Romano-British Urban Settlements in the West Midlands 9780860542650, 9781407317380

Table of contents :
Blank Page
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
Abbreviations
List of Figures
Introduction
Acknowledgements
Chapter One: The Excavated Evidence
Chapter Two: The Classification of Settlements : Legal Considerations
Chapter Three: The Classification of Settlements: Cities, Towns and Villages
Chapter Four: The Classification of Settlements: The Functional Basis
Chapter Five: The Origins of Romano-British Nucleated Settlements in the West Midlands
Chapter Six: Settlement Functions in the Romano-British West Midlands
Chapter Seven: Urban Evolution : The First and Second Centuries AD
Chapter Eight: Urban Evolution : The Later Roman Period
Bibliography
Illustrations

Citation preview

Romano� British Urban Settlenients in the . West Midland Julie Crickmore

BAR British Series 12 7 1984

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A. -

BAR 127, 1984

©

'Romano-British Urban Settlements 1n the West Midlands'

Julie Crickmore, 1984

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542650 paperback ISBN 9781407317380 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542650 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T ABLE O F C ONTENTS

P age

I ntroduction

1

A cknowledgements

2

P ART I - E VIDENCE A ND D EFINITION

I .

T he E xcavated E vidence T he C lassification o f S ettlements c onsiderations

T TI.

I V.

4 :l egal 1 3

T he C lassification o f S ettlements : c ities, a nd v illages T he C lassification o f S ettlements b asis

t owns 1 6

:t he f unctional

F ormal S tructure S ocial C omplexity F unction T able 1 : F actors f or a S ettlement H ierarchy ( after B urnham 1 979)

2 0 2 0 2 0 2 1 2 7

P ART I I -U RBAN E VOLUTION I N T HE W EST M IDLANDS

V .

T he O rigins o f R omano-British N ucleated S ettlements i n t he W est M idlands T he C ontribution o f t he P re-Conquest S ettlement P attern T he I mpact o f t he R oman F ort N etwork T he I mportance o f E conomic F actors C onclusions

V I.

S ettlement f unctions i n t he R omano-British W est M idlands A dministrative a nd O ther ' Officially-Imposed ' F unctions T he C ivitas C apital P agus C entres a nd L ater C ivitates M ansiones, M utationes a nd c entres f or t he C ollection o f A nnona M ansiones i n t he W est M idlands S ocial F unctions E conomic F unctions T he M ajor M arket C entres T he M inor M arket C entres S pecialised I ndustrial C entres

2 8.

2 9 3 5 3 8 4 0

4 2

4 2 4 2 4 5 4 8 5 0 5 2 5 9 6 5 7 0 7 2

P age T able 2 : F unctions o f R omano-British S ettlements i n t he W est M idlands

7 7

V II.

U rban E volution : T he F irst a nd S econd C enturies A D

7 8

V III.

U rban E volution : T he L ater R oman P eriod

8 5

T he S equence a t W roxeter T he S equence a t O ther S ettlements T able 3 : T he C lassification o f t he N ucleated S ettlements o f t he W est M idlands a s M arket a nd S ervice C entres

8 7 9 9

1 19

B ibliography

1 21

I llustrations

1 37

A bbreviations

A nt J A rch J A rch N L B AR C A E ng H ist R ev J RS N SJFS R CHM T BAS T SSAHS

T WAS T WNFC V CH W MNS

A ntiquaries J ournal A rchaeological J ournal A rchaeological N ewsletter B ritish A rchaeological R eports C urrent A rchaeology E nglish H istorical R eview J ournal o f R oman S tudies N orth S taffordshire J ournal o f F ield S tudies R oyal C ommission o n H istorical M onuments T ransactions o f t he B irmingham a nd W arwickshire A rchaeological S ociety T ransactions o f t he S outh S taffordshire A rchaeol ogical a nd H istorical S ociety ( until 1 968 , T rans. L ichfield a nd S . S taffs.) T ransactions o f t he W orcestershire A rchaeological S ociety T ransactions o f t he W oolhope N aturalists' F ield C lub V ictoria C ounty H istory W est M idlands A rchaeological N ews S heet

L ist o f F igures

1 .

P age

T he W est M idlands r egion, c omprising t he m odern c ounties o f S taffordshire, S hropshire, W est M idlands, W arwickshire a nd H ereford a nd W orcester ( CAM)

3

2 .

T he o rigins o f W est M idlands R oman T owns ( CAM)

3 4

3 .

R omano-British i ndustrial p roduction a nd d istribution i n t he W est M idlands ( CAM)

7 3

R omano-British d efences i n t he W est M idlands ( CAM)

9 8

4 .

K ey t o P laces s hown o n t he M aps

A lc - A lcester ( Warks .) A n -A riconium ( H &W ) B id - B idford-on-Avon ( Warks.) C hes - C hesterton/Holditch ( Staffs.) C hF - C hesterton-on-Fosse ( Warks.) D w -D roitwich ( H &W ) K en - K enchester ( H &W ) L et - L etocetum ( Staffs.) L tw - L eintwardine ( H &W ) M du - M anduessedum ( Warks.) P en - P ennocrucium ( Staffs.)

R oc - R ocester ( Staffs.) R ut - R utunium ( Shrops.) S tG - S tretton G randison(H & W ) T id - T iddington ( Warks.) T ri - T ripontium ( Warks.) T wf - T wyford ( H & W ) V en - V enonae ( Warks.) U x -U xacona ( Shrops.) W hit - W hitchurch(Shrops.) W or - W orcester ( H &W ) W x -W roxeter ( Shrops.)

I ntroduction

T his s tudy w as o riginally p repared i n 1 976-1977 f or t he U rban R esearch C ommittee ( of t he W est M idland R escue A rchaeology C ommittee a nd s ubsequently o f t he U niversity o f B irmingham) a s p art o f a n u rban s urvey o f t he W est M idlands, f unded b y t he D epartment o f t he E nvironment. T he t ext w as s ubstantially r evised i n 1 983 .

T he s ubject o f t he s tudy i s t he n ucleated s ettlements o f t he W est M idlands ( modern c ounties o f S hropshire, S taffordshire, W est M idlands, W arwickshire, a nd H ereford a nd W orcester) i n t he R oman p eriod. ' Nucleated s ettlements' c overs t hat w ide r ange o f s ettlement t ypes w hich i s c ommonly c lassified a s c ities, ' small t owns' o r ' villages' a nd w hich e xcludes v illas, f arms teads, e tc. T he t erms ' town' a nd ' urban ' h ave c onnotations w hich a re p erhaps i nappropriate t o t he u nderstanding o f t hese R omano-British s ettlements. I n t his t ext, t herefore ‚ the t erm ' major c entre' h as b een u sed f or s ettlements s uch a s A lcester, K enchester a nd W orcester a nd ' roadside s ettlement' f or s uch a s L etocetum , M anduessedum , a nd T ripontium . T he i ntention i s n ot t o c reate t he i dea o f t wo d istinct g roups; t he t erms a re m erely c onveniences t o d escribe a w ide r ange o f s ettlements w hich f orm p art o f a n o verall s ettlement c ontinuum.

T he a im h as b een t o b egin w ith a g eneral f ramework o r t heory r egarding t he c lassification a nd i nterpretation o f t he e vidence a nd t hen t o a pply t his m ore s pecifically t o t he e vidence f rom R omano-British s ettlements i n t he W est M idlands. T he l ast t wo c hapters a lso i nvolve a n a ttempt t o d iscern g eneral t rends o f d evelopment. T he o bjective h as b een t o p resent a s m uch a s p ossible o f t he a vailable i nformation f rom t he W est M idlands w ithin a n ew f ramework . M uch m ore w ork n eeds t o b e d one; m uch o f t he e vidence i s a mbiguous a nd m any o f t he c onclusions b ased o n i t a re t entative. T his s tudy t herefore r epresents a n i nterim s tatement.

A ll t he d ata w hich h ave b een c ollected f or t his s tudy a re h oused i n t he U rban a rchive h eld b y t he B irmingham U niversity F ield A rchaeology U nit, t o w hom a pplications f or e xtracts s hould b e m ade.

A cknowledgements

I w ould

l ike

P rofessor

P .

A .

C ommittee

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t he

e ncouragement. G .

N orrie

t o

R ahtz,

a nd

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t ext

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a nd

E smonde C leary,

t heir

C .

f igures

f or

R esearch h elp

a nd

M acArthur

a nd

p ublication .

J . M . B uckland h as t yped t he m anuscript. P lates f or

A erial

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1 ,

t he

3 ,

P hotography, b y

k ind

c opyright

p ermission

7 a nd

a nd

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A rnold 5

c opyright

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t he

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P lates

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2 , a re

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4 ,

6 ,

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a nd i s r eproduced b y k ind p ermission.

J . C rickmore

4 7 3 7

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O uts ide s urvey a rea R o man r oads C ourse c erta in C ourse u nce rta in

F ig . 1 .

T he W est M id lands R egion .

1

1

I .

T he E xcavated E vidence

F or m ost o f t he R omano-British s ettlement s ites o f t he W est M idland r egion, d etailed i nformation i s l imited. F ortunately t here a re o ne o r t wo e xceptions t o t his, n otably t he c ivitas c apital a t W roxeter w hich h as b een t he s ubject o f a r esearch p rogramme d esigned t o i nvestigate s pecific a spects o f t he R oman c ity, i ts o rigins a nd d evelopment. A t A lcester a nd D roitwich, o verall r esearch p olicies h ave a lso b een f ormulated u nder t he a egis o f t he r elevant c ounty a rchaeological s ervice, a lthough t hese p olicies h ave h ad t o b e i mplemented l argely i n a r escue c ontext. I n b oth c ases, t he s etting u p o f a n a rchaeological c ommittee a nd t he a ppointment o f a n a rchaeological o fficer i n t he l atter p art o f t he 1 970s p rovided a n i mportant f acility f or c oordinating r escue w ork w ithin a n o verall a pproach t o t he a rchaeology o f t he R oman t own.

I n m ost o ther c ases i nvestigation h as b een v ery l imited, a nd t he r esulting i nformation i s d iverse a nd f ragmentary. I n s ome i nstances i nvestigation h as c oncentrated o n m ilitary r ather t han c ivil a ctivities. T his i s o f c ourse u nderstandable g iven t hat a s tructured a nalysis o f t he p roblems r elating t o a p articular s etlement c an o nly b e t ackled w hen a m inimum b ody o f a rchaeol ogical d ata h as b een c ollected, a nd a m ost c onvenient s tarting p oint i s t he i nvestigation o f p rominent o r e asily i dentifiable f eatures s uch a s d efences o r s tone b uildings. B ut t his h as p roduced i nformation, i n v arying a mounts, a bout a p articular a spect o f a s ettlement a nd f urther i nvestigation i s n eeded t o p lace t his i nformation w ithin t he w ider c ontext o f t he s ettlement a s aw hole. M uch o f t he i nformation a vailable a t p resent f rom t hese s ettlements i s t he r esult o f e xcavations b y l ocal g roups a s p art o f r esearch s chemes i nitiated b y D r. G raham W ebster t hrough t he E xtramural D epartment o f t he U niversity o f B irmingham. T he d efences a t A lcester, K enchester, L etocetum , M anduessedum, T ripontium , U xacona a nd W orcester, t he B ays M eadow v illa c omplex a t D roitwich a nd t he f ort, b athhouse a nd v illa c omplexes a t L etocetum w ere e xamined a s p art o f t his o rganised p rogramme. T he W roxeter r esearch p roject b egan s imilarly w ith t he e xtramural t raining s chool h eld e ach y ear f rom 1 955 o n t he s ite o f t he b aths. T he E xtramural D epartment a nd t he D epartment o f A ncient H istory a nd A rchaeology o f t he U niversity o f B irmingham w ere a lso i nvolved i n t he e xcavations i n t he 1 950s a nd 1 960s a t A lcester a nd a t B ays M eadow , D roitwich , r espectively. D uring t his p eriod, R oman s tudies d ominated t he a rchaeology o f t he r egion.

T he m ethod o ften e mployed b y l ocal g roups w orking o n a l imited b udget w as t rial t renching. T his m ethod h ad t he a dvantage o f b eing m anageable o n s uch a t ime s cale, w hilst p roviding a c ertain a mount o f b asic d ata. B ut, a lthough u seful i n e stablishing t he a rchaeological p otential o f t he s ite, i t w as i nadequate t o d eal w ith t he c omplexity o f d evelopment a nd t he d etailed d ating a nd p hasing o f o ccupation s equences. S ince t he

1 970s, t here h as b een a f eeling t hat t he l imited a nd l argely p roblem orientated a pproach o f t he 1 950s a nd 1 960s w as m ore d estructive t han p roductive, a nd t hat s mall-scale e xcavations, p articularly t rial t renching, w ere u nable t o m ake a ny r eal s ense o f t he e vidence, w hich i nevitably f ormed p art o f a m uch w ider p icture ( Barker 1 977a , 3 7-53). B arker m aintains t hat a rea e xcavation o n a l arge s cale i s t he o nly w ay a ctually t o s ee, l et a lone m ake s ense o f t he e vidence f or t he l atest o ccupation s equences o n t he b aths b asilica s ite a t W roxeter. T his t ype o f e xcavation i s r elevant t o m any o ther R omano-British s ettlem ents, w here r emains a re o ften e phemeral, b ut i t h as n ot b een a ttempted a t a ny o f t he s maller s ettlements i n t he r egion. I n s ome c ases, i t i s o nly a t t he o ther e nd o f t he s cale o f a rchaeological i nvestigation - i n t he c hance f ind - t hat a c lue t o t he p ossible n ature o f t he s ite h as b een f ound, r aising q uestions a bout i ts f unction a nd i mportance, e .g. t he C eltic c arved s tone h eads a nd o ther f inds f rom L etocetum , t he b ronze f igurine o f a h orseman a nd o ther f inds f rom T ripontium . N evert heless, f or m any s ites, t he w ork o f t he l ocal g roups i n t he 1 950s a nd 1 960s r epresents t he o nly a rchaeological a ttention g iven. M ost o f o ur k nowledge o f t he R omano-British s ettlements a t C hesterton-on-Fosse, L etocetum , M anduessedum , P ennocrucium , R ocester a nd T ripontium h as b een a cquired i n t his w ay. F ew c entres a re s o w ell p rotected a s W roxeter a nd t herefore a s s uitable t o f ormulate a l ong-term r esearch p rogramme w ith i ntensive i nvestigation a nd i nterpretation o f t he r emains a nd t heir w ider i mplications. A t W roxeter, i t i s e nvisaged t hat t his w ill e ventually c over a ll a spects o f t he t own a nd i ts d evelopm ent. T he w ork s o f ar h as, a t t he s ame t ime, e nabled n ew t echn iques t o b e d eveloped w hich w ill b enefit e xcavations a t o ther R oman s ettlements. T here a re, h owever, a n umber o f o ther m ajor s ites o f t his p eriod i n t he W est M idlands w here t his s ort o f a ttention w ould b e p ossible g iven a dequate p rotection, t ime a nd r esources. K enchester i s a nother d eserted m ajor s ite a nd t he a rea w ithin t he w alls i s s cheduled a nd u nder p asture; A riconium , B lackwardine a nd C hesterton-on-Fosse a re a lso s ites l argely u nhampered b y l ater b uildings. P art o f w hat a ppears t o b e a n e xtensive R oman s ettlement a t C hesterton/Holditch l ies b eneath W olstanton G olf C ourse, a nd t here a re r estricted, b ut f airly c onsiderable a reas o f R oman A lcester a nd R ocester w hich a re u nencumbered b y l ater f eatures. A t s everal k nown r oadside s ettlements, s uch a s L etocetum, P ennocrucium , a nd M ancetter, a s light s hift i n s ettlement h as l eft p art o f t he R oman n ucleus d eserted o r o ccupied b y o nly a f ew f arm b uildings. B ut, i n t he c ase o f t hese s ettlements, w hile t here m ay b e l ittle i n t he w ay o f m odern r edevelopment, t he R oman r emains a re f requently u nder t hreat f rom t he p lough o r g ravel q uarry. P loughing i s t hought t o h ave b een e specially d amaging t o t he e phemeral l ate R oman l evels a t p laces l ike L etocetum , P ennocrucium a nd V enonae, w hich w ere a lmost t otally t imber-built. B lackwardine, C hestertono n-Fosse a nd S tretton G randison a re a lso a t l east p artly u nder p lough, a s i s p art o f t he s ite a t A riconium a nd t he B roadclose a rea a t M anduessedum . A t R ocester, m edieval a nd p ost-medieval c ultivation a nd m onastic b uildings m ay h ave b een r esponsible f or

d isturbing t he p ossible c ivil s ettlement i n t he a rea o f t he e arly f ort, b ut t o w hat e xtent i s u ncertain s ince i nvestigation h as b een l imited t o a s mall e xcavation o n t he n orth-west c orner o f t he f ort. T he r oadside n uclei a t T ripontium, U xacona a nd V enonae w ere a lmost c ompletely d eserted a s s ettlement s ites a nd h ave n ot b een s ubject t o t he s ame k ind o f t hreat a s A lcester, D roitwich a nd W orcester, w hich a re t owns t oday. N evertheless a gricultural a ctivity a nd s mall-scale r edevelopment c an b e v ery d estructive o f t he a rchaeology a nd o ften p asses u nnoticed, b eing i nsidious a nd p iecemeal. S ome r oadside s ettlements h ave s uffered o n a l arge s cale f rom t his k ind o f a ctivity, n otably T ripontium w here m ost o f t he s ettlement h as b een r emoved b y g ravel e xtraction. A t U xacona, a l arge p art o f t he f ort c omplex h as b een d estroyed b y t he r eservoir a nd t he l imited e xcavations d id n ot e nable a g reat d eal t o b e d iscovered a bout t he m ilitary a ctivity. M uch o f t he s ettlement a t V enonae h as b een d estroyed b y r oad w orks. W here i nvestigation h as t aken p lace, i t h as b een l imited t o s alvage r ecording a nd t his h as n ot c ontributed a g reat d eal t o o ur u nderstanding o f t he f unction a nd h istory o f t he s ite. I n a ddition, t his t ype o f s ettlement h as n ot a ttracted t he e nthusiasm g enerally g iven t o s ites w ith l ess e phemeral a nd m ore s pectacular r emains s uch a s s tone b uildings a nd m osaics. O f c ourse, w here u rban r enewal i s t he t hreat, t he q uestion o f c ontinuity, w hich h as b een t he s ubject o f s o m uch a cademic d iscussion i n r ecent y ears, p resents o pportunities f or t hose w ho h ope t o s olve t he q uestion o f w hether u rbanism s urvived a s a w ay o f l ife i nto t he p ost-Roman p eriod. T o s ome e xtent t his h as r einforced t he b ias t owards t he m ajor c entres i n p reference t o t he r oadside n uclei. W hen t he s cale o f u rban r edevelopment i ncreased i n t he 1 960s a nd e arly 1 970s , a ttention w as f ocused o n t his t hreat a s t he m ost i mmediate a nd d amaging t o a rchaeol ogical r emains o f a ll p eriods. T he L ich S treet d evelopment a t W orcester i s a p rime e xample o f t he e normous s train o n r esources w hich f aced a rchaeologists a t t hat t ime ( Barker 1 970 , 4 4-60). S ince t hen, h owever, f inancial c onstraints h ave r educed t he s cale o f r edevelopment i n t owns t o r ather m ore m anageable p rop ortions a nd t he u rban s ite h as, i n t urn, b ecome a m ore r ealistic a rchaeological o bjective t han t he t otal e xcavation o r s alvage r ecording o f a d eserted s ettlement. M any

s ettlements,

w hich

a re

n ot

s ubject

t o

u rban

r enewal,

h ave t herefore f allen b ehind i n t he s tudy o f R omano-British s ettlements, r eceiving, i f a ny, o nly c ursory a rchaeological a ttention i n t he p ast a nd n one i n r ecent y ears. T he p otential o f A riconium, C hesterton-on-Fosse, R ocester, a nd U xacona i s s till u ndetermined, w hile R utunium , S tretton G randison, a nd T wyford a re o nly k nown f rom c hance f inds a nd a erial p hotographs. B ut o ne s ignificant a dvance i n o ur k nowledge o ver t he p ast f ew y ears h as b een t he e vidence w hich h as b egun t o e merge f or t he s ize o f m any o f t hese s ettlements, i ncluding t hose w hich t ake t he f orm o f u rban d evelopment a long R oman r oads. I t h as b ecome c lear t hat, w here t hese s ettlements w ere d efended, t he e nclosed a rea i s n o i ndication o f t he s ize o f t he s ettlement o r, e ven i n s ome c ases, o f a n ucleus, a nd t he l imits o f m any s ettlements r emain

u ndefined. A erial p hotographs h ave i ndicated a c onsiderable a mount o f s ettlement o utside t he w alled a rea a t K enchester. A f air a mount o f t he e xtramural e nvirons t o t he e ast o f t he d efended a rea h as b een l ost ‚ w ithout i nvestigation ‚ to t he g ravel q uarry , a nd t his a rea i ncluded a n umber o f c ropmarks w hose d ate a nd r elationship t o t he R omano-British s ettlement m ust n ow r emain u nknown ( Baker 1 970 , 4 5-8). I t i s s urprising t hat e ven w here t he a rchaeology o f a R omano-British s ettlement w as t hought t o b e s ufficiently i mportant t o w arrant p rotection, a s a t K enchester, t hat t he s cheduling s hould h ave b een l imited t o t he w alled a rea s ince t his c an i n n o w ay d efine t he l imits o f a rchaeological i nterest i n t he s ite. I t w as a pparently o nly b ecause s ome o f t he c ropmarks a ppeared t o r epresent a R omano-Celtic t emple, a nd p ossibly o ther s tone b uildings i n t he r emaining a rea o f t he g ravel c oncession, t hat a d ecision w as m ade t o e xamine i n 1 977-1978 a n u nscheduled a rea, o utside t he w alls. I ronically, t he s ite i n q uestion p roved t o b e, n ot t hat o f a t emple, b ut a pparently a R omanised f armstead o r v illa, w hose p re-Roman o ccupation a nd p roximity t o t he d efended n ucleus m ake i t a v ery i nteresting s ite i n t erms o f t he r elationship b etween i ntramural a nd e xtramural a reas i n t he p rocesses o f n ucleation a nd u rbanisation ( Rahtz, T omber a nd W ilmott f orthcoming). A part f rom t he e xcavation a t K enchester, t he m ajority o f t he r ecent w ork o n t he R oman n ucleated s ettlements o f t he r egion h as b een c onducted i n r esponse t o t he t hreat o f u rban r enewal a nd t his h as i nvolved t he m ore m ajor R oman c entres , n amely A lcester, D roitwich, W hitchurch a nd W orcester, t hus l eaving t he r oadside s ettlements o utside t he p rofessional r escue o rbit. A s t he s cale o f r edevelopment i ncreased i n t he 1 970s, m any l ocal g roups h ad f ound t hemselves u nable t o c ope w ith t he r escue t hreat i n t heir s pare t ime. T he W hitchurch A rea A rchaeological G roup , w hich w as f ormed i n 1 977, a ttempted t o d eal w ith a n umber o f s mall s ites i n W hitchurch b ut, o n t he w hole, t he i ncreasing i nvolvement o f p rofessionals i n o rgani sations s uch a s t he C BA, R ESCUE a nd W EMRAC, w hich w ere c onc erned w ith t he i mmediate l arge s cale—threats, m eant t hat t he l ocal g roups r edirected t heir a ctivities t o s mall-scale r escue t hreats, s alvage r ecording o r l imited r esearch t argets. S ome g roups h ave b een a ble t o c ontinue t heir w ork o n a r egular b asis; t he R ugby A rchaeological S ociety h as s teadily, t hroughout t he 1 960s a nd 1 970s, r ecorded t he t hreatened a reas o f t he r oadside s ettlement a t T ripontium , and t he S outh S taffordshire A rchaeo logical a nd H istorical S ociety h as p rogressed w ith t he r esearch e xcavation o f t he g uardianship s ite a t L etocetum . T he R oman R esearch G roup o f t he S hropshire A rchaeological S ociety s till r egularly c onducts s mall r esearch e xcavations c hiefly o n t he R oman r oad a lignments a nd o ther a spects o f t he R oman e nvirons o f W roxeter.

I t t herefore t ends t o b e a t t he m ajor c entres t hat a rchaeo logical p otential h as b een a ssessed m ost a dequately. T he r esearch e xcavations a t W roxeter h ave i ncreased c onsiderably

b oth i n s cale a nd o bjective s ince w ork b egan i n 1 955. W ebster's e xcavation i s e ngaged i n t he i nvestigation o f t he i nitial m ilita ry a nd e arly c ivil o ccupation c oncentrating a t p resent o n t he s ite o f t he m acellum . I n 1 966, B arker b egan w ork o n b ehalf o f t he A ncient M onuments I nspectorate w ith t he a im o f i nvesti gating t he b aths b asilica t o e nable i t t o b e c onsolidated f or d isplay. U nder h is d irection, t he a dvantages o f m eticulous e xcavation o f a n e xtensive a rea w ere e stablished p articularly w ith r egard t o t he l atest o ccupation l evels o f t he c ity c entre. B oth e xcavations a re l ong t erm a nd ' carried o ut a t a p ace a nd i ntensity a ppropriate t o r esearch p rojects' ( White 1 975 , 3 ). O ther p arts o f t he c ity, w hich h ave b een u nder i nvestigation b y t he A ncient M onuments I nspectorate, a re t he d efences t o t he e ast g ate a nd t he R oman w ater s upply. A s f ar a s t he r esults o f t his m ore r ecent w ork a re c oncerned, t he e xcavations a t W roxeter h ave c ontributed a g reat d eal t o o ur k nowledge o f t he h istory o f t he m ajor p ublic b uildings a nd t heir s ignificance i n t he d evelopment o f t he s ite. B ut i nformation a bout t he e conomic a nd s ocial e nvironment o f t he c ity i s c onfined t o t he m aterial f rom t he e arly e xcavations b y A tkinson, B usheF ox, K enyon a nd W right o n t he a reas f ronting t he m ain s treet ( Wacher 1 974a, 3 59, 3 69-71). V ery l ittle w ork h as b een d one o n t he p rivate h ouses o r t he m inor p ublic a nd r eligious b uildi ngs. A t A lcester r escue e xcavations i n t he 1 960s a nd 1 970s o n v arious s ites i n t he v ery l arge e xtramural s ettlement a rea o utside t he d efences, c ombined w ith t he e xcavations o f t he E xtramural D epartment o f t he U niversity o f B irmingham i n t he 1 950s, h ave p roduced a g ood d eal o f i nformation a bout t he p hysi cal a nd e conomic c haracter o f t he s ettlement. I t h ad a n i rr egular s treet p attern a nd a c omplex o f t imber a nd d aub s truct ures a nd s ubstantial s tone b uildings ,which u nderwent s uccessive r ebuilding a nd r eplanning, a nd c ombined b oth r esidential a nd i ndustrial/commercial a ctivities ( Booth 1 980 , 4 -5). T he c omp lexity o f t his a rea a nd t he v igorous a nd d iversified e conomy o f t he s ettlement h as h elped t o r evise e xpectation s a bout t he i ntensity a nd v ariety o f u rban l ife i n t he o ther m ajor R oman c entres o f t he r egion. T hese e xcavations a re a s y et u npublished b ut t he i nformation a bout R oman A lcester h as b een d rawn t ogether b y B ooth ( 1980). A t D roitwich i nformation h as c ome f rom c ont rolled e xcavation b y B irmingham U niversity s ince 1 954 o f t he B ays M eadow v illa c omplex t o t he n orth o f t he r iver S alwarpe, a nd t he s alt-working i ndustry t o t he s outh. E xcavations a t F riar S treet i n 1 973-1975, t he B owling G reen, R ickett's L ane i n 1 977-1979 a nd H anbury S treet i n 1 980 a s w ell a s o bservations f rom 1 975-1981 o f v arious o ther s ites a long t he r iver v alley h ave p roduced i nformation a bout t he s alt i ndustry a nd a bout t he t opography o f t he R oman s ettlement, a lthough l ittle i s k nown a bout t he c haracter o f t he s ettlement h ere. T he r ecentexc avations a t D roitwich a re u npublished a s y et b ut t he r esults o f s ome o f t he w ork h ave b een s ummarised b y F reezer ( 1977). A t T iddington, e xcavations i n 1 980-1981 a dded v ery c ons iderably t o e xisting k nowledge f rom e arlier i nvestigations

a t v arious p oints i n 1 923-1924, 1 925-1927 a nd 1 937-1939 ( Fieldh ouse, M ay a nd W ellstood 1 931; W ebster 1 974a , 5 3; S later a nd W ilson 1 977, 2 1-2, 2 8). T he s ettlement c omprises r esidential a nd l ight i ndustrial a ctivity, a t l east p art o f w hich i s e nc losed, s ited a long a r oad b eside t he R iver A von ( Palmer 1 981, 1 6A). T here h as a lso b een a c ertain a mount o f w ork a t W hitchurch s ince t he f irst c ontrolled e xcavation i n t he n orth-west p art o f t he e nclosed a rea ( Newtown/Yardington) i n 1 965-1966 ( Jones, 1 969). P rior t o t his, i nformation h ad b een m inimal a nd o btaine d o nly f rom o bservations a nd s alvage r ecording ( Houghton 1 962). M ore r ecent w ork h as n ot b een p ublished a nd i ncludes a n e xc avation t o t he r ear o f t he N ational W estminster B ank 1 9761 977, o n t he s outh-west s ide o f t he p robable a xis o f t he R oman s ettlement, a nd a n e xcavation i n 1 977 o n t he n orth d efences ( Bargates/Yardington) a s w ell a s o bservations a t v arious p oints a long t he m ain t horoughfare ( Rogerson 1 973; B urrow 1 976 ; T oms 1 977; S tewart 1 980). T here i s s till v ery l ittle i nformation o n w hich t o b ase a n a ssessment o f t he c haracter o f R oman W hit c hurch a nd i ts i mportance, a nd t he a rchaeological p otential o f t he s ettlement h as n ot r eally b een e stablished. T he i nforma tion f rom o ne s ite i n p articular ( the N ational W estminster B ank) , suggests t hat d eposits a t t he s outhern e nd o f t he h ill o n w hich t he m edieval, m odern a nd p resumably t he R oman n ucleus i s l ocated, m ay h ave b een d amaged b y l evelling a nd t erracing ( Toms 1 977).

A lthough t here h ad b een o ne o r t wo s mall-scale e xcavations i n t he 1 950s a nd e arly 1 960s, i nterest i n t he c haracter o f R oman W orcester r eally d eveloped a s a r esult o f e xcavation, i n 1 965, a t L ich S treet, w hich l ocated a s uccession o f d efensive d itches, a nd a t B road S treet ( 1966-1968), w hich r evealed a l arge i ronworking c omplex. T his a nd t he p resence o f l arge q uantities o f i ron s lag i n o ther a reas o f t he t own s uggested t hat a v ital a spect o f R oman W orcester m ay h ave b een i ronw orking ( Barker 1 970 , 6 3-74 ; C arver 1 980, 2 0). S ubsequently t here h ave b een a n umber o f s mall-scale e xcavations, b ut t he o nly m ajor e xcavation h as b een a t S idbury ( 1976-1977). T his w as t he f irst a rea e xcavation i n W orcester a nd t he r esulting i nformation h as m ade a s ignificant c ontribution t o t he t opog raphical f ramework o f R oman W orcester; i t e stablished t he e xistence o f a r oad a lignment w hich w as a l asting f eature o f t he d evelopment o f a n a rea w hich p robably l ay j ust o utside t he d efences o n t he s outh-east. S everal p hases o f d evelopment w ere i nvolved, a lthough t he r emains a ssociated w ith a ctivity a longside a nd s ometimes o n t he r oad s urface w ere v ery e phemeral. O nly i nterim c onclusions a re a vailable a t p resent ( Sawle 1 977, 4 3-5; C arver 1 980 , 1 61-3, 1 75). A s a t A lcester v ery l ittle i s k nown a bout t he s ettlement w ithin t he p resumed c ircuit o f t he d efences a part f rom t he i nformation f rom c hance f inds. B ut C arver h as r ecently p resented a p reliminary s ynthesis o f a ll t he a vailable i nformation a nd p roposed a n ew m odel f or t he R oman s ettlement ( Carver 1 980 , 1 -2, 1 9-26).

T hus A lcester, D roitwich, W orcester a nd W roxeter ,a nd t o a l esser e xtent K enchester ,have p roduced t he m ost i nformation a bout t he c haracter o f i ndividual R oman s ettlements i n t he r egion, w hile t here i s s ome i nteresting b ut l imited d ata a bout t he c haracter o f t he s ettlements a t L etocetum , M anduessedum , T iddington a nd T ripontium. T he m inimal a mount o f i nformation f rom A riconium , B lackwardine, C hesterton/Holditch , L eintwardine, P ennocrucium , R ocester, S tretton G randison, U xacona a nd W hit c hurch h as n ot y et e stablished t heir c haracter.

T he b ody o f i nformation a vailable f or t he s tudy o f R omanoB ritish s ettlements i n t he W est M idlands i s n ot i nconsiderable b ut t he b asic i nformation f rom t hese s ettlements i s t oo v aried t o s upport a ny g eneral s tatements a mout t he f unction a nd d evelo pment o f t he n ucleated s ettlements o f t he r egion. T he i nform ation f rom o ne s ettlement d oes n ot h elp o ur u nderstanding o f a nother, a nd t he a reas w hich h ave b een e xamined a re g enerally i nsufficient t o e stablish a ll t he f acets o f a s ettlement's c haracter. T hus a lthough t he i ron i ndustry w as a n i mportant a spect o f t he d evelopment o f R oman W orcester, i t i s i mpossible t o a ssess h ow v ital t his f eature w as. S imilarly, t here m ay b e f actors o ther t han t he s alt i ndustry i n t he d evelopment o f D roitwich. S o l ittle o f t he s ettlement a s a w hole h as b een e xamined i n e ach c ase t hat i t w ould b e u nrealistic t o b ase a n a nalysis o f t he c haracter a nd f unction o f R oman W orcester o r R oman D roitwich o n t he i nformation a vailable a t p resent. O n t he o ther h and, s ufficient i s k nown t o b e r easonably c ertain t hat t hese a re s ettlements w hose i nvestigation w ill c ontribute g reatly t o o ur u nderstanding o f t he n ature o f s ettlement g rowth a nd t he e conomic d evelopment o f t he r egion i n t his p eriod. O ne p oint w hich h as b een d emonstrated c learly b y r ecent e xcavations i s t hat t he n ucleated s ettlements o f t he r egion a re c omplex a nd v aried, t hat t here w as c onsiderable d iversity i n f unction, e conomy a nd p hysical l ayout b etween o ne s ettlement a nd a nother. T he i mportance o f t he t imber b uilding t radition i s a f actor w hich h as e merged c learly, n ot o nly a t W roxeter, w here i t i s p articularly s ignificant i n t he l atest p hases, b ut a t W orcester w here a ll t he b uildings s o f ar d iscovered h ave b een t imber o r l argely t imber b uilt, a nd a t A lcester w here t his t radition a pparently e xisted a longside, a nd w as a lmost i nterchangeable w ith, t hat o f s tone. T he s pectrum o f s ettlement i n t he W est M idlands i n t he R oman p eriod i s w ide, a nd i n t his r espect, t his r egion r eflects t he c omplexity a nd v ariety o f s ettlement i n t he c ivil z one a s aw hole ( Burnham 1 979, 2 59). T he p receding o utline o f r ecent w ork m akes i t c lear t hat a ttention h as b een f ocused l argely o n t he m ajor c entres. T his h as b een d ictated b y t hreats t o s ome e xtent b ut t he l evel o f e xpectation i s u ndeniably a n i mportant f actor. T here i s a t endency t o a nticipate r ather l ess o f a r eturn f rom a r oadside s ettlement t han f rom a m ajor c entre, s uch a s A lcester, a nd t his a pproach h as a v ery r eal e ffect u pon t he a ssessment o f a s ettlement's o verall i mportance. T here i s t he u nderlying

a ssumption t hat t he m ajor c entres, a nd a bove a ll W roxeter, w ill h ave a w ider r ange a nd h igher p ercentage o f e xotic a nd u nusual i tems. T here i s a lso a c ertain d egree o f e xpectation w ith r egard t o t he v olume o f c oins l ikely t o b e f ound i n a R oman t own a s d istinct f rom a r oadside s ettlement ( see e .g. B arker 1 970, 1 05). T his c arries t he i mplication t hat t he e vidence f rom a m ajor c entre i s n ot o nly m ore i nteresting a nd v aried, b ut a lso m ore i nformative a nd o f a b etter q uality. W hile t here i s a c ertain a mount o f t ruth i n t hese d istinctions w ith r egard t o t he s ort o f m aterial a nd t ype o f d eposits a vailable, i t w ould b e u nwise t o m ake t his a c riterion f or s electing s ites f or e xcavation. A n a ssessment o f t he e vidence s upports t he c onclusion t hat t here i s a d ifference i n t he q uality o f t he d eposits, i n t he d epth o f t he s tratigraphy a nd i n t he n ature o f t he f inds b etween r oadside s ettlements a nd m ajor c entres, b ut t his n eed n ot m ean t hat t he r oadside s ettlements p roduce l ess o f a r eturn o r t hat t he q uality o f t he i nformation a vailable f rom t hese s ettlements i s l ess v aluable. T here i s a c ase f or c onsidering m ore c losely t he r esearch p olicy f or t he r oadside s ettlements, w hich m ight a lso i nvolve d ifferent t echniques o f e xcavation a nd a nalysis. E ven t o g roup t hese r oadside s ettlements t ogether d oes o bscure t he d ifferences b etween t hem . T he b ias i n t he p resent a pproach i s d ifficult t o r econcile w ith t he c ase o f T ripontium , w hich h as p roduced a n u nusual v ari ety a nd n umber o f i nformative f inds. T hese i nclude a l ead p ig f rom D erbyshire, v arious t iles i nscribed w ith c ursive s cript, o ne o f w hich r ecords t he C ivitas ' CORIELTAVVOROM ', p erhaps t he m ore c orrect s pelling o f t he t ribal n ame n ormally g iven a s C oritani ( Britannia , 1 4, 3 49-51); t here i s a lso a ' late R oman ' b uckle, a s ilver p in o f l ate o r p ost-Roman d ate o f B ritish t ype w ith I rish a ffinities, a nd a b ronze f igurine o f a m ounted w arrior-god f rom o ne o f t he w ells. M any o f t hese f inds w ere n ot r ecovered f rom s tratified c ontexts, w hich i s u nfortunate s ince a m ajor q uestion i s w hether t hese f inds h ave a nything t o d o w ith t he c haracter a nd s tatus o f t he s ettlement. I s a ny i mportance t herefore t o b e a ttached t o t he s ettlement, o r i s i t m erely t he s ituation o f T ripontium w hich i s t he r elevant f actor? A nd h ow i s t he p otential o f t he s ite t o b e a ssessed? W hile t he d eposits a t T ripontium m ay b e n o d ifferent i n c haracter a nd n o b etter p reserved t han t hose a t L etocetum o r P ennocrucium o r a ny o ther o f t he r oadside s ettlements, n evertheless, t hese f inds s uggest t hat s ome s ort o f p riority s hould b e g iven t o t he p roper r ecovery o f t he e vidence f rom T ripontium a s p art o f a d eliberate p olicy, i f o nly b ecause t he i ncidental i nforma tion w hich t he f inds f rom t he s ettlement h as p roduced, h as a r elevance b eyond t he s ite i tself. T hese f inds f rom T ripontium d o a t l east e mphasise t hat t hese r oadside s ettlements a re b y n o m eans s traightforward a nd p redictable, n or i nsignificant i n t heir c ontribution t o t he o verall p icture o f t he d evelopment o f t he r egion d uring t he R oman p eriod.

11-

A lthough t here i s a t p resent a u seful b ody o f a rchaeo logical m aterial f rom t he R oman W est M idlands, i ts a rrangement i nto s ome s ort o f c hronological a nd e volutionary p attern h as h ardly b egun. I t i s u nfortunate t hat m uch o f t he i nformation a bout A riconium , K enchester a nd T iddington w as r ecovered d uring e xcavations i n t he p re-war p eriod a nd t his w ork a nd i ts p ublic ation w as n aturally l acking i n m any r espects. T here a re a lso d ifficulties i n t hat p ublication o f t he r ecent w ork a t A lcester, D roitwich, K enchester, T iddington, W hitchurch, W orcester a nd W roxeter i s l acking. A lcester, D roitwich a nd W roxeter h ave c onsiderable b acklogs, a nd i n t he c ase o f A lcester t his a lso i ncludes t he e xcavations o f t he 1 960s. T he l ack o f p ublication o f t his r ecent w ork m akes i ndependent i nterpretation d ifficult a t t his s tage a nd a ny c onclusions a re n ecessarily t entative. I n g eneral t hough, p ublication o f e xcavations o n R oman s ites h as n ot r eally b een a n o utstanding p roblem. L ocal g roups h ave b een f airly c onsistent i n p ublishing t heir r eports i n t he c ounty j ournals, a lthough t here r emains a b acklog o f u npublished e xc avations f rom t he R omano-British k iln s ites a t B roadclose ( Manduessedum) a nd f rom t he b ath h ouse a nd v illa s ites a t L eto cetum . W ith t he e xception o f t he B roadclose a rea a t M anduesse dum a nd t he B irch A bbey 1 964-1966 e xcavations a t A lcester, i nterim r eports o n t he m ajority o f t he e xcavations h ave b een p ublished a nnually i n t he W est M idlands A rchaeological N ews S heet ( West M idlands A rchaeology). T he U rban A rchive f or t he W est M idlands r egion c ontains a ll k nown r eferences t o p ublished a nd u npublished m aterial.

I I.

T he C lassification o f S ettlements : L egal C onsiderations

T here i s a c ertain a mount o f h istorical e vidence i n t he f orm o f I tinerary r eferences a nd a f ew i nscriptions o n w hich t o b ase a l egal c lassification o f t he R omano-British s ettlem ents o f t he r egion. T his e vidence c onsists o f v arious t erms d enoting d ifferences i n l egal s tatus b etween c ommunities, t hat i s, t he t erms c olonia a nd m unicipium w ere u sed f or t he c hartered t owns, a nd t he t erm v icus f or u nchartered s ettlements ( Jones 1 974b, 7 -8 ; W ebster 1 975a, 1 44-5; W acher 1 974,18 a nd 2 02; 1 979 6 6-7). T hese t erms w ere u sed t o d istinguish s ettlements w hich h ad a n o fficial o r l egal s tatus w ithin t he o verall a dministrative a nd j udical m achinery o f t he p rovince.

B asically, t his l egal a nd a dministrative f ramework s eems t o h ave i nvolved t he d ivision o f t he p rovince i nto a n umber o f c ivitates, p robably b ased o n e xisting t ribal u nits, f or w hich t he a dministrative c entre ( excluding c oloniae) w as t he c ivitas c apital. T here i s e vidence f rom G aul t hat t he c ivitas c ould b e d ivided i nto s maller u nits o r p agi, d ependent s ubd ivisions o r d istricts o f t he c ivitas. E ach p agus p robably h ad i ts o wn a dministrative c entre s ubordinate t o t he c ivitas, a lthough t here i s n o p ositive e vidence t hat p agi e xisted i n R oman B ritain ( Rivet 1 964, 6 6 a nd 1 35; 1 975, 1 12; F rere 1 974, 2 40 ; W acher 1 974a , 4 1 ; J ohnson 1 975, 7 6).

I t i s l ikely t hat, a part f rom t he c ivitas a nd p agus c entres, w hich w ould h ave a l egal i dentity a s s ettlements w ith a n a dmini strative f unction, t here w ere o ther s ettlements w hich w ere d istinguished a s v ici, a lthough i t i s f ar f rom c lear w hat t his d istinction i nvolved. T here a re o nly t wo k nown s ettlements f rom t he c ivilian a rea o f R oman B ritain w hich a re d escribed a s v ici a nd, a lthough m any m ore a re a ssumed t o e xist, t here i s n o i nformation a s t o t he f unction a nd c haracter o f a v icus.

S ome s cholars h ave a rgued t hat t he t erm v icus s imply r eferred t o a ll t ypes o f s elf-governing c ommunity, o ther t han t he c hart ered t owns, a nd t hat a c ivitas c apital a nd p resumably a p agus c entre, m ay a lso h ave r anked a s a v icus ( Collingwood a nd M yres 1 945, 1 66; M ann 1 960, 2 23; F rere 1 961, 3 2; R ivet 1 964, 6 6; 1 975, 1 12-13; W acher 1 974a 1 4, 2 0-1; J ohnson 1 975, 7 5-7). H owever, t here a re e xamples o f s ettlements i n G aul a nd I taly w hich a re d escribed a s v ici a nd w hich s uggest t hat e ven t his i s t oo n arrow a n a pplication a nd t hat t he t erm w as p robably u sed f or a w ide r ange o f s ettlements p erforming d ifferent f unct ions. T hese m ay h ave i ncluded n ot o nly s elf-governing c omm unities u nder t he r ule o f t he c ivitas b ut s ettlements w hich w ere r esponsible f or m aintaining c ult c entres i n r ural a reas a nd p erhaps e ven s ettlements w hich h ad a l icence t o h old a m arket ( ius n undinarum) ( Wacher 1 974a, 4 1; F rere 1 975, 6 ;

J ohnson 1 975, 7 5 a nd 7 7; R ivet 1 975 , 1 13). T here w ere a lso t he p osts o f t he c ursus p ublicus - m ansiones ( inns) a nd m utati ones ( stopping p laces) - w hich w ere e ssential t o t he m aintena nce o f t he c ommunications n etwork, a nd c entres f or t he c ollect ion o f t he a nnona o r t axes i n k ind. T hese h ad a p lace i n t he l egal a nd a dministrative f ramework i n t he s ense t hat t hey w ere r esponsibilities w hich w ere o fficially i mposed o n t he c ivitas ( Abbott a nd J ohnson 1 926,222-3; R ivet 1 975, 12). S ome o f t he m ansiones a nd t ax c ollection c entres m ay h ave r anked a s v ici.

S o f ar a s i t i s p ossible t o e stablish a nything a bout t he a pplication a nd m eaning o f t he t erm v icus, i t w ould s eem r easonable t o i nfer t hat i t c overed a w ide r ange o f s ettlements, w hich w ere s ubordinate t o t he c ivitas, b ut w hich h ad c ertain r ights a nd p rivileges w hich, i n s ome c ases, m ay h ave i ncluded r ights o f s elf-government. T here i s n o e vidence t o i ndicate h ow a s ettlement q ualified f or s elf-governing s tatus o r m ight e xpect t o r eceive a m arket c harter.

S emantic a rguments a bout t he t erm v icus s eem p ointless, s ince w ithout m ore i nscriptions t here i s n o w ay o f b eing c ertain w hich s ettlements w ere v ici a nd t herefore o f e stablishing t he m ore p recise a pplication a nd u sage o f t he t erm. A s a l egal d istinction , i t n eed n ot r epresent a nything w hich i s r ecognisable a rchaeologically s ince, f or e xample, t he p resence o f t wo m agistr ates n eed n ot r equire s pecial b uildings ( Johnson 1 975, 7 5 a nd 7 7). S o e ven t he d iscovery o f f urther i nscriptions i s p erhaps u nlikely t o b e h elpful i n d efining t he t erm v icus m ore p recisely. E ven o n t he r are o ccasions , s uch a s a t B rough-onH umber a nd W ater N ewton, w here t here i s a n i nscription i ndicating t hat a p articular R omano-British s ettlement r anked a s a v icus, t here i s n o w ay o f e stablishing w hich o f i ts f unctions o r c hara cteristics q ualified i t f or t his d istinction, a lthough a t p res ent t he v ery l imited s cale o f a rchaeological i nvestigation i n b oth c ases d oes r estrict a ny a ttempt a t s uch a n a nalysis ( Wacher 1 974a, 4 0 , 3 93, 3 95 a nd 4 09; J ohnson 1 975, 7 5 a nd 7 7).

A nother p roblem w ith a ttempting t o c orrelate t he l imited h istorical i nformation w ith t he a rchaeological e vidence i s t he f act t hat t he m eaning o f t erms d id n ot n ecessarily r emain t he s ame t hroughout t he p eriod. B y t he l ater 3 rd c entury, i f n ot b efore, t he t erm c ivitas h ad c ome t o m ean n ot t he t ribal t erritory, a s p reviously, b ut t he t ribal c entre ( Stevens 1 937, 1 93-4; J ohnson 1 975, 7 9). I n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury, t he t erm v icus t oo m ay f ourth c entury, w e t o m ean a s m uch o r 1 975, 7 8-9). T here p agus c entres, n one

h ave d enoted s omething d ifferent : ' By t he c an b e f airly c ertain t hat v icus h ad c ome a s l ittle a s o ur t erm " village" ' ( Johnson i s a s imilar p roblem i n t he c ase o f t he o f w hich h as y et b een i dentified i n B ritain.

S imilar p roblems a ttend t he a rchaeological r ecognition o f t he e levation o f e xisting s ettlements t o a h igher a dministr ative s tatus i n t he l ater R oman p eriod. T here i s r eason t o b elieve t hat a dministrative r eorganisation i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies l ed t o t he c reation o f a dditional c ivitates a n ew g eneration o f c ivitas c apitals a nd p erhaps p agus c entres a lso. T his m ay h ave b een a chieved b y ' promoting' e xisting c entr es, w hich l acked t he p lanning a nd p ublic b uildings o f t he e arlier c entres. I n t he f inancial c limate o f t he l ater R oman p eriod, e ven t he e arlier c ivitas c apitals, s uch a s S ilchester a nd W roxeter, s eem t o h ave b een a ble t o f unction w ithout s uch f eatures ( Wacher 1 975). C onsequently, i n t he a bsence o f e pigraphic e vidence, t hese l ater c ivitates w ould a lso b e d ifficult t o i dentify. H owever, i t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat t hese s ettlements, a s w ell a s t he e arlier p agus c entres, w ould h ave t o b e a ble t o p rovide t he n ecessary s ocial e lite t o p erform t he a dministrative d uties, a nd t hat t hey w ould p robably t herefore h ave s hared i n a h igh l evel o f R omanisation a nd h ave h ad a d iversified e conomic a nd f unctional b asis ( Stevens 1 937, 1 93, 1 99-201; R ivet 1 966, 1 09; 1 975, 1 13; W acher 1 974a, 4 05-10 ; J ohnson 1 975, 7 8; B urnham 1 979, 2 57). I t i s l ogical t o a ssume t hat t he s ettlements w ould h ave b een p romoted a s l ower c ivitates w ould h ave b een t hose m ost a ble t o c ope w ith t he i ncreasing e conomic b urdens w hich t he c ivitas c apitals w ere a pparently e xpected t o b ear i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies ( Frere 1 974, 3 17-19; T odd 1 976, 1 18-19). I f c orrect, t his p rovides c ertain g uidelines f or t he a rchaeological r ecognition o f s ettlem ents w hich m ay h ave q ualified f or s uch a dministrative r oles.

I II.

T he C lassification o f S ettlements: C ities, T owns a nd V illages

T he a mbiguity o f t he l egal t erminology c uts a cross a nother p roblem c oncerning t he c lassification o f R omano-British n ucl eated s ettlements, t hat i s t he q uestion o f d efining a t own. T he l egal c lassifications d o n ot s eem t o b e d irectly r elevant t o t he d ebate o ver w hich s ettlements c an b e c lassed a s t owns i n R oman B ritain , p articularly s ince t here i s a t l east a s usp icion t hat t he l egal t erm v icus e mbraced s ettlements w hich, o n e conomic a nd s ocial c riteria, w ere n ot u rban, a s w ell a s s ettlements w hich w ere. T he g rant o f am arket c harter o r r ights o f s elf-government i n t he R oman p eriod n eed n ot d istinguish a t own f rom a v illage, i n t he s ame w ay a s a b orough c harter i n t he m edieval p eriod d id n ot n ecessarily m ake a t own ( Garnsey 1 976, 2 ; R ivet 1 976, 6 6).

