Routledge Library Editions: Archaeology [1 ed.] 9781138799714, 9781315751948, 9781138814813, 9781315747194, 1138799718

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Original Title Page
Original Copyright Page
Table of Contents
List of figures
List of plates
From the preface to the first edition
Preface to the fifth edition
Acknowledgements
Publishers' note
Note on dating
Map of Ireland
Introduction
Forts
Fields, roads and linear earthworks
Souterrains
House sites
Coastal dwelling sites
Ancient cooking places
Crannógs
Megalithic tombs
Burial mounds
Standing stones
Stone alignments
Stone circles
Bibliography
Index to places
Subject index

Citation preview

ROUTLEDGE LIBRARY EDITIONS: ARCHAEOLOGY

Volume 43

ANTIQUITIES OF THE IRISH COUNTRYSIDE

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ANTIQUITIES OF THE IRISH COUNTRYSIDE

SEÁN P. Ó RÍORDÁIN

Routledge Taylor & Francis Group

LONDON AND NEW YORK

First published in 1942 by Cork University Press Third edition published in 1953 by Methuen & Co. Ltd Fifth edition published in 1979 This edition first published in 2015 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 1942, 1979 The Estate of Mrs S.P. Ó Ríordáin All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-138-79971-4 (Set) eISBN: 978-1-315-75194-8 (Set) ISBN: 978-1-138-81481-3 (Volume 43) eISBN: 978-1-315-74719-4 (Volume 43) Publisher’s Note The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this book but points out that some imperfections from the original may be apparent. Disclaimer The publisher has made every effort to trace copyright holders and would welcome correspondence from those they have been unable to trace.

Antiquities of the Irish Countryside SEAN P.

6

RIORDAIN

Fifth edition revised{~J! RUAIDHRI DE VALERA

LONDON AND NEW YORK

First publishedin 1942by Cork University Press Secondedition 1943 Third edition publishedin 1953by Methuen& Co. Ltd Fourth edition 1965 Fifth edition 1979 Reprinted1984and 1987 Reprinted1991, 1995by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P4EE 29 West35th Street,New rork, Nr JOOOJ © 1979 The Estateof Mrs S. P. 0 Riorddin

Printed and boundin Great Britain by BiddiesLtd, Guildford andKing's Lynn All rights reserved.No part of this book may be reprinted or reproducedor utilizedin any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means,now knownor hereafter invented,includingphotocopyingand recording, or in any information storageor retrieval system, withoutpermissionin writing from thepublishers. ISBN0-4J5-06589-5

CONTENTS List of figures

VI

List of plates

Vll

From the prefaceto the first edition

xu

Prefaceto the fifth edition

XUI

Acknowledgements

XVll

Publishers'note

XVll

Note on dating

XIX

Introduction

1

Forts

29

Fields, roadsand linear earthworks

60

Souterrains

65

Housesites

74

Coastaldwelling sites

81

Ancient cooking places

84

Crannogs

89

Megalithic tombs

100

Burial mounds

130

Standingstones

143

Stonealignments

147

Stonecircles

150

Bibliography

161

Index to places

171

Subjectindex

179

LIST OF FIGURES

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Map of Ireland (North) Map of Ireland (South)

XXlll

Chronologicaltable

XV III

Profiles of earthworks Reconstructionof a motte and bailey Plansof court-tombs Distribution map of court-tombs Plansof court-tombsand portal-tombs Distribution map of portal-tombs Plansof passage-tombs Distribution map of passage-tombs Plansof wedge-tombs Distribution map of wedge-tombs Distribution map of Early BronzeAge cists Distribution map of cineraryurns Oghamalphabet Distribution map of stonecircles

XXll

39 55 104 107 110 113 115 118 124 125 132 137 146 151

LIST OF PLATES The Publisherswish to thank the individuals and organizations given below for permission to reproduce the photographsin their possession. Betweenpages40-41 1 Fort at Ardsoreen,Co. Sligo. (Photo: Irish Press) 2 Reconstruction of neolithic house at Lough Gur, Co. Limerick (Photo: S. P. 0 Rfordain) 3 Ring-fortatGrange,Co. Limerick. (Photo: S. P. 0 Rfordain) 4 Burnt outline of hut in Grange ring-fort. (Photo: S. P. Rfordain) 5 Stone fort at Moneygashel, Co. Cavan. (Photo: H. S. Crawford) 6 Reconstructionof stonefort with oval houseat Carrigillihy, Co. Cork. (Photo: M.]. O'Kelly) 7 Stone fort at Leacanabuaile,Co. Kerry - entrance and houses in interior. (Courtesy: Cork University Press. Photo: S. P. 0 Rfordain) 8 Entranceto stone fort, Dun Aongusa, Aran Islands, Co. Galway. (Photo: M. V. Duignan) 9 Stone forts at Carraig Aille, Lough Gur, Co. Limerick. (Photo: Aerofilms) 10 Tara: TeachCormaic' and the 'Forradh'. (Photo: Fergus Murray) 11 Stonefort at Staigue,Co. Kerry. (Photo: S. P. 0 Rfordain) 12 Wall stepsin interior, Staigue. (Photo: F6gra Failte) 13 Wall-joint and fosse, Staigue. (Photo: S. P. 0 Rfordain) 14 Dun Aongusa, Aran: stone fort on cliff over Atlantic. (Photo: M. V. Duignan) 15 Promontory fort at Dunbeg, Co. Kerry - entrancefrom outside. (Photo: F6gra Failte)

o

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Antiquitiesof the Irish Countryside

16 Stonefort at Ballykinvarga, Co. Clare, showingchevauxde frise. (Photo:]. C. Brindley) 17 Dubh Cathair, Aran - wall-terracesand huts in interior of fort. (Photo: Rev. C. Scantlebury, SJ.) 18 Aerial photographCaherguillamore,Co. Limerick, showing ancient fields, roads, forts and houses. (Courtesy: Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland. Copyright: Stationery Office, Dublin) 19 The Dangan promontory fort, Achillbeg, Co. Mayo. (Photo: T.]. Westropp) 20 Hill-fort, Knockaulin, Co. Kildare. (Copyright: Stationery Office, Dublin) 21 Entrance to promontory fort, Cave Hill, Co. Antrim. (Photo: S. P. 6 Rfordain) 22 Fosseof promontory fort, Lambay, Co. Dublin. (Photo: S. P. 6 Riordain) 23 Motte and bailey, TipperaryHills, Co. Tipperary. (Photo: Office of Public Works) 24 Motte and bailey, Rathcreevagh,Co. Westmeath.(Photo: S. P. 6 Riordain) 25 Motte and bailey, Dromore, Co. Down. (Photo: Aerofilms) 26 Mound at Magh Adhair, Co. Clare. (Photo: Rev. C. ScantIe bury, SJ.) 27 Platform-typering-fort, Ballingarry Down, Co. Limerick during excavation.(Photo: John Hunt) 28 Rath Meave, Tara. Co. Meath. (Photo: S. P. 6 Rfordain) 29 Kilfinnane, Co. Limerick. (Courtesy: Cork University Press. Copyright: Stationery Office, Dubhn) Betweenpages72-73

30 Motte on ring-fort, Knockaholet, Co. Antrim. (Photo: Author) 31 Giant's Ring megalithic tomb, Co. Down - surrounding bank behind. (Photo: F6gra Failte) 32 Souterrain at Ballycatteen, Co. Cork. (Courtesy: Cork University Press. Photo: S. P 6 Riordain) 33 Souterraintunnel, Dunbeg,Co.Kerry. (Photo: F6graFailte)

List of plates

IX

34 RectangularNeolithic house, Knockadoon, Lough Cur, Co. Limerick. (Photo: S. P. 6 Riordain) 35 Hut on Coad Mountain, Co. Kerry. (Photo: S. P. 6 Riordain) 36 Stonehouseat Ballyvourney, Co. Cork - after excavation. (Photo: M.]. O'Kelly) 37 Round hut at the 'Spectacles', Lough Gur - during excavation. (Courtesy: Cork University Press. Photo: S. P. 6 Riordain) 38 Pair of conjoined clochans, Dingle Peninsula,Co. Kerry. (Courtesy: Cork University Press. Photo: Very Rev. P. Power) 39 Modern farm out-buildings roofed with stone, Dingle Peninsula.(Photo: S. P. 6 Riordain) 40 Medieval houses, Caherguillamore,Co. Limerick - during excavation.(Photo: S. P. 6 Riordain) 41 Fulachtfiadh at Ballyvourney, Co. Cork - before excavation. (Photo: M.]. O'Kelly) 42 Fulacht fiadh at Ballyvourney, Co. Cork - during excavation (framework of hut reconstructed).(Photo: M. ]. O'Kelly) 43 Ballinderry 2 Crannog, Co. Offaly - during excavation (Courtesy: Royal Irish Academy. Photo: H. O'N. Hencken) 44 Portal-tomb at Proleek, Co. Louth. (Photo: Office of Public Works) 45 Wedge-tombs, Proleek, Co. Louth. (Photo: Office of Public Works) 46 Court-tomb, Deerpark, Co. Sligo. (Photo: F6gra Failte) 47 Court-tomb. Creevykeel, Co. Sligo - during excavation. (Courtesy: Royal Society of A ntiquaries of Ireland. Photo: H. O'N. Hencken) 48 Wedge-tomb, Poulaphuca,Co. Clare. (Photo: Ruaidhri de Valera) 49 Wedge-tomb, Parknabinnia, Co. Clare. (Photo: C. 6 Danachair)

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Antiquitiesofthe Irish Countryside

50 Portal-tomb at Browne's Hill, Co. Carlow. (Photo: F6gra Failte) 51 Wedge-tomb,Altar, Co. Cork. (Photo: S. P. 0 Riordain) 52 Cairn on Seefin Mountain, Co. Wicklow. (Photo: S. P. Riordain) 53 Entrance to passage-tombin Seefin Cairn. (Photo: S. P. Riordain) 54 Cairns SandT, Loughcrew, Co. Meath. (Photo: Rev. C. Scantlebury, S.].) 55 Cairn S, Loughcrew, Co. Meath. (Photo:]. C. Brindley) 56 Newgrange,Co. Meath, showingsomeof encircling standing stones. (Photo: S. P. 0 Riordain) 57 Tumulus near Newgrange, Boyne Valley. (Photo: S. B. () Riordain)

o o

Betweenpages136-137 58 Newgrange: decoratedstone at entrance. (Photo: M. V. Duignan) 59 Newgrange: roof of chamber showing corbel technique. (Photo: C. 0 Danachair) 60 Newgrange: side-chambershowing basin stone. (Photo: C. 0 Danachair) 61 Newgrange:decoratedcorbel and portion of roofing-stone of side-chamber.(Photo: C. 0 Danachair) 62 Newgrange:triple spiral. (Photo: C. 0 Danachair) 63 Passage-tombat Fourknocks, Co. Meath, showing central chamberand passage.(Photo: S. P. 0 Riordain) 64 Fourknocks: decoratedlintel. (Photo: S. P. 0 Riordain) 65 Fourknocks: decorated upright in central chamber. (Photo: S. P. 0 Riordain) 66 Rock scribings, Co. Kerry. (Courtesy: Cork Historical and ArchaeologicalSociety. Photos: D. B. O'Connell) 67 Passage-tomb,Canowmore, Co. Sligo. (Photo: F6gra Failte) 68 Portal-tomb, Legananny, Co. Down. (Photo: F6gra Failte) 69 Portal-tomb, Haroldstown, Co. Carlow. (Photo: S. P. R£ordain) 70 Portal-tomb, Ballynageeragh, Co. Waterford. (Photo: T.]. Westropp)

o

List ofPlates

Xl

71 Stone circle with boulder-burial at Kenmare, Co. Kerry. (Photo: S. 6 Nuallain) 72 Stone alignment, 'Finn MacCool's Fingers', Shantemon, Co. Cavan. (Photo: S. P. 6 RiordMn) 73 Megalithic cist from Chapelizod, Co. Dublin (now III Zoological Gardens, Dublin). (Photo: Rev. C. Scantlebury) 74 Cist burial, Keenoge, Co. Meath, showing skeleton and Food Vessel. (Photo: National Museumof Ireland) 75 Long cist grave at Cush, Co. Limerick - broken Food Vessel in position. (Courtesy: Royal Irish Academy. Photo: S. P. 6 Riordain) 76 Short cist grave at Cush - urn in pOSitIOn. (Courtesy: Royal Irish Academy.Photo: Author) 77 'Mound of the Hostages', Tara, Co. Meath. (Photo: Author) 78 Barrow at Rathjordan, Co. Limerick. (Photo: Author) 79 Tumulus at Lattin, Co. Tipperary. (Photo: Author) 80 Tumulus at Cush, Co. Limerick - during excavation, showing fosse. (Courtesy: Royal Irish Academy. Photo: Author) 81 Standingstone, Punchestown,Co. Kildare. (Photo: H. S. Crawford) 82 Oghamstone,Minard, Co. Kerry. (Photo: C. 6 Danachair) 83 Stone with Iron Age ornament, Turoe, Co. Galway. (Courtesy: Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland. Photo:]. Raftery) 84 Inscribedstandingstone, Ballyvourney, Co. Cork. (Photo: M.]. O'Kelly) 85 Cross-inscribed ogham stone, Dromkeare, Co. Kerry. (Photo: C. 6 Danachair) 86 Stone circles, Grange, Lough Gur, Co. Limerick. (Photo: Aerofilms) 87 Stone circle, Drombeg, Co. Cork. (Photo: F6gra Failte) 88 Lissyviggeen stone circle, Killarney, Co. Kerry. (Photo: Author)

FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION (Cork University Press)1942) This booklet is not intendedfor specialistsin archaeology.Its purposeis to give some answer to the questioningman in the street, who asks the archaeologistfor a simple explanationof somemonumentwhich he has noticed in the countrysideand which is, in all probability, a typical example of a class of antiquity widespreadthroughoutIreland. The questionusually concernsan individual structure, be it fort, souterrain,stone circle, or other antiquity, of which the archaeologist,lacking evidencewhich excavationmight yield, cansay little. He can, however, explain at somelength what is known of this type of monument. So that such information may be availablein a convenientprinted form it is proposedto give an outline hereof the presentstateof knowledgeconcerning thoseclassesof antiquitiesmost frequently met with in the Irish countryside,and it is hopedthat our brief noteswill make them intelligible to the inquiring layman. Monuments, (churches, high crosses,round towers, and so on) belonging specifically to Early Christianity are not dealt with here, since their study involves the subjectsof architectureand art rather than archaeologyproper, and it is proposed to confine our S'lrvey to the types of monumentsmost common throughout the country. Sincethis booklet is for the generalreader,who may have no ambitionsor opportunity to delve deeply into the voluminous archaeologicalliterature which might be invoked on each of the topics covered, it is not intended to encumberthe text pageswith references.Should the reader wish more fully to acquainthimself with the subject, the Bibliography at the end may be found useful. With the aid of this, he should be in a position to evaluate for himself the evidence produced by excavationand by field surveys. It is the hope of the writer that, having read the pagesthat follow, the reader may be stimulated to seek for himself

From the prefaceto thefirst edition

Xlll

examplesof the antiquities therein described.Should he wish to do so, he is strongly advisedto procurefor himself a copy of the 6-inch Ordnance Survey Sheet covering the district in which he is interested.The mapsare invaluableand must serve as the basis for any proposed Field Survey. While on some sheets the sites of almost all monumentsare recorded, on others the omissionswill be found to be numerous,this being particularly true of mountainousareas.The enthusiastwith a flair for field work can do immenseservice to archaeologyby undertakingan accuratesurvey of all the ancient remains in some one district. Such a survey calls for detailed plans and descriptionsof all sites, whether recordedby the O.S. or not. Its careful compilationwill, in many instances,bring to notice monumentsunknown to Irish Archaeology,while it should, in any case, serve to make more complete our still very inadequateknowledgeof field antiquitiesparticularly in the matter of the distribution of the different types.

PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION More than a quarter of a century has elapsedsince the late ProfessorSean P. 6 Riordain completedthe third edition of his Antiquitiesof the Irish Countryside.Throughoutthat time it has admirably servedits primary purposeof informing 'the questioning man in the street' as its author himself had intended.It also proved to be a valuablesynthesisfor students of Irish archaeologyas the successof the fourth edition as a University Paperbackso amply showed. With the passageof time as 6 Riordain himself anticipated, new discoveriesand advancesin archaeologyinevitably called for additions and alterationsand it is the purposeof the presentedition to meet this demand.The task hasbeenmademore onerousand at the same time more interestingby the expansionof Irish archaeological work during the last twenty-five years- in the fostering of which 6 Riordain himself played such a major role.

XIV

A ntiquitiesofthe Irish Countryside

In preparingthis edition I have sought to retain the original author's approach and many passagesof the text remain virtually unaltered.The chapterarrangementfollows his save that the sectionsdealing with Fields, Roadsand Linear Earthworks are taken out of the chapter on Forts to form a new chapterof their own. Since the field antiquitiesreflect, in many cases,episodesin the story of Ireland'spast I have addedan Introduction which seeks to synthesize these episodes and relate the various monumenttypes to them. In doing so an attempt is made to see the monumentsand the episodeswith which they are connectedin a geographicalsetting and see the societieswho built them as real people, however shadowy and uncertain the picture may often be. Such an approachis, of course, not new but as one works through the various stagesof the story it becomesclear that it has beenvery unevenly attemptedas yet in Ireland. For many episodesopportunitiesfor the exploitation of this approachare manifest through such techniquesas detailedmapping,soil and vegetationstudiesetc. The recognition of natural regions and barriers and their effect on settlement can yield useful results. The regions occupied by different groups can tell us a good deal about economic requirementsand the capabilities of the various groups to exploit and sometimesalter their environment. The effect of other contemporary groups on the extent of settlement, however difficult to assess,cannot be ignored. In the present stateof knowledgeconclusionsmust often be tentative and the sketch given in the Introduction should be read with this constantlyin mind. It is given, not with any claim to finality but in the hope of stimulating interest and researchin what must surely be in the future a fertile field. In view of moderntrendswhich eschewthe idea of invasion someof what I have written will doubtlessbe dismissedas outdated 'invasionism'. It is true that often in the past the beginnings of new types in a given area were too readily assumedto represent invasions. It is equally true that the arrival of totally new rangesof monumentsand material has been explained as some vague spread of ideas with no appreciableimmigration. As always the truth lies between. I

Prefaceto thefzfthedition

xv

can only say that within the narrow limits of the pagesof the Introduction I have tried to indicate how far the various episodessuggesta sizeablenumber of immigrants. That some colonizationand lesserimmigration took place need causeno surprise, for such are well in evidence in both Britain and Ireland in historic times. It is of courseentirely anothermatter to decide whether any incursion was warlike or peaceful and on this in prehistorywe have seldomsufficient evidenceto pass judgement. I trust also that in speakingof new arrivals it is clear that the indigenous population would normally have survived and doubtless have influenced in their own way subsequentdevelopments. Those who are familiar with archaeologicalliterature of recent times may be surprised or disappointed that I have given short shrift to theoriesconcerningexact orientation and standardizedmeasurementin regard to megalithic monuments - tombs, circles and alignments. These theories often imply a deepand detailedknowledgeof complex astronomical phenomenaand a grasp of mathematicalprocedureson the part of man in megalithic times. They are supportedby an array of figures, formulae, statisticsand computerprocedures with which most archaeologists are less than adequately acquainted.However, all too often the mathematicscan be shown to be faulty and logic and simple commonsenseto be lacking. There is now available a large body of evidencefrom Ireland which indicatesa broad adherenceto generalorientation customs in certain classesof tombs and circles which is readily explained in terms of the general knowledge of ordinary country folk of the main directionssuch as we would nowadayscall North, South, East and West. Many Christian gravesand churchesare roughly aligned east and west and the ill luck attendingthe man who extendshis housewestwardsis proverbial still in partsof Ireland. No detailed observationor precisealignmentis implied in theseand no suchimplication is required to explain the orientationof megalithic monuments. One wondersif it is not part of a tendencyapparentin many spheresin recent times - to seek after and even invent the spectacular,the mysterious, let alone the occult, beloved of modern media of communication. There are surely enough

XVI

A ntiquitiesofthe Irish Countryside

mysteriesin life without creatingmore. Knowledgeof our roots should be firmly grounded not set in fantasy. I think 6 Riordflin, ar dheis De go raibh se, would approve.

University College Dublin April 1978

Ruaidhri de Valera

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I must first offer my sincerest gratitude to Mrs Gabriel 6 Riordain, who honouredme by entrustingthe preparationof this new edition of her late husband'sbook to me. I wish also to thank the members of the Department of Archaeology, University College, Dublin for much help and valuable discussionon various sections. I am particularly indebtedto my constant collaborator in the Megalithic Survey, Mr Sean 6 Nuallain, ArchaeologicalOfficer in the OrdnanceSurvey. His assistanceand advice addedmuch not only to the chapterson Megalithic Tombs, Standing Stones, Stone Alignments and StoneCircles which are his specialfield, but also to the work as a whole. I have drawn freely on his unrivalled knowledge of field antiquities throughout all Ireland and benefited greatly from his ideas and criticism, both generouslygiven. Since footnotes are not used I offer my apologies and gratitude to all workers in Irish Archaeology on whose published work I have drawn. To all those throughout the length and breadthof Ireland who in many ways made possible the discoveryandsurveyof our monumentsI sharea commondebt with all field archaeologists. Finally, I wish to thank the publishers,MessrsMethuen& Co. for their boundlesspatience and consideration. R.deV.

PUBLISHER'S NOTE We deeply regret the death of Professor de Valera which occurred before the publication of this new edition, and we should like to thank Mr Sean 6 Nuallain for his invaluable assistancewith the tasks which remained.

Norman Mottes

Ogham Stones

Ring-forts

Promontory Forts

Hillforts

Crann6gs

........ Urn

./ Food Vessel Cists

Wedge-tombs

'Henges', Stone Circles, Alignments etc.

Late Neolithic Burials

Passage - tombs

Portal-tombs

Court-tombs

Years

3500

3500

3000

30°0

1500

1500

1000

1000

Chronological table

2000

2000

Figure 1

2500

2500

500

500

b.c. -° -

b.c. -0 -

a.d

o.d.

500

500

1000

1000

1500

1500

NOTE ON DATING Radiocarbondeterminationsavailable for Ireland are as yet insufficient to permit their use as a firm chronologicalframework for the monumentsand the episodesof Irish prehistory. Furthermore,the useof suchdeterminationsis complicatedby difficulties in co-ordinatingthem with datesbasedon tree ring counts (dendrochronology). Comparison of tree ring dates with radiocarbon determinationsindicates that the radiocarbonreadingsdiverge from the tree ring dates.Datesaround 1000 b.c. agreewell but as we go back in time the radiocarbon 'dates' become progressively too young for several millennia while moving towards the present the opposite is the case. Thus around4000 b.c. in real calenderyears the radiocarbon 'dates'may be too recent by many centuries.Current work in Ireland is throwing somelight on theseproblemsas they affect Irish dating but it is too early to attempt to apply the results. Hence, where radiocarbondeterminationsare quoted in the present book no attempt is made to adjust these to real calendardatesindicated by tree ring chronology. The table (Figure 1), while taking account of radiocarbon d('terminationsfor Irish sites and comparableevidencefrom abroad,still dependsto a large extenton sequencesbuilt up by observedassociationsand stratification. It is necessaryto stress that the table is given as a guide for the non-specialistreaderto the generalsequenceof the monumentsand is not to be readas in any way preciseor definitive. Firm lines indicate the floruit periods of the types while broken lines indicate probable extensionsbefore and after. Monumentssuch as house sites, fences and round burial moundswhich occur in many different contextsare not included. Ring-forts and Crannogsdo not include possibleearly prototypes. A conventionusing B.C. in capitalsto indicatereal calendar years(accordingto the tree ring count) and b.c. in small letters for unadjustedradiocarbondeterminationsis not followed in this book. The majority of datescited are direct radiocarbon

xx

Antiquitiesof the Irish Countryside

determinationsor dates basedon general correlationstaking such determinationsinto accountand henceh.c. and a.d. are used throughout.

