial influence on the creative behavior of the teachers surveyed. The third style that most favorably influences the teachers surveyed with creative behavior is the PWO / FO style. Directors with the DO and PO style turned out to be creativity inhibitors, that is, people who suppressed the creative behavior of teachers. The results of the analyses also show the relationship between the educational leadership of the head of the school and inspiring employees to be independent and share power with those leaders. The more principals present leadership styles similar to the democratic style, the more they inspire teachers to be independent and to take actions delegated by their supervisor. The style that most determines the creative behavior of teaching staff in the characterological sphere is the CO / IO style (teachers show nonconformist behavior). A director who uses the DO / PWO style inspires teachers the least frequently to engage in creative behavior in the characterological sphere. Considering the results concerning the cognitive sphere, teachers with heuristic and algorithmic behaviors were indicated. The styles that most influenced creative behavior in the cognitive sphere are CO and PWO / IO.

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The creative behavior of teachers is a prerequisite for effective didactic and educational work in an unpredictable and non-transparent world. This kind of behavior is also indispensable in the situation of the COVID-19 crisis, during which online education was introduced. The creative behavior of teachers has made it possible for them to become open to new tasks and the qualitatively new needs of students, their parents, and the school’s social environment. As these behaviors are related to the educational leadership of the head of the school, it is important to foster those leadership styles that inspire teachers to be creative. The rapid changes in schools resulting from the introduction of remote education in connection with the COVID-19 pandemic led to the dissemination of information and communication technologies among teachers and students. They are also associated with changes in social communication, as well as lifestyle and organizational patterns. These changes undermine traditional ways of organizing schools, and are relevant considerations in the context of the leadership styles of the head of the school as analyzed in this article, which exert a strong influence on the creative behavior of teachers. These management styles, which in the present situation have a negative impact on teachers’ creative behavior, are particularly uncomfortable. Since school management at the present time relies on remote communication to a much greater extent than before the pandemic, there are many new challenges that significantly affect how school procedures are agreed to and implemented, as well as the course of the didactic and educational process itself. The leadership styles that have a positive impact on the creative behavior of teachers are vitally important but they require further strengthening. These styles find their expression in the non-standard and pro-development effectiveness of actions. During the rapid transition of schools to remote education, for which neither teachers nor students were sufficiently prepared, it is on the creative behavior of teachers that effective action rests. The creativity is also associated with auto-creative behaviors. The development of the creativity of both the teacher and their students that is inspired by the beneficial leadership styles of the head of the school is valuable from the point of view of the needs of the school as a learning organization and from the point of view of modern civilization. The creative behavior of teachers involving problem-solving skills, independent thinking, and coping with problem situations are currently one of the main transformational stimuli of the school and its social environment. Jerry Patterson (1993, p. 7), in presenting the vision of modern schools, highlights several values that are present in the context of school management. Among these are distinguished: 1. openness to participation – appreciating teachers actively participating in any discussions or decisions that concern them;

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2. openness to diversity – appreciating the diversity of perspectives leading to understanding the school reality and increasing the knowledge which is the basis for making decisions; 3. openness to conflict – appreciating teachers who resolve a conflict in a way that helps to find better solutions to complex problems; 4. openness to reflection – appreciating teachers who reflect in order to come to better decisions; 5. openness to mistakes – appreciating teachers who admit and learn from their mistakes. It is important to realize the need for links both within the school and without, not only with parents, local communities, and schools, but also with companies and enterprises that are becoming an integral part of open learning systems. New links between the school and parallel life and education as well as the significant transformations to the school’s functions and tasks are expected. These relationships should be strengthened and applied to the creation, dissemination, and use of professional knowledge. Actions that influence educational change in the area of the educational leadership of principals that inspire the creative behavior of teachers should concern: 1. Changes in the direction of thinking about the school as a learning and improving organization. 2. The role of the principal as a leader focused on the creative behavior of teachers, cooperation, and critical thinking for all the entities included in the learning organization. 3. Changes in the direction of thinking about the teacher and educating teachers about creative behavior. 4. Improving and supporting the behavior of creative teachers towards the basic needs of a changing society. 5. Supporting principals in improving their educational leadership. 6. Strengthening the cooperation of the school with other educational entities and the school environment. Due to the location of their position in the organizational structure and the scope of their decision-making powers, the head of the school is an important factor in transforming the school into a learning organization. Their attitude to learning, i. e. a private philosophy of educational activities with its daily practice in managerial situations, is essential. The involvement of the head of the school in the process of transforming the school into a learning organization is a precondition for the success of these activities, as they must be included in every aspect of the institution’s work – its structures and operating procedures, social climate, and culture.

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Development of the school towards a learning organization

Development means moving to a better state. The definitions of development show its other aspects, from which it follows that the essence of development is a change that enlarges, expands, multiplies, differentiates, and increases the complexity of what is undergoing development (Szymczak 1995, p. 123). It is a process leading to improvement in some respect, which may be manifested in bringing order to a multitude of elements, aspects or components, but it can also be a simplification or even removal of an aspect to harmonize and increase the qualitative values of the system. School development is approached holistically. For the overall development of the school, both the personal and professional development of employees and the development of the school understood as a specific organizational whole – a learning and improvement organization – are important. Wenger (1998, p. 95) argues that while we are all members of different communities of practice, learning in these communities requires three basic processes: 1. the evolution of the form of mutual involvement; 2. mutual understanding; 3. the development of a repertoire of discourse styles. Power is the foundation of success in the community of practice. According to Wenger, a community of practice should create its own understanding of a shared institution, allowing members of that community to control the program. For professional learning to take place in this context, this control should not be a form of accountability or performance management. Wenger (1998) argues that “negotiating a joint institution / organization / enterprise creates a relationship of mutual responsibility between the actors involved” (p. 81), therefore it may promote a greater capacity for transformative practice than it would otherwise allow. It is argued that while communities of practice have the potential to serve the indiscriminate preservation of the dominant discourses, under certain conditions they can also act as places of transformation where the sum of individual knowledge and experience is greatly enhanced through collective efforts.

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Wenger’s thesis is founded on social learning theory, which states that learning in a community of practice occurs as a result of community interaction, not just planned learning episodes such as courses (Kennedy, 2005). Depending on the role of the individual as part of a larger team, learning in such a community can be a positive and proactive or passive experience in which the collective wisdom of dominant group members shapes the understanding and roles of others (ibid.). What Kennedy (2005) describes as the “transformational model” includes a combination of many processes and conditions. The main feature of this model is the combination of practices and conditions that support the transformation agenda. In this sense, it may be argued that the transformational model is not a clearly definable model; rather, it recognizes the range of different conditions required for transformational practice. Hoban (2002) presents an interesting understanding of this concept as a means of supporting educational change, by making comparisons and suggesting that what is really needed is not a quantum leap towards contextual models for teacher improvement, but a balance between these types of models and transmission-oriented models. The concept of the evolution of the school towards a learning organization is also associated with a conceptual approach to the curriculum so that its content is understandable to students and creates an opportunity for social cooperation. This is closely related to an important feature of learning organizations: the individual motivation of the student and the motivation of those who build social dialogue about the goals of education. These objectives should be understood in sufficient detail to allow ready assessment. Such an opportunity is provided by the operationalization of educational goals: the conditions and standards of performance in accordance with various standards of requirements and in accordance with the needs of the students. The students should have a clear picture of what they are striving for and be ready to change their ideas and attitudes accordingly. The school as a learning organization should be adapted to the general model of such an institution; however, due to its specific goals, it should be subject to slightly different processes. The perception of the school by the local community, parents, students, and institutions cooperating with the school is important here. A decision is needed on processes that might strengthen subject knowledge and the knowledge of learning processes. They must generate changes in learning approaches and teaching content. A conducive atmosphere is essential in tackling such challenges, and is an appropriate didactic base and support for continuous professional development, understood as freedom to research how to use knowledge resources creatively. The evolution of the school towards a learning organization can increase the distance from the traditional curriculum and the traditional role of the teacher in the educational process. At some point, schools

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may start to follow their own paths due to the ideas they generate. Monitoring these paths is imperative. Just as students learn from each other, learning organizations must make full use of the experiences of others (Potyrała, 2017). Teachers should have frequent contact with each other and with other schools, and students must have access to their teachers and to learning material. Free access to educational materials, information flow, and the comparative assessment of effects are a priority. As members of the strategic planning committee, students should help define future goals and identify ways to achieve them through instruction, communication, technology, and strategies. Monitoring the paths of the development of the school as a learning organization should be combined with a broader reflection on all aspects of the functioning of the school, and thus with research carried out by teachers themselves. ˇ ervinkova and Bogusława Educational research in action, described by Hana C Gołe˛bniak (2013), is commonly referred to as a means of stimulating the professional development of teachers. This approach is based on the premise that knowledge takes its starting point from practical issues and is a cyclical, dynamic, and collaborative process in which participants deal with issues affecting their work practice with the aim of improving that practice. Action research is referred to here as ‘research and development’ because the term involves research and development being carried out at the same time. Moreover, the term reflects the fact that research is carried out within the framework of activity theory and the expansive area of learning. Proposals to educate a teacher, for example a teacher researcher conducting educational research on his own practical activities (action research), who also becomes a participant in educational events, their creator and a competent observer (Szempruch, 2016, p. 40), are not a new matter, as evidenced by the 1970 article cited by Szempruch (2016, p. 40) entitled Three dilemmas of action research (Rapoport, 1970, p. 499). Action research derives primarily from the Science in Education movement in the United States of the late nineteenth century. They were formalized by the psychologist Kurt Lewin in the 1940s as the main method in the study of group dynamics. In mid-1940, Lewin and his associates conducted research projects in various social environments (Eng, Dholakia, 2019). The psychologist began his research with observations of real life, and from these observations sought to connect the problems, whether large and long-term or small and temporary, with his theory. Rather than examining a single variable in a complex system, Lewin preferred to consider the entire system in its natural environment (Marsick & Gephart, 2003). In the following decades, action research developed within organizations, especially in the United States, in the traditions of industrial democracy in Scandinavia, and in the socio-technical work of the Tavistock Institute in Great Britain (Eng and Dholakia, 2019; Coghlan, 2004). Epistemological and meth-

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odological pluralism is the basic structure of research in action as “self-conscious” based on cooperation, participation, and the democratic process and as a multidimensional strategy for social change (Greenwood and Levin, 2011, p. 1; Brydon-Miller et al., 2003). Action research is part of reflective practice. A reflective practitioner is a person who thinks about what they are currently doing. They reflect on their functioning, and therefore the structure of their beliefs, which define their own way of thinking and acting. This works through self-reflection and the feedback that follows. Donald Schön, the creator of the concept of the reflective practitioner, believes that the teacher should update professional situation on an ongoing basis and be a researcher of their own practice (Schön, 1983). The essence of educational change is learning, and research conducted by teachers is one way to learn because it engages the teacher in exploring and solving real and important practical problems. Moreover, conducting research enables in-depth reflection. The expansion of learning in the modern world and the development of the public sector offer the opportunity to leave the circle of tradition and situate thinking about the development of schools and teachers in a different space. In the English-language context, basic approaches to teacher professionalism emerge under the slogan “teachers of the 21st century”. Some are a kind of “modernization” of the application of the new professionalism from the last century and are oriented towards equipping teachers with tools and techniques of operation, while others are an approach focused on teacher learning. This connection of autonomous learning with a wide range of practical skills is discussed by Judith Sachs, who argues: “The current situation is one of those where change is constantly present and the ability to manage it and understand is probably a critical (key) competence of teachers. The ability to learn “from” and “with” colleagues/students is the focal point of [this competence]. Building relationships and developing trust between stakeholders also guarantees that it can be achieved” (Sachs, 2003, p. 18). Thus, the development of the teacher is integrated into the development of the school and is related to shared learning. An active approach to the future is the development of planning, which is a creative and systemic approach to changes and becomes one of the basic functions of management. This provides a way to change the school from the inside according to the drives, ideas, and intellectual, emotional and organizational possibilities of the people who create it and the challenges of the environment. This can then lead to a discussion on the future of a particular school and the goals it should achieve, and it can also become a stimulus for teachers to reflect on their own future and on the goals and tasks they set for themselves. Creating a vision, or predicting the future, is a complicated process, both at the scale of the school and the wider system of education. It requires not only creative

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imagination and the ability to synthesize, but also knowledge from which the trends can be derived that affect the vision of the future, both on the micro scale, when it comes to the vision of the school, and on the macro scale, when it comes to the vision of the system of education. The system of transformation of the school towards a learning organization concerns those (teachers, students, parents, members of the school community) who participate in the process of change (“to be”), develop ways of thinking (“know”), and build strategic partnerships. They are motivated and able to learn (Fig. 9). Education must be constantly adapted to new needs, be conducive to improving independent learning and represent a significant step towards supporting students in their search for an appropriate form of self-education (Potyrała, 2008). Informa!on exchange inside and outside the organiza!on

To be

Knowledge of the learning process

To learn

Open system Feedback Socio-cultural implica!ons

Monitoring of changes in learning and behavior

To share

To know

Searching for new ways to achieve goals

To work Mo!va!on individual and organiza!onal

Fig. 9. System of school transformation towards a learning organization.