S ome s cholars a rgue t hat t he o nly R omano-British s ettlem ents w hich c an b e c lassed a s t owns a re t he c oloniae, m unicipia a nd c ivitas c apitals f or, a s f ar a s t he R omans w ere c oncerned, t owns w ere e ssentially c entres w ith a dministrative f unctions a nd s hould r epresent ' government, p ublic o rder a nd c orporate l ife' a nd b e p rovided w ith t he a ppropriate p ublic b uildings ( Todd 1 970a , 15-16; F rere 1 974 , 2 75; W acher 1 974a, 1 5 , 1 7, 2 0-1; B urnham 1 979, 2 56). S o, a lthough a s ettlement m ight h ave p erformed s ocial a nd e conomic f unctions a t a l evel w hich m ight b e c ommensurate w ith t hose w ith u rban l egal s tatus, i f i t l acked a n a dministrative f unction i t c ould n ot b e r egarded a s a t own. T he s ocial a nd e conomic a spects w ere v ery i mportant a s w ell, s ince t he t own w as r egarded a s a v ehicle o f R oman c ivilisation a nd t hese f actors m ust h ave b een i mportant i n t he s election o f s ites f or c ivitas c apitals a nd p agus c entres ( Wacher 1 974a, 3 7). A ccording t o t he M editerranean u rban i deal, a c ity w as a s ettlement w ith s ocial, e conomic, e ducational a nd d efensive f unctions a s w ell a s h aving a p lace i n t he a dmini strative f ramework ; i t h ad a p lanned l ayout a nd c ontained p ublic b uildings a nd a menities s uited t o t hese f unctions b asilica, f orum , b aths, t emples, a nd a mphitheatre ( Wacher 1 974a, 2 1 a nd 4 05; R ivet 1 975, 1 13). A ccording t o t hese c rit eria, t he c oloniae, m unicipia a nd c ivitas c apitals w ere t he o nly s ettlements i n R oman B ritain w hich w ere p rovided w ith t he r ange o f s ervices, a menities a nd f unctions w hich a R oman f rom a nother p rovince w ould r ecognise a s c onstituting a t own.

T here h as b een s ome a greement t hat t he c oloniae, m unici pia a nd c ivitas c apitals s hould b e c lassed s eparately a s c ities ( Rivet 1 975, 11; R odwell a nd R owley 1 975, 1 ; B urnham 1 979, 2 56-7). H owever, t he M editerranean i deal o n w hich t hese c ent res w ere m odelled w as n ot n ecessarily r ealised i n t he a ppropr iate f unctional a nd p hysical a ttributes, a nd i s v ery l imited i n i ts u se i n a ttempting t o l abel s ettlements. F urthermore,

t his m odel a ppears t o h ave l ess r elevance f or d evelopments i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies t han i t d oes f or t he p eriod o f c onquest a nd c onsolidation i n t he i st a nd e arly 2 nd c enturies. A fter t his e arly p eriod o f u rban d evelopment, t here s eem t o h ave b een s everal c hanges i n e mphasis. T here a ppears t o h ave b een n o f ollow u p t o t he F lavian a nd H adrianic p olicies o f e ncouraging t he e stablishment a nd d evelopment o f c ities o n t he M editerranean m odel, b ut a t l east s ome o f t he c ities c ont inued t o f unction i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies, a nd p resumably t o e xpress t heir c orporate i dentity a nd p erform t heir a dminist rative f unctions, e ven w hen t heir p ublic b uildings w ere n o l onger i n u se. A s m entioned a bove, t he p ossible c reation o f n ew c ivitates i n t he l ater 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies m ay w ell h ave i nvolved t he e levation o f c ertain e xisting s ettlements t o t he s tatus o f a dministrative c entre. T he n ormal c onsequence o f d esignation o r s election a s a c ivitas c apital i n t he e arly R oman p eriod - t he p lanned l ayout, p ublic b uildings a nd c ivic a menities - w ere p resumably t hought t o b e d ispensible i n t he c ase o f t he l ater e levations o r c ould n ot b e a fforded a t t his t ime. S ettlements w hich h ave b een s uggested a s p ossible n ew c entres - C arlisle, W ater N ewton a nd I lchester - m ay h ave b een c hosen o n t he g rounds t hat t heir s ocial c omplexity a nd t heir d egree o f e conomic s uccess q ualified t hem f or a dministrative r esponsibilities, e ven t hough t hey m ay h ave d iffered f rom t he e arly c ivitas c apitals a nd f rom e ach o ther i n t heir p hysical l ayout a nd a ttributes ( Frere 1 974, 3 17-19; W acher 1 974a 4 051 0 ; R ivet 1 975, 1 13; T odd 1 976, 1 18-19; B urnham 1 979, 2 57).

A side f rom t he d ecision t o u se t he t erm ' city ' f or c olo niae, m unicipia a nd c ivitas c apitals a nd t he t erm ' town ' f or o ther u rban c entres, t here i s n o a greement a s t o t he d efinition o f s ettlements w hich w e m ay l egitimately c all t owns. D ifferent d isciplines h ave d ifferent c riteria f or d istinguishing a t own, a nd e ven w ithin t he s ame d iscipline i ndividuals m ay d isagree a bout t he p recise p oint a t w hich a s ettlement b ecomes a t own ( Schledermann, 1 970 , 15-27). U rbanisation c an b e r egarded a s p art o f a c ontinuous s pectrum o f s ettlement f orm a nd t ype. B etween t he c ities a nd t he R omano-British f armsteads t here w as a w hole r ange o f s ettlements o f v arious f orms, s izes, f unct ions a nd l evels o f R omanisation. F or t hese s ettlements, w e h ave o nly a rchaeological e vidence f or t heir s tatus a nd f unction i n t he e conomic a nd s ocial, a s w ell a s t he l egal a nd a dminist rative f ramework o f R oman B ritain, a nd i t i s n ot p ossible t o s ay h ow R omans f rom a nother p rovince w ould h ave r eferred t o a ny o f t hem. W e m ust t herefore d istinguish b etween w hat t he R omans r egarded a s a t own a nd w hat w e a re p repared t o r ecogn ise a s s uch. T he f ormer,although p ossibly i mportant f or a b etter a ppreciation o f t he f actors i nvolved i n s uch p rocesses a s t he s election o f s ites f or c ivitas c apitals, p agus c entres, t he p rovision o f d efences e tc., i s i rrelevant s ince w e a re u nlikely t o k now a ny m ore a bout t his t han w e d o a t p resent. T he s econd i ssue h as c aused c onsiderable d ebate w ithout a chiev-

i ng a ny c onsensus. T erms s uch a s ' minor t own' a nd ' large v illa ge' a nd i n p articular ' small t own ' h ave b een a pplied i ndiscrimi nately t o a w ide r ange o f s ettlements a nd w ithout t heir m eani ngs b eing e stablished ( Rodwell a nd R owley 1 975, 1 ). W hile t he u se o f t he t erm ' town ' i s f airly g eneral, i t i s n ot u sed s pecifically o f s ettlements w hich h ave b een d efined a s u rban a ccording t o n amed c riteria. T hose w ho u se t he t erm ' small t own' o r e ven ' minor t own' a pply i t i n c onnection w ith v arious t ypes o f s ettlement, e ither s pecifically f or a ny s ettlem ent w hich w as w alled, o r a s a g eneral t erm f or s ettlements w hose a ffinities r emain u nspecified. I f a ny p oint o f a greement c an b e d iscovered i n t he a pplication o f t he t erm ' small t own', i t i s t hat t hey a re s ettlements w ith a n o fficial r aison d 'etre w hich w ere w alled a t a l ater d ate ( Hodder a nd H assall 1 971, 3 92-3, 4 05; H odder 1 975, 6 7; R odwell a nd R owley 1 975). F rere ( 1974, 2 75) d escribed t he ' small t owns' a s ' spontaneous v illage g rowths' w hich m ight d evelop a round p osts o f t he c ursus p ublicus o r a s s pecialised e stablishments s uch a s t he s pa a t B ath, o r l ocal m arket c entres, w hich w ere c alled t owns ' only b ecause t hey w ere w alled l ater i n t heir h istory'. A t t he c onference o n ' The S mall T owns o f R oman B ritain ' h eld a t O xford i n 1 975, i t w as f elt t hat a lthough t he n umber o f n ucleated s ettlements, ( to w hich t erms l ike ' small t own ' h as b een a pplied), w as l arge a nd i ncluded m any s ites w hich w ere v ery d ifferent i n c haracter, n evertheless, ' firm l ines o f d ivision c ould b e d rawn b etween s o-called t owns, v illages e tc., a nd t hat t he w hole r ange o f s ettlements w ould n eed t o b e d iscussed ' ( Rodwell a nd R owley 1 975, 1 ). I n o ther w ords, s ettlements o f w idely d ifferent c haracter c ould b e d esignated a s t owns. S ize a nd t he p rovision o f d efences w ere n ot s ufficient c riteria, a nd ' minor t own' w as a m ore u seful u mbrella t erm t han ' small t own ' o r ' large v illage'. H owever n o a greement w as a chieved o n t he b asic c rit eria f or a d efinition , l et a lone o n w hich s pecific s ites c ould b e r egarded a s m inor t owns ( Rodwell a nd R owley 1 975, 1 ; R ivet 1 975, 1 11).

A ny a greement a s t o w hat t he r espective c riteria a re t o b e, h as b een m ade m ore d ifficult b ecause o f t he p roblems o f t rying t o f ind e quivalent m odern t erms f or R oman t erminology. O ppidum i s a g eneric t erm f or c ities a nd f or t owns b elow t he r ank o f c ity b ut i ts m eaning h as b ecome c onfused b y i ts a pplica tion t o t he f ortified p re-Roman s ites o f s outhern B ritain a nd o f G aul. U rbs i s u sually t ranslated a s c ity r ather t han t own a nd a ppears t o h ave a ssociations m ore s pecifically w ith a d efended r ather t han a n u ndefended t own. T here a re n o e xamp les o f t he c ontemporary u se o f t his t erm f or s ettlements i n R oman B ritain. V icus, a s w ell a s b eing a l egal t erm , s eems t o h ave b een e xtended, i n a c olloquial s ense, t o i nclude v illa ges a nd h amlets ( Wacher 1 974a, 1 4; J ohnson 1 975, 7 5; R ivet 1 975, 1 11; B urnham 1 979, 2 57-8). N one o f t hese t erms a re d irectly c omparable w ith m odern t erminology s o f ar a s c an b e e stablished a nd i t m ay b e t hat d istinctions b etween u rban a nd

n on-urban s ettlements w ere n ot i mportant. T he R omans m ay h ave b een c oncerned w ith d efining w hich p laces w ere a dministrative c entres a nd w hich w ere t he c entres p erforming c ertain t asks o r p roviding c ertain f unctions, a nd t hey m ay n ot h ave w orried a bout t he t erms f or o ther s ettlements. A nother r eason f or s uggesting t hat t here m ay n ot b e a d irect c omparison b etween t he m odern a nd t he R oman a pproach t o s ettlement c lassification i s t he f act t hat t he e mphasis i n t he R oman p eriod a ppears t o h ave b een o n t he c ivitas o r t ribal u nit r ather t han o n t he n ucleated s ettlements w ithin i t. T he c ivitas c apital h as n o e quivalent L atin t erm a nd w as n ever a R oman c oncept. T he c ivitas c entre d id n ot f orm a s eparate u nit b ut w as j ust a b uilt u p a rea w ith c ertain r ights a nd f unctions w ithin t he c ivitas o f w hich i t f ormed a n i ntegral p art ( Jones 1 974b, 4 5 , 8 ; G arnsey 1 976). T his e mphasis s eems t o h ave s hifted s lightly f ollowing C aracalla's g rant o f R oman c itizenship t o a ll f ree m embers o f t he e mpire i n A D 2 12-214. T he ' edict' m ade i t n ecessary f or c itizens o f t he e mpire t o g ive a s pecific s ettlement, r ather t han a t ribe o r c ivitas a s p reviously, a s t heir p lace o f o rigin ( origo), t hus p lacing a g reater e mphasis o n t he s ettlement a s t he c entre o f a l ocality. T he f act t hat t he t erm ' civitas ', p reviously u sed o f t he t ribe a s c anton , w as u sed a fter C aracalla 's e dict f or t he s ettlement a t i ts c entre a lso r eflects t he c hange o f e mphasis f rom a p iece o f t erritory t o a s ettlement o n w hich t he t erritory w as f ocused, e ven t hough t his w as p robably n ot a ccompanied b y a ny c hange i n t he s ettlement's s tatus ( Stevens 1 937, 1 93-4; W acher 1 974a, 1 4 , 3 4-5, 4 07-8; J ohnson 1 975 , 7 7-8).

T o s um u p: i n a ttempting t o c lassify t he s ubstantial n umber o f n ucleated s ettlements b elow t he r ank o f c ity, t he j uridical d istinctions o f t he R oman l egal s ystem a nd t he r ange o f c olloquial t erms a pparently i n u se i n t he R oman p eriod a re n ot h elpful i n c ategorising p articular s ettlements a s t owns o r v illages. N or c an w e c onsider t he q uestion f rom t he v iewp oint o f c ontemporaries, s ince t his i s u nknowable, a nd i t i s m ore u seful t o e stablish w hat w e c an a ccept t oday a s c onstituti ng a t own i n R oman B ritain. T he p resent i nability t o r each a c onsensus o n w hat c onstitutes a t own h as b een p artly d ue t o t he i nsistence b y s ome R omanists t hat t he c oloniae, m unicipia a nd c ivitas c apitals, w hich s hould r eally b e c lassed s eparately a s c ities, s hould p rovide t he c riteria f or i dentifying w hich R omano-British s ettlements c an b e c alled t owns. I f t he a dminist rative f unction i s s et a side a nd o ther f unctional c riteria a re u sed, i t b ecomes p ossible t o c ategorise t he w ide r ange o f s ettlements a nd d raw d istinctions o n a s tructural a nd f unct ional b asis. T his p rovides s ome s cope f or i dentifying i n R oman B ritain a p henomenon w hich m ay b e c alled a t own a nd w hich i s d ifferent f rom t he v illage a nd f rom t he c ity. I n t he a bsence o f c lear g uidelines f rom t he l iterary a nd e pigraphic s ources, w e h ave t o r ely o n t he a rchaeological e vidence t o p rovide t he d ata o n w hich t o m ake s uch d istinctions.

19-

I V.

T he C lassification o f S ettlements:

T he F unctional B asis

A lthough t here h as b een n o c lear d ecision a s t o w hat w e m ay r egard a s c onstituting a t own b elow t he r ank o f c ity i n R oman B ritain, t here h as b een s ome r ecognition t hat t he w ay t o u nderstand t hese s ettlements a nd t heir u rban c haracteri stics i s t o a ssess t heir f unctions ( Rodwell a nd R owley 1 975, 1 ; R ivet 1 975, 11, 13-4; B urnham 1 979, 2 57). T his a pproach h as b een o utlined i n i ts m ost d eveloped f orm b y B urnham ( 1979) w ho p resented a f unctional-structural m odel f or t he a nalysis o f n ucleated s ettlements. T his m odel, w hich c ombines u rban c haracteristics f rom g eographical, s ociological a nd a nthropo logical d isciplines, e mphasises t he f unctional a nd s ocial c omplexity a nd t he f ormal s tructure a s t he i mportant e lements i n t he a nalysis. I t u ses t he b road d efinition o f a n u rban s ettlement ' as a u nit o f s ettlement ( nucleated) p erforming a r ange o f s pecialised f unctions i n r elation t o a b roader h inter l and - t hese f unctions b eing w hat d ifferentiate i t f rom s elfs ufficient a gricultural v illages - w ith a d ifferentiated c ommuni ty s tructure o f b oth s exes a nd a ll a ges t o d ifferentiate i t f rom a m onastery o r v illa'.

B urnham p resents h is m odel i n d iagrammatic f orm a nd t he c haracteristics w hich h e i dentifies a re s ummarised i n T able 1 .

F ormal S tructure T he i mportance o f l ocation a s a f actor i n e conomic g rowth h as b een e mphasised b y t hose w ho r egard i ntegration i nto t he R oman s ystem o f c ommunications a s a p rimary c onsideration i n t he d evelopment o f a s ettlement i nto a t own ( Rivet 1 975, 11; H odder a nd H assell 1 971, 3 92-3, 4 05). ' It w as t o t he r oad s ystem t hat t he e conomic l andscape b ecame g eared s ince e ase o f m ovement p rovided b y r oads g reatly f acilitated t ransporta tion o f g oods' ( Hodder a nd H assall 1 971, 4 05). H owever, t here a re m any s ettlements l ocated o n m ajor r oads w hich w ould n ot q ualify f or d efinition a s t owns. I t i s p erhaps b etter t o e mphas ise n on-remoteness f rom t he c ommunications n etwork r ather t han t he n eed t o b e s ited o n a m ajor r oad. C learly s ome m ajor c entres, s uch a s A riconium a nd B lackwardine, w ere a ble t o e xist t hrough b eing w ell-served b y ' minor' r oads o nly ( Webster 1 978b).

S ocial C omplexit/ B urnham h as c ommented o n t he d ifficulty o f e stablishing t he d egree o f s ocial c omplexity o n t he b asis o f t he a rchaeo logical e vidence, o ther t han t he m ost g eneral r ecognition o f t he e xistence o f a s ocial e lite, c raft s pecialisation a nd p resumably a p rofessional c lass ( Burnham 1 979, 2 64). S ocial

c omplexity h as a lso b een s tressed b y R ivet a s a v ery i mportant f actor i n e stablishing w hether a s ettlement w ould h ave b een a ble t o q ualify f or a dministrative f unctions ( Frere 1 974, 2 445 , 2 50 a nd 2 93; R ivet 1 975, 13).

F unction S ome o f t he e conomic a nd s ocial f unctions o utlined i n B urnham's m odel h ave b een d iscussed b y f odder a nd H assall w ho e xamine t he p ossibility o f t he d evelopment o f a h ierarchy o f c entres i n t he 2 nd, 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies b ased o n t he p rovision o f s ervices o f a n a dministrative, s ocial a nd e conomic n ature ( Hodder a nd H assall 1 971, 4 05; H odder 1 975, 7 3). E xcluding t he c ities, t his i nvolves ' lesser w alled t owns', l arge u nwalled a nd m inor u nwalled s ettlements. T he ' lesser w alled t owns' w ere d istinguished b y b eing s ituated o n m ajor r oads, a f actor w hich i s r egarded a s b eing o f p rimary i mportance i n t heir g rowth a nd b y b eing w alled i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies ' as a n e xpressi on o f t heir r elative i mportance' ' whatever t he s pecific r easons f or t his b uilding w ere' ( Hodder a nd H assall 1 971, 3 92-3, 4 05; H odder 1 975, 6 7). ' The s maller d efended s ites' w hich i ncludes t hose w hich h ave b een c lassed b y W ebster a s b urgi h ave b een e xcluded f rom t his c ategory o n g rounds o f t heir s ize ( Hodder a nd H assall 1 971, 3 92; H odder 1 975, 6 7; W ebster 1 974a, 5 57 ; 1 975b, 5 3). T he a ctual p ositioning o f t he ' lesser w alled t owns' o n t he r oad n etwork a nd i n r elation t o o ther c entres i s a rgued t o b e i nfluenced b y u nderlying f actors i mplicit i n C entral P lace T heory a nd t herefore t o b e a n on-random p henome non.

A ccording t o t his m odel, t he ' lesser w alled t owns' d evelo ped a s a r esult o f t he n eed t o p rovide s ervices t o a reas r emote f rom t he c ities a nd t hey a cted ' as s ervice c entres f or a reas o f f airly c onstant s ize a nd g rew u p m idway b etween a nd d epende nt o n t wo m ajor c entres' ( that i s c ivitas c apitals a nd c oloni ae) ( Hodder a nd H assall 1 971, 3 93 a nd 4 05; H odder 1 975, 6 8 a nd 7 3). T hese s ervice c entres w ould h ave p rovided a g reater r ange o f s ervices a nd w ould h ave s upplied a w ider a rea t han t he n ext g roup i n t he h ierarchy - t he l arger u nwalled s ettlem ents. T hese l arger u nwalled c entres p robably h ad e conomic f unctions i n c ommon w ith t he l esser w alled t owns b ut t he l atter p rovided a dditional a dministrative a nd s ocial f unctions ( Hodder a nd H assall 1 971, 3 92, 4 05-6; W ebster 1 975b, 5 9). T he r ange o f s ervice f unctions a nd t he a rea s erved i s r egarded a s d ecreasi ng w ith h ierarchical r ank s o t hat, a t t he l owest l evel i n t he h ierarchy, t he m inor u nwalled s ettlement i s d efined a s a cting a s a s imple m arket c entre f or t he e xchange o f a gric ultural s urplus a nd p urchasing o f b asic c ommodities. I t w ould h ave b een l ocated w ithin e asy t ravelling d istance o f t he s urr ounding p opulation g rouped i n v illas, h amlets a nd f armsteads ( Hodder a nd H assall 1 971,

4 04).

W hile t he m ajor m arket c entres w ere a lso l ocal b asic c ommodity m arkets, u nlike t he m inor m arket c entres, t hey s pecial ised t o s ome e xtent i n d ifferent i ndustries a nd o ccasionally a cted a s m arketing a nd r edistribution c entres f or g oods m anuf actured e lsewhere, e ither i n o ther p arts o f t he r egion o r i n t he s urrounding c ountryside. T he p urely l ocal m arket c entre o n t he o ther h and, w as n ot i nvolved i n t he m anufacture o f c ommo dities b eyond t he i mmediate n eeds o f t he c ommunity, o r a r est ricted a gricultural h interland. T here w ere a lso s ome c entres w hich w ere i nvolved i n i ndustry o n a s cale l ikely t o p rovide a s urplus f or r edistribution o n a r egional b asis, p articularly t he c entres o f v ery s pecialised i ndustries w hose l ocation w as d etermined n ot b y t he o verall m arketing f ramework b ut b y t he p resence o f r aw m aterials. T hese c entres s erved a m uch w ider m arket, a lthough m any a lso a cted a s p urely l ocal m arket c entres s upplying t he u sual r ange o f c ommodities f or t heir i mmediate a gricultural h interland ( Hodder a nd H assall 1 971, 4 05-6).

T he h ypothesis p roposes t hen t hat m arket f orces a nd t he p rovision o f s ervices w ere c rucial f actors i n d etermining w hich s ites w ere t o d evelop a h ighly d iversified f unctional b asis a nd p erhaps q ualify f or c ategorisation a s t owns.It w ould s eem t o b e w orth c onsidering i n t he o verall c ontext o f B urnham 's a nalytical m odel o f u rban c haracteristics, b ecause i t i s o ne w hich c an b e t ested , a t l east u p t o a p oint, a gainst t he a rchaeo logical r ecord. T he i mportance o f t he r edistributive f unction a s a s ervice t o b e e xpected i n a t own i s b rought o ut b y H assall a nd B urnham ( Hodder 1 975, 6 8; B urnham 1 979, f ig.1). T his m odel r epresents a m ore d eveloped f orm o f R ivet's s uggestion t hat a t own c ould b e d istinguished f rom a v illage i n t hat t he f ormer w ould b e c oncerned w ith t rade a nd t he l atter w ith a gric ulture ( Rivet 1 975, 1 14). H owever, t he m odel p roposed b y H odder a nd H assall d oes n eed t o b e u sed w ith c aution a nd i t n ow n eeds t o b e p roved t hat t he v arious c ategories o f c entre i n f odder a nd H assall's ' hierarchy' d id p erform t he f unctions a nd s ervices w hich t hey p roposed. F or e xample, a ccording t o l adder a nd H assall's p redi ction C hesterton-on-Fosse, D roitwich a nd K enchester c an b e c lassed a s ' lesser w alled t owns' i n t hat t hey l ie a long m ajor r oads m idway b etween t wo m ajor c entres ( civitas c apitals a nd c oloniae) (Hodder 1 975, 7 0). I n t he c ase o f K enchester, t here i s a c ertain a mount o f e vidence t hat t he s ettlement c ould w ell h ave p rovided a r ange o f s ervices w hich m ight b e a ppropriate t o ' the l esser t own ' c ategory. B ut i nsufficient i s k nown a bout C hesterton-on-Fosse f or e ven a t entative a ssessment, a nd a t D roitwich t here i s n o e vidence a s y et t hat a ny p art o f t he s ettlement o ther t han t he B ays M eadow c omplex w as d efended. I t r emains t o b e e stablished w hether t he s ettlement w as a v ery s pecialised o ne a ssociated w ith t he s alt i ndustry o r w hether i t h ad a m ore d iversified e conomic a nd s ocial c haracter.

T he

a rchaeological

e vidence

i s

s light

f or

m any

o f

t he

s ervices w hich w ould p resumably h ave b een r equired b y t he p opu lation, s uch a s b uilding a nd c onstruction i ndustries, i nterior d ecoration, f urniture m aking, s culpture, a nd t he m anufacture o f h ousehold u tensils, t ools a nd a gricultural i mplements. O ther s ervices, f or e xample, e ducation, l egal a dvice a nd m edi cine, t end t o l eave v ery l ittle a rchaeological t race. A lso t he c ommercial f unction i s n ot a lways e asily i dentified a rchaeo logically, b ecause s uch s tructures a s m arket s talls w ere e pheme ral. T here m ay h ave b een k inds o f s hop o ther t han t he t radi tional t ype o f s trip b uildings k nown f rom K enchester a nd W roxeter ( Jack a nd H ayter 1 926, 2 7; B ushe-Fox 1 913; 1 914; 1 9ua , T he i nstances w here t here i s d iagnostic e vidence f or t he m arketi ng o f a p articular p roduct a re r are, s uch a s t he m ortaria, s amian a nd w hetstones f rom t he g utter a longside t he f orum a t W roxeter.

M oreover t he s uccessful c raftsman a nd t rader w ould s ell a ll h is w ares a nd b e l ikely t o l eave l ittle a rchaeological t race. T his e mphasises t he d ifficulties o f e stablishing h ow f ar r oadside s ettlements, w hich a re r egarded a s m ainly a gric ultural i n f unction, a lso a cted a s m arket a nd c ommercial c entres ( Rivet 1 975, 1 14).

C ertainly i t i s r easonable t o e xpect t hat t he c ivitas c apitals w ould h ave t he g reatest c oncentration a nd r ange o f s ervices, a nd t hat t he n eed t o f requent s uch c entres f or t he p ayment o f t axes, a nd t o f ulfil o ther l egal o bligations w ould h ave b een b eneficial t o t rade. C onversely, a s ettlement w hich w as p roviding a r ange o f s ervices o f a s ocial a nd e conomic n ature w ould b e a c onvenient p lace f or t he l ocation o f a dminist rative a nd o ther o fficial f unctions. T he e xtent t o w hich i ndustry s hould f it i nto t his m odel o f u rban c haracteristics i s u ncertain b ecause i ndustry w as l ocated o utside t owns. I ronw orking, i n p articular, i s f ound n ot o nly a t m ajor c entres s uch a s W orcester, b ut a lso a t r oadside s ettlements s uch a s L etocetum , a nd v illas. T here a re a lso i nstances w here a n i ndustry s eems t o o perate o n a l arge s cale w ithout d irect a ssociation w ith a n ucleated s ettlement, a s i n t he c ase o f t he M alvern p ottery i ndustry ( Peacock 1 967). I t i s b y n o m eans c ertain t hat A riconium ( iron), D roitwich ( salt) a nd M anduessedum ( pottery) w ere n ot s pecialised i ndustrial s ettlements w ithout t he r ange o f e conomic a nd s ocial f unctions e xpected o f t he t own i n B urnham 's m odel.

F urthermore, t he p ossible d irect i nvolvement o f t he t own d wellers i n a gricultural a ctivities m ay r equire c onsideration. T odd h as s uggested t hat ' the l inks o f m ost o f t he s mall t owns a nd v illages w ith a griculture w ere v ery s trong. T his i s, o f c ourse, t o b e e xpected s ince i n R oman B ritain, a s e lsewhere i n t he R oman w orld, t owns a nd t heir l ife w ere m ore c losely b ound u p w ith t he l and t han w e c an n ow f ind e asy t o v isualise'

( Todd 1 970a,129). I n t he m edieval p eriod s ome o f t he u rban p opulation s eems t o h ave b een i nvolved i n a griculture a nd, a lthough i t i s u ncertain t o w hat e xtent t his w as t he c ase i n R omano-British c entres, i ncluding t he c ivitas c apitals, i t s hould b e b orne i n m ind t hat a gricultural p ursuits m ay n ot b e i nconsistent w ith t he p rovision o f a w ide r ange o f s ervices.

B urnham 's m odel a lso i ncludes v arious o ther f unctions s uch a s t hat o f r eligion w hich a re n ot e xclusive t o u rban s ettlements. E very n ucleated s ettlement, w hether a m ajor o r m inor m arket a nd s ervice c entre, t own o r v illage, m ay h ave h ad s ome r eligious b uilding o r s ite. B ut s hrines, t emples a nd o ther s acred p laces a re t o b e e xpected i n c onsiderable n umbers i n r ural a reas, s ome o f t hem e xtremely r emote a nd o ften o n t he s ite o f p re-Roman s anctuaries. S ome o f t he m ore i mport ant r ural s hrines, p articularly t hose s ituated o n t ribal b ounda ries, m ay h ave b een c onnected w ith m arkets a nd f airs a nd s erved a s m ajor g athering p laces. S ites o f t his t ype h ave b een m ore c onfidently i dentified i n G aul, a lthough t here a re a n umber i n B ritain w hich m ay r epresent t his p henomenon ( Rivet 1 964, 1 34; T odd 1 973, 1 4-15; f or e xample G osbeck 's F arm , W acher 1 974a, 1 12). O ther r ural s hrines p robably s erved a s r eligious f oci f or g roups o f a gricultural s ettlements ( Todd 1 973 , 1 025 ).

L ocal c ults w ere n umerous i n R oman B ritain. R eligious b elief a ppears t o h ave b een a w ay i n w hich a g roup o f p eople, w hether a t ribe, a p agus o r a t own o r v illage, e xpressed t heir g roup i dentity. R omano-Celtic t emples a nd o ther t ypes o f n ative s hrine o r c ult c entre w ould h ave b een c entral p laces a t t ribal r ather t han p rovincial l evel. A g oddess B rigantia w as w orshipp ed a mong t he B rigantes a nd w as p resumably i n s ome s ense a t ribal d eity ( Corcoran 1 960 , 2 72). T here i s s ome e vidence t hat t he c orporate i dentity o f t he p agus m ay h ave a lso f ound r eligious e xpression i n a l ocal c ult. O riginally t he t erm p agus r eferred t o r eligious d ivisions i n I taly, w here t here w ere s mall l ocal c ult c entres. T his s econdary r eligious a ssoc iation o f t he a dministrative t erm p agus p erhaps e xplains i ts o ccasional t ranslation a s p arish ( Collingwood a nd M yres 1 945, 2 66; J ohnson 1 975, 7 6-7). T he p agus w as a d ivision o f ag roup o f p eople p erhaps e ven c orresponding t o p re-Roman t ribal s ubg roups a nd h ad a n o fficial r ecognition, a t l east i n G aul , a s a n a dministrative u nit o f t he c ivitas. A s a r esult, t he a dmini strative c entre o f t he p agus m ay h ave p erformed a r eligious f unction a lso, e ach p agus h aving i ts o wn d eity, a nd t he t emple o f t his d eity c ould h ave b een l ocated i n t he p agus c entre ( Rivet 1 975, 13).

T o

t he

f unctions w hich w ere

n ot

t he p rerogative

o f u rban

c entres m ight b e a dded o fficially i mposed f unctions s uch a s t he p osts o f t he c ursus p ublicus a nd t ax-collection . T hese m ight

b e p erformed b y s ettlements w hich, i n t erms o f t heir e conomic f unctions, w ere v illages ( Rivet 1 975, 1 12-4). A s f or t he d efensive f unction, t he p resumption i n H odder a nd H assall's m odel t hat t he p atterns o f s ervice c entres w ould b e r eflected b y t he d istribution o f w alled s ites m ust b e c hallenged ( Hodder a nd H assall 1 971, 3 92-3; H odder 1 975, 6 7). T he r easons f or t he p rovision o f d efences c annot b e e stablished u ntil t he s ites h ave b een s tudied. O n t he l imited e vidence a vailable a t p resent o ne c an o nly o bserve t hat t he r easons f or p roviding c ertain s ettlements w ith d efences i n s tone, w hether d e n ovo o r t o r ep lace o r s trengthen a n e arthwork c ircuit, m ay h ave i ncluded f actors s uch a s t he n eed t o p rotect g overnment p roperty, a dmini strative a nd o ther o fficial f unctions a nd p robably a lso t he a mbition a nd a bility o f t he c ommunity c oncerned.

F urthermore, t he i mplication i n H odder a nd H assall's m odel t hat w alled s ettlements s hare c ommon e conomic a nd s ocial f unctions m ay b e i ncorrect. A ttempts t o i dentify s ites o ther t han t he c ities w hich m ight b e c lassed a s t owns h ave t ended t o p roduce a p olarisation i nto ' Roman ' a nd ' native', a d evelopm ent w hich , a s B urnham h as p ointed o ut, o nly c onfused w hat o ught t o b e s een a s a c ontinuum ( Todd 1 970a 1 15; A lexander 1 975; M illett 1 975; B urnham 1 979, 2 59). A m ore o bjective u se o f t he w ord ' town' c ould i nvolve a p articular o r a greed c ombination o f s tructural a nd f unctional c haracteristics f rom B urnham 's m odel ‚ and t his w ould t heoretically c over a ll g rada tions f rom n ative t o w holly R oman. B ut t he p roblem l ies i n d eciding w here t o d raw t he l ine i n t he f unctional a nd s truct ural a nalysis b etween t owns a nd v illages. A re t he c haracteri stics i n B urnham 's a nalytical m odel t o b e u sed a s a c heck l ist , a nd i f s o w hat c ombination o f e lements i s t o b e r egarded a s c onstituting a t own? T he c ombination o f f actors i s i mportant i n t hat t he l ocation o n a r oad, s ize, d ensity o f s ettlement, p rovision o f d efences, i ndustrial a nd r eligious f unctions a re n ot e xclusively u rban c haracteristics. I n a s ense, t hey m ay b e s een a s c ontributory c onsiderations i n a n a nalysis w here i t i s t he r ange a nd n ature o f e conomic a nd s ocial s ervices w hich a re t he d eciding f actors i n d istinguishing a t own f rom a v illage. I t i s t empting t o a nticipate a p roper a nalysis b y t rying t o c lassify s ites b efore t hey h ave b een p roperly i nvestigated, w hich i s n ecessary t o a cquire t he e vidence f or t he r ange o f e conomic a nd o ther f unctions, t he d egree o f s ocial c omplexity, t he d ifferentiation o f l and u se, t he n ature o f c ommunications a nd t he r elationship t o t he h interland. T he r ange o f s ervices a vailable a t v arious c entres, i ncluding t he c ivitas c apitals , r emains t o b e e stablished; m ore i nformation i s n ecessary b efore w e c an a ttempt c lassification i nto t own a nd v illage, m ajor c entre a nd l esser o r m inor c entre.

T he t heoretical m odel p roposed b y B urnham n eeds t o b e t ested i n p ractice a gainst t he a rchaeological e vidence a nd w e n eed t o s tudy t he e vidence f rom s ettlements t o s ee i f t heir

c lasification o n a f unctional b asis i s p ossible. T he p oint a t w hich a c onsensus i s r eached a bout t he f unction a ppropriate t o a t own w ill d epend o n w hat t he a rchaeological e vidence i s c apable o f r evealing. T he f act t hat a w ide r ange o f s ettlements h ave b een t ermed ' small t own ', ' minor t own' o r ' large v illage' e mphasises t hat i t i s i nappropriate o r m isleading t o c lassify s ettlements b y m odern c ategories s uch a s ' city', ' town ' a nd ' village'. I n t his r espect i t i s w orth n oting t hat B urnham a rgues t hat i t m ay b e n ecessary t o a bandon a ny a ttempt t o i solate t he ' town ' f rom t he ' city' a nd t he ' village' a nd ' we m ay b e w iser t o c onsider t he d evelopment o f s ophisticated f unct ional c entres w ithout t he a dditional s emantic a rguments o f u rban a nd n on-urban s tatus' ( Burnham 1 979, 2 57, 2 59 a nd 2 62).

T able 1 : F actors f or a S ettlement H ierarchy ( after B urnham 1 979)

F ormal S tructure

S ocial C omplexity

L ocation

S ocial R elationship

S ite-type

D ivision o f L abour

D ensity

C raft s pecialisation

R ange o f i nternal s tructures

S ocial d ifferentiation

F unction D efensive C ommunications ( e.g. r oute, c entre, p ort)

E conomic ( e.g. m arketing,comm erce, l ong-distance t rade, r edistribution)

D ifferentiated u se o f i nternal s pace U se a nd s ocial p attern

I ndustrial R eligious S ocial-amenities P olitical a dministrative

V .

T he O rigins o f R omano-British N ucleated S ettlements i n t he W est M idlands

T he d ebate a bout w hich s ettlements c an b e r egarded a s t owns i n R oman B ritain h as b een a ssociated t o a c onsiderable d egree w ith t he q uestion o f t heir o rigins. A ccording t o a p urely ' Roman ' a pproach , i t w as t he f orts w hich w ere o f p rimary i mportance i n e stablishing t he p attern o f u rban a nd o ther c entres i n R oman B ritain. A lthough i t i s a greed t hat t he g rowth o f a s ettlement i nto a t own w as c ontrolled b y e conomic f actors, t he l atter w ere n ot c onsidered t o b e r elevant t o t he o rigin o r l ocation o f s ettlements ( Webster 1 966; 1 974a, 5 2 ; F rere 1 975, 4 -5; R ivet 1 975, 1 11; B urnham 1 979, 2 67). T he s iting o f t he t owns a nd t he r oadside s ettlements a re t o b e a ttributed r ather t o a m ilitary p resence, w ith t hese c entres o riginating a s v ici o utside t he f orts. T he p attern o f u rban d evelopment w as t herefore a p roduct o f m ilitary a nd s trategic c onsiderations .

I ntegration i nto t he R oman r oad n etwork i s r egarded a s e ssential t o t he d evelopment o f a R omano-British ' small t own' ( Hodder a nd H assall 1 971, 4 05; R ivet 1 975 , 1 11). A s ettlement w hich g rew u p o utside a f ort, o r a n e xisting s ettlement w hich h ad a f ort p laced n earby, w as m ore l ikely t o d evelop i nto a R omano-British ' small t own ' b ecause i t c ould b e i ntegrated i nto t he R oman r oad n etwork. E ven w here a R omano-British ' small t own ' d eveloped o n t he s ite o f a n e xisting n ative s ettlement, i t w as t he f ort r ather t han t he p re-Roman s ettlement w hich i s s een a s t he d ecisive e lement i n t his g rowth. I t i s g enerally a rgued t hat f orts w ere p laced t o c ontrol t he n ative p opulation a nd t herefore s ome f orts w ere s ited n ear p re-existing c entres. T he r oad s ystem , l aid o ut i n r elation t o t he f orts, w ould h ave h elped t o e nsure t he c ontinued i mportance o f c ertain n ative s ettlements a nd w as i ndeed e ssential t o t heir s urvival ( Richmond 1 963 , 9 1; R ivet 1 964, 9 2, 1 975, 1 11; F rere 1 975, 5 ). O ther n ative c entres, h owever, h ad n o R oman f ort a nd w ere t herefore b y-passed b y t he m ilitary r oad s ystem. W here a R omano-British s ettlement d eveloped o n o r n ear t he s ite o f a n e xisting s ettlem ent, i t d id s o p rimarily b ecause o f t he p lacing o f a f ort i n c lose p roximity t o i t ( Frere 1 975, 5 ). I n s ome c ases, t he e xisting s ettlement m ay h ave s hifted o r r ealigned i tself t o t ake f ull a dvantage o f t he n ew r oad n etwork t hus e nsuring s urv ival ( Stead 1 975, 1 25-9; J ohnson 1 975 , 2 25-31; P artridge 1 975, 1 49-50 , 1 52; R odwell 1 975a, 8 7).

I t h as a lso b een a rgued t hat t he m ilitary p attern w as o ften r einforced b y t he i mposition o f o fficial f unctions a s p osts o f t he c ursus p ublicus o r c entres f or t he c ollection o f t he a nnona. S ome o f t hese w ould h ave b een s paced a long t he r oads a t i ntervals c losely c orresponding t o t hose b etween f orts a nd s ome m ay h ave b egun a s v ici o utside t hem ( Richmond 1 963, 9 1; R ivet 1 964, 7 2; 1 970 , 3 6). A ccording t o t his t heory s uch m ilitary a nd o fficial f actors w ere d ecisive i n f ixing

t he o verall s ettlement p attern o n w hich e conomic f actors c ould o perate t o p romote t he g rowth o f c ertain c entres i nto t owns. E conomic f actors a re c onsidered t o b e i mportant o nly i n-sof ar a s t hey o perated o n t his p attern t o e ncourage t he d evelopm ent o f c ertain c entres i nto ' towns' ( Frere 1 975, 4 -5; R ivet 1 975 , 1 12).

H owever, r ecent w ork i n s outhern B ritain h as s uggested t hat s ocial a nd e conomic c hange p rior t o t he R oman c onquest m ay h ave p romoted t he g rowth o f c entres w hose l ocation a llowed t hem t o b e i ntegrated i nto t he R oman r oad n etwork . T heir s ocial a nd e conomic f unctions m ay h ave e nabled t hem t o a dapt r eadily t o t he n eeds o f t he R oman s ystem o f a dministration a nd e conomy. T he e vidence f or c ertain p re-Roman c entres i n s outhern B ritain o f a h ighly d eveloped f unctional n ature h as e ncouraged i nvesti gation i nto t he c ontribution o f p re-conquest c ircumstances t o t he d evelopment o f t he R omano-British s ettlement p attern ( Wacher 1 974a, 2 6-7, 1 04, 2 02, 2 77; R odwell 1 975a, 9 3; C unliffe a nd R owley 1 976).

B urnham h as p ointed o ut t he r elevance o f ' the d ifferent r egional d evelopments w ithin t he o verall s ettlement p atterns o f p re-Roman B ritain a s t he b ackcloth a gainst w hich t o v iew t he R oman i mpact a nd s ubsequent d evelopment'. D ifferent s ettlem ent p atterns m ay h ave p roduced d ifferent s olutions t o t he r equirements o f t he R oman a dministration a nd c ommunications, a nd t he f act t hat R omano-British c ities, t owns a nd v illages h ad s ocial a nd e conomic a s w ell a s g overnment f unctions t o p erform ' makes i t c lear t hat t he i nfluence o f b oth p atterns m ay w ell b e r eflected i n t he e nd p roduct' ( Burnham 1 979, 2 59, 2 64-5, 2 67).

T he C ontribution o f t he P re-Conquest S ettlement P attern I n t he W est M idlands, t he i nadequate n ature o f t he i nforma tion f or t he s ettlement p attern i n t he i mmediate p re-conquest p eriod m akes i t d ifficult t o a ssess t he p ossible i nteraction o f t he p re- a nd p ost-conquest s ystems. I t h as b een s uggested t hat, i n t he h illfort z ones, t he R oman s ystem c ut a cross t he I ron A ge s ettlement p atterns ( Burnham 1 979, 2 67-8). T his m odel w ould i mply c onsiderable p opulation m obility i n t he p ostc onquest p eriod a nd l ittle c ontinuity b etween I ron A ge a nd R omano-British c entres i n t he W est M idlands.

I f w e a ccept t hat i n t he r egion t he h illfort w as t he p redominant f orm o f I ron A ge s ettlement , t hen t he d istribution o f n ucleated c entres i n t he R oman p eriod i s d ramatically d iffere nt a nd i mplies d iscontinuity. H owever, w e d o n ot k now w hich h illforts w ere o ccupied a t t he t ime o f t he R oman c onquest. T his a lso r aises t he i ssue o f w hether t he t ribes o f t he W est

M idlands r egion o ffered a ny a ssistance t o R ome a nd, i f s o , w hether a p olicy o f h illfort e vacuation w as e nforced i n t his a rea. T he e vidence f or t he d ate a nd c ircumstances o f h illfort a bandonment i s i nconclusive. W hile t here i s n o c onvincing e vidence a vailable f or t he s lighting o f t he d efences o f a ny h illforts i n t he r egion, S tanford ( 1974, 5 0-2) h as a rgued t hat t he a bsence o f R omano-British m aterial f rom s trongly d efended s ites a nd i ts o ccurrence o n w eakly-positioned h illforts s uggests t hat t he a bandonment o f a bout t hirty o f t hese s ites i n t he W elsh M arches w as n ot v oluntary. S tanford h as a rgued t hat t he h illf orts o f t he c entral b order, C roft A mbrey, C aynham C amp, T itterstone C lee a nd t he R overies, w ere a bandoned i n t he e arly R oman p eriod, w hile i n t he S evern a nd W ye v alleys, a part f rom t he s trongly-sited h illforts - T he W rekin, O ld O swestry, C redenhill a nd M idsummer H ill - n ative o ccupation w as a llowed t o c ontinue ( Stanford 1 974, 4 8-52). B ut t he a rgument a t p resent r elies o nly o n t he p resence o r a bsence o f R oman f inds a nd n owhere i s t here d irect d ating f or t he e vacuation o f t he s ite. T he e xtent o f s lighting o f h illfort d efences i n g eneral i s e xtremely l imited a nd i t i s p ossible t hat, i n a ny c ase, t he h illforts t hemselves r ather t han t he c ommunities w ithin t hem p layed a v ery m inor r ole i n w arfare a gainst t he R omans ( Davies 1 974, 3 7). N or c an i t b e s hown o n p resent e vidence t hat, w here R oman p ottery h as b een f ound, t here w as a ctual c ontinuity o f o ccupation, o r t hat a ctivity i n t he R oman p eriod r epresented a nything m ore t han t he o ccasional u se o f t he s ite. L eaving a side t his i ssue o f p eaceful o r e nforced a bandonment, t he q uestion r emains o f w here t hese c ommunities s ettled w hen t hey m oved f rom t he h illforts.

T he p roximity o f a R oman n ucleated s ettlement t o a h illf ort m ight i mply a l ogical m ove f rom a s ite w hich w as n ot i nteg rated i nto t he R oman c ommunications n etwork t o a s ite w hich w as; f or e xample, f rom T he W rekin t o W roxeter, o r f rom C redenhill t o K enchester. B ut s uch a r elationship i s n ot e asy t o e stablish s ince e ven w here a n a brupt e nd t o t he o ccupation o f a h illfort s eems t o c oincide w ith t he d evelopment o f a n earby R omanoB ritish c ivil s ettlement, i t i s i mpossible t o p rove a d irect r elationship o r t o d emonstrate t hat t he s ame c ommunities w ere i nvolved. N or d oes i t f ollow t hat t he n earest h illfort t o a c ivitas c apital w as a m ajor c entre f or t he t ribe o r e ven t hat i t w as o ccupied a t t he t ime o f t he c onquest. T he t ransfer o f t he n ame o f t he W rekin t o t he t ribal c apital o f t he C ornovii d oes n ot m ean t hat t he h illfort c ommunity a lso m oved t o t he t own ( Webster 1 975a, 1 7). T he c oincidence b etween t he d ate s uggested f or t he e nd o f t he o ccupation o f C redenhill ( c. A D 7 5) a nd t he b eginning o f t he c oin s eries a t K enchester ( AD 6 9-79) i s i nteresting b ut d oes n ot i mply t hat t he w hole c ommunity n ecessa rily a bandoned t he h illfort f or t he n earby t own ( Rahtz, T omber, a nd W ilmott

n ew

f orthcoming).

T he m ovement o f c ommunities a nd t he p attern o f n ucleated l owland c entres

g rowth o f m ay w ell

a l argely h ave b een

a n atural a nd g radual p rocess c aused b y e conomic f actors, a lbeit o ne w hich o ccurred w ith R oman a pproval a nd e ven e ncouragement ( Collis 1 976, 8 ).

A lthough t he h illforts a re c learly a n i mportant e lement i n t he I ron A ge s ettlement p attern o f t he r egion, t heir r ange o f f unctions i s n ot c lear a nd i t i s d ifficult t o k now i f t hey r epresent t he c entral p laces i n t he p re-Roman s ettlement p att ern . F unctions o f m ore t han l ocal i mportance m ay n ot h ave b een c onfined t o h illtop l ocations; t here m ay h ave b een o ther e lements i n t he p attern w hich m ay h ave b een c apable o f c ontrib uting t o t he R oman s ystem .

T here i s r eally i nsufficient i nformation a bout t he o rigins o f t he ' small t owns' o f t his r egion t o b e c ertain h ow m any o f t hem d eveloped o n t he s ite o f a p re-existing s ettlement. H owever, s ome t entative c onclusions c an b e d rawn. T he m ain a rterial r outes t hrough t he r egion - t he W atling S treet, W atling S treet W est -cut a cross t he r egion w ithout r egard t o p re-existi ng c entres. T his n etwork a nd t he s ettlements a long i t, i .e. U xacona, P ennocrucium , L etocetum , M anduessedum , V enonae a nd T ripontium , ( some o f w hich p resumably f unctioned a s p osts o f t he c ursus p ublicus a nd/or a s t ax c ollection c entres) w ould s eem t o r epresent a s ystem w hich w as i mposed u pon t he e xisting p attern r ather t han b eing i ntegrated w ith i t. T his m ay a lso a pply t o t he o ther a rterial r outes t hrough t he r egion - t he R yknield S treet a nd t he F osse W ay - a nd t he s ettlements a long t hem . B ut t here a re a n umber o f o ther c entres w here t here a re i ndications t hat t he R omano-British s ettlement m ay h ave d eveloped f rom a n e xisting n ucleus.

A t p resent t his i nvolves o nly D roitwich, K enchester, T iddington a nd W orcester. B oth A lcester a nd A riconium h ave p roduced a f air n umber o f I ron A ge c oins. O n p resent e vidence t his s eems m ore l ikely t o b e r elated t o a ctivity i n t he p ostc onquest p eriod i f w e e xcept t he b rooch o f e arly I ron A ge t ype f rom A riconium ( Webster, p ers. c omm .; B ooth 1 980 , 5 ; A llen 1 961, 1 22-3, 1 33-5). A t D roitwich, t here i s s ome e vidence f or s alt w orking d uring t he I ron A ge r epresented b y t wo s takel ined p its, a nd q uantities o f b riquetage f rom t he F riar S treet s ite ( Hunt 1 975, 4 0 ; F reezer 1 977, 1 ; H illam a nd M organ 1 981, 2 86-7). T here w ere a lso i ndications o f s alt-working a t a n e arly s tage i n t he d evelopment o f t he B ays M eadow V illa c omplex a nd t he B owling G reen s ite, R icketts L ane b ut t hese w ere n ot d ated ( Barfield 1 976, 4 2; F reezer 1 977, 1 ; S awle 1 978, 7 7). A s tudy o f t he D roitwich b riquetage b y M orris h as s hown t hat t he s alt i ndustry h ere w as s upplying I ron A ge c ommunities, i ncluding h illforts t hroughout m ost o f t he r egion ( Morris f orthc oming). B ut a t p resent v irtually n othing i s k nown a bout t he n ature o f t he s ettlement w hich w as a ssociated w ith t his i nd ustry.

A t K enchester, t he e vidence f or I ron A ge a ctivity o n t he s ite o f t he R omano-British s ettlement w as d iscovered d uring t he e xcavation o f w hat h as b een d escribed a s a v illa c omplex, w hich s eems t o f orm p art o f t he r ibbon d evelopment o utside t he e ast g ate o f t he d efended a rea. A c ircular b uilding o f t wo p hases w as l ocated w ithin a n e nclosure, t he l imits o f w hich w ere n ot e stablished. A lso w ithin t he e nclosure w ere p its a nd p ostholes, a nd f urther f eatures o utside t he e nclosure t o t he e ast i ncluded a n umber o f d itches t he f unction a nd s ignifi cance o f t hese c ould n ot b e e stablished b ut t hey m ay a lso h ave f ormed p art o f t he I ron A ge s ettlement. L arge a mounts o f p ottery f rom t he c ircular b uilding i ncluded w ares w ith t he l inear-tooled a nd d uck-stamped d ecoration w hich i s c haracteri stic o f t he M alvernian p ottery i ndustry o f t he M iddle-Late I ron A ge. O ther f inds s uggested o ccupation o f a d omestic n ature. U nfortunately o nly t he e astern p art o f t he s ite l ay w ithin t he e xcavated a rea s o t hat t he n ature a nd e xtent o f t he s ettlement o f w hich t his f ormed a p art i s u ncertain ( Wilmott 1 979, 1 8 ; R ahtz, T omber a nd W ilmott f orthcoming).