MAP OF IRELAND

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2 V w a T S 2 WhiteparkBay Aird, Bat Iin toy Dunsevenck\ Rath!inIs. Cross[ 2 Fair Head 2 • Doonmore\ £raig_ Doagh More Ballyvennaght Craig 'KnockbydEast Torr Dunfanaghy Bin'. Mil 3 3 Tievebulliagh Lismurphy> knockaholet Count y Boundaries • 'Lungerhanr Rough island Kithoyte Tutlvallen Gnanan Lough Enagh 4 E AilechA Lisnacrogher Boviel Dungtady Moylgrg Trc(py< Positio n of sites Letrershanbp Dunteige Harryviitex, Knockdhu\ BativmenaCoughash \ Tirnoney, mentioned in tUe book Beltan v 5 Ballyalbanagh, 5 tCashetbane> Browndodl CastledamphBalfybriest Kilcfooney Kifmamonashsr 8afly wee B B S Clogherny CladyHalliday Rathbeg Downvtew Glenco/umbkille Dun Ruadh "Ballynagilly 61 ' Farranmacbride Lvles CaveHill Batlycroghan Island louahnnmarf Hill Ballvrennan MacHugh \Beaqhmore Orumkelin Ba/lyaghagan Newrownaras Creggdhconroe) •MountStewart Poleglass Tullaghoge/ B C D E F H G Rough Island 7 trumsk'tnny Lissue .Nendrum Giants} Sess Kilgreen Bundorang Ballyshannon R/ngBaltynahdtty~Tutlvallen Inishmurrqy' -Knockmany Sessiamaaaroll DrpmoreAudteystownBallyfounder Firmer Creevykee!' Woughskelt DownpatrickjTdberdoney 8 Clogher TutlvallenDrumnahare\ Baiiywii/wm wilnamaddoo iMillinBay Qlenulra \LishagadeBallyqlass -Clogh Xastlemahon' Tullyskeherny Cavancarraah ~?CDnjmree' Legananny Knocknarea Carrownacow • Killaia •.Whitefon Tutlvallen Belmore Oeerpark BurrenQoohatty \Bay, Behy LoughislandreevyDundrumf Ballynoe USbQQhlll JGIengad Ballybeg Carrowhubbuck, 'Carrowmore Moneygashet •Lisnaskea Lough Faugnan Bethy, Rarhfran Newry Slteve Gullion I Kitla la Auqhrim\ CarrowleaghGlenmackieman Annagbmore •Ballykeel 10 Moylemuck m a .ki nasaaaarr ^Carrownaglough Kilfeaahan Kittycluggtn Treanmore Duvillaun x Cohaw Carlingford Lough Keshcorrarr 'jtnavert froieek: Clearmqunr. Carrowke&l Tutlvallen •Rockmarshall •Manaan x Letterkeen •Shantemon Castle Aghnaskeagh D Cargaghoge Sheemore Tutlvallen Mvllaahanin Corlond Ardsoreerr^ Carrickacroyf-Kittarnaght Achiltbegx^ annum Annagassan Melkagh' 12 Paddock^ Balla Cruachan ISrackalleo Carrowjames Townieyhall. - Crossdrum. Tutlva llen Knowth. DovvT m Rathcreevaqh Louqhcrew Ardaktflin U'sduff 13 Kelts Keenoge \Monknewrown Newgrange. £ormanston Bremore Doonbally Mickmansrown Ballinchalla Tara Fou mocks Loughshinny Castlestrange Rath Meave 14 Tutlvallen Pot la corragune •Rushl Cong Laoore Kiirale lambay Ursneach Togberstown Ctpnard Carrowbeg North 1

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Sr.Doulaahs Battigeer Knockast Donaahmore ChapeiizocLSutton 215 'Ballinderry Carbury Hill 15 knockmaree Ardrass, Drimnaqh Kilmashogue BallykiHen Dundrum Whitechurch Dalkley Island lOranbeq] Lullymore Brennansto wn Rathmore Lugg 16 : Turoe Raheenavick Edmondsrown 16 Rarhanqan Fumess) Tibradden Seefin Ballyedmonduff Punch estown Qrvmacoo Masonbrook Baltyfolan • Faunarooska Dun Eoahanachta The CurrnahSillagh Ring Broadleas Aran Grannagh Dun Aongusa Islands knockauftn Longsfonerarh 17 17 .Poufaphuca Cloncarlin Kilqowanx Faunarooska Dubh Cathair" Athareany Whiteleai Toumant Gleninsheen Ballintruer Cahermacnaghfen Glendalough Casnerudder Brusselshown Cahercommaun Clopook i Iskancullin ClooneePr-' Ring 18 Baltinglass 18 Ballykmvarga Parknabinnia Boleycarrigeenl TimoneylHills Ardcrony, Boleyi Deerpark Ballyganner Baltinglass Baltinglass Ballyanny Tulia] 'Browne's Hill Haroldsrown ,9 Magh Bally vally Hollyfort 19 Linkardstownx Rathf Rathgall •Killaloe Silvermines Mooghaun Adhair Moylisha webbsborough •Knocknalappa Hear cross DinnRic, Garrynamona Bavrnadomeeny 2C BQitjngoota knockshanbrittas FreestoneHill 20 Norrishount •Knockea;Grange Rathiordan Ballynamona LoughGuri Jerpcint West X-Rathm'ootey [Ballintovgh Enniscorrhy 21 Mortgage) Derrynahinch Cashel 21 Ballybunniori Crprriwell Caherguillamore) finx KilTeakle 'Hot Rockbarron Gofoon Tipperary Hills Kilmogue Glenderry Bruree RaheennamadnjShrouah Knockgraffon 22 \Cush 22 Vssard Kilfinnane. Maheree Islands -uunryrleague Ardpatrick Ballingarry Down Ballinguilla Dun Claire 23 East Derrymore Gau/stownCarrtglong 23 ^Ballyenahan i :Kilmacoo Gallarus Caherconree Bagmbun. Knockeer Lisduggan Labbacailee Reask Temp/em ana qhon B aflynageeragh Faunarooska Hamsrown Dunbeg BallygarroniCill Tighernagh Mallow 23 Cam Hnocknakilty Faunarooska Minard 24 tramore Gowlane Fahan Gortboy Mil/street MuisireBeag North Lisiviaeen Bally knock Beenalaght Garryduff Coolnaharagill Oun/oeCaves Ba/lyhanowBeq: FaunarooskaOughhhery cCoolowen 25 Ardmore 25 BallyvourneyxCabragh •UsnashandrumEast Leacanabuaile Kilberrtnert Ki/leens Dromkeare Mullaghroe ^Passage West 261 Garranes Moneen Faunarooska Curraghbinny 25 Cashelkeelty Faunarooska Cahervagtier 0 P 0 R V W X Cashel Hill S T U Harbour CoadMountain' GreatSkellig Cork Ktlcofman CasNenalact Millittle Kcalkil tureenymore Zurragncrawle y Allihies .Kidnascarta Reanascreena Ballvcatteen 27 27! •Dun Cermna DrombegBohonat SO MILES 10 5 0 10 SO 30 40 Mountvabrte Aghadown Carrigillihy 28 28 xnockdrum AlFar 105 0 10 10 30 40 50 60 70 60 90 100 KILOMETRES Dooneendermgfmore CapeClear Island 29

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INTRODUCTION There is no good evidencethat Ireland was inhabited by man during the Old Stone (Palaeolithic)Age. After the retreat of the ice about 10,000yearsago groupsof peoplestill dependent on hunting and gathering for subsistenceoccupied most of northernEuropeincluding Britain. Such Middle Stone(Mesolithic) Age peoplemay have come to Ireland but the evidence adducedfor their presence- largely flint artefactsand radiocarbondeterminations- is by no meansconclusive. The first New Stone (Neolithic) Age farming communitiesthat arrived in Ireland, probably before 3000 b.c., would have found virtually if not totally virgin country. The coastal outline differed but slightly from the presentone. Much of the land was heavily forested and large areas, especially in the west, were to a great extent free of the deep mountain blanket bog that now enshroudsthem. The first Neolithic colonistsboth in Ireland and Britain are characterizedby their pottery, tools and weapons- well-made round-bottomedbowls, leaf- and lozenge-shapedflint and chert arrow-headsand polishedaxe-headsof flint or othersuitable stone. This assemblageand the culture it representsis called Neolithic A. Many authorities believe that the longbarrow tombs which are intimately associated with the Neolithic A in both Britain and Ireland were not introduced with the earliest Neolithic colonists but were due to a later religious movement. This at first sight would seem to be supportedby the fact that the bog layers providing evidence for the beginningsof land clearanceand agriculture, obtained from the study of plants remains(pollen etc.), can yield radiocarbon dates earlier than those obtained from the longbarrows. However, it is clear that as soon as land clearanceand agriculture was established in a district the consequential alteration in the vegetation would be expected to be representedin the bog strata,whereasthe evidencefrom a tomb will refer to the date of its building and use. The sheernumber of

2

Antiquitiesof the Irish Countryside

long-barrowsextant in Ireland and Britain (over 1000) shows that the custom of long-barrow building extended over a lengthy period. Any given examplemay be hundredsof years later than the introductionof farming into the region in which it is situated. Indeed, since the population must have increased,the vast majority of the long-barrowsshould belong to times considerablylater than the initial stagesof colonization. In fact, evidencefor date is available only for a handful of long-barrowsin Ireland and Britain and someof thesedates are for one reasonor anothersuspect.With so small a sample we can hope only to gain some idea of the general period of constructionof the tombsbut we cannotin any wise define the earliest. The intimate and continual associationof the longbarrows with the Neolithic A, combinedwith the absenceof evidencefor an alternativemodeof burial, strongly favours the view that they representthe burial customintroducedwith the first Neolithic A farmers. Moreover, the sheer number of bodiesrepresented,including individuals of both sexesranging in age from unborn children to matureadults, encouragesthe opinion that burial in a long-barrow was the normal right of membersof the Neolithic A communities. The earliestlong-barrow buildersin Irelandspreadfrom the west, colonizing the country north of the central plain (Figure 5) and extendedover to south-westScotland and the Isle of Man. The tombs and the finds from them form a continuous province joined rather than divided by the narrow waters of the North Channel. In Britain, closely related long-barrow builders spreadfrom the Bristol Channelregion over much of southernEnglandand southernWales. A branchreachesinto Lincolnshireand easternYorkshire and ultimately into eastern Scotland.Throughoutall the regionsoccupiedin both Britain and Ireland the patternof distribution shows the settlementof the lighter well-drained soils which were relatively easily clearedand suitablefor pioneeringagriculture. Thoughexact origins on the continent cannot be isolated, features of tomb form point to western France, probably in the region around the Loire estuary. The first farming communities altered the landscapenot only by the clearanceof some forest but also by the results of

Introduction

3

such clearance. Thus in Mayo there is evidence that the clearanceof pine, perhapsby fire, may have encouragedthe growth of blanket bog which gradually reducedeven potentially fertile moraine ridges to inhospitable, heather-grown moorland. A notable feature of pollen diagrams, not only in Britain and Ireland but also in northern Europe, is the sharp decline in elm about the time of the introduction of agriculture. This is often explainedas selectiveclearanceof elm and the exploitation of the elm leavesas fodder. It is very difficult to imagine that a relatively small Neolithic population could have by mere clearancedecimatedthe elm to the extent suggested by the pollen counts. A climatic change would be a more acceptablesolution but of these there is little secure evidence. A third explanation would be the introduction of some selective tree disease. The analogy of the Dutch elm diseasewhich has ravagedthe elm over wide areasin modern times is obvious. Indeedit might be suggestedthat the arrival of the first farmers bringing with them livestock and seed grain, could have introduced a pest (insect, fungus or whatever) that inflicted the damage.It would not be the only time that colonists introduced parasites- all the more virulent in an area not hitherto infected. Apart from the evidenceof the settlementand way of life that the distribution of the long-barrowsindicates, the artefacts found in them shedlight on the economyand day-to-day life of their builders. Arrow-headssuggesthunting, serrated scrapers, perhaps the use of leather thongs, and so on. Impressionsof grain on pottery tell us somethingof the actual crops grown, and animal bones something of the livestock. Polished stone and flint axe-headsare especially significant. They reflect one of the primary needsof theseearly settlersthe felling of timber whetherfor land clearance,house building or fuel. Someof the axesfound are productsof an industry for the mass production of axes. Axe factories have been discovered for example at Tievebulliagh, Co. Antrim, where veins of rock especiallysuitablefor axe making were exploited. In such axe factories, often on high mountain slopes unsuitable for permanenthabitation, the stone was chipped to the rough shape of axe-headsand brought elsewhere for final

4

A ntiquities of the Irish Countryside

polishing. Products of such factories are found over a wide area indicating trade. In the flint districts on the chalk in Englandregularmineswere sunk to procuregood flint for axe making on a large scale. The Irish flint-bearing chalk is exposedonly in the north-eastalong the edgesof the basalt which covers the Antrim plateau. There is very considerable evidencefor flint manufacturein these areas but mining on the scale of the British exampleshas not yet been attested. The tombs indicate the general settlement pattern, but recentwork in Co. Mayo has revealedthe fields and fencesof the early farmers and the furrows and ploughmarksof their tillage plots. The plans of housesat Ballyglass, Co. Mayo, and Ballynagilly, Co. Tyrone, show comfortable dwellings comparable in size to Irish rural cottages. The stout timber constructionswould not merely be adequatebut even quite comfortablequarters. Theselong-barrow peoplewere no mere primitive peasants let alone semi-nomadicpastoralists as has sometimes been suggested.Their farms and housesshow them to have been well-organizedstock raisers and agticulturalists and the ·axe factoriesimply developedindustryand trade. Their fine tombs reflect not only a consummateskill in handling enormous stones but also a considerablecompetencein architectural design. Save for some decoration on their pottery we know little of whateverart they may have practised.A competence in navigationis implied in the seajourneys necessarynot only in the initial movementsfrom the continent but also in their diffusion to the islandsof Scotlandand Man. As colonists few prehistoricgroupsin Britain or Ireland seemto have achieved as much. The endurance of the long-barrow tradition is no less remarkable.From among the court-tombs the portal-tombs developed. This type spread throughout the court-tomb province in the northern half of Ireland but is distinctly less common west of Sligo town where the court-tombs are very numerous(Figure 7). However, unlike the court-tombs they make a considerableimpact in Leinster and Waterford and occupy the coastalfringe of Wales and extendinto Cornwall. They do not appearin Scotland, though some court-tombs

Introduction

5

there have featuresclosely akin to the portal-tombform. Conversely some tombs assignedto the portal-tomb classin Wales have featuresmore akin to court-tombsthan to classic portaltombs. It is perhapsworth emphasizingthat the division into classes,court-tomb and portal-tomb, is one made by archeologists and we have no meansof knowing to what extent these classeswere consideredas separateby the tomb builders. Be that as it may, the portal-tomb builders did considerably expandthe long-barrow province. They had a special preference for valley-side positions near streamsand an ability to penetrate along river valleys is a notable feature of their diffusion. The spreadalong both sides of the Irish sea shows their competencein the useof seaways.Even in Ireland itself a seaborneextension to the Waterford area and a diffusion along the Leinster river valleys is probable. The relatively few grave goods both in Ireland and Wales show very close kinship with the court-tomb repertoire. Some finds indicate that both court-tombs and portal-tombs persisted until the dawn of the Bronze Age. We have as yet no clear indication of the stage in the Neolithic at which the portal-tomb emerged.Their numbersin Ireland are just less than half of the court-tomb total and in Donegal and central Ulster the two classesapproachequality. Thesenumbersand wide diffusion suggesta reasonablylong period of currencyfor the portal-tombs. The overlaps in design between the two classesalso implies an overlap in time betweenthem. Less is known of the habitationsof the portal-tombthan of the courttomb builders. However, housesat Clegyr Boia in Wales may have belongedto such people. Apart from the continuationof the use of long-barrowsto the dawn of the Bronze Age the tradition representedby their pottery and flint work persists, apparentlysometimeswithout the long-barrow. Overlaps with other cultures- passagetomb and Early Bronze Age groups- are also indicated. One site in particular, on Knockadoon at Lough Gur, shows the retention of the classic Neolithic pottery though no proven long-barrow is known in the immediatevicinity. Some of the seriesof housesat Knockadooncomparein their artefactsallowingfor the poor quality of the flint available- remarkably

6

A ntiquitiesofthe Irish Countryside

with the long-barrowsand belong to the Neolithic A tradition which continuesthere to overlap with Bronze Age people. The secondmajor element in the Irish Neolithic is represented by the passage-tombs.Like the long-barrows these derive from the greatmegalithiccomplexestablishedalong the west coastof Europefrom Iberia to Scandinavia.Their precise origin is more easily defined becausein the Carnac area of Brittany prototypesfor their architecturalfeaturesand mural art are readily identified. They representthe classicEuropean passage-tomb, with a chamberapproachedby a passageunder a round mound and having fine objects depositedwith the burials togetherwith an art style either depictedon the stones of the tomb or on the objects deposited.The close grouping into cemeteriesand the choice of prominent sites are also featuresknown on the continent. The passage-tombbuilders seem to have arrived in Ireland on the east coast near the Boyne estuary. They spread in strengthacrossthe northernedge of the central plain (Figure 9). This spreadis marked by the four major concentrated cemeteriesof Brugh na B6inne and Loughcrew (Slieve na Calliagh) in Co. Meath and Carrowkeel and Carrowmorein Co. Sligo. From this band, possiblyfrom Loughcrew, the tomb buildersmovedsouthwardsandformed a diffused cemeteryon the north-west and western fringe of the Dublin-Wicklow mountainrange. Here, single cairns or small groupsof two or three sites crown many of the summits. Northwardsfrom the Boyne the movementis largely more or less coastal to north Louth and Armagh and beyond to Down and North Antrim. There is little real penetrationof the heartlandof the longbarrow (court-tomb and portal-tomb) and the relatively few sites in Tyrone, Fermanaghand Donegal tend to fall in areas not denselyoccupiedby long-barrow tombs. At first sight the penetrationin Sligo seemsto indicate a considerableoverlap betweenthe two seriesbut it is noteworthy that this penetration is along a corridor in which the court-tombsand portaltombsare distinctly few by comparisonwith the great densities found on either side. In Leinster also the portal-tombs lie ratherto the north of the Dublin -Wicklow massifin contrastto the more western aspect of the passage-tombs.The riverine

Introduction

7

distribution of portal-tombsin the valleys of the rivers opening to Waterfordand Wexford estuariesshowsbut a slight overlap with the passage-tombs,save for the tiny Tramore group of undifferentiatedpassage-tombs which are probably considerably later than the main passage-tomb series_In commonwith the court-tombsand portal-tombs,passage-tombs are scarcely representedin the south-westof Ireland. The specific siting of passage-tombsand the general cemeterypattern make the tracing of the actual lands occupied by their builders less easy than in the case of the other Irish megalithic tomb builders. One importantfactor has been noted -a generalassociationwith glacial gravel terrain. The Boyne area is largely such land. The Dublin-Wicklow sites overlook glacial gravels on the rim of the plain and the corridor overlookedby the Sligo seriesis also rolling moraine land. Carrowmoreitself is built on glacial sandsand gravel. Though a full detailedsurvey of the lands overlooked by the tombs has yet to be completedit is likely to show a distinct associationwith glacial gravelsover most if not all the regions occupied. The passage-tombs,then, display not only a considerabledegreeof mutual exclusivenessin the general territory occupiedbut also a choice of land different from the soils selectedby the court-tomb and portal-tomb builders. In their relation to more or less lowland glacial gravels and sandsthe passage-tombsaccord more with the choice of Food Vessel people of the Early Bronze Age. The presenceof a group on the headlandsof North Antrim in a flint-rich chalk area and also near the axe factory on Rathlin Island suggeststhat they, like their court-tomb contemporaries,had an interest in the mass production of axes which is a marked feature of the Neolithic in Ireland and Britain. In dealing with the finds from passage-tombs anotherconcomplete trast is apparent.In a numberof Irish passage-tombs undisturbed burial deposits have been found, while such deposits are scarcely available from other Irish megalithic tombs. The better preservationin passage-tombs is due partly to the more complete coverageof the chamberswithin the round mounds which envelop them and partly to the more remote hill-top siting of many of them. In well-preserved

8

Antiquitiesofthe Irish Countryside

depositsa thick layer of crematedbones, representinga large number of individuals, has been found and with them a very standardassemblageof grave goods: beads, pendants,bone pins, stoneand clay balls and pottery. The emphasisis on personal ornament,and practical tools and weaponsare seldom presentin the actualburial depositthoughthesemayoccurelsewhere in the mound. The pottery consistsof round-bottomed hemisphericalbowls rather coarsein texture and decoratedin stabs.In manufactureit comparesnonetoo favourablywith the finer wares of the court-tombsbut the designs, looped arcs, etc., more obviously reflect the traditional megalithic art associated with passage-tombs throughouttheir continentaldistribution. Theornamentsfound, thoughdiffering in detail, accord with the finds of beadsand decoratedobjects in the tombs of Franceand Iberia. Moreover, thoughnon-utilitarianin nature they to someextent reflect tools such as pestlehammerswhich werepresumablypartof the passage-tomb builders'equipment. The mural engravingson the tombs which are a notable feature, except in the west of Ireland, give us an insight into the artistic achievementof the tomb builders. In Iberia this art is reflectedin ornamentedstoneand boneobjectsplacedin the tombs, togetherwith the remainsof painteddesignsand a few engravingson the walls. In Brittany elaboratewall engravings are well represented.The finest Irish art is in the Boyne region especiallyin the greatestof the tombs Newgrange,Dowth and Knowth. We have but little knowledge of the houses of the Irish passage-tomb builders. Layersof habitationrefuseunder some mounds, e.g. Townleyhall, may be due merely to temporary squattingperhapsby the tomb builders. It has beensuggested that the very size of the tombs and the organizationrequired for their constructiontogetherwith their cemeterysiting imply close-knit communities and even towns. The art and the emphasis on ornament is taken as showing advancement consistentwith suchcommunities.In supportof this townships cemeteriessuch as at Los Millares associatedwith passage-tomb in Iberia canbe cited. In Ireland, however,unlessthe hut circles on Carrowkeel are accepted,there is no direct evidence. It is true that the finest of the Irish passage-tombs exceedin

Introductz"on

9

the sheer quantity of material used (about 100,000 tonnes in the largestexamples)and in architecturalexcellenceeven the greatest of the long-barrow tombs of Ireland. It must be remembered,however, that the number of these giants is very few comparedwith the total number of Irish passagetombs. The three great tumuli on the Boyne about 80 m in diameter, the great cairns at Knocknarea and Heapstown about 60 m in diameterand cairn D at Loughcrew 54 m, are exceptionalratherthan representativeof the series. In fact the vast majority of the Irish passage-tombs would accord in their architecturalachievementand evenin sheerweight of material used with the court-tombseriesand a considerablenumberof them are puny comparedeven with normal court-tombs or portal-tombs. The number of bodies represented in well-preserved passage-tomb burial depositsis larger than thosefound in longbarrows either in Ireland or Britain. Thus, even allowing for the greater degree of disturbancenormally present in Irish court-tombsand portal-tombsand the frequency of acid soil conditions, each passage-tombis likely to representa larger numberof peoplethan would a tomb of the long-barrowclass. This should mean either that a passage-tombserved a more numerouscommunity than did tombs of the other classesor that it was used over a longer period. The total numberof passage-tombs recognizedin Ireland is less easy to define than that of the other classesof megalithic tombs largely becauseit is often impossible to decide from surfaceevidencewhether a round mound contains a passagetomb or burials of other types. However, a figure of about 300 would be generallyacceptable.About 500 long-barrow tombs (court-tombs and portal-tombs) are attestedin Ireland. The overall total of 800 is, of course, considerablyless than the number actually constructed because past destruction and future recognition must be allowed for. There are too many imponderablesto permit any precise estimateof the proportion of the Neolithic population accountedfor in theseburials but it seemspossibleto infer that the numbersare sufficiently high to rule out the assumptionthat megalithicburial was confined to a small upper stratum in the societies.

10

Antiquitiesof the Irish Countryside

The presenceof cemeteriesshows a tendency to centralize burials but this neednot necessarilyimply concentratedsettlement. The diffused cemeteries like those in the DublinWicklow region and in Antrim suggestconsiderabletravel to the burial ground, and rural communitiescould easily account for them. Even in the Boyne region, including the great examples,rural communitieson the rich pastureand arable land could probably have accomplishedthe task of building them over a numberof years. What is implied in the greatest of the tombsis an impelling motivation probably controlled by rich and powerful leadership.The passage-tombs of Ireland then may perhapsreflect somemore or less urban tradition in the backgroundin Iberia but it is very doubtful if they formed urban settlements as such in Ireland. Many great monuments~ such as hill-forts ~ were built in Ireland long before the Vikings first establishedurban life here. The date of arrival of the passage-tombs is usually taken to be about 2500 b.c., severalhundredsof years after the arrival of the long-barrow. However, there are certain factors, e.g. the presenceof transeptalsites in both classes,that make too wide a separationin time for the beginningsof eachsomewhat difficult to sustain.The relatively confined spreadof passagetombs in Ireland and even more so in Britain suggeststhat the long-barrow peoplecontinuedto flourish side by side with the passage-tombbuilders. In any case both types seem to have persistedinto the dawn of the Bronze Age. Contactsbetween the two are suggestedby the occasionaloccurrenceof passagetomb pottery (Carrowkeelware) in court-tombsas at Audleystown, Co. Down and Neolithic A ware in passage-tombsites such as 'The Druid Stone' at Ballintoy, Co. Antrim. Like the court-tombs and the main long-barrow series in southern Britain the passage-tombsin Ireland imply the arrival of a sizeablegroup of immigrants. The culture representedby them includesnot merely novel architecture,art and gravegoods, but also a coherentpatternin the siting of tombs. The choiceof settlementareassuggestseconomicrequirements differing to a degreefrom those of the court-tomb builders. These can scarcely be accountedfor by the arrival of mere missionaries, traders or casual contacts. The size of the

Introduction

11

immigrant group capableof establishingthe culture is quite impossibleto define and guessescould range from as few as a hundredto many times that number. Over much of westernEuropethe spreadof metalworkingis associatedwith people who used a special form of decorated pottery known as Beaker. The characteristicburial mode of these people was individual inhumation and their equipment included barbed-and-tangedflint arrow-headsand archers' wristguards.Along much of the westerncoastlandsof Europe megalithic tomb builders were still presentat the dawn of the Bronze Age and the general condition in these areas is one both of changedue to the new BronzeAge elementsand also of a degree of continuity of the older usages. The Early Irish BronzeAge comprisesseveralnew groups. Each can be seento a greateror lesserdegreeas emergingfrom the Beaker tradition with its custom of individual interment combining with the older megalithic collective burial tradition. Five episodes can be distinguished,eachwith its characteristicmonument, as follows: Late Neolithic single burials, Wedge tombs; Food Vesselburials; stonecircles and embankedenclosures.It is not as yet possibleto arrangethe beginningsof thesein any strict chronologicalsequenceand in any casea considerableoverlap betweenmost of them is very likely. It must suffice to say that the Irish Bronze Age beganprobably a century or two before 2000 b.c. and that the duration of the customsestablishedby the major movementsextendedto 1500 b.c. and perhapseven later. Since our knowledge of the wedge-tomband the Food Vesselis fuller than thoseof the other episodesand since these two are the most widespread, itis convenientto deal with them first, alwaysrememberingthat the order of treatmentdoes not imply a chronologicalsequencefor the beginningsof each. Convincing prototypesof the wedge-tombsand their grave goods (Beaker, coarseware, barbed-and-tanged arrow-heads) are to be found in the very similar tombs widespreadon the Breton peninsulaof north-westFrance.Thesetombs represent the continuanceof the old megalithic collective burial tradition joined by customsderived from the metalworkingBeakerusing people. Wedge-tombshave a markedlywesterndistribution in Ireland (Figure 11) and they belong to the first great

12

Antiquitiesofthe Irish Countryside

colonizersof west Munster as yet recognized.Their distribution on the peninsulasof Cork and Kerry bears a distinct relationshipto the rich copperdepositstherewhich are known to have beenworked in Bronze Age times. A concentrationon the hills on either side of the Shannonin Tipperary and east Clare probably also representsan early focus around the rich copper districts and from here emerges a movement in strength northwards to north Connaughtand across central Ulster. The general adherencethroughout to light rather upland soils suggestsan emphasison pasturage,particularly apparentin the great densityon the Burren plateauof Clare. The penetrationof north Connaughtand central Ulster takes over as it were much of the heartland of the court-tomb builders. The distinct weaknessin the east is probably largely due to the presenceof the Food Vesselpeople.We know far too little of the burial depositsin the tombs to guessat the number of individuals interred in each save that collective burial is certainly attested.The little skeletalmaterial that we do have suggeststhat a round-headedstrain (characteristicof Beakerusing people),as distinct from the long-headedNeolithic type, is present. The spreadof the Food Vessel people indicated by their burials is in sharpcontrastto that of the wedge-tombbuilders. The weight is distinctly in the east and a clear preferencefor sandyeskersoils is apparent.Two major types of Food Vessel are recognized- Bowl Food Vessel and Vase Food Vessel. In the caseof the Bowl type unburned,usually crouched,burials occurin aboutequalnumbersto thosewith cremationwhereas with the Vasetype cremationis virtually the constantrite. The crouchedburial is the normal Beaker rite and the decoration on Food Vesselsowes much to that of the Beakers.The exact origin of the Food Vessel is not certainly known but some Dutch Beakers (Veluwe type) come quite close to the Food Vessel form. It would appear that a movement from the NetherlandscrossednorthernEnglandand southernScotland into Ireland probablyacrossthe North Channel.In doing so it would be open to influences not only from contemporary standardBeakerusersbut also from Neolithic survivors in the regIOn.

