Rural Water Supply & Sanitation in the Lao PDR: A Framework for a New Decade, Volume II

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RURAL WATER

SUPPLY & SANITATION

LAO P D R : A F R A M E W O R K

IN THE

FOR A NEW D E C A D E

VOLUME II

UNICEF VIENTIANE

AUGUST 1991

REPORT

B

PART

RURAL WATER & SANTTATICN A SURVEY OF

16

PROVINCES

OF

PROFILES: TE1E L A O

FDR

B-l

1.0 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. ’ 1.1 Background to Survey ................................................. . . . . .................. 1.2 Methodology 1.3 Problems and Constraints

1

.....

1 1 2

.

3

. .............................

2.0 EXTENT OF SURVEYING

4

..............................................

3.0 NATIONAL PROFILE

CO co co co co co co co co co as cn L. co to

*.................. 3.1 Population Groupings s . >. ........... 3.2 Unimproved Sources and Facilities . t . ... ; ... .......... 3.3 Improved Sources and Facilities ' 3.3.1 Gravity Feed Systems ......................... Infiltration Galleries . Rainwater Collection Shallow Wells Tubewells .’ ............................................................ Latrines ............................................................

4.0 PROVINCIAL SUMMARIES

“4 4 6 6

10 10 11 13 15 16 H

CO M to CO CO w OS cn 00 ■ in the Lao PDR. This report outlines the results of the nationwide survey, as analysed by the team conducting the national review. 1.2 Methodology The consulting firm began work in January 1991, with the development of a questionnaire and the consolidation of data available from various sources at the national level. This questionnaire was’ revised and expanded to include traditional or unimproved sources and facilities. Three forms (province, district and village) were produced, and a pre-test, combining the initial training of field supervisors, was conducted’. At the same time, planning for provincial and district trips was initiated. Following this, a group of students from the National Polytechnic were brought in for training as interviewers. The training on the revised forms demonstrated the need for further revisions.. These changes were made, and a field test In one province was conducted, including field training of the interviewers. This field test indicated that even more training and form revision was required. However, as it was necessary’ to complete the survey prior to the wet season, when access would be reduced, a decision was made to make minor revisions only. In addition, further training was limited. At the same time, coding of the forms was begun, and a D-Base III database was established. Teams of interviewers, including field supervisors, were despatched to albprovinces, except Phongsaly, where access was considered too difficult, and where WES

activities had been limited. In total, more than 50 persons were involved. At the province level each team followed the following procedure: a) The officials responsible for WES were interviewed, and an attempt was made to identify the location of as many UNICEF-assisted facilities as possible. b) The interviewers then moved to the Identified districts, where a similar process was conducted. c) From these interviews, a list of villages with known (or suspected) to be UNICEF-assisted facilities, was drawn. The interviewers then proceeded to as many of these as possible in the time permitted. d) At each village, in the company of district water technicians, contact was made with the village head (or other knowledgeable person), and the interview conducted and form completed. The focus was on UNICEF-assisted facilities, but general data was collected bn all facilities and sources. e) At the end of each day a supervisor would check the completed forms. f) Following the completion of the allotted time in each province, the Interview team returned to Vientiane and handed in the questionnaires. These were again checked and omissions noted. While data collection was still in progress, those forms completed earlier were coded and entered into the database. The data processing, including the re- development of appropriate computer programmes and routines, continued as data outputs were also checked and revised. * 1.3 Problems and Constraints t Even with this reasonably efficient procedure, many problems were encountered. These may be summarised: a) Questionnaire The forms used were not entirely satisfactory. More field testing and evaluation of the Lao-language version would have been beneficial. The schedule did not permit this. In addition, the staff involved in the development of the form had an imperfect knowledge of the field situation. This was unavoidable given the extent of surveying to be undertaken, and the limited surveying experience available in Laos. b) Training of Interviewers The use of students was unavoidable, but their limited experience,, both in the field and in administering questionnaires, led to many problems. This was exacerbated by the limited time available for training, .both for supervisors and interviewers. Many gaps on completed forms were attributed to this problem, as were a number of misinterpretations of questions. B-2

c) Time As noted above, time constraints were an issue at all stages of the process. Obviously, all surveying is improved if more preparation time is available. This is even more true where inexperienced staff are involved, and where access to districts and villages was difficult. d) Experience of the Consultant In the Lao PDR, independent consulting firms are a recent innovation. Skills are limited, and experience in this type of work virtually non-existent. Thus, the consultant firm had many difficulties in coordinating a large team for a nationwide survey. This inexperience was compounded by a dearth of understanding concerning the computer-bas'ed analysis of questionnaire data, and a lack of computer experience. Hence, databases and presentations had to be revised a number of times. e) Quality of Data Given these issues, the quality of the data are variable, by province and facility. In the profiles which follow attention will be drawn to these problems, where the field experience of UNICEF consultants does not match the survey results. The reliability of the data cannot be readily assessed, but given the wide coverage of the survey and the dearth of other data, this survey represents the best baseline information available. 2.0 EXTENT OF SURVEYING Table Bl Indicates the extent of the survey conducted of UNICEF-assisted facilities. TABLE Bl: EXTENT OF SURVEYING No. Surveyed

% of Total

Provinces

16

94.1

Districts

80

"66.1

505

"4.6

Villages

As can be seen, the survey was extensive,., reaching all corners of the Lao PDR. It is probably the largest survey conducted by any agency, outside the government, since 1975. Even with such a wide survey, and the fact that 16 provinces and a range of facility types were surveyed, sample sizes for some provinces and B-3

facilities are not large. The fact that the survey concentrates on UNICEF facilities only partially reduces the significance of the results, as UNICEF has been the majordonor. It is fair to say that, given the limited experience of the staff involved and other constraints, It is expected that further qualitative and quantitative surveying will mean that modifications will be required to this data and analysis. 3.0 NATIONAL PROFILE The data summarised in this report as charts, graphs and tables, are drawn from a series of tables which form an Annex to this paper. Those requiring more detailed information should refer to this Annex. 3.1 Population Groupings The main population groupings in the Lao PDR are officially designated as Lao Loum, Lao Theung and Lao Soung. Table B2 indicates the proportion of these groups in the total population compared to those in the villages surveyed. TABLE B2: POPULATION GROUPINGS Official Designation

Approximate % in Total Population

% in Surveyed Population

Lao Loum

60

89.7

Lao Theung

30

7.4

Lao Soung

10

2.8

100

99.9

Total

The table shows that the proportions of the surveyed population do not represent the groupings (roughly ethnic categorisations) of the population as a whole. The surveyed villages were those where UNICEF-assisted facilities were presumed to have been installed. While limited access may account for some' of the skewing towards Lao Loum villages, it appears that- this group has benefltted from UNICEF assistance in A proportion exceeding what might be expected. 3.2 Unimproved Sources and Facilities In conducting the survey of UNICEF-assisted facilities, interviewers were also requested to collect basic information concerning unimproved facilities and sources. These were defined as: rivers and streams; lakes and swamps; ponds; springs; rainwater collection in drums; and dugwells. The responses to questions about these sources are shown in Figure Bl (excluding rainwater collection). B—4

FIGURE Bl: UNIMPROVED FACILITIES

NATIONAL PROFILE UNIMPROVED SOURCES 2.8 2.6 2.4

NUMBER OF SOURCES (Thousands!

2.2

1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

BIVERS & STREAMS LAKES & STAMPS E & 8 TOTAL

PONDS

DUGVELLS SPRINGS

USED FOB DRINKING

USED FOR DOMESTIC

Rivers, streams and dugwells have been the traditional sources of water for Lao villagers. This remains the case today, with all provinces recording the use of rivers and streams, and all, except Bokeo, reporting the use of dugwells. A total of 2,503 dugwells being located in the 505 villages surveyed, and these villagers also reported taking water from 468 rivers and streams. In addition, it is clear that the water from these sources is generally acceptable to villagers for drinking and domestic uses, although there is a tendency to be more discerning in choosing drinking water sources. It should also be noted that there is a tendency for dugwells to be more numerous in the provinces which have fewer surface water sources. Lakes, swamps (nine provinces) and ponds (seven provinces), are not so numerous, but are most often reported in the south, especially in the provinces of Champassak and Savannakhet. These tend to be less acceptable for drinking water. Springs were reported in ten provinces, and were generally said to be acceptable for, both drinking and domestic purposes. B- 5

Rainwater collection in 200 litre fuel drums is common throughout the country, with 10,747 units being enumerated in the survey, with 47.4% in an operational condition. Interestingly, 40.7% of respondents claimed these drums collected drinking water, while 47.4% were used for domestic purposes. All of these drums were obtained and used privately. 3.3 Improved Sources and Facilities Improved facilities are those where human effort has been expended to upgrade a traditional source or facility. Latrines are included in this category. 3.3.1 Gravity Feed Systems A total of 150 gravity feed systems (GFS) were found during the survey. Of these, 149 (99.3%) were acceptable for domestic water use and 148 (98.-7%) were acceptable for drinking water. In debriefing, however, a number of interviewers noted that, in the north particularly, hardness was perceived as a problem for both uses. Of the 150 facilities, only 56 (37.3%) were reported to be fully operational 1 . FIGURE B2: GFS OPERATIONAL STATUS

UNICEF-assisted facilities made up 94% (141 systems) of those surveyed. Of these, 39.7% were fully operational, with 5% being completely out of service (see Figure B2). Of those requiring repair, most relate to pipes and taps (see Figure B3). As indicated in Figure B4, 86.5% of the installed GFS have water all year.

Implementation has been well spread on an annual basis, and as is indicated in Figure B5, the peak years for implementation were 1 9 8 7 89. This Is congruent with the length of pipe installed per year, where it was found that most activity occurred in the same period. When provincial spread is considered (Figure B6) it is seen that most pipe has been used in Luang Prabang, Vientiane Province and Sayaboury. Activity has been least in Vientiane Municipality (no GFS would be possible), and Sekong, Luang Namtha, Xieng Khouang, and Attopeu, all with less than ten kms laid. When average pipe length per system is considered (Figure B7), it can be seen that most GFS use two kms or less. It Is noticed that 13 GFS have pipe lengths exceeding five kms, suggesting excessive expenditure.

1

rally o p e r a t i o n a l whatsoever.

refers

to

a facility

B-6

not

requiring

any

repairs

Usage rates range from 125 to 3 , 5 8 8 persons per GFS, with an average of 6 2 9 . 4 persons per system ( s e e Figure B8). If users per tap is considered, the range of averages by province is from 40.9 to 1 4 9 . 5 persons per tap.

FIGURE B3: GFS REPAIRS REQUIRED

OTHri 1EPA11S ( 1 3 . 5 1 )

TAP RIP1IIS (2D. 51)

i

r m mats

CM.

FIGURE B4: GFS RELIABILITY

VATZl ALL TEAR (86. El)

B-7

FIGURE B5: GFS IMPLEMENTATION BY YEAR

GRAVITY FEED SYSTEMS

ID or GFS USTAILED

IKPLEOEHTATIOB PROFILE

:x-x::xx— *

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ANNEX 1 TABLE 1: UNIMPROVED FACILITIES (T&ADITIONAL SOURCES |

; 15060 ;

1 4 1 1

1

t

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16

1’916

0'62912

0’6216

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197

8'121

891

3111

889

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to

382♦

1 1 F 1 1 1

28.0

509 9'609

1

13.1

169

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CO

871

9966

9’05

F’2l

F21

221

16

99.1

♦ 2'699

52

221

1

78

16121

026

99

28

651

6'99

I

29

150

6’996

27

2869

2891

OF

Hl

125 ■!

6’2

0661

F

TOTALS

70.2

316.0

3052

! 1 1 1 1 I t 1 1

5.5

11.1

1070

9.75

13.8

1120

290

2'81F

1990

10.

3588

2570

1019

78

13

1505

i'll

BOLIKBAKSAY

1990 UNKNOWN

2'0

HOUA PHAN

1987

1989

159

269

1988

1988

639.6

20$

F

1990

3322 13132

80.1

5’2F9

ATTAPE0

1989

198

8’2FI

SEKONG

0661

CHAMPASSAK

12

5890

8’8661 ■! 2929

SAYABOOLI

1

31786

161

BOKEO

1989

11

5

9'2

OUDOMSA1

23

1.1-2

6'62

1989

r — l— i ---------------- —

KLKS/YEAR

621

1990

15

12

1989

SAVANNAKHET

PIPES) TAPS

1

VIENTIANE

TOTAL

__-«l.r —— ---------

KHAMMOUAHE

1350 1

Ml® LUANG PRABARG

-...—.I ’ — ™1

1 6861

1987 ; 1988 ; J 1

AVGE Ro MIR. OSERS KAI. OSERS AVGE. USERS jLEBGTHS OF PIPE INSTALLED PER TAP ) --------------------------PER .OF USERS) PER FACILITY [FACILITY

9'6

) RATER ALL [YEAR

nn

LAST YEAR OF Bo. FOLLY Ro OUT REPAIRS UNICEF SIlPPORTiOPERATIOHALjOF SERVICE

YEAR OF CONSTRUCTION

TOTAL Sc

sun

PROVINCE

3

TABLE 2: GRAVITY FEED SYSTEMS

TABLE 3: RAINWATER COLLECTION

jYear [Year of Last[Kind of }Construct[UNICEF Work [Support

[No. villages[Total No,[No. withjNo. withjNo. used [with Jars [of Jars [Leaks [Taps [Drinking 1

KHAMMOUANE [ 1 1

1990 { 1 1

1991 [Materialsj [Training [

1 1 4 :

VIENTIANE PROVINCE

[ [

1989 [ I 1

1989 [Materials! [Training [

1 i :

I 4 !

t 2 !

1 4 :

VIENTIANE MUNICIP.

[ J

1990 ; 1 1

1990 [Training [ 1 1 ! 1

1 !

2 ! 1

o !

1

2 ! 1 1

2

1 1

SAVANNAKHETJ i i

unknown[ 1 1

unknown[Training { [Materials!

1 !

3 J 1 1

2 ! 1 1

3 ! 1 1

1

1

1 1

1 1

t

168 ; 1

168 !

J 1

4

1

1

TABLE 4: SHALLOS SELLS

6861

31 I

I

|

73 ]

I

1

SAR AV ARE

|

0 I

5 SEKOU

1

;

’ 9 ;

.S' •

I I

I I

ATTAPEU

!

H ;

J

1

■HENG KHOUARG

‘

21 [.

HOU i PHAB

[

8 I

;

;

|

12 ‘

109.0

■

f I I I i oo CK> ;.while the farthest well is next to a swamp and has a year round supply. People will only go to this latter well when all those closer are dry. None of the dugwells have any kind of protection and the surrounds were wet and muddy. Villagers have tried to dig two dugwells inside the village but both collapsed within a short time, so they are not keen to do it again. Water in these was within a few metres of the surface, but the soil was sandy. Shallow wells, with their cement -linings, might well be a possibility within the village. The handpumped tubewell was two months old, and located In the primary school, about 200 metres away from the village. An appropriate technology company from Roi-et (Thailand) did the construction, with financial assistance from JVC. The well is 12 metres deep and has water, but the pump is very heavy to operate, and either a lot of water comes out and misses the bucket or just air comes out, without water. Ankle depth water was lying around the area and people had to stand in water to operate the pump. One person can take five minutes to get a ten litre bucket of water while another might spend a half-hour or more to get a full bucket. Villagers and the LWU declare that they do not know how to fix the pump and are trying to get the company to repair it. Another man stated that he would try to modify the Rower pump to make it easier to operate. For the other two tubewells being constructed inside the village, the public facility is also assisted by JVC, and is eight metres deep. The private one is seven metres deep and used bamboo to drill the hole (bor dork). Villagers did this themselves, and water was found, but they are not sure if the Rower pump will be used. The two big swamps are 400 and 500 metres from the village and one is two kilometres away. Two closer swamps are mainly used for watering animals. All the water sources seem to be located on one side of the village. The water is there, the villagers know this, but they have problems getting it up for use .

1 Tbese are UNICEF-assisted s e c t i o n 3.1.6 below.

cement

C—3

jars,

For

more

details

see

When asked about their preferred source, all v i l l a g e r s mentioned dugwells, handpumped tubewells and big cement jars for drinking water, and handpumped tubewells for domestic use. The tubewells are preferred for domestic water as they are closer and, hence, more c o n v e n i e n t (if the handpump works) and may provide good q u a n t i t i e s . However, the a c t u a l s o u r c e s used were dugwells, tubewells, and cement jars for both drinking and domestic purposes. When asked about the c a p a c i t y of water s t o r a g e c o n t a i n e r s in the house, cement jars were more often included as domestic water c o n t a i n e r s . Small clay jars (ou) are the common drinking water c o n t a i n e r and jars (ou, ong, hai) and drums (fui) are for domestic water. On a v e r a g e , the household drinking water s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y was 40 l i t r e s and 750 litres for domestic water. All people said they would like more cement jars, but do not have the money to buy them nor the m a t e r i a l s for c o n s t r u c t i o n . The quantity of water used at home 1 for drinking and domestic PLATE Cl: DRINKING WATER STORAGE JAR purposes is about 25 l i t r e s per c a p i t a per day (Ipcd). This amount Is e s t i m a t e d by the amount of water they fetch and bring to the house each day divided by the number of people in the house. The a v e r a g e d i s t a n c e to fetch water is 500 metres. Women are the main water collectors. Metal b u c k e t s are used to collect water and t r a n s p o r t e d home on the s h o u l d e r as "harp" (one bucket on each end of the carrying s t i c k ) . Villagers usually fetch water a few times each day, taking about 25 minutes per trip, and none pay for water. A majority of people felt that their families had drinking and domestic use water problems b e c a u s e of the d i s t a n c e they have to travel to get water, and the insufficient amounts of readily a v a i l a b l e . All respondents said the water they collect for drinking tastes- good and is clean. To them, water is clean if it looks clean and it is dirty b e c a u s e there are leaves and other debris seen in the well. Cleanliness Is judged by what is visible in the water.

1 T h e r e 18 o b v i o u s l y sore water used at of this were possible. Throughout this refer Jo water stored and used within

C-4

the source, report the the ho ■e .

but no quantities

estimates stated

Most people confirmed that they boil drinking water. However, they do not do this all the time because they do not have enough pots to boil water. Firewood is readily available, and is free. It was observed that family members would choose raw (unboiled) water (nam dip) in preference to boiled water. Discussions later indicated that they usually have boiled water for guests, and members of the family can drink it if -they wish. One observation is that even though the water may be boiled, there are many opportunities for it to become contaminated before consumption. Boiled water was consumed when it was cold. It is usually transferred into a two litre plastic jug, only some of which were covered. Most houses have a limited number of plastic cups, so everybody tends to drink from the same cup. Young children with visibly dirty hands were observed to play with the cup and sometimes with the water in the jug. People like cool water especially in the hot weather or after working in the fields and a number said they drink raw water because it is cool and tastes better. And, when they go to work in the fields, it is more convenient to drink this water. When asked if they have any idea of what could be done to provide safer or cleaner drinking water, boiling water was the most common answer. However, many respondents stated that they did not know what could be done. 3.1.3 Sanitation There were no latrines in this village. People go to the forest to defecate while small children defecate around the village, as convenient. Sticks that may be found around the defecation sites are used as anal cleansing materials. About half of the people do not know if human excreta can cause disease. Of those who think it can, most do not know what kind of disease it can cause and how. For solid waste disposal, most people said they throw garbage away from the house, and later sweep- it together and burn it as required, All households keep animals underneath the houses and animal excreta is seen scattered about. Animal excreta can cause diseases but very few people know this. 3.1.4 Personal Hygiene Most people take a bath at or near a water source, and do it daily. All said that they wash hands when they feel their hands are dirty as well as before eating, and with water only. They also wash dishes with water only, and after each meal. There was a small pool of wastewater under many of the houses. 3.1.5 Diseases The most commonly mentioned disease was malaria (khai yang).. Other diseases mentioned included the common cold, fever, diarrhoea and pains in the uterus. They perceived these illnesses as problems because it interrupted their daily routine and work. Self and traditional treatment is the first action taken, but if the illness gets serious, then they will travel to a hospital.

C-5

3.1.6 The Cement Rainwater Jar Programme I There are 130 households with 61 jars provided through a programme supported by UNICEF and operating through the LWU. One jar was given to the temple, but most were shared between two families, or three in a few cases. One family refused to share a jar with anybody and hence did not participate in the jar programme last year. The LWU has asked the village headman to persuade the family to be involved this year. The reason for not participating was that they think their family would complain if the people sharing the jar with them do things they do not like. Therefore, in order to avoid any problem, they preferred to remain outside the programme. The jar programme is over a year old, and in 1991 the materials for jar construction will again be provided by UNICEF, in order that each family will have a jar of their own. The problems with the first set of jars, as related by villagers, included one breakage and a number of minor cracks and leaks. The broken jar cannot be filled, but the headman said repair by patching the inside bottom with cement could be completed without too much difficulty. However, the owner was not Interested in making the repairs. For a large number of jars, owners had built a bench around them to enable users to reach the mouth of the jars to put in dugwell water so that they have a convenient water supply. None of the jars have a lid, although many have a synthetic blue net over and around the mouth. Only a small number of houses have permanent gutters to feed rainwater into the jars. A few jars have a galvanised sheet placed at the mouth to catch rainwater while a number of them do not have anything to assist the collection of water. In discussions about the taste of rainwater and from observation of the situation around the jars, it seems that rainwater collected from a wooden roof (redwood shingles) is more likely to be used for domestic purposes than for drinking, even though many reported that they do drink it. They said that rainwater does not taste good (bor sap), has an odour (kew), and it was not possible to drink it as is. Prior to drinking they have to boil it with herbal leaves. The colour of the rainwater from the wooden roof catchment was actually yellow, like a strong tea. It was also noted that jars were often positioned away from houses. Some villagers explained that they sat them away from the houses in order to catch the rain directly without getting it from the wooden roof. Another said she set it closer to a neighbour’s house because the neighbour has a galvanised sheet roof while hers is wooden. Others said they did not want to block the normal pathways of people, or that if it was near the house, children would play with it. Yet another said she set it out of the way because she was going to build a new house at the time but now that the house was built, it was not possible to move the jar.

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3.2 Village No. 2, Khammouane Province 3.2.1 Village Information The village is located on flat land which, at the time of the field visit, was very dry, sandy and dusty. There is a stream about one kilometre away from the village, but the water is extremely turbid. *

This is a Lao Loum village, with people identifying. themselves as Lao and speaking the Lao language. There are 180 households, but the headman could not provide a population figure other than a rough estimate of over 1,000 people. However, a number of people interviewed had 8-10 people in their households. The village is 28 kilometres from the provincial town from where they buy any goods they cannot produce themselves. The village has no electricity, but does have primary and secondary schools, as well as a health centre. There has not been any outsidefunded development activities in the village. The houses in this village are built very close together, quite unlike other villages in the area. It .would be difficult to place, for example, large cement jars around houses in this village. Most of the houses are made of wood, and wooden shingle roofing is common. Villagers believe that you will be healthy if you live in a house with redwood roof (yu heuan mung mai dang bor jeb bor khai mee heo mee hang dee). Only a few houses have grass or galvanised sheet roof. The main occupation of the people in this village is rice farming (all have land) and animal husbandry is regarded as their second occupation. They sell rice and animals only when they need money. Bicycles and radios are common, and generally Thai programmes are popular. Many of the women we talked with could read and write. 3.2.2 Water There are two dugwells and two shallow wells in the village. At the time- of the survey both shallow wells were dry and the dugwells had little water. Both dugwells are about '500 metres away, on the north side of the village, and are close to each other. This means that people from the south side of the village may be one kilometre from the wells. One shallow well is on the edge of the village and the other is 400 metres away on the south side. All dugwells and shallow wells are about 3-4 metres deep, and all were constructed by the villagers. There was discussion in the village about constructing two more dugwells somewhere outside the village (water inside the village was said to be saline). There is a year old, private, handpumped tubewell on the south side. The owner paid 92,000 kip to have it installed by a driller from Pakse. The well is to six metres and the pump works well, but the owner does not let anybody else use it. To villagers, rainwater is not a possible source of drinking water because of the wooden roofing. In addition, they believe that rainwater collection will create a breeding place for mosquitoes. The preferred and actual facility used for both drinking and domestic purposes is the dugwell. Villagers said water from a dugwell tastes good, while water from shallow wells does not. All stated that their water is clear, and some said the water was clean because it is "spring water" coming up from underground. Others did not know if the water was clean or not. A majority said they feel their families C-7

have a drinking and .domestic water problem while the rest said they are used to the situation and therefore did not consider it a burden. If the shallow wells were not dry. the water would be used for domestic purposes. Women are the main collectors of water and average three trips per day of 40 minutes each. Buckets and a shoulder yoke (harp) are common In the transportation of water to the house. The quantity of water used at home is about ten Ipcd. Drinking and domestic use water Is stored separately in small jars. The average storage capacity is 25 litres for drinking and 35 litres for domestic use water, but the villagers stated that they would like more containers, especially cement jars. They had seen these in Thailand, and thought they would be good for storing dugwell water while the supply is ample. None of the people reported boiling water for drinking, but do offer hot, boiled, water to visitors. A few people had consumed rainwater before, and thought it tasted good and was cool, but the majority had never tasted it. 3.2.3 Sanitation None of the households had a toilet and both men and women go to the forest for defecation. Children defecate around the housing compound. Sticks available in the area are used for anal cleansing. Half of the people stated that diseases can be spread by human excreta through flies. Household garbage was thrown away as convenient. After an amount accumulates, it will be swept and burnt. Animals are kept underneath the house, and their excreta is seen scattered about. Waste water was visible under the kitchen areas of a few houses. 3.2.4 Personal Hygiene A majority of people take a daily bath at or near the water source or facility People wash their hands when they are dirty and before eating, using water alone. Dishes are washed after each meal, with water. 3.2.5 Diseases The* most common disease in the village was said to be malaria, followed by diarrhoeal disease. Traditional medicine is used to treat illnesses. 3.3 Village No. .3, Khammouane Province 3.3.1 Village Information This is a Lao *Loum village, with the people referring to themselves as Taisum. They speak a dialect of Lao. The village sits on flat land on a stream, 20 metres from the Mekong River. The land to the south is very low and a large amount of water collected after an hour of rainfall. This area is also flooded during the rainy season. There is a road through the middle of the village and it is only four kilometres from the provincial town of Khammouane. Houses are located along both sides of the road, and the village stretches along the road for about one kilometre. There are 51 households with over 200 people (an exact population figure was not C-8

available, although those we talked to have around six people in the household). The village has electricity, but only nine households are connected, and those who do not have power use kerosene lamps or batteries to provide lighting. Ninety percept of the people affirm, that they are Catholic and go to church every Sunday. There is a primary school but no health centre in the village. A majority of people in the village can read and write, and many work in the province and receive salaries. Those who do not work in town are rice farmers and grow vegetables and raise animals as a second occupation, and all have land. Those who work in town have rice farming as their second occupation. The reported cash income per family is between 10,000 and 20,000 kip per month. Most have bicycles and radios, while a few have motorcycles and Televisions. Thai programmes are commonly viewed. Most houses are made of wood and galvanised sheet roofing is common, although a few houses still use grass for roofing. 3.3.2 Water There are three shallow wells, two are to the north of the village, one (13 metres deep) at the school and one (also 13 metres deep) at the Catholic church and; another (six metres) at the southern end of the village. There are also three private shallow wells each 3-4 metres in depth. Villagers said water can be found anywhere in the village if a well is dug just a few metres deep. The headman said another shallow well to the south would be helpful to people at that end of the village, but nobody wants to donate the land for the purpose. There is a PVC direct action pump installed as a demonstration at the house of the officer-in-1 charge of provincial water programmes, but it is "not for public use. The pump, fabricated by an externally-funded consultant, is poorly designed, extremely difficult to operate, The same shallow well water is used for- drinking and domestic purposes. People said all three wells are the same in terms of taste, clearness and cleanliness. The water taste Is reported to be good and is clear, and is considered clean because nobody makes it dirty. All agree that shallow wells are the best source for drinking, and domestic purposes, but they perceive that their households have a water problem because the wells are far away and the water level is low during the dry season. The actual range of distances from house to well is from no distance at all to a maximum of 500 metres. All households use a bucket to draw water, and most carry water home on the shoulder (harp) while a number of people use a 200 litre drum on a push cart. If a drum is used, only one trip is made a day, but if buckets are used then a few trips are needed. In general it takes 20 minutes per trip to fetch water, without waiting times included. Those few houses with private wells use motorised pumps to draw water to the houses. Women are the main water collectors. People said they drink both boiled and raw water according to their preference and convenience.Drinking water is, usually stored in small clay jars and domestic use water in small jars and drums. The average storage capacity Is 40 litres per household for

