Rome's Enemies 1: Germanics and Dacians [1 ed.] 0850454735, 9780850454734

Citation preview

First published in Great Brita in in 1982 by O sprey, an imprint of R eed Co nsumer Books Limited , Mi chelin H ouse, 8 1 Fulham R oad , London SW3 6RB a nd Auckl a nd , M elbo urn e, Singapore a nd Toronto

© 1982 R eed Intern ationa l Books Limited R eprinted 1984, 1985 , 1986, 1987 (twice ), 1990, ' 99 ' • '992, ' 993· ' 994 All rights rese rved . Apart from a ny fair dealing for the purpose of pri va te stud y, resea rch, criticism or review, as perm itted und er th e Copy rig ht D esigns and Pate nts Act, 1988, no part of this publication m ay be reprodu ced , sto red in a retri eva l sys tem, or tra nsmitted in a ny form or by a ny mea ns , electro ni c, electri cal, chem ical, mecha ni ca l, optica l, photocopying, recording or otherw ise, with out the prior permission of the copyright ow ner. Enquiri es shou ld be add ressed to the Pu bli shers. British L ibrary Cataloguing in Publication Data

Wilcox, Peter R ome's enem ies. - (M en-at-arms series; 129) 1. Barba ria n invasions of Rom e 2. Germanic tribes 2. D acians I. Ti tie II . Series 937 '.09 DG5o4

Filmset in G rea t Brita in Printed in H ong K ong

Author's Note :

This book does not pretend to origin a l scho larship. With certain excep tions, such as line a rtwork, it was compi led from secondary so urces. Its purpose is to give a general survey of th e German and Dacian warriors who fought against th e forces of Rom e.

Rome's Enemies: Germanics and Dacians

Clzronology See Glossary of terms and names on page 38.

3oooB.C.

2ooo B.C.

Indo-Europeans spread into northwest Europe, where th ey settle a mong ea rlier populations of Neolithi c farm ers and O ld Stone-Age hunters. Celto-Ligurian tribes are in co ntro l oflarge a reas of central and wes tern Europe. R eprese nted by the 'BellBea ke r Folk', th ey begin moving into the British Isl es. Othe r IndoEuropeans move east, where the Thracians and Iranians form two la rge groups. Th e Baits and Slavs occupy most of what is now Germany. Tll yrian tribes occupy an area of south ern Europ e betw ee n the Italia n p eninsula and Greece. (Italic Indo-Europeans had moved into their peninsula , and warlike Greek tribes into th e M editerran ean a rea, from the Danube region. ) The Teu tons of this period are in possession o f most o f th e Scandinav ia n peninsula, where a raciall y distinct Germanic Nordic has d eve lo ped fro m a mixture o f invading Indo-European Nordics and O ld Stone-Age survivors . IndoEuropean tribes now possess most o f Europ e at the ex pense of th e ea rlier stoc k who a re now either pu shed into th e more inaccessib le pa rts of the contin ent , or beco m e th e low er strata of society , the untou cha bles of Europe.

Ger man s, f rom Traj a n 's Column, d edicated in 11 3 A.D .; the ir impressive physique i s clearly illus trated. One s ports the Sue bian hair-knot. Two cloak styles a re evident : one is large, f olded double, with a thic k fringe of tas sels, while the othe r (top rig ht) i s a circular type with a diagonal head-opening.

T h e s kull of an old man, 1s t century A.D ., found a t E ck e nnfo rd, Schleswig-Hols t ein ; t h e reddis h blonde hair i s combed and twisted in t o a neat Su e b ian knot. Compare this w ith t h e carved h ead o f a G erm a n chieftain , possibly of one of the Danub ian trib es, from the t omb of A. Julius Pompilius, one of Marcu s Aureliu s's gen erals, 175 A.D . (National Mus eum, Terme)

6oo B.C.

400 B.C.

350 B.C. 300 B.C. 115 B.C.

The co ntin ental Celts begin th e H a lstatt phase of their magnifi cent I ron Age culture; at about this tim e they over- run ce ntra l Spain. The second ph ase of Celtic Iron Age culture evolves; known as the La Tene, it represents the flow ering of Celtic abstract art, seen , inter alia, in the decoration of weapons. Halstall Cel ls mov e into Britain . La Tene Celts cross the Alps and take co ntrol of north ern Ita ly. Etruscan coloni es in the Po va ll ey are ob literated, a nd Rom e is sac ked during a protracte d Celtic raid down the peninsula. R ome defeats the Celts in Ita ly . R ome gains fu ll co ntro l oflta ly. Celtic tribes from the midd le Danube a rea, th e Cimbri a nd Tcutones invade Gau l ; during the exte nsive raid they attract the

Ambrones - a not he r Celtic tribe to their ranks, a nd destroy five Rom a n a rmi es sent against them befor e turning towards Italy . 102 B.C. The Cimbri, T euton es and Am brones a re annihi lated by the new model R oman army, which had bee n created , tra ined and was now led to victory by Marius , a General of obscure background. 100 B.C. The Goths cross the Baltic from the Scandinavian peninsula to north ern G ermany . 58- 51 B.C. Ju lius Caesar conqu ers most of th e Celtic tribes of Gau l a nd reportedly repu lses an attempted invasion by trans-Rhenian tribes. 27- 12 B.C. Rom a n forces adva nce in centra l and easte rn Europe, to the D a nube; th e river thus form s, for most of its length , th e north ern fronti er of the Empire. The expansion of th e Frontier to the E lb e in th e north is called off after th e disaster in the T eutoburg Forest. At about this tim e Augustus crea tes a standing army of 25 legions. A.D. 9· Th e ga rrison of north ern Germanv, consisting of th e XVII , XVIIl a nd XIX L egions are wiped out in a n ambush in the T eutoburg Forest. These three legions neve r again appeared on th e army list. The R hine-Danube nexus now m ar ks th e north ern limits of the R oman Empire. A.D. 43· Rom a n forces in vad e Brita in , speedi ly overrunnin g a third of th e country , from th e so uthern coas t. A.D. 69- 79. The angle form ed by th e Rhin e a nd Danube is rounded off. R oman occupation of th e British low la nd s is carried up to the highland s. A furth er two legions a re los t during a revolt of a uxiliaries on th e Rh ine. A.D.81 . Several ca mpa igns a re mounted by t he R o man a rmy on th e D a nube, particularly against th e Thracian kingdom of Dacia.

A.D. 101.

A.D. 150.

A.D. 181.