Introduction

13

The territory occupied by the Food Vessel people is complementary to that of the wedge-tomb builders (compare Figures 11 and 12) and betweenthe two seriesvirtually every district in Ireland, save for the more inhospitable mountain regions is penetrated.Both representsizeable colonizations which flourished side by side for a long period. Overlap betweenthe two seriesis found in so far as some wedge-tombs contain Food Vessel as well as Beaker and, in the east, the cairn of a wedge-tomb at Kilmashogue, Co. Dublin, was apparentlyenlarged to receive Food Vessel burial. Specific contactwith passage-tombs, though not necessarilywith their builders, is indicated by the re-use of several of them as cemeterymoundsby Food Vessel users. It is possiblethat the preferencefor prominentsiting which many cemeterymounds sharewith passage-tombs betrays an influence from passagetomb custom. On the other hand it may well be that such a preferenceis an integral part of the Food Vessel cemeterycairn tradition and that the round hill-top passage-tomb mound was chosenbecauseits siting servedthis preference.In some casesat least a very clear dichotomy between the two cultures is indicated by the scant respect shown to passagetomb interments,as was so in the Mound of the Hostagesat Tara. On the other handcemeterycairnswere sometimesbuilt in close juxtaposition to passage-tombshinting perhapsat a certaincontinuity of tradition. Another hint at sucha continuity is given by the presenceof massivecists of nearly megalithic proportions as the central elementin cemeterymounds. A closely integratedstone-circlecomplex with alignments, standingstones,boulder burials and cairns has been recently isolated in west Cork and Kerry. By comparison with the wedge-tombsand Food Vesselsthe territory covered is small. Like the wedge-tombsan interest in copper is shown by the occurrence of many in copper-bearingareas. Little direct evidenceof dating is as yet availablebut the few objectsknown accordwith the generalBeakercontext indicated by the finds from stone circles elsewhere in Britain and Ireland. The inheritanceof megalithic traditionsis shownby the use of large stones and in particular by the boulder burials, the heavy covers of which are reminiscentof the small simple tombs of

14

A ntz"quz"tz"esof the Irz"sh Countrysz"de

the passage-tomb family. The evidencefor burial from the few examples excavated points to a cremation covered by the bouldercover or, if no boulder structureexists, in a pit more or less centrally placed in the circle. The distribution of this stone-circlecomplex vz"s-a-visthat of the wedge-tombsis not inconsistentwith contemporaneity.It is worth noting that both stone circle and wedge-tomb adhere constantlyto a roughly north-east-south-west axis of direction. While orientationbias is known from other series, e.g. courttombs, the constancyof adherenceto the rule is sharedonly by the southernstone-circle group and the wedge-tombs.It is probably more than a coincidence and hints at a common tradition. The origin of the Cork-Kerry series is as yet uncertain. However, Brittany once again offers the best source because there a large numberof free-standingmegalithic monuments, alignments,standingstonesand perhapsa few stonecircles are found. In south-west England alignments and circles are known and thesemay point to the immediateplace of origin for the south-westerngroup in Ireland. If links betweenthese areaswere establishedthe rich copper ores of the south-west would be brought together with the tin of Cornwall and Brittany. In passingit may be noted that such a connection would be paralleledby the links betweenthe Scilly-Cornwall group of late passage-tombswith the little group of closely similar tombs in the Tramore area of Waterford, which like the south-westof Ireland is rich in copper. Stone-circlegroupselsewherein Ireland (Figure 15) such as the numerousmid-Ulster group are more difficult to place in context. It is scarcelypossibleto explain them as offshoots of the Cork-Kerry series. Little can be said as yet save that such dating evidenceas does exist would not forbid a date early in the secondmillennium b.c. In recent years evidence for an intrusion of Beaker-using people has been discoveredin easternIreland. In the Boyne areaon the skirts of the great passage-tombtumuli of Knowth and Newgrange considerable activity by Beaker-users is present.This seemsto be the context of the great freestanding stone circle around Newgrange. At Monknewtown an

Introduction

15

embankedenclosure also showed strong Beaker connections and enclosuresin the generalBoyne areamay prove to belong to the same context. Outside the Boyne region the great embankedenclosureof 'The Giant'sRing' at Ballynahally near Belfast, againdemonstratesthe connection.Sucha connection is vividly brought out by the occurrenceof a single cremated burial accompaniedby a pot of passage-grave style within the enclosureat Monknewtown.The evidenceto date accordswith a suggestion that Beaker-using people who practised the custom of building these enclosures,usually known as henge monuments,were attractedto the great passage-tombcentres of easternIreland. This hengetradition is reflectednot only by the embankedenclosuresbut also by the presenceof freestanding stone circles around Newgrange and occasionally elsewhere, e.g. Millin Bay and Ballynoe, Co. Down. The function of the embankedenclosuresis not clear. Their design suggests an inward-looking amphitheatre rather than any defensivefunction. One site outside the easternpassage-tombarea, the great embankedstone circle at Grange, Co. Limerick, seems to reflect the same tradition. Beaker finds confirm its cultural and chronologicalcontext. How far the other stone circles in the vicinity are also related remains as yet unclear. A distinctive episode at the dawn of the Bronze Age is representedby a small group of specializedsingle burials in the Leinster region. These have been assigned to the Neolithic partly on the basis of the specialized'hanging-bowl' pottery that accompaniesthe single inhumationand partly because,in someinstances,potteryin the Neolithic A tradition was found. Several theorieshave been advancedto explain these burials. Direct foreign influencehas beenput forward by one authority while others have suggestedderivation from Irish sources.It is possible to argue passage-tombconnectionsfrom the heavy, partly corbelled cists, the mound form, and the tendencyto prominent siting but to a degree at least, some Food Vessel type burials, especiallyperhapsthosewith Bowl Food Vessels, share these features. What is certain is that the specialized pottery has also been found in both portal-tombsand courttombs. Sometraits of the potterysuggestrelationshipswith the

16

Antiquitiesof the Irish Countryside

so-called Beacharrawares of court-tombs while others seem closer to the Bowl Food Vessel style. If passage-tomb influencesare presenttheseneednot derive from the Irish series becausethe passage-tombtradition is strong over much of Atlantic Europe from Spain to Denmark and Sweden.Indeedin Brittany little corbelledcists known as coffresoccur in associationwith simple passage-tombforms at the great long mound of Mont St Michel at Carnac. Such coffres are also known from long moundsat Manio and at the stonecircles of Er-Lannic. The associatedpottery is a specialized fine form known as vase-supports which are decoratedin a style stronglyreminiscentof passage-tomb art. While this need not at all imply any direct connection with the Irish single burials it may well indicate parallel developments. In the complex situation that existed in eastern Ireland around2000 b.c. somemixing and overlap of traditions is very likely. Be that as it may, even if the exact explanationof the Irish siteseludesus they can be acceptedas anotherinstanceof the single burial tradition supersedingthe older collective megalithic mode while borrowing some featuresfrom it. At the outset of this section it was pointed out that it was difficult to place the beginningsof theseepisodesin chronological order. Overlap with existing Neolithic A or passagetomb pottery can be cited for all groups, though this is rather tenuousin the caseof the Food Vessel, but this alone is insufficient to determinea sequencebecausein someplacesthe older traditionsmay havehad a long survival. It could be argued,of course, that those which reflect the normal Beakershould be earliest but once again the different conditions in different partsof the country complicatethe picture - for instance,the eastern arrivals will be confronted by well-establishedNeolithic usageswhile the earliest Bronze Age intruders in the south-westmay well have madetheir initial settlementsfree of any influence from establishedcommunities. The greatstrengthof the Irish Early BronzeAge is seenin its productsin bronzeand gold andin its far-flung exportsof such objects as gold lunulae and decorated bronze axes. This apparentwealth arosenot only from the rich metal resources exploitedby the inhabitantsbut also from the openingup and

Introductl'on

17

cultivation of so much of the land. It is difficult to assess preciselythe part playedby eachgroup but much of the credit must go to the Food Vessel people whose connectionswith northernBritain andso acrossto the continentwere implicit in their origins. It would appear that throughout the ensuing BronzeAge the old Atlantic route, so dominantin the preceding stages,becameless important than the connectionseastward to Britain and northern Europe. About the middle of the second millennium b.c. a new custom of burial was brought to Ireland from Britain. This consistedof individual crematedburial within an upturned CineraryUrn. The practicespreadinitially into the north-east of the country and soon mingled with that of the Food Vessel people, covering most of the territory occupied by them (Figure 13). Already in Britain an overlapin the Urn and Food Vessel is presentand though separatestrandswithin the Urn tradition can be recognized,on the basis of pottery form and to an extent in distribution and accompanyinggrave goods, the whole seriesshows a generalunity. Two of the four classes of Cinerary Urn (Encrustedand Enlarged Food Vessel) show the clearestinteraction with Food Vessel while the other two (Collared and Cordoned)appearto be less affected. However, the frequent occurrenceof all Urn types in cemeterieswhich also contain Food Vessel burials, in several casessharing the one grave, indicatesthe existenceside by side of both the Food Vessel and Urn mode of burial and for the most part it seems bestto regardthe two traditions as intermixing into what'may be regardedas the one society. It is notable that it is with the Vase Food Vessel that the associationswith Cinerary Urns occur and the dominanceof the cremationrite with these, in comparisonwith the 50 per cent of inhumationswith the Bowl Food Vessel,may be to someextent influencedby the constant cremationtradition of the Cinerary Urn. In the close association of the Food Vessel and Urn certain trends can be discerned. With the Urn the custom of cist burial declines. Many Urns are unprotectedby cists and the cists themselves tend to be protective coverings for the Urns rather than the stonebox-type cist normal with burials accompaniedby Food Vessel. Flat cemeteriesare favoured to a greaterextent by Urn

18

Antiquz"iiesof the Irl'sh Countryside

usersthan by thoseof Food Vesseland in most caseswhen Urns are found in cemetery mounds they share the mound with Food Vessels. A small group of CordonedUrn burials in the west of Ireland contain a primary central Cordoned Urn without any Food Vessel. There is some evidence also that some Urn burials at least used moundswith fosses sometimes approachingthe ring-barrow form. It is difficult, if not indeedimpossible, to explain the introduction of the Food Vessel burials without allowing a sizeable incursionof people.In the caseof the Urn, while it undoubtedly representedthe spreadof a new burial site into the Food Vessel region of north Britain and Ireland, it may not be necessaryto envisageany greatinflux of new peopleinto Ireland. With the new burial modes other fashions, e.g. bronze razors, were undoubtedlyintroduced.Contactspercolatingthroughoutthe whole British-Irish zone through trade or other travel could possiblyaccountfor the phenomenon.Even so the Urn burials representa notable episodein the middle of the Irish Bronze Age. The spreadof the Urn tradition and also of the Food Vessel particularly of the Vase type shows once again that the North Channel unites rather than divides a cultural region straddling its narrow waters. Very few field monumentscan be assigned to the later Bronze Age. The burial record closes with the Cinerary Urn burials probably about 1200 b.c. For several centuries thereafter no habitationshave beenrecognized,pottery is unknown and our knowledge must dependvery largely on metalwork. Importantdevelopmentsin the metal industry are evident in the twelfth century b.c. These distinguish the Bishopsland Phasecalled after a hoardfound in the townland of that name in County Kildare. In this phasenew specialistcrafts such as the useof clay mouldsfor castingand certainnew typesof tools and ornamentare introduced.Someof the productsare of the higheststandardof workmanship,e.g. bronzerapiersand gold torcs. There are also clear indications of the continuanceof metal types currentin the precedingperiod. Thus the Bishopsland Phasemight be describedas the product of the earlier tradition in metalworkcombinedwith a new expertiseand new designs. The emphasison craftsmanshipis reflected in the

Introduction

19

tools found in the hoards and in the presenceIn some of unfinished gold objects. In theory at least, immigrant craftsmencould have brought about the changesapparentin the BishopslandPhase,but the loss of the burial record, previously so well represented, suggestsa more deep-rootedchangerequiring a more substantial incursion of peopleto explain it. Yet the apparentchange in the burial recordmay be lessextremethan may at first sight appear.In both Food Vesseland Cinerary Urn contextssimple cremationswithout accompanyingor covering pots occur. It is clear that such burials were at least countenanced.After the use of sepulchralvesselsceased,such simple cremationscould well have become the normal practice. Unless some durable and dateable objects accompanied simple cremations we would remain in ignoranceas to their date. Many Urn burials have no gravegoodsother than the coveringvesseland in these circumstancesa correspondingpaucity of grave goods with simple cremationswould be expected.It is possible that some moundswhich producedno pots but only simple cremationsin pits belong to the period after 1200 b.c. The same would be true of flat cemeteriesand isolated burials and indeed these might well escapenotice completely. Such a theory, and it must be emphasizedthat it is only a theory at present, would not only explaln the paucity of the record but would also make any sizeableintrusion of new peoplein the BishopslandPhase an unnecessaryassumption. The changesin the metalworkin the BishopslandPhasehint at influencesfrom severalsourcesbut connectionswith south Britain seemto be dominant.Someexport from Ireland is also probable. Following the BishopslandPhasefrom about 1000 b.c. somenew influencesappear- notably the introduction of the first true swords. Contactswith Britain, at least northern Britain, are maintainedbut there is little sign of any major new arrivals. The dearthof material suggestsperhapsthat this was a time of no great development. About 700 b.c. radical changes in the metalwork are evident. A whole rangeof new types, trumpets,cauldronsetc. in bronze, togetherwith a wealth of gold ornamentsincluding magnificentgorgetsand'lock-rings' appear.The craftsmanship

20

A ntiquities of the Irish Countryside

is superb and the sheer wealth, e.g. the Great Clare Gold Hoard, is astonishing.The bronzework includescomplex castings and lead is a notable componentin the alloy used. Two major provinces have been recognized on the basis of the metalwork - one in north Munsterand the other in the northeast of the country. The wealth of the north Munster group probably derives not only from the exploitation of the rich lowlands of central Munster (including the Golden Vein) but also from the rich metal (copperand lead) on either side of the Shannonas in the Silvermines district in County Tipperary and the Tulla region of Clare. The foreign connectionsof the north Munster group which is centredon the lower Shannon with its wide estuaryare complex, with evident contactsalong the old Atlantic route towards France and Iberia and others pointing to the west Baltic. The north-easterngroup shares severalfeatureswith that of north Munster. However, its distribution suggests contacts across the north Channel with Britain and beyond to the Nordic lands. This period in the Bronze Age is called the Dowris Phase from a place in County Offaly where a rich and varied hoard of metalworkwas discoveredin the last century. The principal types of settlementsite known to belongto this period are lakedwellings at Ballinderry No.2, Co. Offaly; Knocknalappa, Co. Clare; and Rathtinaun, Co. Sligo. These crannogs are platforms constructednear the lake edge. As is discussedin a later chapter, crannogsare an important type of settlement side by side with ring-forts in the first millennium a.d. It seems likely that the custom of lake-dwelling was introduced in the Dowris Phaseand was adoptedand adaptedby the later Iron Age peoplewho establishedthe ring-fort as the standardfarmstead. The role of the Shannonbasin in the Dowris Phaseappears particularly important both for the highway it could provide and the rich alluvial soils which, apparentlyfor the first time, were widely exploited. A detailed study of the distribution of sites and finds from this phasewould probably show that the great basinsof the Bann and Lough Neaghsystemplaya role in the northernzone. It is of someinterest that dugout canoes suitable for lake and river travel have been found associated

Introduction

21

with this phase.Tradeconnectionsto Britain are suggestedby finds from there and these imply the presenceof seagoing craft. Besidescrannog-typehabitationsit may be that some hillforts were constructedin the Dowris Phase.At Rathgall, Co. Wicklow, intensive activity of people belonging to this time was revealed by excavationswithin a large multivallate hillfort. Future excavationmust determine the relations of this activity to the ramparts.The position of the huge multivallate hill-fort at Mooghaun, Co. Clare, overlooking the Fergus, a tributary of the Shannon, together with the discovery about half a mile away of the Great Clare Gold Hoard hints at a possibility that this site also may have been occupied in Late BronzeAge times. Hill-fort building in the Late Bronze Age is attestedin Britain and this makes the occurrenceof such in Ireland a reasonablepossibility. However, pendingverification by excavationit remains a possibility only. At Rathgall the first burial assignedto the Late Bronze Age has recentlybeenreported.This was a cremationburial with a large bucket-shaped pottery vessel. Unlike the normal Cinerary Urn burials of earlier times the pot was upright. Pottery is attestedat severalsites, Knocknalappa,Ballinderry No.2. This pottery is flat-bottomed, bucket-shapedware and someexamplesare neckedbelow the rim in a mannerreminiscent of the bronze bucketsof the period. The great technologicalchangesand the wealth of new types togetherwith the new distribution patternsuggestan influx of new people. When the generallowland aspectof the distribution, the useof waterwaysand especiallythe lake-dwellingsare consideredit seemslikely that a source should be sought in low, well-wateredland. Someof the types such as bucketsand cauldronsshow densitiesalong the Thamesand other rivers in easternEngland,suggestingalso a riverine pattern.It is far too early tv placeany great weight on such considerations.It must also be emphasizedthat though there is a sufficient degreeof unity in the Dowris Phaseto allow it to be treatedas a coherent whole, certain more localized contactsand influences,such as those apparentacrossthe North Channel, must be taken into account.

22

Antiquitiesof the Irish Countryside

By this time Celtic-speakingpeople are known to have been establishedon the continent. It is possible, therefore, that the peoplewho introducedthe Dowris Phasewere likewise Celticspeaking.The use of lake-dwellingsmight give an indication of the origin of these people. There is an interesting passagein the Greek author, Strabo, writing about the beginningof the Christian era referring to Celtic tribes in the Ardennesregion who 'had small islandsin the marshes'to which they retreated when attacked. This, of course, is far too late to have any direct relevanceto the crannogsof the Dowris Phasebut it does indicate that lake-dwellings, whether on natural or artificial islands is not clear, were used by some Celtic people on the continentin the last centuryb.c. How far this custom extends to earlier times is unknown. The chronology of the end of the Bronze Age and the beginningof the Early Iron Age in Ireland is notoriously difficult. It must suffice to say that the transition took place in the latter half of the first millennium b.c. The number of actual monumentsthat can with certaintybe datedto the paganIron Age in Ireland is limited, but it is clear that severalclasseswere well establishedin this time, hill-forts, ring-forts and crannags, and that over part of the country a considerablenumber of artefacts- mainly distinguished by their art style (La Tene) - representan important episode. Little in the nature of real history is known before Christianity was establishedin the fifth century a.d. but some admittedly uncertain light is thrown on the period from the tales and traditions committed to writing some centurieslater. Recent advancesin the study of the Iron Age have shown that two distinct cultural elementsare presentand a third can be less clearly defined. The objects belongingto the La Tene are largely confined to the northernhalf of the country. They include works in metal such as scabbards, horse-bits and broochesdecoratedwith the typical style and decoratedstones such as that at Turoe, Co. Galway. The most numerousobjects representedare beehivequerns.None of this materialis clearly associatedwith ring-forts. Some La Tene connection seems probableat Emain Macha(Navam Fort) hill-fort and a site, at Lisnacrogher, Co. Antrim, which may have been a crannog

Introduction

23

yielded very rich finds belonging to the La Tene group. The connectionsof Irish La Tene with northern England and Scotlandare clear andit would appearthat once again in prehistory the North Channellinks rather than divides. The secondgreatelementin the Irish Iron Age is intimately associatedwith the great ring-fort tradition which becomesso dominant throughoutall Ireland in the first millennium a.d. and persistsfor centuriesthereafter.The type of quern associated with this element is of disc form and the La Tene ornamentis absent.The duality of the Irish Iron Age is further demonstratedby the two types of hill-fort. The univallate type is dominant in the north while the multivallate type is best representedin the south and west. To an extent the Leinster region disturbs a simple division into a northern and a southernzone. In the Wicklow area the multivallate hill-fort impingeson the areawhere the univallate type is also known. Furthermorefeaturessuch as the internal fosse and elaborate ritual enclosureslink Dun Ailinne, the ancientseatof the kings of Leinster, with the royal site of Meath at Tara and that of Ulster at Emain Macha. The archaeologicalevidencesuggestsan incursion into the northern half of Ireland by La Tene people. This is often taken as representingthe arrival of a warrior class though the numerousbeehivequernsmight perhapssuggestsome colonization of a more general nature. The multivallate hill-forts and the stonering-forts which seemto belong to the samecontext can be interpretedas representingthe arrival in the west of Ireland of a different Iron Age peoplewho were outside the La Tene tradition. The most likely origin for these is to the south along the old Atlantic route and certain analogies betweenIberian forts and both the multivallate hill-forts and the stone ring-forts could be cited. Iberia was at this time largely Celtic and the La Tene culture did not spreadinto it. The linguistic evidencefrom the Celtic inscriptions is tenuous but thereare hints that the Celtic languagein Iberia was of the Q-Celtic form to which the Irish languagebelongs.It would be possibleto suggestthat the great forts in Aran and others in Clare and Kerry, which are very difficult to acceptas last-ditch defencesof a retreatingpeopleas hassometimesbeenclaimed,

24

Antiquitiesofthe Irish Countryside

were more in the nature of bridgeheadfortifications built in the early stagesof conquest. The Leinster position sharing as it does somethingof the northernfeaturescould be due to contactsacrossthe Irish sea, analogousbut not identical with the clear La Tene intrusion acrossthe North Channel. The general historical setting in Ireland fits the general picture deduced from the archaeological evidence. The ancientprovince of Ulster extendedover much of the north of Ireland and reachedto the Boyne. Then the Connaughtpower expanded.It encroachedon the north-westof Ulster leading to the formation of the kingdom of Ailech - whosecapital seems to have been a multivallate hill-fort at Ailech in Donegal. CentralUlster becameAirghialla and the ancientUlaid having lost Emain Macha survived east of the Bann with a capital at Downpatrick. Meanwhile the Connaughtdynastieshad taken over much of the midlands including the royal site of Tara. Leinster, though under pressureand tribute, remainsto some degree unconqueredand frequently in historic times plays a role apart. In the expansion of Connaught power Munster remains more or less aloof. The historical sources for this generalstate of affairs date to many centuriesafter the Iron Age incursions suggestedby archeologicalevidence but may well reflect eventsinitiated by them. The historical record showsthat during the Romanoccupation of Britain the Irish took part in raids on Roman territories and finds of Roman silver in Ireland bear witness to this. Colonial settlementfrom the north-eastof Ireland into southwest Scotlandwere well underway in the fifth centurya.d. and ultimately spreadthe Gaelic languageover the greaterpart of Scotland.In the middle of the ninth century a.d. the Irish and Pictish dynastieswere united bringing most of Scotlandunder one rule. Therewere also in the early centuriesof the Christian era settlementsof Leinstermenin Waleswhere the nameof the Lleyn peninsulacommemoratestheir presence.People from the Waterford and east Cork area occupieddistricts in south Wales and Cornwall. The Iron Age shows many features paralleled in earlier times. A movement from the south from Atlantic Europe