C-9

drinking water and 370 litres for domestic use water. The average quantity of water used at home for both purposes is 46 Ipcd. 3.3.3 Sanitation There are nine households with pit or water seal latrines. Those without latrines go to the bushes or the stream. Children defecate around the house. Those with latrines are people who are next to the road and further from the bush or stream and state they have latrines for convenience. Three women, whose husbands work in town, at the southern end of the village, stated that they would, like to have, latrines but do not know what to do because they are located on the lowland and are flooded every year. Bamboo and wood sticks are used for anal cleansing material for most people but a few used paper. About half of the people we talked to think human excreta can spread disease and flies are the vehicle. Garbage is thrown outside the house then swept- and burned when the need arises. Animals are kept underneath the house and animal excreta was observed scattered about. 3.3.4 Personal Hygiene Many people bathe at home and do so daily or more often each day. They wash their hands before eating, with water, and one case reported using soap. Many use soap to wash dishes and do it after each meal. Some will leave dinner dishes till the next morning because of the inconvenience of not having light (electricity). A few houses had waste water lying under the kitchen. 3.3.5 Diseases The leading disease reported was malaria. Other diseases mentioned included common cold and diarrhoea. Modern medicine is as common as self treatment and traditional medicine. 3.4 Village No. 4, Luang Prabang Province 3.4.1 Village Information This is a Lao Loum village and is many generations old. Villagers stated that they are Yoan and speak a Lao dialect. The village has 72 households and a population of 383 (average household size is 5.3). The village is 35 kilometres from the provincial town and commercial centre, but was some distance from the main road and there was no bus running past the village. The only vehicle going Into the village is one that buys rice and firewood from villagers or exchanges villages’ goods for gasusn oil. The village sits on flat land and is surrounded by mountains. There is a stream one kilometre from the village, but it does not have water during the dry season. There is an elementary school (grades 1-4), but the turnover of teachers is frequent, although it has never been without one. The villagers support the school by providing rice for the teacher (which Is enough for consumption) as well as providing books and chalk. At present there are six boys who have continued beyond grade 4 by going to a school at the sub-district (tasseng). The main occupation is rice farming, and all have land. Growing corn and raising c-10

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and it smells "muddy" sometimes. Most felt that their household has water problems because of the inconvenience of having to fetch water, especially at night. In the home, drinking water is stored in jars (moh) while domestic water is stored in jars (moh, hai) and drums (fuf). The average storage capacity is ten litres for drinking water and 60 litres for domestic use water, although many said they would like more containers such as jars, large aluminum pots and drums. The average amount of drinking and domestic water used at home is 15 Ipcd. Virtually all persons had never tasted rainwater, but a few who had said it had a smell (Aew), and they did not think it was a good source of water because they have grass roofing. A number of villagers thought that a good way to improve water sources is to put cement rings in dugwelis or to install a GFS. All stated that they boil water for drinking after they cook meals, but the women said that there was a problem about drinking boiled water because they cannot do it when working in the fields, and family members preferred raw over boiled water. In addition, they do not have enough pots or kettles to boil water. They felt that their drinking water would be cleaner if the facilities were covered. 3.4.3 ' Sanitation

'

* S'

There were three simple pit latrines, operating in the village. Another ten had been covered up and preparation was underway to dig new ones. These latrines were located at the edge of the village, with- temporary grass roofing and a few strips of woven grass acting as walls. The villagers shared these latrines. The villagers expressed the opinion that these latrines were convenient when it rained, faeces were collected at one place and not scattered about, and they were -far enough away from the houses that any smells would not be a nuisance. Many people reported that they use these pit latrines, while the remainder go to the forest for defecation. Small children.defecate around the house, and sticks are generally used for anal cleansing. Garbage was thrown away outside the village and all large animals were kept outside the village, so animal excreta is not seen inside the village, and the surroundings appeared clean. Many people stated that excreta can spread disease to humans through flies. 3.4.4 Personal Hygiene All people take a bath at the water source and do it more than once a day. Hands are washed when they are visibly dirty and before eating, but with water only. Dishes are generally washed with water after the meal, except dinner dishes which, for the sake of convenience, are washed the next morning. No water was observed to be lying underneath or around houses. 3.4.5 Disease The most common disease reported in this village was diarrhoea among young children, and traditional medicine is used for treatment. If the illness is severe then they 'go to the hospital. Malaria was not seen as a real problem because the C-12

villagers explained that they do not have many mosquitoes around their houses. 3.6 Village No. 5, Khammouane Province 3.5.1 Village Information This village may be classified as Lao Theung, but the people refer to themselves as So-Magong, and use the So language, although the men and most women can also speak Lao. The village is located at the foot of hills, with a perennial stream about 500 metres away. The old village used to be on this stream, but was burnt some 20 years ago, during the war, and so moved to the present location. It is 23 kilometres from the provincial town and commercial centre of Khammouane province. There is no access to electricity in this village and people use oil lamps at night or make do with no lighting. There is a primary school (grades 1-2) and a health centre. There are 45 households and a population of 237 (5.3 persons per household) in the village. Only a minority of women can read or write, and the president of the LWU at the village has never gone to school. Recently, however, she attended a literacy programme for a month, and claimed to now be able to read and write a little. The main occupation is rice farming secondary occupation. All claimed to have a regular cash income, but that required. A tourist spot is close by weekends.

with pig, buffalo and chicken .raising as a have land, but most said that they do not produce and animals are sold when cash Is and some villagers will sell food there on

A majority of houses are made of wood with wooden roofing, and the rest are made of bamboo with grass or tong khang leaves for roofing. The roof for some houses is made of white wood (mai puay), instead of traditional redwood, as people said redwood is better quality but harder to get nowadays. A few bicycles are seen in the village, and many houses have radio and listen mainly to Thai programmes. Inputs from outside development agencies have included a GFS supported by UNICEF, health promotion activities from Save the Children Fund-UK and various other activities, including vegetable seeds, from LWU. In addition, the province is constructing an expensive weir for agriculture near this village, with the intention of making it a "model village" in the province. Villagers are paid 500 kip a day to help construct it. 3.5.2 Water Until a year ago, before the GFS was completed, the sources for drinking and domestic water were three shallow wells. Two shallow wells have had handpumps installed, but both have been out of order for sometime. One shallow well was used mainly for domestic purposes because the taste of water is not good (bor sap) The. closer shallow well and the third one at the old village by the stream yield tasty water so they were used for both drinking and domestic purposes.

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The GFS Is how reported as the main source of drinking and domestic water. The GFS tanks (3 x 6,000 litres = 18,000 litres) overflow every morning because water is not used at night. However, villagers said that by 3 p.m. the water is gone and they have to go back to the shallow wells for water. This means that at least 75.9 Ipcd is used at the source, a much higher consumption rate than most villages. Villagers said children play with water all the time, and It was observed that when people washed their clothes they often left the water running throughout, instead of taking the required water and turning the tap off. There is also a drainage problem around the GFS standposts. Community preparation and management on. water use is required to overcome problems of drainage and afternoon water shortages. However, the children are clean and people have vegetables in their gardens. There are two standposts with screw action taps and leaks are a problem. The headman noted that the taps had been leaking for five months, and while they can change the taps, there is no money to buy them; no attempt has been made to get the community's input. In any case, lever-action taps should be more durable than screw taps for public use. Reported changes after having the GFS include convenience in collecting water, vegetable gardening, more frequent baths for children and adults and more water consumption. The preferred source for both drinking and domestic purposes is the GFS. At home, drinking and domestic water is stored in small clay jars with an average storage capacity of 20 litres for drinking and 50 litres for domestic use. Villagers would like more containers, (small clay jars, ceramic jars and aluminum basins). The average quantity of water used at home for both purposes is 35 lpcd„ while the average distance from the house to the GFS is ten metres. The water collector is usually a woman, and they use buckets to get water from the tap and .carry it home. It takes about five minutes per trip, with three trips a day. The water is taken free at present. Villagers said shallow well- water tastes better than GFS water although GFS water appeared clear and clean it comes from the mountain. About half of the people felt their households had a water problem because the GFS tanks run dry at times. About 50% of the people claimed to boll water for drinking, but while some said they only boil for guests, others said they boll water when they have time. No-one had ever consumed rainwater, but when asked, thought rainwater was unlikely to be tasty and would have an unpleasant odour (bor sap, Jang, kew). 3.5.3 Sanitation There were no latrines in this village and people go to the bush for defecation and use sticks for anal cleansing. None of the people interviewed thought diseases could spread from excreta to people.

1

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Household garbage was thrown in a pile and burnt. Big animals like buffaloes, are " kept in the fields, and only smaller animals, like chickens and pigs, were seen in the village. The result was that only a little animal excreta was visible arbund the village, and It looks cleaner than most In the same area. 3.5.4 Personal Hygiene People usually bathe more than once daily, at the water source. They wash their hands when they are visibly dirty, and before eating meals. Dishes are washed right after the meals, except for the dinner dishes which wait till the next day due to the inconvenience of washing without lights at night. Only water is used for washing both hands and dishes, with only one household mentioning the use of soap, 3.5.5 Diseases The leading disease reported by villagers was malaria, and in 19.90 it was said that many people died of it. Traditional medicine is generally used for treatment of many diseases. Diarrhoeal diseases were said to be cyclical, but with few cases this year, so it was not seen as a problem. However, perceptions of what constitutes 3 problem will vary. While interviewing a woman at her household, a seven month old baby passed liquid stools a number of times, but the mother did not see this as a problem. 3.6 Village Nd. 6, Luang Prabang Province 3.6.1 Village Information This is a Khmu village (classified as Lao Theung) with a population of 301 in 47 households (6.4 people/household). The village is 19 years old, having moved because the old site was in danger from bombing during the war. There are/ no externally-sponsored development activities in this village. The village has a road through it and is on top of a mountain some 50 kilometres from the provincial town and about 20 kilometres from a district town. This allows villagers access to everyday use goods from the market. They usually walk by taking a short cut over the mountains to the district town since the bus fare to Luang Prabang is 1,800 kip and to the district is 800 kip one way, so it is not possible for them to take their fruit and vegetables to sell in Luang Prabang town because of high transportation costs. All households grow opium, and receive about 40,000 kip per I kilogram. There is an elementary school (grades 1 and 2), but no health centre or electricity. The village manages to keep its teacher by supporting him with rice and food. Each house gives ten kilograms of rice (equivalent to 47,000 kip/year) plus other food available in the village*. The spoken language of the village is Khmu, and although the. men can speak Lao, most women cannot. Nor can they read or write. Interviewing was through a 1

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C—15

c o m m i t t e d to

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translator who was a member of the village committee. The main occupation of the household is reportedly rice farming with raising animals and growing opium as secondary occupations. All have land, and cash incomes are from selling opium, and averages 60,000 kip per year per household. Most houses are made of bamboo with a grass roof. There is no electricity, but a few houses have radios and listen to a Vientiane station. 3.6.2 Water The only source of water for this village is a spring at the foot of the mountain. A cement casing is constructed around one outflow opening and an iron ring has been placed over another, about a metre from the first. The one with cement lining is meant for drinking and the other is for domestic use, with water about 30 cm deep. People usually take water from the cement lined outflow home, and the iron ringed one is for bathing and washing at the source. Young children play around both. The preferred facilities are GFS and shallow wells for both drinking and domestic uses. The distance from home to the water source is about 500 metres, and the closest group of houses to it is 300 metres down the steep mountain while it is about 800 metres along the gentler sloped walking path. The water is available year round but it takes about 35 minutes per trip to fetch water, and an average of four trips a day are 'made. Women are the main water collectors, and all villagers use bamboo tubes (bung) to carry water on their backs. Each bamboo tube holds three to five litres of water depending on the size. A. child may carry one or two tubes at a time, while women generally carry ten or more tubes in one trip. A bamboo cup on a stick is used to get water from the source and pour it into the tube. A few have five litre plastic oil containers in addition to bamboo tubes. Drinking water is stored in the bamboo tubes, jars or plastic containers. The average storage capacity noted for drinking water is 30 litres per household and for domestic use water is 25 litres per household. They would like to have more containers (clay jars, big aluminum pots, plastic containers and buckets), but do not have the money to buy them. Average consumption for drinking and domestic use at home is 15 ipcd. The villagers feel that their water tastes good (Jam) and is clear and clean. More than half of the women we talked to said that they do not have a water problem because they are used to their situation, and whenever they walk down the mountain the water is always there, even though the path may be a little difficult during the wet season. None of them said tjiat they had consumed rainwater because their ancestors never drank it and rainwater from a grass roof is not potable. All said they boil water sometimes, but in general they drink raw water, especially the children. Adults consume raw water when they go to work in the fields or after hard work in the field. Their ideas for making their drinking water cleaner is to contract a fence around the source and to clean it up.

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3.6.3 Sanitation No household has a latrine although the villagers had reportedly tried a pit latrine in the past. But, this facility was viewed as having been unsuccessful, having produced an odour. People now go to the forest to defecate and use wooden sticks for anal cleansing. Children defecate around the house. Garbage was thrown away outside the village. Large animals were kept outside the Village, and very little animal excreta was seen. Most people did not know that human and animal excreta can spread diseases. 3.6.4 Personal Hygiene People bathe at the source, some daily and others more often, and wash their hands when they feel they are dirty, using water only. Dishes are also washed with water after dach meal. There was no water noticed lying around or under the houses. 3.6.5 Diseases The top disease of the village was malaria, with diarrhoeal disease and fever1 among children being the next most common. Traditional medicine was reportedly used as treatment. 3.7 Village No. 7, Luang Prabang Province 3.7.1 Village Information This is a Khmu village (classified as Lao Theung), and Khmu is the language used. The village sits at the foot of the hill and on a perennial stream. Access to the village can be by vehicle, although none .operate in this district; horses are used for the transportation of produce. The only way people can go to town is on foot 1 . It is only 13 kilometres from the district office but anything the villagers want to buy is available only in Luang Prabang town, which is across the Mekong River from the district. The village has *no electricity. There is a primary school (grades 1-3) and a day care centre, but no health centre. Development activities include GFS and a rice mill from the Quakers and various development activities by the LWU. The population in this village was reported to be 350 (60 households; 5.8 per household). The village consists of families from ten different villages who migrated to this place in 1964', during the war. Half of the women interviewed claimed to read and write Lao and the men can generally speak Lao. The women have a more limited capacity, and so translation was needed for parts of the interviews. The principal occupation of the people was rice farming with animal raising and growing corn, sesame and cabbages as second occupations. The average, monthly, household cash income was 4,000 kip, from selling their produce. All households have land, 1

The LWU not make

in L u e n j p r a b a n g t r i e d to o p e r a t e a bus f r o m p r o f i t so they d i s c o n t i n u e d the s e r v i c e .

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here«bnt

did

and most houses are made of bamboo with grass roofing. A few bicycles are seen in the village, and many households have radios and listen to Luang Prabang and Vientiane stations. 3.7.2 Water Up until a year ago people used a spring (about 800' metres away from the village) for drinking water, and a stream next to the village for domestic purposes. The Quakers have now provided a GFS. A rectangular storage tank of about 12,000 litres was constructed to receive the water from the source. There is no outlet at. the tank but four standposts were connected from the tank to various locations around the village. Lever-action taps were used and are still in good working order. Villagers stated that from the time the Quakers first visited until the GFS was operating was about two years. People said that if repairs are needed they do not know how to do them and nor do they have the necessary tools. Other than this, community preparation for the use of the GFS was excellent. People said the quantity of water from the GFS is sufficient only for drinking and domestic use, excluding bathing and laundry, but all agreed to use the water in this way, with bathing and laundry being done at the stream. No drainage problems exist at the standposts .and children do not play with the taps. Consequently, they never run the tank dry. The average distance from the house to a standpost is 20 metres and to the stream is 75 metres. It takes a few minutes to fetch water from the standposts, and people generally make three trips a day. Women are the main water collectors, using buckets and carrying them home on the shoulder. An average of 18 Ipcd is used for both drinking and domestic use at the house. People said their GFS water tasted good when boiled with herbal medicine 1. It is clear and clean, and all people stated that they no longer had a water problem. The water storage containers used are clay jars and five litre plastic oil containers for drinking water, and clay jars, plastic oil containers, and buckets for domestic water. The people claim that they would like more of these containers. The average capacity of containers for -drinking and domestic water was calculated at about 20 litres each per household. No-one in this village had consumed rainwater as they Incorrectly believe that it causes goitre (khor neang). People said they boil water for drinking but not all the time because of the lack of pots for boiling and that they cannot do it when they go to work In the fields. 3.7.3 Sanitation A majority of people use pit latrines constructed around the edge of the village, next to the forest. However, young children continue to defecate around the house, and some people still go to the bush. Those using pit latrines (some share the latrines) stated they use them because for convenience and faeces can be accumulated in one place, not scattered about. Sticks are used for anal cleansing. 1 The spring water is reportedly tastier, but more difficult to reach, rhe source 4 s some distance from the village and to collect water fret* the spring means wading into the stream. As t h e s p r i n g is deep, some people also fear falling In, so women will usually go there in pairs.

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Garbage Is thrown outside the village, and animals are also kept outside the village, so the village surroundings look very clean. Most people do not know that human or animal faeces can spread diseases to humans. 3.7.4 Personal Hygiene All people interviewed said they take a bath at the stream and do so more than once a day. They wash their hands, before and after they eat, with water only. Dishes are washed with water (or sometimes with ashes) after each meal, except for the dinner dishes, which are done the next morning. 3.7.5 Diseases The main disease in the village was malaria, followed by dysentery (.bid). Traditional medicine is used for treatment until an illness gets very serious, and then they go to the hospital. 3.8 Village No. 8 and 9, Xieng Khouang Province 3.8.1 Village Information Both villages are ethnically Hmong, and both are called Hmong Khao (White Hmong). Ninety percent of the Hmong in this district are referred to as Hmong Khao and the rest are called Hmong Lai (Colourful or Striped Hmong). Hmong Khao women use long black pants for everyday wear, similar to loose Chinese wraparound pants, and worn with a belt. "However, there are many people wearing ready-made pants bought in the market with elastic at the waist. For ceremonies, they wear white pleated skirts with colourful cloth hanging down in the front and silver pieces, around the neck. Hmong Lai women always wear a colourful pleated skirt (made of black materials with a lot of colourful embroidery on it) with black and coloured cloth wrapped around the calves. A 68 year old man, together with the village committee, at Village No. 8 told me that the difference between Hmong Lai and Khao Is the clothing and certain ceremonies but that the way of life is much the same. This is confirmed by Dennis (1989). The two villages are so similar (Including the patterns of water supply and sanitation practices) that the information will be presented together. The distance from the provincial town to the district is more than 100 kilometres on a paved road, with some rough sections, and the trip by car takes up to five hours. Both villages can be reached by car (road access has been possible for five years), one is two kilometres and the other five kilometres from the road. Statistics provided by the village heads are set out on the following page. Village No. 8 is on highland surrounded by mountains while Village No. 9- is situated on top of a low hill. Neither village has electricity, and villagers use kerosene lamps (condensed milk cans containing kerosene, sealed at the top, with string as a wick) as source of lighting at night, as well as on the cloudy days, as generally there is not much light in the house.

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Village No. 8*

Village No. 9

Population Number of households Number of people/household

303 53 5.7

300+ 40+

Length of settlement (years)

80-90

“7 20—30

I j

* These statistics, given by the head, do not appear correct. Most people we talked to had a larger family. From a detailed survey of ten households, the average family size was 8.7, with a range of 3-15. Village No. 8 has an elementary school (grades 1 and 2) with one teacher, who is Hmong. Villagers stated that the teacher is not capable of teaching higher than grade 2, so they cannot advance beyond this level. In any case, the teaching is in Lao and the children do not understand and apparently do not really want to be in school. The school they have is one room with a grass roof and no walls. There are a few wooden benches and a blackboard. Village No. 9 used to have a similar school, it had to close because there was no teacher, if children want to go to school they have to walk to the sub-district (tasseng) or to the district school which Is a few kilometres away. None of the women we talked to could read or write. Nine out of ten families we talked to have school age children but only three of ten have children in school. There were no health services in either village and the district hospital can provide services when patients buy their own medicine. The main reported occupation for all the families was rice and corn growing and the second occupation was raising animals. Every house has pigs and many have cows, chickens and goats. All said these are for consumption and not for sale. This does not match the information provided by Dennis (1989), where animals were said to be kept almost exclusively for sale or as a form of savings. When asked where the money for clothing, medicine and suchlike comes from, the answer was from selling opium. Everybody, including the village leaders, said that this is the source of cash for every family. All families interviewed stated that the amount of opium sold per year per family ranged from one to five kilograms. The market price at the district was 80,000 kip per kilogram. Therefore, the cash these families have is not great, but enough to purchase necessities. All interviewees said they can use the land as they wish If nobody is there to use it before them. Alternatively, a group of people could go together and agree amongst themselves ho.w the land should be used. All those visited live in a house with a packed dirt x floor, wooden walls and a door, but without windows. Most have a grass roof (there were three houses with galvanised sheet roofing - the owners produced five kilograms of opium a year). There will be one or two big wooden or bamboo benches in each house for sleeping. Cooking is, done in the house using firewood on the ground. There is always a big wok for cooking pig food and anything that does not get eaten goes into this wok. C-20

A small shelf, about waist high, to put the water container(s) on, and a small shelf for cooking utensils, etc. is. usually constructed. About half of the people interviewed had radios and listened to the Hmong programme from Vientiane. Few families in Village No. 8 have bicycles but many in Village No. 9 do, because they are closer to the road. 3.8.2 Water Both villages use the same sources of water for drinking and domestic purposes. In Village No. 8 half of the people on the north side of the village use water from a GFS. The water was once piped down from the mountain by using plastic tube, but now part of the tube is damaged and people have to walk almost a kilometre to where the pipe is still usable. The other half of the village is closer to the stream to the south (also about a kilometre away) so this is their water source. In the dry season, the stream is dry, so they dig a small well in the middle of the stream. The path down to get water was slippery and muddy. Village No. 9 has two small springs1 that were constructed into dugwells by digging the ground about 1.5 x 2 metres around the place where the water seeps up into the well. The two wells are next to each other and about one metre apart;, one being higher thanj’the other, on the slope of the hill. The upper one had small pieces of wood ' as a fence around it and was regarded as being cleaner, even though both were said to be "not clean”. They are about 500 metres from the edge of the village but' the houses are quite scattered about so, for some people, the distance can be a kilometre or more. This village has also tried to construct a GFS by Using plastic pipes connecting the source down to the village, but it did not work out as the amount of water was insufficient. Now the plastic pipes are damaged and unusable. The preferred source for both drinking and domestic water for all villagers is a GFS, although a few people said that any system which was convenient and clean would be acceptable. The quantity of water used at home for drinking and domestic purposes was measured at about 15 Ipcd, which is rather low. Most people have to travel a distance of almost a kilometre or more to collect water and carry it home. Older people use a pae (a container made of wood and carried on the back and holds 30 litres of water) and younger people use buckets and carry water on the shoulder. Water is stored in the container, the pae and buckets. When the water is used up, they go again which means that they cannot use water at night if they run out. Every family visited had a fire going and a kettle on the fire. They said that if there was boiled water they would drink it (nothing is added to the water) but if they go out to work in the fields and nobody is at home to boil water, then they will drink raw water. For hot water, a plastic cup Is generally used for drinking. For raw water a dry squash shell cut in half or an aluminum alloy ladle is used for drinking out of the pae or bucket. There were a few families who had previously consumed rainwater - those with galvanised roofing. They felt it tasted good and said it would be possible to collect

Villagers

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them

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when It n s, and they would not have to travel a great distance to the forest. A few peopi*) said they do not want to bring faeces near the house and a number of older women said they would like latrines for their convenience, but noted that it was hard to convince their sons to construct them. Some also expressed concern about the location of latrines as the area around the houses is not spacious. Solid waste disposal was not a concern: everybody said they just threw rubbish away from the house compound - meaning outside the fence of the house or outside the compound where the packed ground ends. They usually had a fence around the house to prevent pigs and other animals from coming into the houses or had a definite house compound - where the ground is packed. Many said the rain will wash garbage away, so they do not have to worry. Animal waste is seen everywhere outside the house compound as animal manure is not used. A few ladies noted that the smell is a nuisance. Most villagers do not think that animal waste can cause disease, but a few said it may cause disease, but they do not know what or how. 3.8.4 Personal Hygiene Most people take a bath at or near the water source. The frequency of bathing ranged from once every few days to once a week. They said the young girls tend to wash more often than older people. All the people interviewed said they wash their hands before cooking, eating and when they are dirty from working in the field. They use water (sometimes warm) for washing. The cooking utensils are washed after each meal with cold or warm water. Since soap is not used, warm water helps to cut out the grease that Hmong use "for cooking. Many houses store pig lard in a 20 litre aluminum pot. 3.8.5 Diseases The major reported health problem was malaria, with the exception of 1990-91 when there was an outbreak of Typhoid (.khai torapit). People use traditional medicine as self treatment until they cannot cope with the problem and then go to the district of provincial hospital. 4.0 CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Socio-Economic Conditions of the Villages 4.1.1 Ethnic Identification In this discussion the standard designation Lao Loum, Lao Theung and Lao Soung will be used. The Lao Loum group in this study comprised people who identified themselves as Lao, Phutai, Taisum and Yoan, while the Lao Theung were JKhmu and So. The Lao Soung groups visited were all Hmong. All the Lao Loum group speak Lao, the Lao Theung group speak Khmu and So, but many were also able to speak Lao. The Hmong speak Hmong and few (especially the women) could easily speak Lao. More description of these groups and their dally life may be found in the excellent report by Dennis (1989). C-23