The development of the school may also concern some aspects of functioning, concerning the everyday life of the school and its relationship with society (according to Potyrała, Czerwiec, Studnicki, 2020): 1. professional learning (discussion on the relationship between theory and practice, personal processes related to various forms of teacher learning,

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teacher training models) – the main goal of this research was to understand the processes by which teachers change under the influence of reflection and narrative (analysis of needs, problems, change processes and their effectiveness, beliefs and the introduction of new practices reflecting commitment to research, self-evaluation or reflective school), and tools for vocational training, especially in the field of new technologies; 2. beginner teachers (various aspects related to mentoring – identity formation during the process, training mentor teachers, identity formation at the beginning of a teaching career, best practice and the use of tools such as electronic journals; induction as well as comparisons between novices and experienced teachers); 3. effectiveness of professional development (beliefs and practices, student learning and teacher satisfaction, concerns about the school socialization of novice teachers); 4. mediation through collaborative (partnerships, collaborative networks) or informal contexts (workplace interactions) that facilitate learning and encourage teachers to change or strengthen their teaching and educational practice; 5. school-university partnerships (teacher as researcher, career development prospects, spaces for collaborative work and contributions, links between university research centers and schools); 6. the teacher (sharing of practice in achieving learning goals, teacher teams, community of practice and learning community, peer coaching, impact of collaborative networks on teacher importance and identity, efficiency of teamwork focused on collecting data and solving problems, studying community cases, changes in beliefs and practices, collaboration in mixed cultural situations, development of the learning community); 7. workplace learning (professional development taking place formally or informally in schools, conditions and factors influencing professional development, readiness and commitment, distance learning, the effectiveness of professional development); 8. school cultures (ethos and social environment of the school – traditions, beliefs, functioning of administrative and organizational structures and their interaction in order to facilitate the work of teachers, comparative studies of schools in different locations, involvement in the exchange of pedagogical practices and educational goals); 9. research on three areas of teacher cognition: ideological (norms, values), empirical (interactions between phenomena) and technical (methods), expectations regarding students’ achievements; 10. learner learning (effectiveness of the learning community in improving the quality of teaching and learner achievement, tailoring teaching to the in-

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dividual needs of learners, learner perception and self-awareness, improving curriculum understanding, and self-efficacy); 11. specific problems (dilemmas, conflicts, and circumstances limiting the effectiveness of the educational process; preparation of “expert teachers” in the face of professional pressure and discrepancies between the motives of professional educational participants and those responsible for this process); 12. teacher professional development (ways of teaching teachers; new elements of educational efforts; reflecting educational efforts in changes in cognition, beliefs, and practices; learning and development in the school environment and its culture; educational systems, politics, and professional life; role mediation on the quality of learning; networking and the use of specific teaching tools as sources of self-analysis and change; opportunities and limits for teachers’ professional development; volunteering and sharing of views; ‘reflection’ in the research cycle); 13. mediation (sharing ideas and experiences; active participation in projects or awareness of problems that require solutions; relationship between professors and teachers; collaborative learning as a factor in changing practices and improving students’ learning ; classroom meetings and observations; and classroom artifacts) (Avalos, 2011). These areas of interest in the school as an institution focused on community, mediation, and learning remain very relevant. The teacher should know that the source of building the teaching authority on the transmitting-receiving model has been exhausted irretrievably. Nowadays, it is much more important to base professional authority on the planning and implementation by teachers of the process of reaching knowledge by shaping students’ ability to ask questions and understand phenomena, as well as making students aware that everyday thinking and superficial cognition do not exist. A situation arises here in which both the scholar and the teacher should be open to the phenomena of unexpected dynamics and empirical evidence, because the aim of today’s education is to foster thinking and prepare the student to pose their own questions, and cognitive reflection in the independent exploration of cognitive values. The development of the school is part of the process of change. Every aspect of the work of the school can be changed. The choice of solution to an existing problem at school depends on how change is perceived. The change can be interpreted as: 1. playing for influence; 2. a rational process; 3. improving “human resources”; 4. learning; 5. a natural process.

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The perception of change affects how that change is understood. Change may refer to an effect – reaching something (e. g. developing and adopting a school development program for implementation) and the very process of changing, i. e. inquiry (e. g. providing support to teachers as they introduce pedagogical innovations). Treating change as a process makes it a learning situation in the individual, team, and organizational dimensions. Change is a non-linear process, which means that: – individual elements are not always closely related to each other; – elements often overlap; – it is difficult to determine the order of elements; – sometimes several elements may occur simultaneously; – it may be necessary to move forward or withdraw from certain activities; – the overall picture of the change should be taken into account (Elsner, 2005, pp. 20–25) Therefore, the process of change cannot be organized into a single, fixed sequence of proceedings. The planning of development is about creating the future, so the question of what that future is becomes fundamentally important. Is it a continuation of the present or something qualitatively different? Due to the different understandings of the future, two different approaches to the future can be indicated: extrapolation and anticipation (Szempruch, 2007). Extrapolation is the prediction of trends in development based on the phenomena, processes, or events of the past and present, and with the assumption that the future is a continuation of today. Programs can be designed on the basis of known facts, accumulated experience, and prior successes and failures. The consequence of extrapolative thinking is the creation of development based on the collected data of past experiences, successes and failures, and today’s strengths and weaknesses. Anticipation is the recognition of the discontinuity between what is happening now and what will happen in the future; the assumption that future phenomena, processes, and events will be fundamentally different from those in the present. This approach is conducive to the use of the imagination and creative abilities, breaking away from current limitations, and moving one’s thoughts to the future. The result of anticipatory thinking is the creation of a vision of the future to match our desires and dreams. This can then be related to the actual, present conditions of the school and its surroundings. The process of planning the tasks related to the development of the school can be reduced to six basic issues, the questions shown in Figure 10. These questions (Fig. 10) – depending on the needs – can be modified, and thus the number of points of the star can be changed. The question star tech-

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What?

When?

Who?

What for? How?

Where?

Fig. 10. Illustration of the questioning technique (Source: D. Elsner, Jak planowac´ rozwój placówki os´wiatowej? Teoria i praktyka, Mentor, Chorzów 20030. – what for?: justification, relates to the goal or objectives that we intend to achieve, and thus the effects of the action; – what?: what is to be done or changed; – who?: the persons responsible for implementing the change, main and secondary contractors; – how?: strategy, change plan, methods, techniques, methods of operation; – when?: schedule, specifies the dates, sets the time of task completion; –where?: action locations, conditions.

nique, with its possible modifications, can easily be adapted to the needs of each school. Educational opportunities, especially new learning models, are now having an impact on education and society as a whole, thanks in part to the availability of new technology. The 21st century began with a paradigm shift in the approach to online education. Online learning is no longer peripheral or complementary, but an integral part of mainstream education in society. This paradigm shift in education has resulted in new ways of implementing the educational process, new fields of study, new principles of learning, new learning processes, and new educational roles and entities (Bozkurt et al., 2015). A frequently discussed issue is the change in the culture of participation and social participation, mostly based on the potential of new information and communication technologies. Digital technologies have changed the relationship between the students themselves, the students and their teachers, the students and their parents, and between the parents and the teachers. Communication between the teacher and the student must follow the development of new com-

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munication channels in an atmosphere of trust and openness to changes (Potyrała, 2019). An important area of research is the use of mobile devices available to students (smartphones) in the teaching process and the effectiveness of this type of technology in the context of learning outcomes. André Giordan emphasized in 2018 that new technologies enable students to collaborate in the publication and development of digital content in order to implement educational projects and to interact via instant messaging (Potyrała, 2019). The effective functioning of families, schools, and educational systems is sensitive to the requirements of public policies at the community, national, and international level and must be subject to monitoring and research on effective support (Power, 2000, p. 162). Research on the social functioning of values (axiology) is one of the most difficult to undertake. Values are an element of culture, their continuation therefore being an expression of the identity and continuity of existence of a specific type of society (Szyman´ski, 1998, p. 152). As Mirosław Szyman´ski writes, the rapid social change that took place in Poland caused a modification to the social system of values. As early as 20 years ago, the research conducted by Szyman´ski (1998, p. 158) showed that the world of students’ values differs too greatly – and unfavorably – from teachers’ values. On the other hand, teachers, although they are noble, seem somewhat not to sense or internalize the spirit of the present times, in which the words “market”, “competition”, “politics”, and “money” are mentioned – perhaps – more often than “society”, “friendship”, or “democracy”. Such issues provide fertile ground for undertaking and conducting research. The development of the school depends to a large extent on what society is like. Today it can be said that ours is a knowledge-based information society. The assumptions for the construction of such a society were included in the resolution of the Senate of the Republic of Poland of July 14, 2000 on building the foundations of the information society in Poland, and the resolution of the Senate of the Republic of Poland of January 16, 2003 on the necessary measures to prepare Poland for entry into the Global Information Society. The constitutive features of the knowledge-based information society are development and education, which has more evidently become a continuous process, dependent on existing knowledge resources. The features of this knowledge are global reach, strong dynamics, and the social and multi-subject conditions for its creation and assimilation. Therefore, for education to take up the challenges of the 21st century and lead to the construction of societies that will recognize and respect the principle of competitiveness, it must become more open to innovation than ever before, and show persistence in striving to constantly develop the knowledge and skills of the citizenry.

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When shaping the general vision of the future school, it is worth considering several assumptions. 1. People should be provided with the conditions for learning according to their own drives and abilities in every period of their life – from the earliest years to old age. Thus, the traditional division of human life into periods of play, study, and work becomes less valid. 2. Students should be provided with the widest possible stock of enduring knowledge and operational skills, and should develop the need and habit of lifelong learning. 3. It is necessary to thoroughly identify the talents shown by each student and to provide the conditions and means to enable their optimal development, because every person carries within themselves talents that the school should reveal and develop. 4. An important factor that determines the level of the didactic and educational work of the school is the teacher, their knowledge, and their pedagogical qualifications, therefore they should be provided with the optimal conditions for education, training, and improvement, as well as the benefits that are commensurate with their position. 5. The school as the main educational institution should cooperate more closely with other educational and upbringing institutions, with this being related to the expansion of its care and diagnostic tasks, and be sensitive to social changes that generate change processes in the school. 6. In the process of education, the school should cooperate closely with the parents of the student for the integral development of all spheres of their personality. 7. The new school, as a learning and improvement organization, should become a place of shaping the competences of the future among its educational entities. These competences are necessary for an individual functioning in the society of the 21st century and are a factor in the development of this society (Szempruch 2012). Taking these assumptions into account and ensuring the necessary funds for implementation of changes should lead to the construction of a school in which the educational opportunities of children will be more equal, the impact of outof-school educational institutions on children and adolescents will increase, the forms of distance education will be expanded, and education will start to be treated as a form of investment and a source of one’s fullest personal and social development. New links between the school and parallel life and education, the multiplicity of educational tasks, and the qualitative and quantitative changes constitute the

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particular complexity of activities aimed at shaping the model of the future school in practice. It has also been found that the key to success is the unification of strategies at different levels of the school system: central, regional / district, school, and class. It is necessary to look for opportunities to move from improvement to transformation (Dinham et al. 2011). The key role of the institutional leader has previously been explored, but there is also an urgent need to strengthen the voice of the student, in line with the thesis that “students are not the problem, they are part of the solution” (Beattie, 2012). Learning to coexist is still one of the challenges faced by current educational systems, especially in the context of the risk of social exclusion for some groups and individuals. Of great importance is the development of activities that promote the integration of students, based on the experience of each member of the educational community and with a deep belief in the need to transform the school into an educational space created in the spirit of democracy (Grau, Garca-Raga, Lpez-Martn, 2016). Four areas were found to be key to transformational best practice for the school: multi-dimensional leadership, positive atmosphere and support, extensive use of ICT in school activities, and a culture of acquiring and sharing knowledge and skills. The social, emotional, and ethical well-being of students as well as the high commitment and support of parents were considered to be extremely important (Waheed et al. 2018). Revolutionary changes in the collection, processing, and use of information using modern techniques and technologies, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, are associated with significant transformations of the functions of the school. Changes to the school should restore its rank as an institution of social utility and make it a place where the real needs of individuals and social groups are met. The development of the school is related to how it learns. In the seventies the term “organizational learning” began to be used. This was the first step towards the popular thesis that not only is it people who learn, but organizations too (Faure, 1982; Bratnicki, 1983). In the literature on the subject, many definitions of the concept of a learning organization can be found. According to Senge, learning organizations are those that are capable of self-knowledge, understanding their problems, and self-improvement, that can simply learn from both their mistakes and successes. (Senge, 1998, p. 12). This is to be achieved by five disciplines or conditions, the fulfillment of which allows an institution to be transformed into a learning organization. These are: 1. The personal mastery of its members, treated as their inner need for selfdevelopment and lifelong learning.

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2. The readiness of these people to question their own mental models – deeply entrenched beliefs, ideas, stereotypes, generalizations that create their own view of the world, and which often stand in the way of development. 3. A shared vision of the organization they want to create, with which they identify and therefore towards whose realization they work. 4. Team learning in the members of the organization, that is, the existence of a free flow of thoughts between those members, leading to greater inquisitiveness, penetrating the issue, analyzing it, and achieving increased acuity in their perception of matters. 5. Systemic thinking – this is holistic thinking that allows one to see the relationships and interdependencies between individual elements of the organization, as well as between it and the environment. It means looking at the broader context and the whole school, not just individual people or things, seeing yourself related to others, and being aware of the consequences of your own actions. Senge considers systemic thinking as the most important element of a learning organization: “The core of a learning organization is a change of mindset – a shift from seeing oneself as separate from the world, to being one with the world, from perceiving problems as caused by someone or something else to perceiving that our own actions create the problems we experience” (Senge, 1998, p. 25).

Nancy Dixon’s definition of the learning organization is helpful in understanding the transformation of an institution into a learning organization, according to which a learning organization is one that consciously uses learning processes at the individual, group, and system levels to constantly transform the organization so as to increase the satisfaction of its beneficiaries (Pedler, Aspinwall, 1999, p. 23). The beneficiaries of the school are those who derive different benefits from the school’s existence. It is a term with a broader meaning than that of client, a term that is already commonly used in education today. The beneficiary may include both employees and clients, but also professional partners and members of the local community; at school, the beneficiaries are mostly students, but the term encompasses their parents, employees of other educational institutions, employers, and so forth. From Dixon’s definition, the message is that transforming a school into a learning organization should benefit the community in which that school works. Regardless of the definitions relating to the organization in general, there are also definitions that relate exclusively to the school. According to David Hopkins, the learning school is:

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“A professional learning community whose members jointly define students’ learning goals, develop a coherent curriculum, establish a corresponding assessment system and develop ongoing plans for improving the learning process – a learning that allows students to integrate the acquired knowledge with the new” (Hopkins, 1996).