Introductz"on

25

impinging initially on western Ireland seems to be probable and thereis clear evidencefor an intrusion from Britain across the North Channelinto the north of Ireland. Some intrusion into Leinster from western Britain is also probable. On the other handexpansionsfrom Ireland into westernScotlandand the Isle of Man andfrom Leinster and south-eastMunster into Wales and Cornwall are known. All these movements find counterpartsin earlier times. The chronology of the monuments and the finds related to them is not as yet sufficiently clear to verify or correct the historical data, but the picture that is slowly emergingsuggeststhat future work will allow a closer co-ordinationbetweenthe two sourcesof evidence. The sagas also help to support the general picture. The classictale of Tflin Bo Cuailgnereflects a conflict betweenthe Connaught forces and Ulster. It may be significant that a Leinster group, the Galeoin, while allies of Connaught,were obviously not entirely trusted and were scatteredamong the Connaughtarmiesrather than moving as a unit. The story of Togail Bruidne Dfl Derga perhapsreflects a separateLeinster episodefrom a basein Britain. Though these tales are doubtless largely legendarythey do seem to reflect happeningsin Ireland before the dawn of reliable historical record. The extent to which the formation of Early Iron Age Ireland is due to a considerableinflux of peoplecan be assessed on two grounds, firstly the implantation of the Irish language and secondly the extent to which large cultural changes are evident. The implantationof a new languagewithout organized generaleducationcan hardly be explainedwithout a sizeable immigrant population. The standardizationof the ringfort type settlement and the whole range of new Iron Age objectsalso favour this. It is on generalgroundsprobablethat the La Tene peopleof northernBritain were Brythonic rather than Gaelic in speechbut efforts to demonstrateany significant Brythonic elementin Ireland in the paganIron Age have not been convincing. If they were, and if they succeededin implanting their language, it was submergedin the Gaelic tradition before Christian times. Because of the eventual dominanceof the ring-fort tradition and its culture over all Ireland it seemsmost probablethat its bearerswere the major

26

Antiquitiesofthe Irish Countryside

Celtic conquerorsof the land. The crannogsintroducedby the Late Bronze Age Dowris peoplewere adoptedby the ring-fort buildersand the featuresboth of structureand of context that are commonbetweenthe two types in the succeedingcenturies could be taken to reflect the adaptationof the earlier tradition. In connectionwith the Dowris Phaseit could be suggested that the position of Munster, aloof from the main conflict, was in somemeasuredue to the strengthof the Dowris people there. We have noticed before that the Dowris people could have beenCeltic but one tiny shredof evidenceperhapstends to hint otherwise. The Old Irish name for Munster, Mumu, differs from the normal namescurrent in Early Celtic Ireland and may itself be pre-Celtic. The basis social structure of Ireland as reflected in the archaeology, particularly in the ring-fort, scarcely changes with the introduction of Christianity in the fifth century a.d. Material closely dateableto the fifth and sixth centuriesis not abundant. However, some ecclesiasticalsites are known to have beenfoundedbut though there is historical evidence,for instance,of woodenchurchesof this period, we know very little of their form from archaeologicalsources.It is very likely also that clochan-typecells and small oratorieswere also constructed. The cillin sitesprobablyhave a long rangein datebut how soon such enclosureswere begunto be usedis not clear. Some slabs inscribed with crossesshould go back also to this time. Many oghamstonescertainly do. Someauthoritieswould place their beginning before the Patrician mission from 432 a.d. Their context appearsdistinctly Christian and they may well representa Christian society establishedindependentlyand perhapsvery shortly beforethe arrival of St Patrick in 432 a.d. The connection with Wales and Cornwall is clear. Munster colonizers in these areas are recorded and they or the other Irish settlersin westernBritain from Leinster might be responsible. Whateverthe detail may be the ogham stonesprove a direct connectionbetweenthe Munster region and south-west Britain. The later Christian monuments,churches, round towers, high crossesetc. are outside the scope of this work. These, however, like the earlier monumentscan be seen to mark

Introduction

27

notable episodesin church history, and the distribution of severalcan be linked with geographicaland political regions. The spread of Christianity from Ireland first to Iona with Columcille in 563 a.d. and on into Scotlandand Northumbria is reflectedin cross-slabsand the developmentof the high cross is linked with it. Indeed the spreadof Christianity to Northumbria, analogousto the many previous connectionsnoted across the North Channel, played a significant role in the developmentof the great flowering of Irish art about 700 a.d. In this art the old Celtic La Tene tradition combines with influences from Roman and Anglo-Saxon art together with Coptic elements.Such masterpiecesof Irish art as the Ardagh Chalice, the Book of Durrow and the Tara Brooch owe much to the close contact within the Celtic Church on both sides of the Channel. The Viking raids led to the establishmentof settlementsin centreslike Dublin, Limerick and Waterford which later grew into towns. Elsewheresomegravesand finds are known though not unnaturallymuch of the booty is found in the Norwegian homeland.The raids may well have encouragedthe building of round towers as a protective measure.Scandinavianinfluenceon Irish art is apparentespeciallyafter the defeat of the Vikings and their acceptanceof Christianity in the early eleventh century. The coming of Romanesquein the early twelfth century reflects the contactswith the continent, with the Malachy reforms and the establishmentof the Norman monasteriesof the regular orders, e.g. the Cistercianfoundation of Mellifont, Co. Louth, reflecting a new phasein Irish Church history. This is followed by the Normans whose very initial landing is markedby the promontoryfort they used as a bridgeheadat Baginbun, Co. Wexford. The Norman mottes mark their early advance.The castles, monasteriesand towns continue the story. Later episodesin Irish history are also reflected in physical remains be they the great housesof the rich, the tracesof farms and cottagesof the last few hundred years or the workhouseswhich speak of the destitution and faminesof the nineteenthcentury. Irish history even in periods rich in documentation,can be illustrated by a study of the ruins and relics of the past.

28

A ntiquities of the Irish Countryside

For the period beforehistory the monumentsand finds must serve alone. Eugene O'Curry, Professorof Irish History and Archaeologyin the Catholic University of Ireland from 1854 to 1862, once said on viewing the stone circles at Lough Cur, 'What marvellousmanuscriptsif we could only read them'. He and his contemporieslaid the foundationsof the study of the antiquities of the Irish countryside to enable us today to discern, howeverdimly, the episodesof our ancient times and see, hopefully with increasingsharpnessof focus, the picture of the life of the many peopleswho make up our past.

FORTS We begin with forts not because they have any claim to chronologicalpriority - the order in which the different types of monumentsare dealt with has no such significance- but becausethe structurespopularly known as forts are at once the most numerousand the most widely distributedof any classof ancient monument in Ireland. The word 'fort' is used as a generalterm becauseit is known throughoutthe countryand is current in archaeologicalliterature, even for structures that have no defensive characterin a military sense. In a more specific sensewe shall use the term 'ring-fort' for the ordinary forts and shall indicatethat certain larger examples(hill-forts) must be regardedas a separateclass. Estimates of the number of forts of earth and stone in Ireland vary from about thirty thousandto over forty thousand.It is not possiblein the absenceof a completearchaeological survey to state the exact number of thesestructures.On the one hand some circular sites indicated on the Ordnance Survey Maps in a mannersimilar to the ring-forts are in fact other types of monuments;while many small ring-forts have been omitted on the maps. It must suffice, therefore, to say that the numberof forts runs into tens of thousandsand that examplesof them may be found in almost every part of the country, though they are sparseor completely absent in the more inhospitablemountain areas. In its simplestform the ring-fort may be describedas a space most frequently circular, surroundedby a bank and fosse (3) or simply by a rampartof stone. The bank is generallybuilt by piling up inside the fosse the material obtainedby digging the latter. In stony districts there is usually a stone-built wall insteadof an enclosingbank and there is normally no fosse in suchcases(5,9). The fosse may be dug in rock and the broken rock so obtainedpiled up to form a bank, as in the mannerof the earthenbanks, and be given a regular stone-built facing on both sides with rock debris forming the core of the wall.

30

Antiquitiesof the Irish Countryside

When such a wall has collapsed and when vegetation has grown over it, it is frequently, until excavated, quite indistinguishable from an earthenstructure. The material does, however, provide a basis for segregatingforts into two broad classes- earthen and stone-built- which classification is reflected in the popular nomenclature,but, as we shall see presently, this classification by material includes numerous variants in the matter of size, nature, and complexity of defences,shape,subsidiarystructures,and other features. Forts are referredto undervarious Irish terms, and these, or Anglicized versionsof them, we frequently find incorporated in place names: lios, rath, cathair, caiseal, dun. Of these lios and ralh are usually applied to earthen forts while cathair and caiseal are used for stone-built examples. Dun is less general and tends to occur in placenamesto designatelarge forts and especiallythe promontory forts with which we shall deal below. The words rath and lios (Anglicized 'rath' and 'liss') are now employedin partsof the country as interchangeable terms to signify an earthenring-fort. A study of the distribution of thesewords as elementsin placenamesshows rath to occur almost exclusively over part of the easternportion of Ireland where lios is more usual elsewhere.The evidenceprovided by early texts, however, revealsa distinction now lost and shows that rath signified the enclosingbank while lios meant the open spacewithin. In places where the use of the Irish words has been abandonedthese structures are most frequently referred to as 'fort', though the word 'mote' is used in some areas- particularly in County Limerick. It must, however, be noted that the popular use of this word is rather indiscriminate and we find that 'mote' is applied to various types of earthenstructures. Ring-forts vary very considerablyin size. The diameter of the enclosedspacemay be only 15 m or 20 m or may be as much as 60 m. In the more elaboratelydefendedexamplesthe defences take up a much greater area than that of the enclosure. A triple-ramparted fort may have an external diameterof about 120 m, while the inner spaceis only 45 m in diameter. Exampleslarger than this are uncommon, though we find, as a distinct class, enclosuresusually of much greater

Forts

31

size which are termed hill-forts and which will be dealt with below. Excavation has given considerableinformation as to the purposeof ring-forts, though ancient alterationsand repairs combined with later damageby agricultural operationsblur the picture. These considerations,togetherwith the fact that in few caseshas a sufficient proportion of the interior been examined,makeit difficult to discoverthe exact arrangements within. It is clear, however, that the large majority of ringforts had no real military significance but were rather protectedfarmsteads.Somemeasureof defencefor the occupying family was provided by the rampartsand fosseswithin which cattle might be brought for safety from wolves or cattle raiders. Thereis evidencealso on severalsites for crafts, metal and glassworking, e.g. Garranes, Co. Cork, and slag and crucibles are fairly common finds. Such manufacturiesare to be thoughtof more as a degreeof self-sufficiencyof the homesteadsrather than evidencefor centralizedtrading. In severalsitessuchas the secondring-fort at Garryduff, Co. Cork; Tullyallen, Co. Armagh; Lisdugganand Coolowen, Co. Cork, little sign of habitation activity was found. It has been suggestedthat such sites were enclosuresfor cattle rather than farmsteads.Once again the extent of destruction and sometimes the inadequacyof the areaexaminedleave such conclusions difficult to substantiate.It was noted at some ring-forts which furnished considerableevidence for occupation, e.g. Garranesand Ballycatteen, Co. Cork, that the evidence for activity was concentrated largely in one segment of the enclosedarea.Sincethere appearsto be no fixed arrangement of buildings etc. within the ring-forts, a very widespread opening of the site and good preservation of the ancient surfaces would be necessary before a conclusion that it remainedlargely uninhabitedcan be reached. The building and occupationof ring-forts extendedover a very long period, at least from the Early Iron Age, throughout the whole Early Christian period, and persisted into late Medieval times. The earliestdating of earthenring-forts so far establishedis the second century a.d. for the Rath of the Synods, a complex site on the Hill of Tara, Co. Meath. A

32

A ntiquities of the Irish Countryside

comparable date has been suggested, on rather doubtful grounds, for a ring-fort at Rathnew, at Uisneach, Co. Westmeath. The ring-fort at Feerwore, Co. Galway, outside of which the famous decorated Iron Age stone known as the Turoe Stone (83) once stood, has been assignedto the same period. The large majority of excavatedearthen ring-forts belong to Early Christian times. Garranesand Ballycatteen, Co. Cork, have been dated to the fifth and sixth centuries respectively.Togherstown,Co. Westmeath,probably belongs to the sixth century while Letterkeen, Co. Mayo and Garryduff, Co. Cork, have been assignedto the seventhand eighth centuriesa.d. Lissue, Co. Antrim, was datedto the tenth and eleventh centuries and Bcal Boru in the townland of Ballyvally, Co. Clare, was occupiedfirst in the eleventhcentury and strengthenedin Anglo-Normantimes. Medieval pottery (fourteenth century) was found in the fosses of Corliss Fort, Co. Armagh, and pottery of fifteenth to seventeenthcentury date was found in Ballycatteenfort though this was probably not due to actual occupation.Two earthenring-forts at Shannon Airport, Co. Clare, one, 'Thady'sFort', in Ballycally townland and the other in the townland of Garrynamona,were datedto the seventeenthcentury indicating a continuanceof the use and even the building of such structuresto a very late period. Chancefinds reported as having been discoveredin unexcavatedforts date from all periodsfrom Bronze Age to Medieval times, but in many casesit is not clear if thesefinds were really associatedwith the forts.. The dating of stone ring-forts conforms with that of the earthentype though rather fewer have been excavated.Two sites, recently excavatedat Aughinish Island, Co. Limerick, can be dated to the overlap between Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age times. The stone forts at Carraig Aille, Co. Limerick, were dated to the eighth to eleventh centuriesbut someof the finds seemto indicate a much earlier date for the beginning of the habitation. It has been suggestedthat the stone ring-fort at Leacanabuaile,Co. Kerry, may belong rather to Late Medieval times than to the Early Christian period. The numberof excavationsof ring-forts hasgreatly increased

Forts

33

over the years and these have confirmed that the great majority of examplesbelongto the Early Christianperiod. The finds are often sparseand many such as ring-pins, combsetc., are not as yet closely dateable.In the north-eastof the country, a pottery type known as souterrain ware has been found on many sites. This pottery is known not only from ring-forts but also from other sites of the early Christian period such as crann6gs(e.g. Lough Faughan,Co. Down) and monasticsites (e.g. Nendrum, Co. Down). While in the north-eastring-fort after ring-fort, e.g. Lissue and Poleglass, Co. Antrim and Ballyfounder, Crossnacreevy and two at Ballywillwill all in Co. Down, have yielded souterrain ware, it remains absent in excavationselsewhere.Indeed though some imported wares, mainly of the sixth to the eighth centuries,turn up occasionally, e.g. Garranes and Ballycatteen, Co. Cork, it would appearthat no native pottery was manufacturedin Ireland outside the north-eastin Early Christian times. Examples of the late useof ring-forts have increased,e.g. Ballyfounder, Co. Down, primarily dated to the sixth and seventhcenturiesbut containing in the upper layers a rectangularhouse of thirteenth-centurydate. Mention the ring-forts (rath, lios etc.) is commonin the Irish Sagasand other writings and it is clear from these that they were dwelling placesat least of the better-offstrata of society. Thereare also accountsof the making of ring-forts and it is of interestthat the word to dig is used specifically in connection with the making of a rath indicating that rath signifies the earthenfosseand bankstructure.Referenceto the use of ringforts is also found in the fourteenthcentury. The stone ringfort at Cahermacnaghten,Co. Clare, was inhabited by the O'Davorenfamily and their law school towardsthe end of the seventeenthcentury. It is seldom possible to relate the findings of excavation directly to literary accountseven when a site can be reliably identified. Indeed, the fact that so many ring-forts show occupationover a long period makes it hazardousto use the literary evidenceas a sourceof dating especiallyfor the date of the construction of the ring-fort. However, in one recent example,Rathbeg,Co. Antrim, an accountof the killing of a

34

Antiquitiesof the Irish Countryside

king in 650 a.d. is of interest in indicating the importanceof the site at that time. Portionsof the finds, though some are of much later date, could accord with a seventh-centurydating. There are as yet insufficient radiocarbondeterminationsto assistgreatly in the dating of ring-forts. Severaldeterminations from Raheennamadra, Co. Limerick, indicate a date around the seventhcentury a.d. but the site may well have had a long period of use. Sinceno good evidencehas beengiven of prototypesabroad somearchaeologistsare inclined to see the ring-fort as a native development. Excavationsgive us hints that this conclusion may be correct. At Knockadoon, Lough Cur, there are enclosuresdefined by two concentriccircles of upright stones. Thesesiteswere formerly regardedas stonecircles (ritual sites) but thereis clearevidencefrom the excavationof someof them that they were habitationsites where the spacearounda house was enclosedby a wall of which only two concentricrows of low upright stonesnow remain. Originally the wall must have been completedby building a bank of sods betweenthe uprights. That thesesitesdevelopedin the Early Bronze Age is shown by the large amount of domestic pottery and other finds of that period which they have produced. Also dated to the Bronze Age, and probably to an early stage in it, is a site at Carrigillihy, Co. Cork (6). Here the enclosingwall was of stone of peculiar construction, the smaller stones being held in position and given stability by uprightswhich were set with the long axis placed radially. An oval stone-built house stood within this wall. (A rectangularhousewas built later - when the rampart was in collapse.)The roughly circular enclosure associatedwith the field system discovered at Clenulra, Co. Mayo, and dated to Neolithic times is also relevant. A rather crudely built housestood within the enclosure.All thesesites, though noneis a typical ring-fort, parallel to a degreethe idea of the fully developedsites of later times. However, it must be statedthat the idea of an enclosurearounda habitationis very widespreadand occursin many placesin many periods. While suchsitesarguefor a tradition which would perhapsfavour the acceptanceof the ring-fort they are not sufficient to account for the flowering of the true ring-fort so evident in Iron Age

Forts

35

and Early Christiantimes, nor do they accountfor the notable homogeneityof the cultureof the ring-fort builders. It must be rememberedalso that despite the lack of precise analogies abroad, somewhatcomparablestructures are representedin the Iron Age of Iberia. Othersin south-westernBritain might be cited but the possibility of Irish origins for them cannot be entirely discounted. For the present then it would seem prudentto allow for a native tradition but to considerthe ringforts as representinga powerful new impetusprobably in Early Iron Age or perhapsLate Bronze Age times. They can validly be associatedwith Celtic peoplewho achieveda dominancein Ireland about this time. The walls of a stonering-fort when collapsed,as many are, can look superficially like a broadring of heavyrubble, thoughit is often possibleto tracethe facingsof the wall. In the better preserved examples the built masonry rises to a considerable height and the construction, consisting of well-built facings revetting a thick rubble core, is clearly visible. The banks and fossesof earthenring-forts as they appeartoday representthe collapse of rampartsrather than the original state. Excavations have shown that at somesites the earthenrampartswere revettedin stone. Thus at Garryduff, Co. Cork and Ballywillwill,. Co. Down, the walls were faced both inside and outsidein stone. There is evidenceat other sites showing that a facing of more or lessvertical timbers enclosedthe core of earth to form the rampart, as at Knockea, Co. Limerick. At Beal Boru in Ballyvally townland in Co. Clare, the inner facing was one of stonewhile the outer was of wood. Sodscould also be employed as revetmentsperhapsaugmentedby wooden supports as at Raheennamadra, Co. Limerick. Trenchesfor timber palisades aroundthe inside of the inner bank at Ballycatteen,Co. Cork, or at the inner edge of the outer bank at Letterkeen, Co. Mayo, may also be revetments. A comparable palisade or revetmenttrenchwith stonepackingfor the timbers was found at Drumree, Co. Fermanagh.At Letterkeen the inner bank was revettedon the inside by stonework.Someevidencefor the revetment of the inner face of the ditch was noted at one

36

A ntz'quitiesof the [nih Countryside

of the ring-forts at Shane's Castle townland, Co. Antrim. Severalothersitesshow evidencefor palisadesor revetments, e.g. Lissue, Co. Antrim, but since a considerablenumberwere only very partially examinedno full picture of the variants in wall structurecan be given as yet. It seemsclear, however, that the idea of an earth or rubble core with a facing of stone, sods or timber is a common theme throughout the whole ring-fort series,both stoneandearth. The presenceof the ditch in those where earth is the main material for the wall would be to a large extent explained as a convenient source of material, while at the sametime adding to the protection. While it may well be that the earthenring-fort and the stonering-fort reflect differencesin building traditions the featurescommonto both unite the whole series. A close analogy for the difference in designwherestoneand earthis usedis to be found in the longbarrow (Neolithic burial mounds) of England where in stony districts the edgesof cairnsare facedwith dry walling, whereas on the chalk, timber and sod facing are usedwith great flanking ditchesproviding the material for the core of the mound. As in the caseof ring-forts occasionaluse of stone revetment even on the chalk are known. A word must be said about the recognitionof woodenstructures. By careful use of excavationtechniquesthe archaeologist can discover evidence even though the wood itself has completelydecayed.This is usually done by finding the postholes of the posts which supported the wooden structure. While nothing of the posts themselves remains (unless in exceptionallyfavourable- usually wet - conditions)the holes are revealedas pocketsfilled with a soil which is different from the clay in which they were dug. The fill is usually darker becauseit contains more humus than the surrounding clay when the lower endsof the postshavedecayedin the holes; but if the postswere removedin ancient times the fill may not be different in colour but only less compacted,in which case the post-holesare found by feeling for the softer areas.Even quite small stake-holescan be found in this way. On some sites the plan is not revealedby post-holesbut by the dark bandswhich mark the position of walls or the burnt clay surfacewhich is all that remainsof a wood and wattle structuredestroyedby fire.

Forts

37

The entranceto a stone ring-fort may consist simply of a neatly-built gap in the rampartswith perhaps(as at the two forts at Carraig Aille, Lough Gur, Co. Limerick) recessesin the wall endsat either side into which fitted the two halves of the wooden gate. More ambitious are the entrancesto those high, rampartedstone forts such as Staigue, Co. Kerry (1I) where the gateway is an aperture in the wall, lintelled with large slabs, thesecarrying the upper portion of the wall at this point (8,15). Of course, entrancesof this type were probably more numerous than is shown by the extant remains; a collapsed wall will not indicate the upper structure of the entrance.In earthenring-forts the fosse is interruptedleaving a causewayoppositethe entrancethrough the bank. The sides of the entrancewere sometimesstone-built - at Cahervaglier, near Coppeen,Co. Cork, a gateway formed of upright stone slabs supporting horizontal ones was set in a stone-faced earthenrampart. At Ballywillwill, Co. Down, the sides of the entrancewere found to be revetted in dry-stone walling and there were post-holes for heavy wooden gate jambs. At Garranes,Co. Cork, an elaborateseries of gates, three (or possibly four) in all, defendedthe entrancewhich was a long, comparativelynarrow passagebetweenthe ends of the banks and fosses.Similarly, multiple gateswere used at Ballycatteen, Co. Cork. At both theseforts and at Letterkeen,Co. Mayo, the sides of the entrance passagewere bordered by a wooden palisade. At Letterkeen, the trenches for the wooden sidewalling of the entranceran from the stonerevetmentlining the inside of the inner bank to join the palisadetrench which ran around the fort outside the fosse. In some casesthe gatewaysmay have been covered- the upper part of the rampart continuing across above the aperture. Some of the very heavy gatepostsas at Garranes and Ballycatteen, might be interpreted as serving not only as entrancejambs but as supportsfor a superstructureover the gateway.A wooden tower above the gate may have existed at Garryduff, Co. Cork. Other features exemplified by the better-preservedstone forts, suchas Staigue,are the 'batter'(inward slope)of the wall faces, resulting in a narrowing of the wall as it rises, the

38

Antiquz"tiesof the Irzsh Countryside

terracingof the inside of the walls and the provision of stepsto give accessto theseterracesor to the top of the rampart for purposesof defence(12). The rampart would originally have beenprovided with a breastworkto protect those standingon the top. It is hardly necessaryto statethat mortar is never used in the building of stoneforts, but it may be remarkedthat the quality of their dry-stone building is of a high standard of excellenceandshowsthe ability of the ancientbuilder to make the most of the type of stone available locally, be that thin slabsof shaleor large blocks of limestone.Straightjoints in the walls of some of the forts (Ballykinvarga, Co. Clare and Staigue) (13) indicate gaps which gave the workers accessto the interior during building, the filling of thesegapsbeing the last part of the work. The numberof rampartswith accompanyingfosses(Figure 2) aroundan earthenfort may vary from one to three, or rarely (as at Dunglady, Co. Derry and CarrowhubbuckNorth, Co. Sligo) to more than three. It must be realized that these defencesas they exist today are much less imposing than they were in their original state. In the courseof time the height of the bank has been considerably reduced by slip and the materialfrom it hasfallen into, and to a large extent filled up, the fosse. Excavationshows that the original bottom of a fosse may be covered by I m to 2 m of spill - possibly by an even greateramountin some larger forts. In many instancesit has beenfound that the fosseswere cut in solid rock, involving in the constructionof the larger forts a considerableamount of labour and demonstratingthe high degreeof social organization which madesuch concentratedeffort possible. Usually in forts with multiple defencesthe fosses and Qanks were constructed contiguously- there being no spacebetween them. In someforts, generallythosewith two banksandfosses,a level spaceintervenesbetweenthe outer bank and the inner fosse. This may be referred to as a berm -a term borrowed from military defensive works - intended as a platform on which the defendersof the outer bank could stand. We find it at the fort at LisnashandrumEast, Co. Cork, and it is a frequent featureof the forts on the summitsof small hills in the CavanMonaghandrumlin country. In these, the bank outside the

39

Forts

8alhnlough, Co Llmenck

Cromwell, Co. Limerick

Garranes, Co. Cork

Mor~gage, Limerick Co Limerick

Lisnashandrum

Eas~,

Co. Cork

Moylemuck, Co Monaghan

o

Mullaghroe, Co. Cork

v

o

30

60

9,0 Feer

10

20

Limerick 30 f~erres

""If

'

Gotoon, Co Limerick

Doonbally, Co. Galway

Fz'gure 2

Profiles of earthworks

berm is muchlower than the inner bank and sometimeshas no outer fosse. Provision for defence in ring-forts is a matter of degree. Thereare at the one extremethe well-defendedsiteswith high banks, deep fosses or (if of stone) well-built walls and other defensivefeatures.At the other end of the scale are sites with oneslight bank and a shallow fosse. As alrea.dyindicatedthese latter sites had no military significance, but their defences, evenwhen most insignificant, must have given the farmer and his family who lived in them some feeling of security. It is

40

Antiquz'tiesof the Irish Countryside

difficult, therefore, to say where to draw the line betweenthe defensiveand non-defensivesite when all are enclosedto some degree. Similarly, with buildings of later historic times it is difficult to draw a line when one considersthe functions of the strong castle, the tower house, the imitation castle, and the Georgian house. The strong castle was inhabited by the Norman lord and his family but its purpose was largely military, the Georgianhousewas domesticin purposebut the steel shutters and other features that were frequently incorporatedgave a measureof security. Many of the Irish ring-forts possessundergroundchambers known as souterrainswith which we shall deal in another chapter.Chambersare also incorporatedin the wide ramparts of some of the stone-built forts - as in Leacanabuaileand Staigue,Co. Kerry, andin the centralcitadel of the hill-fort of Grianan Ailech, Co. Donegal. In the promontory fort of Dunbeg, Co. Kerry, these chambersformed sheltersfor sentries and were part of an elaborate defensive system. These features,cells and long chambersin the walls are found also in the stone forts and brochs of Scotland, which are known to have been built during Early Iron Age times and were occupied during the period of Roman rule in Britain and later. As stated, the housesenclosedby the forts were of stone or wood and they were round or rectangularin plan. Not all excavated forts gave good house plans; sometimes repairs causeda multiplicity of post-holeswhich could not be intelligibly interpreted,sometimessoil conditionsare not suitablefor the preservationof the evidenceof woodenbuildings. Thus at Beal Boru, Co. Clare, a large number of post-holes were discoveredbut only one houseplan was recognizable.This was a rectangularpost-built structure, measuring4 m4xm x2.5 m internally with a paved entrancein one corner. The fort at Letterkeen, Co. Mayo, enclosed two round houses, one revealed by a circle of post-holes, the other by stone slabs which formed the wall footing. At Raheennamadra,Co. Limerick, a round house about 6 m to 7 m in diameter, defined by a trench for a timber wall, was placed centrally in the ring-fort while a similarly defined round house 4.6 m in

2

2

FORT AT ARDSOREEN, CO. SLIGO

RECONSTRUCTION OF NEOLITHIC HOUSE AT LOUGH GUR, CO. LIMERICK

3

4

RING-FORT AT GRANGE, CO. LIMERICK

BURNT OUTLINE OF HUT IN GRANGE RING-FORT

5

6

STONE FORT AT MONEYGASHEL, CO. CAVAN

RECONSTRUCTION OF STONE FORT WITH OVAL HOUSE AT CARRIGILLIHY, CO. CORK

7

STONE FORT AT LEACANABUAILE, CO. KERRY-ENTRANCE AND HOUSES IN INTERIOR

8

ENTRANCE TO

STONE FORT, DUN GALWAY

AONGUSA,

ARAN

ISLANDS,

CO.