4.1.2 Household Composition The Lao Loum villages in this study had between 51 and 180 households. The average number of people in a household was between five and eight. This is within the range that Dennis (1989) found in his study in Xieng Khouang, where the typical household size for Lao Loum was five to nine. For rural Lao communities In Thailand, the range was 4.8 to 5.8 (Tunyavanich, 1984, 1987, 1988). Lao Theung villages were between 45 and 60 households. The two Khmu villages had 47 and 60 households, somewhat larger than those studied by Dennis. However, it is true, as Dennis (1989) noted, that Khmu villages generally tend to be smaller than those of the Lao Loum. The household size of Lao Theung villages in this study was between five and six, in the same range of five to nine that Dennis (1989) found in Xieng Khouang. For the Hmong, the two villages studied had 40 and 53 households, at the midrange of household size noted by Dennis (1989) for established Hmong villages. It may be noted, however, that 8-40 households was the range noted in Xieng Khouang in the late sixties (Whitaker, et. al., 1971: 56), suggesting that population growth in Hmong villages has been high in recent years. The average household size noted in this study was 5.7 and seven while Dennis (1989) showed that Hmong households in the province were often large and 20 members was not uncommon, although 8-15 was more common. This difference may, however, reflect the varying definitions for household and family used in the two studies. The study by Dennis (1989) emphasised lineage as the primary organising group in Hmong villages. 4.1.3 Occupation and Income The main occupation for all the groups visited was rice farming, and indeed, the terms Lao Loum, Lao Theung and Lao Soung refer to their preferred site for farming. The Lao Loum and Lao Theung eat glutinous rice while the Hmong eat the non-glutinous variety. The second occupation reported by Lao Loum included raising animals and weaving. For- the Lao Theung group, the second occupations varied according to the circumstances in the three villages visited: animal raising, selling food to local tourists, growing opium, corn, sesame and cabbages as second occupation. The Hmong raised animals and grew opium. Cash income for the Lao Loum villages was reported to be irregular because they only sell their produce or animals when money is needed. In some Lao Theung villages the average household gets about 3,000 to 4,000 kip per month from selling their produce. The Hmong group said their animals are raised for consumption and their cash income comes from selling opium. Each household gets about 1-5 ' kilograms of opium per year and the market price in the area is 80,000 kip per kilogram. Dennis's (1989) study, on the other hand, indicated that Hmong regularly engage in the trade of cattle and opium to purchase rice, foods and household consumption items. 4.1.4 Household Resources Lao Loum family houses are raised from the ground about 1.5 to two metres so as to provide a shady workplace or sitting area under the house as well as to pen C-24

animals. Many homes are made of wooden boards, and roofing was of either wood shingles, galvanised metal, grass thatch or leaves. Poorer families had virtually the whole house made of bamboo. A number of families had bicycles and radios and a few prosperous homes will had a 4TV run from batteries. Lao Theung family houses are raised from the ground but lower than the Lao Loum houses, and usually lower than a person's height. Most Khmu houses are made of bamboo with grass thatch roofing. Few bicycles and radios were seen in the villages. Hmong houses are built on the ground with dirt floors, wooden walls and usually with a grass thatch roof. Animal pens are usually around the house compound. A number of bicycles were seen because the villages visited were close to~the road, and a few households had a radio. None of the, villages visited, with one exception, had electricity. All had a primary school, although some do not operate well and a health centre was only available in two of the villages. 4.1.5 Village Development Activities Three of the nine villages had water and other development activities and another was about to begin a water supply programme. Water facilities had been In service for from a number of months to a year. The remaining five villages had no development activities conducted by outside agencies. Three of these are in need of more water supply facilities with improved convenience. In one village the villagers had demonstrated that they were willing to help themselves and to keep water sources clean: with some support the well-being of the people can be enhanced. It was clearly demonstrated that there is a difference between those villages with outside support and those without in terms of access to water, amount of water available, and practices such as boiling drinking water. 4.2 Village Drinking and Domestic Water 4.2.1 Water Sources The sources of water available in the Lao Loum villages were predominantly dugwells and shallow wells with one village having cement jars and a tubewell. Lao Theung villages have shallow wells, GFS and springs, while Hmong villages have springs and springs constructed into dugwells. Cement jars and GFS are reasonably recent innovations, and were not mentioned in the Breakey and Voulgaropoulos (1976) report for data from 1968-69. Drinking and domestic use water are both from the same sources, except in one village, where drinking water was only from dugwells while domestic use water was from both dugwells and shallow wells. Also, in one village with a GFS, because of a shortage of water, the GFS was only for drinking, but both the GFS and a stream were used for domestic purposes. Lao communities in Northeast Thailand have a wider range of facilities available to them (dugwell, shallow well, handpumped tubewells, and rainwater in cement jars) for their water supplies but only dugwells, C—25

shallow wells and rainwater are commonly used for drinking. Handpumped tubewells, are not generally used for drinking because of the poor chemical quality of the water. As was noted in the late sixties, the availability of water in Lao villages does not mean -it will be consumed (Breakey and Voulgaropoulos, 1976:30). These authors noted that distance to source and taste were the determining factors, and this does not appear to have changed over the past two decades. Most of the water supplies used by villagers would not meet WHO drinking water guidelines for bacteriological quality (Tunyavanich, 1984, 1987, 1988). Dennis (1989) also reported that village water supply for Lao Loum villages may be dugwells, streams, rivers, or springs and that no supply was likely to be sanitary. For the late sixties,. Breakey and Voulgaropoulos (1976:27) had made the same observation 1. 4.2.2 Preferred Sources of Water AH villagers listed the sources they were familiar with and have already (only two exceptions) as their preferred source of water supply for drinking and domestic purposes. This is similar to Northeast Thailand when women chose 'the kind of drinking and domestic water sources they were familiar with (Tunyavanich, 1987). The two exceptions, both on or near hills, named a GFS as a preferred source of water In addition to the dugwell and shallow, well they have. It was obvious that in both cases they had already seen GFS being used in other places and so wanted a similar system for themselves. However, the fact is that there was no suitable source for a GFS near these villages. 4.2.3 Storage Capacity and Quantities Used at Home The study indicated that the storage capacity of water, at home, for all villages, was limited, and far less than would be required for all purposes for all. household members in one day. The storage capacity of drinking water ranged from ten to 40 litres per household and for domestic water between 20 and 75 litres per household. The exception was where 2,000 litre qement jars were used, but most of the jars were empty at the ’time of the study. Because of this the villagers had to fetch water daily. This was also the case for Lao villagers in Northeast Thailand. However, this latter group had a greater overall storage capacity because larger storage containers (ceramic jars and cement jars) were more common. In Surin and Srisaket provinces of Thailand, the average storage capacity was 344 litres per household for drinking water and 295 litres for domestic water (Tunyavanich, 1984, 1987, 1988). If only drinking, cooking and general cleaning are taking place in the house, the quantity of water.used at home will not. be very large. A study of university students living in Bangkok indicated that only 14% of the total amount of water used in one day was for such purposes (Sivabovorn, 1981). In the study villages this seems to "be the case also since most people take a bath and wash their clothes at the water source. The quantity of water consumption at home ranges from as little as ten Ipcd in villages where the availability of water is limited and Uf should be n o t e d that: (1} bacteriological t.e s t i n g has not been conducted for rural water in Laos; and (11) this comment does not leply that WHO g u i d e l i n e s for drinking water quality should be applied or that water quality testing is considered necessary or feasible at this tine.

C-2C

collection is difficult to 45 Ipcd where access is more convenient. This study shows that if a water source is convenient and acceptable, people use more water. In one village, after a more convenient supply by GFS was installed, water use increased to 76 Ipcd. A study in Northeast Thailand demonstrated that in general more water is transported home by villagers as push earts, taking up to 200 litres of water, are used (when roads and good tracks made this option possible). In addition, water-seal latrines (with bathrooms) are being increasingly used by villagers in Thailand and hence, the requirements for water at home are significantly increased' (Panvisavas and Tunyavanich, 1988). In the WHO Minimum Evaluation Procedure for water supply and sanitation projects, it is stated that the. quantity of water used by people in a day varies according to the convenience of the source. If the people need to travel to fetch water then only 20-40 Ipcd is used, but if a standpost in front of the house is used then it will be 40-80 Ipcd, and where there is piped water inside the house then 50-150 Ipcd is likely 'to be used (WHO, 1983). A study of daily water consumption in Northeast Thailand Indicated that the amount of water used each day at home was related to the number of people in the house (for drinking but not for domestic use because some individual activities take place at the source); training experience (households in which a member had* the experience of. attending a training course about water and sanitation); and the availability of latrines (Panvisavas and Tunyavanich, 1988). It is thus a simple fact that if there is more water supplied or the supply is more convenient, then people are likely to use more water, especially .if the water is acceptable. This is crucial, for as recent studies have shown, the quantity of water available may well be more important than water quality in providing a health impact (Esrey and Habicht, 1986:125). Community preparation is also required to assist villagers understand how much more water is available and what are all the activities they can choose .to do for that added amount. In addition, greater quantities can cause problems for environmental sanitation, and information on this is also' necessary. 4.2.4 Collection and Transport of Water Women were the main water, collectors in all villages. This was also true for Lao villages in Northeast Thailand, and true for all the farming society of Xieng Khouang (Tunyavanich, 1984, 1987, 1988; Dennis, 1989). They regularly made three or five trips a day to collect water, and each trip took up to 40 minutes (or as little as five, depending on access). Therefore, the time women spent in collection and transport of water home could be as much as two or three hours a day. This pattern has not altered a great deal over the past two decades (Breakey and Voulgaropoulos, 1976:31, 44). In Northeast Thailand, during the dry season, some villagers wait over an hour to get water and then spend up to an hour transporting it home (Tunyavanich, 1984, 1987). In Xieng Khouang, Dennis (1989) found that carrying water from source to home may occupy several hours each day for Hmong women. Most villagers carry water home on the shoulder using buckets and a bamboo stick (Lao Loura and some Lao Theung), or on the back using bamboo tubes and forehead strap (Lao Theung) or on the back using a wooden container and shoulder strap C—27

(Hmong). This is very heavy work since women are travelling as far as one kilometre or up steep hills. In one village, closer to town and with a road, push carts were used -to transport water, or if electricity was available and affordable, then motorised pumps could be used. When this happened more water is consumed. Therefore, water supply planners have to take these factors into account in their planning. 4.2.5 Boiling Water In all the villages studied, with only one exception, it was found that many people boil water for drinking even though they may not boil it regularly and boiled water may not be consumed by every member of the household. This may be due partly to the "Three Cleans Campaign" which emphasised boiling water for "clean" water. In addition, malaria is tin! main disease problem mentioned by villagers and one of the messages provided by health department officials is to boil drinking water. It should be noted, howeygr, tha?t

ENVIRONMENTAL IN

TECHNICAL

THE

LAO

ASPECTS

PDR

CONTENTS 1.0 INTRODUCTION 2.0 TRADITIONAL WATER SOURCES 2.1 Surface Water Resources 2.1 Streams and Rivers 2.2 Shallow Groundwater 3.0 IMPROVED FACILITIES

....................

. . .

. ..........................

3.1 Introduction 3.2 Government Institutions 3.3 Shallow Wells 3.3.1 General 3.3.2 Improvements to the Head of the Well . 3.3.3 Raising the Water 3.3.4 Well Lining 3.3.5 Capping the Well 3.4 Manually Drilled Tubewells 3.5 Tubewells 3.6 Handpumps . .......................... 3.6.1 Suction Lift Handpumps 3.6.2 Deep Lift Handpumps 3.6.3 Direct Action Handpumps 3.7 Surface Ponds 3.8 Rainwater Collection 3.8.1 Rainwater Jars 3.8.2 Ferro Cement Tanks 3.9 Gravity Feed Systems 3.9.1 Calcium Carbonate Deposition 3.9.2 Excavation for Pipeline 3.9.3 Standpipe Taps 3.9.4 Source Capacity versus Demand 3.10 Reticulated Water Supplies 4.0 EXISTING SITUATION ON ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION 4.1 Traditional Practices 4.1.1 Excreta Disposal 4.L.2 Sullage 4.1.3 Solid Waste Disposal 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION FACILITIES 5.1 Latrines (Excreta Disposal) 5.2 Sullage Disposal 5.3 Solid Waste Disposal

D-ii

6.0 MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT ................................................................................ 6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 6.2 Import Duty ................................................................................................... 6.3 Transportation ................................................................................ 6.4 Availability of Spare Parts ...................................................................... 6.5 Country of Origin ......................................................................................

37 37 37 37 39 40

7.0 PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT .........................................................................

40

8.0 COST CONSIDERATIONS ..........................................................

40

7 ?

8.1 Basic Material Costs ................................................................ 8.2 Cost Comparison of Facilities ...................................................................

•9.0 RECOMMENDATIONS & FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS ....................... • 9.1 Shallow Wells ............................................................................................ 9.2 Sanitary Shallow Wells ...................................................• . . . . . . . . 9.3 Manually Drilled Wells ............................................................................ 9.4 Tube wells ...................................................................................................... 9.5 Handpumps ................................................................................................... 9.6 Ponds ............................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7 Rainwater Collection ................................................................................ 9.8 Gravity Feed Systems ............................................................................ 9.9 Reticulated Water Supplies ...................................................................... 9.10 Sullage Disposal .................... .......................................... •, 9.11 Latrines ......................................................................... 9.12 Solid Waste Disposal ................................................................................ 9.13 Import Duty ............................................................................................... 9.14 Transportation ......................................................................................... 9.15 Availability of Spare Parts ................................................................... 9.16 Country of Origin ................................................................................... 10.0 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................

D-ili

40 41 43 43 43 43 44 44 45 45 46 46 46 47 47 47 47 48 48 D-49

LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES & PLATES

TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE

DI: D2: D3: D4:

MEKONG RIVER, SEDIMENT CONCENTRATION DATA TRANSPORTATION COSTS IN THE LAO PDR - GENERAL CARGO TYPICAL PRICES OF MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT, EX-VIENTIANE FINANCIAL DONOR CONTRIBUTION, BY FACILITY

FIGURE DI: PROFILE OF IMPROVEMENTS

PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE

DI: SHALLOW GROUNDWATER - DUGWELL D2: SHALLOW WELL D3: DEMPSTER DEEP LIFT HANDPUMP D4: DRUMS COLLECTING RAINWATER D5; CEMENT RAINWATER JAR D6: WATER USE AT GFS STANDPIPE D7: STANDPIPE - LACK OF MAINTENANCE D8: PROBLEMS - MAINTENANCE, ORDINANCE, PIPE-LAYING D9: ELEVATED WATER TANK DIO: VILLAGE LATRINE D l l : SOLID WASTE PROBLEM

D-iv

The purpose of this paper Is to assess the effectiveness and sustainability of water supply facilities and environmental sanitation practices currently used in rural Laos,, and 1.to recommend further appropriate action in relation to these technologies .. 1.0 INTRODUCTION The assessment is based on field visits made during the months of March, April, May 1’991, and June, interviews with staff of the Ministry of Health (MOH), Ministry of Construction, Transport, Post, and Communication (MCTPC), and Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MOAF), and provincial and district level. Field visits were conducted in Luang Prabang, Sayaboury, Xieng Khouang, Khammouane, Savannakhet, and Saravane. During these visits, data on .traditional water sources, and types of water facilities and environmental sanitation practices most commonly used, have been compiled. An assessment of the institutional factors affecting the rural WES sub-sector is also provided. This report makes an assessment of the sources, facilities, and practices, and discusses the major issues and Constraints to water supply and environmental sanitation development in Laos. 2.0 TRADITIONAL WATER SOURCES Essentially, there are two traditional sources of water2 : * streams and rivers ’ shallow groundwater In order to assess these sources in more detail, a brief discussion .of the surface water resources of the Lao PDR is presented below in general terms. 2.1 Surface Water Resources The whole of the Lao PDR lies within the Mekong River Basin, with the exception of the eastern parts of Houaphan province and the northeastern part of Xieng Khouang province, which drain in a southeasterly direction into the Gulf of Tonkin. The Mekong River is the major river influencing Laos; it is perennial, having its origin in the Himalayan mountains, and experiencing large variations in seasonal flow. A range of 846 cumecs to 12100 cumecs, with a mean of 3670 cumecs was recorded in 1988 at Nong Khal (Mekong Secretariat, 1988). Large flow variations such as this result in very significant changes in the stage of the river; seasonal Report Part E inclades the coaatry, as v e i l as kaidpups; fit. a k o i l d be

details farther comlted

of tke details with

pronadvater resources oa dr 1 1 1 11 j , s pr 11 f i this report.

2 Recent social sarveylns has shove that rainwater Is sot cnrreatly a widely ased scarce, hat there Is poteitlil for It be a d r l a k l a s water scarce in some areas. It is also collected domestic water la some provinces.

D-l

o£ aid

to as

changes recorded by the Mekong Secretariat in 1988 were 11.3 metres, Luang Prabang, 9.3 metres, Nong Khai, 10.0 metres, Thakhek, and 9.0 metres, Savannakhet. These large ranges were also reflected in the main tributaries of the Mekong; for example, 7.5 metres in Nam Ou, 4.5 metres in Nam Ngum, and over 8.0 metres in Se Kong. All of these tributaries are relatively short, fast flowing, perennial rivers. Wet season flow in the Mekong is usually extremely turbid, as illustrated in Table DI; sediment concentration data does not exist for its tributaries, but anecdotal data indicates that they also exhibit high turbidities. This .problem is undoubtedly exacerbated by the deforestation that has been taking place in Laos in recent times, especially in the more mountainous areas.

TABLE DI: MEKONG RIVER, SEDIMENT CONCENTRATION DATA

Date

25/1 5/2 25/3 27/5 24/6 8/7 22/7 27/7 20/8 27/8 23/9 29/9 21/10 29/10

Sediment Concentration 1 1 (ppm) 82 332 28 287 220 602 941 579 1010 684 871 527 844 447

Ins tantaneous Streamflow (cumecs) 1470 1260 943 2990 2760 4180 5730 5450 11600 8870 8090 5410 6360 5380

Source: Mekong Secretariat (1988)

The average flow in Laos's rivers is 230 billion m3/annum approximately, with a per capita figure of 57,500 m3/annum. These figures suggest an enormous potential for the country's future. However, it must be remembered that these figures have a very substantial spatial and seasonal distribution. Spatially, the surface water resource is generally concentrated in the major perennial rivers and, seasonally, it Is concentrated in the months which constitute the wet season. This distorted seasonal distribution is generally more of a problem for larger water users such as urban centres, than for discrete rural communities.

D-2

2.1 Streams and Rivers These sources have long been used by the upland peoples as a source of water for both drinking and domestic water. It is said that these hill people prefer sources of flowing water. However, in unreliable streams in the dry s e a s o n , it appears that shallow wells or infiltration wells are often excavated in the beds of the streams to intercept the s u b - s u r f a c e flow which can occur in these types of watercourses. Most of the major rivers and their tributaries in Laos are perennial, and as such represent a very important water source not only for the lowland Lao, but also for the upland Lao as well. Carrying water from these sources back to the house is usually done by the women and children with a harp and b u c k e t s , which requires a great deal of time and effort, especially in the steep sided, Vshaped v a l l e y s in the mountainous areas; these valleys have extremely small alluvial p l a i n s . However, where they become more extensive, water carts have been observed for water collection; this obviously reduces the carrying time and effort - 120 litres/trip as opposed to 20 to 24 litres/trip with a harp. Inspection of the 1:100.000 and 1:500,000 topographic maps shows t h a t a very large number of Laos's villages are located next to or within a relatively short d i s t a n c e of the major rivers and their tributaries. It is considered that the vast majority of the population reside adjacent to these watercourses, or in the associated alluvial a r e a s .

!&r

F’ »

2.2 Shallow Groundwater PLATE D I : SHALLOW GROUNDWATER This term refers to water in the DUGWELL unconfined aquifers which often occurs in the upper soil s t r a t a . It is a very Important source of water to the peoples living in the larger alluvial p l a i n s , such as the Vientiane Plain and In the Savannakhet area, and also those living in p l a t e a u areas such as the Plain of Jars and Bolovens Plateau. It is tapped normally by means of dugwells (shallow unlined wells) up to 1,5 metres deep, and Im to 1.2m diameter to allow for e x c a v a t i o n using hand tools. Usually they access only the top of the groundwater table because of the physical difficulty in excavating down further through the inflowing water from the aquifer. Because these wells normally D-3

reflect the s e a s o n a l fluctuation of the unconfined groundwater table, the timing of the excavation becomes very important. Wells dug towards the end of the dry s e a s o n , when it can be expected that the groundwater will be at its lowest level, will normally provide a more reliable supply and for a much longer period of the year. Local people have already reached this conclusion, and have adopted this practice, but dewatering is still a problem. Dugwells characteristically have relatively low yields, due to the low hydraulic g r a d i e n t s that normally exist between the well and the surrounding groundwater levels. 3.0 IMPROVED FACILITIES 3.1 Introduction

An improved facility for the purposes of this report is defined as one where human effort has been expended to upgrade a t r a d i t i o n a l source or facility. In this section, only those facilities most widely used are described; hybrid designs can be observed throughout Laos, but only those considered worthy of detailed assessment are discussed. Essentially, there are two categories of improved facilities - private and public. P r i v a t e f a c i l i t i e s , as the name implies, are those which s e r v i c e one or, p e r h a p s , s e v e r a l households who manage and maintain them. F a c i l i t i e s in this category include r a i n w a t e r jars and shallow wells. Although external funding a s s i s t a n c e may be provided in a few cases by NGOs, UNICEF, etc, they are generally implemented and financed by the household(s) concerned. Public or communal facilities are intended for more widespread use by the community in general, or a section of the community (eg. gravity feed system) 1 This d i s t i n c t i o n is important as it has been found that a private facility will u s u a l l y receive r e l a t i v e l y b e t t e r maintenance attention. In Laos, as in many other c o u n t r i e s , the water user b e h a v i o u r of the rural community i l l u s t r a t e s that a d e f i n i t e d i s t i n c t i o n is often made between that used for drinking and that used for domestic purposes, in terms of water storage and, where options are a v a i l a b l e , in terms of water source. It is important therefore that this cultural practice is borne in mind when considering the effectiveness of a facility for a community. Each facility a s s e s s e d in this report is made in this context. Assessments are also made in the c o n t e x t of the recommendations made in Report Part F. Summarised briefly, they a d v o c a t e water supply and latrine development be approached on Xhe basis that it is more a p p r o p r i a t e at this stage of Lao's development to c o n c e n t r a t e on supplying an increased q u a n t i t y of water, rather than attempt to supply water of a high bacteriological quality for drinking purposes, which would have a much higher i n v e s t m e n t requirement. It is considered that this approach will not only respond to the community's real needs, but will

1 Not er b a a

applicable to water supplies

lastltitloially operated

by

Maa

D-4

■ a ■ a g ad a y s t e ■s , Papa Lao.

sack

as

the

also lead to long term health benefits.

3.2 Government Institutions Assistance provided to the community to improve water supplies has principally been provided by the Institute of Clean Water (ICW) in Vientiane, which operates within the National Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology (NIHE), within the MOH, and the Provincial Health Departments (PHD) within the Provincial Administrations (PA). At central level, the ICW liaise with donor agencies and PHD's for the donation, supply, and delivery of materials, and coordinates training of technicians. At the provincial level, the officer-in-charge of water supply and the provincial technicians liaise between the ICW and the district level, and provide technical support to the district. At the district level, the district technicians coordinate the implementation of the water supplies together with the communities. More details are provided in Report Part G (Planning). 3.3 Shallow Wells 3.3.1 General

-

For the purposes of this study, a shallow well is defined as a dugwell which has been improved either by the community or an outside organisation. Figure DI provides a profile of the types of Improvement carried out for UNICEF facilities.

I

"

The shallow well normally accesses the shallower and -fresher groundwater 1 and, as such, can be considered to be both a drinking and domestic water facility. As previously explained, shallow (or dug) wells normally have a low yield. However, because of their large diameter, they provide a storage sufficient to allow water to be temporarily • withdrawn at a higher rate than the groundwater Inflow into the well. Where a well is In heavy use though, especially at peak times, the storage can be quickly depleted, and the withdrawal Is then governed by the rate of inflow, which leads to longer 1

Shallow

grondvi

la

a

*■ *

PLATE D2: SHALLOW WELL

tradition!

D-5

drlakiii

water

itirci.