A.D. 251 .

A.D. 275.

A.D. 28o.

A.D. 358.

A.D. 36o.

A.D. 372.

The Empero r Traj a n begins a advan cing Go ths, wh o a re overmass ive in vasio n of D acia; in two whelm ed by th e no m adic hordes. ca mpa tgns th e Rom a ns break The Huns a re a bl e to push into D ac ia n resista nce . Th e conqu es t Euro pe, wh ere th ey se ttl e as th e crea tes a tra ns-Da nubia n salient of overlord s of Slavoni c peasants a nd th e E mpire. R om a n forces on th e G epids o n the Hunga rian pla ins. Th e Goths and Asding V a nd a ls D a nub e a re reinfo rced by fo ur A.D. 375· a pply fo r sanctu a ry within the legio ns; Rhin e legions a re redu ced Empire. They are se ttled alo ng th e by three. Danube, wher e they suffer m a n y Eas tern G erm a n tribes begin driftindignities at th e ha nd s of R o ma n in g- so uth : so m e of th em ente r into m ercha nts and officia ls. perm a nen t fed era tion . The Visigoths a re in revolt against A m assive ba rba ri a n assault on th e A.D. 378. D a nub e provinces led by th e M a rR o m e. The Emperor of th e East is killed , co ma nni a nd Qua di triggers off a A.D. 379· prolonged se ri es of savagely fo ug ht his a rm y a nnihil a ted at Adria nopl e ca mpa igns during th e reign of by the la rgely cavalry a rm y of th e th e philosopher soldier Marcus Goths. Aurelius. A.D. 380. G erm a ns, Sarm a ti a ns and Huns a re Th e Go th s invad e th e Balka ns a nd taken into Imperia l se rvice; · as a An a to li a; th e Emperor D ec ius consequ ence, ba rba ri a n leaders begin to play a n increasingly ac ti ve (H os tili a nu s) is killed . role in th e life of the Empire. Fra nkish a nd Alem a nni c wa r ba nd s ove rrun G a ul a nd invad e Spain R econs truction of cut of woollen twill tunic and trousers a nd Ita ly. from Ange ln, Denmark, dated t o the 1st century B.C. R om a n forces a ba ndon both th e D ac ia n sali ent a nd th e Rhin eD a nube angle in th e face o f increasing press ure along th e north ern fronti er ; th e G epids and Goths move into D acia; th e Al ema nni occupy th e Rhin e-Danube angle a nd Burgundian tribes th e middl e Rhin e a rea. Th e Go ths, led by th eir king Erm a na ri ch , spread into a la rge a rea of Eurasia a nd north to the Ba ltic. ' Anglo-Saxon ' raid s in crease o n th e eas t coas t of Brita in a nd ,I nor th ern coas t of G a ul. Th e Alema nni a nd Franks a re 1\ \\ defea ted by th e Emperor Juli a n in I } G a ul ; so m e Fra nk s remain in northI wes t Ga u l as a rm ed peasant ma rchmen (foedera tes ) , a llies of R o me. Th e O strogo th s co m e into co ntac t with wes twa rd -movin g Huns, a Turco-Mongo loid people. ~/ Th e Huns of th e V olga attac k th e

u~

A.D . 410.

German cloak brooch es.

A.D. 402.

A.D. 406.

A.D. 407.

A.D. 409·

The Goths invad e Italy, where they suffer d efeat at the hands of th e R oma no-Vandal Genera l Stili cho . Sti li cho crushes a mixed army of Ostrogoths, Quadi and Asding Vanda ls with an army raised from the fronti er forces of the Rhin e, leav in g this sector dangerously weakened. A coalition of Asding Vandals, Si lin g Vanda ls, Marco manni , Quadi and a clan of Sarmatian Ala ns cross th e froz en Rhin e near Mainz into Gaul. Britain is d enud ed of the Roman ga rriso n , which crosses th e Channel in force in a sham effort to pacify the German inv aders of Gaul. In fact th ey declare one of th eir numbe r to be Emperor and see k recogm t10n from the Franks, Burgundian s and Alemanni who have occupied the left bank of th e Rhin e. The g rea t barbarian coalition of Vandals , Suevi a nd Sarmatians which had ravaged Gau l for three years crosses th e Pyrenees into Spain.

Britain fragm ents und er th e local control of pe tt y Romano-C elti c magnates. Th e Visigoths , led by Alaric, sack Rom e. Th e Visigoths, in Imperial se rvi ce, A.D. 412. enter Gau l and d epose yet another Imperial usurper. The Visigoths cross into Spain , A.D. 414· where th ey exterminate th e se ttl ed Siling Vandals and Sarmatian Alans (4 I 6 ) . The Asding Vandals, Marco manni and Quadi are spared , by R oman intervention, in order to prevent the in crease of Vi sigothi c power. As th e reward for th eir exertions th e Visigoths are invited by Roman authorities to settle in a large area of south-west Gaul. A.D. 428. North Afri ca is invaded by th e Asding Vandals; th ey bui ld a pirate Aee t and hold th e Rom a n co rn supply to ranso m . Attila th e Hun is born . A.D. 433· Th e Huns driv e dee p into Germani c A.D. 436. territory ; many tribes beco me Hunnish vassals. G erman tribes begin th e perman ent A.D. 449· settlement of Brita in . Attila leads th e Huns and th e ir A.D. 45 1· German vassals into Gaul; th ey are met a nd driven back by Roman troops , Burgundians , Salian Franks and Visigoths at th e Campus Mauriacus . The Huns withdra w to Hungary. Atti la in vades Ita ly, but th e Huns A.D. 452. are bribed by R oman a uthoriti es to retire. Attiladies. The Vanda ls sack Rom e. A.D. 453· G erman vassals of th e Huns overA.D. 454· throw th eir masters at the battle of Nedao. A.D. 469-78. The Visigoths conquer most of Spain . Th e German ge neral Odoace r beco m es king of Ita ly and is recog nised by th e Eastern Roman Empire. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoth s, A.D. 493· becomes Regent of Ita ly.

A.D . 526. A.D. 528.

The Fra nks ex pa nd into a large a rea of Gaul led by their king , Clovis. Theodoric dies. After d efeating the Gepids th e Lorn bards, helped by Avar nomads, invade Italy and make a permanent se ttl em ent in the north.