9

STONE FORTS AT CARRAIG AILLE,

10

LOUGH GUR, CO. LIMERICK

TARA: "TEACH CORMAIC" AND THE "FORRADH"

FORTS AT CARRAIG STONE FORTS AT STONE CARRAIG

I2

13

WALL STEPS IN INTERIOR, STAIGUE

WALL-JOINT AND FOSSE, STAIGUE

14 DUN AONGUSA, ARAN: STONE FORT ON CLIFF EDGE OVER ATLANTIC-THE chevaux de frise APPEARS AS A BLACK BAND

15

PROMONTORY FORT AT DUNBEG, CO. -ENTRANCE FROM OUTSIDE

KERRY

16

17

STONE FORT AT BALLYKINVARGA, CO. CLARE, SHOWING

chevauxdefrise

DUBH CATHAIR, ARAN-WALL-TERRACES AND HUTS IN INTERIOR OF FORT

18

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH CAHERGUILLAMORE, CO. LIMERICK, ANCIENT FIELDS, ROADS, FORTS AND HOUSES

19

SHOWING

THE DANGAN PROMONTORY FORT, ACHILLBEG, CO. MAYO

STONE FORTS AT CARRAIG STONE FORTS AT CARRAIG

21

ENTRANCE TO PROMONTORY FORT, CAVE HILL, CO. ANTRIM

22

FOSSE OF PROMONTORY FORT, LAMBAY,

CO. DUBLIN

MOTTE-AND-BAILEY, TIPPERARY HILLS, CO. TIPPERARY

MOTTE-AND-BAILEY, RATHCREEVAGH, CO. WESTMEATH

23

24

25

MOTTE-AND-BAILEY, DROMORE,

co.

DOWN

26

27

MOUND AT MAGH ADHAIR, CO. CLARE

PLATFORM-TYPE RING-FORT, BALLIN GARRY DOWN, CO. LIMERICKDURING EXCAVATION

28

RATH MEAVE, TARA, CO. MEATH

29

KILFINNANE, CO. LIMERICK

Forts

41

diameterwas discoveredat Lismurphy, Co. Derry. Within a ring-fort of Ballywee, Co. Antrim, a rectangularhouse plan 8 m by 16 m was defined by stonesset on edge. An undergroundchamberdiscussedbelow in the chapteron souterrains opened from the interior of this house and a comparable chamberclosely abuttedthe houseat Raheennamadra. Conditions of excavationhave hardly ever been such that the total picture at anyonetime can be fully demonstrated.Not only has destructionby tillage etc. often disturbedthe interior so as to make the segregationof various phaseswithin the time of use of the ring-fort very difficult but also many excavations have had to be doneas rapid rescueoperationspermitting only very partial uncoveringof the site. The fort excavatedat Leacanabuaile,near Caherciveen, Co. Kerry, though not necessarilytypical becausea large proportion of the interior is taken up by the buildings, enablesus to form a picture of one of these sites in an approximately completestate (7). The stone walls of the houses, covered by collapsed material and debris, were found to remain to a height of over 1 m. Near the middle of the fort were a round and a rectangularhousewith communicatingdoorway, while subsidiary buildings stood against the rampart. A site in a marshyareaat Grange, Co. Limerick, consistedof a low bank and fossesurroundinga single small wattle hut which had been built on a clay layer thrown up over the peat. On the clay surface the colour changescausedby the burning of the hut clearly indicated its outline (4). The Bronze Age sites mentioned below at Knockadoon,Lough Gur, and at Carrigillihy, Co. Cork, gave a similar picture of a single house surrounded by an enclosingrampart. Excavationis not always necessaryto reveal the remains of the enclosedhouses. In many of the forts in stony areas the stone-built housesmay be clearly traced (17). This is true of numerousstoneforts in County Clare, in County Kerry, on the Aran Islands, and elsewhere.On earthensites also the outline of an enclosed house is sometimes visible on the ground surface, especially when the conditions of vegetation are favourable. The position of the hut on the Grange site just mentionedwas noted before excavation. On the fort marked

42

Antiquitiesof the Irish Countryside

on the OrdnanceSurveyMap as 'TeachCormaic' at Tara, Co. Meath, the outline of a rectangularhouseis clearly visible. Of course, the house noted on the surfacemay be only the latest building on a site where excavation would reveal successive houses.On a platform-typering-fort at Ballingarry Down, Co. Limerick (27), a rectangularhouseon top was found to be of Norman date but was the successorto severalhousesof different type at lower levels. A word must be said of a theory basedon excavationsof sites on the Isle of Man. These excavationshave prompted the theory that the bank of a ring-fort did not surround a freestandinghousebut was, in fact, the collapseof the clay piled as supportagainstthe housewall, the whole areainside the bank being roofed over. The sites investigated had a diameter of about 27 m inside the bank and concentric rings of post-holes were believed to have held the posts which supportedthe roof and which divided a central domestic area from outer spaces given over to workshop activities and to livestock. Becauseof the large diameter the pitch of the roof could not be very great, as a steeppitch would involve the use of impossibly large postsnearthe centre. It was, therefore,suggestedthat the disadvantageof the slight slope of the roof was overcome by coveringit with sods. It is certain that the excavatedIrish ringforts cannotbe given a similar interpretationand the literary evidenceis also against it. The fort excavatedat Lissue, Co. Antrim, is said to have beencoveredwith this type of over-all roof but the evidenceis not unequivocallyin favour of this; a shallow trenchencircling a hearthin the centreof the ring-fort may well be the baseof an oval housesome 12 m by 10 m. A more plausibleexplanationof the Isle of Man sites is that they are of crannogtype. Though not precisely lake dwellings they are sited on very marshy ground liable to flooding and the fosseswere filled with water. The wavy outline of the outmost row of stakesand the concentric rings of stakeswithin can be paralleledin Irish crannogsand the horizontal timbersare also typical. As noted above, in some sites houses were found placed more or less centrally; in othersthe houseswere placedin varying positionswithin the enclosure.In one case(Carraig Aille,

Forts

43

Co. Limerick) the forts seemedto form the centre of a settlement, there being houses between them as well as those enclosedby them. At Garranesand Ballycatteenthe inhabitants took advantageof the bank on the western or southwesternside as shelterfrom the prevailing wind, and the area of habitation was virtually confined to this portion of these forts. The evidence of occupation on the last two sites was meagrein relation to the size of the enclosuresand the sameis true to a greaterdegreeof Raheenavick,Co. Galway. This fact and the strengthof the banks would indicate that the larger ring-forts did serveas defensivestructures- centresinto which the population might be gatheredin time of danger. To this extentthey would havefulfilled a function analogousto that of hill forts discussedbelow. Pairs of forts conjoinedin the form of a figure of eight are not uncommon. More rare are groups containing greater numbers of conjoined forts; the main group at Cush, Co. Limerick, consisted of six small conjoined forts with an attached rectangularenclosure. Such enclosureshave been brought to notice elsewhere,for instancein connectionwith the remainsat Cruachain,Co. Roscommon.On the Cush site the enclosurerepresentedthe expansionof the settlementand the enclosingof a larger spacein which houseswere built. While most ring-forts will be found in upland areas, they occur frequently in low-lying country. They are well represented in the more marshydistricts of the Limerick plain, where they are numerousthough very inconspicuous.The interior is frequently raised above the level of the surrounding area, clearly as a meansof achieving a comparativelyfirm and dry surface. It is probablethat the fossesof these structurescontainedwater. Therealso occur in the County Limerick marshlands, and perhapselsewhere,forts in which the fosse is inside the bank. Someof thesehave water-filled fossesat presentand this would have been true in most cases when they were constructed.It hasbeensuggestedthat theseearthworks,none of which has been excavated,were intended as cattle enclosures, for which purpose the fosses would have provided a convenient water supply. This suggestion, which may be correct, runs counter to the general rule that sites with the

44

Antz'quz'tz'esofthe Irz'sh Countrysz'de

fosse inside the bank are usually ritual in purpose. We know, however, of ritual sites with the fosse on the outside and it is not necessarilytrue that all those with the bank on the outside were non-utilitarian in purpose. The fossesin the majority of the upland forts would not have containedwater, though it seemslikely that they did, in a few cases,by accidentor design. A fine example at Rathmooley, near Killenaule, Co. Tipperary, still has a considerableamount of water in the fosse, probablysupplied by springsin the rock in which it was cut. A water supply for domestic purposeswas not included within the enclosureof the forts - exceptionsto this are very rare. It must not be thought that all the forts are circular though this is true of the majority, Square,rectangular,D-shapedand other outlines occur. It has been suggestedthat the rectangular forts are later than the circular ones. This need not necessarily be true since we know that the excavation of a small rectangularearthwork, not unlike our forts in character, at South Lodge Camp, Dorset, gaveevidenceof Late Bronze Age dating. A large (63 m across)rectangularenclosureat North Treveneague,Cornwall, is similar to Irish forts even in possessing a souterrain,and producedEarly Iron Age material. On the other hand many of our rectangularenclosuresmay be the sites of 'moatedhouses'usually attributed to the later Middle Ages (fourteenthcenturyonwards).On thesethe house stood near the water-filled moat and the bank was frequently built on the outside. They are commonin England and occur occasionally on the eastern fringe of Wales. They are best exemplified in this country by examplesin Co. Wicklow. A good specimenis to be seen at Whitechurch, near StraHan, Co. Kildare. Mention has already been made of hill-forts -a class of antiquity distinct from the more usual ring-fort and much less commonin Ireland, We have seen that many ring-forts occur on hilltops, and this is especially true of the larger examples and is a feature of their siting in some areas (as CavanMonaghan);but while the ring-fort may be placedon the hilltop, the hill-fort encirclesthe summit, its defencestending to follow the contour. The hill-fort is frequentlyenormousin size,

Forts

45

enclosingas much as 8 hectareswithin its defenceswhich may consistof stone-builtrampartor bank and fosse. Hill-forts are commonin Britain where they servedas strongcentresin preRoman times; most of those in lowland Britain were abandoned as a result of Roman policy soon after the invasion, thoughsitesin the highlandsof Wales and elsewherewere built and occupiedwell into the period of Roman occupation. Recentwork has raised the number of hill-forts recognized in Ireland to about fifty and excavationsat seven examples have revealedmany details. These excavations,while adding significantly to our knowledge, have demonstratedthat interpretation from surfaceindications can prove to be hazardous and pendingpublication of full reports, any synthesismust be to a degreetentative. Survey, however, has shown that Irish hill-forts can be broadly divided into two classes- univallate, which have one rampart, and multivallate, which have two or more widely spaced ramparts. Univallate hill-forts are the predominant type in the north and east of the country while the multivallate type are concentratedin the south and west overlapping in the Wicklow area with the univallate hill-forts. The great multivallate hill-fort of Griamin Ailech in the far north at the baseof the Inishowenpeninsulain Donegal is a notable exception to this patternof distribution. Excavations have been concentrated on univallate examples. A ~mall hill-fort at FreestoneHill, Co. Kilkenny, rampart consistsof a rampartwith externalfosse enclosingan oval area of about2 hectaresaroundthe summit of the hill which rises to about 140 m above sea-level. The fosse was cut into the rock and measured1 m to 2 m deep and about 2 m wide. The bank was composedof rubble and earth and was faced originally with dry-stonework. Near the centre of the hill-fort an Early BronzeAge cemetery-cairn,of the type describedbelow in the chapteron burial mounds, had been stripped by the hill-fort builders who used the stone so obtained to build a small enclosureabout 33 m in diameter.The finds from the occupation depositswithin this enclosureindicated a date about the fourth century a.d. The great univallate hill-fort of Dun Ailinne in Knockaulin

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Antiquz"tiesof the Irish Countrysl'de

townland, Co. Kildare, crowns the top of a roundedhill which rises to about 180 m abovesea-level.A huge bank with a great internal fosseencirclesan areaof about 14 hectaresaroundthe summit. At the entrance, which lies on the eastern side, a causewayinterruptsthe fosse. In the central areaof the fort a successionof great structuresformed of concentric rings of posts- in some casesset individually in great post-holesand in others lined in palisade trenches- representa succession of ritual enclosures.Theserangefrom about 20 m to 45 m in overall diameter. The entries to these enclosures, which representa series of building phases,face eastwardstowards the entranceof the fort. On either side of the entranceto one of them two palisadetrenchesrun down the hill towards the main entrancethrough the rampart. They seem to flank an approach road across the interior of the fort. The central structuresand presumablythe greathill-fort itself are datedto the Iron Age, perhapsabout the time of Our Lord. Otherfinds show some Neolithic activity on the site. At Emain Machaor NavanFort near Armagh, a great bank with internal fosse surroundsthe top of a rounded hill. The area enclosed is about 7.5 hectares. Within the enclosure under a large mound about 45 m in diameterand 5 m high a complex seriesof concentricpost-holesand palisade trenches indicated repeatedrebuilding of large circular wooden structures, the entranceto which faced westwardstowards the main entrancethrough the rampartsof the fort. The final phaseof destructionwas spectacular.While the great post structureof concentric rings was still standinga huge cairn of stoneswas piled amongthe postsand the timbersof the outer row were set on fire. A secondcircular area nearer the centre of the fort showeda successionof concentric trenches.Thesewere interpreted as indicating a series of rebuildings of houses. Radiocarbondeterminationssuggestthat thesestructuresand those found underthe mound date mainly from the fifth and fourth century b.c. and a radiocarbon date 265 ± 50 b.c. was obtainedfor the destructionof the great monumentdescribed above. At Rath na Riogh at Tara, Co. Meath, a bank with internal Fosseenclosesan areaabout 300 m by 240 m, on the top of a

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low hill some 152 m above sea-level. Excavation through the rampart showedthat the fosse was cut into the bedrock to a depth of over 3 m and that a strong palisade ran inside the fosse. Savefor the passage-tombof the Mound of the Hostages the interior of the hill-fort was not excavated. Immediately besideReith na Riogh the site known as the Rath of the Synods, thoughconsiderablymutilatedby digging at the end of the last century, proved on excavation to be a complex site with a successionof fossesand palisadesshowing several rebuildings of circular timber structures. Excavations of the rampart at the univallate site on CathedralHill, Downpatrick, Co. Down, showed that it had beenreconstructedmore than once. It appearsthat when the earliest fosse had filled, another was dug and inside this a timber-lacedearthenwall was erected. The hill-fort at Clogher, Co. Tyrone, appeared before excavation to have a bank with internal fosse and multiple defences. However, excavation has shown that the original designwas a bank with an externalfosseand that the apparent multiple vallations belongedto other structuresbuilt on the site. Activity on the hill reachedback to Neolithic times but a date in the Iron Age seemsprobable for the hill-fort. The constructionof a large ring-fort within the enclosureis dated by finds of imported pottery to about the seventhcentury a.d. At Lyles Hill, Co. Antrim, a bankwithout a fosse follows the contour of a steep-sidedhill at a level of about 210 m above sea-level. Closeto the summit (c. 226 m) an Early Bronze Age cairn covered a layer containing a great abundanceof Neolithic pottery and flints. Sherdsof Neolithic pottery were found in the bank and it is thereforearguedthat the enclosureitself belongs to Neolithic times. The absenceof a fosse suggests comparisonwith the embanked,apparentlyritual, enclosures (some of Neolithic or Early Bronze Age date), referred to below in the chapteron stone circles, but the rampart following the contour and the obviously strong defensive position conform rather to the design of hill-forts in Ireland and in Britain, and on thesegroundsa date in the Early Iron Age or perhapsLate Bronze Age is probably to be preferred. Some univallate hill-forts have stone rampartsrather than

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Antiquz'tiesofthe Irish Countryside

fosse-and-bankdefences.Exampleswith single massive stone ramparts are the great oval enclosuresat Brusselstown, Co. Wicklow and Carh Tigherna, Co. Cork, enclosing 6 hectares and 4 hectaresrespectively. Among the smaller examplesof univallate hill-forts scarcely 1.6 hectares are Clopook, Co. Laois and CroaghanHill, Co. Donegal. Only one multivallate hill-fort, Rathgall, Co. Wicklow, has so far been excavated.This site consistsof an outer rampart encircling an areasome 7.5 hectaresin extent, within which is a strongline of defenceformed of two walls, set close to each other, possiblywith a fosse betweenthem. In the centrestands a stoneenclosureof ring-fort type which proved on excavation to be no earlier than Medieval in date. Though the date of the main defenceshave not yet been determined, evidence for intensiveLate BronzeAge activity was found within the areaof the fort. It is likely thereforethat the building of the hill-fort took place in that period or at the overlap with the Early Iron Age. As at Dun Ailinne and other sites evidencefor Neolithic activity on the hilltop was discovered. The great stone-built multivallate hill-fort at Mooghaun, Co. Clare, is one of the most remarkableof our antiquities. It has threegreatstonewalls of which the outermost,oval in outline, measures450 m by 300 m, enclosing an area some 18 hectaresin extent. In it and on its walls stoneenclosuresof the ring-fort type were built - evidently with the material from the earlier structures.The famous 'Great Clare Find' of gold objectsof Late Bronze Age date was discoveredwhen the railway was being constructedin the neighbourhoodin 1854 and it has beensuggestedthat this, the greatestof our gold finds, belongedoriginally to Mooghaun, the greatest of our forts. There is, however, nothing to substantiate this attractive theory. Nevertheless,it recalls the finds of the great Gold Torcs reportedfrom Tara, and the Late BronzeAge gold finds at Downpatrick and the ornamentedBronze trumpet from Loughnashadenear Emain Macha. Rathcoran is a large hill-fort encircling a mountain top (377 m) near Baltinglass, Co. Wicklow. The outermostof its two great stone ramparts encloses about 10.5 hectares. A passage-tomb crowns the summit of the hill. Around it a great

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stonewall built in recent years should not be mistakenfor an ancient citadel. Like Rathcoran,Cashel Fort, Co. Cork, has two lines of defence.The outer rampart is of stone while the inner consistsof an earthenbank with a fosse outside it. Grianan Ailech, in Donegal, on a hill (240 m) overlooking Derry City hasat its centrea massivestonering-fort. Below this surroundingthe hill are three ramparts.It has beensuggested that the central ring-fort may be additional - perhapsabout the sixth or seventhcentury a.d. - to an earlier, presumably Early Iron Age hill-fort. Allied to the multivallate hill-forts with widely spaced ramparts are cliff-forts. At Cahercommaun,Co. Clare, a massive stone ring-fort is placed on the edge of a cliff. Two outer ramparts of comparatively light structure form great semicirclesaround it and run to the cliff edge on both sides. Excavationsshowedthat the fort was occupiedabout 800 a.d., but someof the finds suggesta possibly much earlier date for its construction.In its designit resemblesthe much larger Dun Aongusa on the largest of the Aran Islands at the mouth of Galway Bay. This gigantic work standson the edge of a sheer cliff rising 100 m above the Atlantic. The roughly semicircular citadel is surroundedby two widely spacedwalls forming greatsinuousloops springingfrom the cliff edge. Fragmentsof a third wall, perhapsnever completed,run outside the second line. Outsidethis and surroundingthe secondwall is a broad band, 10 m to 25 m wide, studded with a mass of upright pillar-like stones set close together. This defensive device known as a chevaux de frise (derived from a military term which originated when the Frisians used spikes to impede enemy cavalry) - might be consideredas the ancient equivalent to tank traps and it would act as an effective obstacleto a charge by chariots, cavalry or men on foot. A special type of defensivestructureis the promontoryfort, the name of which is almost self-explanatory. Economy of effort in the enclosingof a large area is achievedby building the defencesacrossthe narrow neck of a sea-girt promontory (19,22) or in some casesacrossa mountain spur (21). Of the inland promontory forts the most notable is the spectacular site of Caherconreeon the mountainsnear Tralee, Co. Kerry,

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Antiquitiesafthe Irish Countryside

more than 600 m above sea-level -a triangle of land, steepsided on two sides and defendedon the third by a wall with terraceson the inner face and a bank of stones and earth. Spectacularalso are the large fortresses of Knockdhu and Lurigethanwheregreatspurson the edgeof the basalt plateau of Antrim are walled off by closely spacedmultiple defences. Probably the most astonishingof the sea-coastpromontory forts is that of Dubh Cathairon the largestof the Aran Islands. Here a great curved wall across the base of a cliff-girth promontory is fronted by a chevauxde frise like that at Dun Aongusa. In the beginning of the last century an entrance gatewaystood close to the cliff edge at one side. Before John O'Donovan's visits in 1839 a great slice of the cliff had collapsedinto the seabringing the gatewaywith it. A seriesof stone-built huts are clusteredcloseto the wall and othersalong the edge of the cliffs were severely damagedby storms. John O'Donovandescribesthe damagewrought by the great storm on the famous 'night of the big wind' in January1839 when huge rocks were hurled by the seaonto the cliff tops. Like other cliff-edge sites some allowance must be made for erosion but any suggestion that these forts were once vastly greater in extent must be discounted. Before discussingother Irish seacoastpromontory forts it may be opportuneto look briefly at the forts on Aran as a whole, since they display a notable variety and highlight the relationship between various forms of stone ring-forts, cliffforts, promontory fofts and hill-forts. We may take Dun Eoghanachtaas a fine exampleof the stone ring-fort though like many of the Aran forts togetherwith Staigueand Grianan Ailech, it was considerablyrestored in the last century. It is almost circular, about 27 m in internal diameter. The walls are over 4 m thick and are terracedinside with flights of steps leading to the terraces. The doorway now restoredwas little over 1 m wide. Dun Eochla has a central citadel of similar constructionthoughit is somewhatoval in plan, about27 m by 23 m. This is surroundedby a secondrampart, at a distanceof between 15 m and 27 m, which for the most part takes advantageof the ledgesof the naturalplatform on which it was built. The fort standson the brow of the central hill of the

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island and commandsa wide view. It is clearly of the hill-fort class. Dun Conchubhairon Inishmaanis sited on the highest point of the Middle Island about 80 m above sea-level, It is oval in shape,some50 m by 27 m internally, with a massively built terraced wall. An outer wall sweeps in a broad arc around three sides and links with the inner structure at the endsof the oval. The dominatingposition, elongatedplan and outer defences clearly link this site with the hill-fort type, though the main structureresemblesa great stonering-fort in many respects. Even the great semi-oval citadel of Dun Aongusa, especiallywhen comparedwith the completedring of the central elementat Cahercommaun,Co. Clare, cannot be divorced from the stone ring-fort tradition while its outer walls are equally clearly of the multivallate hill-fort type. Finally the chevauxde jrzse links not only Dun Aongusa with the great promontory fort of Dubh Cathair but also with the strong stone ring-fort of Ballykinvarga in Co. Clare, where a similar feature is found. It recurs once again in the promontory fort of Dunnamo on the Mullet peninsula, Co. Mayo, where it fronts a complex defenceof walls, fossesand banks. It seemsthen that the various forms of structureare closely interwoven and it appearsprobable that we may be dealing with varietiesin function within one societyratherthan a series of separateintroductions. The common stone ring-fort and their earthencounterpartsare to be consideredhomesteadsthe more massiveof them such as Staigueor earthenexamples such as Garranesproviding a measureof defenceeven in the military sense. The elaboratelydefendedhill-forts, cliff-forts and promontoryforts imply an obviously primary function of defence. We must now return to the promontory forts which are widely spreadaround the coast of Ireland. In County Mayo besidesthat of Dunnamo already describedseveral promontory forts are recorded.One of theseon the island of Achillbeg (19) has a rampart across the base of a promontory within which standsa ring-fort. The end of the promontory itself is divided by the seainto two smaller promontories,in eachcase defendedby doubled ramparts. Among the promontory forts of Kerry, Dunbeg at the end of the Dingle peninsula is of