FIGURE DI: PROFILE OF IMPROVEMENTS

SHALLO! WELLS PROFILE o r

IMPROVEKEITS

100

90

X OF TOTAL F A C I L I T I E S

BO 70 60 50 10 30 20 10 0 I CEBEIT IIIGS+B'PUMP

CEHMT R U G S

APdOI

I DRAlB

COtXR

IMP1OVEKEIT CATEGORY

queuing times for the users. Wells of this type can e i t h e r be private or public facilities. One aspect of shallow wells which should be borne In mind however, is their location with respect to l a t r i n e s . If l a t r i n e s are planned for sometime in the future, they should be located as far as possible from the shallow wells to minimise the risk of cross contamination via the groundwater. 3.3.2 Improvements to the Head of the Well One observed type of improvement which is quite common in the plain and plateau areas, is the a d d i t i o n of a p a r a p e t in the top s e c t i o n of the unlined well. In some cases, this is complemented with a s u r r o u n d i n g c o n c r e t e apron sloping away from the well. Where the upper s t r a t a is extremely s t a b l e , as in the case of the Plain of Jars for example, and the walls of the well are likely to remain s t a b l e in the long term without lining, then a small p a r a p e t is a very appropriate improvement. The purpose of the p a r a p e t is to act as a b a r r i e r to p r e v e n t small children from falling into the well, p r e v e n t s u r f a c e runoff which may be contaminated from e n t e r i n g the well, and also provide s u p p o r t in the upper soil l a y e r s . Corrugated steel p a r a p e t s appear to be the most common type, although occasionally brick and i n s i t u concrete p a r a p e t s are seen. D-6

The concrete apron provides a hard standing for the users and their buckets, and the slope of the apron assists in diverting spill water away from the well. Concrete shrinks however upon setting, and the apron will tend to shrink or pull away from the parapet. Although this is a path by which possibly contaminated spill watei can percolate down into the well, the opening is so small as to substantially reduce the risk of contamination. In some cases, wells have a small collection drain around the perimeter of the concrete apron to direct the spill water away, thus avoiding muddy and unsanitary conditions around the well head, and reducing the risk, ol contamination of the well. It appears that in many cases these improvements are completely financed and implemented by the villagers themselves with, perhaps, technical assistance from the district and/or provincial health technicians. All of these improvements to the head of the well are satisfactory, and should continue to b'e promoted. 3.3.3 Raising the Water There appear to be three common methods of raising water from shallow (or dug) wells: * simple rope and bucket * windlass * shaduf A simple rope and bucket is the cheapest option, and requires virtually no maintenance, but has the greatest risk of introducing contaminants into the well, especially where it is a public well and individual buckets are used. Depth tc water level however, is not a limitation with this type of facility. The windlass involves a little more maintenance, but the bucket is usually dedicated to the facility and hence, the risk of contamination is somewhat reduced by virtue of the fact that there is not a multitude of different buckets entering the well water. Possibly the main reason however, why the windlass is chosen, is to reduce the effort required to raise the. water, a task which is primarily the responsibility of the women and children. Roof structures incorporated into the design 'of the windlass have been observed over some wells, apparently to reduce the ' amount of general debris entering the well, and to provide shelter from the sun. Once again, there is no limitation on depth with this type of facility. ‘The windlass and/or the roof structure are considered to be appropriate components of the shallow well facility, and their use is recommended. The shaduf appears a popular means of raising water from shallow wells in some parts of Laos. They are made principally from bamboo by the villagers themselves, and have no Teal capital cost other than the rope and the bucket. However, the depth from which water can be raised is usually limited to around five metres. It is considered to be a very effective means of raising water from the well, and should be promoted as one of the Improvements available to villagers if reduction of effort is required. The investment for all the improvements mentioned in this section is normally the D-7

responsibility of the community. 3.3.4 Well Lining ft

Lining the well is primarily carried out to provide support to the walls. Both timber and brick linings have been observed in wells having unstable soils, of which timber is by far the more practical, and permits excavation deeper down into the unstable soils. Lining with bricks is a slow process, and is impractical as a primary lining in' unstable soils. These types of linings are usually installed at the instigation and e x p e n s e of the individual, but technical assistance may be given in somq cases by district technicians. In UNICEF's programme during the 1980s, considerable support was provided to improve dugwells by lining them using precast concrete rings (PC rings), and sometimes capping them with a concrete slab and installing a s u c t i o n lift handpump. Lining a dug well with PC rings also provides support in non-cohesive soils, thus giving the well a certain permanence. In formations where the unsupported walls of the unsupported w$ll can be reasonably e x p e c t e d to stand for a short period of time, the PC rings are i n s t a l l e d after the excavation is complete. The annular space on the outside of the lining is then usually filled with gravel at aquifer level, followed by clay or cement grout up to ground level. If no dewatering is carried out, then it is likely that only the top of the aquifer will be accessed, and it is more probable that this type of lining installation is currently practiced. In fact, many wells can be seen where the top two or three metres, which is where the strata Is more likely to be u n s t a b l e , are lined with PC rings, and the section below remains unsupported. This can be. very appropriate provided the unsupported section is in very stable s t r a t a . The horizontal joints between the PC rings are sometimes grouted with cement mortar, in an attempt to make the well watertight and p r e v e n t contamination by seepage of any polluted water through the upper soils and into the well.. This technique certainly reduces the risk of contamination, but it must be remembered that cement is a material which shrinks upon setting, so it is likely that some cracks will occur in the joints. It would be wise therefore, to inspect these joints in the dry season following construction, and make any necessary repairs ie. grout up the cracks with cement mortar. Lining a well with PC rings is considered to be very appropriate, and it is recommended that it continue to be promoted as a means of providing a more permanent water supply. Ideally, the well should be excavated some depth into or through the aquifer, which requires that some form of dewatering is used in the excavation process. In cases where the yield is very low, dewatering may not pose a problem. However, for higher yielding wells, either a small diesel powered pump, or possibly a suction lift handpump would need to be used for dewatering purposes. Diesel pumps do not appear to be a readily available item in the provinces, so it is unlikely that the district and provincial technicians or villagers have access to such equipment. It is suspected that in cases where a handpump is not being installed and is therefore not available, the excavation effectively stops at or just below the top of the aquifer, and this obviously reduces the reliability of the well. It Is D-8

recommended that more effort is directed towards gaining the acceptance of the concept of dewatering, so that greater depths can be achieved, increasing the yields, and making them more reliable. When dewatering is used and excavation into the aquifer can be achieved, PC rings made of no-fines concrete can be utilised. Situated adjacent to the aquifer, which permit the groundwater to enter the well without bringing in the soil fines. No evidence of the use of no-fines concrete has been found to date. It is recommended that the use of no-fines concrete in PC rings be pilot tested. In very unstable, saturated sandy soils in alluvial areas, PC rings should be installed as the excavation proceeds as a caisson. With this caisson method, the leading concrete ring slowly follows the excavation level, slowly sinking down the well under the weight of the lining above. More rings are added to increase the weight and assist in the sinking operation; these rings eventually form the upper part of the lining. As the lining sinks down, there is a tendency for it to settle unevenly, setting up stresses in the concrete which result in cracks. To avoid this, a cutting shoe should be used, which is effectively a strong circular ring on which the lining sits; the strength of the shoe absorbs the stresses which are set up with uneven settling, thus protecting the lining. The shoe may be made of steel, but it would be more appropriate in Laos to form the shoe in reinforced concrete, and make it a part of the leading ring. In a caisson type operation, the shoe or leading ring normally has a cutting edge, and a slightly larger diameter than the lining itself in order to reduce ground friction and facilitate sinking. In non-cohesive or very soft soils, this annular space closes up oh the lining relatively quickly. However, in the more cohesive and self-supporting soils, the space is usually filled with gravel at the level of the aquifer, and then 'either clay (in a plastic state) or cement grout above, up to ground level - this is used to reduce the risk of spill water which may possibly be polluted, seeping down the outside of the lining or through the adjacent soil strata and, ultimately, into the -well. Installing a lining using this caisson method requires a good deal of skill, and an understanding of why the technique is being used - both essential if the care necessary to successfully undertake such an operation is to be exercised. One difficulty with this technique is the positioning of the ho-fines PC rings at the level of the aquifer. An estimate needs to be made of the approximate aquifer level, so that the order in which the no-fines rings are sunk is correct. However, if no dewatering techniques are incorporated in the construction, it is unlikely that the excavation will penetrate any significant depth into the aquifer, resulting in inflow through the base of the well only, and negating the need for a no-fines section. In such cases, a gravel filtration layer should be placed in the base of the well to prevent erosion and the inflow of excessive soil fines. It Is suspected at this stage that this type of caisson installation of PC rings is not practiced in Laos. However, it is an appropriate method in sandy, alluvial areas, having relatively shallow groundwater tables, particularly when used with no-fi’nes PC rings, and it is recommended for pilot testing. It is also recommended that training of technicians in this technique be undertaken, using existing practices and technologies as a basis. Donor assistance is usually the supply of PC ring moulds, cement, and reinforcing steel, although in some cases the latter two items may be provided by the D-9

community. Casting of the PC rings may be. carried out at the district level, from where the community then transport them to th,e village, or at the well site itself; either way, the casting would be under supervision and guidance of the health technicians. It is thought that the technicians may be making PC rings at the district for general sale to the community; more information is needed in this respect. Installation of the PC rings is then carried out by the community, under the supervision of the technicians. 3.3.5 Capping the Well Capping a well normally implies that a lining has been installed also. The cap is usually a concrete slab, and its purpose is to seal the well and make it sanitary. Access to the water is then most usually gained by a suction lift handpump. Of more concern however, is the facility as a whole. The experiences with sanitary capped wells in other parts of the world raises a serious question about their use in Laos in the short to medium term. Experience in neighbouring Thailand in particular has shown that they are not necessarily an appropriate facility. As mentioned above, shallow wells normally have a relatively low yield and, in most cases, much less than the capacity of the pump. In peak times, when the well storage is quickly depleted, the pumps will not operate because a reservoir of water is needed in the base of the well in order to maintain the suction in the lift pipe. If the reservoir is exhausted, and the rate of inflow is very low, the users of the well will face considerable delays in waiting for the reservoir to be replenished before the pump will operate again. This, results in longer queuing times and a sense of confusion on the part of the villagers ie. a well which has provided water previously now, in the. minds, of the users, has become more unreliable since it was improved. In many cases, this has led to the villagers taking the cap and handpump off the well, and reverting to the use of a rope and bucket. Before any more sanitary shallow wells are installed, it is recommended that a social survey of existing water user behaviour and acceptance of this type of facility be undertaken to assess its sustainability. Further work in this area should be dependent upon the results of this survey. In the event that implementation proceeds, then a thorough monitoring and evaluation exercise should be carried out as an integral part of the programme. However, it should be noted that there appears to be a traditional practice, in some areas, of covering the well with a circular timber "cap", which is used to prevent general debris from entering the well, and is only removed when access is required. Where this existing practice occurs, it should be used as a basis for considered any further — improvements. -t Donor assistance, supervision by technicians, and community involvement are essentially similar to that for well lining, except that the suction lift handpump is also provided by the donor in this case. 3.4 Manually Drilled Tubewells Manually drilled tubewells commonly have a casing diameter up to 50 or 65mm, and are normally used for accessing relatively shallow groundwater. They are promoted on the basis, that it provides a sanitary facility for drawing water from the shallow aquifer « 7m or so), which involves low technology input and, consequently, can D—10

be undertaken by the communities themselves, at village level. They are. a facility which are used mostly in conjunction with suction lift handpuiqps, and may be complemented by a concrete apron, collection drain, and soakaway to provide a sanitary area for well users. In this context, they can be considered to be a drinking and/or domestic facility. Where they do access the deeper and more mineralised groundwater however, it is more likely that they will be considered a domestic water facility, as this resource is not considered an acceptable drinking water source by the majority of the rural community, and planners and implementers alike should be aware of this situation. In the past, they have been tried with some limited success by Save the Children Fund, Australia (SCFA) in Sayaboury, and are currently being used and tested by a local NGO in the Vientiane Plain, and in the Savannakhet area by Thai private contractors. It Is also thought that Thai private contractors are operating In Champassak province. In the case of NGOs, the rig is normally provided by the NGO, and the community will make a partial or full contribution towards the cost of fuel, sand/gravel, uPVC casing, cement, and handpump. When private contractors are engaged directly by the community, they are obliged to pay the full commercial cost, which is typically 3,000 Baht, Including the suction lift handpump. Manually drilled tubewells are not considered favourably by any of the central government institutions at this stage, because of problems with previous trials during which shallow rock conditions were encountered, but trials continue at province level. This type of well is probably the most appropriate" type of ’’sanitary shallow well". Much less effort Is required in drilling this type of well excavating for a shallow or dug well, and It is also much faster. Casing materials are much lighter to transport, handle, and install than PC rings, and there • is no problem with dewatering during excavation. The overall effect is that manually drilled tubewells tend to be less expensive than sanitary' wells. Manually drilled tubewells are constructed using a drilling rig which is of very simple design. It comprises of a steel tripod frame, which has a support hook hanging from the apex. Attached to the hook is a system of rope and pulleys which permits the attached drill pipe and drill bit to be raised and lowered as necessary. At the head of the drill pipe is a water swivel, to which is connected the delivery pipe of a pump. The pump draws water from a small hand excavated sump, and delivers it under pressure down the drill pipe to the tip of the drill bit, where the pressurised water then flushes the soil or rock cuttings in suspension up the outside of the drill pipe and, finally, into a small hand excavated settling basin. Here, the heavier cuttings settle out quickly, before the water and finer soil in suspension spill over into the sump. After a short drilling period, the water and finer soil particles in suspension in the sump should form a drilling mud, which is needed to support the walls of the well. In sandier formations more support for the well wall is required, and bentonite or lime is usually added to achieve an adequate drilling mud viscosity to provide the necessary support. Progress of the well is achieved partly by means of percussion, and partly by rotary action. Percussion is achieved through raising the drill pipe and bit by means of the rope and pulley system, and then allowing it to drop over a distance of IScms to 20cms, cutting into the base of the well. The cuttings are then produced by means of a D-ll

rotary action of the .drill bit effected Jay means of a cross-bar rotated through 90° at ground level. A handpump may be used to pressurise the drilling mud system. However, for deeper wells and. formations producing heavier, cuttings, the pressure and flow produced by the handpump is inadequate to flush all the cuttings out of the well. In such cases, it is necessary to use a motorised pump such as a centrifugal Honda or Kubota pump powered by a diesel or petrol engine with a power rating of the order of 4 kW. These types of drilling rigs are relatively easy to build with some overall guidance and tuition. It is understood that some have, in fact, been constructed in Vientiane, but only with limited success; it is believed that they suffered excessive breakdowns. Some basic training in this area could easily correct such a situation. They can be purchased however, from Promotion of Appropriate Technology (PAT) in Thailand for approximately 25,000 Baht. It is not known how much import duty is payable on this type of equipment at this stage, but imports by ‘international organisations (including NGOs) are normally duty-free. Normally, uPVC casing and slotted screen are used and should extend the full depth of the aquifer. Gravel pack is also normally used but, in some cases in northeast Thailand, it has been found that it is often omitted if the material is not readily available. Additionally, it has been found that the screens are also omitted in some instances;, both of these practices considerably reduce the life of the well, but this appears to be acceptable to many villagers. Nevertheless, it is more cost-effective to use a screen. Above the aquifer level, the annular space between the casing and well wall is normally filled with clayey soil and/or cement grout to prevent seepage of water spilt at the head from entering the well. It is preferable to achieve at least Im depth of cement grout. Development of the well should follow immediately after insertion of the casing and screen to remove the drilling 'mud and increase the flow of water into the well. This is probably most appropriately carried out by bailing and surging, which should be continued for some 2-3 hours. This type of well is designed for use with handpumps, and since the capacity of handpumps is generally low, pump testing is not really warranted. The type of handpump commonly used with this type of well is the suction lift type, and is mounted on the top of the uPVC casing. With this type of drilling technique, it is difficult to achieve a well casing greater than 50 or1 65mm dia. It is only suitable therefore for use with suction lift handpumps . Trials have been carried out with various rig designs elsewhere In southeast Asia to achieve larger diameters so that the technique can be used for the installation of deep lift handpumps. Of all the designs, the top head drive is probably one of the best currently commercially available; it can be purchased for 100,000 Baht from PAT in Thailand, excluding Import duty. Accessing the deeper aquifers with deep lift handpumps is not possible because of their incompatibility with the small diameter of the casing. Suction lift handpumps 1

Of

Deep lift 1OOBR,

haidpmps

nasally

reqilre

D—12

a

ilnlatia

easin

disaster

,

need to be used therefore, and their limitation with depth means that if groundwater is not discovered within 5-6 metres of the surface or, alternatively, if groundwater struck at much greater depth does not have sufficient artesian pressure to push the water levei up to within 5-6 metres of the surface, then the well cannot- be utilised, and a new site needs to be found. The success of these tubewells then is judged by their ability to access the shallow groundwater; therefore the issue of site selection becomes critical if the facility is to work at all. Site selection should take into consideration local knowledge of groundwater conditions, and existing well levels and landforms. These issues need to be a key part of any training course on manually drilled tubewells, and the hydrogeological data contained in Report Part E should serve as a useful tool in this respect. Additionally, cross-contamination of these wells by latrines can occur as with shallow and dugwells, and this aspect needs to be an important part of the site selection process. It is considered that manually drilled tubewells are an appropriate facility, provided the key issue of site selection is addressed. In general, however, they should be promoted more in 1the alluvial and plains areas, whete the success rate is likely to be far higher . In addition, it is recommended that training be undertaken, with particular emphasis on site selection issues. 3.5 Tubewells Tubewells normally access the deeper and more mineralised groundwater and, therefore, should be considered as a domestic water facility. As such, they need to be of sufficient size to accommodate the necessary deep lift pumping equipment. Diameters normally range from 100mm to 150mm; -100mm dla. is suitable for deep lift handpumps and small electric submersible pumps, and 150mm dla. is necessary for the larger electric submersible pumps. The depth varies of course according to the aquifer level of the particular region; typically, the depth range in adjacent northeast Thailand is 15m to 45m. A similar depth range may well be applicable to the alluvial and plains areas of Laos-. Drilling of a tubewell normally requires more expensive equipment, and a high level of .expertise. It is suggested that for a large-scale drilling programme, cable tool rigs are .probably the most appropriate for Laos, and will continue to be for some considerable time because: ‘The training requirements are not nearly so extensive as for other' types of rigs ‘It is a robust unit which tolerates abuse and incorrect drilling procedures quite well However, it should be noted that a small rotary rig is available from the PAT in Thailand, which is capable of drilling tubewells through some of the more weathered rock formations. It is based on low level technology, utilising a very simple trilegged frame and small petrol or diesel powered motor to drive the drill pipe. It is not considered appropriate for use by villagers, as the initial capital cost is too isee

Beport

part

E

far

More

details.

D— 13

high (approximately 100,000 Baht), but it would be worthy of pilot testing by an institution Involved in rural WES development. In fact, CIDSE (an international NGO) have been using a rig of this type in Savannakhet, and their experience sould be of valuable assistance In a future programme. It is recommended that, subject to an evaluation of CIDSE's experience with these; small-scale rotary rigs, i pilot -exercise is undertaken to determine their effectiveness in other parts of the country. Whether it be rotary or cable tool drilling, the current understanding, is that the only government department with a capability to drill tubewells, for water supply it this stage is the Institute of Irrigation and Microhydropower (IIM) within the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, and some irrigation units within some Provincial Administrations. This is also, the same department which was charged with the responsibility of drilling tubewells in the UNDP/UNICEF/Lao PDR agreement signed in 1981. Phe first tubewells to be drilled in Laos were put down in the. late. 1960s. and. early 1970s under the USAID programme. A total of 15,000 tubewells? were planned, although It is suspected that the actual implementation is only< a fraction of this figure. USAID brought in three rigs to carry out1 the programme, all are believed to have been Failing (USA) cable tool rigs, Other cable tool*rigs. hav& been supplied ay Soviet assistance, and. a small rotary rig,, purchased, second-hand from Thailand, operates from the Irrigation Unit in Pakse. One rig is located, in: the IIM in Vientiane, with which they claim they are drilling up to-4-5 tubewells per year, but only in response to. requests, and only after payment of all expenses. The requests invariably come from the private sector eg. hotel. Another has been observed in Savannakhet (Irrigation Unit), which is in a. very poor state of repair, as is one of the USAID rigs which is in Pakse, Champassak. There, are already quite a number of tubewells in Laos, especially in the. more extensive plains and plateau areas; they were mostly drilled under the USAID program, although a small number have been drilled since, using the abovementioned rigs. Little data is available on the construction details of the tubewells. It has been suggested by Hans Spruijt (UNICEF Consultant), and others, and supported by the ICW, that a tubewell drilling programme is- required to meet the future water needs of the rural communities. This may be appropriate, but before purchasing; a rig and embarking on a well drilling programme, it is strongly recommended that it be preceded by careful consideration of the following factors: a) Training requirements of the personnel to operate and maintain the rig. b) Institutional requirements to plan, .manage, and support the program. c) Sources of operating budget for the program. d) Long term expatriate requirements. e) current hydrogeological knowledge of Laos - programme to enhance this knowledge? This is very important if the success rate for drilled D-14

wells is to a c h i e v e a reasonable level. f) Materials and equipment to be used for tubewell construction. g) Types of pumps to be installed. Pumps which are available in neighbouring countries should be used if possible, so that spare parts can be purchased readily on a continuing basis, thus contributing to sustainability. 3.6 Handpumps There are essentially only three types of handpump, the s u c t i o n lift type such as the Bangladesh No. 6, the deep lift type such as the Dempster, and the direct action pump such as the TARA. 3.6.1 Suction Lift Handpumps The suction lift handpump tends to access the shallower and fresher groundwater and, as such, can be considered to be both a drinking and domestic water facility. Suction lift handpumps are normally used with manually drilled tubewells and, in some cases, with s a n i t a r y capped wells. The principle of suction on which the pump is based limits the depth to which it can practically operate to around 6 metres. A s u c t i o n lift handpump uses a lever system (handle) to operate a plunger within a cylinder located above ground; this c r e a t e s a vacuum in the suction pipe located within the casing below the water table, which draws water up and out of the spout. This simple principle o p e r a t e s theoretically down to water levels 9.81 metres below ground level. However, in practice, the i n h e r e n t imperfections of human design, and the fact that the pump needs excessive priming near the limit of the range, r e s t r i c t s the pump to a practical depth of 6 metres or so. The whole mechanism for a s u c t i o n lift handpump is located above ground and is quite accessible. Repair and maintenance therefore, is relatively straightforward, and can be carried out at village level, provided spare parts and tools are available In the past, UNICEF have supplied Bangladesh No. 6 pumps for shallow groundwater s i t u a t i o n s . In fact, data supplied by the ICW reports that UNICEF supplied 400 Bangladesh No. 6 handpumps in 1986. This pump is used with varying degrees of success in other parts of the world but, in Laos, it is suggested that this policy be reviewed. Spare parts are not a v a i l a b l e anywhere in Laos, or in the region generally, and continuing use of the pump will create a situation where Laos will have an increasing dependence on imported parts from countries as far away as India and Bangladesh. A more pragmatic approach would be to utilise handpumps for which spare parts can be obtained within the immediate region, such as Thailand or Vietnam. For instance, the "Lucky" handpump which is made in neighbouring Thailand, may be one that is s u i t a b l e . It is currently available through p r i v a t e sector o u t l e t s throughout n o r t h e a s t e r n Thailand and, since trade between the two c o u n t r i e s is growing rapidly at several border crossings, it is likely that this type of equipment will become a more common sight in Laos. It can be currently purchased in Thailand for approximately 4 0 0 - 5 0 0 Baht. However, it D-15

should be noted t h a t it is not recognised as a very r e l i a b l e pump, as parts tend to wear r e l a t i v e l y quickly. It is probably more s u i t e d t h e r e f o r e as a p r i v a t e rather than a public f a c i l i t y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is a simple d e s i g n , e a s i l y m a i n t a i n e d by v i l l a g e r s t h e m s e l v e s , and a v a i l a b i l i t y of spare parts will be far b e t t e r than its competitors. UNICEF d o n a t e d Bangladesh No. 6 pumps were i n s t a l l e d by d i s t r i c t a n d / o r p r o v i n c i a l h e a l t h t e c h n i c i a n s , and the community c o n t r i b u t e d by way of p r o v i s i o n of labour and local m a t e r i a l s . "Lucky" handpumps can c u r r e n t l y be p u r c h a s e d in V i e n t i a n e and S a v a n n a k h e t from p r i v a t e s e c t o r o u t l e t s ; these pumps are i n s t a l l e d at the i n s t i g a t i o n of the community, who then meet all costs. One other s u c t i o n lift handpump which is worthy uPVC pump. Originally developed in Bangladesh, PAT in T h a i l a n d for around 500 Baht, and it is tested further,

of t e s t i n g in Laos is the Rower it is now a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h the recommended t h a t this pump be z

It is also recommended t h a t s u c t i o n lift h a n d p u m p s which are a v a i l a b l e from neighbouring c o u n t r i e s should be t e s t e d and u t i l i s e d as a first p r i o r i t y . 3.6.2 Deep Lift Handpumps Deep lift handpumps tend to access the d e e p e r and more mineralised g r o u n d w a t e r , which is not an a c c e p t a b l e d r i n k i n g water s o u r c e for the majority of the rural community and, t h e r e f o r e , should be considered as a -domestic water f a c i l i t y .

r

PLATE D3:

DEMPSTER DEEP LIFT HANDPUMP

D-16

1

A deep lift handpump uses a lever system (handle) to operate a plunger housed in a cylinder. However, the cylinder operates remotely to the lever system, and is connected to it by means of a pump rod; this arrangement permits the cylinder to be located below water and, therefore, does not need to rely on the principle of suction. In fact, the depth at which it can operate is quite considerable - down to 50-60 metres . Essentially, the leverage mechanism is located above ground at the head of the well, and the cylinder or pumping unit is located down the tubewell casing, below the water level. Repair and maintenance of the above ground component is within the capability of most communities, given adequate training and support, and availability of spare parts and tools. However, repair and maintenance of the below ground component Is a different proposition; it requires some considerable effort and a range of tools not usually available at the community level to withdraw the pumping unitr from the casing for repair 2 . Although It is possible, and necessary in many cases, to involve- communities in the maintenance and repair of handpumps, it is normally essential that the more complex and major operations are the responsibility of a capable Institution (either public or private). To reduce the Institution's involvement in maintenance and repair operations, the UNDP have been developing a below ground pumping unit which can be withdrawn relatively easily by the community themselves, and is worthy of pilot testing in any future handpump programme. Tubewells 3jjrilled under the USAID program were all installed with Dempster handpumps as far as can be ascertained; those drilled more recently by the Irrigation Unit, Champassak Public Works Department (1975 to 1986), or the Champassak Provincial Health Department (post 1986) have generally been installed with India Mk II pumps or, in a few cases, Dempsters. Data on the condition of these existing deep lift handpumps is very scant, although UNICEF in 1988 recorded that of 54 tubewells in Ban None Pachow, Champassak, 45 are in good working condition ie. 83.3%. For comparison, a recent survey of UNICEF facilities showed that of 128 handpumps surveyed, 38 were operational ie. 29.7%. Observations on field visits however, would suggest that even this latter figure may be inflated. In addition, there are no spare parts readily available in Laos for the India Mk II; any spares which are needed have to be obtained from pumps which may be held in stock. UNICEF records indicate that at November 1988, ten India Mk II pumps were held in stock at the provincial offices of the health and irrigation departments, and that villagers needing spare parts from these pumps would have to make the journey to the offices to collect them.

1 The effort with depth. at a ■aiiois

* Qs 1 1 I 1 y eqaipaeat

r«e i 1 rud to At aroaad H for a child a tripod for the

operate the Batres, the or vosee.

aid p a 1 1 e y syi deeper wells.