The term ‘learning professional community’ applies to the three disciplines defined by Senge: personal mastery, thought models, and team learning. In turn, the joint definition of goals, program, and evaluation system is related to the creation of a shared vision. On the other hand, integrating acquired knowledge with the new is a manifestation of system thinking, and the emphasis on students’ learning can be read as a reference to the beneficiaries mentioned by Dixon. There are also other definitions; a learning organization can be briefly described as one that continuously expands its possibilities in order to create its own future. The basic pillars of a learning organization are easy, simple, and rapid communication, continuous learning (from one’s own mistakes as well as from experience), collecting databases and case studies, openness to new ideas, creativity, appreciation of independence and the courage to take responsibility, tolerance and trust, and the search for new solutions. Descriptions of the learning organization can be found in the management literature. These descriptions present organizations as able to adapt to changes in the external environment by practicing the continual renewal of their structures and practices. The many relationships that exist between learning organizations suggest that the path to becoming a learning organization is often experimental, and particularly focused around team processes organized into non-hierarchical clusters that operate in virtual time and space via electronic networks. For many managers, such a radical image can be daunting due to the expectations of constant experimentation, innovative human resources, programs, radical changes in structure, and large amounts of information. Learning organizations, however, are willing and able to test and improve their mental models and behavioral procedures (Wishart et al., 1996). The term ‘learning organization’ can be given to any school that supports the learning of its members and thus is constantly self-perfecting. Self-improvement that results in the entire school community learning is a continuous process, inscribed in the structure of the school and its operating procedures, and not simply something undertaken from case to case. School improvement procedures are designed in such a way that they offer everyone the opportunity to be involved in the process of learning and changing for the better. In the process of self-improvement, learning and doing are integrated, which means that the school learns by doing and acts while learning. People who learn by acting are supported by the recognition of their right to err, experiment, and seek knowledge. The knowledge and skills they acquire are immediately implemented into

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practice and subsequently verified, resulting in a state of constant correction, modification, and improvement. Each entity within the school possesses the conditions to participate in the process of learning and thus develop its potential, thanks to which everyone can join the stream of transformations and be able to contribute to their occurrence. In the school, the value of reflective knowledge, dialogue, and the analysis of one’s own and others’ experiences is recognized. The school should learn because learning is one of its fundamental goals and its core activity. That is why the school is predestined to be a learning organization. It is the subjects who feel the need to change, who want to take the trouble to learn something new and put it into practice, to decide on the improvement and learning of the school. Learning schools are able to find themselves in the current of social changes. In this way, they will be able to prepare students for life in the times to come, so that these students can meet the challenges of the future. A school that learns and thus constantly improves has a chance to initiate and stimulate positive changes in the immediate environment. Learning requires a positive attitude and one’s own activity, therefore a learning organization can only be created by learners, i. e. those who can change their professional behavior for the better and, consequently, improve the quality of school work. The canvas for the learning process can be constructed by practice – the school reality experienced every day, because it is “stuck” in pedagogical, psychological, sociological and organizational problems. These problems should be recognized and treated as learning situations. It is also beneficial to learn from the experiences of those who work within the learning organization. The application of learning by doing is possible when carrying out larger projects, such as implementing innovation, or when teachers research and reflect on their own practice. Reflection is a thought process, a deeper consideration of what has been done, is being done, or is going to be done. It is an integral part of learning and in a learning organization it must be undertaken consistently, not occasionally. Everyone learns in a learning school, regardless of their position in the organizational structure. This statement broadens the circle of entities to include administrative and service employees, students, and parents. Everyone can transform the school into a learning organization, but the inspiration for change belongs to the employees and is often related to the quality of the educational leadership of the head of the school. Joint action poses challenges for teachers, students, parents, and the school environment, all of whom should seek ways to improve the school through open dialogue, creating a climate conducive to change and a culture of cooperation. The practices of dialogue and discussion require the use of two-way social communication in interpersonal contacts, which is supported by the ability to

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listen. The use of two-way social communication should lead to the activation of those who are usually or often silent. Refraining from speaking does not necessarily reflect a a lack of opinion, but may find its explanation in the shyness or nervousness of the individual. The quality of the processes of internal communication in an organization has often been mentioned as a key element of successful innovation (Bouwen, Fry, 1991). Bouwen and Fry compared the features of different innovation models (Table 6). Table 6. Comparison of the features of selected innovation models (after Bouwen, Fry, 1991, modified) Compared features The role of the leader

Model based Expert model on power An authority A person who has exfigure with acpert knowledge cess to resources

Characteristics of the process

Imposed or declared change

The basis for making decisions Criterion of effectiveness

Strongly dominated criteria and interests Rapid technical and financial results Limiting the possibility of change

Patterns of action The learning effect of the organization Circumstances in which it can work

Compliant and passive community Crisis situation

Stages of problem solving or rational information processing Rational criteria

Learning-based model Coach, a person who facilitates the knowledge acquisition process Facilitating confrontation, bilateral, cognitive emotional restructuring Consultation and validation by consensus

Rational achievements Common sense effects with common meaning Linear process, step by Experimenting, evaluatstep ing, questioning, learning cycle Supervised cognitive learning

Communication and orientation to correct data

New situation structure

Interdependence necessary to achieve goals

Source: according to Bouwen, Fry, (1991). Organizational innovation and learning: Four patterns of dialog between the dominant logic and the new logic. International Studies of Management & Organization, 21(4), 37–51.

An action strategy based on a power model may be appropriate if there are no clear expectations of learning and when implementation is not dependent on any significant change to current practice. It can probably be expected that this strategy of action will emerge in crisis situations and when there is, for example, a serious shortage of time. This approach appears often and emerges from an authoritarian, dominant logic. The logic of innovation is very often different. The

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difficulties for an authoritarian organization to innovate can readily be understood. The evolution of a school towards a learning organization has to do with a conceptual approach to the curriculum so that its content is meaningful to students and creates an opportunity for social interaction. This is closely related to an important feature of learning organizations, i. e. the individual motivation of students and the motivation of those who are building a social dialogue on the goals of education. These goals must be understood in sufficient detail and in a realistic manner to allow a simple way of evaluating the degree of their achievement. Such an opportunity is created by the operationalization of learning objectives and the conditions and standards of implementation in accordance with various standards and the needs of learners. Members of a learning organization must be aware that the end goal requires difficulties to be broken down into smaller parts; the achievement of the goal is a long-term and multi-stage process. The individual stages are the next stages of development. The students should have a clear picture of what they are striving for and be ready to change their ideas and attitudes. The school as a learning organization should therefore conform to the general model of this type of organization, but due to its own specific goals it should undergo slightly different processes. It requires the involvement of the director, who should make daily managerial situations the subject of regular reflection and thus seek feedback, especially on intended actions, ensuring that if improvements are possible they are considered before a decision is made. This also requires supporting employees in improving their qualifications around the performance of specific tasks, and using coaching, which consists of increasing the quality of the institution’s operation by supporting the development of employees and providing them with individual assistance in implementing new solutions in the conditions of that specific institution (Elsner, Knafel , 2000, pp. 134–142). It is also important to include the school community in the development process of the institution – in joint learning and change for the better of the entire organization. There are several reasons for this: – it is a good lesson in systemic thinking – perceiving the school as a whole, and not only through the prism of either one’s own or narrowly understood interests. – it contributes to changing deeply held beliefs – about oneself, about the school, about learning – that would otherwise obstruct development. – it influences the emergence of two-way communication: dialogue and discussion. – it leads to –the agreed assignation of shared meanings to concepts. – it creates a sense of community between the different groups of people that make up the school.

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– it teaches cooperation and the experiences of its benefits. – it creates a sense of agency as development becomes a “common thing”, and also integrates educational entities, as a result of which the school becomes something held in common. – it minimizes or eliminates resistance to change. Including members of the school community in the development process requires a change in the way the school is managed, and the participation of members of the school community in the development management process. This means delegating to those members the performance of certain managerial tasks, in particular delegating decision-making powers to subordinate personnel in a manner similar to that described in the previous chapter. This is related to the principal’s withdrawal from influence over certain matters for the benefit of employees, students, and parents. In this way, more individuals are given the opportunity to act independently and decide on their own matters, to reflect on the work they do, and, consequently, to learn. This means for the head of the school engaging not only in participatory management, but also deliberately depriving oneself of influence on certain issues, i. e. de-influencing. Deinfluentization is a fundamental managerial ability, consisting in the manager’s conscious deprivation of their own influence when doing so is conducive to the effectiveness of the organization (Koz˙usznik, 2002, p. 165). An element of the art of management is therefore balancing the principal’s own activity with the commitment of members of the school community. An overactive principal may result in the passivity of others. In the development of the school into a learning organization, an important role is played by the social environment in which the school operates. Szeloch (1987, part II, pp. 22–24) distinguishes between two aspects of those environments: 1. conditions: political and legal, social, cultural, economic, scientific, and regulatory; 2. institutions: other educational institutions and educational authorities, as well as institutions and organizations not related to the education system. Both the conditions in which the school operates and the institutions with which it has various ties can either stimulate school learning or hinder or inhibit it. The most important conditions are legal (tendencies towards decentralization of educational management and school autonomy), social (especially the climate for innovative activities), and cultural (professed values, norms, and procedures adopted in a given community). Institutions with partner social arrangements are also important.

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The way the school is perceived by the environment, the students’ parents, and the institutions cooperating with the school is important. The processes of change concern various issues; for example, they may start from changing the core curriculum, through programs, recently formulated educational goals, and end with new procedures for achieving the goals of the school. This “school turmoil” must, however, be socially acceptable. It is important to inform stakeholders about changes and gather feedback on innovative ideas. For this purpose, it is possible to refer to the interests of the parents of students, their own school achievements, and the impact of school education on the choice of professional path. At the outset, a decision is also needed on the types of processes that can be used to strengthen the subject knowledge base and knowledge of the learning processes. Knowledge must generate changes in the approach to learning and the approach to learning content. To meet such challenges, an appropriately positive climate is needed. This means the selection of an appropriate didactic base and support for continuous professional development, along with properly understood scientific or research freedom for the creative use of knowledge resources. The evolution of the school towards a learning organization may distance the school significantly from traditional curricula and the traditional role of the teacher in the educational process. To some extent, “learning schools” may start to follow their own path in relation to the ideas they have generated. These paths need to be monitored. Just as learners learn from each other, learning organizations must make full use of their experiences. Teachers should be in frequent contact with each other, and schools and students should have access to teaching materials used in the classroom. Therefore, the priority is free access to educational materials, to information flow, and to a comparative evaluation of the effects of the changes implemented. As members of the “strategic planning committee”, it is the students who should help define future goals and identify ways to achieve them through instruction, communication methods, technologies, and strategies. Employee / student management in a learning / school organization should focus on encouraging individual development. For example: – Find out what is personally significant to you; – Find out when you accept the ambitious goals; – Go through a gradual development (development is a process); – Learn in your own way; – Construct new knowledge by deconstructing old knowledge; – Learn through social interactions; – Ask for feedback; – Develop and apply your own learning strategies; – Learn in a positive emotional climate;

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– Obtain information from the environment intentionally and unintentionally (Brandt, 2003). Organizational learning occurs when people within an organization experience a problematic situation and look for solutions consistent with the mission of this organization. The most important factor in the success of the concept of transforming a school into a learning organization is the willingness of students to share their knowledge. For example, the non-regular learning of science content can be transformed into a desire for lifelong learning. This requires access to information and focusing attention on all learners, not simply those who excel. This does not mean, however, that to implement the idea of a learning organization it is enough to improve the skills used in working with a student. New solutions result from a variety of approaches and contexts and are related to: – an incentive structure that encourages adaptation; – challenges, but also with the achievement of common goals; – collecting and processing information in the manner best suited to the purposes; – institutional knowledge base and processes for generating new ideas; – exchanging information with relevant external sources; – continuous improvement of basic processes; – organizational culture; – sensitivity to “open systems” from the external environment (social, political, economic) (Brandt, 2003). The school as a learning organization should make the best use of the knowledge potential of teachers, support them, and mobilize them to “seek knowledge of new solutions” in order to create, modify, and transfer knowledge. A feature of this organization is also teamwork, creating knowledge structures, mobilizing to learn, and offering the student the chance to select a method of knowledge acquisition that fits best with their individual learning style. American researchers argue that the role of the school is to create an environment in which learning takes place. It should therefore make appropriate use of three main components: – learners’ interests and passions, – imagination (it is essential for students to ask their own questions, rather than to simply respond to the teacher’s questions), – overcoming the limitations faced by the learner. Thomas and Brown argue that in the new learning culture, the role of the teacher is to create contexts, not to convey content, and the learner draws from the teacher’s actions what the teacher needs or seems to need in a given context.

