Rye: Production, Chemistry, and Technology 0913250112, 9780913250112

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m7E: Production, Chemistry, and Technology Edited by Dr. Walter Bushuk

Department of Plant Science, University of Manitoba Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

Published by the

American Association of Cereal Chemists, Incorporated St. Paul, Minnesota

Copyright © 1976 by the AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF CEREAL CHEMISTS, INC. St. Paul, Minnesota

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by photos/at, micro/Um, retrieval system, or any other means, without written permission ji-om the publishers.

LIBRARY OF CONG RESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 76-029382 ISBN 0-913250-11-2

Printed in the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

PREFACE The awareness of the need for an all-inclusive publication on rye arose when I could not find the information needed to answer an inquiry regarding milling and baking quality assessment of this grain. A proposal that the AACC should publish a monograph on rye was made to the Committee on Publications through its Chairman, Professor Paul Mattern, Department of Agronomy, University of Nebraska. The proposal was unanimously approved. It is intended that the book should be useful to the student and scientist interested in any aspect of rye. Accordingly, it covers production, breeding, properties, and processing. For the content of this book, the credit must go to the authors of the individual chapters. The authors have given much of their time and expert knowledge in the preparation of the manuscripts. It is my view that their wide range of experience adds significantly to the value of the book. In editing the monograph, I have attempted to achieve some uniformity among chapters and to eliminate obvious duplication without completely destroying the individuality of the authors with widely varying backgrounds and interests. I commend their excellent cooperation and willingness to take their manuscripts through several revisions. The editorial assistance of my colleagues Dr. C. C. Bernier, Dr. F. W. Hougen, Dr. J. P. Gustafson, Dr. L. J. LaCroix and Mr. I. Levi is gratefully acknowledged. I sincerely acknowledge the excellent support and cooperation that I received from Mr. R. J. Tarleton, Executive Vice President, AACC, and Ms. J. F. Sorensen, the technical editor of this monograph. Finally. my sincere thanks go to Mrs. Sylvia Kusmider for her typing services.

Walter Bushuk

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF CEREAL CHEMISTS, INC.

CONTENTS PAGE

CHAPTER 1. History. World Distribution. Production. and Marketing. By W. BUSHUK

I. Introduction ......................................................... . II. Origin and History Ill. Classification

Volume V Monograph Series

CONTRIBUTORS W. Bushuk, Department of Plant Science, The University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada W. P. Campbell, C.S.l.R.O. Wheat Research Unit, North Ryde, Australia E. Drews, Federal Research Institute of Cereal and Potatoe Processing, Detmold, Federal Republic of Germany L. E. Evans, Department of Plant Science, The University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada T. A. Rozsa, 353 W. Broadway, Winona, Minnesota G. J. Scoles, Department of Plant Science, The University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada W. Seibel, Federal Research Institute of Cereal and Potatoe Processing, Detmold, Federal Republic of Germany D. H. Simmonds, C.S.I.R.O. Wheat Research Unit, North Ryde, Australia Stanislaw Starzycki, Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute, Radzikow, Poland

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V. Uses. Merits. and Deficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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VI. International Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2. Cytogenetics, Plant Breeding. and Agronomy. By L. E. EVANS and G. J. SCOLES . .

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IV. Area, Yield. and Quantity of World Production

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I I. Genetics ....................................................... • ... • • • A. Growth Habit-B. Winter Versus Spring Habit-C. EarCharacteristics-D. Anthocyanin Pigmentation-E. Incompatibility and Self-Fertility-F. Chlorophyll Deficiencies-G. Dwarfing-H. Protein Content and Amino Acid Composition-I. Other Characters-.!. Cytoplasm Effects

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Ill. Plant Breeding ....................................................... .

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IV. Agronomy ........................................................... .

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I. Cytogenetics

3. Diseases. Pests. and Physiology of Rye. By STANISLAW STARZYCKI

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Part One: Diseases and Pests I. Diseases Ca used by Fungi ............................................. . A. Diseases Caused by Ascomycetes-B. Diseases Caused by Basidiomycetes-C. Diseases Caused by Deuteromycetes (Fungi lmperfecti)

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I I. Diseases Ca used by Viruses ............................................ . A. Barley Yellow Dwarf-B. Wheat Dwarf-C. Soil-Borne Mosaic--D. Oat Blue Dwarf

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Ill. Diseases Caused by Nematodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Dit_rlenchus dipsaci Kuhn-B. Anguina tritici (Steinbuch)--C. Heterodera avenae