Introduction In th e report se nt to his king from Acre in I 255 the Franciscan fri ar William ofRubruck, in reference to his travels in th e Crimea, says: 'All the way from the Kh erson to th e mouth of th e Tanais there are hig h mountain peaks along th e coas t, and there a re forty villages between Kh erson and Soldaia, of which a lmost every o ne has its own language. Dwellin g here were m a ny Goths, whos e language is German ... ' Three centuries later , in about 1554, Augerois d e Busbec k, a French traveller, ca me across a people he described as Goths on the shores of the Black Sea in the Crimea. After careful analysis of their language from examples surv ivin g at th e tim e of th eir discovery , philologis ts identifi ed it as Gothic, with some alteration due to Slavonic influence. This people is now no longer traceable. These cha nce references to all that remain ed of the once num erous and powerful Gothic nation cannot now be verified by the so phistica ted a nthropological methods available to us today. Thankfully, however, ex tensive skeletal evidence, not only of the Goths but of many other ancient Germanic peo ples from th e migration period , does exist. This fact has allowed anthropologists to establish th e racial id entity of peoples we would otherwise know by na m e only - colourless wraiths of the imagination. During th e thousa nd years before the Christian era two g reat Indo-E uropean peoples, the Celts a nd Scythians, ex pa nd ed into central and north ern Europe - the Celts to th e wes t, th e Scy ths to th e east. They were follow ed by two more such gro ups- the Germans to the west, th e Slavs to the east. Both the latter Indo-European groups were to have lastin g effec ts on th eir chosen areas of

Celtic i ron s pearheads of the La

T~n e

per iod.

settlement, and, later, throughout the planetespecially the Germans.

The period ofGermanic migration , th e Volkerwandurung, does not begin properly until the grd century. However, some see in th e eve ntually abortive invasion of Roman Italy by a marauding Celtic horde the first southward probe involving Germanic warriors. These Cimbri and Teutones ha d d es troyed several Roman armies in a series of encounters throughout Gaul between B.C . 1 14 and I02. The series of migrations did not end until the adoption of Christianity by th e Norw egians in th e I I th century A.D. Germani c homelands comprised modern Denmark, southern and central Norway, the north German coas tal strip from th e mouth of the Elbe to the Baltic shore, and th e islands of Gotland and Bornholm . It was from these breeding grounds that warlike trib es, drive n by press ures brought about by overpopulation , bega n their wanderings. Some have lost th eir na mes, being quickly absorbed into bigger Germanic groupings during th e ensuing chaos. Populating the dank and gloomy forests of north ern Europe, th e German 'barbarians' who overran th e western Empire were d escendants of peasants who had taken up arms; at the tim e Tacitus wrote his Germania in the late 1st century A.D., a large proportion of th e mal e population were warriors, tribal structure was in a state of flux , and their society was moving toward s a crisis. Successful war leaders , normally elected

onl y for the dura tion o f a single campaign , were becoming acce pted in a permanent capacity as chi eftains. Th e success of many leaders attracted other tribal war bands and, in an era of constant warfare, th e transition from tribe to supertribe, grouped und er cunning warlords, was well under way. These vigorous northern ' barbarians' were th e destroyers of th e W es tern Empire ofRom e. It was they who delivered the coup de grace to the d ying colossus in th e south , subsequently creating med ieva l Europe, the feudal system and chivalry. It was their direc t d esce ndants who were th e knights and men-a t-a rms. In every sense, th ey were the creato rs of the mod ern world ; it is ironic that most of us know virtuall y nothing about them.

The!Mrrior An essenti al factor in ea rl y Germanic and Celtic warfare was th e warrior's own large, powerful frame. The German proper was a variant of th e earli er No rdi c type introd uced by the IndoE uropea n in vasion ; he was, in general, larger, due to racia l mixture with th e great north ern

hunters still surv1vmg in north ern Europe from the last I ce Age. The body was heavier and thicker than th e pure Nordic type, with a large brai ncase. H e was charac teristically blond or rufo us, as seen in his mod ern descendants and noted by numerou s early writers . The two exceptions to this general picture were th e Al emanni and the Franks, who rese mbl ed the peop llil th ey eve ntu a ll y se ttl ed a mo ng, th e Celt s. Diet was heavy and rich in protein , broadly including pork , beef and fi sh (fresh and salted ), mu tton , venison, game, bread , beer and d airy produ ce. Everyday dress varied from group to group. Th e overall cos tum e, however , was th e same thro ughout the north - a simpl e tunic, long trouse rs and cloak , which was usually of a blackish or dark brown wool. The tuni c reac hed the kn ees and had eith er long or short sleeves. Severa l tuni cs could be worn at once, supplem ented with fur a nd pelts of different kinds in cold weather. In summer, of co urse, upper garments were often left off a ltoget her. Lin en was known but was a n Longbows found at Nydam and dated to the late 4th century A.D. ; about 2m long and made of yew, they bear a close affinity to the great English warbow of the Middle Ages. The arrows, of pinewood and hazel, rneasure between 68cm and 85 em; they were found in bundles. (Not to scale)