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New challenges require new forms of school organization, as well as new content, new teaching methods, and new forms of evaluation. Change implies an increased awareness of how knowledge is produced, transformed, and used in schools and in daily life. Teachers are specialists at imparting knowledge, but less used to reflecting on how to proactively transform the content of education, mediate, negotiate meanings, and support students in learning. In addition, teacher education institutions themselves often have ingrained patterns that do not change readily on contact with new knowledge, for example on the recommendations of research into education. In the knowledge economy, students should learn to learn, and manage their own learning, which presupposes a new form of curriculum designed to support lifelong learning. This approach implies a linear model: first there is the production or creation of knowledge, followed by its transformation, transfer, dissemination, and active acquisition, and finally knowledge is used. However, the model is not limited to one form. There are many forms of knowledge diffusion, for example through the media, training, lessons, and personal contact with a mediator, to list but a few. On the other hand, the nature of the context, a lack of input knowledge, gaps in cognitive structures or cognitive conflicts, the involvement of actors and organizations, or the communication process may all hinder the dissemination of knowledge and its subsequent use. Learning in a school as a learning organization requires dialogue and discussion, the kind of interpersonal communication typical of partner (horizontal) social systems. To stimulate learning at school, it is also beneficial to seek cooperative relationships with other organizations that possess the following features: – an absence of hierarchy, – domination of horizontal social systems, – two-way interpersonal communication, – voluntary affiliation resulting from individual motives, – rotational (alternating) management, – a minimum degree of formalization, – great flexibility in operation. In practical terms, this means creating new links between the school and life, parallel education, and other institutions, organizing learning networks and creating the right conditions for schools to create their own future. The changes in the school discussed in this chapter have led to its transformation into a learning organization, one that is strongly connected with other institutions and institutions within the educating society, open to innovation, team learning, and team skills, all of which are of great importance in the knowledge society. The concept of a learning organization requires re-observing

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the rules that influence the pace of learning, such as internal procedures, the way of organization, and the use of appropriate structures, as well as the coexistence of personal mastery, thought models, a common vision of the future created by past visions of organization members, and their involvement, team learning and systemic thinking (Senge, 2003, Szempruch, 2012, 2021b). An important issue in these changes is the humanization of the school, understood as providing its subjects with comprehensive personality development through the use of methods that will ensure this development and will be humanitarian in nature, as well as preparing learners to join the learning society by not only developing pragmatic competences, but also by educating their intellectual and moral culture.

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7.

A model of the transformation of the modern school

In a constantly changing society, educational change is inevitable. In the literature of the typology of change, one can find many terms relating to this phenomenon, e. g. radical, gradual, adaptive, and new-torso. There is also a division into first, second, and third degree changes (Van Dongen, De Laat & Maas, 1996). A first degree change is no more than a technical improvement; a second degree change is adaptive; while a third degree change involves the adoption of a new paradigm. This concerns not only the transformation of current practice, but most of all deeply entrenched beliefs. Each type of change requires a different approach and different strategies. Reitsma and Van Empel (2004) suggest two approaches, planned and developmental, and four strategies for change, which are imposing, selling, negotiating, and learning. Change that results in natural, long-term, and sustainable development is a complex process. The way in which the change occurs is not linear, but gradually developing from the inside (from school practice) to the outside, while being energized by impulses in the opposite direction, from the outside to the inside. Although the principal and management team play a major role in creating a school’s ability to change, sustainable development can only be achieved if many people, regardless of their position, contribute to it. Building the school’s ability to change is manifested through the creation of a strong learning environment within the school and promoting innovative independence. It is also important to build coherence of actions related to sharing common values and cooperation between individual members of the school community, conducted in an atmosphere of respect and trust. In any period of constant change, innovations are in profusion; choosing between them requires recognition, the use of appropriate actions, and creativity. Elkhonon Goldberg (2018, p. 26) states: “Novelty is inextricably linked with creativity, the most precious and at the same time the most mysterious gift of the human mind, which is the engine of progress.”

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The basic theoretical assumption is that learning is a participatory process of transformation in which both adults and young people provide support and direction for collaborative endeavors. Rogoff, Matusov & White (1996) argue that learning occurs in all situations, but that it involves students’ different relationships to information and its use in socio-cultural activities. This view is based on a theoretical perspective of participatory transformation, which takes as a central premise the idea that learning and development occur when people participate in the socio-cultural activities of their community, changing their understanding, roles, and responsibilities during participation. The transformation of the school implies that the head of the school can no longer be the sole decision maker and holder of power. School leaders need to collaborate more and come to democratic arrangements with teachers and others to respond to the diverse needs of students. Teachers themselves are also sometimes leaders. This position manifests itself in activities that involve the wider school community and leads to the generation of ideas that will enhance the quality of life of the community in the long term (Beachum & Dentith, 2004). Beachum and Dentith (2004) invite the following questions: – How do teachers perceive their roles as leaders? – Could the new arrangements be effective in eradicating traditional thinking about school management and transforming schools into learning communities? – How does teacher leadership change the nature of the work of the teacher? – What is teacher leadership like? – Can such practices bring more participatory democratic practices to the school? The recent rapid shift from traditional education to crisis education has had huge consequences for pedagogy and professionalism during the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond. Despite the significant challenges faced by teachers, policy makers, school principals, students, and their families, the pandemic has presented an excellent opportunity to rethink the future of education. Distance learning has had a huge impact on children’s social practices, including home and cultural activities. When practices become common to all groups, they are called collective practices (Popyk, 2021 as cited in Welch, 2016). The collective practices of children are shaped by their daily activities and group activities organized in educational institutions, and temporarily the school ceased to be a place for constructing new experiences with the home instead becoming the space for new practices (Popyk, 2021). The key to transformative change will be schools’ focus on their professional capital and finding ways to develop teachers’ individual knowledge and skills, fostering effective collaborative networks involving parents

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and the wider school community, and ultimately involving teachers in decisionmaking and communication (Hollweck & Doucet, 2020). Transformational leadership practices may prove to be key. The transformational model is comprehensive as it provides a normative approach to school leadership that focuses primarily on the process that leaders work towards. When transformative leadership is effective, it can involve all stakeholders in achieving educational goals. When “transformation” is a cloak under which the leader’s values are imposed or government recommendations are implemented, the process is political rather than truly transformative (Bush & Glover, 2014). Research on transformational leaders shows that their strongest attributes include creating a vision, gathering people around its implementation, inspiring and motivating to act, creating a mission, breaking stereotypes, and introducing changes necessary to close the gap between the vision (the state of imagined) and the current state (as it stands). Transformation is nothing more than change on a large scale, introduced effectively even under conditions of difficulty. When justifying the proposed concept of the school as a learning organization, it should be remembered that the idea of lifelong learning has been within the sphere of interest of European international agendas for a long time. In 1995, a White Paper of the European Commission entitled Teaching and Learning – on the way to a learning society was presented. In the introduction, the authors highlight three main reasons for the creation of the document: the development of a new type of society known as the information society, the internationalization of economic relations, and scientific and technological progress. It is worth noting that in the White Paper the concept of lifelong learning is seen as closely related to the economy and the labor market. Particular emphasis is placed on the development of competences as a condition for economic development. It is also pointed out that professions and qualifications are becoming more flexible, and the separation between general education and vocational training is getting smaller (Biała Ksie˛ga … 1997). In the years 2000–2002, the principles underlying the creation of the European area of lifelong learning (LLL) were developed across several documents of the European Commission and the Council of the European Union. The main goals of creating the European LLL area include facilitating the free movement of learners and working people, facilitating the transfer of qualifications and their renewal and improvement, and promoting creativity and innovation (Potyrała, 2017).

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A model for the transformation of the school towards a learning organization Based on a review of the literature and the results of research on the functioning of the school in the conditions of social change, a model of educational change concerning the management of the school in the changing conditions of its functioning was developed. This model considers the individual, group, and institutional level (organizational level) as well as the influence of the environment on the organization and various external factors on the individual. All levels are susceptible to the influence of the leader (in this case, the school principal) who exhibits a certain leadership style and is motivated to implement transformational processes for the development of the school, achieving creative results thanks to the skills of all of the actors involved in social change at the level of the learning organization (Fig. 11–14). Figure 11 shows a general diagram of the relationship between social change and the development of the school as a learning organization. The individual elements of the model create a network based on cooperation, participation, and reflective practice. Figure 12 shows the factors that influence the transformation of the school at the individual, group, and organizational level. These are motivation, leadership style, creative behavior, accepted conditions, conceptual influences, personal skills, group skills, and organizational-level skills. Figure 13 shows the concept of transformational leadership in the context of the transformation of the school. Figure 14 shows a diagram of the transformation of participation as a fundamental component of organizational change and improvement. Social change leadership professional development

Leader individual

group

environment organiza!on

culture

communication

Differences between existing and ideal school as a learning organization culture

innovations

problems’ identification

Methods’ improvement at the subculture level

dialogue

4C: crea!vity, cri!cal thinking, coopera!on, communica!on

Results of creativity Learning organiza!on / School’s new culture

Fig. 11. General diagram of the relationship between social change and the development of the school as a learning organization.

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One of the most desirable means of solving social dilemmas is communication. Individuals are in constant communication with each other. Through communication, they initiate, maintain, and change their interpersonal relationships. They also define their social situation, roles, and tasks (Ne˛cki, 2000). It is well known that communication strengthens cooperation in solving social dilemmas. The development of a learning organization is associated with the need to improve teachers’ competences in this area. These include relational competences (which relate to building relationships with parents of students, for instance), communicative competences (which relate to the ability to communicate with respect, openness, positivity, and reciprocity), and with regard to reacting in specific situations related to interactions between students. These are the competences necessary for cooperation with students and the external environment of the school. This cooperation reveals the need for competences at different levels in school. These competencies can be divided into collective and individual competences, and competences can be identified that can ensure a high level of quality of cooperation with the parents of students. These competences can be defined as collective or as school standards for fruitful cooperation with the parents of students. The school principal plays an important role in developing such school standards and competences for collaboration with parents. The absence of the abovementioned competences generally results in poor cooperation (Westergård, 2013).

Leader M 4

M

5

group

individual

C

L

1

C

M

environment

organiza!on

2

C

M

3

Results of crea!vity Fig. 12. Factors influencing the transformation of the school at the individual, group, and organizational level. Legend: M–motivation, P – leadership style, K – creative behavior, 1 – personal skills, 2 – group skills, 3 – skills at the organizational level, 4 – accepted conditions, 5 – conceptual influences.

A good school needs good leaders and, in addition, participatory leadership that is dispersed throughout the organization. This is a pre-condition for commitment to change and leads to such statements as: our innovation, our design, our

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mo!va!ng ac!ve par!cipa!on

intellectual s!mula!on

knowledge of individual needs

searching for new opportuni!es for ac!on

promo!ng crea!ve behavior

Transforma!onal leader

focus on posi!ve and significant change

Fig. 13. The concept of transformational leadership.

reform; we will do whatever it takes to make it work. If those involved in the change do not consider themselves as partners but as opponents, any consultation will lead to antagonism and opposition. The authentic improvement of the work of the school is possible only if management, teachers, students, and parents treat each other in partnership. The concept of positive interdependence includes such things as the offer of emotional support between the school head, teachers, non-teaching staff, and students, and taking shared responsibility for students’ progress. However, it must be borne in mind that diversity, conflict, and resistance are to some extent inevitable in a culture of cooperation. The social climate of the school is one factor that can support or hinder cooperation and collaborative learning. Learning is the construction of knowledge in interaction with others (Schollaert, 2006). “Because basic educational needs are complex and diverse, meeting them requires multi-sectoral strategies and activities that are an integral part of overall development efforts. Many partners must come together in this joint action, education authorities, teachers, and other educational staff if this is to be seen as a responsibility of society as a whole. This implies the active involvement of a wide range of partners” (WCE-FA, 1990 a, p. 4) (Fig. 12). Issues related to a participatory approach to the development of a learning organization are based on a number of assumptions that should be considered: 1. Participation is a “good” in and of itself. The process of making decisions, and then making decisions based on these decisions, benefits individuals, communities, and society as a whole. 2. Participation has become a necessity, if not a sufficient aspect of development.

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passive par!cipa!on

ac!ve par!cipa!on

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Testing different ways of par!cipa!on

Transforma!on of par!cipa!on

par!cipa!on irrelevant to change

Realitychanging par!cipa!on

Fig. 14. Diagram of the transformation of participation as a basic component in the change and improvement of the organization.

3. Participation and collaboration are not a panacea. They cannot solve all problems and should not replace serious, systematic, public attempts to plan, manage, and finance education more effectively. Participatory and collaborative approaches depend on the social, cultural, and political context. What works in one country may not work in another. This approach cannot be treated as a prescription to be implemented in every region of the country or of the world in the same way. Rather, the approach should be viewed as the collection of mechanisms, procedures, and activities that can lead to a higher degree of participation in education at local, national, and global levels. A more participatory approach to development begins with the assumption that sustainable development ultimately depends on empowering people, and the ability of individuals and groups to improve their own lives and take greater control of their own destiny. This assumption may seem obvious, but is quite radical in implication. A participatory approach to development represents a significant change in the governance process, social relations, and participation (Shaeffer, 1994). The main elements of the model of the transformation of the school in relation to the theoretical assumptions are presented in Table 7.

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Elements of Key assumptions Theoretical background the model Transformational The ACCEL model recognizes the lack of transformation of leaders as Sternberg, 2017, 2020 leadership the greatest problem in our society. Teachers talk about leader development, they need wise leaders who will serve people, not those who expect to be served. Leadership, as defined here, is about the perspective of a positive, meaningful, and lasting difference in relation to the existing world on some level. This level can be the family, community, state. It is common in the literature on leadership to distinguish between two types of leadership, the transformational and the transactional. Transformational leadership is a leadership style where leaders inspire, encourage, and motivate colleagues to innovate and create positive change as well as shape a positive future for the organization or entity for which the leader is responsible. Transformational leadership requires a very high team effort in which, by motivating employees, the leader achieves both organizational and personal benefits for the community. The transformation leader is a positive role model and sets an example for others. Transactional leadership, on the other hand, is a leadership system that achieves results through rewards and punishments. It follows the pattern of “something for something”: “You will do X for me, and I will do Y for you.” In this case, the leader operates a complex reinforcement system to reward those who help achieve set goals and punish those who do not. Therefore, in principle, in building a learning community, one must move away from the model in which transactional leaders perceive everything individually as a transaction. A person endowed with transformational abilities seeks to achieve something for the common good.