3 Deapsters are aaaafactired The 1 1 a ad , hot ara aor aa 1 ! y t is t 1 tit Ion .

la oa 1y

t ie

lover effort

is

a ji t e ■ does leerease reqi I red Is perhaps

repaired

to

raise

any foaadrles throaphoat available throeph geviripeat

D-17

the

To address the spare parts problem, a rehabilitation programme was carried out by UNICEF in the past. However, India Mk II pumps were once again imported; a UNICEF report in 1988 noted that in a period (unstated) preceding November 1988, 56 India Mk II pumps were installed in Savannakhet province and four India Mk II pumps in Champassak. For comparison, Hans Spruijt in his report in March 1990, recorded that between 1987 and 1989 UNICEF assistance was provided for 46 handpump replacements and seven drilled tubewells. Recent data by the ICW however, records that between 1991 and 1989 of 605 handpump repairs were carried out during that time, there were 280 India Mk Il's imported. The problem of spare parts continues to exist. In the event that a tubewell/handpump programme is initiated in the future, it will be essential to consider the institutional requirement, and it is recommended that serious consideration be given to: a) The types of pumps to be used - it is recommended that only deep lift handpumps which are available from neighbouring countries, and for which spare parts are readily accessible should be considered for any future programmes. b) The responsibilities of the community and the government with respect to maintenance and repair. c) What resources will be needed for the maintenance and repair programme. d) Distribution and availability of spare parts and tools. e) Training requirements of the community and the government institutions. Community participation will be essential to the programme and is recommended. However, to enlist the community's involvement and continued support, careful planning and programming will be required. It is strongly recommended that the community and institutional requirements of the repair and maintenance aspects of any proposed tubewell/handpump programme be given priority at the planning stage of the programme. In addition, It is also strongly recommended that serious consideration be given to ways of addressing the institutional problems with the repair and maintenance of existing tubewells/handpumpp. 3.6.3 Direct Action Handpumps

The direct action handpump tends to access the shallower and fresher groundwater and, as such, can be considered to be both a drinking and domestic water facility. These types of pump Involve no leverage system, but rely on direct effort to raise and supply the water. Its main advantage is In Its simplicity, having no levers or bearings, both of which are prone to wear. However, because it has no leverage system, the direct effort needed to lift the water restricts its use to reasonably D-18

shallow water tables (between 7 and 12 metres) 1. It operates by means of lowering and r a i s i n g the rising main inside a s l e e v e , into which are fitted a couple of flap v a l v e s . The flap valves operate as the rising main is raised and lowered by a handle at the surface, causing ’ s l u g s " of water to be pushed up the rising main. The TARA is a direct action pump which has been supplied by UNICEF in the past, but no data, anecdotal or otherwise, has been uncovered to indicate its performance. This type of pump is useful in the 7 - 1 0 m depth range, and as such is worthy of further pilot t e s t i n g . However, it is recommended that a pump which is available in Thailand or Vietnam say, should be used for r e a s o n s of spare parts availability. Recent information Indicates that the TARA is now a v a i l a b l e in Thailand and, as such, may be a feasible option, although it is not known whether it is being promoted through the p r i v a t e or public s e c t o r . 3.7 Surface Ponds In general terms, ponds are only used in the plains and p l a t e a u areas such as the Vientiane Plain, Boloven P l a t e a u , etc. It appears that they are u s u a l l y excavated by hand and, consequently, are quite small in area and depth - up to 15m by 1 5id by 1.5m deep, approximately. From the limited field data obtained, it appears that they are primarily used for raising fish, water for livestock, and small-scale vegetable gardening. It is suspected however, that if the pond is in a convenient location, then it may also be used for domestic and/or drinking purposes, although the l a t t e r should not be encouraged. The capacity of the pond should be a function of the demand, soil characteristics; e v a p o r a t i o n r a t e s , precipitation, and their s e a s o n a l distribution. Unless fed from groundwater, or perennial surface streams within the pond catchment, a depth of 1. 5m is too shallow to provide a supply of water all year round. With evaporation rates of the order of 100mm to 170mm/month, and 85% of the precipitation occurring in the wet s e a s o n , a pond of some 3.5m is needed if water is to be maintained throughout the six months long dry s e a s o n . This Is difficult to achieve by hand e x c a v a t i o n , and is unlikely to be attempted by villagers unless they perceive it as a very important water source during the dry s e a s o n . Location and surface dimensions of the pond are, no doubt, e s t a b l i s h e d on the basis of past experiences by the villagers, and the a v a i l a b i l i t y and suitability of land. Little attention is paid to erosion when the pond is built and, in fact, some ponds have been observed with almost v e r t i c a l sides. Ponds do not appear to be a significant facility in terms of drinking and domestic water supply. However, they do a p p e a r to be an a c c e p t a b l e facility for other purposes in some areas, although it is very unlikely that most of them would have the capacity to provide water all year round. Ponds of this type are a facility which do not require any external capital or 1 The die M e t e r of the the d i a m e t e r d i r e c t l y effort r e p a i r e d which be o p e r a t e d .

r 1 1 1 10 e a l i d i f f e r s w i t h w a r y i i g M o d e l s ; a f f e c t s the w e i g h t of w a t e r r a i s e d aid the 11 l i r a , a f f e c t s the d e p t h at w h i c h it caw

D-19

operational expenditure. Provided labour is supplied at no cost, then all that may be required perhaps is some technical guidance to improve the performance of the pond, such as correct siting of the pond in the catchment, suitable batters to control erosion, et,c. More socio-cultural information is needed about the use of ponds in the context of rural water supply, so that their role may be assessed more accurately. 3.8 Rainwater Collection Rainwater does not appear to be universally accepted as a drinking water source in Laos, but where it has been used in the past, it has been collected and stored in a variety of containers Including small earthenware Jars, bamboo stems, and In discarded 200 litre oil drums. All have minimal to small-storage capability, which means they cannot be classified as reliable facilities, especially in the dry season. In quite recent times, rainwater Jars have appeared in neighbouring Thailand, and are a facility designed to help overcome this problem.

PLATE D4: DRUMS COLLECTING RAINWATER

3.8.1 Rainwater Jars These are normally a drinking water facility, but they are only at the trial stage As yet In Laos. They were introduced in Luang Prabang initially, but in very limited numbers, and subsequently in Ban Dang, Nong Bok District, Khammouane Province in 1990 by the Lao Women’s Union to assess their acceptability by the rural communities. D-20

The jar is made of cement mortar, reinforced with wire mesh. The body of the jar is formed by plastering the cement onto a mould which is made up of a steel mesh frame, interwoven with split bamboo. Recent socio-cultural survey data from Ban Dang indicate thab they are not yet a well accepted drinking water facility by the villagers. Many complained that the redwood shingle and thatched roofing materials imparted a colour (red/brown) and smell to the water, which made it unacceptable for drinking. However, the survey does record some which are used for drinking purposes, which probably reflects the answers given by those people having galvanised steel sheet roofs. It was also recorded that cement jars were being shared between two or three households, with the jar being located in some "common ground" near the houses, and roof runoff directed into the jar by very long bamboo stems. Even If the jars are reserved for drinking purposes only, this type of sharing arrangement will almost certainly mean that there will not be enough storage to make the jar a reliable facility during the whole of the 'dry season. Used for domestic purposes as well, then the storage life will be so short as to make them almost useless as a water facility in the dry season. Rainwater jars can be a very effective means of providing a water supply. In northeast Thailand, for example, they have been adopted extensively by the rural community as a private facility. Typical costs are in the 450 to 550 Baht range, and the jars are usually located immediately adjacent to the house, so that downpipes from the roofing system can be easily directed into the jar. The Thai Government has promoted the jar as a drinking water facility, with sufficient storage in two jars (3600 litres) to support an average family of 5- 6 people with five litres/capita/day throughout a dry spell of 120-140 days. This is still insufficient when compared to the length of the dry season - 180-200 days. However, it is a water whose taste is acceptable to the rural community, the convenience of supply is very high, perceived quality by the user is high, and it actually belongs to the individual household 1. All of these factors have contributed to its success in most parts of Thailand, together with the fact that it is a facility which can be developed progressively with an improvement in the economic level of the household. Provided certain procedures are carried out, jars are a very effective facility for providing a relatively safe drinking water. For example, taps which are often fitted near to the base of the jars prevent recontamination of the water with the use of dippers and buckets, and mosquito nets and/or metal lids to cover the opening prevent the jar from becoming a potential mosquito breeding ground, and the also exclude the entry of general debris. Corrugated steel roofing sheets 2 are desirable, and are normally used for the collection of rainwater as they Impart no taste or colour to the water. However, during the dry season, the roof will accumulate dust and general debris, but the villagers normally allow the first few heavy rains of the wet season to run off to waste. Thereafter, the water is directed by means of a gutter and downpipe system Into the jar.

1

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oa

the

sitaatloa

aaaafactarad

la

li

Thai l e a d .

Vloatlase.

D-21

PLATE D5: CEMENT RAINWATER JAR The bacteriological quality of the water is usually far higher than for most other rural facilities and, in fact, for households having two or more jars, the opportunity exists to improve the quality "even more, by utilising the treatment process of prolonged storage. Utilising water from one jar, whilst allowing the other to fill and store for a period of time, is a practice which will lead to an Improvement in the bacteriological quality of water. Tests carried out in Thailand have shown that the bacteriological quality of water improves remarkably during storage 1 . During the initial days the suspended solids, to which the bacteria are attached, settle out to the bottom of the jar leading to an improvement in the upper layers of the water. Thereafter, and without the addition of further nutrients during the storage period, the bacteria die off substantially because their food supply is gradually depleted. Even storages of relatively short durations will result in significant improvements in bacteriological quality. In fact, in the wet season, the average storage period in the jar is usually quite short, because the household appear to use the rainwater for both domestic and drinking purposes, as it is very convenient and they know that the storage will be replenished frequently by the heavy rains. As the dry season establishes itself, It appears that villagers become more selective, and tend to reserve the jar for drinking purposes only. In the Lao context, rainwater jars will have to be considered carefully, because only a relatively small percentage of houses have corrugated steel roof systems. Most houses have redwood shingle or thatched roofs, and the recent socio-cultural 1 . “Decreases of Col if ora Bacteria la Drliklig Water Stored la Large Ceieit Jars" by Ural via Imoig (Mahldol Baireral t y > shoved that the a a ab e r of total aad faecal collforaa redace rapid I r over a retest too t 1 se of 1-6 daps, aad drlakiag voter qoallty cai bo achieved after it days.

D-22

survey in Khammouane has already highlighted the problems of acceptability caused by the taste and odour imparted to the water by redwood roofs, and the debris transferred to the water with thatched roofs. It may be wise therefore, when considering a jar project in a village to include as part of the facility, a few sheets of corrugated steel roofing and guttering system for each house. Even so, complaints of poor taste are still likely to arise during the first year (of use, which is usually the period it takes for the excess lime to leach out of the' cement;- this process normally stabilises after a year or so. Most corrugated steel roofs are located in the more urbanised areas, and it may be worthwhile considering these areas to carry out some further testing with rainwater jars. It may also be worthwhile to introduce jars as a private facility rather than a communal or shared facility. Private facilities are normally well maintained and operated, since they are the property of the individual household. In addition, the relatively small-storage modules are not appropriate for communal facilities. In 1984, Khon Kaen University, Thailand, undertook hydrologic studies for the collection and storage of roof runoff water. These studies were undertaken for the northeast of Thailand which has a much lower annual rainfall than Laos generally,3 but has a similar seasonal distribution. The studies showed that a storage of‘,5 m is required, together with a roof area of 60m2 to provide five Ipcd for a family of five people throughout the dry season, given an average annual rainfall of 1000 to 2000mm/annum1 . This is equivalent to slightly less than three rainwater jars (3x1,800 litres = 5,400 litres), and is not really feasible at this stage. However, the studies also showed that for an 11% annual deficit, the storage would only need to be 3600 litres, which is the equivalent of two jars, and is probably a more realistic goal within the foreseeable future. Considering a staged approach however, and working on the basis of 2-3 ipcd as an Interim goal for drinking water, and with an average family size of six, then two jars would provide enough storage for the whole of the dry season. This is an appropriate approach, and further work needs to be done in this area if rainwater jars are to be tested as a viable option for drinking water. Payment for the facility is usually the responsibility of each household, although it may be facilitated by means of a revolving fund, possibly seeded by UNICEF or similar. Initially in Thailand, it was Intended that jars were made at village level by the villagers themselves, possibly with the help of a seeded revolving fund. However, within a relatively short period of time, small entrepreneurs established themselves, making the jars in bulk -and selling them to villagers; this appears to be the most popular system now, and may well be the case for Laos. Finally, one possible and potentially serious drawback to the introduction of rainwater jars in Laos is- the fact that rainwater is not an accepted source of drinking water. It is said to be bland and tasteless. However, it is recommended that further pilot testing of rainwater jars is carried out with thorough social and technical preparation. Adequate baseline data collection, and well designed monitoring will be essential if the pilot testing is to be evaluated properly. 1 Two s l t « s ; , . » e r t aaaiysed; ether hivlig IXOOia/iBtia both had 'sll.ght-ly dlffereit resat ted la both aliilatUia

«■« h a v i a g 1 0 0 O ■ ■ / a a i tt ■ AAR, a i d the AAR. l o w e v e r , .It was foand that they se'asoial dlstribatieii, which* reqair-lag .a s t o r a g e of sa 3 .

D—23

3.8.2 Ferro Cement Tanks As far as can be ascertained, ferro cement tanks have not been tested in Laos as yet. However, they are considered appropriate for inclusion in this section of the report, because of their significant potential. They have been used quite extensively in northeastern Thailand for larger storage requirements eg. schools, colleges, etc. The standard tank size 1 is 12m , having a typical materials cost of approximately 5,000 Baht. They are constructed in a similar way to rainwater jars, s by plastering cement mortar onto a steel mesh layer, but no mould is used in this case. Ferro cement tanks are normally fed from roofwater collection systems and, as such, are a very appropriate facility for the supply of drinking water. However, where they are used in institutions having large roof areas, with large runoff volumes, then they can also be used for domestic purpose's as well eg. schools, hospitals, etc. I

It is a facility which builds on existing village technology, and is one which can be implemented by the community itself with some external assistance and is, therefore, considered to be a very appropriate facility, and worthy of incorporating in either a schools or hospitals programme. 3.9 Gravity Feed Systems A gravity feed system (GES) is merely a means of conveying water from a high level source, either a spring or mountain stream, and then conveying it by pipeline down to the community at a much .lower elevation. The difference in. elevation provides the pressure head necessary to drive the water through the pipeline. GFS have been introduced into Laos in recent years as an -appropriate facility because: "They build on the technology of using bamboo gravity pipes traditionally used in Laos. "They involve- reasonably low maintenance costs, and no power costs. Essentially, a GFS comprises of: a) Spring collection chamber or small, dam across a high level mountain stream. b) A (pressure) pipeline, conveying the water down to the community at a much lower level; this pipeline may incorporate a pressure break tank, if the elevation difference is too great. *

c) Distribution pipework feeding several public standpipes. Communities in the vicinity of the source or stream may. already have been utilising the water for drinking, domestic, vegetable gardening, watering of livestock, etc. It is suspected that in these cases, existing users are given very D-24

l i t t l e consideration when the survey and design for the GFS is being carried out. However, It is not uncommon to find villages which have already c o n s t r u c t e d a bamboo gravity pipe system to convey the water down to a more c o n v e n i e n t location, from where water is then carried back to the village by harp and bucket. T r a d i t i o n a l bamboo g r a v i t y systems operate reasonably well, but their a b i l i t y to negotiate difficult terrain is limited by the fact t h a t every s e c t i o n of bamboo can only act as a gravity c h a n n e l conveyor ie. each diaphragm of the bamboo stem is cut out to allow the p a s s a g e of water, which creates series of openings along the top of the bamboo "pipe". Thus flow under p r e s s u r e is not possible, and this limits the pipeline l a y o u t , topographically. In addition, it needs replacing quite often because the water rots the bamboo, and the support system across gullies, etc. Is often damaged by high winds and animals.

I ',

a Vi 'i

i'J

Ml?

. I

PLATE D6: WATER USE AT GFS STANDPIPE

The planning and s e l e c t i o n processes for GFS are covered In detail in Report Part G. Once a village has been selected for a GFS however, It becomes the responsibility of the d i s t r i c t and/or provincial water t e c h n i c i a n s working under the Provincial Health Department to survey, design, and supervise the implementation of the GFS. Design plans are sometimes sent back to the ICW at the central level for review and checking. Survey and design appears to have a technical bias however; field o b s e r v a t i o n s and i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n d i c a t e that little consideration is given to e x i s t i n g users of the source and other social considerations. Funding for the provision of equipment and materials for the GFS is usually provided by UNICEF or an NGO. Up to 1990, the Lao PDR government have had no budget for e i t h e r c a p i t a l or operational e x p e n d i t u r e for GFS, or any other type of D-25

village water supply facility; budget is normally only provided to cover such costs as s a l a r i e s , and this is u s u a l l y only paid after some considerable delay ( 3 - 2 4 months, in some c a s e s ) . UNICEF normally provide funding for procurement and t r a n s p o r t of m a t e r i a l s to Tha Nalang port near Vientiane. The cost of t r a n s p o r t from Tha Nalang to the provincial c a p i t a l is normally the responsibility of the r e s p e c t i v e provincial a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , except in s p e c i a l circumstances, when the central government pays 1 . Transport costs from the provincial c a p i t a l are usually the responsibility of the village Involved. In a d d i t i o n , they provide labour, sand, g r a v e l , food and accommodation for the t e c h n i c i a n s , timber for the construction work, and, in some cases, a financial contribution of 500 to 1,000 Kip per household. NGOs work in a very similar way, except that they also provide some out of pocket e x p e n s e s for the t e c h n i c i a n s both during the i n i t i a l survey work, and in the implementation phase. They also i n s i s t on the village e n t e r i n g into a legal c o n t r a c t to provide a s s i s t a n c e in kind, and sometimes in cash. Quakers (NGO) r e c e n t l y e s t i m a t e d that the cost of material procurement for GFS generally, including t r a n s p o r t to Tha Nalang, was approximately USSlO/capita, based on an a s s e s s m e n t of e x i s t i n g records.

PLATE D7: STANDPIPE - LACK OF MAINTENANCE

The level of community participation in the p l a n n i n g of GFS is not clear at this s t a g e . However, it is clear that once the implementation is complete, the management, m a i n t e n a n c e , and operation of the system is entirely in the hands of 1 A l a r g e c o n s i g n m e n t of 0 M I C E F s a p p l i e d ■ D P E p i p e recently t r a n s p o r t e d to ( Sa r a b o n I 1 a n d I i e a g I h o i a i g f o r a total of a r o n a d 12 G F S , and vas a p p a r e n t l y paid for by t h e c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t at a cost c l a i m e d to be s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n 20 e n d 30 m i l l i o n K i p .

D-26

the community. No formal training is provided to the villagers; it is basically "onthe-job” training by the district and/or provincial technicians, and is technical In nature. Very little preparation is carried out for the villagers in respect of the on-go|ng maintenance and management requirements of the system. It Is apparent that where a GFS has been installed In a village, and there Is a real need, the villagers do make every attempt to maintain the system and keep it operational. Their efforts are often minimised due to the unavailability of spare parts and tools; taps which are broken for example, are replaced by tapered pieces of bamboo which are rammed into the end of the standpipe. In high pressure systems, this makeshift repair makes it very difficult to achieve a watertight joint, and usually leaks continuously. Broken sections of pipe are also often rejoined using sections of bamboo, which are tapered at both ends; this is also unsuccessful in high pressure systems. Observations 'during field visits have led to the conclusion that where there are existing urban water supplies, private sector outlets seem to stock spare parts such as taps, and uPVC and galvanised mild steel (GMS) pipes (gate valves and nonreturn valves do not appear to be available, except In Vientiane). In fact, many GFS have been Implemented in provinces where there are no urban water supplies and spare parts are not available; consequently, sustainability of the systems has1 not been possible. In addition, and as far as can be ascertained, every organisation implementing GFS In Laos is using HDPE pipe, imported from Thailand or elsewhere In the region. This material makes a very durable high pressure pipe, but neither the pipe nor the optional compression fittings are available anywhere In Laos; therefore, any breaks In the pipeline make repairs extremely difficult, if not impossible. Some of the provincial technicians have access to heating plates, which could be used to rejoint pipe breaks by heat welding, provided there is some tolerance in the pipe length, but no evidence of this type of on-going support has been found to date. Short lengths of HDPE pipe are held at some PHD's, apparently for pipe repairs but, once again, no evidence has been found to suggest that It is used for this purpose. Instead, It appears to be used to support new systems not "authorised” by the donor. It is strongly recommended that serious consideration is given to establishing the institutional support necessary to make spare parts available, particularly where p r i v a t e sector outlets are not established. Management of the GFS by the community is thought to be through the village organisation. In all the field visits, not one village has been found which charges for water supply. Maintenance responsibility varies from community to community. Villages have been visited where maintenance requirements are minimal, because the social and technical preparations were good, or because the system was relatively new. Others visited had such high maintenance requirements that maintenance teams have been formed which operate on a roster basis (say 1 week in 8), so that the heavy and time consuming workload can be distributed amongst the community. Generally speaking, the standard of design and construction of the GFS Is at a reasonable standard in the circumstances. However, there are several areas where Improvements need to be made, the most significant perhaps being pipeline design. The technicians do not appear to appreciate the problems created by "high points"

D-27

In the pipeline; usually at these points air comes out of solution with the water and accumulates at the "peak". As the air accumulates in significant quantities, it restricts the flow of water, thus causing supply problems. Some technicians claim that they are aware of the problem, and that they instruct the villagers on how to release the air by means of Inserting a screw at the high point of the pipeline, which can be unscrewed as required to release the air. It is claimed that the method works well, but further investigation is required to assess the validity of the claim. In summary, a GFS is a facility which provides a water supply at a high convenience level, but can only do so in some of the mountainous areas, consequently, can only service a relatively small proportion of the rural population. However, there are some issues and problems which were, identified during the field visits, and which require further consideration and investigation, and are summarised below. 3.9.1 Calcium Carbonate Deposition In limestone areas, calcium carbonate deposition is occurring in the pipeline which, in some cases, causes complete blockage of the pipe within one year. No chemical analyses of the raw water has been carried out, but observations of the calcium deposition in stream beds and anecdotal information about the pipeline is an indication that the hardness of the water is very high, as one would expect in limestone areas. The hardness of water which is principally caused by calcium can be removed by treatment with chemicals (excess lime) to precipitate a large quantity of the carbonate hardness. Such an exercise involves careful training, operation and maintenance, purchase of chemicals, and disposal of the large quantities of sludge which are produced with this process. A more feasible alternative is to prevent or substantially reduce the calcium precipitation in the pipelines; this can be achieved if the chemical balance of the water can be controlled to some extent. In most GFS, the raw water source is a small dam which collects the mountain stream water some distance downstream from the actual source. It is unavoidable therefore, that at the source or spring opening, pressure change, aeration, and carbon dioxide release will all cause a chemical change in the water. It Is this change which often affects the carbonatebicarbonate equilibrium In the water, causing deposition of the calcium carbonate. In addition, the chemical reaction causing the deposition Is accelerated when the temperature of the. water is elevated. All of these factors combine to create the calcium carbonate deposition In the pipe. This problem Is aggravated by the pipeline design seen in virtually all the field visits. For instance, where It traverses a gully, bamboo poles are used to support the pipeline; this results in a series of "peaks” and "troughs” In the pipeline. At the peaks, air will come out of solution in the water and accumulate, which will provide a supply of air, thus supporting the precipitation process. The calcium carbonate precipitate Is then possibly accumulating in the troughs. Additionally, the pipeline Is very often laid above ground, which permits the sun's solar energy to heat up the water, thus accelerating the chemical process. In addition, the pipe material is usually black HDPE which will absorb the heat more readily. Villagers claim that they have to regularly remove the calcium carbonate by hitting the pipe with a heavy object, D-28

to break up the solidified deposit, and then flush it out of the pipeline. Pipelines laid above ground do facilitate removal of calcium carbonate deposit; buried pipelines obviously have to be uncovered, and this requires some considerable effort, especially if the villagers are having to remove the deposit every year or so. The calcium carbonate deposition problem could be minimised if: a) More care is exercised in pipeline design and installation, in order to avoid the "peak" and "trough" situation. b) Whenever possible, the raw water collection point is located as near as possible to the source to reduce the degree of chemical change occurring in the water. c) Consideration should be given to burying the pipeline for Its entire length; where this is not possible, some form of insulation around the exterior of the pipe should be considered.

PLATE D8: PROBLEMS - MAINTENANCE, ORDINANCE, PIPE-LAYING

3.9.2 Excavation for Pipeline As mentioned previously, much of the pipeline used In GFS is laid above the ground; apart from the problem of calcium deposition, this practice exposes It to possible damage, especially by vandalism. It Is claimed that people upstream along the pipeline often damage and/or cut into the pipe; further Investigation revealed that this situation was occurring where separate villages were in dispute with each D-29

other. It has not really been established why the pipeline is laid above ground, except in war ravaged provinces such as Xieng Khouang, where it is quite common to encounter unexploded bombs at a very shallow depth. Villagers are thus very reluctant to excavate for the pipeline. In these cases, consideration needs to be given to the use of metal detectors or similar. 3.9.3 Standpipe Taps Taps in use are of a low quality generally, and fall into disrepair very quickly with heavy use, such as occurs at standpipes which are a public facility. Consideration should be given to installing taps of a higher quality having a longer life; this may be more cost-effective. It Is recommended that this concept be included in some future projects, and monitored and evaluated. 3.9.4 Source Capacity versus Demand It appears that during the design stage, the flows from the source are not always measured. Neither does it seem that there is any attempt to assess demand, and the fact that there are no guidelines for desirable quantities of water supply, makes it very difficult for technicians to assess whether the GFS can actually meet the demand. Source flows appear to be "estimated", which compounds the problem, If the estimate Is overly optimistic. In addition, the source flows are not always assessed during the latter half of the dry season (lowest flow), which means that a worst case scenario cannot even be attempted. Consequently, there are many cases where implementation has proceeded on the basis of extremely low flows equivalent to 16 Ipcd or less in some cases 1 . Situations like this Invariably lead to social problems (which will only be exacerbated with population growth), and may even lead to a complete rejection of the GFS. More comprehensive training is required on the aspects of site assessment and demand analysis. 3.10 Reticulated Vater Supplies Reticulated water supplies which infer the use of individual, metered, house connections are not commonly used in village water supplies in the Lao PDR. In fact, the only places where they are known to be used other than in some of the urban provincial centres, is in Khammouane and Savannakhet provinces, where reticulated supplies have been implemented to serve a small proportion of the population in seven district, two sub-district towns, and a few villages. Although most of these would be officially classified as urban, clearly most of these "towns" are in a rural setting. They have all been implemented in the past three or four years utilising UNICEFdonated black HDPE pipe 2 , which has always been supplied to Laos through the ICV in various diameters up to a maximum of 90 mm. Although the pipes and other materials were supplied through the ICV, the technology involved in implementation 1 A CFS has r«c«itly flaw (fiivalsit to

ban fin Ipcd.

nd

■ It h a s «a a t b s n aacartaiaad whatkar daslssatsd far thasa tana, ar vhathsr frsi aaatkar spprsnd lacatlaa.