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Antiquitiesof the Irish Countryside

unusualdesign. A massivestone wall, about 7 m thick, has a covered entrancewith guard chambersand slots apparently for sliding timber baulks. On the inland side are a series of fosses and banks. While it is probable that many at least of the greater promontory forts belong generally to the Early Iron Age, direct evidence for dating is meagre. Fragmentsof Roman pottery have been picked up at the fine promontory fort at Loughshinny, Co. Dublin, but excavationwould be necessary to define their relation to the earthwork. Its position on the east coastmakesit a promisingsite where one might hope for Roman remains to help dating. Three sites excavated in County Cork not only failed to produce dating evidence for their construction,but also showedvery few signs of occupation and it would appearthat they can have served only as short-period places of refuge and not as places of ordinary habitation. On one of the sites, Dooneendermotmore,the defenceshad been considerablymodified in the seventeenth centuryand a dwelling built within it. Advantagewas taken of the existenceof many promontoryforts to build castleswithin them. A site to which there are very early historical references is Dun Cermnaon the Old Head of Kinsale and on this the de Courcys, Norman lords of the district, built a castle. Dunseverick Castle in Co. Antrim is another site with early historical associationsand on it also a castle was built. The promontory fort at Baginbun, Co. Wexford, holds a special placein Irish history. It was here that the initial landingsof the Normans were made and the great embankmentsacross the headland,still sharplydefined, bearwitnessto one of the most fateful episodesin the story of Ireland. It has beensuggestedthat the promontory fort on the river mouth at Annagassan,Co. Louth, is due to the historically known Norse settlementthere. Even if such were found, the conclusionthat the forts are the result of native activity would not be influenced. This is despitethe fact that, since the times of GeraldusCambrensis(c. 1147-1223a.d.), their origins have been mistakenly believed to be Danish. Earthwork enclosures of the Viking period are known in Scandinaviancountriesgreat works like those at Trelleborg and Aggersborg in

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Denmark and at Haithabu in Schleswig-Holstein- and it is possible that the Vikings built promontory forts, perhapsas bridgeheads,in Ireland. It is likely, however, that if such exist they will be found in excavationsof urban areaslike Dublin, Wexford and Limerick where the Vikings establishedtheir settlements. Severalhill-forts are known from historical sourcesas royal seats. Tara became the seat of the high Kings of Ireland, Emain Macha was for long the seat of the Kings of Ulster, while Dun Ailinne, Ailech and Clogherwere the royal seatsfor the kingdoms of Leinster, Ailech and Argialla respectively. Three of these great sites, Emain Macha, Tara and Dun Ailinne, have not only the internal fosse in common, a feature often taken as of ritual rather than of real defensive significance' but also the enigmatic circular post structureswhich can scarcely otherwise be explained. Noteworthy too is the fenced approachrevealed at Dun Ailinne. In Emain Macha also the enclosuresface the entry to the fort and it is by no meansunlikely that the parallel banksof the so-calledBanquet Hall in Tara are evidencefor a ceremonialway leading to the enclosuresat the Rath of the Synods. Some ancient descriptions of the inaugurationrites at Tara suggest a ceremonial approachby the prospectivemonarch. Another royal hill-fort with internal fosse, Lisnaskea, Co. Fermanagh,was the inaugurationplace of the Maguires. Among the known major royal sites of pagan times, Cruachain,the royal site of the kingdom of Connaught,stands somewhatapart in apparently lacking a hill-fort. Here, on broad ridges overlooking the plain are a large series of ringforts and other earthworks. Chief among these is the great circular mound of Rathcruachan,some85 m in diameterand 6 m high. It might be explained as a giant ring-fort of the platform type (see below) but the findings under the comparablemound at Emain Macha tempt one to speculate. The occurrenceof greatflat-toppedmoundsis a noteworthy feature of royal sites and inaugurationplaces. The site near Leighlinbridge on the Barrow which has been identified as Dinn Rig, a residenceof the Leinster kings, is a high, steepsided, flat-toppedmound. The sametype exists at Bruree (the

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Antiquitiesolthe Irish Countryside

ancient brugh rig), Co. Limerick. At Kilfinnane, Co. Limerick, is a splendid examplesurroundedby three concentric banksand fosses(29) and it has beensuggestedthat it is a site named in the Book of Rights, which is a pre-Norman compilation. A somewhatsimilar earthwork is that at Magh Adhair, Co. Clare (26), the inauguration place of the Dal gCais. Here a flat-toppedmoundsurroundedby a fosse, across which is a ramp, is associatedwith a smaller mound (probably a burial mound) and standingstones. A standing stone was presentalso on the mound at Bruree and the famous Lia Fail has beenoften identified as that which once stood on or near the Mound of the Hostagesat Tara. Tullaghoge,Co. Tyrone, the inaugurationplace of the O'Neills, appearsto have beena triple ramparted ring-fort on a hilltop. Here once stood an ancient stone which was incorporatedin a stone chair in the sixteenthcentury. A map and an accountof the inauguration made in 1602 illustrate the inauguration ceremony. In that year the chair was brokendown by Mountjoy who commanded the English forces against O'Neill. Somethingmust now be said about a classof defensivework which is not native in character- the Norman motte and bailey. (,Mote' and 'motte' are both used for thesemonuments but it seems preferable to use the French 'motte' as an indication of the fact that they are of Norman origin; we have alreadynoted the colloquial use of 'mote' for various types of earthworks.The word 'moat' means,of course, the surrounding fosse or trench). The motte is a high flat-topped mound surroundedby a ditch, attachedto which and eccentric to it is a space- the bailey - enclosedby a bank and fosse (23, 24 and Figures 2 and 3). It has long beenknown that thesesites were Norman, and that they held the wooden castles,built in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries to consolidate the invader's gainsin the areasof the early conquest,before the stonecastles could be erected.The BayeuxTapestrydepicts- in somewhat naIve manner- the erection of a motte and the fighting around a wooden motte-castle.Becausemottes fall well into historic times and there is much documentarydata regarding their erection, they have tendedto escapethe attention of the

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Figure 3 Reconstructionof a motte and bailey

field archaeologists,though details of their construction can only come from excavation. One was investigatedsome years ago at Abinger, Surrey; the top had been encircled by a palisadeand the corner-postsof a squaretower were found at the centre.At Doonmore,Co. Antrim, excavationshowedthat a rocky eminence had been occupied in the early Norman period. The rock surfacehad beenlevelled and surroundedby a palisadewith retainingstone work, and a terrace at a lower level was bordered by a stone wall. The site, though not a normal motte, gives indicationsof the sameNorman defensive technique. The woodentower on the motte (known as a bretasche,from which comes the placenameBrittas) served as an observation post and as a strongly defended position for archers. The motte was usually approachedfrom the bailey by a wooden gangway, though an earthen(or rock) ramp served in some casesor was used as a support for the gangway. In the bailey stood, presumably,the housesof the Norman lord's retainers and into it some, at least, of his cattle might be gatheredfor safety. It served as an outer line of defence, before retreat to the motte becamenecessary.The shapeof the bailey usually approximatesto a half-ellipse, but other outlines are known

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Antz"quz'tz'esof the Irz'sh Countrysz"de

(25); it may be subdivided by internal banks. The bailey at Knockgraffon, Co. Tipperary, is a large enclosureof irregular outline, divided into separateareas.At this site and also at the neighbouringone of Kilfeakle there are tracesof ancientstone buildings. There is sometimesan inner and outer bailey, the latter lesswell defendedthan the former, as at ManaanCastle, Co. Monaghan.Excavationsat the Norman motte at Clough, Co. Down, yielded finds of pottery, tools and weaponsdating from about 1200 a.d. to Late Medieval times. A palisade encircled the top of the mound and associatedwith this were pits to accommodatearchers. Within the palisade a large rectangularhall had been built and later a stone keep. No traces of a wooden tower were present but a hollow in the centreof the motte, possibly representinga cellar, could have interfered with the evidence. The favourite siting for a motte and bailey was on a natural gravel ridge or mound - usually on an esker, but in several instances there are indications either from early historical referencesor from finds that the mottes were built on ancient burial moundsor on other existing earthworks. Knockgraffon is one of the sites mentioned in early historical contexts; at Rathmore,Co. Kildare, burials were found under the motte; at Knockaholet, Co. Antrim (30) and at Sessiamagaroll,Co. Tyrone, a motte was evidently built within an existing ringfort. A very large ring-fort at Ballykilleen near Edenderry,Co. Offaly, has a motte built on the berm-like spacebetweentwo ditches. On these sites the ancient enclosure served as the bailey of the Norman site. At Knockaholetthe motte is placed off-centre in the fort so that spacefor the bailey is available mainly on one side; at Sessiamagarollthe motte is against the fort bank. Monumentsthat would now be acceptedas Norman mottes and also others of which there would still be question formed material of a controversy among authorities during the first decadeof this century. On the one hand, all Irish structuresof the motte class were claimed to be native in origin; the other side, more reasonably, claimed that certain mottes were Norman but, perhaps,did not allow sufficiently for the existence of flat-topped moundsin pre-Normantim·es.

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Suchmounds.to which we may refer as 'platform-typeringforts', are to be found in many parts of the country. Their concentricdefencesand lack of a bailey distinguish them from the normal Norman earthwork, they are sometimesfound in non-Normancontexts- on famous early Irish sites. We are not completely dependenton these indications as evidenceof the non-Norman character of the platform-type ring-forts. One excavatedat Ballingarry Down, Co. Limerick (27), gave evidence of several occupationlevels and of successiveadditions which increasedthe height of the mound. While a postNormanhousehad beenbuilt on the top, the important fact is that the flat-topped mound had reachedits full height in preNorman times - probably as early as the eighth century. Within the earthworkknown as Rath na Riogh at Tara are two ring-forts - the one enclosedby a ditch and bank, the other, conjoined to it, of platform type. A special type of enclosureis dealt with here becauseof its similarity to the forts. Thesesites are variously referred to as cillin, ceallurach, callatrach and other variants, and are marked on the Ordnance Survey Maps under one of these names or as 'Children's Burial Ground' or 'Disused Burial Ground'; the word cdl and its variants is derived from the Latin cella and came to mean a church or graveyard. In generalcharacterthe enclosureis frequently similar to a ringfort, being circular - sometimesirregularly so - in outline, but local tradition tenaciouslyrefers to it as a burial site. Until recent times such burial places continued to be used for unbaptizedchildren, and a custom is known relating to a site in County Kerry that the first child of a family to die before reaching adult years should be interred in the neighbouring cillin. The bank surroundinga cillin is usually much less wellconstructedthan that arounda fort and has rather the character of the ordinary field fence. Certainof thesesitescontain the remainsof a building, evidently the early church. Excavation at Ballygarran Cill, near Waterford, gave evidence of the existence there of a long rectangularwooden building, presumed to have been a church. A cross-inscribed stone indicated the Christian associationsof the place, while a considerable amount of iron slag suggested that ordinary

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A ntiquities of t he Irish Countryside

domestic and industrial activity was carried on there. A feature, sometimesfound in cillin sites, is the division of the enclosedspaceinto two unequal parts by a dividing wall or bank. The church site may be found in the larger division, while the smallerwas reservedfor burial (as at Kilcolman, west of Bandon, Co. Cork), but there is no constant rule in this respectand the church is containedin the smaller portion at Duvillaun, Co. Mayo. Ogham stones have frequently been found in cillin sites - in fact these sites have been the most prolific sourceof oghamstones. In the Lives of the Irish saintsone finds instanceswhere the local chieftain gave over his dun to the missionary who converted him to Christianity. Such occurrenceswould account for the ring-fort characterof the cillin sites, as would also the generalfashion of enclosinga site by bank and rampart. The samedefensivefeaturesare found on normal monasticsites. At Inishmurray, Co. Sligo, and at Maheree Island, Co. Kerry, there are massive enclosing stone walls while Templemanaghan,Co. Kerry, is surroundedby an earthenrampart. Hilltop church sites with enclosing banks are a feature of certain areas, for instance, County Cavan, and there are examples of large hilltop enclosureswith, at the centre, a smaller area which enclosesthe cemeteryand the church or church site - as at Kilmacoo, near Kanturk, Co. Cork. The enclosingbank or wall of the cillin is generally unpretentious; the remainsof buildings, when in evidence at all, are slight, while the use of the site for exceptionalburial custom (of the unbaptized)is its chief distinguishing feature. The explanation of the difference between the cillin and the ordinary monasticor other early ecclesiasticalsite is a matterof surmise. The theory has been advanced that cillins were originally placesconnectedwith a pre-Christiancult which were taken over in the early days of Christianity in Ireland and rededicatedto the new religion but for this real evidenceis lacking. Again, it hasbeensuggestedthat they are the result of an early stratumof Christian activity and that there were, 'so to speak, two or more layers or strata of Early Irish Christianity'. The sites are very numerous;it has been stated that one hundred and twenty-six are known in one single diocesein which there

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were also nearly one hundredearly churcheswhich, after the synods of Kells and Rathbreasail, became parish churches. The cillin remains, therefore, a tantalizingsubjectof study on which excavationof suitable examples, where burials do not interfere with the main features, would be hoped to throw some light.

FIELDS, ROADS AND LINEAR EARTHWORKS Ancient field walls enclosinglarge areashad beennoted in the 1930s at several sites in the Foyle Basin, e.g. Castledamph, Co. Derry and Lettershanbo,Co. Donegal, on hillsides where the peat had been cut away. In recent years excavation and survey has demonstratedthat well organized field systems occur under the blanket bogs of western Ireland. Extensive excavations have been carried out at Behy, Glenulra and Beldergin north Mayo and Carrownagloghin the samecounty near the Sligo border. In the Behy-Glenulraarealong stretches of stone walls, running parallel to eachother and set 150 m to 200 m apart, divide the lower slopesof the mountaininto long strips which are themselvessubdivided by cross-walls. A few smaller fields, probably tillage plots, were also uncoveredand finds from an oval enclosureand the associationof the fields with a court-tomb,indicate a Neolithic datefor the fencesand enclosure.Four miles to the west at Belderg, smaller irregular fields suggestedtillage and tracesnot only of furrows but even of the plough marks were found, again dating to Neolithic times. A stonefence with woodenstakesassociatedwith it was of a later date becauseit lay, not on the basal soil as did the others, but restedon peat which had been already well established. At Carrownaglogha large area of ridge and furrow cultivation was discovered.In many placesin the blanket bogland of westernIreland, field fencescan be seenwhere the bog has been cut away. In some casesan associationwith megalithic tombs, noted in Mayo, seems probable. The fact that Neolithic field fencescan be recognizedunderbog doesnot, of course, imply that such fences were not built in other areas. However, in land free from bog, later fence building and clearancemakesit very difficult to distinguishthe lines of early fences. That such did occur is shown by a well-built wall predating an unusual passage-tombat Millin Bay, Co. Down. Field systemshave beennoted associatedwith ring-forts. At Cush, Co. Limerick, adjoining the complex of ring-forts was a

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rectangularenclosurewhich seemedto be an extensionof the settlementin the forts. Earthenbank-and-fossefences, forming irregular fields were shown by excavationto be coeval with the ring-forts. Near the stone forts (Early Christian period) at Carraig Aille, Lough Gur, were vestigesof field banks which were possibly contemporarywith the forts. Certainly contemporary with the hut site of similar date - the 'Spectacles', Lough Gur (37) - were fields enclosedby stone-facedbanks. Two miles north of Ballyshannon,Co. Donegal, in Twomilestone townland, irregular field banks are associatedwith a stone ring-fort and huts. In the neighbourhoodof some early monasteriesold fields can be seen- as at Ardpatrick, Co. Limerick or at DonaghmorenearMaynooth, Co. Kildare. The field worker may hope to find hitherto undiscoveredancient field systems (not necessarily connectedwith forts or other antiquities) in many parts of the country, particularly on upland areas that have not been enclosed by modern field fences.Theseancientfield systemswill reveal themselvesas low banksand the enclosedfields will possibly prove much smaller than their modern counterparts.Of course, the question of date must remain unresolvedin most cases. In many places there are abandonedfields which are not earlier than the nineteenth century when land hunger led to the tillage of mountainous parts of the country. Near these are frequently to be seen the ruins of the small houses of the farmers who lived there when the population was much larger than at present. Thesevestigesof fields and housesare material on which the methodsof study of the archaeologistshould yield results of value to the social and economic historian. Other evidences of ancient husbandry are cultivation terraces(usually edgedby large stones)on hillsides or in sloping valleys. Suchterracesare found in the valley under Knockfennell Hill north of Lough Gur, but their date is not known. Small-scaleterracingoccurs there also on Knockadoonand is connectedwith the neighbouring Neolithic and Bronze Age habitations. Large long fields bounded by low banks which appear clearly in certain lighting conditions only, run over Knockfennell. A feature of some old stone-built walls is the incorporationin them of upright stones;the partial removal of

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Antiquitiesof the Irish Countryside

the walls, leaving the upright stones in position can lead to confusion with the standing stones and stone alignments discussedin later chapters. Ancient roads or pathways may occur in connection with early field systemsas at Caherguillamore,Co. Limerick (18) (a Medieval site) or quite independentlyof them, and they offer an interesting subject for anyone with a love of the open country and a flair for the useof maps. Such roadshe will find very incompletely recorded, if at all, and the exercise of marking them on the 6-inch OrdnanceSurvey Maps should prove interestingand instructive. The historian may be able to provide historical data for the identification of some of the ancient roadways,but it will usually be found that historical referencesare hardly detailed enoughto allow of their being unambiguouslyconnectedwith the archaeologicalfindings. Remainsof roads may be short stretcheswhich have a local significance or the shorter portions may be part of greater lengths which connectedancient centres- as the Rian B6 Phadraig which is said to have connected Cashel and Ardmore. There are several other instances of names of animals being attachedto roads and linear earthworks. The Race of the Black Pig on the Curragh, Co. Kildare, is not a road in the ordinarysense.Sectionscut acrossit showedthat it consistedof a trench with slight banks at the sides. It appears to have been similar to so-called 'hollow-ways' found on the English downlands; these served as cattleways linking one pasturewith another. Stretchesof ancientroadsand trackways, built as causeways across bogland have been discovered in many areas. Such roads, often built of logs and brushwood are known as 'toghers', an anglicized form of the Irish tochar. One at Corlona, Co. Leitrim, was constructedin sections,2 m to 3 m long, each consistingof a central plank laid lengthwise and flanked by narrower planks at each side. The planks were supportedby deeply embeddedstakesand the junction of the sectionsrestedon bundlesof brushwood.The track measured scarcely 1 m wide. Radiocarbondeterminationsindicated a date in the middle of the second millennium b.c. A closely comparabletrackway was uncoveredin Lullymore Bog, Co.

Fields, roads and lz"near earthworks

63

Kildare. Sectionsformed of two planks laid lengthwise were supportedon transversesleepersand pegssecuredthe planksin place. Thesenarrow tracks would not be suitable for wheeled vehicles. A stretchof similar togherknown as the 'Danes Road' was traced for a distanceof about 1.25 km across Cloncarlin Bog, near Monastereven,Co. Kildare. Wider roadwayswith layers of heavy logs have also been found, e.g. at Ballyalbanagh,Co. Antrim. An example at Baltigeer, Co. Meath, was over 3 m wide. Besidesthe togher at Lullymore several stretchesof an ancient roadwayof different constructionwere traced. This was of gravel and marl 20-25 cm thick and 3-4.50 m wide. Occasionalplankswere found but theredid not appearto be evidencefor continuouswoodenstructureas was the casein the toghersdescribedabove. Rather similar to the problem of ancient roads is that of linear earthworks which formed defensive lines straddling important routes and, to some extent at least, defensivefrontiers of territorial divisions. The most famous example is the Black Pig's Dyke which is to be found intermittently between south Armagh and the neighbourhood of Bundoran, Co. Donegal.The Dyke does not form a continuousboundaryand seems rather to occur in stretchesstraddling ancient routes often betweenlakes. It consistsusually of a great central bank, up to 6 m high and 9 m wide, with a fosse on either side. One stretchin County Leitrim is traceablebetweenLough Melvin and Lough MacNean. In Cavan, near Drumgowna, portions are well preserved, the overall width of the two fosses and rampart being about 18 m. A ten-kilometre stretch in Longford, near the town of Granard, betweenLough Gowna and Lough Kinale is known as the Duncla. The Dyke fadesout in south Armagh but ten kilometresbeyond the point where it is no longer traceableis the gigantic fortification known as the Dorsey. Here an enormousearthwork enclosesa roughly oval areaabout 1,700 m long east-west,and 500 m wide, of about 120 hectares extent. The defences are formed of a great rampartbetweentwo fosseswith an additional lower rampart outside. The overall width of the defencesis about 36 m and the rampart reaches6 m in height above the present level of the ground in the fosses which are silted to the depth of a

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Antiquitiesofthe Irish Countryside

further 2 m. Excavationhas shown that the original defences included great wooden revetmentsor palisades.Two streams and two roadwaysrun through the enclosureand excavation showedthat a gap of some24 m was left whereone of the roads crossedthroughthe enclosure.The great work must have been of considerableimportanceand it has been suggestedthat it formed a defencefor the royal site of Emain Macha. A third great earthwork, known as the Dane's Cast, similar in many ways to the Black Pig's Dyke, runs intermittently for 24 km from nearthe village of Meigh in County Armagh to Searvain County Down. For the most part it runs along ground overlooking, from the east, the Down and Armagh county boundary along which flows the Newry Canal. The defencesvary somewhataccordingto the terrain but for the most part consist of a bankon the westernside flanked by a deepfosse. In places a bank is found on either side of the fosse. It has been suggestedthat it representsdefencesalong the frontier of the reducedkingdom of Ulster after the fall of Emain Macha. It has also beensuggestedthat such great linear earthworkswere inspired by the Roman walls in northern Britain, with which the Irish must have beenfamiliar. However, it is unlikely that in the conditions prevailing in Ireland in the Iron Age, such works could be considered to be defences manned in the military sense.They are, perhaps,betterconsideredas a deterrent to cattle raiding. A similar function must have been served by the Pale, a late earthwork of much less imposing character built around the area of the same name. The Claidhe Dubh in east Cork is also unimpressive, in places hardly distinguishablefrom a normal field fence. It is likely that examplesof such ancient boundarybanks occur in many partsof the country and are by no meansall known to archaeology. Their elucidation presentsproblems as fascinating as those of the ancient roadways.