Table 7. Key assumptions of the school transformation model

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Elements of the model Active participation

Table 7 (Continued)

There are four forms of participation: – Nominal participation to show “top-down” interests calling for legitimacy of decisions, while “bottom-up” interests await inclusion; – instrumental participation aimed at specific achievements. Interests representing the “top-down” can be consulted with local or “lower level” needs; – The participation of “lower level” representatives can give “grassroots” interests a “say” in the decision-making process. For “top-down” interests, this can lead to better decisions and hence more sustainable and effective outcomes; – participation in change is both a means and an end. Both the “topdown” and “bottom-up” interests of all of the actors, the goal is to empower each beneficiary.

The literature on participatory development points to the appropriate purpose of participation as ensuring the transformation of existing development practice, and more radically, social relations, institutional practices that cause social problems and exclusion.

Key assumptions Tisdall, 2013; Busck et al. 2008

Theoretical background

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Elements of the model

Table 7 (Continued)

Tisdall (2013) seeks to consider the factors required for institutions to make changes, concluding with the following requirements: 1. People need more than an invitation to participate: they need to recognize themselves as citizens, rather than beneficiaries or customers. 2. Structures are not enough. The motivations of the actors of social change can compete and constantly negotiate. 3. Three factors are essential to change: the involvement of a wide range of actors, the involvement of officials, and the integration of institutional projects. 4. Participation is a process over time and must run parallel in other institutions, within its own social, cultural, and historical context. The transformation of participation is understood as a change towards participation based on the mutual recognition of needs and goals and readiness to change, where activity is not perceived as a means of protecting individual and collective interests, but as a necessity on the path to the development and improvement of the organization.

The last form of participation was considered the best in terms of school transformation.

Key assumptions

Theoretical background

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Elements of the model Management of knowledge

Table 7 (Continued) Theoretical background Knowledge management in a learning society, OECD 2000, Center for Research on Education and Innovation “School as a learning organization A chance for the ambitious” (Elsner, ed. 2003); Davenport, Grover, 2001.

Key assumptions

Knowledge management means the ability to multiply, use, and improve knowledge, thus achieving better results at the individual, group, and organizational level. Knowledge about the school and its surroundings is created as a result of processes taking place in the institution, both basic (didactic, educational and care) and auxiliary (e. g. quality measurement, development planning, self-assessment). This knowledge should be systematically collected, analyzed, and employed. The process of knowledge management is performed through the use of both information technology and creative thinking techniques. The dissemination of knowledge is facilitated by technology, but the main factor conditioning access to information and the dissemination of theoretical knowledge remain networks of interpersonal connections, because publishing in electronic form does not result in the recipient’s automatic understanding of the content. The importance of team learning and team skills over and above the skills and learning of the individual is emphasized. Knowledge is the basic input needed to innovate, and skills and competences develop as they are used.

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Reflective practice

Elements of the model

Table 7 (Continued) Theoretical background

Technology can help with knowledge management, but of greater importance is the development of knowledge-driven cultures, motivating individuals to share and use knowledge, and encouraging employees to view their work in terms of effective knowledge management. The need to develop a “culture of knowledge” relates to content management, which includes the sharing, distribution, and exploitation of knowledge. Organizational culture is shaped and strengthened through interrelated elements: strategy, structure, people, and processes. Schools can make deliberate changes to the structure that stimulates learning by creating structures and placing greater emphasis on interrelationships, codifying learning, and raising awareness among staff. The tendency to reflect may have different dynamics and be related to Johnston, 2017 the preferences in learning about reality, and thus with individual learning style. Reflection can be achieved by obtaining feedback about one’s own actions. Regular self-assessment is also a form of reflection. This can be done by gathering information about one’s own professional activities, issuing value judgments about those activities, and searching for ways to change for the better. Another form of reflecting on professional activities, as well as on the functioning of an organization, is “research in action”.

Key assumptions

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Elements of the model Creative behavior

Table 7 (Continued) Theoretical background

Different creative situations and creative behaviors interact to pro- Chang et al. 2018 mote creative actions and creative outcomes. The creative input of employees precedes the generation of creative ideas as part of the necessary transformation process. This input affects individuals, groups, and organizations and is a key element of innovation. Moreover, the creative contribution includes various elements of creativity, including creative processes and behaviors related to the application of ready-made tools and products, including intellectual ones. The result of creative behavior may be specific products, but also creativity at the organizational level and the implementation of innovations. Design Solutions puts the creation of new ideas, also known as idea creativity, first. Research has shown that people tend to avoid creative ideas rather than seek them out, and there have been numerous reports of creative limitations not supported by motivation at the group and organizational level.

Key assumptions

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Elements of the model Collaboration network

Table 7 (Continued)

V. Hall, 1988 The network consists of people who talk to each other, and share views, information, and resources. As a result, attention is often paid to the fact that the network is more of an organized activity than an entity. According to Valerie Hall, a good network is one that meets the following requirements: a) it arises when the time is “ripe” for it; b) it has the support of the authorities, but does not itself appoint the authorities; c) its members have common interests; d) there is a balance between what these members give and what they take; e) it has clearly stated operational objectives; f) it responds flexibly to the needs of its members; g) it receives financial and administrative support; h) it has an established way of communicating among members; i) it is able to interact without conflict with other networks; j) its members are enthusiasts who inspire themselves and others to act, and coordinate the implementation of tasks; k) it can remain a relatively small organization or divide (e. g. into several specialized networks) when it grows too large; l) it works openly; m) it regularly analyzes members’ needs and checks that they are being met; n) it undertakes activities at a time and place convenient for its members; o) it is open to accepting new people, treating this as a situation conducive to bringing a refreshing spirit to teamwork and inspiring the creation of new ideas.

Key assumptions

Theoretical background

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The ability of the school to respond to changing conditions and trends in the educational environment is essential to the success of that school (Gandolfi, 2006). The importance of this model comes from strong links and dialogue with the community, as well as the importance of visionary leadership, strategic planning, systemic thinking and acting, and human resource development. According to Acker-Hocevar (1996), these characteristics are considered essential for establishing the school as a learning organization. The model of the transformation of the school includes the features and competences of the creative leader in a learning school, among which a special place is occupied by strategic thinking, teamwork, respecting the model of a learning school in management, communication and negotiation skills, creativity and innovation, the ability to apply regulations from educational law, personnel management towards the development of creative competences, the ability to deal with difficulties, and react appropriately to success. The proposed model is oriented towards the creative behavior of teachers, but it also creatively engages other educational entities, i. e. students, their parents, and staff and specialists employed in the school. It also emerges from its social environment, creating the conditions for the development of a creative intellectual culture and educational responsibility in the environment of the school’s functioning, thus influencing the social perception of the school. In this model of understanding, the head of the school and the teachers alternately assume the position of leaders, creating jointly the culture of the school perceived as a learning and improvement organization. This school is oriented towards the creative development of all its educational entities in line with Lamri et al. (2018), and the 4C competences, i. e. creativity, communication, critical thinking, and cooperation, are the basis for the development of a conscious inclusive society. There are two legitimate career paths for all teachers: the “Expert Path” and the “Leader Path”. The latter with its suggestion of leadership should not be confused with management positions in school administration. Rather, it is professional leadership through which the teacher builds a network based on a culture of professional learning and knowledge-sharing. The school needs teachers with a variety of talents and strengths. By looking at the competency profiles of individual teachers, the school can strategically plan its teacher development activities to meet the developmental needs of the school. The school should create professional development opportunities that match the aspirations and development of teachers at different stages of their careers. The elements of educational professionalism are not acquired holistically through study, but must be developed throughout life. These elements focus on aspects of professional identity (self-awareness, self-esteem, and effectiveness) and key competences (ability to act and collaborate effectively, social and emotional intelligence, and communication skills).

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To develop this model, reference can be made to various theories: social learning theory (Bandura), cognitive identity theory (Markus, Cantor, Kihlstrom), and humanistic psychology (Rogers). It is important to construct practice so that it relates to the professional career of teachers along with basic pedagogical and psychological concepts, and to combine theoretical foundations with practice focused on human interactions with the social environment and philosophical trends in reflection on man. Czerniawska and Dolata (2005, pp. 123–133) emphasize the importance of values in human functioning: they allow the definition of desirable and undesirable goals and means of action, thus becoming standards of conduct. Analyses of career paths in education indicate that personal goals often increase teachers’ organizational achievements, and managers begin to create their own concept of management effectiveness. If, however, knowledge and skills could only be acquired through direct experience and intuition, the process of human development would be significantly delayed, not to mention extremely tedious, costly, and unsafe. Simply convincing people of the effectiveness of an action determines their level of motivation. The stronger people’s belief in their own abilities, the greater and more persistent their efforts are (Bandura, 1988). Many activities are aimed at future results. Suggested approaches are most welcome to assist with the achievement of results in the future through the adoption of specific goals and the assessment of. Goals have strong motivational effects, provide a sense of direction, and raise and sustain the level of effort necessary for their achievement. Without standards against which to measure the results of their actions, people have little basis on which to judge how they are managing a situation or to judge their own abilities. The achievement of ambitious goals limits complacency and increases interest in what you are doing. Goals achieve beneficial effects when they serve as challenges and not as burdensome obligations (Wood & Bandura, 1989). In a learning organization, employees should be prepared to explore their assumptions about themselves and their surroundings. Therefore, learning organizations need to do more than just acquire new knowledge. Managers are required to unlearn old practices that are no longer useful and to discard ways of processing experiences that have worked in the past. As a consequence of these activities, there is a “collective examination of the processes, assumptions and certainties that made up everyday experience”, which is defined as dialogue (Gandolfi, 2006). A well-planned change in school management is related to the appropriacy of its initiation. In order for change to begin, many necessary actions are required, including analyzing, balancing, concentrating, planning, communicating, and mobilizing.

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Analyzing means the recognition of the reality of the problem by those whose behavior requires alteration, mainly principals or educational leaders and teachers. Their behavioral changes will have an impact on other educational entities. The changes themselves concern beliefs and practices relating to the educational process, school management and the division of powers, cooperation and interpersonal relations, and intra-school policy. The second step in the initiation of the process of change, i. e. making an inventory of available resources, especially human resources. Listing the available expertise, as well as other resources necessary to implement the change, will help to reveal how feasible the task is. The next step is to concentrate change efforts and define the desired outcome, and at this stage it becomes important to inform stakeholders about the forthcoming changes. Communication is an interactive process, during which not only is one’s own point of view made more concrete, but it also enters into other people’s reasoning, not forgetting about the hidden transmission of information accompanying the words themselves. All stakeholders should know what is happening and why, and social communication can be seen as essential. For this reason, communication requires special attention throughout the process of transformation of the school. It is also necessary to mobilize the people who will lead the change, and their readiness to learn. They should demonstrate leadership qualities which are necessary to guide action, motivate and inspire others, and consolidate the actions taken. The next step is to change the management of the school. This can only be considered as correctly implemented if the new behaviors become the daily practice of the school. It is also important to consolidate development, which requires simultaneous actions on two levels: the school and the education system. This means consolidating the benefits and incorporating new behaviors (Fig. 15) into existing rules and practices, and preventing a return to the previous state. Schools are currently facing new and diverse challenges which they are outside of their direct control but which nonetheless influence their functioning. Some are universal, others regional. The proposed model of the transformation of school management tis related to the transformation of the mental models of its subjects and the development of 21st century competences.

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Fig. 15. The main elements of the model of the transformation of the school towards a learning organization – “incorporating new behaviors”.

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8.

Competences of the future in the society of the 21st century

The need to transform the school in the context of social changes is associated with the main directions of activities that should take place in the processes of teaching and developing competences of the future in the society of the 21st century. These activities are based on the belief that the near future will require a completely different set of skills and competences for people to function effectively in the private, professional, and public spheres, and to responsibly create the conditions for their lives and activities. This speaks to the need to introduce changes in schools and the organization of such education that will meet the socio-economic needs of learners and society in the 21st century. These changes should consider the many challenges and factors of the development of the school analyzed in the previous chapters of this volume, as well as the innovative concept of literacy. This is related to the ability of learners to apply knowledge and skills in key thematic areas and to analyze, understand, and communicate effectively, as well as solve problems in various common and problematic situations. Literacy of this type is also relevant for lifelong learning. Therefore, actions are necessary that will allow for a fuller and better use of the potential of the school and its surroundings in preparing individuals and social groups to function in the conditions of change. Functioning in today’s constantly changing and unpredictable conditions is a great challenge. In order to successfully adapt to the current living conditions, the abilities to adapt and learn quickly, as well as the possession of many other competences, are necessary. The effect of the work of the school, supported by non-formal and informal education, should be to prepare a person for an autonomous and responsible life and for achieving life success, which depends on a much wider range of competences than in the recent past. Competence is the basis of subjective involvement in the world, and can be defined as a subjective potential that depends on many factors, including the internal context and, as it refers to the ability to perform an action, depends furthermore on the external context. There is often overlap of the two contexts.