D-30

ipyroved

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oa

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vaa ariflaallp vaa "dlvartad"

af

■

required a knowledge of electrically powered pumps, meter installation, pressurised pipelines, etc. and was clearly beyond their capability. It was necessary, therefore, for the Nam Papa, Savannakhet to assume responsibility and undertake implementation of the supplies. The Nam Papa urban supply in Savannakhet is particularly well managed and operated, which is primarily due to the manager's leadership qualities and technical competence . The sources for the supplies comprise of USAID drilled tubewells, and purposely built shallow wells. In the latter case, the sources are in areas having shallow groundwater which is known to be reliable throughout the dry season. In most of the cases, the source comprises of a ring of interconnected wells which create a much greater "effective" diameter and, thus, a much greater yield. Electrification of the district towns is comparatively well advanced in Savannakhet, which has permitted development of all the sources by means of electric pump; submersibles In the tubewells, and centrifugal suction pumps in the shallow wells. Using internal funds, Nam Papa purchased the pumps second-hand from Thailand and reconditioned them in Savannakhet, including rewinding of the electric motors, and obtained the agreement of the communities involved that the cost would be recovered from future revenue. Given the small diameter of the pipe reticulation, coverage Is extremely lowj typically In the range 40-120 families in a community size ranging from 600-800 families, with very little opportunity to extend. Revenue Is based on a flat tariff of 120-150 Kip/m , and collection was originally the responsibility of the village committee, which was one of many they had with these community managed systems. However, since implementation three of the supplies, at the request of the committees, are now institutionally managed by Nam Papa, with full-time operators supported by the Savannakhet staff. The manager of Nam Papa expects the remainder of the towns to make similar requests within the near future. The ordering of small diameter pipes to service the high level of demand normally associated with district towns is clear evidence that the ICW did not carry out any planning for these water supplies. The result is that initial coverage is totally Inadequate, with minimal potential for improvement, and implemented supplies which will probably have serious social consequences. Planning and implementation for water supplies for district towns requires a much higher skill level than that for village level facilities, and is beyond the capability of the ICW. It is recommended that the ICW should confine its WES activities to village level water supplies. 4.0 EXISTING SITUATION ON ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION 4.1 Traditional Practices 4.1.1 Excreta Disposal

Traditionally the rural communities of Laos have defecated in the forests adjacent to the village, the forests being a place where some privacy could be gained. The 1 T k ■ ■ a a a 0 • r of M a ■ Pa p a Savaaaakhet received ( H e a t ) C a r a a a y f r o i 1 * 7 3 to 1 S 7 B , b e f o r e t a k l a o politico.

D-31

t ro 1 i 1 i( o v e r the

la

faeces then decompose aerobically on the s u r f a c e , or anaerobically if it has infiltrated into the soil under the action of the rain. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , they may be washed down into s t r e a m s during heavy rains. In forests which are located c o n v e n i e n t l y to the village, the people do not appear to see defecating there as a problem and, in fact, there are no known s t u d i e s definitely c o r r e l a t i n g this practice with the health s t a t u s of the villagers, except perhaps for hookworm. Where d e f o r e s t a t i o n has occurred around villages however, it a p p e a r s that villagers, and women and old people in p a r t i c u l a r , are becoming increasingly concerned about the r e s u l t i n g lack of privacy.

4.1.2 Sullage Sullage, which is w a s t e w a t e r from all such a c t i v i t i e s as dishwashing and l a u n d r y other than toilet w a s t e s , does not appear to have created any significant environmental s a n i t a t i o n or h e a l t h PLATE D9: ELEVATED WATER TANK problems for the rural communities in the past. The sheer physical effort and long times required to collect and haul water has maintained water consumption f i g u r e s at a fairly low level. The r e s u l t i n g s u l l a g e has c o n s e q u e n t l y been quite low, and a p p e a r s to have been e a s i l y disposed of by Infiltration into the surface soils. However, it is recommended t h a t a f u r t h e r a s s e s s m e n t of this s i t u a t i o n is made in the wet s e a s o n .

4.1.3 Solid Waste Disposal In the past, this has e s s e n t i a l l y been the disposal of food and other biodegradable organic m a t t e r , such as banana l e a v e s used for wrapping of food Items, and has not been a real h e a l t h hazard or n u i s a n c e . Solid waste would be collected in a basket in the house and, either discarded on the edge of the village on a frequent basis, or in some cases buried in a c o n v e n i e n t location. Within a relatively short period of time, the waste would be biologically s t a b i l i s e d by natural processes, and safely assimilated into the environment . This disposal process a p p e a r s to have been

1 Of t • ■ , etc.

the

vHs t e

is

conned

aid

D-32

reprocosied

by

pigs,

dogs,

very satisfactory to the villagers. 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION FACILITIES 5.1 Latrines (Excreta Disposal) In general, government institutions and aid organisations see sanitation as being a very significant factor in the achievement of good health within the community. In order to achieve this, they recommend that excreta is disposed of in such a way that the pathogens are contained and destroyed in a system isolated from the normal human habitat and, preferably, in a way that will be of minimum nuisance value to the community, and will not adversely affect the environment. On this basis, excreta disposal facilities ie. latrines, have been Introduced to the rural communities through the ICW over the last decade, with the express intention of improving health conditions. The actual coverage of the rural population with latrines is not known at this stage, although it is not thought to be much more than about 1-2%,

PLATE DIO: VILLAGE LATRINE

Global data and -field visits within Laos however, indicate that rural communities do not perceive defecation in the forests as a health hazard, and therefore do not relate Improved health to the installation of latrines. Generally they do not appear to perceive a need for latrines based on health considerations. Previous studies have attempted to quantify health and environmental benefits arising from water supply and sanitation development, but the inherent problems in such an exercise have been a serious obstacle to date, and no clear cut relationship has been established, interestingly though, some villages have been visited in which the community "appear" to be actively requesting latrines. It is thought that in these cases, the motivating factor may well be convenience, or privacy. Further sociocultural data is required in this respect. D-33

There are several types of latrine available for use with rural communities , the type of latrine to be adopted being influenced by the level of water service in the community, traditional anal cleansing practices, and general soil conditions. The two types that have been most commonly used to date in Laos are the pit latrine and the pour-flush latrine. There is no doubt that, In villages having limited supplies of water, pit latrines, or a variation thereof, are the only feasible technical option. Pit latrines exist in some areas of Laos in their most basic form ie. the pit itself, the walls of which are invariably unsupported, the squatting plate (usually timber decking), and the shelter (bamboo and thatched roof). This type of facility is based on the concept that the shelter and squatting plate can be relocated when the pit is full 2 . Most of the pit latrines observed to date have been abandoned. It appears that villagers do not readily accept them: they complain that the pits produce strong odours and attract flies. In addition, they are also concerned that the timber decking (squatting plate) may collapse under their weight. In one village in Luang Prabang however, pit latrines were seen to be well accepted; the villagers explained that they controlled the odours by regularly covering the excreta in the pit with ashes, which absorbed the odours. In cases where pit latrines are appropriate, and where they are in response to a request from the community, it may be worthwhile investigating this village further, and using it as a means of extending the practice to other communities. Two ventilated improved pit latrines are being pilot tested in the Vientiane Province by Save the Children Fund, UK; the performance and acceptance of these facilities should be monitored and assessed, as they may prove to be more acceptable than the pit latrine. In villages having improved water supplies (in terms of quantity), or very convenient and abundant traditional water sources, pour-flush. latrines are probably one of the most viable options. Certainly this is the type currently being promoted by the ICW. In Laos, this type of latrine comprises of a pit, normally lined with concrete rings; a reinforced concrete squatting plate (located directly above the pit) which houses the latrine bowl, and the shelter (bamboo and thatched roof). The concrete lining prevents collapse of the pit walls, and the latrine bowl contains a water seal which prevents odours escaping from the pit. The excreta is conveyed from the latrine bowl into the pit by water which is flushed into the bowl by a handscoop; the flushing requirement of this type of facility can add an extra 3 to 6 1/c/d to a family's water consumption. Where Improved water supplies have been implemented, and quantity of water is plentiful, then this type of facility Is very appropriate. Properly maintained, they eliminate the problems of odours and flies, and the purpose-made squatting plate appears to give the villagers more confidence against the possibility of collapse. Cement latrine bowls are manufactured locally in the few provinces where latrines 1 Appropriate Technology for water Sipp 1 y a ■ d Baak , Daceaber 1 9 8 0 , con t a 1 aa a coaprakeaatva types of 1 a t r 1 ae a . 1

of

Fell tho

la thio coatait aeaaa tho difleated Pit; tho reaalalag *0* coo thee bo

D-34

Sul tat lot asaeasaeat

a India filled

haa vlth

,

filled soil.

world of all

70*

have been installed, and appear to be the most common type. However, many villagers complain that the surface is too rough, requiring too much water to flush away the excreta, and adequately clean the bowl. uPVC bowls have also been provided by UNICEF in the past, but it appears that the villagers consider these difficult to clean also. The smoother ceramic bowls are much preferred, but they are also much more expensive - 300 to 500 Baht. One problem in Laos with this type of facility is the fact that sticks are traditionally used for anal cleansing, and pour-flush latrines do not pass sticks easily into the pit; this can lead to unsanitary conditions Inside the shelter which may lead to a rejection of the facility by the villagers. More socio-technical studies are required in this respect. Soil and groundwater conditions are critical for the satisfactory performance of either pit or pour-flush latrines. The soil is the medium into which the liquid component of the excreta infiltrates, and is where the bacteria and pathogens are broken down and digested by naturally occurring organisms, over a period of time. A soil which is very permeable however, may permit the effluent to travel over long distances in a relatively short time, thus increasing the risk of contamination of shallow wells, and in cases where the density of latrines is high, possibly the shallow groundwater. A soil which is very impermeable, may not accept the effluent at the rate at which it is feeding into the pit, and this will obviously result in very unsanitary conditions occurring around the squatting plate. In addition, th£ occurrence of shallow groundwater will not only prevent the outflow of effluent from the pit into the soil, but It will also result in a high risk of groundwater contamination. Unstable soil conditions can also result in the collapse of the pit if it is not lined. A recent survey of UNICEF facilities has recorded a significant number of pit collapses for improved facilities (concrete lined pits), indicating that the concrete lining has been omitted during the installation. In villages where NGOs are working and promoting latrines, the bowls and cement rings are normally provided by the NGO, with the villagers contributing their labour, materials such as sand and gravel, and bamboo. UNICEF have operated in much the same way in the past, using provincial and district health technicians to supervise the implementation. Some villages are now funding the whole cost of latrine Installation. However, there is some doubt as to the origin of the request, which appears in many cases to have been prompted by the PHD. If this is the case, the issue of sustainability will be the test of whether the community actually wanted the latrines. More extensive and detailed pilot projects and studies are required in this field to Investigate the relationship between the various social and technical issues affecting these types of facilities. The kind of data emanating from these projects and studies should enable the PHD officials to provide a much better assistance and follow-up support to villages in the future, especially in terms of hygiene education and maintenance of facilities. 5.2 Sullage Disposal The introduction of improved water supplies is gradually leading to increased water availability in the rural communities, and this may lead to unsanitary conditions and a gradual deterioration of the general environment without adequate D-35

p r e c a u t i o n s . Evidence of this has already been witnessed in some v i l l a g e s having public standpipes and unsatisfactory drainage provisions. In these s i t u a t i o n s , where the community bathe and l a u n d e r clothes at the s t a n d p i p e , s t a n d i n g sullage may result. Sullage u s u a l l y contains considerably fewer pathogens than toilet wastes, but it does contain a s u b s t a n t i a l amount of organic compounds. Where water consumption is relatively high, and large amounts of sullage are produced, the process of biodegradation of these waste organics may produce an area of very unsanitary conditions eg. odours, algae. The limited number of pathogens in sullage r e p r e s e n t a risk of causing a health hazard, although where s t a n d i n g s u l l a g e appears, it may produce a breeding ground for mosquitoes which could be v e c t o r s of malaria. Disposal of sullage may not be a significant problem for some time in rural Laos, but good d r a i n a g e practices a s s o c i a t e d with the siting of s t a n d p i p e s and the like will certainly a l l e v i a t e any p o t e n t i a l environmental and health h a z a r d s . In draining however, care must be exercised to avoid the s i t u a t i o n where s u l l a g e collects in a low point, or small pond, because anaerobic conditions may occur which will lead to significant environmental problems. For a rural community, it is much b e t t e r to u t i l i s e natural drainage systems wherever possible. In the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g process for the siting of s t a n d p i p e s , shallow wells, etc. adequate drainage provision must be considered, together with the other factors such as convenience, availability of land, etc.

6.3 Solid Waste Disposal Plastic bags are now in much greater use around villages which, together with an increase in PLATE Dll: SOLID WASTE PROBLEM population d e n s i t y , are s t a r t i n g to produce the first signs of waste disposal problems. Plastic is not a biodegradable product and, if not disposed of properly, will accumulate over a long period of time. Disposal of household refuse is effected in some rural communities by means of

D-36

burial, by which the organic matter is processed and stabilised biologically, and the inorganic matter, such as plastic Is permanently concealed. This is considered to be a very appropriate means of solid waste disposal for discrete- rural communities, and is worthy of promoting. 7.0 MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT 7.1 Introduction Laos has no manufacturing base in the WES sector and, therefore all materials and equipment have to be imported eg. pipes, valves, cement, pumps, .chemicals, etc. In the past In the rural WES sub-sector, donors such as UNICEF and the NGOs have been responsible for importing the bulk of these items, although the private sector has had some involvement, especially along the extremities of the international borders. 7.2 Import Duty Materials and equipment imported for WES activities by international organisations such as UNICEF and NGOs are not subject to any import duty, whereas thos6 Imported by the private sector are fully assessed. In this context, it could be argued that the rural people who are trying to improve their own water supplies by working through the private sector are being penalised. Water is a basic human need, and improved supplies are needed to improve the general quality of life, and contribute to the improvements in health and economic status of the community. In this respect, it is in the interests of the Lao government to- stimulate the WES rural sub-sector development, and one way in which they could assist is by reviewing the import duty process as applied to essential WES materials and equipment. A reduction or complete elimination of duty on WES imports would not only assist the community carrying out capital investment through the private sector, but it would also assist in procurement and distribution of spare parts for existing WES systems through private sector outlets. 7.3 Transportation The cost of transportation of WES materials and spare parts to the port of Tha Nalang, Vientiane, is normally paid by the donor agency. Thereafter, the transport bill for the leg of the journey between Tha Nalang and the provincial capital is met by the provincial administration, and that for the..leg between the provincial capital and the village site Is met by the community themselves. There are. slight variations on this process depending upon the organisation involved, and the circumstances surrounding the particular project. However, because of the underdeveloped nature of Laos' roads and the resulting low level of accessibility, transportation costs tend to be relatively high, as indicated by Table D2. With, the high priority assigned to road building and road improvements by the Lao government, this problem will gradually reduce, but it is likely to remain a significant problem within the next five to ten years. D—37

TABLE D2: TRANSPORTATION COSTS IN THE LAO PDR - GENERAL CARGO a. Truck max loaded 8 tons or 15 m 3 - Thanaleng - Vientiane Prefecture (excluding storage at Thanaleng warehouse) - Minimum Charges - Vientiane - Phone Hong

USD 5/M 3 USD 30 USD 105/truck

b. Truck max, loaded 6 tons or 15 nr, minimum charge 6 tons - Vientiane - Luang Prabang (430 Km) - Vientiane - Sayaboury (528 KM) - Vientiane - Oudomsay (584 KM) -by truck from January-April -by truck & boat, May-December - Vientiane - Luang Namtha (684 KM) -by truck from January-April -by truck & boat, May-December - Vientiane - “Xieng Khouang (via Vietnam) -1,900 Km (truck max.load 6 tons) - Vientiane - Houaphan (via Vietnam) -1,800 Km (truck max.load 6 tons)

USD 350/truck USD 400/truck USD 630/truck USD 115/ton USD 680/truck USD 130/ton USD 175/ton USD 170/ton

c. Truck max. loaded 8 tons or 15 m3/minimum charges 6 tons -

Vientiane - Borikhamsay (167 Km) Vientiane - Khammouane (394 'Km) Vientiane - Savannakhet (540 Km) Vientiane - Pakse (790 Km) Vientiane - Saravane (920 Km) Vientiane - Sekong (1100 Km) Vientiane - Attopeu (1047 Km) -available only November - May

USD USD USD USD USD USD USD

22/ton 35/ton 42/ton 55/ton 65/ton 79/ ton 75/ton

Source: Sbciete Mixte De Transportd. River -standard rate; 82.5 Kip/km/ton Source: Lao River Transport Co.

In 1989, SCFA paid for transportation of materials for a GFS in Ban Khom, Sayaboury,’ from Tha Nalang, and the cost was approximately 200,000 Kip. For comparison, the transportation cost of an assignment of UNICEF supplied WES D—38

1

materials .recently sent to Xleng Khouang, Sayaboury, and Houaphan was approximately 16 million Kip, for 15 GFS , an average of just over 1 million Kip per GFS2 . There is obviously a large discrepancy between this figure and that for SOFA, for which a satisfactory explanation has not been found, although the figures in Table D3 would indicate the ICW figure is in error. However, the point to note is that transportation costs are significant and are likely to remain so for some years. With this in mind, and considering the Lao government's intent to accelerate rural WES development, the ability of the provincial administrations to meet the increasing transportation costs is very doubtful, especially since they are virtually all running a deficit budget. To alleviate this problem, it is recommended that donor organisations review their policy on transportation costs, and utilise alternative and more geographically convenient border crossings into Laos3. 7.4 Availability of Spare Parts Spare parts for rural WES facilities are extremely difficult, if not impossible to locate in the provincial areas of Laos. An- assortment of a few spare parts may be available at some of the PHDs, but no records exist to assess stock. The IcW storeroom at Vientiane holds some spare parts, but they all look to be several years old, and the general area looks to be used very infrequently. Private sector outlets (hardware stores) having WES spares exist in the provinces where there are urban water supplies and there is obviously some demand, but in the remaining provinces the demand solely by the rural sub-sector does not appear to be sufficient to justify holding stocks in the private sector outlets. For any future WES programme, the issue of spare parts is critical to the goal of sustainability. Implementation of rural WES facilities in provinces having no urban supplies should establish links with the private sector outlets. However, In provinces where urban supplies do not exist, arrangements need to be made to make spare parts available until the critical mass of the WES facilities is reached, and the private sector can respond to the demand. This is especially important for existing systems. This issue needs to be addressed quickly, and it is recommended that, investigations should be carried out to assess the feasibility of the PHD's acting as spare parts outlets or, possibly, a credit facility can be provided to encourage the private sector to prematurely support rural WES development.

1

Xsaber

of

GFS

advised

by

the

ICW.

2

T h i s fl g o r e e x c l u d e s the cost of t r a a o p o r t a t loi fro a the p r o v l i c i a l c a p i t a l to the v i l l a g e . Data, u p p ' l l t d by I C W . 3

Taff la ( 1 9 9 1 ) s e t s

out

the

border

D-39

crosslag

opt loss

available.

7.5 Country of Origin It is extremely important that the country of origin of imported materials and equipment be considered carefully. Importing equipment from countries as far away as India, Europe, or Africa for- instance can place Laos in a situation where it will have a long term dependence for the import of spare parts from that country, with the consequent high shipping costs. It is a far better approach to promote the use of materials and equipment from neighbouring countries where spare parts can be obtained relatively easily. May be the quality of the goods is somewhat inferior,1 but their ready availability is more supportive of a community based WES facility . In addition, it will mean that small entrepreneurs can quickly develop channels by which to service the growing demand, and it will also provide Laos with an opportunity to develop Its own manufacturing base should it wish to do so - perhaps in joint venture with a neighbouring country. 8.0 PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT As mentioned in Sections 7.4 and 7.5, there are opportunities for the private sector to assist the Lao government to accelerate rural WES development. Transportation and the selling of equipment and spare parts through private retail stores in provincial areas are just two ways in which the private sector can participate. Drilling of small diameter tubewells, and the construction and selling of rainwater jars and tanks are also two areas in which there is potential for small-scale entrepreneurs to provide a service to meet the demands of the rural community. These opportunities will no doubt be taken as and when the market situation is appropriate. However, the Lao government in its planning should be aware of these possible interjections by the private sector, so that it can respond efficiently to assist and support these activities. 9.0 COST CONSIDERATIONS 9.1 Basic Material Costs Basic material costs have been obtained from a construction materials supply store in Vientiane, and are summarised in Table D3. These prices vary according to geographic location, influenced by such factors as transport costs, and proximity to international trading partners. It should- be noted however, that some of the items shown in Table D3 are not available in the majority of the provinces as yet;

1

CoBBiulty wanased this o v e r a l l s t u d y .

WES

developaent

D—40

is

recoiisided

as

part

of

TABLE D3: TYPICAL PRICES OF MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT, EX-VIENTIANE unit

Description Submersible Pump (Soviet) -0.12 1/s © 40m head. -1.1 1/s © 20m head. t uPVC Pipe. -1.25" -2" -3” -4" -6”

j

Solvent for uPVC Pipe * Bronze Gate Valves -1" -3"

Cost/Unit

No No

$20 $40

4m 4m 4m 4m 4m

3600 5680 9800 18800 42400

500g

Kip Kip Kip Kip Kip

2950 Kip

No No

100 Baht 700 Baht

Bronze Nbn-Return Valves -1.25" -2"

No No

200 Baht 500 Baht

Ball Valve Tap

No

2500 Kip

Bib Tap

No

1600 Kip

Bib Lock Tap • r Ceramic Latrine Bowl

No

1800 Kip

No

Cement (Vietnam)

50Kg No

Honda Suction Pump

300-500 Baht 5500 Kip $300

J

9.2 Cost Comparison of Facilities Determination of the financial component of the capital Investment of a facility Is relatively straightforward. However, assessments of the economic value of the nonmonetary component of the investment are far more complex, producing answers that are far from certain at best, and conjectural at -worst; the assessment requires an evaluation of time which, in a socially complex society as Laos, needs to take into account season, gender, age, geographic location, customs and traditions, employment opportunity, desire for leisure time, etc. It is considered that the answers derived from such an analysis would have little credibility based on the current understanding of Laos' socio-cultural issues,, and is not considered further D—41

therefore In this study. Table D4 sets out a comparison of the donor contributed financial investment for each type of facility, and provides an indication of the level of maintenance requirements and convenience of supply. TABLE D4: FINANCIAL DONOR CONTRIBUTION, BY FACILITY R’WATER JARS

GFS

MANUALLY DRILLED WELLS

H’PUMP REPLACE

H'PUMP T’WELL

SHALLOW NELL

FAMILIES SERVED POP’S

1

50

8

20

20

20

6.7

335

54

134

134

134

CAPITAL COST-DOHOR

28,000(1} 56,000(2)

2.7a

84,000(3) 65,000(4}

320,000

2.241

90,000

PRIMARY USE

•DK(5)

DH/DW

DM/DW

DM(6|

DM

DH/DW

COST/CAPITA

4180(1) 8360(2)

8060

1555(3) 944(4)

2390

16715

670

LEVEL OF CONVENIENCE

HIGH

MEDIUM MEDIUM -HIGH -HIGH

LOW MEDIUM

LOH MEDIUM

LOW MEDIUM

HAINTEHAHCE R’HENT

LOW

MEDIUM LON -HIGH(7)MEDIUM

MEDIUM HIGH

MEDIUM HIGH

LON

Notes: 1) Based on a drinking water goal of 2 Ipcd 2) Based on a drinking water goal of 5 Ipcd 3) Commercial cost of the well 4) Based on villager constructed well, using donor supplied rig 5) DW denotes drinking water 6) DM denotes domestic water 7) High level assigned to take into account the calcium, carbonate pipe deposition problem experienced in Laos. The figures in Table D4 are based on estimated average figures, and are intended for macro planning purposes only. They are proposed as indicative figures, to be adapted as more information becomes available.

D-42

10.0 RECOMMENDATIONS & FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS Summarised below are the main recommendations and issues for further consideration arising out of this report. They are categorised in accordance with the sub-headings of this report. 10.1 Shallow Wells a) The following types of improvements, all of which are currently used to some extent in Laos in shallow well development, are considered to be appropriate, and are recommended for use in rural WES: * Concrete apron. * Soakaway drain. * Parapet wall (PC rings or corrugated steel). * Windlass, incorporating a roof shelter, if required. * Shaduf. * Well lining, using PC rings. b) An improvement which has not yet been tried, but is recommended for pilot testing where lateral entry of groundwater into the well is expected, is a lining using no-fines concrete, PC rings c) In order to achieve higher yielding wells, it is recommended that the following construction techniques be pilot tested, and adapted as necessary: 1) Dewatering of the well, so that excavation can proceed down into the aquifer, thus achieving deeper and more reliable wells. 2) Sinking the PC rings as a caisson to ensure well stability during excavation in the sandier, less cohesive soils, in which the yields may be expected to be higher. This technique will require further training * of the field technicians. 10.2 Sanitary Shallow Wells Before any more sanitary shallow wells are installed, it is recommended that a survey of existing water user behaviour and acceptance- of this type of facility be undertaken to assess . its sustain ability. Further work in this area should be dependent upon the results of this survey. In the event that implementation proceeds, then a thorough monitoring and evaluation exercise should be carried out as an integral part of the programme. 10.3 Manually Drilled Wells In general, it is recommended that these types of well should be promoted more in the alluvial and plains areas, where the success rate is likely to be far higher. In addition, it is recommended that training in this technique be undertaken, paying particular attention to the site selection process.

D-43

i

r

If'

10.4 Tubewells li

f

/ .a!) Tliere is no tubewell drilling programme at the’ present time. However, should a *Wargfe-scale, drilling programme be initiated in the future, it is suggested that cable tool rigs woilld probably be the most appropriate for Laos, and would "continue to be for some considerable time, because the training requirements are not nearly so extensive as for other types of rigs, and it is a robust unit which tolerates 'abuse and incorrect drilling procedures quite well. Before purchasing a rig and embarking on a well drilling programme, however, it "is strongly recommended that it be preceded by careful consideration of the following factors * •' •Training requirements of the personnel to operate and /maintain the rig. •Institutional requirements to plan, manage, and support the program. ’Sources of operating budget for the program. •Long term expatriate requirements.

(

•Current hydrogeological knowledge - a programme to enhance this knowledge needs to be carefully considered *. This is very important if the success rate for drilled wells is to achieve a reasonable level. > •Materials and equipment to be used for tubewell construction. i

•Types of pumps to be installed. b) Small rotary rigs are now available in Thailand, and may be suitable- for a small-scale drilling programme, and are currently being used by CIDSE in Savannakhet. It is recommended that, subject to an evaluation of their experience with these small rotary rigs, a pilot exercise should be undertaken to determine their effectiveness. ' 10.5 Handpumps It is recommended that for all types of handpump, priority is given to purchasing those which are readily available, and for which spares are accessible. This will mean using handpumps which are produced in neighbouring countries such as Thailand, China and/or Vietnam. / i a) Deep Lift Handpumps

I

’

•There is no deep lift handpump programme currently operating in Laos, although It Is under consideration. Before embarking on such a programme however, it is strongly recommended that the community and institutional requirements of the repair and maintenance aspects of the programme be given priority at the planning stage. Community participation will be essential to the programme and is recommended. However, to enlist the l

8ee

Report

Pari

E.