A s a t K enchester, t he e vidence f rom t he r ecent e xcavations ( 1980-1981) f or I ron A ge a ctivity a t T iddington w as r ecorded u nder s alvage c onditions. T wo c oncentrations o f p its a nd g ullies w ere f ound w ithin t he s outh-eastern c orner o f t he R omano-British s ettlement e nclosure, a nd p revious i nvestigations h ad a lso p roduced I ron A ge m aterial f rom o ver a w ide a rea. I t w as s uggested t hat t he w idespread d istribution o f m aterial a nd t he d iscrete c oncentrations o f f eatures p robably r epresented s cattered f armsteads r ather t han c ontinuous I ron A ge s ettlement. T here w as p robably a c rossing o f t he A von a t T iddington i n t he p rehistoric p eriod, a nd t he e ast/west r oad a long w hich l ay t he R omano-British s ettlement p robably a lso f ollowed a p re-Roman a lignment , s o t hat t his l ocation m ay h ave b een r elated t o a n e arly s ystem o f c ommunications ( Slater a nd W ilson 1 977, 2 5, 2 7-8, f ig. 5 ; P almer 1 981).

I n t he c ase o f W orcester, B arker h as a rgued f or t he e xiste nce o f a n I ron A ge p romontory f ort o n t he b asis o f a d itch p artially e xposed d uring t he r escue e xcavations o n t he L ich S treet s ite i n 1 965-1966. T he f ill o f t his d itch, t ogether w ith l ayers w hich m ay r epresent t he r emains o f a r ampart a ssoc iated w ith t he d itch , h ad b een c ut b y a V -shaped d itch w hich c ontained m aterial o f t he i st c entury A D ( Barker 1 970, 1 4-15, 7 5 ,

1 05-6;

C arver 1 980 ,

1 82).

U nfortunately, a t e ach s ite t he e vidence i s i nadequate t o d emonstrate e ither t he n ature o f t he I ron A ge s ettlement o r c ontinuity i nto a R omano-British p eriod. T he s urvival o f I ron A ge t raditions a nd a rtefacts w ell i nto t he i st c entury A D m eans t hat w ithout i ndependent d ating e vidence i t i s d iffic ult t o e stablish w ith c ertainty t hat a s equence i s p re-Roman

i n d ate ( Alexander 1 975, 1 03; S tead 1 975, 1 28-9). A t K enc hester a nd T iddington i t i s d ifficult t o a ssess t he p ossible r elevance o f s cattered f armsteads t o t he d evelopment o f a n ucl eated R omano-British s ettlement. I t i s o nly a t D roitwich t hat t here i s a ny e vidence, a lbeit c ircumstantial, f or t he i ntegration o f a n e xisting s ettlement i nto t he R oman p attern o f d evelopment. I t a ppears t hat t he s altworking c ontinued o n t he I ron A ge m odel u ntil t he m id-2nd c entury, a fter w hich c hanges i n l ocation a nd o rganisation t ook p lace ( Hunt 1 975; S awle 1 978). A lthough t he e vidence i s i nadequate, t he e xistence o f a p re-Roman s ettlement a t W orcester w ould s eem l ikely. S uch a c entre m ay w ell h ave b een o f c onsiderable i mportance i n v iew o f i ts p osition a t a p rehistoric c rossing o f t he S evern. I t l ay n ear t o t he I ron A ge s alt i ndustry a t D roitwich a nd t he I ron A ge p ottery i ndustry i n t he M alvern H ills w hich a lso c ontinued t o p roduce w ares a fter t he R oman c onquest ( Peacock 1 967 , 2 6). W orcester m ay h ave a cted a s a r edistribution c entre, i n v iew o f i ts p osition, f or b oth o f t hese i ndustries i n t he p rehistoric a nd i n t he R oman p eriod. S uch f actors a s t he l oca tion o f e xisting i ndustries w ould h ave b een o f c onsiderable r elevance t o t he e conomic d evelopment o f t he r egion i n t he R oman p eriod. I t i s i mportant t o s tudy t he I ron A ge s ettlements a t t he c entres m entioned a bove i n o rder t o b e i n a p osition t o c ompare t heir a pparently p re-Roman s ignificance w ith t heir i mportance i n t he R oman p eriod.

A lthough i t w ould s eem t hat t here w as l ittle i ntegration o f t he R oman s ystem w ith t he e xisting p attern i n t he W est M idlands, t he i nvestigation o f ' small t owns' i n t his r egion h as o nly j ust b egun a nd f urther w ork m ay r eveal o ther c entres w ith p re-Roman o rigins. I t i s w orth e mphasising t hat t he R oman s ettlement p attern o f t he r egion w as a R omano-British r ather t han a p urely R oman p henomenon. I t d eveloped o ut o f a c omb ination o f e xisting c ircumstances a nd n ew r equirements r esulti ng f rom t he c onquest ‚ although t he r elative c ontribution o f p re- a nd p ost-conquest i nfluences h as y et t o b e e stablished. I t s hould n ot b e r egarded a s a p attern w hich w as e ntirely i mposed b y e xternal f orces b ut a s o ne w hich, a lthough i t c erta inly i ncluded o fficially i mposed e lements, w as r elated t o t he e conomic l andscape o f t he W est M idlands. I n t his r espect, f actors w hich a ttracted s ettlement i n t he I ron A ge a re l ikely t o h ave r emained i mportant i n t he R oman p eriod a s w ell, s uch a s r iver c rossings a nd t he l ocation o f n atural r esources. T he a rgument t hat t he c ommunications s ystem w ould h ave b een l aid o ut w ithout r egard t o n ative s ettlement s ites, a nd t hat s urvival o f t hese s ettlements d epended o n a ccessibility a nd p roximity t o t he r oad n etwork i s c learly t oo s implistic. T he I ron A ge s ettlement p attern b elonged t o a n e xisting s ocial, e conomic a nd p olitical f ramework. I n t he c hanges w hich t he i ntroduction o f t he n ew R oman s ystem i nvolved, s ome s ettlements m ay h ave b een c onvenient t o b oth s ystems, o thers w ould h ave n eeded t o s hift t heir l ocation o r c hange t heir f unction, a nd s ome w ould h ave b een l eft e ntirely o utside t he n ew p attern

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o f d evelopment. E ven w here a n e xisting s ettlement s hifted o r r ealigned i tself t o t ake a dvantage o f t he n ew r oad n etwork , i t d oes s eem l egitimate t o s uggest t hat t he n ative s ettlement w as t he d ecisive i mpetus, t he p resence o f a f ort o r m ilitary r oad m erely i nfluencing i ts p recise l ocation. T here m ust h ave b een a v ariety o f f actors w hich w ould h ave o perated f or t he c ontinuity o f c ertain p re-Roman l owland f oci, a nd t he a bandonm ent o f o thers.

T he I mpact o f t he R oman F ort N etwork T he f orts r epresent t he e arliest f ocal p oints f or t he d evelopment o f t he r oad n etwork a nd f or t he g rowth o f n ew s ettlements. W ebster h as a rgued t hat t his m ay h ave a ffected t he e astern f ringes o f t he r egion a s e arly a s A D 4 7 w ith t he e stablishment o f f orts a long a nd i n a dvance o f t he F osse W ay, a nd t hat a m ilitary p resence w as p robably m aintained i n c ertain p arts o f t he r egion u ntil t he l ate i st c entury a t l east ( Webster 1 960 ; 1 975a, 2 1; W ebster a nd D udley 1 973, 6 9-127). T he d ist ribution o f t he f orts w as p robably d etermined b y t he n eed t o h old n ewly-won t erritory, a lthough a d istinction s hould b e m ade i n t his r espect b etween m arching c amps a nd p ermanent f orts ( Wilkes, p ers. c omm .). T he e xtent t o w hich t he c hoice o f s ite f or s ome f orts m ay h ave a lso b een d ecided b y t he n eed t o s ubdue t he n ative p opulation i s i mpossible t o a ssess, e specially w hen t here i s s o l ittle i ndication o f w hether t he t ribes w ere h ostile, o f h ow m any f orts w ere p laced n ear l arge o r i mportant c entres o f n ative p opulation o r o f h ow f ar t he R oman r oad s ystem w as l aid o ut i n r elation t o e xisting c entres ( Rivet 1 966, 1 03). T he o nly f ort w hich i s k nown t o b e a t t he s ite o f a n e xisting s ettlement i n t his r egion i s t he f ort a t D roitwich a nd t his m ay h ave b een a t l east p artly c oncerned w ith t he d esire t o e stablish c ontrol o ver t he s alt-working i ndustry ( Freezer 1 977, 3 , f ig. 1 ). I n t his r egion, t he n umber o f R omano-British s ettlements w hich a re k nown t o b e a t o r n ear t he s ite o f a f ort i s m uch g reater t han t he n umber o f s ites w here a p re-Roman s ettlement i s k nown. T his c ould b e a t l east p artly d ue t o t he d ifficulties, m entioned a bove, o f p roving t he e xistence o f p re-Roman o ccupation.

W here t he e xistence o f a f ort i s k nown, t he p recise c ont ribution o f t he m ilitary p resence t o t he d evelopment o f a n ucleated s ettlement, w hich m ay h ave o riginated a s a v icus o utside i t, i s n ot e asily a ssessed. A t C hesterton/Holditch , b oth t he f ort a nd t he c ommercial a nd i ndustrial a ctivity s ome d istance f rom i t b egan c . A D 7 0 ( Charlton 1 962, 6 1; G oodburn 1 976, 1 4; J ones, M .J. 1 975,14j ) .Simiiarly, t he e arliest m aterial f rom L eintwardine m atches t he d ate o f A D 7 0-80 f or t he l ast p hase o f t he f ort a t J ay L ane ( Stanford 1 968, 2 2, 2 60 , 2 689 , 2 75 a nd 2 80). T he m ilitary s equence a t L etocetum f rom c . A D 5 0 s eems t o h ave b een a ssociated w ith t he d evelopment o f w hat a ppears t o b e a v icus i n t he p eriod b etween c . A D 5 0

a nd A D 7 0 ( Gould 1 964, 1 , 7 a nd 1 3). A t M anduessedum r ibbon d evelopment o n t he o pposite s ide o f t he r iver t o t he l ate C laudian ( AD 4 8-54) f ort b egan c . A D 6 0 ( Thomas 1 963, 3 ; S cott 1 980, 1 04). T he e arliest f ort a t P ennocrucium b egins a pparently a lso i n t he C laudian p eriod ( AD 4 1-54) a s a t L etocetum b ut t he p ottery f rom t he s ettlement a long t he R oman r oad h as n ot b een m ore p recisely d ated t han t he l ast q uarter o f t he i st c entury A D ( St. J oseph 1 953, 5 2 a nd 5 6; 1 958 , 3 -4 ; B arton 1 958, 3 -4, 6 -9; J ones , M .J. 1 975,15 aAt R ocester t he f ort i s t hought t o h ave b een e stablished i n t he F lavian ( AD 6 9-96) p eriod a nd t he v ery s mall a mount o f i nformation a vailable f rom a reas o utside t he f ort s uggests c ivil o ccupation t o t he w est i n t he l ate i st c entury ( Wilson 1 965, 2 07; J ones 1 975 , 1 756 ).

T here a re a n umber o f o ther s ites w here t he i nformation p resently a vailable i s l ess h elpful. A t A lcester, D roitwich a nd U xacona w here t he p resence o f a f ort i s k nown, t here i s i nsufficient e vidence f or a ny c orrelation b etween t his a nd t he d evelopment o f a c ivil s ettlement ( Booth 1 980 , 6 -7; F reezer 1 977, 3 ; J ones ,M.J. 1 975,175-6 )it W roxeter W ebster h as p redicted t hat t he l ength a nd s cale o f t he m ilitary o ccupation w ould p robably h ave r esulted i n t he d evelopment o f c anabae e ither c lose t o t he l egionary f ortress o r s lightly f urther a way, a round t he r iver c rossing t o t he s outh. H e h as a lso s uggested t hat t he c anabae m ay h ave f ormed t he n ucleus f or t he d evelopment o f t he c ivitas c apital, i n w hich c ase i ts i nvestigation m ay p rove v ery i nstructive a bout t he d evelopments i n t he p eriod b etween t he m ilitary w ithdrawal a nd t he p ublic b uilding p rog ramme o f t he e arly 2 nd c entury ( Webster 1 975a, 3 8-40). A t W hitchurch t he o nly i nformation a vailable c omes f rom a n a rea w here t he c ivil s ettlement o verlies t he f ort. T his i ndicated t hat t he d ismantled t imber b uildings o f t he F lavian f ort w ere r eplaced g radually s ometime a fter A D 1 00 a nd t hroughout t he e arly 2 nd c entury b y o thers r elating t o t he e arly d evelopment o f t he c ivil n ucleus. B ut i t i s n ot k nown w hether t his r epr esents t he e xpansion o f a v icus w hich h ad d eveloped o utside t he f ort ( Jones 1 969, 1 97-205).

I n m ost c ases w here t here i s m aterial f rom b oth t he m ilit ary a nd t he c ivil s ite t here i s a f airly c lose c hronological r elationship b etween t he f ort a nd t he b eginning o f t he c ivil s ettlement. H owever, e vidence i s r arely a vailable f rom b oth f ort a nd c ivil n ucleus a nd t he d ating i s i nsecure; i t i s r arely p ossible, f or e xample, t o d etermine w hen t he f ort w as a bandoned. T he d ating m aterial r eally o nly e stablishes a t erminus p ost q uem f or t he e arliest a ctivity o n a ny o f t he s ites. I t i s a lways p ossible t herefore t hat t he o ccupation, a nd c rucially t he b eginning o f t he c ivil a ctivity, m ay b e l ater t han a t f irst s ight a ppears. A part f rom t he a ctual l imitations o f t he d ating e vidence i tself, t here a re f ew s ites w here t he e arliest l evels h ave b een e xamined s ufficiently t o e stablish t he c haracter o f t he e arliest o ccupation. 36-

I t h as n ot b een p ossible t o d emonstrate a rchaeologically t he m eans b y w hich a c ivil s ettlement d eveloped o ut o f a v icus o utside a f ort, e xcept p erhaps a t L etocetum w here, h owever, t he a rea i nvestigated w as v ery s mall. H ere t here i s v ery p rom ising e vidence f or a c ivil n ucleus a ctually s ucceeding a v icus o utside t he f ort c omplex. U nfortunately, t he s outhern d efences o f w hat a ppears t o b e a v ery l arge C laudian b ase, p ossibly a l egionary f ortress, h ave n ot b een l ocated; b ut i t s eems t hat e arly m ilitary-type b uildings l ie i nside t his f ortress ( Gould 1 964, 1 , 7 -8 f igs. 6 a nd 7 ; e x. i nf. J . G ould, S eptember 1 976). H owever, o n o ne s ite t o t he s outh o f t he W atling S treet, t his a ctivity w as s ealed b y a c lay f loor; o verlying t he f loor a nd i n t he f ill o f t he p ostholes w hich c ut i t w ere s herds o f N eronian d ate ( site R , G ould 1 964, 1 1). T races o f b uildings p re-dating t he f irst m etalling o f t he W atling S treet w ere r epr esented b y t imber s lots w hose f ill a lso c ontained s herds o f N eronian d ate. T his s hould t herefore r elate t o a ctivity c ontemp orary w ith, b ut o utside, t he a uxiliary f orts w hich r eplaced t he l egionary b ase o n t he h illtop a nd w hich a ppear t o c over t he p eriod r anging f rom C laudian a t t he e arliest t o e arly F lavian ( that i s s ome t ime a fter A D 4 1 - c . A D 6 9; J ones 1 975, 1 81-2). T he c onstruction o f t he W atling S treet a cross t he s ite o f t his p ossible v icus s eems t o m ark a n ew p hase i n t he d evelopment o f a c ivil n ucleus, f or s ubsequent o ccupation w as a ligned n ot o n t he f ort c omplex a s b efore b ut o n t he W atling S treet ( Gould 1 964, 1 3). A lthough t he r ealignment o f t he a ct ivity i n t he l ate i st c entury s uggests t he i nfluence o f n ew f actors, t he q uestion r emains o f w hether t he r oadside s ettlement a t L etocetum d eveloped o ut o f a v icus w hich g rew u p b elow t he f orts o r w hether t he i mpetus t owards t he d evelopment o f a c ivil s ettlement a long t he W atling S treet w as u nconnected w ith t he m ilitary o ccupation.

T he p hysical r elationship b etween a f ort a nd a ssociated c ivil s ettlement a lso v aries c onsiderably. F or e xample, a t W hitchurch t he c ivil s ettlement o verlies t he f ort; a t L eintwardine t he f orts a re s ome d istance a way f rom t he c ivil a ctivity; w hile t he d istance ( c. l mile/1 k m) b etween t he f ort a t C hesterton a nd t he c ivil n ucleus a t H olditch s uggests t hat t he t wo d evelopments m ay b e l argely u nconnected. E ven a t P ennocrucium , d espite t he c lose p roximity o f t he f orts t o t he c ivil s ettlement, t he l atter i s l ocated t o t ake a dvantage o f r ather d ifferent t opographical c onsiderations. T he c lose j uxtap osition b etween f ort a nd c ivil n ucleus w hich e xists i n t he c ase o f L etocetum s uggests t hat t he c ivil s ettlement m ay h ave o riginated a s a v icus o utside t he f ort, a lthough t here i s a lso t he c onsideration t hat t he v icus u nderwent s ome r eorganisation. W hile n o p ositive c onclusions c an b e d rawn f rom t hese o bserv ations, a c ase c an b e m ade f or e xamining m ore c losely t he p roximity o f c ivil n ucleus t o f ort. T he t opographical r equirem ents f or a m ilitary s ite w ere n ot n ecessarily t he s ame a s t hose f or a c ivil s ettlement a lthough c ertain l ocations m ight h ave b een s uitable t o b oth. T he f actors i nvolved i n t he i nitial

l ocation a nd s ubsequent d evelopment o f a c ivil n ucleus m ust b e c onsidered i n r elation t o t he s ite o n w hich i t w as t o d evelop a nd i n r elation t o e xternal f actors s uch a s t he c ommunications n etwork. E ach c ase p resents d ifferent c onsiderations a nd t he a rgument t hat t he s iting o f a f ort w as t he o verriding f actor h as u ndoubtedly b een o verstated.

W e c ould a rgue t hat b ecause t he R omano-British s ettlement p attern i s p rimarily m ilitary i n o rigin, t he e xistence o f a f ort c an b e a ssumed a lthough i t i s a s y et u nlocated ( Webster 1 966, 3 1; 1 974a,52). S o f orts m ay b e e xpected a t B lackwardine, C hesterton-on-Fosse, R utunium , T iddington a nd V enonae , a nd a lso a t A lcester, A riconium , K enchester, T ripontium a nd W orcester w here t here h ave b een f inds o f m ilitary e quipment. H owever, i n t he a bsence o f m ore c onclusive e vidence f or t he e xistence o f a f ort, s uch m aterial c annot b e t aken a s p roof o f am ilitary o rigin f or t he g rowth o f t he c ivil s ettlement.

W here a f ort w as n ot a ccompanied b y t he g rowth o f ac ivil s ettlement i t h as b een a rgued t hat t he f ort m ay n ot h ave b een h eld f or a s ufficient p eriod t o e nable a v icus t o d evelop ( Frere 1 974, 2 74-5)_ H owever, i n t he W est M idlands t here a re a n umber o f f orts, s uch a s G reensforge, t he L unt a nd M etchley, w hich d o n ot s eem t o h ave b een s hort-lived i n t heir s trategic i mporta nce b ut w here n o c ertain c ivil s ettlement h as y et b een l ocated ( Wilson 1 973, 4 26; J ones, M .J . 1 975,174 ; Rylatt 1 980). I n s uch i nstances, i t i s a lso a ccepted t hat t he s ite m ay n ot h ave b een e conomically v iable o nce t he m ilitary g arrison w as r emoved a nd t here i s a r ecognition t hat e conomic c onsiderations a re i mportant i n e nsuring t he c ontinued g rowth o f a c ivil s ettlem ent a fter t he a bandonment o f t he f ort ( Frere 1 974, 2 74-5; 1 975, 4 ; R ivet 1 975, 1 12). H owever, t oo l ittle e mphasis h as b een p laced o n t his a spect.

T he I mportance o f E conomic F actors

T he R oman r oad n etwork a nd t he c ommunications w hich t his p rovided w ould c ertainly h ave b een o f p rime e conomic i mportance f or d eveloping c entres. I t h as b een a rgued t hat t he p attern o f f orts a nd t he n etwork o f r oads l inking t he f orts, t ogether w ith t he o rganisation o f t he c ursus p ublicus a nd t ax-collection c entres ' were v ery i mportant, i ndeed d ecisive, i n f ixing t he o verall p attern', h ence t he i mportance t o t he s urvival o f a n ative s ettlement o f i ntegration i nto t he R oman r oad n etwork ( Hodder a nd H assall 1 971, 4 05; F rere 1 975 , 4 -5; R ivet 1 975, 11-12). W here t he m ilitary r oad s ystem w as c onsolidated a s p art o f t he p rovincial r oad s ystem , t he s ignificance o f e arlier s trategic p ositions w ould h ave b een r einforced a nd w ould h ave e ncouraged t he d evelopment o f n ucleated s ettlements. T he p osts o f t he c ursus p ublicus, s et u p a t r egular i ntervals a long t he

m ain r oads b y t he t ribes u nder i mperial d irection, w ould h ave p rovided a t endency t owards c ivil d evelopment. S ome o f t hese m ay a lso h ave b een c ollecting p oints f or t he a nnona a nd t hese f unctions w ould h ave t ended t o c reate t he p otential f or t he d evelopment o f a m arket ( Richmond 1 963; 9 1; R ivet 1 964, 7 2; 1 970 , 3 6; 1 975, 1 12). I t i s e asy t o a ppreciate w hy R omanoB ritish s ettlements m ight h ave d eveloped f rom a n e xisting s ettlement o r g rown u p n ear a f ort w hich w as s ited a long a n a rterial r oad, a t a r iver c rossing o r a t a r oad j unction. T hese w ere o ften p rominent f eatures i n t he t opography o f n ucl eated s ettlements a nd t he s ettlements w ould h ave b een w ell s ited f or l ater d evelopment a s c ommunications c entres ( see f or e xample, R odwell 1 975a, 8 7).

H owever, i n t he c onquest p eriod t he r oad s ystem w as r el ated n ot t o e conomic p otential b ut t o m ilitary d ispositions. A lthough s ettlements m ay h ave d eveloped i n t his p eriod i n r elation t o a r oad n etwork w hich w as m ilitary i n c onception, t heir c ontinued d evelopment w ould d epend o n e conomic f actors. I t i s s urely i ncorrect t o e nvisage t he e conomic l andscape o f t he W est M idlands b eing g eared e ntirely t o a m ilitary r oad s ystem. I t s eems m uch m ore l ikely t hat t he m ilitary c ommuni cations n etwork w as a dapted a nd p robably e xpanded t o a ccommo date t he r equirements o f t rade a nd t he e conomic d evelopment o f t he r egion. S ome s ections o f t he i nitial c ommunications n etwork m ay h ave g one o ut o f u se a fter t he m ilitary w ithdrawal, f or e xample, t he R yknield S treet a nd t he F osse W ay a ppear t o h ave h ad l ittle s ignificance a fter t he i st c entury ( Webster 1 960, 4 9). T he e arly m ilitary i mportance o f t he W atling S treet i s s hown b y t he n umber o f f orts a long i t. T hereafter a c ertain d egree o f e conomic i mportance a rose f rom i ts s urvival a s a n a rterial r oute f rom t he c ivitas c apital a t W roxeter t o s outhe ast E ngland , a nd t his p resumably e nsured d evelopment o f c ivil s ettlements a nd l ed t o t he e stablishment o f m ansiones a nd m utationes a t p laces s uch a s L etocetum , M anduessedum , P ennoc rucium a nd U xacona w hich h ad d eveloped n ear t he s ites o f f orts. B ut o n t he w hole t he s cale o f t his c ivil d evelopment w as l imited. A t L etocetum a nd P ennocrucium , f or e xample, t he s trate gic i mportance o f t he s ite w as f ar m ore s ignificant t han i ts p otential f or c ivil d evelopment , a nd c omparatively m inor s ettlem ents g rew u p a long t he R oman r oad. O n t he o ther h and, t here w ere o ther c entres, n otably A lcester, D roitwich, K enchester a nd W orcester, w here t he l evel o f c ivil d evelopment w as f ar g reater t han i n t he c ase o f t he r oadside s ettlements b ut w hich m ay h ave h ad o nly a p assing i mportance i n m ilitary s trategy. B lackwardine a ppears t o b e a nother m ajor s ettlement w hose d evelo pment c annot, o n p resent e vidence, b e a ttributed e ither t o a m ilitary s trategic p osition o r a s ignificant p osition i n t erms o f c ommunications. A m ore o bvious e xplanation f or t he g rowth a nd d evelopment o f s uch c entres i s t heir e conomic p otent ial a s i ndustrial c entres ( Droitwich), a s m arket a nd s ervice c entres f or a r ural h interland ( Alcester a nd K enchester) o r a s r egional d istribution c entres ( Worcester) a nd a s s uch i t

w as t heir s iting i n r elation t o t he e conomic l andscape o f t he W est M idlands w hich d etermined t he l evel o f t heir d evelopment.

T he i mportance o f e conomic c onsiderations w as h ighlighted i n H odder a nd H assall's h ypothesis c oncerning t he d evelopment o f ' lesser w alled t owns' i n w hich i t w as s uggested t hat t he g rowth o f s ome c entres r esulted f rom t he d emand o f t he r ural p opulation f or s ervices a nd m arkets ( Hodder a nd H assall 1 971; H odder 1 975). F armsteads a nd v illas w hich m ight h ave o rigina ted a s I ron A ge s ettlements, c ontinued t o b e o ccupied i n t he R oman p eriod, a nd t his r ural s ettlement p attern m ust h ave i nfluenced t he l ocation a nd d evelopment o f n ucleated s ettlements p roviaing s ervices o f v arious k inds. A s H odder h as p ointed o ut, d ifferent f actors p robably e ncouraged d evelopment a t d ifferent s tages. ' Military f actors m ay h ave b een o f i mportance i n t he i nitial l ocation a nd g rowth o f t he s ettlement. M arket p lace e xchange a t t ribal b oundaries m ay a lso h ave b een o f g reatest i mportance, i f a t a ll, d uring e arly t own g rowth. T he l ater g rowth o f t owns i n t he s econd, t hird a nd f ourth c enturies m ay h ave h ad m uch t o d o w ith t he n eed t o p rovide s ervices o f a n e conomic a nd a dministrative n ature t o a d ispersed p opulation ' ( Hodder 1 975, 7 3).

T he e mphasis p laced o n t he o verriding i mportance o f m ilit ary a nd o fficial o r a dministrative c onsiderations i n t he d evelo pment o f t he s ettlement i s v ery r estrictive. I t u ndervalues t he e conomic f actors ( Frere 1 975, 4 -5; R ivet 1 975, 12-13). S uch a n a pproach e xcludes t he p ossibility o f t he l ater d evelopm ent o f n ew s ettlements a nd i t i s c ertainly t rue t hat t he n ucl eated s ettlements i n t he W est M idlands s eem t o h ave b een i n e xistence b y t he l ate i st c entury A D. H owever, i t i s w orth e mphasising t hat t he R oman p eriod c overs f our c enturies o f d evelopment d uring w hich t here m ay h ave b een c onsiderable c hanges. A ll s ettlements m ay n ot h ave d eveloped a t t he s ame r ate a nd t hey m ay h ave b een s ubject t o d ifferent i nfluences a t d ifferent t imes w hich a ffected t heir c haracter a nd f unction, t heir p rosperity o r d ecline, a nd e ven t heir l ocation.

C onclusions

A b roadening o f o ur a pproach t o t he o rigins o f R omanoB ritish n ucleated s ettlements i s e ssential i n o rder t o a pprec iate t he f actors i nvolved i n s ite l ocation a nd d evelopment. I n t he p eriod f ollowing t he c onquest t here w ould h ave b een a n umber o f e xisting c ircumstances a nd n ew d evelopments i ntera cting t o p roduce a p attern o f s ettlements a rising f rom t he r equirements o f t he R oman a dministration a nd t he e conomic e xp loitation o f t he r egion. B urnham h as r eferred t o t his i nterp lay o f f actors a s a s eries o f c ompeting a nd o verlapping s ystems w hich, i n t he p ost-conquest p eriod, c reated a s tate o f f lux ( Burnham 1 979, 2 60 , 2 62, 2 68-9). I n a ttempting t o u nderstand 40-

t he v arious p rocesses w e n eed, t hrough e xamination o f t he I ron A ge s ettlement p attern a nd t he R omano-British n ucleated s ettlem ents, t o l earn m ore a bout t he a bility o f t he I ron A ge p olitical a nd e conomic s ystem t o m eet t he r equirements o f t he R oman s ystem , a nd t he e xtent o f c ontinuity o f s ettlement f rom t he I ron A ge. I t s eems u nlikely t hat a s ingle e xplanation o r c ause w ill s uffice f or t he l ocation a nd d evelopment o f a ll n ucleated s ettlements, a nd d espite t he t endency t o e mphasise t he m ilitary f actor, i ndividual c ase s tudies m ay r eveal t he v ariety o f i nf luences o n t he o rigin a nd l ater g rowth o f s ettlements.

V I.

S ettlement F unctions i n t he R omano-British W est M idlands

A rchaeological e vidence h as s o f ar p roved u nhelpful i n e stablishing t he l egal s tatus o f s ettlements. I t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat s ome o f t hem m ay h ave q ualified f or v icus s tatus; o ther c entres a part f rom t he c ivitas c apital m ay h ave p erformed a dministrative f unctions p erhaps a s p agus c entres o r l ater c ivitates a nd t here w ould c ertainly h ave b een m ansiones, m utationes a nd t ax c ollection c entres. S ome s ettlements w ould c ertainly h ave h ad a h ighly d eveloped f unctional b asis p roviding a w ide r ange o f s ocial a nd e conomic s ervices, p ossibly i n c onj unction w ith a dministrative a nd o fficially-imposed t asks. B ut a part f rom t he f orum i nscription, w hich p rovides e pigraphic e vidence f or t he c ivitas c apital a t W roxeter, t here i s n o d irect e vidence f rom w hich t o i dentify t he v ici, p agus c entres a nd m ansiones i n t his r egion a nd a ny a ssessment o f t hese f unctions h as t o r ely e ntirely o n t he a rchaeological e vidence ( Atkinson 1 942, 1 77-84; W ebster 1 975a, 1 42).

T he s tatus a nd t he r ange o f f unctions o f t he m ajority o f n ucleated s ettlements i n t he W est M idlands i s v ery u ncertain. T here a re s ome R omano-British s ettlements a bout w hich v ery l ittle i s k nown b eyond t heir e xistence, s uch a s B idford-onA von, B lackwardine, R ocester, R utunium , S tretton G randison a nd T wyford. T here i s a d egree o f s peculation a bout o ther s ettlements; A riconium a nd D roitwich m ay h ave b een c ontrolled a s i mperial e states a nd C hesterton/Holditch m ay h ave b een a s upply b ase f or t he a rmy. O ther c entres m ay h ave q ualified f or v icus s tatus a nd/or p erformed s ome o f t he h igher o rder a dministrative f unctions, o n t he g rounds t hat t hey s eem t o h ave a f airly h ighly d eveloped f unctional b asis a nd w ere p roba bly m ajor m arket a nd s ervice c entres, f or e xample A lcester a nd K enchester. A s m ore e vidence b ecomes a vailable, o ther c entres w ill u ndoubtedly b e i dentified a s p ossible v ici.

T he e vidence f or t he f unctional b asis o f t he s ettlements o f t he r egion w ill b e c onsidered b elow u nder t he c ategories a dministrative, s ocial, a nd e conomic. T he d evelopment o f t hese f unctions w ithin t he c ontext o f t he c haracter a nd d evelopment o f t he r egion w ill b e e xamined. A t p resent, i t i s r eally o nly p ossible t o u se a d escriptive a pproach a s a f uller a ppreciation r equires b etter e vidence t han i s c urrently a vailable.

A dministrative a nd O ther

' Officially-Imposed '

F unctions

T he C ivitas C apital

A l arge p art o f t he r egion p robably l ay w ithin t he c ivitas C ornoviorum w ith i ts c apital a t W roxeter. T his a lmost c ertainly c overed m odern S hropshire a nd w est S taffordshire b ut t he t rue e xtent o f t he c ivitas i s u nknown ( Webster 1 975a, 2 1-2). T he 42-

t erritory o f t he C oritani a nd t he D obunni m ay h ave c overed e astern a nd s outhern p arts o f t he r egion a nd i t h as b een s uggest ed t hat t he t erritory o f t he c ivitas C oritanorum m ay h ave e xtended a s f ar w est a s t he p resent C annock C hase a nd t he h ills o f s outh D erbyshire, p erhaps a pproximating t o t he l ine o f R yknield S treet, a nd t hat t he s outh-western b oundary w ould h ave c rossed t he F osse W ay b etween V enonae a nd C hesterton-onF osse. T his w ould p lace V enonae a nd M anduessedum i n t he t errit ory o f t he C oritani ( Richmond 1 963b, 2 42; T odd 1 973, 1 3 a nd 1 5; W ebster 1 975a, 2 2). T he e xtent t o w hich t he s outhern p art o f t he r egion w as a dministered f rom t he D obunni c apital a t C irencester i s a lso a m atter f or c onjecture. I t h as b een s uggested t hat t his m ay h ave a ffected W arwickshire a s f ar n orth a s A lcester a nd s outh-west H erefordshire i ncluding t he s ettlem ents a t A riconium a nd K enchester, a lthough s ome a uthorities i nclude t his l atter a rea i n t he t erritory o f t he S ilures ( Frere 1 961, 3 5; S tanford 1 968, 3 18; 1 974, 4 6; 1 980 , 1 20-1; W ilmott 1 979, 5 0-1; B ooth 1 980 , 2 2). ' The P eoples o f R oman B ritain ' s eries p laces W orcestershire a nd H erefordshire, a s f ar n orth a s t he T eme V alley a nd a s f ar w est a s t he S evern, i n D obunnic t erritory, a nd e xtends t he t erritory o f t he S ilures a s f ar e ast a s t he S evern ( Webster 1 975a m ap i nside c over, f ig.4). A m ore a ccurate k nowledge o f t he b oundaries o f t he c ivitates a ffecting t his r egion - t he C ornovii, C oritani a nd D obunni - w ould h elp t o d efine t he v arious a reas w hich w ere a dminist ratively a nd e conomically w ithin t he c ompetence o f t he c ivitas c apitals a t W roxeter, L eicester a nd C irencester r espectively.

T he w ithdrawal o f t he 2 0th L egion f rom W roxeter c . A D.869 0 w as p robably t he o ccasion f or t he h anding b ack o f C ornovian t erritory t o t he t ribe a nd t he s etting u p o f t he c ivitas ( Webster 1 975a, 2 1, 3 7-8). T hose a reas w ithin t he c ivitas C oritanorum m ay h ave a lready p assed i nto c ivilian c ontrol b y c . A D 7 0-80 a nd t hose w ithin t he c ivitas D obunnorum i n t he l ate 7 0s ( Todd 1 973, 3 3 a nd 3 5; W acher 1 974a, 2 94). T here i s s ome e vidence t o s uggest t hat t he c ivitas S ilurum m ay h ave b een e stablished i n t he l ater 1 st/early 2 nd c entury ( Davies 1 974, 3 8 ; W acher 1 974a, 3 76).

W e k now l ittle a bout t he a dministrative s tructure b eyond t he e xistence o f t he c ivitas c apital a t W roxeter. E ven h ere t here i s c onsiderable u ncertainty a bout t he a dministrative f unctions o f t he c apital i n t he l ate 1 st/early 2 nd c entury. I t s eems p ossible, f rom t he c ivil o ccupation a t W roxeter i n t he l ate i st c entury, t hat t he c ivitas o f t he C ornovii h ad b een f ormally c onstituted b y c . A D 9 0 ( Webster 1 975a 2 5-8, 3 2-7), b ut i t a lso a ppears t hat t he p ublic b uildings w ere n ot b uilt u ntil t he 2 nd c entury, t he F orum b eing d edicated i n A D 1 29-130 a nd t he b aths a nd t he m acellum p robably b eing c ompleted r ather l ater i n t he 2 nd c entury. I t w as o nce t hought t hat i nitial a ttempts w ere m ade t o p rovide p ublic b uildings i n t he l ate i st c entury w ith t he e arly b aths ( terminus p ost q uem c .

A D 9 0-100) a nd f orum b eing c onstructed o n s ites o ccupied r espect ively b y t he l ater f orum a nd b aths, a nd t hat t hese b uildings w ere n ever c ompleted, s o t hat t he c ity c entre r emained u no ccupied u ntil a r evival o f t he b uilding p rogramme p erhaps i n t he 1 20s u nder H adrian ( Bushe-Fox 1 913, 2 -3; K enyon 1 938, 1 84-5; A tkinson 1 942, 5 -7, 2 0-54, 1 23, 1 81; F rere 1 974, 2 77 a nd 2 83; W ebster 1 975a, 4 1, 4 3, 5 6-7). H owever, e xcavations s ince 1 976 o n t he s ite o f t he m acellum h ave r evealed e vidence t hat t he b uildings b eneath t he l ater f orum a nd p ublic b aths b elong n ot t o a n a bortive d evelopment o f t he l ate i st c entury b ut t o a c hange o f p lan d uring t he H adrianic d evelopment o f t he c ivitas c apital. B efore t hat t he c ivitas c apital m ay h ave c onsisted o f t he m ain s treets a nd i nsulae ( at l east i n t he c entral a rea) a nd t he o ccupation o f t he c ity c entre t ook t he f orm o f c ommercial a ctivity w ith s hops a nd b ooths l ining t he m ain s treet ( Webster 1 976 , 3 7; 1 977, 5 5 ; 1 978c, 6 6; 1 980b, 1 35). S uch a s ituation r aises t he q uestion o f h ow a nd w here t he a dministrative r esponsibilities o f t he c ivitas c apital w ere p erformed p rior t o t he p rovision o f t he f orum i n t he e arly 2 nd c entury. T he e xtent o f t he o ccupation o f t he c ity p rior t o t he c onstruction o f t he p ublic b uildings i s u nknown a nd W ebster h as s uggested t hat a v icus, w hich m ay h ave d eveloped d uring t he p eriod o f m ilitary o ccupation, m ay h ave r emained t he f ocus f or c ivil a ctivity u ntil t he r edevelopment g ot u nder w ay i n t he e arly 2 nd c entury ( Webster 1 975a, 3 9).

T he i nitial ' failure' o f t he t ribal c apital a t W roxeter t o p rovide t he p ublic s ervices e xpected o f a c ivitas c apital i s m atched b y t he h esitant s tart i n t his r espect o f t he c ivitas c apital a t L eicester ( Wacher 1 974a, 3 37-8). B uilding o perations a t b oth t hese c entres s eem t o h ave b een r evived a t m uch t he s ame t ime i n t he e arly 2 nd c entury, p erhaps a s a r esult o f t he r enewed s timulus g iven t o u rban d evelopment a nd t he e mphasis o n t he p rovision o f t he o utward s ymbols o f p ublic l ife u nder H adrian ( Todd 1 973, 5 6; W ebster 1 975a, 5 7). H owever, i n b oth c ases t he e xistence o f a t hriving c ommercial n ucleus a nd t he i nitial l aying o ut o f s treets s uggests t hat t he n on-provision o f p ublic b uildings w as n ot s o m uch a r esult o f a l ack o f e nt husiasm o n t he p art o f t he t ribe, a s a n i nability t o f ind t he n ecessary f inances i n t he e arly y ears o f d evelopment. I t i s a lso p ossible t hat i n s outhern B ritain t he d evelopment o f l owland c entres w ith a h ighly-developed f unctional b asis i n t he l ater I ron A ge m ay h ave m ade t he g rowth o f t he c ivitas c apitals r ather e asier. I n t he h illfort z ones w here t here i s n o e vidence f or s uch c entres i n t he l ate I ron A ge, i t m ay h ave t aken l onger t o a djust t o t he r equirements o f t he n ew s ystem. E ven i n s outhern B ritain t he e arly d evelopment o f t he c ivitas c apitals w as g radual, a nd h ere t oo m uch o f t he i nitial b uilding w as i n t imber ( e.g. S ilchester a nd V erulamium, C ollingwood a nd M yres 1 945, 1 89-94; F rere 1 974, 2 83).

A t W roxeter

i t i s t herefore p ossible t o e nvisage a p rocess

w hereby t hose m embers o f t he t ribe w ho h ad b een e ntrusted w ith t he r esponsibility o f a dministering t he n ewly c onstituted c ivitas b egan t o d evelop t he c apital, a nd a s tart w as p ossibly m ade o n l aying o ut t he s treet g rid i n t he l ate i st c entury. B ut t he t ribe m ay n ot h ave b een s ufficiently w ealthy t o p roceed a ny f urther a t t his s tage. T he d eparture o f t he m ilitary m ay h ave r esulted i n a n i nitial d ecline i n t rade. N evertheless, t he e vidence f or i ndustrial a ctivity i n t he c ity c entre i n t he l ate i st a nd e arly 2 nd c entury s uggests t hat t rade c ontinued a nd t hat i t i s t he c ommercial f unction w hich i s o f p rime i mport ance i n t he e arly y ears o f d evelopment. I t w ould h ave a ttract ed f urther s ettlement a nd h elped t o c reate t he w ealth f or f urther b uilding c onstruction. U ntil t he e arly 2 nd c entury t he m ajority o f t he p opulation p ossibly r emained i n t he v icus, r esorting t o t he c ivitas c apital t o t rade. O nce t his h ad b ecome a v iable c ommercial p roposition, p eople w ould h ave b een e ncoura ged t o m ove i nto t he c apital a nd t o i nvest m oney i n p ublic b uildings a nd p rivate h ouses. I t i s p ossible t hat a n a dded i mpetus t o d evelopment m ay h ave b een g iven u nder H adrian p erhaps b y t he r emission o f t axes a nd t he i ntroduction o f t he p ost o f c urator w ho m ay h ave b een r esponsible f or e nsuring t hat t he m oney s aved w as u sed f or u rban d evelopment ( Collingwood a nd M yres 1 945, 1 89 , 1 91, 1 93-4; W acher 1 979, 7 7-80). H owever, t his i s s peculative a nd b etter e vidence i s n eeded t o u nderstand t he d evelopment o f t he c ivitas c apital, w hen t his t ook p lace a nd h ow t he a dministrative f unctions w ere p erformed i n t he i nitial p eriod.

P agus C entres a nd L ater C ivitates

T he o rganisation o f t he t erritory o f t he t ribes i s l ittle k nown; t here a re i ndirect r eferences t o p agi o r s maller a dmini strative u nits i nto w hich a c ivitas m ay h ave b een s ubdivided. I t s eems t hat a p agus c ould a ct a s a c orporate e ntity a nd t his s uggests t hat i t h ad r ecognised c entres ( Rivet 1 975, 12-13). B ut t he a dministrative o rganisation o f R oman B ritain w as n ot s tatic. T he p icture w hich w e h ave o f t he g eography o f R oman B ritain i s t hat o f t he A ntonine p eriod ( Bradley 1 885, 3 79-96). I n t he e arly 3 rd c entury, t he p rovince w as a pparently d ivided i nto t wo a nd t his s eems t o h ave b een f ollowed b y f urther m ajor a dministrative r eorganisations ( Frere 1 974, 2 40-2). A nother i mportant d evelopment i n t he a dministration o f R oman B ritain i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies w as t he f ragmentation o f s ome o f t he e xisting c ivitates. I t i s n ot c ertain o n w hat s ort o f s cale t his t ook p lace a nd i t m ay h ave b een t hat t he d ivision o f t he p rovince n ecessitated a r e-adjustment o f t ribal b ounda ries o n t he f ringes o f t hese d ivisions. H owever t he c reation o f n ew c ivitates m ay h ave b een p art o f a g eneral t rend t owards a warding a dministrative r esponsibility t o s maller u nits a nd, a t a n e ven l ower l evel, t here i s s ome i ndication t hat i ncreasing n umbers o f s ettlements w ere g ranted r ights o f s elf-government i n t he l ate R oman p eriod ( Todd 1 973, 3 9-40 ; F rere 1 974, 2 36

a nd 2 40 ; W ebster 1 975a, 2 0-3). K enchester, L etocetum a nd T ripontium a re s ettlements f or w hich a f unction i nvolving s ome s ort o f a dministrative r esponsibility h as b een s uggested.

K enchester m ay h ave f unctioned a s a p agus c entre o r e ven a l ate c ivitas. T here a re t wo r easons f or c onsidering t his p ossibility - t he e vidence f or a h igh l evel o f d evelopment i n a nd a round K enchester, a nd t he m ilestone o f N umerian d isc overed i n 1 796 a nd r eported t o h ave c ome f rom t he f oundation o f t he d efences o n t he n orth ( TWNFC ( 1881-2) , 2 47). P ointing o ut t he u nusual f eatures o f K enchester i tself a nd i ts r emarkable d evelopment s o c lose t o t he W elsh b order, T odd m entions t hat ' there a re f ew o ther l arge n ucleated s ettlements i n t hese b order l ands a nd K enchester's t wenty-two a cres w ithin i ts w alls l eave i t n ot s o f ar b ehind t he i nternal a rea o f C aerwent, C aistorb y-Norwich a nd A ldborough , a ll o f t hem a dministrative c entres o f t ribes. F urther, t he d egree o f R oman c ulture e vinced i n t hose p arts o f t he i nterior w hich h ave b een e xplored i s a pprec iably h igher t han t hat o f t he c ommon r un o f s mall t ownships e ven i n t he m ore R omanised p arts o f t he p rovince' ( Todd 1 976, 9 9). R ivet f eels i t p robably f unctioned f rom t he f irst a s a p agus c entre f or a n a rea o f t he c ivitas D obunnorum w hich w as s eparated f rom i ts c ivitas c apital a t C irencester b y t he t erritorium a round t he c olonia o f G loucester ( Rivet 1 964 , 1 523 ; W ilmott 1 979, 5 0-1, 6 1).

T he f ourth l ine o n t he i nscription o n t he m ilestone o f N umerian ( AD 2 83-284) i s t hought t o b e R PCD, a nd t his h as b een i nterpreted a s a n a bbreviation o f R es P ublica C ivitatis D obunnorum ( VCH H e ( 1908) 1 , 1 81; W ilmott 1 979, 5 0-1, A ppendix 2 ). T he e xistence o f a s eparate t ribe f or s outh H erefordshire h as b een r egarded a s p ossible, a nd s uch a t ribe m ight h ave b een a malgamated i nto t he t erritory o f t he D obunni a fter t he c onquest, p reserving i ts i dentity a s a p agus a nd p ossibly e ven r e-emerging a s a n i ndependent c anton i n t i le 3 rd c entury ( Rivet 1 964, 1 35; S tanford 1 960 , 1 90 ; 1 968 , 3 18; 1 974, 4 6; 1 980 1 20-1, 1 58-9; W ilmott 1 979, 6 1). C ollingwood h as s uggested t hat t he i nscription m ay r ead n ot R PCD b ut R PDB i n w hich c ase K enchester w ould b e s ituated i n t he t erritory o f a n o therwise u nrecorded c ivitas o r c anton o f w hich i t m ay h ave b een t he c apital ( Stevens 1 937, 1 97 a nd 2 01). B oth s uggestions a re h ighly s peculative.

O ne o ther c onsideration w hich h as b een s uggested a s a ffect ing t he c andidacy o f a s ettlement f or p agus a nd l ater c ivitas i s t he n eed t o f ind s ufficient m en o f t he d ecurion c lass t o f orm t he n ecessary g overning b ody i n t he c apital ( Frere 1 974, 2 93; R ivet 1 975, 13). K enchester c ertainly h as s ubstantial t own h ouses w ithin t he b uilt-up a rea, a nd v illa s ites a re k nown i n t he i mmediate v icinity a nd e lsewhere i n H erefordshire p articu larly t o t he s outh a nd s outh-east. T hese f eatures, a nd t he

c ivic p ride s hown i n t he s treet-paving a nd d rainage, t ogether w ith a v iable c ommercial l ife, w ould b e e vidence o f t he p resence o f m en o f w ealth a nd h igh s ocial s tatus.

I t i s b ecause o f t his l atter c onsideration t hat s erious d oubts h ave b een c ast o n t he s uggestion t hat L etocetum a nd T ripontium m ay h ave b een a dministrative c entres. L etocetum h as b een c onsidered a s a p ossible . pgus c entre o r a l ate c ivitas ( Rivet 1 964, 1 50; 1 966, 1 09; S mith 1 980 , 1), p artly b y v irtue o f a l ate l iterary r eference. A l ist o f t he c ities o f R oman B ritain i n t heir W elsh f orm c ompiled b y N ennius i n t he e arly 9 th c entury i ncludes C air L oitcoit, w hich i s t he W elsh n ame f or L etocetum ( Gould 1 963-4, 5 1). W ithout t his l iterary r efere nce, i t i s u nlikely t hat L etocetum w ould e ver h ave b een c ons idered i n t his c ontext, a lthough t he s urvival o f t he n ame L etocetum a s o ne e lement i n t he n ame o f L ichfield, t wo m iles t o t he n orth-east, c ould b e i nterpreted a s a n i ndication t hat L etocetum h ad t erritory a ttached t o i t i n t he R oman p eriod ( Rivet 1 964, 1 50 ; G ould 1 976, 8 ).

T here i s n o e vidence t hat L etocetum w as a m ajor m arket a nd s ervice c entre w ith a h ighly d eveloped s ocial a nd e conomic b asis, o r t hat i t s erved a r ich v illa h interland. H owever, i f m ore w ere k nown a bout t he s ettlement p attern i t m ight b e p ossible t o a ssess w hether s uch a s ettlement c ould h ave f unct ioned a s a c entral p lace f or t he l ocality. T he a rea m ay h ave b een s parsely p opulated b ecause o f t he r elatively l ow a gricult ural p otential o f t he a reas w hich w ere l ater t o b ecome C annock C hase a nd N eedwood F orest. A erial p hotographs h ave r evealed a n umber o f I ron A ge/Romano-British f armsteads t o t he e ast o f L etocetum a nd p ollen a nalysis o f a p eat s ample f rom b elow t he f irst R oman s urface o f W atling S treet i ndicates s ome c learance o f o pen w oodland i n t he p re-Roman o r e arly R oman p eriod ( J . G ould 1 971-2, 1 -8). T he s ettlement i n t he a rea o f L etocetum w as h owever n ot v ery d ense. A erial p hotographs h ave r evealed s ettlements o n t he t erraces o f t he T ame V alley b ut t he p icture i s v ery i ncomplete b ecause o f l imited o pportunities f or a erial r econnaissance ( pers. c omm . J . G ould; S mith 1 980, 9 -11). I t h as b een s uggested t hat i n a ll p robability L etocetum l ay o n t he f ringe o f t he t ribal t erritory ( Todd 1 973, 1 5; W ebster 1 974a, 55). U rban d evelopment m ay h ave b een n aturally u nsuited t o t his p articular a rea a nd t he r oadside v illage a t L etocetum c ould r epresent t he h ighest f orm w hich a n ucleated s ettlement c ould b e e xpected t o a chieve w ithout a rtificial s timulation. I t m ay w ell h ave f unctioned, i n w ays y et t o b e d efined, a s a n i mportant c entre f or a r ural h interland b ut t here i s n o e vidence a t p resent f or a ny d istinction a s a c entre w ith a h igher a dminist rative f unction .