expe nsive import from the south, a nd was, for that reason , on ly worn by the wealthier or fartravell ed trib es men. Trousers were held up by rawhid e thonging; some tim es cross-thonging held them into th e lower legs or ankles. Trousers were mad e in wool , as we ll as fur and skins. Kneelength breeches, wh en worn , were co mbined with a tight leg cove ring. Belts of varied thickness were worn at the waist or across th e shoulder, sometim es both . Straps co uld be used for carrying the shield . Th e cloak was about five feet across, rectangular or circular, of woven wool , some times having a fur lining. C loaks entirely of skins were also worn. ~ T hey were secured with fibula e o r brooch es of differing kinds, some types being more popular among so me trib es than o th ers. C lothin g of th e [] [] lower class was of the roughest kind - th e simplest ""' C> woven tuni cs or dressed skins. Shoes were of a very E c D [] simple design , in so m e ways similar to the '' moccasins of th e North American Indian , turned B up over th e foot fro m the sole and tied at the ankle. H a ir was often left lon g, being sometimes plaited , gathered into a top-knot or twisted into the curious knot peculi ar to th e Suebian tribes such as the Marco manni a nd Qu ad i. Beards were usually but not a lways worn. Tribesmen normally went Celtic swords and hilts : (A) ' Mus hroom' style pommel, from a lar ge Halstatt sword (B ) ' Mexican hat' style pommel from bare headed , but a wooll en or fur cap might be an early Hals tatt sword, ro8cmlong, dated to the 8th century worn in cold weather . R azors, combs, scissors and B.C . (C ) Late Hals tatt iron sword with ' antler' or ' antennae' hilt, 72cm long, 7th century B.C. (D ) and (E), La Tene iron tweeze rs of ea rl y date have been found in s wor ds and scabbards, both 5th to 6th centuries B.C., one Germani c territory. The rough woollen cloth 90cm and the other 88cm long. used by th e G ermans was woven in p lain colours, of striped or other geometric d esign . Dyeing was culture. Roman culture played an ever-in creasing carri ed out with vege tab le substan ces, a skill part in northern European society after th e Celti c whi ch ha d existed in th e north since th e Bronze collapse in Gaul. In their role as a source of Age , if not before. R ed was obtained from madd er wea pons a nd luxury goods, th e Rom a ns began root, yell ow fro m sa ffron fl owe rs and the stalks or their long involvement with the Germans as th ey leaves of we ld , blu e from woad , g ree n from what is faced them across th e northern frontiers. now kn ow n as 'dyers' g ree n weed '. M a ny ga rm ents Of the Warrior were a lso left in th eir natura l hu e - woo l has a ' ... Who th ese people were a nd from what p a rt of number of na tura l shad es, ranging from almost th e world th ey had se t out, to fa ll on Gaul and pure white , thro ug h fawn , brown and grey to I Laly like a thundercloud , no on e kn ew; for th ey black. had no con tac t with the so uth ern races, a nd h ad Bracelets, ea rrin gs, a rmle ts, necklets, beads and a lready travell ed a very g rea t way. Th e likeli es t rings were wo rn by both sexes, to a grea ter or g uess seem ed to be that th ey were so m e of th e G erman tribes, whose territory ex tends up to th e lesser d egree, acco rding to tas te. Strong influ ences from the ri ch Bronze Age of north ern ocean. This conjec ture was based on north ern Europe, a nd also th e influence of th e their great size, th e light blue colour of th eir eyes, Celts and Scy thians, were present in Germanic and th e fact that th e G erman word for plunderers

~

La Tene s word hilts: (A) Solid cast bronze, from Cumberland, England (B) Tinned bronze fittings on wood, from Dors et, England (C) From a b as-relief at Pergamon, Turkey.

is "Ci mbri " .... As for th e barbarians , they were so full of confid ence in themselves and of contempt for their enem ies that they went out of their way to give, quite unn ecessarily , exhibitions of th eir strength a nd daring. They went naked through snow-storm s, climbed to th e su mmits of the mountains, through the ice and snow drifts, and, from there, came tobogganing down on their broad shields, sliding over the slippery slopes and the deep crevasses.' (From the passage on the Cimbri and T eutons, Fall of the Roman R epublic by Plutarch. ) ' ... The Germans wear no breas t plates or helmets. Even their shields are not reinforced with iron or lea th er, but a re merely plaited wickerwork or pain ted boards. Spears, of a sort, are limited to their front rank. The rest have clubs, burnt at the ends or with short metal points. Physically, they are formid ab le a nd good for a short rush . But they ca nn ot tand being hurt ... ' (Part of an eve of battle speec h to hi s troops by Germanicus, 16 A.D. ) ' ... In their war with the Emperor Com modus, the Buri , a small tribe of Germans of the middle Danube, had to ask th e Emperor on many occasions for a truce in order to rep lenish their canty supply of weapons. They are a tall race, clad in close-fitting garments with a belt round the waist; they hurl their axes and cas t their spears with great for ce, never missing their aim. They manage th eir shi elds with great skill, rushing on

their enemy so fast that they seem to fly fast er than thei r javelins.' (Agathius, 405 A.D., writing of the Franks. ) ' ... A Gothic horse man 's lance went right through a Roman cavalryman. The Goth slowly raised the dripping lan ce, with the armoured R oman kicking and vomiting on the end of it. ' (Procopius, secretary to the great general of th e Easte rn Empire, Belisarius , 6th century A.D. ) ' ... Vandal cavalry fight with spear and sword. They have little or no defensive armour, [and] are not good infantrym en , archers or javelineers. Their army was very similar to that of the O strogoths, though th e Goths had a large infantry force .' (Sidonius Apollinaris. 430- 480 A.D. ) ' ... Drinking bouts, lasting a day and night, are no t consid ered in any way disgraceful ... No one in Germany finds vice amusing, or call s it 'up-to-date' to d ebau ch and be debauched . . . If they approve, they clash spears. No form of approval ca n ca rry more honour th a n praise expressed by arms .... ' ' . .. On the fie ld of battle it is a disgrace to th e chief to be surpassed in valour by his companions or to th e co mp a nions not to co me up in valour to their chief. As for leaving th e battle alive after the chi ef has fa llen , that means lifelong infam y a nd sha m e. To d efend and protec t him , to put down one's own acts of heroism to his credit , that is what they reall y mea n by a llegian ce. The chiefs fi g ht for victory, the co mpanions for their chief. Many noble yout hs, if th eir land is stagnating in a protracted peace, d eliberately seek out other tribes wh ere some war is afoot. The Germans have no taste for peace; renown is easier won among p erils, a nd yo u cannot maintain a large body of com panions except by violence and war. ... ' ' ... You will find it harder to p ersuad e a G erman to p lough th e land and await its annual produ ce with p a ti ence than to challenge a foe and ea rn the prize of wounds. H e thinks it spiritless and slack to gain by sweat what he can buy with blood. ' (Tacitus. Germania. ) T hese tantalizing glimpses of north European barbarians, seen through th e eyes of civilized southerners, are helpful in giving life to the more immediate relics un ea rthed by th e archaeologist. I t should be rem em be red that not all had witn essed G er man warriors at first hand ; most Roman s

wo uld have see n th eir first G erm a ns only if aux ilia ry troo ps were pos ted nea r th eir town or had appea red in th e a rena .