SOUTERRAINS Mention has already been made of souterrains in connection with forts. In many forts it is possibleto surmisethat a souterrain exists becausesubsidenceindicates its position and may even show the approximateoutline of the structure. In some casesthe original entranceor an entrancethrough the collapsed roof gives access to the souterrain. More usually, however, there are no surface indications and a souterrain comesto notice only as a result of ploughing, quarrying, children digging for rabbits or such causes. Only a very small proportion of known souterrainshas beenfound as a result of formal excavation. It will therefore be realized that it is not possibleto give any accurateestimateof the numberof souterrains in the country. The total must be very large - possibly almost as great as that of the forts. The vast majority of Irish souterrainsare found inside forts. Not every fort contains a souterrain, as is proven by excavations where the whole areaof a fort has been investigatedand no souterrain hasbeenfound. It is widely held, but difficult to prove, that not all souterrainsare enclosed in or connected with forts or ecclesiasticalenclosures.There are undoubtedly exampleswhere even the closest surface observationfails to reveal tracesof an enclosurearoundthe souterrain, as at Craig Hill, Co. Antrim or Ballyglass, Co. Mayo. Furthermore, at Harryville near Ballymena, Co. Antrim, not only were surface indicationsof a ring-fort connectedwith a souterrainlacking, but deep cuttings made in the adjoining area for drains and supply service trenchesyielded no evidenceof a surrounding ditch. Unfortunately, however suggestivethese casesmay be, they are not conclusive. Again associationsof souterrainswith ecclesiasticalsitesor evenwith the great passage-tombmounds at Dowth and Knowth might at first sight suggesta separation of souterrainsand forts, but, as will appear below, even in thesecasesa connectionwith the ring-fort tradition may well be present. In any case, even if souterrains unconnectedwith

66

Antiquitiesofthe Irish Countryside

forts were shown to exist the intimate associationof the two types is manifestly clear. A souterrainmay be defined as an artificially built cave. It must, therefore, not be confusedwith natural caves such as occur commonly in limestoneareas,and which were, in many cases,usedas habitationsat different periods. Souterrainsare, however, generally marked 'cave' on the Ordnance Survey Maps. The methodsof constructionof souterrainsvary considerably. Some were tunnelled in the clay where this was of such consistencyas to allow of its being dug into without dangerof collapse. Otherswere similarly cut in rock, though not in the hardervarieties, but in those shalesand sandstoneswhere the beddingmakesit a comparativelyeasytask to remove the rock in flakes. These clay- or rock-cut souterrains do not incorporate any stone building in their construction,but since the useof this methodof building a souterrainis strictly limited by geologicalfactors, we find much more frequently that souterrains have stone-built walls and a roof. In these cases the methodgenerallywas to cut a trench in the clay or rock, line the cutting with stone-built walls, and roof these walls with cross slabs. Combinationsof these methods are known where part of a souterrainis cut in rock or clay and part is stonebuilt, e.g. Kilberrihert, near Aghabullogue, Co. Cork and Toberdoney, Co. Down. Excavation has shown that some souterrainsof the stone-built type did not have stoneroofs but were roofed with timber. Carefully shaped recessesfor the upright posts intended to support such a roof were noted at Ballycatteenfort, Co. Cork (32), while someof the souterrains at Cush, Co. Limerick, gaveevidenceof having beenroofed in part with stone and in part with timber. The souterrain at Letterkeen,Co. Mayo, had no stone-built wall, and the roof was supportedby posts ranged along the sides. A feature of the rock- and clay-cut souterrainsis the existence in them of small opes in the walls, now built up with stone, but providing, at the time of constructionof the souterrain, a meansof removingto the surface, through openshafts, clay or rock chips as they were cut away by the souterrain builders. Other features noted in connection with these

Souterrains

67

souterrains, and less frequently in the case of stone-built examples, are trenches intended to drain off water, and chimneys connectedwith hearth sites marked by accumulations of charcoal. These features are well exemplified in the splendid rock-cut souterrain found at Curraghcrowley, near Ballineen, Co. Cork. Ventilation shafts have been noted in severalsouterrainsof more normal construction,e.g. Mullagharlin, Co. Louth, and, in some cases,it has been remarked that the end of the shaft was some distancefrom the souterrain, placedit would appear,so as to lessenthe possibility of its discoveryby an enemy, and thus preventthe occupantsof the souterrainfrom beingsmokedout or otherwisedriven forth for lack of air. In somesouterrainsthere are obstructionsor traps variously arrangedbut alwaysdirectedto the purposesof making it easy for a person in the souterrain to defend himself against an unwelcome intruder. In its simplest form, this construction consistsof a mound of stonesor earth which, in an already inadequatepassage,makes accessvery difficult. Sometimesa constrictionor narrowing is found as at Tobergill, Co. Down, where a narrow creep, scarcely40 em wide and 60 em high, joins much more spacious chambers. There are also more elaborateforms where the roof dips towards the floor and the floor stepsupwardsas at Aird in Co. Antrim and Craig, in the same county. To pass these obstructions a person has to wriggle uncomfortably and would meanwhile be quite defencelessagainst the occupant of the inner part of the souterrain.In the more labyrinthine examplesof souterrains, blind passagesmay be incorporatedto add to the difficulty of the intruder. However, it is possiblethat some at least of the constrictionsin width and height and especiallythe changesin floor and roof level may have beendesignedto conservewarm air within the souterrains. In plan, a souterrain may be comparativelysimple or may achievegreat complexity. In its simplest form, it consistsof a narrow passage,sometimesof considerablelength. It is more usual, however, to divide up the long passageinto a series of chambersconnectedby tunnels barely large enoughto allow a person to pass through them. These tunnels are not merely

68

Antiquitiesof the Irish Countryside

structuraldevicesbut, becauseof their small size, are a defensive feature in the natureof the obstructionsdescribedabove. Many souterrains contain beehive-shapedchambers, e.g. Crossdrum near Oldcastle, Co. Meath, built on the corbelled principle as in the manner of the early chamberedtombs (passage-tombs)and of the clochan-typehuts of the western seaboard.Corbelling to a lesserextent is noted in souterrains which do not possessbeehivechambers,but in which the upper coursesof the stonewalls project inwards to allow of their span by shorter lintels than would be necessaryif the walls were vertical. Examplesare known where the chambersare not all on one level but tend, as it were, to form a two-storied structure. We have noted that most known examplesof souterrains occur in connectionwith forts and it may be remarkedthat they are to be found in associationwith many different types of forts, those of stone and earth, ring-forts and promontory forts - but not with hill-forts. In some cases,the souterrainor souterrainsare completelyenclosedby the forts, in othersthere may be an opening outside the fort, as in the case of the promontory fort at Dunbeg, Co. Kerry (33), where the outer end of the souterrainis outsidethe stonerampart, and again at Cahercommaun,Co. Clare, where one souterrainled to the outer face of the rampart. Cells in the walls of some of the stone forts are constructedin a similar mannerto the souterrains, and the souterrainat Leacanabuaile,Co. Kerry, led to a large chamberconstructedin the wall. An unusualuse of a souterrainin a now almost obliterated fort is noted at Kiltarnaght, Co. Mayo. Here the partly unroofedsouterrainhasfilled with water to a depthof 1 m and is resorted to as a holy well CSt Dominick's Well') at which 'rounds' are made. Despite a popular misconceptionthat a fort consistedof a vast seriesof undergroundchambers,in generalthe areaoccupied by a souterrainis only a small proportion of that enclosed by the fort defences.There is, however, some ground for the popularidea in thoseexceptionalcaseswherevery complicated souterrains occupy almost the entire interior of a fort. Such examplesare known in County Kerry, e.g. at Derrymore East,

Souterrains

69

nearTralee, and it has beensaid of County Antrim that 'whole fields are entirely honeycombedwith a mass of these souterrains, forming a kind of undergroundvillage'. Recentexcavations at Ballywee, Co. Antrim, have revealedseveral souterrains associatedwith a settlementsite consistingof a complex of ring-forts, enclosures,houses etc. Very extensive systems such as these are, however, rare, and inadequateexploration has given rise to the popular idea that many souterrains are more extensiveand complicatedthan is actually the case. Besidesexamplesconnectedwith forts, casesof association with ecclesiasticalsitesare well known. In Glencolumkille, Co. Donegal, a souterrainis connectedwith an early church and at Killala, Co. Mayo, another lies close to the cathedral. At Caherbullog,Co. Cork, a souterrain lies beneatha church and at Killylagan, Co. Louth, though direct connectionbetween the two sites has not beenestablished,a souterrainlies close to a ciIlin. In so far as many ancient Irish ecclesiasticalsites have enclosureswhich partakeof the ring-fort tradition such associations are perhapsto be expected.At first sight the occurr"ence of souterrainsin the greatpassage-tomb tumuli of Knowth and Dowth seems anomalous. However, at Knowth excavations have shown that the souterrainsare associatedwith dwellings largely of Christian date and that the huge mound had been adaptedby the cutting of a great fosse around it to form a structurecomparableto a giant platform ring-fort. Whethersouterrainsoccur inside forts or not, it is likely that they were associatedwith some form of houseor shelter above ground. Often this would leave no surface evidence but in excavationsat Craig Hill, Co. Antrim, a roughly rectangular house of posts was discoveredwith a souterrain immediately adjoining it. At Whitefort, Co. Down, a souterrain trench closely adjoined a wooden house within a ring-fort. Again, at Ballywee, Co. Antrim, a souterrainran from the interior of a rectangularstone-built house and within the fort at Knockdrum near Castlehaven,Co. Cork, a souterrain was directly connectedwith a stone-built hut. At Glenderry near Ballyheige, Co. Kerry, souterrains accompany huts though no evidence of a fort is present. Though some roofing of the entranceabove ground would seem desirable if only to give

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Antiquitiesof the Irish Countryside

shelterfrom the elements,it is possible that some souterrains were built apart from any building overground so that they would better escapedetection. Enoughhas beensaid regardingstructuraldetails of souterrains to enable us to discuss their purpose. The presenceof trapsor obstructionsin someof them makesit clear that these must have been used as places of refuge and, in general, we must regard this as the purposefor which many souterrains were intended. They would serve for temporary security, particularly for women and children, during periods of fighting. It hasbeensuggestedthat souterrainsfound in connection with early churchsites (for instance, that at Glencolumbkille, Co. Donegal) were intended as a substitutefor, and to serve the same purpose as round towers - places of temporary securitywherethe church valuablesmight be storedin time of danger. This explanation of their purpose (as refuges) does not, however, cover all the possibilities.Accumulationsof charcoal, the presenceof chimneys and other evidencesof occupation demonstratethat certain souterrainsmust have been used as dwelling places, however uncomfortable, and not merely as refuges.Indeed,if the idea that the designof somesouterrains would conservewarm air hasany validity, they could well have provided better sleeping accommodationduring inclement weather than would be available in surfacehouses. Somesouterrains- usually of simple construction- possess neither defensiveprovisions which would make them suitable as placesof refuge nor hearthsor other featureswhich would indicate habitation. These examplescan hardly have served any purposeother than storage- they were, in fact, primitive cellars. What commoditieswere stored in them is a matter of speculation- perhapsmilk or milk products, such as cheese, perhapsgrain. In this connectionwe are remindedof Caesar's statementthat the Celts stored their grain in underground granaries. The souterrain at Letterkeen, Co. Mayo, was a simple passageenteredat one end where there was a crude step; it had no elaborationto make it suitable as a place of refuge and must have servedmerely for storage.This is likely to have beentrue also of someof the Cush souterrains and the

Souterraz"ns

71

sameconclusionhas been reachedregardingone at Cave Hill on the outskirts of Belfast. At Carraig Aille, Lough Gur, a deepsquarerock hollow associatedwith the housesites outside one of the forts had evidently been artificially enlarged and providedwith irregular stepsso as to servefor storagein lieu of a normal souterrain. It is clear, therefore, that a single explanationas to purpose does not cover all examplesof souterrains. Their structural features show that they may have been built for different reasons,and individual examplesmay have been used for a wide variety of purposes.It seemslikely, however, that there is a unity of tradition behind the whole of the Irish souterrain building. A chronology of the different types is not known so that a sequencecannot be establishedeither on the basis of structureor of function. Finds from souterrainsare not very numerous. However, several, e.g. Downview, West Park, near Belfast, have produceda flat-bottomeddomesticware which though not closely dateablepersiststhrough much of Early Christian times in the north-easternpart of Ireland. It is known as 'souterrainware', but is even better representedin ring-forts, e.g. Lissue and Ballyaghagan,Co. Antrim and also in crannogs,e.g. Lough Faughan,Co. Down. Other finds of Early Christian material such as a bronze pin from under the clay and rock chips thrown up by the builders of the souterrainat Letterkeen,Co. Mayo, attest to an Early Christian date. The rotary quernsat Cush, Co. Limerick, cannotbe earlier than the Early Iron Age and other finds suggestan Early Christian date for the forts and souterrainsthere. Ogham stones(see pp.144-6) are frequently found as part of the building materialof souterrainsas many as fifteen were found in one at Ballyknock, Co. Cork. This showsthat thesestructureswere built at a time not earlier than the early centuriesof Christianity in this country, when ogham stones used in their construction were no longer regardedwith reverence.In the Dunloe 'cave' near Killarney, ogham stones and a cross-inscribedstone were found incorporatedin the structure. The few older reportedfinds such as the bronzeaxes, one a palstave (Middle or Late Bronze Age type) and another, a

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Antiquitiesof the Irish Countryside

socketedaxe (Late Bronze Age), said to have been found in a souterrain at Aghadown, near Baltimore, Co. Cork and bronze spearsfrom another souterrain near Holly fort, Co. Wexford, cannot, without corroborating evidence, be relied on for dating purposes. Other references in the published material mention the finds of 'urns' in souterrains,but, since the vesselsin questionare not illustrated, one cannotdefinitely say if they are really burial urns or merely domestic pottery. The very marked associationof souterrains with ring-forts strongly suggeststhat they are an integral part of the ring-fort tradition. On the basisof the evidenceat presentavailable we may state that the history of souterrains in this country like that of ring-forts is establishedby Early Iron Age times but that they continued to be constructed during the Early Christian period and may have been used, if not actually constructed,in Medieval times. Historical referencesare not as helpful as they might be becauseof the use of the ambiguous word 'cave'. Thus, when we are told that the Norsemenlooted the cavesof Munsterwe do not know definitely if natural caves or souterrainsare in question.Again, the looting by the same peopleof the cavesat Dowth and Knowth may refer to souterrains or passage-tombs. A late historical referenceis found in an account of the war of 1641 when large parties of women and children were said to have been smotheredor otherwise put to death in caves in County Antrim, and it may well be that refuge was taken in souterrains with which the area abounds. The numbers of people mentioned- 220 in two caves, and 63 in another- are, if accurate, an indication of the extensivesize of the souterrains.It may be noted also that someancientsouterrainswere usedas hiding placesor deposits for 'dumps'of armsduring the periodsof fighting in Ireland in the early decadesof this century, and in fact similar structures were constructedfor the samepurpose. A word must be said regarding the distribution of souterrains. They are found all over Ireland. They occur in Scotland where they are referred to as 'earth-houses'or sometimesas 'weems' (from uamh, a cave) or 'wags' (from uaigh, a grave, vault or cave). One at Jarlshof, Shetland,was found by excavation to be Early Iron Age in date, and other Scottishexamples

30

3I

MOITE ON RING-FORT, KNOCKAHOLET, CO. ANTRIM

GIANT'S

RING

MEGALITHIC TOMB, CO. BANK BEHIND

DOWN-SURROUNDING

32

SOUTERRAIN AT BALLYCATTEEN, CO. CORK

33

SOUTERRAIN TUNNEL, DUNBEG, CO. KERRY

34

RECTANGULAR NEOLITHIC HOUSE, KNOCKADOON, LOUGH GUR, CO. LIMERICK

35

HUT ON COAD MOUNTAIN, CO. KERRY

36

STONE HOUSE AT BALLYVOURNEY,

37

CO. CORK-AFTER EXCAVATION

ROUND HUT AT 'THE SPECTACLES', LOUGHGUR-DURING EXCAVATION

38

39

PAIR OF CONJOINED CLOCHANS, DINGLE PENINSULA, CO. KERRY

MODERN FARM OUT-BUILDINGS ROOFED WITH STONE, DINGLE PENINSULA

40

MEDIEVAL HOUSES, CAHERGUILLAMORE, CO. LIMERICK-DURING EXCAVATION

41 Fulacht fiadh

AT BALLYVOURNEY, CO. CORK-BEFORE EXCAVATION

42 Fulachtfiadh AT

BALLYVOURNEY, CO. CORK-DURING EXCAVATION (FRAMEWORK OF HUT RECONSTRUCTED)

43

BALLINDERRY 2 CRANN6G, CO. OFFALY-DURING EXCAVATION NOTE THE DUG-OUT BOAT ON THE RIGHT

44

PORTAL-TOMB AT PROLEEK, CO. LOUTH

45

WEDGE-TOMB, PROLEEK, CO. LOUTH

46

47

COURT-TOMB, DEERPARK, CO. SLIGO

COURT-TOMB, CREEVYKEEL, CO. SLIGO-DURING EXCAVATION

48

WEDGE-TOMB, POULAPHUCA, CO. CLARE

49

WEDGE-TOMB, PARKNABINNIA, CO. CLARE

50

PORTAL-TOMB AT BROWNE'S HILL, CO. CARLOW

51

WEDGE-TOMB, ALTAR, CO. CORK

52

CAIRN ON SEEFIN MOUNTAIN, CO. WICKLOW

53

ENTRANCE TO PASSAGE-TOMB IN SEEFIN CAIRN

54

CAIRNS SAND T, LOUGHCREW, CO. MEATH

55

CAIRN S, LOUGHCREW,

co.

MEATH

43

EXCAVATION EXCAVATION EXCAVATION EXCAVATION BALLINDERRY 2 CRANN6G, CO. OFFALY-DURING EXCAVATION

57

58

TUMULUS NEAR NEWGRANGE, BOYNE VALLEY

NEWGRANGE: DECORATED STONE AT ENTRANCE

Souterrains

73

have the stones of Roman buildings incorporated in their structural material. We find them again in Cornwall where they are known as 'fogous' and where the material found in them belongsto the Early Iron Age. Somewhatsimilar structures are the French souterrain-rejuges.In Iceland, they are merelyrock-cut tunnels, and not built of masonry.At least one exampleis found in Jutland; it is stone built and dates from Early Iron Age times. Otherwise they are not found on the Continentand nowhereare they found in such profusion as in Ireland. Their occurrencein Cornwall and in Scotlandseems to be due to Irish influence. Their non-occurrencein Wales is a puzzling feature of their distribution in view of the other evidence of Irish connections there. Where and how the souterrainsas a type originated is not yet clear. It has been suggestedthat they derive from the megalithic chambered tombs, to be dealt with later in this book, but the suggestion lacks proof. One canonly say that there is a similarity between rock-cut souterrainsand rock-cut tombs as also between the corbelled techniqueof the stone-built souterrains and that of the greatpassage-tombs. Souterrainspresentfascinatingproblems, in the elucidation of which the amateur archaeologist can help by planningand describingstructuresknown to him, as our knowledgeof the different types of souterrains depends on increasingthe numberof accuratelydescribedexamples.In the examinationof suchstructures,the field worker should, in particular, examine the roofing slabs for ogham inscriptions since many of our oghamstoneshave beenbrought to light in this manner.

HOUSE SITES Dwellings associatedwith forts have alreadybeendiscussed.In manypartsof the country remainsof dwellings quite independent of forts may be noted. Theseare referredto as hut sites or housesites; the latter term indicatessomethinglarger or better constructedthan does the former, but there is no definite conventionas to the distinctive useof the two terms. It must, of course,be understoodthat many ancientdwellings which were constructedsolely of wood have left no surfaceindicationsand their plans can be recoveredonly as a result of careful excavation technique. Nor are wooden buildings the only ones that may leaveno visible remainson the ground. It is instructive to study a desertedmud-walled house, built, perhaps, in the nineteenthcentury, and to notice how rapidly it disappears when the roof and upper portion of the walls have gone. Even stone walls may no longer be visible if the stone has been removed from all but the lower courses and if these have becomecoveredwith debris and vegetation;excavationis then necessaryto reveal them. Accidental factors must always play an importantpart in this matterof the degreeof preservation; a suitablespell of weatherwould allow grassto grow over the partly destroyedwalls of a mud house and this would prevent further erosion,so the walls would remainvisible as low banks. Again, evenquite low remainsof stonebuildings will continue to be evident on hill slopes where the vegetationis not sufficiently vigorousto cover them and where they are not removed to allow tillage or robbed of their remainingstones. It must not be thoughtthat the useof wood or stonein house building has necessarily any chronological significance. In generalboth materialswere used contemporaneously throughout the history of early building. Again, houses were frequently made partly of stone and partly of wood. To some degreebuilding tradition played a role in the choice but the relative availability of the two types of material was the chief deciding factor.

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Aerial photography can be of considerableassistancein revealinghouseor hut sites scarcelydiscernibleon the ground. Thus at Conard, Co. Meath, the site of the famous monastic school, small enclosuresmay indicate huts though without excavationthey cannotwith certaintybe assignedto the floruit period of the site in Early Christian times. Comparablehuts have beenrecognizedby aerial photographyat Drumacoo,Co. Galway. The earliest known examplesof Irish houseswere wooden structureswhich left no surface evidence. At Ballyglass, Co. Mayo, the wall trenchesand post holes of a fine rectangular house13 m by 6 m were discoveredbeneaththe great central court-tomb. Radiocarbondeterminationsaveraged2620 ± 45 b.c. Besideanothertomb in the sametownland the outlines of two sub-rectangularhuts were traced.At both sitesthe finds of flint and potteryconfirm that the housesbelongedto peopleof the same culture as the tomb builders. At Ballynagilly, Co. Tyrone, a rectangularhouse, from which a very early radiocarbon determinationwas obtained(3215 ± 50 b.c.) yielded pottery of the sametype as that found in a court-tomb in the neighbourhood.At Slieve Breagh, Co. Meath, two circular post-built houseseach 5 m in diameterwere discovered. The finds of kite-shaped arrow-heads and polished stone axes indicate a Neolithic date. Some of the Neolithic and Bronze Age housesat Knockadoonnear Lough Gur are also of wooden constructionbut othershave wall-footings of stone. The shape varies from rectangularto round. Semicircularand rectangular lean-to structuresalso occur. Attention was drawn to these houses by reason of the fact that large stones of the wallfootings projectedabove the grasssurface. Excavationshowed that these were merely a foundation course which supported the wall material. The roof and the main body of the walls were supportedby woodenposts, so that the stonesservedonly to lift from the ground surface the organic material or sods used to form the walls. Since we are principally concernedwith remains that may be observedon the groundsurfacerather than thosewhich are revealedby excavationwe shall first look to those stone buildings of clochan type of which considerableportions or even

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completestructuresremain. These are numerousin the west and south-westof the country - on the coastalmainland and on the islands. Clochans are built in the corbelled method. Corbellingconsistsof placingcoursesof flat stonesso that each course, as the building proceedsupwards, projects farther in than the precedingone. Thus, the sidestend to meet at the top and the roof is really a continuationof the walls, but may be completedby spanningthe openingat the summit by a single large flat stone. To secure stability the walls have to be of considerablethickness in relation to their height. In their simplest form, these buildings are round in plan and are shapedlike beehives. A comparablemethod of building is found also in certainof the chambersof passage-tombs and, as already noted, in some of the souterrains. It is a technique known in the Mediterraneanarea from which it may have reachedIreland at an early date. It continuedto be employed almost, if not quite, down to our own day in the construction of out-officesof houseson the Dingle peninsula(39), though it will be found that the recent builders, less sure of their technique, or for added protection, have frequently completed the structurewith a concretetop. Similar clochan-like buildings, presumablyerectedwithin the past few centuries, are found over some holy wells. In these, mortar was used to bond the stones, and similar combinationsof corbelling and mortar may be seen, often excellent in execution, in domed portions of our Medieval castlesor abbeys. Nor is Ireland the only country where the beehivehousescontinue into modern times. Villages built in this manner are still inhabited in the 'heel' of Italy, and certain farm out-buildings so constructed are known in Wales. Corbelled buildings, some of which are remarkably similar to Irish churches of the Gallarus type, occur in Burgundy and other districts in France. While many of theseare modern, indicationsof early beginningsare given by finds of prehistoricand Romandatewhich have come from others. A circular plan is by no meansthe only one usedin dochans, though this was presumably the earliest type. Others are squareor rectangularor they may be round externally but squareinside, as are the huts of the monks on the Great Skellig

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Island, Co. Kerry. Groupsof multiple clochfms are known and consistof two or more of thesestructuresplaced abutting one another(38). The corbelling techniqueis also used in buildings of which only the walls are believedto have beenof stone, the roof havingbeencompletedwith wood and thatch or other perishablematerial. The housesin the stone fort at Leacanabuaile were evidently completedin this way - the occurrence of post-holesinside the housessuggeststhat postswere used to support the roof which restedon the corbelled stone walls. It is not known clearly how early are the first of the clochans in Ireland. We know the principle of corbelling to be as early as the megalithic tombs, but no evidence is forthcoming to show clochans to be as old as this. The practice of clochanbuilding was well established in the early centuries of Christianity in this country and most examplesare found on early monastic sites, e.g. Inishmurray off the Sligo coast. Primitive churches built in a developed form of this technique - on a rectangulargroundplan - are known, Gallarus, Co. Kerry, being the most famous example. It is this corbelling techniquewith the use of mortar added, which allows the building of more developedchurcheswith stone roofs such as thoseat Friars Island, Killaloe, Co. Clare, at Kells, Co. Meath, and at Glendalough,Co. Wicklow. The stoneroof of the early twelfth century of Cormac's Chapel, Cashel, Co. Tipperary and thoseof St Doulagh'snorth of Dublin and at Ardrassnear Celbridge, Co. Kildare, owe somethingto the same tradition thoughthe methodof constructionhasconsiderablyaltered. A splendid exampleof corbelling is to be found in th.e lock-up cell attachedto NewtownardsTown Hall, Co. Down - built about 1770; large stonesare used in a mannerreminiscentof the passage-tombs,but mortar is employed. The corbelled roofs of the turrets in the sixteenth-centurycastleat Portsferry in the same County bear an even closer resemblance to passage-tombdesign. The corbel-roofedhousehas, in any case, a long history in Irish building. It may well begin as early as the end of preChristian times and continues to our own day. How much earlier it began,excavationmay tell us if a fortunate excavator succeedsin finding early examplesof a type of building that

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has changedbut little through long ages. (Unfortunately, the finds from the Leacanabuailefort with its corbelled houses, could not be dosely dated; they may belong to Early Christian or Medieval times, but habitationtheremay have begunin the Early Iron Age.) Excavation at a remarkableEarly Christian enclosureat Reask,Co. Kerry, uncoveredseveraldochansand a small rectangular oratory 3.50 m by 2.70 m in internal dimensions.In two instancesthe dochanswere conjoined like someother exampleson the Dingle peninsula,Co. Kerry (38). A ring of stonesjust outsidethe walls of someof the dochans at Reaskwas apparentlyconstructedto secure a facing of turfs around them. Surveys have shown how numerousdochans are in some areas- as in County Kerry where the best concentrationis known from the Fahanareaof the Dingle peninsula.But many such huts or hut groups exist in various stagesof preservation and have never been brought to notice in the archaeological literature and may not even be recorded on the Ordnance Survey Maps. Their recording and planning would repay the efforts of enthusiasticfield workers. Otherhousesitesnot of dochantype leave varying dassesof surfaceindications. If stone has been used, it may still be in evidenceon the surface, but if it is covered by the turf the outline of the housemay be indicatedby low banksonly. Stone was used in ancient building in various ways - as uprights forming wall facings, as foundation courseonly or as coursed masonry. Thus in somehousesof Early Christian date, round (36) or rectangular in plan, the wall was faced with large stones on both sides between which there was a filling of rubble. Such walls could not have been carried to a great height and were completed with other material or in some casesthe roof may have sloped down to rest on the low wall tops. Medieval dwellings, rectangularin plan, excavatedat Caherguillamore,Co. Limerick, showed this samemethod of wall building with double stone facings (40). An early seventeenth-centuryfarmhouseexcavatedat Lough Cur, however, had coursed masonry which was certainly usual in more pretentiousbuildings from a much earlier date. A group of almost fifty circular structures, defined by low

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walls about a metre thick and consistingof two rings of slabs with a stone filling between, has been noted at Carrowkeel, Co. Sligo. The diametersrangefrom 6 m to 12.50 m and it is thought that they were the protectingwalls within which were erectedtents or huts, but some appearto have been the walls of roofed structures. Some of the larger enclosurescontain within them smaller enclosures(not placed concentrically). Becauseof their nearnessto the Carrowkeelgroup of passagetombs it is consideredthat they may have been the dwelling placesof the builders of these tombs. Level floor spacefor a hut built on a steepslope was sometimes achievedby digging back into the hillside and terracing the areain front with the material so obtained. The surround of upright stonesthen servesthe purposeof revetmentas well as that of wall to the hut. An example on Coad Mountain, near Sneem, Co. Kerry, presentsa fascinating possibilityit may be the dwelling place of the ancient copperminers who were active in the vicinity (35). (As well as the modernmining, there is on the mountain one old mine which subsequently becamean Early Christian hermit's cell.) When no stone was used in the constructionof an ancient dwelling it may, nevertheless,leave surface indications. This has alreadybeendiscussedabove when dealing with the possibility of recognizabletraces remaining from a modern mudwalled house. But, as has also been indicated, stone wall remainsmay becomeso coveredover that one could not know from surfacefeaturesalone if the visible banks are of clay or stone. In marshy areas, however, where stone would have been difficult to obtain and was not used in early house construction, there are remains of ancient dwellings marked by low moundsor banks, frequently surroundedby fosses. Examples of these have been excavatedat Ballingoola, Co. Limerick, and while dating evidencewas lacking - an Early Iron Age date is tentatively suggested- they gave good indications of the method of building a circular wooden house, presumably with wattles or other light material since there were no postholes. Outside this a deep trench was dug and the material so obtained was piled against the house walls to give them

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stability and added thickness. The surrounding trench not only provided this material but provided the drainagewhich must havebeenessentialin such wet surroundings.Two of the housesexcavatedhad evidently been demolishedby fire -a circumstance which was fortunate from the viewpoint of excavation as the house plan and other details could be deducedfrom the colour patternon the clay surfacewhere the burning timbers had collapsed. A third house, smaller but evidently of similar type, had not beenburnedand gave scant information to the excavator. Thesehousesconform to the constructiononce postulated for the Manx sites (discussed p.42), but they are much smaller - about6 m in diameter,a modestareafor roofing, as against 27 m on the Manx sites. This method of construction - clay piled againstwattles or other timbers - was found also in the small hut, about 3.50 m in diameter, enclosedin the Grange ring-fort (4) in the immediate vicinity of the Ballingoola houses. One of the Ballingoola sites before excavationhad a saucerlike shape, the rim being the bank caused by the collapsed house wall. The other lacked the hollow in the middle and appearedas a low flat-topped mound, which without excavation could not be distinguishedfrom a burial mound. The Ballingoola sites have been dealt with at some length becausethey are the first of the type excavatedin this country. Others not excavatedare known in the same neighbourhood and comparableremainsare likely to occur in other similarly marshydistricts.