D—44

community's involvement and continued support, careful planning and programming will be required -to address such major issues as training and distribution and availability of spare parts. *In addition, it is also strongly recommended that serious consideration be given to ways of addressing the institutional problems with the repair and maintenance of existing tubewells/handpumps. “To reduce an institution's involvement and budget expenditure in maintenance and repair operations, the UNDP have been looking at ways of altering the design of these pumps so that the community can assume a much greater role. They have been developing a below ground pumping unit which can be withdrawn relatively easily by the community themselves, and it is considered worthy of pilot testing In any future handpump programme. b) Suction Lift Handpumps “A suction lift handpump which is worthy of testing in Laos is the Rower uPVC pump. Originally developed in Bangladesh, it is now available through the PAT in Thailand for around 500 Baht, and it is recommended that this pump be pilot tested. c) Direct Action Handpump “This type of pump is useful in the seven to ten metre depth range, which is beyond the capacity of a suction .lift type, and at which a deep lift type cannot be justified. As such, it is recommended that it be pilot tested. Recent information indicates that the TARA is now available in Thailand and, as such, may be a feasible option, although it is not known whether it is being promoted through the private or public sector. 10.6 Ponds It is recommended that more socio-cultural information is gathered about the use of ponds in the context of rural water supply, so that their role may be assessed more accurately. 10.7 Rainwater Collection a) Rainwater Jars “Rainwater needs a corrugated roof for collection and, since most corrugated steel roofs are located In the more urbanised areas, it may be worthwhile considering these areas first to carry out some detailed pilot testing of rainwater jars. Thorough social and technical preparation, based on adequate baseline data, and a well designed monitoring system will be essential if the pilot testing is to be evaluated properly. “It may also be worthwhile to introduce jars as a private facility rather than a communal or shared facility. Private facilities are normally well qtaintained and operated, since they are the property of the individual household. D-45

‘Further work is needed to be done to correlate roof' area, precipitation, jar storage, and consumption in the Lao context, and It is recommended that this be carried out as part of the proposed pilot testing. b) Ferro Cement Tanks ‘This is a facility which builds on existing village technology, and is one which can be implemented by the community itself with some external assistance. It is considered to be a very appropriate facility, and it is recommended for incorporating in either a schools or hospitals programme. 10.8 Gravity Feed Systems a) Many GFS have been implemented in provinces where spare parts cannot be obtained, either through a government institution, or through private sector outlets. It is strongly recommended that serious consideration is given to establishing the institutional support necessary to make spare parts available, particularly where private sector outlets are not established. b) It is claimed that the field health technicians train villagers how to release, air accumulating in the pipelines of GFS by inserting a screw at the peaks. It is claimed that the method works well, but further investigation is required to assess the validity of the claim. c) Calcium carbonate deposition is a significant problem in many of the GFS pipelines, and needs to be addressed urgently. It is recommended that a research and investigation programme be undertaken in order to do this; the results of this work could then be translated into practice through training sessions. Preliminary -investigations indicate that the problem could be minimised with improved pipeline design. d) In provinces which suffer with unexploded ordinance from the last war, it is recommended that consideration be given to the use of metal detectors or similar, for implementation of pipelines. e) Consideration should be given to installing taps of a higher quality having a longer life; this may be more cost-effective. It is recommended that this concept be included in some future projects, and monitored and evaluated. f) More comprehensive training is required on the aspects of site assessment and demand analysis. 10.9 Reticulated Water Supplies It is considered that this level of technology is beyond the capability of the ICW and it is recommended, therefore, that they should confine their WES activities to village level water supplies. 10.10 Sullage Disposal a) Sullage* resulting from traditional low water consumption, and relatively low population densities does not appear to be creating any significant adverse effects D—46

in the rural communities. However, this is based on dry season field visits; it . is recommended therefore that a further assessment of this situation is made in the wet season. b) In villages having improved quantities of water however, the first signs of sullage disposal and drainage problems are starting to occur; this is especially true around standpipes. It is recommended that in the decision-making process for the siting of standpipes, shallow wells, etc, adequate drainage provision must be considered, together with the other factors such as convenience, availability of land, etc. 10.11 Latrines a) In villages having improved quantities of water, and seeking improved sanitation facilities, then the pour-flush may be the most appropriate. However, it is felt that not enough id known about villagers' real perceptions of these types of facilities. ” It is recommended therefore that more extensive and detailed pilot projects and studies are required in this field to investigate the relationship between the various social and technical issues. b) For villages having limited water supplies, it is not so likely that an improved sanitation facility will be seen as a necessity. However, in response to a request from the community, it may be worthwhile considering the ventilated improved pit latrine. Two ventilated improved pit latrines are being pilot tested in the Vientiane Province by Save the Children Fund, UK; the performance and acceptance of these facilities should be monitored and assessed. 10.12 Solid Waste Disposal Burial of solid waste appears to be quite common; this is considered to be a very appropriate means of solid waste disposal for discrete rural communities, and should be promoted and encouraged. ' 10.13 Import Duty It is recommended that consideration be given to a reduction or complete elimination of duty on WES imports to assist the community carrying out capital Investment through the private sector, and also assist in procurement and distribution of spare parts for existing WES systems through private sector outlets. 10.14 Transportation Transportation costs, which are high in Laos, are currently the responsibility of government institutions and the community for the distribution of WES materials; this may be a serious constraint -on future WES programmes. To alleviate this problem, it is recommended that donor organisations review their policy .on transportation costs, and utilise alternative and more geographically convenient border crossings Into Laos.

D-47

10.15 Availability of Spare Parts This is a serious issue, and needs to be addressed quickly. It is recommended that investigations should be carried out to assess the feasibility of the provincial health departments acting as spare parts outlets. Alternatively, a credit facility could be provided to encourage the private sector to prematurely support rural WES development. 10.16 Country of Origin It is recommended that purchase of materials and equipment from neighbouring countries where spare parts can be obtained relatively easily should be seen as a priority.

D-48

11.0 REFERENCES

Cairncross, S. and Feachem, R. (1978) Small Water Supplies, London, Ross Institute of Tropical Hygiene. < J

n

*

Cairncross, S. and Feachem, R. (1983) Environmental Health’ Engineering in the Tropics, An Introductory Text, London, Wiley. , Chichereau, P. (1990) Draft Situation Analysis of the Children and Women in (the Lao PDR, Vientiane, UNICEF. Feachem, R. and Cairncross, S. (1978) Small Excreta Disposal Systems, London, Ross Institute of Tropical Hygiene. Inmuong, U. (1990) Decrease of Coliform Bacteria in Drinking Water Stored in Large Cement Jars, Bangkok, Mahidol University, M. Sc. Thesis. International Reference Centre for Community Water Supply and Sanitation, WHO Collaborating Centre (1983) Technology of Small Water Supply Systems in Developing Countries, Small Community Water Supplies, The Hague, Netherlands', Wiley. Jackson, G.. (1987) Assessment of Existing Water Supply Facilities in Northeast Thailand, Khon Kaen, Thai-Australian Northeast Village Water Resource Project, Report No, 14. ' ~ Jackson, G. (1989) Appropriate Water Treatment for Rural Water Supplies In Northeast Thailand, Khon Kaen, Northeast Village Water Resource Project, Report No. 150. Kalbermatten, J. et. al. (1980) Appropriate Technology for Water Supply and Sanitation, Technical and Economic Options, Washington, World Bank. Mekong Committee, (1988) Lower Mekong Hydrologic Yearbook 1988, Bangkok, Interim Committee for Coordination of Investigations of the Lower Mekong Basin. I

Motte, E. et. al. (1990) Laos: Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Review, Bangkok, UNDP/World Bank. Pichit Project Team, (1985) Technical Evaluation Report, Lbw Cost Irrigation Bore Construction Techniques Using Small-scale Drilling Rigs, Bangkok, Pichit Land Reform Area Project. Tuffin, W. (1991) Final Report on the Review of Supply and Logistics within the UNICEF Vientiane Field Office, Vientiane, UNICEF. Vadhanavikkit, C. et. al. (1984) Final Report on Collection and Storage of Roof Runoff for Drinking Purposes: Volumes I, II, and m, Khon , Kaen, Khon Kaen University and International Development Research Centre. / White, A. (1981)

Community Participation in Water and Sanitation,, Concepts, I D-49

Strategies, and Methods, Technical Paper No 17, the Hague, International Reference Centre for Community Water Supply and Sanitation. Wright, D. and Fisher, B. (1985) Report of Joint UNDP/WHO/Govermnent Mission to Evaluate Drinking Water and Sanitation Project Lao/82/004, Vientiane, UNDP/WHO/MOH Lao PDR.

D— 50

REPORT

PART

AN ASSESSMENT

OF

E

THE

GROUNDWATER RESOURCES OF THE

LAO

PDR:

AND

VTT ff A G E

GROUNDWATER WATER SUPPLY

CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION 2.0 NON-TECHNICAL SUMMARY 3.0 INTRODUCING THE MAPS 3.1 National Maps 3.2 Hydrogeological Maps 3.3 Approach

. . . . .

4.0 A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO GROUNDWATER 4.1 Introduction . 4.2 Groundwater Flow and Aquifers 4.3 Depth of the Adequate Water Yielding Zones 4.3.1 Well Yields 4.4 Drinking and Domestic Water 4.5 Surface Irrigation Areas 5.0 GEOMORPHOLOGY AND GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL . 5.1 Plains . . . 5.1.1 Deposition River Plains 5.1.2 Terraces . ................ 5.1.3 Plains 5.1.4 Valleys 5.2 Undulating Country 5.2.1 Undulating 5.3 Ridges 5.3.1 Ridge 5.3.2 Plateau-Ridge ................................... 5.4 Plateaux and High Plain’s . . 5.4.1 Basaltic -Sandstone Plateau 5.4.2 Slope . ................................................ 5.4.3 Dissected Basaltic Plateau 5.4.4 High Plain-Undulating Landscapes . ,5.5 Mountainous Landforms 5.5.1 Major Peaks 5.5.2 Dissected Mountains -. . 5.5.3 Mountain Ridges '. 5.5.4 Hilly 5.5.5 Karst . . 5.6 Streams ................................... >..........................

E-ii

>

6.0 GEOLOGY AND GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL .......................................................

19

6.1 Proterozoic Rocks .......................................................................................... 6.2 Palaeozoic Rocks ................................................ 6.2.1 Cambrian-Devonian ....................................................................... 6.2.2 Carboniferous-Permian ................................................................ 6.2.3 Water Potential in the Palaeozoics .......................................... 6.3 Mesozoic Rocks ............................................................................................. 6.3.1 Manggiang Formation .................................................................... 6.3.2 Namsan Formation ....................................................................... 6.3.3 Middle-Upper Triassic Limestones, Shales, Sandstones and Coals ................................................................................... 6.3.4 Nampo Formation .......................................................................... 6.3.5 Jurassic Shales ............................................................................. 6.3.6 Champa and Pudedin Formations . . . ....................... 6.3.7 Donghen Formation ....................................................................... 6.4 Cainozoic ............................................................................................. 6.4.1 Neogene Sedimentary Rocks ............................. '....................... 6.4.2 Miscellaneous Cainozoic Deposits . ................. •................. 6.4.3 Alluvium .......................................................................................... 6.4.4 Basalts .............................................................................................

22 22 23 23 25 25 26 26 26 27 27 28 28 29 29 30 30 31'

7.0 GROUNDWATER CHEMISTRY ...................................................................................

31

7.1 Where to Find Acceptable Quality Groundwater ................................ 7.2 Water Use and Chemistry .......................................................................... 7.3 Analytical D,ata for Wells and Streams .................

31 33 34

8.0 WATER YIELDS AND LEVELS AND WELL TECHNOLOGY ....................................

36

8.1 Spring Discharges, Well Yields, Static and Drawdown Water Levels, and Well and Pump Technology .......................................................... 8.1.1 Springs ............................................................................................. 8.1.2 Wells ................................................................................................ 8.3 Yields and Water Levels from Tubewells in Parts of Southern Laos .................................... .J. ....................................................

36 36 37 39

9.0 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDED ACTIONS .............................................................

41

9.1 Summary . ....................................... 9.2 Recommended Actions ................................................................................ 9.2.1 Further Study of Geology and Hydrogeology ....................... 9.2.2 Groundwater Development Techniques: Progression Approach . ....................

41 43 43 45

10.0 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................

46

ANNEX El ................................................................................................................... ANNEX E2

E-iii

E-47

LIST OF FIGURES, LEGENDS, TABLES & PLATES

FIGURE E l : NON-TECHNICAL MAP FIGURE E2: PROTEROZOIC-DEVONIAN STRATA (DOMINANT LITHOLOGIES) FIGURE E3: CARBONIFEROUS-PERMIAN STRATA FIGURE E4: MESOZOIC ROCK UNITS (FIGURES E 2 - E 4 ARE INCLUDED IN ANNEX E l ) MAP A LEGEND MAP C LEGEND MAP B LEGEND WELL DATA LEGEND FOR MAP D & E

TABLE E l : MAJOR IONS IN GROUNDWATER PLATE E l : PLATE E2: PLATE E3: PLATE E4: PLATE E5: PLATE E6: PLATE E7:

PLATEAU RIDGE FORMED BY JURASSIC-CRETACEOUS SANDSTONE NEAR PARSE PLATEAU RIDGE BEHIND MEKONG RIVER - ALLUVIUM AND SANDSTONE OLD MEANDERS ON SEDONE RIVER - UNDULATING COUNTRY. ON JURASSIC SHALE WITH BASALTIC SLOPE IN BACKGROUND JURASSIC SOFT RED SHALE WITH THIN SOFT SANDSTONE NORTH OF PARSE UNCONFORMITY NEOGENE(?) CONGLOMERATE (FOUR COLOURS) OVERLIES JURASSIC RED SHALES COLUMNAR JOINTING IN BASALT ON SLOPE SOUTH OF PARSE CONSTRUCTING A DUGWELL

E-iv

1 . 0 INTRODUCTION

This report on the potential for groundwater for village water supply in the Lao PDR was prepared over nine weeks in mid-1991. The task carried out involved seeking out, collating and assessing data, establishing a basic system of hydrogeological zoning and recommending further hydrogeological investigations and appropriate water development strategies, related to the zoning. 2.0 NON-TECHNICAL SUMMARY

The Lao PDR can be divided into seven rock area types according to their suitability for water exploitation. Each has its own distinctive rock hardness, chemistry, landscape, water level, and well yield, suggesting an appropriate small scale water resource development strategy for each respective area. The areas with the hardest rocks are usually mountainous, making drilling and access for equipment difficult. Water tables tend to be deep and well yields (maximum long term pumping rates) low. Such hard rock areas are extensive in the north and south. Here streams and springs or rainwater may be more suitable sources of water. Investigation could reveal however, small areas with soft weathered rock in valley bottoms where drilling would be easier and groundwater yields higher. Limestone areas have - similar problems, and in addition, may have high calcium in the groundwater which is liable to precipitate on emergence from a spring or well. Seasonal water levels may vary considerably. Limestone is found mainly in Khammouane Province and in the north. Soft rock is hardened (lithified) sediment. Mainly 'it is claystone or shale (hardened clay, clay and silt) or siltstone (hardened silt). Hardness of the sandstone on the plains will range from soft to moderate. Rocks of these type cover large areas of Savannakhet Province and other parts of the south. Manually drilled and hand dugwells will be possible in most of these areas. Sufficient groundwater for a handpump will often be found at shallow-moderate depths (10-30 m). However some areas have a layer of saline groundwater which is shallow beneath the plains and deeper beneath the low hills. Further reconnaissance should be conducted to assess areas having non-saiine water and suitable for manual construction, and further research is necessary to avoid high iron in this soft rock groundwater. River sediments are mainly found along the Mekong River from Vientiane to the south, with much smaller areas of alluvium scattered across the country in narrow valleys. Some small areas of older sediment are found in rises above the plain level and tend to be somewhat lithified (harder). Wells can be dug or drilled manually in most river sedime.nts (alluvium), the exceptions being where laterite is hard and thick and gravels are coarse. Alluvium may be up to 50 m thick along the Mekong but the thickness varies considerably. Sands, silt, clays, and gravels are all present. Groundwater salinity may be high overlying the soft rock areas containing salt. Water tables are usually shallow, and sands range from low to high yielding, but usually sufficient to support a handpump. Some areas, however, may have consistently high yields, as conditions in adjacent areas in Thailand are favourable. The boundary of the alluvial area is poorly known, so where alluvium overlies hard rock, or salinity may be a problem, some reconnaissance is advisable. For a summary, in map form, see Figure El, which is a non-technical, simplified aggregation of the important elements of Maps A-E of this report. E-l

FIGURE

El

NON- TECHNICAL GENERALIZED k GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL MAP FOR VILLAGE

WATER

SUPPLY

LAO. P.D.R.

X

7 X

X

>

X/

Areas of high

V/

annual rainfai (mm)

Lcuangphabang

I °l 0

X"\°

•) o VENTIANE o

o o

o

OOOoo c

River

sediment

As above probably with high yield

Thakhek

High river sediment, soft rock

Is? Soft- medium hardness rock

“ s

r- i

Savannckhet

Soft rock with salt

Limestone and river sediments 2400

Hard rock, fine to medium grained Scattered limestone Hard coarse crystalline rocks

Areas with common Valley bottoms Undulating areas where rock hardness is uncertain

Pakse

3.0 INTRODUCING THE MAPS

t

3.1 National Maps Three national Maps and their legends form the backbone of the report 1 . They are titled: A: Integrated Groundwater Potential, Lao PDR, (Non-Technical). B: Geologically-Based Groundwater Potential, Lao PDR. C: Geomorphi'c Map of the Lao PDR, with legend indicating groundwater potential. The main ideas are on the Maps and legends, and they are intended to be self explanatory for most .purposes. This text provides background, explanations, and more details than the legends. The Maps should be consulted while reading the text. A transparency of the georaorphic Map is convenient to compare it with the other two geology based Maps. The groundwater potential Maps are based on the geological Map at 1:1,000,000 and the geomorphic Map is based on the topographic Map also at 1:1,000,000, but the topographic features in common do not quite correspond, so if they are overlain it is necessary to adjust a little if comparing detailed features. The Maps were drafted with the staff, of National Geographic Service. The Maps are largely based on: a) The 1:1,000,000 Geological map of Kampuchea, Laos and Vietnam produced by the General Department of Mines and Geology (GDGM) of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 1988, and accompanying notes (1989). b) 1:1,000,000 and 1:500,000 topographic maps of the Lao PDR produced by the National Geographic Service. c) Rainfall map produced by the Mekong Secretariat. Other useful information was obtained from: a) Drilling data held by the Institute of Irrigation and Microhydropower, Vientiane. b) Reports by Dr. Workman (1977) on the geology of the Mekong Basin, and a report by J.H. Johnson (1983). Johnson's report on the. groundwater of the Mekong catchment treats each tributary catchment in turn and is oriented towards the needs of comparatively large scale groundwater irrigation. c) One brief field trip. d) The Hydrogeological Map of Thailand at 1:1,000,000 produced by the S p e c i a l t h a n k s are due to Mr P e t s o n C h a n t ha v.o n o who a s s i s t e d with the t r a n s l a t i o n f res R u s s i a n , and a s s i s t e d Ln the p r e p a r a t i o n of Maps D and E, as did Mr B a n d l t h s o u p h a n t h a ma 1 t y .

E-3

Department of Mineral Resources of the Kingdom of Thailand. e) A Soviet-produced hydrogeological map at the scale of 1:2,500,000 by R. Tkachenka (1989) was also considered (see Annex El for a critique). 3.2 Hydrogeological Maps Two hydrogeological Maps, one each for Saravane (Map D) and Champassak (Map E), provinces have been produced from USAID-era data held by the Irrigation Construction Enterprise in Pakse. 3.3 Approach The work towards this report has been based on the belief that at this stage of development in the Lao PDR in 1991, the technology appropriate for village water supply should be intermediate between the traditional technology which the villages have used for decades, if not centuries, and the modern drilling, well construction and pumping technology. After the technical skills and operations systems have been developed with intermediate technology, higher level technology become 'more appropriate if funds are sufficient to keep a new system operating on a reasonably wide basis. 4.0 A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO GROUNDWATER 4.1 Introduction Groundwater is underground water occurring in rocks, sediment and soil. The water enters these "earth materials" directly from rain or after flowing overland. It may enter from streams, lakes, dams or the ocean. Having entered the earth, the water flows under the influence of gravity, largely downhill (just as with surface water) beneath the earth’s surface, possibly penetrating quite deeply, flowing laterally some distance and then flowing upwards to near the land surface just as water in U pipe. Groundwater will emerge in a spring or seep where it flows overland, evaporates, is used by plants, or directly enters surface water bodies or is -lifted from wells. Groundwater flow is thus part of the hydrological cycle. Groundwater is stored and flows in sediments such as sands* in the spaces between the individual grains. However when sediments are consolidated over millions of years into sedimentary rocks, these spaces are gradually filled; and less water can be stored or flow between the grains. At the same time the rocks tend to become cracked (fractured.) providing a new type of pathway for water. Fractures may become widened by solution over millions of years. Rocks which were formed from a molten mass beneath the surface have small cracks formed during cooling, sub-surface deformation and erosion. Lavas cooling on the land surface often contain a large number of openings, such as cracks, gas holes and tree molds, which allow large water storage and flows. Sediment is for the most part soft material, easily dug or drilled by manual methods. Some sediments, such as sand, harden markedly over time (sand forms sandstone which makes well construction more difficult. Others such as clay harden to "shale" but usually remain penetrable by manual methods. Rocks formed from molten material become hard on cooling, but over time a softer weathered zone E-4

beneath the soil, can store and conduct water especially when the rock is coarse grained. This weathered zone can be penetrated manually to some extent. Beneath flat plains and depressions in the land surface in a monsoon climate, the water table is usually shallow, perhaps at a depth of 2-5 m. Sometimes a "perched" water body overlies a "dry" layer which in turn overlies the water table proper. In undulating country, hills and mountains the water table deepens to 10, 20 or greater than 30 m. The water level rises and falls with the seasons and in floods and droughts. Deforestation reduces overall water use by trees and other plants so more rainfall percolates to the water table and its level rises. Overuse of ground water by humankind can cause the water table to fall. Rainwater has a very low salt content, but as soon as it enters the soil or flows overland it picks up salt (ions) and other chemicals. When it moves through sediments and rocks further chemicals are dissolved depending on the minerals encountered. If rock salt is passed, the groundwater may become quite saline, whereas if the water flows through limestone it will usually become hard (difficult to lather with soap). In other sediments or rocks such as "redbeds" containing large amounts of iron oxide, the iron oxide may accumulate in the groundwater. Spring water and resulting streams will have a range of chemicals gained from the rock. Stream chemistry is related to the rocks in the catchment area. Water beneath plains will move slowly and so will tend to be more saline than water beneat/i mountains. This chemical composition of the total streamflow is related to* the geology and geomorphology of the catchment. In the dry season the baseflow component reflects the chemical composition of the slower moving groundwater and, consequently, exhibits comparatively high mineral levels, such as salinity. In the wet season, however, the major component of total flow is surface runoff and faster moving groundwater, and the resulting mineral content of the streamflow is much lower, including salinity. Where rainfall is high, infiltration will tend to keep the water table shallow, more water will flow through the earth, more will be available for wells and emerge in springs, and the water will be fresher (have fewer ions), as it moves through quickly. 4.2 Groundwater Flow and Aquifers This section introduces the most important basic technical concepts and terms used in hydrogeology. The potentiometric level or surface is that level that water settles at in a well and its interpolated profile between wells. The water table is the level where the well first encounters saturated earth material when digging or drilling. This level is, however, sometimes difficult to identify. In wells where water has not been extracted for some time (say an hour), the water level is known as the static water level (SWL). SWLs rise in the rainy season and fall in the dry season. Most attention should be paid to the low dry season level in water planning and construction. If a groundwater body has a dry (unsaturated) zone beneath it, it is called perched. The second water table is "real" or regional one, or Just "the water table".

SHEET 1 LEGEHD FUR MAP B*. GEOLOGICALLY BASED GROUHDIATER POTEST! AL MAP, LAO PDR. {COLOUR OH {ERA { PERIOD {CDGX MAP {

■SYMBOLjS!RATICRAPHIC!£lTHOLOGICAL{LITHOLOGY [ |USIT [GDGM, 'SYKBOL { {Hanoi, 1938) { {fl - Worth { [S - South

{Alluvion : often surface clay/{ Plain, Valley, ■ — { loan overlying sand, gravel, {Undulating{silt, clay.

[QUATERNARY

[Yellow

{GEOMORPHOLOGY

C

JPOPULATIOH {LITHOLOGY HARDRESS [SMALL TUBEIELL YIELD {RATER TABLE DEPTH (late dry {DERSITY (late dry season} [season) ' shallow ( 5 t { - toderate 5 - 10 t - low < 1 1/s - deep 10-30 t - loderate 1-3 1/s { [ - very deep ) 30 i - high > 3 1/s JHigh

{Soft aainly, gravel {Lou to high. High {potential inferred {layers.

A Plateau and Slope.

.{Basalts, tuffs.

’REOGERE-QBATERRARY { l-Q

Purple

{Moderate

I Hard - very hard

{Los - high.

0 1

{Yellow

0 JREOGERE-QUATERRARY { B-Q

I

{Alluviu : sand, gravel, silt, {Valley, Terrace 'clay, laterite. {

High

{Soft tainly, gravel {layers.

Low - uoderate.

{Mainly shallow on plains . May be (perched. Moderate near incised {rivers. SUL in tubewelL lover than {IT in recharge areas/tiies. {Moderate to deep on gentle inclines on {plateau deepening to edge. Moderate {deep on slope. I b {Shallow in lowlands, soderate {beneath rises.

{ GROUSDIATER CHEMISTRY (late dry season) {APPROPRIATE DRILLIRG TECHH1QUE {(Technique progression approach) { (See Section 5.2) I { - lov ( 1000 tg/1 { SALIH1TY - toderate 1000-5000 tg/1 ! - high > 5000 tg/1

{SUGGESTED VATER SOURCE/EAC1LITY J !

Cosprehensive lannal. { Salinity ususally lov except down { groundwater flow path frou salt bearing, { Cretaceous rocks where often high.

.{Manually drilled uells, (uanual { tubevells), dug uells, combination veils.

1 J

,' High iron and tagnesiui possible '

{Air rotary in later phase.

Rainwater jars/dug veils ,' Air rotary veils expensive for hand puap { yield {

1

As for Quaternary alluviua.

| Comprehensive uanual.

{Dug veils, coibination veils, lanually {drilled veils.

{Inspection required

{Inspection required I

C {Yellow

’Conglomerate, shale, liiestonej Valley .■ ...... ‘lignite. {

{REOGERE

{High

{Soft - lediui

{Low uoderate.

Moderate to deep tainly.

! Low salinity usually. I

I

■Green

{UPPER CRETACEOUS ', J

, { Y(c) X !Mz(5} E { {Light hhe', S { JURASSIC-CRETACEOUS! M •i i 0 { I Nz Green

I Blue

{Purple {Purple t I [Purple

0 {JURASSIC 1 C

I Mz

{Red shale tainly. Evaporites IDOBGREB'Upperl ~S {Salt Meiber 1 ! .........-----{at depth and in dotes. Stall , i................. {salt veins. {DOHGHER’Lower { __ {Shale with sandstones towards {base I WaUu iMetber' ',( Sandstone, shale, siltstone, {CHAMPA (S) M A Tirf I own ao '( Mrare congloaerates iPUDEDIH (R) {Red shale, sicaceous ! ■ (SI 'siltstones and sandstone IRAKPO (R) {Sandstone, siltstone, shale

{TRIASSIC {RAMSAR { T

{MARGG1AHG

\ {Acid volcanic rocks aainly with clastics.