T he

g raffito

o n

a t ile

d iscovered

a t

T ripontium

a ppears

t o r ecord a n o therwise u nknown c ivitas C orielsoliliorum ( JRS ( 1966) 5 6, 2 23; T odd 1 973, 4 0 ; J ohnson 1 975, 7 8). U nfortuna tely, i t w as n ot f ound i n a s ecurely s tratified c ontext a nd 47-

i s u ndated. R . S . O . T omlin, h owever, h as r ecently p ublished a n a lternative i nterpretation o f t his g raffito ( Britannia, 1 4 , ( 1980), 3 49-50). H e h as c ast d oubt o n t he t raditional r eading o f t he t ribal n ame ' Coritani' a nd, u sing t he T ripontium t ile, h e h as p roposed t he a lternative n ame ' Corieltauvi'; t his r eading r emoves t he p rincipal e vidence f or t he c reation o f a c ivitas b etween C oritanian a nd C atuvellaunian t erritory ( Wacher 1 974a, 2 2 a nd 4 09; W ebster 1 975a , 2 0 a nd 2 3). I f s uch e xisted h owever, T owcester ( Rivet 1 966, 1 09; 1 975, 1 13) a nd W ater N ewton h ave b een s uggested a s t he p ossible c apital o f t his c ivitas; T ripontium m ay b e e xcluded, a lthough i t w as i nitially c onsidered a s a v iable c andidate ( Todd 1 973, 4 0 ; J ohnson 1 975). I t i s n ot c lear w hy t hese t wo s ettlements w ere s uggested. T owcester i n p articular i s s ingularly l acking i n d istinction a nd, i f t he a ssumption i n r ejecting T ripontium w as t hat t he l ater c ivitas c apitals m ust h ave h ad a w ell-developed s ocial a nd e conomic b asis, t hen T owcester m ight b e r ejected o n t he s ame g rounds ( Wacher 1 974a , 4 05, 4 09-10).

I t i s n ot p ossible t o i dentify s ecurely w hich , i f a ny, s ettlements i n t he r egion m ay h ave p erformed a n a dministrative f unction. B ut o n t he b asis o f t he p resent e vidence f or s ocial c omplexity a nd e conomic p rosperity, a spects w hich w ill b e c ons idered i n m ore d etail b elow , i t i s r easonable t o a ccept t hat K enchester m ay w ell h ave q ualified f or h igher a dministrative s tatus a s a p agus c entre o r l ater c ivitas a nd t hat a t t he v ery l east i t w as l ikely t o h ave b een g ranted r ights o f s elf-governm ent. T he f ollowing a nalysis o f s ocial a nd e conomic f unctions w ill r eveal t hat t here a re o ther c entres w here t he a rchaeological e vidence s uggests t he l ikelihood o f a h ighly d eveloped f unctional b asis, a s a t A lcester a nd p ossibly W orcester, a nd f urther w ork w ill u ndoubtedly r eveal o thers. O n t he b asis o f t he a rchaeol ogical e vidence, L etocetum a nd T ripontium c annot s eriously b e a ccepted w ithin o ur p resent u nderstanding o f t he l ikely r equirements f or a n a dministrative c entre.

M ansiones, M utationes a nd C entres f or t he C ollection o f A nnona

T here w ere o ther f unctions a ssociated w ith t he a rticulation o f t he p rovince i nto t he a dministrative f ramework o f t he e mpire, n otably t he p osts o f t he c ursus p ublicus a nd t he c entres f or t he c ollection o f t he a nnona ( taxes i n k ind).

F ew m ansio ( hostel) b uildings h ave b een i dentified a lthough t here a re b uildings a t C helmsford, G odmanchester a nd W anborough w hich a re t hought t o b e m ansiones ( Drury 1 975, 1 70 ; G reen 1 975, 1 96-201; P hillips a nd W alters 1 977). U nfortunately, t he p lan o f a m ansio s eems t o r esemble c losely t hat o f a v illa, a f actor w hich m eans t hat a m ore d etailed e xamination o f t he p recise n ature o f t he a rrangements a nd f acilities o f t he b uilding i s n ecessary t o b e c ertain o f i ts f unction . H owever, i n e ach o f t hese t hree e xamples t he l ayout a nd t he e xistence o f a ssociated 48-

b athing f acilities w ere r egarded a s f or t hem t o b e i dentified a s m ansiones.

s ufficiently

d iagnostic

M utat iones ( changing p osts) h ave n ot b een i dentified a nd n one a re c laimed f or t he W est M idlands; i t i s d ifficult t o k now h ow s uch a f unction m ight b e r epresented i n t he a rchaeological r ecord ( Chevallier 1 976, 1 87-8). I t i s f elt t hat c entres f or t he c ollection o f t he a nnona c ould b e i dentified b y t he e xistence o f l arge-scale s torage f acilities ( Green 1 975, 1 98; R ivet 1 975, 12).

T he p recise i mpact o f t his t ype o f f unction o n t he d evelopm ent o f a c ivil s ettlement i s v ery u ncertain. M ansiones a nd m utationes w ere e stablished a t r egular i ntervals a long t he a rt erial r outes f or t he i mperial p ostal s ervice a nd t hey w ould a lmost c ertainly h ave e xisted a long o ther m ajor r outes f or t rave lers a nd t hose o n p rivate a nd o fficial b usiness. T he i mpos ition o f t his f unction w ould h ave l ess t o d o w ith t he c haracter o f t he s ettlement t han w ith i ts p osition i n t he r oad n etwork. T he d egree a nd n ature o f t he i nteraction b etween s uch a n o fficial f unction a nd t he e xisting c ommunity i s n ot e asily a ssessed. T he m Rnsio a nd a ny a ncillary b uildings a t G odmanchester f ormed a d istinct c omplex ; t his a ppears t o h ave b een c ontained w ithin a n e nclosure w hich w ould h ave e mphasised a ny s eparation f rom t he c ivil s ettlement. O n t he o ther h and, t here i s s ome s uggest ion t hat t he b athing f acilities a ccompanying t he m ansio a t G odmanchester w ere e xtended t o t he v illage c ommunity b y t he p rovision o f a s eparate u nit i n t he b ath-house ( Green 1 975, 1 96 a nd 1 98). B ut, i n g eneral, t he i ntegration o f t he m ansio i nto t he s ettlement i s n ot a n o bvious f eature a nd i t i s d ifficult t o s ay t hat, i n a ny r eal s ense, i t w as t he b asis o f o r f ocus f or t he p hysical o r e conomic d evelopment o f t he s ettlement. W here m ansiones e xisted i n t he t owns a nd c ities, f or e xample, a t S ilchester a nd C aerwent, t hey c an h ardly b e r egarded a s a c entral e lement ( Wacher 1 974a, 2 62, 3 79).

F unctions o f t his n ature c ould b e i mposed o n a s ettlement a nd p erformed i rrespective o f i ts l evel o f e conomic v iability. T he i mportance o f a n o fficial f unction w as t hat i t m ade t he s ettlement i nvolved a c entral p lace o f r esort f or a s pecific p urpose. A n o fficial f unction c ould b e a f actor c ontributing t o t he e conomic e xpansion o f a s ettlement a nd i ts m arket, s o t hat t he m ansiones w ould b e m ore l ikely t han t he m utationes t o a ttract t rade. C entres f or t he c ollection o f t axes w ould a lso h ave p rovided a c onsiderable i mpetus t o t rade, i n t hat t hey w ould h ave r equired p eople t o c onverge o n a p articular s ettlement u nder c ircumstances w hich w ould a id c ommerce. I n t his w ay t here w as a t endency f or o ne f unction t o a ttract a nother .

W ith t he e xception o f t he h igher a dministrative r esponsib ilities, t here i s n o e vidence t o s uggest t hat a p articular

49-

f unction w as t he p rerogative o f a c ertain t ype o f s ettlement. I t m ay h ave b een s ensible t o d esignate a s t ax c ollection c entres t hose s ettlements w hich w ere m ajor m arket a nd s ervice c entres. H owever, a s ettlement's o fficial f unction w as a f actor w hich c ut a cross t he d istinction b etween t own a nd v illage. R oadside s ettlements/minor m arket c entres/villages c ould p erform o fficial f unctions w ithin t he a dministrative f ramework o f t he c ivitas a nd t he p rovince a s a w hole. T his h as l ed t o c onfusion b etween t he o fficial r ole a nd t he e conomic i mportance o f a s ettlement a nd r esulted i n a t endency t o r egard a s a t own a r oadside s ettlement o r m inor m arket c entre w hich h ad a m ansio, s uch a s G odmanchester.

A n o fficial f unction m ay h ave i ncreased t he p rosperity o f a s ettlement; i t m ay a lso h ave b een r esponsible f or t he o rigin a nd l ocation o f c ertain s ettlements. T his q uestion o f t he p rec ise n ature o f t he i nteraction b etween t he o fficially-imposed t asks a nd t he e conomic g rowth o f a c ivil s ettlement d oes n eed t o b e e xamined m ore f ully i n e ach i ndividual c ase.

M ansiones i n t he W est M idlands T here a re t hree s ites a long t he m ajor a rterial r outes t hrough t he r egion - L eintwardine a long t he W atling S treet W est a nd L etocetum a nd T ripontium a long t he W atling S treet - w here t here a re b uildings w hich h ave b een i nterpreted a s m ansipnes. H owever, i t h as b een s uggested t hat t he a rrangements a t T ripont ium d o n ot c onform t o t hose o f o ther m ansio b uildings w hich h ave b een i dentified, a nd i f L eintwardine a nd L etocetum w ere m ansiones t here i s n o r eason w hy t hey s hould h ave g one o ut o f u se, a s t hey a ppear t o h ave d one i n b oth c ases, c .AD 1 60 , ( pers. c omm . D r. A . S . E smonde C leary 1 982). A p ossible e xplanation i s e xplored b elow.

A t L eintwardine, o nly a v ery l imited a rea w as a vailable f or e xcavation a nd t he e xcavator w as t entative i n h is s uggestion t hat s tone f oundations o f t wo l engths o f w all m ight r epresent a c ourtyard b uilding w hich c ould h ave b een a m ansio. T he h ypot hetical i nitial t imber m ansio i n t he l ate i st c entury i s b ased o nly o n t wo p ost-trenches. T here w as n o d ating e vidence a ssoc iated w ith t hese f eatures, b ut t he e arliest p ottery f rom v arious o ther s ites f alls w ithin t he b racket A D 7 5-85 a nd t he f oundation o f t he c ivil s ettlement h as b een a scribed t o t he e arly 7 0s ( Stanford 1 968). T he s ite i nterpreted a s t hat o f a b ath-house l ies s ome d istance t o t he s outh o f t he c ourtyard b uilding b y t he r iver a nd i ts c onstruction w as a ttributed t o c . A D 1 30-140 . T he s tone c ourtyard b uilding w hich w as t hought t o h ave b een e rected i n t he e arly 2 nd c entury w as d estroyed b y f ire a pparently c . A D 1 60 a lthough t here w as n o s ecure d ating e vidence f or a ny o f t he c onstruction o r d emolition p hases. S ubsequent a ctivity w as d ifficult t o i nterpret b ut t here w as n o c lear e vidence t hat t he c ourtyard b uilding w as r eplaced; m aterial f rom t he s ite 50-

o f t he b ath-house s uggests t hat t his c ontinued i n u se. M uch b etter e vidence i s r equired f rom b oth s ites b efore t he i nterp retation o f t heir f unction a nd p hasing c an b e a ccepted.

A t L etocetum , t he s tone c ourtyard b uilding, w hich w as o riginally d escribed a s a v illa h as b een i nterpreted a s a m ansio o n t he g rounds t hat t his b uilding a nd t he a djacent b athhouse f ormed a n i ntegral u nit s imilar t o t hat f ound a t G odmanchester ( Webster 1 975a, 7 6-7). B oth b uildings w ere e xcavated e arly i n t his c entury a nd a lthough m ore r ecent w ork h as a ttempted t o c larify c ertain i ssues, t he d ating, p hasing a nd i nterpretation r emain t entative. T he a vailable e vidence s eems t o s uggest t he f ollowing s equence. O n t he s ite o f t he l ater c ourtyard h ouse, a t imber b uilding o f u nknown f unction w as c onstructed i n t he l ate F lavian p eriod a nd d estroyed c . A D 1 10-120 t o b e r eplaced b y t he s tone c ourtyard b uilding o f n otably r egular l ayout. M uch o f t he o ccupation a ssociated w ith t his b uilding h ad b een r emoved d uring e arlier e xcavations a nd s tone r obbing, b ut t here w as e vidence t hat t his w as i n t urn d estroyed i n o r a fter A D160 ( Round 1 974b, 5 4-5; 1 975, 5 0-2; 1 976, 1 9; 1 980, 1 -2). T he b ath-house w as a pparently n ot b uilt b efore t he e nd o f t he i st c entury A D a nd t here w as s ome s uggestion t hat i t w as n ot c omp leted a nd m ay h ave b een b uilt f or t he f ort r ather t han t he c ivilian p opulation. I ts r eplacement i s u ndated b ut i t i s t hought t hat i t m ay h ave c ontinued i n u se i nto t he e arly 3 rd c entury o r p ossibly l ater ( Webster 1 958b, 1 2-25; 1 975a, 7 78 ; G ould 1 964 , 1 6; R ound 1 974a , 1 3-28). T he l imitations o f t he e vidence a gain m ake i t v ery d ifficult t o d raw a ny f irm c onc lusions.

A t T ripontium a t p resent o nly a b rief o utline i s a vailable o f t he h istory a nd c haracter o f t he c orridor-type b uilding s uggested a s a m ansio, a nd o f t he b aths. T his i nformation i ndic ates t hat t he s tone m ansio d ates f rom t he A ntonine p eriod ( AD 1 38-161) a lthough i t o verlies a s mall b uilding o f t imber a nd s tone o f u ncertain d ate a nd p urpose. T he c onstruction d ate o f t he n earby b athhouse i s n ot c ertain b ut i t m ay n ot h ave b een c onstructed u ntil t he 3 rd c entury. H owever, b oth b uildings c ontinued i n u se i nto t he s econd h alf o f t he 4 th c entury ( Cameron 1 964, 9 ; 1 965, 1 3-4; L ucas 1 969, 2 1; 1 970 , 3 7; 1 971, 1 7; 1 973, 2 1-2; 1 974, 7 2; 1 975, 5 2). T o t he w est o f t he m ansio, a b oundary d itch w ith p alisade a nd p ossible e ntrance s uggests t he c omplex l ay w ithin a n e nclosure a s a t G odmanchester. T o t he s outh o f t he c ourtyard b uilding e xtensive r emains o f o ther s tone b uildings, p erhaps a ncillary s tructures, w ere r eported ( Lucas 1 973, 2 1; L ucas a nd B arnett 1 977, 6 4-6).

I t i s u nfortunate t hat t he e vidence a vailable f rom e ach o f t hese t hree s ites r emains e quivocal. I n e ach c ase t he i nvesti gation o f t he a ssociated s ettlement h as n ot b een e xtensive b ut i t s eems t hat t hey t ake t he f orm o f r oadside s ettlements w hich m ay b e e xpected t o h ave f unctioned a s m inor r ather t han m ajor m arket a nd s ervice c entres. T he i mpact o f a p ossible 51-

m ansio f unction o n t he d evelopment c ase c annot y et b e a ssessed.

o f

t he

s ettlement

i n

e ach

I t h as a lso b een, s uggested t hat C hesterton-on-Fosse m ay h ave p ossessed a m ansio, s ince i t l ay a t t he c orrect d istance a long t he m ajor r oute b etween C irencester a nd L eicester ( Rivet 1 975, 1 12). T he ' winged c orridor t ype' b uilding i n t he n orthw est c orner o f t he t own ( insula X VI) a t W roxeter a nd r esembling t he e xcavated v illa ( Building X II, 2 ) a t C irencester, h as b een s uggested a s a p ossible m ansio ( Wacher 1 974a, 3 72) a nd t hey c an b e e xpected a t o ther c entres a lso, b oth m ajor c entres a nd r oadside s ettlements. B ut, a part f rom t he a rchaeological e vid ence f rom L eintwardine, L etocetum a nd T ripontium , i dentification o f s uch s ites r ather d epends a t p resent o n c onclusions d rawn f rom t heir s iting o n r outes ( Chevallier 1 976, 1 87-8).

I t h as b een s uggested t hat s ome m ansiones m ay h ave b een u sed a s b ases f or t he c ollection o f the a nnona, p articularly f rom t he 3 rd c entury w hen i mperial t axation i n k ind w as i ncreased ( Frere 1 974, 2 43; G reen 1 975, 1 98; R ivet 1 975, 1 12). T he d istribution a nd l ocation o f s uch c entres w ould p robably h ave d epended o n g ood c ommunications a nd o n t he p roductivity o f t he l ocality. S o f ar a s i s k nown, t he o nly a rchaeological i ndication o f t his f unction, w hich c an b e a nticipated, i s t he p resence o f s torehouses a nd b arns.

I n t he W est M idlands t he o nly s ettlement w ith p ossible e vidence o f t his f unction i s A lcester. B ooth ( 1979, 5 0-2; i n p ress) h as s uggested t hat a s ubstantial b uilding a t C oulter's G arage, t o t he s outh-west o f t he p resumed d efended a rea a nd n orth o f t he l arge e xtramural c omplex , m ay h ave b een u sed a s a n o ffi cial c ollecting p oint a nd s torage p lace f or t he a nnona m ilita ris. T he e vidence i ndicated t hat R oman a ctivity b egan p erhaps i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 2 nd c entury w hen a t imber b uilding, i nterpreted a s a g ranary, w as e rected. B urnt d eposits, i ncluding q uantities o f g rain r esidue, c overed a s ubstantial a rea o f t he s ite. A t t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c entury, o r a l ittle l ater, a s ubstantial s tone b uilding w as e rected. O nly p art o f t he b uilding l ay w ithin t he e xcavated a rea a nd i ts p lan s eemed t o b e u nusual. H owever, c omparison w ith o ther s ites s uggested t hat i t m ay h ave b een a s torehouse o r g ranary. T he b uilding w as a pparently d emolished a nd r obbed p erhaps a fter t he m id-4th c entury. T he o ther e vidence f or t he f unctions o f A lcester a s a m ajor m arket a nd s ervice c entre f or t he r ich a gricultural l and o f t he A von v alley ( see b elow) m ay b e t hought t o h ave m ade i t s uitable f or t he c ollection o f t axes i n k ind.

S ocial F unctions

R eference h as a lready b een m ade t o t he i mportance a ttached 52-

t o t he p resence o f a s ocial e lite i n a ttempting t o a ssess w hich c entres m ay h ave q ualified f or a dministrative r esponsibilities ( Rivet 1 975, 1 13). T he c ities - t he c oloniae, p unici2ia a nd c ivitas c apitals - w ere r ecognised c entres o t t he s ocial e lite a nd i n t his s ense c an b e r egarded a s s ocial p henomena a nd c lassi fied o n t he b asis o f s ocial c omplexity. A ny c lassification o f s ettlements a s m ajor ã r m inor c entres, o r a s t owns o r v illages s hould t herefore i nclude t he s ocial a spects a longside o ther f unctions a nd c haracteristics ( Burnham 1 979, 2 62, f ig 1 ).

T he c omplexity o f t he s ocial s tructure a nd t he p resence o f a w ealthy s ocial e lite c ould b e r evealed a rchaeologically i n t he p hysical f abric o f t he s ettlement. W e m ight e xpect t o f ind p rivate h ouses, a v ariety o f b uilding t ypes, a nd t he p rovision o f c ivic a menities. Ac lue t o t he p resence o f f amilies o f h igher s ocial s tatus, w hose w ealth w ould p robably h ave b een i nvested i n l and, m ay b e f ound i n t he d ensity o f v illas i n t he s urrounding c ountryside ( Frere 1 974, 2 44; R ivet 1 975, 1 13; H odderandMillett 1 980).

F or m ost o f t he s ettlements i n t he r egion t here i s i nsuf ficient e vidence f or a n a ssessment o f s ocial c omplexity. T his i s p articularly t rue o f t he r oadside s ettlements a long W atling S treet w here i t s eems t hat m uch o f t he b uilding w as i n t imber t hroughout t he p eriod ( Stanford 1 968, 2 71, 2 82; G ould 1 964 , 1 3). T here i s a s y et n o e vidence f or t he s ocial a nd p hysical s tructure o f B lackwardine, C hesterton-on-Fosse, C hesterton/Holditch , R ocester, S tretton G randison o r W hitchurch. O nly a t W roxeter, A lcester, K enchester a nd t o a l esser e xtent T iddington a nd W orcester i s t here a ny b asis a t a ll f or a d iscussion o f t hese a spects. A t A riconium a nd D roitwich, t here i s a lso n o e vidence f or t he s ocial c ontext o f t he d iscoveries m ade t o d ate. I t i s n ot k nown w hether t hese a re c entres w ith a d iversified o r s pecialised f unctional b asis.

T he f eatures w hich w ould e stablish t he r ole o f a s ettlement a s a s ocial a nd c ultural c entre w ould b e t he p rovision o f c ivic a menities. P ublic b aths w ere o f p rime i mportance s ince t hey w ere n ot o nly a s ymbol o f t he c ivilised l ife b ut a m eans o f s ocial c ontact. T he p rovision o f c ivic a menities i n c entres o ther t han t he c ivitas c apitals i s u ncertain a nd n o c oherent p attern e merges. I t m ay b e t hat, o utside t he t ribal c ities, t he p rovi sion o f t hese s ervices w as l eft t o p rivate i nitiative a nd a s a r esult t he d ecurion c lass c ontented i tself w ith p rivate b ath s uites, a s f or e xample a t K enchester. H owever, a p ublic b ath h ouse m ay b e a f eature o f a t l east s ome o f t he m ajor c entres a nd p erhaps w ith a g reater f lexibility o f p ositioning t han i n t he c ivitas c apitals a nd d ictated m ore b y t he t opography o f t he s ite. O ther p ublic a menities a ssociated w ith c ivilised u rban l ife i n t he R oman w orld w ere a mphitheatres a nd t heatres. N either w as c onsistently p rovided e ven i n t he c ivitas c apitals - W roxeter f or e xample a ppears t o l ack a n a mphitheatre ( Webster 1 975a, 6 2 a nd69) - s o t hat t heir a bsence f rom o ther c entres w ould n ot b e s urprising. T emples o n t he o ther h and a re n umerous a nd i nvariably f ound i n a ll c lasses o f n ucleated s ettlement. A t

l east

o ne

i s

k nown

a long

t he

m ain

s treet

a t

K enchester

( Lewis

1 966, 7 1). T he t heatre i s n ot a f eature w hich h as b een w idely o r e asily i dentified i n R oman B ritain ; o nly t hree h ave b een l ocated, t wo o f t hese a ssociated w ith t emples,a f requent a rrangem ent e lsewhere i n t he E mpire. T he t heatre m entioned i n t he i nscription a t B rough-on f-Humber h as n ot b een f ound a nd i t s eems t hat i n t owns o ther t han t he c ivitas c apitals a t heatre w ould h ave b een a n u nusual f eature. T he t heatre m asks f rom C atterick a nd B aldock p robably i mply n o m ore t han a t ravelling t heatre g roup ( Wacher 1 974a, 5 4-6).

S o t he c onsideration t hat t he r ange o f s ocial s ervices i ncreases w ith h ierarchical r ank h as t o b e a ssessed a gainst t he p ossibility t hat t here w as a w ide d isparity b etwen t he c ivitas c apital a nd t he o ther m ajor c entres. T he s ocial f acili ties p rovided b y t he l atter m ight c onsist o nly o f t emples a nd p eripheral a menities, s uch a s w ater s upply a nd d rainage f acili ties o f t he s ort s uggested b y t he p rivate b aths a nd t he c entral d rain a long t he m ain s treet a t K enchester. T he t emples s erved a s ocial a s w ell a s a r eligious f unction a nd t heir a ppearance i n r oadside s ettlements m ay r epresent t he o nly s ocial a menity p rovided. S ome i ndication o f t he p rovisions f or r eligious o bserv ances i s r epresented i n a n umber o f R omano-Celtic a nd c lassical t emples a nd e nclosures k nown f rom e xcavation a nd a erial p hotog raphy i n a nd n ear W roxeter. T hese a re t o b e e xpected i n t he c ivitas c apital b ut t hey h ave n ot b een c ompletely i nvestigated ( Bushe-Fox 1 914, 2 -11; W acher 1 974a, 3 71-2; W ebster 1 975a, 6 0-1; G reen 1 976, 1 62-3). P rivate h ouses t oo h ave y et t o b e i nvestigated, a lthough t he e vidence f rom a erial p hotography d oes s uggest t hat t here a re s ome l arge w ell-appointed h ouses ( Wacher 1 974a, 3 68-9, 3 72-3; W ebster 1 975a, 5 6-74). I t i s d ifficult t herefore t o a ssess t he d egree o f w ealth a nd p rosperity o f t he c ity a nd i ts i nhabitants. T he h istory o f t he p ublic b uildings i s n ot a p roper b asis o n w hich t o m ake s uch a n a ssessm ent, a lthough i t i s w orth m entioning t hat t he i nvestment i n t hem m ust h ave b een c onsiderable. T he s cale o f t hese b uildingst he f orum , b aths a nd m acellum - w as v ery s ubstantial a nd t he q uality o f t he f orum i nscription s uggests t hat a m aster s culptor w as e mployed ( pers. c omm . G . W ebster, N ovember 1 977). M uch o f t he f orum , d edicated i n A D 1 29-130 , h ad t o b e r ebuilt a fter a f ire w hich t ook p lace p robably s ometime b etween 1 55 a nd 1 65; e ven a fter t heir c onstruction , t he b aths m ust h ave b een a c ons iderable s train o n m unicipal f inances s ince t hey n eeded s horing u p s oon a fter t hey w ere b uilt a nd u nderwent s everal s ubsequent m odifications. T he m acellum d oes n ot s eem t o h ave b een a s e ssent ial a p ublic b uilding a s t he f orum a nd b aths, a nd u nlike t hem w as n ot s upplied i n a ll t he c ivitas c apitals. I ts c onstruction i s u ndated b ut i t a pparently u nderwent l arge s cale r emodelling c . A D 2 70 ( Atkinson 1 942, 1 04-5; W acher 1 974a, 6 0 a nd 3 66; W ebster 1 975a, 6 0-8; 1 976, 3 29). H owever, i nformation i s n eeded a bout t he e xtent o f o ther a menities a nd t he w ealth a nd h istory o f t he p rivate b uildings i n o rder t o a ssess t he s ocial s tructure a nd l evel o f p rosperity o f t he c ity. W ebster h as s uggested t hat a rmy v eterans m ay h ave b een s ettled i n l arge n umbers i n t he f rontier a rea u nder H adrian a nd, i f t his i s t he c ase, i t

m ay h ave e conomic 3 ).

a ffected t he c haracter o f t he c ity d evelopment ( Webster 1 975a, 8 0-3;

a nd i ts s ocial a nd R ivet 1 976, 2 91-

I t h as o ften b een r emarked t hat t here a re f ew v illas i n t he v icinity o f W roxeter, a nd i n t he c ivitas a s a w hole, a nd i t h as b een s uggested t hat t he l arge s ize o f t he d efended a rea ( c. 1 90acres/76.8ha) m ight b e e xplained i f l andowners f armed t heir e states f rom t he c ity. T here a re a lso t hose w ho h ave a rgued t hat t he c omparative s carcity o f v illas i n t his a rea i s a r eflection o f t he r elatively l ow l evel o f R omanisation o f a reas b eyond t he l owland z one o f s outhern B ritain ( Rivet 1 955, 3 2; 1 975, 2 9 ; R ichmond 1 963 , 2 60-1; 1 965, 1 67; W acher 1 974a, 3 60 ; W ebster 1 975a, 8 0 ; S tanford 1 980, 1 54-6). H owever, W roxeter i s n ot u nique i n t he s carcity o f v illas i n i ts v icinity ( cf. V erulamium) a nd t his a spect h as b een o ver-emphasised. P robable v illa s ites a re k nown p articularly t o t he w est a nd s outh o f t he c apital a nd t he s uggestion t hat t heir s carcity i s t he r esult o f a l ower l evel o f R omanisation i s q uestionable ( Webster 1 975a, f igs. 3 2, 3 7 a nd 3 8).

T he s ettlement a t A lcester c overed a t l east 5 0acres/20ha o f w hich o nly a s mall a rea a ppears t o h ave b een d efended. V ery l ittle i s k nown a bout t his d efended a rea, b ut t he r est o f t he s ettlement s eems t o i nvolve a w ell-developed s ystem o f s treets a nd t hrough-roads, a long w hich t he b uildings w ere c losely a ligned t hroughout t he h istory o f t he s ettlement. T hese i ncluded b uildi ngs o f b oth - a r esidential a nd i ndustrial c haracter. S ome o f t he f ormer w ere s ubstantial w ith w all-plaster, o ne h ad a h ypoc aust, a nd t here w as a f air a mount o f b uilding i n s tone p articu larly i n t he 3 rd - e arly 4 th c enturies. T here w ere a lso i ndic ations o f z oning o r o rganisation, n ot o nly i n t he a lignment o f t he b uildings, b ut i n t he a pparent s egregation o f i ndustrial a ctivities i n t he w estern p art o f t he e xtramural a rea a nd r esid ential d evelopment i n t he e ast. T he v ariety a nd c omplexity o f t he b uildings i n t he i ndustrial a rea ( Birch A bbey) w ere s triking f eatures o f t his a rea a nd i ncluded s hops, b arn-like b uildings, c obbled y ards a nd e nigmatic e nclosures ( Place 1 964, 3 ; T omlinson 1 964 , 5 ; M ahany 1 965, 3 ; T aylor 1 973, 2 2; B ooth 1 980 , 1 0-13). T he n ature o f t he f inds a lso s uggests a f airly h igh s tandard o f l iving ( Booth 1 980 , p assim.).

T here i s v ery l ittle i nformation a bout t he r eligious f unct ions p erformed a t A lcester. O ne o r t wo o f t he s tructures o n t he B irch A bbey s ite m ay h ave h ad a r eligious u se, b ut t his w as a t entative i nterpretation b ased o n t heir p lan ( Place 1 964, 3 ; M ahany 1 965, 3 ( iii)). T here a re s everal s mall f inds a nd a ltars w hich p robably r eflect t he r eligious b eliefs o f t he t ownsp eople ( Green 1 976 , 1 75; B ooth 1 980, 2 1-2). I n c ontrast t o K enchester ( below), t he e vidence f or t he c ommercial a nd i ndust rial a ctivities i s m uch b etter t han f or i ts s ocial s tructure. A r ange o f c ommercial a nd i ndustrial s ervices s eems t o h ave

b een

o ffered

b ut

s o

f ar

n o

p ublic

b uildings,

t emples

o r

c ivic

a menities h ave b een i dentified. H owever, t he i nvestigation o f t he d efended a rea m ay b e i mportant f or t hese a spects. T he e xistence o f s everal s tone b uildings w ith m osaics i n t his a rea i s i mplied f rom l imited w ork i n t he 1 920s ( Booth 1 980 , 4 a nd 1 4, f ig. 2 ). N o v illas a re k nown i n t he v icinity o f A lcester o r i n t he V ale o f E vesham a nd A von v alley t o t he s outh, t hat i s i n a n a rea w hich i s t hought t o b e A lcester's l ikely h interl and. T his c ontrasts w ith C hesterton-on-Fosse t o t he n orthe ast w here s everal v illa s ites a re k nown ( Webster 1 974a, f ig.1; 1 978b; W ilson 1 978, 6 6-8 ; B ooth 1 980 , 1 6). V irtually n othing i s k nown a bout t he c haracter o f C hesterton-on-Fosse b ut t his s ituation r aises q uestions a bout t he f unctions o f A lcester a nd C hesterton-on-Fosse i n r elation t o e ach o ther a nd t he s urrounding a rea, i n v iew o f t he s uggestion t hat t he d istribution o f v illas i s a r eflection o f t he s ocial c omplexity o f t he n ucleated s ettlem ents a round w hich t hey l ay. K enchester i s o ne o f t he f ew s ettlements i n t he r egion w here t here i s e vidence a vailable f or a h igh l evel o f R omanisation. T he i nformation f rom w ithin t he d efended a rea c omes f rom a erial p hotography a nd e xcavations i n 1 912-1913 a nd 1 924-1925 ( Jack a nd H ayter 1 916; 1 926; B aker 1 966, 1 92-5; 1 970 , 4 5-8). T here i s e vidence f or a h igh s tandard o f d evelopment a nd c onsiderable d egree o f p rosperity i n t he c ivic a nd d omestic a rchitecture, a nd i n t he f inds. T here a re i ndications o f t he p rovision o f a menities s uch a s t emples, p aved s treets, d rainage, a v erandah a long t he m ain s treet a nd s ome e lements o f m onumental c ivic b uilding i n t he w estern s tone g atew ay ( RCHM H e ( 1932) I I, 9 3-5; H eys a nd T homas 1 963, 1 49-54). T he m ain s treet s eems t o h ave b een l ined w ith s trip b uildings, p resumably s hops, a t l east o ne o f w hich w as l ater e xtended a nd a malgamated. T wo l arge, w ell-appointed h ouses w ith s tone f ound ations w ere f ound t o t he r ear o f t he b uildings a long t he s treet f rontage i n t he n orth-east s ector a nd p art o f a s mall b ath h ouse p ossibly a ttached t o a l arge h ouse. T hese w ere d wellings o f s ome p retension, h aving t essellated p avements, h ypocausts a nd, i n t he c ase o f t he b aths, p ainted w all-plaster ( Jack a nd H ayter 1 926; W ilmott 1 979, A ppendices 1 a nd 2 ).

T he m ore r ecent e xcavation ( 1977-1978) o f a s ite w hich s eems t o h ave f ormed p art o f t he r ibbon d evelopment t o t he e ast o f t he d efen ced a rea, r evealed a s ubstantial v illa o f t he w inged c orridor t ype w hich a pparently r eached t he h eight o f i ts a rchit ectural d evelopment i n t he l ater R oman p eriod ( Rahtz , T omber a nd W ilmott f orthcoming). T he r esidents o f t his e stablishment w ere p resumably a mong t he s ocial e lite o f K enchester a nd t heir w ealth w ould s eem t o h ave b een d erived f rom a gricultural p urs uits. T he l ayout o f t he s ettlement a t K enchester s eems t o t ake t he f orm o f r ibbon d evelopment a long t he R oman r oad w ith s ome e vidence f or a c entral c rossroads w ithin t he d efended a rea. O therwise t he p attern s eems t o b e i rregular w ith s ide s treets l eading o ff t he m ain s treet a t v arious a ngles b oth i nside a nd o utside t he d efences. T he d efended a rea i s n ot l arge ( 22acres/ 8 .8ha) b ut t here s eems t o b e a c onsiderable d ensity o f b uilding w ithin t he c ircuit.

I n t erms o f p rovision f or r eligion, t he c onsiderable n umber o f f inds w ith r eligious a ssociations i nclude t wo a ltars a nd t wo b usts o f M inerva ( Green 1 976, 1 69).

A f air n umber o f v illas a re k nown, i ncluding o ne a t B ishops tone a bout 1 1- m iles ( 2.4km) t o t he w est o f K enchester, a nd t his c ould b e s een a s a n i ndication o f w ealth a nd a s ocial e lite a ssociated w ith K enchester. T here i s a lso a n i nteresting c omplex a t N ew W eir t o t he s outh-west o f K enchester w here t rial e xc avations i n 1 977 s uggested t he p resence o f a s ubstantial s tone b uilding w ith m osaics a nd a w ell o r c istern. T he b uilding r epresents a n u nusual a nd a pparently o pulent d evelopment. T here i s a lso e vidence, m uch o f i t i n t he f orm o f c hance f inds a nd i ndications o f m asonry b uildings, f or a r ich a nd p rosperous h interland a round a nd t o t he s outh o f K enchester ( VCH H e ( 1908) 1 , 1 90; D udley 1 954 , 1 23; S hoesmith 1 977; W ilmott 1 979, 4 0).

A t L etocetum , t here i s v irtually n o i nformation a bout t he s ocial a spect. A part f rom t he b ath h ouse a nd t he c ourtyard b uilding/possible m ansio, o ne o ther s ubstantial b uilding i s k nown ( Gould 1 964, 1 3). F rom t he e vidence a vailable f or t he e conomic a ctivity a t t his r oadside s ettlement, i t i s r easonable t o e xpect t hat n o g reat r ange o f s ervices w as b eing p rovided. T here i s s ome e vidence f or r eligious a ctivity. I t t akes t he f orm o f a n umber o f c arved s tones r e-used i n t he f oundations o f t he s tone c ourtyard b uilding a nd a n umber o f f inds e ither f rom t he h illtop o r u nprovenanced; t hese t oo a ppear t o b e a ssociated w ith C eltic o r R oman c ult f igures ( Round 1 976, 3 9; G reen 1 976, 1 64). T he i nterpretation o ffered b y G ould i s t hat t here w as a p agan C eltic s hrine e ither o n t he ' mansio' s ite o r i n t he i mmediate v icinity ( Gould, p ers. c omm . 1 976). O ne o f t he r e-used c arved s tones d epicts t wo p eople a pparently s tanding i n w ater; b eneath t he m ansio w as a w ell w hich G ould s uggests i s v ery s imilar t o t he w ell a ssociated w ith t he c ult o f C oventina n ear t he f ort o f C arrawburgh a long H adrian 's W all ( Corcoran 1 960 , 2 72). T his w ell l ay i nside a t emple a nd c ontained a l arge n umber o f v otive o fferings. A t L etocetum , n o e vidence h as b een f ound s o f ar o f a s tructure a ssociated w ith t he w ell, a lthough t he c arved s tones c ould h ave c ome f rom s uch a s tructure, a nd n o v otive o fferings h ave b een r ecovered. T here i s a nother p iece o f e vidence w hich i s r elevant t o t he q uestion o f a p ossible r eligious n ucleus a t L etocetum. I t c oncerns a s tone c arved w ith a f igure r esembling M inerva w hich w as d iscovered b eneath t he c hurch i n t he 1 9th c entury, g iving r ise t o t he t radition t hat a t emple o f M inerva h ad s tood o n t he h illtop w here t he p resent c hurch s tands ( Bagnall 1 874 , 40). T here i s n o o ther e vidence t o s upport t his s uggestion b ut t he c ult o f C oventina w as o ften a ssociated w ith M inerva ( Corcoran 1 960 ,

2 73).

A t T iddington , a p reliminary a nalysis b y P almer ( 1981; W MNS 1 981, 2 11) o f t he r esults f rom t he e xcavations o f 1 980-1981 a nd o f t he m aterial f rom t he i nvestigations i n t he 1 920s a nd 1 930s l ed h im t o c onclude t hat t he s ettlement e njoyed a m oderate l evel o f p rosperity. T he a rea i nvestigated h as b een l imited a nd t here 57-

i s a s y et i nsufficient i nformation a bout t he r ange o f b uilding t ypes, t he s ize a nd d ensity o f t he s ettlement, o r i ts a menities. T here w ere f ew i mported l uxuries a nd t he b uildings o f t he s ettlem ent w ere m ostly o f t imber. T he l evel o f d evelopment s eems t o h ave b een h igher t han t hat o f a R omano-British f armstead b ut l ower t han t hat o f A lcester ( Palmer 1 981, W MNS 1 981, 2 11). I t s eems u nlikely t herefore t hat t his w ould h ave t he c omplexity o f s ocial s tructure a nd t he p resence o f a s ocial e lite a s m ight b e e xpected a t A lcester a nd K enchester. A t T ripontium , a s a t L etocetum , t here i s n o i nformation o n t he r ange o f s ocial f unct ions b eing p erformed, b ut t here i s s ome e vidence f or a r eligious a spect. A l arge n umber o f w ells h as b een f ound i n t he a rea t o t he e ast o f W atling S treet, a nd o ne w ell i n p articular w as t hought t o h ave h ad a r eligious u se b ecause i t c ontained a f emale h uman s kull a nd t he b ronze f igure o f a h orseman. S everal o ther f igurines, a pparently o f t he s ame m ounted w arrior, h ave b een f ound i n t he s outhern p art o f t he t erritory o f t he C oritani ( Todd 1 973, 1 02-3). O ther w ells c ontained a nimal b ones w hich w ere t hought t o b e a m ixture o f f ood r efuse, c asualty a nd r itual s acrifice ( Cameron a ndLucas 1 973 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 78). T his m ay r epresent t he p resence o f a r oadside s hrine o r s imply t he r elig ious o bservances o f t he c ommunity a t T ripontium .

W orcester h as s o f ar p roduced v ery l ittle e vidence o n w hich t o b ase a n a ssessment o f s ocial c omplexity. A s a t A lcester t here i s g ood e vidence f or c ommerce a nd i ndustry. T he B road S treet s uburbs o n t he n orth m ay h ave b een a r esidential a rea p rior t o t he e stablishment o f t he i ronworking c omplex i n t he 3 rd/4th c enturies. M uch o f t he e vidence f or t his r esidential u se c ame f rom o ne o f s everal s tone-built w ells w hich w ere f illed i n w hen t he a rea w as g iven o ver t o i ndustrial a ctivity. T here w as p robably a b uilding w ith p ainted w all p laster i n t he v icini ty. I n t he a bsence o f w alling, t esserae o r h ypocausts, i t w as c oncluded t hat t he b uildings h ere w ere o f t imber ( Barker 1 970 , 1 8 a nd 7 6). A part f rom a c ircular s tone f oundation i nterp reted a s a p ossible t emple a nd d iscovered i n 1 829 i n B ritannia S quare, w ell t o t he n orth o f t he B road S treet s ite, a nd t he d iscovery o f r ooftiles a nd t esserae i n B ritannia S quare i n 1 960 , t here h as b een n o e vidence f or a ny b uildings i n s tone i n t he a reas i nvestigated n or o f a ny v illas i n t he v icinity ( Barker 1 970 , 1 5; C arver 1 980 , 2 6 a nd 3 06).

A part f rom W roxeter, K enchester i s t he o nly c entre w here a c onsiderable d egree o f s ocial c omplexity i s i ndicated b y t he e vidence c urrently a vailable, a lthough t his m ay b e p roved i n t he f uture a t A lcester a nd a t W orcester. O ther s ettlements w here i nformation a bout t his a spect i s a waited w ith i nterest a re A riconium , B lackwardine, C hesterton-on-Fosse, C hesterton/ H olditch, R ocester a nd W hitchurch.

T he a nalysis o f t he f unctions o f a ll o f t he s ettlements d iscussed d oes i nvolve s ome c onsideration o f t he e xtent t o w hich

t he s ocial, a s w ell a s t he e conomic, c haracter o f t he c entre m ay h ave b een t he p roduct o f e xternal d emand, r ather t han s imply t he e xpression o f t he l evel o f w ealth a nd s ocial a spirations o f t he t ownspeople t hemselves.

R eligious f unctions m ay h ave d eveloped i n r esponse t o d emands f rom t he s urrounding r ural p opulation. T his i s a n a spect a bout w hich v ery l ittle i s k nown i n t he W est M idlands a nd i t i s t o b e e xpected t hat r eligious s ites b oth w ithin n ucleated s ettlements a nd i n a r ural c ontext r emain t o b e f ound w ithin t he r egion. S ome o f t hese w ould h ave b een m inor t emples o r s hrines, w hile o thers m ay h ave f unctioned a s m ajor r eligious c entres. I t i s d ifficult t o a ssess w hether a ny o f t he s ettlements d iscussed w ere p roviding a w ider r eligious f unction t han t hat o f s erving t he r eligious b eliefs o f t hat p articular s ettlement. W hile r eligion i s a n i mportant s ocial f unction w hich c an b e f ound i n t he r ural s phere, i t i s r easonable t o e xpect t hat t he m ajority o f o ther s ocial f unctions w ould t end t o h ave b een c oncentrated w ithin n ucleated s ettlements, b oth t he m ajor a nd m inor m arket a nd s ervice c entres.

T he a rgument t hat t he d ensity o f v illas c an b e u sed a s a n i ndication o f t he s tatus, r ichness a nd r ange o f s ervices i n a n eighbouring n ucleated s ettlement s eems t o h ave l ittle r elev ance t o t his r egion ( Rivet 1 975, 1 13; H odder a ndMillett 1 980). V illas a re k nown i n t he a rea s outh a nd w est o f W roxeter, i n t he v icinity o f K enchester a nd a round C hesterton-on-Fosse. N evertheless, t his d oes n ot s eem t o b e a r egion i n w hich v illas a re a p rominent f eature, p erhaps b ecause o f t he l ow l evel o f R omanisation o f t he W est M idlands. B ut t here a re c ertainly i ndications o f w ealth i n t he b uildings a nd i n t he c ommercial a nd i ndustrial d evelopment o f s ome o f t hose n ucleated s ettlements f or w hich e vidence i s a vailable, a nd t he a rea w as o f c onsiderable i mportance f or a griculture. I t s eems t hat t his w ealth w as n ot c hannelled i nto t he c onstruction o f v illas a nd t he r easons f or t his a re n ot c lear. T here m ust h ave b een f actors o ther t han t he p resence o f a s ocial e lite w hich w ould h ave g overned t he p resence o r a bsence o f v illas, i n p articular t he n ature o f t he t errain a nd o f t he a gricultural d evelopment o f t he r egion. O ur a ppreciation o f t he v illa a s a s ocial a nd e conomic p henomenon i s n ot w ell a dvanced a nd i t i s t herefore p remature t o r egard t he v illa, e specially i n t his r egion, a s a n e xpression o f s ocial d evelopment a nd p rosperity.

E conomic F unctions ( fig 3 )

H odder a nd H assall's ( 1971, 4 05-6) h ierarchy o f t owns f orms a u seful b asis f or a ttempting t o d efine t he f unction o f e ach c entre w ithin t he r egion a s a w hole ( see T able 2 ). I n t heir a nalysis, t he p rimary d istinction b etween c lasses o f u rban s ettlement i s e conomic; t hose t owns w hich p rovide a w ide r ange o f e conomic

s ervices a cted

a s m arketing

d istribution

c entres

f or a

l arge

a rea

a nd

d eveloped

m idway

b etween

t wo

r egional

c entres ,

u sually t wo c ivitas c apitals, a t t he e dge o f t he m arketing h interlands o f t he t ribal c ities. T his h ierarchy i nvolves t he m ajor c entres o r c ities ( coloniae, c ivitas c apitals) p roviding t he w idest r ange o f s ocial a nd e conomic s ervices, t hen t he l esser w alled t owns w hich a re a lso m ajor c entres b ut p rovide s ervices o n a l esser s cale t han t he c ities. A t t he l owest l evel, a nd t he m ore n umerous, a re t he l ocal m arket c entres f or t he e xchange o f a gricultural s urplus a nd m arketing o fb asic e ssentials. T hese s erved a r estrictedarea , s upplying t he s urrounding v illas, h amlets a nd f armsteads.

B oth m ajor a nd m inor c entres w ould p resumably h ave p oss essed s killed c raftsmen - b lacksmiths, c arpenters - a lthough t he m ajor m arket c entres p robably p rovided a w ider r ange o f c rafts. T he m ajor m arket c entres w ould p robably a lso h ave s upplied l uxuries a nd i mported i tems i n v arying d egrees. A rchaeol ogically, t he m ost c onclusive i ndication o f a s ettlement's m arketing f unction i s t he p resence o f s hops a nd w orkshops u sually t he e asily r ecognisable n arrow s trip b uildings, o ften i n t imber - w hich f requently l ine t he m ain s treet. T hese a re a c ommon f eature o f t he c ommercial n ucleus o f t he t ribal c ities a nd a re r epeated • also i n t he m ajor m arketing c entres w hich f orm t he n ext s tage i n t he h ierarchy, s uch a s A lchester ( Oxon.), C hesterton/Holditch a nd K enchester ( Richmond 1 963, 7 7 1 966 , 8 2; C harlton 1 962, 6 2; R CHM H e ( 1932) I I, 9 4). A s eries o f t imber b uildings v ery l ike t hese s hops w as f ound i n t he e xtramural s ettlement a t A lcester ( Place 1 964, 3 ; M ahany 1 965, 4 ). T hey m ay a lso b e f ound a t W roxeter a nd W hitchurch a nd p erhaps C hestertono n-Fosse. T he l atter s tands o n a m ajor r oute h alf w ay b etween t wo r egional c ommercial c entres, L eicester a nd C irencester, a nd s hould a ccording t o H odder a nd H assall's ( 1971) l ocation a nalysis b e a m ajor m arket a nd s ervice c entre. I n m ost c ases, t he b uildings w ere u sed a s w orkshops a s w ell a s s hops, t he c omm ercial c entre b eing g iven o ver t o t he m anufacture a s w ell a s t he s ale o f aw ide r ange o f c ommodities ( Richmond 1 966 , 7 6, 7 9 &8 2). T his d istinctive t ype o f b uilding, r eadily i dentified a s a s hop, m ay n ot h ave b een a f eature o f t he p urely l ocal m arket c entre o r v illage w here t he c ommercial a ctivity w as p erhaps c onfined t o a w eekly m arket f or w hich t emporary s talls w ould h ave b een e rected. T he t ribal c apitals a nd t he o ther m ajor m arket c entres p robably a lso h ad s pecial m arket d ays w hen t he t rade w as a ccommodated i n t emporary s talls i n t he s treets, a nd, i n t he t ribal c apitals, i n t he f orum a nd m acellum , b ut t hese w ere i n a ddition t o t he e stablished p ermanent c ommercial n ucleus.

T he c haracter a nd d evelopment o f t he m ajor a nd t he m inor m arket c entres o f t he r egion m ust h ave b een c losely i ntegrated w ith t he r ural e conomy o f t he W est M idlands. R eference h as b een m ade t o t he i mportance o f a griculture ( Webster 1 974a , 5 45 ), t o t he n ecessity o f m arkets f or t he e xchange o f a gricultural s urplus, t he n eed f or t he c ollection o f t axes i n k ind, a nd t o t he f act t hat t he e xistence o f a gricultural b uildings i n m ajor c entres i s n ot i nconsistent w ith a h ighly d eveloped f unctional b asis ( Todd 1 970a,129). 60-

M ajor m arket c entres/towns m ay h ave b een d irectly i nvolved t o ac ertain e xtent i n a griculture i n t heir o wn r ight, a s w ell a s s erving a gricultural s ettlements. A s i n t he m edieval t owns, t here m ay h ave b een b arns a nd s torehouses, s tockpens a nd a reas s et a side a s a llotments w ithin t he b uilt-up a reas. A f airly l arge a rea w ithin t he w alls i n t he n orth-west p art o f t he c ity a t W roxeter m ay h ave b een g iven o ver t o m arket g ardens ( Wacher 1 974a, 3 72; W ebster 1 975a, 7 0). V ery l ittle i s k nown a bout t he p rivate h ouses o f W roxeter, a lthough a bout a d ozen a re k nown f rom t he a ir. O ne o f t hese, i n t he n orth-west p art o f t he t own ( Insula X VI) i s s imilar t o a n e xample f rom C irencester ( Building X II, 2 ) w hich h as b een p artially e xcavated a nd w hich h as b een i nterpreted a s a f arm u nit ( McWhirr 1 976, 9 4-5). B oth s ites l ie c lose t o c onsiderable a reas o f o pen l and j ust i nside t he d efences ( Wacher 1 974a, 3 72; 1 974b, 2 83; W ebster 1 975a, 7 0). A t A lcester, s everal b arn-like b uildings a nd s quare e nclosures, p erhaps u sed a s s tock p ens, e xisted i n t he e xtramural s ettlement a rea a nd t here w ere i ndications o f a f arming e stablishment a lso i n t his a rea ( Mahany 1 965, 4 ; B ooth 1 980 , 1 6). T he v illa c omplex w hich f ormed p art o f t he r ibbon d evelopment o utside t he e ast g ate a t K enchester w as a lso i nvolved i n a gricultural a ctivities ( Rahtz, T omberand W ilmott, i n p ress). T here i s n o r eason w hy d irect i nvolvement i n a griculture s hould h ave b een i nconsistent w ith t he f unctions o f am ajor m arket a nd s ervice c entre.