Uiapons Eco no mi ca ll y th e G erm a ni c trib es were peasants, livin g ma inl y fro m stock-rearing (cattl e, sheep and goa ts) a nd fa rmin g . As tim e went by , isolated fa rm s beca me g ro ups of fa rm s, d eveloping into haml ets and , eve ntu all y, villages. The skills of ea rl y Germ a n cra ftsm en showed unaccountable limita tions in so m e direc tions. This was always evident in th e wea ponry of th e early trib es men. Roma n assess ment of th e G ermani c peoples was, above all , as wa rri ors. With a few notabl e exce ptions, R o ma n writers had no personal co ntac t with th em, a nd so m e of th eir observations may be suspec t. Archaeology, however, has suppli ed a la rge a nd d eta il ed a mount of G erma n weapon history. Beca use of th e relative paucity of na ti ve innova tion th e G erm a ns, particularly those in th e wes t, were inA uenced to a large d egree by the Celtic H a lsta tt a nd La T ene periods of culture. Afte r th e R o ma n conqu es t of G a ul , Roman weapons pl ayed a n in creasin g pa rt in the arming of Ge rm a nic war ba nds, until , in th e late Empire, a stead y Row of a rm s northwa rd was sustained by illicit a rm s deals, loo t fro m Rom a n arsenals and armi es, a nd eq ui pmen t bro ug ht hom e by th e large num be rs of G erm a ns wh o had se rved in th e Roma n a rm y. A broad a pproxima tion of phases in wea ponry a mong th e a ncient G erma ns, based on rece nt a rchaeo logical ev id ence, is as foll ows: CeLtic: f-lalstatl culture: 7th cent. B .C. Swords of bronze a nd iro n, na ti ve iron la nces and axes; a peri od durin g whi ch ve ry la rge Celti c weapon s we re in use - heavy sword s, spearh ead s rea ching 75c m in lengt h . CeLtic: Late J-/aLstatt: earLy 5 th cent . B .C. The importa nce of th e swo rd is ove rta ken by that of th e short, single-ed ged knife. Ordin a ry wa rri ors are equipped with a la nce a nd shi eld of sorts. J avelins furnished with a throwin g th ong a re in use; th e axe is more co mm on in easte rn Ge rm a n territori es. Celtic: firs t La Tene cuLture: Late 5th cent. B .C. The

Wooden shields from Hjortspring; the 'barleycorn' bosses are also of wood. These shields, dated to the rst century B.C., measure 88cm X socm, and 66cm X 30Cm. Also, two German iron sax knives, both about 46cm long.

The northern limits of the La Tene Culture.

Diagram of an oval Celtic shield made of oak planks, covered with leather and backed with felt; it would probably be finished with a painted design. About 1.1m long, it is 1.2cm thick at the centre and less towards the rim. The spine of s haped wood is hollowed out to receive the warrior's fist a s he gra s ps the handle normally reinforced with an iron bracing strip - at the rear. The boss itself has an iron reinforcing s trip.

(Top to bottom ) An Anglo-Saxon sax, 6th century A.D .; a Frankish sax of the s ame period ; and a rusted iron sax about 5ocm long, found at Chadlington, Oxfordshire.

beginning of th e Celtic La T ene culture sees the G erm ans in possession of very few swords. The impression gained is th a t, in p a rts of G erm any, the long sword is virtua lly unknown . Ordina ry warriors a re equipped with local varian ts of spear type, shi eld a nd d agger . Spearh eads meas ure I 2c m to 26c m . Ce/tir : S('(o nd /. a T Pnl' f!I/(/Sf: Jrd to 2nd cent. B .C. ~ o cha nge in a rm a ment ev id ent. At Hj ortspring a la rge wood en boat was discovered preserved in th e p ea t. Classifi ed as a votive d eposit and d a ted to a round th e la te 3rd century B.C. , it was a cco mpanied by I 38 iron a nd 3 I bone spears, I 50 shields a nd six swords. The shi elds were a ll of Celtic patterns- a long, oval type, measurin g 88cm x s ocm , and th e more common rec tang ular typ e, measuring 66cm x 30cm. Towards th e end of this period severa l cha nges see m to have affec ted G erm a n war bands. The sax, a one-edged weapon of varyin g length , was introduced ; its origin is unknown. A few wa rriors were equipped with La T ene sword s- th ey m ay have been specialist sword smen . These men were less common in eastern G erm a ni c territories. The use of Celti c sp ears, javelins and shi elds is still evid ent, th e latter with iron bosses . All weapons a re ligh t and sp a ring in th e use of iron , confirming a n iron-poor society. R oman period : 1st cent. A .D. Sword sm en number abo ut one in ten a mon g G erm a nic warri ors of thi s p er iod . There is no evid ence of a rm o ur or

helmets, exce pt in th e case of a very few chieftains. Shields a re round , rec tangular or sexagonal, dished , a nd with a prominent projecting boss and iron or bronze edging. Sm all round or oval shields we re used by th e cavalry. Roman period : 2nd cent. A .D . Roman and German equipm ent begins to app ear together in a number of a reas. M a il garm ents and Roman swords of the gladius type, with rin g pomm el, and an increase in the use of axes, es pecially th e throwing-axe. Roman period: Jrd cent. A.D. Roman weapons continu e to find th eir way into northern lands, especia lly in th e more northerly territories. Swordsmen probably numb er about one in every four wa rriors. Swords of Roman spatha type, toge th er with other Rom an types, increasingly find th eir way into G erman hands . In the peat bogs a t Ej sbol North , r6o shields, rgr spears, 203 barbed javelins, 6o sword s, 6o belts and 62 knives we re found . R o ma n cavalry helmets of parad e type were used in a few cases probably as marks of rank. Roman period: 4th cent. A.D. Shields seem to be rarely ca rri ed a t this period. When found, the bosses a re of th e Roman dom ed variety. The old Germ a n spiked types are evidently out of fashion. Owing to wid es pread cremation of the dead a mong th e north ern barbarians th e discovered ce m eteri es, ma ny of them very large, afford little inform a tion exce pt for those interested in pottery . Fra nkish wa rri or grav es in what was northern Ga ul and th e Rhin eland , dated from the mid-4th to th e 5 th ce ntury A.D. , are furnished with spears, throwing-axes a nd an occasional sword. These warri ors were proba bly federate soldiers employed by th e R o ma ns. On e ri chly furni shed grave of a Germani c office r found in a la te Rom a n ce metery co nta in ed a swo rd , a belt, an oval silver plate and a shi eld origin a ll y covered with purple leather and gold foil pla tes; th e boss had been sheath ed in silve r-g ilt. Oth er weapons included were a throwing axe, ten spea rs a nd a larger spear inlaid with silve r. Oth er Fra nkish g ra ves in Belgium contain belt fittin gs a nd bu ckl es, spea rs and throwing-axes. Bows W ell-m ade long bows were found at Nyd a m , in th e territory of th e An gles. They are about two metres long, m ade of yew , with stave ends tipped with iron or a ntl er ferrul es, a nd th e hand-holds bound

with fine thread. Arrows were about 68cm to 8s cm long . G ermanic bows , dating from about roo A.D . to 350 A.D. , were made of yew and fir wood. They were recognisable long bows of deep 'D' section. It is probable that, like the English longbow of later ages, th ese were ' compound' bows a combination of the sapwood , which resists stretching, for the back , and heat-wood , resistant to compression , for the belly or inside of th e bow. Staves found at Vimose, Kragehul and Nydam measure from r 68cm to r g8cm . Although used only to a limited degre e by Germanic groups in th e British Isles, and even less by those settled in Gaul, the bow was used to advantage by other Germans. As stated above , self bows and a few composite bows were used by the Alemanni. True longbows were present in northern bog deposits. Dated from the 2nd to the 4th centuries A.D. , these weapons wer e probably develop ed by th e Germans themselves. Some arrow piles found seem to be d esign ed to puncture armour.