{Undulating plain { { {Undulating

’.High i

j

|

{Monntain/Plateau Ridges iDirlrfao flnrln 1 sf 1 firf [Ridges, Undulating [Undulating and plain [tainly | {Mountain Ridge tainly {Sone hilly. I I {Mountain Ridge j dissected (Mountain {Ridges {Undulating, Silly and {lountainous.

[Very low

{Soft - lediui

{Low - high {Low - high

{Medial - hard

{Low - high

{Soft - lediui

{Lou - high

{Xediui - hard

Lou - high

[Medina - hard JMedius - very hard I

Lou to very high

'

{Lou {Lou {Very low

{ Variable salinity. Lou in shallow uells JCoiprehensive nnual (stall { on rises. Low to very high in loulands. {rotary or cable tool in [late phase}. ! High iron in places.

[Very hard I

*■ Mainly low salinity. High in soie low' 'Ususally deep. May be very deep ! lands. High iron in places. {beneath high ridges. {Shallow tediui in undulating country. 'Lou salinity lainly. • ■Shallow in lowland, toderate in rises {Deep, May be very deep beneath ridges. ! Low salinity { Shallow - uoderate in valleys near{■strews I As above, but lay be variable ! Hardwater possible froi (liiestones. ! Low salinity in clastics. {seasonally above or near liiestoae.

{Dug uells, lanually drilled veils, {coibination uells, stall cable tool or •{rotaty sells. I

I

Low-high

Lou-high

{Shallow in lowland, toderate beneath {rises

I {Stall rotary or stall cable-tool {in later phase. {As for Upper Cretaceous. {As for Jurassic-Cretaceous.

{Streais, springs, dug veils, rainwater {at least in first phase. {Dug veils, coibination veils, lanually {drilled veils. {As for Jurassic-Cretaceous.

{Stall cable-tool or rotary

{Dug uells in soce valley bottoms

{Air rotary in later phase. 1

{Streais, springs, dug sells, rainwater. I

I I

{Mainly low I

Slot salinity .

SHEET 2 LEGEND EOS NAP B: GEOLOGICALLY BASED RATER POTENTIAL NAP, LAO PDE. SCOLOUR ON 'ERA JPERIOD

JSYMBOLJSTRATIGRAPElCjilTHOLOGICA LITHOLQGY [ [UNIT (GDCN, [SYMBOL [ [ [Hanoi, 1S88) [ [ ; ; [N - North [ ; ; :s- south ;

___________1______________________ 1GEOXORPHOLOGY i i i i i i i i

[POPULATION [DENSITY [ [

[LITHOLOGY HARDNESS [ [ [

[SNAIL TOBEMELL HELD [(late dry season) [ - low ( 1 1/s [ - moderate 1-3 1/s - high > 3 1/s

[NATER TABLE DEPTH (late dry [season) - shallow < 5 i - noderate 5 - 10 i [ - deep 10-30 ■ [ - very deep > 30 u [

I GROUNDWATER CHEMISTRY (late dry [ season) - low salinity J< 1000 ug/1 - noderate 1000-5000 sg/1 ! - high ) 5000 ig/1 I [ (for salinity, see Section 5.2)

[APPROPRIATE DRILLING TECHNIQUE [(Technique progression approach) [ ! [

[

[SUGGESTED RATER SQURCE/FACILITY

■ > i ' i i i i

i i t i t i i i

________ i ____________ __________________________ I

[Light {orange [Orange

* [ [

I I

I I

{Grej-dots [ i i i i

i t i i

[Dark grey [ ‘I I I i

[Various

t » r i

[PERNIAR-TR1ASS1C I t

[PERMIAN 1 I [PERXIAR [CARBONIFEROUS i [CARBONIFEROUS i i i

I I

[CAWRIAN-DEVONIAN ; i i i i

I I

I 4

I’Redc I

r i i i i

i i i

[PROTEROZOIC

I I I

I

1 1 1

I I t I I t

I t i I J I I I I I

I I

[

J

I I

[Pink

! p-T 1 1 1 P [ ic-p 1 1 1

1 I i t I

[ INTRUSIONS I I I 4 I t

; 1 [EHAKGKEAY [etc. ; 1 1 1

C [NAXTHOH (S) [CHACO] (S) [etc c-D 11 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 I

PR 1» PR X 1I 1 1 1 ■ t 1 ’I '1

z [ i I V \/ f zxTxyxz! ' 1 1 ............

[Andesite, dacite, rhyolite, .gtuiiSj siltstone* [Intermediate volcanics

[ ;— [

[Shale, chert, sillstone, coal [Mountainous ’Valley, Gshhtinj [seats. i i 1 i [Phyllite, schist, gneiss, [Mountainous [ Ri'djes telilat ia j [quartzite 1 1 I 1 I 1 1 1

] I

1 ... . 1 i 1 t

1 1

[HUIf'- mountainous 1 [Mountainous 1 1

! Liiestone t 1'

[Pinnacle Earst 1 1 i

[Noderate [Hard - very hard 4 1 [ Low-moderate! Very hard 1f 1I [Lou-ioderatejHard 1 I 1 I [Very low to [Hard 1 [moderate 1 1 t 1 < [Low [Hard - very hard 1 [ 4 1 1 1 1 1 l 1 i

I

1 1

r I

i A

1 1 1 1 I 1 . 1 _—— 1 1 X/ ' x/ 1 /> 1 _ ___

[High grade Xetauorphics 1 1 1 1 1 1 [Mainly acid coarse grained [intrusive rocks

fBiisectel Xoinljiaois. [Sill 1 1 1 1 [Hilly, mountainous 1• 1

[Hard-very hard. Soue [Low [shallow zones on [ A [gentle slopes uay be f 1 [medium. I [LowoderatefAs above II 1 A

1 1

[Mainly low t [Mainly low I I

[Low to very high 1 1 [Mainly Ion 1 I

I

[Mainly low I t 1 i

I i I

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[Mainly lou 1 1 1 1 1 1 [Mainly low 1

[ Siall caile tool or rotary [ . [Noderate - very deep 1 1 I I i [Air rotary [Deep-very deep. Noderate near streans. 1 1 [Nay be hard in lisestone and in overlying [Stall cable - tool [Probably very variable seasonally, [ alluvinu. CaCOl deposition in pipes [and with weather. I I [Deep-very deep. Noderate near streais. [ Low - roderate salinity | [Siall cable - tool, rotary. i 1 1 1 1 Air rotary [Deep-very deep. Noderate near streans. Low-moderate salinity. ( 1 1 1 1 1 1

[As above 1 1 A 4 1 1 [Shallow - deep 1 1

[Manually drilled sells and combination [ [ [in sone valleys bottoms vhere access [allows. Valley bottom may have unmapped [ [alluvium and leathered tone. Try springs,) [ [streais, rainwater. Motorised drilled [ tubeveils only where access allows and ‘ [ [ [other techniques have failed. In sou» [ [liiestone areas dug sells uay dry up [early in dry season and water from wells [ [ [and springs say be hard. ! [As above i

i

t i

i i

I

: '

t

1 i l

{ As above

{

[As above

I I I I

i i ■ i ■ r

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____.

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< ■
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! 08DULATIRG 0

[Dudulating i

i i i i

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! R

[Ridge

i i

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[ PR [Plateau Ridge

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_________

i i 1 1

I PLATEAU’ and [Pbs ; aiGH PLAias ;

{Basaltic - Sandstone Plateau ;

1 1

t t

1 1

J

J Sb

[Basaltic Slope.

i i

i i

i i

[

[ Pbd [Dissected Basaltic Plateau

i i i

i i i

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[ HP [High Plain

i

i

i i i

i

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[ HO [High undulating

j i r j i t

i i i i i_ i

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[NOUNTAIBOOS [ X

[Dissected lountainous

i

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[Major Peaks

1 V

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1 1

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[ HR 'Mountain tfidges

i ■ i i t

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1 1 1

1 1 I I 1 1

I 1 1 1 1 I

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[I

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i i

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I

1 1

1 !Q 1

[LITHOLOGY I STRUCTURE 1 1t 1 1 1 1 1 1 __t ____ 1 ........ ...... [Shale and alluvial, rarely flat lying [sandstone and siltstone (needs study) 1 I [Alluviui lainly. t

[Alluvial (older than depositional plains) ■ i [Alluvial, colluvial, various lithologies [(needs study) 1 1 1 ___ _________ 1 [Shale lainly, also sandstone, gently folded. ! s 1 j , 8, 1 [C (Centre) I 1 _ ____. __l ______ 1 1 1 [Sandstone 1 t [Sandstone sainly. h1 1f 1 „l 1 ________ _ _ _ __ J ..... [Basalt and Sandstone, gently folded [ H- Q , J - K 1I [_ horizontal 11 1 [Basalt (shale in sub-surface) ! B-Q i 1 i [Basalt overlying folded Palaeozoics. ! 1-8 1 1 1 J 1 1 I [Alluvial, letasediients, volcanics. [ C - D/G 1 i 1 [Lines tone, siltstone, quartzite, volcanics, [ C - D/G »i [granite. * t 1 i I : "" ” ”” [ C - D, PR, G [letasediients, volcanics, granites. 1 i i [Granite, Sandstone ! 8, j - I 1 1 1 [ In, D , C, B - D [letasediients and sandstone strongly folded 1 [Probably shale, slate in parts of 1 11 [valleys Volcanics, 1 i 1 i [ P-T [Granite A diorite east of San Bena. 1 [Volcanics/liiestones/sandstones/ietaiorphics 1 1 (in Raitha, Ondoixay. 1 1 1 1 [ c- p [liiestoue (folded). Alluvial in soie i [valleys i ! s-Q 1 [Mainly Q, M - 8, [various i t i

I ACCESS HOTEBTIAL for EQUIPMEHTiTYPICAL f ATER TABLE DEPTH jTyPICAL BATES CBEKISTEY [ (based solely on tie natural (Ute dry season : (Us salinity < 1000 ig/I. (conditions) (Shallos < 5 n. (Moderate salinity 5000 ig/1. ( (Very deep > 30 n. ( (See section 5.2)

ITTPICAL SMALL BELL YIELD ( SUGGESTED MATER SOURCES/ FACILITIES } (Low < 1 1/s ( 3 1/s (10.8 i3/hr}( ( ]

i ______________ ___________i ______. _______

(Shallow to noderate. May (Us to high 1 (be deep near incised 1 1 (rivers 1 I Ditto ( Ditto ! High 1 i i 1 (Shallow to deep (Us to noderate ) High 1 1 1 1 (Low (hard in places) (Easy access along valley j Shallow to deep 1 i (Access to south of valley i 1 1 i (variable i I _t _ 1 1 i High (Low to high {Shallow to deep i 1 i 1 i I_ 1 Us (Deep to very deep (Un 1 1 I 1 ..1 ...... . . .................... 1 t Us (Moderate to very deep (Lon 1 I 1 ! 1 1 1 High - Moderate (soil (Moderate to deep (Low 1 1 potentially boggy) 1 1 1 1 1 High - Moderate (soil boggy?) (Moderate' to deep (Los 1 1 I 1 Moderate (Moderate to deep {Low 1 i 1 i i 1 1 High iron Phonesavane. (Shallow to noderate {Low 1 t 1 (Un High fron Phonesavane. (Moderate to deep t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Low (steep “tracks fron rivers (Deep to very deep (Low 1 1 and roads). i 1 (Deep to very deep (Low Low 1 t 1 Moderate (along valleys fron (Deep to very deep (Un 1 I Rivers). 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 {Moderate to very deep (Lon Moderate (tracks nay be i 1 negotiable. 1 i i 1 i 1 1 1 1 I High - Moderate (along plain (Us to deep on plains (Low - noderate (Mery deep beneath peaks ((hard water possible) areas) 1 High

(Low to high 1 I 1 1 1 1 i I (Lon to noderate i (Lon to high t 1 1 1 I _ J (Lon to high * 1 1

( ] ! !

{ Mainly dug wells/conbination ( wells with bucket systens | Dug nells/coubination wells } and nauual tubewells

( ( [ J

t 1

—

1 1

! ' i _____________________________> , i ’ Manual tubeveils, dug wells, and ) ( conbination veils ]

i..............................' ----, i

{Low i j t ............. . .. {Low i i i

( Springs, dug wells on lowest } [ parts only ' i _____________________________ i i i ( Air rotary drilled wells in ] ( later phase ( ____i _____________________________ t ---- 1 t

(Low 1 1 1 (Low 1 1 (Lon 1 i 1 1 {Low to Moderate i (Lon 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 1

{ Manually constructed wells | Mainly tubewel Is/auction punp ! !

........ _

(Lon 1 1 1 t 1 1 (Low - noderate 1 1

( Air rotary drilled wells in ( later phase i ■ ) Air rotary drilled wells in ( later phase ) Air rotary drilled wells in ( later phase

] j i i ( ( ] )

t t

i ■

( Manual wells in first phase

[

t i

i i

( Dug wells first phase. Tubewells ( ( drilled with snail notoriced ( ( rig later phase J i i

.

i i

J Springs, snail streans rainwater ( t i

1 t

( Minor areas for dug wells i

|

i

i i

} Minor areas for dug wells

|

1 1 1 1 1 1

i 1 1 1 I I

] Dug wells, springs, snail streans) { rainwater { i i i : i i

i i

{ Dug wells? Manual tubewelh in { ( alluviun {

Areas where an excess of rainfall which infiltrates passes the >root zone and percolates to the water table are known as recharge areas. At discharge areas groundwater moves upwards towards the water table. It then is either used directly by trees, rises from the water table under capillary forces where it evaporates or is transpired by plants, or alternatively it emerges at a spring or enters a surface water body. Most discharge areas are on plains and changes in slopes, on cliffs or river banks and streams and lakes. Most recharge areas are oh hills, mountains and plateaux but also on plains and other low country. Groundwater flows from recharge areas to discharge areas. On plains the areas can coincide, with recharge mainly occurring in the wet season and most discharge In the dry season. Aquifers are often defined as bodies of earth material which will yield useful quantities of groundwater to wells, but in practice most groundwater technologists confine the term to the relatively permeable layers or zones in the earth. Groundwater flows down gradient generally following the direction of the land slope and at a velocity which is governed by the relative differences in potentiometric level and the permeability or hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer, i.e. if the lithology has more open space in connected pathways, water will flow faster and therefore In *greater quantities. Where water can percolate down through permeable material to the water table and flows through similarly permeable material, it is said to be uhconfined. If groundwater flows down and laterally from what could be a recharge area, it may flow beneath a compacted layer of lower permeability. Here it becomes semiconfined. It may flow further and deeper to a zone beneath an even more compact layer of very low permeability. Here it is regarded as confined. If wells penetrate semi-confined or confined groundwater (Aquifers) the water level (potentiometric level) will rise In the well above the level of aquifer and possibly above the land surface. This level is not the water table. It is the that level deeper water rises to under pressure: the potentiometric surface. Thus the depth* of the water yielding zone (or aquifer) is not the same as the water level in the well. Very deep wells do not always mean that deep lift pumps are required. Wells may be deep because the aquifer is deep or because the water level and aquifer are deep. When a pump is operated the water level will drop from the static water level (SWL) to the drawdown level (DDL). The drop in level, is the drawdown. 4

4.3 Depth of the Adequate Water Yielding Zones An adequate water yielding zone for a handpump (or bucket) may constitute an aquifer, or part of an aquifer or, in a regional analysis, may not even be included as an aquifer as the slightly deeper zones may be much higher yielding. Water yielding zones are found at the total range of depths down to more than 1,000 m in some areas of the world. Aquifers in sand almost always overlie and thus are shallower than aquifers in rock, but they can be the deepest exploitable zone in an area. (Several aquifers may be present in an alluvial sequence in any one area. Further downstream the number may increase or decrease. In Jurassic and Cretaceous shale (lithified clay and silt) outcrop areas in Laos, or In shale beneath alluvium, groundwater is yielded from fractures (joints and fault zones) and possibly bedding plains, which may occur in horizontal, vertical, inclined or irregular zones. Aquifers may be difficult to define and then only after extensive E-7

1

drilling in an area. Useful water yielding zones in weathered coarse crystalline rock (such as granites, granulites and gneisses) is almost always relatively shallow. Occasionally they may be encountered beneath thick alluvium, but then their value will be slight. Weathered zones usually occur immediately beneath soil which may include colluvium and grade into it. Neither groundwater in shallow fractured or weathered zones is likely to be under high pressure, but may rise in a well to near the water table. 4.3.1 Well Yields Short term maximum well yields for all types of well depend on: ' a) The permeability of the interval (screen length or Open hole length) tapped by the well. b) The thickness of that interval. The aquifer may be thicker or thinner than the tapped interval. c) The permeability of the aquifer above and below the tapped interval. d) The thickness of the aquifer. e) The "storativity" of the tapped interval. f) "Leakage" from overlying and underlying, strata. g) Well diameter.

t

h) Water entry system: Screen type including envelope (if present) or other system. i) Well development. j) Maximum available drawdown. Short term maximum yields for large diameter dugwells having bottom only entry will depend on all the factors mentioned above. However, where lateral entry occurs as well, then well diameter and envelope will be relatively more important. Such wide diameter wells have large storage capacity which allows high periodic extraction rates. The long term well yield will also be affected by the lateral extent of < the aquifer(s), deterioration in the well performance, competing groundwater uses? and recharge rates. Combination wells combine the large diameter well and the tubewell. Yields will be comparable with those from tubewells from equivalent depths but they have the storage capacity of dugwells and greater depth capacity of a bucket compared with a suction pump. The three types of well (tube, wide, combined) can be constructed manually, semi-' manually or with a variety of motorised methods. However the type of construction E-8

method has very little or no Influence on yield. Only shape and size and the materials used in envelopes etc influence yield. In this hydrogeological report well yields, and potentiometric levels and water lifting techniques are discussed in relation to well shape or width and depth. The drilling method and casing (lining types) are separate issues. Static water levels are defined here as follows: shallow separate these declines from other contributing factors (e.g. medical advances, economic advancement). But even for water supply and sanitation projects themselves, Briscoe admits that they will have multiple impacts. It may be concluded that water supply and sanitation facilities are necessary for improvements to health, but are not sufficient in themselves. This perspective has been echoed throughout the recent literature in the field (Pinfold, 1990; Feachem, 1988; Esrey and Habicht, 1986). Of most significance for the introduction of a the Lao PDR are the conclusions of Esrey and that while many of the studies in this field some basic inferences concerning the impact disease may be drawn:

community management approach in Habicht (1986: 125-126). They note have been methodologically flawed, of water supply and sanitation on

a) Excreta disposal appears to play a more important role in determining children’s health than water supply, especially in developing areas where the incidence of diarrhoea is high. b) Increasing the use of water for personal and household hygiene should be a priority. The use of larger quantities of water appears more important than water quality. Diarrhoeal diseases are multifactorial in origin, meaning that improved hygiene through the increased use of water can reduce environmental contamination. c) Emphasising water quality in rural areas is questionable as, except in economically advantaged areas where • latrine coverage is high, results have not been significant. These conclusions are supported by studies recently completed in Northeastern Thailand. Pinfold (1990) has indicated the importance of hygienic behaviour in reducing faecal-oral transmission, and the centrality of water use, while Kunasol et. al. (1989) showed that even with improved quality water at source, water use factors led to significant recontamination of drinking water prior to consumption. It was also shown that drinking water quality alone showed little relationship to the incidence of diarrhoeal diseases. Feachem (1988), one of the most respected of researchers in this area, has recently made some significant observations concerning interventions for the control of diarrhoeal diseases., These are worth noting at this point. F-6

First, It should be explained that Feachem lists water supply and sanitation as one of eight potential (and perhaps not mutually exclusive) interventions. These are: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)

Oral rehydration therapy Promotion of breast-feeding Improved weaning practices Rotavirus Immunisation Cholera immunisation Measles immunisation Improving water supply and sanitation facilities Promoting personal and domestic‘hygiene

Policy decisions are, of course, required to determine each country's strategy and mix of. interventions. However, Feachem lias clearly Indicated that water supply and sanitation is but one of a range of interventions which are believed to have an impact on diarrhoeal disease. Second, Feachem agrees that improved quantities of water are more important than improved quality, and believes that it may also be more important than sanitation. Third, while there are no adequate studies, Feachem emphasises that combined interventions, including water supply, excreta disposal, and hygiene education may achieve diarrhoea morbidity reductions of 35-50 percent.. Even this may be overly optimistic as only 30-50 percent of diarrhoeal diseases can be reasonably attributed to enteric pathogens (Tassniyom and Hewlson, 1988: 22). 5.2 Implications for the Lao PDR Water supply and environmental sanitation in rural areas has traditionally had a low priority when budget allocation is considered. This is unlikely to alter in the short- to medium-term, even with significant external assistance. The task facing the government and people should not be under-estimated: it is daunting. Clearly, then, policy decisions must be made concerning the role of WES in the context of national health development priorities. As part of this, the range of potential interventions for diarrhoeal diseases noted above should be addressed. Here, only the WES aspects will be discussed. Water and Disease It is clear that emphasis should be placed on increasing the quantities of water used in households, so as to allow for improvements in personal and domestic hygiene. In the construction of water facilities, efforts should be made to address environmental sanitation questions. For example, where new facilities are constructed,- simple and appropriate measures should be taken (e.g. adequate drainage) to ensure that mosquito breeding places are not increased.

F-7

5.2.2 Excreta and Disease No data are available, but It may be assumed that excreta-related diseases are an issue in villages. However, it is apparent that villagers currently attach little importahce to latrines, and it is important that latrines not be forced on unwilling villagers. Latrines should be Introduced with a view to their long-tenn acceptance. Excreta disposal might best be fostered through a school's programrtie on personal hygiene habits. 5.2.3 Drinking Water Quality At present, and perhaps for the next five to ten years, no attempt to introduce water quality monitoring of village supplies is considered necessary, except where epidemics have occurred. The costs of monitoring might more reasonably be spent on improving water supplies. The question of quality is perhaps best addressed through a progressive approach to the sanitary state of facilities. For example, improvements to public dugwells might be approached by: a) b) c) d)

Introducing cement rings and aprons; Improving cleanliness around the well; Moving to the use of a bucket and windlass; and/or Other improvements acceptable to users

5.2.4 Water-Related Insect Vectors A failure to consider insect vectors can lead to increases In insects such as mosquitoes in project areas. Thus, water supply implementation should, in design and community preparation phases, make provision for reducing or eliminating this potential (see section 5.2.1 above). 5.2.5 Health and Hygiene Education It must be admitted that while schools are widespread, the potential for introducing personal and household hygiene into the curriculum is limited, especially as other learning areas are likely to have a higher priority In the short- and medium-terms. In addition, district health workers, who might be involved in health and hygiene education, lack knowledge, teaching materials and support, communication skills, and time. Hence, health and hygiene education should be approached with a long-term perspective. The following might be considered: a) Introducing health and personal and household hygiene education Into schools where water and sanitation facilities are available. b) Encouraging health and education officials to practice appropriate personal behaviours. This might Include the introduction of courses for these persons in their colleges. c) Inspiring curriculum change in these areas. F-8

d) Continuing to emphasise hygiene through mass media and mass organisations (e.g. Lao Women's Union). ■~

5.2.6 Health Impact Evaluations

Finally, a word on health impact studies. At present it seems that the country lacks staff who might conduct such studies. For water supply and sanitation, adequate health impact evaluations can be expensive and time-consuming, and clear results are often elusive. For the Lao PDR, then, it is recommended that valuable- human and financial resources not be expended for such evaluations. Rather, simple evaluation techniques and the case study might be utilised. UNICEF (1991a: 121-122) recommends certain indicators: a) Water Supply •Functioning: Are the facilities functioning as intended? •User acceptance: Are facilities being used as planned? •Water quantity: Has use increased? Is the use appropriate? Have there been unexpected changes to use patterns? •Water quality: Sanitary surveys might be considered once staffing levels and training has been improved at local levels. •Reliability: Is there sufficient water all year and all day? •Convenience: Has this improved with a new system? •Environment: Have the new facilities contributed environmental sanitation situation?

to

an

improved

b) Sanitation •Access and User Acceptance: What proportion of households have access to latrines? Do people want latrines? •User Behaviour: Are latrines maintained in a sanitary manner? Have user behaviour patterns altered? •Reliability: Are the new facilities operating as designed and over a reasonable period? •Environment: Have the new facilities environmental sanitation situation?

F-9

contributed to

an

improved

6.0 REFERENCES Briscoe. J. (1987) “A Role for Water Supply and Sanitation in the Child Survival Revolution":, PAHO Bulletin, 21, 2: 93-105. Esrey, :S. andHablcht, J-P. (T986) "Epidemiologic Evidence for Health Benefits from Improved Water and Sanitation in Developing ’Countries", Epidemiologic Reviews, Vol. 8: 117-128. Feachem, R. (1988) "Interventions for Diarrhoea Control: Effectiveness and Costs", Background Paper ' No. I,- Community Epidemiology/Health Management Network Meeting, Khon Kaen, 1-4 February. Feachem, R., -et. al. (1977) Wiley. Feachem, R., et. al. (1983)

Water, Wastes and Health in Hot Climates, London, Sanitation and Disease, New York, Wiley.

Kunasol, P. et. al. (1989) Ban Ped and Ban Daeng Noi: Village Water and WaterRelated Diseases Study, Khon Kaen, Thai -Australian Northeastern Village Water Resources Project, Report No. 147. Maunsell-SKP. (1990) "Social and Environmental Impacts", in The Mekong River Bridge Project Phase 2, Feasibility Study Update Draft Report, Sydney, Maunsell Sinclair Knight Joint Venture, Part F. Ministry of Health (1989-91) Monthly Sentinel Surveillance Report, National Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology, various issues. Pinfold, J. (1988) Seasonal Effects on Incidence of Acute Diarrhoea in Northeast Thailand, Khon Kaen, Thai- Australian Northeast Village Water Resource Project, Report No. 9. Pinfold, J. -(-T990) "Faecal Contamination of Water and Finger-Tip Rinses as a Method Tor Evaluating the Effect of Low-Cost Water Supply and Sanitation Activities -on Faeco-Oral Disease Transmission. I. A Case study in Rural North-East Thailand", Epidemiol. Infect., 105: 363-375. Tassnlyom, S. and Hewlson, K. (1988) Water Supply and Development and the Role of Public Health: Directions for the NEVWR Project, Khon Kaen, Thai-Australian Northeast Village Water Resource Project, Report No. 115. Thongkrajai, P. et. al. (1986) Research Report of Diarrhoea in ‘Children in' Rural Thailand, Khon Kaen, Khon Kaen University Research Paper. UNICEF (1991) From EPI to Primary Health Care: Proposed Strategy (Draft), Vientiane, UNICEF. UNICEF (1991a) A UNICEF Uulde for Monitoring and Evaluation: Making a Difference?, New York, Evaluation Office. F-10

KEPORT

PLANNING

FOR

PART

G

RURAL WATER SUPPLY

& E N V I R O N M E N T A L SANTTATLC8ST IN

THE

LAO

THE

PDR:

NEW

TOWARDS ADE

1

CONTENTS i C5

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Post

and

to