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IV. Other Rye Pests ...................................................... . A. Pests Which Cause Major Damage-B. Pests Which Cause Moderate Damage-C. Pests Which May Cause Damage to Rye

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6. Bread Baking and Other Uses Around the World. By E. DREWS and W. SEIBEL

127

I. Introduction ...................................................... • - . • A. General-B. Grading of Rye and Baking Strength

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II. Tests For Milling and Baking Quality of Rye ........................... - • A. Tests Made on Grain (External Factors)-B. Assessment of Grain (Internal Factors)-C. Assessment of Flour and Mcal-D. Quality Tests on Dough-E. Standard Baking Tests and Assessment of Bread Quality

13 l

III. Rye and Mixed Rye-Wheat Bread ................................. _. .... . A. Commercial Production-B. Shelf-Life and Mold Prevent1on-C. Packaging and Storage-D. Nutritional Value

164

IV. Rye Bread and Baked Products Around the World A. North America-B. Europe

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V. Other Uses of Rye Around the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Animal Feed-B. Alcoholic Fermentation-C. Other Uses

174

Part Two: Physiology I. Some Elements of Rye Photosynthesis

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II. Reaction to Drought .................... ,· ............................. .

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III. Nutrition of the Rye Plant ............................................. . A. Phosphorus-B. Potassium-C. Cc;ipper

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IV. Growth and Development

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V. Effect of Adverse Environmental Factors ................................ .

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VI. Biology of Seeds ..................................................... . A. Germination-B. Vernalization-C. Autumn Growth and Development-D. Fertility

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4. Morphology and Chemistry of the Rye Grain. By D. H. SIMMONDS and W. P. CAMPBELL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

I. General Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. The Rye lnflorescence-B. Flowering

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II. Kernel Structure and Developmental Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. The Mature Grain-B. The Developing Grain

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III. General Composition of the Mature Rye Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Proximate Analysis-B. Minerals-C. Vitamins and Anti-Nutritional Factors-D. Amino Acids-E. Fatty Acids-F. Comparison of the Composition of Whole Rye Grain with that of Rye Bran and Flour

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IV. Protein Composition of the Mature Rye Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Protein Distribution in the Kernel-B. Extraction. Fractionation, and Properties of Rye Endosperm Proteins-C. Enzymatic Activities in the Rye Kernel

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V. Starch Composition of the Mature Rye Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII. Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I 00 I 04 I 05

5. Rye Milling. By T. A. ROZSA

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III

I. Historical Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

III

I I. Properties of Rye Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

III

Ill. Rye Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Rye Milling in North America-B. Rye Milling in Western Europe-C. Rye Milling in Eastern Europe and in the U.S.S.R.

112

IV. Air Classification of Rye Flour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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V. Potentials for Rye Flours .................... : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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R_YE: Production, Chemistry, and Technology

CHAPTER

1

HISTORY, WORLD DISTRIBUTION, PRODUCTION, AND MARKETING W. BUSHUK Department of Plant Science The University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada I.

INTRODUCTION

Rye (Secale cereale L.) is second only to wheat as the grain used most commonly for the production of bread. Because of the extreme hardiness of the rye plant and its ability to grow in sandy soils oflow fertility, rye can be grown in areas that are generally not suitable for growing other cereal grains. Greatest production is in the cool temperate zones of the world, but it can also grow in the semiarid regions near deserts and at high altitudes. It enjoys the widest distribution of all the cereal crops. II.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY

The primary center of origin of rye appears to be southwestern Asia, essentially the same as the area of origin of wheat, oats, and barley (Deodikar, 1963). Rye is not as old as wheat. There is no trace of cultivated rye in ancient Egyptian monuments nor is it mentioned in any of the ancient writings. It is mentioned in early northern European writings which suggests that it was first cultivated in this area. Grains found in the Neolithic sites of Austria and Poland are considered to be of "wild" origin. Rye moved from its center of origin to northern Europe sometime during the first millenium B. C. The exact route of this migration is not known. One possible route is from Asia Minor northwards into Russia and then westwards into Poland and Germany (Scheibe, 1935; Kuckuck, 1937). According to Popov (1939), a second possible route of migration is from Turkey into Europe across the Balkan Peninsula. From there, northern European rye gradually spread throughout most of Europe and was eventually brought to North America and western South America with the settling of these areas by Europeans in the 16th and 17th centuries. During this period, it gradually spread across the southern

2 / Rye:

Production, Chemistry, and Technology

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History, World Distribution, Production, and Marketing I 3 fringe of U.S.S.R. into Siberia. In the 19th and 20th centuries it was introduced to Argentina, southern Brazil, Uruguay, Australia, and South Africa. Figure I shows the areas in the world where rye is grown.