I n c onnection w ith t his q uestion o f a n i nvolvement w ith a griculture, i t h as b een p roposed t hat s ome r oadside s ettlements ' were n ot i ndependent s ettlements, b ut w ere r ather a ssociated w ith l arge a gricultural u nits, n otably v illa-estates' ( Todd 1 973, 6 9). T he s ettlements f or w hich s uch a f unction h as b een s uggested i nclude t hose w hich a re d istinguished b y h aving a v illa c lose b y ( Rivet 1 955, 3 2; T odd 1 970a, 1 26; 1 973, 6 8-9, 7 2 , a nd 8 0 a nd f ig 1 7). I n t he W est M idlands, t his s ort o f s ituation c an b e o bserved a t t hree r oadside s ettlements. A t V enonae a v illa i s t o b e f ound a bout 2 m iles t o t he n orth-east a t S apcote. T he v illa a t E ngleton l ies o nly 1 1 - m iles s outhw est o f P ennocrucium , a nd t he S henstone v illa i s s imilarly s ituated t o t he s outh-east o f L etocetum. A part f rom a nother p ossible v illa i n t he a rea o f V enonae, t hese i ndividual v illas a re i n r egions w hich a re o therwise t otally f ree o f v illas o n p resent e vidence ( Todd 1 973, 6 9; W ebster 1 975a, 8 7). T he i nterp retation o f V enonae a nd s imilar s ettlements a s a ppendages o f a v illa f unctioning a s a s ettlement o f c oloni o r s laves f arming a v illa e state s uggests t hat t here w ould h ave b een l ittle d ist inction b etween t hese r oadside s ettlements a nd t he ' native a gricultural s ettlements' s uch a s L ockington ( Leics.) a nd S taunt on ( Notts.) o r e ven B eckford ( Worcs.) w here p easant f armers w orked t heir o wn l and o r f armed t hose o f t he l ocal m agnate a nd w here ' the p icture i s o f a s mall u nit o f p eople l iving a t t he l owest s ocial l evel' ( Todd 1 973, 9 8-100, p 1.27; L eech 1 976, 1 42). H owever, t here i s n o e vidence a s y et t o s how w hether a ny o f t he r oadside s ettlements m ay h ave f unctioned i n t his w ay. A lthough r oadside s ettlements a nd a gricultural c ommunities m ay h ave h ad m uch i n c ommon , t he f ormer p robably f unctioned a s m inor m arket c entres, i f o nly b ecause c ommercial a nd o fficial t ravellers w ould p ass t hrough t hem. T he p osition o f t hese s ettlements o n 61-

t he m ain r oads w ould h ave m ade t hem o bvious c ollecting a nd s torage p oints f or t he a gricultural s urplus, w hether f or r edist ribution o r g overnment t axation; a m arketing f unction w ould t herefore b e a n atural c onsequence o f t his a ctivity a lthough t he a ctual a rchaeological e vidence f or a m arket f unction m ay b e l ess t angible t han i n t he m ajor m arket c entres.

T he n ucleated s ettlements, a nd t he m ajor m arketing a nd s ervice c entres i n p articular, u ndoubtedly s timulated t he i ndust rial d evelopment o f t he r egion. T he d emands o f t he t ribal c apital o f W roxeter w ould h ave e ncouraged t he c oncentration o f s pecialist s kills w ithin t he c ity a nd t he e xploitation o f a w ide v ariety o f n atural r esources i n t he r egion t o s upply i ts m arket, s uch a s c opper f rom t he L lanymynech m ines, l ead a nd s ilver f rom t he m ines a t L inley, i ron a nd c oal, c lay f or p otting a nd t ile m aking, s and f or g lass, a nd s tone f or b uilding ( Webster 1 975a, 9 6-102). I n t his r espect a c ivitas c apital p layed a n i mportant r ole i n s timulating e conomic d evelopment n ot o nly b y p roviding s ervices o f a h igher c lass b ut b y c reating e conomic d emands o f i ts o wn. B oth o f t hese f actors w ere p arallel a lthough t hey m ay n ot h ave b een e qualled i n s cale b y t he o ther m arket c entres.

T he c ommercial a nd i ndustrial a ctivities o f t he m ajor m arket c entres c an p rovide i nformation a bout t heir o wn e conomy a nd a bout t hat o f t he r egion. F or e xample, t he i ncreased u se o f s tone f or b uilding p articularly f rom t he 2 nd c entury, l ed t o a f lourishing i ndustry i n t he q uarrying a nd w orking o f s tone. S tone w as u sed o n s ome s cale a t A lcester, D roitwich a nd K enchester a nd b uildings i n s tone a re a lso k nown a t C hestertono n-Fosse, L eintwardine, L etocetum, T iddington a nd T ripontium . O nly a t W roxeter h owever, h as t here b een a ny s erious a ttempt t o l ocate t he v arious s ources o f s tone f or b uilding a nd s culpture ( Webster 1 975a, 9 7-9; H oughton a nd P annett 1 976, 4 8). M any o f t he s culptured s tones a re o f l ocal m aterial, s uggesting t he l ikelihood o f l ocal i ndustries s pecialising i n s culpture a nd a rchitectural c arving. T his c raft w as a n i mportant s ubsidiary o f t he s tone i ndustry a nd p rimarily u rban. A c loser i nvesti gation o f t he s tone f rom t he o ther t owns o f t he r egion w ill h elp t o l ocate q uarries a nd p rovide e vidence f or a ny l ong d ist ance t rade i n b uilding s tone. O ther s pecialist c raft i ndustries c onnected w ith t he b uilding t rade, s uch a s s chools o f m osaicists, m ay a lso h ave b een u rban-based, a lthough t here w ere p robably a f ew m ajor s chools s uch a s t hose a t C irencester a nd W ater N ewton r ather t han l arge n umbers o f s mall c oncerns ( McWhirr 1 976 , 9 6; W ild n d, 1 0).

O ther i ndustries w ere m ore d ispersed. R omano-British c oarse c eramics w ere o ften p roduced b y s mall c oncerns f or a l imited l ocal m arket, a nd t his s eems t o b e p articularly t rue o f t he t ile i ndustry ( Hodder 1 974, 3 41, 3 46 a nd 3 49). I t s eems t o a pply a lso t o i ron, l ead a nd b ronze s melting. T he l ocal

p ottery, t ile a nd g lass w orks a t W roxeter a re a n i ndication o f t he ' tendency t o e xploit l ocal r esources f or a l ocal m arket w hen n either t he r esources n or t he m arket i tself w ere o f a l arge s cale' ( Richmond 1 966, 7 8-9); t his i s t rue a lso o f m ajor m arket a nd s ervice c entres o ther t han t he c ivitas c apitals ( Hodder 1 974 , 3 46).

C ertain i ndustries m ay h ave b een o utside t he c ontrol o f t he c ivitas, a nd m ay n ot h ave i nvolved t he n ucleated s ettlements e ven a s m arketing a nd d istribution c entres. S uch i ndustries a re t hose w hich a re l ikely t o h ave r emained u nder t he c ontrol o f i mperial o fficials o r p rocurators. T he c opper, l ead a nd s ilver m ines i n t he b order l ands t o t he w est a nd s outh-west o f W roxeter w ere p robably u nder g overnment c ontrol, a t l east i nitially. A n e xtensive l ead-mining a rea a t t he s outhern e nd o f t he S tiperstones a round S helve i n s outh-west S hropshire h as p roduced l ead p igs a pparently i n g reater n umbers t han a nywhere e lse i n B ritain , a lthough m uch o f t he i nformation a bout t he R oman w orkings h as b een r emoved b y l ater m ining ( Webster 1 975a, 9 9-100; R ivet 1 976 , 2 92). C opper w as p robably w orked a lso t o t he n orth a nd n orth-east o f t he l ead m ines b ut t he m ore i mport ant c opper m ines l ay f urther n orth a round L lanymynech ( Webster 1 975a, 1 02). T he i mperial i nterest i n r esources o f t his k ind w as s ometimes r elaxed, w ith t he l easing o f t he m ines t o p rivate c ompanies, b ut t he s ettlements a ssociated w ith t he m ining o f t hese r esources w ere i nvariably c olonies o f w orkers s trictly u nder t he c ontrol o f a g overnment o r c ompany o fficial. T he v illa a t L inley s eems t he l ikely b ase f rom w hich t he l ead m ines a t S helve w ere a dministered ( Webster 1 975a, 1 00-2).

E ast o f t he S evern, a part f rom t he s alt a nd p ottery i ndust ries, l ittle i s k nown a bout t he e xploitation o f n atural r es ources. T he l ead m ines a nd s tone q uarries o f t he P eak D istrict o f s outh D erbyshire l ie o utside t he r egion a nd a re u sually p laced i n t he c ivitas o f t he C oritani ( Todd 1 973, 1 08).

T here w ere a n umber o f o ther i ndustries i n t he r egion w hich a pparently w ere n ot a ssociated w ith t he d evelopment o f a n ucleated s ettlement, a lthough a n eighbouring c entre m ay h ave b een i nvolved i n t he m arketing a nd d istribution o f t he p roducts. T here a re i nstances w here l arge-scale p ottery p roduction d id n ot d epend o n a m ajor c entre ( Hodder 1 974 , 3 52). F or e xample a t W appenbury a nd i n t he M alvern H ills a rea. B oth w ere i n p rodu ction f or a s horter p eriod a nd w ere p roducing f or l esser m arkets t han t he M ancetter/Hartshill i ndustry. V ery l ittle i s k nown a bout t he p roduction c entre, a ctive i n t he 4 th c entury a nd p ossi bly a lso i n t he e arly R oman p eriod, w hich c overed c . 2 0acres ( 8ha) t o t he e ast o f W appenbury ( Warks.). O nly f our k ilns h ave b een e xcavated b ut p ottery h as b een f ound o ver a l arge a rea a nd t he s ite a ppears t o h ave b een p roducing M idland g rey w ares f or a l ocal m arket ( JRS ( 1960), 5 0, 2 23; T BAS f or 1 960 a nd 1 961 ( 1964), 7 9 , 9 3-108). T he e xact l ocation a nd e xtent o f t he M alvern p ottery i ndustry i s u nknown. N umerous k ilns h ave b een f ound s cattered o ver a w ide a rea, s o t hat t he i ndustry

s eems

t o

h ave

t aken a n on-nucleated f orm .

P roduction m ay

h ave

c ome t o a n e nd i n t he 2 nd c entury, a lthough t here i s s ome e vid ence f or p roduction i n t he l ate R oman p eriod. T he i ndustry a pparently d eveloped f rom t he p re-Roman p ottery i ndustry c entred i n t his a rea a nd b ecame R omanised w ith t he a doption o f t he p otter's w heel. T he w ares w ere d istributed a ll o ver t he W est M idlands a nd i t h as b een s uggested t hat b oth W orcester a nd K enchester, w here a v ery h igh p roportion o f t hese w ares h as b een f ound, m ay h ave p layed a p art i n t he d istribution a nd m arket i ng o f t hese w ares ( Peacock 1 965-7, 1 6 , 2 4, 2 6 a nd f ig.2 ; H odder 1 974, 3 46 a nd f ig.5).

N othing i s k nown a bout t he o rganisation o f t he i ndustry o r t he b asis f or t he m arketing o f t hese w ares i n t he p re-conquest p eriod, b ut c hanges m ust h ave t aken p lace , i nvolving a r ole f or u rban c entres, w hen t he i ndustry w as t urned o ver t o t he p roduction o f R oman f orms. P erhaps a c onnection m ay b e p ostul ated a lso b etween t he W appenbury p ottery i ndustry a nd t he n earby c entre o f C hesterton-on-Fosse.

T he p ottery i ndustry i s t he o nly i ndustry i n t he r egion f or w hich t here i s a ny i nformation c oncerning p eriods o f a ctivity a nd t he s cale o f e xploitation a nd t rade c ontacts. M ortaria f rom t he M ancetter/Hartshill k ilns w ere d istributed a ll o ver t he M idlands a nd n orth B ritain , t hinning o ut i n l owland B ritain ( Hartley 1 973, 3 9 a nd f ig.I). T he k ilns a lso p roduced c oarse w ares f or p urely l ocal d istribution. T he M alvernian p ottery i ndustry s erved a n i ntermediate m arket, a t r egional r ather t han p rovincial o r p urely l ocal l evel a nd i ts w ares r eached m ost o f t he m ajor a nd m inor m arket c entres o f t he r egion, a t l east a s f ar a s W roxeter a nd L etocetum t o t he n orth, a s f ar e ast a s A lcester a nd a s f ar s outh a s G loucester ( Peacock 1 965-7, f ig.2).

O therwise, t he e vidence f or t he i nvolvement o f t he m ajor a nd m inor m arket c entres i n r egional t rade i s f ragmentary. T here i s t he o ccasional f ind s uch a s t he l ead p ig f rom t he P eak D istrict o f D erbyshire f ound a t T ripontium , i ndicating t rade a long W atling S treet i n t he e arly/mid 2 nd c entury ( Cameron a nd L ucas 1 969, 1 75-6). H owever, t his s ort o f i nformation d oes n ot t hrow a ny l ight o n t he d estination , o r t he r egularity a nd v olume o f t he t rade i n q uestion.

T he m ajor a nd m inor m arket c entres w ere t hus i nvolved d irectly i n s mall-scale i ndustries o n t heir o wn b ehalf, a nd e ncouraged t he d evelopment o f v arious i ndustries w hich s erved a d emand c reated b y R oman c ivilisation. T hey a lso p rovided a v aluable s ervice t o o ther i ndustrial c oncerns a s m arket a nd d istributing c entres. A lthough t rade m ay n ot n ecessarily h ave a lways b een c hannelled t hrough t hem , i t i s t he m ajor m arketing c entres, p articularly t he c ivitas c apital a t W roxeter, t he c entres

a t

A lcester

a nd

K enchester,

a nd

a lso

W orcester

( as

a

p ossible p ort a nd r egional r edistribution c entre) - w hich p romise t o p rovide t he b est i nformation a bout t rade a nd m any a spects o f i ndustry i n t he r egion.

T he M ajor M arket C entres

W e w ould e xpect t hat W roxeter w ould h ave s urpassed t he o ther m arket c entres o f t he r egion i n i ts c ommercial c apacity. T he c ommercial a spect i s c ertainly a f eature w hich i s p redomi nant i n t he e arly s tages o f t he d evelopment o f t he i vitas c apital, a nd i s a lso e vident i n t he l atest p hases o f d evelopment r epresented o n t he s ite o f t he b aths b asilica ( see b elow L ater R oman P eriod). T he p icture o f t he e arly d evelopment o f t he c ivitas c apital i s n ow b eing r evised.

T he l ong a ccepted v iew o f t he o riginal d evelopment o f W roxeter a s a c ivitas c apital w as s een a s i nvolving a p ossible f orum ( beneath t he l ater b aths) o n t he e ast s ide o f t he m ain s treet, a nd a n e arly b athhouse ( beneath t he l ater forum) o n t he w est s ide o f t he m ain s treet ( Kenyon 1 938, 1 80-5). N ow , h owever, i t s eems p ossible t hat a c ivil c ommunity m oved i nto a nd o ccupied t he c ity c entre f rom t he t ime t he a rmy m oved o ut. A lthough t his d evelopment m ay h ave i nvolved t he l aying o ut o f t he m ain s treet a t l east, i t d id n ot a pparently i nclude a ny p ublic b uildings. T hese c onsiderations, t ogether w ith t he a ppare nt a bsence o f a ny a ttempt t o p rovide p ublic b uildings m akes ac omparison w ith L eicester v ery r elevant.

A t L eicester, t he b eginnings o f t he c ivitas c apital i n t he F lavian p eriod ( AD 6 9-79) w ere v ery m odest, i nvolving t imber b uildings w hich a lso e xtended t o t he s ite o f t he l ater b aths a nd f orum. B ut, t he i nitial a bsence o f t hese p ublic b uildings a t L eicester d id n ot a pparently p revent t he r apid d evelopment o f t he c ity, w hich f unctioned a t t his t ime e ssentially a s a c ommercial c entre. I n t his r espect, t he o pen-fronted t imber s hops l ining t he m ain s treet a t W roxeter s eem s ignificant. I t w as a pparently n ot u ntil t he H adrianic p eriod ( AD 17-138), a s a t W roxeter, t hat p ublic a menities w ere p rovided ( Todd 1 973 , 5 6 a nd 6 3 ; W acher 1 974a, 3 38).

A lthough t here i s s ome u ncertainty a bout w hether t he e arly a ctivity a t W roxeter c an r eally b e a ttributed t o t he d evelopment o f t he c ivitas c apital, r ather t han t o t he p eriod o f m ilitary o ccupation, t he e vidence f or t he c onstruction o f o pen-fronted s hops a long t he m ain s treet i n t he e arly 2 nd c entury , before o r d uring t he p ublic b uilding p rogramme, i ndicates t he e arly i mportance o f c ommerce. T he r ebuilding, l ater i n t he 2 nd c entury,

o f t he s hops i n s tone a nd t he e xtension a nd a malgamation o f p roperties i s a c lear i ndication o f e arly e conomic s uccess ( Bushe-Fox 1 913, 6 -22; 1 916, 1 -7 ; W acher 1 974a , 3 69). A f urther i ndication m ay b e s een i n t he b uilding o f t he m acellum o r m arket h all, s ince n ot e very c ivitas c apital a ppears t o h ave b een p rovided w ith t his f acility. H owever, t he p rovision o f s uch a b uilding m ay h ave h ad m ore t o d o w ith c ivic p ride a nd p restige t han w ith t he l evel o f e conomic s uccess ( see a lso C irencester a nd L eicester; T odd 1 974, 5 6; W acher 1 974a, 6 0 , 2 98, 3 66; W ebster 1 975a, 6 0 , 6 6-7, f ig.25).

A lthough t here a re i ndications o f e conomic d evelopment, t here i s l ittle d etailed i nformation a bout t he c ity's e conomic b asis, t he r ange o f i ndustries a nd c ommercial c ontacts a nd t he p eriods o f p rosperity a nd d ecline. T here i s s ome e vidence f or m etalworking i n l ead, s ilver a nd b ronze , a nd p ossibly i ron , c opper a nd e namel. F urnaces, h earths, c rucibles a nd t ools f rom t he s ites a long t he m ain s treet g ive s ome i ndication o f t he p roc esses i nvolved ( Wacher 1 974a, 3 65, 3 69-71; W ebster 1 975a , 1 02-4). T he c ity m ay a lso h ave h ad m inor i ndustries i n t he v icinity i nvolved i n t he m anufacture o f p ottery, t ile a nd g lass t o m eet l ocal n eeds. T here i s s ome e vidence f or t ile w orks a t I smore C oppice c . 1 m ile ( 0 .4km) t o t he n orth-west o f t he c ity a nd c . m ile ( 0.8km) f urther a way, a nd i n t he s ame a rea t here m ay a lso h ave b een a l ocal p ottery p roduction c entre( Houghton 1 964a, 7 -12; 1 964b, 1 01-11; W acher 1 974a , 3 71; W ebster 1 975a, 9 4-6). T here w as a lso a g lassworks b etween t he r iver a nd t he c ity b eside t he r oad l eading t o t he b ridge. N one o f t he f inds a ssociated w ith t his w ere l ater t han t he m id-2nd c entury, p ossibly e ven t he l ate i st c entury, a nd i t m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith m ilitary r ather t han e arly c ivil o ccupation ( Houghton 1 973, 1 7-18; W ebster 1 975a, 1 04). T here i s a lso e vidence f or a m ajor p roduction c entre f or m ortaria i n t he W roxeter a rea i n t he e arly a nd m id-2nd c entury s erving a m arket i n W ales a nd t he W est M idlands. T he d istribution o f t he s tamps a pparently p oints t o t he W roxeter a rea a s t he c entre o f p roduct ion a lthough t he k ilns h ave n ot b een f ound ( Hartley a nd R ichards 1 965, 3 1; H artley 1 973a, 5 1; 1 975 , 1 42; S wan 1 974, 1 5; W ebster 1 975a, 9 6).

A lthough m ost o f t he i nformation a bout i ndustrial a ctivity i n t he c ity i tself h as c ome f rom t he e arly e xcavations a long t he m ain s treet, m ore r ecent w ork h as r evealed e vidence f or a s mall i ndustrial c oncern o utside t he e ast e nd o f t he b aths p recinct. T his i nvolved a n umber o f w orkshops w ith a s ystem o f t anks a nd i nter-connecting c hannels b etween t hese w orkshops a nd t he p recinct w all. T here w ere i ndications o f t he u se o f t he t anks f or t anning a nd i t w as t hought t hat t his a ctivity m ay h ave b egun a s e arly a s t he l ate 2 nd o r e arly 3 rd c entury a nd t hat t he b uildings m ay h ave b een u sed s ubsequently f or o ther i ndustrial p rocesses s uch a s d yeing o r f ulling ( Barker 1 976, 3 6; 1 977b, 5 3; 1 981a, 1 4-15). T his s ort o f s mall-scale i ndust rial a ctivity d oes n ot s eem t o h ave b een u ncommon ( see e .g.

B arker 1 981a,

1 3).

M any o f t hese c oncerns w ould h ave b een c ater-

i ng f or t he n eeds o f t he u rban c ommunity. T hey d id n ot o perate o n a l arge s cale, o r o n a p ermanent b asis, a nd t his w ould p roba bly h ave b een t ypical o f t he e conomic c haracter o f m any o f t he m ajor m arket c entres.

S ome o f t he t rade c ontacts o f t he c ivitas c apital w ere r evealed i n t he d iscovery, i n t he g utter i n f ront o f t he e ast p ortico o f t he F orum , o f g oods w hich h ad p robably b een f or s ale i n t he e ast p ortico. I t w as t hought t hat s talls i n t he p ortico h ad b een o verturned d uring a f ire w hich d estroyed p arts o f t he f orum a nd s ome o f t he s hops o n t he w est s ide o f t he m ain s treet c . A D 1 60 ( terminus p ost q uem A D 1 55-165) ( Bushe-Fox 1 914, 8 ; A tkinson 1 942, 5 9 , 1 04-5, 1 23; W acher 1 974a, 3 63; W ebster 1 975a, 4 3-4). T he m aterial i ncluded m ortaria f rom M ancetter/ H artshill, s amian f rom C entral a nd E astern G aul a nd a n umber o f w hetstones m ade o f s tone f rom q uarries n ear S tony S tratford, B ucks. ( Atkinson 1 942, 1 27-30 ; F rere 1 974, 2 94; W acher 1 974a, 3 64).

T his i nformation p rovides a n i nsight i nto t he f unctions o f W roxeter a s am ajor c entre o f r egional t rade a nd i nterregional c ommerce a s w ell a s c ontinental i mports. T he R iver S evern m ay h ave b een a n i mportant c ommercial r oute f or c ertain p roducts, c onnecting W roxeter w ith o ther m ajor c entres a t W orcester a nd G loucester. Q uays a nd w arehouses m ay h ave e xisted a long t he r iver b ank, a nd c ould p rovide v aluable i nformation a bout t he c ommercial c ontacts o f t he c ity.

A t A lcester, t here i s a s ubstantial a mount o f e vidence f or t he e conomic c haracter o f t he s ettlement, a lthough m uch r emains u npublished. Quernstones f or g rinding g rain w ere a ppare ntly p roduced t here a nd, i n t he s outhern p art o f t he s ettlement, t here s eems t o h ave b een a n e stablishment f or w ool w ashing a nd f or t he m anufacture o f c alves' f oot j elly o n a c ommercial b asis. A n a djacent t imber b uilding a ppeared t o h ave b een u sed a s a l eather-working f actory. I ronworking w as i ndicated b y t wo f urn aces a nd t here w ere m any o ther i ndustrial f eatures i ncluding o vens a nd p its. B ooth h as c ommented t hat t he e vidence f or m etalworking i n b ronze a nd i ron, a lthough a s ubsidiary a ctivity, w as n evertheless o n a s cale s uggesting m anufacture f or s ale o utside A lcester i tself ( Mahany 1 965, 3 -4; B ooth 1 980 , 1 6-18).

I t s eems l ikely t hat t he e conomy o f A lcester w as a r esponse t o t he m arketing n eeds o f a l arge a gricultural h interland. L ocal f arming c ommunities m ay h ave u sed A lcester a s a m arket f or t he s ale o f t heir s urplus p roduce a nd f or t he p urchase o f b asic c ommodities s uch a s t ools a nd a gricultural i mplements. T he p roducts o f t he r ural h interland, s uch a s h ides a nd w ool, w ere b eing p rocessed h ere. A lcester w as a lso s upplying c ertain l uxury a nd i mported i tems, a lthough t he s cale a nd r ange o f t his a ctivity i s u ncertain. I t i s k nown t hat t here w as a w ide r ange

o f p ottery b eing t raded i nto t he m arket h ere, a nd t here i s e vid ence f or a t l east o ne s hop s elling s amian i mported f rom G aul ( Booth 1 980 , 1 8). T he i dentification o f a p ossible f arming e stablishment w ithin t he s ettlement w ould n ot b e i nconsistent w ith t his m odel ( Booth 1 980 , 1 6).

T here i s n o d irect i nformation a vailable f or a n a ssessment o f t he e conomic f unctions o f C hesterton-on-Fosse. T he s ettlement m ay h ave d eveloped o ut o f t he n ecessity t o p rovide f acilities f or t ravellers a long t he F osse W ay. H odder's l ocational a nalysis p redicts t hat i t m ay h ave b een a m ajor m arket a nd s ervice c entre l ocated h alfway b etween C irencester a nd L eicester ( Hodder 1 975 , f ig.2; R ivet 1 975, 1 12). T here a re i ndications t o c onfirm t hese s uggestions. A erial p hotography a nd l imited e xcavations i n 1 921-1923 i ndicate t hat t here a re n umerous b uildings w ith s tone f oundations a nd a w ell-developed s treet s ystem w ithin t he d efences a nd i ndications o f s ettlement o f u nknown e xtent o utside t he d efences ( Anon. 1 926, 5 8-60 ; W ilson 1 975, 1 4, p l. X IIIa). I t i s a lso p ossible t hat C hesterton-on-Fosse m ay h ave d eveloped s ocial a nd e conomic f unctions i n r esponse t o a n umber o f v illas w hich a re k nown i n t he v icinity.

T he s tatus o f C hesterton/Holditch i s a lso u ncertain b ut t he e vidence a vailable f or i ron- a nd l ead-working a nd t he p ossi bility o f t he m anufacture o f p ottery s uggests a n e xtensive s ettlement b ased o n t he e xploitation o f l ocal m ineral r esources. A t l east o ne o f t he b uildings a ppears t o h ave b een a n o penf ronted s hop a nd t here w as a lso a b akery, b ut i t i s u ncertain w hether t his w as a c ivic s ettlement w ith a b road b ased m arket e conomy o r a s upply b ase f or t he a rmy i n t he C hester r egion ( Charlton 1 961, 3 1-3, 3 9; 1 962, 6 4-9).

A t K enchester, t here i s e vidence f or s hops l ining t he m ain s treet i n t he e astern p art o f t he d efended a rea, a nd a t l east o ne o f t hese a ppears t o h ave b een e xtended o r a malgamated a t a l ater d ate. T his i mplies c ommercial s uccess ( Jack a nd H ayter 1 926, 1 9-27 ; W ilmott 1 979, 3 4). N othing i s k nown a bout t he g oods p roduced a nd s old i n t hese s hops a nd w orkshops, a lthough t here w as s ome e vidence f or l ead- a nd p ossibly i ronw orking o n am odest s cale ( Jack a nd H ayter 1 916, 2 3).

T he r ecently e xcavated ' villa' c omplex t o t he e ast o f t he d efended a rea s eems t o h ave b een i nvolved w ith a griculture. T he d iscoveries i ncluded c attle b ones, a l eather-working t ool, q uerns a nd v arious a ncillary b uildings w hich m ay h ave b een u sed f or p rocessing a nd s torage. A erial p hotography a lso r evealed t races o f p ossible f ield s ystems i n t his a rea ( Baker 1 970 , 4 7; W ilmott 1 979, 4 0-1; R ahtz, T omber a nd W ilmott f orthcoming).

N evertheless, t he i nformation f rom t his s ite a nd t he s ituation o f K enchester s uggests t hat t he s ettlement's e conomic

d evelopment w as r elated p erhaps t o t he a gricultural p otential o f t he W ye V alley a nd t he p astoral e conomy o f t he W elsh M arches. T he p resence o f s hops i s a n i ndication o f i ts f unction a s a m arket c entre. T he s tandard o f l iving r eflected i n t he b uildings a nd s treets s eems t o h ave b een h igh. C ertainly t he m aterial r ecovered f rom e xcavations w ithin t he d efended a rea i ncluded a w ide r ange o f i mports a nd l uxury i tems ( Jack a nd H ayter 1 916, 6 3-75). T his i mplies t hat K enchester f unctioned a s a n i mportant m arket a nd s ervice c entre f or a w ide a rea. T he i nvolvement o f t he e xtramural ' villa' s ite i n a gricultural a ctivities r einf orces t he i mpression t hat e ven w here a c entre h ad a h ighly d eveloped f unctional b asis, t his n eed n ot e xclude a d irect c onne ction w ith f arming.

W ebster h as s uggested t hat a s tone b uilding, a t W hitchurch, a pparently o f t he c ourtyard t ype a nd e rected i n a n a rea w hich p robably l ay t o t he r ear o f t he m ain s treet o f t he R omano-British s ettlement, m ay h ave b een a m acellum ( Jones 1 969, 2 05-10 ; W ebster 1 975a, 7 4-5). T he a reas w hich h ave b een i nvestigated a re n ot t hose w hich m ight b e e xpected t o r eveal t he c ommercial c haracter o f t he s ettlement. A t p resent t he o nly i nformation a vailable r elates t o s mall-scale i ndustrial a ctivity i n p robable b ackyard a reas i n t he e arly a nd l ater p hases o f t he R omanoB ritish o ccupation . I nitially t his t ook t he f orm o f c harcoal a nd c linker a nd a s mall f urnace a nd, i n t he l ater p eriod, t here w as a nother f urnace a nd a t rough k iln, w hich m ay h ave b een u sed f or t he e vaporation o f b rine ( Jones 1 969 , 2 03, 2 10-11).

A m ajor m arketing f unction f or W hitchurch h as b een p roposed b y J ones o n t he b asis o f t he c entre's s ituation i n t he m iddle o f t he S hropshire/Cheshire p lain a nd o n t he p resence o f l arge q uantities o f a nimal b one. A nalysis o f t he b one e vidence l ed h im t o c onclude t hat c attle w ere a m ajor e lement i n t he e conomy o f W hitchurch a nd o ne w hich b ecame i ncreasingly i mportant d uring t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies. S heep w ere a lso i mportant a nd h e s uggested t hat t he r eady a vailability i n t his a rea o f b rine f or c uring p urposes w ould h ave m ade W hitchurch a v ery s uitable m arket a nd s ervice c entre f or t he e xploitation o f t he g razing l and o f t he s urrounding p lains ( Jones, G .D.B., 1 975, 1 01-6 W ebster 1 975a,

7 3-4).

T he o nly e vidence f or c ommercial a nd i ndustrial a ctivities a t W orcester c omes f rom a reas w hich w ere p robably e xtramural a nd t herefore m ay n ot b e r epresentative o f d evelopments i n t he c entral a rea. T he p redominant f eature o f t hese e xtramural s ites h as b een t he e vidence f or i ron-working i n t he 2 nd c entury ( Talbot S treet) a s w ell a s i n t he 3 rd/4th c enturies ( Broad S treet). T he r eason f or t he d evelopment o f W orcester a s a n i mportant i ron-smelting c entre ( using o re w hich w as p resumably b rought u pstream f rom t he F orest o f D ean) i s b y n o m eans c ertain. T hat i t s eems t o h ave b een u ndertaken o n a c onsiderable s cale s eems t o h ave b een a n i mportant e lement i n t he e conomic s uccess o f t he s ettlement ( Barker 1 970 ,18,64 a nd 7 6; C arver 1 980 ,20,26 ,878 ). 69-

T he p osition o f W orcester o n a c rossing o f t he S evern a t a p oint h alfway b etween t he t wo c entres o f W roxeter a nd G loucester, s uggests i ts p otential i mportance a s a p ort a nd a r edistribution c entre f or t he r egion ( Webster 1 975a, 5 0). T he i nvolvement o f W orcester i n t he l ate S axon p eriod i n t he s alt-trade f rom D roitwich c ould b e a c ontinuation o f t he r ole o f R omano-British W orcester i n t he m arketing a nd d istribution o f D roitwich s alt. T he M alvern p ottery i ndustry m ay h ave r elied o n t he c ommunications b y r iver a nd r oad f rom W orcester f or t he d istribution o f i ts w ares a ll o ver t he W est M idlands. T he S evern V alley w ares f rom t he l ower S evern r egion m ay w ell h ave p assed , a long w ith o ther g oods f rom t his a rea , t hrough t he p ort a t W orcester. C arver h as s uggested t hat a h arbour m ay h ave e xisted i n t he a rea o f t he F rog B rook w hich d efines t he s outhern a nd e astern s ide o f t he p romontory o n w hich W orcester i s l ocated ( Carver 1 980 , 2 , 2 0-1, 2 5-6).

A s w ell a s i ts f unctions a s a p ort, c ommunications a nd r edistribution c entre, W orcester m ay a lso h ave p rovided s ervices f or t he s urrounding p opulation . S ome e vidence f or a n e xtramural s treet m arket w as f ound i n t he l atest p hases ( 3rd c entury?) r epresented o n t he S idbury s ite, a s uburban a rea o n t he s outhe ast. C overing t he l atest s treet s urface w ere a nimal b ones, m ainly o f o x b ut a lso o f s heep a nd p ig ; m any o f t hese w ere j awb ones a nd h orn c ores. I t w as t herefore i nferred t hat c attle o r o ther a nimals w ere b rought t o t he s ite t o b e b utchered a nd s old ( Carver 1 980 , 1 63 a nd 1 75). T his i s p erhaps a c lue t o W orcester 's r elationship w ith a r ural h interland.

T he s trengths o f t he c ivitas c apitals a nd o f t he m ajor m arket c entres l ay i n t heir d iversification a nd i n t he r ange o f c ommodities a nd s ervices w hich t hey c ould p rovide. T here m ay h ave b een a c ertain a mount o f s pecialisation b ut i n g eneral t here w ould p robably h ave b een a c onsiderable v ariety o f i ndust ries c atering f or a w ide m arket. T he m ajor m arket a nd s ervice c entres - A lcester, K enchester a nd p ossibly W orcester - m ay h ave s upplied m uch t he s ame s ervices a s t he c ivitas c apital a lthough p erhaps o n a l ess a mbitious s cale. W here a m arket c entre d isplays a h igh l evel o f R omanisation , a s a t K enchester, m any o f t he d emands c reated b y c ivilised u rban l ife i n t he c ivitas c apital w ould b e r epeated. T he n eed f or s killed b uilding w orkers, a nd f or l uxury p ersonal i tems w ould h ave a dded a nother d imension t o t he c ommerce o f t he t own a nd e xtended i ts t rade c ontacts i n o rder t o s upply t hese c ommodities. T here a re o ther s ettlements w hich, o n f urther i nvestigation , m ay p rovide e vidence t o i ndicate t hat t hey a lso f unctioned a s m ajor m arket a nd s ervice c entres, f or e xample A riconium , B lackwardine, C hesterton-onF osse a nd D roitwich.

T he M inor M arket C entres

T he

p urely

l ocal

m arkets

f orm t he l owest

70-

l evel

i n H odder

a nd H assa n 's h ierarchy o f m arket a nd s ervice c entres. T hey m ay b e d efined a s s ettlements w hich s erve a r estricted a rea w hich m ay b e r egarded a s t heir i mmediate h interland a nd t hey p rovide b asic c ommodities a nd a m eans o f e xchanging l ocal a gric ultural s urplus ( Hodder a nd H assall 1 971, 4 05-6). I n v irtually e very c ase, t heir u rban c haracter w ould h ave b een m arginal a lthough a s i n t he m edieval p eriod m any m ay h ave o scillated i n s tatus b etween s mall t own a nd v illage. T he m ost o bvious s ettlements f or c onsideration i n t his c ategory a re t he r oadside o nes , w hich v aried i n f orm b ut w ere o ften h aphazard r ibbon d evelopments a long a r oad, o r s cattered c ommunities g rouped a round a r oad j unction o r r iver c rossing. A s a g roup , t hey h ave n ot b een s ystematically e xamined , p articularly t hose w hich w ere u ndefended, a nd t here i s o nly i mperfect e vidence f or t heir r ange o f f unctions a nd t heir e conomic r ole. I n m ost c ases, t heir f orm a s r ibbon d evelopments m eans t hat t here i s n o f ocus o r n ucleus f or s ettlement a part f rom t he r oad , a nd t his s eeems t o b e t rue o f L etocetum , M anduessedum a nd T ripontium . O ther r oadside s ettlements w hich a ppear t o b e l ess e xtensive a re P ennocrucium , U xacona a nd V enonae, w hich i s s ituated a t a m ajor c rossroads. L eintwardine, R utunium , S tretton G randison a nd T iddington m ay w ell a lso b elong t o t his c ategory.

T he r emains o f t imber b uildings l ining t he m ain r oads a re r emarkably e phemeral, a nd t ell u s l ittle a bout t heir u se. I n m ost c ases, t hey a re a ccompanied b y i ndications o f u nspeciali sed a ctivities - c obbled a reas, h earths , o vens a nd d rainage d itches a nd, i n t he a bsence o f o ther e vidence, a w hole r ange o f d omestic o r s emi-industrial p rocesses m ight b e a ppropriate ( see f or e xample , M anduessedum , O swald a nd G athercole 1 958 , 3 3-4). T he e vidence f rom t he m ajor m arket c entres i s o f b etter q uality, o r t his m ay b e a r esult o f r eal f unctional d ifferences b etween t he t wo t ypes o f s ettlement. O f t he l esser c entres, o nly L etocetum , M anduessedum a nd t o al esser e xtent P ennocrucium , T iddington a nd T ripontium , h ave b een i nvestigated s ufficiently t o a llow a ny d iscussion o f t heir e conomic b asis. N one o f t hese h as p roduced a ny i ndication o f s hops o r w orkshops s uch a s h ave b een f ound i n t he m ajor m arket • c entres; w here t here i s e vidence f or i ndustrial a ctivity,it s eems t o b e o n as mall s cale.

T he i ron-working a nd l ead-smelting a t L etocetum a nd a t v arious s ites a long W atling S treet f or a d istance o f t wo m iles o r m ore t owards a nd b eyond t he j unction w ith R yknield S treet i s a f eature w hich l asts t hroughout t he p eriod ( Gould 1 964 , 4 9 ; 1 966, 6 ; 1 968 , 3 6 ; R ound 1 971, 3 0). N evertheless, t his a ctivity i s v ery d ifferent i n s cale a nd o rganisation f rom t he l arge i ndustrial c oncerns a t A riconium o r W orcester. - E xactly h ow t his s mall-scale a ctivity a ffected t he e conomy o f L etocetum i s u ncertain . T he n ature o f t his a ctivity s uggests t hat i t w as a p art-time o ccupation , c ombined m ost p robably w ith a griculture.

A t

P ennocrucium ,

t he

l and 71-

b ehind

t he

t imber

b uildings

f ronting W atling S treet s eems t o h ave b een u sed f or g ardens o r a nimal p ens ( Barton 1 958 , 6 ). T here h as s o f ar b een n o i ndic ation o f s ignificant i ndustrial a ctivity h ere o r a t T ripontium , w here t he u sual t imber b uildings , c obbled a reas a nd h earths w ere f ound i n t he a rea n orth-east o f W atling S treet ( Pearson 1 965, 8 0-2; C ameron a nd L ucas 1 969 , 1 30-79). A m ore p ositive i ndication o f t he i nvolvement o f t he i nhabitants i n a griculture w as t he d iscovery o f w hetstones, q uerns a nd a nimal b ones ( Pearson 1 965, 8 2).

A t T iddington , t he i nformation r ecovered f rom t he e xcav ations i n t he 1 920s a nd i n 1 980-81, i ndicate a n e xtensive r oads ide s ettlement, l argely o f t imber b uildings a nd w ith a n e conomy b ased o n m ixed a griculture t ogether w ith i ndustrial a ctivity, s uch a s t ile-making, i ron- a nd l ead-smelting, b ronze w orking, a nd b one a nd a ntler w orking. E vidence f or a d irect i nvolvement i n a griculture i ncludes t hree c orn-driers, t races o f a f ield s ystem o r s mall p addocks,with w ells a ligned o n t he b ack o f t he s ettlement, a nd, o n t he r oadway, a b uilding w ith a d rain a nd a p ossible s tockade ( Palmer 1 980 , 1 21; 1 981, r 7 -34).

T hese s ettlements' c laim t o ' small t own ' s tatus h as n ot b een s ubstantiated, a nd t here a re s till p roblems w ith t he c atego rising o f t hese s ettlements b ecause a n i ncomplete a nd o ften p resumably i naccurate p icture h as r esulted f rom t he v ery l imited a ttention g iven t o t hem . S ettlements o f t his t ype w ould u sually b e c lassed a s v illages o n t he g rounds t hat ' their l ife w as i ntim ately b ound u p w ith t he s urrounding c ountryside. M ost, i f n ot a ll, w ere d ependent o n f arming ..' ( Todd 1 970a,116 ; R ivet 1 975, 1 14). M ore i nformation i s n eeded b efore i t i s p ossible t o s ee i f t hese s ettlements w ere m inor m arket a nd s ervice c entres f or t heir s urrounding a gricultural h interland.

S pecialised I ndustrial C entres

I n H odder a nd H assall's a nalysis, c entres s pecialising i n a p articular i ndustry a re f ar f ewer t han t he m ajor a nd m inor m arket a nd s ervice c entres a nd t heir l ocation i s d etermined b y t he e xistence o f r aw m aterials r ather t han m arket f orces ( Hodder a nd H assall 1 971, 4 05-6). H owever s ome o f t hese c entres m ay h ave f unctioned a s m arket a nd s ervice c entres i n a ddition t o t heir s pecialisation i n a p articular i ndustry.

A riconium ( ironworking), D roitwich ( salt e xtraction) a nd M anduessedum ( pottery m anufacture) a re t he t hree k nown e xamples i n t he W est M idlands. T he e xtent t o w hich t hese s pecialised i ndustries e xisted a longside t he m ore d iversified a ctivities r equired o f c entres p roviding m arketing f acilities f or t heir h interlands i s a n i mportant q uestion, t o w hich t he i nformation

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R oc - R ocester ( Staffs.) R ut - R utunium ( Shrops.) S tC - S tretton G randison ( H & l id - T iddington ( Warks.) T ri - T ripontium ( Warks.) T wf - T wyford ( H & V en t - V enonae ( Warks.) U s - U xacona ( Shrops.) W hit - W hitchurch ( Shrops.) W or - W orcester ( H & W ) W x -W roxeter ( Shrops.)

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O ne a uthority h as s uggested t hat A riconium ' can b est b e d escribed a s a R oman v illa e state w ith a p osting s tation, s itu ated o n t he X III I ter, a nd s urrounded b y a n e xtensive i ndustrial b elt, t he w hole p robably o ccupying s ome 2 50 a cres ', a lthough t his l arge a rea w ould n ot h ave b een i n o peration a ll a t o ne t ime, b ecause t he f urnaces w ould h ave b een r eadily e xpendable ( Hart 1 971, 2 ). W hatever t he e xact n ature o f t he s ite a t A riconium , i t c an r easonably b e r egarded a s o ne o f t he m ajor i ndustrial c omplexes f or a n i ndustry w hich i nvolved s cattered a reas o f i ron-smelting o ver a l arge a rea o f s outh H erefordshire a nd c onsiderable a reas o f G loucestershire a nd M onmouthshire. D iscoveries i n t he 1 8th c entury a nd d uring l imited e xcavations i n 1 922, 1 958 a nd t he 1 960s i ndicated a t l east o ne s ubstantial s tone b uilding a nd t he r emains o f t essellated p avements, w allp laster a nd b uilding m aterial o ver a c onsiderable a rea. T he i ndications o f i ron w orking a re a lso e xtensive ( Jack 1 923 ; R CHM H e ( 1934) I II, I iii, 2 09-10 ; B ridgewater 1 959 , 2 21-2 ; 1 963 , 3 ; 1 967, 1 24-35 ; G arrod 1 969 , 1 58 a nd 3 63 ; S tanford 1 980 , 1 59-60).

A n umber o f v illas a re k nown i n t his p art o f H erefordshire , i n p articular H untsham a nd n earby W hitchurch , w here a n i rons melting s ite m ay h ave b een i n o peration i n t he R oman p eriod ( Dudley 1 954, f ig.1; B ridgewater 1 962 , 2 28-33). S igns o f s ettled o ccupation i n t his p eriod o ver a l arge a rea o f s outh H erefordshire, a re r epresented b y m iscellaneous f inds o f p ottery a nd c oins, a nd o f b uilding m aterial s uggestive o f s ubstantial s tructures ( Dudley 1 954 , 1 23 a nd 1 26). I t s eems c lear t hat f urther w ork i n t his a rea w ill d ispel t he i dea t hat H erefordshire w as s parsely-populated a nd r elatively p oor i n t he R oman p eriod. I n f act, i t m ust h ave b een o ne o f t he m ost h eavily i ndustrialised p arts o f t he r egion. T he i nformation i s u nsatisfactory, b ut p oints t o c onsiderable a ctivity o f v arious k inds o n t he f ringe o f t he F orest o f D ean. T here a re t races o f i ron w orking a long t he w est b ank o f t he r iver W ye f rom G oodrich n orthwards t o B ridstow , t hat i s i n a b and b etween t he s upposed v illa s ite a t W hitchurch a nd A riconium ( Dudley 1 954 , 1 28). T he o utput o f i ron i ncreased c onsiderably a fter t he R oman c onquest a nd b y t he l ate 2 nd c entury t he F orest o f D ean h ad s uperseded t he W eald a s a m ajor p roduction a rea. However,the e vidence o f t he R oman w orkings i s o bscured b y t he r enewed e xploitation i n m edi eval a nd p ost-medieval t imes. S everal i mportant p roblems n eed i nvestigation , n ot l east t he r easons f or r emoving s o m uch o re f rom t he F orest f or r esmelting i n s outh H erefordshire ( Hart 1 971, 3 ). T he r ivers S evern a nd W ye w ould h ave b een i mportant f or t ransporting t he o re a nd t he s melted i ron , a nd t his w ould h elp t o e xplain t he c oncentration o f a ctivity a long t he b anks o f t he W ye. T he F orest o f D ean w as f ar m ore e xtensive i n t his p eriod , o r a t l east a t t he t ime o f t he c onquest. I t h ad r esources n ot o nly o f i ron b ut a lso o f c oal, s tone a nd t imber w hich w ould

h ave e ncouraged t he d evelopment o f s ubsidiary a ctivities, a bly c ombined, a s i n t he m edieval p eriod, w ith f arming 1 971, x xii, x xiv).

p rob( Hart

S alt w as a nother -i mportant c ommodity e xtracted i n t he W est M idlands i n t he R oman p eriod. I t w ould h ave i nvolved a c onsidera ble a mount o f t rade w ithin t he r egion a nd p ossibly w ith o ther a reas o f t he p rovince. H owever, m uch n eeds t o b e l earnt a bout t he o rganisation o f t he s alt i ndustry d uring t he R oman p eriod a t D roitwich , a nd t he c haracter o f t he a ssociated s ettlement. T he v illa c omplex a t B ays M eadow o n t he n orth s ide o f t he R iver S alwarpe h as b een i nterpreted a s a n o fficial b ase f or t he a dmini stration o f t he s alt i ndustry ( Freezer 1 977, 5 -7). H owever, G oodman h as s uggested t hat t here i s n othing t o i ndicate a n o fficial c onnection a nd i t i s m uch m ore l ikely t hat t he b uilder a nd r esident o f t he v illa w as a p rivate i ndividual - a c onductor w ho l eased t he r ight t o w ork t he s alt f rom t he R oman s tate ( Goodman , f orthcoming). T he v illa d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een e stablished u ntil t he l ate 2 nd c entury a nd t here i s s ome s pecula tion a bout w hether t he s alt w orks w ould h ave b een u nder m ilitary s upervision o r t he c ontrol o f t he c ivitas p rior t o t his ( Freezer 1 977, 3 -8 ; G oodman f orthcoming). F rom t he a rea s outh o f t he R iver S alwarpe t here a re i ndications t hat t he s alt i ndustry c ontinued t o o perate u ntil a bout t he m id-2nd c entury u sing m ethods w hich h ad p robably b een c urrent i n t he p re-Roman p eriod . T hereafter, t he o rganisation a nd l ocation o f t he i ndustry s eems t o h ave c hanged ( Hunt 1 975, 3 9-40 , 4 9 ; S awle 1 978 , 7 6-8). O n t he R icketts L ane/Bowling G reen s ite, s alt-workings w ere r eplaced s ome t ime i n o r a fter t he m id-2nd c entury b y a s ubstantial s tone b uilding a nd r oad, a nd a f urther s ubstantial b uilding w as c ons tructed,possibly i n t he l ate 3 rd c entury. T here w as n o e vidence f or t he f unction o f t hese b uildings. A l arge c urving d itch w ithin t he w estern l imits o f t he e xcavation c ontained m any c ow a nd s heep s kulls s uggesting a n a rea w here a nimals w ere b utchered a nd p erhaps a lso p ickled i n b rine. T he f inal f eatures o n t he s ite w ere a n umber o f b arrels w hich m ay a lso h ave b een c onnected w ith s alt-working ( Sawle 1 978 , 7 6-8). A lthough t he n ature o f t he i ndustry a fter t he m id-2nd c entury i s v ery u ncertain , t here a re i ndications t hat i t r emained a n i mportant e lement t hroughout t he p eriod a nd i t i s p ossible t hat s ubsidiary a ctivities s uch a s p ickling, t anning a nd p ottery p roduction m ay h ave d eveloped.

T he d egree o f d iversification a t D roitwich i s s till a m atter f or s peculation . I t i s p ossible t hat t he i nhabitants o f D roitwich w ere i nvolved i n o ther p ursuits a nd t hat t he s ettlement m ay h ave p rovided a r ange o f e conomic a nd s ocial s ervices. I n p articular, s ome s ort o f n ucleus m ay h ave d eveloped a round t he r oad j unction a nd r iver c rossing i n t he e astern p art o f t he s ettlement. R ecent e xcavations a t H anbury S treet p roduced e vidence f or t he m illing o f g rain , a nd a w ide r ange o f p ottery i ncluding c ontinental i mports ( Freezer 1 980b , 8 5). A t M anduessedum , t wo a reasof a ctivity i n c lose p roximity h ave b een i dentified w hich m ay b e c onnected a lthough t hey a re d ifferent i n c haracter. T he r ibbon d evelopment s traddling W atling S treet

f or s everal m iles, f rom a p oint t o t he s outh o f t he R iver A nker n orthwards t owards A therstone, h as l ittle t o d istinguish i t e conomically f rom t he l ocal m arket c entres p roviding a m eans o f e xchange f or t heir a gricultural h interland. Y et t he M ancetter / Hartshill p ottery i ndustry w as a l arge a nd i mportant c oncern. T he p otteries w ere e stablished b y t he e arly 2 nd c entury a nd h ad a m ajor s hare o f t he t rade w ith t he a rmy i n n orth B ritain u ntil c . A D 3 70. T hey a lso h ad a n e xcellent h ome m arket c overing t he w hole o f t he W est M idlands a nd e xtending i nto W ales ( Hartley 1 961, 1 1 a nd 1 3; 1 973, 3 9). T he f ull e xtent o f t he a rea e ngaged i n t he i ndustry i s u nknown b ut t he s ame s tyles a nd t echniques a nd t he s ame p otters h ave b een d etected a t b oth M ancetter a nd H artshill o ver t wo m iles a way. I t s eems l ikely t hat t his w as o ne l arge c ontinuous i ndustrial z one.

M anduessedum w ould h ave p rovided a n o bvious f ocus f or t he i ndustry a nd w hen t he B roadclose a rea i n t he f ields t o t he s outhw est o f t he l ater d efended a rea w as g iven o ver t o k ilns, t he c ivil s ettlement w as a lready w ell e stablished. I n a ddition , i ts l ocation o n W atling S treet w ould h ave m ade i t a c onvenient c entre t hrough w hich t he w ares c ould h ave b een c hannelled f or m arketing a nd r edistribution a t a l ocal, r egional a nd p rovincial l evel. D espite t he e xpectation t hat t here w ould h ave b een s hops a long W atling S treet t o s ell w ares l ocally, n one o f t he b uildings e xcavated a long t he s treet f rontage h as b een i dentified a s a s hop. I f a m ajor c ommercial n ucleus e xisted a way f rom W atling S treet, i t m ay b e f ound o n t he n orth s ide o f t he r iver u nder t he m odern v illage. T he i ndustrial c omplex h as n ot b een s ystema tically e xamined a lthough a c ertain a mount i s k nown a bout t he B roadclose a rea. H ere a s catter o f b uildings, p otters' w orkshops a nd s tores, a g lass f urnace a nd d ouble d rying k iln, t ogether w ith a s mall d rying s hed,which h ad a s easonal u se f or c orn d rying, h ave b een f ound. I t h as b een r eported t hat t he a rea i s a lso c overed b y a c omplex o f d rainage c hannels a nd g ullies a nd t races o f s ubstantial t imber b uildings. A erial p hotographs a re a lso s aid t o i ndicate w hat m ay b e a c omplex o f s ervice r oads j oining W atling S treet. H owever t he s alvage n ature o f t he i nvestigations a nd t he a bsence o f p ublished r esults m ean t hat n o c oherent p icture h as y et e merged o f t he a rea. T he p resence o f a g lass f urnace a nd t he s uggestion o f a n i nvolvement w ith a griculture a re a n i ndication t hat t he i ndustrial c omplex m ay h ave h ad s ome p eripheral e conomic a ctivities ( Hartley 1 977, 7 0-1).