(Left and right) A Roman cavalry s word of unus ual s hape, and its scabbard, from Gotland ; between them, the hilt of a Roma n gladius from Thors bjerg.

Roma n ca valry s word, length 102cm o verall ; and below it, a Roma n gladius with the late ' ring' pommel, length 6oc m overall. Both a r e dated t o about the o:nd century A.D. and were found a t Vimose in Denmark.

A large partofthe Visigothic army, as mention ed elsew here, were a rchers and spearmen. Their cavalry were composed of chi eftain s and th eir compamons. Bowmen a lso formed an important element in Ostrogothic a rmi es ; as with other German bowmen , a very small number of co mposite bows may have been used, but th e overwhelming m ajority vvou ld be self' or compou nd bows. (Their cavalry were armed with spears a nd swo rd s d erived from those of the Sarmatians; Ostrogothic nob les ow ned lav ish, gold-decorated, heavy slashing words , mounted with almondins. ) The longbows found at Vimose, Krage hul a nd Nydam, dated to 100- 350 A.D., have prev iously been noted. The bow used ex tensive ly by a ll steppe nomad s, including the Sarmatians a nd Huns, was the powerful, reflexed , com pos ite bow . Its stav e is co nstruc ted or la min ated materials or different origin , such as wood , sin ew a nd horn. Wh en unstrung th e bow fo rm s the silhou ette or th e letter 'C' , so metim es with the ends formin g a cross. Wh en strun g, the 'C' was opened back (Top ) A long, heavy Got hic ca v alry s word from Tamin in s outhern Russia, 5th century A.D. partly restored i n t his s ketc h. (Bottom) A s word recovered from Kragehul Bog, D e nmark ; i t has bronze s cabbard mounts and hilt, and is d ated to the 5th c entury A.D . (Not to s cale.)

against its natural curv e and held that way by th e string- thus, the bow 'coiled' for action. Early Swords Early Celtic iron swo rds fo ll ow the general pattern or previo us bronze examples, whi ch were still in use well after th e introduction of iron. Th e first iron swo rds ma Qufactured in Europe were long, slashing weapons; in the opinion of most ex perts, they were primarily d esigned for us e by chari ot-born e warriors. Som e of' th e weapons belonging to th e H a lsta tt culture were so la rge th a t th ere is some doubt that they were m ad e for actual use. Th e hi lts are generall y very di stin cti ve, having a pommel similar to a M ex ican hal. Exa mp les includ e hilts of horn or ivory, d eco ra ted with gold or amber, a few have a mu shroom- like pro fi !e. Late Halstatt swords, introdu ced a bout B.C . 6oo, were fashion ed after exa mp les of Greek o r Etruscan provenan ce; so me ind eed may be imports from th e south. Th ey were sm a ll e r th a n th e grea t midd le H alsta tt swords, and were d esigned to be used for both slashing and sta bbin g, in that they ca rried a point. Their hi lts fa ll into tw o m a in patterns, 'antennae' and 'anthropomorphic'. Th e form er fo ll owed an old la te Bronze Age pat tern ; the la tter took th e sty lised form or a spreadeagled man . Th e blades of th ese weapons were madeofiron, forged to hard en by introdu cing ca rbon in various ways, finishin g with a ca rburised

A

iron of indifferent quality. Although th ere are notabl e exce ptions, most Celtic swo rd s were m a d e in thi s way. Early La T ene swords were introdu ce d abo ut B.C. 450. They have poi nted blades abo ut 55cm to 65cm long; there is one kn ow n example 8ocm long. La Tfn e ( 11 ) period swords date from c. B.C. 250 to 120. T hey measure abou t 75- 8ocm a nd hav e round er points . The final La T ene phase swords, d a ted from B.C. 120 to the defea t o f the Galli c tribes by R om e, we re longer than those o f the two prev ious periods . Th ey a re betwee n 6ocm and gocm long; a few were pointed but most were blun t-end ed. Pattern WPided Blades In the ea rl y 1st ce ntury A.D. a new process, whi ch we call pattern-weldin g, was inv ented by Europea n swo rdsmiths. The process was co mplicated , but not so long drawn o ut as many earli er tem perin g methods. The ce ntra l sectio n of the blade was prepared by forgi ng narrow billets of high-qualit y ca rburised iron , tw1stmg them together in pairs, layin g the twists sid e b y sid e, we ldin g them , a nd finally add in g furth er strips of ca rburised iro n to th e sid es a nd we lding them to form th e cuttin g edges. At this stage the bla d e was a long, flat , ob long billet, whi ch had to be filed a nd ground dow n to the desired fo rm. It was th en burn ished a nd etc hed with a n acid such as tannin, urine , sou r beer or vi negar; when the ce ntral section and full er were polished , a pattern having the appeara nce of a sna ke's back eme rged , a res ult of the twist in g ca rri ed o u t at a n ea rli er stage in the sword's manufac ture . Acco rdin g to the method used in thi s g ro upin g a nd twisti ng phase, ma ny variatio ns of pattern we re possib le.

c

D

Sword hilts of the Mignationperiod : (A ) From about 150A.D. (B ) From about 400 A.D. (C ) From about 350 A.D . - a Northern pattern (D ) From about 500 A.D .