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Rye is a plant that is rather sensitive to adverse weather conditions. If, during the period of flowering, the weather is cold and there is much rain, seed set is not satisfactory. Under such conditions, the spikes have many empty florets. This phenomenon is caused both by adverse conditions of the habitat and by genetic factors. Another reason for poor seed set may be a decreased viability of the pollen. The sterility of pollen is slightly higher in tetraploid than in diploid forms. According to Tarkowski (1966), both diploid and tetraploid rye varieties differ considerably in this respect. A distinct lowering of the fertility of plants causes sparse seed set in lateral shoots which are poorly developed. If the fertility of main shoots is taken as 100%, it is about 10% lower in shoots 5 and 6, 20% lower in shoot 10, and in additional shoots (15 and 16) seed set can be as low as 50%. An analysis of seed set at particular levels in the spike has also been carried out. The set is best in the middle of the spike and worst at the first and second levels at the base of the spike and at the topmost levels. Tetraploid rye in general has a smaller number of spikelets per spike than diploid rye. Some of the flowers of the lower levels of spikes in tetraploid rye are abscised just after flowering. Weaker setting of seeds in tetraploid rye is due to a tendency to form aneuploids, a smaller number of flowers in spikelets, and perturbations lll the development of the embryo and endosperm. These phenomena occur to a greater degree in varieties than in hybrids (Muntzing, 1954, 1963; Sfaborlski, 1964). Ruebenbauer and Muller ( 1963) consider that weather factors in the period of flowering of rye are of utmost importance in increasing fertility. Moore (1963) found that there is no simple correlation between the course of meiotic divisions and of seed setting. He considers that monovalents are the main cause of perturbations in meiosis even though some physiological factors may increase aneuploid formation.

58 / Rye:

Production, Chemistry, and Technology LITERATURE CITED

ANONYMOUS. 1953. Some further definitions of terms used in plant pathology. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 36: 267. .. APEL, A., TSCHAPE, M., SCHALDACH, I., and AURICH, 0. 1973. Die Bedeutung der Karyopsen for die Photosynthese und Trockensubstanzproduction bei Weizen. Photosynthetica 7: 132-139. APEL, P. 1967. Potentielle Photosyntheseintensitat von Gerstensorten des Gaterslebener Sortiments. Kulturpflanze 15: 171-174. . APEL, P., and LECHMAN, C. 0. 1969. Variabilitiit und Sortenzpezilitat der Photosyntheserate bei Sommergerste. Photosynthetica 3: 255-262. ATANASOFF, D. 1923. Fungi blight of the cereal crops. Meded. Landb. Dell. 27: 1-132. , , BAIER, J., and SMETANKOVA, M. 1968. Concentration and nutrient ratio in winter rye with ears of differing size. Rost!. Vyroba. 14: 773-792. BALTZER, V. 1930. Untersuchungen iiber Anfalligkeit des Roggens fiir Fusariosen. Phytopath. Z. 2: 337-341. BENADA, J. 1963. Some properties of the orange red pigment of snow mould Fusarium nivale (Fr.) Ces. and its diagnostic value. Sc. Mycologie 17: 98-101. BERDAHL, J. D., RASMUSSON, D. C., and MOSS, D. N.1972. Effectofleafarea on photosynthetic rate, light penetration and grain yield in barley. Crop Sci. 12: 177-180. BEZLUDNYI, N. N., and BELENKEVICH, 0. A. 1970. The nitrogen metabolism in winter rye plants as affected by conditions of phosphorus nutrition and nitrogen forms. Fizj. Rast. 17: 992-996. BIRECKA, H., and DAKICWLODKOWSKA, L. 1964. Photosynthesis, translocation and accumulation of assimilate in cereals during grain development. Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. 33: 407-426. BIRECKA, H., SKUPINSKA, J., and BERNSTEIN, J. 1964. Photosynthesis, translocation and accumulation of assimilate in cereals during grain development. Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. 33: 60Hil8. BIRECKA, H., WOJCIESKA, H., and GLAZEWSKI, S. I 968a. Ear contribution to photosynthetic activity in winter cereals.

I. Winter wheat. Bull. Acad. Pol. Ser. Sci. Biol. 16: 191-196. BIRECKA, H., WOJCIESKA, H., and ZINKIEWICZ, E. 1968b. Ear contribution to photosynthetic activity in winter cereals. Part II. Winter rye. Bull. Acad. Pol. Sci.