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The issue of competences is discussed on many levels by various specialists and world institutions. The European Commission (Cedefop, 2008) defines a skill as the performance of tasks and solving problems, while a competence is the ability to apply learning outcomes appropriately in a specific context (education, work, and personal or professional development). Competence is not limited to cognitive elements but is also about functional aspects (including technical skills), as well as interpersonal characteristics (e.g. social or organizational skills) and ethical values. Competence is therefore a broader concept that may in fact encompass skills as well as attitudes and knowledge. Note that the terms are sometimes used interchangeably or with slightly different definitions in different countries and languages; in the present volume the decision was made to include both (Ananiadou & Claro, 2009). Different cultural contexts influence the understanding of competences (Cseh, 2003), and this is especially important with regard to the extent to which competences are defined by cultural skills as opposed to demonstrable behavior (such as achievement). Elkin (1990) links competencies with work performance at the micro level and with higher management attributes defined as “competences of the future”. The difficulties in using competency as an overarching term and as a specific term, according to Dooley et al. (2004, p. 317) result from the construction of the concept of competence, which is itself a subset of terms. Competences are the result of learning. They include knowledge, skills, and social competences often equated with attitudes (Kwiatkowski, 2018, pp. 16, 21; Szempruch, 2013). Tucholska understands competences as “the scope of someone’s knowledge, powers and responsibility as well as the level of skills. The broad scope of the term “competences” determines its interdisciplinary character. It is used in various scientific disciplines and takes on more and more semantic aspects” (Tucholska, 2007, p. 53). They are referred to primarily in psychology, but also in sociology, management sciences, communication sciences, economics, administration, labor pedagogy, and even philosophy. Many specialists representing disciplines such as sociology, pedagogy, philosophy, psychology, and economics have attempted to define the concept of competence. The Council of Europe defines the term competence as an amalgamation of knowledge, skills, and attitudes, knowledge being made up of facts and figures, concepts, ideas, and theories that are already well-established and help to understand a specific field or issue; skills are defined as the ability to carry out processes and use existing knowledge to achieve results; attitudes describe the willingness and propensity to act or respond to ideas, people, or situations. Urszula Jeruszka (2016) distinguishes several types of competences: 1. objective and subjective – a division according to the objective or subjective approach to the assessment of the ability to perform tasks;

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2. vocational and non-professional – a division according to suitability for initiating and performing professional work or for non-professional work; 3. specific and transferable – a division according to the degree of universality or specificity of given competences; 4. soft and hard – a division according to use; 5. personal and social - a division according to whether the application is down to the individual or appears only in social interaction; 6. managerial. The above typology is an attempt to organize the various types of competences, although the borders between them are not always clear, and the criteria for their division are not always strict. From the point of view of the topic under consideration, an important category is the competences of the future, which change with the development of the world. The question arises: What competences are currently considered essential for a person to be successful in life? The answer to this question is not obvious, because different competences are necessary to perform different tasks in different spheres of personal, professional, and social activity, and these also change over time. There are also different approaches to consider, according to different methodologies and models. For example, the competences expected in the 20th century by the IFTF, – the Institute for the Future of the University of Phoenix, in the labor market, concerned: 1. Sense-making: the ability to discover but also to give a deeper meaning to what we want to express. 2. Social intelligence: the ability to communicate in a simple and direct way, as well as to enter into interpersonal relationships. 3. Novel and Adaptive thinking: proficiency in problem-solving, coming up with solutions and answers that go beyond the scheme. The Future Work Skills 2020 report (Davies, Fidler, Gorbi, 2011), published ten years ago by IFTF, on future professional skills, identified key professional skills that were predicted to be needed in the following decade. These are significantly different to those presented in the previous report: 1. Sense-making (the ability to define and give a deeper meaning) 2. Social intelligence 3. Novel and adaptive thinking 4. Cross-cultural competency 5. Computational thinking (the ability to process large amounts of data) 6. New-media literacy 7. Transdisciplinarity – (multidisciplinarity or multitasking) 8. Design mindset

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9. Cognitive load management (shared responsibility in management) 10. Virtual collaboration (cooperation using technology) Slightly different competences of the future are indicated by Robert Eichinger, Michael Lombardo and Cara Capretta in the book FYI for Learning Agility (2010). They include: 1. People agility - openness to experiences, diversity and different opinions, selfawareness, understanding others, and readiness to perform many roles at the same time, dealing with conflicts, and excellent communication skills. 2. Mental agility - curiosity, dealing with ambiguity and complex problems at the same time, questioning the status quo, and looking for solutions. 3. Results agility - achieving goals, determination, flexibility and adaptation to circumstances / opportunities, and impact. 4. Change agility - experimenting, taking up challenges, taking responsibility and serving obligations, and looking for new approaches to old problems. On the other hand, MIT Solan Management Review Polska points to three main competences of employees of the future: 1. social: cooperation with others, emotional intelligence, people management, entrepreneurship; 2. cognitive: critical thinking, creativity, cognitive flexibility, complex problem solving; 3. technical: basic digital competences, advanced digital competences, engineering competences1. This general overview of the expected professional competences is sufficient to show the need to transform the school towards a learning organization, as was proposed in chapter 7 of this monograph. It also justifies the need for changes in human education towards the development of future competences. In our deliberations here, we will not refer to professional competences, but instead focus on showing the competences developed in the context of humanities education. In a changing world, key competences take on particular importance. There is no universal definition of the concept of key competences. Specific definitions are conditioned by their cultural and linguistic context, as well as by the field of knowledge represented by their authors. Regardless of the differences in the conceptualization and interpretation of the term, most experts agree that in order for the term “competences” to deserve the epithet “key”, “main” or “basic”, it must mean something important and beneficial. for the individual and society, 1 https://szkolenia.certes.pl/kompetencje-wg-modeli-kompetencyjnych/ (accessed: 22.04.2021).

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it means something that enables the individual to integrate successfully with various social groups, while maintaining independence and the ability to act efficiently in both familiar and unfamiliar surroundings. However, since the environment is changing, key competences should also enable the constant updating of knowledge and skills, updating to keep pace with the rapid development of civilization. On May 22, 2018, the Council of the European Union recommended that Member States support, strengthen, and develop key competences from an early age and throughout life, among all individuals, as part of their national learning strategies. The recommendation highlighted the changing competency requirements in connection with the growing number of jobs subject to automation, the increasingly important role of technology in all areas of work and life, and the increasing importance of social, civic, and entrepreneurial competences to ensure resilience and the ability to adapt to change. The term key competences in the provisions of the Council mean those competences that everyone needs for self-fulfillment and personal development, employment, social inclusion, sustainable lifestyle, successful life in peaceful societies, managing life in a healthy manner, and active citizenship (Journal of Laws of the EU, 2018, C 189/7). They are developed in a lifelong learning perspective, starting from early childhood, through formal, non-formal, and informal learning, in all contexts, including the family, school, workplace, neighborhood, and other communities. The benchmark establishes eight key competences (ibid.): – competences in the field of understanding and creating information, i. e. the ability to identify, understand, express, create, and interpret concepts, feelings, facts, and opinions in speech and writing, using images, sounds, and digital materials in all fields and contexts. They assume the ability to communicate effectively and communicate with others in an appropriate and creative way; – multilingual competence, which measures the ability to use different languages correctly and effectively for communication; – mathematical competences and competences in the field of the natural sciences, technology, and engineering, understood as the ability to develop and use mathematical thinking and perception to solve problems in everyday situations, as well as the ability and willingness to explain the natural world using existing knowledge and methods in order to formulate questions and draw conclusions, and apply that knowledge and those methods in response to perceived human needs or requirements. These competences include understanding changes caused by human activity and understanding one’s responsibility;

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– digital competences, covering the confident, critical, and responsible use of and commitment to digital technologies for learning, working, and participation in society; – personal, social, and learning to learn competences, meaning the ability to reflect, manage time and information effectively, work constructively with others, stay resilient, and manage one’s own learning and career; – civic competences, i. e. the ability to act as responsible citizens and fully participate in civic and social life, based on an understanding of social, economic, legal, and political concepts and structures, as well as global events and sustainable development; – entrepreneurial competences, meaning the ability to seize opportunities and ideas and turn them into value for others. They are based on creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving, taking initiative, perseverance, and the ability to act together; – cultural awareness and expression competences including an understanding of, and respect for, ways to creatively express and communicate ideas and meanings in different cultures, through art and other cultural forms. All key competences are considered equally important and each contributes to a successful life in society. Critical thinking, problem-solving, teamwork, communication and negotiation skills, analytical skills, creativity and intercultural skills are part of all key competences. Key competences are the subject of much research and scientific analysis. In the book “Competences of the 21st century” Jérémy Lamri (2018) presents an analysis of the basic competences that can be treated as components of the key competences indicated by the Council of the European Union that a person should develop if they want to continue creating value in the face of ubiquitous technology. The competences of the 21st century are those thanks to which an individual solves group problems. Among the competences acquired in the course of interaction with other participants in social and professional life, Kwiatkowski (2019, pp. 26–27) distinguishes communication, cooperation in a group, problem-solving, creativity, and the ability to learn. Lamri points to a slightly different set of 21st century competences, including creativity in finding solutions, critical thinking, cooperation, and communication undertaken in order to cooperate (4C). There is also a meta-skill, the ability to learn, which is fundamental. It should be noted that none of these skills can in any way be considered as entirely new. Quite the opposite is true; according to Lamri (2018), these skills allowed the earliest humans to climb to the top of the food chain with humanity becoming the apex predator, able to make use of the environment, change themselves and their

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standing in nature, particularly through the creation of tools and mechanisms for self-protection. In the past, first and foremost, executive skills were valued. These executive skills include planning skills, a term derived from the neurobiological literature and referring to the brain-based skills that people need to perform a variety of tasks. Planning is the ability to create a plan for achieving a goal or completing a task. It also includes the ability to determine what to focus on and what is not important. In today’s economy, the majority of simple and repetitive tasks can be performed by machines. The previously mentioned soft skills become central again as technology that “knows” how to do many things better than us emerges as a new predator. More and more questions are being asked: Will artificial intelligence threaten us? Should we prepare for the twilight of the species? We must gradually adapt to this new environment and accept the disappearance of certain professions. It is emphasized that solutions related to AI carry certain threats, but the human is still an added value and everyone has the ability to develop skills to a very high level. Skills are shaped in childhood and in the following years of a person’s life. Social competences should also be systematically developed. As part of organizational training, we will not develop the 4C competencies of our colleagues by sending them to a training room or asking them to register for a variety of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) (Lamri, 2018), as they require systematic work and are relational in nature. Such training courses can be purchased, which in a way suggestions that completion is guaranteed without the need for much mental effort or for the individual involved to move out of their comfort zones. The authentic development of competences requires movement beyond the automatic nature of everyday life, where thoughts are maintained by the parietal lobe, the part of the brain which governs habits and reflexes. When an unusual event occurs, we must think. It is the frontal area of the brain which is responsible for adaptation, and it is that which must be activated. To develop 4C, this “prefrontal sway” must be provoked. There is also a meta-skill, the ability to learn, which is of fundamental importance in the development of competences (Lamri, 2018). These competences harmonize with cultural competences, which include axiological, communication, technological, and implementation competences. They are all important in a knowledge-based society (or, more commonly, a learning society). Cultural competences include the attitude of commitment to answering the question of the meaning of human life, human tasks in the human community, in the world of nature and culture, questions about life’s possibilities and limits (Jankowski, 1993), but also the human attitude to the surrounding environment and one’s own health (Potyrała, Czerwiec, Kowal, 2018, pp. 5–6).

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Knowledge and skills acquired in the process of formal education can turn into competences when transferred to the informal sphere. Informal contacts with family, friends, peers, the media, or youth organizations are equally important for the development of cognitive, social, and personal competences. The same is true of the knowledge and skills acquired outside school, which, when used in school, can turn into competences. Therefore, the cooperation of the school and its surroundings seems to be a necessary pre-condition for the appropriate preparation of young people for adult life. The school should provide students with the necessary set of competences in order to prepare them for effective functioning in the out-of-school environment. In the changing world, an increasing role is assigned to competences of a more general nature: the so-called generic and social (Payne 2017). Social skills should facilitate the establishment of appropriate relationships with other people, who play an important role in the performance of professions in which profiling the attitudes and emotions of other people represents an important element (Noon and Blyton 2002). Unfortunately, the school does not develop these skills sufficiently. In the international discussion on reforming the school, solutions are recommended that involve the transition from the paradigm of teacher-centered education to education centered around the student and their needs. More emphasis is placed on self-learning (either individual or group) around a specific problem to be solved. Observing the social education deficit, i. e. the school’s avoidance of building and strengthening social ties, pro-social attitudes, experiences that give a sense of agency in action in order to achieve specific educational results (Hausner, 2020, p. 33), it is recommended that the school’s relationship with society be strengthened. From the point of view of social development, entrepreneurial competence, which means the ability of a person to turn ideas into action, is essential. The word entrepreneurship is often used in colloquial language and is associated with the following terms: entrepreneurial spirit, entrepreneurial mind, entrepreneurial behavior, agility, resourcefulness, and seeking change in action. These terms describe the type of activity characterized by the pursuit of high performance and effective, creative activity. An interesting approach to entrepreneurship is presented by Drucker, who sees it as a feature or aspect of behavior of people, which comes down to readiness and the ability to take up and solve new problems in a creative and innovative way, the ability to take advantage of emerging opportunities and opportunities, and to flexibly adapt to the changing conditions of the economy (Drucker, 1992, pp. 34–35). Entrepreneurship, as can be seen from the definition, is a very broad concept that occurs in various areas of life (school, work, social activity, adult education, politics) and in its various periods (childhood, school period, work), starting from the activities of a single person, and ending with the different spheres of