T he e vidence f or t he r oadside s ettlement s uggests t hat i t w as n o m ore t han a m inor m arket a nd s ervice c entre f or a l imited m arket a nd p robably s erving t he i mmediate r equirements o f t he p ottery i ndustry.

T here i s l ittle e vidence a t p resent o n w hich t o b ase a n a ssessment o f t he f actors a ffecting t he c haracter o f t he n ucl eated s ettlements a nd t he r ange o f s ocial a nd e conomic f unctions w hich t hey m ay h ave p erformed. B ut i nformation i s b eginning t o e merge t hat t he R omano-British s ettlements o f t his r egion

v ary c onsiderably i n t heir c haracter. T heir f unctions a nd l evel o f d evelopment s hould b e c onsidered a s f eatures w hich w ere b ound u p w ith t he e conomic d evelopment a nd t he o verall e conomic l ands cape o f t he W est M idlands, a nd i n p articular w ith t he d evelopm ent o f t he h interland w hich t hey s erved.

I n t he c ase o f K enchester, f or e xample, t he i nvestigation o f t his c entre m ust t ake a ccount o f t he r ich a gricultural a rea o f t he W ye v alley , t he s cattered v illas o f s outh H erefordshire a nd t he i ndustrialised l andscape o f t he F orest o f D ean. T he e conomic p otential o f K enchester a s a m arket a nd s ervice c entre a nd t he e xtent o f i ts m arketing h interland m ust b e a ssessed i n r elation t o t he o ther n ucleated s ettlements, n otably A riconium , B lackwardine a nd S tretton G randison.

A lthough t he f unction o f t he n ucleated s ettlements h ave b een d ealt w ith u nder s eparate h eadings - a dministrative, s ocial a nd e conomic - t hey a re i nterrelated a nd i nterdependent. S o, f or e xample, a t A lcester a nd W orcester, i t i s r easonable t o s peculate t hat t he i nformation a bout t he l evel o f e conomic d evelo pment m ay b e r eflected i n a c omplex s ocial a nd p hysical s truct ure, f or w hich t here i s a t p resent v ery l ittle e vidence. T he s ocial c omplexity a nd s ocial f unctions o f a s ettlement a re p res umably a n e xpression o f i ts l evel o f p rosperity. E conomic a nd s ocial d evelopment m ay h ave q ualified a s ettlement f or a dmini strative f unctions. I n t his w ay, t he a dministrative, s ocial a nd e conomic i nteract a nd f orm p art o f a n o verall p attern o f d evelopment.

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A lthough t here i s i nsufficient e vidence a t p resent f or t he o rigin a nd e arly g rowth o f t he c ivil s ettlements o f t he r egion, a ll t he s ites u nder c onsideration h ave s ome s ort o f e vidence f or c ivil a ctivity b y t he l ate i st c entury, e ven i f t his i s r epresented o nly b y c hance f inds ( see a lso C hapter V ). H owever, i n m ost c ases i t i s n ot c lear w hat t his a ctivity r epr esents o r w hat f unctions w ere b eing p erformed. S ome m ention h as b een m ade o f t he i ndications o f i ndustrial a ctivity a t W roxeter i n t he l ate i st c entury, b ut e ven h ere t he e vidence i s i nsufficient t o b e c ertain w hether t his i s t o b e a ssociated w ith c anabae o r w ith a d eveloping c ivitas c apital ( Atkinson 1 942, 7 ; W acher 1 974a, 3 59 ; W ebster 1 975a, 6 0).

A t C hesterton/Holditch , t here i s r ather m ore i nformation a vailable a bout t he i st c entury s ettlement a nd i t a ppears t hat f rom c . A D 7 0-80 i ndustrial a nd c ommercial a ctivity w as i ntensive ( Charlton 1 961, 3 0-9). I t w as p ossible t o a ssociate v arious a ctivities a nd f unctions w ith t he t imber b uildings l ining a p rincipal s treet. O ne o f t hese a ppeared t o h ave b een a n o penf ronted s hop, a nd i n s ome c ases t here w ere w orkshops a nd o utb uildings a t t he r ear c onnected w ith m etal w orking a ctivities ( Charlton 1 962, 6 2). B ut, f or t he m ost p art, t he f unctions o f t he t imber b uildings o f t he r oadside s ettlements h ave n ot b een e stablished a nd t here i s n o i nformation c oncerning t he p ossible d evelopment o f c ommercial s ites i n t hese m inor c entres.

M ost o f t hese n uclei d o h ave s ome i ndication o f i ndustrial a ctivity i n t his p eriod, f or e xample, t he r emains o f t he f urnace t ogether w ith i ron f ragments, n ails a nd m olten l ead a t K enchester ( Jack a nd H ayter 1 916, 2 3). W ith t he e xception o f C hesterton/ H olditch, t here i s n o i ndication t hat t hese i ndustries w ere a nything o ther t han s poradic a nd s mall-scale. W ork d one s o f ar i ndicates t hat f urther e xcavations a t W hitchurch w ould p rov ide m ore p ositive e vidence t hat i ndustry w as a n i mportant e lement i n t he e arly d evelopment o f t his c ivil s ettlement a lso ( Jones 1 969, 2 05). E lsewhere, n otably a t M anduessedum a nd T ripontium , s uch r emains a s c obbled a reas, h earths, o vens a nd l ayers o f c harcoal a re a mbiguous b ut n eed h ave n o i ndustrial s ignificance. I n o ther c ases, f or e xample V enonae a nd L etocetum , q uantities o f s lag a re c onsiderable b ut n ot s pecifically a ssoc iated w ith a ny i ndustrial f eatures o r s tructures. M uch o f t his a ctivity m ay h ave b een c onnected w ith t he i nitial b uilding c onstruction r ather t han t he e conomic d evelopment o f t he s ettlem ent. I n t erms o f t he t opography o f t hese e arly c ivil s ettlem ents, m any o f t he r oads a nd s treets s eem t o h ave b een e stabl ished, o r s urfaced f or t he f irst t ime, a c onsiderable p eriod a fter t he i nitial s ettlement a nd c ould h ave h ad a n i mpact o n t he s ubsequent l ayout o f t he s ettlement. A t L etocetum t he c ons truction o f W atling S treet o ver a p ossible v icus s eems t o m ark a n ew p hase i n t he d evelopment o f a c ivil s ettlement i n t he l ate i st c entury; i t w as a ligned o n t he r oad a nd n ot o n t he

f ort c omplex a s t he e arlier a ctivity h ad b een ( Gould 1 964 ,

1 3).

A t K enchester , t here a re f ew d ated o ccupation s equences, b ut t races o f i st c entury s ettlement i ncluded s ome F lavian p ott ery i n a s tratified - c ontext b eneath t he p rincipal s treet a nd i n a p it b eneath a n orth/south s treet. F urther a ctivity i n t he i st c entury w as f ound i n t he n orth-west c orner o f t he s ite a nd b eyond t he o uter d efensive d itch ( TWNFC ( 1956) 3 5 p t.2, 1 41; ( 1962) 3 7 p t. 2 , 1 50 , 1 61 a nd 1 66). D ating e vidence f rom t he s ections o f t he r oad i nside t he d efences a t K enchester g ives a t erminus p ost q uem i n t he l ate i st c entury ( or p ossibly A ntonine p eriod) f or t he f irst m etalling, a lthough a s ection o utside t he e ast g ate w as a ssociated w ith p ottery d ated t o A D 1 20-160 ( Jack a nd H ayter 1 926, 9 -11, 1 3-15 ; R CHM H e ( 1932)11, 9 3-4). A s a t L etocetum , t he c onstruction o f t he r oad s eems t o h ave r esulted i n a c hange i n t he l ayout a nd a lignment o f t he s ettlement. B oth a t L etocetum a nd K enchester, t he p receding o ccupation i s d ifficult t o i nterpret.

T here i s l ittle i ndication a lso o f t he c ontext f or t he i st c entury a ctivity a t A lcester. A gain , t here w as o ccupation p receding t he l aying-down o f t he s treets. M ost o f t he e vidence c omes f rom t he e xtramural a rea w est o f B leachfield S treet, w here ( on s ite Y ), a n umber o f b uildings w ere d estroyed b y f ire p rior t o t he l aying d own o f a n orth/south s treet i n t he e arly 2 nd c entury ( Britannia ( 1971) 2 , 2 62). A w orking h ollow a nd h earth c ontaining N eronian-Flavian s herds w as a lso s ealed b eneath a l ayer u sed t o l evel t he s ite b efore t he m ain e ast/west r oad w as l aid d own ORS ( 1961) 5 1, 1 72-3). O ne s ection o f t his r oad w as g iven a t erminus p ost q uem o f t he l ate i st c entury, a nd a nother w as d ated t o c . A D 1 25-50 ( TBAS ( 1958) 7 6 , 1 5-16 ; W MNS ( 1960) 3 , 3 ). E lsewhere i n t his a rea t here w ere p its c ontaining p ottery c overing t he r ange A D 7 0-120 , a nd o ther f inds o f F lavian d ate ( WMNS ( 1959) 2 , 3 ; ( 1960) 3 , 3 ; ( 1965) 8 , 3 ). I t i s i mpossible t o a ssess h ow f ar t he c ivil s ettlement i n t his p eriod p rovided t he n ucleus f or t he s ubsequent d evelopment o f A lcester, o r w hether t here w as l ater r eplanning o f t he s ite, o r t he e stabl ishment o f an ew n ucleus ( see a lso B ooth 1 980 , 1 0).

R ibbon d evelopment a long a m ain s treet r epresents t he f orm t aken b y m ost o f t he r oadside s ettlements i n t he i st c entury A D, n otably o f P ennocrucium a nd V enonae. A t M anduessedum , t he s ettlement h ad b egun t o s pread o ut a long W atling S treet t owards t he r iver a pparently b y a s e arly a s c . A D 6 0 , b eginning a s equence o f d evelopment w hich w as t o c ontinue i nto t he e arly 4 th c entury a t l east, b ut n ot a pparently i nvolving t he B roadclose a rea u ntil t he 2 nd c entury w ith t he d evelopment o f t he p ottery i ndustry ( WMNS ( 1963) 6 , 3 ; ( 1971) 1 4 , 1 6). A t T iddington, t he s ettlement s eems t o h ave c ome i nto e xistence i n t he i st c entury A D a long t he p robable p re-Roman r oute r unning a long t he s outh b ank o f t he R iver A von . F eatures o f t his p eriod c ons isted o f r ubbish p its a nd d rainage o r b oundary g ullies ( Palmer 1 982,12).

T imber b uildings o f t he l ate i st c entury a lso s traddled t he R oman r oad l eading s outh-east f rom W hitchurch a t s ome d ist ance f rom t he h illtop n ucleus ( SNL ( May 1 972) 4 2, 8 -10). I f c onnected w ith t he m ain a rea o f s ettlement t he r ibbon d evelopment h ere w ould b e s imilar t o t hat a t L etocetum , w hich b y t he 2 nd c entury s tretched a s. f ar e ast a s t he j unction w ith R yknield S treet ( TSSAHS f or 1 963-4 ( 1964), 1 5 ; f or 1 964-5 ( 1966) 6 , 1 -99 ; f or 1 966-7 ( 1968) 8 , 1 -38).

T he l aying o ut o f t he m ain s treet o r s treets d oes s eem t o h ave b een a n i mportant f actor i n t he d evelopment o f m ost o f t he s ettlements. H owever, t here i s l ittle e vidence f or t he a ctual e volution o f t he o verall s treet p lan a nd i ts r elation t o t he d evelopment o f t he c ivil s ettlement i s u ncertain. I t m ay r epresent t he b eginning o f n ucleation a nd o f a n i mpetus t owards s ustained g rowth , o r i t m ay r epresent t he p hysical f orma lisation o f a c ivil s ettlement w hich w as a lready w ell-establ ished. I n m ost c ases, a lthough s ome s ort o f f ocus h ad d eveloped b y t he l ate i st c entury, t here i s n o i ndication t hat a ctivity w as a nything b ut s cattered a nd i n s ome c ases i ntermittent, w ith n o r eal f ossilisation o f l ayout.

F rom t he l ate 1 st/early 2 nd c entury, t he i ndications o f s ustained g rowth, f ormalisation a nd o rganisation o f l ayout a nd e conomic d evelopment b ecame m ore p ronounced. A t W roxeter, t h e n ature a nd c hronology o f t he e arly p hases o f c ivil d evelopment a re s till u ncertain , b ut t he c urrent h ypothesis i nvolves a n i nitial d evelopment c onsisting o f s ites a long t he m ain s treet i n t he l ate i st c entury a nd t hen a n i mpetus i n t he 1 20s u nder H adrian , w ith t he i nitiation o f p ublic w orks. M uch o f t his h ypothesis i s b ased o n t he e vidence r ecovered f rom t he e xcav ations b y B ushe-Fox i n 1 912-1914, t hose o f A tkinson i n 1 9231 927 a nd W ebster's e xcavations o n t he s ite o f t he m acellum s ince 1 976. O n t he l atter s ite t here w ere a n umber o f w all t renches w hich n ever r eceived t he w all f oundations f or w hich t hey w ere i ntended. T hey p receded t he c onstruction o f t he m acellum a nd c ut i nto t he e arly c ivil p hases. T hese w all t renches , t ogether w ith t he e vidence f or a n e arly b athhouse b eneath t he f orum a nd a n e arlier s tructure o f d ifferent p lan b eneath t he b aths h ave b een i nterpreted b y W ebster n ot a s a n a bortive a ttempt t o p rovide p ublic b uildings i n t he l ate i st c entury b ut a s a c hange o f p lan d uring t he H adrianic d evelopment ( Webster 1 976,37; 1 977,55). A t W roxeter, t here i s n o s ecure d ating e vidence f or m uch o f t he e arly d evelopment. T he c onstruction o f t he m ain s treet , t he e arly b aths a nd t he u nused w all t renches b eneath t he m acellum a re n ot d ated a nd i t i s n ot c lear h ow m uch o f t he e arly c ivil d evelopment n oted b y B ushe-Fox a nd A tkinson o n t he w est s ide o f t he m ain s treet m ay h ave b een c ontemporary w ith t he m ilitary o ccupation a nd p ossibly r epresent c anabae ( Bushe-Fox 1 913 , 2 -3; A tkinson 1 942 , 5 -7).

I f i t p roves t o b e t he c ase t hat n o a ttempt w as m ade t o p rovide p ublic b uildings d uring t he i nitial p eriod o f W roxeter's

g rowth a nd d evelopment ( p.65 , a bove), t hen a v ery d ifferent p icture e merges o f t he c haracter o f t he t ribal c apital i n t he l ate i st a nd e arly 2 nd c entury. I t i s t he c ommercial a nd i ndust rial e lement w hich p redominates a nd i n t his r espect t he s ettlem ent w ould h ave d iffered l ittle f rom t hat o f a v icus, w hose p opulation p robably p rovided t he m ain b ody o f s ettlers f or t he n ew c ity. T here w ould b e n o f undamental d ifference t herefore b etween W roxeter i n t he l ate i st a nd e arly 2 nd c entury a nd t he o ther c ivil s ettlement s ites o f t he r egion. T he a ctivity a t W roxeter i n t he l ater i st c entury s eems t o r epresent t he s ame s ort o f p attern o f s cattered a nd c omparatively u nformalised i ndustrial a nd d omestic o ccupation a s h as b een f ound a t o ther s ettlements i n t he r egion .

F rom t he l ate i st o r e arly 2 nd c entury, t he s equence o f d evelopment b ecomes e asier t o d iscern a nd s eems t o i nvolve t hese s ites i n r apid g rowth a nd p rosperity. S ome o f t he t imber s hops o f t his p eriod w ere r econstructed i n s tone i n o r a fter c .AD , 1 201 30 ( Bushe-Fox 1 914, 6 -22). O n S ite V I, t hree o pen-fronted s hops e rected c . A D 1 20 w ere i ncorporated b efore t he m id-2nd c entury i nto o ne l arge c ourtyard b uilding , a nd o n S ite V , a c hange o f f unction t ook p lace i n o r a fter t he t ime o f H adrian w ith a t emple r eplacing a n e arlier t imber b uilding ( Bushe-Fox 1 914, 5 -10 ; 1 916 , 1 -34). F ollowing t he f ire o f c . A D 1 60 , s everal o f t hese b uildings w ere r econstructed i n am ore e laborate o r s ubstantial m anner ( Bushe-Fox 1 913 , 6 -17; A tkinson 1 942, 1 23-5).

T he c onstruction o f o pen-fronted s hops s eems t o r epresent t he a doption i n t he l ate 1 st/early 2 nd c entury o f am ore f ormal a nd o rganised a rrangement f or t he e arlier i ndustrial a nd c omm ercial a ctivity w hich s till c ontinued o n t hese s ites. T his m ay r eflect, n ot a n ew i mpetus t o d evelopment, b ut t he a chievem ents o f a c ontinuous p rocess o f g rowth f rom t he b eginnings o f c ivil d evelopment i n t he l ate i st c entury. T he a doption o f t he c lassical t ype o f a rchitecture b eing a p roduct o f t he w ealth a ccumulated a fter a p eriod o f s uccessful c ommercial d evelo pment. M any o f t he c hanges w hich t ake p lace i n o ther s ettlem ents, a nd p articularly i n t he m ajor c entres, i n t he 2 nd c entury m ay s imilarly b e a n e xpression o f t he s uccess o f s ettlements w hich i n t he l ate i st c entury w ere s cattered a nd h aphazard g rowths.

A t A lcester t he p ottery e vidence s uggests t hat t he i ndust ries i n t he s outhern p art o f t he s ettlement w ere w ell-establ ished b y t he m id-2nd c entury ( Mahany 1 965 , 3 -4). B ooth h as p ointed o ut t hat b uildings i n a r ecognisable R omano-British s tyle b egin t o a ppear i n t he 2 nd c entury, a t a p eriod w hen t he s ettlement s eems t o h ave e xpanded c onsiderably ( Booth 1 980 , 7 ). T he f undamental c haracter a nd b asic l ayout o f t he s ettlement w ould t herefore s eem t o h ave b ecome e stablished d uring t he 2 nd c entury.

A t C hesterton/Holditch t he p rosperous c ommercial a nd m anuf acturing n ucleus o f t he l ate i st a nd e arly 2 nd c enturies s eems t o h ave u ndergone a c hange c . A D 1 60 w ith a p art o f t he s ettlem ent w hich h ad b een p reviously d ensely o ccupied b eing a bandoned. T here a re i ndications t hat o ccupation d id c ontinue i n a nother a rea i nto t he 3 rd c entury. I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he s ettlement m ay h ave b een i nvolved i n s upplying t he a rmy i n t he C hester r egion a nd i ts d evelopment m ay h ave b een a ffected b y c hanges i n m ilitary d ispositions ( Charlton 1 961, 2 1, 3 3 ; 1 962 , 6 1-4).

A t D roitwich , i t h as a lready b een n oted t hat t here i s e vid ence f or t he s alt w orking c ontinuing o n a b asis w hich i nvolved t he u se o f b riquetage u ntil t he m id-2nd c entury, a fter w hich t he l ocation o f t he i ndustry c hanged. I n t he l ater 2 nd c entury o r e arly 3 rd c entury t he v illa c omplex a t B ays M eadow w as e stabl ished a nd t his m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith c hanges i n t he o rganisation a nd a dministration o f t he i ndustry ( Freezer 1 977, 4 -5; G oodman f orthcoming). H owever, i t i s n ot p ossible t o o ffer a n e xplanation f or t hese c hanges o r t o b e c ertain h ow t hey r elate t o p hysical a nd e conomic d evelopments w ithin t he s ettlement a s a w hole.

A t K enchester, t here i s a ctivity f rom t he F lavian p eriod a t l east b ut t he o pen-fronted s hops a long t he m ain s treet a re u ndated a nd t hey m ay w ell b e a s lightly l ater d evelopment t han t hose o f t he e arly 2 nd c entury f ound a t W roxeter ( RCHM H e ( 1932) I I, 9 4; W ilmott 1 979, 2 9-36, 4 8-50 ). W ilmott h as s uggested t hat t he l ayout o f t he s ettlement, i ncluding t he m ain e ast/west r oute a nd t he c entral n orth/south s treet, w as e stablished i n t he A ntonine p eriod o r l ater, a nd, i n v iew o f t he f act t hat ' these n ew r oads w ith t heir r etaining d rains w ere l imited t o t he a rea i nside t he w alls', a nd t hat s everal o f t he b uildings w ould s eem t o h ave b een c ontemporary w ith t he d rains , h e h as a rgued t hat t he c onstruction o f t he e arthwork d efences a nd t he l aying o ut o f t he s treets a nd b uildings w ere a ll d evelopments o f t he l ater 2 nd c entury ( Wilmott 1 979 , 2 9-36, 4 8-50). J ack a nd H ayter, o n t he b asis o f p otters' s tamps i n t he f oundations o f t he s tone d rain o n t he n orth s ide o f t he e ast/west s treet, a rgued t hat t he w ork c ould n ot h ave b een c arried o ut m uch l ater t han t he e nd o f t he i st c entury a nd a t erminus p ost q uem i n t he F lavian p eriod w as a lso o ffered f or t he c entral n orth/south s treet. B ut, i n t he f ormer i nstance, t he s ection d rawing s hows A ntonine p ottery b etween t he c obble f oundation a nd t he f lagstones f orming t he b ase o f t he d rain, p roviding a l ater d ate. T hey c oncluded t hat t he r oads w ere c onstructed t owards t he e nd o f t he i st c entury a nd m uch i mproved d uring t he A ntonine p eriod ( Jack a nd H ayter 1 926,

1 4-15,

2 6 a nd 3 8).

I f t his c hronology i s c orrect t hen t he a doption o f a m ore R omanised l ayout a nd s tyle o f b uilding a t K enchester m ay b e a f airly ' late' d evelopment c ompared, f or e xample, w ith W roxeter. I f a m ore p recise c hronology c ould b e e stablished f or d evelop-

m ents a t t his a nd o ther s ettlements i n t his p eriod i t m ight b e p ossible t o c ompare t he r ate o f d evelopment a t v arious c entres .

A t L eintwardine a nd L etocetum , t he h ypothesis o f t imber m ansiones i n t he l ate i st c entury, r ebuilt i n s tone i n t he e arly 2 nd c entury a nd d estroyed b y f ire c . A D 1 60 , h as a lready b een d iscussed ( Stanford 1 968, 2 23, 2 71, 2 75, 2 80 a nd 3 16; W ebster 1 975a, 7 7). A s E smonde C leary h as p ointed o ut, t here i s n o o bvious r eason w hy a m ansio s hould g o o ut o f u se. I t i s p ossible t hat t he b uildings m ay h ave b een r elocated o r t hat s ome f orm o f o fficial r eorganisation o f t he p osts o f t he c ursus p ublicus m ay h ave b een r esponsible f or t his, b ut m ore e vidence o f t he f unction o f t hese b uildings i s n eeded.

T he s ettlement a t T iddington s eems t o h ave e xpanded d uring t he 2 nd c entury w ith t he e stablishment o f a r oadway r unning o ut o f t he s ettlement t o t he e ast. T imber b uildings b egan t o s pread s outhwards f rom t he e xisting i st c entury n ucleus a nd t his e xpansion c ontinued i n t he 3 rd c entury. F rom t hese i nitial c onclusions t he 2 nd c entury a ppears t o h ave b een a p eriod o f c onsiderable d evelopment a t T iddington ( Palmer 1 981, 1 7-24).

I n t he c ase o f W hitchurch , t he e xcavations i n 1 965-1966 o n a s ite i n t he n orth-west p art o f t he e nclosed a rea s uggested t hat c ivil s ettlement g radually d eveloped o ver t he f ort s ite i n t he e arly 2 nd c entury, t aking t he f orm o f t imber s tructures w ith s mall-scale i ndustrial a ctivity. I t i s n ot k nown w hat d evelopments t ook p lace a long t he s treet-frontage, b ut a s ubstant ial b uilding w ith s tone f oundations a nd p ossibly o f t he c ourty ard t ype ( terminus p ost q uem c . A D 1 70) w as c onstructed t o t he r ear o f t he f rontage. J ones c onsidered t hat t his w as a n i ndication o f t he p rosperity a nd e xpansion o f W hitchurch i n t he l ate 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies; a nd c ertainly s eems t o r epresent ac lear c hange i n l and-use ( Jones 1 969, 1 97, 2 03-7).

T here i s v irtually n o i nformation a bout t he d evelopment o f W orcester i n t he i st a nd 2 nd c enturies, a lthough t he a ctivity o n t he S idbury s ite m ay h ave e xtended b ack i nto t he e arly i st c entury a nd t here w as e vidence f or i ronworking i n t he 2 nd c entury o n t he T albot S treet s ite ( Barker 1 970 , 1 5-16; S awle 1 977, 4 4-5; C arver 1 980 , 8 8).

A lthough f urther e vidence i s n eeded, p articularly f or t he e arly p eriods o f d evelopment o f n ucleated s ettlements i n t he l ate 1 st/early 2 nd c entury, i t w ould s eem t hat t here w as o ccu pation a t m ost o f t hese c entres b y t he l ate i st c entury a t t he l atest. I t o ften a ppears t o b e m ore s cattered a nd h aphazard t han t he d evelopments w hich w ere t aking p lace i n t he 2 nd c entury. D uring t he i st a nd e arly 2 nd c entury, d ifferent f actors m ay h ave a ffected d evelopment a t d ifferent t imes, a nd t here m ay

h ave b een a c onsiderable d egree o f c hange a nd i nstability. I t i s p ossible t hat m any a spects o f t he p revious a dministrative a nd e conomic s ystem p ersisted i nto t he l ate 1 st/early 2 nd c entury a nd t he c ontinuity o f I ron A ge t raditions h as b een n oted i n b uilding t ypes a nd p ottery p roduction ( Alexander 1 975, 1 03 ; S tead 1 975, 1 28-9; Peacock 1 967, 2 6). B urnham h as c ommented t hat i n t he e arly R oman p eriod t he i nteraction b etween t he d em ands o f t he e xisting s tructure a nd t he n ew o ne m ay h ave r esulted i n ' different c ompeting a nd o verlapping s ystems' b eing a t w ork ( Burnham 1 979, 2 69). I t i s n oticeable i n o ther r egions t hat t here i s a c onsiderable d egree o f c hange a nd m obility o f s ettlem ent i n t he e arly R oman p eriod ( Wacher 1 974a, 2 6-7, 1 04, 2 77; J ohnston 1 975, 2 25-31; P artridge 1 975, 1 49-50 ; R odwell 1 975a , 8 7). I t s eems t hat t he W est M idlands s ettlement p attern e xp erienced a n umber o f c hanges d uring t he i st c entury A D b efore s ettling d own t o a b asic f ramework . I ts s tability m ay h ave g rown w ith t he e stablishment o f o fficial n uclei, s uch a s a dmini strative c entres, m utationes a nd m ansiones a s t ax c ollection c entres a t s ome t ime i n o r a fter t he l ate i st c entury.

D uring t he 2 nd c entury m any o f t he s ettlements e xperienced o r p articipated i n g eneral t rends a ffecting t he p rovince a s a w hole, n amely t he p rovision o f e arthwork d efences, a nd t he i ntroduction o f s tone a s a r eplacement f or t imber i n b uilding c onstruction. B ut i t i s i ncorrect t o e mphasise t he d evelopments o f t he 2 nd c entury i n i solation f rom w hat h ad g one b efore. T he 2 nd c entury i s c ertainly a p eriod i n w hich i t i s p ossible t o d iscern r ecognisable a ctivities, f unctions a nd l ayouts e merging f rom t he e arlier f luidity. T he d evelopments o f t he 2 nd c entury h ad u ndoubtedly a risen o ut o f t his e arlier a ctivity. S imilarly, t he s ituation c urrent i n t he 2 nd c entury d id n ot r emain s tatic, a s n ew d evelopments, p ossibly c hanges o f f unction a nd p ossibly a lso o f l ayout f ollowed i n l ater p eriods.

V III.

U rban E volution : T he L ater R oman P eriod

A ny a ttempt t o a nalyse t he W est M idlands i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies m ust t ake i nto a ccount c ertain g eneral f actors, s uch a s t he p atterns o f p ottery a nd c oin s upply; o n t hese t he d ating a nd i nterpretation o f d evelopment i n t his p eriod d epend.

E xamining t he c oin l oss o n a w ide r ange o f s ites i n l owland B ritain, R eece o bserved t hat a ll t ypes o f s ite s eemed t o s hare a g eneral p attern i n w hich t here w ere p eaks a nd t roughs ( Reece 1 972, f ig. 1 ). A m arked d ecline i n c oin f inds o f t he e arly 3 rd c entury, a part f rom h oards, a nd t he c ontinued c irculation o f e arlier c oinage u ntil t he m id-3rd c entury r esulted i n t he c oinage o f t he f irst h alf o f t he 3 rd c entury c onsisting l argely o f w orn c oins o f D omitian ( AD 8 1-96) t o C ommodus ( AD 1 77-192) a nd S eptimus S everus ( AD 1 93-211) ( Reece 1 972, 2 75; C asey 1 980 , 3 4-8, f igs. 4 -6). T his o bviously m akes i t d ifficult t o i dentify o ccupation a nd i solate d evelopments o f t he f irst h alf o f t he 3 rd c entury. F rom A D 2 59, t here i s a n u psurge i n t he c oin l osses a nd t he m ajority o f c oins ( c. 8 0 p er c ent) f ound o n a ny R omanoB ritish s ite w hich h as b een i n c ontinuous o ccupation b elong t o t he y ears A D 2 59-402. W ithout t he k nowledge t hat t his i s a c ommon p henomenon, e xcavators h ave b een t empted t o v iew t he p redominance o f l ater 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury c oins a s a n i ndication o f i ncreased p rosperity, a nd t he s carcity o f c oins o f t he f irst h alf o f t he 3 rd c entury a s e vidence o f d ecline. T here a re s lumps i n t he c oin l oss i n t he y ears A D 2 94-317, a nd A D 3 78-388, r eflect ing p roblems w ith t he s upply o f c oinage, b ut i n t he y ears A D 2 59-294 a nd A D 3 30-360 l osses a re e specially c ommon ( Reece 1 972, 2 73; C asey 1 980 , 4 2-8).

T he c oin h istogram f or i ndividual c entres c an b e m easured a gainst t his g eneral p attern a nd a ny d eviation w ill h ave t o b e a ssessed a gainst o ther f actors s uch a s t he s cale o f i nvesti gation , a nd t he d egree o f d estruction o f l ater R oman l evels. F luctuations i n c oin l oss o bviously c reate d ifficulties w ith d ating a nd a dd t o t he p roblems o f a ssessing ' how l ong a fter' t he d ate o f m inting t he a ctual d ate o f l oss i s l ikely t o b e. F or p eriods i n w hich n ew c oinage w as i n s hort s upply,the p roblems t hus c reated f or d ating p urposes a re l ikely t o b e c ompounded b y t he p rolonged c irculation o f o ld i ssues. R eece p ointed o ut t hat t his p henomenon w as l ikely t o b e p articularly n oticeable i n t he 4 th c entury w hen h e e stimated t hat t he l ong s urvival o f i ssues o f A D 3 30-348 c reated a o ne-in-a-hundred c hance t hat a c oin o f t his d ate c ould h ave b een l ost s eventy y ears l ater ( Reece 1 972, 2 76).

A t t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod,

t he f act t hat t he n ew i ssues

w hich s uperseded t he c oinage o f H onorius a nd A rcadius c .AD 4 03, d id n ot r each B ritain h as c onsiderable i mplications w hen i t c omes t o i dentifying c ontinuity o f o ccupation i nto t he 5 th c entury a nd l ater. C asey h as c ommented o n t he a brupt c essation

o f c oin s upply t o B ritain i n t he e arly 5 th c entury. A s t he g ap w as n ot f illed b y t he p roduction o f l ocal c opies, t here m ust h ave b een r apid c ollapse o f t he c oin-dependent c ash e conomy o f R oman B ritain. U nder s uch c ircumstances i t i s d ifficult t o a ssess t he s ignificance f or d ating a nd o ther p urposes o f t he f ew l ater c oins w hich h ave b een f ound i n B ritain , i ncluding t he s ingle b ronze o f V alentinian I II ( AD 4 30-435) f rom W roxeter ( Casey 1 980, 1 18).

T he c onsideration o f t he p ottery s upply p resents p arallel a nd a dditional p roblems. B riefly, t here s eems t o b e a p eriod o f d ecline f or t he m ajor i ndustries i n t he l ate 2 nd a nd e arly 3 rd c entury, f ollowed b y a n e xpansion i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 3 rd c entury. H owever, i t i s a lmost i mpossible t o d ate p ottery w ithin t he p eriod A D 2 40-300 , b ecause t he w ares c hanged l ittle d uring t hat t ime. B y t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c entury, a ll t he m ajor p ottery i ndustries o f l ate R oman B ritain h ad e merged. T he p attern o f p ottery s upply s eems t o h ave c hanged l ittle d uring t he 4 th c entury a nd t he i ndustry s eems t o h ave p rospered f rom t he l ate 3 rd t o t he e nd o f t he 4 th c entury. T here i s s ome i nd ication t hat c ertain p otteries c ollapsed a round t he m id-4th c entury o r s lightly l ater b ut o thers c ertainly c ontinued w ell i nto t he l ate 4 th c entury. T he e vidence f or t he c ollapse o f t he p ottery i ndustry i s a mbiguous, p articularly s ince i n s ome c ases ( for e xample t he O xfordshire p otteries), n o n ew t ypes s eem t o h ave b een p roduced a fter c . A D 3 50 e ven t hough t he i nd ustry c ontinued t o f lourish i nto t he l ate 4 th/early 5 th c entury ( Young 1 977, 2 36-41; S wan 1 978, 2 8).

T he c essation i n s upplies o f n ew c oin i ssues w ould h ave h ad r epercussions f or t he m arketing o f p ottery a nd p articularly f or t he m ajor d istributors w ho r elied o n l ong d istance t rade. B ut t here i s n o e vidence t o d ate t he c ollapse o f t he v arious p otteries. G iven t he t endency t o c onservatism a lready n oted, s tyles o f p ottery i n u se i n t he l ate 4 th c entury m ay h ave r em ained c urrent f or a l ong t ime a nd p resumably d id s o , i n v iew o f t heir o ccurrence i n c ontexts w here t he a bsence o f c oinage p revents t hem f rom b eing i ndependently d ated. A lthough t he e ventual d isappearance o f t he m ajor p otteries m ay h ave r esulted f rom t he l oss o f m arkets, e ither t hrough t he c ollapse o f t he c orn-based e conomy, d isruption o f t he c ommunications n etwork , o r w eakening o f c entral g overnment, i t i s d ifficult t o e xplain w hy p ottery c eased t o b e p roduced a lmost c ompletely a nd w hy c ommunities d id n ot d evelop p otteries t o m eet t heir o wn l ocal n eeds. T he f act t hat t hey d id n ot d o s o, t ogether w ith t he d isappearance o f c oinage c reates v ery c onsiderable d ifficulties i n t racing d evelopments i n t he l ate 4 th/early 5 th c entury a nd i n e stablishing h ow l ate ' late R oman ' s equences a ctually a re.

I n t he W est M idlands t hese g eneral p roblems o f d ating i n t he 3 rd o r 4 th c entury a re i ncreased b y t he f act t hat t here h as b een i nsufficient s tudy u ntil r ecently o f p ottery i n t he r egion. D etailed a nalysis o f t he p ottery f rom A lcester,Droitwich ,

K enchester, L eintwardine, W orcester a nd W roxeter i s n ow i n p rogress. O ne o f t he s pecial p roblems s eems t o b e t he l ack o f d ating e vidence f or S evern V alley w are f orms, w hich a re f ound o n m any s ites i n t he r egion.

T he S equence a t W roxeter

W roxeter i s t he s ite f or w hich t here i s b y f ar t he m ost i nformation a bout d evelopments i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies. T his i nformation c omes a lmost e ntirely f rom t he c entral i nsulae a nd v irtually n othing i s k nown a bout p eripheral a reas a nd d efences. T he c onstruction o f t he w alled c ircuit i s u ndated a nd t he e xistence o f b astions, a lthough s uggested, i s n ot p roven. T he o nly i nformation c oncerning w ork o n t he d efences i n t he l ater R oman p eriod c onsists o f t he d iscovery o f 4 th c entury s herds i n t he c ounterscarp o f t he s ingle d itch w hich r eplaced t he d ouble-ditch s ystem o n t he s outh a nd s outh-east, a nd a l ater r efortification o f t he r ampart f rom a s ection a cross t he w estern d efences. T his w as a ssociated w ith a c oin o f T etricus I I ( AD 2 70-273) ( Houghton 1 969, 2 0 ; G oodburn 1 976, 3 30).

T he a vailable e vidence s uggests t hat a f air a mount o f c ivic b uilding a ctivity i n t he c ity c entre t ook p lace u p t o t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c entury a t l east. A m ajor r eorganisation o f t he b aths o ccurred i n o r a fter t he e arly 3 rd c entury a nd a n ew s elfc ontained b ath s uite w as a dded t o t he w est s ide o f t he b aths, a lthough t he r eason f or t his i s u nclear ( Webster 1 975a, 6 7-78). A t a r ather l ater d ate, m ajor p ublic w orks w ere s till b eing u ndertaken. W ebster i dentified a r emodelling o f t he m acellum o n s uch a s cale t hat i t l eft l ittle e vidence o f t he o riginal a rrangements. T he e vidence c onsists o f t he l aying o f a t iled f loor i n t he c olonnade s ealing a s lightly w orn c oin o f T etricus I I ( c.AD 2 70) a nd t he r ebuilding o f t he c ourtyard s tylobate w ith r eused s tone ( Goodburn 1 975, 3 29).

H owever, w hen t he f orum w as d estroyed b y f ire i t w as n ot r ebuilt. T he b aths a lso w ent o ut o f u se p resumably b ecause m ajor w ork w as r equired. T he d estruction o f t he f orum w as a ttributed b y t he e xcavator t o t he l ate 3 rd c entury ( soon a fter A D 2 70) a pparently o n t he b asis o f a c oin o f T etricus I ( AD 2 70-273), t he l atest c oin s tratified i n t he o ccupation d eposits o f t he f orum a nd i ts d estruction d eposits ( Atkinson 1 942, 1 067 ). O n t he b aths s ite t he l ack o f r ecognisable 4 th c entury p ottery f rom t he w aste d ump o f t he p raefurnium w as t aken a s a n i ndication t hat t he b aths h ad g one o ut o f c ommission b y t he e arly 4 th c entury. H owever, i t h as b een s uggested t hat a f lue a nd b oiler s tand, l eading i nto t he t epidarium o n t he e ast s ide o f t he b aths, m ay i ndicate a n a ttempt t o k eep t he b aths i n u se b y c ircumventing t he p raefurnium a t t he s outh e nd o f t he c omplex; t he f inal d ate f or t he d isuse o f t he b aths r emains u nknown ( Webster a nd C harlesworth 1 973, 1 8 ; W ebster 1 975a, 4 7-8).

I t i s l ogical t o s ee t he a bandonment o f t hese p ublic b uildi ngs a s t he r esult o f t he m onumental s cale o f t he w ork n eeded t o r estore t hem . T here a re i ndications t hat t he b aths h ad b een a s ource o f p roblems f rom a v ery e arly s tage a nd t hat, e ven b efore t hey w ere c ompleted, t he b uilding h ad t o b e e ncased i n s tone t o c ounteract s ettlement a nd c racking. T he m ajor r eo rganisation o f t he b aths i n o r a fter t he e arly 3 rd c entury m ay h ave b een n ecessitated b y f urther p roblems a nd W ebster h as s uggested t hat b y t he l ate 3 rd/early 4 th c entury t he p raefurnium m ay h ave r eached t he e nd o f i ts u seful l ife. T his, t ogether w ith t he p roblems o f s ubsidence, w hich m ay h ave b ecome s o c riti cal a s t o b e b eyond r epair, w ould h ave r equired a t otal r ebuild ( Webster 1 975a, 4 8).

T here w ere s igns o f a ctivity o n b oth s ites a fter t heir d isuse a s p ublic b uildings, a lthough i ts p recise n ature i s i n d oubt. M uch o f t he e vidence f or t his l ater h istory o f t he b aths w as d estroyed i n t he 1 9th c entury e xcavations, a nd t he t races o f p ost-fire o ccupation o n t he s ite o f t he f orum w ere n ot c omp letely u nderstood i n t he e xcavations o f 1 923-1927 ( Atkinson 1 942, 1 05-13; W ebster 1 975a, 4 8).

I n b oth c ases d ifferent p arts o f t he s ite o r b uilding s eem t o h ave b een g iven o ver t o d ifferent a ctivities. O n t he f orum s ite t he o ccupation w hich w as n oticed, p articularly o ver t he e astern p art o f t he s ite, w as r ecorded a s w alling, r ough a nd i rregular p atches o f p aving, f urnaces a nd a n o ven. N either t he d estruction n or t he l ater o ccupation w as s ecurely d ated. T here w ere a s ubstantial n umber o f c oins o f t he l ate 3 rd-early 4 th c entury f rom a ll o ver t he s ite a nd e specially f rom t he s treet f rontage a rea b ut t hey w ere n ot i n s ealed c ontexts , b eing e ither ' in t he s oil' a bove t he d estruction d ebris o r l ying o n o r o ver t he l ate o ccupation s urfaces ( Atkinson 1 942, 1 11-12 , 3 02). I t i s n ot c lear t o w hat h eight t he w alls o f t he f orum s tood w hen t his o ccupation t ook p lace. T here i s s ome e vidence t hat c ertain w all a lignments m ay h ave b een u sed , b ut p arts o f t he b uilding w ere c ertainly r obbed d own t o g round l evel o r j ust a bove ( Atkinson 1 942, 7 5, 1 08-13, f igs. 2 6 a nd 2 7, p l 7 3). I t i s n ot p ossible t o e stablish t he c hronology f or t he r obbing o f v arious p arts o f t he f orum f rom t he e xcavation r eport a nd i t i s t o b e h oped t hat a ny e xcavation o f t he a reas n ot a vailable t o A tkinson m ight e lucidate t his. H owever, i t s eems p ossible t hat, a lthough t he w alls m ay h ave b een d emolished, t he s ite w as n ot t horoughly c leared a nd s ystematically l evelled a s, f or e xample, w as t he c ase w ith t he b aths b asilica a nd t he m acellum. Ac olumn b ase f rom t he e ast p ortico f ell i nto t he g utter, a nd o ther p arts o f t he e ast c olonnade, w hich h ad f allen i nto t he f orecourt, s howed s igns o f c onsiderable w ear. F allen c olumn d rums i n t he c ourtyard w ere a lso l eft d uring t he p ost-fire o ccupation , a nd a t t he e ast e ntrance r oof-tiles a nd c onsiderable q uantities o f b uilding s tone w ere l eft a mong t he d estruction d ebris ( Atkins on 1 942, 7 6-7, 1 08 , 1 11-2; W ebster 1 975a, 4 7).

O bviously

t his

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d ifficult 88-

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i nterpret

w ithout

r e-excavation ,

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t he

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f ire a ctivity m ight h ave i nvolved a n i nitial r eoccupation o f s eparate p arts o f t he b uilding, i ncluding a p ath a cross t he e ast p ortico, w hen k nowledge o f t he b uilding's o riginal o rnamenta tion n o l onger e xisted ( Atkinson 1 942, 1 08-9, 12). I t i s n oticeable t hat m uch o f t he l ate m aterial, i ncluding C onstant inian a nd a f ew V alentinianic c oins, i s c oncentrated i n t he a rea o f t he s treet f rontage ( that i s t he e astern p art o f t he c ourtyard, t he e ast p ortico a nd f orecourt) a nd t his m ay f it i n w ith d evelopments w hich w ere t aking p lace o n t he s ite o f t he p ortico i n f ront o f t he m acellum o n t he o pposite s ide o f t he s treet ( Atkinson 1 942, 3 02).

A lthough l ittle i s k nown a bout t he h istory o f t he b aths f ollowing t heir d isuse, i t i s t hought t hat t his p robably v aried i n d ifferent p arts o f t he b uilding. I n t he 1 9th c entury e xc avation, W right d iscovered c harred g rain i n t he f rigidarium ' as t hough i t h ad b een u sed a t t he c lose o f t he R oman p eriod a s a g ranary' ( Wright 1 872, 1 21; W ebster a nd C harlesworth 1 973, 1 8; W ebster 1 975a, 1 8). P arts o f t he b uilding w ere c ertainly r obbed. T he f loors o f t he h eated r ooms w ere d estroyed t o o btain t he f lat t iles, a nd i n o ne h ypocaust t here h ad b een p laced a h oard o f 1 32 c oins l argely o f t he f irst h alf o f t he 4 th c entury, e nding w ith a c oin o f V alens ( AD 3 64-378). T here w ere a lso t hree s keletons i n t he h ypocaust, o ne o f w hich w as n ear t o ( but n ot n ecessarily a ssociated w ith) t he h oard; o ther b urials s uggest t hat t he c entre o f t he c ity b ecame a c emetery a fter i t w as a bandoned a s a s ettlement ( Wright 1 872, 6 8 a nd 1 18 ; K enyon 1 938 , 1 91; W ebster a nd C harlesworth 1 973, 1 8 ; W ebster 1 975a, 1 20-1). T he r oof o f t he e ast c orridor o f t he b aths c ollapsed o r w as r emoved; p ieces o f m olten l ead a mong t he f allen r oof-tiles s uggest t hat t he l ead w as m elted d own. T his d ebris s ealed l ate 3 rd c entury c oin i ssues, m any o f w hich w ere s till i n u se i n t he e arly 4 th c entury, a nd W ebster h as s uggested t hat t his c orridor c eased t o b e u sed a t t he l atest b y c . A D 3 30 w hen t he n ew C onstantinian i ssues b ecame v ery c ommon ( Wilson 1 971, 2 60; W ebster a nd C harlesworth 1 973, 1 7-18; W ebster 1 975a, 4 8). T here i s s ome e vidence t hat t he s outh w all o f t he c orridor w as r ebuilt w ith v arious m aterials s uggesting s ubsequent u se, p res umably w hen t he r oof h ad b een r emoved ( Webster 1 978a,66).

R ecent a nd c ontinuing e xcavations b y P . A . B arker o n t he s ite o f t he b aths b asilica h ave s hown a s equence o f d evelopment w hich f ollows t he d isuse o f t he b uilding f or i ts o riginal p urp ose, a nd i s l ong, c omplicated a nd h ighly o rganised. T here i s a s y et n o r eal e vidence f or t he d ate a t w hich t he b aths b asilica w ent o ut o f u se a lthough, o n t he b asis o f h er l imited i nvestigations, K enyon s uggested t his p robably o ccurred a t o r a fter t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c entury ( Kenyon 1 938, 1 92-3; B arker 1 981a, 9 a nd 1 5). E vidence h as n ow b een f ound w hich s uggests t hat t here w as a p eriod o f u nknown d uration w hen t he n ave w as o pen t o t he s ky, b ut t he a isles w ere a pparently d ivided u p a t v arious t imes f or a s eries o f p osthole a nd w attle b uildings a gainst a nd w ithin t he w alls. A t hin l ayer o f s oil d eveloped 89-

o n t he n ave f loor, b ut n ot i n t he a isles w hich p resumably r em ained r oofed ( Webster 1 975a , 1 18-9; B arker 1 981a, 1 2). M uch o f t he f loor s equence b elongs t o t he p eriod w hen t he b aths b asilica w as s till i n u se f or i ts o riginal p urpose, b ut a t t he e ast e nd o f t he n orth a isle t here w ere a t l east e ight m ortar o r b eatene arth f loors, s ome o f t hem w orn a s i f c rossed b y p aths; t he e arliest o f t hese f loors c ontained a c oin o f A D 2 18-235 a nd t he l atest a c oin o f C onstantine t he G reat ( AD 3 30-335) ( Barker 1 981b, 4 ).

T he n ext s tage i n t he r euse o f t he s ite i nvolved t he d emol ition o f t he t imber b uildings w ithin t he b asilica a nd c learance o f t he s ite f or t he c omplete r edevelopment o f t he b asilican a rea w ith a ' planned c omplex o f s imilar f ramed b uildings, s ome o f t hem v ery l arge a nd l ooking b ack t o c lassical m odels.' A r ubble s pread, o f s ifted b uilding d ebris, w as d eliberately l aid o ver a n a rea o f a bout a n a cre t o f orm p latforms f or t imber b uildings e rected o n s ill b eams l aid d irectly o n t he r ubble p latforms. T here a ppears t o b e a t l east t wo m ajor p eriods o f t imber-framed b uildings, t he l ater a lterations t o t he r ubble p latforms h aving r emoved m uch o f t he e vidence f or t he i nitial p eriod ( Barker 1 975a,114; 1 981a, 1 2).

T he p recise d etails a nd c hronology o f t he t wo p hases o f t he g reat r ebuilding h ave y et t o b e f inalised b ut t he f ollowing e lements s eem t o b e i nvolved i n t he f irst p hase : - t he l aying o f c omparatively s mall s preads o f r ubble o ver t he b asilica i nterior; o n t he s ite o f t he n orth p ortico, a p lanked s idewalk , a nd t owards t he e astern e nd o f t he p ortico, a s eries o f p ebble f loors s urr ounded b y s takeholes w hich s eem t o r epresent l ean-to b uildings; o utside t he w est e nd o f t he b asilica t here i s e vidence f or a s eries o f t imber s tructures o n r ubble p latforms, a l arge f urnace a nd t wo h earths ( Barker 1 975a,114; 1 981a, 1 2; 1 981b, 4 ; p ers. c omm., F ebruary 1 982).

T he s econd p hase r ebuilding w as o n a l arger s cale , i nvolving p rincipally a v ery l arge t imber-framed b uilding ( X) e xtending o ver t he n ave, n orth a isle a nd p ortico u p t o t he e ast-west s treet n orth o f t he i nsula. I t h ad a p orticoed f acade t o t he s outh, f ounded o n t wo l arge c olumn b ases, a nd s et s ymmetrically e ither s ide. T here m ay h ave b een a n orthern f acade o pening o n t o t he e ast-west s treet b ut t he r obber t rench o f t he n orth p ortico a nd d rain h ad d estroyed t he e vidence. W est o f b uilding X i s am uch s maller r ectangular b uilding ( XI) a nd, i n t he g ap b etween t he t wo b uildings, t wo l arge p ostholes m ay r epresent t he s ettings f or a g ate ( Barker 1 97 , 1 09-10 , 1 12; 1 981a, 1 2, f ig 4 ). A t erminus p ost q uem o f A D 3 64 f or b uilding X i s p rovided b y a c oin o f V alentinian I ( AD 3 64-378) f rom t he b ackfilling o f t he r obber t rench o f t he n orth w all o f t he b asilica w hich w as t he r ubble p latform o f b uilding X ( Barker 1 981b, 2 84).

W ithin t he b aths p recinct,

s ealed

b y

a t t he e ast e nd o f t he b asilica, 90-

t here w as a s equence o f t imber s tructures w hose c hronological r elationship t o t he d evelopment o f p hases 1 a nd 2 i s u ncertain. I nitially a n umber o f r ectangular p ebble s urfaces w ere l aid o ut a t 4 5 d egrees t o t he p recinct w alls, w hich w ere l eft s tanding t o a n u nknown h eight. T he s tructures r epresented m ay b elong t o t he p hase 1 r ebuilding s ince t wo l arge ' barn-like' b uildings ( VI a nd X XIV) w hich s ucceeded t hem w ere p resumed t o b elong t o t he s econd r ebuilding p hase. T he l arge r ectangular b uilding V I w as b uilt o n s andstone f ootings a gainst t he n orth p recinct w all; s ealed i n t he r ubble m ake-up o f t his b uilding w as a c oin o f c .AD 3 67 ( Barker 1 975 ,a ,107-8 ; 1 981a, 1 4, f ig 4 ).