Sword rings and ' Life-stones' On the pommels of so m e of th ese swo rd s, rin gs, mostly decorated , are attached. These a re believed to be sp ecial gifts fro m a g ratefu l chi efta in . Some sca bba rd s have la rge beads attached to them , either of pottery , glass, meersc ha um , crystal o r, rarely, gold set with stones, and occasion a ll y with gold or silver mounts. Th ese a re a mule ts- cha rm s to bring good luck- a nd were believed to have th e m agical propert y to heal wounds made by th e swo rd to which th ey we re attached. Swords of the Heroic Period ' Wh en th e enemy had ta ken possession o f two camps a nd a n imm ense booty, they destroyed , und er new a nd stra nge oaths , all that had fa ll en into th eir ha nds. The clothes were torn a nd thrown away, gold a nd silver throw n into the river, th e rin g armour of the m en cut to pieces, the acco utrem ents of th e horses destroyed , the horses th emse lves thrown into th e water, a nd th e men, with ropes a round th eir nec ks, suspe nd ed from th e trees, so th a t there was no more booty for th e victors than th ere was mercy for th e co nq uercd.' This extract from a history written a bo ut B.C. 1oo, b y the Roman historian Orosi us, d eals with the Celtic in vasion b y th e Cimbri a nd Teutones. It highlights the religious obligati o n felt by th e Celts an d Germans to sacrifi ce ' ki ll ed ' ene my possessio ns, leav ing us with priceless d eposits in the bogs o f no rth ern Europe to supp le ment th ose found in the g raves of Germanic warriors. Swo rd s of this period are found in both types o f deposit,

A sel ect i on ofbarbarian arms and armour and otbe r trophies, t ake n from Roman coin reverses . These c oin des igns, illus trating in s imple s tyle s amples of tbe booty taken in triumphantmilitaryexpeditions, allowtent ativeassociations to be m a de by comparing tbe known date of tbe coin wit h tbe known contemporary campaigns : probable associations are s h o wn here bracketed. (A ) From a sestertius of Marcus Aurelius, dated to 18o A.D .: hor n , plaque, monster-headed trumpet, pelta-type shield, corselet, and shields of curve-sided oblong, small oval, hex agonal and narrow, curve-sided shapes. (Sarmatians, Q.uadi and Marcomanni) (B ) From an aurius of Marcus Aurelius, dated to 18o A.D. : horn, vexillum, large monster-headed trumpet/standard, and s h i elds of s mall oval, curve-s ided oblong, oval and oblong s hapes. (Q.uadi and Marcomanni) (C ) From a coin ofDomitian, dated to go A.D. : a long Celtictype shield with two spears, a vexillum and a long trumpe t. (Q.uadi) (D ) From a coin of Domitian, dated to go A.D. : a hexagonal s hield. (Q.uadi or Marcomanni) (E ) F rom a coin ofDomitian, date unknown : three hexagonal shields and a helmet. (Q.uadi, Marcomanni) (F ) From a coin of Titus, dated to 81 A.D. : German shi elds, tbre e h exagonal and one octagonal ; a helmet of the old Romano-Etruscan type, a muscle cuirass and two s pears . (H e rmanduri and Marcomanni) (G ) From a sestertius ofT. Decius, dated to 250 A.D.; a hors ehead s tandard. (Gothic ) (H ) From a solidus of Cris pus, dated to 319 A.D .: a trophy of arms c ompris ing a mus cle cuirass and conical helmet, probably both Roman, two round-ended oblong s hields, two s maller oval s hields, a battleaxe, two s pears, a cloak and a compos ite bow witb a ringed string. (Alemanni)

G but a re prese nt in co mp a ra ti vely few gra ves. Roma n swo rd s a re represented in the bog fi nds by the sho rt gladius a nd long cavalry spatlza. One interestin g hi It, belonging to a R om a n gladius, was fo un d a t Th orsbj erg, So ut h Jutl a nd . I t is simi la r to one in th e British Muse u m a nd a no th er fo und at Pompeii . I ts bronze hil t has littl e bosses on guard a nd pomm el , with a g rip cove red in fin e wove n bronze thread bra id ing. An other exa mple, compiPte with its sca bba rd , was fo und in G o tla nd. I t has a swelli ng o n either sid e of the bla de, just above the point. Gladii d a ted to the znd ce ntury A. D . have po m mels in th e shape of a la rge ring. Several Roma n cavalry swo rd s have turn ed up in the bog de posits. Bes ides th e R o ma n swo rd s, T ho rsbj erg produ ced

swo rd s of native m a nufac ture. All a re do ub leedged , wit h bronze- a nd sil ve r-covered wooden ha ndles . The wood en sca bba rd s bore metal m ounts. Also found we n; a thi c k sword be lt; bronze a nd iro n belt bu ckles; bows, a rrows a nd shi elds. T hese lat ter we re circula r a nd Aa t, meas urin g 54cm to I o8c m in di a m eter, with most g rips a nd fas tenings of bron ze but so m e of iro n . Axes fo und in th is d eposit were mounted on wooden sha fts s gc m to 8scm long; spea rs were mo unted on sha fts 81 cm , zs ocm , 273c m a nd zgsc m lo ng. Harness for both driving a nd ridin g was fo und , togeth er with mu ch j ewellery, too ls, a mbe r di ce, bowls, spoons, jugs a nd kni ves. G a rm ents includ ed m a il shirts, gold -pla ted bro nze circu la r pec tora l pla tes, a nd a conve rted R om a n cavalry pa ra d e helm et covered in silve r. R om a n coi ns fo und includ ed so me of Septimus Seve ru s, d ated I94 A. D . At Vimose in D enm a rk 67 sword s were fo und ; m os t were double-ed ged , b u t so me were singleed ged saxes. Of I ,000 spears, fiv e were moun ted On sha fts 1g8c m , z64c m , z8oc m , a nd 302c m lo ng; so m e of th ese spea rs ha d in lays of go ld , silve r a nd bronze. M a il was recovered , som e of it gil d ed , toge ther with a comple te m ail shirt gzc m long; th ere we re a lso examp les of scabba rd furniture,

I 50 knives, buckles, fibulae, buttons, ha rness, scythe bla des, keys, scissors, needles, n ails, a millstone , an anvil, hammers, chisels, fil es, pincers, combs, brooches, beads a nd four amber di ce . This find is dated to the late 4th century A.D. At Kragehul , also in D enm a rk , were found ten pa tte rn-weld ed swo rds, with sp ears set in a circul ar fence . The find is dated to th e 4th a nd 5th cent uri es A.D. The four-ship burial at Nydam is of great importa nce . It contained two small ships which were beyond reconstru ction , a nd two larger ones in a mu ch better state of preservation . Amon g th e associated find s were I o6 double-edged sword s, 93 of th e m pattern-welded ; silvered sheath s a nd bone and cas t bronze hilts; 552 spears, som e inla id with gold, and arrows. All dated from 200 A.D . to 350 A.D. Most Germanic swo rd s fall into on e or other of th e classifications worked out by th e Swedish expe rt E lis Behm er ; th e hilts of four types occurring frequ entl y in our period are illustrated.