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activity of a company or even a state. It is mainly associated with economic issues and a certain life attitude capable of achieving certain goals in the course of action. This concept is also related to the terms expansiveness and innovation. Expansiveness means setting ambitious tasks and goals, the implementation of which allows the achievements of greater effects than before; it is the pursuit of the strongest and the best. On the other hand, innovation means the introduction of all creative improvements, ranging from the minor to revolutionary changes in organization and technology (Stan´ska, Wierzbowska 2005, p. 10). Both expansiveness and innovation are considered to be the hallmarks of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship has a sociological, cultural, economic, psychological, pedagogical, and praxeological dimension. It is understood as a trait, attitude, ability, talent, behavior, economic performance, innovation, and creativity. In pedagogy and psychology, entrepreneurship is sometimes treated as a feature or set of features that distinguish an individual or a group of people from others. In the literature, many combinations of entrepreneurial personality traits are distinguished, e. g. it is characterized as a combination of mental efficiency, character, courage, energy, enthusiasm, and optimism. The phenomenon of entrepreneurship can be described as: 1. an attitude defined in terms of the characteristics of individuals, such as intellectual abilities, the ability to concentrate, the ability to think abstractly, the need for achievement, and so forth; 2. the sphere of human activities, e. g. active participation, initiative, improvement of one’s own skills, all conscious implementation of intentions along with taking actions that minimize the emerging risk and limiting the possibility of incurring losses; 3. undertaking new ventures and creating new organizational forms, in the sphere of production, distribution, and consumption (Parzychowska-Kurpiewska, Kurpiewski 2008). Entrepreneurship can be analyzed as an individual phenomenon when it concerns an individual or as a social phenomenon when it concerns a group, community, or nation. Individual entrepreneurship is a function of motivation to act, personality traits favoring entrepreneurship, interdisciplinary knowledge facilitating entrepreneurial activities, and activities requiring certain skills. On the other hand, the essence of social entrepreneurship is the function of social attitude towards entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship, economic and economic conditions, personal models, social policy, and law. Entrepreneurship is generated by people and objectified by conditions, which include:

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– educational factors, such as educational content, methods of work, teaching aids, staff, rank of the subject, and transferred values; – the micro-environment, that is local business, local government, and other units of the environment; – the legal, economic, cultural, social, political, natural, and technical macroenvironment. The development of entrepreneurship has a significant impact on the country’s economy; therefore it is important that the state in the era of the formation of the knowledge society enables its citizens to develop the characteristics of an entrepreneurial person. These are features of great importance from the point of view of a vision of the future that is difficult to describe. The process of shaping an entrepreneurial personality is complex and dynamic. To become an enterprising person, you need to accept yourself and know your strengths and weaknesses. In the teaching process, great emphasis should be placed on diagnosing the strengths of students and using these strengths in action. The role of the teacher is to help in carrying out such an analysis, making self-assessment, making students aware of their potential, and indicating development opportunities, i. e. teaching how to set real goals in line with the students’ aspirations, encouraging them to act, and making young people interested in the issues of entrepreneurship. A would-be entrepreneurial person should be able to take advantage of the changes taking place in the environment as an opportunity to achieve set goals. They should observe and record their own successes as these provide motivation to continue. The teacher, on the other hand, should help in discovering these successes, and above all in achieving them. The teacher should direct the student towards a positive perception of the future, its opportunities and challenges, create innovative behaviors that are key to realizing success, and familiarize students with the possibility of making mistakes and failing. The role of the teacher is to develop young people’s interests and creativity, which is conducive to the open search for new opportunities. One of the fundamental entrepreneurial skills is the ability to make decisions. The student should develop the willingness and courage to make decisions which are often burdened with risk, as well as the ability to analyze a decision problem, design solutions, establish criteria for evaluating these solutions, and make assessments and selections. The process of educating enterprising people is not an easy task, as it requires a lot of commitment and is largely determined by the teachers. New educational challenges that relate to the development of competences require new forms of organization of the work of the school, as well as new content, new teaching methods, and new methods of evaluation. Change implies

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an increased awareness of how knowledge is produced, transformed, and used in schools and in everyday life. Teachers are specialized in imparting knowledge, but less used to reflecting on the didactic transformation of the content of education, mediation, negotiating meanings, and supporting students in learning. Therefore, the preparation of teachers for new tasks and the education system in universities should change, because teacher education institutions often have ingrained patterns that do not adapt readily to new knowledge, accumulated, for example, from the analysis of educational research. Educational activities should be accompanied by the awareness that in preparation for functioning in the knowledge-based economy, students should learn how to learn and how to manage their own learning. This is a new approach to the learning program, and one which is supposed to support lifelong learning. The approach taken so far implies a linear model: first there is the production or creation of knowledge, followed by its transformation, transfer, dissemination, and active acquisition, and finally knowledge is used. However, the new model is not limited to one form. There are many forms of knowledge diffusion, for example through the media, training, lessons, personal contact with a mediator, etc. The nature of the foreground, the lack of baseline knowledge, cognitive gaps or cognitive conflicts, the involvement of actors and organizations, or the communication process can all hinder the dissemination of knowledge and its subsequent use. Therefore, thinking about the competences of the future enables the design of the process of education, but also to make students aware of the need for continuous learning, along with autonomous and responsible responsiveness to a dynamically changing situation (Kwiatkowski, 2018, p. 23), and in teachers to provoke reflection about the process of learning and developing emancipatory competences (Czerepaniak-Walczak, 2001, p. 43). Assessment is an important aspect of the transformation of the school. Changes in the process of acquiring knowledge and the students’ management of their own learning mean that – as Graz˙yna Szyling writes (2018, p. 49) – school assessment can be viewed from many perspectives, including on the basis of different concepts of education or different models of assessment. The perspective of school assessment is the closest to the assumptions of participatory didactic paradigms. This is evidenced by, for example, the change in the relationship between the teacher and the student and the development of the school as a learning organization. Moreover, in designing an effective process for the assessment of learning outcomes, additional requirements (and a new set of teachers’ competences) that result from changes in the organization of this process should be taken into account. Today, new learning strategies are supported by new teaching media, tools and materials, knowledge sharing platforms, and access to specialist knowledge in the form of seminars, conferences, and consultations. The organization of education

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should therefore be modified and adapted to new learning strategies and be associated with new competences (including in the field of digital literacy), enabling the transformation of existing practices and adaptation to new teaching and learning conditions. Creativity is of particular importance among the competences of the future. The term is most often understood as the ability to solve problems through a variety of thought and experience processes, including oppositional thinking, analogy, and metaphorical thinking, as well as various mental representation processes, specific perception processes, and problem solving. It is also understood as a style of the psychological functioning of an individual, characterized by specific properties of mental processes, such as openness, cognitive curiosity, tolerance of ambiguity, and intrinsic motivation, which create a relatively permanent ability within the individual to create new ideas and solutions. Creativity concerns human potential, how individual people function, and their potential abilities (Szempruch 2013). The concept of creativity is closely related to the concept of divergent thinking, and this thinking “boils down to numerous ideas in response to the problem of open nature” (Ne˛cka, 2005). The theory of divergent thinking has been extended to cover different factors, an example of which is elaboration (diligence, detail, accuracy), and creativity has begun to be widely perceived as a process of problem formulation, searching for possible solutions, hypothesizing, testing and assessing, and communicating results to others from original ideas and new perspectives. Ne˛cka (1995) lists six groups of mental operations within creative thinking that are characteristic of various forms of cognitive activity. They are deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, metaphorizing, associating, abstracting, and transforming. Deductive reasoning is required by the assumptions of many standard didactic tasks, and inductive reasoning covers such tasks as completing a series, classifying, and concluding from analogy. The cognitive functions of the metaphor include acquiring new information essential for understanding the whole, and describing a complex object in a more accessible and perceptible form, and Ne˛cka’s executive functions include expressing something that is difficult to understand, and capturing complex and difficult concepts using succinct and simple expressions. Being creative means experimenting with ideas, exploring opportunities, and testing different solutions. The tool used in creativity should provide significant feedback (Romeike, 2007). In recent years, increasing attention has been paid to the development of argumentation competences (see, for example, Duschl and Grandy, 2008; Erduran and Jiménez-Aleixandre, 2008). They are related to critical thinking. Kuhn (1991) distinguishes different skills and abilities related to critical thinking: differentiating opinions, supporting arguments with evidence, generating

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opinions or alternative theories, and counter-argumentation, among others. A review of the different philosophical and psychological approaches to this issue allows the conclusion that there is a convergence in the concept of critical thinking as thinking based on justified arguments, supported by research and evaluation of evidence (Jiménez-Aleixandre & Puig, 2012). Critical thinking is used in this sense in the psychological work of learning critical thinking skills, as for example in the research of Anderson et al. (2001). In the Biology Critical Thinking project described by Zohar et al. (1994), seven selected skills in the context of critical thinking are considered: recognizing logical errors, distinguishing between results and conclusions, making hypotheses, avoiding tautologies, determining variables, and finally testing hypotheses and identifying relevant information for answering a research question (from Jiménez-Aleixandre, Puig, 2012). The proposition set forth by JiménezAleixandre and Puig (2012) recognizes critical thinking as the competence that allows the formation of independent opinions and the development of the ability to reflect and participate in the world around us. The authors believe that the key disposition in this component is preparation to challenge mainstream forces imposed by groups or communities. The difficulties that adolescents experience in opposing the views of their own group of peers are well known, which explains the importance of social interaction and leadership in argumentation in small groups (Eichinger et al., 1991; Jiménez-Aleixandre ii n., 2000). Independent thinking requires a tendency to question authority in some cases. One of the strategies for educating and evaluating critical thinking skills has long been the creation by students of concept maps and their subsequent assessment. Research has shown an increase in students’ conceptual and critical thinking skills. Daley et al. (1999) highlighted a special kind of learning. This type of learning is defined as one that requires an active process of thinking, learning, and drafting (graphically representing) dependencies and relationships. One of the main problems in teaching and evaluating students’ critical thinking is the development and use of tools that both support the teaching process and measure critical thinking specific to the context in which we learn. Among the most frequently described are: Californian Critical Thinking Appraisal (Facione, 1992), Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (Watson & Glaser, 1980), The Cornell Critical Thinking Test (Ennis, Millman & Tomko, 1985), and the Cmap tool (Novak, JD & Cañas, AJ 2006). Information technology (IT) tools facilitate the capture, collection, processing, and storage of data. The process of building Cmaps (concept maps) is efficient and fast. Cmaps built with the use of a computer facilitate the organization of content into cognitive structures and are a method of cognitive modeling (Potyrała, 2017). Novak (2003) refers to studies in which the construction of meanings and the course of reasoning during learning are essentially an in-

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dividual and independent process. Teachers can encourage meaningful learning by using activities that actively involve the learner in finding relationships between their existing knowledge and new knowledge, and by using positive reinforcement assessment strategies. The key principle is that each student must construct their own understanding of concepts, relationships, and procedures. The research shows that concept maps are metacognitive learning strategies that can significantly improve students’ critical thinking abilities (Potyrała, 2017). Critical thinking is recognized as being an important skill, but also one that is difficult to evaluate. Teachers have always recognized the need to measure students’ learning and teaching outcomes. Traditionally, this has meant that the development of assessment tools and systems. Kurfiss (1988) argues that critical thinking is necessary in solving unstructured problems that lack a unique correct answer and hence present a difficulty in terms of the assessment of their solution. As argued by John Bruer, cognitive science is the best source from which we can derive true knowledge of “what works and why” in teaching. Critical thinking is only a special case (Bruer, 1993). The lessons of critical thinking have been examined by van Gelder (2005). He reaches the following conclusions: gaining knowledge according to the critical thinking strategy is difficult, but “training makes perfect”, the transfer of acquired skills must be constantly practiced, some theoretical background knowledge is necessary, and arguments and their “mapping” promote the skills of critical thinking. Although many researchers have sought to define critical thinking, there is as yet no generally accepted instrument to evaluate it in students. In 2005, on Florida, both accreditation agencies and educational institutions saw the assessment of student learning as the most important part of the process of determining institutional quality through accreditation. After much discussion, learning outcomes were developed which included critical thinking and on this basis its evaluation was made. The main conclusion from the evaluation of critical thinking was that students had great difficulty in applying the analytical model during their case studies, had difficulty seeing interrelationships between functional areas, focused on issues from the perspective of a single function, and had difficulties with mutual connections (Peach, Mukherjee, Hornyak, 2007). Cooperation and communication are also important competences of the future. Effective communication is context-sensitive and represents an exchange of information in the best interest of all parties involved. It is also the ability to respond positively to someone’s needs in a friendly manner (Lamri, 2018). Cooperation combines communication skills, conflict resolution, problem-solving, negotiation, and decision-making. The criteria for cooperation are attitudes and moral values such as awareness of common goals, real exchange of views on common goals, internal motivation, and sensitivity to oneself, other people, and

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context. Cooperation requires precise speaking and listening, making decisions, striving for compromise, building alliances and partnerships, negotiating, and understanding the dynamics of discussions (Lamri, 2018). The competence of cooperation stands in opposition to individualism and competition. Cooperation and communication are often described in the context of social learning. Reed et al. (2010) argue that in order to consider learning as a social process, there must be a change in the understanding of the essence of the involvement of the people it involves, and that this change should go beyond individuals and be situated in wider social contexts, perceptible through social interactions and processes between actors in social network. A clearer view of what we mean by social learning can increase our ability to critically evaluate its effects. In education, social competences fulfill three basic functions (Nowak-Dziemianowicz, 2012): – adaptive – enables socialization, finding oneself in the social reality, in the world of institutions, groups, and social environments, and the norms and rules that legitimize their functioning. It allows you to build a role identity (professional, social, cultural). It enables employment, and effective and efficient operation; – emancipatory – enables development, giving meaning, justifying one’s own actions, and enables communication with oneself and others. It allows the understanding of the reality in which the individual functions, the relationships into which he and all participants of social practice enter, and understanding oneself, one’s own abilities, barriers, and limitations; – critical – enables the interpretation of reality, relations with the world, and one’s own experience, which is manifested in asking questions about the meaning and essence of one’s own actions and the actions of other people, about the legitimacy of these actions and their source. It allows the discovery of hidden, secret mechanisms underlying individual, group, and institutional behaviors and actions. It allows the perception of oppression, symbolic violence, all inequalities, and the rules and social practices that justify them. It should be noted, however, that much remains to be done with regard to the development and maintenance of social competences in the context of lifelong learning. There are few comprehensive models that integrate interdisciplinary perspectives and explain the multitude of factors influencing the emergence and expression of social skills. Social competence deficits play an important role in social adjustment, both in a psychological and educational context, and often serve as the basis for intervention strategies and remedial actions. In recent years, connectivism – the theory of teaching and learning in the digital age – has been gaining in popularity. The concept of connectivism as-