A lso a ssigned t o t his f irst p hase a re t he s ub-rectangular a reas o f r ubble a nd a t l east t wo a pparent f loors, w hich s eem t o r epresent a s eries o f l ean-to b uildings ( XVI-XXI, X XVII-XXIX) a gainst t he p artition w all w ith t he b aths ( Barker 1 975a,1102 ; 1 981a, 1 2). I n t he a rea o utside t he w est e nd o f t he b asilica, t he t imber s tructures o f t he e arlier p eriod w ere r eplaced b y a t l east o ne t imber b uilding l eaning a gainst t he w est w all ( Barker 1 981a, 1 3).

T he c onversion o f t he e ast-west s treet n orth o f t he b aths b asilica i nto w hat a ppears t o b e a c overed p edestrian m arket o r s hopping p recinct i s a lso l ikely t o b e o f t his p hase. T he p re-c inct c ould b e e ntered f rom t he w est o nly, s ince t he r ubble o verlying t he o ld p ebble s treet a t t he e ast e nd w as u ndisturbed. A t t he w est e nd, a s mall g uardroom-like b uilding, o n t he f loor o f w hich w as f ound a s teelyard w eight, r estricted a ccess t o t his p recinct t o t he w idth o f a n arrow p ath. T his d evelopment i nv olved t he d igging o ut o f h undreds o f t ons o f c onsolidated p ebbles i n t he c entral s ection o f t he s treet a nd t heir r eplacem ent w ith c arefully t ipped l ayers o f s ifted r ubble, g ravel a nd t opsoil. T he u ndisturbed r ubble o verlying t he o ld p ebble s treet a t t he e ast e nd s uggests t hat t his w as a c ul-de-sac ( Barker 1 975a, 1 08-10, 1 14-5; 1 981a , 1 3; 1 981b, 4 ). A s eries o f s ubrectangular s tructures ( 1-6) w hich w ere p erhaps b ooths o r s heds s tood o n t he s urface o f t he s ifted r ubble s treet a long i ts s outhern e dge ( Barker 1 975a,112; 1 981a, f ig 4 ).

C learly t he d isuse o f t he m ajor p ublic b uildings d id n ot m ean t he e nd o f l ife i n t he c ity. T he d emolition o f t he b aths b asilica a nd s ystematic s ifting a nd l aying o f t he r ubble t o f orm b uilding-rafts, t ogether w ith t he d igging o ut o f t he p ebbles o f t he e ast-west s treet a nd l aying o f a n ew s treet o f c arefully s ifted m aterial i mplies a h igh d egree o f o rganisation a nd c ontrol ( Barker 1 975a, 1 15; 1 981a, 1 8). T he n ature o f t he a uthority i nvolved i s n ot c lear, a lthough t he s econd p hase c ould b e s een a s i nvolving a m ajor p ublic o r p rivate b uilding ( X) w ith v arious a ncillary s tructures - s heds o r s tores - a gainst t he p artition w all w ith t he b aths, a nd l arger b uildings, p ossibly b arns, i n t he b aths p recinct t o t he e ast.

However, the suggestion of a function, of relevance perhaps to the community as a whole, is to be found in the fact that the east end of the nave of the basilica continued to be an area of special significance even after the demolition. For at least nine periods this area had been floored differently from the rest of the nave and at a 'very late' stage it was enclosed by a small building (XXXI). The presence here of altars or cult figures might account for such treatment and in this connection it is interesting that : a) dispersed in the rubble platforms of the final rebuild in the centre of the basilica and in the robber trench of the north wall were fragments of human skulls representing at least nine adult males. Some of the skulls had been cut, one in such a way as to suggest scalping. The absence of post-cranial bones and the fact that many of the frag­ ments had been treated with a vegetable oil containing linoleic acid also suggest a ritual significance (Barker 1981a, 15; 1981b, 4). b) also from the platforms for the timber buildings of· the last phase were at least 35 'plaster _eyes', cut from the wall plaster fragments of the ruined buildings into eye shapes (Barker 1981a, 16). c) the skulls and plaster eyes were dispersed when the platforms were laid for the final rebuilding associated with building X but Barker (1981a, 15-16; 1981b, 3) has suggested that some sort of ritual activity may have continued. A massive mortar block with a slightly dished upper surface was placed near the east end of the basilica 'at a late date' and it has been suggested that this may perhaps have been the base for a lead tank used for a pagan or Christian ritual purpose. It seems reasonable to envisage the whole of this insula being developed in various ways after the disuse of the baths, although much of the evidence from the macellum and baths seems to have been destroyed during earlier excavations. Webster has observed that one of the two large rooms fronting the main street north of the macellum and excavated by Wright in the 19th century seemed to contain evidence for metalworking activities after its original function had ceased and the floor had been removed (Wright 1872, 158-9; Webster 1975a, 66 and 104). Also, in the south-west corner of the insula, a develop­ ment very reminiscent of the final phases on the· site of the baths basilica, involve:d a series of timber structures built on to the site of the west portico fronting the main street. The portico roof and colonnade had been removed and above the ruins of the portico was a rubble and mortar spread which revealed change s from area to area, like the rubble platforms on the site of the b,aths basilica, and into which were set stake- and post­ holes, presumably of timber structures. More timber buildings extended into the street itself and, at one point, the line of the colonnade had ·been replaced by a wattle fence. There were numerous coins from along the street edge, the majority of which belonged to the House of Valentinian (AD 364-383), but there were also earlier 4th century issues and four coins of -92-

T heodosius ( AD 3 78-388). T he l atter a re n ot c ommon a s s ite-finds i n R oman B ritain. T he i nference i s t hat r ows o f b ooths a nd s talls s tood o ver t he p ortico a nd a long t he s treet e dge a t s ome t ime i n t he 4 th c entury a nd p ossibly l ater ( Webster 1 974b, 5 4; 1 975a , 1 07-9; 1 976,37-9; G oodburn 1 976 , 3 29). A tkinson ( 1942, 3 02) n oted t he c oncentration o f l ate c oins i n t he s treet-frontage a rea o f t he f orum a nd f urther s outh. U nfortunately t here i s n o i nformation a s t o t he u se o f t he m acellum a t t his t ime; i t w ould h ave b een i nteresting t o k now w hether t his p ublic b uilding, w hich w as a pparently r emodelled i n o r a fter A D 2 70, w as s till i n u se a nd, i f s o, i n w hat f orm.

T he f inal r ebuilding i n t imber s eems t o h ave e xtended i nto i nsula I I t o t he n orth o f t he b aths a nd p ossibly e ven f urther. I nvestigation o f a n arrow s trip o f t he f rontages o n t he n orthern e dge o f t he e ast-west s treet h as r evealed a s eries o f t imberf ramed b uildings e mploying a v ariety o f t echniques w hich s uggests t hat t hey w ere i ndividually b uilt. A t l east o ne o f t hese w ooden b uildings ( VII) h ad a c lassical-style f acade, w ith t he f ront o f t he p ortico f ounded o n t wo s andstone p ost p ads i n a s imilar w ay t o t he c olumn b ases u sed f or t he p ortico o f b uilding X . T his p ortico a rrangement s eems t o h ave p ersisted d uring t hree p hases o f d evelopment a nd w as p receded b y a v ery l arge t imber b uilding s et o n c losely s paced f oundation p its f illed w ith a lternate l ayers o f c obbles a nd c lay, f or w hich t here i s a _ t erminus p ost q uem p rovided b y a c oin o f C onstantine t he G reat ( AD 3 06-337). I t w as c lear t hat a s mall i ndustrial c omplex, r epresented b y p its, g ullies a nd a f urnace, s imilar t o t he o ne w hich h ad e xisted o utside t he e ast e nd o f t he b aths p recinct, h ad b een s wept a way i n o r a fter t he e arly 4 th c entury, a nd p robably b efore t he ' great r ebuilding ', t o b e r eplaced b y a s equence o f a t l east f our m ajor t imber b uilding p hases, w hich a re o therwise u ndated ( Barker 1 975a,106-9; 1 981a, 1 3-5; 1 981b, 3 ; p ers. c omm . F ebruary 1 982).

I n t he n orth-west c orner o f t he s ame i nsula ( 2), a s mall e xcavation i n 1 981 l ocated t he s outhern e dge o f t he e ast-west s treet b ounding t he n orth s ide o f t his i nsula.. A w ide a nd m ass ive f oundation o f a lternate l ayers o f m arl, b oulders a nd p ebbles o f s imilar c haracter t o t he b uilding V II m entioned a bove, c ut a cross t he d rain a nd s treet s trongly s uggesting t hat a v ery l arge t imber b uilding h ad b een e rected a cross t he s treet. I t w as a ssumed t hat i t w as b uilt a t a c omparatively l ate d ate a lthough t here w as n o d ating e vidence ( Barker 1 981b, 4 -5). T here w as s ome i ndication, f rom a v ery l imited i nvestigation, o f l arge b uilding f acades a long t he e ast s ide o f t he n orth-south s treet s eparating t he b aths i nsula ( 5) f rom i nsula ( 4) t o t he e ast. T hey a ppeared t o b e s imilar t o t hose o n t he s outh s ide o f i nsula ( 2) ( Barker 1 975b, 4 2; 1 981a, 1 6). O n t he s outh s ide o f t nis s ame i nsula ( 6), t he l atest s tone b uilding w as l evelled a nd c leared b efore t he e rection o f a t imber s tructure b ut a gain t here i s n o d ating e vidence ( Barker 1 966, 1 17-22).

U nfortunately t here i s v ery l ittle d ating e vidence f or a ny o f t hese d evelopments, o r t he c hronological r elationship b etween d evelopments i n d ifferent a reas. T he d ate a t w hich t he b aths w ent o ut o f u se i s s till u ncertain a nd t he d ating e vidence f or s ubsequent d evelopments t akes t he f orm o f a t erminus p ost q uem f or v arious f eatures: 3 30-335 f or t he r ubble p latforms o f t he f irst g reat r eb uilding p rovided b y a c oin o f C onstantine t he G reat f rom t he l atest l evelling u p o ver t he n orth a isle ( Barker 1 981b, 4 ). 3 64-378 f or b uilding X o f t he s econd g reat r ebuilding p rovided b y a c oin o f V alens f rom t he b ack-filling o f t he r obber t rench o f t he b asilica n orth w all b elow b uilding X ( Barker 1 981b, 2 ). 3 67 f or b uilding V I ( assumed t o b e t he l ater o f t he t wo ' barn-like' b uildings i n t he b aths p recinct) p rovided b y a c oin i n t he r ubble m ake-up o f t his b uilding ( Barker 1 975, 1 07-8; 1 981, 1 4). 3 07-337 f or t he b eginning o f t he t imber b uilding s equence ( VII) o n t he s outh s ide o f i nsula 2 p rovided b y a c oin o f C onstantine t he G reat s ealed i n t he c ollapsed s tructure o f a f urnace ( Barker 1 981a, 1 3-14). 3 64-375 f or t he f irst o f a s eries o f f our l ayers, p ossibly p aths , t hrough t he n orth w all o f t he a nnexe a t t he e ast e nd o f t he b asilica. T he c oin o f V alentinian w as s ealed b eneath t he e arliest l ayer, b ut t here i s n o i ndication o f t he r elationship b etween t hese l ayers a nd d evelopments e lsewhere ( Barker 1 981b, 3 ).

O bviously i t i s u ncertain h ow m uch l ater t han t he t erminus p ost q uem e ach o f t hese d evelopments a ctually t ook p lace a nd, i n a ddition t o t he n ormal p roblems o f 4 th c entury c oin l oss, t here a re f urther c omplications i n t hat t he W roxeter c oin h istog ram s hows c ertain a nomalies. T here a re v ery f ew c oins o f t he p eriod A D 3 54-364 b ut u nexpected n umbers o f c oins o f c . 3 643 75 a nd, l ater i n t he c entury, t here a re f ewer c oins l ater t han V alentinian a nd t hese t end t o b e u nstratified. I n p articular t he s carcity o f c oins o f t he s econd T heodosian p eriod ( AD 3 884 02) i s n oticeably a t v ariance w ith o ther s ites, a nd t his i s t he m ore s urprising i n v iew o f t he r easons f or b elieving t hat t he g reat r ebuilding, w hich i nvolved t wo m ajor p hases, c ertainly e xtended i nto t he l ate 4 th c entury a nd p robably w ell i nto t he 5 th ( Casey 1 974, 3 84: B arker 1 981a, 1 5-18). C asey h as s uggested t hat t his p attern o f c oin l oss ' indicates t hat c oin w as p robably n ot b eing o fficially s upplied t o W roxeter i n t he f inal y ears o f t he 4 th c entury. W hy t his s hould b e i s u nclear b ut i t i s a lmost c ertainly c onnected i n s ome w ay w ith t he m ilitary h istory o f t he d istrict'. T hat i s t o s ay t hat t he a rmy, w hich w as t he n ormal v ehicle f or t he i ntroduction o f n ew i ssues i nto c irculation, w as a bsent f rom t his a rea i n t he p eriod A D 3 884 02 ( Casey 1 974, 3 85). T he r elevance o f t his i s d ifficult t o a ssess s ince i t i s n ot k nown w hether t he a rmy w as i n t he a rea p rior t o t his, a nd w hat f actors a ffected c oin s upply t o t his a rea. H owever, t he d istribution o f c oins o f t he H ouse o f T heodosius ( AD 3 78-402) s eems t o h ave b een m ore

r estricted t han p revious i ssues w ith t he m ain d istribution i n t he s outh a nd e ast. A t W roxeter t he e vidence s uggests t hat, a lthough t he a vailable 4 th c entury c oinage m ay h ave g one o n b eing u sed f or a l ong t ime ( and s ome o f t he V alentinianic c oins ( AD 3 64-383) f rom t he s ite o f t he p ortico o n t he e ast s ide o f t he m ain s treet w ere v ery w orn), W roxeter m ay h ave b een f orced t o b ecome n on-coin-using e arlier t han o ther m ajor c entres ( Reece 1 972 , 2 76; W ebster 1 975a, 1 07-9).

M ost o f t he p ottery a nd t he c oins f rom t he l atest p hases o f t he b aths b asilica c ame f rom t he r ubble p latforms a nd i t h as b een p ointed o ut t hat, s ince t hese a re c omposed o f m aterial ' imported' f rom d emolished b uildings, m uch o f t he p ottery a nd c oinage m ay b e r esidual. H owever, i t i s d ifficult t o e stablish w hich i f a ny o f t he p hases w ere a ceramic, s ince m any o f t he b uildings o f t he g reat r ebuilding w ere s et o n s ill-beams a nd h ad w ooden f loors ( Barker 1 979a, 5 2; G rew 1 980 , 3 65). T here w as c omparatively l ittle p ottery a ssociated w ith t he h earths a t t he e astern e nd o f t he p ortico, w hich w ere t hought p erhaps t o h ave b een u sed b y t he w orkmen e ngaged i n t he g reat r ebuilding ( Barker 1 975a, 1 14; 1 981a, 1 4). T he p ottery i s s till b eing a nalysed, b ut p reliminiary a ssessment h as r evealed q uantities o f s hell-gritted p ottery o f a t ype w hich s eems t o b e l ate i n t he p ottery s equence o n t he s ite, a nd f ragments o f a d ecorated ' Romano-Saxon ' p ot f rom t he a rea b etween b uilding X a nd t he b aths, b ut t here i s n o p ottery w hich i s r ecognisably p ost-Roman ( Barker 1 975a,115-16; 1 981a, 1 8).

S imilarly, i t i s n ot p ossible t o e stablish h ow l ong e ach b uilding p hase l asted, s o t he c hronology f or t he w hole s equence f ollowing t he d isuse o f t he b aths b asilica i s o pen-ended. S ince a t l east f ive m ajor p hases h ave b een i dentified f ollowing t he d isuse o f t he b aths b asilica, i t h as b een a rgued t hat t he s equence m ust e xtend w ell i nto t he 5 th c entury. B arker i s p ers uaded t hat t he e vidence p oints t o a d ate c . A D 4 00 f or t he f irst p hase o f t he g reat r ebuilding ( Barker 1 975a,116; 1 981a, 1 5 a nd 1 6; 1 981b , 2 a nd 4 ). C ertainly, t here a re a n umber o f f inds w hich c an b e a ttributed t o t he 5 th c entury: a c oin o f V alentinian I II f rom a mongst t he c oins f ound b y W right i n t he 1 9th c entury i s d atable t o A D 4 30 o r l ater a nd i s ' the l atest w estern i mperial c oin s o f ar d iscovered i n B ritain ', b ut i n v iew o f w hat h as a lready b een s aid a bout t he c oin h istogram f rom W roxeter t his c oin i s a c onsiderable a nomaly ( Casey 1 974 , 3 83-4; 1 980, 4 8). O ne o f a n umber o f s herds f ound i n a p it o r p ost-pit o n t he s outh s ide o f i nsula 2 c ame f rom a l ate R oman a mphora w hich h ad o riginated i n t he A egean a nd w as d ated a t C arthage t o c . A D 4 25-440 . U nfortunately, t he p osthole o r p it w as n ot s ealed o r l inked w ith a p articular b uilding ( Barker 1 981b, 4 ) . T hetombstone o f a n I rish c hieftain, C unorix, w hich w as f ound j ust o utside t he n orth-east c ity d efences i n t he a rea o f t he R oman c emetery a nd d ated o n l inguistic g rounds t o t he s econd h alf o f t he 5 th c entury, w ould s uggest t hat s ome k ind o f o rganised l ife c ontinued a t W roxeter a t t his t ime, a lthough a c onnection

w ith

t he

d evelopments

o utlined

a bove

c an

o nly

b e

a n a ssumption ( Wright a nd J ackson 1 968, 4 29; B arker 1 975a,115; 1 981a, 1 8).

2 96-300;

W ilson

1 973,

A lthough t he c hronology i s e ssentially o pen-ended, t he p referred d ate f or t he f inal a bandonment o f t he c ity c entre i s a round t he b eginning o f t he 6 th c entury. A r ecently d isc overed s keleton b uried i n t he r ubble o f b uilding X I p roduced a p reliminary r adio-carbon d ate o f A D 5 60-660 ( AD 6 10 ± 5 0). T he g rave w as c ut f rom a l evel w ell a bove t he r ubble p latform s ufficiently l ong a fter t he f inal-phase b uildings h ad b een r em oved f or t he r ubble t o h ave b ecome c overed w ith s oil ( Barker 1 981a , 1 9; s ee a lso W ebster 1 975a, 1 20-1).

W hatever t he t ime-scale o f t he f inal o ccupation, t he c ircums tances o f i ts a bandonment s uggest, l ike t he c ircumstances o f i ts c onstruction, s ome f orm o f c ontrolling a uthority. I t i s i mplied i n t he o rganisation r equired t o d emolish t he p ublic b uildings, c lear t he s ite, s ift t he r ubble, d ig o ut t he e ast/west s treet a nd r epair t he c ity c entre a nd s imilarly i n t he a pparent o rderly a nd u nhurried d ismantling o f t he b uildings w hen t he s ite w as a bandoned.

T here i s n o i nformation a s t o w hat a rrangements w ere m ade_ f or t he m aintenance o f a uthority a nd d efence o f t he c ommunity a t t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod, s uch a s w ork o n t he d efensive c ircuit, t he s ettlement o f m ercenaries, o r t he e stablishment o f a B ritish s ub-kingdom ( Webster 1 975a, 1 10-19; B arker 1 975a , 1 15; 1 981a, 1 9). I f C asey i s c orrect i n a ttributing t he u nusual p attern o f c oin l oss t o t he m ilitary h istory o f t he d istrict, t he l ack o f T heodosian c oins o f t he p eriod A D 3 88-402 r aises t he q uestion o f t he p rovision f or t he d efence o f t he a rea i n t he l ate 4 th a nd e arly 5 th c entury. I n t his c onnection, i t i s i nteresting t hat t here a re f rom W roxeter s ix p lumbatae w hich w ere w eapons u sed b y r egular a rmy a t a d ate w hich i s t hought t o b e t he l ater 4 th c entury i n B ritain. T he p lumbatae c ame f rom t he b aths a nd b aths b asilica; t wo w ere u nstratified a nd f our c ame f rom t he j unction o f t he t opsoil w ith t he l atest a rcha eological l evels o n t he s ite o f t he b aths b asilica ( Musty a nd B arker 1 974, 2 75; W ebster 1 975a, 1 05-6).

T here a re s everal e xplanations w hich c ould b e o ffered f or t he p lumbatae b ut t hey m ight i mply t he p resence o f a d etachment o f t he r egular a rmy a t W roxeter i n t he l ater 4 th c entury , a lbeit t emporarily ( Barker 1 975a,115; W ebster 1 975a, 1 05-6). I t w ould b e d ifficult t o d ate s uch a n e vent m ore p recisely t han t he l ater 4 th/early 5 th c entury b ut, i f t he u nusual p attern o f c oin l oss a t W roxeter i s c onnected w ith m ilitary a ctivity, t hen t he s carc ity o f c oins o f t he s econd T heodosian p eriod ( AD 3 88-402) m ight i ndicate t hat t his t ook p lace p rior t o t his p eriod ( Casey 1 974, 3 84 ; M usty a nd B arker 1 974, 2 75-7; B arker 1 979b,97-9).

T he

d iscovery

o f

p lumbatae 96-

i n

t he

r ubble

r aft

s uggests

t hey c ould h ave f ormed p art o f t he d ebris o f t he d emolished b asilica a nd t hat t heir p roper c ontext i s t he p eriod p rior t o t he l ast r ebuilding ( Webster 1 975a, 1 06). E ven i f a n a rmy u nit w as s tationed a t W roxeter a t s ome s tage, t his n eed n ot h ave b een f or t he d efence o f W roxeter i tself. S imilar p roblems s urr ound i nterpretation o f t he C unorix s tone w hich i t w as t hought m ight i ndicate a n I rish m ercenary f orce a t o r n ear W roxeter p erhaps a s e arly a s t he e arly 5 th c entury. A lternatively, b ec ause t he t ombstone w as t hought t o d enote a C hristian b urial, i t m ight i mply t he p resence o f a L atin C hristian c ommunity i n t he c ity i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 5 th c entury ( Wilson 1 973, 4 29 ; B arker 1 975a,115; 1 981a, 1 8).

T here a re m any a spects o f t hese l ate/post R oman d evelopments t o b e u nderstood:a ) W hy w ere t he p ublic b uildings n ot r ebuilt? T he a nswer w ould s eem t o l ie i n t he p rohibitive e xpense w hen t here w ere n o l onger t he p rivate m oney o r p ublic f unds f or s uch e nterprises ( Barker 1 981a, 9 ). b ) W hy t he c hange f rom s tone t o w ood? I n a s ense t his i s n ot a s p ronounced a s i t s eems f or t imber w as a lways w idely u sed f or p rivate h ouses, s hops a nd i ndustrial s tructures a nd t he u se o f s tone m ay a lways h ave b een ' restricted' b y e xpense. T he r eal c hange s eems t o b e i n t he i ntroduction o f a v ariety o f t echniques, i ncluding r ubble r afts, i n w hich t he u se o f s tone i s r are, i nstead o f d warf w alls f or t he f oundations o f t imber b uildings ( Barker 1 975a,110). A n i nteresting e xception t o t his i s b uilding V I b uilt o n s andstone f ootings ( Barker 1 975a,108-9).

A s udden s hortage o f b uilding m aterials s eems u nlikely a lthough W ebster s uggests t hat t he e xtensive r obbing o f t he d rains m ight b e a ccounted f or b y t he n eed f or t iles w hich h ad c eased t o b e m anufactured a bout t he m iddle o f t he 4 th c entury ( Webster 1 975a, 13-14). C ertainly c onsiderable e fforts s eem t o h ave b een m ade t o c lear t he p ublic b uildings o f r eusable m aterial, s uch a s t he s tripping o f t iles a nd l ead f rom t he r oofs, a nd t he r obbing o f s ome o f t he c olonnades f or s tone, d rains a nd h ypocausts f or t iles. I t i s s ignificant t hat t he d emolition a nd r obbing s eems t o h ave b een d one i n s tages, w as n ot t otal, a nd t hat t he f orum s eems t o h ave b een l ess e xtensively r obbed ( Webster a nd C harlesworth 1 973, 1 8 ; B arker 1 975a,114 a nd 1 16; W ebster 1 975a, 6 6, 6 9-70 , 1 07, 1 13-14). P iecemeal r obbing o f d erelict b uildings i s t o b e e xpected i n a ny p eriod a nd s ite c learance w ould b e e ssential b efore a ny r ebuilding c ould t ake p lace. c ) W hat w as t he m aterial f rom t he p ublic b uildings u sed f or? A f ew c olumn b ases w ere r eused a s p ost-pads ( buildings V II a nd X ) b ut t here i s o therwise n o i ndication o f h ow t he s tone a nd t ile w as u tilised. W ebster h as s uggested t hat m uch o f i t m ay h ave b een u sed f or t he d efences ( Webster 1 975a , 1 06-7, 13-14, 1 18).

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d ) T he d igging o ut o f h undreds o f t ons o f p ebbles f rom t he e ast/west s treet s till d efies e xplanation. P ebbles w ould h ave b een r eadily a vailable f rom t he r iver s o t hey m ust h ave b een r emoved b ecause t he n ature o f t he n ew s urface w as i mportant ( pers. c omm . P . A . B arker, F ebruary 1 982). A lthough t he s ituation i n t he l ater R oman p eriod a t W roxeter , c ertainly i n t he c ity c entre, w as v ery d ifferent f rom t hat w hen t he p ublic b uildings w ere l aid o ut i n t he 2 nd c entury, t he i dea t hat d evelopments o f t he l ater R oman p eriod d enote d ecline i s i nappropriate. F inancial p ressures h ad p robably f orced t he c ommunity t o a bandon t he m odels o f t he 2 nd c entury a nd, i n o r a fter t he 3 rd c entury, i ndulge i n d evelopments w hich w ere t ailore d m ore t o t he n ew e conomic s ituation , b ut t here i s p lenty o f e vidence f or a t hriving a nd e nterprising c ommunity. T he c leara nce a nd r eplanning o f t he c ity c entre o n a l arge s cale a nd i n a w ay w hich i nvolved a c ertain a mount o f d isregard f or t he e arlier a rrangements, s uch a s t he p edestrian p recinct a nd c uld e-sac c reated o n t he s ite o f t he e ast/west s treet n orth o f t he b aths i nsula, d o s uggest a n o verall s cheme. T he s cale a nd a rchitecture o f s ome o f t he l ate t imber b uildings, i ncluding t hose o n t he s outh s ide o f i nsula 2 w hich a ppear t o h ave b een i ndividually b uilt a nd p resumably p rivately-owned, r einforces t he i mpression o f i nvestment a nd c onfidence b y t he c ommunity ( Barker 1 981a, f ig.5).

T he j ustification f or t his c onfidence c an b e s een i n t he t hriving m arketing e conomy r epresented b y s hops o r s talls a long t he m ain s treet a nd i n t he p edestrian p recinct a nd i n t he ' late u se' o f t he s treet s outh o f t he b aths i nsula a s a d ump f or a l arge q uantity o f a nimal b ones, m ainly p ig j aws ( Webster 1 972b, 1 2; 1 975a, 1 07-9; B arker 1 981a, f ig.4). I t i s c lear t herefore t hat l ife c ontinued f or a l ong t ime a fter t he p ublic b uildings h ad f allen i nto d isuse a nd t hat t he p hysical c haracter a nd l ayout o f t he c ity c hanged b ut t here w as a h igh l evel o f o rganisation. T he d ating a nd t ime-scale f or t hese d evelopments r emain o pen a lthough B arker's c hronology i ndicates t hat t he a rrangements m ade i n t he l ater R oman p eriod u ndoubtedly p ersisted i nto t he 5 th c entury. W hy a nd w hen t he d ecision w as t aken t o a bandon t he s ite i s u nknown , b ut t he m anner i n w hich i t w as d one s uggests t hat t here w as s till a s trong e lement o f c ohesion a nd o rgani sation w ithin t he c ommunity. O thers h ave c oncluded t hat u ltim ately i t w as t he d ifficulty o f d efending s uch a h uge a rea ( c. 1 90acres/76.8ha), a nd n ot t he d isintegration o f t he c ommunity, w hich c aused t he a bandonment ( Wacher 1 974a, 3 74; B arker 1 975a , 15).

T he S equence a t O ther S ettlements

O ther s ettlements h ave p roduced i nformation a bout t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies b ut, i n e ach c ase, t he e ssentially l imited s cale o f t he i nvestigation m akes i t u ncertain h ow f ar d evelopm ents o n o ne s ite m ay b e a r eflection o f d evelopments i n t he

s ettlement a s a w hole. A t W roxeter t here i s t he c ertainty o f k nowing t hat w e a re d ealing w ith d evelopments i n t he c entral a rea b ut, a t o ther s ettlements, t he c oncept o f a ' centre' i s n ot n ecessarily v alid.

C ertainly t here a re d iscernible c hanges i n s ome s ettlements b ut t o a c ertain e xtent i t i s u nrealistic t o e xpect c hange t o b e a p henomenon o f t he l ater R oman p eriod. C hanges a re l ikely t hroughout t he p eriod, n ot l east b ecause t he e conomic s ituation d id n ot r emain s tatic. T he b est t hat c an b e d one i s t o s ummarise t he i nformation f or t he l ater R oman p eriod f or e ach s ettlement, t o r eveal t he n ature o f t he e vidence a nd t o h ighlight a ny g eneral t rends.

A t A lcester t he b uilding s equences o n v arious s ites s eem t o i ndicate c ontinued p rosperity, a nd s ettlement o n t he s ame b asis i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies, w ith f ew d ramatic c hanges f rom t he 2 nd c entury; i t i s n oticeable f or e xample t hat s ome b uildings w ere b eing r eplaced i n s tone d uring t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies ( Booth 1 980 , 1 0-12). O n o ne s ite ( Coulter's G arage) t o t he s outh-west o f t he p resumed d efended a rea i n t he n orthern p art o f t he l arge e xtramural c omplex ( Bleachfield S treet/Birch A bbey), t here w ere i ndications o f a m ajor s tone b uilding o f u nusual p lan w hich m ay h ave r eplaced a n e arlier s ubstantial t imber b uilding. T he d ating e vidence i ndicated t hat t he t imber s tructure, w hich w as t hought t o h ave b een a g ranary, w as e rected p robably i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 2 nd c entury a nd t he s tone b uilding, a lso a p ossible s torehouse, r eplaced i t a t t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c entury o r s lightly l ater. I t w as t hought t hat t his w as d emolished a nd r obbed i n t urn, p erhaps a fter t he m id-4th c entury. L ater ( possibly R omano-British) a ctivity w as r epresente d b y a p it, t hree p ostholes a nd a f ew b urials ( Booth 1 979, 4 9-52).

A lthough t here i s a t rend t owards g reater u se o f s tone a t A lcester i n t he l ater R oman p eriod, t imber s eems a lways t o b e w idespread a nd m any o f t he s tone s tructures i n t he e xtramural a rea a re s ucceeded b y t imber b uildings i n t he l ater p hases o f R oman o ccupation. S ometimes t his i nvolved s everal p eriods o f t imber b uildings, f or e xample 1 -5 B leachfield S treet, w here t hree p hases o f l ate t imber b uildings s ucceeded a s tone b uilding ( Booth 1 980 , 1 3 S ite 8 ). H owever, t he c hronology f or t hese t imber b uildings t ends t o b e o pen-ended. T he p roblems o f d ating a t A lcester a nd m any o ther c entres a re w ell-illustrated b y t he e vidence f rom t his s ite w here t he s ubstantial s tone a nd t imber s tructure ( V) w as s till i n u se w hen a c oin o f L icinius ( AD 3 073 24) w as d ropped o n o ne o f i ts f loor s urfaces. T here w as n o d ating e vidence f or t he t hree t imber b uildings w hich f ollowed i t a nd t he l ater 4 th c entury c oins w ere n ot s ecurely s tratified. O n t his s ite t he d ating e vidence w ould a llow t he l atest t imber b uilding t o h ave g one o ut o f u se b efore t he e nd o f t he 4 th c ent ury o r u p t o a c entury l ater ( Booth 1 976 , 5 1-2; 1 977, 5 9-62; 1 980 , 1 3). T here a re o ther e xamples, s uch a s t he t imber b uilding

c ontaining a m ilestone o f C onstantine I ( AD 3 06-337) i n i ts f oundations, w here i t i s p ossible t o e stablish a t erminus p ost q uem f or t he c onstruction o f a b uilding, b ut d ifficult t o d ecide w hen i t c eased t o b e u sed ( Booth 1 980 , 7 -8 , 1 3).

B ooth s uggested t hat a ' reversion ' t o t he u se o f t imber i ndicates a d ecline i n t he t own b y t he l ater 4 th c entury. H owever t here i s n o r eason w hy t he r eplacement i n t imber o f b uildings i n s tone s hould i n i tself b e a r esult o f d ecline - i t m ay h ave b een a h ealthy r esponse t o a c hanging f inancial c limate. T he p ottery e vidence s uggests t hat o ccupation c ontinued u ntil t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod w ith p ottery r eaching A lcester u p t o t he e nd o f t he 4 th c entury f rom a v ariety o f s ources. T here i s n othing r emarkable a bout t he s upplies n or i s i t a ny m ore u seful f or d ating p urposes t han t he p ottery f rom o ther s ites. T here a re t ypologically l ate v essels b ut t here i s t he u sual p roblem o f w hen t hese c eased t o b e m anufactured. S imilarly t he c oin l ist s eems t o c onform t o t he n ormal p attern, a nd t his i ncludes c oins f rom w ithin t he d efended a rea w ith l ate 3 rd c ent ury c oins a nd i ssues o f t he H ouse o f C onstantine b eing p articu larly c ommon. U nfortunately t he l ate 4 th c entury c oinage t ends t o b e u nstratified b ut n evertheless i t d oes e xist ( pers.comm. P .M . B ooth, F ebruary 1 982). N othing i s k nown a bout d evelopments w ithin t he d efended a rea a nd t he a ddition o f a s tone w all t o t he e arthwork d efences i s u ndated ( Booth 1 980 , 1 4).

A t A riconium a nalysis i s h ampered b y l ack o f s ystematic i nvestigation. S urvey a nd t rial e xcavation i n 1 967 s uggested t hat t he R oman l evels h ad b een d isturbed a nd o nly i st c entury o ccupation r emained i n s ome a reas. T he c oin l ist i s s imilar t o t hat e stablished b y R eece f or o ther s ites, a nd c oins o f t he p ost-Constantinian p eriod a re f ew ( Jack 1 923, 9 -27). A s tone b uilding i nvestigated i n 1 922 w as a ttributed t o t he l ate 3 rd/ e arly 4 th c entury o n t he b asis o f p ottery a nd c oins f ound o n t he f loor a nd b eneath t he f allen m asonry o f t he b uilding. P ottery o f t he 2 nd-4th c entury w as f ound d uring t he e xcavation o f v arious i ndustrial f eatures i n t he n orthern p art o f t he c omplex ( Bridgew ater 1 967, 1 24-35).

I t i s n ot c lear e xactly w hat h as b een f ound a t B lackwardine b ut c oins d ating f rom A D 9 6-365 a nd p ottery o f t he l st-4th c entury h ave b een r eported ( Jack 1 925, 5 5-6; G oodburn 1 976,330).

T he v ery l imited i nvestigation a nd e xcavations i n t he 1 960s o n t he d efences a nd p art o f t he i nterior o f C hesterton-on-Fosse a re u npublished. T he i nvestigation i n t he i nterior r eported t hat t hree p hases i n t imber w ere r eplaced b y a r ectangular s tone b uilding w hich w as d estroyed i n t he 4 th c entury. T here i s a t erminus p ost q uem o f t he l ate-3rd c entury f or t he w all ( Wilson 1 962, 1 71-2; T aylor 1 967, 1 8-19).

P art o f o ne s ettlement a t C hesterton/Holditch a ppears t o h ave b een a bandoned a fter a p eriod o f d ense o ccupation f rom A D 7 0 t o 1 60. 3 rd c entury m aterial w as f ound o n a nother p art o f t he s ite, b ut 4 th c entury m aterial w as a bsent. H owever, i nvestigations w ere v ery , l imited a nd t he s tatus o f t he s ettlement i s u ncertain ( Charlton 1 961, 2 6-50 ; 1 962, 6 0-71).

A t D roitwich , t here a re t wo e lements t o b e c onsidered t he B ays M eadow v illa c omplex a nd t he R omano-British s ettlement a long t he S alwarpe v alley. O n t he B ays M eadow s ite, t he v illa c omplex, w hich w as o f c onsiderable p retensions a nd c onstructed p robably i n t he l ate 2 nd o r e arly 3 rd c entury, w as p rovided w ith d efences s ometime b etween c . A D 2 70 a nd 2 90 a nd r eplanned. T his i nvolved t he a ddition o f t imber b uildings i ncluding a n a isled t imber-framed b uilding o n s tone f ootings, p ossibly a b arn w ith a n a nnexe w hich w as i n u se w hen t he c omplex w as d est royed b y f ire a t t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c entury. G oodman h as s uggested t hat t he p rovision o f d efences a nd t he r eplanning, m ay r eflect a c hange o f o wnership a nd f unction, p ossibly f or a n ' official' u se i n t roubled t imes ( Goodman f orthcoming). S ubsequent a ctivity i s a lso d ifficult t o i nterpret. T he o ccup ation l evels i mmediately f ollowing t he r eplanning a nd t he d est ruction l evels p roduced n o c oins l ater t han C arausius, p erhaps b ecause o f a h iatus b efore t he r e-occupation o f t he s ite i n t he 4 th c entury, s ince t here a re o nly a f ew c oins o f A llectus ( Reece 1 972, f ig.1; p ers. c omm. L .Barfield, F ebruary 1 982). T he r econstruction w as a ssociated w ith c oins o f C onstantine a nd i nvolved o nly t he a isled b uilding. D ebris f rom t he v illa w as u sed t o f orm a p ath a djacent t o t he r efurbished a isled b uildi ng. T here a re f ew s tructural e lements i n t his p ost-fire p hase a nd t he f unction o f t he s ite i s n ot c lear. C ertainly t he p ost f ire o ccupation w as l ess o stentatious a nd t his m ay r eflect a c hange o f f unction o r f inancial c onstraints. I t i s d ifficult t o u nderstand w hy t he f unction o f t he s ite, w hich i s t hought t o b e c onnected w ith t he a dministration o f t he s alt i ndustry, s hould h ave c hanged. T he r educed s cale o f a ctivity i n t he p ost f ire p eriod i s m anifested i n t he c omparative d ecline o f m aterials f rom t he 4 th c entury f rom t he s ite. T he c oin l ist d oes h owever e xtend t o t he e nd o f t he 4 th c entury a nd t here i s n o r eason t o b elieve t hat t he s ite w as a bandoned b efore t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod ( Barfield 1 975, 4 8; F reezer 1 977, 5 -7).

T here a re c ertain s imilarities b etween t his s ite a nd t he c entral a rea o f W roxeter. S ubstantial s tructures c ould n ot b e b uilt o n t he s ame s cale a s h ad b een p ossible i n t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c entury. A t B ays M eadow i t s eems r easonable t o s uppose t hat t he l evel o f i nvestment r equired t o r eplace t he v illa b uildi ngs w as s imply n ot a vailable, a nd t he a isled b uilding , w hich i s a c ommon l ate R omano-British h ouse t ype, w as r econstructed a s t he f ocus o f a ctivity o n t he s ite.

E lsewhere i n D roitwich c hance f inds o f c oins a nd p ottery s uggest s ome k ind o f o ccupation e xtending o ver a w ide a rea s outh

o f t he r iver S alwarpe t hroughout t he R oman p eriod. D eep e xcav ations i n t he l ow-lying v alley a rea c lose t o t he r iver h ave p roduced c oins o f t he 1 st-end 4 th c entury w ith a g reater p repond erance o f 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury c oins. B ut f ew a re e xactly p rov enanced a nd t hey g ive l ittle c lue t o t he c haracter o f t he o ccup ation ( St. J oseph 1 946, -3 9-42). T here a re m ajor q ueries a bout t he t opography o f t he R oman s ettlement a s a r esult o f t he d isc overy o f 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury p ottery b eneath c . 5 f eet(14m) o f a lluvium a t o ne p oint, a nd s imilar s equences h ave b een o bs erved e lsewhere i n t he r iver v alley ( Freezer 1 980a, 8 5). F inal r esults a re a waited o n a n umber o f s ites, i ncluding B ays M eadow , b ut t he e merging p icture s uggests c ontinuity o f s alt m aking o n t he I ron A ge m odel u ntil t he m id-2nd c entury, a nd t hen e ither a c hange i n l ocation o r a c hange i n t echnique i nvolving a p rocess w hich n o l onger e mployed b riquetage. T wo s ites u sed f or s alt w orking i n t he i st a nd 2 nd c entury ( Friar S treet a nd B owling G reen, R icketts L ane) a ppear t o h ave b een f eatured i n o ther a ctivities f rom t he m id-late 2 nd c entury. A t F riar S treet, a s ite o n t he h igher g round o n t he s outh s ide o f t he S alwarpe V alley, d omestic o ccupation w ith t he p ossible r emains o f t imber b uildings s ucceeded s alt-working a ctivity i n t he l ate 2 nd o r e arly 3 rd c entury. T his d omestic o ccupation w as a pparently s hortlived a nd t here w as l ittle e vidence f or a ctivity i n t he 3 rd o r 4 th c entury ( Hunt 1 975, 3 9-40 , 4 9; F reezer 1 977, 4 ).

O n t he R icketts L ane s ite, i n t he v alley f loor, o nly i nterim c onclusions a re a vailable, b ut t here w as s imilarly e vidence f or t he c essation o f s alt-working p robably b y t he m id-2nd c ent ury; t he f ill o f t he t anks a ssociated w ith t his a ctivity c ont ained n o p ottery l ater t han t he l ate 1 st/early 2 nd c entury. T here w ere t hen a n umber o f f eatures w hich w ere p robably o f t he l ater R oman p eriod. T hese i ncluded a s tone b uilding a ligned n orth c ast/south w est o n t he n orth s ide o f a n e ast/west r oad w hich m ay h ave l inked u p w ith t he m ajor R oman r oad j unction t o t he e ast. T he c onstruction t rench o f t his b uilding c ontained l ate 3 rd/early 4 th c entury p ottery a s d id t he c obbled r oad b ut i t i s u nlikely t hat t he t wo f eatures w ere c ontemporary. T he r oad c rossed a l arge c urving d itch a t t he w est e nd o f t he s ite b y m eans o f a w ooden b ridge. T he f ill o f t he d itch c ontained l ate R oman p ottery a nd m any s kulls o f c ow a nd s heep, i ndicating t hat t he d itch m ay h ave e nclosed a n a rea w here a nimals w ere b utchered a nd p erhaps p ickled i n b rine. T o t he s outh o f t he r oad t here w as e vidence f or a l arge s tone b uilding f ounded o n p ost-pads s et i n p its. T hese p its p roduced u ndated R oman p ottery ( Severn V alley w are) a nd w ere c ut i nto a d itch w hich s eems t o h ave p re-dated t hem a nd w hich p roduced l ate 4 th c entury p ottery. T he l atest f eatures o n t he s ite w ere f our w ooden b arrels c ut a long t heir l ength a nd s et o n t heir s ides i n p its. T hey p ostd ated b oth s tone b uildings a nd p roduced l ate 3 rd-4th c entury p ottery. T heir u se w as u ncertain b ut i t i s n atural t o s peculate t hat t hey m ay h ave b een c onnected w ith t he s alt i ndustry. A lt hough t here w as c onsiderable a ctivity u p t o t he m id-2nd c entury a nd i n t he l ater R oman p eriod, t here a re n o f eatures w hich c an b e a ssigned a t p resent t o t he p eriod b etween t he m id-2nd c entury a nd t he l ate 3 rd c entury ( Freezer 1 977, 4 ; S awle 1 978, 7 6-8;

p ers. c omm . J . S awle, F ebruary 1 982). 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury a ct ivity, a lthough p lentiful i n t he a rea o f s ettlement a long t he r iver v alley, i s a bsent f rom t he h igh g round o n t he s outh ( Friar S treet) a nd f rom a s ite ( Hanbury S treet) a t t he R oman r oad j unction i n t he e astern p art o f t he s ettlement, w here e arly R oman d omestic o ccupation w as e vident ( Freezer 1 980b , 8 5). I f s alt c ontinued t o b e e xploited a fter t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod, t here i s l ittle e vidence i n t he a rchaeological r ecord s o f ar, b ut t his i s t rue a lso o f t he m id/late S axon p eriod f or w hich t here i s d ocumentary e vidence f or s alt w orking ( Freezer 1 977,9).

I n t he c ase o f K enchester, t he i nadequacy o f t he e arly e xcavation r ecords m ake i t i mpossible t o e stablish a r eliable c hronology f or b uilding s equences a fter t he i st a nd 2 nd c enturies , a lthough t here a re i ndications i n s ome c ases o f l ater e xtensions t o b uildings ( I a nd V II) w hich h ad b een c onstructed i n o r a fter t he i st a nd 2 nd c enturies ( Wilmott 1 979, 6 3-4, 6 7-8). M ore s pecific e vidence w as r ecovered f rom t he d efences, a nd t he v illa s ite w hich s eems t o h ave f ormed p art o f t he r ibbon d evelopment o utside t he e ast g ate. W ork o n t he w est g ate p rovided t he b est i ndication t hat t he c ommunity h ere w as c apable o f i mplementing d efensive w orks, a nd t hat t here w as s omething w orth p rotecting i n t he l ate 4 th c entury o r l ater. T here w ere s everal d evelopm ents a t t he w est g ate, t he e arliest o f w hich h ad a t erminus p ost q uem o f c . A D 3 50. T his c ame f rom t he p ottery i n t he f ill o f a c ulvert o ver w hich t he f oundations o f t he g ateway h ad b een c onstructed. T he g ateway w as s ubsequently a ltered, w ith t he c onstruction o f a n arrower r oad t hrough t he n orthern c arriageway. T here w as s ome e vidence a lso t hat t he s outhern c arriageway m ay h ave b een b locked a nd t he d itch r ecut a nd e xtended n orthwards t o m eet t he n ew n arrower r oad. T he d itch w as a gain r ecut b efore f illing g radually. T here w as n o d ating e vidence f or t hese d evelo pments b ut t hey s uggest c onsiderable a ctivity i n t he l ater 4 th c entury ( Heys a nd T homas 1 963, 1 49-78). O utside t he d efences a c omplex i nterpreted a s a v illa u nit w ithin i ts o wn e nclosure c ontinued t o b e o ccupied i n t he l ater 4 th c entury. I n t he e arlier R oman p eriod a nd b ecoming d eveloped d uring t he 3 rd c entury i s t he e vidence f or i ndustrial a ctivities a nd a n e conomy b ased o n l ivestock. I n t he f inal p hase, w hich i s a ssociated w ith s ix c oins o f c . A D 2 51-275, s even c oins o f c . A D 3 26-350 a nd o ne o f A D 3 64-375, t here a re c onsiderable s tructural a ltera tions. T hese a lterations, a nd t he l ack o f e vidence f or i ndust rial a ctivity i n t his f inal p hase, h ave b een t entatively i nterp reted a s t he r esult o f a c hange o f f unction. T he d ate o f t he a bandonment i s u nknown; t here i s o nly R oman m aterial, m uch o f i t r esidual, f rom t he d estruction l ayers ( Rahtz, T omber a nd W ilmott f orthcoming).

T he c oin h istogram f or K enchester m atches t hat r egarded a s n ormal f or R omano-British s ites w hich c ontinued i n o ccupation t o t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod, a nd t he p ottery o f t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury d oes n ot s eem t o r eflect a ny u nusual d evelopments ( Reece 1 972, f ig.1; W ilmott 1 979, 5 3-4, f ig.11, A ppendix 3 ; p ers. c omm. R . T omber, F ebruary 1 982). T here i s n o i ndication

o f t he

d ate a t w hich t he s ettlement w as a bandoned a nd t his a pp-

l ies t o t he e xtramural v illa s ite a lso. W ilmott ( 1979 , 5 3) h as p ointed o ut t hat m any o f t he l ate 4 th c entury c oins f rom K enchester a re v ery w orn a nd t hat t his w ould s uggest s ome u se i nto t he 5 th c entury.

T here a re t wo a reas a t W orcester w here a l ong s equence h as b een e stablished, n amely o utside t he d efences o n t he n orth a nd t he s outh-east, b ut w ith i nsufficient d ating e vidence w ithin t he l ater R oman p eriod. A lthough t he c oin l ist f or W orcester c ontinues i nto t he l ater 4 th c entury, c oins o f t he l ate 3 rd c entury a re f ar f ewer t han m ight b e e xpected a nd t here i s n o u psurge o f c oins i n t he m id-4th c entury a s t here i s o n o ther s ites ( Barker 1 970 , 1 05-12, f ig.39; R eece 1 972, f ig.1 . 4 C arver 1 980 , 2 ). T he p ottery f rom W orcester i s s till b eing a nalysed b ut C arver h as n oted t hat t here a ppears t o b e r elatively l ittle 4 th c entury p ottery ( Carver 1 980, 2 ). H owever, m ost o f t he i nformation c omes f rom s ites o n t he p eriphery o f t he d efended a rea a nd t his m ight b e d istorting t he o verall p icture.

O n t he s ite i n t he n orthern s uburb(Broad S treet/Blackfriars) a n a pparently r esidential a rea w as g iven o ver s ome t ime i n t he l ater R oman p eriod t o i ron-smelting. T he c omplex o f h earths a nd p ostholes c ould n ot b e f ully i nvestigated. A d ate o f 3 rd4 th c entury f or o ne o f t he h earths w as p rovided b y a n umber o f s herds s tratified w ithin i ts r enewed f loors ( Barker 1 970, 6 4). A d itch d ug a long t he s outhern s ide o f t his i ndustrial c omplex d estroyed t he u pper p art o f a s tone-built w ell, t he f ill o f w hich p roduced p ottery o f t he l ate 3 rd o r e arly 4 th c entury. A m ass o f i ron s lag c ontaining s herds o f t he 3 rd-4th c entury w as f ound a bove t he p rimary s ilt o f t he d itch a nd h ad b een t hrown i n f rom t he d irection o f t he h earths. T he m iddle a nd u pper s ilt o f t he d itch a ppeared t o r epresent n atural s ilting o ver a l ong p eriod. T his r epresents a f airly d ramatic c hange o f l and u se, p erhaps i n o r a fter t he l ate 3 rd o r e arly 4 th c entury. I t i s n ot c lear h ow s ignificant a f eature o f t he e conomy i ronworking h ad b een i n t he e arlier R oman p eriod, a nd w hether t he B road S treet a ctivity w as t he r esult o f i ncreased p roduction i n t he l ater R oman p eriod o r s imply a c hange o f l oca tion. O n a nother s ite, w hich w as p robably j ust o utside t he d efences o n t he e ast ( Talbot S treet), i ronworking a ctivity d uring t he 2 nd c entury m ay h ave c eased w ithin t he s ame c entury a nd t he s ite w as a bandoned ( Carver 1 980 , 8 8-9). A nother s ite, p roba bly j ust o utside t he d efences o n t he n orth-east, a lso p roduced e vidence f or R oman o ccupation a ssociated w ith 2 nd c entury b ut n o l ater p ottery, s uggesting a bandonment ( Carver 1 980 , 7 3-5).