ABOVE

Dacian arms and standards, from various Roman

bas-reliefs : not to scale. A dagged banner on a spear; two battle-scythes - fa/xes ; a quiver, shield and battleaxe; and a carnyx-style standard with a ferrule.

B

F

G

Helmets from Dacia and Asia.(A)- (E) : 'Phrygian' type, from the pedestal of Trajan's Column. (F) and (G): Phrygian helmets. (H) Sarmatian helmet, from Trajan's Column. (I) and (J) : Domed helmets, from the pedestal of Trajan's Column. (Not to scale.)

E

J

German iron spearheads, 4th to 6th centuries A.D.

Dacian Arms and Armour The column erec ted in the Forum of Rom e a nd dedicated to th e Emperor Trajan in I I 3 A .D . illustra tes in a sp ira l ribbon of reliefs th e phases and main in cid entsofhi sconqu es tofDacia . Th e square pedestal a t th e base of the column carri ed exa mpl es of a rm s a nd a rmour in co nfused a bundan ce . Th e monument , in two ha lves, ca n bes t be see n in England at th e Victoria and Albert Mu se um , where exce ll ent full- sca le plaster casts ex ist. The y were taken during th e Igth ce ntury, a nd g ive a Helmets from the tomb-carvings of A. Julius Pompilius, 175 A.D., at the time of the Marcomannic Wars. (A) Roman battle helmet (B) Damaged carving of Roman cavalry sports helmet (C) Curious helmet of indistinct type. These are thought to depict helmets worn by the enemy in this campaign.

A

B

better presentation of th e reli efs th a n the more corroded original in R ome. On co nfro ntin g the hi g hl y-deco rated , carved sid es o f th e pedestal, it becomes o bvious that the formal abb reviations of costume a nd weapons used on the column are abse nt : on th e co lumn we hav e narra tive, on the pedestal we are looking at graphic exampl es o f the masses of equipm ent captured by Rom a n forces fro m their opponents in D acia, sculpted from actual exa mples of the trophi es. In th eir o ri g in a l con dition th e bas-reliefs were pa inted in realistic colours, with d eta ils o f armour a nd weapons added in metal. Periodi c renewal of th e pa int was carried out during th e life of th e Empire. The cl uttered ab undance of these impress iv e trophies begs th e qu estion ' Which piece of equipm ent belongs to whi ch group of barba ri ans involved in th e ca mpa igns ?' Perhaps a more releva nt qu es tion is 'A re the ca rvin gs in fact rep rese ntative of th e arms of only one peo ple, the gifted a nd proud Geto-Dacians , who Traja n had d estroye d during a d eliberate campa ign of Rom a n expansion into centra l Europe?' Ancient D acia, in the 2nd century , embraced Tra nsylva ni a, Ba n a t and Valac hia proper. Th e tru e D acian s were a people of Thracia n descent. German , Celtic a nd Ira ni an elements occ upied territories in th e nor thwestern a nd north- easte rn pa rts o fD acia. Cu ltu ral elem ents of H elleni c, Scythian , Celtic a nd R oman origin were absorbed in a rich a ma lgam.

Shields Th e d o minant articles o n th e pedestal reliefs are th e large, ri chly d eco rated , oval shields. They arc th e only type ofbody shi eld show n ; a ll are o f uniform sha pe and style o f d ecoratio n. Th e exceptions are exa mpl es which a re cove red in a scale pattern. Anoth er exa mpl e of a n unu sua l D acia n design is found on an oval shi eld ca rri ed b y a ma n in D acian cos tum e on another Trajanic reli ef which was moved to th e Arch of Constantine. r t has four mon ster-h ead ed trumpets ra di ating from the cen tral boss, and two Celtic-type torqu es of twisted metal whi ch , toget her with the mo nste r trumpe ts shown in g roups all over th e pedestal, may illust ra te Celtic inAu ence. With these exce ptions, D ac ia n shi eld s, as show n o n th e ca rvin gs, a re heavil y deco rated with Aori a te, bra id ed , geometric a nd pl a ne ta ry d es ig ns, as well as th e ancient Thracia n shi e ld

(Left) A tombstone a t Dollendorf near Bonn, shows this Germanic warrior probably a Frank. He is combing his hair, and his s word is clearly shown; both were considered virility symbols, and were proudly displayed. (Right) Finely sculpted profile of a German chieftain from the tomb of A. Julius Pompilius, now in the National Museum, Terme. BELOW Late Roman military belt fittings. (Top) This example of ancillary strap attachments and stiffeners is from a grave at Dorchester, England. Probably general issue by the late Empire period, they are usually associated with German auxiliary troops of the Roman army. {Bottom} A reconstructed belt, with strap attachments, stiffeners and plates, from a German warrior's grave at Rhenan, Holland.

known as the Pella (this symbol is used in normal and distorted form ) . These shields are very large and, it would appear from the carvings, flat , th e patterns being in proud relief to facilitate periodic painting. Th e bosses are hemisp herical with round boss plates , both being d eco rated . I suggest that the Thracian lun ate shield motif, repeatedly used on th ese shields , co nfirm s them as D acian o r G eto-Dacian . Helmets The h elm ets on th e reliefs fall into two categories: one with a neat, rounded, cone-sha p ed sh ell , th e othe r with its a p ex curved forw ard into th e characteristic ' Phrygian ' peak. Both are hig hl y d ecorated in the sa m e fashion as the shields on th e column base. It is th e d eco ration on one of the solid cres ts runnin g over o ne of th ese helm ets, toge ther with the close ge neral resemblance to various exa mpl es of helm ets worn by a ncient Ph rygians show n in art, a nd the obvious connec tion between th em , which leads m e to suggest that the ' Phygian ' -type helm ets m ay well be a variety pec uli a r to the D acians. The D acia ns, as stated above , were a Thracian

. .. ·..

..·

D ia gr a m of a n Ang lo-Saxon s hield, t ypical of the round s h ields carried b y other Germanic tribes men. Made of lime wood, it is a bout scm thick a nd gocm a c ross. Thin, s h a p ed boa rds were co v ered with linen or le ather ; the central recess, w ith an off-centre metal handle, was covered with a large i ron boss; and the rim was of iron or bron :