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sumes that the knowledge that is relevant for the performance of a specific task, can be found in the available devices and information resources. According to this theory, the most important human competence is the ability to obtain information, and then to collect, process, use, and apply that information. The concept of connectivism emphasizes, above all, critical thinking, which is an indispensable component of all the key competences of the student and teacher. Critical thinking determines knowing, understanding, and using the word. It is an essential prerequisite for the acquisition of concepts and language. Teaching thinking (logical, critical, alternative, analytical, innovative) should be made a priority in any subject education. Connectivism emphasizes the need to build a school of thought and the elimination of the “knowledge” school. The key competence is to discern (to think critically) what is important and what is not. Users’ online activity is largely based on cognitive processing of the information received, and then processing it for their own experience. Such a skill seems to be a necessity when the number of available information transfers is unlimited. Another dimension of Internet users’ activity is the tendency to post their own creative output on the Internet and to comment on the activity of others. In that case, users turn from recipients to content creators, taking advantage of the technical possibilities offered by the new medium. We are, then, moving towards a society known as the media society. In such an organized social environment, mass media are omnipotent and ubiquitous, creating a comprehensive media and information system that supports most human activities. We observe the formation of the world and culture of real virtuality permeating the ways of our everyday communication. As a result of the changing forms of learners’ activity, the evaluation of educational processes should also be diversified in terms of tasks and processes and adapted to fit. An important issue is the location of the issues in shaping the competences of the future in educational programs (the core curriculum of general education). As early as 2012, Joke Voogt and Natalie Pareja Roblin expressed the view that curricula must radically change in order to adapt to the competences needed in the 21st century. They analyzed eight conceptual frameworks describing 21st century competencies, which were compared on the basis of rational premises and goals, the definition of 21st century competences, and recommended strategies for implementing and assessing these skills in educational practice. Moreover, they characterized how different countries (EU Member States, OECD countries) and schools (SITES research) deal (or fail to deal) with 21st century competences. These studies indicated a high degree of adjustment of the framework to the theoretical assumptions of 21st century competences and the reasons for their implementation (horizontal coherence), but also showed that educational intentions and practice are still distant, which indicates a lack of vertical coherence.

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Joke Voogt and Natalie Pareja Roblin (2012) sought to determine the extent to which 21st century competences are included in curricula and how they are assessed. Research has shown that there is consensus on the need for competences in the areas of communication, collaboration, ICT-related competences, and social and cultural awareness. Creativity, critical thinking, problem-solving, and the ability to develop suitable and high-quality “knowledge products” are also considered important competences in the 21st century in most of the programs analyzed. The differences between the frameworks are mainly due to the way competences are categorized and grouped, as well as the meaning assigned to them. Competency development in ICT is linked to a whole new set of competences in how to effectively use, manage, evaluate, and produce information. While some frameworks emphasize ICT-related competences, others highlight more integrated approaches, where the development of ICT-related skills is embedded in other 21st-century competences such as critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaboration. IT tools are considered both (1) as an argument for the need for 21st century competences and (2) as tools that can support the acquisition and assessment of 21st century competences. Moreover, all frameworks recognize that the rapid development of ICT requires a completely new set of ICT literacy competences that go beyond the mere operational use of tools and applications. These competences should be taught and assessed appropriately. Eurydice reports from 2012 and 2017 show that most European countries conduct national examinations, the results of which are used in two ways: to control and evaluate the work of schools, and to check students’ competences; to a lesser extent, students’ social competences are also considered within such assessment. In 2012, research was carried out on the assumption that new media have a significant impact on the metacognitive competences of their audience and that in the case of science subjects, this influence is manifested in the connective processing of information, questioning, and argumentation, i. e. key competences from the point of view of lifelong learning. The statistical analysis of the research results clearly indicate the achievement of better cognitive results in the experimental sample, i. e. the one taught with the use of an e-learning platform. The students of the experimental trial had the possibility of continuous access to the course resources; they had contact with the instructor, who provided them with feedback, on the basis of which they corrected their answers; they also had contact with each other through discussion forums (Potyrała and JancarzŁanczkowska, 2012). The conclusion was reached that the need for constant innovation, searches for and analyses of the methods of the connective creation of knowledge structures derives from the evolution of human needs regarding information processing in the event of the overproduction of information and a

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rapid increase in knowledge, as well as the unlimited possibilities of contact, e. g. in social networks (ibid.). The research carried out by Jancarz-Łanczkowska and Potyrała (2014) assumed that individual problem-solving models are similar, and that social tagging on new media makes it easier for users to argue and make decisions. For example, it was found that the more complex the question, the more the navigation is global and contextual, and the way the problem is formulated influences the learning model of online learners; in solving problems requiring specific knowledge and answering questions requiring knowledge of definitions, the respondents most often used a deductive learning model, while solving general problems and searching for answers to multifaceted questions, the respondents started with the analysis of examples, using an inductive learning model. The use of the same Internet sources and the identical information contained therein does not necessarily lead to the same solutions to problems and the same answers to questions (the sources remain the same, but the knowledge structures are different). Online learning places great emphasis on collaboration within the learning process. The popularization of Web 2.0 practices and technologies has revived educational terms related to online relationships, knowledge sharing, and communication (Potyrała, 2019, p14). A definition of online learning participation is proposed that recognizes its more complex dimensions, such as action, communication, thinking, feeling, and belonging (ibid.). Among others, research conducted by Gary Cheng and Julian Chau (2016) shows not only the key role of learning styles in online participation, but also the importance of an individual approach and social interaction for effective online learning (Potyrała, 2019, p. 16). Technology offers some of the best opportunities to deliver instruction that engages students in authentic learning. Particular attention should be paid to the individual social needs of students, arousing their interest in various fields in order to achieve success through new and creative ways of solving problems, and the cooperation of students with the wider local community. The ways of thinking about changes in education and school upbringing should be linked to the following phenomena and features of media culture: 1. media culture represents universal access to information, where meta-cognitive skills are necessary for information processing, 2. media culture is the culture of social media, 3. media culture creates attitudes, meaning that an inexperienced media user passively adjusts their attitudes and behavior to their own world, 4. the modern media warns against many dangers and the rapid progress of science, but much less attention is paid to prevention and education, 5. media culture forces one to develop life skills and social competences.

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Therefore, it is necessary to prepare students to function responsibly within the media culture and to educate them on social competences. An example is the proposal, developed by Charlotte Descamps and François Gaspard (2019) of the Learning Lab Université de Louvain as part of the ‘Integrated Design in Environmental Diagnostics’ course. They designed five training modules to develop the social competences of the participants. These were the following modules: 1. Learning to work in a team (creating a team contract), 2. Discovering different personalities to better organize yourself in the team (developing an action plan at the micro and macro level), 3. Understanding the perception of reality under stress (studying how stress affects relationships with others), 4. Satisfying motivation to be more productive individually and in work within a team (conducting reflective, individual performance assessment and developing a vision of team involvement), 5. Communication inside and outside the group (comparing the perception of different problems and agreeing on how to improve the functioning of the team, as well as analyzing communication tools to help resolve potential conflicts). The above-mentioned examples of research and its practical applications confirm the view that the teaching process should be adapted to the needs of learners, their cognitive styles, and cognitive structures. It should be consistent at the planning, implementation, and evaluation stages. At the same time, there is a reflection on the difficulties related to the standardization of evaluation tools in the field of students’ social competences. The conviction about the possibility of influencing the learning environment and the need for in-depth studies on the processes that affect students, their forms of creative activity in this environment, and the need to improve their metacognitive competences is the basis for the further research and analyses of a cognitive – diagnostic nature. In order to develop the wide range of competences needed to meet the demands of the future, students should learn in many areas and in different ways. It is not the teacher, but the whole society, who faces the challenge of presenting a coherent curriculum that would consider various factors, including forms of non-school education, accurately foresee the needs of the unknown future, present the essence of wisdom accumulated by humanity, and at the same time support the autonomy of individual and collective work. These activities should prepare students to create the future, taking them beyond a blind or passive participation in that future. In school education, the emphasis should be placed on how the competences of the future are shaped, acquired, and creatively reconfigured. It is in this area that it is necessary to experience reality in a direct relationship between two or

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more people (both peers and intergenerational), which is the basic link in building knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values. Educational experiences understood in this way add up to permanent learning outcomes.

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Final reflections

In the considerations in this volume on the transformation of the school in the context of the changing world, which brings with it new opportunities, challenges, and dangers, a humanistic perspective has been adopted. It allows us to show the position of the individual in the world of education, but also in the world of social activity and work. From this perspective, work is considered a genuine human activity, the self-realization of both individual and community, and not as a simple practical activity. In this sense, the work of the teacher and the competences of the future have been analyzed. The second important thread within the considerations was the social world of the school in which, on the one hand, organizational and institutional criteria govern and management efficiency is mandated, and on the other, there are the personal relationships between school entities, there is understanding and generosity, and there is social commitment where participation becomes a measure of value. The social world of the school and the social environment remain in a relationship, creating a community of educational responsibility. As we know, the understanding of humanism has changed over the centuries, but today’s concept of humanism extends the traditional understanding of the term. These two currents, historical research and reflection on our modern worldview, intertwine and strengthen each other. As a result of these connections, humanism as a certain view of the world and a certain attitude of man with a historical genealogy, but exceeding the boundaries of epochs, became a permanent good of humanity, elevated above the changeability and limitations of times, although rooted in their hopes and conflicts. Humanism understood in this way is – according to Bogdan Suchodolski – “an attempt to answer the question about the meaning of human life, an attempt to define the tasks of human activity in this world in which they live; it is a measure of human responsibility for actions taken or omitted in relations between people and in society, so it is the voice of conscience that watches over the human community” (Suchodolski, Wojnar 1988, p. 13). This humanistic understanding of the individual and their place within the changes taking place, showing their social

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conditioning and connection in society, has been adopted in this work. The perception of a human being through the prism of a humanistic attitude makes it possible to recognize their growing possibilities and autonomy, which in favorable circumstances develop through one’s own efforts. Humanism has become a theory for creating optimal living conditions for people and for multilateral and integral development, as well as shaping the personality of a person plagued by growing fears of the seemingly uncontrollable progress of science and technology and the changes in the surrounding world. The current school is firmly rooted in historically established cultural traditions. It cannot cope with preparing an individual for the openness, diversity, and opacity of the world and the changeability of that individual’s own roles. While views on the role of the school differ from country to country, they nevertheless reflect deep-seated norms and conventions. National socio-economic contexts assign different functions and goals to the school and the wider educational system. There is a huge potential for using the experience to date to compare and use effective solutions in the field of cooperation between schools and their relationship with society and other knowledge institutions in building a learning society. The aim of the transformation of the school is both to improve the efficiency of its work, as well as to support teachers in activities aimed at self-realization and self-determination in the course of their professional work, as well as the better connection of the school with its social environment, reacting to external changes and initiating changes. We understand the reformed school as an organization with an activist character, initiating its own changes, and capable of learning and self-development in a permanent dialogue with the social environment. The causative autonomy of the school should coexist with openness to the expectations of the subjects interacting with it. The results of the work of the school should also be improved through external sources of initiative, support, and counseling, including parents and the close environment, educational and local authorities, and other schools. They can also be involved in external consultancy, which should be done not in the form of overarching decisions, but with respect for the principle of subordination. This requires working with the school as an organization, being sensitive to its culture and wishes for counseling, respecting each school’s rights to define its own needs, and selecting change strategies that suit the school and accompany it through the process of change. As a result of reflection on the existing problems in the functioning of the school, a model for the transformation of the school has been proposed. It considers new proposals directed at leadership, which should take a transformative form, generating a community of values and goals, thus involving a broad social base in transforming the school in a way that is appropriate to the challenges of the present and the future. It is connected with the transformation

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of the school towards a learning organization and breaking the dominant cultural patterns obstructing this transformation. The development of a learning culture, students’ predispositions and aspirations, and their ability to learn creatively should be related to creating situations in which experiencing reality takes place in a relationship established during joint activities. Such development is aimed at activating the potential of the whole individual. Building trust in the school and the teacher requires educational partnership and increasing the prestige of the teaching profession. These changes are essential to develop pro-social attitudes and lifelong learning skills. Therefore, one should understand clearly defined values and goals of the school, the need to introduce individual and organizational changes, the strengths and weaknesses in the work of the school, and the rules that govern learning. The meaning of the changes introduced in schools is not always easy to specify. The way to discover that meaning is through dialogue undertaken in the school itself between all educational entities, as well as with the leading bodies, pedagogical supervision, and all those who care about the development of the school. In the 21st century, education is one of the leading mechanisms of sustainable development of society, and is much more interested in the fact that its citizens are active in making independent decisions and flexibly adapting to changing life situations. Under the new conditions, the most important feature of education is preparing learners to be active in the face of social changes. Education is no longer regarded as an end in itself, but as the main mechanism for change in terms of perceptions of knowledge, values, behavior, and lifestyle. In a world where global threats are increasing, and the COVID-19 pandemic has made us realize that we cannot protect ourselves in isolation (Rose, 2019, p. 26), the development of future competences becomes an opportunity for reaching a better understanding of the world and the meaning of life. The common concern of teachers, students, and their parents should be to use the emerging possibilities of shaping a new model of the contemporary school in the context of the currently observed organizational diversification and school management methods. The most important aspect and a measure of modernizing the school is its ability to self-develop, including individual aspects, cooperation in the teaching council and the organization as a whole. A school understood as a learning organization should be open to the problems of the local community and cooperation with the environment, aiming at ensuring the optimal conditions for the development of its entities. School education provided in such institutions, in combination with other forms of education, has a chance to meet individual and social requirements much better than before, supporting learners in the development of their knowledge, skills, and competences in the

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21st century, creating the basis for an existence in line with the requirements of the new era of the modernization of the community of life.

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