COASTAL DWELLING SITES In the north-eastof Ireland ancientstorm beaches,now raised by as much as 9 metresabovethe presentshoreline,are prolific sourcesof flint artefacts.Thesesites give the earliest evidence of a shore-dwellingtradition but with the exceptionof hearths suchas that found in a midden at Rough Island in Strangford Lough, they contain scarcely any structural remains. They have usually been assignedto the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) times but it is now recognizedthat they belong at least in large measureto the period when stock raising was already practised.The huge quantity of flints found on thesesites can, to a large extent, be ascribedto the debris of flint manufacturing in Neolithic times exploiting the rich flint depositsof the regIOn. Kitchen middens are accumulationsof ancient refuse, and they are found on various parts of the coast, particularly in regionswhere sandhillsoccur. They date from Neolithic times onward. They are generally attestedby a black layer containing much charcoal in which may be found potsherds, and other antiquities, as well as scatteredbones, shells and miscellaneousdebris. In these middens, hearthsof stone are to be noted, around which the accumulationof charcoal is more marked.Sand-dunesnot coveredby vegetationshift rapidly as a result of wind action, and ancientmiddensnot visible at one period may be revealedby the movementof the sand after a storm. As a result sherds, flints, and other objects are frequently not in sz'tu in a layer but are found as a scatteron the surfaceof the sand. The foundationsof round huts - circles of boulders- have beennoted on severalsandhill sites, as at Whitepark Bay, Co. Antrim, and at Dunfanaghyand Doagh More, Co. Donegal. Graveshave also beenfound on the sandhills; thesesometimes consist of little more than groups of stones, but circular settings of stones or well-constructedcists (as one at Doagh More) also occur. Observationsregardingfinds and structures

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on the sandhillshave resultedmainly from collectors' activities and not much systematicwork has beendone on thesesites, so that evidence for structures other than stone settings- of housesor graves- were not likely to be noted. Excavationon the Dundrum, Co. Down, sandhills not only revealed stonebuilt gravesbut showed that one had a ring ditch around it. Post-holesand pits gave evidenceof structuresconnectedwith habitation; one U-shapedgroup of post-holesmarked the site of a hut or windbreak. A site in the sandhilIs of Dooey in Co. Donegal was rich in finds. Severalphaseswere recognized.First were a number of pits followed by the enclosureof a roughly circular area about 40 m in diametersurroundedby a fosse. The occupationof the site continuedafter the fosse was largely filled. Finally the site was used as a cemeterywith seventy burials aligned roughly east and west. A standingstone over 2.50 m high had been erected,possibly to mark the cemetery.The stratification was disturbednot only by the shifting nature of the sand but also by the digging of the graves. The finds indicated that cattle, sheep and pigs were kept but there was evidence also for fishing, and large middensof shells showedthat shellfish was an importantitem of diet. Therewas evidenceas well for ironworking and bronzeworking together with craftsmanshipin bronzeand antler. The occupationcan be assignedlargely to the Early Christian period. Though some sites like the kitchen middens of Rockmarshall,Co. Louth, do not produceevidenceof domesticated animals others like Dalkey Island, Co. Dublin, have evidence for cattle at the earliest stages. Polished axes as at Sutton further indicate a Neolithic phase. It is clear also from the pottery found in someof the middens, as at Dundrum, that a number of shore dwelling sites of this type belong to the Neolithic period. It is equally clear from other finds that habitation- probablyseasonaloccupation- on the sandhills continuedthroughthe Bronzeand Early Iron Ages and into the Early Christian period and perhapseven into Medieval times. The Ballybunion, Co. Kerry, sandhillshaveproducedIron Age pins and Roman coins, while bronze pins and broochesfrom County Donegal sites give evidenceof a later dating.

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A somewhatdifferent type of shoredwelling site is the shell mound of the type well known on the shoresof Cork harbour. These consist of mounds of shells, mainly oysters. Little has beenfound in them beyondlayers and flecks of charcoal and, occasionally,stoneswhich are said to have beenusedfor opening the shellfish.

ANCIENT COOKING PLACES A type of monumentfound in great numbersin parts of the countryandscarcelynotedat all elsewhereis the ancientcooking pla.ce, which occursin low-lying marshy areasor near the banksof streams,and consistsof a mound of burnt stone and finely comminuted charcoal. Such a mound is known as a Julacht j£adh or Julacht Jiann. In English they are usually referred to locally under the Anglicized forms of these names- 'fulacht fees' or 'fulacht fians' or sometimesas 'deer roasts',an interpretationofJulachtaj£adh.Tradition connects them with the Fianna, whose cooking places they are said to havebeen,hencethe nameJulachtj£ann.They are markedon the recent editions of the OrdnanceSurvey Maps under the title Julacht Jian. The moundsof the cooking places, when undisturbed, are usually horseshoe-shaped in outline. Excavation has shown that the hollow within the mound marks the position of a hearth, beside which is a sunken trough. The floors of the hearthsare often paved and the edgeslined with flat stones. The sunkentrough may be lined in a variety of ways. Someare lined with wooden planks, others with light, well-fitted logs. Lining with stone slabs is also found and in some caseswood and stone are used together. Sometimesthe trough is simply madefrom a hollowed tree trunk and caseswhere a pit is dug in the marl without any lining are also known. All these varietiesare recordedfrom a seriesof sites excavatedat Ballyvourney and Killeens, Co. Cork. The methodof cookingwas to light a large fire in the hearth and heat stonesin it. The stoneswere then dropped into the water in the trough until it was brought to the boil. Similar cooking methods still continue among modern primitive peoples.After eachcooking the stonesin the trough would be removedand thrown in a pile surroundingthe trough on three sides but leaving the side next to the hearth clear. This procedure accounts for the horseshoe- or kidney-shaped

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mounds of burnt stones with a considerable quantity of charcoal interspersedin them. The discarded stones have become broken and brittle from having been heated and subsequentlyplunged into water and such mounds can be recognizedby the brittle nature of the stones, usually sandstone, in them. Not all the mounds have a horseshoe-shaped outline, and someare circular or irregular in plan. They vary in size from 3 m to over 20 m, as is the caseof one near Passage West, Co. Cork, which is an irregular moundrising to a height of abouttwo metresnearthe centre. In generalthe quantity of stonein the mound of a fulacht fiadh indicatesthe frequency with which the site was used. Sometimesa large number of cooking operations- over 200 have been estimatedin some cases- is indicated and the replacement of hearths and troughs is recorded both at Killeens, Co. Cork and Ballycroghan, Co. Down. Besidesthe cooking by meansof boiling in a pit, another method, that of roasting in a stone-lined oven, is also deducedfrom the findings of excavationsat Ballyvourney and Drumbeg. It would appearthat a fire was lit in the oven to heat the stone lining. Then the embers were clearedout and the meatwas placedin the oven surroundedby stoneswhich had beenheatedin the main fire. Experimentsat Ballyvourney and Drombeg showed that the cooking of the meat (both roasting and boiling) could be carried out quite efficiently with heatedstones. In one test the wooden trough containedone hundredgallonsof water, which was brought to the boil in half an hour. A further featureof thesecookingplaceswas the presenceof huts nearby. At Ballyvourney the plan of an oval hut about 5.50 m by 4 m was defined by stake holes. This representeda wigwam-like structureof slenderposts. Other huts were noted at the second Ballyvourney site and the floor of a hut with somepost-holessuggesta comparablefeatureat Ballycroghan, Co. Down. These huts have been explained either as temporary sheltersfor sleeping or as meat stores. Four post-holes within the Ballyvourney hut have been interpretedas either a bed or a butcher'sblock. At Drombeg there was evidencefor rather more permanentstructures.There were two separate areas of occupation. In one a sequence was established,

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beginning with a shelter indicated by post-holes around a simple unlined cooking pit, followed by a hut, after which a further hut with stone-built walls and central post-hole was associatedwith a roasting oven. Later still on the secondsite, about five metres away, a stone-lined cooking trough with hearthand coveredwell, were enclosedin a horseshoe-shaped drystonebank. Thesestructures,while obviously closely akin to the cooking places described above, seemed to indicate rather more permanentif still seasonaluse. The distribution of cooking places as at present known is predominantly in the southern half of Ireland. They are recordedin all the countiesof Munster saveCounty Limerick, being especially numerousin Cork where some hundredsof examplesare recorded. They are also presentin most of the southerncountiesof Leinsterespeciallyin Kilkenny where over forty specimensare known. Save for one or two examplesin Sligo and Mayo and four sites excavatedin County Down none are so far recordedin Connaughtor Ulster. It is possible that they are more widely distributed throughoutIreland than is at present realized, and, here again, the field worker can do useful serviceby noting unrecordedsites. Outside Ireland they occur in parts of England and Scotland and are frequent in Wales where they have attractedlittle notice from archaeologists though geologistshave recordedthem. Despite the very useful information obtainedby excavation as to the use of these sites the finds of dateableartefactsare disappointing.Stoneaxes are said to have beenfound in some examplesin CountyWaterford. A Late Bronze Age gold ornament (an expanded-ended dressfastenerof the type known as a fibula) was found in the material of a fulacht fiadh near Balla, Co. Mayo; a flanged bronze axe (of the Middle Bronze Age) is reported from one near Millstreet, Co. Cork, while othersin the samedistrict producedquerns. The more recent excavationsin County Cork yielded a gold-plated ring from Killeens. Portions of a shale bracelet were doubtfully associated with one of the Ballycroghan sites. At Webbsborough, Co. Kilkenny, at the bottom of what was probably a wooden cooking trough, small balls of fired pipe clay were found. A saddlequem was incorporatedin the structureat Drombeg.

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The radiocarbon determinationsrange from as early as Early Bronze Age- times at Killeens to fifth century a.d. at Drombeg.The evidenceof the finds are consistentwith a long period of currency. It would appearfrom this evidence and from the tradition regardingthem, next to be discussed,that fulachta fiadh are another example of a type of monument beginningin prehistoric times but continuinginto the historic period. The cooking placesare referred to by Keating in his History of Ireland Foras Feasa ar Eirinn. He describesthem as being used by the Fianna in their hunting expeditions during the summermonths (Bealtaineuntil Samhain)for the cooking of meats procured in the chase. In translation the passage continues: And it was their customto send their attendantsabout noon with whateverthey had killed in the morning's hunt to an appointed hill, having wood and moorland in the neighbourhood, and to kindle raging fires thereon, and put into them a large number of granite stones; and to dig two pits in the yellow clay of the moorland, and put some of the meat on spits to roast before the fire; and to bind another portion of it with suagansin dry bundles and set it to boil in the larger of the two pits and keep plying them with the stonesthat were in the fire, making them seetheoften until they were cooked. And these fires were so large that their sites are today in Ireland burnt to blackness,and theseare now called Fulacht Fian by the peasantry. As to the Fian, when they assembledon the hill on which was the fire, each of them stripped off, and tied his shirt around his waist; and they ranged themselvesround the secondpit we havementionedabove, bathing their hair and washing their limbs ... and after this they took their meal; and when they had taken their meal, they proceededto build their hunting tents and so prepared themselvesfor sleep. Another referenceto cooking deer by hot stonesin a trough is found in the medievaltale of Mis and Dub Ruis. In passingit may be remarkedthat the word for the type of heatingstone

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mentionedboth in Keating and in this tale indicates granite while in the known actualexamplesrecordedin the field sandstone is the normal type used. In Agallamh na Seanorach, which gives an account of the meeting of Caoilte Mac Ronain - an old survivor of the Fianna- with St Patrick and of the tales related by the old warrior to the saint, there are frequent references to cooking places and fian-bhotha or hunting shelters.In theseaccountsreferenceto the use of pits for bathing is perhapsmore frequent than to their use for cooking. The huts are clearly described as built of slender branches roofed with sedges. They are used for sleeping accommodation.The beddingof the Fiannais describedas of three layers, tree branches,moss and rushes.The descriptions of the huts match the findings at the excavationsremarkably. The accountsseem to favour the interpretationas temporary sleepingsheltersrather than as meat stores.

CRANNOGS A crannogis an ancient Irish lake dwelling. The name from crann, a tree, is due to the large amountof timber usedin the constructionof most of thesesites. Lake dwellings are known from variouspartsof the world and from different times down to the presentday. They differ in the mannerof construction; someare pile dwellings, the housesbeing raisedon piles driven into the lake bottom; others are built on foundationsof logs, stones,or other materialson marshesor lake shores.The Irish crannogis an artificially constructedisland on which the house or housesof the crannog-dwellerswere built. The use of island dwellings in Ireland is well attestedhistori· cally and some of the sites mentioned are referred to as crannogsin the annalsand in other historical documents.The word was introduced into archaeologicalliterature and the crannogas a type was broughtto notice well over a century ago when Petrie and Wilde investigatedthe site at Lagore, near Dunshaughlin, Co. Meath, in 1839, their attention having beendrawn to it by the finds of antiquitiesmadethere by men digging for bones. The site of a crannogpresentsvarying appearancesat the presentday. It may still be an island in a lake, but in many casesit is distinguishableas a mound in a bog. Such a mound, when investigated,will be found to have been built when the local conditionswere different - the surroundingarea having at that time been either open water or so marshy as to make the site very difficult of access. In many casescrannogshave been revealed by the drainage or partial drainage of lakes. Many of thoserecordedin the archaeologicalliterature of the last century came to notice becauseof the drainage programme then carried out, and others have been revealed recently hy the lowering of lake and river levels. On the other hand, there are instancesof low islands, possibly crannogs, which have disappearedbecauseof the partial drainageof the lakes in which they stood. In these casesthe lowering of the

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water level caused drying and hence the shrinkage of the material composingthe island, while the growth of vegetation around it causedit to merge into the surroundingarea. The builders of a crannog, having selectedtheir site, made the island by laying down layers of various materials,of which peat and brushwoodwere the most usual, though logs, stones, straw, rushes, bracken, and animal bones were also used. Pointed timbers were driven in at the edge of the island to form a protectivepalisade;othersplacedin haphazardfashion servedto consolidatethe layersof material(43). Crannogsvary considerablyin structure- due to different methodsof building and also becauseof changesmade during occupation, which sometimesextendedover a long period. In many cases the evidence is incomplete becausethe sites were not fully investigated or because they had been seriously disturbed before they were investigated. Crannogs are especially difficult sites becauseof waterlogged conditions and comparatively few sites have been extensively excavated in modern times. In the 1930s four important exampleswere investigated: Lagore, Co. Meath; Ballinderry No.1, Co. Westmeath; Ballinderry No.2, Co. Offaly; and Knocknalappa,Co. Clare. More recently, sites at Lough Faughan,Co. Down; Rathtinaunin Lough Gara, Co. Sligo; and Loughislandreevy,Co. Down were excavated. Of theseBallinderry No.1 gave the most completedata as to its original construction and subsequent changes. This site appearsto be typical of many otherswhere information is less complete and it is, therefore, worthwhile to summarize the details regardingits structure. The first stageof the building at Ballinderry No. 1 (in the latter part of the tenth century)was to place in position a platform of timbers about 6 m square. Similar foundation platforms had already been noted on other crannogsand it was thought that they were madeas rafts and floated over the site where the crannogwas to be built. At Ballinderry this had not been done becausethere was no sign that the logs had been fastenedtogether. They were held in position by pegs driven into the lake bottom, indicating that the lake level was low when the platform was built. Around the platform and about

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3 m from it, an irregular circle was marked out with light stakes.Within this small timberswere laid down, someradially and some at right angles to these. The timbers had evidently been taken from an earlier building becausemany of them were worked; and some gave evidence of highly developed carpentry. Over the platform and the surrounding timbers, layers of peat alternatingwith thin layers of brushwoodwere laid down; in these layers animal bones occurred frequently. Here and there the builders placed flat stones to consolidate the peat and brushwood.On this deposit timbers were placed in considerablequantity to form the foundation for a house floor, the floor itself beingof carefully woven wickerwork. The timbers forming the foundation for the housefloor covereda horseshoe-shaped area about 16 m across at its widest part. The open spacein the centrecontainedthe hearth; an irregular spreadof ashesindicatedthat the fire was moved from time to time. Around the house and forming a strong fence at the edge of the island was a palisadeof piles which enclosedan area 26 m in greatest diameter. The palisade varied in strength, and in general was strongeston the side where the island could be more easily approachedfrom the land. Here as many as ten rows of piles formed the palisade.On the opposite side of the island the palisadewas lighter, but scatteredpiles outside it appearto have beenintendedas an obstacleagainst boats. The entrancewas marked by a gap in the palisadeand was approachedby a causewaymadeof a brushwoodlayer and protectedby a row of posts on either side. The entranceand causewaygave evidencethat the crann6gcould be reachedon foot - at leastduring the dry seasons.Provision was also made for boats to reach the crannogby building a quay on the side oppo'iite the entrance. The quay was made by laying down horizontal timbers and covering thesewith peat; it appearsto have been a late feature of the site. The original houseon the crann6gwas abandonedprobably becauseof the sinking of its floor due to the unsatisfactory natureof the foundations.The surfacewas then raised by the use of material similar to that employed in the foundation layers, but with the addition now of layers of gravel. Included in the fill was a discardeddugout boat. Upon the new surface

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two houses were built, not centrally as in the case of the original house but near the edge of the crannog, around the greaterportion of which a new palisadewas built - this time of squared planks. When the two secondary houses were abandoneda layer of white clay mixed with grasseswas laid down andon this a fourth house, of which only scantyremains were recovered, was built. Finally, coins of Elizabeth and James II found in the superficial layer gave evidence of a transitory occupationat a late date. Many of the featuresnoted at Ballinderry No. 1 appear,on the presentevidence, to be typical of the large crannogsof Early Christiantimes. Parallelscan be found for the methodof building, the materialsused, the palisadeand enclosedhouse and for the changesin structure and the late continuity of occupation.At Lagore three palisades,representingsuccessive occupationphases,were found. Scatteredpiles occurred outside the palisade- as also, though less profusely, at Ballinderry No. 2 - and it is suggested that these gave added protection in the mannerof the chevauxde frise of the stone forts. Nineteenth-centurydescriptions of the Lagore site indicate a systemof elaboratecubicle-like structuresconnected with the latest palisade,which was built of planks, but the excavationdid not give confirmation of thesestructures.The plank palisade at Lagore was, in any case, a carefully constructed feature. Slotted uprights held horizontal planks in position so as to form a continuouswooden wall around the site. At Knocknalappaa crannog about 15 m by 10 m was formed by a layer of peat coveredin stonesand surroundedby a palisade.At Lough Faughanthe artificial island was formed largely of layers of brushwood and peat and included some discardedworked planks and occasionalwickerwork mats. The whole structurewas ratherless regularly laid than was the case in some other crannogssuch as Ballinderry No.1. Several hearths with clay floors, sometimes edged with stones, occurredin various places. Among the finds, which included souterrain pottery, was a wooden hub for a heavy-wheeled cart. Thereis no indication that any crannogheld a large number of houses.All the evidence points to the fact that these sites

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were single homesteadsand not villages. We may supposethat the inhabitants consisted of one family together with their servants, among whom might be included tradesmen of various classes;evidenceof metal- and glassworkingas well as less-specializedoccupationshas been found on crannogs. In the mannerof its occupationthe Irish crannogdiffers sharply from the English lake village, suchas thoseat Glastonburyand Meare in Somerset.The Somersetsites containeda numberof houses surrounded by a palisade; they resemble the Irish crannogbecauseof their geographicalenvironment but are clearly different in the social organizationwhich gave rise to them. Under the Early Christian site at Ballinderry No.2 was a habitationstratum dating to a late stage in the Late Bronze Age with which was associateda wooden building and a numberof small wicker structures.The wooden building was of peculiar construction. Planks with perforations to take uprightswere laid on the ground in such an arrangementthat they formed an approximatelysquarehouse (10 m by 10 m) divided into sevenlong narrow bays. The housewas surrounded by piles which either gave it protectionor servedto hold a projectingroof; two lines of piles marked the approachto the house.The wicker structureswere circular in plan and of very small diameter(about 1 m to 2 m) and it was suggestedthat they were used as granaries.However, the similar structures with floors of cobblestonesdiscoveredmore recently at Rathtinaun crannogin Lough Gara were proven to be large fireplaces. The house was placed directly on ground level, the wicker structureswere sunk in the ground, and both must have been built when the lake level was low. They representeda lake-sidesettlementratherthan a true crannog,but before the settlementwas abandoneda portion of the surface had been raised by layers of brushwoodand stones- placed over some of the wicker structures. It is clear from the excavationsat Lagore, Ballinderry No.1,

Ballinderry No.2 and Lough Faughan, that crannogswere flourishing in the Early Christian period. The more precise datessuggestedfor the building of severalof thesesites based

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largely as they are on a presumed historical date for the foundation of Lagore, need revision. Historical sources show that Lagore was a royal residencein the middle of the seventh century but this does not fix the date of the first occupation either by the kings or others. It is clear that the floruit in the first millennium a.d. is similar to that of the ring-forts and that someexampleswere occupiedlater. For instanceoccupation of Lough Faughanextends to the thirteenth century, whether continuously or not is uncertain, and Loughislandreevy, Co. Down, yielded material largely of twelfth- and even sixteenth-centurydate. The lower levels of the crannog at Rathtinaun yielded material of Late Bronze Age-Iron Age overlap with radiocarbon determinationsof about 200 b.c. At Knocknalappa similar Late Bronze Age (or transition) material was found. Perhaps slightly earlier was the crannog-like structure of Ballinderry No.2. All three of these sites yielded bucketshapedpottery in contrast to the general absenceof native pottery from both crannogsand ring-forts in Early Christian Ireland, save for the souterrain ware in the north-eastof the country. The lowering of the water level over twenty years ago exposedseveralcrannogsites in Lough Eskragh, Co. Tyrone, and three of thesewere investigated.Clay moulds, including fragments of one for a leaf-shapedsword and evidence for bronzeworking on one site, together with numerous saddle querns from it and from a second site, conform to a Late BronzeAge date. Two dugoutcanoesadd to the evidencefrom other crannogsfor the use of theseby crannogbuilders. Finds madein the last centur.yin a crannogin Monalty Lough, Co. Monaghan, include a bronze socketed axe and socketed dagger,againindicating the useof the crannogin Late Bronze Age times. As frequently happensother finds from this site, e.g. ring pins, show that this crannog was also occupied in Early Christian times. Two islandsin the North - Rough Island in Lough Enagh, Co. Derry, and Island MacHugh, Co. Tyrone - were settledin Neolithic times, but there is no definite indication in either case of artificial island construction at that early date. At Island MacHugh the Bronze Age people laid down wooden

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floors for their dwellings and, perhaps, placed some brushwood at the island edge. A site which can more properly be regardedas a crannogof early date was excavatedat Rathjordan, Co. Limerick, where an artificial island was made by laying down a stone layer over a foundation of peat, brushwood, and timbers. The island was small, the foundationlayer being about 11 m and the stone layer 8 m in diameter, and it must have been used for some short-term activity and not for lengthy occupation.A fragment of Beaker pottery found in a hearthover the crannogshows that the date of the site cannot be later than Early Bronze Age times. Chancefinds or finds madeby collectors, who in somecases ransacked crannog sites - prolific sources of antiquitiesalso gave evidenceof the long duration of the crannogtype of settlement.A famous examplewas that at Lisnacrogher,Co. Antrim; becauseof the splendidmaterial it produced,including the fine ornamentedscabbardsof Iron Age date, it is unfortunatethat it did not receive better treatmentthan that given it by the relic-seekingcollectors. Crannogsdating from the early centuries of the Christian era are Moylarg, Co. Antrim and Ardakillin, Co. Roscommon.OccasionalBronze Age finds have also beennoted from crannogs.It was usual to explain these away by suggestingthat they were introduced accidentallyin the structuralmaterial but, in view of the now establishedBronze Age dating of some crannogs, such an explanationis not necessaryin all cases.The main bulk of the museummaterial from Irish crannogsdoes, however, belong to Early Christian times and it seemsclear that, howeverearly their origin, the majority and also the largest examples are Early Christian in date. Publishedlists of crannogsin Ireland enumeratesomething over 220 examples.The numberhas since beenaugmentedby the discovery of many sites and there are presumablya great numberyet awaiting discovery. Even if we make allowancefor such an augmentationof the list of crannogs we must still conclude that they are not nearly so numerous as