O n a s ite w hich i s l ikely t o b e j ust o utside t he d efences o n t he s outh-east ( Sidbury), a m ajor l evelling o peration i n t he p ost-medieval p eriod r emoved a ny o ccupation l ater t han t he 3 rd c entury. O ccupation p rior t o t hat d ate a nd p ossibly b eginn ing i n t he i st c entury i nvolved, t hroughout t he p eriod, a s uccession o f r oad s urfaces r unning s outh-east/north-west w ith

a ctivity t o t he e ast o f a nd, i n s ome o f t he l ater p eriods, o n t he r oad s urface. I n p hase 6 , t he c omposition o f t he r oadway c hanged f rom p ebble t o i ron o re a nd s lag. T his p henomenon h ad b een o bserved o n t he B road S treet s ite, w hen t he i ron s melting c omplex w as e stablished. T here w ere a n umber o f f eatures b eside t his r oad, i ncluding a n d itch b utt-ending a t i ts e ast e dge c ontaining l arge a mounts o f p ottery o f t he l ate 2 nd a nd e arly 3 rd c entury, a nd a r oundhouse t o t he s outh. T he p enult imate r oad s urface ( phase 8 ) i nvolved t he w idening o f t he r oad t o f orm a n a rea i nterpreted a s a s treet-market, w hich w as f enced a long i ts s outh-western e dge. L arge q uantities o f a nimal b one o n t his p ebble s pread w ere s een a s t he r esult o f b utchering o f c attle a nd o ther a nimals o n o r n ear t he s ite, a nd t his m ate rial w as s ealed b y a l ayer o f g rey a nd g reen s andy s ilt. T wo e phemeral s tructures, p ossibly s talls, s tood o n t he s treet a nd m ay h ave b een c ontemporary w ith i ts u se. I n t his a nd t he p rev ious p hase t here w ere t races o f w ooden w ater-pipes w ith i ron c ollar-joints w hich w ere t hought t o s upply o r d rain w ater t o t he s outh o f t he s ite. A n ew s urface o f p ebbles o r g ravel a nd s lag w as l aid i n t he f inal p hase. T here w as n o t erminus f or t he u se o f t his s urface b ut i t w as f elt t hat p hases 8 a nd 9 b elonged t o t he 3 rd c entury ( Sawle 1 977, 4 3-5, C arver 1 980 , 2 , 1 55, 1 61-3, 1 75). T he e vidence f or i ndustrial a nd m arketing f unctions i n l ate R oman W orcester s uggests t herefore a h ealthy c ommercial e conomy, w hich m ay w ell h ave b een p resent e arlier, w hile t he l ow l evel o f c oinage o f t he l ater 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury i s a ll t he m ore u nexpected.

I nvestigation o f c entres o f a ll t ypes h as b een l imited b ut t he r oadside s ettlements s eem t o b e c haracterised b y a s carc ity o f l ate R oman m aterial, a f eature w hich h as b een a ttributed t o t he r emoval o f t he l ate R oman l evels b y c ultivation i n v arious f orms. A part f rom t he s ites a lready m entioned t his a pplies p articularly t o L eintwardine, L etocetum , M anduessedum a nd W hitchurch.

A t L eintwardine, t here i s n o d oubt t hat, a t l east o n t he w est s ide o f t he e nclosed a rea, c ultivation a nd e rosion h ave c aused c onsiderable d isturbance t o a nd, i n s ome a reas, c omplete r emoval o f t he l ate R oman l evels. M ost o f t he i nformation c omes f rom t he e xcavations o f 1 959-1967 w hich w ere s mall-scale, b ut i ncluded a n umber o f s ites o ver t he w estern p art o f t he s ettlem ent a rea. T he c oin l ist f rom t he e xcavations r uns t hrough t o t he m id-4th c entury, a nd t here a re f ew c oins o verall ( Stanford 1 968 , 2 68-323). I t w as a lso n oticeable t hat, w hile m aterial o f t he l ate i st - l ater 2 nd c entury w as c onsiderable a nd 4 th c entury m aterial, u sually u nstratified i n t he t opsoil, w as a bund ant, p ottery w hich c ould b e a ttributed t o t he 3 rd c entury w ith a ny c ertainty w as s carce. M ore r ecent e xcavation o f a s ite w ithin t he w est s ide o f t he d efended a rea, a nd w hich h ad a gain s uffered f rom e rosion a nd p loughing, p roduced p ottery o f t he m id-2nd - e arly 4 th c entury. T he o nly f eatures t o s urvive w ere a s ubstantial b uilding, w hich w as p rovisionally d ated t o t he m id-2nd c entury, a nd e ight p its s cattered t hroughout t he a rea

a nd c ontaining m uch a braded l ater R oman p ottery, i ncluding 4 th c entury g roups. T hese, a nd t he s catter o f 4 th c entury p ottery i n t he t opsoil c learly i ndicate o ccupation n earby, b ut n ot i n t he e xcavated a rea ( Sawle 1 980 , 9 8; p ers. c omm . J . S awle, F ebruary 1 982). S tanford, o n t he b asis o f h is a ssessment o f t he s ite a s a f ort, i nterpreted t he e vidence f rom h is e xcavations i n t erms o f t he r econditioning o f t he f ort i n p eriod I II, w hich w as t hought t o b e 3 rd c entury, p ossibly i nvolving t he a ddition o f a w all t o t he r ampart, t hen a l ong p eriod o f n eglect b etween p eriods I II a nd I V, i ndicated b y t he d ecay o f t he d efences o n t he n orth-west, s ilting o f t he h ypocaust s ystem o f t he ' fort' b ath-house, a nd t he s carcity o f 3 rd c entury m aterial. I n p eriod I V, a ttributed t o t he 4 th c entury, t he f ort d efences a nd t he b ath-house w ere r efurbished. T here w as v ery l ittle d ating e vid ence f or p eriods I II a nd I V a nd m uch o f t he d ating a nd p hasing o f t he i nternal f eatures i s d ependent o n t he a ssumed f ort f ramew ork , w hich i s b ased i n t urn o n t he d efence s equence t o t he n orth-west. T he d ifficulties o f i nterpretation a t L eintwardine a re i ncreased b y t he f act t hat o nly b ackyard a reas a re a vailable a nd t he c hronology p roposed b y S tanford w as b ased o n h is a ssessm ent o f t he s ite a s a f ort, w hose s equences s hould t herefore f ind p arallels o n o ther m ilitary s ites i n W ales a nd t he W elsh M arches.

S imilar p roblems s urround a ttempts t o a ssess l ater R oman o ccupation a t L etocetum , i n t hat i nvestigation, w hich h as b een l imited, h as s uggested t hat 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury l evels h ave b een d amaged a nd s ometimes r emoved ( Gould 1 964, 8 -11, 1 3). T here a re f ew f eatures t hroughout t he s ettlement a rea w hich c an b e a ttributed t o t he 3 rd o r 4 th c entury a nd, a part f rom c oinage o f t he l ate 3 rd c entury, i ncluding t en c oins o f t he T etrici ( AD 2 70-273) f ound o n o r n ear t he b ath s ite, 3 rd t o l ate 4 th c entury i ssues a re o nly r epresented b y o ne o r t wo c oins ( Gould 1 964, 2 1). T here a re c ertainly i ndications t hat s ome e lements d id n ot c ontinue i n u se i nto t he l ater R oman p eriod. T here a re l ate 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury c oins f rom t he b ath-house b ut t he l atest s tratified m aterial w as A ntonine. T here i s e vidence f or c onsiderable a lterations a nd a dditions f or w hich t here i s n o d ating e vidence. T hese p ost-date t he p hase a ssociated w ith A ntonine p ottery a nd i t w as t hought t hat t hey m ay h ave b egun i n t he e arly 3 rd c entury, b ut t here w as n o p ositive e vidence t hat t he b uilding c ontinued i n u se i nto t hat c entury ( Webster 1 958b, 1 7-23; 1 975a, 7 7-8; G ould 1 964, 1 6-21; R ound 1 974a 1 9-20). S imilarly o n t he a djacent ' villa' s ite t here w as n o m aterial l ater t han t he A ntonine p eriod, o ther t han f our u nstrati fied c oins o f A D 2 18-285. I t w as a ssumed t hat t he s ite w as a bandoned a fter i ts d estruction c . A D 1 60 ( Round 1 974b, 5 4-5; 1 975, 5 0-2; 1 976 , 3 9; 1 980 , 1 -2). H owever, t his d oes n ot s eem t o b e r epresentative o f t he s ettlement a s a w hole, a nd d espite t he f act t hat f eatures d atable t o t he l ater R oman p eriod a re n ot a bundant, t here i s c learly a ctivity o f s ome s ort.

a nd

T he d efences, c onsisting t riple d itch s ystem , a re

o f a w all, c ontemporary r ampart n ot w ell d ated. P ottery i n t he

f ill o f a w ell s ealed b y t he w all o n t he w est ( site T ) p rovided a t erminus p ost q uem i n t he 3 rd c entury a nd, o n t he n orth , p ottery s ealed b y t he p resumed c onstruction l evel a gain i ndicated a 3 rd c entury o r l ater d ate ( Gould 1 964 , 3 & 7 ). W ebster h as a rgued t hat t his s mall d efended e nclosure ( 6 a cres/2.4 h a) a nd o ther s imilar s ites s et a stride W atling S treet, m ay r epresent a s ystem o f b urgi o r d efended r oad s tations e stablished b y C onstantius C hlorus i n t he c ontext o f h is r ecovery o f t he p rov ince f rom A llectus i n A D 2 96. H e h as s uggested t hat t he a bsence o f l ate R oman o ccupation w ithin t hese e nclosures m ay b e e xplained b y t he f act t hat t hey w ere r equisitioned b y t he a rmy , a nd b y t he f act t hat t heir u se w as v ery s hort l ived ( Webster 1 974a , 5 5-7). T he i mplications o f t his h ave b een f ully d iscussed i n m y p aper o n R oman d efences ( Crickmore 1 984) b ut i t m ay b e f urther n oted h ere t hat t here i s v ery l ittle t o d istinguish t he e nclosed a rea f rom t he r est o f t he s ettlement i n t erms o f t he v olume o f l ater R oman m aterial, a nd t here i s s till t he p roblem t hat s carcity o f m aterial a ffects t he 3 rd a s w ell a s t he 4 th c entury. W ithin t he d efended a rea, i nvestigation h as b een l imited . N orth o f W atling S treet ( sites N OP) t here w ere n o f eatures d atable t o t he 3 rd o r 4 th c entury b ut t here w as u nstratified m aterial o f t his p eriod i ncluding n ine c oins r anging f rom C arausiu AD 2 86 293) t o G ratian ( AD 3 67-383). A g ap i n t he c oinage f rom t he m id 2 nd-late 3 rd c entury h as b een n oted ( Gould 1 964 , 1 6 a nd 4 3). A s ide r oad w ithin t he e nclosure w as o verlain b y b urnt d ebris f rom a s ubstantial b uilding ( flue t iles, t egulae,imbrices ., w indow g lass a nd r oofing s late). A bove t his spread was a c oin o f C arausius ( AD 2 86-293) a nd 4 th c entury p ottery. S outh o f W atling S treet ( sites R a nd S ) a ny o ccupation w hich m ay h ave t aken p lace i n t he 2 nd - 4 th c entury h ad b een r emoved b y p loughi ng, f ield l evelling a nd r oad w idening.

T o t he s outh o f t he d efences ( field 6 4), a s equence o f t imber s tructures s panning t he p eriod A D 7 0-200 w ere s ucceeded b y a b uilding i n s tone i n t he e arly 3 rd c entury, a nd t hen b y a l arge t imber b uilding a pparently o f t he l ate 3 rd o r 4 th c entury ( Greenfield 1 964, 9 ). S ome d istance t o t he e ast o f t he d efended a rea a round t he W atling S treet/Ryknield S treet j unction, p ottery o f t he 2 nd - 3 rd c entury h as b een t urned u p b y t he p lough , a nd t here a re i ndications o f i ronworking a ssociated w ith 3 rd o r 4 th c entury m aterial s outh-east o f t he j unction. O ccupation o f t he 2 nd - 4 th c entury w as o bserved i n t he a rea t o t he r ear o f t he b uildings f acing W atling S treet s outh-east o f t he j unction b ut t here w as l ittle p recise i nformation a bout t his l ate R oman a ctivity ( Greenfield 1 964, 9 ; G ould 1 964, 1 6 ; 1 966, 4 & 1 8).

M uch o f t he i nformation f rom M anduessedum r emains u npubl ished a nd i nvestigation o f p art o f t he s ettlement o ther t han t he i ndustrial a rea a t B roadclose h as b een l imited. T he d efences, w hich a s a t L etocetum e nclose a s mall a rea ( 5 a cres/2.1 h a) o f t he r ibbon d evelopment a long W atling S treet, c onsisted o f a c lay r ampart, w all a nd t wo d itches. A t erminus p ost q uem o f t he l ate 3 rd/early 4 th c entury i s p rovided b y a s ubstantial t imber b uilding d emolished o n t he

p ottery f rom l ine o f t he

d efences. T here w as v ery l ittle e vidence f or o ccupation w ithin a nd c ontemporary w ith t he u se o f t he e nclosure. T here w as a lso l ate 4 th c entury m aterial i n t he u pper f ill o f t he d itches o n t he e ast. I n t he B roadclose a rea, t he o uter d itch h ad b een ' levelled o ver w ith a n i ndustrial d eposit a bout t he m iddle o f t he f ourth c entury'. A lthough W ebster r egarded t hese e nclosures a s s hort-lived, t he p resence o f 4 th c entury m aterial m ight, b ut n eed n ot, i mply t hat t he d itches w ere f illed u p b efore t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod. T he p resence o f t his m aterial c learly i ndicates o ccupation o f t his p eriod s omewhere i n t he v icinity ( Thomas 1 963, 1 3 ; O 'Neil 1 931, 1 73-95; O swald a nd G athercole 1 958, 3 0-52; M ahany 1 971, 1 8-44). A part f rom t he a rea a djacent t o t he d efences, i nvestigation o f t he e nclosed a rea h as b een l imited, b ut h as r evealed o ccupation o f t he l ate i st t o t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c entury. I t w as f elt t hat p loughing h ad b een r esponsible f or t he a bsence o f a ny i ndication o f a ctual s truct ures d atable t o t he 4 th c entury. T here w ere t races o f b uilding d ebris i n t he u pper l evels w hich a lso c ontained l ate 4 th c entury p ottery b ut n ot o n s tratified c ontexts. A b lack s ilt d eposit c ontaining l ate 4 th c entury p ottery o verlay t he t ail o f t he r ampart o n t he n orth , b ut t he a rea h ad b een d isturbed b y m edieval p loughing. O n t he s outh-east, a b lack l ayer o verlying t he t ail o f t he r ampart c ontained a c oin o f L icinus ( AD 3 07-324) a ssoc iated w ith m ortaria o f p robable m id-4th c entury d ate ( O 'Neil 1 931, 1 82-95; O swald a nd G athercole 1 958, 3 3-4). O utside t he e nclosure, t he e vidence f or a ctivity a long W atling S treet i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury w as e qually f ragmentary. I t w as r eported t hat ' ribbon d evelopment a long W atling S treet b etween t he e ncl osure a nd t he r iver c onsisted o f s tructures, m ostly i n t imber, w ith a d ate r ange c . A D 6 0-400'(Thomas 1 963, 3 ). T his r ibbon d evelopment a ppears t o h ave e xtended n orth-west o f t he r iver a lso, a nd t here a re o ccasional i ndications t hat i t i nvolved l ate R oman a ctivity a long W atling S treet a nd a lso w ell t o t he w est o f t his i n t he a rea o f t he f orts ( Scott 1 969, 4 9 ; 1 976b, 2 0 ; 1 977a, 3 8; 1 977b, 4 0).

M ore i nvestigation h as t aken p lace i n t he a rea o f t he p ott ery i ndustry ( Broadclose) s outh-west o f W atling S treet, b ut t he r esults a re n ot p ublished. T he p ottery e vidence s uggests t hat t he m ortaria k ilns w ere i n o peration f rom t he e arly 2 nd c entury u ntil t he m id-4th w hen H artley b elieves t hat t he m ilitary m arket f or t his p articular w are c ollapsed. H ere a gain t here w as c onsiderable p lough d amage a nd l ittle i ndication o f a ctual s tructures o f t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies a lthough t here w as s ome e vidence f or a s ystem o f s ervice r oads p art o f w hich w as i n e xistence i n t he 3 rd c entury o r p ossibly l ater ( Hartley 1 977,70). T he p ottery a nd t he k ilns p rovide a c ertain a mount o f e vidence f or l ater d evelopments a nd t hese i ndicate t hat t he k ilns w ere i n o peration f rom t he e arly 2 nd c entury. T he s ubstantial m arket g ained h ere i n t he 2 nd c entury h ad i ncreased i n t he 3 rd a nd f irst h alf o f t he 4 th, a nd t here w as a pparently s ome e vidence f or t he r eorganisation o f t he i ndustry i n t he l ate 2 nd a nd e arly 3 rd c entury, w ith o wnership p erhaps b eing c oncentrated i nto f ewer h ands. I n s pite o f t he c ollapse i n t he t rade w ith t he n orth c . A D 3 65-370 , i t i s b elieved t hat m ortaria m ay h ave b een

p roduced o n a m uch r educed s cale t o m eet l ocal n eeds u ntil t he e nd o f t he 4 th c entury ( Hartley 1 961, 5 -17; 1 973a,143-6 ; W ilson 1 969, 2 8 1 3; M ahany 1 971, 2 8-9).

O nly a s mall a rea h as b een i nvestigated a t T iddington a nd a s y et o nly i nterim r eports o n t he r ecent e xcavation ( 1980-1981) a re a vailable. T he e vidence s o f ar s uggests t hat t he s ettlement c ontinued t o e xpand i n t he 3 rd c entury, a nd t hat i n t he 4 th c entury t here w ould s eem t o h ave b een m ajor c hanges i n l ayout i n t he a rea e xcavated. A l arge d efensive d itch , p ossibly w ith a n i nternal b ank, f ormed t he s outh-east c orner o f a n e nclosure. T his c ut a cross a n e arlier r oadway r unning o ut o f t he s ettlement t o t he e ast. W ithin t he e nclosure t he r oad w as c overed b y n ew b uildings. A d ate f or t he d itch w as i ndicated b y a p it c ontaini ng e arly/mid-4th c entury p ottery, w hich w as c ut i n t urn b y t he d itch w hose f ill c ontained m id/late 4 th c entury p ottery. T he r earrangement o f t he s ettlement w as t hought t o b e c ontemp orary w ith t he p rovision o f d efences ( Palmer 1 980, 1 21, 1 981). C oins f rom p revious e xcavations, a nd f rom u nstratified c ontexts, c over t he w hole o f t he R oman p eriod, w ith c oins o f t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury w ell r epresented ( Fieldhouse, M ay a nd W ellstood 1 931, 6 6-70).

V ery l imited i nvestigation a t P ennocrucium s uggests t hat i n s ome a reas t he u pper l evels h ave b een d estroyed b y t he p lough. T he d efences, u ndated, e nclose a r oughly r ectangular a rea(4acres/ 1 .6 h a). T he s ite h as b een i ncluded b y W ebster i n h is g roup o f b urgi o r q uasi-military d efended p osts a long W atling S treet. E xploratory t renches i n t he i nterior r evealed t imber b uildings s eparated b y c obbled l anes w ith p ottery p ointing t o o ccupation f rom t he i st t o e arly 4 th c entury, b ut t he e xtent o f t he o ccupied a rea w as n ot e stablished ( St. J oseph 1 958 , 1 -5; B arton 1 958, 6 -9; W ebster 1 958a, 1 0-11).

T here h as b een v ery l ittle i nvestigation a t R ocester. N othing i s k nown a bout t he c haracter o f t he s ettlement a nd t here a re s ome d oubts a bout i ts c ivilian s tatus. F inds f rom v arious s ites i ndicate o ccupation o ver a c onsiderable a rea, b ut t he m aterial i s p redominantly i st a nd 2 nd c entury, a part f rom t he r eport o f o ccupation f rom l ate i st t o t he e nd o f t he 4 th c entury, a nd t imber b uildings t o t he w est o f t he d efended a rea ( Wilson 1 965, 2 07). T here i s n o d ating e vidence f or t he e arthwork d ef ences b ut a t erminus p ost q uem o f A D 2 70-274 h as b een a rgued f or t he a ddition o f t he w all ( Webster 1 962, 3 7-52).

A t T ripontium m uch o f t he s ettlement h as b een d estroyed a nd t hat p art e ast o f W atling S treet h ad b een b adly d amaged b y s tripping f or g ravel e xtraction b efore a rchaeological i nvesti gation c ould t ake p lace. I t w as o nly p ossible t o o bserve t he p resence o f 2 nd a nd 3 rd c entury f eatures, a f ew r ubbish p its w hich c ontained 4 th c entury p ottery a nd a w ell ( 5 i n A rea 1 ) w hose f ill a lso c ontained 4 th c entury m aterial, i ncluding

a C onstantinian m ilestone

( AD

3 0e-337)

( Cameron a nd L ucas

1 969,

1 34-44). M ost o f t he s ettlement w ithin t he e nclosure o n t he e ast s ide o f t he R oman r oad h ad b een d estroyed, b ut t o t he e ast a nd s outh-east ( Area 6 ) o f t he e nclosure t he p resence o f p ottery o f t he l ate 4 th c entury i ndicated o ccupation i ncluding a b urial g round. T he d efences a t T ripontium h ave a lso b een c lassified b y W ebster a s t hose o f a b urgus. T he r ectangular e nclosure a stride W atling S treet e nclosed 2 .5 a cresf ,1 h a ) of t he r ibbon d evelopment a long t he R oman r oad ( Webster 1 974, 5 5-7). T he d itch w as e xamined o n b oth s ides o f t he r oad a t t he n orthern e nd o f t he e nclosure a nd t here w ere s light t races o f a n i nternal b ank . A p it c ontaining 4 th c entury p ottery h ad b een c ut b y t he d itch , o therwise t here w as n o d ating e vidence f or i ts c ons truction. I t w as f elt, h owever, t hat t he d itch h ad b een d eli berately f illed a fter b eing o pen o nly a s hort t ime. P ottery a t a ll l evels o f t he f ill w as v ery c onsistent a nd t he e xcavators a ttributed i t t o t he e arly 4 th c entury. T he u pper f ill c ontained a c oin o f V alentinian I ( AD 3 64-375) a nd a ' late R oman ' b elt b uckle w hich i s n ot i ndependently d ated. I t w as c oncluded t hat t hese i tems w ere d eposited i n t he d eep s ilting o ver t he d elibe rate f ill o f t he d itch. O riginally t he i nfill w as a ttributed t o t he l ate 4 th c entury b ut i t w as s ubsequently c oncluded t hat t he i nitial, d eliberate f ill p robably t ook p lace e arlier, i n t he f irst h alf o f t he 4 th c entury ( Cameron a nd L ucas 1 969, 1 334 , 1 73, 9 5-6; H awkes 1 973 , 1 45-58). E vidence f or o ccupation w est o f W atling S treet w ithin t he e nclosure ( Area 2 ), a nd o utside i t o n t he n orth-west ( Area 7 ) w as s light. T here w as n o 4 th c entury m aterial f rom A rea 7 a nd o nly a f ew f eatures i n A rea 2 , b ut t his i ncluded a c ircular b uilding. H owever, i n b oth a reas, o ccupation o f t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c entury w as e vident ( Cameron a nd L ucas 1 973, 9 6). O n t he s outh-west s ide o f W atling S treet o utside t he e nclosure ( Area 3 ), a s ubstantial s tone b uilding o f t he w inged c orridor t ype w as t hought t o h ave b een i n o ccup ation i n t he m id 4 th c entury. I t h as b een r eported t hat t his s ite i nvolves t hree b uilding p hases f rom t he l ate i st t o t he 5 th c entury b ut o nly b rief i nterim r eports a re a vailable a nd t he d ating e vidence i s n ot o utlined. T he l atest m aterial m ent ioned c onsists o f c oins o f t he H ouse o f V alentinian ( AD 3 643 83) f rom t he i nfill o f i ntrusions i nto t he f loor o f o ne o f t he m ost w esterly r ooms. T hese w ere i nterpreted a s a ttempts t o s hore u p t he r oof ( Lucas 1 973, 2 1; C ameron a nd L ucas 1 973 ,96).

I t i s n oticeable t hat t he l atest c oins i n t he p ublished c oin l ist f rom T ripontium ( which d oes n ot i nclude A rea 3 ), a re o f V alentinian I ( AD 3 64-375) ( Cameron a nd L ucas 1 973, 1 27-8). B ut t he c ircumstances s urrounding t he r ecovery o f i nformation f rom t he s ite m ake i t d ifficult t o b e c ertain w hether t he a bsence o f 4 th c entury m aterial f rom s ome a reas h as a ny s ignificance. A s ilver p in o f B ritish t ype w ith I rish a ffinities a nd t hought t o b e o f l ate o r p ost-Roman d ate w as d iscovered o n t he s ite o f t he b uilding i n A rea 3 , b ut i t w as u nstratified l ike s o m any o f t he i nteresting o r u nusual f ind s f rom T ripontium ( Lucas 1 971, 1 7). T hus t he l ate R oman p ottery f rom A rea 6 , a nd t he ' late' R oman b elt b uckle f rom t he u pper s ilt o f t he e nclosure d itch s eem t o r epresent t he o nly c ertain l ate 4 th c entury m aterial

r ecovered f rom t he s ite.

N othing i s k nown a bout t he e xtent a nd t he n ature o f t he c ivil s ettlement a t U xacona. T he e nclosure, s et a stride W atling S treet a nd e nclosing 0 .7 a cres(0.29 h a) h as b een i nterpreted b y W ebster a s o ne o f t he s eries o f b urgi. E xcavations o n t he w est s ide o f t he e nclosure i n 1 959-1961 r evealed a c obbled a rea w ith 4 th c entury p ottery e mbedded i n i ts s urface. I n 1 972 , t he r emains o f s tructures w ere f ound w ithin t he e nclosure o n t he n orth. 2 nd c entury p ottery w as s carce b ut h ere w ere s ubs tantial a mounts o f t he 3 rd c entury. I nterim c onclusions s tated t hat t he d itch h ere w as ' dated b y p ottery f inds t o t he f irst p art o f t he 4 th c entury ', b ut a c oin h oard i n t he u pper d itch f ill w as t hought t o i ndicate t hat t he e nclosure h ad c eased t o f unction b y t he m id-4th c entury ( Pagett 1 960 , 9 ; B rowne 1 973 , 2 0-1).

I nvestigation a t V enonae h as b een l imited a nd l ittle s trati fied m aterial h as b een r ecovered, b ut t here a re i ndications o f r ibbon d evelopment a long W atling S treet f rom t he l ate 1 st 4 th c entury ( Pickering 1 935, 4 5-69: G reenfield a nd W ebster 1 965, 3 -41; C ameron a nd L ucas 1 978 , 4 8-52).

W hitchurch p resents s imilar p roblems t o L eintwardine i n t hat t he i nvestigation h as b een l imited l argely t o g arden a reas, w here t he l ate R oman l evels h ave b een e roded o r d estroyed . T here w as s ome e vidence f or o ccupation i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c entu ries w ithin t he n orth-west c orner o f t he d efences o n t he h illt op, i n a n a rea ( Newtown/Yardington) w hich w as p resumably s et b ack f rom t he m ain s treet o f t he R oman s ettlement. T he b uilding o f o ne s ubstantial s tone s tructure ( Building I ) ( terminus p ost q uem c . A D 1 70) a nd a p ossible s econd ( Building I II) s eems t o r epresent a s ignificant c hange o f u se, s ince t his a rea h ad p rev iously b een u sed f or t imber s tructures a nd s mall-scale i ndust rial a ctivities ( Jones 1 969, 2 03-12). P art o f t he p lan o f a c ourtyard h ouse ( Building I ) w as t hought t o r esemble e xamples k nown i n s everal c ivitas c apitals a nd t here w ere t races o f a n a djacent s tone b uilding ( III) o f w hich t oo l ittle w as r ecovered t o e stablish t he d ate o r p lan. T he c onstruction o f B uilding I i nvolved d umping o n a l arge s cale t o l evel t he s ite, a nd W ebster h as s peculated t hat t he r egular p lanning r evealed i n t hat p art o f t he b uilding w hich w as a vailable f or i nvestigation ' may r eflect a p ublic f unction s uch a s a s mall m arket h all' ( Webster 1 975a, 7 4-5). A s hort s tretch o f w all f orming a c orner a ligned o n, b ut j ust e ast o f, t he s outh-east c orner o f B uilding I w as i nterpreted a s t he r emains o f a s tone b uilding ( Building I I) w hich m ay h ave r eplaced B uilding I b y t he l ast q uarter o f t he 3 rd c entury a nd s urvived p ossibly u ntil t he m id-4th c entury. H owever, t he e vidence w as a gain n ot e ntirely s atisfactory, a nd W ebster h as p ointed t o t he f act t hat t he r emains a ttributed t o B uilding I I m ay h ave b een a n a ddition t o B uilding I t o f orm a n e xternal c orridor. S ubsequently t his a pparently r everted t o a b ackyard a rea w ith a n umber o f i ndustrial f eatures c ut

i nto t he r obbed-out f oundations o f t he s tone b uildings. T his s uggests t he s ite w as d eliberately c leared i n a dvance o f t his i ndustrial a ctivity. T here w as n o d irect d ating e vidence, b ut p ottery f rom t he s ite a pparently i mplied o ccupation u p t o t he m id-4th c entury, a lthough i t m ay n ot h ave l asted l ong t hereafter. T here w ere v ery f ew c oins f rom t his s ite, a nd t he l atest w ere o f l ate 3 rd c entury d ate ( Jones 1 969, 1 97, 2 14, 2 23, 2 37 a nd 2 47). T here i s v ery l ittle i nformation f rom o ther p arts o f t he s ettlement. I n a nother b ack g arden a rea a t t he s outh e nd o f t he h ill ( National W estminster B ank s ite) t he w hole a rea h ad b een s ealed w ith a l ayer o f c obbling a nd c lay s ometime i n o r a fter t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c entury, a nd t here w as n o e vidence f or a ny l ater o ccupation. T his s ite l ay i n a n a rea w here t erra ces h ad b een c ut i nto t he h ill-slope ( Toms 1 977, 6 2). A part f rom t his, t he o nly o ther a vailable i nformation c oncerns R oman p ottery o f t he l st-4th c enturies i n t he t ip l ines o f t he m arsh i n t he l ow l ying a rea s outh-east o f t he h illtop, w hich d oes s uggest o ccupation o f t he l ater R oman p eriod s omewhere i n t he v icinity ( Houghton 1 960 , 2 29). T he s ettlement w as d efended, i nitially b y a n e arthwork c ircuit ( terminus v st q uem c .AD 1 70) r epresented b y a c lay b ank w hich h as b een l ocated t o t he n orth ( Bargate/Yardington), a nd i nvolving t he d emolition o f t imber b uildings o n t he l ine o f t he d efences. A s tone r evetment w as a dded t o t he r ampart f ront b ut t here w as n o d ating e vidence. T he d efences h ave o nly b een l ocated i n t his o ne s ection a nd t he p osition o f t he r est o f t he c ircuit i s u nknown ( Goodburn 1 978 , 4 37).

J cnes s aw t he d evelopments i n t he N ewtown/Yardington a rea a s a n i ndication o f p rosperity a nd e xpansion o f t he s ettlement i n t he l ate 2 nd a nd e arly 3 rd c entury w hich d rove i ndustry f rom t he c entre. T his w as f ollowed b y a d ecline i n t he 4 th c entury r esulting i n a s hrinkage o f t he s ettlement a nd a r eversion t o s mall-scale i ndustrial a ctivities i n t he b ackyard a reas o f b uildi ngs o n t he m ain s treet ( Jones 1 969, 1 97 a nd 2 05).

A part f rom t he p ublic b uilding a ctivity a t W roxeter, t here i s l ittle e vidence f or d evelopment o r t rends w hich a re s pecifi cally o f t he 3 rd c entury. M any o f t he d evelopments o f t he ' later' R oman p eriod a re u ndated, o r o nly _ broadly d atable, a nd t his i ncludes m uch o f t he w ork o n t he d efensive c ircuits. T raditionally, t he 3 rd c entury h as b een r egarded a s a p eriod o f d ecline, a nd R eece h as r ecently u nderlined t his a s b eing i rrevocable a s f ar a s t he t owns w ere c oncerned. H e h as a rgued t hat t he p henomenon w hich w e r ecognise a s a t own i n t he 2 nd c entury, t hat i s, 'a c oncentration o f p opulation i n n umbers a bove t hose f ound f or a p urely a gricultural s ettlement, a s a c oncent ration o f s ervices, a dministration, r eligion, r elaxation , t rade, a nd l aw n ot a vailable e lsewhere, a nd a s t he s eat o f m any d iffere nt o ccupations, t rades, a nd p rofessions, w hich w ould b e u nn ecessary i n s maller s ocial g roupings', a nd t he p hysical e xp ressions t hat w ent w ith t hese f unctions, w ere n o l onger r ecogn isable b y t he m id -3rd c entury ( Reece 1 980, 7 6-92). W hile t here m ay h ave b een s ome a ttempt i n t he 4 th c entury t o r estore t he

t owns, u rban l ife n ever r evived b ecause i ts e conomic b asis h ad b een r eplaced b y t he v illa o r v illage e state. R eece s ees i nf lation a nd d ecline i n t rade, b eginning i n t he l ate 2 nd/early 3 rd c entury, a s h aving d islocated t he t owns, a nd t he t endency t o a cquire s tatus t hrough l and a s h aving p recipitated a m ovement i nto t he c ountryside ( ibid, 8 6 & 8 8).

C ommenting o n t he a rchaeological e vidence f or t he l ater 4 th c entury, h e r emarked t hat ' what e vidence t here i s f or l ate b uildings i n t owns i s m ade t o b ear m ore i nterpretation t han i s p roper, a nd t hat, l ooked a t w ithout t he n eed t o b reak t he b arrier o f t he y ear 4 00, t he i nformation i s s parse'. C ertainly, i t h as b een t raditional t o t ry a nd s tretch t he e vidence f or o c .pupation o f m ajor s ettlement-sites i nto t he l ate 4 th c entury a nd l ater, a nd R eece's o bservations t hat t he a rchaeological r ecord c an b e s een a s i ndicating t he o pposite d oes s eem t o r ing t rue i n m any r espects. L arge a reas o f t owns s uch a s C irencester, G loucester a nd L ondon h ad f allen i nto d isuse a nd m ay e ven h ave b een u nder c ultivation, a nd t hose s equences w hich c an b e d ated t o t he l ast q uarter o f t he 4 th c entury a re r emarkably f ew a nd s eem t o r epresent t he l atest s urviving d eposits.

I t i s a s truggle t o e stablish a g ood c ase f or c ontinuity a t m any s ettlements i nto t he 4 th c entury, l et a lone b eyond, a nd o ccupation s equences w hich c an b e d ated t o t he 4 th c entury h ave n ot b een a s u biquitous a nd a s s ecurely d ated a s t hose w hich c an b e d ated t o t he 2 nd. R eece i s c orrect i n p ointing o ut t hat t he e lements w hich d o s urvive i nto, o r a rise i n , t he 4 th c entury i n t he t owns d o n ot, o f t hemselves, m ake a t own b ut i t i s i mport ant t o k now w hat t hey d o r epresent. R eece i s s tretching t he e vidence t oo f ar i n a nother d irection w hen h e c ontends t hat w here l ate R oman o ccupation o f a f ormer R omano-British t own i s m ore s ubstantial, a s a t W roxeter, t his c onstitutes n othing m ore t han a s mall a dministrative v illage w hich i s a t l east p artly d e-Romanised, a nd w hich b elongs m ore p roperly i n t he e arly m iddle a ges. I t w ould b e m ore t ruthful t o s ay t hat w e d o n ot r eally k now w hat i t i s.

T he e vidence s o f ar a vailable f or t he l ate R oman d isuse o f p ublic b uildings a nd a d ecline i n t he u rban p opulation c ert ainly r einforces R eece's a rgument t hat i t w as n ot t he A ngloS axons w ho w ere r esponsible f or t he d isappearance o f R omano B ritish u rban l ife. B ut w hether t his c an b e t raced b ack t o t he 3 rd c entury, a nd a ttributed t o t he d iversion o f t rade a nd m arketing f unctions f rom t he t owns w ill d epend o n b etter e vidence t han i s a vailable a t p resent. S imilarly a m ore c omplete p icture i s n eeded, o ver a w ider a rea w ithin t he t owns i n t he 4 th c entury, i n o rder t o m ake s ense o f t he a pparently ' isolated i nstances a nd s urvivals' o f l ate 4 th c entury a ctivity. T he c oncentration o n t he p ublic b uildings a nd c entral i nsulae m ay h ave p roduced a n u nbalanced p icture. I f t he u rban e conomy w as s o s hortlived a nd s o d ramatically d islocated b y t he m iddle o f t he 3 rd c entury, t hen t he m odels a nd c riteria f or r ecognising a t own, w hich a re

e ssentially b ased o n t he e arly R oman p eriod a nd t he 2 nd c entury i n p articular, n eed t o b e r evised. B ut, i f t here i s n o e vidence t hat a ny o f t he t owns w ere a ctually a bandoned i n t he 3 rd c entury, w hat w as a ctually h appening i n t hem? W hat f orm d id o ccupation t ake; c an w e e stablish a n ew u rban m odel f or t his p eriod a nd d id i t s urvive i nto t he -late 4 th c entury?

T here i s v ery l ittle i nformation f rom t he W est M idlands w hich c an b e u sed t o a ssess t he v alidity o f R eece's a ssertions a bout t he n ature o f t own l ife i n t he L ate R oman p eriod, a nd t he d ifficulties o f t he d ating e vidence f or t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies a re a t l east p artly r esponsible f or t his l ack o f c larity. M any s ites c ertainly s eem t o h ave b een o ccupied i n s ome f orm i nto t he l ater R oman p eriod a lthough a t L eintwardine a nd T ripontium f or e xample, t he 4 th c entury m aterial r ecovered s o f ar h as b een l argely u nstratified. O verall t here a re v ery f ew s ites ( Kenchester a nd W roxeter) w here l ater 4 th c entury c oins h ave b een f ound i n s tratified c ontexts. A t L etocetum , W orcester a nd W hitchurch t here i s a s carcity o f m aterial o f t he l ate 4 th c entury, b ut i t i s d ifficult t o b e c ertain w hether t his i s s ignificant w ithout f urther i nvestigation.

A t m any o f t he r oadside s ettlements t here i s d efinite a cti vity i n t he 4 th c entury, a lthough h ow l ate i n t he 4 th c entury i s u ncertain. I n s ome c ases, t he i nformation s eems t o s uggest t hat o ccupation w as s cattered, a s a t L etocetum , M anduessedum a nd T ripontium , a nd t hat t he w hole o f t he s ettlement a rea m ay n ot h ave b een i n u se. I t i s i mportant t o b eware o f a ssumptions t hat l ack o f e vidence f or l ate R oman o ccupation i s t o b e e xplaine d b y t he r emoval o f t he r elevant o ccupation l evels b y p loughing. T here d oes n eed t o b e p ositive e vidence t hat t his w as s o; f or i n m any c ases, c ertain e lements o r a reas o f s ettlement w ent o ut o f u se c omparatively e arly, o r w ere n ever c ontinuously o ccup ied, s uch a s p art o f t he s ettlement a t D roitwich,the b ath-house a nd v illa a t L etocetum , a nd a reas o n t he e astern p eriphery o f t he s ettlement a t W orcester. T here m ay h ave b een c onsiderable c hanges i n t opography a nd s ettlements, w hich, w hether r ibbon d evelopment a long R oman r oads o r m ore n uclear c entres, w ere n ot n ecessarily d ensely o ccupied.

T here a re i ndications t hat t he p hysical c haracter o f s ettlem ents m ay h ave b een c hanging i n t he l ater R oman p eriod, w ith a t endency t owards t he g reater u se o f s tone, a t l east f or s ills, i n t he 3 rd c entury a nd p ossibly i nto t he 4 th c entury a t A lcester, D roitwich a nd W hitchurch, a t rend w hich h ad b egun r ather e arlier a t K enchester a nd W roxeter. B ut t imber w as a lways i mportant a nd i n t he l ater p eriod t here d oes s eem t o h ave b een a t endency, p articularly n oticeable a t A lcester a nd W roxeter, t o r evert i ncreasingly t o i t. T his l ater d ecrease i n t he u se o f s tone m ay b e a ttributed t o i nflation a nd i ncreased c osts r ather t han t o a s hortage o f m aterials o r o f s killed c raftsmen. T he r obbing o f s tone b uildings, a nd t he c learance o f s ites a t A lcester, D roitwich , W hitchurch a nd W roxeter, i ndicates t hat s tone w as

r e-used a nd t hat o rganised s ettlement c ontinued. A c ertain a mount o f s tone w as r e-used i n o ther b uildings, f or e xample, a t A lcester a nd W roxeter, b ut t his s eems t o h ave b een o n a v ery l imited s cale a nd i t i s n ot c lear h ow m uch o f t he m aterial w as u sed. A t K enchester, t he f oundations o f t he n orth-west b astion a nd t he f oundations o f t he s outh t ower a t t he w est g ate c ontained s ome r e-used s tone w hich m ight h ave c ome o riginally f rom d emo lished s tone b uildings, a lthough t here i s n o d irect e vidence f or t his ( Heys a nd T homas 1 963, 1 52 a nd 1 63). T he r e-use o f b uilding r ubble f or p aths a t B ays M eadow ( Droitwich), o r f ounda tion-rafts f or t imber b uildings a t W roxeter, w as c ertainly a c onvenient a nd p ractical m ethod o f l evelling a s ite f or n ew b uilding a ctivity, a nd f or g etting r id o f b uilding m aterial w hich c ould n ot b e r e-used.

A lthough f inancial a nd o ther p ractical e xplanations c an b e o ffered f or t hese d evelopments, W ebster h as c ommented t hat t he d ecision n ot t o r ebuild t he p ublic b uildings a t W roxeter m ay h ave b een b rought a bout b y a c hanging s ocial o rder, a nd t he e rosion o f i deals w hich h ad b een c urrent i n t he 2 nd c entury. T here a re i ndications t hat m embers o f t he o rdo w ere a nxious t o a void r esponsibility f or p ublic w orks, p erhaps m ore b ecause t he f inancial b urden o f t his r esponsibility h ad b ecome s o e norm ous, r ather t han t hrough a l ack o f c oncern f or p ublic s ervices ( Webster 1 981, 3 43-51).Casey h as p ointed o ut t hat t he c onfisc ation, f rom t he r eign o f C onstantine ( AD 3 06-337) u ntil t he r eign o f V alentinian I ( AD 3 64-375), o f t he r evenues n ormally a vailable t o t owns, w ould h ave r educed t he f unds a vailable f or p ublic w orks. T his m ight e xplain w hy t he f orum a nd t he b aths a t W roxeter, g oing o ut o f u se i n t he l ate 3 rd/early 4 th c entury, w ere n ot r ebuilt.

I t i s i nteresting t hat o n a ll s ites w here s tone b uildings w ere n ot r ebuilt - A lcester ( Coulter's G arage), D roitwich ( Bays M eadow a nd R icketts L ane), a nd W hitchurch ( Buildings I a nd I II), t he s ites w ere c leared a nd r e-used. T his s uggests t hat, a lthough t he p hysical c haracter o f t hese s ettlements m ay h ave b een c hanging, o ccupation c ontinued a nd t he i nterpretation o f t he n on-replacement o f p ublic b uildings a nd t he d ecreasing u se o f s tone a s a n i ndication o f d ecline i s i nappropriate. A t W roxeter t he b aths b asilica w as d emolished i n s tages, w ith i nterim u se o f t he s tanding s tructure b efore o rganised d emolition a nd c leara nce f or r edevelopment. C ertainly, W roxeter c ity c entre i n t he 4 th c entury w as v ery d ifferent f rom t he c ivitas c apital o f t he 2 nd, e specially i n t he p rovision o f p ublic s ervices. B ut t he a dministrative f unctions c ould s till b e p erformed , e ven t hough w e c an b e l ess s ure t hat t hey w ere. T rade c ould c ontinue w ithout a m acellum , a lthough t he a bsence o f t he p ublic b aths w as p resumably a s erious l oss. M any o f t he o ther s ettlements m ay h ave c hanged l ess d ramatically, i f a t a ll, s ince t he r eplacem ent o f s tone b uildings i n t imber i n i tself w ould h ave h ad l ittle i mpact o n t he e ssential c haracter o f t he s ettlement. T here i s s till e vidence f or c onsiderable o ccupation a nd e conomic a ctivity, s uch a s i ron-working a t W orcester a nd s mall-scale 116-

i ndustries a t W hitchurch, a lthough h ow l ate i s d ebatable. T he s ame i s t rue a t W roxeter w here t he p resence o f s talls a nd b ooths i ndicated m arketing a ctivity c ontinuing a fter t he p ublic b uildi ngs h ad b een d emolished. A lthough t here s eem t o b e i ndications o f t rade a nd i ndustry a t t he m ajor c entres, t here i s n ot s uffi cient i nformation a bäut i ts c haracter a nd c ontext. A t t he r oadside s ettlements t here i s r eal d ifficulty i n e stablishing w hether s ettlement w as a ctually c ontinuing. B ut e ven i n t he e arlier p eriods, o ccupation a t t his t ype o f s ite t ends t o b e e lusive, u ndiagnostic a nd d ifficult t o d ate, a nd w e k now a s l ittle a bout t heir f unctions i n t he e arlier p eriod a s w e d o i n t he l ater.

F or m ost o f t he s ettlements i t i s t empting t o s ee p atterns f or w hich t he e vidence i s i nadequate a nd i t i s, i n f act, v ery d ifficult i ndeed t o b e c ertain a bout e xactly w hat w as h appening. E stablishing t erminal d ates f or o ccupation s equences i s a u niv ersal p roblem. F or t he l ate 4 th a nd 5 th c entury, t here i s o nly a r elative c hronology, i n w hich t he d ate a nd l ength o f v arious p hases i s u nknown. T he o pen-ended n ature o f t he d ating e vidence w ould c ertainly a llow o ccupation o f s ome s ort t o h ave c ontinued t o t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod o n m ost s ites, b ut t he u ncertainties s urrounding t he t ime f or w hich c oins c ontinued i n g eneral c irculation, a nd f or w hich p ottery c ontinued t o b e p roduced, p revents a ny b ut t he m ost t entative c onclusions a bout t he l ikelihood o f c ertain ' late 4 th C ' f eatures b elonging t o t he 5 th c entury. T here a re c ertainly ' late' p hases, b ut t hp f act t hat s o f ew l ate 4 th c entury c oins h ave o ccurred i n u nstrati fied, r ather t han s tratified, c ontexts i s a p roblem n ot o nly f or d ating p urposes b ut a lso i n t erms o f i ts i mplications f or c ontinuity o f s ettlement.

O nly a t W roxeter d oes t he e vidence s uggest t he p ossibility t hat t he l atest o ccupation s equences m ay b e a ceramic. E ven o n t hose s ites w here c ontinuity o f o ccupation m ight b e a nticip ated b etween t he R omano-British a nd m edieval s ettlements,notably A lcester, D roitwich , W orcester a nd W hitchurch, w e d o n ot k now h ow l ate t he l atest R oman l evels a re, a nd r emarkably l ittle e vidence f or c ontinuity i nto t he p ost-Roman p eriod h as b een r ecognised. W here t he s ite w as d eserted, t here i s n o e vidence a s t o w hen t his o ccurred, a nd w here t he e vidence s uggests s ettlem ent c ontinued i nto t he l ate 4 th c entury, t here i s i nsufficient i nformation t o e stablish w hether d esertion h ad b egun a t a n e arlier d ate.

A ll t hat c an b e s aid i s t hat t here i s n ot v ery m uch e vidence a t p resent f or w hat w as h appening, a nd i n s ome c ases, n ot v ery m uch s eems t o h ave b een h appening. W here d evelopments c an b e d iscussed, s ome o f t hese a re n ot a t a ll d issimilar t o d evelopm ents w hich h ad g one o n b efore, f or e xample, a t A lcester, D roitwich, K enchester a nd W hitchurch , w hile a t W roxeter d ramatic c hanges a re c learly e vident. A lso, i t i s n oticeable t hat w here a s tudy o f t he p ottery h as b een p ossible ( Alcester, K enchester

a nd W roxeter) t here a re n o d ramatic c hanges i n s ources a nd s upplies i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies, e xcept i n t erms o f a n i ncrease, a nd t here a re n o d iscernible a lterations i n t he r ange a nd q uantity o f o ther t ypes o f m aterial r eaching t hese c entres. T his i s i nteresting i n v iew o f R eece's a rguments a bout t he d isl ocation o f u rban t rade a nd t he d ecline i n u rban p opulation ( Reece 1 980). T here i s a c ertain a mount o f e conomic a ctivity, a lthough t he s cale a nd t he n ature o f t he m arkets b eing s erved i s u nknown.

T he c hronology f or t he l ate 4 th/early 5 th c entury i s o pene nded w ith v ery f ew g uidelines o ther t han t he e stimated l ifes pan o f v arious t imber b uildings. I n t his r espect t he W est M idlands o ffers n o r eal s olutions a t p resent t o t he g eneral p roblems o f l ate R oman B ritain a nd t he q uestion o f c ontinuity i n p articular.

T able 3 T HE C LASSIFICATION O F T HE N UCLEATED S ETTLEMENTS O F T HE W EST M IDLANDS A S M ARKET A ND S ERVICE C ENTRES

A . R egional m arket a nd s ervice c entres ( towns) C entres w hich w ere i mportant i n t he r egional t rade n etwork e ither a s c onsumer c entres ( Wroxeter) o r a s r edistribution c entres f or m ajor i ndustries o f t he r egion a nd f or i mports f rom o ther a reas. B oth t hese c entres h ave t rade c ontacts o n a r egional b asis. W roxeter c ivitas c apital W orcester p robable p ort a nd d istribution c entre f or m ajor i ndustries, e .g. s alt a nd p ottery; a lso a p roduction c entre i n i ts o wn r ight ( iron). B . M ajor m arket a nd s ervice c entres(towns) T he e conomic b asis o f t hese s ettlements i s v aried a nd i nvolves t o s ome e xtent s pecialisation i n p articular i ndustries, a lthough n ot n ecessarily o n a l arge s cale. T hese c entres w ere a lso r esponsible f or p roviding a n i mpetus t owards t he e xploitation o f l ocal r esources. T heir i ndustries c atered f or t he n eeds o f t he t own b ut p robably a lso p rovided i n v arying d egrees f or t he r equirements o f a f airly l arge a gricultural h interland a nd t his w ould i nvolve i tems a nd s ervices o ther t han b asic n ecessities. T hese s ettlements w ere o ften a lso d istribution a nd m arketing c entres f or l arge i ndustrial c oncerns o r r ural b asic i ndustries a nd t heir t rade c ontacts w ould h ave b een a t a r egional o r p ossibly w ider l evel. A lcester K enchester O ther l ikely c andidates i n t his c ategory : C hesterton-onF osse, W hitchurch a nd W orcester. C . L ocal m arket a nd s ervice c entres ( villages) T hese a re s ettlements w hose e conomic b asis i ncludes a l arge i nvolvement i n a griculture t ogether w ith s mall-scale i ndustrial a ctivity. T hey w ould p rovide m arket f acilities f or t he e xchange o f a gricultural s urplus f rom a n a gricultural h interland w hich w as p robably f airly r estricted a nd u ndemanding i n t erms o f t he s ervices i t r equired o n a r egular b asis. T he l ocal o r m inor m arket c entre w ould t herefore p rovide o nly b asic c ommodities a nd i ts l evel o f e conomic c ompetence w ould b e g eared t o s elfs ufficiency r ather t han p roducing g oods f or a l arge r ural p opulation. L etocetum M anduessedum P ennocrucium T ripontium O ther l ikely c andidates i n t his c ategory : L eintwardine, R ocester, R utunium, S tretton G randison, T iddington, U xacona, V enonae.

D . I ndustrial c omplexes S ettlements w hich h ave t hey m ay a lso b e m arket A riconium D roitwich M ancetter/Harthill

p rimarily a n i ndustrial a nd s ervice c entres. i ron s alt p ottery

b asis

a lthough

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I LLUSTRATIONS

1 . W roxeter, ( Viroconium C ornoviorum) : t he c ity c entre, s howing t he b aths a nd t he b aths b asilica u nder e xcavation t o t he r ight, a nd t he f orum t o t he l eft, o f t he W atling S treet, w hich r uns d own t he c entre o f t he p hotograph. T he s treets b ounding t he s urrounding i nsulae c an a lso b e s een, t ogether w ith t he c rop-marks o f t own h ouses. T o t he l eft o f t he f orum a re a n umber o f d itch s ystems, i ncluding t he l ine o f t he e arly d efences. N ote t hat o f a ll t he s treet a lignments, o nly t hat o f t he W atling S treet s urvives i nto m odern t imes. P hoto : C ommittee f or A erial P hotography, U niversity o f C ambridge.

c u .Z . c 4 4 ) ( 4 i o

0 z

b asilica

( 3 )

W roxeter

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0 C 4 4 ( i ) 0